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TRANSACTIONS

ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

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TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

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OF

EDINBURGH.

VOL. XXXVI.

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EDINBURGH:
PUBLISHED BY ROBERT GRANT & SON, 107 PRINCES STREET.
AND WILLIAMS & NORGATE, 14 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON.

MDCCCXCII.

Parr I. published March 9, 1891.

Part IL. 5 November 10, 1891.

Part III. = May 10, 1892.

CONTENTS.

PART I. (1889-90.)
NUMBER
I. Observations upon the Structure of a Genus of Oligocheta belonging to
the Limicoline Section. By Frank E. Bepparp, M.A., F.R.S.E,,
Prosector, and Davis Lecturer to the Zoological Society of London.
(With a Plate),

Il. On the Transformation of Laplace’s Coefficients. By Dr Gustave PLARR,
III. Phases of the Living Greek Language. By Emeritus Professor BLACKIE,

TV. Adamuantios Koraes, and his Reformation of the Greek Language. By
Emeritus Professor BLACKIE, . ‘

V. On the Fossil Flora of the Staffordshire Coal Fields. By R. Kipsron,
F.R.S.E., F.G.S. (With a Plate),

VI. The Solar Spectrum at Medium and Low Altitudes. Observations of the
Region between Wave-Lengths 6024 and 4861 ALU., made at Lord
Crawford’s Observatory, Dun Echt, during the Years 1887 to 1889.
By Lupwic Brecker, Ph.D., Temporary Second <Assistant-Astro-
nomer, Royal Observatory, Edinburgh. (With Ten Plates),

VIL. Electrolytic Synthesis of Dibasic Acids. By Professor ALEXANDER CRUM
Brown and Dr JAMES WALKER,

VIII. On Impact. By Professor Tarr. (With a Plate),

PAGE

99

vi CONTENTS.

PART II. (1890-91.)
NUMBER
IX. Alternate + Knots of Order Eleven. By Professor C. N. Lirtte.
(With Two Plates),

X. On the Foundations of the Kinetic Theory of Gases. IV. By Prof.
‘TARE,

XI. Anatomical Description of Two New Genera of Aquatic Oligocheta.
By Frank E. Bepparp, M.A. (Oxon.), F.Z.S., Prosector of the
Zoological Society of London, and Lecturer on Biology at Guy’s
Hospital. (With Three Plates),

XU. Professor Kelland’s Problem on Superposition. By Rosert Brovte.
(With Two Plates),

XU. On the Solid and Liquid Particles in Clouds. By Joun AtrKen, Esq.,

XIV. On the Relation of Nerves to Odontoblasts, and on the Growth of Den-
tine. By W. G. Arrcuison Ropertson, M.D., BSc. (With a
Plate),

XV. The Development of the Carapace of the Chelonia. By Jounx Berry
Haycrart, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. (With a Plate),

XVI. Strophanthus hispidus : its Natural History, Chemistry, and Pharmaco-
logy. By Tuomas R. Fraser, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.R.C.P.E.,
Professor of Materia Medica in the University of Edinburgh.
Part I1.—Puarmacorocy. (Plates VIII.-XXIIT.),

XVII. On the Composition of Oceanic and Littoral Manganese Nodules. By
J. Y. Bucnanay, Esq., F.R.S. (With Map and Plate),

XVIII. On some Relations between Magnetism and Twist in Iron and Nickel
(and Cobalt). Parts II. and III. By Carciu1t G. Knort, D.Sc.
(Edin.), F.R.S.E., Professor of Physics, Imperial University, Tokyo,
Japan. (With Five Plates),

XIX. The Winds of Ben Nevis. By R. T. OMonp and Ancus Rankin,

PAGE

307

Sila

343

485

4

wl
ee
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CONTENTS.

NUMBER
XX. A Demonstration of Lagrange’s Rule for the Solution of a Linear
Partial Differential Equation, with some Historical Remarks on
Defective Demonstrations hitherto Current. By G. Curystat, Pro-
fessor of Mathematics, University of Edinburgh,

XXI. On the Anatomy of Ocnerodrilus (Eisen). By Frank E. Bepparp,
M.A., Prosector of the Zoological Society of London, Lecturer on
Biology at Guy’s Hospital. (With a Plate),

PART III. (1890-91.)

XXII. The Maltese Fossil Echinoidea, and their Evidence on the Correlation
of the Maltese Rocks. By J. W. Grecory, B.Sc., F.G.S., F.Z.S.,
of the British Museum (Nat. Hist.). Communicated by JouNn
Morray, LL.D. (With Two Plates),

XXIII. The Clyde Sea Area. By HucuH Roserr Miz, D.Sc., F.R.S.E.
(With Twelve Plates and Maps), g

APPENDIX —

The Council of the Society,

Alphabetical List of the Ordinary Fellows,

List of Honorary Fellows,

List of Honorary Fellows Elected during Session 1889-90,

List of Fellows Deceased, Resigned, or Cancelled during Session 1889-90,
List of Ordinary Fellows Elected during Session 1890-91,

List of Honorary Fellows Deceased, Resigned, or Cancelled during
1890-91, .

Laws of the Society,

vil

PAGK

Vill CONTENTS.

APPENDIX—continued.

PAGK
The Keith, Makdougall-Brisbane, Neill, and Gunning Victoria Subilee
Prizes, . i : ' : : : . 764
Awards of the Keith, Mukdougall-Brisbane, Neil, and Gunning Victoria
Jubilee Prizes from 1827 to 1890, : : Tene 107
Proceedings of the Statutory General Meetings, 25th November 1889 and
24th November 1890, : P : ? ; ” (er
List of Public Institutions and Individuals entitled to receive Copies of the
Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society, ; owe
Index, . : \ ie A : : : 7383

~

i
VV

(Roa
8 JUN. 92

RQ MAY OT

F TRANSACTIONS
ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

CONTENTS.

: PAGE

I. Observations upon the Structure of a Genus of Oligocheta belonging to the Limicoline

Section. By Frayx E. Bepparo, M.A., F.R.S.E., Prosector, and Davis Lecturer
; to the Zoological Society of London. (With a Plate), : : ; . 1
oa IL On the Transformation of Laplace's Coefficients. By Dr Gustave Puarr, : ns 19
: i, asics of the Living Greek Language. By Emeritus Professor Buack1n, aye} i. 45

a _ Adamantios Koraes, and his ee ‘mation of the Greek Lanyuage. By Emeritus
Professor BLACKIE, ; : ‘ , . F . ; 57

PVE On The Fossil Flora of the Staffordshire Coal Fields. By R. Kiwwsvon, F.R.S.E., EGS:
(With a Plate), . : : 2 : : , ; ; 63

a VI. The Solar Spectrum at Mediwm and Low Altitudes. Observations of the Region between

Wave-Lengths 6024 and 4861 A.U., made at Lord Crawford's Observatory, Dun Echt,

during the Years 1887 to 1889. By Lupwic Brcxrr, Ph.D., Temporary Second
Assistant-Astronomer, Royal Observatory, Edinburgh, , , ie ; 99

VIL. Electrolytic Synthesis of Dibasic Acids. By Professor ALEXANDER CRUM Brown and

. ‘Dr James WALKER, ; ; rk ‘ s ee aoa 211°
VIII. On Impact. By Professor Tarr, (With a Plate), oie \ghiaien eames}

EDINBURGH:

_ PUBLISHED BY ROBERT GRANT & SON, 107 PRINCES STREET,

“WILLIAMS & NORGATE, 14 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON.
4 . ' ‘ ; ty Y .
MDCCCXCI.

= (Isswed March 9, 1891.)

TRANSACTIONS.

[.— Observations upon the Structure of a Genus of Oligocheta belonging to the Linucoline
Section. By Frank E. Bepparp, M.A., F.R.S.E., Prosector, and Davis Lecturer
to the Zoological Society of London. (With a Plate.)

(Read 16th December 1889.)

Some time since I published in the Transactions of this Society a paper upon
Phreoryctes ; the present paper is the second of what I hope will be a series of memoirs
upon the structure of the Oligochzeta Limicolz ; this will be a parallel series to that upon
the Oligocheta Terricole, which is being published by me in the Quarterly Journal of
Microscopical Science.* As I took pains in my paper upon Phreoryctes to point out, in
accordance with views previously expressed by myself and by others, that it is impossible
to draw a hard and fast line between those two groups of CLAPAREDE, it may seem rather
illogical to retain this classification—if only in the title of a paper; I do so simply as a
matter of convenience, and without in the least desiring to revive these old divisions of
the Oligocheta; indeed the genus Moniligaster, which is treated of in the present com-
munication, is by most naturalists regarded as an earthworm; in many points it does
undoubtedly agree with certain terricolous genera ; but as its affinities, into the discussion
of which I shall enter later, seem to me to be more with the Lumbriculide, I put it into
the Limicoline series; it is useful to have a name corresponding to “ earthworm” for
those Oligochzeta which are not earthworms, and are for the most part aquatic, and |
therefore use that term.

The material upon which this paper is based I owe to the kindness of Mr H. E.
BaRwWELL, who collected the specimens in Luzon; some were better, others not so well
preserved.

I. HisToricat.
The genus was first recorded by Perrier [10] in a paper published in 1872; in
this he gave a tolerably full description of the anatomy of Moniligaster Deshayesi ; he

* See vols. xxvili., xxix., Xxx.

VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 1). A

2 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD ON THE

regarded this worm with a certain amount of doubt as forming the type of a group
(Aclitellians), equivalent to each of the other groups Postclitellians, Anteclitellians, &c. ;
the distinguishing feature of this group was the complete absence of a clitellum.

The next paper upon the subject is by myself [1]; it contains some notes upon a
species of Moniligaster, which | regarded, owing to the great discrepancies between my
observations and those of PERRIER, as belonging to a new species termed M. Barwelli;
the facts put forward in this paper and illustrated by a few figures, mainly concerned
the anatomy of the reproductive organs, Subsequently Dr Horst [8] described a third
species, MW. Houteni, adding facts of importance to the descriptions of both PERRIER and
myself, and supporting my interpretation of PERRiER’s account of the reproductive
apparatus. Dr Horst’s paper was wider in its scope than my own, and dealt with the
anatomy of the viscera in general as well as of the reproductive system. A short note
[2] by myself emphasised the differences in the reproductive system between Moniligaster
and all other earthworms, and its resemblance in this respect to some of the lower
Oligocheeta.

This was repeated with additions in a later paper [4], the genus being still retained
among the earthworms, though regarded as forming a special group with strong affinities
to some of the ‘ Limicole.”

Dr Rosa [14], in a paper upon the classification of the ‘“ Terricolee,” came to the con-
clusion that Moniligaster was distinctively an earthworm (Rosa regards the Terricolz as
a group not corresponding to a group Limicole, but to the various families—Tubificidee,
Lumbriculidee, &¢.—which were associated together to form the Limicole), and criticised
some of my own statements.

I have already briefly [3] replied to this.

Professor BourNE [6] in 1886, described, though very briefly, a large number of new
species, of which one had a fully developed clitellum, thus showing the absence of that
structure to be not distinctive of the genus.

The present paper, of which an abstract appears in the Proceedings, contains a some-
what extended recapitulation of the facts concerning the reproductive system, with a
general account of the anatomy of the species Moniligaster Barwelli, which I have not
yet attempted ; and finally a discussion of the systematic position of the genus and its
relations to other Oligocheeta.

IJ. Anatomy oF Monmiaaster BARWELLI.
§ 1. Haternal Characters.

This is a very small species, not measuring much over one inch in length and +5 of
an inch in diameter at the broadest part—the head end. The ventral surface posteriorly
is rather flattened, while the dorsal surface is very convex. ‘The colour of the spirit-

STRUCTURE OF A GENUS OF OLIGOCHATA. 3

preserved specimens is a greenish-hrown, and the body-wall is so thin that the nerve cord
can be plainly distinguished through it.

None of the specimens showed any signs of a clitellum; I suggest later in relation to
the affinities of the worm, that this may be due to the fact that that organ, as for instance
in the Naidomorpha, is only developed for a very short period.

Among earthworms there is, as a general rule, a considerable inequality in length
among the anterior segments of the body ; it is only after the clitellum that the segments
become equal in size; this is of course connected with the specialisation of the anterior
segments in other respects. On the other hand, the rule among the Limicole—and to
this rule I can at present recall no exceptions—is that the anterior segments, with the
exception of the first, are equally sized, though perhaps having some advantage in size
over the segments which follow the clitellum; I mention these facts—without desiring to
give them undue importance—because Moniligaster is so far allied to the Limicole and
differs from earthworms.

The prostomium is extremely small, and projects above the mouth as a short hemi-
spherical process ; the first and second segments * are both very narrow; they are of equal
length to each other, and together are about equal to the third body segment. The sete
upon the first setigerous segment are much smaller than those upon the following seg-
ment ; this fact, combined with the very indistinct line which divides the first from the
second segment, led me to confound the two together, and thus to make an error of one
segment in my former enumeration. Indeed, any one examining the worm only by the
help of a hand lens would be almost certain to make this error, as with this slight magni-
fying power I found it impossible to distinguish the first and second segments. It is
necessary to examine the worm with a tolerably high magnifying power to detect the
sete upon the narrow first setigerous segment ; [ have mounted two specimens in Canada
balsam, and with a preparation of this kind it is possible to reckon the segments
accurately.

The prostomium is not at all evident, as it is capable of an unusual (?) amount of
retraction.

In one specimen, of which the anterior end was mounted in Canada balsam, I could
not detect the prostomium at all; in another individual, mounted in a similar fashion, the
prostomium looked like fig. 1; the connection between the prostomium and the first
segment could not be detected, and it seemed to be surrounded by that segment. In
longitudinal sections (fig. 7) the prostomium could be easily made out and distinguished
from the first segment by its tall columnar epithelium; in that section it is seen to be
greatly retracted; a very deep groove separates it from the peristomial segment.

The only apertures visible upon the outside of the body are the atrial pores in
segment X (see fig. 1, 3).

* It is perhaps unnecessary to explain that the first segment throughout the following description is the peristomial
segment, and that I reckon the first setigerous segment as the second.

+ MR FRANK E. BEDDARD ON THE

§ 2. Body- Wall.

The chief fact to be noticed with regard to the body-wall is the much greater thickness
of the anterior segments. Figs. 3 and 4 are drawn to scale, and show that in the front
part of the body the total thickness of the body-wall is quite double that of the segments
further back.

Attention has been called to this fact by PERRIER, who has suggested that this anterior
region may function as a clitellum; as the clitellum in Moniligaster has been discovered
by Bourne [6], this is not perhaps very likely, and besides I do not find any difference in
minute structure between the epidermic covering of the anterior and posterior segments;
the former may perhaps be a little thicker, but that is the only difference. Furthermore,
at the hinder end of the body, the thickness of the integument was almost if not quite as
great as that of the anterior segments.

The characters of the epidermic cells do not differ from those of other Oligocheeta.
Large glandular cells with granular contents are separated from each other by fine
“packing” cells.

A point of importance is that the epidermis is vascular; capillary loops penetrate
between the epidermic cells, as is now known to be the case in many Oligocheeta, especially
among earthworms; in fact, since the vascularity of the integument in the Oligocheta
was first pointed out by myself [5] in Megascolex caruleus, many of the principal
genera have been shown to share this peculiarity; even among the Limicole the pene-
tration of blood capillaries into the epidermis is not unknown, but the thinness of the
integumental layers among these smaller Oligocheeta is no doubt responsible for the very
slight degree in which the body-walls are supplied with hzemal vessels.

§ 3. Alimentary Canal.

The mouth leads into a buccal cavity, which is as usual defined posteriorly from the
pharynx by the fact that the cerebral ganglia are placed in the interval between the two ;
as the cerebral ganglia lie between the third and fourth segments, the buccal cavity may
be said to occupy the first three segments; it will be remembered, however, that the two
first segments together are hardly equal in antero-posterior diameter to the third; hence
the actual space occupied by the unimportant buccal cavity is not great.

The pharynx appears to occupy all the remaining space before the first thick mes-
entery, 2.¢., two segments, Nos. [V, V. But as there is a considerable length of cesophagus
also packed away in this space the pharynx must, I think, be considered to occupy only
one segment, the Vth. In papers dealing with the anatomy of Oligocheeta, the pharynx
is often spoken of as occupying four or five segments; and this appearance is frequently
presented by a dissection of the fore end of the body. But in many of these instances
at least the pharynx itself really occupies a more limited space; its large size has caused
the pushing back of that portion of the cesophagus which immediately follows it. There
is nothing particular to say about the minute structure of the pharynx.

STRUCTURE OF A GENUS OF OLIGOCH ATA. 4)

The esophagus commences as a very narrow tube; this region is pressed up against
the first thick mesentery, which separates segments V and VI. Its direction here is
ventro dorsal; it must, however, in my opinion, be regarded as belonging to the Vth
segment. In the VIth segment the cesophagus broadens out considerably, acquiring a
calibre about twice as great as that which it possessed in segment V. The cesophagus
here is quite as wide as the gizzard; this wide region of the cesophagus occupies seven
seoments—VI-XII. (inclusive). I could not find any evidence of the existence of
caleiferous glands. But as these structures appear to fluctuate very considerably in
their size at different seasons of the year, it is possible that I have overlooked rudiments
which might at stated times become large and important glands.

Gizzard.—Unless there is a very unusual degree of variation in the number and
position of the gizzards, my earlier account [1, p. 94]is wrong. I then stated that WV.
Barwelli is distinguished from M. Deshayesi by the absence of a gizzard in the VIth
segment, but agrees with that species in the presence of “four oval nacreous-looking
dilatations of the cesophagus close to its junction with the intestine.”

Longitudinal sections (of two individuals) show plainly that there are only three
gvzzards, placed in consecutive segments, and each occupying a segment near to the
junction between the cesophagus and the intestine. In confirmation of this, a specimen
(unfortunately the last which I possess), dissected in order to compare it with the longi-
tudinal section, showed plainly three gizzards situated close together and in consecutive
segments. I feel therefore pretty sure that I must in my earlier account have mistaken
for an additional gizzard a swelling of the cesophagus. The probability of this is increased
by Bourne’s [6, p. 672] observation, that in M. ruber “in segments X, XI, and XII,
there were soft-walled swellings of the intestine looking like gizzard, only not muscular.”
The segments occupied by the gizzards appear to be XIV, XV, and XVI. This state-
ment is made on the strength of the dissected individual, and one of the two that were
cut into longitudinal sections; the second specimen which I prepared in a series of sections
did not show very plainly the exact position of the gizzards.

To the naked eye the gizzards present a longitudinally striated appearance, as is
commonly the case with this organ. The striation appears to be chiefly due to the longi-
tudinal direction of the blood-vessels upon the surface of the gizzard; each gizzard, on
account of its peculiarly compressed shape and this longitudinal striation, has a most
extraordinary resemblance to an onion. This is illustrated in fig. 5 of the Plate.

Fig. 10 illustrates a diagrammatic longitudinal section through the fifteen anterior
segments, to show the number of segments occupied by the successive regions of the gut.
It is not meant to illustrate the proportionate lengths of these different regions ; for
example, the pharynx appears much longer than in the figure, while the cesophagus is
much shorter. This is brought about by the increased space available in segments IV
and V, due to the course of the septum separating segments V and VI; this same
structural peculiarity reduces the space occupied by the cesophagus.

or)

MR FRANK E, BEDDARD ON THE

§ 5. Nephridia.

The nephridia do not commence until the Vth segment; after this there are a pair
to each segment of the body, not excepting those which contains the reproductive organs;
there is therefore in the position of the first pair of nephridia no striking resemblance to
the Limicole, such as is shown by Photodrilus and Pontodrilus; on the other hand, it is
perhaps usual among earthworms for the nephridia to commence before the Vth segment,
so that Moniligaster is in a position somewhat different from that of most genera of
earthworms, and pointing towards the aquatic Oligocheta.

The nephridia appear to resemble those of Moniligaster Houteni in being furnished
with a sac-like diverticulum ; this again is a decidedly Terricolous character, so many
genera of earthworms (e.g., Acanthodrilus, Microcheta) being provided with such a
diverticulum ; there does not seem to be any Limicolous type in which the nephridia have
a diverticulum.

The external aperture is apparently in front of the more dorsal pair of sete, but I
have not perfectly satisfied myself about this. The internal funnels are quite obvious in
longitudinal sections ; they are placed on either side of the nerve cord, and lie in the
seoment anterior to that which contains the nephridium itself.

There is no modification of the anterior nephridia, that I could observe, except that
they are perhaps rather larger than those which follow; the funnel occupies the usual
position.

§ 6. Reproductive Organs.

Testes.—These organs have not as yet been described in the genus Moniligaster; I
have succeeded in finding them in M. Barwelli. Fig. 9 of the Plate illustrates the sperm
sac and vas deferens; just below the vas deferens funnel on either side is a mass of
tissue, which I have for some time believed to represent the testis, without being
able to be certain upon the point. Longitudinal sections, through another individual
somewhat better preserved, have shown that the body in question is unquestionably
the testis. A portion of a section through the genital segments of this individual
is represented in fig. 8. In that figure the testis (¢) is seen to be attached by a some-
what narrow base and to be frayed out at its free extremity into several processes ; its
shape is quite that of the testes in many Oligocheeta (e.g., Pachydrilus, Acanthodrilus),
and the minute structure renders it impossible to doubt that this is really the male
gonad.

A comparison of the two figures cited will show an apparent difference in position of
the testis and vas deferens, although the two structures themselves have a similar
relation, being in actual contact. I may remark, in the first place, that this close con-
nection between the testes and the funnels is very unusual; it occurs in Acanthodrilus
annectens, where I have figured [4, pl. xii. fig. 18] the testes attached very close indeed
to the funnel of the vas deferens which belongs to them; but I am not acquainted with
any other species among earthworms in which the same thing occurs.

STRUCTURE OF A GENUS OF OLIGOCH ATA. 7

To return to the apparent difference in position of the testes and vasa deferentia :
it looks almost as if in fig. 8 the testes and vasa deferentia funnels were attached to the
posterior wall of segment IX ; on the other hand, in fig. 9, the position seems to be
different ; the testes seem to be attached to the anterior wall of segment X, and the vas
deferens funnel to be attached to the same septum, without perforating it so as to he in
seoment IX. Fig. 8 is from a series of sections taken through Xth and neighbouring
somites, and it seems to agree with another series taken from the whole of the anterior
part of the body, which, however, were not in a very good state of preservation.

I do not see how it is possible to reconcile these two sketches on the hypothesis that
the vas deferens funnel and testes have an identical position ; it must, I think, be admitted
that in two out of the three specimens the funnel lies in segment IX, and that the testes
are attached to the posterior wall of this segment, while in the third specimen the
funnel and testis are in segment X.

This difference appears to coincide with a difference in the position of the gizzards, and
possibly means that I am dealing with two distinct species.

I do not see how any distortion produced by growth or even by action of reagents can
alter the position of the testes to so great an extent as is indicated in the two figures
(figs. 8, 9); in one case the base of the testis is directed posteriorly, in the other case
anteriorly.

Vas Deferens.—There are a single pair of these ducts which open into the atrium ;
the funnel lies either in the same segment as that which carries the external aperture, or
in the one in front (IXth); I have already remarked, in describing the testis, that this is
probably a specific difference.

The most important point to be noted about the funnel is the extreme simplicity of
its structure ; instead of being folded and plaited, as in earthworms generally, it is, as in
the Limicole, a comparatively simple disc, hardly standing out from the surface of the
intersegmental septum to which it is attached.

Atrium.—As I have already fully described the atrium with a figure [4], I need do
no more here than mention the fact that the atrium as described by me, was that of the
individual in which the funnel appeared to be in the I[Xth segment; it is so far additional
evidence in favour of the differences in the position of the funnel being specific differences,
that the specimen in which the funnel appeared to be in the Xth segment, had an atrium
somewhat different in structure. The groups of glandular cells surrounding the atrium
are no longer distinguishable; the lining epithelium is surrounded by a thick mass of
tissue, which is partly formed of cells and partly of muscular fibres, but there is no differen-
tiation into a distinct muscular layer surrounded by a glandular layer. On the whole, it
appears to me to be more probable that the atrium is in an immature condition, and that
the glandular and muscular layers are not yet differentiated out of the peritoneal invest-
ment of the epidermic invagination (in which way I suppose that the atrium originates).
The atrium in this instance is in fact rather to.be compared with the immature sper-
matheca described and figured by BErcu [7, p. 328, pl. xxi. figs. 23, 24]; and it seems

8 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD ON THE

evidence that the atrium, like the spermatheca, does not trace its muscular layer to an
invagination of the body-wall muscle, but that these are formed by a differentiation of
peritoneum. This view is not in accord with Vespovsky’s figures [4, pl. x. figs. 1, 2] of
the developing atrium of Tubifex. The view that the atrium is immature, and not
structurally different from that of the other specimen, is confirmed by the fact that the
genital ducts are only represented by their funnel; the vasa deferentia and the distal
portions of the oviducts were not visible in my sections.

Absence of Penal Sete at Atrial Pore.—The atrial pore is situated at the junction
of the Xth and XIth segments; the atrium, however, distinctly belongs to segment X,
and not to segment XI. It will be seen from fig. 8 that the dissepiment which separates
segments X—XI, arises on the posterior side of the atrium; this being the case, the atrium
may be spoken of as opening behind the sete of segment X. and not in front of the sete
of segment XJ; it is therefore the sete of the Xth seement that we should expect to find
modified, if any ; but perhaps as the male pore is not definitely related to either pair of
setze, and is situated so far away from them, we should not on a priori grounds expect to
find either pair modified. At any rate the fact is that there appears to be no modifica-
tion to form pemal sete. The fact, however, is put forward with due reservation as to its
being characteristic of the species, since the specimen is perhaps not fully mature.

Sperm Sacs.—As I have already described, there are a pair of sperm sacs, which in
some specimens would seem to lie in segment IX, in others in segment X ; in both cases
they are attached to the mtersegmental septum between IX and X. In many specimens
which [ dissected the sperm sacs appeared to be traversed by the intersegmental septum,
2.e., to lie in both segments IX and X; in longitudinal section of one individual, this also
appeared to be the case. This specimen happened to be the most poorly preserved, and as
in two other cases the sperm sac was either with [Xth or Xth segment, I am inclined to
believe that the appearances seen in the dissection are simply due to the bulging of the
septum. The cavity of the sperm sac is simple—z.e., it is not divided by trabeculee ; in
this it resembles the sperm sacs of the lower Oligocheta; each sperm sac encloses the
testis and vas deferens funnel of its own side.

Oviduct.—I have nothing to say about the ovary, as I have been entirely unable to
discover the least trace of this organ ; it lies, however, probably in segment XI. In any
case, the oviduct opens into this segment; in two out of the three specimens, which I
studied by means of longitudinal sections, I discovered an unmistakable oviduct. In
one specimen I have already figured and described this organ [4], the figure being largely
a “restoration,” as I could not find the entire organ, but only a portion—in fact, only the
coelomic funnel. It appeared to me as if the entire oviduct lay in the XIth segment ; if
this be so—but I cannot be certain about it—there is a curious resemblance to the very
anomalous form Plutellus heteroporus [ PERRIER, 11]. In another specimen the oviducts
had not this position; they opened into the cavity of the XIth segment, by a funnel
which was closely attached to the dissepiment dividing this from the XIIth segment. I
did not succeed in following the oviduct to its external pore ; indeed, I do not think that

STRUCTURE OF A GENUS OF OLIGOCH ATA. 9

this portion of the oviduct was as yet developed in the specimen, which I have already
shown some reasons for regarding as very immature. The relations of the oviducal funnel
are illustrated in fig. 8. It is important to notice that the position of the funnel does
not agree with that of the vas deferens funnel.

II]. AFFINITIES AND Systematic Position oF MONILIGASTER.

The first question which arises is, Are all the species which have been described under
this name congeneric? This question is raised in consequence of the suggestion of Dr
Rosa [14], that 1, Deshayes: of Perrier “is not only specifically but generically distinct
from the other species.” Dr Rosa does not state in this paper his reasons for this view,
with which I am myself inclined to disagree ; of course, if Dr Horst and I are wrong in
regarding the anterior pair of testes and vasa deferentia of PERRIER’S species as sperma-
thece, Moniligaster Deshayesi is not congeneric with M. Houtens and M. Barwell, but
this does not appear to me any more than to Dr Rosa to be likely ; accordingly, I consider
that this group of worms consists of only one genus—Moniligaster.

The next point is, Does the genus Moniligaster agree more closely with the ‘“Terricolee ”
as defined by Rosa than with any other group of Oligochzta, and is this agreement
sufficiently close to warrant its inclusion in the family Terricole? or should it rather
be regarded as a family equivalent to Terricolee ?

The Terricolz are defined by Rosa [14] as follows :—*

1. Two pairs of testes in 10 and 11 (first sometimes wanting).

2. One to four pairs of sperm sacs formed by outgrowths of dissepiments 9/10, 10/11,
11/12.

3. Vasa deferentia generally two on each side, only one if the testes are single, open-
ing by funnels into segments containing testes.

4, A pair of ovaries in 13.

5. A pair of oviducts opening internally into 13.

6. Generally |? always] a pair of receptacula ovorum produced by an outgrowth of
dissepiment 13/14.

7, A various number of spermathece (except in Criodrilus).t

With some apparent exceptions in various points, such as Microcheta (in position of
vas deferens funnels), which Rosa is inclined to doubt will prove to be real exceptions
when submitted to reinvestigation, all earthworms are stated to conform to this definition.

I would remark, in the first place, that the above definition hardly excludes Phreoryctes.
Add another pair of ovaries and oviducts opening into 12th segment (which sometimes
are present in earthworms), and Phreoryctes, becomes at once one of Rosa’s “ Terricole.”
But surely the organisation of the reproductive system in Phreoryctes does not point to

* T only give a condensed epitome, to save space.
+ And some few other species, as Rosa and I have lately shown.

VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 1). B

10 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD ON THE

its being more nearly allied to the “Terricole” of Rosa than to, for example, the Lum-
briculidee ?

Does Moniligaster find a place among the Terricolz as thus defined ?

Rosa points out that there is a serious discrepancy between the statements of Dr
Horst and myself with regard to the position of the various organs of the reproductive
system. ‘It isaremarkable fact that in the description by Bepparp of M. Barwelli it is
possible to reconcile the positions assigned by him to the various parts of the reproductive
system with that given by Horst, by moving the first two segments further back. The
spermathecze open, according to BEDDARD, in the interseemental groove 6/7; according to
Horst, in 8/9. The male pores are for BeppARD in the intersegmental groove 9/10, and
for Horst in that of segments 11/12. The sperm sacs, according to BEpDARD, depend
from dissepiment 8/9, and according to Horst from dissepiment 10/11. Is it possible
that in two related species there is such a difference? Is there not rather in one of the
two cases an error of enumeration? In that case I shall regard as exact the data of
Horst, as they do not demand the admission of any exceptional fact.” Dr Rosa omits
to mention that PErRriER’s data are exactly midway between those of Horsr and myself ;
on @ priori grounds, I should have considered it more probable that the mean would be
correct ; in any case (with no prejudice to Dr Horst’s statements of fact, which, however,
it is very desirable that he should re-examine), PeRRtER, I have convinced myself, is
right as to the segments upon which the spermathece (his anterior vasa deferentia) and
atria open; Bourne also [6] mentions the same segments as bearing the generative pores
in all of the seven species described by him. This point may therefore, I think, be re-
garded as settled. But this correction of my own error, as well as of Rosa’s, does not so
far invalidate his conclusions—at least not seriously. The statement that “the first pair
[of testes] is sometimes wanting” will have to be changed to “the second pair,” &c.
This point may be conceded. But the position of the ovaries and oviducts will not agree
with his definition. Both Perrier [10] and Bourne [6] speak of a sac containing ova
occupying segments XII-XV; this must surely be not ovary, but receptaculum ; hence
in all probability the ovary does not lie further back than in segment XI. No one has
as yet found the ovaries of Moniligaster. The oviduct has been partly described by
Horst and by myself [4]. I have referred briefly to an organ in segment XI, which
is probably the oviducal funnel; I have since traced this through septum XI/XII, but
not as far as to its external orifice. This structure may conceivably be a second pair
of vas deferens funnels, but it does not seem at all likely that this is so. It is therefore
a fair assumption that the ovaries are in segment XI.; but in any case it seems extremely
probable that the oviducts have been so far correctly described, and that therefore in
this particular Moniligaster does not conform to Rosa’s definition of the Terricole.
While therefore, at any rate for the present, I abstain from examining into the natural-
ness of this group Terricole, I feel obliged to oppose the relegation of Moniligaster to
this group.

Dr Rosa defines his group Terricole entirely in terms of the modifications of the re-

STRUCTURE OF A GENUS OF OLIGOCH ATA. 11

productive system; no one will probably find fault with this, as the reproductive system
in the Oligocheta generally is most useful for systematic purposes.

From the point of view of its reproductive organs, Moniligaster does not agree with
any family of Oligocheta. The clitellum, which has at present only been described in
M. sapphirinaoides | Bourne, 6], probably occurs also in other species, though it is very
remarkable that none of the examples studied by Perrier, Horst, and myself showed
any traces of it. It is possible that the explanation of this is that the worm only
develops the clitellum during a very short breeding season, as in many of the
Limicoline genera. In any case, the forward position of the clitellum (segments
X-XIII, inclusive, in M. sapphirinaoides) is a remarkable point of resemblance to many
aquatic genera—e.g., Phreoryctes ; it is quite unlike anything that has been recorded
among earthworms. I have already dwelt sufficiently upon the resemblance of the
atrium to that of the Lumbriculide and I may add of Ihodrilus (Stouc, 9, Tab. in.
fig. 1); the presence of a single vas deferens on either side only occupying a single
segment is not met with elsewhere among the Oligocheta, except in the Naidomorpha.

The simplicity of the vas deferens funnel is also a point to be noted in this connection.

The egg sacs are stated by Bourne [6] in M. minutus to “occupy segments
XII-XV at least ;” Horst [8] found that in his species M. Houteni, the egg sacs extended
through segments XIV—XVI. (? XIII-XV). The large size of the egg sacs is clearly an
important point of difference from earthworms, where these bodies are so minute as to be
often only with great difficulty recognisable.

Briefly to recapitulate.

Moniligaster differs from all other earthworms in the following points :—

. Clitellum occupies segments X—XIII.

. Male pores in intersegmental groove X/XI.

. Female pores in intersegmental groove XI/XII (2).

. Vas deferens only occupies one segment; atrium with a glandular investment,

m= © bd —

formed by peritoneal cells.
5. Ovary in segment XI (?).
6. Ege sacs occupying a large number of segments, XIJ-XV (or XIII-XV 2).
7. Spermatheca with an immensely long duct.

The structure of the body-wall, septa, alimentary tract, and nephridia is on the whole
like that of earthworms, except that there seem to be no calciferous glands.

The characters of the reproductive organs are such that Moniligaster cannot be referred
to any group of Oligocheta, though it agrees in particular points with several families.
The clitellum is near that of Phreoryctes, and I believe the Lumbriculidz; with these
groups the absence of genital or penial setz is another point of agreement ; the structure
of the atrium affines the genus to the Lumbriculide, but the characters of the vas deferens
are more like those of the Naidomorpha. The egg sacs, from their large size, agree with
those of many Limicoline families; but in being paired and the sperm sacs also, the

12 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD ON THE

resemblances are rather with earthworms, though among the Enchytreide paired sperm
sacs are met with (see MicHaELsEn, 15, plate, fig. 3), but not paired egg sacs.

The genus in fact must be regarded as forming a distinct group related to the Lum-
briculide, Phreoryctide: (?), and Lumbricide, but coming closer to the two former than to _
the latter. Its resemblances to earthworms, in fact, are almost entirely confined to those
structural features which are in direct relationship to the mode of life of the worm; 2.é.,
gizzard, vascular supply, thickened body-walls, septa, and sete. If I were compelled to
adopt CLaparkpr’s divisions of Terricola and Limicolz, I would refer Moniligaster to the
latter.

As it is, the following phylogenetic diagram seems in the present state of our know-
ledge to express the relationships of this remarkable Annelid :—

Tubificide.

Moniligaster.

Naidomorpha.

Phreoryctide.

Lumbriculide.

Perichetide.

The principal facts in the anatomy of Moniligaster Barwelli are the following :—*

t1. The sete are strictly paired ; the distance between the two pairs of each side is
considerably greater than that between the ventral pair and the ventral median line, and
considerably less than that between the dorsalmost pair and the dorsal median line. The

sete differ greatly in size, but are not peculiar in shape, being like those of most earth-
worms.

+2. Dorsal pores are present.
+8. The prostomiuwm is very small, and does not extend over the peristomial segment.
4, The dissepiments separating segments V/VI, VI/VII, VIL/VIII, VIII/IX, are
very much thickened.

* I do not attempt to discriminate between what are generic and what are specific characters ; there are not sufficient
data to do this with much probability of success.

+ The dagger indicates that the statement to which it is prefixed is made for the first time in the present paper.

STRUCTURE OF A GENUS OF OLIGOCHATA. 13

t5. The hearts are in segments VI-XIV, and are of large size.

16. The alimentary tract begins with a buccal cavity, which occupies the first three
segments; the pharynx is apparently restricted to a single segment, the [Vth ; the
esophagus lying in segment V is very narrow, afterwards it widens and extends through
seven segments ; the gizzards (three in number) occupy segments XI1V-XVI ; in an other
specimen, probably not M. Barwell, they are further back. There are no calciferous
glands (°).

+7. The nephridia commences in segment V; each has a saccular diverticulum; the
funnel opens in the segment in front close to nerve cord.

+8. Th etestes are either (MZ. Barwelli) in segment IX, attached to the posterior wall
of this segment, or else in segment X, attached to the front wall.

9. The sperm sqcs (one pair) are in segment IX or X, in correspondence with the
position of the testes ; their cavity is undivided.

+10. The vas deferens funnels, in accordance with the varying position of the testis
open into the [Xth or Xth segment.

11. The atriwm open between segments X/XI; it has precisely the structure of the
atrium of Rhynchelms.

112. There are no genital or penial sete (?).

+13. The oviducts are in segment XI; in the individual which probably belongs to a
species distinct from M. Barwelli, the oviducal funnel is spread along the anterior face
of the septum separating segments XI/XII.

14. The spermathece are a single pair situated in segment VIII; each consists of a
small oval pouch, with a very long contorted duct.

LIST OF MEMOIRS CONSULTED.

1. BepparD, F. E. Notes on some Earthworms from Ceylon and the Philippine Islands, Ann. and
Mag. Nat. Hist., February 1886.

2. BEDDARD, F. E. Note on the Reproductive Organs of Monaligaster, Zool. Anz., 1887.

3. BEDDARD, F. E. Preliminary Notes on some Oligocheta, Zool. Anz., 1889, No. 318.

4. BEpDARD, F. E. On the Structure of three New Species of Earthworms, &c., Quart. Jour. Mier.
Sci., vol. xxix,

5. BEDDARD, F. E. On the Anatomy and Histology of Plewrocheta Moseley, Trans. Roy. Soc.
Edin., vol. xxx.

6. Bourne, A. G. On Indian Earthworms. Part I—Preliminary Notice of Earthworms from the
Nilgiris and Shevaroys, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1886. ‘

7. Bercu, R. 8. Untersuchungen iiber den Bau und die Entwicklung der Geschlechtsorgane der
Regenwiirmer, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., Bd. xliv. (1886), p. 303.

8. Horst, R. Descriptions of Earthworms: I. Moniligaster Houtenii, nu. sp., a gigantic Earth-
worm from Sumatra, Votes Leyden Mus., vol. ix. p. 97.

VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 1). G

14 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD ON THE STRUCTURE OF OLIGOCH ATA.

9. Stoté, A. [On Bohemian Tubificide], Abhandl. k. bbhin Akad., 1888.

LO. PERRIER, E. Mémoires pour servir & L’histoire des Lombriciens terrestres, Vowv. Arch. Mus.,
t. vill. (1872).

11. Perrier, E. Etudes sur un genre nouveau des Lombriciens (gen. Plutellus), Arch. Zool. Exp.,
t. 1. (1873).

12. VesDovsky, F. System und Morph. d. Oligocheten, Prag, 1884.

13. Rosa, D. Nuova Classificazione dei Terricoli, Boll. Mus. Zool., Torino, 1888.

14. MicHAELSEN, W. Synopsis der Enchytreiden, Abhandl. naturw. Vereins in Hamburg, Bd. xi.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

1. Ventral surface, showing distribution of set. pr, prostomium; ¢, atrial pores.
Fig. 2. Set. a, of posterior, b, of anterior, segments. :
3, 4. Section through posterior and anterior region of body-wall to show relative thickness; the blood
capillaries in fig. 4 are shown penetrating the epidermis.

Fig. 5. Dissection to illustrate gizzards. sp., septa; g, gizzards.
Fig. 6. Transverse section of gizzard, drawn to scale.
Fig. 7. Longitudinal section through mouth and anterior segments. m, mouth; pr, prostomium ; I, II, aS

Ist, 2nd, 3rd segments ; ce, supra-cesophageal ganglion ; s, setz.

Fig. 8. Section through genital segments of an individual, in which the gizzards are situated further back
than in M. Barwelli. IX, X, XI, segments numbered; ¢, testis; v.d, vas deferens funnel ; ss, sperm
sac: od, oviduct ; at, atrium.

Fig. 9. Section through male genitalia of MW. Barwelli. 1, testis; ss, sperm sac; sp, septum separating segments
IX and X; vd, vas deferens connected with funnel close to attachment of testis ; at, atrium.

Fig. 10. Diagrammatic longitudinal section to illustrate positions of different parts of alimentary tract. m,
mouth ; 64, buccal cavity ; nc, nerve cord; ph, pharynx ; @, narrow region of cesophagus ; «’, wider
region ; g, gizzards, ‘The segments are numbered.

STRUCTURE OF A GENUS OF OLIGOCH ATA. 15

POSTSCRIPT ADDED JUNE 2, 1890.

Since the foregoing was written, I have received an important paper from Dr Rosa*
dealing partly with the anatomy of the Moniligastride.

As I have already pointed out, Dr Rosa was inclined to doubt in some particulars
the accuracy of my description of the reproductive organs of Moniligaster. He now
describes a species, which he has done me the honour to dedicate to myself, which agrees
very closely in structure with M. Barwell.

It is gratifying to me to read this description; the doubts which were thrown upon
my work by so able an investigator of the group as Dr Rosa has proved himself to be,
caused me some anxiety.

In Moniligaster Beddardi the position as well as the structure of the genitalia appears
to be precisely as in M. Barwelli. Dr Rosa describes the funnel of the vas deferens as
being flattened out, and not projecting much into the interior of the sperm sac; the
testes also are attached to the funnel itself. The figures published in the present paper
are quite in accord with those of Rosa. I have ventured (vide supra) to suggest that
the ovary is in all probability contained in the XIth segment; I also identified a ciliated
funnel-like structure attached to the hinder wall of this segment as the oviducal funnel
These identifications are rendered practically certain by Rosa’s very clear diagram of the
genitalia of M. Beddardiw. A second interesting species is referred to a distinct genus
—Desmogaster. Desmogaster Dorie has two pairs of atria opening on to the interseg-
mental grooves XII/XIII and XIII/XIV, all four apertures being distinct ; as in Monili-
gaster, the vasa deferentia open into the atrium; the vasa deferentia, funnels, testes, and
sperm sacs are as in Moniligaster, though, of course, four in number. ‘The structure of
the atria is rather different ; there is the same central epithelium and annular layer of
muscles ; outside this are the groups of glandular cells that are met with in Moniligaster,
but they are interspersed with muscular fibres; there appears to be also a delicate peri-
toneal investment. Dr Rosa considers that the resemblances of the atrium here are rather
with other earthworms, though possibly the organ is to be regarded as intermediate in
character, connecting such a form as Hudrilus with Monaligaster.

The glandular cells are regarded as being referable to the lining epithelium, but a
complete circular layer of muscular fibres is figured between them and the single layered
epithelium. It seems to me to be still possible to refer all which les outside of the
lining epithelium to the peritoneum. Unfortunately, in this, as in so many other ques-
tions concerning the morphology of the Oligocheeta, there is no assistance to be got from
embryology. The development of the spermathece, however, offers an analogous case,
which supports the view that all the structures lying outside of the lining epithelium are

* Viaggio di Leonardo Fea in Birmania e regioni vicine xxv. Moniligastridi, &c., Ann. Mus. Civ. Geneva, vol. ix.,
1890, p. 368 et seq.

VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 1). D

16 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD ON THE

peritoneal in nature; at first, as BercH has shown, the spermatheca consists only of an
ingrowth of epidermis with a peritoneal layer, somewhat thickened, lying outside it; out of
this latter are formed the muscles as well as the peritoneal layer of the mature sper-
matheca; it does not, therefore, follow that a distinct peritoneal epithelium separates
from the ccelom structures which have had an ectodermic origin. Reference may also be
made to the description of the immature atrium of Moniligaster contained in this paper.
I am therefore not yet convinced that the glandular cells packed among the muscles in
the atrium of Desmogaster are to be looked upon as part of the lining epithelium.

As to the position of the testes and ovaries, this point of difference must apparently
be dropped, now that we have Rosa’s genus Desmogaster added to the Moniligastride ;
the position of the gonads and of the other parts of the female apparatus is quite normal
in Desmogaster. But we have still the remarkable fact that the vasa deferentia open on
to the segment next to that which contains their internal aperture ; even when they are
doubled this takes place. The double condition may perhaps be regarded as the older,
as it occurs in most Oligocheta, though not to so complete an extent as in Desmogaster.
Dr Rosa, however, is not correct in implying, as I understand him (p. 369), that two
external pairs of apertures is a unique feature; the same occurs in Phreoryctes, the atria
having almost completely vanished ; and Phreoryctes is certainly not an ‘“ Earthworm,”
though it is, as I have pointed out, hardly excluded from that group by Rosa’s definition.

Dr Rosa admits the great peculiarity of the sperm sacs in the Moniligastridz, upon
which I have omitted to lay sufficient stress in this paper. The remarkable way in which
the sperm sac is, as it were, suspended in the middle of the dissepiment is unlike any-
thing that occurs in any earthworm, though certainly not leading towards any condition
observable in the “ Limicolze.”

It is, moreover, impossible in sections of M. Barwelli to state with any certainty
which segment the sperm sacs belong to ; in Desmogaster Rosa’s figure indicates the same
ditficulty.

The remarkable partial obliteration of a segment (the XIIIth) which MicHaEtsEen
has lately described in Nemertodrilus griseus, suggest that something of the same kind
may have occurred in the Moniligastride, the supposed sperm sacs may be all that is
left of the calom belonging to the segment which contains the testes. This is of course
no more than a suggestion ; but the varying position of essential organs in the Oligocheta
requires, as I point out in a forthcoming number of the Quarterly Journal of Micro-
scopical Science, some possibility of the intercalation or excalation of segments at the
head end.

This suggestion is supported by the absence of trabecule in the sperm sacs of Monili-
gaster and Desmogaster.*

The correspondence between external and internal metamerism in Desmogaster is
a little difficult to follow ; between the last thickened septum and the dissepiment which

* “T/interno della vesicola seminale non presenta un intreccio di fibre, ma solo una rete lassa di sanguigni,” &c.
(Rosa, p. 376).

-—=

STRUCTURE OF A GENUS OF OLIGOCH ATA. 1

separates segments XIV/XV are five coelomic cavities ; but the same points are divided
by six external furrows. Dr Rosa does not state whether the irregularity is righted
further on; in the meantime it looks as if one seoment at any rate were dropped, or
rather may be represented by the wall of one of the sperm sacs.

Finally, I would point out that the egg sacs are unusually large in this group, though
they do not nearly reach the size of those structures in the aquatic Oligocheta. I am,
therefore, still inclined to retain the Moniligastres in a group apart, though I admit that
Dr Rosa’s fresh discoveries somewhat weaken my contention that they form a group
equivalent to all other Harthworms. They seem to me, however, undoubtedly to lead in
the direction of some of the aquatic Oligocheeta.

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II.—On the Transformation of Laplace's Coefficients. By Dr Gustave PLaRr.

(Read 2nd December 18839.)

INDEX TO CONTENTS.

PAGE PAGE

INTRODUCTION, : . : ; : ; . 19] Ssgcrion IIl., . ; : : ‘ 2 .. 29
Section I, . : é ‘ : 3 p . 20 5 Vises : : F : : 34
Ti. ve =o Qo ee | \s.- 5 ee ne em ee

”

The development of the inverse square root

Z=(1—2az+a")-?
into a series
Li ean
gives rise to the coefficients Z,, which have been called ‘“ Laplace’s Coefficcents.”
If in Z, we substitute for z the expression

z=xa'+yy' cosy,

where
x+y? = 1 ;
vy? = 1 F

then the function of ws, which Z, will represent, can most appropriately be expressed by
Znr= cos (sy). N,.

The object of this paper is to show, by actual calculation, that the coefficients N,
(functions of x, x’, y, y’) can be worked out by elementary algebraical processes, the only
auxiliary taken from higher analysis being the expression of the powers of cos W in
function of the cosines of the multiples of w.

As to our notations, we shall observe throughout the following restrictions :—

1. The function II(x) shall not be employed otherwise than for integer positive
values of x, so that

2. The factorial
a. =a(a+r) ....(a+t—Ir)

will be made use of for integer values only of r (as, for example, r= +1, or r= —1, or
r= +2, &c.), the exponent ¢ being integer positive.
VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 2). E

20 DR GUSTAVE PLARR ON THE

3. The symbol
[Se] 40,

when the limits a and b are integers, is to represent the sum of the terms (extremes

included),
Ka)+flat+1)+&ef(a+t)+&e.+ (5),

J being the representative of a function given in each case.
When the limits a, b are both fractionary, or one of them only so, then, supposing a,
the integer value next above a, and b) the integer value next below 6, the symbol

[S"] A
will be used for representing the sum or aggregate of the terms

F(a) + f(do +1) + &e. + f(bo) -

Sol

The development of the above inverse square root gives Z, under the form

— fxt”,7 (— 1°20 — 29).2"- 79
’n= [2,9] WTI gIl(n—g)I(n — 2g) ©

Substituting for z the expression

ax’ +yy' cos Vr,
we get

n-2g n-29 1 II(n—2q).(aa’)”-29-"(yy’ cos yr)"
2 =[% n| Il(h) (a — 2g —h) ;

We have also

1 p<, Th2 cos (h - 2k
(cos yr) = =e [> k| Tl ; eh - as

by the known formula, in which, for the combination of values of h, k satisfying to
h—2k=0,

the term under the sign 2 has to be halved.
We have now for Z, the treble sum 2%,

Z,=[3"9 3" SPE] WG, h, b),

in which, after reduction, we get

(—1)TI(2n — 29)(awar').”-*9-"(yy’)."2 cos (h — 2k)
2"+*IT(g)II(n—g)U(n—2g—h)IL(k)(h—k) ~

WG, h, h)=

In any multiple sum = the summations are to be effected from right to left—that is
to say, in this present case of a treble 2, we must give to k successively the values

TRANSFORMATION OF LAPLACE’S COEFFICIENTS. A |
0, 1, 2, &e., 3h (or $h—1 in the case of h uneven), and this for any system of values
of gandh. The sum of these results, indicated by

[sy'n] WE, bk) = Wg, h),

will then be treated as a function of g and h alone.
Then, for any value of g we must give to h successively the values 0, 1, &ce. n—2g,

and add the results ; we may indicate the sum by

PA ACADERECOE

0
Finally, we have to sum up
[>,"9] W.Q)=2".

In any multiple sum 2 we may replace an index by another related to it by a given
equation. Of course, such an equation must not be dependent on those indices about

which the summation = have already been effected.
As our task is to gather together all the terms for which the combination —2k takes
the same value, say s, we can introduce s as a new index; but as it will be related to

k by
h—-2k=s,

we can introduce it only in the place of & and not in that of h at once.

If we wish to preserve & as an index (a working index) and replace / by s, then we
must previously effect an operation which, generally, we will call the ‘“ anter-version” of
the sums 22.

This interversion of the order in which two summations are to follow each other

requires a corresponding change in the limits of the indices.
The easiest way to discover what these changes must be consists in giving a geo-

metrical meaning to the values of the indices.
In the present case

(A)

(A)

22 DR GUSTAVE PLARR ON THE

hy

0

let "hn Sk, where hy=n—2g,

represent the complexus of points of which the rectangular coordinates are h and k, h
being the abscissa and & the ordinate. It is evident that these points will be com-
prised within a rectangular triangle OHK, of which the side OH is equal in length to h, ;
the side HK will be equal to 3,; and the hypothenuse OK will be directed along the

straight line whose equation is
h—2k=0.

We may now conceive two ways in which the enumeration of these points can be
made. Hither we enumerate them along lines parallel to O(k) (in columns), or we
enumerate them along lines parallel to O(h) (in bands).

In the first case each column is given by the operator

Tks

0
and the sum of the columns will be

y="), Br.

In the second case each band will begin on the hypothenuse where
h=2k,
and extend to h=h,, so that
Sih

2k

will represent one band. The sum of these bands, extending from k= 0 to the extreme
value of k, namely, k= HK = 4h, (or $h,—1 if h, be uneven), will be given by

ay hy
(2y=>i% Shh.

Thus the two operators (1) and (2) when applied to W(g, h, &) will give the same
results, but (2) is the ‘“ interversion ” of (1).
We have now (replacing h, =n —2q)

Zn= [S09 Th Sy 7h] WG, h, b),

and we are prepared to introduce the index s in place of h, putting

h=8+2k.
The limits of s will be

8s=0 for h=2k,
s=n—2g—2k for h=n—2g.
Moreover, we put
Wg, h, k)=(yy')'2 cos sip. W'(g, k, 8) ,

TRANSFORMATION OF LAPLACE’S COEFFICIENTS. 23

where
(—1)TI(2n —29)(aar'"—8-29-2*(yy')*
27+5+ TT g1I(n—g)1(n —s — 2g — 2k) LIkII(s +h)’

Wg, k, s)=
Thus we have

Z,=[Spg Sy" Bhs] (yy’y.2c08 spW'(g, k, 8).

We will now intervert the treble = so as to bring the summation relative to s to the
first place on the left.

(S)

(R)

7
(an-9)
Interverting first 242s, we have
Sy Sores bm) Sak Sh),
eo eter 0 ;
Then by a similar figure than the above,
Sige d = See
We may now write Z, under the form
n i (s)
Z,, = [3's] (yy'Y 2.c0s(sy).Z,

where, in putting for abbreviation
i(n—s)=7, if integer,

or 4(n—1—s)=1r, if integer,
we have

Z.=(. 9 >, %b] Wok, 8).

24 DR GUSTAVE PLARR ON THE
Our next step will be to eliminate (yy’)” from W’. We take
y* =(—1)@?—1)

ey (—1)* Tk
= Boel tpnie—p) ”

,) 1 Ba! 2k —2
"= [2 tang

This gives
=[39 3) °% Sp Za] w",
where, by reductions easily seen we have

W'= (— 1)9+?+9TT (20 — 29) Tk. 0—5—29-20(p')n - 8-29 - 24
~ 2e+s+2*TT g(r —g) (nm —s — 2g — 2k) I(s +h) pil(k—p)qil(k—gq) °

In the place of p, g we introduce the indices u, v, respectively by the relations

gtp=u, gt+q=v.
The limits of u will be

Ww=9 and w= gtk
v=g and v=gthk.

As k does not depend on p, q we replace it by the index / by the relation
gtk=l.

The limits of 7 will be /=g for k=0, andl=r fork=r—g. The limits of w and v will
then be w=g and u=/, and the same for v.
We have now

(s) ue u d 2 — 8 —2u( mp! \n—s —20Y""’
Zz = [S"9 zl yu IE: 2u(sy'r—s 20"
where

wre (oe (2n — 29) —9)2- t
oT on — PG =< ee =9) * Tu—p—wle—g)id—)

Sa

The quadruple sums 2 must now be submitted to interversions so as to bring the.
sums relative to uv and v to the left of those relative to g, /.

TRANSFORMATION OF LAPLACE’S COEFFICIENTS. 25

Interverting / and u, we have to consider the following figures :

()

ee

These figures show that we have

Ll Sus Su D7.
g g g u
Summing the second member in respect to g and interverting g and u, we get

(U1)

(9)

29 Bu =z 29.
We have now the intermediate result,

2 = [Byu Big Zip Bol Wearereies

26 DR GUSTAVE PLARR ON THE
Interverting / and v, we have to remark that by its limits g is never greater than

u, as

We decompose therefore the limits of v into two parts, the one from g to u, the other
from u+1 to the limit 7. We have then

r 1 u r 7 r
2, zy = 2 y+ 20 2 L.
We have to sum this by 29 and intervert g and v; thus we have

(7)

TRANSFORMATION OF LAPLACE’S COEFFICIENTS.

First, 2 2 es
Secondly, PA 2 OG
Thus we get

| Su a Sy iH] alg
+20" Zi.” Boy Tel

We may write this under the form

7 — [Siu | (ie eae rafts s— ”Sa, 2

n

+[3,u >: oo" s- uy, n— —s— “*S(v, wu),
where

S(u, v)= bo g> 't] W as

and S(v, wu) is derived from S(u, v) by the permutation of u, v,

27

These double sums represented by S(u, v), S(v, wv) depend on the indices alone
being freed from the variables «, x’. They are therefore simply numerical, depending of
course on 7, s, u, v; 7” being the abbreviation of $(m-s) when integer, and being

changed into 7’ when $(n —1—s) is integer.
We introduce two new indices in the place of g, l, by

g=o—4

l=ut+).
As we have

zg = PI) .

we do not change the sum in taking the elements relative to 7 in inverse order.

we have now

S(w, v) = [2% >] Ww”,
where by the expression of W’” at the end of § I. we have

(=1)"tTI(2n — 20+ 21) (uv +4+j)2”?-*!
Qnt+s+2ut+2TT(y—d) II (n—v +2) I (n —s—2u— Dj) *

1
I(st+u—v+i+j)l(u—v +o 0@)M(w—v+))

WwW" —

Thus

We will now make use of factorials in order to extract from W” a factor A inde-

pendent of 2, 7.

VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 2). F

28 DR GUSTAVE PLARR ON THE.»

By the general type we have
(a+) =Wa x (a+1)/+1
II(a— —a) =a.
Applying these, we get
Ww”= AT,

where
(—1)*II(2n — 2v)IT(u — v)2”” 1

oe 2r+s+ ETT y(n — v)L(n —s —2u) * Il(s+u—v)M(w—v) x (uw v)’

Te (—1)(2n4+1—2v)/41 (u—v4+1)/41,2- ny
24 n—v+1)i*1

pi ee vil-1,(n—s—~ Quy}
(stu—vt ly ot DT LAT Ay — yp ly

Reducing A, we have
(—1)"TI(2n—2v)2-n-s- 20420

~ Tel (n—v)I(n—s—2u)II(s -u—v)L(w—v)

As to T we extract from it a factor Q depending on 9 only, taking

(stu—v+lj*15 (st+u—v41y41 x (stu—v4j41)"*1,

and having by this relation if we make s=0—

u—v+l1yie Geek
Cee Ope aye,

and putting
T=Q(j) x P@J),
we have
(n—s—2u)7/-1
Q0) = 22(s+u— ot 1)/+1, p+?
(GAD Qv)2/+ Vu —v+g +1)/41, 2-2 . yil-1
(stu—v4j+l)u-—v+ lye

P97) = (n—v+ly*1

We may further transform P(7, 7) by applying the general formulas

aPi-\=(—1)).(—ayi
2aP/+4 = Qqh/+? x (Qa + 1)?/+?
= 2% ql+lq 4 }y/i+1

Thus
= 1)'vi/-1=(— y)i41

(Qn +1 —2v)41= 27% (n+ 4—v)I+(n41—v)i+!

These give
PG, = ls
fame Canes Nas Ce ee ba

Also, applying
Pply =) @2/-1 — 92 qbl- "qa@—+4)l- 1
=) (—a)/+(—a+4)t1,

TRANSFORMATION OF LAPLACE’S COEFFICIENTS. 29

we may write Q( 7) under the form,

n—8s jJI+17 y—l—s i+)
Gas, Soar: a

W+\s+u—v+1pl}

Q))=

With these expressions of A, Q(7), P(i,7), we have now
Siu, v)=A[S0 SV QAPG. A):
or, as the limits of 2, 7 are independent from one another, we may intervert so that

Su, )=A[S) QDS] PUD,

where 7 is to be replaced by 7” as the case may demand.

§ IL

We are now arrived at a stage where we have to consider generally the transforma-
tions of sums of the form
te 7 gl BuHigi+.
[2, | mgt

which we shall designate by
a, 8,6
aK Ye ):

We shall assume that the number of the terms be limited in consequence of the
hypothesis

a=integer negative.

By this the upper limit ¢, of ¢ will be

t1j=—a.

Of course we must also assume that the factors in the denominator do not pass through
zero for any value of t between its limits. This involves the hypothesis that y, or e, or
both, should they be integer negative, must be in absolute value greater than —a.

For the transformation of F our auxiliary will be a particular case of Gauss’s

function,*
2
t/+1Qt/+1
(ie ox ana

Sa, B, Y x)= ee ‘irae :

Our particular case is of course

ae
a=integer negative.

* Commentationes Societatis Goettingensis recentiores, to. il., anno 1812.

30 DR GUSTAVE PLARR ON THE
Let us apply Gauss’s method to this particular case only. We have then

(a1) = gitiatt ;
a

Hence
(a-++1)/+1— ai!+t
j4+1

This relation takes place for any value of ¢. For t=0 as well as for ¢>t, (where
t, = —a) both members vanish. We may put the second member under the form

(a+1)-¥+1
lee

and make use of it only from ¢=1 to t=¢,; or, if we put
(eee

make ¢’ to vary from t/=0 to ¢’=t/=t,—1 (where a+1+¢,—1=(a+1+t,) vanishes).

Thus we may write

(a+ 1)/+1 — gi (a+1)'/+1
es See (oes

Likewise we have

BY" 8 Gres
fy lye

Multiplying this member to member with the preceding equality, and summing in the

first member from t=0 to ¢=¢,, in the second member from ¢’= 0 to t’/= — a—1, we get
(a) a+1,8\_//a,8 _B ,fatl1, B+1
( Y ) eS, K ytl }:

Secondly, in treating B as we have treated a, we get

r(2 B+ ) —f(28)—* ee B+ :)

Y Y Y y+1

We write this result for a+1 throughout, in the place of a. This gives

(5) j(R BAY) _ 9 (CHRP) 24) f(CAR BED),

In the third place, we have

1 y— tet al iene 1

Cs as MO es CS

Hence
1 1

iu 1 1
Fal gaan gr |-g=oy. PGE

We have also
a! BU+1 =, B. (a+ 14 B+1)/41,

TRANSFORMATION OF LAPLACE’S COEFFICIENTS. ol

Multiplying member to member and summing, we get

aB\ (a B\_ a8 (atl, B41),
ee) SCS ete)
We write this for a+1, B+1, y+1, in the places of a, B, y, and get

©) pet BH1 patL B41 (+VG41) (42.842),
¥ ytl y+ 1) y+2
By the combination (c).—(a) —(b) we get, after reduction of the terms in the first
member,

ae a+1,8+1_(at1\(B+I)) -(a+2,8+2

ar nas Crs) #( yr2
a+1 ./a+2,B+1
ae y+1 )
B .(4-) Cady

Ft gaa )

The two first terms in the second member are

eer dee

But if in equation (a) we transpose the first term on the left to the second member, and
write the whole equation by augmenting every letter by unity (a+1 into a+2, £8, &c.),

then we see that the factor of “t+ in the preceding expression will be

— 7 (REE).

Collecting now all the terms containing this last function, and passing them into the
second member of the preceding equation, we get

eit fae

Y Y
=12Bnart f(CEee).

Writing this equation successively for a+1, B+1, y+1, for a+2, B+2, y+2, &e., up to
a+t,, B+t,, y+t; multiplying all the results, member to member, and dividing out the
factors which both products will have in common, we get

f(SB) == B Se 5( GE).

The ratio in the upper factorial is = — 1, because

Gl) = (84 1)—(an)) st @>pa—1)—1

32 DR GUSTAVE PLARR ON THE

is decreasing, and so on. But as we assume

t,ta=0.
and have generally
(a+t, —1)/-=(a4+t, -—1-#,4-1)/=a'/41,

and as f(a+t,, &.)=/(0, &e.)= +1, because it reduces itself to its first term, which is

~~

unity, we have finally

a (ef)

This formula (I.), which has been founded on the hypothesis of a=a negative integer,
is contained in Gauss’s result,

I(y— 8 —a—1)0(y—1)
I(y—a—1)N(y—8—1)’

in which the function [1(x) is a transcendent of the same kind as the function (1 +2),
and in which the variable x represents any number, not necessarily integer. In fact the
case treated by Gauss relates to an infinite series in which neither a nor 8 are supposed

integers.
We apply (I.) for the transformation of
a, B, 6
F( Y € ) j
Writing

—t,b £ 1 —PetIpH/t1 (e — y+
(=) pel (cb)

]/F1¢u/+1 = AT?

we assimilate the third member with

t/+1 Y, €
This gives
O=Cc—), «<«=C;
hence
b=e—6, c=e

Thus we get the double sum 2 :

a, B, ) -a t all +1 Bt+1( s ty +We = 6)a+1
e(2")= [3,7 2)

The interversion of the indices t, w gives
-a t —a —@a
2, tZw=2, w 2, t.

We put
t=w-t,

O32
Oo

TRANSFORMATION OF LAPLACE’S COEFFICIENTS.

then the limits of ¢’ will be 0 and (—a—w), and we have

a, 8; 6 aa aZl/t1B¥lt+1(— — 6+}
a Y€ mt [2, | Lel+ lye) +t eei+1 ve)
where, considering that
(<0 (-aet _(-
jue III(¢ —w) je/+1 >

we have

‘sé —a—w,, (a + wy ltl + W Yl
U»=(-1) [S, t ] Vy ate os

By (L.) the second member will be

— B)1-¥+1
y= (= 1)" OO where = —a.

But we have
(y— By = (y—B)- (ey —B4+4—-1)"77;

and as the second factor on the right is
Gly. (-7+ 8-1

namely,
(—1)"%at+B—y+1)"*1,
we have first,
Spy = eee
Th wy (a+ B—yt+1)"*?
en
(y+ w+) = (y+ w) +1 x (yt wt, —w)+ ,
hence
1 Gta og

the third member being deduced from
opr Od me al Ny ft ITE tle tap) iltt
As
Ciex(—)) 7 s

u (y — leita ayuies®
° GF Bayt 1 ofr

we have now

Replacing ¢,= —a, and introducing U,, in the last expression of
as
F pe) ,
we get

EEO Oe ee a, B,(e—6)
(IL) i Ie yl Behe} :

From this we might draw several other combinations. We will only notice the one
which we shall make use of further on.

34 DR GUSTAVE PLARR ON THE

If in the second member we put under the sign F,
e—d=0
at+B—y+1l=e,

e=y’,

HPF) by (IL),

and expressing

we get
: rebt EOE Pst 7286-9)
Syl ee pega)
Now

é—d0 =a+6+d—y—e+1=€;
a+B—-—y+1l=a+6—e+1.
We have thus (III.)

a) eee a)

with the above signification of €.
In our application of this we shall find €=0, in consequence of which the F of the
second member will reduce itself to its first term, which is unity.

§ IV.

We apply (II.) to the transformation of

[S]PG, 7) of § 11.
We have to put
a=—v, B=n4+3-1, d=u—-v4+j+1
y=u—vt+l, e=st+o.
This gives
—a=+v
—B=ut+h—-n
e—oO=S.
a+B—y+tl=n+4-—u-v
Then
[371] P@ )=B [Zi] Pw),
where
ili
(u—v+1)"*1
Pe po a enn
’ Litt, (n+4 -u—vyi*s+u—v4+j+ 1)!

TRANSFORMATION OF LAPLACE’S COEFFICIENTS. 30

We have now

S@u,v)=A.B.[3"°9 > i] WAP).

We may intervert again the sums 2, because the limits of the indices are independent
from one another.
In the denominator of QP’ we remark that the product

(s+u-v+1)"*1 x (stu-v4+j+ 1)!
can be written under the form
(stu -—v+1)!4 x (stu-—v+i4+l1)yi+,
By these changes we get
Sw, )=A.B. [363°] P'Q'GI),
where

(-v)#41. (n+ - v)l41, (s)#41

EOS 1/41 (n+4-—u-v)ji!t!. (st+u—v41)"*!

n—s +17 m-1-s Alt
Cogn 2 Ce)
W+s+u—v+i4+1yit}

To the summation of

[So “7] VG, 7) =Q,

we can now apply (I.), but we must treat separately the two cases
(1) n-s=2r, (2) n-1l-s=2r',

r and 7” being integers.
In the first case we have to put

a=-r+u, B=-r+h+u
B=at4 y=stu-v+i4+l,
and we get

tet] ays yobs eat
Q =[3, i] QI) = oobi bly

In the second case we have to put

then B’=a'—4, namely,

VOL. XXXVI. PART I, (NO. 2). G

36 DR GUSTAVE PLARR ON THE

y' =y the same as in the first case. Thus we have the slightly different expression

Pe) ig ay ete otis
Q¢ = iS; j| Q'(4,9) ~ (s+u—v+14ijyr 44

We transform Q and Q by the help of

qite/+1 = alta + qjel+d = avl+(a, -+ wilt! ;
from which

+1
en ember Ee IS oH)
(a+2)" = qt! x eres 4
In the ease of Q®, we put
w=r—U,
and in the numerator,
a=r+s+i—v.

Hence
a+w=2r+s+}—u—v
=N+F—U—v,
because of n -s=2r.
Thus the numerator in Q will be
Ne \ree red (n+$—u—v)I*}
(r+s+ 9 v) 4 (r+sth Lp A
The denominator in Q” will be

(str—v+l1)/*!

(she 0) ie ena ory

Dividing the first of these expressions by the second, and putting

foe ibaa a) hina
~ (stu—v4+lyrwev?

(n+}—u—v)"*"(s+u—v04+1)!*1
(r+s+4—v)'!7(r+s+1—v)i*1"

In the case of Q” we put
w=r—U

a=r+s+3—v.
Then

a+w=2r +s+3—uUu—v=n+}—-Uu-2,
because of 277=n—1—s. We have then in putting

_(r'+8+$—v) "#1
~ (s-u—v+ly-vtl’
(n+4—u-—v)!(s+u—v+1)it1
(7 +8+3—v)/71(7r'+s4+1—-—v)!"

C

Q)=C'x

TRANSFORMATION OF LAPLACE’S COEFFICIENTS. oF

We have now in the case 2r=n—s,
S(u, v)= AB[E i] QP"(),
Q® becoming Q” in the case 27/+1=n—s.
On forming the product Q”P’(z) we see that Q® has in its numerator two factors
which P’(z) has in its denominator. We have thus in the case of Q, accounting for the
factor C,

S(u, v)= ABCD ,
where

_ fs]. (—v)!1(n + 4 —v)I4(s)41
p= [>"1] Vly +s+h— vl (rps Toy

in the case of Q, containing C’,
S(u, 1) = ABCD’,
where
(=O) Gee Oe
Lr +s+3—v)/*'r' +s+1—v)ih

p= [4]

If now, for the sake of applying (III.), we put in the case of D,

a=-—v :
B=n+}—v y=r+sty—v
e=7r+s+l—v
Ss
we get
a+6+é6+l=n+s+3—2v,
y+te=2r+2s+ 3—2v,
hence

(=n—2r—s,

which is equal to zero by the definition

2r=n-s.

We have then
y—B=rt+s—n=r+s—2r—s=—7,
e—- B=r+s+}—n=r4+s+}-2r-s,
e—B=—r+h.

Thus putting F=1 in the second member of (III.), we get

a (=r)! — rh
~ (rtsth—v)"tr+s4+1—vyite

For D’ we have the same values for a, B, 6, but

y =r +s+a—v
e=7r'+s+l—v
y' +6 =2r'+28+3—2v
(=n+s+3—2v
— 2r’—2s—8+2v

=n—2r'—s—-1,

38 DR GUSTAVE PLARR ON THE

which is also equal to zero by

r=hkn—-1-s),
which gives
n=2r'+s4+1.
Then
y —B=7'+8s+3—-—v—n—}+4+0
=r'+s+l1l—n
=—,7’
¢ —B=r'+s+1—v—n—}+4+0
=r+s+h-—n
=7+s+4—27r'—s—-1
=—-7r—-4.

Putting F = 1 in the second member of (III.), we get

(<r (ot pi
~ (r +s+3—v) Hr +841 —v)/41°

§ V.

We have thus expressed the sum S(w, v) by a product under a monomial form. We
will now make use again of the function I(x) =(a/) for the sake of simplification of the
factorials and their products.

We have first (as above § II.)

ae (—1)"2”11(2n — 2v)
2r+s+2TTyl(n—v)I(n—s—2u)I(s+u—v)(u—v)

Then
_(ut} k—n)it
~ (w= ot v+1)/41

and, as the limits of v are 0 and u,

B=(—1)(n—u— Hy xe,

We introduce again the transformation

(2a,)?*/- Ue Peed lea Gor aa 4)/-1 z
Hence
Il2a I(a— b)

() (@— P= PTT ea—2)* Ta

This gives, identifying a with n—uw,

Re (—1)'II(2n —2u)II(n—u—v) | I(u - v)
11(2n—2u—2)m—u) ~ Tw *
Hence the product
(=DT2n—2Ww)M2n-2u)_—B,

AB="FToll(n—v)lad—a) “Ii —a—2u)’

TRANSFORMATION OF LAPLACE’S COEFFICIENTS. 39

where we put

Ree I(n—u—v)
1 2TI(2n—2u—2v)II(s+u—v)*
Then
C= (r+s+h—v)-"4!_ (r+s+$—04r—-—u—-1)-""1
(spu—v4+l1y-“41 (stu-v+14+r—u—-ly-4
As
2r+s=n; +}4-1=-},
we have

(n—v-u-} es

= (r+s—vy-“-1

Applying (d) for

a=n—V—U,

b=r—-u,
we get
= l2Qn—2v —-2u)Il(n-—v—u—r+uyilr+s—v—r+w)
2?r- TT (Qn -2v—2Qu—Ar+ 2u)N(n—v—w)N(r+s—v)
From
2n—2r=n+s
we draw
r+s=n-7,
hence the second factor in the numerator, namely, II(n—r—v), when divided by

Il(r+s—v) gives unity. The third factor above will be H(s+u—v). The first II in
the denominator will be H(n+s—2u). Thus we get

II(2n —2v—2u)II(s+u—v)
2-s—2TT (1 +s—2v)II(n—v—u)

C=

This, by the definition of B,, becomes

ae 1
~ B,* 2-TI(n +s— 20)
Hence
ABO (— DT @n — 2) T(2n—2u) 1

2" Tvll(n—v)Tull(n— w)ll(n—s— 2u) * IH(n+s—2v)°
In the case 27’ =n—1—s we have

(r'+st+3—vy-Y+1 (Qr'+s—u—v4+3y 71
(stu—v+l)y 4+ (r'+s—vy v7} :

C=

But
2r’+s+i=n—1+h=n-}

Le u—hy-4- ‘(s+u-v)
I(r +s—v)

Apply (d) by putting

a=n—-U—2v,

b=r'—-u.
Then after a reduction similar to the preceding,

Ti(2Qn —2u—2v0)(n—r'—v) (s+ u—v)

es 227-241 T(2n—2r' — Qv) II (n —u—v) I(r +s—v)

40 DR GUSTAVE PLARR ON THE

We have
2r’'=n—1—s
r+1l+s=n-7’.
Hence
I(n—r'—v)_,,
Trice Saya +1+s-v).
Also from

2n—2r'=n+1+8

1 1 1 1 1
T(n+1+s—2v) (m+1+s—2v) * U(n+s—2v) 2’ +24+2s—2o * Tn +s—2v)’

and
1 2? EDK 2

92" —2u Qr-1-s = ges *

We have by these
firey Il(2n —2u— 2v)IT(s +u- v) Q2u

a Il(n+s—2v)I(n—w—v) * on=

xcs
where

ot lb oa
a C7 MEER) = AG

C

Again C’ can therefore be put under the form

eer) a
—B, * Tn +s—2Qv)’

hence we have wm form the equality,
ABC’=ABC,

although, of course, n—s is even in the second member, and »—1—s is so in the
first.
As to D and D’, we put them at once under the form

(or)! (n= py"!

= sey

(ol + B)-2. (oly

D'= Wras+4)(r +e .

Applying (d) for D, and for D’,

(2a+ 1)?/-1 — 2? + 4)e/-1q?/-1

hence
IIl(2a+1)
(a+})!-Ma)l-t = Tie +1—2b)’

we get
_ T(2r)II(2r + 28— 2v)
~ I(2r—2v)II(2r + 28)

_ (27 +1) (2r' + 1+ 28 —2v)

nm Il(2r’-+1—2v)II(2r' +14 2s)’

TRANSFORMATION OF LAPLACE’S COEFFICIENTS. 4]

Now,
2r=n—s=2r'4+1

2r+2s=n+s=27r'+142s.
Hence D and D’ are identical,

_ py _I(n—s).T(n+s—2v)
oie Il(n+s)II(n—s—2v) ©

This gives identity in form between ABC’D’ and ABCD which represent S(u, v).
Thus we have

II(m— s)
Il(n+s)

S(u, v) = R(wu) x Riv),

where

ps (—1)"II(2n — 2u)
R(w)= 2T1(w)1(n—w)II(m —s— Qu)’

R(v) =the expression R(~), in which w is changed into v.
As S(u, v) is composed in the same manner in v and in », it follows that

S(v, vu) =S(u, v),

and the partition of the values of v in respect to the values of w becomes unnecessary,
and we have

u (ie ih
(0) V=2U.
2, a %,

Returning now to the expression of Vi of § Il., we see that for every value of w the
values of v are to be extended from zero to r (or 7”, as the case may be), and vice versa.
We may then represent Z; as the product of the three factors

II(n—s) .
(1) Ii(n+s)’
(2) [30] (w)e-# 4R(w)
(3) [SP olay Re).

This product, multiphed by
(yy’)'-2c0s (sy),

and summed from s=0 to s=n, will then give Z,, expressed in function of a, a’, y, y/,
and w.

42 DR GUSTAVE PLARR ON THE

If we consider the second of these factors, we see that R, contains

Hina ayant
Hence
a—§- 2411 (2n—2u):' dh ttg- 24
I(n—s—2u) darts”
and we may write
(-1)" 1 (-1)"n"-1

2"TTwIl(n — uv) “olin vt

Hence with the signification of r, 7’,

Ly q?+s nr ( te Lent! —1y?” —2u
~ 2°TIindar+s [ 0 | [ert ;

bag “ul Ra) 3-

Now the sum in the second member, considered in itself, and in which the upper

limit of u may be extended to u=n, represents

(a?— 1)" ?

but the differentiation in respect to x causes the terms to disappear, in which w out-

passes ror 7’, We have then

rv Ats(a2 = il y”
n-s$—2u — :
[=; | R(w) me ~~ BTIindarts

We put, as it is usual,
_ da? -1y"
2 OTInda” ”
and then
r, 7” aAsXn
(2, w| R(w)ar-$-4 =

as

The same expression holds for

1. aX,
ps | R(v)\(a’y" -s-2v — a 3

where « is replaced by 2. We have then

n II(n — 8) IN OX, aX,
Zn = [3 5] Tryag pV Y2008 (WY Gat

whereas Z,, expressed in z as at the beginning of § L., is

d"(z? — 1)"

t= ae

both being the known expressions for Z, .

TRANSFORMATION OF LAPLACE’S COEFFICIENTS. 43

NOTE BY PROFESSOR CAYLEY.

The object of the paper is the direct verification of the well-known equation

LZ,= Jere

2
+ at Or P,’. yy’ cos wv

1\2

+ ad

+

where Z,, is the Legendrian function, order n, of wa’+yy! cos p, (@+y’=1, x”? +y"=1),
and P,, P,’ are the Legendrian functions of the same order of a, 2’ respectively. By
expanding the powers of xx’ +yy’ cos y, and in the result the powers of cos # in multiple
cosines of ys, the left-hand side is at once thrown into the form

Ao+2A,yy' cos y+ 2A(yy') cos 2+ &e.

where Ay, A;, A.... are given rational and integral functions of x, 2’, y’, y”; and the
problem is that of ah the equations

Ozen.Ope n> fa = : oP -6.b™

Ao=PaPs, Ai= n+s.n+s—1...n—s+l 2%

=

The author starts with the general term A,, writes therein i 1—2’, y?=1—2”, and by
means of a process (which is of necessity a difficult and complicated one) of the summa-
tion of factorial expressions, succeeds in reducing this to the required form, numerical
multiple of &°P,. 8.P |

It would probably be somewhat easier (although far from easy) to verify directly the
deduced relations

1
a ——— 6 202’ Ao, A ee i5 70x Ad, =f A, Ae 5

aa n+2.n—1 ~ +s.0—

(in which, of course, y’, y” must be regarded as denoting 1—«x’, 1—x” respectively), thus
reducing the problem to the verification of the first equation

Ja Viree | ealens G

and as regards this equation it would be perhaps easier (instead of writing
y =1—2’, y?=1—x”) to homogenise the equation by introducing in the several terms
thereof the proper powers of 2’°+y’, #?+y”. The left-hand side would thus be a given
function homogeneous of the order n in x, y, and homogeneous of the same order in
x’, y’ (y, y’ entering in the squares y’, y” respectively), and this should be identically
equal to the right-hand side P,P,’ expressed in the known form

n—I n—1.n—2.n—38 ; n—1 ,

(a” _ goa a a thy — w0,)(a—" - aia aT we.)

VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 2). H

IIl.—Phases of the Inving Greek Language. By Emeritus Professor BLackte.

(Read 3rd March 1890.)

GENERAL SCHEME OF CONTENTS.

PAGE PAGE
1. Historical Glance at the Conditions of Change to its legitimate Position as dominating the
in the Greek Language. Specimen of the corrupted types of Local Idioms by Korazs.
Current Greek of the Newspapers, F 45 Regeneration of the Current Greek since 1822, 51-52
2, How the Current Notion of Greek being in a 5. Principle of wise Compromise between the Lite-
state of Barbarous Corruption arose, and Con- rary and the Vulgar Greek in the Formation
fusion of two Strata of Greek—the Literary of the present universally accepted type of
and the Popular. Specimen of the Vulgar the Neo-Hellenic Standard, as distinguished
Greek of the Peasantry, : . 46-47 from the Romaic Dialect, . : . 52-53
3. Philological Classification of the Differentiating 6. Scheme of Reform for the Teaching of Ghee as
Features of the Vulgar or Popular Greek, . 48-51 a Living Language, with an indication cf the
4, Restoration of the Greek of Literary Currency advantages to flow from such a Reform, . 53-55

I will commence by stating that three reasons have moved me to bring this subject
before the Society—(1) Because I found everywhere loose and even altogether false
ideas possessing the public mind on the subject; (2) because I much fear that we, the
academical teachers of the Greek language, are chiefly to blame for the currency of
these false ideas; and (3) because, if Greek is a living and uncorrupted lancuage,
and dominating large districts of Europe and the Mediterranean, as influentially as
French on the banks of the Seine and German on the Rhine, it follows that a radical
reform must take place in our received methods of teaching this noble and most useful
laneuage. Now that the current language of the Greeks in Athens and elsewhere is not,
in any sense, a new or a corrupt language, as Italian is a melodious and French a elitter-
ing corruption of Latin, may be gathered even a priorz; for languages are slow to die,
and the time that elapsed from the taking of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453 and
the establishment of the Venetian power in the Morea in 1204, to the resurrection of Greek
political life in 1822, was not long enough to cause such a fusion of contrary elements as
produced the English language from the permanent occupation of the British Isles by
the Normans. Nay rather, so far from being a fusion, there was a strong repulsion
between the Mahommedan conquerors and their Christian subjects; while the jealousy ©
between the Greek and the Latin Churches acted as a strong force to prevent any trans-
forming power that might have been exercised on Greek by a sporadic contagion from
the Italian ; and the results in the present state of the language are just what were to
be expected from such historical antecedents. Local varieties of careless or corrupt
Greek of course may be found among the peasantry, just as we have one type of English
in Yorkshire, another in Dorsetshire, another in Lancashire, and a fourth in Scotland;
for Scotch is in no sense of the word a separate language from English, as Gaelic is from

VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 3). I

46 EMERITUS PROFESSOR BLACKIE ON THE

Welsh, but only the lyrical and musical dialect of the English tongue, as Doric was of
the Attic Greek. The few blots and blotches that the popular Greek had contracted
through long centuries were prevented from impressing any permanent stamp on the
current language, partly from the uninterrupted action of the Greek Church and partly
from the continuous literary traditions of Byzantium among the educated Greeks in
Venice, Cephalonia, Mount Athos, and elsewhere ; and the consequence was that so soon
as the oppressive yoke of the Turks had been fairly thrown off by the happy conclusion
of the revolt of 1822, any Turkish and Italian corrupting elements that had partially
defaced the popular dialect were thrown off as the scales of a skin disease, and left not a
mark on the fair body of the tongue. As a proof of this, | lay before you a short
paragraph, the first that comes to my hand, from a recent Greek newspaper, the ’E@ypepis,
published at Athens, October 15, 1889, in which an account is given of the marriage of
the Prince Royal of Greece to a daughter of a royal European house. )
Mores TapnAOov elKOoL Xpevor amo THIS 7pepas Kad? Hv eyevvaTo TO TPOTOV €AAnVUKOV Baciro-
TovAoV, Hs OUpavOTEUTTOY YXapiTia, ws poddxpucos avyn TavedAnviov éAmidwy, oKedaCoura Ta
cKoTn TIS wKTOS. Eis To BaciNdrovAoy éxapicOy TO dvoua Tod TeAevTatov “EAAyvos avToKpa-
TOPOS, ele TOU OTOloU THY expovynow ouykAoverTat Kat NaxTapet Kat Tov ‘“EAAjvev 6 ETXATOS. Kai
0 veos Kavoraytivos wvEave Kal emeyaduveTo els appevwmov VEAVLAV, Kat ouvedevoy avuTov ev TO Biw
a0 TOUTOY els eketvoy TOV oTAaOMOY at EUX GL, ot 70001, 7 ayarn ravrov nuav. Kat uvorixy atyAn
Tov mepieBarr€ Kat avwbev avtov émavaTo Kal Tov éoxiaCe Oud XpuT@v TTEpUywv TO dpwroBorov
TVEULa TOU peéAXNovTOS. :
Anybody that can read Potysius or Dioporus, PLuraRcH or CHRYsosTom, without a
dictionary, will understand this at a glance; for the deviations that occur in it from the
strict classical form are so few and so slight as not to throw any hindrance in the way
of a scholar of common intelligence.* The so-called corruption of the Greek language
is therefore, if understood of the current language of the day in newspapers, an imagina-
tion, consisting, as it does, in only a few superficial changes, such as any language in the
process of centuries naturally undergoes. How this imagination arose can be easily
explained ; first from the systematic divorce between the academical teaching of Greek
and the speech of the Greek people, caused by the hybrid and arbitrary pronunciation of
the language that followed upon the sceptical solution of sceptical doubts raised early in
the sixteenth century by a notable work of Erasmus, the effect of which was to make the
university man look upon the speech of the living Greeks as barbarous, while the grand
barbarism lay with himself; and again, from the superficial notice of the current Greek
taken by the academical men, leading them to confound the lowest specimens of vulgar
Greek in the popular ballad with the current language of the Church and of educated
men from the taking of Constantinople downwards. From this point of view, no doubt,

* These are—(1) xecvo: for ern, but used also sometimes in later Greek. (2) BaaiAdrovaoc for prince, where rovaos
is acommon termination of Greek proper names, corresponding to son in English and Mac in Gaelic. The etymology
from 7ar0-, Lat. pullus, Eng. foal, is obvious, (8) ¢ dds; for és, probably introduced from the Italian 2 quale. (4)
Aayraori, « new formation from awxrifw, signifying the kicking or beating of the heart against the ribs in cases of
vehement desire. (5) eis with the accusative, used for é with the dative (see below).

PHASES OF THE LIVING GREEK LANGUAGE. 47

modern Greek might be called a corruption, or at least a deviation from the recognised
type of correct expression, just as the Milanese dialect of the Italian is a deviation from
the Florentine standard, and the low German of the common people, in the lower region
of the Rhine and the Weser, may be called a corruption of or a vulgar deviation from the
high German type made classical by Martin LutHer; but even in the lowest of these low
forms of the vulgar speech of the people, the inherent vitality of the continuous literary
tradition manifests itself so strongly, that of corruption in the strict sense, that is,
impurity from the infusion of foreign blood, the traces are remarkably few, and the
changes on the face of the type, though sufficiently marked, are very far from consti-
tuting what can with any philological propriety be called a new language. As a specimen
of what this uncultivated form of the vulgar street ballad mostly was, we cannot do better
than insert here one of the oldest of the historical ballads found in Passow* and other
collections, viz., a few lines on the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, a ballad con-
temporaneous, no doubt, with the achievement of that bloody inroad of oriental barbarism
into the intellectual civilisation of the west:—

Ily A ON “~ , ! - 4A > rv , !
npav Thy ToAwW, THpav THv! mypay THY Dadovikny !
a N n) € ae N \ , ,
Iypav kat thy ayray Lodiay, TO péya movacTipt,
9. GN , , > en, \ , :
IV etye tpiaxocia ojpavtpa x’ 6€nvTa dvo Kaptravass
nF: , \4 Lo , Los A
Kade cautrava xai waTmas, Kae Tamas Kal OLakos.
‘\ Wk! - A ov > ¢ lal ral ,
Diya va ‘Byouv ta dyia, x’ 6 Bacireas TOU Kocpou,
A A > ven >) A ° , ’ 2 A , m
Pwvyn Tous ip’ e€ ovpavov, ayyéedAwy am TO cTOMa
a 9 \ r N ‘
"Agi avtiy TH Waduwdiay! va yaunrooouw 7 aya!
A t , P) A \\ \ » Ni A ,
Kat oteiAte Aoyov ’s tHy Ppayxiay, va éo0ouy, va Ta Tracour,
X , \ \ \ eho
Na rapovy Tov xpvcov eravpoy Kal T adytov evayyéAuoy,
N A e , | / A A A i} i?
Kat tv ayiow tTpatrefay, va un THY GmodvUvour.
” r , € inal
“Sav 7 axovoey 7 Aéoro.va, daxpuCouv 7 eikoves
> , / , { A Ls \\ , {
oma, kupia Aéorrowa! pn KAaigs, mn Oaxputys !
r A , \ A Ls , iD) ”
Ilane me xpovous, me Katpous TaXe OuKa cov etvat.

They have taken the city, they have taken it, they have taken Thessalonica,
They have taken the holy Sophia, the big cathedral,

Which had three hundred hand bells, and sixty-two great bells,
With a priest for every great bell, and for every priest a deacon.
As soon as the holy host went out, and the king of the world,

A voice came from Heaven, from the mouth of angels,

Leave off your psalmody, and set down the host,

And send word to the land of the Franks to come and take it,
And to take the golden cross, and the holy gospel,

And also the holy table that it may not be polluted.

This, when our Lady heard, her images begin to weep ;

Be still, revered lady, wail not, weep not,

For again, with the years and the seasons, St Sophia will be thine.

* ronyovoie Paweine, edidit ARNOLDUS Passow, Leipzig, 1860,

48 EMERITUS PROFESSOR BLACKIE ON THE

Now in this passage

: he _
For THpav write e7ypav. For XaunrAwo our write Xaparwcr.
A 4 ‘ lé
» THY »> GUTH. » OTELAE » oTelAaTe.
Ld > ° >
» MovacTipt » Movarrnptoy. » €p0ouv » €dAPwaor.
€ , \é ,
»» Kam7ravais » kKwdwvas. » Wlacouy » TLELWTL.
Cr rol r °° ’,
» warTras » lepeus. » Tapouv » eTapwct.
10 e ’ , :) ,
» kaGe » €KAOTOS. »» @uAvyouY » GapvAvvwct.
, , x e
5» OlaKOS » OlAKOVOS. » ay » WS av.
4 € «
» olua » Ws »» GKouUcEV » yKOUCED.
, ec , ,
» va py kiya: » Oakpucouv » Oakpvouat.
~ , , ~~ Ly
» PByovv » €kBaivovar. i 5
rt , ,
» PBacreas » Pacrrevs. » CWT. » CWOTO.
col 9, ~ p ,
» TOUS » GUTOLs. » 7ade > WAALy.
> > \ ‘
” 700 » prOe. » ME » MeTa.
4 , , ‘ .) ,
» TOOTOMA » TOU CTOMATOS. » OlKG » lOl“Ka.
° an ’ , rt 7+
» apyr » alee. » Elva See Ontaee

Now here we have thirty corruptions for only fourteen lines; but some of them are
mere repetitions, and others are so slight as to be easily guessed ; not, certainly, amount-
ing to a new language in the sense that Spanish or Portuguese are new languages from
Latin, and Dutch a distinct species from German. Let us now classify, under distinct
heads, the deviations from the literary type which this and similar productions of the
unlettered Muse sporadically present.

1. The loss of the infinitive mood, for which va for ta with the subjunctive is the
regular substitute, as if we should say in English “I beg that you accept,” for “I beg you
to accept.”

2. The loss of the optatwe mood—logically to be lamented, but practically of no
consequence—“I said so that you may not misunderstand me,” being as intelligible as
“that you might not.” In Greek this loss was facilitated partly by the multiform luxu-
riance of the verb, partly by the identity in pronunciation of o and 7, both being the
English ee, which appears regularly in the New Testament (see John iii. 25).

3. The disappearance of the dative case is much more serious ; no doubt the accusative
is the case in most frequent use, and which strikes the ear more forcibly ; our language,
which is a history of losses, has done the same, “ him” standing for the German ihm and
thn; but the Greeks have done worse; along with the dative case they have lost the
preposition év, with which it is naturally joined, and so for “ in these circumstances,” they
say, us Tas TepisTtaces TavTas, as in Scotch we say, “this man has muckle room in his
head, but there’s na muckle intil’t.”

4, Another equally, perhaps more serious loss, as more foreign from the genius of the
classic idiom, is the resolution of the tenses expressed in English by “have” and “ had,”
“will” and “should,” into auxiliary verbs exactly as in modern languages—étya being
used for a pluperfect, and 6a for ‘ will” and ‘ would.”

PHASES OF THE LIVING GREEK LANGUAGE. 49

5. The sparing of trouble in the memorising of various forms leads to the abolition
of irregular forms, and massing them all under a common type ; so in verbs, didu for didwue,
Oérw for TiOyu. The irregular present torym was discarded and a new regular verb,
common in the New Testament, was formed from the perfect €oTy«a, viz., crew or oTHKW.
In the same way 7arépas takes the place of zatyp, from the acc. rarépa, following the
analogy of final as in masculines of the first declension, and similarly Basireas for Ba-
gAévs, perhaps not innovations but remnants of the old Doric, in whieh a was the
favourite vowel.

6. Pronouns and particles, as not being very self-assertive in their nature, and
hable to be flung in as adjuncts or enclitics to more prominent words, in Greek, as in all
languages, are particularly liable to curtailment or careless treatment of some kind: so
was for yuas, cets for vuas, Tov and Tov for av’rod and avrov, va for iva, tov and zw for o7rov,
and for “who,” 7s, for “that,” conjunction, dev for ovdév; as with subjunctive for aes,
like English “let,” aes tOwpmer, “let us see” (Matthew xxvii. 49). In this instance, as in
the use of ‘va with the subjunctive, we see the modern Greek is simply a natural develop-
ment of the Greek of the New Testament. See for wa, Matthew v. 29; vu. 4, 12.

7. In nouns and verbs, and compound words, apaipecrs, or the cutting off the initial
syllable, is very common: thus, twpca for drwpixa, for omdépa, “fruits in their season ;”
miow for omow, ypausuevos for yeypaumevos, as in English “ given,” for the Teutonic gegeben ;
in a great number of compounds of ¢£—Eecvpw for eEevpw, Eaxovoros for éEaxovetos, EecxewaCw,
for eLerkeT al w—vouaT0s—OvopaTos——GV0LaTTOS, ‘a person.”

Nor is apocope less common not only of syllables but of single letters, as ra:dt for
TaLolov, oALryo for oALyov, ypapoupe for ypapouer, as the 1st person plural of verbs.

8. Not unfrequently both apheresis and apocope take place, until the word is scarce
recognisable. This is specially observable in diminutives, of which Greek, like Ltalan,
is very fond, thus—

OMma OMmaTLOV OMmaTe Mare
ops oidrov opi. pice

Ogu ofvduov oFvor Eide
piKos cpukidvoy epucaxidvov puKacio.

9. Notwithstanding the gracilitas, or graceful tenuity of Greek, as QUINTILIAN calls
it, the modern Greeks show a peculiar favour for the broad soft sound of ov = 0 in boom.
Thus they have not only ypapouy (Lat. seribunt) for ypaover, a remnant of the Doric, but
ératovoa for ératyca as past tense of taréw. A marked Dorism also we have in é\aBav
for <AaBov, e’ya for etyov, and other such aorists regularly. So also maGw and zave,
unquestionably Doric, Acts iii. 7 and elsewhere for 7éGw. Contrasted with this Dorism the
pv for pay as the accusative of adjectives in pds, frequent in modern Greek, is distinctly
Tonic, and a venerable relic of the phraseology of the Iliad (xxiii. 48).

10. Of course syncope also comes into play, alone or along with apheresis, as «épdy
for copudy; from trdyere (John iv. 16), tayere, wate. Sometimes the lost consonant is

50 EMERITUS PROFESSOR BLACKIE ON THE

supplied by assimilation to the preserved one, as for xutraQw=KurraQw, adevrys for
adOévrns, our Effendi.

11. The insertion of a consonant between two vowels, a sort of euphony, as @youpos
for awpos, avydv for @ov, likely a remnant of the old form, as egg is doubtless older than
the Saxon ez or ey; «Aalyw for KAaiw,

12. Simple carelessness, as ayporxéw for axpoaua, ebés for €xOés; or interchange
of cognate letters, adeppds for adeddds, jpOe for 7rOc, BvGo from miGw, yAlywpa for
ypryop4.

13. Traces of the contagious action of foreign tongues, especially on a people drag-
ging out its existence through centuries in a subordinate and servile position, no doubt
exist, Italian, of course, mainly, and Turkish, but remarkably few even in the most
vulgar type of the Aleptic or Brigand ballads. The following are examples :—

Turkosh.
Mzapotr:, gunpowder. vreBAerTr, empire, government. Tap7ToUpl, ACCEL.
Tour, oun, pouptatys, a recreant infidel.
Italian.
kamTay, captain. TauBovpos, tabor. BryriGo, vigilare.
céAXa, saddle. AeBevra, volentieri. oTaumapia, printing-oftice.
aBouxaros, avocato. Bépya, verga.
Latin.
couBAa, subula. - omyrt, hospitium. KéANuoy, cella.
Piryas, Rex, Regis. ~ Tavaplov = apTopoptor. axouuBw, accumbere,

with a family of merely official names occurring in the Byzantine writers, and collected
in the well-known work of Codinus de officus.

Albanian, a slight sprinkling in Passow’s glossary; but the influence of such an
unlettered people on the Greeks must necessarily have been small.

All these characteristic deviations from the recognised classical type of Attic Greek
may justly fall under the categories either of losses, as when a branch or two are lopped
off from an old tree, or of taint, as when neglect of the forester or inclemency of the
weather has allowed some unseemly scurf to spread itself in patches over the whiteness
of the bark; but there is a large class of changes which can in no sense be called
corruptions, being, in fact, neither more or less than that natural expansion and enrich-
ment which belongs essentially to every living growth, and to which the Greek language
in these latter ages is as much entitled as it was in the days of Prricies and Dremos-
THENES. Enrichments of this description, sometimes pure luxuries, sometimes necessary
formations for the expression of new ideas, are found passim in all varieties of living

PHASES OF THE LIVING GREEK LANGUAGE. 51

Greek, the literary as well as the popular; and among these is specially to be observed
a partiality for the terminations ‘C» and ovw in verbs, as CadtG from Cady, 7Anyevw from
mAnyn, TaA0aive from rabos, snxovw from ojKos, and many more. Under the category of *
expansion falls also the application of old words to new circumstances, or attaching to
them new meanings, as a mere sport of the fancy, or simply from the delight in change,
as To Bpadu, “the evening,” for repos, dpdmos for 600s, kauvw for tpatT, and such like.

All this looks a very formidable array of losses and disfigurements, which
may seem to justify the academical treatment of Greek as practically a dead lan-
guage, and recall to the mind of the scholar the glossarium greco-barbarum of the
learned Dutchman Meurstvs, in which 1040 foreign words are paraded with due pomp of
quotation ina stout octavo of 650 pages. But we have only to recall the statement made
above in our introductory paragraph to show the utter falsehood of such a hasty impres-
sion. The corrupt dialect, whose peculiarities we have been enumerating, as a medium
of communication amongst educated Greeks, exists no longer ; it is universally condemned
as a false coin, and has no currency. ‘The first step to this condemnation was made a
century ago, by the famous ADaMANTIos Korags, at that time resident in Paris, from
whom the prolusive blast of patriotic inspiration proceeded, that through the noble
martyrdom of Ruicas PHER«as, and the patriarch Grecory V., culminated in the political
liberation of Greece by the revolt of 1822. But even before that period there were
degrees of corruption, separate platforms, so to speak, of vulgar Greek, which no intel-
ligent man could mistake for the current Greek of educated men. Of these platforms
the Cretan dialect was the lowest, the dialect used by a Cretan Greek resident in Venice,
Cornaro by name, who, in the year 1756, gave to the world a love romance or novel in
verse called Hrotocritus, which achieved an immense popularity, and has run through
many editions. As a specimen of the current style of colloquial Greek, on a platform
considerably above this, we may take the Greek translation of the Arabian Nights, pub-
lished at Venice in the year 1792; but all this since the resurrection of Greece to poli-
tical independence in 1822 is past; and no man would dream now of translating any
modern work into the Greek of the Arabian Nights. As a proof of this, any one who
pleases may consult the work named below, a translation from the travels of a lady well
known in Cambridge for her expert use of Greek and other living languages.* How was
this? Plamly enough from the superficial nature of the disease with which the noble lan-
guage of the Christian religion and literature had been tainted, and from the instinctive
ease with which the strong impulse of regenerate nationality was enabled to throw it off.
The instantaneous effect of the successful rising of 1822 was to give a pulsing reality
and a pervading force to the linguistic reformation preached by Korazs. The corrup-
tions that had hitherto defaced the classical tongue were felt as stamps of a hateful
tyranny, and badges of an unworthy slavery; and so with one consent the educated
‘mind of liberated Greece arose to the grand conception of restoring their language of
literary and political intercommunion to a type not unworthy of shaking hands with

* Ayyns Suid: Batumara eml roo Eaarnvinod Biov xal tH¢ Eaanviniis romoyeaQias, tx rov Ayyaixov, Leipzig, 1885.

52 EMERITUS PROFESSOR BLACKIE ON THE

the best models of classical antiquity. Nor was this by any means difficult to do; for,
as we have already stated, alongside of the vulgar there had always been practised, from
the last of the Byzantine historians, a literary Greek, only in the very slightest degree, or
searcely at all, infeeted with the vulgarities of the unlettered speech.* The success of
this movement was certain; but, as in all changes of great social forces, there were
adverse elements .at work which required to be considered. Influential as the traditions
of the literary platform were, it could not be denied that the imspiration which had nerved
the national arm for victory, had come from the mass of the common people as much
as from the exertions of the cultivated few; the praises of the popular heroes of the war
had been sung in the language of the popular ballads, commonly known as Romaic, and
had a most righteous claim not to be ignored in the linguistic presentation of the restored
nationality. Besides, it could not be the object of patriotic men of culture to separate
themselves, by a rigidly drawn line, from the language of the common people, whom it
was their mission to elevate and to improve ; so the advocates of the contending types
came to a philological compromise, pretty much in the same fashion that political com-
promises are managed between the reforming and the conservative forces in our parlia-
mentary debates. The result of this compromise is what we see daily in the Greek organs
of public opinion, and in other works which issue from the press, of a people who at no
period proved themselves destitute of that intellectual acuteness and that literary dex-
terity which was the boast of their forefathers ; and the principles on which this successful
compromise was made, say as much for the good sense and practical judgment of the
leaders of literary opinion as its original conception did for their patriotism. These
principles are four—{1) the absolute exclusion of all foreign words as unnecessary and
unseemly in a language which has, through so many centuries, retained the luxuriant
vitality of its native growth; (2) a free exercise of the formative power of the language
when new words have to be introduced for new facts and new ideas; (3) such a moderate
restoration of classical forms as slides easily and without any felt exertion into the popular
ear; (4) such a sparing adoption of the peculiarities of the vulgar Greek as leaves the style
of modern literary prose much more near to the style of ancient classical prose than the
style of AiscHYLUS is to that of Hommr, or the style of Lord Byron to that of GEOFFREY
Cuaucer. And, in fact, the current style now used by the Greeks in their literary pro-
ductions, their mercantile correspondence, and their political debates, is differentiated
from the Greek of PoLtyBrus and Dioporus by a few characteristic turns, which any intel-
ligent school-boy may master in ten minutes. ‘This, however, does not imply that the
language of the peasants is to be allowed to fall into total disuse ; on the contrary, we
agree with the principles and the practice of an accomplished Corcyrean gentleman, who has
translated not only SHAKESPEARE’S plays but the Odyssey of his own Homer into a style
of expression more or less approximating to the vulgar dialect,t viz., that the language

* See as a striking proof of this the Neo-zrarnuiny Diroroyia from 1453 to 1821, by SatHa, Athens, 1868 ; or let any
one take up PHRANZES, the historian of the last age of Byzantine Hellenism, and judge for himself.

t ‘Ovageov Odveceiz, by Jacopus Potyxas, Athens, 1875. “H resmupie tov Yermonnie, Corcyra, 1855. Amaer, Athens,
1889.

PHASES OF THE LIVING GREEK LANGUAGE. 53

of popular song should go hand in hand with the language of literary culture, just as
Doric dialect in ancient times did with the Attic norm, and as Scotch does at the
present moment, in the lyrical domain, with the English of literary prose ; while, at the
same time, there can be no greater mistake in the mouth of a philologer than to denounce
the one as a hateful barbarism and to disown the other as a pedantic affectation. They
are both living forms of a living language, the noblest of all living languages, and a
language which has preserved its vital continuity through a period of more than three
thousand years, and as such ought to be dealt with by all intelligent persons in such a
living fashion, as the principles of linguistic science and the utilities of international inter-
course enjoin.

Remains only now to indicate the process of practical reform which our teaching of
Greek in this country must go through in order to-grow from this lusty root into living
fruit; and here the well-known aphorism of the wisest British thinker sets before us,
with his usual pregnant conciseness, at once our starting point and our goal. ‘‘ Speak-
ing,” says he, “makes a ready man, reading makes a full man, writing an exact
man”—all the three necessary to make an accomplished scholar, but each in its own
place. The acquisition of any language is always, like dancing or fencing, a living
dexterity of art in the first place, and only in a secondary way an application of bookish
rules. People must have their nails before they pare them. In honestly endeavouring
to realise this teaching of languages according to nature, we must set a machinery agoing,
somewhat in the following style :—

1. Let the universities declare that they will tolerate no longer the figmentary and
hybrid pronunciation of Greek generally practised in this country, and that after five years
they will expect all entrants to the Greek classes to come to college with their ears well
exercised to understand any sequence of intelligible sentences on common matters,
whether in the style of XeNopHON or of TRicouPI, according to the laws of Hellenic
orthoepy handed down to the present day from the Alexandrian grammarians and through
the continuous living traditions of the Greek people.

2. That to every professorship of Greek in a Scottish university, and tutorship in
an English college, there shall be attached a practical class or classes, containing not
more than twenty-five students, to be superintended by a native Greek, and exercised
by him in the conversational use of the Greek language, and to be instructed in the
literary, political, and ecclesiastical history of Greece from the taking of Constantinople
to the present time.

3. That all university libraries, reading-rooms, and students’ unions shall be supplied
regularly with some Greek newspaper and literary periodical, to give them a living sense
of the continwty of Greek as a medium of expression for the political events and the social
interests of the hour.

4. That all patriotic patrons of learning, specially the pious donors of bursaries and
exhibitions for students in the university, shall be invited to present £100 or £150 a
year to such hopeful young scholars as may be desirous to gain a living knowledge of the

VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 3), K

54 EMERITUS PROFESSOR BLACKIE ON THE

Greek tongue by residence in the country, and attendance on historical and philological
classes in the University of Athens, on condition that after six months they shall return
home and report progress to the Neo-Hellenic coadjutor of the Greek class in the
university to which they belong.

The objections that may be made to such a reform in our method of teaching Greek,
so far as they are not founded on mere stolid conservatism, I have answered elsewhere,
and need not repeat here.* Suffice it to say that, while it is obvious to object to certain
points in the orthoepy of the living Greeks, on the ground that they have departed from
the ascertained classical norm, it is, on the other hand, impossible to restore for practical
purposes a consistent orthoepic scheme that shall apply to all literary Greek from
PHERECYDES to Carysostom. All living languages, by the very fact of their being alive,
undergo changes, proceeding gradually but surely to the development of certain favourite
tendencies in pronunciation; and these changes must be accepted by those who study
the Greek language, just as the antepenultimate accent of a host of words in English is
now accepted in place of the oxytone accent which regulated these words in CHAUCER’S
verse ; and there can be no harm in scholars reading individual authors, say SOPHOCLES or
Homer, in such orthoepic fashion as can be proved to have ruled the language in the days
of these authors; but for general purposes the catholic tradition of the language must be
accepted wholesale, as indeed it was by the great scholars of the fifteenth century, before
Erasmus, in his haste to point out a few faults in a fair structure, left a chaos for a few
blind masons to heap up into a motley architecture at their will. No doubt there is
always a difficulty in getting people to change their bad habits in language, as in every-
thing else ; but this difficulty, rooted principally in ignorance or prejudice, in laziness or
in conceit, is not one which should appear so formidable to academical, as it so often does
to political rulers. Besides the advantages which will flow from a radical reform in this
matter, are such as will amply compensate for any trouble that a change of scholastic
habits may occasion ; for not only will a living familiarity with the length and breadth of
the Greek tongue be in this fashion acquired by the few who aspire to professional
scholarship in a fourth part of the time now spent in the acquisition of the same language
treated as a dead language, but hundreds of individuals desirous of the best culture, for
one that now can achieve such a result, will be able to shake hands with Pato, and to
hold parley with ArIsToTLE, as intimately as they can do now with Cupwortn, or HEGEL,
or IMMANUEL Kant. The teaching of Greek will cease to be to scholastic, and become
popular at a bound. Nor are we to keep out of view the immense social advantage to
British tourists in this age of cheap and speedy intercourse, of being able to strengthen
the bonds of social communion with such an intelligent people as the Greeks. As little
should we make small account of the mighty lever which a friendly familiarity with
living Greek will put into the hands of our statesmen to cultivate political relations with
a people who command the coasts of the Archipelago and the Levant, and whose

* On Greek Pronunciation: Accent and Quantity, Edinburgh, 1852; and Essays on Subjects of Moral and Social
Interest, Edinburgh, 1890, Appendix.

PHASES OF THE LIVING GREEK LANGUAGE. 55

geographical position points them out as the most effective barriers in South-Hastern
Europe and Western Asia against Russian ambition on the one hand and Turkish
barbarism on the other. We islanders have sometimes, not altogether unworthily, been
accused of a certain insular ignorance in foreign matters, and a certain want of easy and
kindly sympathy with foreign peoples. The sooner we get rid of this offence the better.
A familiar acquaintance with the accents of strange tongues is the surest key to the
affections of strange hearts ; and to an imperial power like Great Britain this must always
be no secondary consideration. The ruler who would be lightly obeyed must know

to be largely loved.

by Jn ea ea overeat? oe Swat

if? bare dig nb wisriind! evant ‘le ing wel hay tanpecattpaht ajisicay iat Pei, ane

depbitl has hte ony ome Mes nie? aaa tisk: wink ete be
gal aliliw yop ‘port sli SO ‘xfilindas Mile t ; Parit. tei mem) A

miners ania aingad awit

» date ue ' ae ibe lata ean Metro
oe tdvd oikertstto, att i, hbstaly ee ernie mised dil Hog ae
aes ay!) evn. niet ee oar Re itt a Le a By i

foie, jorre ck pale
Papier bina Weal bes

; Soe

Arawle jater ly ninth pee ole ty taf 3
woh Jimue heey ¢lsitust wh ine ila

o}

a ‘
*
a ¥
«sy
«
+ ha
, 7 7h
Se
Se ; }
.

a
[i- v = =
a
at se
ting
res

IV.—Adamantios Koraes, and his Reformation of the Greek Language.
By Emeritus Professor BLACKIE.

(Read 5th May 1890.)

The appearance of a learned and exhaustive work on the life and labours of Koraus,
by a native Greek of great ability, naturally invites the scholars of Western Europe to a
erateful acknowledgment of the obligation of the Greek language to this most distinguished
of its modern exponents.* The fact, indeed, that Greek in this country is popularly
talked of as a dead language, and as such taught from books through the eye and the
understanding, rather than by living converse with those who speak it, may serve as an
apology for the general ignorance that prevails, even in professional circles, with regard
to the scholarly achievements of this remarkable man; but the appearance of works of
such mark in the living literature of Greece as those of THEREIANOS, PasparEs, BIKELLAS,
Poxy.as, and others, warns us that it is high time to take note of living Greece as living
Greece again, and give to the learned Grecians of the present day their proper share
in that homage which we pay so liberally to the great masters of Greek wisdom in
the past.

ADAMANTIOS Korars was born at Smyrna in 1748, the son of a Chiote merchant who
had removed from the island to the great centre of commerce on the Continent. As a
boy young Korags was remarkable for his love of learning and his hatred of the Turks
as the enslavers and debasers of his people; and having inherited a valuable library
from one of his maternal relatives, he found it necessary to acquire the Latin language,
in which all the famous commentaries on the great Greek classics had been composed.
This acquisition he made from the resident Dutch chaplain, BerNarp Keun, with whom he
continued through life on terms of the most familar intimacy. In the year 1772 he
went to Amsterdam to conduct his father’s business in that city; but neither then nor
ever afterwards did he show any inclination for a mercantile life; on the contrary, the
main fruit of his residence there, which lasted for some years, was to introduce him to
the great scholars of the Dutch school, and send him back to the East as great a master
of German as he had formerly been of Latin. In 1782, in his thirty-fourth year, turning
his back finally on the mercantile life, he went to Montpellier in France, then the seat of
a famous medical school, and took his degree of Doctor of Medicine there with marked
honour. In 1788, in his fortieth year, he removed to Paris, where he remained through
life, occupied with a scholarly work, for which the rich stores of the libraries in that centre
of wit and culture offered him abundant opportunity. Like many great scholars, he was

*~ Adawavrios Kapags ire A. Ocgciavoed * ev Teoysorn ro peor reels, 1889. The book may be obtained gratis by appli-
cation to the ’Exirgory tov Olxovouesov xAngodorgwaros, Trieste.

VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 4). L

58 EMERITUS PROFESSOR BLACKIE ON

extremely poor, but not less remarkable for his independence of character than for the
slenderness of his purse. Though professionally a scholar, and a refurbisher of ancient
MSS., his grand object in life was, through the dissemination of the best pieces of their
ancient literature, to revive in the minds of his countrymen those aspirations for their
political liberty which at no distant period were destined to receive a glorious consumma-
tion. Accordingly, though his earliest works in the last decade of the century bear a
decidedly medical type, in the shape of translations from English and German medical
works, as also an edition of Hippocrates’ treatise Hepi "Aépwy cat Yoarov cat Tozwr, he
came before the French savans in 1802 as a translator of Beccarta’s famous work on Crimes
and Punishments; and in 1803, before a Freneh society of which Fourcroy was the
chairman, he read a memoir on the Etat actuel de la Civilisation dans la Grece, which may
be looked on as a sort of dim prophetic intimation of the Greece that now lies before us,
notably in the system of European States. But times, of course, were not yet ready for any
decided action in the political field; neither had Korazs, from his previous acquaintance
with the Smyrniote Greeks, any reason to suspect the existence of the slumbering fire of
patriotism which in twenty years afterwards broke out with such substantial results in
the Peloponnesus. Accordingly, he continued to act in an exclusively literary field,
and had the good fortune, in this sphere of scholarly activity, to become the right-hand
man, so to speak, of the brothers Sosimades, patriotic Greeks, who with princely generosity
acted out what ANDREW CARNEGIE calls the Gospel of Wealth, by endowing patriotic
institutions and furthering all sorts of Greek learning, with no regard to vulgar pecuniary
profit. Under the patronage of this distinguished brotherhood, the series of Greek works
that compose the “EAAyu«n BiBAroO4«y, that takes a prominent place in all classical libraries,
was put forth from the press of Firmin Dipér. The first volume of this series in 1805,
besides AELIAN, HeraciipEs Ponticus, and Niconaos DaMAsScENUs, with learned notes and
commentaries, contains a discourse entitled Sroyacmot avroyédior wept THs “EAAyuuKs wardetas
cat 'Awoons, which, in the history of the Greek mind in this nineteenth century, may be
looked on as holding somewhat the same place that the theses of Martin Luruer, in 1517,
did in the history of the Christian Church. The subsequent volumes of the BeBdAcoOi«n, em-
bracing [socrates, StrRABO, PLurarcH, PoLyannus, ANTONINUS, HIEROCLES, and some others,
belong more to the special scholarship of those authors than to the general literary public ;
but the labours of this large-minded and patriotic Greek with regard to the regulation,
reformation, purification, or however it may be called, of the language which has been
the common organ of knowledge, both sacred and secular, for nearly three thousand years,
form a philological achievement in which the intellectual aristocracy of all countries
must fecl a deep interest. To understand clearly the nature of this linguistic d:dépOwars,
we must bear in mind that the Greek which Koraxs found in his native Chios had flowed
down from Byzantium in the fourth century, like two strata in geology, in a double
stream: an upper stream confined to the dignified churchmen, statesmen, and gentlemen
of high position and comparative leisure ; and a lower stream, being the language of the
less educated classes, of the peasantry, and of the popular ballad. As a scholar, the root

ADAMANTIOS KORAES, AND HIS REFORMATION OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 59

of whose love of books lay in his love of country, Koraxs could not but look on this
double form of two mutually repellent streams of culture as a national misfortune of a
grave description; if the nation was destined to start again before the world as a
political unity, and as the bearer of a proud intellectual inheritance, it could do so only
through the medium of a form of speech which united all classes in common sympathies
and common tendencies. The highest class must be taught to condescend to the lowest,
and the lowest to mount up to the highest, and make a harmony together, as musical
notes do when cunningly handled in the seale. Of course this could only be done in the
way of compromise ; a compromise in which, while the aristocratic element should forego
all affectation of obsolete classical forms, the democratic element should willingly submit
to the discipline of throwing off the more rank corruptions which had attached to it
through the long neglect of centuries. Such a compromise was a matter that required a
delicate touch, a refined taste, and a nice discrimination which only a man of accurate
learning and large popular sympathies could command ; and no individual man, however
great, could have achieved it, had he not been supported by the natural instincts and the
patriotic impulses of the people of whom he stood forth as the spokesman. Opposition,
of course, from extreme men of both parties, the representatives of the aristocratie few and
the apostles of the democratic many, could not but ensue; and, in the hands of Dovcas
Kopripas and others, the yAdeoucoy Cityua, the battle of the tongues, was carried on for
some years with a violence scarcely intelligible now. The great argument from accom-
plished fact has prevailed ; and the reformed Greek style, in the main that of Korass, has
asserted for itself a currency in literature, in the periodical press, in the national parlia-
ment, and in the national colleges and schools, more wide and more complete than the
poor Chiote scholar in his most hopeful moments could have dreamed.

In order to give the purely classical scholar an exact idea of the nature of the
philological compromise thus so happily brought about, I will take the autobiography of
Koraks, written at Paris in December 1829, and published in the volume of which the
title is given below ;* and in the first ten pages—with about 33 lines in a page—l find
only twenty-two peculiarities of style that distinctly differentiate the modern Greek, under
the manipulation of Korass, from the Greek of the classical age ; and these differences are,
in the great majority of cases, so slightly varied from the ancient style, that any intelligent
reader of Attic could master them in ten minutes. How slight this departure is from
the classical norm will be best understood from a specimen or two of the vulgar unreformed
dialect, as our great scholar found it current in his youthful days. Let us take first the
Erotocritus, a love novel in the Cretan dialect, by a Venetian Greek called Cornaro,
published at Venice in the year 1756, a work which at one time enjoyed an immense
popularity. Now, in the first eight lines of this “Homer of the vulgar philology,” as
Korass calls it, I find as many departures from the classical type as in the whole ten
pages of Korars. Again, to take a type of the vulgar Greek less extreme than the Cretan
confessedly is, in a translation of the Arabian Nights, published at Venice in 1792, I find

* Nadvbiome dev recov ExiotoAay Adamavriov Kopay ey AOjveess, 1841.

60 EMERITUS PROFESSOR BLACKIE ON

in the first eight lines only fourteen differential variations, and they are such as any clever
boy, trained at a classical school, would without difficulty understand. How far this
ratio is from that degree of corruption which turned Latin into Italian may be understood
at a glance by an analysis of any eight lines of a similar length from these languages ;
and here I find in the first eight lines of ‘the first book of Tasso’s Gerusalemme no less
than twenty-six variations from the classical Latin ; while in eight lines of Spanish I find
twenty-eight. It is plain, therefore, from this comparison, that, whereas the barbarous
Cretan Greek of the Evotocritus stood exactly at the point where favourable circumstances
might have enabled modern Greek to start into a new language, bearing the same relation
to ancient Greek that Italian and Spanish do to Latin, the less corrupted Greek which
Korags had to manipulate was in a state which only required his skilful touch and a few
years of wise usage to make it shake hands with the classical Greek half-way, and present
to the world the great philological triumph which the flourishing literature of modern
Greece, since the grand social result of 1827, so imposingly exhibits. It must not be
supposed, however, that in this great triumph of the upper stream over the lower stream
of traditional Greek—for to this it substantially amounts—there has been any act
of violent injustice done to the popular Greek, the bearer of so much stout national
life, and the recorder of so many acts of peasant heroism; on the contrary, for purely
popular purposes, the vulgar dialect still asserts itself pleasantly, just as the Dorsetshire
dialect, and the dialect of Ayrshire made classical by Burns, are heard purling sweetly
alongside the great rolling stream of the English language, not only without offence, but
with great enjoyment to all who know how near the language of the peasantry always
is to the heart of Nature, and how free the popular song knows to keep itself from the
false refinements and the pretty affectations so apt to be the concomitants of a high
state of culture in a literary class.

What remains of the life of Korazs from this period till the great national up-rising
of 1822 brought his long-cherished patriotic dreams to an unexpected realisation is lightly
told. At his advanced age, being then past seventy, and not in very fair health, he was
not in a condition to gird himself, with young kilted Albanians, for the actual tug of
warfare in the field; but, while denied his part in the strokes of the sword, the service of
his pen was ever ready to make his countrymen intellectually and morally worthy of what
political results their armed strugele might procure ; and accordingly, in the works edited
by him in the last decade of his life, we observe a choice of classical books with a distinct
moral and political colouring. Among these were ArisToTLE’s Politics and Hthies,
XeENoPpHON’S Memorabilia, Piato’s Gorgias, Lycuraus’ Oration against Leocrates,
ONOSANDER’S Strategicus, the first elegy of Tyrrmus, Puurarcu’s Horeca, Epiorerus’
"Eyxetp'cotov, ARRIAN’S Exuxrirov AvatpiBy, CeBet’s Tabula, and the hymn of CLEANTHES.
Besides these strictly scholarly labours, in his Suvé«dymos Iepatucds he came into collision
with that sacerdotal party which, in modern Greece as in modern England, has its delight
in magnifying the functions and giving a sort of sacrosanct inviolability to the persons of the
sacerdotal order. He also gave offence to certain of the Greek clergy by countenancing

ADAMANTIOS KORAES, AND HIS REFORMATION OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 61

a translation of the Greek New Testament into the vulgar tongue. In fact, though a
man of decided piety and of a pure Christian life, he found, like many other thinkers,
that large thinking, when practised all round, cannot fail to bring an honest man, with
certain classes, into the reputation of heresy; for there always will be, both inside and
outside the clerical order, not a few persons with whom ignorance and narrow-mindedness
are the two prime postulates of orthodoxy.

ApaMANTIos Korazs died at Paris on the 25th April 1833, aged 85 years. The
last articulate word which with his dying breath he uttered was zatpis—my country !
and coupled with this was the exclamation which he made when fixing his last look on a
portrait of DemostHENES that hung by his bedside on the wall—exeivos 770 dvOpwros: he
was a man !

VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 4). M

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V.—On the Fossil Flora of the Staffordshire Coal Fields. By R. Krpstoy,
F.R.S.E., F.G.8. (With a Plate.)

(Read July 7, 1890.)

PAR Ene

Tue Fosstt FtoraA oF THE CoAL FIELD OF THE POTTERIES.

The present paper is the second of the series dealing with the Fossil Flora of the
Staffordshire Coal Fields.* As in previous memoirs, I give a short sketch of the Geology
of the coal field, merely for the purpose of indicating the relationship of the beds to
each other, from which the fossils have been derived.t

Various memoirs dealing with the geological structure and resources of the Potteries
Coal Field have already appeared, but in these the names applied to the different groups
of strata which compose the Potteries Coal Field have generally special application to the
local geological features, and do not treat of the Coal Field in its wider relationship, when
considered as only forming a part of the Coal Measures as developed in Britain. A similar
course has usually been taken in the published memoirs of other British Coal Fields, which
makes a comparison of their relative ages, from the data given, very difficult.

Although the Mollusca have usually been collected and examined, from their great
vertical distribution—in some cases extending throughout the whole range of car-
boniferous rocks—they as a whole afford little data for the determination of the divisions
of the Coal Measures, and unfortunately the fossil plants appear to have received little
attention when the memoirs of the various coal fields were being prepared. This is
much to be regretted, as many opportunities for acquiring specimens have been lost, and
it is now generally admitted, by those who have studied this branch of Paleeontology, that
for the determination of the divisions of the Coal Measures there is no class of organisms
which afford such certain data as fossil plants.

Before mentioning the divisions occurring in the Coal Measures of the Potteries
Coal Field which are adopted in this paper, it is desirable to mention those adopted by
previous writers.

In the “Iron Ores of Great Britain,’ { Part IV., the following divisions are recog-
nised :—

* Part I., “On the Fossil Plants collected during the Sinking of the Shaft of the Hamstead Colliery, Great Barr,
near Birmingham,” Trans. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. xxxv., part 6, p. 317, 1888.

+ In North Staffordshire there are four coal fields or basins, known respectively as—(1) The Potteries Coal Field ;
(2) The Wetley and Shafferlong Coal Field ; (3) The Goldsitch Moss Coal Field ; (4) The Cheadle Coal Field and the
Lower Coal Measures of the Churnet Valley. Of these, the largest and the most important coal field is that known as
the Pottery Coal Field, which contains the principal seams of coal and ironstone found in North Staffordshire. It is
also rich in organic remains.

t Memours of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, “The Iron Ores of Great Britain,” part iv,; The Iron
Ores of the Shropshire and North Staffordshire Coal Fields, 1862.

VOL, XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 5). N

64 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE

1. Upper Mzasurgs, consisting chiefly of red ‘“ marls” or clays, with a few thin bands
of coal, and some grey binds and sandstones in the upper part, containing an
ironstone called the Top red mine, 18 inches thick at Silverdale.

Thickness very uncertain ; probably about 1000 feet.

2. Porrrry Coats AND IRonstonE MEasuRgs, containing eight to thirteen seams of
coal of above 2 feet thick, mostly mferior, and suitable only to pottery purposes,
and ten or twelve workable measures of ironstone.

Thickness 1000 to 1420 feet down to Ash or Rowhurst coal.

3. Lower Tick Muasures, containing the chief furnace coals, from the Ash to the
Winpenny inclusive, seventeen or eighteen seams above 2 feet thick. Ironstone
scarce, or almost absent.

Thickness 1400 to 2400 feet.

4. Lowest Muasourgs, including thin seams generally known as the Wetley Moor,

Biddulph, or “ Wild” coals, from two to four in number.
Thickness about 800 feet.

This would give a total, down to the upper bed of Millstone Grit, variable in different

parts of the field, of from 4200 to 5620 feet.*

Professor Hutu t gives the following divisions :—

Permian Rocxs.—Red and purple sandstones, marls, and cornstones (with plants);
strata slightly unconformable to the Coal Measures.

Greatest thickness 600 feet.

Coat Mrasures.—I. Upper.—Brown sandstones, greenish conglomerate (like the vol-
canicashes of South Staffordshire), with thick beds of red and purple mottled clays;
thin coals and a bed of Spzrorbis limestone at Fenton, Longton, Shelton, &c.

Greatest thickness 1000 feet.
II. MippLe.—Sandstone, shales, with ironstone, and about forty coal seams.
Greatest thickness 4000 feet.
III. Lowrr.—Black shales and flags, with Wetley Moor thin coals, and red iron-
stone of the Churnet Valley (Goniatites, Aviculopecten).
Greatest thickness 1000 feet.
Miuustone Grit.—Coarse grits, shales, and flags.
Greatest thickness 1000 feet.
YoreDALE Rocxs.—Black shales, &c., with marine fossils.
Greatest thickness 3100 feet.
CARBONIFEROUS LiMESTONE.—4000 to 5000 feet.

In the excellent memoir published by Mr Jonn Warp,t F.G.S. (“The Geological

*Loc. cit., p. 258.
+ The Coal Fields of Great Britain, 4th ed. (1881), p. 183.
t “The Geological Features of the North Staffordshire Coal Fields; their Organic Remains, their Range and
Distribution ; with a Catalogue of the Fossils of the Carboniferous System of North Staffordshire,” Trans. North
Staffordshire Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, vol. x. pp. 1-189, with 9 plates, 1890.

FOSSIL FLORA OF THE STAFFORDSHIRE COAL FIELDS. 65

Features of the North Staffordshire Coal Fields,” &c.), the following divisions are

adopted * :—

Formation. Division. Subdivision.

New Red Sandstone or Trias. Bunter. Pebble Beds.

Red Marls.
Red Sandstone.
Upper Coal Measures.
Middle Coal Measures.
Lower Coal Measures.
. Millstone Grit.
Yoredale Rocks.
Carboniferous Limestone.

Permian Rocks.

; Upper.
Carboniferous Rocks.
( Lower.

D> Or 09 bo

These are the divisions of the Coal Measures adopted in this communication,—the
Potteries Coal Field being one of those in which the three divisions of the Coal Measures
occur, as developed in Britain. t

The Upper Coal Measures of the Potteries contain little coal, but yield some valuable
beds of Black Band Ironstone.

The following section shows the position of the various Coal Seams and Ironstones :—

General Vertical Section of the North Staffordshire Coal Field, adopted, unth slight

modifications, from that issued by Mr Homer, t
Yards, Feet. Inches.
0

f Red and Purple Marls of uncertain depth, ; : ; . 0 0
Strata, : : : : : : 199 2 0
: Half Yards Ironstone and Coal, \ Ine ee : say 3 . ; :
= Strata, ; 18 2 0
S Bass, . OPS 8
S| Red Shagg Ironstone and Coal, Ironstone, il 1 0
S Coal, 0 2 0
"3 | Gutter Stone, : 0 2 3
2 | Gutter or Fenton Low Coal, 0 2; 3
= | Strata, , ; ; 17 1 0
3 Oil Shale, Oe t= 9 6
qq J Top Red Mine Ironstone and Coal, - Ironstone, 0 2 6
| i: Coal, 0 2 2
wg | Strata, . 6 0 0
| Shale, Metal and Fire Clay he ae
2 | Strata, ; 25. Omi, 0
S| Yards. Feet. Inches.
=) { Coal, 0 8
2 | Dirt, 0 0 3
5 | Hoo Cannel, { Bass, * 0 1 1
2 Tronstone, 0 0 9
i Bass, ee ik 9
5 oe Lalit 6
Strata, ; , : Se ae ei) 0 0
| Spirorbis Limestone, 12 yards above Bassey Mine Ironstone, : : F 0 2 6

* Loe. cit., p. 4.

+ In regard to the Lower Coal Measures in the above Table, Mr Warp divides this series into two subdivisions—
an Upper and a Lower group. The “Upper” group contains the principal seams of coal used for domestic and manu-
facturing purposes, and includes the whole of the measures occurring between the Ash or Rowhurst and the Winpenny
coals. The “Lower” series consists of dark shales, sandstones, and purple-coloured rocks, with occasional grits and
conglomerates. It includes four or five thin coals of little commercial value. Hach group is distinguished by a distinct
series of coal beds, and equally well characterised by its organic remains.

+ “The North Staffordshire Coal Field, with the Ironstones contained therein, ” Trans. North Staffordshire Tngt. of
Mining and Mechanical Engineers, vol. i. p. 102, 1879.

Mippie Coat Mrasures.—Thickness about 380 yards.

= er

MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE

; Yards. Feet, Inches,
Strata, : . ; : ; i ; : ; 12

0 0
Bassy "Mine Th -onstone, ; : : : : c ; ; 1 1 0
Strata, < : : : 9 1 0
Little "Row Coal, . 1 0 0
Strata, : : 8 2 (0)
Foot Coal, : 0 il 0
Strata, : 9 2 0
Peacock Coal, : 2 0 0
Strata, ; ' 5 2 0
Spencroft Coal, . 1 0 3
Strata, / , i 23 0 0
7 : as. ee Inches.
: : ronstone, . : ; :
Gubbin Ironstone in bands, { Bact Paniaes i aa
———_—_— 2 Le
Strata, . : f ; , 4 0 6
Yards. Feet. Inches.
Roof Coal, g ; ; a pan 0 0
Great Row Coal, « Bass and Cannel, ’ 3 3 ee!) 2 0
Coal, : : : 5 a 0 0
— 3 2 0
Strata, . ; : ‘ ; : ? 5 : : 9 1 9
Yards. Feet. Inches.
| [ Coal, 0 7
Tronstone Peel, 0 2 6
Coal, ; ; ; : Be gt 1 0
Cannel Row, Black Bass, , . : : Aaa |) 2 0
Bottom Coal, : : : . O 2 0
Warrant, 0 i 0
—— 4 il il
Strata, . : ; t 5 3 : ; : 26 0 0
Wood Mine Coal, : : ; : : : : ; 0 1 6
Strata, : : : : : : : : : : 4 2 0
Yards, Feet. Inches.
Tronstone, ‘ t : 0 9
Chalky Mine Ironstone,< Bass, . 5 ‘ . 5 0 i)
Tronstone, : ; b= 0) 0 9
— 0 1 il
Strata, : 3 1 0
Chalky Mine Coal, 1 0 2
Strata, 39 0) 0
Deep Mine Ir onstone, 0 0 10
Strata, 4 3 1 0
New Chalky Mine Ironstone, 0 2 0
Strata, : 13 1 6
Bungilow Coal, 1 0 6
Bay Coal and Strata, , 73 1 0
Winghay or Knowles Ironstone and Coal, . ; : ; ye ‘ 1 2 6
Strata, . : ; : : : : ; : 24 0 0)
Yards. Feet. Inches.
Tronstone, ; F , 0 Lae
Rusty Mine Ironstone, < Grey Clod, : ; Pk 0 4
Ironstone, ; : : , (0) 0 4
— 1 2 6
Strata, ; : ; é ; : : : ‘ 22 0 0
Brown Mine Ir onstone, F ; : ; : . : : 0 0 0
Strata, 2 : ; : » : : ; : . 58 1 0
Yards, Feet. Inches.
| Coal, : 1 1 0
Bass, &e., . ; fy 40 I 7
Ash or Rowhurst Ironstone and Coal, + Coal, . 2 itt sO an Ouet 8
| Bass, 0 0 9
| Coal. 1 0 0
L —- 3 1 1

FOSSIL FLORA OF THE STAFFORDSHIRE COAL FIELDS. 67

; Yards, Feet. Inches.
( Strata, : : : 3 : : 4 : : 44 2
Yards, Feet. Inches.
| (Ironstone,. O 1

[
| | Bass, 02 SrA yal
New Mine, Little Mine, or Burnwood Ironstone, 4 Ironstone,. 0 1 3
Coal, 1 1 9
Bass, 0 1 2
3 i! 6
Strata, 8 0 0
Gin Mine or Golden Twist Coal, + 0 2 4
Strata, 148 0 0
Birchenwood Coal, i 2 0
ae Strata, 19 2 0
4s Moss or Easling Coal, i TOs Ao
5 Strata, 75 0) 0
e Yard ‘Coal, 1 0) 6
© Strata, ; 6 0 0
EI | Little Row Coal, 1 0 0
ea: Strata, ‘ 4 1 0
2 |-3 | Ragman Coal, 0 2 6
2 | po | Strata, 13 2 0
ra | % | Old Whitfield or Birches Coal, 1 Oy, 2
ra |S" | Strata, : 5G. lee 9
i) | Bellringers’ Coal, Lis TO. 2 6
* Strata, 46 0 0
a Ten Feet Coal, 7 all lie
3 Strata, 32 1 0
Sie Bowling Alley y Coal, 1 0 4
= | Strata, : PALE 08S 46
. Holly Lane Coal, 1 0 6
a Strata, . 30 1 0
eS) Hard Mine or Sparrow Butts Coal, 1 0 5
= Strata, 97 2 0
3 Bambury Coal, 1 2 8
4 Strata, ‘ 4] 0 0
Cockshead Coal, 2 1 6
Strata, ; 26 0 0
Whitehurst Coal, 0) 2 3
Strata, 55 0 0
Bullhurst Coal, il 2 0
Strata, leg 0 0
_ | Winpenny Coal, tye. (0, 6
% | Strata, 200 0 0
| Four-Foot Coal, 0 3 6
2 2 Strata, 400 O O
= | Two- Foot Coal, Ue eS)
[3 (Strata,

The whole area occupied by the ee Coal Field 1s of edean extent, Hheosh of
great mineral resources. It is of triangular form, the northern apex lying near Congleton,
the eastern at Longton, and the western angle a little west of Keel. Its greatest length
is about 12 miles, and its width about 8 miles.

* In Mr Warp’s Geology of the Coal Field this division is called the Lower Thick Coal Measures, but as the rocks
included in this group are evidently the equivalents of the Lower Coal Measures of other Coal Fields, I have omitted the
word “Thick,” as tending to create confusion.

+ In regard to some fossils found in “a bed of grey shaley marl, or ‘clutch,’ lying a few feet above the Gin Mine,
or Golden Twist Coal,” Mr Warp states (loc. cit., p. 42) that Mr Joun Young, F.G.S., Glasgow, informed him “that
the specimens in the list agree closely with those found in the Upper Coal Measures of Scotland.” It must be distinctly
stated here that the term Upper Coal Measures of Scotland, as used by Mr Young, is only of local application, and does
not at all correspond to the Upper Coal Measures of Britain. The rocks called Upper Coal Measures of Scotland are only
the Upper Series of the Lower Coal Measures of Britain,

68 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE

In regard to the Permian Rocks of North Staffordshire, Mr Warp * says :—‘‘ 1 may
here remark that a considerable development of red, purple, and variegated marls, which
have been coloured by the Geological Survey as Permian, are, I am inclined to think, in
reality Upper Coal Measures. It remains a question yet to be decided whether a con-
siderable area occupied by beds such as I have described, largely developed on the western
and southern parts of the coal field, should with propriety be classed with the Permian
or Upper Coal Measure Series. Whatever may be the issue of the inquiry, it is clear
that, concerning the line of demarcation separating the Permian from the Upper Coal
Measures in North Staffordshire, as yet we know nothing.”

In connection with the age of these supposed Permian rocks, it may be mentioned
that certain rocks at Great Barr, near Birmingham, which were also thought to be
Permian, were shown while sinking the shaft of the Hamstead Colliery to be Upper Coal
Measures.t

In collecting material for this paper I am indebted for much assistance to Dr Hinp
and Mr F. Barxz, Stoke-upon-Trent ; but especially am I indebted to Mr Jonn Warp,
F.G.S8., Longton, for the valuable help he has given me, and by whom I was brought
into correspondence with these other workers, and through whose kind offices I had
every facility given me for examining the specimens in the Stoke Museum. My thanks
are also due to Mr R. Cuive for specimens from Tunstall.

SYNOPSIS OF SPECIES.
Calamites.

Group. 1—Calamitina, Weiss., Steinkohlen Calamarien, part ii. p.°96, 1884.
Calamitina (Calamites) varians, Sternb., sp.

Calamites varians, Sternb., Vers., ii. p. 50, pl. xii.

Middle Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality.—Bassy Mine Ironstone. Stafford Iron and Coal Company,
Fenton.
ee 4 40 yards below Little Row Coal. Clanway Colliery, Tunstall.
5 x Knowles Ironstone. Fenton.
BAe) ¥ Adderley Green, near Longton.

Lower Coal Measures (Upper Serves).
Horizon and Locality.—Holly Lane Coal. Bucknall.

* Loc. cit. p. 14.
+ See Rep. Brit, Assoc., 1886, p. 626; also Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxv., part 6, p. 317, 1888.

FOSSIL FLORA OF THE STAFFORDSHIRE COAL FIELDS, 69

Calamitina (Calamites) approximatus, (Schloth.), Brongt.

Calamites approximatus, Brongt. (in part), Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 134, pl. xxiv. figs. 2, 3, 4, 5.
Calamites approximatus, Geinitz (in part), Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen, p. 7, pl. xii. fig. 3.

Middle Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality.w—About horizon of Bassy Mine Ironstone. Tunnel, New-
castle-under-Lyme.
Great Row Coal Rock. Fenton.

Group IL—Hucalamites, Weiss., Steenkohlen Calamarien, part ii. p. 96, 1884.
Kucalamites (Calamites) ramosus, Artis.

Calanuites ramosus, Artis, Antedil. Phyt., pl. ii.

Calamites ramosus, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 127, pl. xvii. figs. 5, 6.

Calanutes (Hucalamites) ramosus, Weiss., Steinkohlen Calamarien, part ii. p. 98, pl. ii. fig. 3; pl. v. figs.
inp vies pl wii. fies, 2: pl. vill. figs, 1, 2)4; pl ix-tigs. I 2 pl. x. fig. 1; pl. xx. figs. 1,2.

Calamites nodosus, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. i. pl. xv. (én part, not pl. xvi.)

Middle Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality.x—Great Row Coal Rock. Stafford Iron and Coal Company,
Fenton.

Group IIl—Stylocalamites, Weiss, Steinkohlen Calamarien, part i. p. 119,
1884.

Stylocalamites (Calamites) Suckowii, Brongt., sp.

Calamites Suckowit, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 124, pl. xiv. fig, 6; pl. xv. figs. 1-6; pl. xvi.
figs. 2, 3, 4 (1 2).

Calamites Suckowti, Weiss., Steinkohlen Calamarien, part i. p. 123, pl. xix. fig. 1 (1876); part ii. p. 129,
pl. ii. fig. 1; pl. iii. figs. 2, 3; pl. iv. fig. 1; pl xxvii. fig, 3 (1884).

Calamites Suckowit, Zeiller, Flore joss. d. bassin houil. d. Valenciennes, pl. liv. figs. 2, 3; pl. lv. fig. 1
(1886). Text, p. 333 (1888).

Upper Coal Measures.
Horizon and Locality.—Shales above Gutter Coal. Hampton’s Marl Pit, Hanley.

Middle Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality.—About horizon of Bassy Mine Ironstone. Railway Tunnel,
Newcastle-under-Lyme.

70 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE

*

Horizon and Locality—Below Little Cannel Row Coal. Clanway Colliery, Tunstall.

Be J Common throughout the series. Longton.

Lower Coal Measures (Upper Series).

Horizon and Locality.—12 yards below New Mine Coal. Adderley Green Colliery,
near Longton.

Bowling Alley Rock. Weston Coyney Colliery, Longton.

Roof of Holly Lane Coal. Bucknall.

2 yards below Hard Mine Coal. Weston Coyney Colliery,

Longton.

Stylocalamites (Calamites) Cistii, Brongt., sp.

Calamites Cistii, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 129, pl. xx.

Calamites Cistii, Geinitz, Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen, p. 7, pl. xi. figs. 7, 8; pl. xu. figs. 4, 553 pl. xiii.
fig. 7.

Calamites Cistit, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valenciennes, pl. lvi. figs. 1, 2 (1886), p. 342 (1888).

Lower Coal Measures (Upper Series).
Horizon and Locality.x—Bowling Alley Rock. | Weston Coyney Colliery, near
Longton.
Ma 4 2 yards below Hard Mine Coal. Weston Coyney Colliery,

near Longton.

Pinnularia, L. and H.

Pinnularia columnaris, Artis, sp.

Pinnularia capillacea, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. ii. pl. exi.
Hydatica columnaris, Artis, Antedil. Phyt., p. 5, pl. v.

Middle Coal Measures.
Locality.—Fenton, and generally distributed throughout the Coal Measures.

Remarks.—The plants placed in Pinnularia are evidently roots and rootlets, but it
is quite impossible to determine to which plant they belong. Most probably they are
the rootlets of many different plants. ‘To the same group of fossils belong the Hydatica
prostrata, Artis (loc. cit., pl. i.), and the Myriophyllites gracilis, Artis (loc. cit., pl. xii.),
and several other described forms which it seems unnecessary to regard as of specific
value, but which would be better regarded as merely roots and rootlets, without any
attempt at a specific description.

|
:
‘
|

FOSSIL FLORA OF THE STAFFORDSHIRE COAL FIELDS. 71

Calamocladus, Schimper.

Calamocladus equisetiformis, Schlotheim, sp.
Calamocladus equisetiformis, Schimper, Traité d. palednt. végét., vol. i. p. 324, pl. xxii. figs, 1, 3.
Casuarinites equisetiformis, Schloth., Flora d. Vorwelt, p. 30, pl. i. figs. 1, 2; pl. ii. fig. 3.
Hippurites longifolia, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. iii. pls. exe. and exci.
Upper Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality.—About 300 yards above Bassy Mine Ironstone. Railway
Cutting, Florence Colliery, Longton.
12 yards above Spirorbis Limestone. Fenton Low (Cones).

Middle Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality.—About horizon of Bassy Mine Ironstone. Railway Tunnel,
Newcastle-under-Lyme.

Great Row Coal Rock. Fenton.

Below Little Cannel Row Coal. Clanway Colliery, Tunstall.

Bay Coal. Longton.
Knowles Ironstone. Stafford Iron and Coal Company,

Fenton.

Lower Coal Measures (Upper Series).
Horizon and Locality.—Bowling Alley Rock. Weston Coyney Colliery, Longton.

Calamitic Cone.

Middle Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality.—Knowles Rock. Longton.
Knowles Ironstone. Stafford Iron and Coal Company,
Fenton.
Remarks.—The cones placed here are not in a good state of preservation, but |
believe they are similar to those described by Cruprn as the fruit of Calamocladus

equisetiformis.*

29 29

Sphenophyllee.
Sphenophyllum, Brongt.

Sphenophyllum cuneifolium, Sternb., sp.

Rotularia cuneifolia, Sternb., Vers. i. p. 33, pl. xxvi. fig, 4, a, 0.
Sphenophyllum cuneifolium, Zeiller, Flore Foss. d. bassin. houil. d. Valenciennes, pl. Ixiii. figs. 1, 2, 3, 6, 7.
Sphenophyllum erosum, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. i. pl. xiii.

* “Fragments Paléontologiques,” Bul. de ? Academie royale de Belgique, 2me sér., vol. xxxviii. pl. ii. figs. 1, 2, 3, 1874.

VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (No. 5), Y

MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE

Middle Coal Measures.
Horizon and Locality.—Peacock Marl. Fenton.

be a Great Row Coal Rock. Longton.
4 x Bay Coal. Longton.
Y fs Knowles Rock. Stafford Iron and Coal Company, Fenton.

var. saxifrageefolium, Sternb., sp.

Rotularia saxifragefolia, Sternb., Vers. i. fase. iv. p. 32, pl. lv. fig. 4.
Sphenophyllum cuneifolium, var. saxifragefolium, Zeiller, Flore Foss, d. bassin howil. d. Valenciennes,
pls. xli. fig. 1; xliii. figs. 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 1886, p. 413, 1888.

Middle Coal Measures.
Horizon and Locality.—Great Row Coal Rock. Stafford Iron and Coal Company,

Fenton.

Lower Coal Measures (Upper Series).
Horizon and Locality.—2 yards below Hard Mine Coal. Weston Coyney Colliery,
Longton.

pate) a Hollinswood, Kidsgrove.

Filicaceee.
Sphenopteris, Brongt.

Sphenopteris obtusiloba, Brongt.

Sphenopteris obtusiloba, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 204, pl. liti. fig. 2.

Sphenopteris obtusiloba, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valenciennes, p. 65, pls. iii. figs. 1-4; iv.
ho aiceye figs. 1,2:

Sphenopteris irregularis, Sternb., Vers., ii. p. 63, pl. xvii. fig. 4.

Sphenopteris trregularis, Andre, Vorwelt Pflanzen, p. 24, pls. vill. ix. fig. 1.

Sphenopteris latifolia, L. and H. (not Brongt.), Foss. Flora, vol. ii. pl. elvi. ; vol. iii. pl. elxxviii.

Lower Coal Measures (Upper Series).

Horizon and Locality.—Bowling Alley Rock. Weston Coyney Colliery, near
Longton.
S i 2 yards below Hard Mine Coal. Weston Coyney Colliery,

near Longton.

Sphenopteris grandifrons, Sauveur.

Sphenopteris grandifrons, Sauveur, Végét., foss. des terr. houil. de la Belgique, pl. xiv.

Middle Coal Measures.
Horizon and Locality.—About horizon of Bassy Mine Ironstone. Railway Tunnel,
Newcastle-under-Lyme.

FOSSIL FLORA OF THE STAFFORDSHIRE COAL FIELDS. 73

Horizon and Locality.—Great Row Coal Rock. Longton and Fenton.
Roof of Great Row Coal. Longton.
Chalky Mine Ironstone. Fenton.

22 99

29 99

Sphenopteris latifolia, Bronet.

Sphenopteris latifolia, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 205, pl. lvii. figs. 1-5.
Mariopteris latifolia, Zeiller, Bull. Soc, Géol. de France, 3° sér., vol. vii. p. 92, pl. 6.

Middle Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality.—Bay Coal. Longton.
- a Knowles Rock. Longton.
5 (2) € Shelton, near Hanley.

Sphenopteris spinulosa, Stur., sp. (2). (Plate, fig. 2).

Senftenbergia spinulosa, Stur., Carbon. Flora, Abth. i., p. 101, pl. xlviii. fig. 6.
Remarks.—The specimen is too fragmentary for a satisfactory determination.

Middle Coal Measures.
Horvzon (?) and Locality.—Hanley.

Sphenopteris spinosa, Géppert.

Sphenopteris spinosa, Gopp., Die Gatt. d. foss. Pflanzen, Lief. 3, 4, p. 70, pl. xiii.

Sphenopteris spinosa, Schimper, Traité d. palednt. végét., vol. 1. p. 405.

Sphenopteris spinosa, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin howil. d. Valenciennes, p. 135, pl. xv. figs. 1-3.
Lower Coal Measures (Upper Series).

Horizon (?) and Locality.—Scot Hay, Silverdale, Newcastle-under-Lyme.*

Eremopteris, Schimper.

Eremopteris artemisizfolia, Sternb., sp.

Eremopteris artemisiefolia, Schimper, Traité d. palednt. végét., vol. i. 416.
Sphenopteris artemisiefolia, Sternb., Vers., i. fasc. iv. p. 15, pl. liv. fig. 1.
Sphenopteris artemisiefolia, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 176, pls. xlvi. xlvii. figs. 1, 2.

Middle Coal Measures.
Horizon (2) and Locality.—Fenton.

* This species has previously been only found in the Middle Coal Measures in Britain, and the bed from which the
Staffordshire specimen was derived is high up in the Lower Coal Measures, and perhaps on a horizon with the lower
part of the Méddle Coal Measures of other areas. When the three divisions—the Upper, the Middle, and the Lower
Coal Measures—are present in the same coal field, the exact position of the dividing line is often a matter of individual
opinion, though the different facies of the fossils of the various divisions, when taken as a whole, is characteristic of each.

MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE

Neuropteris, Brongt.

Neuropteris heterophylla, Bronet.

Neuropteris heterophylla, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 243, pls. Ixxi. Ixxii. fig. 2.
Neuropteris Loshti, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 242, pls. lxxii. fig. 1; Ixxiii.

Middle Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality.—Great Row Coal Rock. Fenton and Longton.
Below Little Cannel Row Coal. Clanway Colliery, Tunstall.

2? 99

Lower Coal Measures (Upper Series).
Horizon and Locality.—Bowling Alley Rock. Weston Coyney Colliery, near Longton.
Bowling Alley Rock. Longton.
Roof of Holly Lane Coal. Bucknall.
2 yards below Hard Mine Coal. Weston Coyney Colliery,

near Longton.

iy (2) - Raven’s Lane, Audley, Newcastle-under-Lyme.
Ra) z Scot Hay, Silverdale, Newcastle-under-Lyme.
3» (2) a Chesterton, Newcastle-under-Lyme.

Neuropteris tenuifolia, Schloth., sp. (?)

Filicites tenuifolius, Schloth., Petrefactenkunde, p. 405, pl. xxii. fig. 1.

Neuropteris tenuifolia, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 240, pl. lxxii. fig. 3.

Neuropteris tenuifolia, Zeiller, Note sur la flore howl. d. Asturies, p. 5 (Mém. Soc. Géol. du Nord, 1882).
Neuropteris tenuifolia, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valenciennes, p. 273, pl. xlvi. fig. 1.

Middle Coal Measures.
Horizon (?) and Locality.—Fenton.

Neuropteris rarinervis, Bunbury.

Neuropteris rarinervis, Bunbury, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. iii. p. 425, pl. xxii.

Middle Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality.—About horizon of Bassy Mine Ironstone. Railway Tunnel,
Newcastle-under-Lyme.

Peacock Marl. Berry Hill, Stoke-upon-Trent.

Peacock Marl. Fenton.

Great Row Coal Rock. Longton.

Below Little Cannel Row Coal. Clanway Colliery, Tunstall.

Knowles Rock. Longton.

Knowles Ironstone. Fenton.

|
d
‘
|
1

FOSSIL FLORA OF THE STAFFORDSHIRE COAL FIELDS. 75

Neuropteris ovata, Hoffmann.

Neuropteris ovata, Hoffmann, Keferstein’s Teutchland geognostisch-geologisch dargestellt, vol. iv. p. 158,
pl. i. 0, figs. 5, 6, 7 (Exel. fig. 8), 1826.
Neuropterts ovata, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxiii. p. 359, pl. xxii. fig. 1.

Upper Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality.—About 300 yards above Bassy Mine Ironstone. From Rail-
way Cutting, Florence Colliery, Longton.

Neuropteris plicata, Sternb.

Neuropteris plicata, Sternb., Vers., i. fasc. 4, p. xvi; Vers., ii. p. 74, pl. xix. figs. 1 and 3.
Neuropteris plicata, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxv. part v., p. 313, pl., figs. 1 and la.

Middle Coal Measures.
Horizon and Locality.—Great Row Coal Rock. Longton Hall Colliery, Longton.

Neuropteris Scheuchzeri, Hoftm.

Neuropteris Scheuchzeri, Hoftm., Keferstein’s Teutchland geognos.-geol. dargestellt, vol. iv. p. 156, pl. 1.0,
figs. 1-4.

Neuropteris Scheuchzeri, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin howl. d. Valenciennes, p. 251, pl. xli. figs. 1-3.

Neuropteris Scheuchzeri, Zeiller, Flore houil. d. Asturies, p. 10 (Mém. Soc. Géol. du Nord., 1882).

Neuropteris Scheuchzeri, Kidston, Trans. Roy, Soc. Edin., vol. xxxiii. p. 356, pl. xxiii. figs. 1, 2.

Neuropteris cordata, L. and H. (not Brongt.), Foss. Flora, vol. i. pl. xli.

Neuropteris hirsuta, Lesqx., in Roger's Geo. of Pennsyl., p. 857, pls. iii. fig. 6; iv. figs. 1-16, 1858.
(Syn. in part.)

Middle Coal Measures.
Horizon and Locality.—Great Row Coal Rock. Longton.

;, H Knowles Ironstone. Stafford Iron and Coal Company,
Fenton.

Neuropteris gigantea, Sternb.

Neuropteris gigantea, Sternb., Vers., i. fase. 4, p. xvi.
Neuropteris gigantea, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 240, pl. lxix.
Osmunda gigantea, Sternb., Vers., i. fasc. 2, pp. 33 and 36, pl. xxii.

Middle Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality.—About horizon of Bassy Mine Ironstone. Railway Tunnel,
Neweastle-under-Lyme.
» a Peacock Marl. Berry Hill, Stoke-upon-Trent.

76 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE

Horizon and Locality.—Great Row Coal Rock. Fenton and Longton.
* af Shale below Little Cannel Row Coal. Clanway Colliery,
Tunstall.

Lower Coal Measures (Upper Series).

Horizon and Locality.—Bowling Alley Rock. Weston Coyney Colliery, Longton.
x bs Holly Lane Coal. Bucknall.
35 2 yards below Hard Mine Coal. Weston Coyney Colliery,

near Longton.

Dictyopteris, Gutbier.
Dictyopteris Munsteri, Eichwald, sp.

Diectyopteris Miinsteri, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valenciennes, p. 294, pl. xlix. figs. 1-5.
Dictyopteris Minsteri, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxiii. p. 361, pl. xxi. fig. 6.
Odontopteris Miinsteri, Kichwald, Die Urwelt Russlands, heft i. p. 87, pl. iii. fig. 2, 1840. ©
Dictyopteris Hoffmanni, Roemer, Palwontographica, vol. ix. p. 29, pl. vii. fig. 3, 1862.

Middle Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality.—Peacock Marl. Marl Pit, Fenton Low.
* = Knowles Rock. Stafford Iron and Coal Company, Fenton.

Dictyopteris obliqua, Bunbury. (Plate, fig. 3 and 3a.)

Dictyopteris obliqua, Bunbury, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. iii. p. 427, pl. xxi. fig. 2, 1847.

Dictyopteris obliqua, Lesqx., Coal Flora, vol. i. p. 146, pl. xxiii. figs. 4-6.

Dictyopteris sub-Brongniartt, Grand’ Eury, Flore carb. d. Départ. de la Loire, p. 379, 1877.

Dictyopteris sub-Brongniarti, Zeiller, Expl. carte géol. d. France, vol, iv. p. 55, pl. elxv. figs. 1-2,
Dictyopteris sub-Brongniartt, Zeiller, Flore foss d. bassin howil. d. Valenciennes, p. 290, pl. xlix. fig. 6 ;

pl. 1. figs. 1-2.

Dictyopteris sub-Brongniarti, Renault, Cowrs d. botan. foss. Troisieme Année, 1883, p. 176, pl. xxx.
figs. 3-4.

Dictyopteris Brongniarti, Boulay (not Gutbier), Terr. houil. du nord de la France, pp. 35 and 74, pl. iv.
fig. 2.

Dictyopteris Brongniarti, Achepohl (not Gutbier), Niederrh. Westfal. Steinkohl, p. 71, pl. xxi. fig. 9.
Dictyopteris Brongniarti, Kidston, Catal. Palcoz. Plants, p. 103 (Exel. ref. D. Brongniarti).

Remarks.—Dictyopteris obliqua, Bunbury, occurs sparingly in the Potteries Coal
Field, and the only specimens I have seen are isolated pinnules. The pinnules in this
species are articulated to the rachis, and appear to have fallen off very easily, as in Neu-
ropteris gigantea, with which, in the form of its pinnules, Dictyopteris obliqua is almost
identical. It may therefore be more common than at present suspected, for unless the
netted nervation be observed, by which Dictyopteris is distinguished at first sight from
Neuropteris, it might be very easily passed over for Newropteris gigantea.

FOSSIL FLORA OF THE STAFFORDSHIRE COAL FIELDS. (ie

For some time I have suspected the specific identity of Dictyopteris obliqua, Bun-
bury, and Dictyopteris sub-Brongmarti, Grand’ Eury, M. Zerier has kindly com-
municated to me specimens of the latter species from Lens and Bully-Grenay, from
which I identified the Staffordshire fern as Dictyopteris sub-Brongniarti, and under this
name included it in the list given by Mr Warp in his “North Staffordshire Coal
Fields.” *

More recently I have received from Mr Lacok specimens of Dictyopteris obliqua,
Bunbury, from near Pittston, Pa. It is true that this is not the original locality for
Buneury’s species, but careful examination of Mr Lacor’s specimens with BunBury’s
figures and description has convinced me that the Pittsburg fossils are identical with
Bunsury’s Dictyopteris obliqua. On the other hand, I have compared the French
specimens of Dictyopteris sub-Brongmarti, Grand’ Eury, with the American examples,
and cannot discover any point by which they can be separated either in the form of the
pinnule or their nervation. I am therefore led to the conclusion that Dictyopteris sub-
Brongmarti, Grand’ Eury, must be regarded as a synonym for Dictyopteris obliqua,
Bunbury.

At figure 3 I give a drawing of a small pinnule of a specimen from the Great Row
Rock, Longton. In form the pinnules of Dictyopteris obliqua are sub-falcate or straight,
sometimes gradually narrowing, as in that figured, or oblong with more obtuse points,
their form varying somewhat according to their position on the frond. A drawing pre-
pared with the camera lucida, enlarged eight times, is given at fig. 3a, to show the
nervation of the species.

Dictyopteris obliqua is distinguished from Dictyopteris Brongniarti, Gutbier,t by its
smaller size and somewhat coarser nervation, which also bends out more directly to the
margin of the pinnule.

Middle Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality.—Great Row Rock. Longton.
95 Chalky Mine Ironstone. Fenton.

Odontopteris, Bronet.
Odontopteris, sp.

Upper Coal Measures.
Horizon and Locality.—About 300 yards above Bassey Mine Ironstone. Railway
Cutting, Florence Colliery, Longton.
Middle Coal Measures.

Horizon (?) and Locality.—Fenton.

* “The Geological Features of the North Staffordshire Coal Fields, their Organic Remains,” &c., Trans. North
Stafford. Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, vol. x. 1890.
t+ Abdriicke u. Vers. d. Zwick. Schwarzk., p. 63, pl. x1. figs. 7, 9, 10, 1835.

MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE

Mariopteris, Zeiller.

Mariopteris muricata, Schloth, sp.

Mariopteris muricata, Zeiller, Bull. Soc. Géol. d. France, 3° sér. vol. vii. p. 92.

Mariopteris muricata, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin. houil. d. Valenciennes, p. 173, pls. xx. figs. 2,3; xxi.
xxii. fig. 2.

Pecopteris muricata, Brongt. Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 352, pls. xev. figs. 3, 4; xevii.

Filicites muricatus, Schloth., Flora d. Vorwelt., pp. 54, 55, pl. xii. figs. 21 and 23.

Upper Coal Measures.

’ Horizon and Locality.—Twelve yards above Spirorbis Limestone. Fenton Low.

Middle Coal Measures.
Horizon and Locality.—Longton. Generally distributed throughout the series.

Lower Coal Measures (Upper Series).

Horizon and Locality.—Roof of Holly Lane Coal. Bucknall.

var. nervosa, Brongt. (sp.).

Mariopteris nervosa, Zeiller, Bull. Soc. Géol. d. France, 3° séx., vol. vii. p. 92, pl. v.
Mariopteris muricata forma nervosa. Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valenciennes, pls. xx. fig. 1; xxii. figs.

LS 25) xxi.
Pecopteris nervosa, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 297, pls. xciv.; xev. figs. 1, 2.

Middle Coal Measures.
Horizon and Locality.—Great Row Coal (roof), Longton.
Great Row Coal Rock. Stafford Iron and Coal Company,
Fenton.

Bay Coal, Longton.
Knowles Ironstone. Stafford Iron and Coal Company,

Fenton and Longton.
U Shelton Colliery, near Hanley.

Lower Coal Measures (Upper Series).

Horizon and Locality :—Bowling Alley Rock, Adderley Green, near Longton.
Two yards below Hard Mine Coal. Weston Coyney Colliery,

near Longton.

9) 29

Pecopteris, Brongt.

Pecopteris arborescens, Schloth., sp.

Pecopteris arborescens, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 310, pls. cil. ciii. figs. 2, 3.
Filicites arborescens, Schloth., Flora d. Vorwelt., p. 41, pl. viii. figs. 13, 14.
Pecopteris cyathea, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 307, pl. ci. figs. 1-3 (Exel., tig. 4).
Lilicites cyatheus, Schloth., Flora d. Vorwelt., p. 38, pl. vii. fig. 11.

FOSSIL FLORA OF THE STAFFORDSHIRE COAL FIELDS. 79

Upper Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality.—About 300 yards above horizon of Bassy Mine Ironstone.
Railway Cutting, Florence Colliery, Longton.

forma cyathea.

Horizon and Locality.—About 300 yards above horizon of Bassy Mine Ironstone.
Bradwell Wood, Longport.

Pecopteris Miltoni, Artis, sp.

Filicites Miltoni, Artis., Antedil. Phyt., pl. xiv.

Pecopteris Miltoni, Germar., Vers. v. Wettin. u. Lobejun., p. 63; pl. xxvil. (Hacl. syn. P. polymorpha, and
P. Milton, Brongt. (not Artis).

Pecopteris Miltoni, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxili. p. 374.

Pecopteris abbreviata, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 337, pl. exv. figs. 1-4.

Pecopteris abbreviata, Zeiller, Notes sur la flore howil, d. Asturies, p. 12 (Mém. Soc. Géol. du Nord., 1882).

Pecopteris abbreviata, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin. houil. d. Valenciennes, p. 186, pl. xxiv. fig. 1-4.

Middle Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality.—About horizon of Bassy Mine Ironstone. Railway Tunnel,
Newcastle-under-Lyme.
- - Shales over Peacock Marl. Longton.

Pecopteris caudata, L. and H., sp.
Sphenopteris caudata, L. and H. Fossil Flora, vol. 1. pl. xlviii.

Remarks.—I have received from Mr Ward a specimen of this fern from below the
New Mine Coal, Adderley Green, which agrees entirely with the Sphenopteris caudata,
L. and H., but think it probable that this latter species should be referred to Pecopteris
plumosa, Artis, sp.

As I am at present collecting specimens of this and some close allies, with the object
of submitting them to a careful examination, I at present merely record the Staffordshire
plant under the name originally given it by Lindley and Hutton.

Lower Coal Measures (Lower Thick Series).
Horizon and Locality.—Below the New Mine Coal.* Adderley Green.

Alethopteris, Sternb.

Alethopteris aquilina, Schloth., sp.

Alethopteris aquilina, Schimper, Traité d. palednt. végét., vol. i. p. 556, pl. xxx. figs. 8-10.
Pecopteris aquilina, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 284, pl. xe.
Filicites aquilinus, Schloth., Flora d. Vorwelt., p. 38, pl. iv. fig. 7; pl. v. fig. 8.

* This is the uppermost seam in the Lower Coal Measures, see note, ante, p. 73.
VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 5). P

80

MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE

Upper Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality.—About 300 yards above Bassy Mine Ironstone.
Railway Cutting, Florence Colliery, Longton, and Quarry,
Bradwell Wood, Longport.

>> 9?

Middle Coal Measures.
Horizon (*) and Locality.—Tunstall.

Alethopteris lonchitica, Schloth., sp.

Alethopteris lonchitica, Schimper, T'raité d. palednt. végét., vol. i. p. 554.

Pecopteris lonchitica, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 275, pls. Ixxxiv. and exxviii.

Filicites lonchiticus, Schloth., Mora d. Vorwelt., p. 55, pl. xi. fig. 22.

Horizon and Locality.—About 300 yards above Bassy Mine Ironstone. Quarry,
Bradwell Wood, Longport.

Middle Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality.—Roof of Great Row Coal. Longton.
3 a Knowles Ironstone. Longton and Fenton.

Lower Coal Measures (Upper Series).

Horizon and Locality.—Ten foot Coal. Chesterton, Newcastle-under-Lyme.
Bowling Alley Rock. Adderley Green, near Longton.
Holly Lane Coal. Bucknall.

99 bP)

3? 2?

Alethopteris decurrens, Artis, sp.

Alethopteris decurrens, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin, howil. d. Valenciennes, p. 221, pls. xxxiv. figs. 2, 3 ;
xxxv. fig. 1; xxxvi. figs. 3, 4.

Filicites decurrens, Artis., Antedil. Phyt., p. 21, pl. xxi.

Pecopteris heterophylla, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. i. pl. xxxviii.

Pecopteris Mantelli, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 278, pl. Ixxxiii. figs. 3, 4.

Middle Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality—Knowles Ironstone. Stafford Iron and Coal Company,
Fenton.

Lower Coal Measures (Upper Series).

Horizwn and Locality.—Bowling Alley Rock. Adderley Green, near Longton.

:

FOSSIL FLORA OF THE STAFFORDSHIRE COAL FIELDS. 81

Rhacophyllum, Schimper.

Rhacophyllum crispum, Gulbier, sp. (?). (Plate, fig. 1.)

Fucoides crispus, Gulbier, Vers d. Zwick. Schwarzk., p. 13, pl. i. fig. 11.; pl. vi. fig. 18.

Schizopteris Lactuca, Germar., Vers. v. Wettin. u. Lébejun, p. 45, pls. xviii., xix.

Rhacophyllum Lactuca, Schimper, Traité d. palednt. végét., vol. i. p. 684, pls. xlvi. fig. 1; xlvii. figs. 1, 2;
vol, iii. p. 524.

Lower Coal Measures (Upper Series).
Horizon and Locality.—Bowling Alley Rock. Adderley Green, near Longton.

Lycopodiacee.
Lepidodendron, Sternb.

Lepidodendron ophiurus, Bronet.

Sagenaria ophiurus, Brongt., Class, d. végét. foss., p. 27, pl. iv. fig. 1, a,b (Mém. Muséum hist. nat.
vol. viii.), 1822.

Lepidodendron ophiurus, Brongt., Prod., p. 85.

Lepidodendron Sternbergi (Kidston, not Brongt.?) in Ward. Geol. of the North Staffordshire Coal Fields,
p. Lis:

Middle Coal Measures.
Horizon and Locality.—Generally distributed throughout the series. Longton.
About horizon of Bassy Mine Ironstone. Railway Tunnel,
Newcastle-under-Lyme.

99 3)

a - Peacock Marl. Berryhill, Stoke-upon-Trent.

i ¥ Great Row Coal Rock. Stafford Iron and Coal Company,
Fenton.

bi 5 Chalky Mine Ironstone. Fenton.

Lepidodendron obovatum, Sternb.
Lepidodendron obovatum, Sternb., Vers., i., fase. i. pp. 20 and 23 ; pl. vi. fig. 1; pl. viii. fig. la ; fase. iv. p. 10.
Lepidodendron obovatum, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valenciennes, p. 442, pl. Ixvi. figs. 1-8.
Middle Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality.—Generally distributed throughout the series. Longton.
” (?) ” Marl Pit, Fenton.

Lower Coal Measures (Upper Series).

Horizon and Locality—Bowling Alley Rock. Weston Coyney Colliery, near
Longton.

MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE

Lepidodendron aculeatum, Sternb.

Lepidodendron aculeatum, Sternb., Vers., i. fase. i. pp. 20 and 23, pl. vi. fig. 2; pl. viii. fig. 10; fase. ii.
p. 25; pl. xiv. figs. 1-4.
Lepidodendron aculeatum, Zeiller, Flore foss. du bassin houil. d. Valenciennes, p. 442, pl. xv. figs. 1-7.

Middle Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality.—Generally distributed throughout the series. Longton.
Great Row Coal Rock. Stafford Iron and Coal Company,

Fenton.

2? 9

Lower Coal Measures (Upper Series).
Horizon and Locality.—12 yards below New Mine Coal. Adderley Green Coiliery,

near Longton.

Lepidodendron serpentigerum, Konig. (?)
Lepidodendron serpentigerum, Konig., [cones fossilium sectiles, pl. xvi. fig. 195.
Middle Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality.—Knowles’ Ironstone. Fenton.

Lepidodendron rimosum, Sternb.

Lepidodendron rimosum, Sternb., Vers. i. fasc. i. pp. 21 and 23, pl. x. fig. 1, fase. iv. p. 11.
Sagenaria rimosa, Geinitz (in part), Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen., p. 34, pl. iii. figs. 13-15; pl. iv. fig. 1.

Lower Coal Measures (Upper Series),
Horizon (?) and Locality.—Mier Hay Colliery. Longton.

Lepidophloios, Sternb.
Lepidophloios, sp.

Remarks.—This genus is only represented by specimens of Halonia tortuosa, L. and H.
(Fossil Flora, vol. ii. pl. Ixxxv.), and Haloma regularis, L. and H. (loc. cat., vol. iii. pl.
eexxvill.), which are the cone-bearing branches of Lepidophloios. Owing to the absence
of the leaf-scars on the examples examined, the species of Lepidophlovos, to which the
Haloma belonged, could not be determined.

Lower Coal Measures (Upper Series).
Horizon and Locality.—Littie Mine Ironstone. Longton.
Lepidophyllum, Brongt.
Lepidophyllum lanceolatum, L. and H.

Lepidophyllum lanceolatum, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. i. pl. vii. figs. 3, 4.

FOSSIL FLORA OF THE STAFFORDSHIRE COAL FIELDS. 83

Middle Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality—About horizon of Bassy Mine Ironstone. Railway Tunnel,
Neweastle-under-Lyme. —
Lower Coal Measures (Upper Series).
Horvzon and Locality.—Two yards below Hard Mine Coal. Weston Coney Colliery,

near Longton.

Lepidophyllum triangulare, Zeiller.

Lepidophyllum triangulare, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houtl. de Valenciennes, p. 508, pl. Ixxvii. figs.
4-6, 1886.

Remarks.—This species is very closely related to Lepidostrobus anthemis, Konig. sp.,
if it is really specifically distinct.*
Middle Coal Measures.
Horizon and Locality.—Peacock Marl, Berry Hill, Stoke-upon-Trent.

Lepidostrobus, Bronet.

Lepidostrobus variabilis, L. and H.

Lepidostrobus variabilis, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol, i. pls. x. xi.

Upper Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality.__About 300 yards above Bassy Mine Ironstone. Bradwell,
Wood, Longport.

Middle Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality.—Generally distributed throughout the series. Longton.

. a: About horizon of Bassy Mine Ironstone. Railway Tunnel,
Neweastle-under-Lyme.

Sigillaria, Brongniart.

Sigillaria discophora, Kénig. sp.

Lepidodendron discophorum, Konig., Icones foss. sectiles, pl. xvi. fig. 194.

Ulodendron magus, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. i. pl. v. (Excl. ref.).

Ulodendron minus, L. and H., ibid., pl. vi. (Excl. ref.).

Sigillaria discophora, Kidston, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. vi., vol. iv. p. 61, pl. iv. figs. 1, la; and
Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc., vol. x. p. 90, pl. iv. fig. 1, la.

* Conophoroides anthernis, Kénig., Icones foss. sectiles, pl. xvi. fig. 200; copied by Brongniart.—Lepidostrobus

Hist. d. végét. foss., vol. ii. pl. xxiii. fig. 6, and named by Schimper Lepidostrobus radians. Traité d. palednt. véeget,
vol. ii. p. 63.

84 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE

Middle Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality.—Great Row Rock. Great Fenton Colliery.

Knowles Ironstone. Longton and Stafford Iron and Coal
Company, Fenton.

» (2) rs Pinnox Colliery. Tunstall.

399 2)

Lower Coal Measures (Upper Series).

Horizon and Locality.—Little Mine Ironstone. Longton.
12 yards below New Mine Coal. Adderley Green Colliery
near Longton.

3? 2?

Sigillaria Brardii, Brongt.

Clathraria Brardii, Brongt., Class. d. végdt. foss., p. 22, pl. i. fig. 5.
Sigillaria Brardu, Brongt., Prodrome, p. 65.
Sigillaria Brardii, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 430, pl. elviii. fig. 4.

Note.—I hope in another communication to figure and describe two specimens of
S. Brardii from this coal field, along with some other Sigillarix from various localities
so defer making any remarks on this species at present.

Upper Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality.—About 300 yards above Bassy Mine Ironstone. Railway
Cutting, Florence.

Middle Coal Measures.
Horizon and Locality.—Shales above Peacock Coal. Cope’s Marl Pit, Longton.

Sigillaria tessellata, Brongt.

Sigillaria tessellata, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 436, pl. elvi. fig. 1; pl. elxii. figs. 1-4,

Sigillaria tessellata, Geinitz, Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen., p. 44, pl. v. figs. 6-8.

Sigillaria tessellata, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. Bassin houil. d. Valenciennes, p. 561, pls. Ixxxv. figs. 1-9;
Ixxxvi. figs. 1-6.

Middle Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality.—Great Row Coal Rock. Stafford Iron and Coal Company,
Fenton.

Lower Coal Measures (Upper Series).
Horizon and Locality.—Sandstone below New Mine Coal. Longton.
12 yards below New Mine Coal. Adderley Green, near

Longton.

2? 99

FOSSIL FLORA OF THE STAFFORDSHIRE COAL FIELDS. 85

Sigillaria elegans, (Sternb.) Brongt.

Sigillaria elegans, Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 438, pl. exlvi. fig. 1; pl. elv. ; pl. clviii. fig. 1.
Sigillaria elegans, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valenciennes, p. 582, pl. Ixxxvii. figs. 1-4.

Middle Coal Measures.
Horizon (?) and Locality.—Apedale, Newcastle-under-Lyme.

Remarks.—Wetss describes and figures a number of varieties of Sigillaria elegans
in his “Sigillarien der Preussischen Steinkohlengebiete, I. Die Gruppe der Favularien,”

Sigillaria scutellata, Bronet.

|
pe 32.”
Sigillaria scutellata, Brongt., Class. d. végét. foss., p. 22, pl. i. fig. 4.
Sigillaria scutellata, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 455, pl. iv. figs. 2, 3; pl. Ixiil. fig. 3.
Sigillaria scutellata, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin howl. Valenciennes, pl. lxxxii. figs. 1-6, 9, 1886; p. 533,

1888.
Sigillaria notata, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 449, pl. cliii. fig. 1.

Middle Coal Measures.

Horvzon and Locality.—Peacock Marl. Fenton.

Sigillaria rugosa, Brongt.

Sigillaria rugosa, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 476, pl. exliv. fig. 2.
Sigillaria rugosa, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin. howl. d. Valenciennes, p. 551, pl. Ixxx. figs. 1-5.
Sigillaria rimosa, Sauveur, Végét. foss. de la Belgique, pl. lviii. fig. 1.

Lower Coal Measures (Upper Series).
Horizon and Locality.—Shale over Yard Coal. Fenton.

Sigillaria ovata, Sauveur.

Sigillaria ovata, Sauveur, Végét. foss. de la Belgique, pl. li. fig. 2.
Sigillaria ovata, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin howil d. Valenciennes, p. 522, pl. Ixxix. figs. (3?) 4-7.

Middle Coal Measures.

Horizon (2) and Locality.—Fenton and Longton.

Sigillaria alternans, Sternb. sp.

Sigillaria alternans, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. i. pl. lvi.
Syringodendron alternans, Sternb., Vers., i. fase. iv. p. 24, pl. lviii. fig. 2.

* Koniglich Preussischen geologischen Landesanstalt, Berlin, 1887.

86 FOSSIL FLORA OF THE STAFFORDSHIRE COAL FIELDS.

Middle Coal Measures.
Horizon (?) and Locality.—Fenton.
Remarks.—The fossil placed here only shows a decorticated condition, the characters
of which may be common to several species of Sigillaria.

Sigillaria camptoleenia, Wood.

Sigillaria camptolenia, Wood, Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc., vol. xiii. p. 342, pl. ix. fig, 3, 1866.

Sigillaria camptolenia, Zeiller, Flore Foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valenciennes, p. 588, pl. lxxxviii. figs. 4-6,
1886.

Asolanus camptolenia, Wood, Proc. Acad, Nat. Sc. Phil., vol. xii. p. 238, 1860.

Sigillaria monostigma, Lesqx., Rept. Geol. Survey of Illin., vol. ii. p. 449, pl. xlii. figs. 1-5, 1866.

Sigillaria monostigma, Lesqx., Coal Flora of Pennsyl., vol. ii. p. 468, pl. lxxxiii, figs. 3-6, 1880; vol. iii.
p. 793, 1884.

Sigillaria rimosa, Goldenberg, Flora Sarcepont. foss., part i., pp. 22 and 56, pl. vi. fig. 1, 1857.

Sigillaria rimosa, Roehl, Paleont., xviii. p. 93, pl. xxx. fig. 5, 1869.

Lepidodendron barbatum, Romer, Palcont., vol. ix. p. 40, pl. viii. fig. 12, 1862.

Pseudosigillaria monostigma, Grand Eury, Plore Carb. du Départ. de la Loire, p. 144, 1877.

Middle Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality.—Shale overlying Ash Ironstone. Fenton.

Lycopod Macrospores.

Very little attention has been paid to the examination of the shales and under-
clays in the Potteries Coal Field for spores. In only three localities have collec-
tions been made with this object, and from all of them several of the gatherings have
yielded numerous and well-preserved macrospores. The finer material has not yet been
searched for the much minuter spores, which are usually found associated with the

macrospores.”*

CoLLEcTIONS FRoM WeTLEY Moor, Lowrer Coat Mzasures (Lower Serins).

Locality 53t.—Shales cropping out on banks of small stream, near Ash Hall.

Triletes IX.
Triletes XII. (?)

Locality 54.—Shales near Brook House Lane.

Triletes VIII.
Triletes IX.
Triletes XII.

The specimens at these two localities were numerous and well preserved.

COLLECTIONS FROM THE MippLE Coat MEASURES.
Locality 52.—Kastwood Marl Pit, Hanley.

* The shales have been carefully prepared for me by Mr JaAmus BrnnIg, in the manner recommended in our paper
in the Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edin., vol. ix. p. 92, to whom for his assistance I am again much indebted.

+ The numbers refer to the working list of localities from which collections have been made at various times. The
contents of localities 1 to 37 have been already published. See Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc., vol. ix. pp. 93-102.

\)

MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE

(o @)

Fie. 1.

Specimen No, 39 in list.

Specimen No. 20 in list.

Main or 90 yards Fault.

North.

v

South.

\
\

\
\

\\\

\

\\
\\

\

\

} Bassy
is

f

\\
NN

ine Ironstone and
Dip 14°.

M
Coal,

————
——SSH_!

\

\

Howson’s Marl.

\

\

\

\

\

\\

o
S|
3
7
2
3
a
mM
Lo]
=|
3
az}
os
cS
i
9

c

——$—

—
SS

SS

SS
—=

(SSS
——
=
=

==

\
\

é

3” Coal with standing trees.

\ \\
\\K \ i

ANN

unknown.

d

\

ni

Soe

Gutter or Fenton Low Coal.
38” thick.

ERAN
\

Dip 15°.

"2

\

\\

\

\

\
\

Mt

\
\

\

\

\\

\

\\

\

\

\
\\

\\\

\\\\
Wt

\ \\

\\
i

\
\

\

\\
\

\

\
\

\

\

\\\
\\\

\
:

\

\

\ \
'
\\

\\

Shales and Marl.

Grey and Red Marl.

\
\\

ANN

Ay

\

\
\

N\

\\

\
WN
\

\\
WN

AWN

\
\

\

Wi

12’ Coal.

Fia. 3.

Section of Marls, &c., exposed in Eastwood Brick and Marl Works

Hanley, 1890.

?

is on the south side. Height of section about 80 feet.

The downthrow of the Fault

y east and west.

ar]

easures is ne

Dip of m

FOSSIL FLORA OF THE STAFFORDSHIRE COAL FIELDS. 89

Through the kindness and assistance of Mr Wittiam Hampton, careful collections

were made of the shales and underclays exposed at the time of my visit, and of those
which proved most rich in organic remains, a second collection was made by Mr Hamp-
Ton. ‘Three new forms of macrospores have been discovered in this Marl Pit which are
described below. Associated with the macrospores, in one case especially, were numerous
crustacean remains as well as fragments of carbonised stems and other plant débris.
_ As this Marl Pit is interesting, not only on account of the rich gatherings of macro-
spores which the shales and wnderclays have yielded, but also on account of the standing
trees which occur on the “3” coal” on the southern side of the fault, I give a section
of the strata, which has kindly been prepared for me by Mr Hampton, and on which has
been indicated in letters the position from which the better “ gatherings” were collected.
The general strike of the strata is nearly east and west. Owing to a fall on the north
side of the fault, the strata could not be conveniently measured at the time the section
was prepared.

Above the “3” coal,” and standing on it at right angles to its surface, many stems
of trees, as already mentioned, have been met with while working the marls. Mr Warp
gives the measurements and descriptions of thirteen specimens found prior to 1880.* It
is a curious circumstance that on none of the trees discovered are the roots preserved, the
portions of the stems now existing being apparently only a few feet of the lower portion
of the trunks ; the roots having apparently decayed before mineralisation took place.

The following list, which includes those described by Mr Warp (Nos. 1-18), supplied

“to me by Mr Hampton, contains a complete record, as far as is known, of all the standing
trees that have been found in the Eastwood Marl Pit up to the present time.

NoTES ON SOME OF THE TREES.

No. 17. The bottom of the stem had the appearance as of thickening out to form the
roots.

No. 19. This is the only specimen that was found lying horizontally. The tree had
been taken away with the marl, having undergone little induration during fossilization.
The impression left in the marl by which it had been surrounded was very perfect, and
pieces of carbon which had evidently been on the outside of the stem were still adhering
to.the impression.

No. 20. The general appearance of the bottom part of the trunk for the height of
4 feet from the base was as if it had been subject to great pressure before having been
fossilized. It was of very irregular shape, but the upper 4 feet were perfectly round and
had been partially pushed off the bottom portion as it was overhanging it at least
12 inches. Woodcut, fig. 1.

* “Notes on some Fossil Trees in a Marl Pit at Joiner’s Square, near Hanley,” Report North Staffordshire Nat.
Field Club for 1880. With a Plate.

90

MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE

Fossil Trees found in Eastwood Marl Works, Hanley, Staffordshire.

Date. No. Height.

Feet. Inches.

1 6
2 4
3 5
4 1
5 1
6 8
7 4
8 4
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
1882
May 16 18
May 12 17
- 18 5
» 19
20 8
May 26 21 )
22 8
23 8
24
25 7
26 7
27 4
28 12
29 9
30 11
31 8
32 11
33 6
34 9
35
36 10
37 9
38 10
39 4
1883
Dec. 20 40 6
1884
Oct. 21 41 6
1885
May 19 | 42 9
it 43 6
44 10

NADrYw @e
oo aocmoo°oo coooooocoeo

i=)

ao oo

AGHODLS oom ao

Diameter at

Bottom.

Feet. Inches.

bo bo

bo bk

2 PN

—

bo bw

i>) or) we

a |

6

Diameter at
Top.

Feet. Inches.

Wwh wo bw wb

bo bo

O bo

— bo

Cre bo

6 F Ef
ao bo =) coos ooownoodo

oo lo oe Le) ao aon cad

So AaAwvonnwoe

or

REMARKS.

No measurements taken.

7 ft. 3 in. in circumference.

In the interior of this there was a
branch-like form imbedded which
measured 3 ft. by 2 ft. 3 in.

Horizontal; about 2 ft. in diameter.
Only specimen found in this position.

2 branches (?) were found in this of 24
in. and 14 in. diameter.

Specimen broken by fall before measure-
ments were taken.

In this were found branch-like forms
which exhibited woody structure.

This example had a projection as if a
branch had grown from it.

Not measured.

There was a very deep indentation on
this stem about 3 ft. from top.

The diameter of this stem could not be
measured,

The diameter of this stem could not be
measured.

a

FOSSIL FLORA OF THE STAFFORDSHIRE COAL FIELDS. 91

No. 21. The inside of this tree was full of fragments of carbonised wood, bound
together into a conglomerate-like rock by the infilling marl. It also contained portions
of two branches.

No. 22. The top portion of this stem was overhanging about 8 inches, in a similar
manner to that described as occurring in No. 20.

No. 25. This specimen had a swelling on the trunk about 6 feet from the bottom,
from which a branch may have been removed.

No. 26. This specimen, owing to several transverse fractures and displacement of the
segments, had a curious step-like appearance. On the tree being taken down, branches
were found in it showing structure.

No. 28. The upper 4 feet of this stem was pushed aside and overhung about 8 inches.
On the specimen was a projection as if a branch had been broken off from that part.

No. 33. This stem appeared as if it had been subject to great pressure, for in one
place it was not more than 9 inches thick.

No. 39. Several transverse fractures ran through the uppermost 2 feet of this speci-
men, and the segments so formed had been thrust to one side and overhung in layers or
segments about 2 inches thick. Woodcut, fig. 2.*

The outer surface of the stems is usually converted into coal, and in no case have
they shown the form of their leaf-scars, by which alone the generic nature of the stems
could be determined ; we are therefore unable to say whether they belong to Sigillaria
or Lepidodendron, or in part to both. The only markings observable on the stems are
longitudinal striations.

Gathering 52a.—Marl immediately underneath the Bassy Mine Ironstone and Coal.

North side of fault.
Triletes ue

Gathering 52b.—Shale a short distance above unknown Coal (B on section) on north

side of fault.
Triletes TI.

Gathering 52c.—Marl immediately above Coal “ B.” North side of fault.
Triletes V.

* The foregoing list and these particulars have been supplied by Mr Wu. Hampton.

92 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE

Gathering 52d.—Top of underclay of Coal “ B.”

Triletes I.
” V.

Gathering 52e.—Howson’s Marl, surrounding stems of standing trees.
Triletes I.

Pea

Gathering 52f—Marl a short distance above “ Gutter or Fenton Low Coal.”

Triletes I.
5 IGE,

Gathering 529g.—Immediately below 527.

Triletes TJ.
2 Vi:

Gathering 52h.—Immediately above “ Gutter or Fenton Low Coal.”

Triletes IL
Fs TI.

Gathering 527.—Top of underclay of “Gutter or Fenton Low Coal.”

Triletes Vz.
- VI.

Owing to the amount of faulting in this district one cannot be quite certain as to the
identity of the coal in the section named the “Gutter or Fenton Low Coal” with the
coal of that name which occurs in other parts of the Coal Field, but if it is not that
seam, it is one that occupies about the same horizon.

Locality 51.—Mousecroft Marl Works, Hanley.

This Marl Pit lies on the opposite side of the road from that occupied by the East-
wood Marl Works and contains some of the same beds as those occurring in the Eastwood
Works, but owing to the dip of the strata some beds on a higher horizon than those of
the Eastwood Works occur in this opening. It is also worked by the Messrs Hampton,
and Mr Wrii1am Hampron has favoured me with the following section of the strata at
present exposed there :—

FOSSIL FLORA OF THE STAFFORDSHIRE COAL FIELDS. 93

Feet. Inches.

Surface Earth and Boulder ae about . : : : 6 0
Marl, about : 5 : 2 : 7 0
“ Peacock Coal,” © : : : : 2 uf
Marl, 3 Fe : ' ; : 35 6
Howson’s Marl, . : ; : z ; 10 0
a Coal,” : ; ; : : 0 3
Marl and Shales, : : ‘ : : s aes IE
“Gutter or Fenton Low Coal,” : : é 3 2
Grey and Red Marls, ; : : : : 20 0

90 5

The angle of dip is 15°. Although the “3” Coal” has yielded so many standing
trees in the Eastwood Marl Works, none have been discovered in the Mousecroft Works.

The only gathering made was from the top of the underclay of the “ Peacock Coal ”(?)
which yielded the following forms :—

' Triletes II. (?)
LE.

Fee A.
Crustacean and vegetable remains

Description oF New MaAcrosporgs.

Triletes XIX.
Plate, figs. 9-11. x 30.

Description.—Macrospore small, triangular with dentate margins. Outer surface
ornamented with blunt mamillate spiny processes, varying in number from five to eight.
On each lateral margin of the spore are usually three or four thickenings or blunt
elongated elevations, which extend outwards and produce the dentate margins. Inner
surface smooth with a strong triradiate ridge, which extends into the three angles of the
spore ; border about + or 4 width of spore, undulate.

Size.—1°45 mm.

Middle Coal Measures.
Horizon and Locality.—Kastwood Marl Works. Hanley.

Triletes XX.
Plate, figs. 5-8. x 30.

Deseription.—Macrospore small, triangular, bordered with produced angular points and
| convex sides. Outer surface granulated, and generally showing the circular body of the spore
| surrounded by its triangular border. Inner surface.—Triradiate ridge strong, prominent,

94 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE

and extending into the produced angular points, central portion smooth, border faintly
striated transversely.
Size.—'90 mm.

Middle Coal Measures.
Horizon and Locality.—Kastwood Marl Works. Hanley.

Triletes XXTI.
Plate, fig. 4. x 30.

Description.—Macrospore small, circular. Outer surface smooth. Inner surface
smooth, triradiate ridge occupying about 3ths of surface, well defined, but not very
strong ; extremities of arms of triradiate ridge connected by a semicircular line.

Size.— 90 mm.

Middle Coal Measures.
Horizon and Locality.—Eastwood Marl Works. Hanley. °

Stigmaria, Brongt.

Stigmaria ficoides, Sternb. sp.

Stigmaria ficoides, Brongt., Class. d. végét. foss., pp. 9 and 28, pl. 1. fig. 7.
a L. and H., Yossil Flora, vol. i. pls. xxxi.—vi.
Varn Jicoides, Sternb., coe i. fasc. i. pp. 22 and 24, pl. xii. figs. 1-3. |

Generally distributed.

Upper Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality.—About 300 yards above Bassy Mine Ironstone. Railway
Cutting, Florence Colliery, Longton, and Bradwell Wood,
Longport.

Middle Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locahty.—Bassy Mine Ironstone. Florence Colliery, Longton.
x 45 Great Row Coal Rock. Fenton.

Lower Coal Measures (Upper Serves).
Horizon and Locality.—12 yards below New Mine Coal. Adderley Green Colliery,

near Longton.
rH . 2 yards below Hard Mine Coal. Weston Coyney Colliery,
Longton.

FOSSIL FLORA OF THE STAFFORDSHIRE COAL FIELDS. 95

Cordaitee.
Cordaites, Unger.
Cordaites borassifolius, Sternb., sp.

Cordaites borassifolius, Unger, Genera et Species, p. 277.

Cordattes borassifolius, Zeiller, Flore foss d. bassin houil. d. Valenciennes, p. 625, pl. xcii. figs. 1-6.
Flabellaria borassifolia, Sternb., Vers., 1. fasc. 2, pp. 27 and 32, pl. xviii; fase. 4, p. xxxiv.
Pycnophyllum borassifolium, Schimper., Traité d. palednt. végét, vol. ii. p. 190.

Middle Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality.—Grey Shale below Little Cannel Row Coal. Clanway Colliery,
Tunstall.

Lower Coal Measures (Upper Series).

Horizon and Locality.—12 yards below New Mine Coal. Longton.
sf 4 Bowling Alley Rock. Weston Coyney Colliery, Longton.
Be () - Ravens Lane. Audley.

Artisia, Sternb.
‘Artisia transversa, Artis., sp.

Sternbergia transversa, Artis. Antedil. Phyt., p. 8, pl. viii.

Middle Coal Measures.

Horizon and Locality.—About horizon of Bassy Mine Ironstone. Railway Tunnel,
Newcastle-under-Lyme.
_ a Bassey Mine Ironstone. Stafford Iron and Coal Company,
Fenton.

Incertz sedis.
Rhabdocarpus, Géppert and Berger.
Rhabdocarpus sulcatus, Presl., sp.
Plate, fig. 12.

Carpolithes sulcatus, Sternb., Vers., ii. p. 208, pl. x. fig. 8.
Rhabdocarpus multistriatus, Kidston (not Sternb.), Catal. Paleoz. Plants, p. 213.

Description.—Seed oval, about 1 inch long and 4; inch broad, and bearing about 9
longitudinal ribs on the exposed surface.
VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 5). R

96 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE

Remarks.—This seed I originally identified as a small specimen of ARhabdocarpus |
multistriatus, Presl., sp., but now believe it to be the Rhabdocarpus sulcatus, Presl., sp.
(which must not, however, be mistaken with the Carpolithes sulcat(a)us, L. and H.,
which is an essentially distinct species).* ,

I have figured, from the Radstock Coal Field, a seed which appears to be the true
Rhabdocarpus multistriatus, Presl., sp. A comparison of the two figures will show
wherein these species differ.t |

Upper Coal Measures. |

Horizon and Locality.—About 300 yards above the Bassey Mine Ironstone. Quarry,
Bradwell Wood, Longport.

Millstone Grit.

The following have been noted :—
From Kerridge, Macclesfield—

Calamites Suckowti, Brongt.

Calamites varians, Sternb.

Mariopteris muricata, Schl., sp., forma nervosa.
Lepidodendron aculeatum, Sternb.
Lepidodendron obovatum, Sternb.
Lepidophloios (Halonia regularis, L. and H.).
Stigmaria ficoides, Sternb., sp.

From shales that divide the 2nd and 8rd beds of grit, Stockton Brook—

Alethopteris lonchitica, Schl. sp.
Calamocladus, sp.

Lepidodendron, sp.

Lepidostrobus variabilis, L. and H.

Yoredale Rocks.
Felt House, Leek.

Stigmaria ficoides, Sternb., sp.

* Fossil Flora, vol. iii. pl. eexx.
+ Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxili. pl. xxiii. fig. 4.

FOSSIL FLORA OF THE STAFFORDSHIRE COAL FIELDS.

Table showing Vertical Distribution of Species Recorded.

Coal Measures.

97

Page Millstone Grit.

Middle. Lower.

68 | Calamitina (Calamites).

68 varians, Sternb., x x x

69 approximatus, Bet., x

69 | Lucalamites (Calamites).

69 TAMOSUS, : x

69 | Stylocalmites (Calamites).

69 Suckowt, Bgt., x x x

70 Cistii, Bet., x

70 | Pinnularia.

70 columnaris, Artis, sp., x x

71 | Calamocladus.

Heal equisetiformis, Schl., sp., x x

71 | Sphenophyllum.

71 cuneifolium, Sternb., sp., x

72 cunetfolium, var., saxifrag., x x

72 | Sphenopteris.

72 obtusiloba, Bet., . x

72 grandifrons, Sauv., x

73 latifolia, Bet., f x

73 (?) spinulosa, Stur., sp., . x

73 spinosa, Gopp., xe

73 | Hremopteris.

73 artemisicefolia, Sternb., sp., x

74 | Newropteris.

74 heterophylla, Bet., ; x x

74 (?) tenuifolia, Schl., sp., . x

74 rarinervis, Bunbury, x

75 ovata, Hofim.,

75 plicata, Sternb., . x

75 Scheuchzeri, Hoftm., x

75 gigantea, Sternb., x x

76 | Dictyopteris.

76 Miinsteri., Eich., x

76 obliqua, Bunbury, x

77 | Odontopteris.

ae, Sp. x

78 | Mariopteris.

78 muricata, Schl., sp., x x

78 muricata, forma nervosa, x x x

78 | Pecopteris.

78 arborescens, Schl., sp.,

(iy arborescens, var. cyathea,

19 Miltoni, Artis, . ; x

79 caudata, L. and H., sp., . ai

79 | Alethopteris.

79 aquilina, Schl., sp., x

80 lonchitica, Schl., sp., x x x

80 decurrens, Artis, sp., x x

81 | Rhacophyllum.

81 (?) crispum, Gulb., sp., x

81 | Lepidodendron.

81 ophuirus, Bgt., x

* See note, ante, p. 73.

+ See note, ante, p. 79.

98 FOSSIL FLORA OF THE STAFFORDSHIRE COAL FIELDS.

Table showing Vertical Distribution of Species Recorded—continued.

Coal Measures.

Page. —__—_———_——_———_—_——————| Millstone Grit.
Upper. Middle. Lower.
Lepidodendron.
81 obovatum, Sternb., : : : x x x
82 aculeatum, Sternb., : ; ; x x x
82 (?) serpentigerum, Konig., : ‘ x
82 rémosum, Sternb., : : 3 x
82 | Lepidophloios.
82 Spy : x x
82 | Lepidophyllum.
82 lanceolatum, L. and H., . : ; * x
83 triangulare, Zeiller, ‘ : ‘ x
83 | Lepidostrobus.
83 variabilis, L. and H., . 5 : x x
83 | Sigillaria.
83 discophora, Konig., sp., . : : x x
84 Brardii, Brongt, : . : x x
84 tessellata, Bet., . ; : ; x x
85 elegans, Bgt., x
85 scutellata, Bgt., . ; : : x
85 rugosa, Bgt., 4 ; : ; x
85 ovata, Sauv., 3 : ; : x
85 alternans, Sternb., ; 2 2 x
86 camptolenia, Wood, : : ‘ x
86 | Macrospores, :

93 | Zriletes,
94 | Stigmaria.

94 Jicoides, Sternb., sp., ; : : x x x x
95 | Cordaites.

95 borassifolius, Sternb., sp., : ; x x

95 | Artisia.

95 transversa, Artis, sp., . : : x

95 | Rhabdocarpus.

95 sulcatus, Sternb., sp., —- : ; oa

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Fig. 1. Rhacophyllum crispum (1), Guthier, sp. Bowling Alley Rock, Adderley Green. Specimen in Stoke
Museum.

Fig. 2. Sphenopteris spinulosa, Stur, sp. (1). Middle Coal Measures, Hanley. :

Fig. 3. Dictyopteris obliqua, Bunbury. Great Row Rock, Longton (Specimen No. 889). 3a, Nervation
magnified 8 times.

Fig. 4. Triletes XXI., Eastwood Marl Pit, Hanley, Inner surface x 30. Fig. 4a, Nat. Size.

Figs. 5-8. Triletes XX., Eastwood Marl Pit, Hanley. Figs. 5, 6, Outer surface; 7, 8, Inner surface x 30:
Fig. 5a, Nat. Size.

Fig. 9-11. Triletes XIX., Eastwood Marl Pit, Hanley. Figs. 9, 10, Outer surface ; 11, Inner surface x 30.
Fig. 9a, Nat. Size.

Trams. Roy Soc. Edin’ Vol. XXXV.

KipSTON ON FossitL PLANTS FROM THE POTTERIES COAL FIELD.

9. .= 30 10.* 30

Gdston, delt M*farlane & Erskine, Lith? Edin?

( 99 )

VI.—The Solar Spectrum at Medium and Low Altitudes. Observations of the Region
between Wave-Lengths 6024 and 4861 A.U., made at Lord Crawford's Observa-
tory, Dun Echt, during the Years 1887 to 1889. By Lupwic Brcxrr, Ph.D.,
Temporary Second Assistant-Astronomer, Royal Observatory, Edinburgh.

(Read 21st July 1890.)

1. INTRODUCTION.

At the end of 1886 a method occurred to me of rapidly recording the positions of the
lines of the solar spectrum, which I thought might be used with advantage for deter-
mining the faint “ Telluric dry-gas lines” near D, mentioned in Professor Prazzi SmyTH’s
maps of The Visual Solar Spectrum in 1884.* The fundamental idea of the recording
apparatus is that of magnifying by some mechanical means the motion of the grating, or
prism, to such an extent that it can be recorded on a continuous fillet of paper. The
viewing telescope being then firmly clamped, the exact positions of the grating can be
pricked off on the strip of paper as the lines are successively brought to the fixed cross
in the field of view.

For the satisfactory use of the method two conditions suggest themselves as desirable.
First, the punctures should not be less than a good-sized pin hole, and the interval
between the closest lines, which the spectroscope is able to separate, should be represented
on the paper strip by a space of several tenths of an inch. Now, in one of RowLanp’s
oratings, the angular interval between the two positions of the grating which bring the
components of the H, line to the same direction is but 1 second of arc in the second
spectrum. To represent this small quantity by several tenths of an inch, we must either
use an enormous radius or multiply the angular movement some thousands of times.

By way of experiment, I geared together on a board five pairs of well-finished wheels
and pinions, belonging to an excellent screw-cutting lathe, and observed under the highest
magnifying power of a microscope the motion of the slowest wheel, when the fastest one
was steadily turned by hand. ‘The results being very satisfactory, Professor CoPELAND,
then Astronomer at Lord Crawrorp’s Observatory, suggested continuing these experiments
with the head of the lathe mentioned. Soon afterwards Lord Crawrorp, whose atten-
tion had been drawn to the promising state of the problem, kindly decided to erect a
temporary station where the sun could be observed near the horizon. The place selected
was the top of the Barmekin, a commanding eminence about a mile and a half west of

| Dun Echt Observatory. Lord Crawrorp also sent from his own workshop a horizontal

* Trans. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. xxxii. part 3.
VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 6). 8

100 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

lathe suitably altered to replace the one first used. Since it formed a part of the record-
ing apparatus, it will be described later on.

Dr CopELaNnD was kind enough to undertake all the trouble of arranging and superin-
tending the erection of the observing station, where camping accommodation was also
provided on account of the short interval between sunset and sunrise in summer. The
first week Dr CopELAND camped out, but had to abandon his intention of partaking in
the work, because the preparations for observing the solar eclipse of 1887 in Russia
required all his attention. There was only one fine sunrise during that week, when the
Rain-band was observed. But on account of the difference between our scales of inten-
sity, it was necessary to exclude these observations. For the same reason I also struck
out the first four sets of my observations which were taken in the first spectrum. The
whole of the later readings were made on a uniform plan in the second spectrum.

During the years 1887 and 1888, I spent all the nights on the hill from the begin-
ning of June to the middle of August, by which time the lengthening nights made it
practicable to sleep below. This change was by no means unwelcome, as the slight
wooden hut became very damp as the season advanced. The observations, however,
were continued up to the end of September. It would have been advantageous to have
extended them over the winter, but a range of hills to the south of the Barmekin, which
rise about 4° above the horizon, prevent all observations at the most desirable altitudes,
while the prevailing mild winter temperature offered little change in the atmospheric
conditions. It was therefore considered not worth while to alter the position of the
heliostat, which was standing too near the hut for winter observations.

The top of the Barmekin being 850 feet above the level of the sea, and about 14 miles
from the coast, is a most suitable place for this kind of work. To the east many of the
hills are below the horizontal plane, and the sea can be seen at various points; to the
west there is a range of hills about 7 miles distant, rising at but a few points more than
a fraction of a degree above the horizon. Further south, however, as we have said, the
Deeside hills obstruct the view considerably.

The original working plan of restricting our survey to the yellow part of the spectrum
was soon abandoned, and we proposed observing as much of the solar spectrum near the
horizon as possible. In 1887 the lines from A=6030 to b were surveyed, and in the
following year the tract from b to # was added. Beyond Fit was found impracticable
to proceed, as the finest condition of the atmosphere, such as very rarely occurs, is required
to see the fainter lines when the sun approaches the horizon. There was already great
difficulty experienced in observing the spectrum from c to /, and we had often to break
off work at this part of the spectrum, because the wires of the viewing telescope were no
longer discernible, although there was still sufficient light to study the less refrangible
parts of the spectrum, ‘Three sets of observations were added in 1889 to settle some
doubtful points.

It may be mentioned that in the summer of 1889 the work was continued below A = 6030
towards the red end, but this section was not completed when I removed to Edinburgh

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM. 101

at the beginning of September of that year. I hope, however, to have an opportunity of
completing the survey next summer.

The weather in 1887, though fine for low sun observations, was generally unfavour-
able when the sun was at a considerable altitude. The Barmekin, too, being forty minutes’
walk from the Observatory, it was not, of course, possible to utilise every opportunity.
In 1888, however, the remaining parts of the high sun observations were supplied.

2. SHorT SUMMARY.

In this memoir we publish a catalogue of 3637 lines of the solar spectrum between
the wave-lengths 6024 and 4861 Angstrim units, including 928 telluric lines. They
are deduced from 26,107 observations, yielded by 47 sunsets and 32 sunrises, and from
8325 observations made when the sun was at medium altitudes. 28 lines excepted, the
whole telluric spectrum is found by these observations to consist of three bands ranging
from \ = 6020 to 5666 A.U., \=5530 to 5386 A.U., and A=5111 to 4981 A.U. They
contain respectively 678, 106, and 116 lines.

All the darker lines of these bands are due to water-vapour. For the fainter lines,
however, the small variations in the amount of water-vapour in our atmosphere did not
suffice to produce different intensities of blackness at the same altitude of the sun.
Nevertheless, investigations on the behaviour of the lines, combined with the results
obtained by former observers, led us to assume that the water-vapour lines of the first
band are split into two distinct groups by a band of faint lines, which are probably due
to oxygen. These two groups have been called the Rain-band and the 6-band. They
were known to Sir Davip Brewster more than fifty years ago, and the description
he gives of them virtually contains the assumption, that they are caused by the
absorption of water-vapour. His drawing of telluric absorption bands gives also our
other two bands under the designation ¢ and u, besides some other bands, which our
observations do not attribute to atmospheric absorption. The ¢-band has never been
mentioned by later observers to my knowledge.

Of all the telluric bands within our zone, the Rain-band is the only one which has
hitherto been resolved into lines. The names of Anasrrém, Kircunorr, Hormann,
JANSSEN, Prazzi Smytu, and Cornu, mark a continuous progress in our knowledge of its
structure. Whilst Anestrom’s drawing (1869) of this band contains only 19 lines, M.
Cornv resolves it into 170 lines, by observations made with a RuTHERFURD grating in
the years 1879 to 1882. Of the S-band there is an interesting account in AnasTROM’s
Recherches sur le Spectre Solaire.* We have also to mention that in Professor Prazzi
Smytu’s maps of The Visual Solar Spectrum in 1884,t the region where the 6-band
begins is marked as Region of Low Sun-Band of Thin and closely-set Telluric Dry-Gas
Lines. But as this note stands within the spectrum copied from Anasrrom’s map for

* Upsal, 1868. + Trams. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. xxxii. part 3.

102 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

reference, and AncstROm himself ascribes the §-band to the same medium which produces
the A, B, and a-groups, it is not clear whether Professor Smytu arrived at this conclusion
from his own observations, or from those of the Swedish physicist. However, since
AnestrOm’s band extends much further to the refrangible side, we are inclined to think
that the note represents Professor SMYTH’s opinion.

The water-vapour band (.), between b and F, is described by AncsTROM as very
strong in summer. It is the same which Mr Maxwett Hatt has utilised as a rain-
indicator at Jamaica.

8. Tue INSTRUMENT.

The optical part of the instrument is the same as has been used at Dun Echt Observa-
tory for several years. The sun’s rays, after reflection by the heliostat, fall on an object-
glass, of 6 inches aperture and 7 feet focal length, which forms an image of the sun on
the slit attached to the collimator. By two endless cords the observer can correct the
position of the heliostat without going outside the hut. ‘The slit is formed by two plates
of platinum with both jaws opening simultaneously by the motion of a screw. By
a rack and pinion the slit can be brought into the focus of the collimating lens. The
latter has a free aperture of 4 inches and a focal length of 4 feet. Two feet in front of
it the RowianD grating stands on the faceplate of the recording apparatus. It is fixed
in a brass frame with a T footpiece, with levelling screws at the ends. The RowLanp
grating—a present from the Johns Hopkins University at Baltimore to the Earl of
Crawford’s Observatory—contains 14,438 lines to every inch, ruled on speculum metal,
its ruled surface being 5°5 by 3°5 inches. Although there is a slight difference in the
focus of the spectra on either side of the normal, we are convinced that the irregularities
in ruling which cause this defect have been without influence on this work. This is
satisfactorily shown by the fact, that close double lines, which were separated by
Professor Piazzt SmytTu with similar optical appliances, were found to be double and
well defined at Dun Echt. Moreover, a great number of faint lines, never recorded
before, were observed on both sides of the normal of the grating, their reality being often
abundantly established by their increased intensity in a low sun.

The diffracted rays are received by the 4-inch object-glass of the viewing telescope,
of which the focal length is 4 ft. 11 mm. There is a filar micrometer provided with two
cross wires inclined 45° to the horizon. Their intersection serves as the zero point.
An eye-piece, with a magnifying power of 120 diameters, was employed on all occasions.
The viewing telescope forms an angle of 25° with the collimator. Lach is supported on
a separate concrete pier.

The recording apparatus consists of two distinct parts, one for magnifying the
angular motion of the grating, and the other for recording the corresponding are on a
broad fillet of paper. The grating stands on a plate attached to the same vertical axis
as a 6-inch worm-wheel (A) of 180 teeth. This wheel is turned by a tangent-screw (a) on

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM. 1038

the end of a half-inch steel rod 12 inches in length, the other end carries a 123-inch gun-
metal wheel (B) with 150 teeth. The position of the rod can be adjusted to insure
proper contact of the screw with the worm-wheel. A system of wheelwork turns
the wheel B. The latter is geared into a 1$-inch pinion (b) of 15 teeth, on the axis of
which a second wheel (C) of 114 inches diameter and 140 teeth gears with a second pinion
(c) of the same dimensions as the first. The two horizontal axes of b, C, andc are
clamped in the slot of an adjustable bracket. All these appliances are attached to a
strong mahogany frame, 2 feet square by 2 feet high, provided with three foot screws,
and carried by a massive concrete pier.

It is apparent that the angular motion of the second pinion (c) is 180 x 45° x 149
equal to 16,800 times as large as that of the grating. By a long 32-inch iron rod the
second pinion can be turned by the observer from the eye-end of the viewing telescope.

The rod, however, is not fixed immediately to the pinion, but transmits its angular
motion by a very useful kind of joint, without communicating any longitudinal vibration.
It is employed by Mr L. CasEta in his recording anemometers, and was introduced here
at the suggestion of Dr CopeLanp. ‘Two square bars are screwed crosswise together, each
of which fits exactly without tightness into a deep groove in a corresponding disk. The
grooved surfaces of the disks face each other, and turn in parallel planes, the only con-
nection between them being the gliding cross. If the axes of rotation be parallel,
although not necessarily in the same line, the transmission of rotary motion from one to
the other is perfect. To prevent the cross from altering its plane of rotation, one of its
bars has a projecting plate which slides in narrow channels at the back of the groove of
the corresponding disk. In our instrument one of the disks is carried by the second
pinion (¢), while the axis of the other is supported by the pillar of the viewing telescope,

and is connected with the long iron rod by a Hooxe’s joint.

Underneath the eye-end of the viewing telescope, the other end of the iron bar is
attached, by another Hooxe’s joint, to the axis of a wooden “recording” wheel. This
wheel, which is 64 inches in diameter, rotates inside a narrow box in such a way that
its rim, 2 inches in breadth, is level with the outside of the lid of the box. Above the
exposed part of the recording wheel is a loaded swing frame carrying a roller of the full
breadth of the wheel. Both wheel and roller are covered with sand paper, to insure a
grip on the paper fillet which passes between them. A load of about 5 lbs. is sufficient
to prevent slipping. When observing, it is by turning this roller that the grating is
moved. The paper, 1% inch wide, is supplied from a large roll inside the box, and passes
through a slit in the lid and over a flat surface to the wheels. On the lid, turning on a
common axis, are five recording levers provided with prickers at their free ends. The
prickers, which form dots in a straight line across the fillet about 3 inch apart, are easily
worked by the thumb and fingers of one hand, either singly or simultaneously. To this
end the levers are suitably splayed at the fulcrum ends. The levers are smartly raised
by springs as soon as the pressure is removed. ‘Thirty-one different records can be made
by the various combinations of the five needles, but only 19 have been employed. The

104 DR L, BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

full revolutions of the recording wheel are registered in a simple manner. A strong nail
was driven into the rim of the wheel, and filed away to a sharp edge, which leaves a, dis-
tinct mark in the paper every time it passes beneath the roller. These marks served as
zero points in reading off the observations. We may mention that in the 3500 feet of
paper that contain the observations, not one of these marks is wanting; and judging
from the intervals between them, the fillet has never once slipped. Apart from this
safeouard, the observer, when turning the roller, could always see in the viewing tele-
scope that the grating had moved; and this could not possibly happen unless the fillet
had correspondingly advanced. If the recording wheel was intentionally held fast, it
was impossible to draw the fillet over it by turning the roller.

As to the linear distance between two lines on the paper, it may easily be computed
from the figures given, that the D lines for instance are 19? inches apart, whilst the
whole region from A = 6024 to 4861 would require a strip 314 feet long.

The apparatus works in the following manner :—The observer with his right hand
turns a toothed wheel on the same axis as the roller; this drives the recording wheel and
moves the paper along by friction. The long iron rod transmits this motion to the disk
of the connecting joint, and then by means of the cross to the other disk which is fixed
to the second pinion. This second pinion, acting through the wheels and endless screw,
slowly rotates the grating, thus causing the lines of the spectrum to move across the field
of view. When the line under observation coincides with the intersection of the wires,
the fingers of the left hand depress one or more of the needles according to the degree
of blackness of the line. If the lines of the spectrum are near together, they can be
registered as quickly as the eye can appreciate their individual characteristics.

In spite of all the connections and the smallness of the worm-wheel, the probable
error of one observation of the relative position of the grating is but +0”°77 of arc as
computed from lines half-way between starfdard lines. This corresponds to 95.35 inch
in the circumference of the worm-wheel.

For effecting a quick motion of the grating, the bracket to which the wheelwork is
fastened turns round a pivot at the upper end, and can be raised out of position by a
string. By a long wooden handle the observer can then rotate the tangent-screw
directly, without quitting his seat at the eye-end of the viewing telescope. _

The instrument could be much simplified. A small table moving easily round a
vertical axis from which a rigid arm projects as far as its rigidity permits, and of course
balanced, and a screw of low pitch acting on the arm similarly to the slow motion of a
Transit-Circle in Declination, would be a simple substitute for all our multiplying gear.

When a great number of lines have to be determined by eye-observations, such an
instrument will always give accurate results in a comparatively short time, provided it is
possible to introduce a sufficient number of standard lines.

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM. 105

4. THE OBSERVATIONS.

The working plan of 1887 embraced the region 603 to 6, to be observed both in the
evening and morning in both the second spectra. For the sunsets the plan was carried
out, whilst the sunrise observations are complete in only one of the spectra. In the
following year, 1888, the deficiency of observations in the one spectrum was made up to
such an extent as was consistent with the idea of finishing the spectrum up to during
that year. The sun at medium altitudes has been observed at least once on both sides of
the normal in the two spectra.

On beginning a set of observations the first line was identified in Professor SmyTH’s
maps of the Solar Spectrum. This work has afforded us the greatest help, not only
while the observations were in progress, but also in the identification of the standard
lines in the reductions.

The day of the month was entered on each strip, followed by readings of the dry and
wet bulb thermometers and notes about the weather. Sometimes the intensity of one
or two,water-vapour lines between the sodium lines was also noted. The time at which
a line was observed was occasionally put down, to allow of computing the sun’s altitude
above the horizon and the quantity of air traversed by the rays that entered the spectro-
scope. At the end of each set the last line was again identified and the meteorological
observations repeated.

As the five needles of the recording apparatus made marks in a line at right angles
to the motion of the paper, any of them sufficed to record the position of the grating ;
while certain combinations served to describe the lines. Of the 19 signals employed
14 refer to the comparative blackness of the lines. With the left hand resting on the
five levers the thumb was used to indicate 1, and the consecutive fingers respectively
2, 3,4, 5. This covers the five lowest classes of intensity. The following numbers up
to 14 were obtained by addition, thus :—

6=5,1; 7=5,2; 8=5, 3; 9=5, 4; 10=5, 4,1; 11=5, 4,2; 12=5, 4,3; 18=5,4,3,1;

14=5, 4, 3, 2.

Since the main. object of our work was the determination of telluric lines, it was of
the utmost importance to retain a uniform scale of intensity that did not alter during
the time the same part of the spectrum was under observation. All the observations
had therefore to be made in either of the two second spectra and with the same eye-piece
on the viewing telescope. We defined by intensity =3 the faintest lines that could
just be distinctly seen across the whole breadth of the second spectrum, while those
barely visible were designated by 1. The two webs forming the cross in the field of
view being of different thicknesses were used as standards for intensities 6 and 8. The
remaining classes were correspondingly estimated. If a line appeared much broader than
corresponded to its intensity, the record of the line was closely followed by a sign made
with the needles 3 and 2; and when the breadth was considerable, both its borders were

106 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

marked in this way. Most of these lines have been resolved into two or more lines on
other occasions. A close double line whose components were not readily separated was
marked as a single one with the sign “ 3, 1” affixed. There were also signs for indicating
the blackness of an interval between two dark lines, for suspected irregularities in the
working of the apparatus, and lastly for recording the interference of clouds.

The following table gives the number of the series, the day of the month and
week, the Greenwich mean time at the beginning and end, and the wave-length to which
they belong. These are followed by the number of lines observed and the apparent
altitude of the sun at the given times. Further, the table shows the elastic force of
water-vapour as computed from Guyort’s tables, the pressure of the air (at the observing
station), the outside temperature, the degree of transparency of the air ranging from 1
equal very transparent to 5 for thick haze, the direction of the wind and its strength
rising up to 10 fora gale. Amongst the remarks the intensities of 2 water-vapour lines
have been given sometimes,a symbolising the double line, \=5885'18 A.U., and b
d= 5833'24 ALU,

| TABLE

107

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

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VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 6).

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

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DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

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112 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

From these tables it appears that the spectrum has been observed on 79 occasions
near the horizon, yielding a total of 17,782 observations, Since the work has been done
in 44" 54™, each line required on the average 9 seconds. There are 32 sunrises and 47
sunsets, the former with 45 per cent. of the observed lines. The observations of the sun
at medium altitudes amount to 8325, which have been determined in 29" 7™, thus allow-
ing about 13 seconds for each line, or half as much again as in low sun. While the slit
was as narrow in high sun as it could be made, it had to be opened more or less if the
sun approached the horizon. Yet there are several series, especially in the less refrangible
part of the spectrum, which have been obtained with a narrow slit down to the horizon.

5. Tue REDUCTIONS.

The lines were read off from the strips to one-thousandth of a revolution of the record-
ing wheel, by using a paper scale pasted on a piece of wood. One revolution covered
192 in. The marks made by the projecting nail on the recording wheel served as zero
points for each revolution. With the exception of the observations obtained in 1887,
this trying work was done twice over by James M‘PueErson, the attendant at Dun Hecht
Observatory. From these records the wave-lengths are easily computed when the correc-
tion of the zero point has been determined from the standard lines.

Let C be the angle between the collimator and the viewing telescope, and a the angle
between the collimator and the normal to the grating, positive on the side of the viewer,
and let a be the distance in millimetres between the lines of the grating. Then we have
for the spectrum of the nth order

* —sin (Ca) — sin a.

The positive sign has to be chosen if the directly reflected beam of light falls between
the collimator and the viewer or beyond the collimator, and the negative sign if it lies
on the other side of the viewing telescope. In the first position the less refrangible part
of the spectrum precedes the more refrangible rays when the grating is turned by the
recording apparatus. Let x, correspond to this position (I) of the grating, and x, to the
other (II), and let the dispersions be A, and A, as defined by

then we have
0 > eee ee eee
1 a cos(C—a,) & Cosa,’ 2~ @-cos(C—&,) @ Gos,’

and since #,>«,, we have, disregarding the sign,

Age wis

* Compare HassELBERG, Untersuchungen iiber das Absorptionsspectrum des Jodgases. St Petersburg, 1889.

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM. 1138

From the constant of the grating a= 0°0017592 mm. and C= 25°, we find for the second
spectrum if X= 5500 A.U.

@,=—6°2; 2,=381°2; A,=116A,.

Suppose the rays from the edges of the slit enclose the angle 2s before diffraction, and let
the angles be 20, and 2o, after diffraction. Then

o, d(C—2) cos% oa, d(C—a,) cosa,
s da, cosa, 8 dat, COS 2,
Gy >s> Oo»

This shows that the angular value of the slit remains unaltered if the collimator serves
also as viewing telescope. Further, we see that the angular value of the slit in spectrum
I, which gives the greater dispersion, has increased. The separation of close lines
depends both on the dispersion and on the apparent size of the slit; we must therefore

A A
compare [* and —>-
1

Apete le dos, 1A let
ond 6 cose,” oc, G Sicorm)
therefore
iC Be
o, \ oy”

which means that although the dispersion A, is greater on side I than on side II, the
separating power is less in the first position.
In the special case for \= 5500 A.U., it is

do O71

Ar_ 14641,

In this investigation one important point has not been taken into consideration at all,
viz., the intensity of the light. It would require special experiments to find the intensity
of the diffracted rays for the several positions of the grating with regard to the direction
of the incident light. But we may compute the direct loss of light incurred by our
spectroscope. The breadth of the ruled surface of the grating allows the same amount
of light to be received from the collimator in both second spectra. After diffraction the
horizontal diameter of the beam of light becomes

COS &.

: cos @
24 in. and d,= :
COS @

COS Ly

4, in.,
or for \=5500 ALU.,
d,=3°44in.; d,=4°65 in.

The aperture of the viewing telescope being 4 in., the second position of the grating
entails a loss of light of about 15 per cent,

114 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

After all, it is difficult to say which of the two positions is the better for observing.
But the formule leave no doubt that it is most advantageous to have the viewing
telescope as close to the collimator as possible.

After this digression we return to the first formula, which we shall write

AN mr C

a Ae
sin {| = —a#)=-+——_,.. or + — sec =:
( 2a cos = a2 2

Instead of « we introduce the angular motion of the zero point of the recording wheel.
Let + be the number of revolutions of the recording wheel required to turn the grating
from the position «=0 to «=a, hence

1296000”

c= "T5040 r= [1:8872957]"'r ,

thus giving a simple relation between 7 and X.
A table was computed for the second spectrum giving » with 7 as argument, the
interval being one-tenth of a revolution of the recording wheel. On account of the

relation
t,=C=a, sore C7", ,

one table suffices for both positions of the grating. The following is an abstract of the
table employed :—

+7.) || Nin AUVs | 1. Dike +r, | Ain AU. | 1. Diff +r |Ain AU. | 1 Dik
380 | 605592 | 60-16 310° | 363205 | 60:73 || —240 || be0e33
370 | 5995-76 300 | 5579:32 . 61:27
76 | 60-24 32 | 60:80 || -230 | 5145-06
360 | 5935-52 ~990 | 5511-52 : 61:33
60:33 60:89 || -220 | 5083-73
~350 | 5875-19 280 | 5450-63 | 3 61-40
60-41 60-96 || —210 | 5022-33
_340 | 5814-78 270 | 5389-67 3 61:47
60:49 61-04 || —200 | 4960-86
~330 | 5754-29 260 | 5328-63 61:54
60:58 61-11 || —190 | 4899-39
~320 |" 5603°71 (1, 8908 ol +250 4) MopeyeD2 ON Bs 4 jab: || agape apa
~310 | 5633-05 ~240 | 5206-33

All the standard lines were first expressed in terms of 7, and then compared, in every
series of observations, with the observed revolutions of the recording wheel. Had the
apparatus been perfect, the differences between calculated and observed quantities would
have been constant for the same set, the difference being the correction of the zero point,
after allowing for which the foregoing table would have supplied the wave-lengths by
interpolation. Owing, however, to irregularities in the mechanism, changes of tempera-
ture, &c., the zero point changed usually by a few hundredths of a revolution from line
to line. So long as these changes were moderate in quantity it was easy to allow for
them by a simple graphic process, but in certain positions of the worm-wheel the correc-
tions changed very rapidly. ‘The reducing curve then became so steep as no longer to

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM. 115

permit of accurate interpolation. When this happened we introduced another table,
computed from the original one by altering all the first differences by the same quantity.
This quantity was selected so that the first and last standard lines of the series gave
the same correction. Of course “r” had again to be interpolated from this auxiliary
table for the standard lines, and the whole process repeated. The curve could then be
readily drawn. Geometrically the ordinates of the new curve are equal to the differences
of the ordinates of the first curve and of a straight line drawn through the first and last
points, or, in other words, the second table eliminates the progressive error in the motion
of the apparatus.

The standard lines are those published by Professor H. A. Rowanp, in his essay ‘“‘ On
the Relative Wave-lengths of the Lines of the Solar Spectrum.” * To these were added
fifteen lines, principally between ¢ and /’, which were reduced from the memoir entitled
“ Bestimmung der Wellenldngen von 300 Linien im Sonnenspectrum,’ + by Drs MULLER
and Kempr, and from Ancstrom’s Recherches sur le Spectre solaire. Twenty-two
lines between b and #’ which were determined by Messrs Rowianp and MULLER-Kempr,
gave the constant difference —0°19 ALU., the probable error of one difference being
+004. To the same region forty-seven comparisons between wave-lengths determined
by RowLanp and Anesrrom were made, and the differences combined by a curve. The
probable error of one difference amounted to + 0°07 A.U. Avyesrrom’s measures,
however, were only combined with those of MULLER—Kempr with regard to their weights
when there was no doubt left that the wave-leneths referred to the same line.

The reduction of the bulk of observations was carried on in three columns; one
column contained the readings, the second the corrections of the zero point as taken from
the curve, and the third the wave-lengths, which were interpolated from the table with
the difference of the values of the two preceding columns.

All the wave-lengths were then compiled, and the corresponding lines identified. This
turned out to be a most difficult task in those regions where many faint lines of the same
intensity stood close together and were occasionally wanting. In such cases special
drawings were prepared and the most probable identifications adopted. There was not
so much difficulty experienced with faint lines in the neighbourhood of darker ones.
Neighbouring lines of different intensities were invariably combined line for line with
others of corresponding blackness, although other combinations might have brought
the wave-lengths to a closer agreement. Very often close double lines were found not to
have been separated when the sun was close to the horizon or the faintness of the hght
had necessitated a wider opening of the slit.

The adopted values of the wave-lengths are the means of all the observations made,
as well at medium altitudes of the sun as near the horizon. In the case of double lines,
which had not always been resolved, the mean of the middle was first computed and then
corrected by the average distance between the lines. The fainter lines having, as a rule,

* American Journal of Science, vol. xxxiii., March 1887.
+ Publicationen des Astrophysikalischen Observatoriums zu Potsdam, Fiinfter Band, Potsdam, 1886.

VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 6). U

116 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

been observed on fewer occasions, it was found inadmissible to take the mean values of
the wave-lengths before the single determinations had been corrected for systematic
deviations derived from the darker lines.

As the observations of the standard lines were reduced with the others, the wave-
lengths thus obtaimed should not deviate far from the standard values adopted. How-
ever, we must not forget that the curve was drawn as regularly as possible, and therefore
at places where two or more standard lines lie close together discrepancies must occur in
the several determinations of the wave-lengths of the standard lines. In the following
table we give a comparison of the wave-lengths determined by Professor RowLanp and
by Drs Mtiier and Kempr with the mean of our final values. The Potsdam wave-
lengths, which served as standards, are marked by a star in the column MK-B. Double
lines have a d affixed.

Tasxe II.
Final i Final
Wave-Lengths. R-B MK-B Wave Loneenet R-B MK-B Wave-Lengths, — es lo

6024°22 -1 +16 584836 xg +16* 5657:99 +3
6021-94 +1 nied 5831°81 ae +15* 5655°704 -—6
6020°23d +5 see 5816°50 0 +18 5645°76 -l we
6016°81 -3 vel 5809°35 +1 a 5644°31 ae 5
6013-68 0 +15 5806'89 — +16* 5644:13 aoe i is
6008°71 -l Sac 5798°36 -3 an} 5641°58 +1 ae
6003°17 0 +16 5791:14 0 +16 5638°39 Bur +19
5987°20 +1 +20 5788-09 -—2 ee 9634:02 ws +18
5984-901 +8 Hic 5784:02 -1 ae 562470 0 + 5
597694 -1 +17 5782°30 -2 =: 5624718 0 a
597551 0 se 5780:72 sia +18 5615-82 -1 429
596597 ane +15 5775°24 -l +12 5615°44 +1
5958°45 ans +10 5772°28 +2 ae 5603-03d -l +12
5956°86 -1 are 5763715 0 + 8 5594:87 Se } ae
5955°10 +1 ae 5754°82 0 + 8 5594-66° ee
5951°68 +3 sae 575329 -1 aes 5588'92 -l sae
5948°67 +1 + 26 5752-21 -2 ee 5586:90 ae +14
5946:14 -l Mae 574812 cis + 7 558212 0 oe
5934:82 -1 +17 5741:97 +2 cies 5578°82 “as +19
5930°33 +1 vee 5731°92 -1 +15 5576°22 0 ite
5919°83 -—4 BS 5718-00 sae +13 5572'98 Se +16
5916-42 -1 ie 5715°25 -l ise 5569°76 +1 se
5914°32d 0 +15 5709-71 -l 12 5565°83 we +16
5905-81 +1 os 5709°55 pal } gf 5555-05 =a ei
5901°62 +1 ae 5701-71 0 ce 5544-07 0 ne
589833 0 aie 5698:57d af +13 5543°34 0 +10
5896:08 0 +17 5688°38 -1 +13 5534:98 +1 os
589308? -—5 58 5682°84° +5 17 5528°56 0 +12
5890712 0 +11 5682-41 ” i % BILD Td 2 +18
5889-78 +2 a 567921 -3 sei 5513-12 0 ae
5883°98d -1 +21 5675'59 0 +17 5506°92 0 ae
5862-51 0 +15 5662°68 0 bce 5501°58 +3 +21
5859°73 +1 oe 5659-04 ee 5497°68 -2 +15
5857°61 0 +19 5658-82 +13 5487°88 ash +19

| 5853°85 -1 sc 5658°65 5477°05 -l sae

1 Telluric companion. 2 Telluric companion. 3 Telluric companion.

4 Another line to the violet side. 5 Another line to the violet side.

OL << sO Oe ea Cee ee ae

Se

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM. 117

Final Final Final

Wave-Lengths. Bo Wels Wave-Lengths. ae Bente Wave-Lengths. a Meee
5476°87d! fe +10 5255-01 aE +31 5090°88 +2 +24
5466°51 qe a! a0: 5253'58 —2 Boe 5084:20 Spt +19
5463°44 -2 9 5250°75 +1 5083°47 -1 Db
5463°11 2 } +12 | 5950-33 0 ; +31 1 5076-43 ie +19*
546259 +8 ae 5242-60 oa +15 5068°88 0 ane
5455°68d 0 +12 5233°02 +3 +19 506530 Be
5447-04 +1 +16 5229-98 -3 foo 5065°12 ios +24
5434°65 +1 +16 5227°31 sist 5064°73 +4
5429-86 ont +16 5226°98 é +33 5060719 +0 a
5424-21 -1 aa 522667 oe 5051-74 fat +11
5415:32 +2 +20 0225°62 0 nap 5049-94 0 +11
5405°91 0 +15 5217°52 -3 a 5041°80d BOE + 16*
5400°60? fae +23 0215:27 +1 + 29 5041:00d we + 24%
539726 aml +19 5210-48 +1 ae: 503604 —l +18
5393:27 +3 +30 5208°59d sie +18 5027:°27 Don +24*
5389°62 -]1 +21 5204°62 +3 Boe 5020°14 0 aie
5383°49 +1 +19 5202-46 —4 +15 5018:47d oie +18
5379°71 —] ae 5198°81 +1 ae 5014°36 -1 ado
5371°63 -1 +11 5193-07 0 one 5012136 ae +33
5370:09 0 ota 5192-44 oe +23 5007-34 +3 + 24
536762 -2 +17 5191°55 $3 +21 5006:26 -2 \ 4.93
5362'93d opie +22 5188 -89d 0 abe 500585 -1 a
536 1°76 -1 sie 5183°73 0 +20 4999-64 =I +16
5353°52 +1 +19 5173°83 +1 oe 4994:23 +2 a:
534599 GbE +17 5172°78 +1 + 6 4991:27d a +17*
9341°22 ane +14 5171°73 —2 ee 4985-53d ns +21
5333°044 0 +12 5169°10d -1 ane 4981-85 -1 S66
532861 l 5167:51d -l +16 4980°32 -—3 + 20
5328°34 +17 5165°54 -—2 bee 4978-75 —4 as
5328-06 i nl 516239 | +10 +21 4973-25 eis B15
532432 -1 +17 5159-18 = +22 4966°21 ee +15*
5316°79d +1 +22 5155-90 -—4 ae 4957 54d os + 16*
5307°49 -1 +17 5154:17 -1 atie 4950°26 re +17*
5302°43 Stn +17 5150°94 +2 aod 4942-65 50 +17*
5300°86 —2 ate 5148-25d Bee +19 4934-20 =2 +17
5298-90 Ace 5146°62 -l oe 4924°90 = I abe
5298'57 As 413 5142-97d +2 eae 4924-04 +1 +21
5298°34 Sop 5141°81 +4 ade 4920°63 0 +16
529806 de 5139°44d +3 +28 4919-127 -1 + 8
529676 +4 Diese 5133°82 -l +18 4907°85 +2 soe
5288°68 -4 +17 5127°47 0 ait 4903°42 =1l +21
5283°75 0 +18 5126°32 —l ges 4900°31 = (| aac
5281°89 +2 +26 5125:26d Bt + 22 4900:05 -1 aa5
5276°20 -6 29 5121-74 -1 Bee 4891-68 “in +10
5275°89 aes \ # 5115°50 0 +29 4890°87 +1 +23
5273°37d +1 20d 5110-48 +2 gar 4885°38d aon +19*
5270°43d 0 +12 5109°76 0) Sor 4878°30 aan + 19*
5269-66 -l +24 5107°63d ie + 22 4871-41 200 + 19*
5265°73d bon +24 5105°67 -l es 4861-42 qe i. +22
5262°36 sue 5098°72d Sac +19 4859°86 0 ste
9262°28 +25 5097°10 -—3
5261:82 -l (+5)

5096°94
? Another line to the violet side. 4 Companion to the violet side. 6 Double line to the red side.
? Companion to the red side. 5 Probably Rowland’s 5241°60. 7 Three lines to the violet side.

3 Companion to the violet side.

118 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

The intensity of the lines adopted for medium sun is the mean of the estimations
made near the meridian; yet if the mean fell between two classes of the intensity scale,
the low sun observations were consulted. As to the fainter lines the mean of the
intensity had often to be corrected in accordance with the definition of our classes of
intensity. Thus a faint line which had only once been seen was considered equal 1,
except when it stood near a dark line, or was a component of a close double line.
Further, if a line of intensity “3” at high sun had frequently been overlooked in low
sun, we assumed it to be of intensity “2.” Moreover, a line of intensity “2” was
entered as “3” when never missed either in high or low altitudes of the sun.

Before the intensity of the telluric lines can be treated of, it is necessary to show how
the absorption at different altitudes may be expressed in units of that in the zenith.

6. ABSORPTION AT DIFFERENT ALTITUDES.

This problem has been solved in its simplest form by Lapiace. Supposing the
absorption to increase with the first power of the density, he finds the absorption in our
atmosphere, for any zenith-distance, proportional to the refraction divided by the sine of
the zenith-distance. Yet M. Janssen * has shown that, for certain bands in the absorp-
tion spectrum of oxygen, the same absorption is produced in columns of oxygen of
different lengths, if these are inversely proportional to the squares of the densities.

This discovery induces us to develope the problem generally ; the more so, as one of
these remarkable oxygen bands falls within the region of our work.

Let s be the uniform density of a layer of atmosphere bounded by spheres of the
radi 7 andr+dr; and let v’ be the angle between the curve of light and the radius r.
Suppose the absorption to be proportional to the (n+ 1)th power of the density ; then we

have
dr

~ cos v’

d¥ aie ; 4 ; : . Sys

where F denotes the length of a column of atmosphere of the density 1, which produces
the same absorption.
Assuming BessEL’s hypothesis t respecting the decrease of density, we have

P=p oe anu s=1-— : ; - : a);

in which py designates the density at the surface of the earth, 8 a constant (= 745°747),
and a the radius of the earth.

Now suppose that » and py are respectively the indices of refraction in the layer of air

* Vierteljahrsschrift der Astronomischen Gesellschaft, 25 Jahrgang, Erstes Heft, Leipzig, 1890.
+ Busser, Fundamenta astronomie .... . Regiomonti, 1818, Sectio iv.

a ee oe ee ee ee ee eee

Po- :

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM. 119

under consideration and in the air at the earth’s surface, Z the angle between the curve
of light and the radius a, then
Tusinv’ =dp,sinZ . i : : , ; na):

Combining these formulz we have

a —(n-+1)Bs
dE = apt* sae se ea)

Dies
1—sy 1
(1-8) (n+1)8 aoe Z—(1—K,)-+(2s—s*) sin? Z
0.

a form similar to Lapuace’s differential equation of astronomical refraction.* We
integrate this equation at first for large Z, following almost the same course as LAPLACE
has chosen for »=0. We introduce with him the constant of refraction defined by

2
dq tose
MU
and consider that :
eI ees
—
Mo—1l py
hence and by (2)
we
joel Eee.) oats | oe) errs 69)
Ko

G—s? » _ changes from 1 at the earth’s surface to 1°025 at a height of 50 miles. We may
a, 0

therefore develope (4) into a series according to powers of s. The first term becomes after

integrating
=I) de-@+Bs
= :
: ‘ //sctiauws ole -P)
sin? Z
Denote
eer =
sin? gt sot!
and

a
Pau a7 5 a . A . . . (6).

Lacrance’s formula for Reversion gives

a

e~@+1)Bs = e-~@+)py =
ag sin? Z

m-1
(n+ Ifo". (7) (n-+m)"-Xn-+1)B"-e- EME

Hence the mth term of F, becomes

Paap ye [Ome T ene feel
om ="PO (m—1)!_ sin? Z J/cos®Z+2 sin? Z.a

* Lapuace, Traité de mécanique celeste, Tome iv. livre x. p. 246. Paris, 1805.

120 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

a :
The integration must extend from x=0 to ©=s,—= a7(1—e°'™), where s, corresponds

to the upper limit of the atmosphere. But since the value of the function which has to
be integrated is very small for the upper limit, the value of the integral will not be
altered if this limit be supposed to be «©. Lapuace defines (loc. cit., p. 250)

Boas eae if T= a/ 7B cotg Z,
T

co e —"Bxd a v3 ys iT
d ./ cos? Z+ 2a sin® Z sinZ yay

We arrive therefore at the result :

or

1a spf -m+pse, Vint) [om oD anez Wn +2)
es ee Oe ol As i122 ,
By sin Z 8° JB J/n+1 Te) Bae J/n+2 In+2

and the general term within the bracket becomes

a8 TP, -aimtt, ntm)
(m— cm kG mene a ade J/n+m

The next largest term in the series into which F (4) has been developed arises from
the second term in (I—s)~*. At the same time 7 may be taken into account. By (5)

and (6) we have
mt _,_ 2a _ -[ss- -Bs
03) yeaa

When we substitute this expression in dF (4), and write (7)

Fy= sin an +1)-
the correction depending on a becomes
© 74 __ ag | em41)—vin+2) (8)
sin Z| sin? Z k : ;

a being less than 1 minute of arc, this correction is of no consequence. ‘The part multi-
plied by 2 may be also reduced to \ functions. We find that this term can be taken
into account if we replace in Fy (7)

cotg Z

W(n+m) W(n+m) a pila
b aaae (n+m) /28

J/n+m y Jn+m o

aaa BI —cotg’Z+——__,

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM. 121

Since Z has been supposed to be large and @=745°747 in BusseEt’s hypothesis,
the correction is very small indeed. ‘This holds also for smaller values of Z, because

cotg Z Y(nt+m) mw
(n+m) J/28 nm

For small values of Z we can develope dF (4) eee to powers of tg’°Z. Neglecting
all terms multiplied by s° and a? we obtain

makes the first term* in —cotg2Z vanish.

1 Cot 1 4 a
GATS B ear {1 iy aanet .. tl eae GR -aae)
3 3qo 4 2p een
Ge B (n+l(n+2) 5 5 c ¢ 6 (10).
For the zenith the formula becomes
Ooi i
De | Haan} I a oie ee et Ci

With BzsseEt’s values of 3 and 6 we find for the oxygen of our atmosphere

F=5572 feet if n be equal 0,
F= 579 feet if n be equal 1;

or, in words, the absorption produced by the oxygen of our atmosphere in the zenith is
the same as that of a column 5572 feet in length of oxygen under a pressure of
1 atmosphere, if the absorption be proportional to the density; and of 579 feet, if it
be proportional to the square of the density. M. Janssen finds 1660 and 172 métres
respectively, by employing a coefficient which Ramonr had computed from the heights
of mountains determined by barometric and trigonometric measurements.t

The formule (7), (8), (9), (10) enable us to compute the absorption in any zenith-
distance, but for our purpose we may dispense with the corrections given in (8) and (9).

For n=0 they admit of great simplification. This special value makes the expression
within the bracket of (7) identical with that in Lapuace’s and Bessex’s formula of
refraction. Hence we obtain

Loa la

Wis ereT gO) a a

in which 6Z denotes the astronomical refraction, or in units of F in the zenith (see (11))

l-—a OZ

a sinZ-

A=

(12).
This result might have been immediately deduced from the fundamental equations.

* LAPLACE, 2bid., No. 5. + Lapiace, Traité de mécanique céleste, Tome iv. livre x. chapitre iv.

122 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

For small Z (10) gives

C= =a 1- i9°2(4-$) +19 oe 3 a . . ) xaee

Supposing n= 1, (7) gives for large Z, if f,=1 corresponds to the zenith

fo=

aE! + Taste) eg + nae) ee +b Oa.

and for smaller Z

f= sq] 1-19°2(55- 5) +192 (ga5— >a) . ye ee

which may he used up to Z=85".

If BxssE’s constants be introduced, frefers to a barometric pressure of 29°6 inches
and about 50° Fahrenheit. In the case of n=0 any change of pressure and tempera-
ture is easily taken into account by employing Busszt’s tables of refraction. From these
a table was computed which gave f, and its corrections for any barometer and thermo-
meter readings. The interval of the argument ‘‘ Apparent Zenith-Distance” was taken at

0°'1 between Z=90° and Z= 83°.

The ~ functions in (18) were interpolated from BxEssEL’s tables in the /undamenta

Astronomie. The following is an abstract of our tables :—

Absorption proportional to the Density. EOE propor inne te PASE Eoue
Apparent Zenith- ui
Distance. A ee
i F, in Miles, So F, in Miles.
Ue 1:0 11 1:0 0-12
20 ot 1:2 11 0-13
40 1:3 14 1:3 0:15
60 20 2:2 2:0 0:23
80 56 6°2 a7 0:66
83 77 8°5 eo) 0-9
84 88 9°8 9-1 1:0
85 10°2 11°3 10°7 1:2
86 12:1 13:4 1371 15
87 14:8 16°4 16°5 1:9
88 18°9 21:0 22:0 2°5
89 25°4 28:2 32°1 37
90 36°4 40°4 53°7 6°2

F gives the length in miles of a column of oxygen under a pressure of 29°6 inches at

50° Fahrenheit, which would produce the same effect as the oxygen of our atmosphere.

To assign to every line the corresponding value of f, the zenith distance was

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM. 123

computed from the observed Greenwich mean time. Let ¢ be the hour angle of the sun,
e the equation of time, / the longitude, and 7’ the observed Greenwich mean time, then

t=T—l—e.

A table was prepared which gave the apparent zenith-distance with the two arguments,
hour angle ¢ and the sun’s declination. When the values of f had been interpolated from
these tables for every observed Greenwich mean time, they were entered as ordinates on
eross-lined paper, the abscissee being the current numbers of the lines to which they
belong. A curve was then drawn through the points and the number of the line read off,
for which the numerical value of f was a whole number. Close to the horizon, however,
where f alters rapidly, it was necessary to secure more points of the curve by taking
Ff from the table with several intermediate values of the zenith-distance.

7. THe PROBABLE ERROR OF THE RESULTS.

The complexity of the recording apparatus did not entitle us to expect any great
accuracy in observations which were at some distance from the standard lines. It is true
the working of the train of wheels had been examined under a high magnifying power of
a microscope, before the work was undertaken. But although the wheels appeared to
move regularly, when the fastest of the set was turned steadily, there was still the chance
of periodic errors being produced by the form of the teeth.

It will be remembered that the bracket which carried the second wheel and the two
pinions could be pulled out of position to permit a quick motion of the grating. This
quick motion was used before every set of observations, in order to bring the required
region of the spectrum into the field of view. Therefore all the errors emanating from
irregularities of these wheels have the character of accidental errors. With the first
wheel, the endless screw, and the worm-wheel it was different. The grating had a fixed
position in relation to the worm-wheel, so that every line was observed almost in the
same position of these three parts. Yet the great number of standard lines acted
favourably. One revolution of the screw covered about 90 standard lines on an average,
thus rendering harmless all the periodic errors in the screw and the form of the teeth of
the worm-wheel. But the first wheel, which is on the same axis as the screw, turns
about a tooth and a half for the mean interval between the standard lines. Any irregu-
larities in the form of these teeth must lead to systematic error, which cannot be eliminated
by merely multiplying the observations. It was not until 1889 that the grating was
frequently altered in position with reference to the worm-wheel. Hence it was of import-
ance to observe the second spectrum on both sides of the normal of the grating. It is
true that, as already pointed out, the observations on one side preponderate, but those on
the other side are sufficiently numerous to test the magnitude of the errors arising from
the source under consideration. Moreover, the recording wheel worked in only one
direction, while the lines travelled in opposite directions through the field of view on the

VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 6). x

124 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

two positions of the grating. Therefore any personal error in bringing the lines to the
cross wires would be eliminated if it depended on the direction of the motion.

In order to form an idea of the working of the apparatus 142 lines with 1583 single
observations were selected, which lay about half-way between standard lines, and were
distributed over the whole length of the spectrum. They gave as the probable error of a

single observation }
r= +0°056 A.U.

This value corresponds to 1th inch on the recording paper, to 347th inch on the circumfer-
ence of the first wheel, and to 559th inch on the circumference of the worm-wheel. Every

line having been observed on an average eleven times, the probable error of the wave-
length of any well-observed line lying half-way between two standard lines amounts to

r= +0:019 AU.

It would have occupied too much time to repeat the same computation for all the lines.
We therefore chose an entirely different way. In the course of the computations we had
deduced the means of the wave-lengths for every line, as well from the high sun
observations, as from those of the low sun in both positions of the grating. There are

thus three series of results belonging to the same lines.
Let s, and s, designate the values given in two sets of results, and m the true value.

The average error 7 of one value is then :

7, =a ee ee)
if m is the number of values in each set, and [| | stands for the sum irrespective of the
signs.

Let s,; be the mean of p, and s, of q observations, and suppose all the observations

equally accurate.
[s,m] /p — [s,—m] /q=0.

[—m] + [s,—m] = [2-5]

Further

when the true value m is supposed to lie between s, and s,.
This granted, the average error of one value resting on p + q observations becomes :

neo SPT tt [sy— 8]
Jp+q(vp+ Jaq)”
The factor being symmetrical with respect to p and q, the same formula will hold good

if p and q be interchanged for any pair of values.
The probable error follows by the known relation

y = 0°845n.

In using this formula we are well aware that neither the condition of equal accuracy,
nor that of equality in the number of observations, is strictly fulfilled. Comparing the

tee? Cs Sel Mee ee Me ek ee ee ee Ae

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM. 125

wave-lengths of 2395 different lines obtained on one side of the normal with those found
on the other side, we find the average difference

[s, al _ 0-065 A.U.

The probable error of one wave-length, which is the mean of all low sun observations,

then becomes for p=q ‘
r= +0019 AU.

One series, however, contains on an average twice as many observations, hence p= 2q

and x
r= +0018 ALU.

which nearly holds for the mean of six observations of the same line in low sun.

The same comparisons give on an average a systematic difference of 0:007 A.U.

We next compared the wave-lengths which result from all the low sun observations
with those derived from high sun. They were divided into two classes, one of which
comprised the faint lines of intensity 1 to 3, and the other the darker lines. 1710 faint
lines show an average difference of 0074 A.U. and + 0:007 systematic difference, whereas
1215 well-defined lines give respectively 0°048 A.U. and + 0-001 A.U. Supposing
the low sun observations to be twice as numerous as those made at medium altitudes,
we find the probable error of one definite wave-length

r = +0021 AU. for intensity <4
r = +0014 AU. for intensity S4.

There is an increase of 1 in the last decimal, if the mean of the observations in low
and high sun are considered equally accurate. The greater probable error of the fainter
lines is sufficiently explained by the smaller number of observations on which each
wave-length rests, and the greater difficulty in perceiving them.

From the preceding examination we gather that there is no systematic difference
either between the observations on opposite sides of the normal or between those made
at medium altitudes and near the horizon. The probable error of one definite wave-length
may be considered to amount on an average to + 0-02 A.U., if the line has been observed
about six times. There will be lines, of course, which may turn out to deviate considerably
more than this from the true value, in spite of having been frequently observed. But
this will not surprise anybody who has ever compared the difference of two independent
series of results with the probable errors as given by their authors.

The probable error is not so small as to render it worth while to correct the morning
and evening observations for the displacement of the lines due to the rotation of the earth.
For the latitude of Dun Echt the maximum effect is about 0:005 A.U. The displacement
produced by the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit can also be neglected, although it
amounts to about 0°01 A.U. at the time of the equinoxes.

126 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

The probable error of the estimations of intensity of blackness was derived from those
regions where no telluric lines were found. High and low sun observations were
treated separately. The number of instances was counted in which the estimated
intensity was the same as the final mean value expressed in whole numbers. The same
was done for all the observations that deviated + 1, + 2, &c., classes from the average.
The results are found in the following table :-—

TasE III.
High Sun. Low Sun.
Region of Spectrum, Ain 10-&mm, . 5 : . | 566-552 | 588-511 | 497-486 | 566-552 | 538-511 | 497-486
Number of single observations, : 830 1844 710 1501 2855 1006
Number of observations in 100 of intensity ‘equal mean 71°5 71°6 72°8 63°8 61°7 61°0
5 a is equal mean + 1 28°0 27°9 26°6 34°6 36°6 36'5
He a equal mean + 2 0°5 0°5 0°6 1°5 1°5 2°1
equal mean + 3 ot 500 a 01 0:2 0°4
Probable error of one estimation of intensity, . ; 0°25 0°25 0°24 0°32 +0°33 0°35

If it is borne in mind that the intensity-scale progresses by whole numbers, it is
evident that the high sun estimations are as accurate as the scale allows. The low sun
estimations are a little inferior to them in point of accuracy, as would be expected from
the great variations in the intensity of the continuous spectrum.

We further compared the mean intensity as observed in low sun with that in high
sun observations. All the limes which were darker in low sun than in high sun were
counted, and the average difference between their intensities computed. The same
was repeated with those which appeared feebler in low sun, and with those of equal
intensities at both altitudes. The lines were divided into two classes, one comprising
those fainter than 8, and the other the darker lines. Close double lines were excluded
unless they had been separated on all occasions. The spectrum was divided into zones
to show the changes in the regions where telluric lines are numerous.

TasBLE LV.
DIFFERENCE OF INTENSITIES OF Low anD HicH SuN OBSERVATIONS.
“B06 “5 06
| Region of Spectrum, | = V a ;
/ Ain 10-6 mm. 23| n Ai n Ai n Ai || Sa) n | a¢ mn | dt n Ai
| Es Bs
ae! oe
ll —— ao CI coo ———
566-552 322 30 +0°5| 30 0 40 -0°5 26 40 +03} 10 0 50 —0°5
| 535-524 258 34 +0°6 33 0 33 -0°5 38 82 +0°5| 27 0 41 -07
524-512 246 33 +0°5| 35 0 31 -—0'5 61 54 +04} 15 0 31 -—0°6
| es 500-486 231 18 +0°4| 27 0 55 -0°6 50 40 +0°6| 20 0 40 —0°5
= 2 602-590 291 82 +2°6 8 0 10 -1'1 10 A 40 0 60 —1°'6
} me ( 590-578 361 69 +1°7 12 0 19 —0°'8 4 25 +0°1 Ese me 75 -0'4
o-= 4 578-566 328 72 +1°8|) 17 0 11 —0°6 19 16 +0°4/] 16 0 68 -07
| “&2= | 552-535 409 | 48 |+41:0] 20 0 32 | -o-6}|| 42 | 33 | +05] 14 0 52 | -0°6
FS (512-500 258 56 +1°5|} 15 0 29 -0°7 53 43 +0°6| 25 0 32 -0°6

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM, 127

In this table ~ is the number of lines in 100 that show an average difference Az
between the means of the intensities in low and in high sun. The first part of the
table, in which there are no telluric lines, proves that the same scale of intensity applies
to both low and high sun. Only in the regions of blue-green have the lines been
estimated too faint near the horizon. In the regions of telluric lines, especially in the
less refrangible part, where many dark lines spring up in low altitudes, the solar lines
are estimated much too faint ina low sun. The reason for this may be traced to the
effect of contrast. This difference, however, simply emphasizes the lines produced by
atmospheric absorption.

8. THe TeLLuRic LINES.

A great many of the telluric lines could be designated immediately, while others
presented much difficulty. The faint lines of the two lowest classes of intensity naturally
gave the most trouble; at high altitudes they were easily overlooked in the strong light
of the continuous spectrum, while near the horizon they might be easy objects under
favourable conditions of the sky. In these instances we were guided in our decision by
the behaviour of other faint lines of undoubted solar origin.

In order to avoid mistakes this part of the work was repeated several times. Of course,
im a region where many telluric lines occur, there is a tendency to ascribe lines to
atmospheric absorption which in other places would pass as solar. For this reason the
sheets on which the observations were entered were taken at random, when being
examined respecting the origin of the lines.

Due regard was also paid to the mass of air the light had to passthrough. Throughout
we endeavoured to reduce the intensity of the telluric lines to a uniform depth of
atmosphere, at least in the same spectral region. In the yellow they correspond to about
89°, and in the green to 88°°3 zenith-distance for an average amount of water-vapour.

With few exceptions all the telluric lines thus picked out were found to be arranged in
three bands, the first with 678 lines stretching from ’ = 6020 to 5666 A.U., the second
from A=5530 to 5386 A.U., with 106 lines, and the third from A4=5111 to 4981 A.U,,
with 116 lines.

One would think that telluric lines which are of equal intensity in the same part of
the spectrum at medium altitudes of the sun would behave alike, if the absorption be
increased. This, however, does not happen as a rule.

In the following table the horizontal rows show the number of telluric lines of a given
intensity in any part of the spectrum at medium altitudes, while the vertical column in
which the number stands indicates the intensity of the same lines, when seen near the
horizon. E.g., from the second row of the table we see that with high sun there are 14 lines
in A= 602 to 584 of an intensity =1, which assume an intensity of 6 near the horizon.
Lines that are not visible in a medium sun are ranged in the row of intensity =0.

128 DR L, BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

TABLE V.

Region of
Spectrum,
A in 10-8 mm.

Intensity near Horizon.

Intensity at
Medium
Altitudes

602 to 584

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
584 to 578 0 3 8 9 3 fe aoe
1 4 7 14 5 1 at
2 if 29 4 2 are oc
3 ae 4 3 2 Hie
4 bE 1 us 1 as
6 oa 2
578 to 572 0 4 5 i! 1 3 aCe arte
I 4] 16 10 4 mH 3 ee 2
2 6 12 8 6 6 5 4
3 6 u mA Sata 2 1
5 2 oe
6 3 ane
it 1
572 to 566 0 4 6 1 2 it 2
1 I 5 7 5 2 sb 2
2 4 4 6 1 1 9) 2
3 Bde 2 at 1 2
4 ae Ae Fe L es
5 : ae
6
553 to 538 0 3 5 6 1 oS 1
1 ‘) 7 3 1 1
2 11 18 8 5 4 1
3 1 6 1 1 2 1
4 bie 3 3 2
5 a 2
511 to 498 0 2 4 6 3 1 1 1
1 5 6 5 2 1 1 se
2 5 9 12 9 3 1 1
3 ae 4 7 6 1 5 se
4 He. 1 as wes 2 1
5 aint 1 2 i
6 it 1
7 Les 1
8 : oA
9

Y DR L, BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM. 129

At a glance it is apparent, that lines of equal intensity at medium altitudes increase
differently in blackness as the sun approaches the horizon. If to each class of intensity
at medium altitude we ascribe that intensity near the horizon, which is shown by the
maximum number of lines in the preceding table, we obtain the values entered in the
following table, where two numbers are given whenever the lines are clustered about two
maxima :—

TaBLE VI.

Intensity near Horizon.

ho cesnuystiige ali, Wlebiagan, =n i a rR
Altitudes. Wave-Length | Wave-Length | Wave-Length | Wave-Length | Wave-Length | Wave-Length
602 to 584. 584 to 578. 578 to 572. 572 to 566. 553 to 588. 511 to 498.
0 4°5 3°5 2°5 6 35 6 3°5 4:5
1 5 4 3°5 7 4 a 3°5 4:5
2 6 4 4 8 4:5 8 4 5
3 8 5 4 oe = 9 a 5
4 9°5 a8 ae Ke AA.
5 il
6 12

From the fact that every class of intensity has a range of 0:5 we shall show, that, for
some of the regions, the values given in this table explain the different behaviour of lines
of the same intensity at medium altitudes as exhibited in the Table V.

Recion A=G020 to 5840.—Since intensity “3” for instance ranges from
intensity 2°5 to 3°5, the preceding table shows that lines between 2°5 to 3°5 at medium
altitudes give an intensity between 7 and 9 near the horizon. This range further
increases to 6°5 and 9°5 on account of the extent of each class of intensity. Without,
therefore, admitting any error in the estimations of intensity, we find thus, that lies
of intensity “3” at medium altitudes may increase near the horizon to any intensity
between 6°5 and 9°5. According to Table V., at least 47 lines out of 65 fulfil this con-
dition. But there are errors in the adopted intensities which will increase this range
considerably. We have to bear in mind that the single estimations of intensity of the
telluric lines vary with the altitude of the sun, and in this region, as we may anticipate,
with the amount of water-vapour, and that the adopted intensities are chosen to cor-
respond to a uniform altitude of the sun and an average amount of water-vapour.
These reductions entail, of course, a considerably larger error than is met with for the
solar lines (comp. Table III.). If it be permissible, therefore, to ascribe to every
class of intensity a range of +1 instead of +0°5 in high sun as well as in low sun,
we find, by analogous reasoning, that lines of adopted intensity “3” at high sun
should develope near the horizon into lines of intensity 5 to 10°5, with the restriction
that the number of lines of each class within this range increases towards the middle
of the range. With this extension of our scale there are but 3 lines left out of 65, of
which the intensity at low sun falls beyond this range. Two of these three alter but one
class of intensity near the horizon, and one as much as eight classes. With regard to

130 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

the former it may be supposed that they are solar lines on which fainter telluric lines are
superposed. Also, the great change in intensity of the one line may be accounted for by
the table. By comparing the intensities of many close double lines with the intensities
observed when they were not separated, we deduced that two close faint lines combined
appeared hardly one class of intensity darker than the components, while two close dark
lines produced the effect of a line two classes darker in intensity than its components. In
this particular case the line “ 3” ought to consist at least of 4 lines of intensity “2,” in order
to present at low sun the appearance of a line of intensity 11. Ifthe probability of this
explanation is not conceded, one is obliged to assume that the absorption produced by
one and the same medium in the same part of the spectrum need not necessarily obey the
same law. ‘Treating all the other classes of intensity in the same way, we find amongst
376 telluric lines, 23 superposed on solar lines and 12 close multiple lines. These
numbers will increase if the range of each class be diminished.

We have to draw attention to one particular telluric line, which, invisible at medium
altitudes of the sun, comes into existence as one of the broadest lines of the spectrum, on
the less refrangible side of D,, when the sun is near the horizon. At an altitude of
about 6° it appears just as broad and of the same intensity as its great solar companion,
Besides the observations given below, we found the D,-line double on 12 occasions from
June 14, 1887, to August 15, 1888, the sun being at an average altitude of 6 degrees.
On July 19, 1888, this appearance was confirmed in the third spectrum under a higher
magnifying power of the viewing telescope. Further to the less refrangible side, another
line of the intensity ‘‘ 4” was observed close to it on three of these days. When the sun
approached the horizon both lines broadened and formed one dark band with D,. Now
D,,is one of those broad solar lines whose intensity of blackness is below that of a telluric
line of the same breadth. If, therefore, the telluric companion at a certain altitude showed
the same intensity and breadth as D,, we might explain its appearance by supposing the
telluric line produced by a set of very close atmospheric lines of less intensity.

In the next region, \= 5840 to 5780, we meet with faint telluric lines of different
behaviour. In a high sun they are hardly perceptible, while near the horizon their
intensity is increased only two or three classes of the scale. The changes in their intensity
may be explained by Table VI. in the same manner as before. This band appears
to be continued in the following region, \=5'780 to 5720, although there are
some lines to be found which suffer a much greater absorption. On account of the
small changes in the intensity of most of the lines it seems improbable that the lines
which alter up to nine classes of intensity are produced by bands of lines. We rather
believe them to be due to the action of another medium. Under this supposition we
represent the changes of intensity, as exhibited by Table V., by two sets of intensities
in Table VI.

Both classes of lines are continued within the region A\=5720 to 5660; the
number of the faint telluric lines has however decreased, while the darker ones are
still as numerous as before.

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM. 131

About the two isolated bands, \=5588 to 5886 and A\=5111 to 4981, we could
not arrive at a satisfactory conclusion. Certainly, most of the lines can be brought into
agreement with the values given in the table on p. 93, but some would still remain
liable to a far greater absorption. Perhaps the values given in that table for the intensity
at low sun may have to be increased, and many further coincidences of telluric and solar
lines admitted.

From the foregoing examination we come to the conclusion that the telluric lines
from X=6020 to 5660 can be arranged in three bands, and that all the lines of the
same band are probably due to the same absorptive medium.

There is no doubt left by our observations that most of the lines of the first band,
A=6020 to 5840, originate in a variable constituent of our atmosphere. That this
constituent is water-vapour was established long ago by M. Janssen. The band is univer-
sally known as the rain-band. Our observations ascribe also the darker lines of the third
band, X= 5780 to 5660, to the absorption of a variable element, whereas the origin of the
group of faint lines which form the second band and overlap the third cannot be deduced
from our observations alone.

On the refrangible side of the raim-band BrewsrsEr’s' map contains a very dark band,
which he calls 6, and which is very probably identical with our third band. He gives the
following description of it:—“..... it is one of the most characteristic features of the
prismatic image of the light that has passed through a long space of air. It is discernible
in the diffuse hght of a dull day at any hour; it is that which Professor W. A. MILLER
observed manifesting itself on the occasion of a thunder shower, ’ and it becomes evident in
the direct solar rays when the luminary is several degrees above the horizon: .... . and
when the sun is just setting, it becomes a broad space of almost total darkness. It appears
to cover a larger amount of the image in the direction of #, asit deepens in shade. .... .
There seems to be a difference in the visibility of these bands at different times, .... .
thus on October 29, 1837, at Allerly, near Melrose, at the instant of sunset the luminous
sky gave a spectrum in which C6 (= < ), though distinctly seen, was not black, nor was D,
nor 0, while the line B was very broad and deep... . . and until the twilight had gone,
the forementioned bands, usually so prominent, did not appear either black or white. On
October 31, again, the atmospheric lines were not so dark as usual, while the rays beyond
C10 (=rain-band) had evidently suffered a considerable absorption, ... . . but that the
phenomena did not depend on either the absence or presence of humidity in the atmosphere,
is evident from the fact that on the earlier date there was a keen frost, while on the later
day the weather was wet, the thermometer being 38° F...... That moisture has some
influence in the production of these bands, is shown by the effect of a fog on the solar
radiations; thus on November 20, 1858, at 10 o’clock a.m., at London, the sun loomed red
through a mist, and a prismatic analysis of its light showed a and B with extreme
distinctness, and the characteristic C (6), 6, and 7.”

1 Phil. Trans., vol. 150, 1860, p. 154, London, 1861.

2 Phil. Mag., August 1845, p. 85.
VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 6). Y

132 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

Considering that there is a strong water-vapour band close to the oxygen band B, Sir
Davin BrewstEr’s description appears to us consistent with the assumption of water-vapour
being the cause of the 0-band. Also, his observations on October 31 are not adverse to
this hypothesis, because the atmospheric lines, which did not appear so dark as usual,
include, besides 0, other water-vapour bands in the red end of the spectrum. That at the
same time the rain-band had suffered a considerable absorption cannot be considered an
argument against this view, if we compare the number of dark lines in the rain-band and
d-band in Table V. Brewsrer’s description as well as our interpretation are ap-
parently in opposition to the observations of AnasTrém, ! who says :—“ Outre les trois
groupes de raies situés pres de A, B et a, il existe, & gauche de D, une bande d’absorption,
toujours visible dans le spectre du ciel pur. Cette bande s’étend de 5681 & 5812 a peu
pres, et, d’aprés Brewster, je la désignerai dans la suite par la lettre 0. Des que cette
bande commence & se montrer dans le spectre solaire, on peut la résoudre en raies
tres-fines ; mais au coucher du soleil, les raies, en se joignant, forment une bande obscure
et continue. Or, puisque lapparence de cette bande ne change pas avec les circonstances
desquelles dépend lintensité des raies d’absorption dues & la vapeur d’eau, l’origine en
doit étre attribuée & une cause toute différente. ... . Pour expliquer l’origine des bandes
A, B, a et 4, qui sont tres-constantes et ne dépendent pas sensiblement des variations de la
température de l’air, il faut recourir 4 d’autres corps gazeux moins variables en tension que
la vapeur eau.” We can only reconcile ANcsrrém’s view with Brewsrer’s description
and our own observations by supposing the fainter lines within the ¢ band to be produced
by dry-gas absorption. Certainly these closely set lines present a sufficiently striking
appearance, if viewed in a spectroscope like Angstrém’s, as may be concluded from the
extent he gives to the 0-band towards the red. Besides, little water-vapour would
sutiice to make the region from \=5710 to 5680, which contains so many conspicuous
solar lines, appear dark in a low sun.

This hypothesis is supported by some experiments that M. Janssen” has made on the
absorption produced by oxygen. By employing tubes of different lengths filled with
oxygen under different pressures, M. JANSSEN discovered that several absorption bands
begin to appear in a tube 60 métres in length charged with oxygen under a pressure of
6 atmospheres, and that the same effect is produced if the length of the tube be altered
inversely as the square of the density. Thus he finds that the oxygen of one of these tubes
is equivalent to a column of oxygen 2160 métres long under the pressure of 1 atmosphere.
But since the oxygen of our atmosphere in the zenith equals only 172 métres at
normal. pressure, M. Janssen concludes that the absence of these bands in the solar
spectrum at considerable altitudes of the sun is fully explained. ‘The figures given in
Chapter 6 prove that at zenith-distances larger than 86° the band should be visible in a
spectroscope of the power M. Janssen employed. Most of our observations fulfil this con-

1 Recherches sur le spectre solaire, p. 40.
* Vierteljahrsschrift der astronomischen Gesellschaft, 25 Jahrg., 1 Heft. Leipzig, 1890.

i ae

—

= ~

=
—

°
——

DR LL. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM. 133

dition, some of them referring to a column of oxygen even three times as long as M. JANSSEN
demands. There are, however, many faint telluric lines within the space \=580 to 572
which are visible at medium altitudes, when the atmosphere traversed equals only one-
fifth of the length M. JANssEN considers essential for their visibility. We are inclined
to believe this to be due to the excellent optical appliances at our disposal, as shown by
the great number of faint lines now observed for the first time.

However, there still remain numerous faint lines between this band and the rain-band,
which, although of the same order of intensity as those of M. JanssEen’s oxygen-band,
could hardly be grouped with them. Nor could they belong to the rain-band, a few dark
lines excepted. Before beginning this work we were struck by a relation between the
oscillation frequencies of the head lines of the groups A, B and a and of the region
under consideration, which Professor Prazzi SmytTH named in his maps Region of ‘ Low
Sun Band” of Thin and Closely-set Telluric Dry-Gas Lines. If we suppose the relation
between the oscillation frequencies of A, B and « not to be accidental, we should expect
an oxygen-band to end at \ = 5788 A.U., or very near to the place where M. JanssEy’s
band begins. This supposed oxygen band could not be identical with the latter, because,
according to M. Janssen, the A, B and a groups increase proportionally to the first power
of the density. Now our observations give a band of closely-set lines, which ends at ’ =
5788, and which does not at all present the general aspect of the water-vapour bands. It
still remains an open question whether this is the result of a fortuitous coincidence, or is
due to some unknown law.

The two isolated groups of lines from \ = 5588 to 5386 and from 5111 to 4981
are produced by a variable element of our atmosphere. We conclude this from the
behaviour of the darker lines only.

We have now to draw attention to a remarkable relation among the oscillation fre-
quencies which correspond to the middle of the water-vapour groups. Attributing the
two isolated groups of lines in the green and green-blue to the absorption of water-vapour,
we obtain the following values of 1, each being the mean of +> of the first and last prominent
lines of each band. The values of the inverted wave-lengths of the water-vapour bands
in the red end of the spectrum have been taken from Professor SmyrTn’s maps and my
ewn observations in 1889.

~ No. of Band.
os aS : ‘ ‘ : ; : : . 1380 1
Water-vapour group near B, : : . (1434) 2
” >; Pee MIeAINO. : : 5 Laos 3
Rain-band, ; i : : , : . 1684 4
d-band, . i : : f : : . (1748) 5
Water-vapour group \ =5538 to 5386 (¢),. . 1833 6
5 Z » A=5111 to 4981 (),. . 1978 7

The inverted wave-lengths of the first, third, fourth, sixth, and seventh bands form very

134 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

nearly an arithmetical progression which could easily be made perfect without moving
appreciably from the middle of each band. The first, third, and fifth of this series are
the strongest in their respective parts of the spectrum. It will be interesting to see if
the water-vapour bands beyond F' fit into the series given above. Possibly they may
also give some information about the water-vapour group near B and the d-band.!

Outside the groups mentioned but few telluric lines have been picked out, although
the work has been done without knowing where telluric lines would occur. In fact,
previous maps were only consulted after our charts were drawn.

We close this chapter by alluding to the faintness of the more refrangible part of the
spectrum in the low sun. According to our observations this dulling of the continuous
spectrum is independent of the intensities of the water-vapour lines between b and F, but
varies with the transparency of the air. We therefore conclude that its variable part is
produced by condensed water-vapour.

CATALOGUE OF LINES.’

The first column contains the oscillation frequencies which are identified with the
reciprocal values of the wave-lengths. The wave-lengths are given in the fourth column
in Anestrom’s units, of which there are 10 millions in a millimetre. The second column
gives the adopted intensities of blackness of the solar and telluric limes as they would
appear at medium altitudes of the sun for an average amount of water-vapour (elastic force
of vapour = 0°5 inch). The third column shows the intensities of the telluric lines only,
when the sun is at an apparent altitude of 1° to 2°. Unless both components of double
lines were measured repeatedly, the line has been entered as single with the letter d
affixed to the intensity. The letter b means band. It stands either between two lines
which form the borders of the band or it is affixed to the intensity, in order to show that
the line is broader than its intensity alone would lead one to expect. The intensity of
the light between two lines is signified by the letter 2 before the figure giving the
intensity. Lines which have been only once observed are considered to be doubtful and
are marked therefore with ?, unless they are of the lowest intensity (1). The same
notations are employed with the telluric lines in column 3. In this column the sign ? is
intended to show that the telluric character of the line is open to some doubt, whereas
the same notation enclosed in brackets is chosen to express the bare possibility that the
line is teliuric.

The columns from 5 onwards comprise the original observations of intensity in full,
without any corrections whatever,—first those made at medium altitudes, and then those at
low altitudes of the sun. Each column is headed by the number of the series, which ranges
from 1 to 13 in high sun, and from 1 to 73 in low sun. They enable the reader to find

1 M. THOLLON’s maps, which we have just received (see Postscript), give water-vapour lines in the #-group, the middie

of the band being in 2 =1586. Each of the first three bands of the series is thus followed by a group of lines which are
fainter than the bands themselves.
* The Catalogue begins on p. 48.

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM. 135

the time and meteorological notes by the Tables I. and Ia. The second line of figures in
the heading gives the elastic force of vapour in units of 0°01 inch, while the third line
shows the column of atmosphere (f,) traversed by the light in units of that in the zenith
(comp. p. 86); f; may be interpolated from the table on p. 86 with argument 7. The
notations d, b, i have the same meaning as above. B and EF indicate the beginning and
end of a series.

Although the printing of the single observations of intensity demands much addi-
tional space, we trust that this will be compensated by the advantage they will afford
in later investigations. They may serve as a check on the values adopted, and enable
spectroscopists to consult the intensities of lines suspected to be of telluric origin.

Table VII., on p. 100, may give an idea of the distribution of the lines with regard to
their intensity in different parts of the spectrum.

THE Maps.

The maps are the graphical reproduction of the first three columns of the Catalogue,
and they are only intended to facilitate the identification of the lines with those given in
other maps. ‘The main object of our work was the identification of the telluric lines,
which could only be done efficaciously when observing the sun close to the horizon. Rapid
observing was necessary ; we therefore dispensed with noting the definition of the edges
of lines and the various degrees of paleness in lines of the same breadth, &c.

Of the two spectra the top one refers to the second column of the Catalogue, and the
lower one to the third column. ‘The scale is in terms of oscillation frequencies Gy but
for the convenience of comparing with other maps the positions of the full wave-lengths
expressed in 10° mm. are marked by a dot.

The intensities of the lines are represented by the breadth of the lines only, with the
exception of the two lowest classes of the scale, which are distinguished from intensity 3
by the length of the lines. In choosing the breadth for the different classes we were guided
by the distance of close double lines. The notes below the spectra are a reproduction of
those given in the Catalogue. Lines of possibly telluric origin are not mapped in the
lower spectrum but their intensity is stated below the telluric spectrum. Double lines
which have been once separated are mapped as single, and their distance is stated at the
foot of the line in units of the distance between the lines of the scale; thus d.3 stands
for a double line whose components are 0°3 of the interval of the lines of the scale apart.

POSTSCRIPT.

This memoir was on the point of being presented to the Royal Society of Edinburgh
when we received the third volume of the Nice Observations,’ with the late M. THoLLon’s

1 The maps have been reproduced by photo-lithography, and are about one-fourth of the size of the original drawings.
It will be noticed that the faintest lines are far from continuous in the lithographs, but as it was found impracticable
to make good this defect without altering the breadth of the lines, they are left untouched.

2 Paris, 1890.

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136

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM. 137

work on the solar spectrum. It comprises the whole region from A to b, and gives the
solar lines as well as the water-vapour and dry-gas lines. M. THotion has observed
(in the years 1883 to 1887?) not only the positions and intensities of the lines but
also their breadth in various altitudes of the sun. They are reduced to four states.
The first refers to a zenith-distance of the sun of 80° when the air contains little
water-vapour; the second and third correspond to a zenith-distance of 60° when the
ar is either almost saturated with water-vapour or very dry the fourth gives the
solar lines only. The charts are drawn by M. THottoy, and are really a work of art.

As the observations are not reduced to wave-lengths we could not compare the positions
of the lines with our own, but to judge from the maps the agreement appears to be very
close in all the parts compared. M. THouton finds the same groups of water-vapour lines
as we have given above. ‘There are, however, some telluric lines which our observations
do not attribute to atmospheric absorption, as for instance lines between A= 5295 and
5292 AU.

As to detail, we must say that the RowLanp grating, combined with the large collimator
and viewing telescope, has proved its superiority over a prismatic train. M. THoLLoN
employed a spectroscope with a set of bisulphide of carbon prisms. ‘The telluric lines are
also more numerous in our observations. ‘This we are inclined to attribute to the great
depth of atmosphere in which our observations were obtained. This is shown by the
following summary :—

Number of Solar and Number of Telluric
Telluric Lines. Lines.

Portion of the Spectrum.

Thollon. Becker. Thollon.1 Becker.

6020-5840 456 574 326 376 Rain-band

5840-5780 23 109 \ gS d hand
5780-5720 370 613 66 117 f ET an ae

5720-5660 44 76 Water-vapour band 6.

5660-5530 246 396 1 2

5530-5390 314 447 46 106 Water-vapour band ¢.
5390-5250 328 428 9 19

5250-5167 178 272 <a ad

1 On p. A115, loc. cit., there is a table of water-vapour lines in which the figures do not agree with those given above.
M. Thollon gives 107 telluric lines more than we counted from the book. We reproduce his summary :—

Longueurs d’ondes. Nombre de raies | Mixtes,
telluriques.

0°597-0°585 319 72
0:578—-0:567 118 15
0:548-0°542 40 18

138 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

CATALOGUE OF LINES.

Mean Intensity. High Sun. Low Sun.
illation qi S)
manne 23 ee d x 1 8c 12a 4 6a 48 566
ae | ses 25 ae 59 | st |’ 37 | 38
oa see |

Oo. am 12 14 2°2 9 9 23 23
B EK E B B B B
165997 10 602422 3) 9 9 9 9 10 11
166012 1 3°66 Bae Ane 2 ae ee ae
023 2 3°26 1 2 2 si 2 oGe
040 2 2°66 1 2 2 ] 3 3
060 9 1:94 8 i) 9 8 8 9 9
070 2 1:55 1 ee 2 ae x aie ;
088 2 hee 0:91 1 2d 2 1 : 2 sh
104. 9 (10 ) 0°33 8 8 8 ' 8 8 i 9 10
110 8 6020°13 7 8 8 6 8 6
129 2 6019°43 1 2 2 ae ‘ ae Frid
134 2 i 9°25 1 2 2 5 3 6 6
149 il “ie 8-71 a 2 1 ee 2356 oa
156 3 8°45 | 3 3 3 3 2 ie
176 2 771 1 2 2 2 é0 2 nee
179 1 7°62 1 558 aan Bt ae nae ae
187 1 7°31 mee 2 cae aR: Hac Se AG
201 8 nce 6°81 9 8 9 8 8 8 8
208 aan 62 6°56 Sa5 ae aah 2 ae ad) we
222 2 8 6:06 3 2 3 if 5 4 8, 8
227 3 9 588 4 2 3 i 5 3 8 9
238 1 82 5:48 2 2 4 3 RGD 8
245 1 6 522 1 Age 2, 3 3 4 6
261 2 4 4:64 = 2 7 1 AS 3) 4
278 i 4 4:03 1 il 2 1 wee 3 4
287 8 idle 3°68 9 8 8 8 8 6 8
294 2 ae 3°43 1 2 aa 386 ae 3
305 2 eae 3°04 aA ARG 2 Soe < aie 3
308 2 6 2:93 2 2 2 4 3 4 6
323 5 ci 2°41 5 5 5 4 5 3 4
329 a 5 PINTS tee 3 3 4
339 3: 5 1:83 306 Sein b 5
345 2 5 1:58 Bea 2 2 3 3 5
357 2 5 1:18 BAA 2 2 a 2 5
365 1 nee 0:87 iy 2, ait oF Bie PS
380 2 oa 0°32 we ABE 1 2 aris Re
387 2 4 6010-09 508 2 2 2 3 4
402 2 9 6009°53 2 2 2 6 5 6 9
405 1 5 9-43 F 5 2 hee Soe 5 4
425 8 ae 8-71 8 8 8 8 8 il 8
431 Oe 54 8°50 abe Bh one 560 Sak aoe He 5
44] 7d AoC 8:12 if 7 7 8 7 7 5 6 6d
458 5 oa 7°52 5 5 5 4 4 4 5 4 5
467 1 5 7°20 ae 1 2 5 aes 3 3 4 5
478 2 4% 6°81 Y, 2 sie 4 sae ae aa ae
490 2 mais 6°37 3 2 2 sie Sie 2 3 we
498 1 5 6:08 Bh aah 2 4 3) 2 4 5
509 5 Oe 5:68 6 5 5 5 4 5 5 4 6
527 1 5 5:03 a 2 5 4 ae 5 6
533 2 8 4°82 3 2 2 6 6 4 5 8
546 oH 4 4°33 ae iin Wes ane ate 5 3)
557 2 8 3°96 3 2 3 5 4 5 3 nee 8
166566 it soe 6003°61 ane dae 2 oat 5o8 nae sive ne Re

Osc. Freq.

166579
590
600
605
620
628
636
647
657
671
672
685
691
696
702
712
724
730
738

755
759
763
776
790
795
805
813
831
839

855

870
884
889
901
916
924
931
949

961
971

981

166993
167014
023
044
050
060

167074

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

Mean Intensity.

© at Medium
Altitudes

DNMmWNMNHWDYD FHNF DY pPNwWwWs |

ao ;RN

Dod Ree Dw

te WONWNWOWD fF HK LF PDK wWROR RD OO

ges a
EEE
Son
4
... | 6003-17
8 2-78
i 2-41
7 2-22
6 168
5 1:39
me 1-10
0-72
7 | 6000-34
11 | 5999°83
9-80
9°35
9-14
8-95
(3 | 8-73
6d 8:37
i2 *
Ss 7-94
771
10 7-43
& 6-82
5 6-67
5 6-53
" 6-08
5°56
5 5°39
5-02
i 474
6 4-08
5 3°81
3-27
8a { 3-17
2-68
2°17
lid { a
1:58
1 1-03
10 0-74
6 | 5990-50
5989°86
BI 9-44
4 9-06
8-75
10d } ear
8 8-27
v 751
11! 7-20
i 6-45
4 6-25
5 5°86
10. | 5985-37

VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 6).

High Sun.

1 8¢ 12a
47 58 47
1:2 1°4 2°2
9 8 8
3 3 2
coe b 2
1 2 2
1 ene 2
1 2 2
2 3e0 38
2 3 2
3 2 2
5) 4 +
1 ses
: \ 3d \ :
1 Ae siete
1 2 2
3 4 4
4 4 4
6 5 5
son 3 not
1 56¢ 2
ace 2 a
4 4 +
1 nee 3
dae 2 2
3 3 3
aes 2 2
5 4 4
4 4 4
6 5 5
5 4 4
3 3 3
iis 2 wits
1 2 2
4 3 4
ade 06 2
+ 3 4
2 2 3
500 3 2
9 8 8
1 500 3
1 2 2
rae 2 2
3 5

> OU!

CUA A. my 8A

DOOPAD AD PRO! Pit PPR ce; PP?

NAQARWO :

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> DWM © :

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10

Low Sun.
4 6a
59 31
9 9
8 8
5 ai
4 4
4 3
5 4
8 6
nee 2
1 3
4 5
3 ae,
1 a
ons 2
il ete
1 2
4 3
6 4
8 6
4 6
8 6
6 5
i 7
1
i 6
5 5
2 ae
9 8
3 2
7

oo:

CS FPWNMOewoanN WO KH KROOK © DD He HR co:

139

A (SCP

140 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

ey "High Sun. Low Sun.
Ba! 2
Ose, Freq. | 3-3 22 d x 1| 8c | 12a 1 2 8a 4 5a 6a 48 56
ae| 258 47) 58;) 47 48 WEB be | eo | 2B |) etsy aes
24/8 om 12} 14] 22{ 20 | 48 weal’ a0-|" “aaale aon esa aumew
0) 4
167084 |...| 8 | 5985-00]... | ... | ... 6 7
087 | 8| ... 490 9] 8| 8 ; a oes { 6 ae igo eek ‘ 7
101} 3] 7 sai | 3) 2 a) eee ra ieee 3 |. 5 au
106] 2] 6 £004... | 9) ee pea 4 eee pe 5
re aon wee 387| 8| 8| 8]. 4 3 7 8 6 6
125 | 2| 7 355) 1| 2] Sb 20 ea 3 2° | 2. ee
140| 2) 6 3-00||..2 | 3), 240) Sane 4 3 4 lear
155 | 2! 5 D472 | 84 eh os 2 3 3 ‘lee
164] 2] 8 Blea | Die oe 4 4 3 5 eis
L7b ve) 27 1°80 isch 20) Ob eee 4 3 4 7
185| 3| 9 140] 3| 3| 3] 7 4 ea es 5 6 8
W7lai |) 4 0-96) 2 | 2) Ac ik ee Aadly se 2 4 ae
2041 41) 6 O7Ollo it kel Olen ean ee Beal ae 3 4 Ome
216) 3) 8 | 698081]. 8:) 3) 3) \eaneene.. ie 5 6 8
296 |... | 49] 5979-93] ... P| GMM ee Si cee |) tte NPB 2 4
232 | 2]... STO Lt Sil Clee wee ol 1! | oo
248 |...|° 5 Dole lcs | elem lt. Sen Leela 3 | oe
250| 2] 6 SOS | 20) 2 Rte a a 2 4 6
262| 5 |... 8-64), Bc. Bal bol ae are ep a 6 3 3
Bio ed |) % B18 || Fe n,|\ccdlt el Reet Ne Re Breall ha.c | Te hee 4 5
282] 4] 19 794] 5| 4) 4] 9 | 10 7 9 6 nel ALO 12
293| 3] 8 755) 3| 3| Blue 4 6 2 A a 8
304| 5 | 19 Tia. 5 | 5.) Gi hatieeeere 7 9 8 8 li ie
310| 7| 107] 694i-7] 817] . re 6 Balen 8: | 7 anil
Sigaieal) ee eee 6 | 3) all 6 Ce ee 4 6 7 8
335 | 2| 7 G04) 31.2) 2 aera 2 6 2 ‘nee 7
Bebe ill B76||... |... | 2 ede. | ok | ele
350.1061 oa 5511 7/ 6| 6 < 6 eras ea es 5
356 | 5| 12 527] 6) 5| 5| 9 | 8 9 9 3 | 41 ie
ST tly AVE sit) ott | 2A 2. co Oh |. er
381| 3] 8 440], 2|/ 3| 3] 7 4 6 deal oe 6 8
400| 2| 4 379 1| 21 2} .. Ace Pee ee 3 4
2204) adh ete Pop) ia) 2 ie elt. CMa ae 3 5 6
496))2.. | (394 Loge obo) |) fee ve 3 ‘| nhl) kel nn
498| 2| 5 omit) | Sale 2 gb g 2 4 5
441| 2 905 \|...|° | fe paaltd-t ie ees 3 |
457 | 2] ... 1:68] 7:1 ¢2| ee a ue
461| 5] 11 153| 6] 6) BES io 8 9 8 8 | 11 lem
465| 2] ... 140-0 |
480 | 2 0:87 2| 2
Shier: PA) sono oe] Ciel 2 | 4 | 8 oe
re ie a O41 | ..c} 00) 2a 4 ae .
497 | 5| 10 | 597024] 6| 5| 5) 8 9 7 8 7 7 | 8 | M0
509| 3] ... | 5969-83] 29] 3] 2] . & a: 3 3
525 | 4] 10 9941 5| 4| 4) 8 7 7 8 6 7 |.8 | ae
BATA Ah SB 64d. |: TEE ca Wes. ws si.
547| 3] 19 8-49 3) | Gay eauentmn 8. 1g 9 7 | 11 dame
BB: PB) 8:32 br 15 6 1 et ar oe 4 | 25
564] 5] 11 87) 6) &| DY F 7 8 9 \
167570 | 4| 10 | 5967-66) 4| 4| 41 7 } 10 { 6 } hy { 6 | 6 |i

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM. 141

ae High Sun. Low Sun.
see
Ose. Freq. | 3% ees r 1 8c | 12a 1 Daleocs 4| 5a| 6a 8 | 24] 48] 56d | 57a
ae Zo5 47| 58| 47| 48| 53| 53| 59] 25| 31] 34] 27] 37] 38] 42
aq |e eo 12/14/21] 18] 14] 8] 11] 12] 10| 21/ 26] 17] 32] 34
©) Ra|
le7s7s | 3 | 7 | 5967-39] 3/ 3|/ 3) 6/...] 4| 6| 3! 4]. 6| 7
es)... |. 34 Teun lest ..| 5... eee eee he 3h hee
baa) 5 | 10 eetlae pel 5) 8 Zim eae? 8 | 10
606 | 3 100 { Hee iz 3/ 3] 8 Cah G ia y 10
Gale 6. |. Bam iG St 5°) 8 if meee ay Be
eel 2 |. 4 Bowie cl |b |... | eee Ne ld
643/ 3 | 8 Bool so) 3t 7 | 4 Sie Ou Bt & eles
com) 7... 4-77 || ... 5 4 ot DI.
Bi | 4 3-98 2 fn... Pane
fom) 2) | 6 371||...| 2] 2 3 ibeaeelhto 2] 5
Bel 9 | 4 330 1| 2! 2 Ree tee 3] 4
Bel 2) !... 3-09]... | 2] 2 eee ed ees able
mit). 4'}t0 es) 4c ih 4 | 7 1) | | Cee eeeeeutus 8 | 10
“ig? i | 6 23 elo 1 | \4:\ cof ele ee eeerS 4| 6
waa |- 1. | 6 regi 2 |...) 1 woo Kapa eel A a 3| 5
740| 3 | 8 ing) 34) al 3) 6) 6| Sl ew ols 6| 8
eemeeei(ey | O82) | 32)... | a | eb Rohe bee 2] 3
W4a| ...-| 24 0-38 Per. - a Thee
go) 3 | § | 596013) 3) 3| 3) 6| 7| 6] 7) 5) 6 8| 9
790| 2 | 5 | 5959-84/ 2| 3| 2] 4 2 21 5
go2| 2 | 6 939] 2] 2| 2] 5 30] GN ohh d 5| 6
g09| 2 | 6 9-14 aed eee 4 Bile:
me) y| 8 Sete ht... |e | ae ee 5| 8
gig | 5 | 12 ge5 Tis) 6] 9414) @i| dah sl @ 9| 12
829 | 5a | 12 { Ses by a \s 9/E| 8] 12 8 9| 12
Ba | 5 | 19 802 7/ 5| 5] 9 s/12| 8| 8 9/12
Say... | 4) 7-95 | ... 1 ie lke, ee re ie
859 | 2 7°37 2
\s { Pe 2d { 4 2| 31 2] 3 Gs
862 | 2 7-27 2
S74) 7 | ... 636|| 8| 7| 7 6
876 81 6-76 || ... es \s 1 hs : Se
Hee) 4 | 9 Gon 4) 4 4) 8 7/8 6 g| 9
991; 2 | 6 5901 1/ 3| 3] 4 a] 5 3 41) 5
Si6)| 1°)... 5-37 Aol 2 Oe Pe ee “ alee
993| 5 | 11 510i 6] 5| 51 9 Bl Oi 8) 8 10 | i1
937| 29 | 6 ete oh oh 2 | 1] 4] 2] 2 oy 4
io) 2 | ... yet |e eh odo ae Sal ed lead oe Oa
98 | ... | 32 Bee et ewes | oe. i LS 5 lhe
Bap) 9 | 8 361 3|/ 2] 2] 4 Ps ey eae 51 8
a5) 6 |... 398 6| 6 | 51-3 4 SER IB 4] 3
985| 7 | ... 291] 71 71 7/1 6
167988 | ... | 8 Set ah tole. | \ oe pea a IS Ba 8a
168000 | 2 |... Slee 9 \0... |e. & oe eae 2 aes
020/ 5 | 10 Ree oH) | 4 | (6 Boel ale 8 | 10.; 9
02 | 2 | 8 150! 1-3) 2] 5 Aisle LO) pie ig Regal ealics
7 3 | 9 105 3| 3] 3| 4 ia cnpeaees)|\ <3 | 6 | os
O42) .. | 49 Cee |... |) 4 i i.
053| 4 | 10 OGIO a a) 5 Wace Glen ionlene
168057 | 2 | 8 | 5950-35] 2/ 3| 3| 5 4| 6 6) s) Bale

142 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

Tian High Sun. Low Sun.
Fol ine
Ose, Freq. 5 g gee x 1 8c | 12a 3a 4] 5a} 6a 8| 24) 48) bye
aB|EcR 47 | 58] 47 BB} bo}, 25| ,8t} 34) 27) 87 | wae
a4 |e 80 12] 14] 24 Side 4s | a | Bt) se ieee
© ne
168070} 4 | 11 | 594992] 4| 4] 4 A 94: pl) 8 | Te). OF) Sen
073 | 1 7 OG ad eure ae of s<\) 9 |) 26) eee \ is
O6l na 5 272504 mee omar ae es oa fe 9 ih osees lc tea
08416 | 10 g-42|| 6| 6| 6 5
oss|6 | 11 9-25 6| 6| 6 paw i. °° \ 8 bia mold ns) oso
090}... | 21 Gis ie..ccae ee DM ccc |. | oetl
097 | 3 8 8-96 Bil ee Zi el 4) Blo ea
102 IS S/lieeul FSreile... yeaa Fe el aan) 4) 08) a
op tee. |! 2. 67 | Sie. ol, 8 eer |S
1144/2 | 10 835| 2} 3| 2 2\ 6) 4) .5| 6) 7
197 | 2 | ... Tesi... | .. | 2 wiltce low |... | .0| ea
137 | 3 8 754) 3| 3) 38 Pi 4) 31.4) &| oi
1445/6 | 12 724| 6| 6| 6 7 9 1a
11|5 | 1 702) 5| 5| 5 7 hu 10 1 8 his 9] 10 \ 124
Teo.)..2\.4 G73 lise lis od, eee le! el 8) el
5 lh | (Rl AiG SN ale wel ee My le\ 2el s | ol
176|6 | 12 614] 6] 6| 6 9) 9| 8|. 9] 12.| a amma
P60) /430)| as 6:00 I) coal cee, anes molt Vou | oo. | eel Gre
186 lids | 10 581) 4) 4| 4 7 7| +8| 7 (|) | 9mm
198 | 4 | 10 Ba0l, 4 |) sine 7 | 7) 7) 7 | 6) 910) enaeee
213|4 | 10 484| 4] 5| 4 mi 8| 81 | 8) 104) eenime
225|5 | lod| 442) 4] 5] 5 m| 8| 8| 7): 81 9) |) Semin
BBD) NRL || pes, AVON sais | ste dene tlic | as |) |) OS
500),\1841| 38911 81 4) 18 Sel aes, oul
249 | 2 34] 85815 251) oalene i a tlcg aN Be ae
259 | 2 31 3-29|) ... \ 2 TR Esser | «eed oce’| cee eee!
273 |6 | 12 a7) 7 | Bal ae 7 9 i
He aten Ves A Rl. i his il { : hie 14| 190] 14a
dpa |g lt 8 Dbl socio ee Mee wee Bae
aN as ace 186/), |; 4) 3 care ee wae. |
Baa WAG 1-73 j 5'| ee 8| s| 91 91] )9 1. 10s) fommemne
512 \bo als a 133)... |. alae Pe Nt ase | dee [wont Vico rrr
316 |i | td 19) 7\° Balle 8 9 12)
3232/4 | 8 TOW || P.2! |i ocala Y hg a \ 4 } 10 g| 6 iad
330} 29] ... O70. 41h Meme ta iNiewe| wei) a. | ocel o ——
335 | 4 9 054] 5] 5) 4 6| 7} 6). 7] 8)! "on\*kennmme
342.| ..) 4 O27 lee. (iets. dae fe Novel ac | oe | et ee
349 | 3 8 | 5940-03/ 3| 4| 3 | 6| 5|. 6| | 6) on
357 | 1. | :.. || 5989-767... eel |e | 2 | ool
BET |e | aes. 939] 1|/ 2] 2 ee | ow |e
386 | 2 7 g72|) 1) 2] 2 Bio 5| 31 4) wl 6) one
Ropes) 24 8-41... 2.1 ARE el calbren 4.| 734m
401 | 4 9 gail) 4| 31 a 6 6
46/3 | 8 g0l| 3| 31 4 6 \ is | 4 } 2 | Sale
419 | 2 8 758|| 2| 2] ... AA EL wel 2B 6. | “aaa
425 | 1 6 7-37 eS re 4| 2 5 | 4106
70 Nem 7-22 i a 2 sl fae |)
440 | 2 4 6-85 | 3 ale) Sal) wee | alee
452 | 2 4 e42|...| 9] 2 RN 4| 30m
465 | 4 | 10 596) 4! 4] 3 7| 9| 7). 7) 9) 40| 2am
168473 2 | 5935-66 2 2

Ose. Freq.

168481
490
497
511
516
523
533
544
550
563

569
574
585

601
i 612
Ty 625
629
638
646

655

663
671

677

691
695
704
721
727
740

153
771
777
“791
"805

810

822
828

837
843
847
855
867

881

898
911
918

924
168941

Mean
Intensity.

© at Medium
Altitudes

—_>

EOF BSED DO 1 WwW DHE ONOWWHEEOD HP OF ww: MANDY

o>:

ID NON FE WH Wor RW Wwod:

Telluric
Lines on the
Horizon.

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

5935°38

—"
OnFrF, FOOT: O:

S.
w

—
bo

Het.
mH OO

5929°85
9:57
9:25
oh)
8°69
8°53
8:43
8:01
7°86
754
6:94
6-74
6:29
582
5:19
4:96

COOCOFrrFrYrP NHL w
SCWNNWWOAWAADA ww
WOWNOWFEE OT CO

592
5919°83

5919°22

High Sun.
1 8e | i2a
47 58 47
UB VGH I DAciL
2| 2
Sot 2
Gea eee
ai oh 3
pele
eo ee
aes SN
Gl ar Ss
Sr iaih
7 6 6
oy WD Fs
BA lgat so)
2 oe)
Cel we)
Fes 8
a
TD eee 8
FeO 3
Bee sie
6 se
7 6
pee
ie eon
ip roul 2
OP plier aa yet
frag! ot
Bie Halles
pee
6| 5] 5
Sole sales
Bie ieee
Le Seal ge)
4| 5
peal a
i ee
ae eal 8
\3 By aks}
i) eel
pi a oaako
Tile 6 koe
Rite Gale nb

Go wo:

> Ee PORK oro: : Oo :

> HH ©

* ©1000: OC: BOY HoaeR:

ON FF TONADH

10

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+ COU: SP PWRWOPR:

A ep sh5

0: OO: bN:

+ HO

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H& 6O

59
13

10

10

a (eneniene 4

OO: ss - ©

16

a> ~ Boo

Oc :

aah: :

mo : :

Pawn nnoanwwn sy

148

Low Sun.
6a 6b 8 24 48
31 27 34 27 37
12 21 20 27 14
Se 6 Ul
Ae 8 8) 5
3)) 8 6| 4
Be line Wetsi. 8
Sim 9} 10) 10
9). Oat
i 6, Sib
Sie 6 8] 6
4) . nee 6| 4
DI ( 8) 6
et aiee!
5]. L 7 6
8] . 10; 10) 11
6 5 4) 5
PA ke ah 4) 3
Bil he 6 i &
WI sec Teje 4, 3
seal 18 rs 4) 3
9} 12 11} 12} 10
3; 6 ASG 4, 3
“9 12} 11] 11) 10
10 |p io 0
9} 10 10} 10
4, 5 4 “| ®
5) 8 9| 6
7) 9 11/< 10) 8
| a 8| 4
4, 4 = 4) 4
| 7 4 6) 5
5) 6 4 6| 5
8| 9 8; 10 9
5) 6 4 6| 4
9) 12 ial) eA ata
9) 12 iu) 1a) Thal

38
37

14
14

57a
39
21

144 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

sicenl High Sun. Low Sun.
Brot ar
Ose. Freq. | 3-3 |.2 8 g r 1|{ 8c) 12a} 1] 8a) 4] 5a] 5b] 6a} 6b) 8] lla} 24] 48 | 56c | 57a | 58d |
ae \eea 47| 58| 47] 48) 53] 59] 25] 25] 31] 27] 34/30 | 27] 387] 88] 42] 39
ea eer 12/14] 21] 18{ 9] 15] 16] 7| 18] 22] 19]26 | 29] 18] 88] 25 oe
168943 | 32 BOLOUB I c.. | cc] Bo| ss bee eo | ace | cove) AGE
958/4 | 12 8°62 i 4/ 4/10] 9/10) 91 8| 9/12/11]... | 10| 10) 14) 2
963{5 | ...| 8-451) Bol) Bless ene zn vee | cez [bee | coe | ose | nel
974/2 | 7 8-08 21-21 a aA Aeon Al 6. 4 7| 5 ae
978 | 2 7:93 ea ee hae is 9S ree eae Pad a
9389/3 | 8 Tbs 4) 31 32.5) CAkeolemeeeei 6) 6 | 5 7| 5 6
168996 |... | 5 7-29 SS Rahal os RES ee aoe Woe 3 |
169006| 2 | 6 6-93 31 21 2). salami! 4) 4/1, 4] 4 6 |
o11)/2 | 7 6-77 Bul OM a5 aS) Bh 26 wel ee 6 |
021] 7 6-42 7 Gi Fh A eer eel Ob |S 6| 4 6
027/2 | 6 6-21 21 21 41 Qi wie ssl 5) 5)... | 20) 6) a
040) 4 | 9 B77 &1. 4) 41 71 6 er it 8 9% 8 |
o47|4 | 9 552 5) 4] 4] 8] 6 } 10 : 1e 7| 8 10 a 19 7 10 e {3|
060; 4 | 9 506] 5/4] 41 7 6] 8! 6) 5] 7] 8| 6|..| 9) 83 ee
O72)1 | 4 464 cot Lace ee Bice see 4| 3 3
079| 8 4:38 Biles |
pale ee biol{ § S bo Sonor of! 9 10 | 9 100g 10
0933/1 | 4 Biota 4, Aiea bes 4 Bties 4| 3 |.
105 | 2 BO la oa) Os vat | 20a eee ee eee 3] 21 ...4| cca
115| 4 | 10 215i) 4) 5) Sy StleneeOniecnl cle 8 (0 9. 9 10| 9/10)...
124|3 | 8 2°82|| 3 51 5 5) 6 8| 6 6 |
127|3 | 8 2-70|| 3 \3 y 13 5 \9 ae 13 5 ho 15 5 bio " 18)
14642. 0% 215] 2 ae i 6 7) 5 | 6)
148/29 | 7 199] 2 {3 adh) 4 4 br 17 4 2 16 ha 7 5 6 |
160/2 | 5 156] 1) 2) 2] 4/1, ‘ 4) 4h, 5| 4 4
Wie || <b 1°33 ee 3 = rine eal bay |! 4
175|...| 39) 1:05 POMS sec | seoll cool sco [eee |) Bl 4) 3
178 | 4 0:95 a) Al % |
stale hia} Ree 6 fe alee \s 10] 10| 6} 8| 10) 10/11} 11] 9] 14)... | 10)
Vea | A 0-79 3 4}) |
aa a7 | 23 13
196 Ki le 3? 0°32 BR Nicoll (le
198|4 |} id} O-25]| 4) 4) 4) 7 ICON go! 6] 6a) 9 | 10) 11) Orem 10,
203 | 6 591008|| 61.5 1) BIAS Meum ag. | 6) 6:17 8)... | cle enon 5}
217'| 3d} 7 |. 90957 V-) Bal By Ae a A) all as 6
229|5 | 10 914] 5| 5] 5] 8] 8 G1/N.64) > 8: | <9 |e 9) NCE ergalane 9 |
238/1 | 3 BeBb Wc: cae) Lee | a ee ee We 2 a
252 | 4 9 8:36] 4| 4] 41 7) 6 TANS ON) 6 | -8 | SS ye soa ad 8}
26215 | 9 7:08) B95 5), Soule 7) 5m 6] 8) 85) ea soaaa 8)
74/3 | 8 7-58... | 5.. ) 34 eoumne Bite B5|-8 | Moa soul slang 6 |
279|4 | 8 742 4| 4| 41 6] 6 15 6| 8 6 7 |
286|...| § 7-16 || ... ae eek oe! peal 3G] eo ae 4 5 |
p9915 \.t...| 6:95|.6 lc5 ) By sane Sh ele. iy a A |
304/2 | 6 653] 2| 3| a] 4 Bulag 6 |
308|2 | 6 638] 2| 3| a] 4 a ai 13 4 5 = ag al
318| 2? 6-04)... | s. 2 “yee a = a
325 | 7 aR 6:81) 8) 64) Si ais SAG 7 | 6.) Soa ies 6 ay
398|...] 5 B68 1 ¢. |. | td eee hee ee is: i2| |
S56Ne tro 546] 3| 3| 31 7] 6 Bales. hb | B.ilees ees 7 8 | |
5.04 Halen ny 5:25 of 2h @aleate BALE G's) Sir lee 6 im |
349|/3 | 5 4-97 3 |. 3 aloe at | oe 3 4] |
169362| 3 | 5 |5904-53 2} 2] 2] 2 Bhilai | 3] | on
@

Ose. Freq.

169372
376
380
387
396
408
413
419
427
430

439
445
450
461
474
485
490
503
509

515
522
533
540
546
552
561
566
571
578

586
590
596
694
610
617
628
632
644
649

657
668

- 672
678
686
691
696
705
710
7i9

725
169729

Mean
Intensity.
E a] | | Of
suizts
ae\2 65
=\o 3°
S3|5 so
(0) 4
3 8 | 5904°16
3 8 4°04
4 7 3°87
2 9 3°64
3] (42) 3°34
2 5 2°90
ee 4 273
4 5 2rpe
3 10 2°25
3 8 2°13
DEH Venn 1°82
7 12 1°62
3 9 1°43
3 8 1:07
2 7 0°60
6 11 0°22
5 10 | 5900:06
4 ... | 589960
5 9°39
4 10 9°17
1 6 8°94
2 6 8°56
7 11 8°33
2 6 8:10
rice 6 7°90
4 9 7°58
33]) aes 7°42
qiaye 6 7°22
4 10 6°97
‘es 4b 6°72
4 11 6°58
500 5b 6°37
12 ay 6°08
2 5 5°89
fais 16 564
3 10 526
3 10 5°11
1 5 4°71
4 9 4°51
2 Bag 4:25
ws 42 3°88
4 10 3°72
1 4 3°52
4 9 3°24
7 a 3°08
4 6 2°88
5 10 2°59
1} (3%| 2°40
2 42 2°09
5 11 1°87
4 10 | 5891°73

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

rs OOP RAT OO COR: OO:

(SUES Gers

oe OUR STH ee OS

wo

High Sun.
4/ 5| 8
30 | 44 | 58
2°0 |1°3 | 1°4
3d
t
2
3
3
3
2
5
5
3
5
4
6
3
3
ears
18) |) BTN ore
11 | 12 | 12
3 Oi llem
3 }oal{ 7
7201 Bec || eae
4); 2) 4
2} 2] 3
1H 4) <ooe|| Seg6
CU eee 3
Oi Gala
3] 4] 4
i || EM 55
ADE Meese p se
1 2| 3
5] 4] 5
al ses 4

Low Sun.
120! 1* | 1] 3a] 36] 5a] 55 | 6a | 6b | 8 |11a| 25 | 26 | 47a| 48 | 580] 740
47 | 38 | 48 | 53 | 53 | 25 | 25 | 31 | 27 | 34 | 30 38 | 36 | 37 | 39 | 44
21/11/12|10! 6|19| 8] 14| 25] 18 | 25 | 28 | 24 | 10 | 12 | 23 | 25
B
3 4 61.
: F \4 At He \a 8| 9 8 5| 7d\ .
4 ie! Gr eeelNMeOe wll el Pos 6 4| 6
3 é| 6 gia wr &) el -9 9 6| 9
2 aNee eee as | Gs 4 2| 3
2 3] 1 Wahl 48 5 £1 4
hs cece Wee pee eae mcon ltceve || cos 4 4 | a3
3 3] 1 Sea Sel co as 5 wel 4
3 5 8] 9 i
si 2 |} 7) 642] 3 | }s9| 10 e }r ju
2 FAR Ti mee hee eda ca ht eke.
8 8| 8 10 |. 7 (to ia) 1 at |... | 10 10 | 12
hale eae Aor miata nate sina ose ae iets sale oes eee 7
3 7/5 Cried eae| cea tne 8| 8 @\ 7
3 yale PW Ge bl S| |S 5| 7
2 AN (8) BB] 6) 5) Bl 7 4,8]
e : Le }a is
g }10 . | 10 {7 5 }is 11 | 11 | 10 He rane
4 gl ee 4| 5| 8 nl 5 ean ie
5 3] 3 Gi ae 5 Salen
5 7| 6 gi #1 te gi ted gs | alto |.... | 8) 9
2 3]... jsi\cem Aaa eeeAl ee eet | Bali6)) ee Bell. 28
2 ra “Uae ae ane eres laeeattm 1) Bb 36
7 8] 8 10] 8] 9] 8/10] 9} 11) 9/...| 9] 10
se 4 5| 6 * \
m 4 }s ball on ie 6 }s ee 8 {5 ae ite
4 6| 5 eee ls Mee GeO lee Geb Blu
3 SOM: ee Reged tl eect ee |e ceeds i
ee 3/3 AW sla 2le a | 6p BE) 4) 5 ck
4 76 $| el eo) Sioa 8| 91 6) 7) 9| 10
Mere one || 3.24 Peles toile Nee eee Pn ee alia
ie) 7 6). |) Suh emmenibten |) oon) Shao) 78 za) 9) 10
POPU ES lisse Nhs. HD Nesscelle ety ee eer Led Bee ae: Neel teal pea
12] 11 | 11 | 10] 12] 10] 12) 12] 11] 9] 9] 8] 10] 10] 11] 11 | 10
so | (CEN SE NRE ab)! 2a cal area PT a REA ho (| cae
sheet zk 7 |. 5 5| 6 91 6| 5| 8
a Gi 7) 0S }r {3 6 }s EAI Toh adh Fails
Best. 2.2 | 2 ae eee cole aoe ho. aieanh 4
Sel 7 e\. &\ Ghai ek vi) veg |es\ ol) te) aba 7
os Oe een Ma i Bem PE ear I ee Se a a eae
oe || reg Imac eC Ne | a) eee
aie) 7) 2| 6! @t sia el sles) oiltol 7 |e! 9
eee bs) DS Wer eee eee eealeeal eee eo ala) Zt
Aa S| Sl, el Th OW eR eae Sieg) Fie} ae | x 8
Abt S| 5 | 6 |... oom lees ge le WOH | 67
Mee Giller) | eel <4 | 3, |e Re eee Bt) | eae!
Babel 7) 7 | €| vt aie eeanl soyeo)|)toulto |) 8 | 8) 10
A el ccs (ce, L,. & b cee ee Meee renter rea cas Wo «os
2 al eee 4 pale.
piel a| 8\ 46 | ode 10} 8| 9| 11
4} 5| 7| 2] 6 }s {é 8 | 10 ti 10} IE ao} 7 | 6] 12

146 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

Mean : ;
Intensity. High Sun. Low Sun, (
Ose. Freq. g Pe ete a 1| 4] 5] 8c }12a} 1* | 1) 8a] 85 | 5a} 5d | 6a | 6D | 8 | 11a} 25 | 26 | 47a) 48 | 58d
mS o19* 8 1)
SEIEES 47 | 30 | 44 | 58 | 47 | 38 | 48 | 53 | 53 | 25 | 25 | 31 | 27 | 84 | 80] ... | 88 | 36 | 87 | 39
o* ah 12/20/13) 1-4) 21) 11 40 | 10) 6] 21) 9 | 16 | 27 | 17 | 28 | 29 | 25") Tones
169740 | 5| 8 |5891°37] 5| 4/ 5] B| 5] 5] 4] 4] °4] 5] 4] 6] 8} 6] 4] 8|.8)| 6) Boe
qa7 | A |) 6 rit | ee a ee || 8) ee eee EE de
ee ae ed 0:92 rT ae TN eral IR 3 6 8| 5! 6) aie
FBT A) Dell ay O42]... 27 Dp Blois | ae Bi. | 6] 6 | (14)... | <5) coe || (ee
770 | coca ae gS caesdllnnc 2) ean Neel eee b b) 12} 12 |2 oy
776|14| ... | 5890-12 |/ 14 | 14 | 14 | 18 | 13 i444] 9 | te | 14) 14) 14 ag jus 14) 141) 14! 72 | one
786] 6 | 11 |5889-78)|| 6 | 5-5) 5.|) 6 eulemeomeny 9/ 9|10|10}10|...|42] 9) Saium
TOBA aly) ee O°36 lite |. Uitte [cael lee Peaae iB we [oe | oe | os | 2) 2 | Bo
802] 2] 5 P28 (ee ol) Bale Ba 8") anc s| 4| 5| 4] 41... \en]0s
si2| 4| 9 B86 055) Bacal a GNF T8418) ealeee 8 | om
S18) | 2) &. Brea iee. I vel lies Peles, 325) Weer | sel ead eee 2] 3)
e28| 2)) Brow lee te. | cep ad a salle wio/ Bi lara lee 2 | am
See S| 7 S00 ieee (Svar tes 4] 4 As| A alee bale 5] 5]
842 | 5.| 9 E82 5 Gea 5 | ib Snes TAC BA) ou) Salas 8] 9}
848 | 1| 46 WAGON Weaspilt Le Wcetell eae laste cle. sca !Whestdl sees lies soul OO | 2
855 | 5 | 10 W865 | bh 40 bab Bi) T\ 9 \ Sal) OBleee 8 | 10 |
B65) Tal! €8 PT eLOy eee aL ee |e ell ores a soatll cease (Mezatesl cal ee 3] 3]
870 | 8) 6 684 Bi 4 LP Bilis 5| 4 41 Ble s6\e Aaleee! 4] 6]
879 | 4d) 9 5 Dl) aes elles 6| 9] 9] 8] 9 8] 9]
6-51 4 |
S8b | sll 930 GBA eeclllbac oll acs ita Oem coh See eet | saseu | Gas ee aa
So} 5] 107} 619 6) 6 BI Boe Sal a ee 6a <9 | 9), Saleoale 9 | 10
901} 2] 6 577) 2) 8) ../16] 9 4114 4) 5] 6\le| 6 41]
904| 2] 6 BGS |] Bl Bl sce 4 a 4) 5| 6 4 ijl
Sia) Ba) 2: B88 | Zia 2 Bile sn |b cee | eon ere ee Meee ) ae
923 | 2| 3? Op) | il ape ee aes 2 Pee accel ¥ saa, bese") Ballast, ese ame 3| 8]
933 | 2| 4? ABB lcs... Dulwaech ls Dele 2) a RRO (A RR RA TEST EL 3 | all
943 | 2] 8 434) 2) 8) 2) 21 2 4| 4 > | 41. Jer), 28 ab alee 6| 8|
951| 7} 11 4-04 6 7 8
9 81 8 ie9 9| 9 ake 10} 12/ 9] 9 0]
re ae hee 3°93 6 7 6 (jam
966 | 1 4 Bl oo || el eee || abl Daa iiss ali ule aGale Oates 3| 3]
978 | 2) 8 B12) 8 | 8} 1} Blas 6| 6] .. 41) 7 | seal Calas 5| 8}
984| 3] 8 2-92)! 8 |) By |) 2 [eB as Bred) tes. BF \F es ieee 5| 8}
990 | 2] :.. Perl le Onl Be, Bo ene Pe feece li. cis [ecaeal asa eee Ree | ae
41501) 6 DEB sei9 neo sell chet Wh ceeell ae 2 5
460906 | x |. weil ase lle. Veil ele 2 }4 “ 8 {3 }7 4\.4 ‘7
170006 | 3] ... OA 3. Boy Bile teas PMMA Ieee | sasidlt ae. ty el esta tes a
010] 8] “8 P02) 5.201) Bulb ABs nee 4 3| 6 ic va
ois| 3| 8 191) 8] 2/..) si 8 5 }o > Paee {4 6 to Calva 6d)
016 6 FO Niece, ies Wooe eeea ee Beha 33) -4ieG $i 3 | a
02 | agent) Faelts|{3|}e| 4] 4 1] 2 fae |e 8 vee eae 3| 8}
033 | 3] 8 U2 Bl B48) Sales 4| 6 wof |< Bal Bal eee ia fe 10dl
038 | 3] 8 £08: 0 3° |e Boalt Balms 5| 6 {Bel *64| Saban 116) a
044] 2] 8 Od a en) eyed et || 2! 4| 6 Pee Memo er 5 | a
0°65 4
050 | 3 6d { ae } 1D |e eee 3| 2 Peal the }o Bile 4| 5]
058 | 3 0°33 1.8 1. 2B), ale bea iliocer tli Bal ees 8 | ve |
066 | 3] ... | 5880-08 3 3 |) |
4 4 4 B| 2 nh ee G| oa8 4] 5] |
170069 | 4| 6 | 5879-98 3 5 |S |

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM. 147

ae High Sun. Low Sun.
Ba| ¢
Ose. Freq. 3 3 QF m r 1 4 5 8e 1 30 5b 6a 6b 8 | lla 48 | 585 | 74d
ae Ess 47 | 30| 44| 58 48| 58 | 25 | 81 | 27| 84] 380) 37| 39] 44
== 5 am 1:2 | 2:0 | 1:3] 174 10h 12) Ate? we) so] 16) erie ti 277) 28
(0) 4
170075 | 4 | 9 |ss7977]) 4| 3] 3| 4 6 3| 6 7
Ge 4 | 9-| 964) 4] 3\-3| 41 6 9 ie 6 10 ene 7 hi
Gee) 2). | -546l...| 2 ¥ Veer een. 3
oe |e - | 8-24) 1] a] 2} 2 Aaa sh Vee eA. | el Bellet
Bioo| 2° |. Scola eal |) 2 B les
107 | 2 8-64 b| 2 aes
119} 3 eon kl ia) a... me a ey
me 4 |. -| zoo] 4) 4| 8] 5 2) 2 pea ee Be lids, ales 33/6. |e
fom, | 6 | reel wl 3) <. 3 5 i Geel ai) a ba
Mos | 6 | 743i,../'2| 2] 2 3 ileeanh 4 | aah 4) iy alee
mo 1 | 4 | 7-21 Tate oad fees oo hale: Palle
meee 3s) 704) | dw | de 3| 3 3| 3
foe 38 || 662) 3 3 i
ape ls | eal 3 4 13 \sa by 8} 9 onl zaleed
fees | 9 | 622) 31 4| 3] 4 e119 Sil ot) esl 9]. 7/9
mes | 9 | 571i) 31 4] 2] 4 Pa ar euler taht a. Gk 6
ior) 1| 5 | 5-55] ... 2 14 ¥ 5 lh aes:
2006; 3 | 5 | 5-24] 3 21 3 4) 4 PA SORA td, bt le sel ew
aa.) 2 jsa{) 40 ty 2| 9 2| 4 a. 8:| 13 3 \4
4-68 | § 4 3
eam | 4: | 4-37 4 Suh
Bey |... | 418 Eh ¥ . Rea ew Sole Ov iba ieee
241} 2 | 5 | 402 3 3 21 4 USES PSs Ge ani
2 | 7 | 371\-11 3] 3a 3 5| 5 Ge ase 50 oe GIN
Poy 5 | G6 | 6337) 5| 4i-5| 5 2] 5 | 61:41 4). 4a 5| 7
ae) 1 |... 222] 1] 2] 1 has Tem Pe coalg. vee
999.| 1@| 5 | 2:37 Ran. 2 obs AGEN Sle e110 agieed
mete 4°) o09} od we | a | 2 SUES Ohl...
feed 41 4 | 195i) .../ 1] 1/2 = Bal ed i oe ae
ees | 9. | 3s 4] 3-| 2] 3 4 6 Goel ey |i y).-5ele Sulmag
eM 1-06 ed ce | ee | cea] oe | At oe 5 . 3 42
mere | 9 | o73| 4] 3| 2] 3-1 3] 6} 6 ro als Waal araalees aC 1
349| 1 |... [5870-31 Patel ae | by Pies eb asia ey
360/ 3 | 6 |5se9-94/] 3] 2/1.,/3 3 5 4
mas | 6-| 9-82| 3| 2 heal 5 3 13 \5 z 1; \6 De Ve hs 7
375 | 2 e391 1] 21 2) 2-1 9 heees Dale Leis
390| 2 | 7 | 8s9/ 1] 2] 2] 2] 2] 4] 5 BATA bee! | Sila aale oh e7
405 | 9 8°37 | 2 p ArE., 3 3
Bist} 2 | |. 7991... | 2 Fs x
ees | -9 | 777i 7) 5) 51 5).5] 6) 7 Sai 9th 87 | mee 7) 'S
407 | 9 eee eel 2 Lf] 2 z i
439 | 3 7201 3| 2] 2 3] 3 Wy 2| 2 3
446 | 2 Goulet || 9 id a edhe...
rl 7 |. 65s a4 6] 7) 6| 7| 6| 5 SuLenieen| Gul. 6 7
M2 | 4!) esi ...1 3| 3 fe) Pas | 23 4 ‘3
meee? | 7) 5-90| 1| 2] 2] ..:|..] 2 \6 CA il ae 7
484| 2 | 7 | 5:66 D aN eA) 1 6| 5] 5] 5 a
Memes |... | 5°59 2 9} 2| 2 4 D 3 :
Meet 4-| 499) | 1) 1/ 2| 2 3 3| 21 3 4
B18) 3)... | 449] y_ 13 * Pe
| 3 \3 3 \
170521| 3 | 6 |5sea-38|S° |13 7 3.| 9 saecn ee aul. 4 5

VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 6). 2A

148

170531
545
550
556
564
573
575
582
594
597

604
612
617
630
642
651
656
665
676
680

685
693
700
709
718
732
745
750
754
759

766
775
787
795
808
815
828
833
840
844

856
870
874
88]
896
901

911

921
930

170936

Ose. Freq.

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

Intensity.
Esl 2
84/825
Oar
2
2 Med
1 4
ee 4
2
24
8 at
2 2
2 5
2 6
1
3
1
2
2
1 :
8 10
3 a
a: 3
4 rae A
1
3
2,
6
9 ae
2 41
2
2
21
6
2 ;
2 z
5 Bat
2, 5
2 4
Wy ;
7
2 fees
3] (4%)
2} (4%)
2
6
2
2 ne
3 8
3]
8

— he

oe
is
es,

5864-05
3:56
3:37
318
2:92
2:58
2°51
227
1:86
1-77
1:52
1-26
1-08
0°63

5860-21

5859-91
9°73
9-42
9:04
8:91
8°75
8-48

8:24
7-92
7-61
713
6°69
652
6°38
6-21
5:98
564
524
4:97
452
4-28
385
3°68
3-43
3-29
2:88
2:39
2:27

5850715

High Sun.
1 4 5 8c
47 30 44] 58
De) 2) esis) Wes!
2] 2 1 | 3
Seal Sole ome
Ry Teo
8{ 8| 8| 8
| pol Sigs
(2 3
ect
a S003 | we
oll Pao ae
2|/ 2/ 2] 2
gel Le eee
al Solan
oad a
ea) tes Sie
Guill On| Gel me
8| 9/10] 9
S| a2) ae
HR ileal ai...
Pell weal ee
pal Peale:
ial Me
foal Boeiees
Hall aoe) ts
6 el
Whee at ee
349) 3
Pl ep Ww
bal S6cll es
belireull we
ga we ka
eal
ye) ales
Gal ae ae
kot Sollee
Sw oe eke
S| eae
ts as hi
Del eee
1] 2] 2
2

1 ONDNDNAHH ao: :

Peicoiens

Low Sun.

vf 8 | lla | 18a

87 | 34] 80] 40

8 15 19 32
1S eae
cal
il

Bie cole

8 7 8

; \6 5

eerelP ade 3d\ .

3 3 ;

4 3

9 9 9
Sule

4 4 3

Sell erceenllbans

"al Ge eaten

lee B

4 5 5 8

Sialicsane hake b

3 5 4. 8

48 | 746
37 | 44

LS i
» wo bS

Geo. cs
Owe: wT:

=a Oo Steeus as

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM. 149

ee High Sun. Low Sun.
5
Ose. Freq.| 23 | oBe a ioe) 45 wel Dieses we es | wre) tie W801) May eas) .78
as 288 47| 30| 44| 47] 48| 531 37] 34| 2301 30| 36] 38| 40] 37
#q |Sen 12 | Ot | 13.|-2°01 -9)) a4] eo | 45) 18! WD) a7 |-98 |) 32] 31
© ne
170943 83 5 5849-89 3 3 3 3 2 i 3} 2 2 4
954 1 Goal |eeee lees Il. dec Dl 25 oe Se
964| 32 Som cts | 3 110 lees uy
Beg 2! | Com ei | 9) 2 he uA a 2
975 1 5 8°82 || ... Da he eA a kee 2 2 2 4
988 7 ; 8:36 8 i 6 6 5 5B) il 5 5 4
170998 1 8:01 2 1 we He
171003 2 7°86 2 eet Delle. 2
O11 2 HOD || Sor 2 2 ae sak
021 5 22 6 4 5 5 4 2 5 4 3 4
039 1 6°63 2 1 B ae
048 2 x 6°31 2, 2 VA Pee
054; 2 | (42) 6-09 Ba i 2 Je 4 Bab UN ca
064 1 8 5°76 Glee 3 5 4 3 8 1 5
071 3 Pee 551 2B 2 3 B ah Fee 3
082 2 (4 1) 5:15 Dil the 2 1 4
091 2 4 4°85] ... 9 1 2
104 1 ae AEBS) W Goa. Ih haere] URREA 2, St: Ne
116 2 3 4:00 || ... Oh tees 2 il 3b) 3
134 2; Beats) Ill aso || cae 2 2 ES Seed od
149 2, 6 2°87 9 2, 4 3 3 6 6 5
156 2 5 DEG oulln eee a Toul) ite acters ell eer eee 3) {| Ae ieee eee See 5
166 2 By DROOR eee een ll! Res le el ee ee a re Noman rae NIE, tees 3 2
181 1 ae eA \Weses ol cee. aes 2 aan
194 1 4 1:33 2 1 2 Sulla. 4 4
203 1 6 1:02 9 1 9 3 3 3 6 6 4
220 O ae 5840°43 2 1 2 Bet Wee
238 2 4 5839°84 % yy 2 3 4
241 1 ae 9:73 yale: Be 4 BL ae
244 2 5 961 , 2 2 2 3 3 5 5 4
256 2 oh 9:22 2 ae D, a 7.
265 3 4 8-90 ie ey, 3 3 nl) a: 4 4
273 3 6 8°64 3 i 5 3} 3 3 6 5 b
279 2 4 8:44 9 3 9) Bal eee 4 4
286 2 8:20 B Oat ee 2 ko dl Meee ae OA Ss
296 4 7-86 3 4 4 Dall 0% 4
307 1 4 7°46 il 1 1 4 4
323 2 6:93 1 2 2 Beet eee
332 il 4 6°62 1 eee meer 5 2 2, 4
344 2 a 6:20 1 2 2, A Seale Fpl Ea ee | ee
356 3 5 5:80 3 3 3 3 4 3 5 4 4
362 3 5:60. 3 3 3 Sy Al Bee 2 30 b
372 4 5:27 4 4 4 4 4 Sele aac 4 3 4
386 2 4% 4:78 2 i 2 : ae 4
394 2 4:5] Dy a B B nee
403 4 8 4:20 5 4 5 6 7 6 6 6 8 8 6
415 1 3°80 1 Bos aoe #8
494 1 4 3°51 1 2 2 3 1 2 4 3 | 36
437 1 ath ONIN cae |) ace 1 a yw:
449 2 4d 2°64 || ... 2 2 2 7 3 2 2 3 4d| 3 | 36
171455 1 5832-45 2

150 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

Bi High Sun. Low Sun.
aoe 5
Ose. Freq. | 2 gee Ke 4 5 8 | 4a | 110 | 134 | 180] 17| 18a | 470] 78
a8 |258 30 | 44 34] 30/ 30| 36] 36] 38| 40] 86] 37
3a ees 2°2 1°3 14 17 11 21 Wy 24 29 30 28
oO 4
171466 | 1|..4 | 5832-07 4 |... - 3 os i
473. | 5 veil 5 | 5 | B | 35 5] 5
Oye (ae | ee 155 5 {| ee ie 4 |° 2 | elle
esa ae Pope ee) ee 2 Sale 4
508 | 2 064 2 | 2 alee a
5is| 2| 5 028i ... | 2 Al | 3 4| 5| 5B 5
525| 29| 4 | 583006] 2 | 2 40 a 4
540| 2] 4 | 582956] ... | 2 9 2 Ita 4
559 | 2] 4 g90|| 2 | ... , 9 Bh lca 4
Bal | bed ..8 B19) |W lag 3] 2] 2 5) 4 5
581 | 4 Sail) | 8 |) a in 4
589 | 1/ 7 789] 29 |... Ay ae) 3 Bl 6 ea 5
597 | 3]... 761] 2 | 3 1 9
Bil | 625) 2) Wee wyasil ok, Tt rf 3
ett coil, 2 680] 2 | 2 3
630.) 49), P64 a. 3 Pee: 3
647] 3 |... 590) 2 | 2 91 3 aes 3
664| 2] 42.) 53a] 1. | -2 ex 2) 4
BT Vee, Ack #96) boas tox nt 1 4
635| 2| 4 461 2. | 2 2| 3 ilo: 3
god |) Bra.) 430) 2 | 1 eee 3
709 | 2) 4 32] 2 | 9 3 Pelee 3
gi AO. A). Soil tet law 3| 98 21 4/5 3
72! 2| 39! 336) 2 | 1 im 3
729| 2! (3)| 313] 2 |... ais 3
746] 31) 2-56|| 2
Sie haf a, a 3 gS) od} 4| 3 4
Toa baled wna Lele | oe aie 4
759| 3| 4 x10, 2 | 3 lane ated 4
77| 2| 3 151) 1 | 2 : Shite 3
T8B | nol pas ce ed eal 3 Ih. x
TOBA kecl.,c3 hl) Sadeiell\ 8 on Sulton :
792} 1) 38 0-98) 1 |... 2 91 3| 8 3
go3| 1] 4 O62 Ie tesca Il hel 2 eee 4
si7| 2] 42|582013/ 2 | 2 . Mie. 4
so¢| 2] ... | 581983] 2 | ... 21 3 hie a
336 | 2] 3 951] 2 | (2 3] 3 3
BAN i. Vad Gn ee.) sae 2 | eee 4
sis; 2] 4 8-76 2 | (2 * 3 1.4 4
g70.| 221.6 834) 2 | 2 3 9 2.| 6 ke 5
S75 | °2.| (3%)1° ss-leil 5 | Jae) seal 4 Af 3
ss7| 1] 4 7-79 i 4
goo | 1| 4 759 \ ; | 1 \ | a 2 Palle \4
BOB L4|-.s: 718. 4.) Amen 4 4 4
910 2] 4 7-00). 3. | uc GN \3 \4 \ 2 14 4 E i
995| 9| .. 650|| 10 |....9) eae | 9 9/ 9| 9] 8! 8) Same
932| 4 627. 3. | 03 Jee | 3 24 sco atepen alee 4
937| 2 609] 2 |... Ament: 4 eee a
045] 29| 4 5°80. 3. | 2 emeell @| 4 Bl eae dh elt eg 4
9601 (4.1650! wsoll. 3 | 4 Bambee |, bd 31 3] 2] 4] 8 4
171972 | 5d (51) a \ a) | 45 sees ts 4 SEF acl 8 a fe
é 5814-87 4

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM. 151

ante. High Sun. Low Sun.
5 ©
Ose. Freq.| 2-3 | oS E 7 4} 5/12¢a| 7| 8| 118] 180/130] 17|18%} 20] 475] 76] 78
ae | 255 30| 44| 47] 37] 34] 30] 36] 36] 38] 40| 42] 36] ...| 37
sq |aen 22/13] 20] 10] 13] 10] 21] 16] 20] 26] 18] 30] 12] 22
© a
171981 2 581460 || 2 1 Dh frees re id 1 2
991 2 4:27 || 2 3
171996 | 2 £08 3) 2'| ... My Lyle 2 4
172006 2 4 3°74|| 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 2 4
025 2 4 3:13) 2 2 2 2 2 3 b 2 a 3 36 4
028 2 3°02 || 2 hi 53 aha 2
036 2 3 DLO ins allncor Qe wis pa | se 5) 4 2 oae
044 2 2°46 2 2 2 2 ae 3
055 3 2°11 2 4 3 3 3 3 Y 4 1 2
062 2 oe 1°85) 13 2 il ee lees 3
070 1 3 161 2 1 1 2 3 2 3
077 ii 2% ITGI5)Il" Boo e|| sooo ag Hee geet Bekele 2
‘ 1:04]} 2
088 | 3a os oe es ad zh te en 2| 3 bl Mew Be
101 2 aa 0:54 || 2 2 i 2 aoe 2
111 2 ae 5810719 2 2 3 2 2 2
119 nee 3 5809°94 ond = 3 3
126 il 4 9:70]; 2 2 2 3 2 4 4) B 3 4
136 a siete 9:35) t 8 i 7 8 6 8 a 7 8 8 7 9
145 2 4 9:07}; 2 2 2 2 3 1 4 3
152 3 8°84 oa aoe 2 2 2 2
159 2 8:58 || 2 i Ohl ge ie . ss ytalimestass 2
174 3 8:08 |) 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2
180 2 4 7:86 || 3 ae 3 3 4 3 b
186 2 768 ]| 3 are en 2 2
194 2 7:40] 2]... Bill’ dec oes 3
197 2 (20) Oe 2 aes on 3
209 7 ic 6°89 || 7 7 7 8 8 6 6 5 8 8 8 8 8
212 fs 4? OSI Boe ig sia 4
223 1 4 6:44 ]) 2 i 3 4 3 3 3 4 4 4 4
232 1 3 6:14] 6} Bt Aol seh ie 3
240| 4d { Ee fe pel ap) 3)| 2 asain Be Ves) ee Vd
5:77 4
249 1 556 |) 2 at son Polar sa. ll|, See
255 7 5:34 ]| 6 df if U f 6 6 6 8 8 8 8 8
261 2 3 SAN 2s eee Dh ths 1 3 Real toss 3
265 2 4:99 2 2 :
274 2 ACOH We OP beet nlite scr less moe hs sae bes
276 5 464] 4 5 5 5 i) 4 5 4 5 5 6 5 5
283 4 4:4] 3 4 4 4 2 b 3 3 4
290 5 418] 4 5 5 5 5 4 6) 4 5) 5 6 5 5
293 ane 3% 4-07 aoe E 3
302 2 3°78 || 1 1 2 Be 2 2
308 1 5 3°57 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 2 2 5
312 2 Ble SN NII Bas ee 2 2
. 1 3 3°16 1 1 3 3 2 4
27 1 4 2°91 2 4
- a ter ia 2 3) 3. cess 2 1B 5;
339 2 32 2°53 || 2 1 ie oe 3
343 il 3 2°40 2 3 sae 2 3
172354 2 3% | 5802:03}| 2 il 2 1 2 2 2 3

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

172361

373
383
391
| 398
409
414
422
429
436
440
454

463
466
472
480
487
493,
503

513
522

530
540
547
553
565
571
577
589
592
597
602
607
614
620
625
634

645

657
662
667
678
681
686
702
710
718

| 172724

| Ose. Freq.

Intensity.
hs os
SP ael &

ome Cf
SB Ess
25 |e82
© a

2

oe eae

O3| | 5

ial es

saieer

MEN se

2h, &

Dal eal

as

2| (32)

AD as:

1 a

6| 9
nal bee

6| 9

led
elt ae

| ao

Od

4

4d (494

Tel A

Tose

eth oe

owes

q |) 39

2

a) we

Ge
DN Be

i ane

1 |

"apes

aie
eae?

ee

Bell) ee

2 a

24) 4

0 ee

|, 3

Beth ccs
baa) ae

Pe as

pe

2| 4
2) ig

2

5801-79
1:39
1:04
0°78
0°55
0:17

5800:01

5799°72
9°49
9°25
a
8°66
861
8°36
8:24
8:03
GT
753
7:32
6:99
6°65
6°42

OPE ERD HHH wwwwore Laelia

DOM KRADHE WADONAMAADBDOY WA
TIHROARTM CODRGHONWNYD He

578958

High Sun.

4 5 |} 12a
30 44 47
PAB AUS Np ete)

2

2) 9| 2

ated |) 2
ws

le

2 | 91 2

2 *
tS eee
\e igh 2
\e

6 xeule ue
ve |e |

Onl) tala

2|/ 3] 2

4 SSS

eth
~
re)

2
Os
OF
Baile sel ne
2
ai ele
at
ae
ly hae
Bl 71 6
Dla ouleae
he 2
2. | ope
Miiec
1 2
10| 9| 9
3/ 3| 3
a} Blog

iS)
bo
i)

8 | 11) | 18a
30 36
10 Di
onl.
les

3] 3
2

7| 7
Elie b
6| 7
Dal cc
oly,
3

3

ies.
ues
6| 6
SP i
ines
3| 4
9| 9
Parr
ohh.

eo wo:

hows

a See 2)5 (ee) SS)

oe oo:

. (ty BS, .
Wc. Gi OF =

— oc:

Hm COO: co

ee

Low Sun.
17 | 18a | 180
38 | 40| 40
18 | 24] 13
BS) le
5) 5
5 5
ely?
4 4
8 8
3 3
3/ 3
4.
4 4
AL sae
Cori 2

3 | B
8&| 8
EL ak 1)
BD il sheas
4/ 4
4| 4

| | | |

bo

hey Gr Sy Ge

B sy S CY CHCIE FE

——

7 wo pS DS NNNHNHTD: DSWnww vw

7 Ober:

Sa

—_—“—,

a.

SS

PWR Ol Oo WD KH WW NEE OOF

Si ee

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

153

172731
741

747

762
769
778
782
789
795

806

813
821
828
834
837
849
857
866
873
880
885
890
897
901
904
913
921

925
931
942
949
952
963
969
974
981

989

172996
173000
018
025
028
036
041
052
058

- DN ———————eeeeeeeeeeeeeeerle ee eee ee eee eee

173067

Ose. Freq.

Mean
Intensity
ese .
22 \cis
or) 3
me) 5

2/1 5
2 4a
el 4
Mal...
ce ..
me 24
21 6
BP 5
1 3d
mal...
2

4

5

a ..
6d =
Bie...
5

2

2

2

7

3

21

2

7

2

mm.
fel 4
Bal...
P| 4
a
2
ak.
i: ae
el
bd a
el.
fel 5
2, ee
ml A
a...
3 a
ul.
Bal...
ip.
1| 3

5789°35
9:03
8°87
8°76
8°31
8:09
7:76
7°63
7°41
719
6°91
6°76
6°60
6°34
6:09
5°90
5°80
5°44
5°38
5°12
4°83
4:60
4°35
418
4:02
3°79
3°67
3°55
3°25
2°98

2°85
2°67
2°30
2°05
1:94
1°59
1°38
1:21
0°97
0-78
0°66
0:47
5780°34
5779-76
9:50
9°42
9°16
8:96
8°62
8°40

5778-11

High Sun.

4 5 12 7 8 11d
30 44 47 37 34 30
2°38 | 1:3 | 2°0 11 11 10
fe ee. 3:19
2) a} 2] 3] 3)
A \3 2| 3] 3 i
Die | ae oe a
mesma! 7) 5
Go |weee| ee a
Paneiieeiiiees He i."
Fim oles \-3l 3
resin Sait 3 | 3
eg Oe ae i 2
A) 2) 9

Ds eee |e is
Ales al 31-3
5 Ral iie

4 \5 \ ite | 22) 5
5

? 6 Gilg 5
5) 5] 5] 5 4
oo ols 4
i ee Me 1
2/9] 2 hee
Dts Hive || ee a eee
wir Gls) 616
Ma cpr 3. iy
Dies siks2,, ete
oy} wee 0} eee ore eee
mike oie ssl 6 |> 6
lao ac | ee a
Delite fil eal *
ilMeoapme lis. a
io) Sr et ss) Fl 8
~fosfoc dts | 4

Pa ea emits ts 2a,
7 a rel
a
\s BA 9G. |-eal eae
wee Vote aia) 3
Sw 4].
2 31 1 3
: bad : 30\ 3
Pe ae | a8
efegfog dec | es | +
jello ees sl ea
1 2 32] 2

Or woo:

(eek FE oo:

13a
36
20

bo or Ot m&

i)

Sy apc 5

i

Low Sun.
17 18a} 185) 20 47d
38 40 40 42 36
16 22 13 16 Dil
Poles Weegiliag |B a
£}) 4)
sal 4/\, | 5a
4 4
j j
ies ed | £183
a 6 ler 7126
ofr fon fog |
an eee. ees
| | ae oie
aaa) ua 3
alae ,
ca: "ee.
a 7 a 4
Ll Gal alee!
5 Me \ecgs les
pol
5 esi | 3
el ie)
we fon foe oe
| eh ol caer Pa lee
Seemiees! oft
mlezie) 8 \le6
a onen <8:
“fests ) aly
el eles | sie
4
: \e 5| 3a\ 5
atl ae Wee alco
A ven i
oe foe [oe |e
Bos Geb Sayese
4 a ale.
4 bay tS a1 4
3 3 | 3
tees | 4
a) hen elisa eae ae
Sesihea)| Gok 8
m4 3
2 3

76

DONNNYNWo TF DD NHOKPWNYNWNYY NWNWK OY DD bd vw

bob:

COM:
2

Dee RR

Sl nent

ob b:

Om:

lor)

| 63
88

“109 GO BP OF

Rie bo:

SS

WONNWWn Dnt Foawnww Pb

dow 0:

mb oO on:

——~—. "
WF oOWDNWrHwwRho DD oO:

154 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

iy, High Sun. Low Sun.
f.|.2
Ose. Freq. |. |.2% ¢ Pa 4] 5|12¢} 7] 8| 110) 13d|.17]| 18a) 180] 20| 470) 49) 76| 77 | 78]
| S2|\4e8 30] 44| 47] 87| 84] 80] 86] s8| 40] 40| 42] 86] ...| ...| 27 | 3am
5° Pte 24/13/19] 11/10] 10] 18|.15| 19| 12| 14] 25| 23) 8) 1eqnaame
173075 1 3 |5777°83 1 3X0) || “S50 if 2 2 2 |
GBs ji az .3 7-49 || 1 Bee le Sl oe R 2 wal
095 2 Rae 7:16 1 Sogn ae cean Wat see 2 2)
106 2 wed 6°82 1 BAe aceon eee ill" oo8. ane 2 2
Wa al Ped 6 6:56 || ... €) 261. Billy Mian eo 2 3 |
121 2 4 6°31 1 Ree: Il asoialinesee It ooe b 2 3]
17 SU ee 6 BANG | sac 6s) 6. le Dd) | eare| e6 2 3 |
136 1 3 5°82 1 ee 2 3 3 3 2 2h
TAD see 3 X60) jl) Goo Diiiwc ent eas lipasremnlleniats 2) 2
EBS i) 38 1) oe. 5:24 || 9 Sle Sy Shi ean ag 7 8 |
160 2 ree 5:00 2 ate Pre icon. Witoas B
171 2 4 4°65 2 4 3 4 3 tek
179 3 4% 4°38 2 as 4 4 b 3 wish
186 3) 4% 4:15 3 AM! sechlleces 4
190 1 oe 4-0 ll)... ace says sate
196 2 3 3°79 2 A ees 2 3 3 =e
210 2 7 3°34 2 3 \s ie 7 7 5 {
215 2 7 3°16 2 4 5 fe HEM) Bo
224 | ... 4% 2°88 || ... A al ee re E oe
227 | 2 8 2°77 2 5 le Bile (Galleria onl eee
232 2% 2°59 Sat inte lleaee ae
242 7 2:28 8 7 Brie di 6 5 if
246 4% 2°15 4 Rae: hee siete
256 2 ii 1°81 2 5 8 Baldo 5 4
On || Eb 1:70 \ { Pret
264 2 6 1:53 2 4 if ee 5 4
270 | 2 1:33 2 Baa. p con sia
277 1 ae 111 Bay iit oce es
283 1 2 (SIS) |} Gae 3 2 2
298 1 7 0:41 1 5 7 4 5 4
301 1 4 |5770°31 2 a3 Aa
311 2 ... |5769°98 1 age 2 2
322 1 i 9:60 1 6 7 5 5 4
329 2 6 9°38 2 4 6 4 5 4
336 1 see 9°13 1 io 33
342 1 Bs 8°94 || ... ae : seis
349 | ... 3 Scale eee ane \ 3b {cer eam
354 2 5 8°55 2 4 5 4 4 ) ee
363 2 5B 8°25 1 2 aed | ee
375 1 3 7°84 2 2 2 2 lee
382 1 ip 7:60 1 Pi Pilnee sop
391 2 8 7°32 2 6 8 7 8 5
| 396 || «.. 3 (eaAlar | ay bcos ay ||
403 1 a 6°90 1 seal Mee is incall eae
416 | 2 6 6°47 2 6 5 6 6 5
428 1 3 6:08 1 SP eee 3 ulllPeee An
434]... 2% Det) ||) Bae : ats wae
£8971) |) = 29 5°70 || 1 sd 2 oil
456 1 2 514 1 PAA aaa 2 ‘ 2
465} 1] 2 4°84 || ... oa 2 \ 39.
173476 1 4 |5764:48 1 3 4 2 2 ;

Ose. Freq.

173486
501
504
516
520
528
534
538
550
558

570
582
589
597
606
620
626
630
640
654

669
682
689
697
704
711
719
729
735
743

752
760
767
776
781
788

798

806
814

818
832
839
846
853
855
865
879
891
896

173910

VOL.

at Medium
Altitudes.

—S—

DOwWwWOnwmhds NOKKNYOK DH: HY HNHHDRFWWNON|ANWD WNHWwWorrO DH WH

7, PNR We pw OF

DR L. BECKER

Mean
Intensity.

| )

for)
Qa

i)

f

\

Telluric
Lines on the

Horizon.

(3%) | 5764-15
8 3-64
f 3:55
3°15
I: 3-01
3 2-76
a 2-55
2-41

2-02

1-75

3 1:36
L 0:97
0:74

0:48

5760:17

(4%) | 5759-72
ny 9°51
9:39
9-04
8-59
8-08
7-65
7-41
7:16
6-93
6-68
6-43
6-09
5-91
5°64
5-34
5-07
4-82
is 4-55
9 4:37
5 4-13
3-82

= nee
3 3:55
at 3:29
8 3:13
3 2-68
¥ 2-44
-, 2-21
6 1-99
: 1-91
1:59

P 1:13
4 0-74
0:56
5750-09

7 ws oOwWwo Pon
_—

oo:

ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

High Sun.

4 5 | 12a 7 8 9
30 44 47 37 34 37
24) 1°3 | 1:9 12 10 8

1 ee |B

oo eee \s 6| 5
iO leg toh) 9 | 9

oe ee ae

RAGE LE A | Bot B

Sc ee eee

on) Say ak! | ane

a oe Ske | 17 |. 5

DA Oa eth d=) til...

6| 5| 6] 6

Pee ales (ae 6

Bi 43| B16

SL ialdoed ect a

Ba on) tae 4 3
a i gel! aie. a

Drei del | & 3

2} 2/9] 4 3

t| 2| 2] 3 2

1} 2] 2] 2

hl 3H aT 1
Me ies he i
5| 6| 51 6 6
Ree pie ae a

2} 9| 2 a

DA eae es bw 3
oe eas ie ae 3
Bult Sl ad 1
a 7
Ba Sua. “
3| 2| 3] 8 7
aca ee M
7
f \6 bd] 6 7
males a
eal Pgeltceal 7 8
SaNNS Nee [arts 6
2| 9| 2] 3
Gall epi my G 8
Mle Pl necwla 4 5
al, dele ot 9 e
fei eee ae 3
2| 1] 2

XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 6).

11d | 136
30 | 36
9.) 722
3 | 6
Sg
Bem |) ec)
re
Shi

ea
9 | 3
sos
lees
2
2
Sales
51 6
3
8 | 9
a
alee
ae
5
E| 3
“
4

Low Sun.
17 | 18@ | 186 | 23 | 476
388 | 40} 40] 21] 386
12 18 11 20 24
Bae lhe 2 PB ae
15 \s ela ad {
6
8 9 9 8 9
£55 1] ea Merger ‘Saal Fade
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156 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

eee. High Sun. Low Sun.
[ae ie ie
Ose. Freq. | 2.8 |.o% 3 x 4 5 | 116 | 12a] 7| 9 | 180] 18a] 186] 23] 27] 81 | 470
a8 |258 30 | 44 | 388 | 47] 87| 87| 386| 40] 40] 21] 86] 81] 86
34 lesa 2°4 13 28) |\1e9.)’ 18| 69 |; Ib| 16] 10.) 18 }e86.) Saba
(0) 4 ;
173929 2 4d | 5749°49 2 2 2 2 2 2 4d| 2d) 3 nae 3b
9492 2 ee 9:05 2 2 SA || eal ere Ure PH as L liees ogee eee
957 5 oe 8°56 5 5 5 6 6 6 5 7 6 ane 4
970 5 7 8:12 5 5 5 7 7 6 8 7 7 FAR 6
979 5 7 7°83 5 5 5 7 7 6 8 7 7 te 5
173990 1 3 7:45 2 1 2 3 1 2 2 2 3 aa 3
174003 1 3 7:02 2 1 its 3 1 3 3 3 3 Be 3
014 1 3 6°67 2 1 Fae | oae 1 2 3 3 3 a: 2
028 1 250 6:20 1 Sie Seeoll | sean ecesan mere esis ota |p ore 3 Bolas
037 2 10 5:92 4 2 3 9 8 8 8 9 8 8 | 11
046 1 ied 5°59 1 300 as wos Hees
051 1 4 5:44 2 1 3 3 3) | 5 3b
063 1 9 5:05 3 1 3 8 6b) 7 7 6 Td| . 8 | ll
066 1 4:94 ont 1 Bae Beer dosed 2a eee
083 iL 3 4:37 2 1 ge Dei eee | bs) Lav ll See 3 Ae 3
O91 |... 21 4:11 un Bei has it ees: || Sees char He Dal eee she
097 2 5 3°94 2 2 ae 2 5 3 3 br Pee rs Ae 5
108:|| 2 6d 3°58|| ... 2 OS bol 3 | S38 ilies "11 6d} 5
123 3 3°08 3 3 Ba (aes 3 eit mae 3 4 ose) ae
134 1 4 2°72 2 1 cn 4 3 3 4 3 4 obs 4
146 1 10 2°30 3 1 2, 7 6 6 8 7 7 6 | 10
156 6 ae 1:97 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7| 5
163 2 ate 174 2 2 Sid fear |lt erste itn ts w'ou |e Ean eorccnm | eee «oof laneee
171 2 44 1:49 2 2 745] | Sa Meera eto al Wend 2 2 Avie
183 2 4 1:10 2 2 2 1 2) lees 2 3 4] 3]
192 1 Te 0°80 ites nae 2 Sr (ices iste ae wee eRe
210 2 4 574019 3 2 3 3 3 2d) 3 : es) ||
220 2 eat 5739°86 3 2 mats : ae jelsty [tee Tene 31a
228 3 44 9°59 Be 2 3 3 2 2 4 ~) | see ie
242 1 4 9:14 2 1 2 3 2 wis 4 : 4|.4 19
260 3 4 8:57 3 3 2 4b {3 2 3 Aaa bd 3H
268 | 2 5 830] 4 g 4 i 14/4 415 \ 13
282 2 11 7:82 4 a 4 9 8 9 8 8 | 10 9 | 11
7°53 2 ‘
293 | 2d 5 Beate \ 3 st 1] 2 2/3] 5| lea
302 2 5 716 Bat “ie 4 3 3 3 4 5 4 3
By 5) 2 ee 6°75 2 1 2 Le 3 3 | fae, ||) ection ee
323 1 4 6°49 2 ee 2 : 2 3 3 4 4 By)
Bom | ste Jie ht 635i] | 3. ae ts he meee |
Bao || & 3 5:96 fete ba “te Bie! tue sae 2 3 By
346 2d 9 5:74. 2 3 3dj 7 ii DWE 7 7 8 9|,. 71%
362 2 4 5:20 3 2 PEN Bie asd Bee eee 2 NN bbc 4. | oso
378 1 4 4°66 2 ad SO Ahes 3 3: ll Bas 3 3 4| 31. oa
392 1 Mate 4°21 2 1 -50i| (eter Iecee CROMER Aso I doa 2 | 4.01) ee
404 1 if 3°80 2 ‘nt > | I ae 4 3) || Gut 4 4 7 6} 4] 7
3°27 3
423 | 2d 8{ ay \ 2] 9 a4-6|°s5 15 ee 6| 6) 8| (sam
436 1 4 277 ee aah ah Cal | eee ise mete | are 4 2 3>| 4)
446 4 bide 2°45 3 4 eas Al Gs. 5 3 5 5 3 4
453 1 te 2°20 a ane E 74.4) |) Bae eeeene | Beate aoe |) feae al Gece aan
174462 8 5731°92 8 8 8 7 6 8 8 8 8 7 6] 5

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM. 157

ieee High Sun. Low Sun.
S ©
Ose. Freq.| 33 | o2¢ A 4 5 11d 7| 9|136|185] 28] 27) 31] 32| 470
ae| Ess 30 | 44 38 37 | 37] 36| 40] 21| 36] 31] 30] 36
84/8 3m 25 | 12 2°6 Whiley Gi): 01 |..9)| 15] 84 Ie gael | ae-| | 20
(0) 4
174476 2 4 5731°46 3 2 on 3 3 4/ 4 3 35 )|) facts \ 3p
489 2 4 1:02 3 y Ht 3 3 4 4 4 OF ee
502 1 eee 0°61 oe 1 Aer bi seieta Mime. || seek |heees al Eee lites
512 1 5 5730-27 2 se ae 2 3 2 5 4 8) I sae
522 2 9 5729°95 3 2 ; 10 6 5 8 6 8 | 10 9 \ 12
527 2 9 9°78 3 2 16 5 8 if 8 | 10 9
541 2 4% 9:30 2 2 et Beet itech lDoooh eas AT ots, I Bem, lela
553 2 7 8:92 3 2 6 5 4 5 5 a 7 6 5
563 2 "f 8°58 3 2 6 5 4 5 65) 7 7 6 5
582 1 3 7:95 2 3 4 as 2 3 3 3 3
ms) | (43) 76) 3)) a. | a. 4A 8p| Ailend. ,
596 2 ee 7°50 2 eae =a Reg ft - sod oi corti | oes Nears ae nat
606 7 10 718 uf i 6 10 7 6 7 if 8 kis 1ld
612 3 9 6:98 3 3 4 8 7 6 8 ie 8
618 eas 6 6:79 bis na Sie 6 4 nleere eli. acct [ee
628 2 ae 6:45 aoe ba 2 ot eeeh[Precs 3h lease || wes
637 1 3 6°16 2 aS 1 3
642] 1 | 3 G00eoth Ww |}... hi ee: ial 3 \3 Se)
651 2 ik 571 2 $a8 2 sagt IB coee Bacal ies cctllnessey lll eae
661 2 iste 5:39 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 2
682 1 3 4:70 2 ae B. 2 3 3 3 3
eri 3 | 4)| 454] 3 | 2 | 3 _ tape |
699 1 9 4:12 2 3 8 4 7 Ut 8 9 9 9
706 2 “a6 3°91 2 2 3 is ect motel trode meee ae
711 1 4 O74 ||... 2 sec 2 1 3 3 4 4 3 3
723 2 oe 3°34 2 1 2 soll Node ans j chill ete ae
734 ee Py! 2:98 i any a, scott Passe ake eee hit ae 3 1 Six
740 | 2 ABs 2°79 2 1 2 DE tessa [ora TMPcce ata c cdi lltegsom, il! sa Shs
754. 2 6 2°34 3 he 3 3 6 5 3 4 4 6 5 5 4
762 2 10 2:07 3 Nes 3 3 9 7 5 a 7 9) 10 | 10 | 10
766 1 4 1:92 Bae 2 ae gh 4 3 3 4 4 i
782 2 Be 1:40 2 ba 2 DO} Besse DEA ee AY cctt eects 2 Bee
793 3 5 1:05 3 3 4 4 5 5 4 5 5 5 4 5 4
800 3 0°83 iets Ree 3 Alt ose l eeeentee se. | pceealageers i sikeh “Hewes teen lage
810 2 8 5720-51 3 2 sac 2 8 6 5 6 6 8 8 7 7
827 2 5 5719-94 2 2 3 OF lh Bexpalleene 3 4 4 EE | eee tl teeters 3
833 | 2 11 9°75 3 de 4 3],10/] 8 6 8 7 So ell 9 |; 10
851 2 8 9°15 2 2 3 3 8 7 5 6 5 8 8 6 a
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865 il 2 8:70 2 Pao al ete : sectalhasece (ase [Miser
871 2 4 8°51 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 3 3 3 4 2 2
878 I ne 8:26 1 abe ei deck, eect ltteer 2
886 8 he 8:00 9 8 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 7 8 8 6
897 | 2 9 7°65 3 2 4 2 9 ti 7 7 7 9 9 8 8
904 2 eat 7:42 2 Abe aR wear Wace Ae are eset iirc Ibe otys 3
913 2 4 7:13 2 2 2 ia Wee eh ie, 2 3 4 3 3 3
928 3 ee 6°64 2 2 3 3 2 3 2 3 tl (Neal lees 2
933 | 32 ee 6°47 ||... 3 she bee Ba oe call eRe He sllibaee
as) 3). cic] 2} 1 | 2 | 2 Bue S 2] 2
952 1 3 5'87 2 2 “ae 2 2 2 2 Meee 3 3 2 2
174962 2 5715:54 2 a3 Ace 2 2

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

158

TAO AON EON ie EMM :
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159

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

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DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

Mean
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162 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

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Ose. Freq. | § |e ¢ s 4| 5 7| 9| 23| 27} 28] 31] 32| 38] 390] 45 | 475! 50
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792 | 2 637 |... 21, 2 eal cl, 1) 2.
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899 | 2 2944 0. [| 2 Mao... . 2} 2 2a
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039) 63.) ae 8-48 Silas We S441. o 1 alee 3| 2 | 2a
053:| 33°) bun, 8-02]... | 2) 2 1] 2} 3) 3] @)..|..|-2)
066 | 2 7A |e eee)" ks | al ae ee . (2
o74| 4 7-37 4} 4 Ca ai 4) 4 . | 4] oo)
084| 1 7-03 4c WE Sa Ack a See |
090 | 4 G:85i|_.... Bile ae, a1. BB . | 4/3 | 2a
H63)| 62:| ... 6-42|/ 1 l
wl a) SBA 42) 2) 2 | 21 2) i ore |
i oe 6-30 | J |
es ae 595] ...| 4] 2}..) 8/4] 4| 2] 3/../..] 3) 8a
12201) 06°). 5-76] ...| 6| 61 6 6| 6| 6| 5| 6]...|..| 5| 6|.c)/—
55005)... 5°30 |) 3 2| |
eae! aa Ve 2} BARAL tS 13 be 3] 3:2. |... | alee 13 |
elec 3 aoe 4711.0] Dal SWiebiliese docce tl scot] v.02] sav coallltsce |e. en cn
165| 2] ... 447 |. | Bhd oo] 8] ut. | ef eee laee | ose (nh
1705) S641 -z.; 431)... ) 7 caeen | 6 Be 6 S|
176| 95) acs, 413]... ] 5] 5 pate Bl 41) Bale ee 6 | os ae
rT) Obes eae 362] ...| 2/ 3]..4../ 3] 2] 3] 2]... |... | 2) 2
177197 | 29... | 664344] ou] ce | cee Pood] eed] coe) | ee] sce] seal cta‘] oem | es |r

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

165

Ose. Freq.

177204
214
225
227
242
255
270
279
292
297

308
313
322
336
341
356
360
366
373
382

390
405
420
433
447
455
474
482
493
496

512
518
538
559
562
576
580
588
608
618

636
645
659
667
679
689
693
709
718
740

177752

Mean
Intensity.

Altitudes.

Telluric
Lines on the

Horizon.

© at Medium

5643-22
2°91
2°55
2°49
201
1°58
111
0:82
0°43

5640:27

5639-90
9°74
9°47
9-01
8:86
8:39
8-26
8-07
7:85
7-55
7°30
682
6:36
5-93
5-48

i 5-22
“6 4-62
(2 2) 4-37,
ie 4-02
3:93
" 3:43
(22) 3:23
zy 2-59
1-94 \

1:84
1:38
ae 1:27
(2 1) 1-02
e 0:39
5630-06

5629-49
9°22
8-77
8:50
8:12
7°80
(1071
Gay
6°88
6:19

5°87
lp oe2o nT

coun |

&

—~

<>

DoDD POD FP PDK KH bo D DOD wD DD SE IEAES TES PISS “IWR WPOWNWWrEDP WOW DO ob Ww w

nm
Qa

VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 6).

High Sun. Low Sun.
IA BeN. 7 9) @eoaAleorell 28, Si
AAS 238) 37'|\. 37°) Laummaes |) 988 | st
12a 25). 15.1 serGulmentoul 119 9
4 5 4 5 5) 4 4
3 4 3 4 4 3 3
2 3 3 3 3 2 2
5 5 4 6 5 6 4 5
8 7 7 8 8 8 0 8
6 6 5 df 6 7 5d 6d
4 5 5 5 5 5 4
1 2 1 2
3 3 + 4 4 3 3
g 8 9 8 9 8 8
dat 2 ah 3 3 2
6 7 6 7 7 3) 6
6 6 6 6 6 5) 5
5 5 5 6 5 4 5
3 3 3 3 3 2) ||, Mele
6 6 7 6 6 ai 6
il 3 ear 2 3 fie eats
2d 3 1 2 3 2
2 2 b Es b

oat She 2 2 ie 1
7 8 8 8 8 8 8
Bee 2 2 1
2 2 Be 2 2 2

(4 5

3d Ad 3 14 3 | 2
9 |
5 \ 3 2 oe
2 2 2 2
1 &: 1
1 3 coe 1
Ric 3 ace 3 2
4 4 4 5 4
4 4 4 5 4
2 2 at 3 3
4 5 5 5 5
3 4 4 3 3
2 2 2 3
2 3 2 3
2 3 ane 2 2

4 ite
4 { F fo] 5] 8

39
23

CO ww:

WNwwoawon on:

Co:

eS ppwo: BRE:

bo bo bo

Or

oOonpnwmnwmnmowroa ob: Ow:

Do bop w eo bonow :

Pie bo:

Q

2C

OH Oo O10 OI:

ew bon:

LDNWwWEEWE RE:

bo 0

is

Dra NMNOAWERE AW! HONMWNMNHNH ! TNA®AA: www | a & &

164

Ose. Freq.

177763
Ci
(ie
787
790
804
818
837
842
859

879
889
899
916
930
943
952
957
973
982

177994
178001
019
021
036
050
062
068
072
080

088
098
113
121
131
146
157
170
175
189
196
205
218
224
242
252
261
275
281
295

178305

Mean
Intensity.

(} at Medium
Altitudes
Telluric

Lines on the ©
Horizon.

me to bo bh OL OT Oo Oo ae Nae See WwWwWwnntrFrobnpb o&

—
Ss

KF PeEDPNWWHeE RW HNWNNNWEREONYD NEF

wv)
=
a

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

5625°46
5°20
5°01
4-70
4-61
4:18
3°72
3°12
2:96
2°42

1:80
1-47
1-18
0:64
5620°20
5619-77
9-48
9°33
8°82
8°55
8:16
7-96
7°38
731
6°83
6°41
6-01
5°82
5°69
5:44
5:20
4°89
4:41
4°15
3°83
3°37
304
2°62
2°45
2:00
172
1:50
1:10
0:90
0°36
5610-04
560974
9°32

Daily

8°67
8:42
5608-30

58
1:3

High Sun.
5 8b
44 58
aD) 1°3
6

1

1

9

D)

3

2

2

3 |
5

2

1

2

2

5

it et
1 E
Pe 5
11 12
Rts 5
7 8
6| 6
3 5
2 48
Dy 3
2| 3d
2

3

mr
S.

WwW NFP NWNWMWWNRF Fw NWNWNWNWHNWWwWNwWwabd

lor)

TIN WOWONDWHE WwWRwWaAT: oD:

—I——

mob WT: ONMNMNWOUWWH =:

PSCC Ss COMI = Bois

wo:

Hm: Go;

Ss
(Je) =

“TI ww 0

ROGes cs

Low Sun.
27 | 28
36 | 38
9| 16
6
bie
10 9
1
3
4.

3 ;
Yel ae
6 5
Bd eee
3 =
6 5
2

yy)

10 | 10
4 EK
3
3
3
3
3
4
3

39b | 42] 45
30 39 | 30
12 20 14 |
6/ 5] 6

me
3 | il
9/ 9| 8
|
6| 6] @m
2 | 21
3 \- sue
|
3 | 2'| iam
3| 3) am
3| 3m
|.
4| 3 om
6| 5| 5

+ 3 | 2a
7| 6 | em

Lo;| {3 a
5| Bal 5|
2) 2) aa
2; 2) 2m
.. | 4)
11 | 9 | 10d)
| 4
6| 7|
|
5| 5| By
4] 4) a
.. |
2 2 ao
. |
Beit
2] 2

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM. 165

eee High Sun. Low Sun.
S| SB |
Ose. Freq. |S 2/22 | a gece 86°] bps ei, 10| 23] 27| 395| 42| 48
mals ee Fela 58 | 4ol 38 39| 21| 36] 30] 39] 34
67 me 13] 12] 13] 17] 20 9 8.) Se) tan\e ts | 87
178322 4 5607-82 4 3 4 5) 4 4 4 4 4 4
329 2 7:60 a8, Ae is 2 sa sue
341 3 7:24 3 2d 2 3 3 3 3 3 2
347 2 7:06 ore Son xp 2 an a
359 2 6:67 tae she 2 2 2 te 2
374 3 6°19 3 2, 3 3 3 3 3 2
380 3 6:02 : 2 3 3° By
393 2 5-60 ish 1 oe 2 3 2
408 3 5:14 2 2 3 a 2 3 2 2 2
4929 2 4-70 2 2, 2 2; ane
432 2 4:38 2 oe 2 2 Pate 2 1
446 4 3°93 5 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 4 4.
454 1 3°68 2 =o ae
462 2 3°42 Baz 8: 2 2 Pe alll wedi: a B
472 9 3:12 9 9 10 10 9 9 9 9 9 9 10d
478 9 2°94. 9 9 10 10 9 9 9 9 9 9 \
485 2 2-70 3} E a 2 B 1B), 18 2 Se
494 1 2°44 1 1 a,
501 2 2°22 2 2 2
509 3 1:96 4 3 4 3 3 3
925 9 1:46 9 9 9 9 9 9
532 3 1:23 1 2 4 Sites
541 2 0:95 Il 3
545 | 9 0-84 eee 8 } 80 2
558 5 0:44 3) 5 6 6 5 5 5d
565 5 5600-20 5 sae 5 6 6 5 5 \
576 | 2 559986 | peulae 3
578 2 9-78 yh és 2 Riety | pete
590 | 2 9-42 | Sauipe a: | too oS
602 | 2 sel 13 5 Ae
614 9 8°67 8 9 9 8 9 8 8d
621 8 8:45 i 8 8 ai 8 8 i
635 2 8:00 3 2 2 aE Ne a
641 2 781 3) AS. ae aoe
647 2 7:63 2 2 2 I ae
659 2 1:24 2 2 2 2 1
675 1 6°74 —- 2 La
686 2 6°42 2) 2 2 2
692 il 6:21 Il 2 2
mon | 1 575 1 of 2 Il
724 2 cee yy) 3 Be: Y 3 eG Beak dee 112 | eevee | ere 2 By Ah hee
(eis) “i as 4°87 i A: 7 a me (Go| aa | Ae i it 9
742 9 its 4°66 9 a 9 10 a Sralllesee ital ers 9 g) \
754 2, Lae 4:97 ahs ae 2} AO vx Saul eee elon oh bs. y 3) i) see
mo} 6! ... Seo sole es 6 Gp ae CHMACMMG hee ites | Sa) Da) 05
775 1 Ace StO2s |e ae. S58 dna 1 ae BAS Goo || sooa,sl| epee ||Leneene eters eee eee
780 2 Se 3°46 | 3 Bent 2 2, ae SA eh | Sete leese.< 2 Git ez
791 2 M2 3:12 aes a Lr 2 =a BO I cbo. | -ooc kl Sneeae| Ns om |e 3
800 3 vas 2°84 3 an 2 2 ise Be 3 11 | evan eee 3 By) ce
Bis| 7| |. aed 6) 7) emer rly
178816 6 ste 5592°36 6 ie 6 6 on } le By an eee 5 a |
Mee | Le

166 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

intent High Sun. Low Sun.
' 8 eS ;
Ose. Freq. | 3-3 gee ‘ 3 8b 9 7 9 10 | 35 | 398 42 43
as Ears 58 58 40| 37 37 39 33 30 39 34
@4/S8 ox | Sasge) a8 eee ay 18 9 24 10 16 35
© 4 |
178825 2 5592-05 | 2 2 ee es sine
840 3 1:60 3 2 3 3 3 2 3
848 2 1°36 are 3 2 Be i aa
860 3 0:96 | 3
863 | 3 0-88] f fees \ 3 , eeiliees { 4 } aie
873 1 0:56. wee i Sec a an be ay oe
882 8 0:27 | 8 8 8 9 9 9 8 8 8
890 4 559002 4 4 4 Bee 3 3 4 4 oe
898 1 5d589°79)\|_ ... ae 2 Bye es
905 5 9:56 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 4
919 | 2 9-192. -. 2 a 2. |e
925 | 10 8°92 | i) 10 11 10 10 10 10 10 9
936 2 8:60] .. By 2 Bae ae Tid oe
945 | 1 8:31 || 2 1 2 ie f ase
955 6 8:01 6 6 5 6 if 6 6 6 5
964 5 ifs 5 6 5 6 6 5 5 5 4 :
973 | 1 7°44 2 2 AF ‘a
982 3 7:16 ech Bs 2 aoe 4 ane
178990 | 11 6:90 11 12 12 11 12 10 11 11 1l
179003 2 6°49 3 3 2 ee 2 te
014] 1 6°15 Bs. 2 8 | » =
022 2 5°90 2 3 2 tia 2 2 2
043 3 5:25 2 3 2 4 2 3 2 3
055 6 4°89 6 6 5 5 6 6 6 5 5
062 2 4:65 se bad 2 ace ie aie 2 uke
078 3 4-17 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 2
092 2 S(t 2 2 2 1 2 2 ag
101 1 3°44 2 Ace “8
ila 2 3:12 3 2 2 1 1 : 2 2 2
118 2 2°92 3 2 2 Bae Nee Ace
135 2 2°38 2 2 2 fee B site 2 BAG
144 9 2°12 8 8 10 9 9 9 8 9 10 9
146 2 2°05 wee Bo 2 ah BAe Eo ode cae ||
160 | 1 159. |) a s 2 2 | 2. i
ial 2 1:26 2 2 2 1 ; ade 2s
190 2 0:68 2 2 2 2 2 2 oa |
195 2 5580°42 | 2 2 she bce Pe
212 2 5579:99 ak 2 2 2 24
229 3 9-47|| 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2
234 1 9:29 Re te 2 dire ee ian
249 7 8°82 8 a if if 8 7 6 7 7 7
Posie 2 8°58 2 is 2 3 535 ee 1 nec oe
267 2 8:26 2d 2 vs 2 2d ie
285 1S, Witz 1 2 Des sete 2 a
294 3 7-42 2 2 2 2 3 2 3 “a3
| 303] 4 714) 3 | «Sale ee 4 | 4 | a
DLS 2 6°83 2 2 atts : en ae nn
319 1 6°64 Aes oat 2 les she eas
333 9 6°22 9 9 10 11 10 9 9 9 10 9
344 2 Hoe 5°88 1 2 2 4 1 a ee
Li9SOD Neen. 3 5575°D3 2 2 3g

Ose. Freq.

179365
370
388
405
412
427
437
444
459
466

474
486
492
506
514
524
530
541
556
564

574
585
591
600
612
615
627
633
648
656

668
674
685
693
707

715

722
735
744

753
758
764
“7a
782
797
812
823
828
845

179856

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

Mean
Intensity.

Altitudes.
Telluric
Lines on the
Horizon.

© at Medium

5575°21
5:07
4:50
3°98
3°75
3°29
2°98
2°78
2°31
2°09

1:83

_—
Om Wr cb bo

1-48
1-29
0°85
0°58
0-30
5570°11
5569-76
9°29
9:06

—

WD FO FHWNHREATW DDD WrKOrPWwWhrNeHepww wwe
. . . oe)
Woe worKwoo =

bo
Q

~
ce
(=)
rs

Do NDR wnwnwnwnnww we or
bo
qs
Ot

5560-02

High Sun.
3 8b 9 7
58 58 40 37
ome | 17 30
2 2 2
ate 2 2
2 3 2
2 3 2 Bo
6 6 6 7
10 10 12 12
2 3 2
2 2
2 state 2
2 2
2 ane
2 Ae 2
2 2 2
2 3
10 10 11 10
ee ysis 1
3 3 4
ns a 3
3 2 2
‘sys a 3
3 2 3 as
7 7 7 6
4 4 4
Nee abe 3
3 3 4
4 4 5 a
8 8 a 8
4 4 4
eu ais 2
1 2 2
ae 2 2
2
3 to 2
2 2 1 aa
9 8 9 8
2 2
2 mee
ii 7 if it
2 3), 2 :
3 me 3
2 2 3
3 3 3
2 2 2 ace
i 7 7 6
2 3

own:

moO Hs bo:

bob:

Low Sun.
10 35 396
39 33 30
10 24 9
2
Be 39 D
5 7 6
9 10 9
Bais 2 4
1 2
2 ae
1 2
foe
Z 3 2
Geile ot |). 10
aie 2
3 3 3
2
2 2
ns Sie Z
2, 3 2
8 7 5
4
rer 4
8 8 8
4 3 4
2 1 2,
2 2
2 3
6 2
Sas ate EK
2 3
2 sae
3 3
7 6

el

maT oo:

(Sa PSG

oe bobo! Pw

Corn :

Cobo: wbp:

167

34
33

bo:

10

* ~Tb:

bop:

bop:

168 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

ines. . High Sun. Low Sun.
aie
Ose. Freq. |:3.3/-2% 2 a 3 8b 9 7 9 10 12 35 42 43
Pelee: 58 |. 58) |l soi, aye sy | 89 | 46. | ° vaBai|) Sepmsunm
ae te 18iul U8 de eOmieereom te 20. | 10 9 | 221 aaa
179862 | 3 5559°83| 3 31 | @ oo 88 3 3 2
879 | 3 9-29|| 92 3 3 Ai 2 2 2. gees
889 | 2 8-99|, 2 De ag 2 3 es
905 | 1 8-49 ||... 1 2 a ee PS Ibe
918)) 27 8:09 8 7 if 8 9 8 7 7 6
934 | 3 7°60 3 3 3 ace 2 2 2 sae
947 | 3d Alsi, Sy ped lieee 3 3 3. Saas
957 | 1 Gipoil <ul wee 2 me ec. a
969 | 2 650] 2 2
OTB |" 2. 632|| 3 } : { 3 : 4 eeihas
179990 | 3 586 || 3 3 3 3 2 hl eas 3. ae 3
180005 | 1 oe UM eee a hae 2 B u
O16)) 9 5:05 9 9 9 9 10 9 9 ) 9 9
033 | 2 453] 2 2 2 1 2 ol tere 3
041 | 2 499]/ 5 | 2 2 a Pee es.
044 | 2 220. 2. 2 eee... lle
056 | 5 3:82] 6 5 | 3 6
059 | 6 Brdl 96.06 | mee t oe | 6 \ td 1 6 i
072 | 3 3°33 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 Re
O81 | 2 BOG ss. any 3 = Se 2
089 | 3 281| 3 3° |e ee 3 a has 5 le
102 | 2 241|) 2 ys re Daoudi ees 2
THOS) a3 2°17 3 3 3 1 3b 3 Bae b
ipa eee OHA esc 3 2 1 2 3 a
124 | 2 1:73 2 2 pis 2 3 3 2
144 | 2 1:12 2d 2 2 2b 2 Bab
153] 1 0:84 2 . | oo
161 2 0-60), ... Sie 2 bo oe 2 ace
17s| 4 5550710 a 4 4 3 3 3 4 4 3
187 | 4 5549°80 |} 4 4 4 3 3 3 4 t 3
003 aol hee 9:33|| 2 Pp 2 alec 2 | Se
222 | 2 3 Sera <<a ie 2 1 2) 3 ae 2b
BAe Oaeee 8-41|| 3 ad| 2 1 2” | 3 |
251 | 2 783|| 3 2 2 nist 3 2
262 | 1 TATA eee 1 ie et ie.
274 | 5 ff la | 6 5 5 6 5 5 5 6 5 6
291 | 7 6-60|| 7 6 ae won| 7 7 7 7 8 ay
303 | 2 6Zaie ae 2 s! noe a
307 | 3 610] 3 3d| 3 3 4 a8 4 | a
320} 1 569]. 2 ee ie
328 | 2 B46) Oa8l oy 2 2 2 3 3
337 | 1 BDSM sacs 1 2 ne i eas He oe a
351 | 3 474| 3 2 3 3 4 3 4 3 3
365 | 1 432]... il 1 is ve fie ar a
373 | 7 4:07 8 6 if 8 8 8 7 8 7 if
385 | 2 STO ie ae is sak 1 es 3 ad
397 | 7 3°34 if 6 “ 8 8 8 rt 7 if rf
401 | 4 | 3:19] 3: ||” Sea 3 | 4] 38 | 4 | Sa
493 | 2 252|) 92 2 2 hd " 3, | 20
445 | 2 1°85 2 niet 2 1 3 2 2
180456 | 1 5541-51]... 2

Ose. Freq.

180475
487
504
509
526
535
548
556
571
574

584
596
611
621
629
645
650
658
669
675

688
692
mil
716
734
738
756
761
772
783

798
808
816
823
834
843
854
862
879
892

898
910
920
929
938
949
956
970
973
180986

181000

Mean
Intensity.
5
oO
£8 | os
nels) || ayae
og Ad
eis, 22
foes) || ay
a ibs
10) 4

=
KH FN WR WD CFD D FP NWWWNNMNWNWKFr KE NYY PWOHEPNWWWH FPATWOOWD WHR SCOOT SF Od bb w&

Horizon.

3%

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

|
|

5540°94
0:57
5540-03
5539°89
9°38

SEIS BOR

5524'87

High Sun.
3 8b 9
58 58 40
1°3 1°3 16
3 3 2
2 3 2
2 iat 2
4 3 3
5 4 5
2 Site 1
8 6 6
2 Hrs il
5
betas
nee Aer 1
4 2 3
4 3 3
av aa 3
3 2 3
5 5 5
if 8 8
3 ate 3
cf 7 6
3 3 4
3 2
wie ae 3
2 3 2
2 ane 2
4 4 .
5 6 5d
2 3 2
4 4 4
1 %: 2
2 2 2
4 4 3
4 4 4
S ae 3
3 3 2
3
Coe oe. 2
3 4 4
3 4 4
12 1] 12
2b 2
2b
sais 2
8 8
tate 3
2 3
io Nae
7 ff
4 4
E

—

DORK ep He wold:

bo BAD:

169

37
22,

bo bo bo bo:

(0.2)
Q

7d

2b

Low Sun.
12 35
46 33
10 20
1 3
30 3
4 5
oe 2
5 7
Nee 2
4d) 5d} .
3 4

3
4
5
7

ee 3
ii a
nee 4
3 3
3| 3
8 16

al (eo

dh) 4
, 3
ae 2
4 4
4 3
uh es

3
1

3 3
oe 3
iL |)

1
2

8 8
a1) 3
7| 7
3 4

376 | 406
32 40
26 21
sa Ea
3
ea
\ 3p a
SI
3p
3| E
12 | 12
ID
g | 8
1
81 7
4| 3

bo Ww

oe:

——

——_—_— és
Oar:

bot

170 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

—— ee Se eee eee

Bey High Sun. Low Sun,
: g
Ose. Freq.| 33 |-25 8 A 8b 10 9 | 10 | 12 | 35 | 87 | 40a | 400 | 42 | 43
a= laa 58 50 | 87 | B9 | 46 | 88 | 82 | 40 | 40°) “Souumeam
67 = oh 1°3 90 | 28 || 12 | 10 | 18 |, 21) 18) "20 | ee
181005 | 2 5524-71 2 2 hie 3 3 | oe
O164|) #2 ABO f 2 Pl 3 | oa
025| 3 4-1] 3 Seong kd | eh | 4 2, | eee
034| 1 3:82 || Y.. 2 ae: ol) ae oe...
O41 | 8 3°60]... 2 Us. Somat ee 3 2s
O46) Sales 3-40 3 3 eae lees. (oe) | 4 2 | 337s
061| 1 3 SO3iln oe ve fae eee \.. ae
074| 7 i. 2°61 7 (Ae Ry | |. 6 6 | See lee
082) 2 2°36|| ... Py ee a ae ae ome i. ee
103 | 43 1°73 3 eee emo Y) 321) 3) 3 2 | 330 ae
114) 3 1:38 3 3 See Beel Bs |’ 8 2 "3° Saas
124| 3 1:07 3 3 | \; Can aan ee 3 | ome
ipa) O87 les 0-66 3 3 Se ket |, 8) 3 | Mee
162 | 1 3 | 5520-23]... Omi, de | GS e)...s 2 | 6 | 2
161} 2 | (3%)| 5519-95 2 a Set ROM io |
GOs Th ne 9°71 5 Fe | a | be) 4 5 | G50 aaa
1794) ~1 4 941]... meee | fe | 8 .
196 | 92 8°89 2 low | 2 | ai) 2°) 24)
207 | 2 8°55 2 a Pew | 86. | 826 2 ais
AY |) 19 8-24 3 2 alee) | 32.) 2a I 9 \-2 | gam
Ott Ad 7-63 4 Monee Vall 5 |. 4) | Ae
252 | 4 717 4 A eeeS. || 4 || BGA A 4.) Sa
260 | 5 6-93 4 5
266 lee ie 6:34] 4 5 \6 Bake |, Top] 5 | ¢ | a
ib.) = 2 3 6-49 2 Teenie, (ro | ee) 8 3 | 1 | a
OSB 1 3 6-09|| ... 2 eves) Cae 8 3 | 2 | aa
por) 3 ~ 5-80 3 3 Daa | eae eS 3 | aaa
307 | 1 4 5-52 1 See ie, mu a 4 |
315:| 1 5-26)... 2 . if ie
322 | 3 5-04 2 2 sy || Wael 3 3 | 3 |
326| 2 4-941]... 2 5 by an
335 | 6 4-67 6 Gwwcente | oe Vee el 8 5 6 |
Sl ENG.) le ote 4-47 6 Cate. tT | TO) 5 | 6 |-om
360.|'9. 2 ee 3-91 2 Sei as io | 41 3 3 4d |
366 | 2 ) 3-70 2 2 a 3 1 | Sa
375 | 2 3:44]... 2 as a. . | a
386 | 8 3-12 5 Gul | 9 1 9 | 9%) 8 8 | 7a
388 | 4 3-04 4 ih .s 3 . |
401| 6 2°66 6 Siem | 7 | "eel .5 5 | Sie
405] 3 2°53 4 Qi fh 3 4 |... | aa
410| 6 2°38 6 Pee oT | 6 le 5 | 6 | 6m
ANG 9 |... 2191)... 3 Peal... a . |
AIG WB. lh. 1:90 3 Peed | 2 | 3 3 4 | 1
AS61029 | os, 1°59 3 2 eel ee = . 2a
443| 9 5 1°37 2 Saleen Ss | 8 |e | 4 4 : E |
462 5 a 0°81 4 5 5 |
4651 5 Sales 3 by bd | 5d { : boa Bd { : i
Mee Clee i 0°35 1 1 a OE
| 484 6 0:13 5 6 | 5
| 487| 6 5510-03| 5 6 \s fa © 15 5 it? 13 5 ts |
| 181500} 2 4 | 5509-64 3 1213/3 | 4d! 3. | 2 | 3 ae |

Ose. Freq.

181510
517
530
537
557
565
584
590
601
611

619
623
633
641
655
668
675
683
691
697

707
712
aud
729
733
745
752
766
780
790

804
818
828
838
850
866
876
887
895
899

909
918
929
940
947
958
962
967
975
984

181997

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

Mean
Intensity.

© at Medium
Altitudes

So |
NS)

PNK ONE WNW EWEE NNW HF NOWNMWHE:

Reb Dor wo:

bo:

oO Reo:

Telluric
Lines on the
Horizon.

bo:

5509°34
Sella
8°73

0-44
5500-00
5499-70

9°39

9:05

8°56

8°27

7:93

7:68

7°56

7:27

6:98

6°65

6°33
6°13

578

5°65

551

5:25

4:99
5494-60

VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 6).

171

High Sun. Low Sun,
8b 10 10} 12] 35 | 37a | 370 | 40a | 400 | 41 | 42] 48
58 50 389 | 46] 33] 32] 32) 40) 40] 382] 39] 34
1°3 21 TSH LZe lon elon LSA STi 1 One 10s 24
3 2 We Pratl) Risssini|lateree
506 366 ion il 3 2 2 2 G00 ||| \eec
4 4) 4 5 5 4 4 4 4 \6q
4 9) 4 9) 5 t 4 4 4
2 2 1 3 3 3) || See 3 Ball cee
1b 2 8} Ine. 3 1 3 3 3
9 10 LO) LON HOE 28h e 9) | 10.\. 10 10 | 10

2 3 3 : 2 B 3
A i Ti WO ESaeSat Gr) #4 6 8
2 2 dco sue Poe sabeal| tone Bac
2 2 3 3 3 2 2 3 +
t 4 3 3 4 3 3 3 3 4
3 3 2 Nien) Oneal) Ole BS =a
L 4 S| (ou eaomome oul ally oO 4
2 3 2 a | O20 S| | 2d 3
6 7 Zaye 86) Ge ose 6) 2 -G.). 6 8
4 5 2 SAR OL) Aho SD
1 2 cna || coc D)ilbarate 2 1 2 2
3 5 Al 3 | op) 4a 4) 4. 4 4
sia Rs oe al ie Ie Coes eee Ny Dente ae
9 10 10) Se elOn SR S| 9 9). 10 10
2 2 3 2 2 2
2 2 SBE 4| 2 2| 2

2 3 lta sre ee 3
fas aE te 3] 2 Daly os 3
2 2 3 4] 2 3] 3 4
Boe oad 3 2 S06 2 one
2 2 Balle 2 | case 3
9 10 LE}. £1) es ae LOW LOM ie 9 11
4 aoe 500 || de B
Peled3. | 14) | 3) SSS 4 4 4
4 4 Zl Ze Rae are. 3 3
ae ae SB [poe 3
a 2 ae 1 os
2 BM || eae Zi | ee eee dc vod || Soon) 2
fete is 3 | 2 2
9 9 \3 . 3 3 ad cee 3d

4 4| 4 4 oes
5) 6) 9 6 5
2D

172 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

Mean
Intensity. Low Sun.
B18
Ose. Freq.| ZS |-24 8 N 35 37a 40a, 41 43
a8 |ae8 es | 32 | 40.1 | sou
@- |"3" 14 | 15 | 127) Soles
182008 3 5494-28 ae <p bas Soo esis 3 one 3 ste 2
017 4 3°99 4d 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
029 5 3°62 6 ye 5 5 bis 6 5 5 4 5
037 3 3°39 4 3
040/ 3 309} 4 2 lhe cea ao |} st ae =
049 4 3°04 4 4 4 3 3 3 ate 4
060 2 2°69 sae 2 as aS ad 2 igs 2
072 3d 2°32 3 3 26 3 3 3d 2 2 Rt: 2
085 4 me 1:93 4 4 aor 3 3 4 3 3 3 2
093 2 3 1:70 ai 2 see Bs 3 2 2 3 eae
109 2 4 1:22 2 2 3 2, 4 2 3 3
15) | ces 14D el | Pape |
123 5 ace 0:79 5 5 4 4 4 5 4 5 3
131 1 0°55 1 ae noe Bas i Sat ae wah
140 5 0:27 5 5 4 4 3 5 4 4 3
149 3 5490-02 3 4 4 i) 3d 3 4 3 3 \ 3 {
156 3 5489°81 3 4 4 /f { 3 4 1 3
172 1 9°31 2 1 & hse is ree te Pec Ren
178 4 9:14 4 3
ie an Ae \ 41> a6 apy 22)| — 30 { 3 | ait 4) m
191 1 8°76 2 1 50 sek OD J Aes ae
196 1 8:59 Ae 1 abe Be ane ity an ee
206 4 8:31 4 5 4 3 3 4 4 4 4
220 8 7°88 8 9 9 9 i) 9 7 8 8
227 5 7°66 4 5 5 4 4 5 4 4 5
239 | 5 T2911 |f Cif o ilene | 5 | 6 | 4
44] 4 7-14 || J | 1 G4 4) 3) «4 |) sla
253 i! 6°88 iss 1 mic ihe ae bate Mic ee
260 2 6°67 2 2 a S 3 2 2 3
274. 2 6:26 as 2 3 ee «bs
287 3 5°86 3 2 3 3 2 3
FOO a tick s71| 3 | 2 3 \ a ee 2 \ ag ia
309 2 3 5:20 1 2 ae 2 3 2 3 3
329 3 re 4-60 3 2 2 4 ase 3 3
339 il 3 4:28 des 1 a ae 3 2 sn see \
346 3 is 4:07 3 3d 3 2 3) 2 2 3
363 it 3°56 6 7 6 7 8 8 6 6 7
Be i 3°28 6 7 6 if 8 8 6 6 ff
381 1 Aye 3°02 sled 1 ‘ile be Se 558 sisi6 1 ote
390 2 4 2°76 2 3 4 3 3 3 3 3 2
399 2 ahs 2°48 2 2 oe 5a aks aa ase ies ot
412 4d 6d 2:09 3 4d 5 4 4d 6 4 4d 6
428 8 be 1°62 7 8 6 8 8 8 7 is 7
434 8 1°43 Uf 8 6 8 8 8 7 7 7
448 8 1:02 Uf 8 8 8 8 8 7 8 7
460 4 ote 0°65 4 3 4 2 2 4 3 3 3
| 464) | | oa) | Ree ee || we | ee
474 2 5480:22 2 2 x : 1 a 2 oe
| 490] 2 5479-76|) ... | 2 we | RL eee
498 2 3 Say | 2 2 1 2 3 2 2 2
182507 2 ‘ 5479 °25 2 2 oe 455 58 i a ; a s.

173

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

See Ore ~e OO :ODO AN 1M NNKeHID OM 1:0 ~~ eN oD Moma HAM “HON -0OM
= < —— Tl
po ee ee ee ee Se ee ee ee ee ee eee
|
tel Ne | NOOD 1DODD TANNA AN INOHH HOM 10 2: OCRH HN NA -TMMM 119 19 OOD 3: HINO 119000 WA
fo) - ee ee ek et ee ee a ee pee * a oe eS eas Sd ee
Na eee: oc Boo cutee Ty Se ae hea enna Retreres gS et ants ce a eon ee gm CM REP peTs an Males oe 85. s
Se ee ee ee eee eee See
|
eS Se | SUID HIDMI HO. COCO :; IN ts ts ts tNDWHIDQ © HM 19 : DO OMAN MAN oO rH MOON -HIDN :10 0
Py eRe) HOO eH 5 i 1 2 OOD TN FIM OHID OM rH > DO rH DH MOMNHAMMMO MOMAHOM -nRH
4 : - ; srs 5 2 3
=)
mn | S
Es Hey Gd Foot Ge 66 1pQAO DD Do ob bob of reece Me INANH OWN MAN IMHNNKR HON MHA Oo
SSS OS eet rane ene: eee ens 5 : g
ee ee RD ee EE
Ht Oo oO |
SS} 8 Arnona 5 (OOH O 4M > DODO NANA IN INNO HOG 311019 : :OoMmM. :
———
|
BY est mis) SIC) os) GoeEneN F LN OD TO OHID ON IND : OO KRRK SOQ GN 5 100 303 20> HOO 2 sc HH =: :cO GD
or . . . . . . . . . . . . ° . .
oo 4 i! Ss cS) 3S
SGD Bs NOHIDQ : He k= i ee Oi sO ERE AG RSIGC: Fiee NCIMB SAS CNR: oT oo 1A rH HON 1MHH ON
Sas
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|
3 eye Ak Go oD a) NAAN INANORDOID PANDY MM ANDA :DHANK MAAHNNANMANOH 4
3 ‘ c :
™M ~-__—
Sh So | ae
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CO CO AED HID DI~YD ODADANBDOAHND BONNHONANDA CONDOMODNAM ONKOL HHOONM ©
PIOPMOOGASOBDN DOHKSOHDIOM OWA PHAGE MADE AA PIM OOH AO Hrs Dis O HAN AOIDQ Hr od
a 1 DMM OO DO 19191919 XH HH HD OD ON es tine BAP AD DW Wry GO O19 1910 HHH oH 2
H sH OSH H
Nes) 1D 190 1D
: *MOZIIO FT =
ae | oUF ao soury Sl GS BS Oss MN eS MNS tas as oo) © 10 119 OO
Sn Lenn | rene meme es, <Mmign ence et aoe alc eres AS) ay besa SS RAC ORS fe eNO eo OG g
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as : ~S =
A! SopnyyyTy AMAGSMDHODEID AN (ANAM DOMID ONMADHOOND ANMNAHMDHDAD ADRAANMANOH O
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a DOA BMONDS WOIDDHMANKLKR AMDGOAONEDHHD DBODRHRAOMDAH ANHMERODOUNM O
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Fy Be OAD ICD ACD UD IG ID LOO OODGOGCGCOHOSCOCOm Meer rerrnn DDDDDNHDDDE AARAAAAAROO 2
S (ee) cO a (ce)
S$ = ae os

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GQIGONGONS) Es Hic 1A Ee MM AOHe SoH HOH OD KR HO SH Hs SHH SH ODIO

17 |

oo ox | ‘i
oc}
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8
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a ae ay ODOM :ONAMHAN BHD OO MMOMEeHe MOOHH DM DHH MMM HHMA1 s HONMOMMH : (j=)
4 e a4 qo z =
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2
nD a OU Co OOmrH 1190 HOM 1:0 © NH 119000 SOD GOs GH oe SHS eet HO HSH SH 1 aH HIG cost SHLeaee Gr
. . . . . . . . . re . ri
3 Sa = i
4 1 3
eS OOcdc :H ssh ss Ny £190 1:95 000 tH NN NCO AN Clap) (ar) 59) 7) se) Oo 29 Om :OOnR for)
. . . . . . rei . . or
oe —,
Oe | DOOM -wH soo [AN OH mH 1190060 1Ocmoa AN puH SH COO SOO COMN 3129 H W1D :OON : 2: +
!

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

S ae DAADMmeANO : HHH TA THNANHANH HOONMOHWHOHH AHMOAMDHNA OD A HNMONHONAN :
N . . . Sra . rei .
: :
=) we | Ss S S
M Sy DDONNOMH HH Bey SB oarl OS Gphtesl Sele) So Shisha it sO oD oD Se Gap) tir Aa WANN N for)
Lod . . . . . . re
"Sp
x =
Ot hey ee Ce ee Oe CeCe ee eta Oe US Den cae eeheouS) co 6 GNI od SH HAN AN od NA N WARHOO oS] ms ©
ie bate. “eo, "es le” Ley) aivasl "16" sat dae: fe0) casa taiet Cex kr bie akc: mer ri
; IS a
HARMDDDMWOHRADM COHMHMMOONHD AORDOHMEMD HONROHMEKRO RHNOHNIDOKG KW
PAID APOD SE ID ADWPHOSOONOGOVIQ HEA AADOA WASOASPHSWOA COALESCE ASKRH mo
ie OANA IIA OS SRAAR WO Or moO 1919 1D HHH MOAN AANMMOOSAaS DOODr~ODWODONID 06
ae HH = =
pron) wd) 1 pron ten) 19
“MOZIIOFY SS S So os} oc °
= | 013 uo soury Sp as Se cae SE Ae 5 aR RD Re EPO Cc SOR aN Sa eG am eg a Pa est ae a
aa OLINTIAL =e
8 ———————————————
cl .
= sopnqyy[y AOrANDHAHHH AM SHANNHNH HODNHMMOMHH AHMHAMHAH A HANHDHAAH Oo
— | untpey 12 © : rd ——— 4
ot ID ODM HHOM-OAM HOOANANGDDOANG CNDRBAWDMOrOHHO HONMDOHMOAHHMH DNOHORMHAD Oo
2 DHOMDRHOCHNAMD HHDDDARDOMMDHO RPAHONHHOKRD CHHADHONRDOH BHHMNHODAAAAD
a he 2 SS) Ot ret vet et SARAH AANN ANANDMMMMMOOD HAHAHAHAHAHA MIN MiINMMHMHBoOSss S
oD
=H Z io) oO
I (eo) rd ec
re

Ose. Freq.

183654
664

— 681
699
703
720
735
739

_ 743
756

173
_ 780
197
816
827
836

— 856

877
886

893
909
913
ONT.
_ 933
943
958
967
976
982

183995
184005
015
025
031.
040

057
072

077
087
100
108
120
133
.. 147
162
B67
175

184187

Mean
Intensity.
ful 24
3 ges
2/585
a | to BS
Sql ae am

| 3
3 ay
4 ae
2 4
3 aan
3 ‘
HON we.
BT tins
4 7
4 ane
2
6
2
3
2
1 3
2 we
2 5d
2 4
2 4
1 tote
2 sie
4 6
4 6
6 sare
6 aoe
7 ae
2 a
aie 31
3 te
Il 6
10 ste
2 Bae
2 4
2 ae
2 ia
8d ay
6d =
1 eas
7 na
3 5
3 5
1 3
2 ah
3 4
Onli Ts.

OE) 2.
t A
3

DR L. BECKER ON THE

SOLAR SPECTRUM.

544501
4:72
4:23
3°68
3°56
3°06
2°61
2°51
2°39
2°01
151
1:30
0-79

5440°22

5439-91
9°62
9:06
8:99

AWW Oo HEP
DWADW Dw

5430-00
5429-86

2-6
5429-26

High Sun.
2c 8b 10
55 58 50
LSE Sale 24:
mate! fll Aecre 2
Aa Pe he Bs
2/2] 2
3/ 3] 3
Bale k ok
2) 3 3
fo fo
baa | a
ol @
Bal Cub or
ale | 2
3 3} Y
2 Byala

ABS 2
“ES 2
be 83 7,

| | Bal 42
1 33 i,
ae 2
we |e [os
4 4. 4.
5 wl 6
pil 6) 6
6| 6| 8
a 1-3
sles |
Sn aes 2
GT LO 10
BS 2, 2

Y 2

{3 {3 2
a 9h,
\s 81 7
by 6] 6

Pile a9
in wie | 23
3/ 21 3
3] 30) 3
hg Bac D)
1 2 2
3/ 3] 3
Bal alee
10 | 11 | 10
6| 71 7
3/ 31 3

“3b

Low Sun.
12 14 15 34 35 36
46 40 Be 39 33 36
17 15 13 39 11 20
vlog | z
Ti) ea 3
4 \
ca veneale.
AN es Qd| .
2 Noy ans ne
bd) 6 \4 6
ae 2
6) 64h ¢ 6
Ast eae 2
A ioe 3
ve fon [os -
2 2
fet pce Bald
a). 3/3 Auli
So) Snes Alt
we ls te eee SE lee
5
Soh oh - \s 6
Til a7 iG mee
yi yee |G
Ph Tle Sales
ike lng Ti 6
oe ee ee Alb),
bash elon cleo
4 Ba 4| 5
16° | to | 16 10| 9
Mele calles Ene
Sah alee ee
vie ry
il Of 3
Falak ger? 8
Gal Galen 8
BE lake “3
al Ge a 5
eee es D)
hh ee ee 3
zl Saly See 3
Be eee hes) 75 6
12\- 10. | xen lean 9
Sit Slew 8
4 1

DS WOOP: :

32
22

ow bow:

34
15

r= 5 . Gi
Pe OF DwWHW: © DSO N+ |S EP PK.

WWF NWANAS A:

wo:

BESO Ko ot Suleolin

dd

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

uteri, High Sun. Earisoat
zt. 4
Ose, Freq. 3 < gt rn 2b} 2c) 8} 10] 10] 12] 14] 15] 34] 86] 87a] 41] 43] 44
= iS c oe 55 || 55 |) 58 50} 39 46] 40; 32] 39 : “a 32 | 32] 34] 382
aq|/ 4 2 3 A Af
© arb MB ae Bihl Pals Bee 15 30 1 i2 }10 19 15 | 32
184200 | 3 5428-88 2 | 3) 3 dys
204| 3 |f741| > 7 cl Bes 4) ols |fo] 5] 5] 4] 5) 7
B10) 42) ge 8-59 2,2) 2 whl ite) See
297 | 3 8-09 3] 2 3
934| 3 } 5a 7-89 2/2] 3 : 44 \4 4.) 3) 2s ee
a47 | 2| ... 7-49 Dale oe we fae | oes be [ee |<
958| 2| bal} 717 hice oe 4d) 40) | (4 3a 3 | 3a
269 | 3| (32) 6°85 bile me aba {0 5 |. |b oes | a
984] 3| (3%) 6-42 BEALS 3 3 | aha a
299| 2| 3 5-96 Dee ae 31.1 31 212k
318, | 96 |) es: 5-41||...| 6) 61 6 v|..1/ 6) %i.6 1) eqn
329 | 1] 4 BOON | aol 4]. 118] aoe
339 | Gal... 478] 6| 6| 5| 6 7| 4) 5| 6|.6 | opie
345 | 29 ... 6302 oe ee ae wo | ae ate ie a
359/10]... 4-21} 10 | 11 | 10 | 11 10 | 10 | 10 | 10] 10 | 10) 11
Bach Sole oe £064). | aide lad 4}in le | oe |)
BT tells 3°66 ||... eae 3/2) 4) 8 lean
Bag) Se 3-48 || 3 Sa wel awfee | 20a
3-06
399 a4 ae \3 4 br 9| 6] by 7) comme
410 | 2 2-70|| 3 | ... 2 ol 2.403 |.)
416 | 2 251 3| 3 a . bas bee dee 21
407 | 4 2-21| 6| 4 4 sAs4|--| 3) 3/08 ein
435 | 4 195] 4] 4 4 14 3/3 3 |) 30a
4601) 2 linc. 152|) 9] 3 2 wl ld 2)
457| 5| 7d 131] 5| 5 5 8| 71 6| sal. 6 | a ina
ale 101] 4] 4 5 4\..| 41 3|4)
47g | 2| 7 o-71] 2] 3 4 | 7\.4| 4/94)
485 | 6 0-49/ 6 | 6 6 5
488 | 6 \an 5420-41 6 | 6 6 Se eae 13 bra Sa
502 | 3| ... | 5419-99 3| 2
Bor | 3) us. 9-84 3 : ‘ a Beco ok: 13 3 \3
519| 3| 8 9-49|| 3] 2 4 Greenies 5| 6) ¥
526 | Blt ae 929) 3| 2 4 2:| Kediiee 1| ol
555, | Sab a 9-08 ||... | ... 3 ees | oe
B40. | ae. 8:39 7| 6 8 G: Iai 6| 7] 5
542 | 49... 8-83]... | B %3 A) aes |e
555 | 2| 5 8-43]... | ... 3 4) cold 4 | 4 ae
552 | 3.|, 24 8:23} «4 : | oles |
568 | 3| 5 8-07 || f °° ria) 3 | 2es5
p77 | 2| ... 7-80|| 3 a we [cen | | ce eed
Boia!) 6B 7°39 || ... 2 41) asl 6 S-| 2 er
600| 6| ... 7-13|| 5 6 7 de 4 | le
615 | 2| 4 6-68) 9 2 2|'... 08) se |e ean
Bealls, i, wd 6-47 ||... |... = |) oa 3]
630| 2| 6 6-25 || 20] ... 2 5| 4] 65 4| aie
G50.) | 4 5-66 || ... 2 3 tiie 3/3) 4
i 5°32 | 10 0 1o| 9| 9 10 | 11 | 10
666|...| «4 5-18]| ... A 5) ees 4 |
677 | 1| . 4 4°86 || ... 2 4-1) ae 2/2] 3
184689 | 3| 8 | 541450] 3 4 8h 7 ie 5| 5] 8

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

177

Osc. Freq.

184698
711
730
736
740
751
763
772
7717
795

806
822
841
850
867
873
878
898
904
920

927
937
946
956
964
983
987
184995
185006
021

037

048
059
075
086
102
110
119
126

137
145
160
165
174
183
199
212
218
231

185236

wae eee eee
een ee ee

Mean
Intensity.

© at Medium
Altitudes
Telluric

Lines on the
Horizon.

WNIWOWO TKD DK he peo
Or

(3 2)
fo...
5
Rol cs
Bi 6
a 6
Pull ..
Gal...
fee 4
a.
a 2.
4
1
61
5
4
4
10d ce
7
i)
ee
Je
Bale 4
:
2
1
5
1
5
9
o...
ii 3
6
1
an.
o 4
4

5414-23
3°87
3°30
314
3°00
2°69
2°34
2°07
1-92
1:40
1:09
0°61

5410-06

540980
9°30
9-13
8-98
8-40
8:20
075

7°55
7°25
6:97
6°68
6°47
5:91
5‘78
5:54
5:22
4:79
4:35
4:32
4:01
3°67
3°22
2°90
2°43
2°19
1:94
1:72
1-40
117
0:75
0°60
0:32
5400-07
5399-60
9:21
9°03
8°66
539850

High Sun.
2b 10
55 50
1:3 2°6
5 5
a 4
4 4
be 1
3d 2
bee 2
oa8 2
5 4)
9 10
2 2
9 10
3 4
6 7
2 3
2 3
+ 5
5d 6
his 2
5 6
10 if
4 4
3 4
10 11
7 a
2 3
2 3
4 4
as 3
4 5
ake 2
5 5
con 2
6 5
8 11
ae 2
1 ae
6 6
Mee 2
3 2

% Ou:

Oe tg

10

ae
© wets 6

—
—_

a

es

KPI HOOT AMNDWwo oot:

— oi
= PRO:

+ O09 9 O99 ww OO

PS 1) 5 (ep Ord

A pS R Te Re)

Low Sun.
36 41
36 32
12 16
4 5
3 4
4 5
5 5
9 10
2 3
9 10
3 5
8 6
3 4
3 4

4 4
5 5
2 2
5 5
9 11
6 nae
5 6
2, 4
2 4
8

{ : ku
8 8
we 2
oy 2,
3 3
a3 3
4 4
ee 2
4 5
8 | ;
B ae
Soe 2

Ee OU on

— — ‘
N’TCOWO LPwbdRP:

DP: TWO TOR:

—

He G2 Od:

(SU ee 2)

bo ww:

of aes

Ee Ole Oo:

oO

Aw POTr EDP OF ©

Salty ah
PEED Om:

i
oO

/ F® DPwWoWwWwWow7

Sean

a:

— . .
PROD DO BPR: BP:

wo:

* Pwo:

ons:

oOo
Qf

178 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

pera High Sun Low Sun.
E 2
Ose. Freq. | 33 ge g r 2b | 10 | lla 12| 15] 16] 30 34| 41] 43] 44
Bag (5 oes 55 | 50 46| 32| 42; 37 39 | 32] 34] 32
aoe o6 ia. 28
oe 13 | 2°6 23| 19| 10| 28 Ti \1 12| 24
185240 7 5398-41 tf 8 8 8 5 6 6 8
250 1 7 ed Ls | ae 2 as 3 6 3 3 4
262 4 - 776 4 5 ae AI 13 3 4 4 4
279 ll C26 Mea a2, We | Oy Po) ME Ie 2
284 4 FAO NM. ane nee | ete ie See ie oT Beoeall. s
298 2 6°70 3 a F 2 Boe 3 2 2
309 3 6°39 3 4 3 3 a 3) 2 2
33115) 2 aoe GAD oa) sec be 3 — oft
327 3 oe 5°86 3 2 ot I aes 3 2 3
341 2 5:47 Y 2 ASG i. PP esl) Son
346 5 Hid2 4 5 5 5 5 ‘aye et
364 8 4°79 9 9 8 8 8 6 8 ff 8
374 2 ALSO) |\ oo. ll ‘Soe 505 ah a ae Bea ae 2
381 3 PRs 4°31 2 2 “8 2 i! a: 2, 2 3
394 2d 33 3°93 3d| 2 se | (eme Me 1 ee 2 1
411 Bah, 1s, B-40ul| Slee Pea Boss: Peete. |.
416 10 BSC NG) WL |) w@) 9 8 | 10 8 | 10
499 2 2°91 2, 2 re 3 2 ane Ose 2
431 1 2°83 Dialers Sea i Sa adit] (Qeanllleeoeae EES
444 4 2°46 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4
453 2 2-21 2 3 nde ee 2 2 Sot 3 2 2
468 6 1:76 6 5 9 8 6 6 6d| 5 5 5
Aaa eo Tae es 160 || 7] 6 \ 7 A |G) |/hiaaae
A641 12.) 439) |) aleoall stele ab aaltas ee meee |
497 2 (3 2) 0:93 ik 1 joe WeaRe Dy eae oa) Oe
505 5 at 4 0:70 4 5 \s 6 4 6 30] < 5 5s 4
B10 | 4 054) 3] 4 13 4) 3| 4
523 2 5390°16 || ... 3 5G Wea Die hs ss eect | ae eee ee
529 4 5389-99 3 3 eee ‘ 3 3 3 4 3 3
542, 8 9°62 8 8 8 8 9 8 8 9 9 8
553 3 9°30 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 2
BOT 42 8:89 | 2] 2 sl ee,
576 3 8°62 3 3 34 3 ase 3 3 2
581 4 8°47 4 4 { 3 sed 4 4 3
596 2 ee 8°05 il 2 sae 2 3 2 2 2
610 5d he 7:63 5 5 4d) 5 3 5 5 4
629 5 bs 7:10 5 5 4 5 4 5 5 4
642 1 7s Geel 2 eeeliteas oa |) weet) eee
650 6 Pre 6°48 6 6 5 5 4 5 '5) 6
666 1 5 6020" 2 3 3 4 2 i) 4
676 3) 573 3 2 2 3 2 3 3)
692 2 5:25 2 2 Rss DA oak 2) || ee
708 2 4°81 2 2 2 DO ellb ee Dit tae
727 2 4°26 2 AW aa ||. geste ei Seanl S Se (ee sar 2 2 2
(37 2 3:97 MMi sealieese | Bes Vesa. |) 2S eee 2
753 10 = 3°49 OU LOR MOMs eae NO) | 107) 12 10) 11 | ae
770 3 (3%) 3°O18|| 232 ieee 134 |(eape ie 3 2 2 3
779 1 nae 2°74 2 Ae Bree | erescige |) Dc veo | wooo | oe
792 5) 2°30 4 5 5 5 4 5 4 5 5 5 5
809 4 ae 1°87 3 4 2 2 3 4 4 4 3
| 185820 | 3 en 5881-54.) oleae 3| 3] 3

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM. 179

ieetuey. High Sun. Low Sun.
5 a 2
Ose. Freq.| SS | 28 2 7 2b| 10 12] 15| 16| 30| 33| 34] 41| 48] 44| 46
ae E Se 55 | 50 46| 32] 42| 37| 27| 39] 32] 34] 32] 30
eq jag 13| 2-7 254) oil onle 27)" 16 || 19) Pei in Ser | 13
0) 4
185836 7 5381-10 6 7 6 di i 8 7 7 8 8 7 7
845 3 0:83 3 3 ane see ds 3 3 2, 2 1
859 4d 5380°41 4 5 ia 5 4d) 5 4 4. 5d) 5 5 3
875 2 5379°95 2, nae es ae Sales Sigh eae eT! ee
884 8 ss 9-71 a 8 6 if 8 8 7 6 8 ff vi 6
900] 2d { ee \ 2] 2 1 9 ie he 3
el eee 9:20 eee eee eee D)
914 2 k 8°83 2 2 Fe, nes : 2 1 2 eee Bla eee
931 3 8°34 2, 2 ae 1 Dh. 3: 2 2 2 2 3
947 2 7°88 2 Bae BARS) pede || oe eRe lik ee | eee ie See 2 3
953 7 7:70 6 if 6 Uf 6 i i 5 Tf a 7 6
969 2 1:25 3 2 Apo E Seer ill Anis D, 3 ee
978 4 6:98 4 4 ON 4 4 4. 4 4 4 Bie) eae
185991 2 6°59 2 3 ; 2 Le eee 2 2 2s | ee
186006 3 6°16 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2
016 1 5°88 ats 2 b Schl (Er | eee n ges emilee Wl eee
032 3 5°43 ” 2 ete 2 2 Di} 2 2 2
043 2 5:09 sis ae oe sae 2 2 TE sez
052 2 4°85 2 D; as eaaless ABE 1 2,
062 2 4:55 2 He Fae D, 1 y) 4 Z
072 2 4°25 2 2 2 : 1 Qi eee 1s Bee
084 24 3°92 ae aS. ee ee eerie < nut che bk rene eee 9
087 8 3°84 if 8 8 8 8 6 Th 5 8 8 8 8
103 2 3°38 ae a E ane 2 2, 1 2
114 3 3:05 3 if 1 2 2 2 2 he less 2b
132 2 2°52 3 1 1 sie 2 See aloe 2 2
150 2 2°02 2 T 2 Sle, cae 5 ae 2 2 3
163 11 1°63 9 12 12 Oe ee ee OM Loe | alee LOD
170 6 1:44 5 7 5 Vall er 5 4 7 6 5 6
186 2 0:98 2 E 2 3 2 2 2 2 3
195 1 0°71 Aga Bs | Le) | eee re 2 ele oe
205 3 0°41 3 es 3 3 2 DM Wass 3 3 3 3
PAut 9 5370-09 9 ae 10 9 9 | 10 8 9 9 9 | 10
231 6 5369-67 6 are 6 6 5 5 5 5 6 6 6
243 2 9-33 Ake 2 hike 2 2, Dei a caliles cis
253 2 9:04 Are 3 aif nae 2 3 3 3
264 3 8°73 2 3 2 3 2 2 2 3 3 3
272 3 8°50 3 2 Age 3 2 3 3 Qh.
280 2 in 8:27 3 ae oni eae cag eects 2 2;
294} 3 | (3%) 785 |). * ca ona eh 2 Oni.
302 9 ie 7:62 9 10 9} 10} 10 8 | 10 9 6 9
306 32 Sat 7-52 be Ane Se aihhene etal Picts rer gta leased te coce
326] 2 | (3%) 6-95 2 Si Piso 91 (9) S| al 9
337 2 He 6°63 3 9 Suttle eee 2 2 By ieee ||) ee
344 3 6°42 3 asp Ohl ais 2 2 2 3 2 3
360 2, 5-97 aa 2 La OAM cere We crate alt Actet, 3 1 p
B16 | 8 ase 5b 1 7 8 8 8 8 i 6 8 8 7
385 Oo} ee 5:23 BN ee ee eae ieee lect tesse il dew |b des 2
393 9 5:01 9 9 9 9 9 8 9 9 9 9
410 a, sh 4°53 2 7, 2 Deen 2 3 2 2,
186425 2 (3 ) 5364:09 2 2 3 2 2, 2 3 my,

VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 6). 25

180 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

Mean

Intensity. || ° High Sun, Low Sun.
are
Ose, Freq. |*3-3 |.25 3 a 2 | la 16 30 33 34 41 43 44 46
aes BB] 42 fo) 42 4s 7°] «a7 | 39 | 32 | jad | 232 ee
o* Beh 13 | 18 11 25 15 11 12 11 19 12
4
186428 1 5363°99 an : 2 Kia ian Ane
444 2 3°53 2
hele a ae \ DRAW che Poole ee i A Mn { = \ 2
459 2 3°10 1 ate dis Age 4 Ape Ao wae Bas
463 8 2°99 7 it 8 9
Ace ec ee 236 7 | 6 \ Se me Sk { Ser \ one
486 3 4 2°32 2 3 2 4d 3 2 3 3 2 3
506 6 aa 1:76 6 6 5 6 6 5 6 6 6 6
512 | 4 ARE 1:60 4 4 ape 3 3 4 sae ae
530 2 3 1:08 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 3 2 2
DOW |e 2% | 5360-51 ste wets sie 2 3 2 ese
DOO) see 2% | 5359-95 eee a 2 1 nas ak 2 2
580 2 ee 9-62 2 2 BAe 3 3 «ee ids
593 3 9:26 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
605 2 8:92 2 sik wah 2 2 2 Bee
617 1 8:58 ae 2 aoe 1 oe, ae
629 3 8:22 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 ie 3 3
651 2 7:60 ake 2 2 : 2 dis wie Se
664 3 7-21 3 3 2 2 3 2 2 2
671 2 701 3) oe I sae Han ety ae
686 1 6°58 bie 2 ant See ms 2
695 2 6°32 ‘aia 2 ae 2 2 ine was
713 3 5°81 3 3 2 2 1 2 2 ae 3 3 |
725 1 5:46 Se 2 nae tale 2 ae iss B36
744 2 4:93 2 2 ae eh vate 2 nan 3 oi
759 1 fas 4:50 nae 2 eis 1 a ee ane wae
773 2 3d 4:10 2 2 aa 3 ae 2 2d we oh ||
788 4 ‘ 3°66 4 4 4 4 6 4 4 5
793 8 ALE 3°52 8 9 8 9 10 7 7 8 8 8 |
098). 20h (aN) | S-0n | o.. Ml) aa B | 3 |..2 12 oe
820 2 ee 2:75 1 2 ah 2 2 te 2
839 5 2°20 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 |
852 1 3 1:82 ae 1 oe iat: as 3 3 2 3
Sg ieee 4 1:28 eae oak ies sae ies 3 4 3 3
879 | 4 aa 1:06 4 4 4 4 3 2 3 4 4
889 2 aS 0:76 BAD 1 Bae RAS ats aue Bae 3 we
898 | 3 4% 0:52 3 3 3 4 3 3 4 4 2
907 1 .» |0050°25 se 2 mae ce ees nae Bop aa Pe
917 6 5349-96 6 5 7 4 7 6 6 5 |
928 8 oF 9°64 8 om 8 8 8 8 9 8 8
943 1 4 9°23 ap 2 2 Ras ads 3 2 4 oye!
953 3 4% 8:93 2 3 2 4 2 3 2 4 3
969 9 oa 8°48 9 9. 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 |
978 2 8°21 yee 2 a0 mith ae 3 2 ears sue
989 3 A 791 2 3 2 2 sets 3 2 3 24
186999 2) (3%) 7°62 2 2 a 3 2 ae S00 3 2 Hi
187012 2 See 7°25 ie 2 Ae ae ele 2 2 2 29
025 3 6°89 3 3 ee 3 3 2 bia ot oa
031 4 6°71 4 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
049 | 3 6:20 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 30
187056 9 5345:99 10 9 9 9 8 9 9 9 95

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM. 181

fatenaiey High Sun. Low Sun, —
8 o
Ose, Freq. ae or, a
aq |B3s
© ah
187066 | 3 5345-72 7 ay ap ees 3 2 of ap aaa
o77| 2 5-40 1 2 | ee re, Coad aie D)
€93'| 3 4:93 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
03.) 3 4-66 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2
| i ae 4°39 $: oe | ce rd | ccc Mell
on i3 |... 4-08 2 oy as 2 3 2 2 2 2
138] 8 3-66 8 8 7 7 7 8 7 7 8
147| 2 3-38 vA ad ae if: 2 2 2 2
164| 5 2°91 5 5 6 5 5 6 5 6 6
| ae 2°45 3 3 Sin ea ee 3 2 3 3
ms} 3. | (31) 2-21 2 3 3 2 3 31 het,
lin | a ae 1°68 4 Bee Sa OPN tee ee 38 e..
223} 11 1:22 10 eh 110 (ioe eee te |. 10) le eat
mo) 4 |... 0-67 3 4 4 4 3 3 4 4 3
al) 2 | (33) 0°42 nee 1 eee 3 oe Mee 30 gat.
ae) 2 |. 0-22 2 . HA Weds OP NER.
262 | 10 5340-11 10 10 Fe '| > On weal 9 9 9 9
981| 3 5339°56 | 3 3 3 ET shee: 3 3 SF Wie
288} 3 9-38 3 A 2 2 3 2 3
294] 1 9-20 : a sg) Delite
300} 1 9-04 ys 2 Sg ae | Bees OF ue...
307 | 2 8-82 me 91 - 2 3 2 2
320 | 4d 8-46 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 3G We 4
a491 6 7-93 5 6 5 6 7 6 5 5 6
344] 29 7-79 ie Pap mathe sc eee eee on Naa..
356] 3 744 3 3 Sem ie 1 3 3 2 3
aa) 8 7:00 8 8 8 8 8 8 7 8 8
389 | 3 6:48 3 re 2 3 2 2 3 2 3
398 | 2 6:23 3 ae ee 2 oh ee lt Lge
410 | 2 5:90 3 ALW j0 ae Dia kee ae 2
422 | 3 5-bD 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2
441] 6 5-01 6 6 6 5 6 7 6 5 6
463 | 3 4:38 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3
478 | 2 3-95 on oO eee Sel ee ok hee
484 | 3 3-79 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
496 | 9 3-44 9 2 2 3 3 on Rae ge 9
510 | 8 3-04 7 8 8 8 7 8 8 8 8
520 | 6 2°76 6 6 6 5 6 6 6 6 6
534] 9 2:37 be ply 68 aes 1 3 3 3 2
542 | 1 2-13 de rae 3. ie ee By Gee tl) ee ae
- 1 a 1:80 o, 2 2 a 3 Sa eet Wh S..
2 | i 157 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
> | ie 0:97 a 2 2 ne 3 Ce ae 2
me) 63Cd|tiw 0-67 2 3 2
oa) 9 | |. 7 2 20) 22 Ee aaa 2 | 2
1 ie 0-11 6 6 7 6 5 7 6 6 7
617; 3 | ... | 5330-01 \ a oe ee |) ee ee 30
621| 5 | ... | 5329-89 5 5 6 5 5 6 5 5 5
mo 3 | o 9°65 s 2 ae ae ET cee bile. 3
6} 7 |... 9-18 7 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 7
187656 | 39] ... | 5328-91 | a, a: 3 |
Meee

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

182

sad ae ard

AEA ES OO 1) O> SH SH SH IO Song SEER go> eer sene cle) pepo isples Ms sy ier ss ai Re ter Aromas aoe omc Met Bic rs te ee eo eg ce
1
Se | DAD DHOH 1ONO HD INOMM :OND HM 1OMMHAMMMH HANMMAOCMAO © oO 100 O19
LonY Wc Ua bl aro of at iene ae On ean yom Cie I Ce Chee Sh te Re Owl Ge eee wi ee Chen ee Ohi Pie iY ete eee SO Ae SS A ee aes
oO Fi i ak hte Na AO aU ar I orca a oe ea oa rae ea Sead ge
QO Fl Oke ae 4 2 s ws a eh Mec ee iar Big Nel tee cw tej Me | Lier ce ye eee ESN Io UhSiae xe: we aay nel ue) dw a oe ie, ow) De
F eowawies | fl] Erie see 2" e Stes ee ee eee ee a eae eae
a ——
B Aeon Ome MO 1 1 NA IN 310 cok 6D 119 C200 6D 6D OD 10D IO oo 1 SH
4 m4 : ri 5
a“
aba | ADO 2H 219 20 A IN AX ~ Si Sis Gelset Go) Gr) Biceyeo Grpins) 9 Ne) © ite)
ret . ri . . . .
ade) OTS
—_
Ee’ s = ce oe POD HO TO MANN INANN 1D +: SONHMHMAM NMHAMHAOM : MM MOHHANAAMAMOH
& 28 oy
ci 8 ae || .
RM rt a her Gr B= VIO G9 His co 9/0 or) aa TOM CAO OAIDHHMOH MHAANNODO NNN OMN : 1NONMOMD AN
4 5 : ; Ah
BD
BH Bee ||
es | Orn Geo Bite) (Oey Gri ristet orth tthe OD PHO OOH HH CH SOHO +s rH ON Co N19
SHO MAOOMmMAHID DARA HTOAM wWPHAODDHHAROhKW HMHADOMNWDOAARGHOADN BMNOWME-ArRORK
So Sa NGOS EU SAGO. ASG ret 0 SRL res CO SD SAG) HG.) Shit OO = Hr OOS SO DO Bio Oca Ot A
peice ba Ese ee ID AQ HHH OOCOAN A same oe ae epee east eae DO DO br RH OHHH 19 1D WI HAHAHAHA A
re rei
ior) on OD oo
Yes) wd 1d ples)
*MOZIIOLL . oS =
SH sotabeet ele ley 4] laces ey hte OEY Aa eRe Beal eure prtatc 8 Soe co SO Geld ee eoe OneCare
p| | CGF UO seury gS ee iS AN ARES aie ie ahh = a ea ee aCe fe 1 et a ea ee 5 Rate RGA
An ormyaL ~~
an
on
a3
A ‘sopuyynty OMAHDANOMDO DANMHMAANK MHOMNOANOH HHANDONHNA OMAR ONOH
uMIpeyy 32 ©) =
o OOOO OHO sH DHIWOWHNMDOMIDQ WHHOAMOAWHIN®G OPYMROPDOMNWOD AODOMAHIONnO H
2 DOI= DDANMIOIOLN= DDAAAHOOMwD OCOANACGMMOOErAADMm AMMOODDRAONRNA NANO DAOCAN sH
ee eS eee te ee ee -rK-PrFDoOndDdD~A®D Soe Se eae es Oe a SS SOOCOCCCOCOnR RN FARA RR RR NAN S
9 ee) comes) <o)
fo) re rf ri ei

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

183

Osc. Freq.

|

188257
263
281
296
306
326
346
366
377
390

396
413
418
437
447
468
481
493
502
509

526
538
550
558
572
584
593
609
625
639

649
661
676
695
709

718

- 730
738
748

757
770
775.
786
795
803
815
827
843
855

188872

Mean
Intensity.

© at Medium
Altitudes
Telluric

Lines on the
Horizon.

5311-88
Lark
1:20
0-80

5310:50
5309-95
9:38

8:80

8:50

8-14

7-97

7-49

7:34

6-82

6-52

5-95

5-59

5-24

4-98

4-78

4-30

3-98

3:62

3-40

i. 3-02
Mee. 2-67
a 2-43
1-98

151

112

0:86

i. 0:52
d| ... | 5300-09
5299-56

‘& 9-16
6d <4 8-95

OURS BD bo OO He C9 OO

WwoIwwT PHOWONNWNHWE DENN AWNHOAW

8°85
8°57
8°34
8:06
781
744
7:32
6:99
6-76
6°53
6°18
5°84
5°40
5:06

5294°60

FEF NOOPWNONrNY NOOO

/ CORD RWW: ooo

CO

ob:

bo:

woo Bi owcond: bo? Ce Se

Morr ad:

@: wna:

Hm mS OUP bO:
oOo NPNOrRWN OMFS:

High Sun.

> Dp wn wep oo

KwnDmweoew: WNOaNnNnNH OD

wnmonwmem HPHwo:

for)
a

“IG

oO WAP wW:

es s
PT NON TO HP DOME TD PWWO: WWNWE HNNNRFONNTON NHONWNWFHNYW-

OO:

Low Sun.
16 19 21 30 33 44
42 48 50 37 OAL 32
14 11 18 19 11 13
4 5 ait 1k
\ sea ae ved oY 2
3 ig 3 3 3
2 \ ad te Pa ig es eee
Be oo aaa rill ha Bn ee
Be Sl) ale mt ae D
5 5 5 5 5
3 2 2 1 3
8 9 8 8 8
nfs me foe |e
5 7 5 4 5
Sl, aa Gone te 3
ae 1 ks 2
3 5 3 3 4
2 3 Seale 3
Salta ae) et 3
ve | ve fs | on
2 D 3 3 3
2 D nn aghaee
4 4 4 4 4
6 8 : 6 8 7
2 i ae 4 3
5 Ag) 4 7 5
9 aa 3 4 3
Ae OTA |) Re
5 7 6 5 a \ 6
6 8 7 6 6 7
8 9 9 8 8 8
7 y 8 7 7 7
SACOM alee re 2
7 8 8 7 7 7
a Saal 2 fl 3 3
Oe (ike | ean eee Aa oy.
8 8 8 8 8 8
im 2 AP ile. 1 3
2 Danie at Sle 3
3 4 i 4 3 4
4 5 5 5 5 5
a 9 Daal 43.4), 3
3 4 4 4 4 4

184

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

Ose, Freq.

188883
892
908
921
926
940
956
967
983

188993

189005
017
031
038
053
060
073
083
088
105

107
118
131
151
168
ilies
188
207
215
223

232
244
260
266
281
293
304
311
326
330

341
344
353
369
378
388
397
401
416
428

189437

Mean
Intensity. .

A 2a
55

© at Medium
Altitudes
Telluric

Lines on the
Horizon,

5294-28
4:03
3°58)...
3-23 \
3-08 I] f°"
2°68
2-24
1:93
147
1:20
“ 0-88
4 0-52
5290-15
5289-93 ||...
9°51
ee te
8:95].
8°68
8:53
i. 8-06
5 8-00
2 7°69
7°34
6°77
6°32
6-05
574
5:23
4-99
4°76

453
419
ss 3°75
(7 2) 3:58
ey 3:16
2-89
251) 4
2°32].

1:89
1-78 }
1-49
1:40 }
1:13
0:69
0°45
5280-17
5279-92
9-80
9°40
9:06

5278°79

|
&

Ww WN nwrRWwWATRRE WwW TONFRNWOOTNTHF Be ice KS WOK DD We bw KD KWL Kb
SOM GIs Gat)

w nwponberRwrAw:

High Sun.
2b lla
55 42

12 1:9

hee
B 6

sh Sine

4
4d { i
5 | 6
2 | 2
we fons

A. wee
5 ies

eee

2
2
3

. lem
7 peas

le ea
Balers
B lene
B ieee
2 mene
2 eg

a | ee
Baler?
51 eee
Dalene
als 14
A alee
6 | 7
9 | 10
allah
Bo wee

A Wee
5 yikes

tae

10
9 | %
ile

Saee
4 8
7 ey
5 Hlvaas
ypu
2 | 2

are
2 ilnns
whe:

IS

136
62
2°3

WNNHWORRDO:

bobo bo: pow :

eo CO:

—

. pate . °
1 PWORHK WOH TO: OR RROONT ONWTW: NNHWww :

Hi WTOME TT: TN WwWWs Pe :

www:

es)

> BRO:

BE PAOD ee Se .

oO s

oe)

> oT:

> OOOTE Bs orp: :

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Ose, Freq.

189455
462
486
495
501
514
527

_ 530
542
549

559
_ 564
570
585
594
602
610
614
628
636

649
664
669
678
691
705
713
722
737
739

753
766
775
791
803
811
825
834
849
856

874
881
896
904
910
926
937
947
956
958

189970

DR.L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

Mean
Intensity.

Altitudes.

Telluric
Lines on the

Horizon.

| ©at Medium

5278-30

8:10

ee 745
3 7-19
is 7-01
6-66

6-29

6-20

5:89

* 5-69
(72) 5-40
= 5-28
(7 2) 5-11
7 4-67
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3:98

3:86

3-48

3-26

2:90

2:48

2°35

2°10

1-74

1:34

a 113
a |... 0:86
0-46
0:39
5270-00
5269-66
9-40
8:95
8-62
8:39
8:00
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6-66
6:46
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581
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OF DOF FP DD OOF DPD WWWOHOMD DoT Cor OOF Co Go OO

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2b) lla
55 42
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3
3 | :
3 3
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2 2
6 7
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NA OONWNAMNDANIWS Ho:

186 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

Mean

Intensity. High Sun, Low Sun,
‘=| Cs)
Sy P|
Ose. Freq. | 33 [258 a 2a lla 30 51 52°
a8 |325 55 42 37 za 29
67 ate 12 1-9 15 12 ul
189975 3 5263'84 on 3 4 4. b. o €: a
984 3 3°61 aa ee 3 at uf rm bei 3
189988 9 3°48 9 9 9 9 9 10 8 8
190004 4 3-05 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 4
012 3 2°83 3 3 3 oh 2 3 2 3
029 8 2°36 9 9 7 5 8 10 8 8
032 6 2-28 5 5 7 \ { 6 6
041 39 2-02 58 3 f = if 2 Es ae
048 8 1:82 9 8 8 9 8 9 8 8
053 2 1°68 a ve .. gt 2 3
066 2 1:33 a 2 2 2 2 2
074 1 112 an : a ~ 2 ik
082 3 0:90 3 3
Beebe cea ltd \ 3 —) a 3 3d { \ 2
095 5 0-54 6 5 6 4d 5 5 4 5
111 3 5260-09 2 3 3 : 2 3 3 3
129 3 5259-60 3 3 3 3 4 3 3
150 3 9-00 3 3 3 3 4 3 3
170 2 8-46 2 2 3 2 3 0, 2
181 1 8-16 He + a ie a 2 1
193 5 7°81 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 5
203 2 7-53 3 2 :. 2: 3 2
218 5 7-13 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 5
231 2 6-76 3 if Es 2 43 1 2
241 2 6°50 s be 2 et Bs 2 p)
249 2 6-26 2 2 2 Ad Ad id 2
262 5 5-92 5 5 5 5
265 | 5 5°82 \ fl a ' 5 5 ag { 5 i ‘ { 5
273 3 5-60 se 3 2 hs io a8 5 a
279 5 5-45 5 5 6 5 4 5 6 @
288 5 519 5 4 5 S. 4 4 5 5
295 9 5-01 8 9 8 10 9 9 8 9
307 2 4-66 oy 2 2 in 3 +e 2 2
323 1 4-23 hs 2 M Bh re iff a 2
330 3 4-04 3 3 3 wa 3 3 3 3
337 2 3-84 o 2 D i ar He a c
346 8 3°58 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 2q
355 2 3°35 oF i Re cd ee as 3 ws
362 5 3-14 5 5 5 7 4 4 4 5 y
375 2 2°80 se 2 2 a La ah: 2 i
387 2 2-46 3 2 oF - 3 2 2 2 @
396 5 2-21 5 5 5 a 4 5 5 5
401 6.1) a: 2-06 6 6 7 Ff 6 6 6, 6 @
416 2 44 1°66 2 2 3 ~ 4 2 2 3 a
421 1 3 1°52 a ‘y 2 3 3 if: 2 2%
442 3 a 0:94 2 2 2 bs 3 2 3 2a
449 8 0-75 9 9 8 9 8 8 8 9 4
458 34 0°51 an ‘ a fe 3 a ie if
464 7 0-33 8 7 7 8 7 8 7 ie
472 1 525011 ot 2 y ae i ‘i £ 2 |
190483 4 5249-81 3 4 3 3 4 4 4 4 |

Osc. Freq.

503
508
521
531
548
559
569
577
588

594
612
623
630
648
666
672
681
693
697

711
719
‘734

745

759
763
780
803
817

823
841
853
873
884
896
~ 906
914
931
941

949
957
968
974
983
190998
191003
011
021
032
191046

| 190490

Mean

Intensity.
| ©
Bel os a
MT len }
on HAR
Sel aoe
po | oss
aq) aa
oO A

NEE TPNH NNWWWNHW FOWDODR RE ROR
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ws

DR L.

BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

5249-61
9:27
912
8°76
8°49
8:03
(al
7°44
721
6:93
6-74
6:26
5°95
577
5:28
4-76
4:62
4°35
4:04
3°92
3°55
3°32
2°90
2°68
2°52
2°21
2°10
1:64
1:02
0°61

5240°47

5239-97
9-64
9:09
8°77
8-45
8-18
7:95
7:48
721
7:00
6-78
6°48
6°32
6:08
5°67
5°53
5:30
5:04
4:72

5234°35

FES PSS Se

KH PRE OCO BP wer RP C

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187

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5 ter TON

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Low Sun.
OY) 30
25 37
17 14
4
5
4
8
3
3
3
2d
4
4
5
2 7
4 4
3
3
4 3
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3 oer
5 4
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3 ‘
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3
3
4 2
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VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 6).

i)
ry

188

Ose. Freq.

191059
069
076
094
100
109
125
139
149
163

171
182
194
205
209
225
231
239
250
260

269
283
293
303
315
326
338
343
354
365

375
384
387
398
407
417
422
425
434
449

460
468
479
493
502
513
528
533
544
557

191565

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

Rees : High Sun. Low Sun.

A 2a lla 13d 16 21 22 30 51
42 62 42 50 25 37 ro
12 2°0 2°2 25 26 16 13 16

at Medium
des

Altitu
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Horizon
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©

|

5233°98 Sor sist ss se abs ies 1
3°71 2 : ,

bo
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0-91
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5230°30
5229-98
9-89
9°45
9-29
9°05
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8°48
8:24
7:87
7°59 5
7°31 1
6:98
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6°36
6:21
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5°62
534
5-11
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4°19
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Ose. Freq.

191578
586
600
609
621
633
644
651

662

677
688
695
704
724
731
745
760
765
780

791
800
807
811
820
830
834
851
868
879

890
903
914
921
929
940
944
957
969
987

191994
192006
011
022
034
045

056

064
075

192082

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

Mean
Intensity.

© at'Medium
Altitudes.
Telluric
Lines on the
Horizon.

5219°81

9°58

9-20

8:97

8°64

8°32

8:00

nae 7:82
{ 761

mt sT Tb BS OO Ol

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7-43
711
6-80
6°62
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5°63
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ie: 4-71
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a 4-01
(hae 3°77
” 3-58
3-48
3-23
2:96
2:83
2°38
1:92
163
131
a 0:97
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is 0:48
5210-27
5209-95
9:85

9°51

9-17

8°69

8-49

8:17

8-03

775

TA1

He 7-13
6-88

_) 6-76
6-60

6-29

5206°12

eS al Se) SUD Sao SP SS ESS, SUN Ne ey eecee SS BSS HH bo CO HP bd OO O19 bO

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(St)

High Sun. Low Sun.
lla 130 22 30
42 62 25 37
2°0 2-1 14 12
5 5 6 4
3 3 2d 2
3 2 see 300
6 6 6 6
6 6 6 6
1 cae Ss see
Me 9 8 9
2 2 2
3 = cee 508
5 5 5 4
9 9 8 8
1 2 “ce see
4 3 3 3d
9 10 9 8
4 5 4 4
4 5 4 tL
3 3 3 3
4 4 3 3
4 5 4 4 a
+ 4 4 4d 4
2 2 3 add se
6 7 5 6 5
3 3 3 3 3
3 a 4 4 3
3 Cap 2 uc abe
2 3 3 + 3
a= as 2 500 3
4 9 12 9 9
10 10 12 10 9
4 5 4d 4 4
2 3 36 2 2
2 3 066 2 3
3 3 3 3 4
4 6 6 6 5
10 11 11 8 9

189

51 52
29
18 16
5 5
2: 2
3 2
3 2
3 2
7 8
7 8
9 9
3 2
9 9
Be 2
4 4
9 9
3 4
3 3
3 ae
2 4
2 4
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3 4
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7 6
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5 4
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3 3
ais 2
3 2d
3 eis
12 10
12 10
Sie 2
3
hee
4
Se 5
10 10

190 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

Paes High Sun. Low Sun.
Ee ae
Ose. Freq. 33 U8 nN 2a lla 13d 21 22 30 51 52 73
aelace 55 42 62 pp | (25 | 87 29 | 36
aa \|Re ;
o* ia 13 2°0 21 29 13 il 21 18 22
192092 | 6 5205°83 5 6 6 6 5 6 4 5
108}) 2] (4.1 {te-4ol] |. 2 2 an 2 4 2
119) @| {4 5-12 3 2 2 4 2 2 4 2
1321) Bt 4.. A We ee g. E. If rs 2 |
4-64 9 |
137 | lod a4 a4 \ iB 10 { = hu 10°) 101 | 11) Bae |
156} i i.. 4:10||... 2 2. | BOO Wo. 1 2 |
lt) Bal 4. 3°71 2 3 2 2 2 1 3 2
Pena) 2) T.. 3:42|| ... a 2 . b a OF Parsee
195 | 3 3-06 2 3} 2 3 2 i 3 2
. i 2°49 9
217 | tod...) 59 \ 10 10 { ? hu ge) 70) |e |
227 || #2 2°19 1 3 2 2 3 Py ee 3,
250| 2 157 2 3 2 Pe) beet ee) 3
261 | 4 1:26 4 4 3 3 4 3 3 4
269 | 2 1:04||... 2 2 3 Baw ud Nees i
287 | 6 0:55 5 6 6 4 6 5 5 6
297 | 5 5200-30 4 5 5 4 5 5 5 5
314| 3 519984 \ iy { 2 3 . { 3 3 3 3
319)| 2 9°68 3 3 OF Ad eee 2 ie
330 | 1 9°39|| | 2 E: eS, 1) ites 2| | teaae
343 | 3 9-05 4 D 2 wow | SCT carb [enol 1
352 | 9 8-81 8 9 9 8 7 8 9 9 |oa..
364 | 2 S47) pas 2 2 Se) ERR eof alee 3 | 3.
379 | 5 8-07 5 5 6 5 5 5 5 5 a
393 | 8 7-69 8 8 8 if ‘f 7 8 8| ea
409 | 5 7:27 4 5 6 5 5 4 4 5. son
419! 2 6-99}... 2 2 ok | Eat cc) |e Eq
430 | 5 6°68 5 5 5 na She 5 6 5 =
435 | 5 6°55 5 5 5 ; { 5 5 6 5
449 | 7 6:19 6 8 7 7 6 7 8 8 |
460 | 2 5°89 3 1 R. ch | gtd cS |e ae
470| 8 5-61 7 8 8 8 7 8 9 8 |
486 | 3 519 3 2, B. we | ER AP haasot_ ee 4
490 | 9 5:08 7 9 9 8 8 8 9 9 |
493 | 3 500||_... £. 2 | CRI Se 4) |.
505 | 1 466]... ate 2 Saue’| LBRO 2 |e
b15|| @ 4°40 1 2 : Aes i Pk 3 |
525 | 3 413 3 3 3 3 4 3 3 ,
544 | 3 3°61 3 2°10 aod
\ 3 { \ 3 S| ba 0) Soules |
549 | 3 3°47 2 3 }
564] 8 3-07 7 8 8 8 8 if 9 8
584 | 5 2°55 5 4 4 My 6 Di inaat 5 a
588 | 10 2°44 8 10 10 10 9 8 |. 12 |> 10) 1a
601] 4 2:09 4 4 5 : 5 A 4 |e
616 | 5 AAS) } oe aw ee el BS 5) |... | nel
621 | 10 155 8 10 10 10 9 8 |~10 | 10 |i
640 | 2 Lots Wee 1 2 ue |) Cee E 2 || a
650 | 2 0-76 5, 2 2 in as 2
662 | 2 0-44 i { 2 2 2 1 2
192673 | 2 5190°14 1 2 1 2

Ose. Freq.

———_—_ ———__

192690
701
716
P 723
735
750
754
766

bi 772

_ 783

800

~ 808
- 821
825
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_ 857
863
875
883 |
900

~ 887
- 911
936

923 °

944 :
959

_ 979
| 192999

193012
e O27
- 033
043
055
069
081
091
103
112

122
133.
144
151
163

167 }

175
191
203

215 |

193223

Mean
Intensity.

at Medium
Altitudes.

Telluric
Lines on the

| ©

WO TMH HW WA WLW OOD»
—_

WO NN RAWHEOOHD HN ORE DAW wD

Horizon.

5 a . :
—_—'—.

yp

DR L. BECKER ON THE

5189-68
9°38
8:98
8°80
8:47
8:08
7°95
7°63
TAT
17
6°71
6°50
6:15
6:05
5°61
5:20
5:04
4°71
4°48
4:04
4:39
3°73
3°07
3°43
2°85
2°44
1:95
1:88
1:43
1:33
1:03
0°63
0:46

5180-19

517988
9°50
og
8:91
8°57
8:33

8:07
(erie
7°49
731
6:99
6°88
6°65
6°22
5:90
559

5175°36

55
1°3

OH bob:

Doe Abp:

28
13

: oo bo: Sin aig namely

Non we

bo oP:

High Sun.
8a | lla
62 | 42
13 | 2°0

2
2
8
8
2
i)
2
4
3

ae 2

Bae
5 | 5
5| 5
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12 | 12
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500 2
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4d| 3
2 2
G00 2
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64
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wo wWwwonFrnwmnwmnhd bby

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SOLAR SPECTRUM.

bobo: pr

wo OO:

21 22,
50 25
By) 12
bg
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|
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4

5

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4

3

29
45
11

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191

Low Sun.
30 51 52 53 55 73
37 =; 29 30 381 36
11 23 De 9 44 21
Mt.) | .9 4
Pi ot love ye
8 9 )
; hi { : }10
Blin cal m
7 7 5
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4 4 A
4 3 e
3 ie us
6 8 5
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Fite: (OL Ni
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3 4 ts \3
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3 3| 3 3
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2 3 3

Ose. Freq.

193237

255
271
280
288
302
320
340
359
367

381
391
398
411
421
427
446
454
460
470

486
504
500
512
522
534
535
549
558
569

579
591
595
604
606
618
619
634
649
658

662
676
682
699
709
730
747
753
759
781

193785

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

Mean
Intensity.

at Medium
Altitudes.
Telluric
Lines on the
Horizon.

| (0)

5174°99
4°52
4:08
3°83

we 3°62
3°25

TA pie. 2°78
2°23

1°73
1:50
1:14
0°88
0°68
0°34
5170-08
5169-91
9°40
9°18
9:03
8°76
8°33
7°85
7°95
7°64
7°38
7:04
7:02
6°65
6°41
611
5°84
5°54
5°41
519
5°12
4°81
4:77
4°39
3°98
3°75
3°64
3°25
3'11
2°66
2°39
1°83
1:37
121
1:04
0°45

5160°35

bo Or Wb
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PE ATOMDWNWWWNWAW WO

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Pr WORRRONWWWW WHWAAERWOHH WON

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High Sun.

12
10

Or:

bo:

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EP PWRPRPRONWWW WW OD PRP: CO:

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—-

oe"

“so
ow

Ose. Freq.

193796
. 806
813
829
834
849
859
868

880 |

882

898
918
922
933
943
953
960
977
193984
194006

018
041
051
072
078
083
090
100
104
116

127
139
148
167
181
192
206
217
221
237

245
257
266
278
290

297 ©

302
311
317
329

| 194341

at Medium
Altitudes,

2

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

Mean
Intensity.

Telluric
Lines on the
Horizon.

5160-06
5159-81
9°62
9°18
9:04
8°66
8°38
8:14
7°84
Misia
7°35
6°82
6°72
6-43
6°15
590
570
5:26
5:07
4-49
4:17
3°55
3°29
2°72
2°57
2°43
2°26
1:98

—_

H > OU > bo 00 G9 G9 bD
Qs

&

DONT POWHD OO

a

a

—_

5150°22
5149°85
9°53
9°16
8°87
8°78
8°36

8:14
7:83
7°58
1:27
6°95
6°76
6°62
6°40
6°24
5:91

5145:60

oor eS
WSL AS
Doe aT “10

TO NPOF ON WHEOWO OWWENWRWOH NOOOHpEAOO oO
—_

28
1:3

ww:

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a

> “1000
oa

Ooan:

D> Wood: wR OW Mwwwrwweco:

193

High Sun. Low Sun.
8a 13a 52 53 55 66 686 73
62 64 29 30 31 38 30 36
1°3 2°0 29 12 36 11 11 18
fi: a go eee ee
2 * i OS) RS a ee bl)
3 4 eee 30. 8) |) aetans
7 8 cmueees. s | 7. |, 82 bres
- a Pore ta man veck ys
3d 4 Meme 2.) 4 ee) tae
1 fy Lega ot ieee ee
5 4 Meee 2) |. 4) [> 5 ee
4 4
i ; 4 4 { i Pe ea aa aimee
4 4 reve oy ae 46 pad Wepe 4
5 5 5
: : 2 \ Copa! eb. |) Sept
3 5° ae MO ee) | oe ih.
3 3 Seam | ae 1 hey,
8 7 ceeeme 71) 8 | Syl fs
3 3 mer et 5 a he
6 7 Gulbeam G6 |,.7cls 7° tre?
2 a) ae tt cet hee.
4d cee |, ete )| lc ets
7 8 gi | esaweis) | 8. |e 8 abaes
5 5 Cte poe 5. |.42 [ar owen 5
7 7 GTHERGE Woo % lara pice
4% es or ae Joe
os 2 ge Sah... 3
D sf te Me kN hs. Wea...
6 6 Cite £1. 5 |b 5 Was
9 9 Guimieam S| 9 18 9 head
ie: Cae |, || ee en eas ot
2 2 Eel eat 1) eee
2 Dhue Di. Raa
9 9 mi sde 9) | syle 9 laws
3 3 0) jsebece, | oe ei
5 5 ee Re eee oe ee
4 3 Passer 2.) oan le ees
3 2 ot ee Cee ey Ce
4 4 Book anil Se igen ips 3
4 3 Mahe scone eae hee.
4 3 3 ey teed yak 3
8 8 Gai eSeieroe |, asad GET) NTS
8 8 Gm Maen | neh lay Wels
3 Py eee |) ee ee ore
6 6 Seem ey 652/85) bs
4 4 eee en 4) | 3
3 4 idl ama 3 hee
i. x ssc eae '9 ey hake
7 8 GuieSMP oe. vk 7 ftc7
3 4 tl (eet ln «bere
5 5 Ae Beh |) Bs toad
3 bt Pepe Vee bed,
5 5 SCR 3) |, 5 i 4 hoes

194 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

Intensity. High Sun. Low Sun.
eae
Ose. Freq. | BS | oe 8 7 6 8a | 18a 52 53 5B 66 | 68D
ae 283 agi) | 62ii64)) 29 |) som) 92 | 88:30
84 |e 8m 13] 1:3 | 2-0 33 14 30 12 12
©) Re
194356 | ..7 5145-21|| 7 Gy 6 7 6 7 5
361 | 2 BOG i.) (er Sites Bee 2 re
370| 4 482|| 4 i ae 4
374 | 3 tral ise] 4 # a ae | 3 } Paria “pee
381 | ...1 Pes a Ms cL || eee a2)" dele eee a
3096/0 21 | ik... 4-15]| ... 2 | 2 pe | Ladle. dee oe
208 | 09.4 | aba sya! td alee 5 : 4 Bd | 4 a
410] 4 3-78 || 4 5 4 5 } \ 4 4 4 |
424] 9 3-40]| 2 le ee on) Vales. 2 -
438 | 8 3-04|| 9 ae S 9 8 7 8 |
} 9 f
443] 8 2:89|| 9 8 i 8B 9 |-lld |< 8 7 8 iM
ABA | 4 9) | a=: 2°57|| 10 9 | 9 9 | 119 9 8 9 iit
473 | 2 | (2%) Z-70') (ical) b. deme e. 1 pevld ... fl) oan ~
861.08] | oes, 181| 9 sh 8 8 9¢/ 10 8 8 9
EG | | | Bice tel) 2-2) Lo ae 1¢\ ° P 2 .
7 1:34 3 .
503 | 4d 144 He \ 4*\ 450 | : { pOBlS g || amg 4 |
Bly 4b Te 0-94) 4 5 tA Ay] 3 3 4 4
ag) a3 038] 2 2% 3 2 2 2 2 3
547 | 2 5140-14|) 2 Phil 3 23 | .ebhb-c Al eae ak
563 | 4 5139-7) |55) bm aa Ss. 3 am
569 | 11 $56)| 110| 10 HHO NTs, |p 10a} manje10 || de
579 | 11 9-31|| 11 | 10 | 10 \ | 10> | WeSle 10°) eat
600 |. 3 8-76|| 2 Ss a aes 3 3 2
610 |@ 8 8-48] 2 eon |e 3 Bvale ..: 2
620] 3 8:22] 2 oleate e | Sp ae
639 | 4 Tia) be Aes He By. aa | Wagie..... fi toe
647 | 8 751] 8 94 8 9 9 9 8 8
660 |. .8 715|| 8 9 | 8 9 9 9 8 8
669 | 3 6-92|| 3 3% 244 og. Be | vale 2. 2
G81 Vad 66a] i. tb. He a Lepiae
693 | 3 6-30|| 3 3 4 4 30. 8 4 4
698 | 4 615|| 4 es 4 3 5 5
714) Nes 575 3 4
17 |. 4 5-66 \ aca 4 5 } Palate plete
436 | ..B B17 3 aif 23 3 3 3 3
751| 4 4-75\) 4 3) 3 5
755 | 4 4-66) '4) a3 4 } Paola Fh os
765 | 3 4-40] 3 2 | 3 Be.| .t 3 4
er Fl 3-62|| 112) 10 Well ow || 108| iesla di Plead
795| 4 3-60|| 4 2 be Tl x. 3a | ale a2 6
810) 2 3-20)... 1h 2h) &. a8 | ele 2
Bea B |M.. 2°88] 5 5 | 5 4d| 6 5 5 5
Bee 3a'| &.:. 259) (8dhi 1S oul &. Ab | 4 4
846| 2 | (3%) 2-05 | gl) See td Oe. 2 Saale. Pl ace
ul an ee 1:39|| 6 7 AG 8 7 6 6 6
872| 8 158] 8 817 8 8 8 8 8
a79 |b 3 1:38 |) 4 felon &. 3a | Lanes: 4
891) 1 1:06)! |. Hl eemmUe Tw | ok Bn a,
900 | 3 0-84 2.) eee 2 | wall Pe ee
908 | 5 O61] 4 5. 4 sgl 8e I 4
194916 | 5 5130-41|| 5 5 | 4 5 4 4 Bb

Ose. Freq.

194930
942
952
961
976
986

194999

195002
016
028

047
054
072
088
096
110
114
133
155
167

177
187
196
203
218
222
228
246
256
265

273
284
294
318
333
344
356
382
389
406

419
426
438
459
471
484
497
515
526
542

195555

Mean
Intensity.

Telluric
Lines on the
Horizon.

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

SH TOOT DIT
TH AOE VOD a
SMOTUANNHHY

Ce
Oo >
(oe)

5113°64

High Sun.

6 8a 13a 52 53

28 62 64 29 30
iIK8) 1:3 2:0 35 19
oe | © Sse 4 ame eS

Suh barred ar oh ll ts

eiaral 27 |) e/a ae

iol) = Welaea MAE aln

Pealee cals | [-t..|
3 -

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D

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MV 4 Be
ean <a lk

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umes 3 2

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Ae A 4d
7 | ee 3

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gi] ia] 9 9
5 ae he 2
2| 3] 3 3

21 31 3 3

Seal 7 6
oe 3 3 3

aa gal xo 3

ei) 5 |) 5 4

Bal! a1 | 9 9

2 Ta 3

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sae 9 3

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Aa Nd 4 4

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pal | |) 45 5

WwW owwws i ANS:

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195

Low Sun.

64 66 68) 71 Ae, 73
42 38 3} i] 37 36
11 13 14 30 24 15
| ve | os
mg Bil 8
aes 8] 8

il 3 Eni OR

\ 3] 3 30] 3

al Heil 3

Sil= <8 7| 8

a | 93 lee

Ba oc. Maes

on. 7 71 7

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6 7

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gol 8 9] 8
ei eas| 23 ie
5 |e ns 5
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Pal aci| -s'| fil Pest] 5
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ash) ool Wh eee as
ee esl cosh So aes
| SN al Fie og
APT ue aM Sa ee, Ie
wef nef ff oe |e
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fe ae cde) we © Gallic
Sha eoal worl Sal weslbos
| eal aa
1 i aol) 2 3} 3) 42]
Camnieg =, | kal 4
See 8 8 | isl -s
wef nf ee | ne fee |
Ri a Bk. i 40) 5
Buen 05 Tall ta

VOL. XXXVI, PART I, (NO. 6.)

196 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

titeaey, High Sun. Low Sun.
g Oo
Ose. Freq.| BS |eSa] a 6| 8a 53 | 54| 55| 64] 66| 67| 8) 71| 72) 78
se 5 55 28 | 62 30| 28| 31| 42| 38| 26] 30] 27) 371 36
eq [ken . 22
é E 13] 13 22| 12| 22| 11] 14] 14] 17] 29 (= jus
195570 4 5113°26 4
CN eae \ bd| 2 Bele bd Bil aghes Bd 21 Be
592 | 2 681 2/ 2| 2] 2 et Ob i 3 oe). 2
603 3 9°41 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 4. 3
623 | 3 1-88i| . 3.) Ball Sales Bul, pikes ws Pe
628 3 1:74 3 33 3 2 ea 3 3 4 3 4
639 33 sa 1:45 3 3 3) || ated leet Eel Wee 2 4
650 1 4 1:16 $f 1 pee D 2) 3 3 3 4 4h 4
665 4 cs 0-78 4 4 4 4) B D, 3 4. 3 14
676 10 Rue 0:48 10 9 10 10 | 10 | 10 9 | 10 9 | 10} 10 9
687 i 3 5110:20 2 = a 3} 3 OMe |e ae 72 ie 2 a:
704 8 5109°76 7 7 8 9 8 9 i Soles 8 8 8 8
fie | ata. G56 ll 8.) ey Neem | Ca aks . oe
723 3 a 9:27 3 3 23 x 3 Onl 3 3 4
730 3 9:09 3 a 3 2, 3 Onleae 3 3 wan Sultans
745 1 8°70 Shall ees 2, a A oe Peer,
752 4 8°50 3 4 3 4 5 4 4 4 4 3 4 4
768 3 8:09 2 3 2 3 3 ales: 3 ; i
780 9 7-76 9 9 9 10 | 10 | 10 8 9 9 12d| 19 8
790 9 7°50 9 9 9 10 | 10 | 10 8 9 9 ' % 9 \3
799 | 261 727: opt eee ce)... my a
814 3 6'88 3 3 2 3 2 2 oy 3 4 4
826 4 6:57 b 4 3 3 4 33 3 3 ne 4
832 4 6°41 3 4 3 3 4 3 3 3 3 4 4
848 | 2 6-00. 2. | eed) eel 9 ad if -_
861 9 ne 5°67 9 8 9 9 9 9 8 9 8 8 9 9
863 5% Bs 561 ae B ae 5 a aol Rane By iteceser tlhe lagers ee
S70 | 38 | a. Bach |) a | 1 a RRC as) oa ae ee) a
884 1 4d 5:07 a 2 1 1 Aad cera leo 3 3d
904 6 ae 4°55 5 6 5 6 5 4 15) all eas 4 6
915 5 4:25 5 5 5 6 4 4 \ eo b 5
920 5 ast 4:13 5 5 5 6 4 4 milk 14 5 a
932 | 2 (3 Bie \ 2 a| 3| 3 3 13
3°77 a) 3
946 2 55 3°45 2 2 3 2 3 2 soo ee P|
961 7 3°06 8 v6 8 i i 6 8 5 7 ii
980| 3 8 2571 3 BU ENGa\) KGL el Bully 6| 8 iu
195992 2 ne 2°26 axe Ree Meal Fae OuEae wea | owe ee
196005 2 6 1:90 2, 3 4 3 3 3 4 5 4 4]
016 3d a 1:62 3 3 3 PAIN S86 Bi | dae 2 By
036 3 1-11 3 3 4 GF We. ae —os| ee
040 4. 1:00 3 4 4. 5 3 4 5 4 4]
050 4 0-74 4. 4 4 5 3 4 5 4 4 4
066 y) 0°31 nae . ee 2 weed eee Alec |
078 8 5100:02 8 8 9 9 8 7 9 8 8 8 if |
082 4 5099-92 ||... oe ES a a oe eyes 5 | Loe 4]
089 1 9-71 ae 2 1 Oh al eae & aes wee. ee ||
100 7 9°43 Wi 7 8 8 6 6 6 Pe 7 if 6
110| 6 917 6 ee | | 61 ble neel } {7 6
125 9 8:79 9 8 10 9 | 10 7 8 9 8!
tio 8 { of |
196130 8 509865 8 8 10 9 6 if 8 9 8 |
B Ki

197

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

]
Roa! eS S60 11 HCC HH1DQ H H OM HMAN 1910 -HHMO oa ct Fa 5 nia og
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DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

198

AN = aA |
wa Ss SURFS Sy Sas ets) es st SP Pie Meee er ce ae may Ry Dad Ce ae eC ar oe en re
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DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM. 199

ae High Sun. Low Sun.
sie ©
Ose. Freq. |33| 2% ¢ 5. 6] 7e|18¢| 53 | 54 55 | 63 64 66 67 71
az| 25 Zoos WCe I 300) 626 \eeaiemie 40 |) 42 |) Pag” = aq | voy
B4/S 3H | 12/16/19] 34 7 15 10 4 19 17 21
© 5
197299 4 5 5068°45 Al fae 3 5 5 4 4 5 4 4 4
309 1 $F SPO cos | coe 2 me a Boe
322 5d) . 7:87 Gy ls. 5 5 6d 5b 5 5 4 4 4
- 332 1 ae 7:59 2 2 és & wee Bae
344 8 11 7:29 8 8 11 11 9 8 9 10 9 10
351 Dill | ate AUD || core She nes nee Bale BEE be 2
359 4 soo, all 6°91 4 3 2 4 3 4 4 4 5 3
375 3 6 6°49 3 3 6 5 4 4 He 8 5) 5
393 | 6 9 OEM F coe 5 10 8 7 ut | eee 7 9
400 3 (3 2) B85) || son |!) 28 ace aes 2 ae ave 1 Sat 4 Be
499 8 nae 5:30] 9 7 7 10 10 8 8 7 10 6 8
429 9 noe 5'12|| 9 9 9 10 Tl 9 9 9 10 9 9
444 8 Mis 4:73|| 9] 8 8 8 10 8 8 8 8 7 8
468 3 iss 4-11 2 3 2 a 2 2 3 3 2 2 3
482 1 4 All| meen tata 2: 3b il sae ee ee ie Ae 4
495 | 3 is 3°41] 3 1 3 a | 3
mi 3| .. 3-97|| 3| 4 3a se |) 8d \ 3 | 4 \ ou) { 3 } =
515 | 2 nae OO i ecg ulh crave. le verte 3b ate a ae ee 2
533 2 (3 4) 2°44 1 7 Ae) eee 2 3 3 3 eae
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559 3 nee Wesel) o 3 | 3 3 2 2 3 2 Bee 2 3
568 1 on T-56)|| ... 1 2 ae ee BB ar sieie ; ae
582 2 6 1:18 2 2 2 5 4 3 5 6 6 4 6
592 1 o06 0:92 ma IP Raiser ili sist ee oe oe Ae ies 3 1
607 2 5 0:56 2 2 she 2 2 2 ee 5
621 8 10 9060°19'|| 8 7 8 10 10 9 9 9 9 8 9
630 | 4 ae 505995 || 3} 4 4 E 4 os wee awe aa 5 See
645 | 1 3 Shas || coe || sae 2 a 2 2 3 3 3
666 310) nae 9:05 ld) 3 2. 3 2 2 3 3 2D 3
681 4 cee 8:66] 4 4 3 3 2 2 we Fe 2 use
694| 2| 6 Bazi. | 3 |) 2 Bt |) 5 aa) 6 aii a Oikos
703 5 a 8:09 5 5 5 6 5 4 5 \ 5 5
705 31) aaa 8:03 : Seileee ae: Bee ea ris Ae
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741 il “OF USS ecole See 2 si aes os oe ace
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762 3 10 6:58 \3 3 a 7 5 5 8 10 6 9
768 2 5 6°44 2 4 4 4 ae see 5 3
foo | 4 6:08 3b] 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3
798 2 ge 5°66 2 2S 2 2 hae Ane es 2
813 2 4 5:28 2 2 2 2 3 2 3 4 3 3
834 | 6 re AB ||| — 0 6 6 8 6 7 5 5 5 6
Baa |... 4 ALAN rae ce ay lade 4 wee sais 4 <i
850 | 2 ae 4:33 |] ... 2 2 hae nae son sind nike jek
866 3 6 3°92) 3 3h 3 5 3 4 5 5 5 6
ei 3 5d 3°64|| 3 \ Hs 4d 3 4 4 5 4 4
or 4 cco 3:10] 3 5 3
903 | 4 2-99|| 3 \5 4 { 4 \ 2 | 3 \ ae. ik ee
0 3 nee 2:78|| 3 iS ae a8 BAL ing ae
197921 ik Gre 5052'52) ||. |) a. 2 ae 6 Ane 3 5 4 4 5

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

200

Beh Ss SEN CS was CO : 19 <H HC SH <H uw acon : Oc 00 SO PaO she Rw xt 2S oe ioe)

s
Raa Sa
Sy Fé ——_ _——_— ee ——— =——_—
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201

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

Low Sun.

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mys Oe a ae seek ak eee im Rees et uets wes gt hte oe, enc nscale
5 Fr Merde et Mig TR Be ots See 8
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5 re ae rH

202 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

Tene. High Sun. Low Sun.
Biles
Ou. Free. (SE leea| a 6| 7c |18¢| 54] 55] 560 | 575| 61| 63| 64| 65| 66| 67 | 68a| 69
a8| 258 28| 55| 64] 28| 31| 38] 42/ 28| 40] 42| 40] s8| 26| 30] 33
Saf em 12| 15] 18] 26| 11] 12| 19] 16 | 14] 21] 17] 28] 98] 27] 95
© Rs
199123 | 4 5022-03 4) 4| 3] 5/ 3] 38] 3 5 |) aula a
136 | 7 rol Bla 7z Wi oZ ty vale te Wee less) eb 5 bd
152 | 2 et eM pee ec aca) Opes 34 oF st
165 | 4 097 3/ 3] 4 3181 3 4 3
176 | 4 0-69 2] 3] 4 badd 2] 3 3 \ 3p 2 at 3
185 | 21 O-4 NV eel kel eee a “s a)
198 | 8 502014|| 8| 7/ 8} 8| 8] 9] 8 Weel el 6 5
210113 .. | po19-82| 3| 3| @).41 818) on 5 le & be 5
Oo We |. 40 EOE elt os lee Li le a 4 ae \s i
233/31 4 9296/1 31 3] 3 Besa ls | 3.) 2
o57 |...) 59] 865] .0).0 [oa [LS Woe WL. | Bl...) rr
261| 9| 11 855 91 9| 9 12) 11 8 ip (q
BEEN et eg dete ell oe ee aie hist 6 : hi 10 16 bio \10 10 | 11 am :
283| 1| 5 S-00il| «deals ocltl ic tae NRA cite) 8° |e. Bele eee |
90641 8.1 0... Wh ceeeG7 Nt Sil) Bell Ball eee 71. ol cc salem 7
318 | 21) 5 Wl & woalt.s | 2] a) 2 Pale el) ae 3 a
S01} Bsc. Wee oa 6 |) 6) eh a a eoelhe elles 5 ig
336 | 5 665.| Seles IP he eee |) Bl) a 4 5 |
S50 g Ned: 631i 71 7| 7] 6 iS | s.\ % 6 6
359 111) Selle elk Oe | ac 2) oe ecees colt aa
389 | 2| 4 533 9./ 3 2b @ leew xf ia
Apo 94 a. 504i) 10} 8 | 8| 1 9/10 | 8| 8 9 a
wg |.21 |. #81. cele. | Oe 2 f =
407 | 9d | 4:39 } 10 9 15 hu fOt10 9] 9 9 8| 8
os 4-33 8
ES pay nares s06l|- 4 31 tle sal hea ee ie « a
451064 Loi). 3z7i| 51 6 eles Bl ose) AS 6 -
AeT iT Al B85 wal Gill valine Giles. |) Glee 7 5
481 | 2 SOT @ cl Bales Pulte i.e os a
492 | 5. 2-731 6| 5| 5] 6 BG a 5 5
B01 | 67 2501 6! 6| 6] 6 6b Sl 4.1 5 5
516 | 10 213|111| 9 | 10} 12 10/10! 9] 9 9 9 | 10
538 | 3) i738) 2) oie ble | 2 & 3
548) 2 (23) 31 noes Soh es eas Be ry
561 | 6 100] «| 6] 71 6 Bue cal Gh a 6
568 | 2 O82il> Bncc|| Wale a; ee ee re
586| 4 Os7 dG |) 21| aallw ie) Cae a 4
595 | 5 O65) 6 || alee esa. oa 4
600 | 1 BOLGOS LAN a a te *
607 | 5 5009-85 || 5| 5] 4
4 =o) alee 4
12). 966) 4] 4] 3
624 | 1 9-42)|| - |. aalecoel ae eal lts sk 7. _ ”
633 | 2 919) 9c\) eh oaleee A Bee 2 2 i
652 | 4 geil 5 | tee 3| 2| 2] 3 3 —
673 | 9 819\|° 21. 9 | oem Bale 2 si =
687 | 4 7-831 BA) dul aed Aes |) oa em 3 a
707/10) ... 7-34|11| 91101 19 11/10/10] 9 ll 9 | 11
794) al 690] 2/ 2] a1 3 Se: e: e
738 | 21 ... B57 | -.2') Oales ee 4 vs a.
750 | 11 6-26|| 111 10 | 11 | 12 11 | 10] 10 | 10 11 9] 11
199766 | 10 5005:85| 10! 9/10) 11 gil 9 | 9/09 10 B | 10

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM. 203

eae: High Sun. Low Sun.
a ofa
Ose. Freq. so e z g m 6 7c 13a 54 56a 57b 61 63 65 68a 69 70
a2 z a 5 28 55 64 28 38 42 28 40 40 30 33 27
aa ape ets |, eS 30s FIs S| 16)) 15! 80.) 251! te
199780 | 21 500552) 2] ..] .. re cs | ee Hadiiee.
736 | 4 535| 3) 4|/ 4 3 3d { 2 | eae hee
mor} 3 |... Soo ase) air. 9 Ween 3 | 2 \ 13
g21| 3] 5 ese si) St’... soa A. 5| 4
831 | 5 Ae aslite | 6 5 i) Bi woe 15/5 By] 5
843 | 5 Sena h 5-5 | Sl aeeeeh 5 | 5 5 5
60 | 1 SOME: ooh: =. lo cae ea.) eh fhe
870 | 2 OE: rk COAL... \h sc ME ok |, ys
883 | 7 Fors ies 7 | |: Syl Bellanca wl, 7 8| 7
g90 | 2d 4 Bi Ries) ld ..| 4 Rail 4] 4
919 | 9 SOs 1e | | fo) | 9) Moree es: 9| 9
933 | 3 emirate 2 34). ...-|. i) EOD le, | ta teal 3
954] 5 Praia eG.) 6 6 |) 6a| Pema es! 5 5| 5
965 | 3 Gece A 21... |p ool ee ene Be.
981 | 6 o47| 6| 6| 6 6 7
199986 | 4 soo0se|| 41 5| aff 8 \ rena tl? c \4
200001 | 2 Reece soba «29: ... |» | eocleeee - 2
014 | 8 Grol Vee ser) | os 8 |i 91) RO eum S| 9 8| 9
029 | 4 pos teaiee | asi 4) 3% | Soe 2) 5 4| 5
052 | 2 E00) al S| A) awn eee ee. 40 ae ge:
065 | 7 ease i vie Go 7 | apie 6) 6 6| 7
O74) 3] & Saleesumis | Fb ole ell 8 ci bee As
ost | 22 al eco 2 2 ee | i a NG ahs bate |. 3
o91 | 2 Te key a oN. kel ao Dl. ah dos Ione | &9
113 | 5 Piao ese), Gil 5,\e 6) Oona 6) 8 | al 6
123| 6 CooleRalmin | ate 50 6.| Go tmeouls| 6 5| 6
142| 3 Eolleanr es) Sv 33) 3)| Ro Mamoen S| 2 ae
i} i| 3 te eet OMe |e st Me 2 | as. eal 13
169 | 4 Bl a | 4) 4 Sal) or eMEGRe ae |) Sl) ee| ore 4
178 | 3 pol 3| &i 3 3 Gata 3 |. 3 hl od
193 | 2 pier |) foals. |e oil Be eee | lee:
201 | 2 call” Gal 25) ee ee ae lie a1 o] . 2°]...
211 | 2 a72| 9] 1] af ..] 2] 2 Genoese. lay
931 | 9 Loew) om § |, 91] ES eal S| 8 oS lias) 9
248] 6 seo) eG) ) 6) 6s 5|- 6 ee hem Cf 61 Moos) 7
264] 5 POVMPG thi 6H 4\0 5. AB Meh at 5 \ \ 5°) bi
277 | 2 Sei) Ja | eae ie Ra pee a See it
286 | 3 eee oe 341) 4| 3) - 2 homn) eae) se lie |” 3,
301 | 3 2-49|| 3
|: Sail Fe \ Bie silie -aelo Gill LOR Ron ah Mosul lll Grae lnnst
Bae) 4| ... oom) ele ealli..|0 Sat So leemoeieael Beas] te | 3
338 | 51... LRG (cole eee Mpaie| ARAM RRR hoe | ee es
346 | 9 137 9/ 8| 8 oi] Peeheial) @l.8 ly9
354 | 9 iy 99+ 8) 8 hie { 9: 8 sul #1. 8 hia a 19
371 | 3 Cee Sale...) coll eee lien. | ol 3
378 | 5 DRC NE GoReG Ls 4) 4]) SOM sl ee | cal 5
397 | 3 4990-10 2| 3] 3 i) Seo: | co) 3
412 | 3 4989-72 2]| 2] 2 Me Sil 2 |e Oe a
495 | 1 a361| 1614.8, |). Alte eth eb ose boa
432 | 5 9-22], 61 5| 5 ‘i ones | 6 a. | 6) 5
200439 | 8 4989-04 CAST oN) Sue aoeleeren MaMeM mee]! <r) 9 9 | 8} 8

VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 6). OH

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

204

. . A .

2 Ss CO OD CD CD SH ID SH FCO CO PHI FOOT F OME INAMN 1M WINN -NWHNM 0 AHA ran [OOO MN
_—— —* : —— * 2 J o) = —— “2
S
GE ER ee ior) or) = 1O Donk O19 > : Serge! en bee Sten aH 2 Ss 8 sv 1d Oe a NOD aus, SaaS
cS) iS : Ss
aR Sp liss has cera Masaya eo tee Se poo ya CT COCs be soe ag: OO a ees: ge sO ia ag: ah WB Sy eg es Ee eS Sod
oer “ers ee ta . . . moo. . ere ee ee Sea tere mae ree es a . ° me tee te
ve} —_— eS Se . —— Creme sim Dieter Ci at Amer REE
S iS SS
eS = Ge INN TH F1OH TO DOD TD OO :OOD ! AABN NAMM :M M1ODN -NWM0N H NON tan :oOr
a
& cS OO 580 50D 11D H 1 DOHMOMHEOMmM 1 NOD : 1OMN 30 HID IN HH 1 1 AH HM SDN 90
S dS
A me eS TNNINOH F10N 1D ONNE KR MreOM : BONN 1:0 :O HH HN 10 + aS : ON re N 10
= 19 Oe oe Et EE PR AS Sie ee) oe ie Honan lor on) a> 19290 :N wD 1D Yen) oD of an ay
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iene ec un oa ees ee ee Bar aig sec: ae

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| nS
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rm . . . . . . . . . °
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Mean
Intensity.
2 Slee .
Ose, Freq. |*S-S | 25 8 a Sh caia se
az ee a8 28 56 55
a 2 3 2
a. le ED} 1:3 14
201173 | 5 4970°84|| 6
180 | 6 0:66|| 6
194] 3 0-32|| ... A
205| 8| ... | 4970-06] 8 ,
223 | 2/| (3%) | 4969-61] ... d
931} 2| (3%) 9-41 || 1 <
954] 6] ... 8:84] 8
257 | 6 8-76|| 36
967 | 4 8:52|| 4
988 | 8 8:00|| 9 :
303 | 3 ‘ 764|| 3
a5) 1 : 7:39|| 2
329 | 2 : 6:99 || ...
340 | 2 6-71|| 26
361 9 6-21] 9
| ar 5 5-94|| 5
390 | 1 548 || ...
| 5:27|| 5
ma) 6| 5:02|| 6
418| 2] (4%) 4:80,|| 2
) 4:26|| 3
452! 2 3-96 || ...
| 466 | 3 3-62|| 3
| ABE 2 3-12|| 2
| 504] 7 2-68] 8
513 | 2 2-46 || 2
530 |} 5 2:03 || 6
| b45 1 2 166|| 2
| 565 | 4 1-18] 5
573} 3 0:98] 4] ..
| 591 | 3 055] 2] ...
| 613] 2 4960-00|| ... | ...
626 | 1 4959-°68|| 2]... |...
641) 4 SON Bol aie ll ...
| 656 | 2 SOO ee WE
676 | 3 O44) 4)... 3
| 698 | 5 BOO ve | Bolo.
705 | 12 773/13 | 10 | 12
720 | 11 7:36\|12| 9 | 19
751) 3 660] E| 3] 2
Gan 3 6:00 :
788 | 2 5-69 ; be
804 | 9 5-30 91 2
821] 6 4:88 5| 6
830] 6 4-66 5 | 6
848 | 9 4:23 ant 9
865 | 2 20 | 3 2
884] 7 3:34 1] . Gl 7%
| 897] 99 203] 2 en eee
, ik mle... aioli | b°| 6

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

High Sun.

Dr: wwer: ww WRENONWYTDNHDHF HOT: RoODMmDw: Hw ARUTTADHOWwWAaAH | re AS

Low Sun.
126 | 13a 54 | 56a | 576 | 58a | 59d 61 62 63 65 69 70
45 64 28 38 42 39 35 28 43 40 40 33 27
2°6 | 1°8 36 7 15 9 10 22 21 PP 12 31 13
5 5 4 4] 5 5
A \s Tal} 6 : 6 ye 2 bast
Sit lps ee ell oh Aerie
sl s| 7| 7 8} 6 6] 8| 5a] 8
ON aelhae OE Wigs 30)... Uieasalete
Pte Wee ale 2} 3 Bel Dente ale
6 5
: \s 8| 7 GE 6| 7 504
£i be Gall 5] 2 4g| IMO. || Aa
s| 8| 8| 7 9) 7|...| 7| 8] 5a] 8
3 Aaa 3} 3 24 pa. | 13
ie Ree ehh. Bet. +8 Es is
23 Ae 2) 2 ot ae | a
2)... | 9a] 2 ue ey) Oa
9112/10] 9 9} 8 g| 9} 6] 9
4}..f 41 6 51 4 44) “Aaieg |)
1 ee ee ee ee a
ane) Behe
pal) 5
x dl ce Pol atk BA | 8
4 jh 4| 3 4} 3 4
Oe ees ae ae Sue aa a
Dy te iM. Maa 31 3 mb Ble. | 2
Teg ae SO AGh lee, i 8
6) 40 71 7 715 ell Thine: | 7
PN Ae a RO Cee mee
5 3 51 3 pd oa | 35
2 a he oi Bien. | 2
4 2
; 3 4 13 4 dae las
9 ee eee ei eo
9 (WOR viet cl Sak aie tl
ae ed | en ee Be) ee
ae 4 De Aeek 3 dl 2G) aaleed |) 4p
BARON. Bes | See AR a,b cool eae ID
Silt. has |) SOR RONRE c l cnl emai. | 3
fal oe ee Oe et OR Rosas ee
12 | 12 p, (12 | 10 | 12) tat 12 | 13.) 11) eh, (us
11 fai 4 Raa | 0 | a1 | a1 | a2 | a3 | a 1
FRB) EL E| 32 le B
hao B| Bi B| B
3 Pe) | oo eae
3 ah ae ales
3 5 Ne eae au
7 6b 5 | x6
: She he ad...
2 2} 9| 2 fil
2 Sk ola nm
7 Th 7\ f 7
By Mle =
6 Realty 6
5 5} 5] 5 6

44
19

12
36

206 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

Intenity: High Sun. OSS
a_| 2
Ose. Freq. | 5,3 |-2% 2 a 7a 7b 120 57b | 58a | 59b 62 | 74a 75
Beles 56 5B 45 42 | so| 85 | 43 | (ae
oa orci 13 1-4 2°5 i | io | a | 20") Sitemaieeee
201953 | 3 4951°65 3 3 2 2 2 2
964 | 2 1:37 3 5: 3 2
978 | 1 1:03 2 5 ore ase
201988 | 3 0-79 3 2 2 2 2 300 3b
202010 |} 9 495026 8 8 9 9 8 8 9 9
034 | 2 4949°67 2 2 2 207 1, 3
053 | 2 9°19 3 2 2 2 2b 3 1 Bic
070| 1 B79, anes mM 2 2 \ { Me | si:
091 | 3 8°26 3 3 3 3 3 4 1 2
099 | 1 8:08 ae 2 ee 345 2 ae b ao5
117 | 4 7°63 4 4 4 3 3 5 1 3
137 | 2 713 2 2 2 ie 1 2 20s
162 | 9 6°53 8 8 ) 9 9 8 8 9
176 | 4 618 4 4 5 4 5 4 oe
195 | 6 573 6 6 6 6 5 5 \ 7 7
203 | 6 5°52 6 6 6 6 5 5
2a8 ty 2 al) Paes 4°92 2 2 1 oat 2 ; 2b { So
ZED Ne SW 2s 4°61 3 3 2 2 2 3 3
251 | 3 : 4°34 3 3 2 2 2 2 b 3
267 | 2 3°95 2 2 2 2 1 508 3 3
287 | 2 3°47 2 od 2 2 2 2 255 ae
300 | 1 3°15 ahd \ 1 sAC Soc Ste joc ae
321 | 9 2°65 9 8 9 9 9 9 8 8
346 | 3 2°04 3 3 3 2 2 2 see 2
371 | 3 1:42 3 2 2 2 2 2 oor 2
390 | 2 0:96 2 006 2 355 eee 2 oo 465
403 | 3 0-64 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
422 | 3 4940-19 4 3 3 3 3 3 nbc aad
435 | 8 4939°86 8 8 8 9 8 8 8 7
453 | 7 9°41 i 7 7 8 7 6 7 7
471] 8 8-98 8 8 8 9 8 8 8 8 aa
492 | 4 8-46 Pac 4 5 3 AOC Sd6 ae AeA von
497 | 7 8°35 if 8 7 8 8 7 rh 8 a
513 | 3 7°95 3 3 2 3 3 Su 2 302 a
530 | 8 754 ff 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 A
542 | 4 7°26 4 4 4 4 4 Soc 4 6 Spe
559 | 2 6°84 3 3 3 545 1 500 1 poe “aS
574 | 6 6°48 6 6 6 9) 7 6 6 6 E
595 | 7 596 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 5
615 | 2 5°48 2 2 2 St ae on ie =
629 | 3 5°12 2 2 2 2 2 2 } 3
644 | 2 4°76 2 =e 2 ae 2 2 se 500
667 | 10 4°20 10 9 9 10 11 11 1t 12 11
613 | 7 4:05 6 7 7 5 6 500
699 | 8 3°42 9 8 7 8 8 9 9 10 9
706 | 5 3°26 4 6 7 4 5 oar
731 74. NV 5p 2°66 2 2 2 2 2 1 3
751 6d| ... 2°17 ii 6 6 6 5b tf 5 7d 6d
TOBA een. 181 3 2 2 ee ee 4
(fi im eee eres 1°32 2 2 2 5 oe
202799 | 5d) ... | 4931°00 5 4 5 5 5 4 4 4d 6b

=s ———————————

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM. 207

Tee, High Sun. Low Sun.
f= ro)
sé) o8 g Ta 7> | 125 | 575 | 58a | 595 | 60 62 | 74a 75
Sa Hao A
as = See 56 55 43 42 39 35 26 43 44 43
63 aol 13 | 14 | 25 Wp ome te | 12 | eee ae | oe
202823 8 4930-42 8 8 8 9 9 8 9 8 7
850 | 2 4929-76 2 2 2 2 1 2 3 3 tee
874 2 9°18 2 1 2 2 ah 2 3 3 ae
882 1 8:98 2 Hot ae ae we at ee see sae
904 5 8:43 5 5 6 6 5 5 5) 5 5
920 8 8:04 6 8 8 8 0 7 fl 6 5b
oe 7 | ... eo one e |, % i) Cue role ie i
955 5) eae 7:21 ane wae not fis a8 sista aes 5 ase
966 3 6°93 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 4
202995 3 6°24 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 4
203016 | 6 5°72 ef 6 6 7 7 6 6 bd 6
027] 5 5:45 5 b) 4 5 5 4 4
041 3 511 ae 3 ace nee ane ats oe abe nee
050 | 9 4-90 9 8 8 9 ) 8 8 8 7
071 3 4°38 3 3 3 ae 1 Sue ae Ace
085 | 10 4°04 9 9 10 10 11 10 9 10 10
100 2 3°68 3 ane ee 2 ane is ope
118} 3 3°25 4 3 3 2 2 4 3 4
ie2)| 3 2°91 3 3 3 2 2 ae 3
141 1 2°70 See 1 500 site ae ane
156 | 8 2°33 8 7 Uf 8 10 8 ; 7 7 8
161 4 2°21 fu 4 4 AOE sae re
175 6 1°87 6 5 6 5 5 5 es 5 5 5
188 2 1:55 2 2 3 ics sis3 B
208 5 she 1:07 5 5 4 4 5 4 4 4 4
220 | 44 «... 0-77 mate 4 Ae ies ee
226 | 12 0-63]) 11 11 13 il 12 12 11 12 12 12
2341 4 4920°44 4 4 aes Bok
254 | 4 4919:96 4 3 4 4 3 4 3 4 2
269 2 9:58 2 2 aa ws sae fe Pe ay te
288 | 11 9:12 10 10 12 10 11 11 10 iil 11 11
299 5 8°87 5 5 5 4 5 4 4 5 ina ae
BLOE| 7 8:48 7 df df 6 6 5 6 7 6 6
329 6 eis 8:13 6 6 7 5 6 5 5 a 6 6
40) 34. ... 7:87 3 ae ie aoe das 3. nD is aoe ae
361 8 ae 7:37 7 8 8 7 8 8 8 8 7 7
378 2 6°95 see ia ou 2 ude ae 3 ss Seo
392 3 6°62 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 2 3 3
400 | 2 6:41 2 2 2 Sle en Bee “ae aa Mis
421 3 5:92 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 2,
443 | 3 5°38 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1d
465 1 4°84 1 ape ae ea Bee aii ee is 2 fe
ATS | 2 4-61 3 3 2 2 2 233 2 2 2 AGS
495 | 7 4:13 7 6 8 7 7 6 7 6 6 4,
509 | 7 3°78 ii 6 7 7 7 6 7 6 5 4
528 | 3 ae 3°34 4 3 3 S08 3 3 3 3 4
DBT || ..: 2 3:10 side was ae 2 3 So: ge ae 2
552 | 3 2°74 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 Bhs
573 | 6 2°25 6 5 6 5 6 5 6 5 6 4
582 | 6 203| 6 5 6 5 6 5 6 5 6 \ @
203595 | 4 4911°72 4 4 5 3 5 4 2 4

208 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

ieee High Sun. Low Sun,
= ae
Ose. Freq. [3-3 gta A 7a 7b 126 57b 58a | 59a | 59d 60 62 | 74a 75
as ELS 56 55 45 42 | 39| 35| 35| 26] 43] 44] 48
1 -| 13.) Ue Se oe 10 12) (21) 12) i8°\* Tee eatbens
© ie
203610 6 4911:34 fi 6 fi 6 7 7 6 6 6 4
638 7 0°68 7 6 7 6 8 6 6 7 7 7
648 7 0°44 7 6 a 6 8 6 6 7 7 7
660 8 491015 8 7 8 6 8 8 8 8 7 7
671 1 4909°88 2 ed uae a4 a sat 1 rae aac
685 8 9°54 8 7 8 7 7 8 7 8 it 7
700 1 9°17 2 1 Bat 2 oad sat dee a A <e
714 2 8°84 2 Bae 3 2 2 a ld 3 2 1
724 2 8°59 ee 3 3 as aa 2 ee 2 ae sae
742 5 8-16 5 6 5 ‘a 5 6 5 6 6 6
755 7 7:85 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 8b
782 2 7°20 3 2 3 an 3 2 1 2 3 5
796 3 6°86 3 3 3 3 3 3b 2 2 3 3
824 3 6°20 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
836 2 5:91 2 2 2 Bre ap aan ay wis a Ne Ba
863 5 5:25 5 5 6 6 (f Bs 5 5 6 4 4
876 2% 4:94 ane aie 2 Bae apr : Bir a ie eae aan
891 8 4:57 8 8 8 9 9 ist 8 9 8 8
912 2 4:07 2 2 1 ae Se vais ae eas aot 2
928 21 3°70 2 sist ion ace B ane aes
939 | 10 hn 3°42 9 9 10 10 12 10 10 10 9 10
977 3 4% 2°52 3 3 3 3 4 2 3
203990 | 3| 42] 221] ... } - { 2 sei) 32 24 4a | ae e } 40/4
204010 2 i 1:72 2 2 2 2 oe ete is 1 its
033 4 1:18 4 4 4
Me alae ae 35 aes \ de aa |" cyan { 1 aul tae
069 a 0°31 6 7 8 if \ 7 8h 7 & a 5
080 7 4900:05 6 7 8 7 | 7 7 7 6
096 3 |. 4899-65 2 3 3 as ere 1k was 2 2
106 24 9°41 ne sie ae : oan He ee 2 ihe
126 2 8:93 2 2 2 3 2 1 1 3
147 2 8:44 2 2 2 2 b 2 Shi 2 3
180 3 7°64 3 ae 3 2d 3 2 1 2 ace
192 2 7°35 3 3 sia sate ne ; 3
217 4 6°75 aa aes 4 : nee ae
223 6 6°61 6 a 6 ay 5 6 6 5 5 6
245 1 6:07 2 a ie a wae aie
253 2 5:88 2 3 2 2 2 3
273 2 5°40 3 1 3 2 : 2 3
305 3 4°65 3 3 3 3 ae 3 3 4
331 4 4:01 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 4
351 i 3°53 1 2 te cue als ae
370 f 3°08 7 7 8 7 7 i 7 6 6 7
392 2 2°55 2 2 1 ee sae
408 i 2°18 We 1 2 oa ue SoC nt ee aa BES
429 | 11 1:68 11 10 12 12 12 11 Vi 11 11 12
463 | 10 0°87 10 9 11 11 11 10 ll 10 10 11
485 2 4890°34 1 2 3 E } 3 | vie oe hd 2 2
505 3 4889°86 2 2 3 oils 2 2 3 3
528 if 9°31 7
204532 | 7 4889-22 ore { 7 } eet |

DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

—

Mean
Intensity.
oe
Osc. Freq. ce 2 i: A
oe (335
Sq Hed
©) a
204550 8 4888°79
570 2 8°31
589 2 7:86
608 fl 7-40
617 if 7:19
633 3 6°81
646 7 6°49
660 3 6°15
668 4 5:96
684 6 5°58
701 6 5°18
707 3 5:03
719 5 4°75
745 2 4-12
761 7 3°75
773 2 3°47
796 3 2°90
810 2% 2°57
821 8 2°30
840 i 1°85
847 7 1:70
875 3 1:02
892 3 0°61
912 2 4880°14
933 2 4879°65
951 2 9:21
968 2 8°81
204989 11 8°30
205010 3 7°80
014 4 al
034 2 7:24.
046 2 6:94
062 4 6°56
065 6 6°49
076 22 6:23
085 6 6:02
106 5 5:53
126 4 5:05
135 4 4°85
155 4 4°36
169 5 4:03
178 4 3°81
195 a 3°41
201 5 3°26
214 3 2°95
226 2 2°67
247 9 2°19
255 6 1:98
267 21 1:70
279 | 11 1:41
4870:89

205301 | 7

PO HBONwWIawenr PEPARDD BD HH HRwWewHwNDNwWw TN WWNWRWH DATURAWAoOnNNDAD

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=
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High Sun.

7b 126
55 45
3-23

8

2

2

a

il

2

8

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4

7

a

Www AN: wwnwoa a WRMWOWAND DY

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6 5
4) 6
£ 5
4 5
4 +
5 5
Lt 4
6 7
4 9)
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2 2
9 8
5 6
LOPS 20
7 8

209

Low Sun.
58a 59a 59d 60 62 Tha 75
89 35 3) 26 43 44 43
13 20 13 14 18) 14 13
el ewe aes esc 7 eB 9
i ea oS. 1 pea eo |e
6 aloe Meats
\ 7b| % { 2 aS ee i 7
7 a 8 7 7 7 7
ee) ee ieee 4 Afaiaees
5 i) er een \ oo { ole
G IP Mena feet G 6 6 5
& Wy aan lag 6 6 |t 6
we foe foe Poa ne Jong | ng
7 we teenie 7 7 8 7
~ eee... Se | Cea
z wef fe fon
7 7 |
\ Sd|) Qed lap { ; 8 7
7 7
3 3 eu a2 3
3 ae... Sean
w ¥ 3 1 3
eae ae 1 3
Sao a a a
11 |) te eorteaty |} ao | ag oan
eleidlcides dead pls
rm i 2 ene
\ 5 \-cemee cca! gl 6h
ve fone Jone fone foe | ong | ng
5 | Sauna 5.) Os 5 5
4 Out ed
\ 4o| 54 { : \ 5 { 7 ae \ 4d
cy NS a) eel,
3 5 || ag Ae ol ie om ee
we foe foe fone Poe foe oo
a a ie DAS Soe
| ee
|e | EY lh
i) Oommen ) 10) i lsu
Gamer |. Fs) 3 8

te a a) (NR a A a ee

210 DR L. BECKER ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.

Mean :
Intensity. High Sun,
Ose. Freq. 23 25 FI a 7a 7b
Baal aoe 56 5B
3 | . .
on ain 1:3 1°3
205315 | 2 4870°56 sak 2 2 4 fee see sis
328 | 6 0:26 6 6 6 5 6 6 5 6 5
333 | 42 4870°15 Bae Ahi ae b he a ae
358 | 5 4869°55 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 5
383 | 3 8°95 3 3 3 ae ne ac 3 3 2
400 | 5 8:55 5 5 5 5
406 | 5 B41] 5 5 5 \ 2 2 { 5 \ 2) 1 ae
425 | 6 7:95 7 6 6 6 7 6 6
439 | 3 7°63 3 3 she 1 4
456 | 2 7:23 aoc 2 3 c tie
459 | 1 7:16 \ 2h \ re 2 “00 ue ae ius ae
470 | 2 6:88 a 2 2 sis Ae Sue 1 oe 1
489 | 8 6°44 9 8 8 8 8 7 8 8 8
497 | 22 6°24 2 sits sh dan Sac bee Bac age are
515 | 6 5:82 5 6 6 3 6 6 6 5 5
535 | 3 535 a 2 3 ot Bee ‘ote 2 4 rf
550 | 5 4:99 5 5 Aa 5 5 4 5 4
571 | 6 4:50 6 7 7 5b 6 5 5 7 5
586 | 3 4:15 4 4 3 566 isi oes 3 ar ae
599 | 7 3°84 7 7 7 5 6 6 5 7 5
618 | 2 3°40 2 3 ace 2 SAG
628 | 3 3°15 sie 3 3 seh ws
645 | 5 2°74 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4
661 | 2 2°37 2 2 wae oe ial
675 | 4 ans 2°05 4 4 3 3 4 3
687 1:76
701 13 4 1-42 12 12 14 14 14 14 1] 14 14
205716 4861-08

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( 211 )

Vil.—ELlectrolytic Synthesis of Dibasic Acids. By Professor ALEXANDER Crum Brown
and Dr James WALKER.

(Read 17th February, 19th May, 16th June, and 7th July 1890 ; revised 11th November 1890.)

Part I.

Forty years ago Korse* showed that a strong aqueous solution of potassium acetate,
when subjected to the influence of the electric current, is decomposed with formation of the
following products. At the anode a gaseous mixture is evolved which consists chiefly of
carbonic acid and ethan ; while at the cathode hydrogen escapes, and potassium hydrate
is formed in the solution. When dilute solutions of the same substance are electrolysed
under similar conditions, the decomposition products at the cathode are the same as in
the previous case, but at the anode the gas evolved is now oxygen, and free acetic acid
makes its appearance in the solution. The difference between the two cases must, on
modern views of electrolysis, be attributed to the occurrence of secondary reactions. The
primary process is in all cases the transference of the electrically-charged submolecules
or ions to the corresponding poles, where they lose their charges, and thereby become
capable of reacting with one another or with neighbouring molecules. As a general rule
they are, when discharged, themselves incapable of independent existence.

The ions in a solution of potassium acetate are K and CH;‘COO, of which the former
travels to the cathode, the latter to the anode. On discharge, the potassium atom
immediately attacks the water in which the salt is dissolved, with formation of potassium
hydrate and liberation of hydrogen. The acetion, on the other hand, can either react
with the water or with another acetion molecule, according to circumstances. Should

the solution be dilute, the conditions evidently favour interaction with the water, which
will then take place according to the equations

CH,COO+HOH = CH,COOH+0H
or 2CH,COO+H,0 2CH,,COOH+0

But if the solution is concentrated, the reaction will rather take place between the acetions,
and that in either (or both) of two ways, viz.

I. 2CH,CO, = CH,CH,+2C0,

Il, 2CH,CO, = CH,CO,CH,+CO,
The secondary products in this case are therefore carbonic acid, ethan, and methyl acetate.
As Koxzet proved, the quantity of methyl acetate formed is extremely small ; indeed, he
only succeeded in showing its existence in an indirect manner, The decomposition thus

* Kousg, Chem, Soc, Quart. Jour., ii. 157, 1850.

+ Koxps, loc. cit., 177.
VOL, XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 7).

21

212 PROFESSOR A. CRUM BROWN AND DR JAMES WALKER ON THE

proceeds chiefly according to equation I. With other acids, however, the result is
different. Potassium valerianate, for example, yields on electrolysis considerable quantities
of valerianate of butyl * formed according to equation II. ; thus

2C,H,COO = C,H,COOC,H,+C0, .

Another and particularly interesting case is that of the electrolysis of a formiate. If the
reaction took place in the sense of equation I

2H-COO = H,+2C0, ,

we should have the somewhat surprising circumstance of hydrogen being given off at
both poles. As a matter of fact, no hydrogen is formed at the anode, but the reaction
which occurs is as follows :—

2H-COO = H-COOH+CO, ;

formic acid is regenerated and carbonic acid alone is evolved.t This process has been
looked upon as one of oxidation, but it is clearly a case of the occurrence of the mode of
decomposition symbolised by equation II.
There is still another way in which two anion molecules may react together. It
occurs chiefly with the higher fatty acids, and results in the formation of unsaturated
bodies. For instance, a propionate gives as chief product at the anode, ethylen,{ according

to the equation
III. 2C,H,-COO = C,H,+CO,+C,H,-COOH .

It evidently depends on the relative stability of the various possible products of
decomposition which of these three reactions will prevail. The most interesting case,
however, is that in which two alkyl residues from different molecules unite to form a
hydrocarbon (equation I.) ; for this gives us the means of effecting the synthesis of long
carbon chains.

Till now only a few hydrocarbons have been thus synthetically prepared. The method,
however, is by no means confined to such substances, but is capable of considerable
extension; and in the present paper will be found its development in one particular
direction.

It is a well-known fact that the specific function of any class of substances in organi¢
chemistry is determined by the presence within them of a definite group of atoms,
Acids are thus characterised by the carboxyl group, primary alcohols by the radical
CH,OH.§ Now it often happens that one and the same substance contains two
characteristic radicals ; the substance then belongs formally to two families, and has in
general the properties of both. A short time ago one of us expressed in the Proceedings

* Kouss, loc. cit., 164.

+ Jann, Wiedemann’s Annalen, xxxvii., 408, 1889.

{ Jann, loc. cit., p. 480 ; compare also Koxpn, loc. cit., p. 168.

§ Compare Crum Brown, Trans. Roy. Soc. Hdin., xxiv. 331, 1866.

ELECTROLYTIC SYNTHESIS OF DIBASIC ACIDS. 213

of this Society* the expectation that salts of the type R’OOC-R” COOK (where R’ is a
univalent and R” a bivalent alcohol radical), which are thus at once potassium salts
and esters, would behave electrolytically as salts of monobasic acids. An experiment of
GuTuRiz’s shows that the ester group plays no active part in electrolysis. GuTHRIE found
that on the electrolysis of the salt KO-SO,-OC,H,, his anode of amalgamated zine was
attacked with formation of the corresponding zine salt, Zn(O'SO,OC,H;).,t which proves
that the anion was composed of the unchanged group O'SO,"0C,H;. One would there-
fore expect the anion of the salt C,H;,OOC’R”-COOK to be C,H;00C:R”-COO, which,
if platinum electrodes were used, should decompose according to equations I. to III.
Hquation I. would then read as follows :—

2C,H,0OC-R”COO = C,H,OOC‘R"-R”-COOC,H, + 2CO, ;

that is, from the ethyl-potassium salt we should obtain the diethyl ether of a higher acid
of the same homologous series. This expectation we were able to realise, for from
ethyl potassium malonate we obtained by electrolysis diethyl succinate. In a similar
way we have prepared adipic acid from succinic acid, sebacic acid from adipic acid,
suberic acid from glutaric acid, and from suberic and sebacic acids two new acids of the
oxalic series.

It is evident from the mode of formation that the acids thus prepared must be
symmetrical (provided we leave stereo-chemical relations out of account) ; and, in especial,

from normal acids we obtain normal acids, as the following examples illustrate :—

20,H,O0C-CH,COO = C,H,OOC-CH,-CH,-COOC,H,+2C0,

2C,H,OOC-CH,CH,'COO = C,H,00C-CH, CH, CH, 'CH,'COOC,H, + 2C0,

2C,H,00C(CH,),COO = C,H,00C-(CH,),COOC,H,-+2C0,
The method then gives us the means of ascending the oxalic series of acids synthetically,
and that by the greater steps the further we advance in the series. As yet we have not
pushed the process beyond the normal acid containing a chain of eighteen carbon atoms,
but we hope shortly to take the next step, and prepare the acid with a chain of thirty-four
carbon atoms.

With regard to the practical working of the method, we have found that in order to
obtain a successful result there are certain conditions which must be observed, and these
perhaps may be best illustrated in the special case of the synthesis of succinic ether.

The vessel in which the electrolysis took place was a platinum crucible, 4°8 cm. high
and 4°3 cm. in diameter. This served at the same time as the cathode. The anode was
made of a stout platinum wire bent in corkscrew fashion, and distant all round about
1 cm. from the wall of the crucible. The relatively small area of the anode occasioned a
great current density at its surface,—a condition extremely favourable for the electrolysis
proceeding according to equations I. to II. It isa priori clear that the greater the current
density at the anode is chosen, the closer will the discharged anions be packed, and there-

* Crum Brown, Proc. Roy. Soc. Hdin., 1889-90, p. 53.
+ GutHRiz, Chem. Soc. Quar. Jour., ix. 131, 1856.

214 PROFESSOR A. CRUM BROWN AND DR JAMES WALKER ON THE

fore the greater will be the probability that they react among themselves and not on the
water used as solvent. A special experiment served to confirm this conclusion. With
the apparatus arranged as above, a solution containing 15 grams of ethyl potassium
malonate yielded on electrolysis 4°5 grams of succinic ether. A perfectly similar solution
under precisely the same conditions, with the exception that the current was reversed,
gave scarcely ‘5 gram of the ether, and that not nearly so pure as in the first case.
Still using the same solution, we again reversed the current, and obtained 4 more grams
of the diethyl succinate. This proves beyond doubt that with a large anode—the crucible
—the discharged anions, being spread over a wide area, have not the opportunity of
reacting with each other, and are consequently forced to attack the water. The original
acid is thereby regenerated, and this is speedily neutralised by the potash produced at
the cathode, so that everything returns to its primary state, the chief result being the
decomposition of water.
(a.) RCOOK = R-CO0+K
R-COO+HOH = R:COOH+0H
b.) | K+HOH = KOH+H
R-COOH+ KOH = R‘COOK+H,0

The above experiment seems to stand in direct contradiction to an observation made by
JauN,* who found that on the electrolysis of sodium acetate, more ethan was formed when
his anode was large than when it was small. The difference between his electrodes was,
however, not nearly so great as that between ours, the areas of which were in the ratio
300: 1, and consequently the difference between the quantities of ethan he obtained was
also small, so that perhaps other circumstances might have occasioned the discrepancy.

We derived our electricity from a battery of twenty-four secondary cells connected so
as to give an electromotive force of twelve volts. In the course of the investigation it
appeared that a high temperature lessened to some extent the yield of the synthetic pro-
duct, which obliged us to keep the current intensity below a maximum of five ampéres.
With this current, the heat developed by the passage of the electricity through the
solution can be conducted away by a stream of cold water flowing round the platinum
crucible. A probable cause of the diminution of the quantity of ester formed at a high
temperature is the readiness with which the potash formed at the cathode saponifies the
ethyl-potassium salt in hot aqueous solution. This saponification, however, is always in
great measure prevented by the gases evolved at the electrodes serving to keep the
solution constantly stirred up, so that the potash is at least partially neutralised by the
carbonic acid liberated at the anode. A special current of carbonic acid passed through
the solution seems to have no beneficial effect.

One point to be attended to is that the solution should not be too concentrated. The
best strength is from 1°5 to 2 parts of ethyl-potassium salt to 1 part of water. It is
a circumstance of the greatest moment for the success of this electrolytic synthesis of the
dibasic acids that the ethyl-potassium salts are so extraordinarily soluble in water. Even

* JAHN, loc. cit., 423.

ELECTROLYTIC SYNTHESIS OF DIBASIC ACIDS. 215

in the case of sebacic acid, we obtain a salt, two parts of which dissolve in one part of cold
water, being thus much more soluble than the dipotassium salt. If the concentration
exceeds the above limit, the resistance of the solution becomes very high, and the
electrolysis proceeds slowly ; at the same time the viscosity of the liquid occasions exces-
sive and inconvenient frothing. The quantity and appearance of the froth gives indeed
a very good notion as to whether the electrolysis is proceeding properly or not. At first
the froth is small in quantity and creamy in appearance. Afterwards it increases in
amount and becomes coarser. When the electrolysis is near an end, the froth disappears
almost entirely from the middle of the crucible, so that one can see an oily liquid on the
surface, and masses of a solid in the aqueous layer below. The solid is potassium car-
bonate, or bicarbonate. On completion of the electrolysis the two layers are separated,
and the aqueous one extracted with ether. The ethereal extract is then added to the
oily layer, the mixture dried with fused calcium chloride, and the ether and alcohol
distilled off on the water-bath. The alcohol is a secondary product arising from the partial
saponification of the ethyl-potassium salt by the potash formed during the electrolysis.
What remains in the distilling-flask as a colourless or slightly yellow oil is pure diethyl
succinate.

In the above way it is easy to work up 25 grams of ethyl-potassium malonate in an
hour. The yield is in this case very satisfactory. Thirty grams of ethyl-potassium
malonate dissolved in 20 grams of water gave 9°2 grams of succinic ether, or 60
per cent. of the calculated quantity. In the case of the higher acids the yield is muclt
smaller, falling at once to 35 per cent. at the next step, and scarcely reaching 20 per cent.
in the electrolysis of ethyl-potassium sebate. |

We have confined ourselves to the preparation and study of the esters which are
formed according to equation I. Other ethereal products of the electrolysis are met
with in any quantity only in the case of acids well up in the series. These may form
the subject of a future investigation. From the aqueous solution considerable quantities
of the original acid may be recovered on acidification.

The replacement of the hydrogen atom of one carboxyl group in the dibasic acids by
ethyl is not the only mode of rendering this group electrolytically inactive. We have
found that the electrolysis of a methyl-potassium salt yields almost as favourable
results. It might be possible to effect the same synthesis by electrolysing solutions of

the potassium salts of the amic acids R” SOO *, of the acid potassium salts
R” COOH R” COOH

COOK: oF even in some cases of the acids COOH themselves ; for it has been

proved indirectly that weak dibasic acids split off only one hydrogen atom as cation, so

COO

that there remains as anion R” COOH? which would, according to equation IL, give

COOH'R”-R”-COOH and carbonic acid. Experiments made by us in this direction
with malonic acid have not as yet led to the desired result. With the acid potassium
salts the same reaction ought to take place, but these salts are by no means so convenient,

216 PROFESSOR A. CRUM BROWN AND DR JAMES WALKER ON THE

as in their case it would be necessary to use a divided cell. ‘The potassium salts of the
amic acids, again, would yield an insoluble amide. By far the best substances to use, then,
are the ester salts, which are distinguished by their great solubility in water, are easily
obtainable in sufficient purity for electrolysis, and give as product an oil at once removed
from the sphere of action.

In the following pages we describe the experiments made in the individual cases, and
the products thereby obtained.

Synthesis of Succume Acid.

Ethyl potassium malonate is easily prepared according to the directions of Frrunp*
from diethyl malonate and the calculated quantity of alcoholic potash. The salt thus
obtained was electrolysed in the manner already mentioned, the product being a colour-
less oil, which, when freed from alcohol and water, was subjected to elementary analysis.

‘2619 gr. substance gave 5287 gr. CO, and ‘1930 gr. H,O

Found, Calculated for CsH,,0, .
Cre : . 55:06 per cent. 55'17 per cent.
Ege «. 5 : 8:19 i 8:05 5

The oil had thus the composition of diethyl succinate. It boiled at 213° (uncorr.): the
boiling-point of succinic ether is 216°.

On saponification with alcoholic potash it yielded a potassium salt exhibiting all the
reactions of a succinate. The silver salt obtained from the potassium compound by
precipitation was analysed for silver with the following result :—

‘1878 gr. substance gave 1215 gr. Ag.

Found. Calculated for Ag,C,H,0, .
Ag oud : 4 64:7 per cent. 65:0 per cent.

The acid itself, prepared from the silver salt, melted at 180°, the fusing-point of succinic
acid.

To establish completely the identity of our synthetic acids, we have had recourse to
the valuable method proposed by Ostwaup, which consists in determining their electric
conductivity at different stages of dilution, and calculating from the values so obtained
the very characteristic dissociation-constant. The apparatus employed was that described
by Ostwatp in the Zeitschrift fiir physikalische Chemie, vol. ii. p. 561. The letters used
in the tables have the following signification :—v is the number of litres of the
solution in which one molecular weight of the acid in grams is contained ; u is the mole-
cular conductivity in mercury units at 25°; 100m is the quantity per cent. of acid dis-
sociated into its ions; and finally « is the dissociation or affinity-constant calculated
according to the equation « = 100 (lo ae &,, denotes the molecular conductivity in an

infinitely dilute solution, and m is calculated from the formula m ae ;
oe)

* Freund, Berichte d. deut. chem. Gies., xvii. 780, 1884.

ELECTROLYTIC SYNTHESIS OF DIBASIC ACIDS. 217

Synthetic Succinie Acid, COOH(CH,),,;COOH .

1 Ze'e) = 356.
Vv bh 100m K

32 16°33 4°59 0069
64 22°80 6°41 0067
128 31°67 8:89 0068
256 44°02 12°36 0068
512 60°17 16°90 ‘0067
1024 82:97 ies 0069

k = ‘0068

According to Ostwatp the dissociation-constant of succinic acid is ‘00665.* The agree-
ment between the two numbers is satisfactory, and proves the identity of our synthetic
acid with ordinary succinic acid.

As has been already mentioned, the yield is 60 per cent. of the theoretical amount.

Synthesis of Adipic Acid.

On first preparing ethyl potassium succinate we followed the directions of Hetnrz,t
who obtained the salt by boiling succinic anhydride for several hours with absolute
alcohol, neutralising with potassium carbonate, and then precipitating the double salt from
its alcoholic solution by means of ether. The ethyl potassium succinate thus prepared
Heintz found to be always liquid; in one case, however, we found it to separate as a
non-crystalline solid.

We have now abandoned this mode of preparation, and avail ourselves of a generally
applicable method analogous to that adopted in the case of ethyl potassium malonate.
The diethyl ether, either by itself or diluted with a little alcohol, is introduced into a
roomy flask, and to it is added the calculated quantity of alcoholic potash. The whole
is well shaken together, and after some little time the ethyl-potassium salt falls out with
evolution of heat. It is not necessary, as is the case with malonic ether, to add the
potash drop by drop; the whole quantity may be poured in at once. ‘The mixture is
allowed to stand for some hours, and is then evaporated on the water-bath nearly to
dryness, a current of carbonic acid being meanwhile passed through the liquid. The
residue is now dissolved in water, the solution extracted with ether, and evaporated
down to the proper concentration. The aqueous solution thus obtained contains, besides
the ethyl-potassium salt, some dipotassium salt, and carbonate or bicarbonate of potassium.
These substances, however, are formed in the course of the electrolysis, so that their
presence from the first in the solution has little or no effect on the product. From the
ethereal extract there is re-obtained a quantity of the diethyl ether, amounting in some
cases to nearly one-third of what was originally taken.

* OSTWALD, Zeitschrift fiir physikal. Chem., iti. 282, 1889.
t+ Heintz, Poggendorf’s Annalen, cviii. 82, 1859.

218 PROFESSOR A. CRUM BROWN AND DR JAMES WALKER ON THE

The ethyl-potassium salts prepared by this method are all amorphous, and, apart from
the presence of potassium carbonate, highly deliquescent substances, soluble to some
extent in alcohol, and insoluble in ether.

Ethyl-potassium succinate yields on electrolysis a light straw-coloured liquid, which,
after warming for a short time at 100°, loses its at first somewhat unpleasant smell, but
retains a feeble odour resembling that of melons. The liquid boils with slight decomposi-
tion at 240°; according to ARPPE, the boiling-point of adipic ether is 245°. An analysis
resulted as follows :—

‘1735 gr. substance gave 3770 gr. CO, and 11423 gr. H,O.

Found. Calculated for C,)H,,.0, .
Chere : ; 59°26 per cent. 59°41 per cent.
H ; : ; O11 55 8°91

The formula is that of diethyl adipate. A portion of the ether was saponified by alcoholic
potash, and from the solution of the potassium salt we prepared the silver salt and the
acid by precipitation. The acid melted at 147°, the melting-point of adipic acid being
148°. An ignition of the silver salt gave the following numbers :—

‘2388 gr. substance yielded 1428 or. Ag.

Found. Calculated for Ag,C,H,0, .
Ag : : 59°8 per cent. 60:0 per cent.
The yield of diethyl succinate is 35 per cent. of the theoretical quantity.
An experiment conducted precisely as above, only that dimethyl succinate was used as
starting-point instead of the diethyl ether, gave as chief product of electrolysis an aromatic
oil, which on purification and analysis proved to be dimethyl adipate.

‘1160 gr. substance gave ‘2360 gr. CO, and ‘0863 gr. H,O.

Found. Calculated for C,H,,0, .
Ce". ’ : 55°48 per cent. 55:17 per cent.
ope : ; 8:27 5 8:05 5

The dimethyl ether begins to decompose at 210°. The yield is somewhat smaller than
in the case of the ethyl compound.
A determination of the dissociation constant of the acid was made with the following
result :—
Synthetic Adipic Acid, COOH(CH,), COOH .

boo = 952.

v Mb 100m K
32 11°85 3°37 ‘00366
64 16°60 4°72 00364

128 23°34 6°63 ‘00368

256 32°27 9°17 00362

512 45°01 12°79 ‘00366
1024 61°65 17°51 ‘00363

k = 00865

i Ll
—_—_——

——— as

ELECTROLYTIC SYNTHESIS OF DIBASIC ACIDS. 219

For pure adipic acid OstwaLp found the constant to be 00371.* The two substances are
thus identical.
Synthesis of Suberic Acid.

An alkaline solution of caustic potash acts on glutaric ether very slowly in the cold.
The mixture of the substances in calculated quantities must be boiled for some hours in
order that the semi-saponification may take place. The solution of ethyl potassium
olutarate is prepared for electrolysis precisely as in the preceding case.

When the electrolysis is completed, a colourless oil is seen to float to the surface,
and this contains, besides the synthetic ether and ethyl alcohol, small quantities of other
ethereal electrolytic products. The alcohol is driven off on the water-bath, and the other
impurities are removed by freezing and separating the suberic ether. An analysis of the
substance thus purified yielded the following numbers :—

‘1137 gr. substance gave ‘2602 gr. CO, and 0959 gr. H,O

Found. Calculated for C,,H,,0,.
Cr : : 62°41 per cent. 62°61 per cent.
Jo ioe : : 9°37 y 9°56 ;

The ether distilled between 265° and 275°. On saponifying it we got the potassium salt
erystallisable from alcohol, and this we ignited to obtain the percentage of potassium.
‘2484 gr. substance gave 1388 gr. K,CO,.
Found. Calculated fork ,C,;H,,0, .
Ke. : : 31°6 per cent. 31:2 per cent.

The acid prepared from the potassium salt had the melting-point 138°, that of suberic
acid being 140°. From hot water it separated in hard feathery crystals. As we found
from parallel experiments, its salts exhibited the same solubility as those of the suberic
acid derived from castor-oil. An affinity determination gave the following results :—

Synthetic Suberic Acid, COOH-(CH,),,;COOH.

fies il.
v i 100m K
128 21:00 598 00298
256 29:05 8:27 00292
512 40°49 1154 ‘00294
1024 56°16 16:00 00298
2048 76°94 21:92 ‘00300
« = 00296

Ostwatp for the ordinary acid found K = -00258,t while Berumany, with a “ perfectly
pure” preparation obtained the value 00311.{ In consequence of this discrepancy we
have determined the constant for the purified acid from castor-oil anew. The results we
obtained are shown in the following table :—

* OstwWALD, loc. cit., 283. + OstTWALD, loc. cit., 283.
{ Berumann, Zeitsch. fiir physikal. Chem., v. 401, 1890.

VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 7). 2K

220 PROFESSOR A. CRUM BROWN AND DR JAMES WALKER ON THE

Suberic Acid from Castor-Oil.

v be 100m K
64 1479 4°21 ‘00290
128 20°93 5°96 00296
256 29°08 8:28 ‘00292
512 40°60 ane 7 00295
1024 55°78 15°89 00293
« = 00293

The agreement between this number and that given by the synthetic acid serves to com-
plete the proof that the two substances are identical.
The yield on electrolysis is about 28 per cent. of that demanded by theory.

Synthesis of Sebacic Acid.

The ethyl-potassium salt of adipic acid was made from synthetically prepared diethyl
adipate under the same conditions as were adopted in preparing the corresponding salt of
olutaric acid.

The product of electrolysis is a colourless oil, which, when heated for some time to
120°, loses small quantities of volatile bye-products, but retains a not unpleasant fatty
smell while hot. When cold it is almost odourless. The oil distils undecomposed at
305°; the boiling-point of diethyl sebate is 307°. An elementary analysis gave the
formula C,,H,,0,,—that of sebacic ether.

‘1452 gr. substance gave 3470 gr. CO, and (1329 gr. HO.

Found. Calculated for C,,H,,0,.
Ora : 65°18 per cent. 65:12 per cent.
Hy: : 5 10°16 3 LOOSE

A portion of the ether was saponified with potash, and the acid precipitated from
solution of the potassium salt. It crystallised from water and alcohol in soft lustrous
plates and melted at 128° ; the melting-point of sebacic acid is given as 127°. A potassium
estimation resulted as follows :—

‘3662 gr. potassium salt gave ‘1808 gr. K,CO,.
Found. Calculated for K,C,)H,,0,.
ee : ; 27°88 per cent. 28-06 per cent.

The dissociation constant of the acid was also determined.

Synthetic Sebacic Acid, COOH(CH,),,COOH .

Mo =U .
v be 100m K
256 28:01 8:00 00272
512 39°32. 11°23 ‘00277
1024 54°28 15°54 ‘00278

«x = 00276

ELECTROLYTIC SYNTHESIS OF DIBASIC ACIDS. 221

This number differs considerably from the value (00234 observed by Ostwa.p * for the
acid obtained from castor-oil. We therefore purified a preparation of the ordinary acid
by repeated recrystallisation from water, and subjected it to an investigation of its con-
ductivity.

Sebacie Acid from Castor-Oil.

v Me 100m K
256 28:08 8:02 00273
512 39°01 11:14 00273
1024 53°35 15°24 00268
m= “00271

This agrees perfectly with the number found for the synthetic acid.
The yield on electrolysis amounts to somewhat more than 20 per cent. of the
theoretical.

Synthesis of n-Dicarbododecanic Acid, COOH (CH,),.COOH.

The starting-point for this synthesis was suberic acid prepared from castor-oil. This
was first converted into the diethyl ether, which was then transformed into the ethyl-
potassium salt according to the directions given on p. 217, and electrolysed.

The product of electrolysis is again a clear colourless oil, which is heated on the
water-bath to drive off any alcohol, and then allowed to cool. After a short interval the
oil solidifies to a white fatty-looking substance. When this is dried on porous tile there
remains a mass of lustrous white crystals, which melt and solidify again at 27°. Analysis

yielded the formula C,,;H;,0,.

‘1249 gr. substance gave 3146 gr. CO, and 1235 gr. H,0.

Found. Calculated for C;,H3,0,.
C. : ; 68°69 per cent. 68°79 per cent.
Hy : ‘ 10:98 ‘5 1033-45 5

The substance has thus the composition of the diethyl ether of an acid C,,H.,(COOH),
as was to be expected. The ether is insoluble in water, moderately soluble in ether and
cold alcohol, much more so in hot alcohol. It cannot be distilled undecomposed.
Aleoholic potash attacks it very slowly in the cold ; on boiling, a considerable quantity of
ethyl-potassium salt separates, even when there is a large excess of potash, and this resists
further saponification although the treatment may be continued for hours. The complete
saponification is best effected by pouring the melted ether slowly into a strong boiling
solution of alcoholic potash ; the potassium salt then separates in white granular masses.

The acid precipitated from the potassium salt is very sparingly soluble in water (1 part
in 4000 parts of boiling, and in 20,000 parts of cold water), tolerably soluble in cold alcohol
and in ether, easily soluble in boiling alcohol. It crystallises from water and alcohol in

* OsTWALD, loc. cit., 284.

222 PROFESSOR A. CRUM BROWN AND DR JAMES WALKER ON THE

white or transparent plates. Its melting-point is 123°, and at a higher temperature it is
decomposed.

Analysis—
‘1078 gr. substance gave ‘2576 gr. CO, and 0990 gr. H,O.
Found. Calculated for C,,H,,0,.
Ce: 5 : 65°17 per cent. 65:12 per cent.
i ie ; : 10:20 55 10:08 5

The acid was too sparingly soluble in water to admit of an accurate determination of its
dissociation constant.

The alkaline salts dissolve in water, forming soapy solutions. They are also slightly
soluble in alcohol. Salts of the other metals may be obtained from an aqueous solution
of the neutral potassium salt by precipitation. From dilute solutions the lithium and
magnesium salts are not at once precipitated, but after a time they appear in the micro-
crystalline form. This of course is owing to their slight solubility in water. The
remaining salts fall out as voluminous precipitates insoluble in water.

The quantity of metal present was estimated in the following salts :—

Potassium salt.—'3304 gr. gave 1685 er. K,8O, K found, 23°40 per cent. ; cal-
culated for K,C,,H.,O,, 23°35 per cent.

Magnesium salt.—4856 gr. gave 0690 er. MgO. Me found, 8°58 per cent. ; cal-
culated for MeC,,H,,O,, 8°70 per cent.

Bariwm salt.—'4261 gr. gaye ‘2531 gr. BaSO, Ba found, 34°92 per cent.; cal-
culated for BaC,,H.,0,, 34°86 per cent.

Copper salt.—*3272 gr. gave ‘0817 or. CuO. Cu found, 19°92 per cent.; cal-
culated for CuC,,H,,O0,, 19°74 per cent. Blue-green precipitate.

Silver salt.—’3715 gr. gave 1094 gr. Ag. Ag found, 29°5 per cent.; calculated
for Ag,C\H.,O,, 29°7 per cent. The silver salt is very soluble in ammonia solution.

The chromium and nickel salts are light green; the cobalt salt is reddish ; the ferric
salt yellow ; and the ferrous salt brown.

As suberic acid possesses the normal structure, this new acid, from its mode of forma-
tion, must also be normal, and correspond to the formula COOH*(CH,),."COOH. With
regard to the nomenclature of these acids, we propose to name them as dicarboxyl
derivatives of the saturated hydrocarbons. The parent substance of the above acid is
thus dodecan, C,,H.,, and the acid itself n-dicarbododecanic acid, C,.H..(COOH),.

The yield is 25 per cent. of the calculated quantity.

Synthesis of n-Dicapboonene an Acid, COOH (CH,),,.°COOH.

Sebacie acid from castor-oil was converted into the diethyl ether, which was then
further transformed into the electrolytic solution of the ethyl-potassium salt in the
manner described on p. 217.

ELECTROLYTIC SYNTHESIS OF DIBASIC ACIDS. 223

When the electric current was passed through the cold solution, it rapidly diminished
in intensity, and in a few moments ceased to flow altogether. This we found to be due
to the fact that the product of electrolysis is solid at the ordinary temperature. Heating
to 50° restored the current. On completion of the electrolysis a colourless oil was seen
to float to the surface of the liquid, and this oil on cooling solidified to a white crystalline
mass, which was washed several times with water, dried on porous tile, and analysed.

‘1628 gr. substance gave 4254 gr. CO, and 1687 gr. HO.

Found. Calculated for C,,H,,0, .
Cs. 71:26 per cent. 71:35 per cent.
Et: j F 11°51 . 11:35 3

The substance thus possessed the composition of the diethyl ether of an acid
C,H;(COOH),. It is fairly soluble in ether and cold alcohol, much more so in hot
alcohol, in water quite insoluble. It melts at 43°. When heated it has a somewhat
unpleasant smell, and begins to decompose about 200°. To saponify it, it must be
treated like the diethyl ether of dicarbododecanic acid.

The potassium salt is somewhat soluble in alcohol, and easily soluble in hot water.
It may be best crystallised out of dilute potash solution, when it separates in the form of
very fine needles, which, on being sucked dry by the filter-pump, agglomerate into a felt-
like mass with a beautiful pearly lustre. Even very dilute aqueous solutions of this salt
are extremely soapy.

The acid precipitated from such a solution is gelatinous, but on recrystallisation from
alcohol it forms delicate transparent plates. It is not very soluble in ether, and practi-
cally insoluble in water. Its melting-point is 118°.

Analysis—
1043 gr. substance gave 2625 gr. CO, and 1070 gr. H,0.
Found. Calculated for C,,H5,0, .
c . : 68°64 per cent. 68°79 per cent.
iH : 11:02 i 10°83 :

The alkaline salts are soluble in water, and their solutions are precipitated by neutral
salts of the other metals. The precipitates are voluminous and mostly somewhat
gelatinous. The lithium salt is slightly soluble; the rest are insoluble. The following
salts are coloured :—copper salt, bluish green ; ferric salt, brownish yellow ; ferrous salt,
brown ; chromium and nickel salts, ereenish ; cobalt salt, pink.

Potassiwm salt.—(1.) ‘3565 gr. gave 1253 er. K,CO,; (IL) 3592 er. gave 1618 gr.
K80,. Calculated for K,C,,H;,0,, 20°00 per cent.; found (I.) 19°87 per cent.; (IL)
20°18 per cent. K.

Barium salt.—:3490 gr. gave 1814 er. BaSO, Calculated for BaC,sH;.0,, 30°5
per cent. ; found 30°6 per cent. Ba.

Magnesium salt.—-4762 gr. gave ‘0570 er. MeO. Calculated for MgC,sH;.0,, 7°26

| per cent. ; found 7°22 per cent. Mg.
VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 7). 21

224 ELECTROLYTIC SYNTHESIS OF DIBASIC ACIDS.

Copper salt—*6110 gr. gave ‘1293 gr. CuO. Calculated for CuC,,H;,0,, 16°80 per
cent. ; found 16°88 per cent. Cu.

We have already shown that the sebacic acid obtained from castor-oil is identical
with the normal acid prepared synthetically by us. It follows, therefore, that the
new acid described above has also the normal structure, and possesses the formula
COOH -(CH,),_;COOH.

The yield of the diethyl ether on electrolysis amounts to nearly 20 per cent. of the
theoretical quantity.

In the malonic series of normal dibasic acids it has been pointed out that members
with an even number of carbon atoms show a lower melting-point as their molecular weight
increases. The two new acids form no exception to this rule, as may be seen from the
following table :—

Acid. M.P.
Succinic . ‘ COOH(CH,),COOH ; ; : 180°
Adipic : ; COOH(CH,),COOH : 148°
Suberic : ‘ : COOH (CH,),,COOH : : : 140°
Sebacic ; COOH (CH,),;COOH : 127°
Deceeie tyler enact COOH(CH,),,,; COOH : ; : : 125°

n-Dicarbododecanic : COOH-(CH,),,,COOH : 3 ; : 123°
m-Dicarbodecahexanic . COOH(CH,),,COOH : . 118°

It is our intention next to investigate acids with side chains, and unsaturated acids ; and
also to perform the electrolysis of mixtures of ethyl-potassium salts.

* This acid, recently prepared by Noerdlinger (Berichte d. deut. Chem. Ges., 28, 2356, 1890), has in all probability
the normal constitution.

( 225 )

VIII.—On Impact. By Professor Tarr. (With a Plate.)
(Revised November 8th, 1890.)

The present inquiry is closely connected with some of the phenomena presented in
golf :—especially the fact that a ball can be “ jerked” nearly as far as it can be “driven.”
For this, in itself, furnishes a complete proof that the duration of the impact is
exceedingly short. But it does not appear that any accurate determination of the
duration can be made in this way. Measurements, even of a rude kind, are impracticable
under the circumstances.

In 1887 I made a number of preliminary experiments with the view of devising a
form of apparatus which should trace a permanent record of the circumstances of impact.
I found that it was necessary that one of the two impinging bodies should be fixed :—at
least if the apparatus were to be at once simple and manageable. This arrangement gives,
of course, a result not directly comparable with the behaviour of a golf-ball. For pressure
is applied to one side only, both of ball and of club; but when one of two impinging
bodies is fixed it is virtually struck simultaneously on both sides. Even with the altered
conditions, however, the inquiry seemed to be worth pursuing. I determined to operate,
at least at first, on cylinders of the elastic material; so fixed that considerable speed
might be employed, while the details of several successive rebounds could be recorded.
It is not at all likely that this will be found to be the best form for the distorted body ;
but it was adopted as, in many respects, convenient for preliminary work. For the main
object of the experiments was to gain some information about a subject which seems to
have been left almost entirely unexplored ; and it is only by trial that we can hope to
discover the best arrangement. Messrs HersBerrson and TuRNBULL, who were at the
tame Neil-Arnott Scholars, and working in my Laboratory, rendered me great assistance
in these preliminary trials, whose result was the construction of a first rude apparatus on
the following plan.

A brick-shaped block of hard wood was dropped endwise from a measured height
upon a short cylinder of cork, vulcanized india-rubber, gutta-percha, &c., which was
imbedded to half its length in a mass of lead, firmly cemented to an asphalt floor. The
block slid freely between guide-rafls, precisely like the axe of a guillotine. In front of
the block was a massive fly-wheel, fitted on one end of its axle, and carrying a large
board (planed true) on which was stretched, by means of drawing pins, a sheet of
cartridge-paper. The sheet was thus made to revolve in its own plane. A pencil, project-
ing from the block, was caused by a spring to press lightly upon the paper; and it was
adjusted so that its plane of motion passed as exactly as possible through the axis of the
paper disc. To prevent breakage of the pencil on the edge of the disc, it was pushed

VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 8). 2M

226 PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT.

into its bearings, and released by a trigger only after it had, in its fall, passed the edge.
The block, having fallen, rebounded several times to rapidly diminishing heights and,
after a second or two, came to rest on the cork cylinder. The pencil then traced a circle
and, as soon as this was complete, the fly-wheel (previously detached from the gas-
engine) was at once stopped by the application of a very powerful brake. The circle
thus described was the datum line for all the subsequent measures ; since the tracings
which passed beyond it were obviously made durimg the impact, while those within it
referred at least mainly to the comparatively free motion between two successive impacts,
The duration of the impact was at once approximately given by the arc of the circle
intercepted between the tracings of the pencil as it passed out and in, combined of
course with the measured angular velocity of the fly-wheel. It is not yet known at
what stage during the recovery of form the impinging bodies go out of contact with one
another. In the present paper we are content to assume that contact commences and
terminates at the instants of passage across the datum circle. This is certainly not
rigorously true as regards the commencement, but the assumption cannot introduce any
serious error ; while of the termination we have no knowledge. It may be remarked, in
passing, that the error at commencement will necessarily be greater the larger the mass
of the falling body. It will also be greater for soft than for hard bodies, and especially —
for those of the former class which most depart from Hooke’s Law. |

In the winter 1887-8, and in the subsequent summer, some very curious results
were obtained by Messrs HERBERTSON and TURNBULL with this rough apparatus.
Several of these were communicated to the Society at the time when they were obtained.
Thus, for instance, it was found that although the mass of the block was over 5 lbs., the
time of impact on a cork cylinder was of the order of 0°01 only, while with vulcanite it
was of the order 0°001. Also, for one and the same body, the duration was /ess, the
more violent the impact. [The golf result mentioned above was now at once explained ;
for, as the mass of a golf-ball is less than ;!5 of that of the block, under equal forces its
motions will be fifty times more rapid. Thus, even if it were of cork, the time of impact
would be of the order of about one five-thousandth of a second only ; and the shorter the
_tmore violent the blow.| Taking the coefficient of restitution as 0°5 on the average, the
time-average of the force during impact after a fall of 4 feet was, for these classes of
bodies respectively, of the orders 400 Ibs. weight and 4000 lbs. weight. This result is of
very high interest from many points of view.

The values of the coefficient of restitution for impacts of different intensity were
obtained by drawing tangents to the fall-curve at its intersections with the datum cirele
corresponding to the assumed commencement and end of each impact, and finding their
inclination, each to the corresponding radius of the circle. The coefficient of restitution is,
of course, the ratio of the tangents of these angles. The results of these graphical methods
could easily be checked by forming the polar equations of the various branches of the
fall-curve (ascending and descending) and obtaining the above-mentioned tangents of
angles by direct differentiation. If we assume the friction (whether of rails or pencil)

PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT. 227

to be approximately constant, it is easy to see that the equation of the part of the tracing
made during a fall, or during a rise, can be put in the very simple form

r=A+Bé”.

Here the centre of the disc is the pole, and the initial line is the particular radius
which was vertical when the block was at one of its successive highest positions. This
radius separates the rise, from the fall, part of each branch of the curve. A is of course
the same for both parts, but B (being directly as the acceleration of the block, and inversely
~as the square of the angular velocity of the disc) is larger for the rise than for the fall ;
because friction aids gravity in the ascent and acts against it in the descent. A number
of sets of corresponding values of the polar cdordinates were measured on each part of
the curve, the angles being taken from an approximately assumed initial line. Three of
these sets determined A, B, and the true position of the initial radius; and the others
were found to satisfy (almost exactly) the equation thus formed. This shows that the
assumption, of friction nearly constant throughout the whole trace, is sufficiently
accurate. B is always positive in the equation, but A is negative or positive according
as the block does, or does not, rebound to a height greater than the radius of the datum
circle.

It is not necessary to tabulate here any of the very numerous results of these earlier
experiments. While the work was in progress many valuable improvements of the apparatus
suggested themselves, and I resolved to repeat the experiments after these had been intro-
duced. The whole of these subsequent results are tabulated below. The following were
found to be the chief defects of the earlier arrangement, so far at least as they were not
absolutely inherent in the whole plan. These have been since remedied; and results
obtained with the improved apparatus have been, from time to time, communicated to
the Society.

1. The use of a pencil is objectionable from many points of view. Serious worry and
much loss of time are incurred in consequence of the frequent breaking of the lead, even
when every possible precaution seems to have been taken. Then the rapid wearing-down
of the point by the cartridge-paper causes the later-traced portions of each diagram
(including especially the datum circle, which is of vital importance) to be drawn in broad
lines, whose exact point of intersection can be but roughly guessed at. ‘The friction, also,
was (mainly on account of the roughness of the paper) so large that the values of B, for
the ascending and descending parts of any one branch of the curve, differed from the
mean by a large fraction of it, sometimes as much as 20 per cent. This is approximately
the ratio which the acceleration due to friction bears to that due to gravity ; so that the
friction was, at least occasionally, as much as one pound weight. This, of course, seriously
interfered with the accurate measure of the coefficient of restitution. Instead of the board
and cartridge-paper I introduced a specially prepared disc of plate-glass, which ran per-
fectly true. It was covered uniformly with a thin layer of very fine printers’ ink, which
was employed wet. For the pencil was substituted a needle-point, so that this part of the

228 PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT.

apparatus was rendered exceedingly light, strong, and compact. The lines traced could
easily be made as fine as those of an etching, but it was found that aslightly blunted
point (giving a line of about 0°005 inch in breadth) produced probably less friction, at all
events less irregularity, than did a very sharp one. The difference of either value of B from
the mean rarely amounted to more than 1°5 or 2 per cent. of the mean. When the ink
was dry, which happened after about a day, photographic prints were taken by using
the disc as a negative. [In the later experiments it was found that, when proper pre-
cautions were taken, no delay on this account was necessary.| To test whether the paper
of the positives had been distorted, in drying after fixing, a number of circles were
described on the glass dise at various places before the ink was dry. They were found
to remain almost exactly circular on the dried photograph. All the subsequent measure-
ments were made on these photographs. In a subsequent paper I hope to give the results
of careful micrometric measures, made on the glass plate itself, of the form of the trace
during impact. This may lead to information which could not be derived from the
photographs themselves with any degree of accuracy. My first object was to obtain a
number of separate experiments, so as to get the general laws of the phenomena, and
for this purpose the glass plate had to be cleaned and prepared for a new series of
experiments as rapidly as possible. The micrometric measures cannot be effected in a
short time.
2. In the earlier experiments the fly-wheel continued in connection with the gas-
engine until the fall was completed. Hence the rate of rotation was irregular, and the
mode adopted for its measurement gave an average value only. In the later experiments
an electrically-controlled tuning-fork, furnished with a short bristle, made its record on
the disc, simultaneously with the fall of the block; and the gas-engine belt was thrown
en an idle pully immediately before the experiment commenced. ‘The angular velocity
of the disc was sensibly different in different experiments, according as the engine was
thrown off just before, or just after, an explosion. But the fact that its fly-wheel is a
gigantic one made these differences of small importance. They were, however, always
taken account of in the reductions. The disc, when left to itself, suffered no measurable
diminution of angular velocity during a single turn. In the earlier experiments one
rotation of the dise occupied about 0°83; but I was afraid to employ so great a speed with
the glass plate, so its period was made not very different from one second. I found it
easy to obtain on the glass dise the records of four successive falls, each with its series of
gradually diminishing rebounds, and along with these the corresponding serrated lines
for the tuning-fork. These records were kept apart from one another by altering the
position of the fork, as well as that of the needle-point on the block, immediately after
each fall. The latter adjustment alters, of course, nothing but the radius of the datum-
circle, and the corresponding values of the quantity A. As soon as the four falls had
been recorded, the glass disc was dismounted, and all the necessary details of the experi-
ment—e.g., date, heights of fall, substance impinged on, mass of block, &e.—were written
(backwards) on the printers’ ink, with a sharp point, and of course appeared on the

PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT. 229

photograph. The changes of mass, just alluded to, were occasionally introduced by
firmly screwing on the top of the block a thick plate of lead of mass equal to
its own.

3. A very troublesome difficulty was now and then met with, but chiefly when the
' elastic substance employed was: a hard one, such as vulcanite or wood. For the block
was occasionally set in oscillation during the impact, and especially at the instant when it
was beginning to rebound. The trace then had a wriggling or wavy outline, altogether
unlike the usual smooth record. Sometimes the wriggle took place perpendicularly to
the disc, and the trace was then alternately broadened and all but evanescent. After
some trouble I found that the main cause was the slight dent (produced by repeated falls
on hard bodies) in the striking part of the block, which had originally been plane. The
wriggling always appeared when this dent did not fit exactly upon the (slightly convex)
upper end of the hard cylinder. To give free play at the moment of impact, the lower
parts of the euide-rails had been, by filing, set a very little further apart than the rest,
and thus small transverse oscillations of the block were possible. I hope to avoid this
difficulty in future, by fixing a hard steel plate on the striking part of the block, and
making all the remaining experiments with this. Of course a few of the former experi-
ments must be repeated in order to discover whether the circumstances are seriously, or
only slightly, modified by the altered nature of the striking surface. There can be no
doubt that the distortion, as tabulated, belongs in part to each of the impinging bodies ;
but it is not easy to assign their respective shares.

The general nature of the whole trace of one experiment will be obvious from the
upper figure in the Plate, which is reduced to about 0°3 of the actual size. The lower
figures (drawn full size) show the nature of the trace during impact :—the first series, some
of which exhibit the “ wrigeles” above described, belonging to the pencil records of the
old apparatus ; the second series containing some of those obtained with the improved form
just described.

In the earlier work, with the cartridge-paper, falls of 8 and even of 12 feet were
often recorded. The results of the later work have been, as yet, confined to falls of 4 feet
at most. But I intend to pursue the experiments much further, after fitting an automatic
catch on the apparatus; such as will prevent the block from descending a second time
if it should happen to rebound so far that the needle-point leaves the glass disc.

What precedes is of course designed to furnish only a general notion of the nature of
the apparatus; the principle on which it works, and the results already obtained with it.
Some further remarks, on the physical principles involved, will be made after details of
dimensions, and of numerical data have been given. But it must be stated here that with
the later form of the apparatus it was found necessary to have a party of at least three,
engaged in each experiment; one to attend to the driving-gear, a second to the falling
block, and a third to the tuning-fork. My assistant, Mr Lynsay, took the first post; I
usually took the second myself; and the fork was managed by Mr Suanp, to whom I am
besides indebted for the greater part of the subsequent measurements and reductions.

230 PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT.

These, of course, involved an amount of work which, though not perhaps more difficult
than the rest, was incomparably longer and more tiresome.

Description of the Apparatus.

Two beams nearly 12 feet long, and 6 inches by 24 inches cross section, are
rigidly fixed, vertically, and at a distance of 84 inches from each other, to a massive
stone pillar. To them the rails, which act as guides for the falling body, are screwed, the
distance between them being 62 inches. At the base, between the rails, is a cylinder of
lead, 6 inches by 6 inches, firmly imbedded in a mass of concrete, and having on its
upper end a hole, 2 inch deep and 14 inch diameter, for holding the lower end of the
substance experimented on. ‘This consists of cork, india-rubber, vulcanite, &c., as the
case may be, cut into a cylinder, 14 inch diameter, and 14 inch long, with the lower
end flat and the upper slightly rounded. It thus projects about ¢ inch after being
thrust home into the hole in the leaden cylinder, in which it rests on a thin dise of gutta-
percha. This was found effectually to prevent the cylinder’s being displaced in the lead-
block. Before it was introduced, the cylinder was occasionally left not in contact with
the bottom of the hole, so that the record of the next impact was vitiated. Sometimes, —
indeed, the cylinder had jumped entirely out of the hole before the block redescended.

In a plane, parallel to that which contains the guides and nearly 24 inches from it, a
massive fly-wheel, 284 inches diameter, whose moment of inertia is 102°6 in lbs. sq. ft.
is placed. The iron frame supporting it is fixed to the concrete floor by means of bolts, -
so that the whole can be rigidly fixed in position or lifted back at pleasure. A thick
wooden board is firmly attached to the front of this wheel, and on it is laid a sheet of
felt. On the top of the felt, an octagonal plate of glass, about 2 inch thick, the edges of
which are bevelled, is placed, and then firmly pressed to the board by means of bevelled
metal plates, covered with felt, and screwed down on four alternate edges. "

The mass of the glass is 28 lbs., its moment of inertia 25°21. For the wood these
are 21°5 and 24°19 respectively. The total mass (including the fly-wheel) being 122°5
lbs., k? is found to be about 1°24 sq. ft.

A rope passing up the outside of one of the beams, over two small pulleys, and down
between the rails, serves to raise and lower the block, next to be described, or to keep it
suspended by a hook at any desired height. A cord running parallel to the rope is
attached to the catch of the hook at the end of the rope, so that by pulling this cord the
hook is tilted and allows the block to fall.

The block is rectangular, and formed of hard wood (plane-tree along the grain), 114
by 74 by 24 inches, weighing 54 lbs. Down the centre of each of the edges runs a deep
groove, at the ends of which pieces of iron with a polished groove of U section are screwed
on. It is on these that the guides bear while the block is falling. The guides and Us
being well oiled, the friction is reduced to a minimum.

A brass plate, 54 inches by 24 inches, is sunk into the face of the block about } inch,

PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT. . 231

and through the plate and wood a longitudinal slot, 3 inches by 3 inch, is cut, the centre
of the slot coinciding with the centre of the block. Another plate of brass, 3} inches by
21 inches, with two parallel slots 24 inches long and 4 inch broad, half an inch distant
from, and on either side of the centre, lies on the fixed plate, and can be clamped to it
by means of flat-headed screws passing through the slots. This movable plate has,
therefore, a longitudinal (vertical) play of about 2 inches when. the screws are loose.
It carries the tracing-point and its adjusting mechanism.

The tracing-point is at the extremity of a steel rod, one inch of whose length is of

+ inch diameter, the remaining ¢ inch being of rather less than $ inch diameter. The
thicker part works freely, but not loosely, in a cylindrical barrel, the thinner part passing
through a collar at the front end. The cylinder is fixed, at right angles, to the movable
brass plate, and passes through the slot in the block. The rod is lightly pressed forwards
at the thicker end by a piece of watch-spring, so as to keep it, when required, steadily in
contact with the revolving disc. In the wall of the cylindrical barrel is a long slot which
runs backwards for 4 inch parallel to the axis, and then, turning at right angles to its
former direction, runs through a small fraction of the circumference of the barrel. In this
slot works a stout wire screwed perpendicularly into the rod which carries the tracing-
point. Of course. when this wire is in the transverse part of the slot the needle-point is
retracted ; but as soon as it is turned into the axial part the spring makes the needle-
point project through the collar. Before the block falls, the wire is in the transverse
part of the slot, and the needle-point is retracted. But when, in its fall, the point has
passed the edge of the glass disc, a pin fixed at the proper height catches the end of the
wire and turns it into the axial slot. As soon as the tracing is complete, the wire is
forced back (by means of a system of jointed levers) into the transverse slot, and thus
the tracine-point is permanently withdrawn from the disc, so that the block can be

pulled up, and adjusted for another fall.
_ The last part of the apparatus to be described is that for recording the time.

It consists of an electrically controlled tuning-fork, making 128 vibrations per second.

A circular bar of iron, 8 inches long, is fixed perpendicularly to one of the beams, and
in the plane of the beams. From this the tuning-fork is suspended by means of circular
bearings. It therefore has a swinging motion perpendicularly to the disc, as well as’a
translatory motion parallel to it. By means of a screw it can be fixed in any position,
and to any degree of stiffness. The bar is at such a height that the end of the tuning-
fork carrying the tracing-point is in the same horizontal plane with the centre of the
revolving glass plate. By this means it can be adjusted to trace its record anywhere
between the edge of the plate and a circle whose radius is 5 or 6 inches, measured from

the centre of the glass.

Theory of the Experiments.

So far as concerns the motion of the block between two successive impacts, the
investigation is extremely simple. For we assume (in fair accordance with the results,

232 PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT.

as shown above) that the friction is practically constant. Thus the motion of the block
is represented by
Mf = Mg+F,
the positive sign referring to wpward motion.
We have also, taking the angular velocity, w, of the disc as uniform throughout the
short period of the experiment,

dé = wdt.
Thus
2 ‘
= = (9 a | = 2B, say;
so that

r= A+ Be,

if we agree that @ is to be measured in each case from the particular radius which is —
vertical at the moment when the block is at one of its highest positions.

If our assumptions were rigorously correct, the equations of those branches of the
curve which are traced during each successive rise of the block should differ from one
another solely in the values of the constant A. Similarly with those traced during
successive descents. The ascending and descending branches of the same free path
should differ solely by the change of value of B, according as the friction aids, or opposes,
the action of gravity. Also the two values of B should differ from their mean by a
smaller percentage the greater is the mass of the block. This, however, will be
necessarily true only if the friction be independent of the weight of the block.

As a test of the closeness of our approximation, to be applied to the experimental
results below, it is clear that, if we call By the mean of the values of B for the parts of
the curve due to any one rebound, we have

But, in the notation of the Tables as explained in the next section, we have

w= 2/(6N/128).

Taking the value of g as 32°2 when a foot is unit of length, it is 9814 to millimétres ;
and the two equations above give the following simple relation between B, and N
ah
Pads
which is sufficiently approximate to be used as a test, the fraction being in defect by
about 0°14 per cent. only, say 1/700th.
Thus, in the first experiment of those given below for date 23/7/90, we have

N= 225,

B NE.

which gives as the calculated value

By) =123°16; or, with 1/700th added, = 123°38.

PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT. 233

The actual value, as given by the equations for the two parts (8,, B,) of the first
rebound, is

4(125°73 + 120°81) = 12327 ,
the difference being less than 0°05 per cent. In this case the acceleration due to friction
bears to that of gravity the ratio

2°46 : 123:27 ;
almost exactly 2 per cent.
From the data (y,, 72) for the second rebound we find the actual value of B, to be

£(131°31+121-46) = 126°38 ;
and the percentage of acceleration due to friction rather less than 4. As the whole rise
in this second rebound was considerably less than an inch, these results are highly satis-
factory.

It is a fairer mode of proceeding, however, to calculate the value of N from that of
B,, by means of the above relation. The values, thus calculated, are inserted in the
tables below, in the same column as the measured value of N, with the prefixed letters
B, y, &c., to show from which rebound, the first, second, &c., they have been calculated.
These agree in a very satisfactory manner with the value of N given by the record of the
tuning-fork.

From the facts, that the time of impact is nearly the same for all small distortions,
and that it diminishes rapidly as the distortion is greater, it follows that the equation of
motion must be of the form

Mz =— Cx — X
during the first stage of the impact; and of approximately the same form, but with the
square of the coefficient of restitution as a factor of the right, during the second stage. In
this equation « (which is confined to positive values) is measured from the datum line, so
that no term in g comes in explicitly. X is a function of a, which is small for small
values of x, but increases faster than does the first power of x for larger values. Hence,
for small relative speeds, the time of compression is

oye

and that of rebound 1/e times as much. The utmost distortion is

where V is the speed at the datum line. The first term is due to the fall; the
second, which is due to the weight of the block, does not appear in our Tables, as the
Measures are made from the datum line. Its value, however, is usually only a small
fraction of that of the first term.

To compare the distortion with the duration of impact in experiments made with the
same mass, falling from different heights, the following equation was tried :—

z oe Oe
Z=-— ne-—,
2a

VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 8). 2N

uf

234 PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT.

where the numerical factors are introduced for convenience. This assumes X, above, to
vary as the square of the distortion measured from the datum circle, and it gives, for the
time of compression, in terms of the greatest distortion, a, the expression

Greif ue eas a
SF SWI = 2) + al — Ala’
a P

Vv+aa

to a sufficient approximation. Here p is a numerical quantity which is about 1°6 when |
a/a is small in comparison with n’, and continuously approaches the value 1°4 as a
gradually increases. It is easy to give similar expressions for other assumed laws of —
relation of stress to distortion ; but, as will be seen later, this part of the inquiry has not
yet led to any result of value.

In testing the results obtained with the earlier apparatus I assumed the force (for the —
more violent impacts) to be as the square of the distortion simply. This gives, in the
notation of the Tables below,

|

Wie ie cc Hs )
'

Of course any investigations, based on such simple assumptions as those made above,
can be only very rough approximations, since they ignore altogether the true nature of
the distortion of either of the impinging bodies, as well as the internal wave disturbance
which is constantly passing to and fro in the interior of each; part of it, no doubt,
becoming heat, but another part ultimately contributing to the resilience. In such cir-
cumstances the impact may"perhaps sometimes consist of a number of successive collisions ;
certainly the pressure between the two bodies will have a fluctuating value. a

Measurements of the Tracings, end their Reduction.

From the tracing for each separate experiment the following quantities were carefully
determined. Their values are given in the subsequent Tables, under the corresponds
letters below.

1. Number of vibrations of the fork corresponding to one-sixth of a complale
revolution of the disc : ; ; : F N,

Three diameters of the disc were eee aa Paes of 60° me one another, and
the number of undulations of the fork-tracing intercepted between each pair of radii was
counted. This process was preferred to the simpler one, of counting the undulations in
the entire circumference, for two reasons :—it tests the uniformity of the rotation, ora
possible shrinking of the photographic paper; and it makes one common process of
measurement applicable to complete traces, and to others which from some imperfection
of adjustment presented only parts which were sufficiently distinct. When only one
measurement is given under this head, it means either that only one was possible or that
all six gave the same result. When two are given, they are chosen as the least and
greatest of the six. They usually differ by a small quantity only, and may indicate;

* PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT. 235

distortion of the paper or irregularity of the fork (due to the bristle’s being clogged with
printer’s ink, or to its pressing too strongly on the plate?). In these cases the arith-
metical mean is to be taken for any subsequent calculation.

2. The radius of the datum circle : ; ; 2 : , iy
This, and the other measurements of length, are in aise
3. The height of fall, or of rebound. : ’ : Et:

For the first fall, this was of course measured on the ait -—for nt subsequent rebounds
it was measured on the tracing.

4, Chord of the arc of datum circle intercepted by the trace during seapn ’ C.
As this are was, on the average, considerably less than one-tenth of radius, the chord is
practically equal to it (differing at most by 1/1200th only), and it is thus a measure of
the duration of the impact. The duration is, in fact,

©. UGN 8
27R 128 400 R

nearly ;

this approximation being much within the inevitable errors of experiment. It is tabulated
under. , : : : ; : : AN

5. Greatest distortion—z.e., greatest distance of the trace beyond the datum
circle (of course not including the (small) distortion due to the weight of the block). This
datum is always, toa small but uncertain amount, increased by the distortion of the lower
part of the falling block. ‘This is probably nearly proportional to that of the elastic
cylinder, so that the numbers es are all a little too large, but they are increased
nearly in a common ratio . : 5 ; D.

Tt was found impracticable to estimate “lt certainty the relative distances of this
greatest ordinate from the ends of the intercepted arc; as the radial motion generally
temains exceedingly small during a sensible fraction of the whole time of impact. This
is true of all the substances examined, even when they have properties so different as
those of vulcanite and vulcanised india-rubber. It seems as if the elastic substance were
for a moment stunned (if such an expression can be permitted) when the sudden
distortion is complete.

We can easily assign limits within which the time of compression must lie. For, since
the elastic force resists the motion, and increases with the distortion, its time-average
during the compression is greater than its space-average :—1.e.

ee N
t 2D’
where m is the mass of the block, V its speed at the datum line, and ¢ the time of com-

pression. Hence
; D 2D

If we make the assumption that the force at each stage during restitution is e times its
value during compression, this gives

D Bidets: 2

Nee ett. Ves

236 PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT.

and the values tabulated satisfy these conditions. Thus the somewhat precarious assump-
tion as to the circumstances of restitution is, so far, justified.
6. The tangents of the inclination of the trace to the radius of the datum circle
drawn to the intersection of these curves before and after impact. : . <A, Ag
These values were determined directly by drawing tangents to the trace; and
indirectly by calculation from the equation of each part of the trace. The agreement of
the observed (0) and calculated (c) values is satisfactory.

'

Attempts to form the equation of the part of the trace made before the first impact

were not very successful, as the available range of polar angle was small, and the radius
vector increases rapidly for small changes of that angle. Hence the calculated value of
A, was obtained simply as the ratio of the tangential and radial speeds of the tracing
point at the moment of its first crossing the datum circle. This was taken as
Ro R
Soe = 365N nearly.

In this numerical reduction H is taken as 4 feet, z.e. 1219 mm.; and the full value
of g is employed, as we do not know the amount by which friction diminishes it, the
contact of the tracing-point with the disc coming about only during an uncertain portion

of the lower range of the fall; while it is not possible to estimate with any accuracy the —

effect of the impact on the trigger. The calculated value of the tangent will therefore
always be too small, but (since the square-root of the acceleration is involved) rarely by
more than 1 per cent. On the other hand, the graphic method employed for the direct
measurement of this tangent usually exaggerates its value.

7. The ratios of these pairs of tangents—z.., the values of the coefficient of
restitution . : : : : : : “ : : . =

The equation of each distinct part of the trace (alluded to in 6. above) was found
thus:—The minimum (or maximum) radius-vector was drawn approximately for each
separate free path, and other radii were drawn, two on either side of it, making with it
convenient angles :—usually 40°, 80°, —40°, —80°, or such like. The notation employed
below for the measured lengths of these radii-vectores is simply square brackets enclosing
the value of the angle-vector, thus :—

[80], [40], [0], [—40], [—80].

If « be the angular error introduced in the estimated position of the minimum radius, |

we determine it, as well as the A and B of the equation of the corresponding half of the
branch of the curve in question, from three equations of the very simple form
[0] = A + Ba?

[40] = A + B40 + 2),

[80] = A + B(80 + 2)?,
(which may be made even more simple for calculation by putting y for 40+72). The
assumed initial radius was in most cases so near to the minimum that very little difference
was found between [0] and A; « being usually very small.

PROFESSOR TAIT ON: IMPACT. 237

We now write the equation of this part of the branch in the form
r=A+ BO+ 2);

the numerical values of A, B, x being inserted, after x has been reduced to radians, and
B modified accordingly. The equations, in this final form, are printed below—each with
the data from which it was obtained. (A fine protractor, by Cary, London, reading to
one minute over an entire circumference, belongs to the Natural Philosophy Class
collection of Apparatus; so that it was found convenient to deal with degrees in all
measurements of angle, and in the bulk of the subsequent calculations :—the results being
finally reduced to circular measure.)

In the Tables below, after the data (enumerated above) from each experiment, come
the equations of the successive parts of each trace in order. In these, B,, 6, refer
respectively to the rise and fall due to the first rebound; 7, y. to the second rebound,
&e.

To test the formule thus obtained, other radii were measured, as far as possible from
those already employed, say for instance [20], [60], [—20], [—60], &. These measured
values, and the corresponding values calculated from the equation (before reducing to
circular measure), are also given below. The agreement is, in most cases, surprisingly
close; and shows that the assumption of nearly constant friction cannot be far from
correct.

The whole of the above statement presupposes that the adjustments have been so exact
that the line of fall of the needle-point passes accurately through the centre of the disc.
On a few occasions, only, it was not so :—but the necessary correction was easily calculated
_ and applied, by means of the trace preceding the first impact; even if the trace of the
first rebound did not reach to the level of the centre of the disc. In fact, if we wish
to find the curve which would have been traced on the disc had the adjustment been
perfect, it is easy to see that we must draw from each point of the trace a tangent to
the circle described about the centre of the disc so as to touch the true line of fall. The
position of the centre of the disc, relatively to the point of contact of this tangent, is
the same as that of the true point, relatively to the actual point, of the trace. This
applies, of course, to all parts of the trace, including the datum circle.

Tn the special trace which has been selected for photolithography as an illustration
(see Plate) this adjustment is markedly imperfect; much more so than in the worst of
the others. The path of the tracing-point passed, in fact, about 3 mm. from the centre
of the disc ; while, in the worst of the other cases, the distance was not more than half
as great. But this very imperfection serves to enable the reader to follow without
any difficulty the various convolutions of the trace. The measurements and reductions,
obtained from this specially imperfect figure, agree wonderfully with those obtained
from the best traces. It would only have confused the reader had we selected one of
the latter for reproduction, since each of them contains the record of four experiments—
i.é., it contains four times as much detail as does the trace reproduced.

238 PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT.

owe

Conclusions from the Experiments.

It will be observed from the following Tables that the assumed initial radius-vector
was never very far from the true position of the minimum; the correction (in circular —
measure) being usually of the order 0°01, ze., about 0°°6, and very often much less,
When the minimum was small, the correction was usually larger; but in few cases did it
amount to 0°05, z.e., 3°. This correction ought, of course, to have equal values for the
two parts of each free path. .

The substances experimented on were fresh specimens, not those which had been
frequently battered by 8 and 12 foot falls in the earlier experiments. They were limited
_ to four, Plane-tree, Cork, Vulcanised India-rubber, and Vulcanite. The first material .
was chosen the same as that of the falling block, in order that (if possible) a correction i
for the compression of the block might be determined, and applied to the results of the )
experiments on other materials. I do not as yet see any simple mode of obtaining
approximately such a correction:—and the data from different experiments -with the
same materials are scarcely sufficiently consistent with one another to warrant the — |
application of rigorous analysis, a task which would involve immense labour as well as
difficulties of a most formidable order. Hence there is not much to be said, for the
present at least, about the behaviour of a hard body such as vulcanite, whose distortioll
is only of the same order.as that of the block. The time of the impact between it andl
the wood-block is somewhere about 1/500th of a second when the speed of the block 2 |
about 16 feet per second. For lower speeds it is longer; while for very low speeds this
substance seems to show a peculiarity which is specially marked in cork, and will ble

considered below.

With vulcanized india-rubber, when the speed is 16 feet per second, the time o
impact is about 1/130th of a second; it becomes longer as the relative speed is less;
until, with very low speeds, it eared practically constant.

With cork the period of impact for a speed of 16 feet per second is about 1/70th of 7
second ; 1t increases as the speed is reduced to about 8 feet per seeond; and again
steadily diminishes as the speed is still further reduced. This seems to sudiene that (at
least in circumstances of rapid distortion) the elastic force in cork increases in a slower
ratio than does the distortion, while both are small, but at a higher ratio when they are
larger.

In all the cases tested the coefficient of restitution seems steadily to diminish as the
speed of impact is increased.

In some of the experiments the mass of the block was doubled; and cooasionam the
doubled mass was allowed to fall from half the previous height, so that its energy
remained unaltered. But the number of cases is as yet too small to enable us to judge
with certainty the consequences of these changes. I hope to discuss this point in a
subsequent paper.

Pa

23/7/90. Piane Trex, I.
N R H
21:25. 29275 1219°2

67:0

B 21:24 22:1

y 21°5 9-1

42

21
B,,[0] 225-0
[20] 239°3
[40] 2843
BLO] 2250
[—20] 240°8
[—40] 286-0
y[0] 2708
[10] 274-4
[20] 2860
Yy[0] 2708
[-10] 2747
[—20] 286-0

R H

22°9 3015 12192
155°2
42°7
16:2
15
37

B, 22°5
y, 22°7

146°6
162°'3
212-2
146°6
1645
215°5
258°'8
262°8
275°5
258°8
262°9
275°5

B,, [0]
[20]
[40]

B,[ 9 ]

[—20]
[—40]

[9]
[10]
[20]

Yo [0 |

[—10]
[—20]

PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT.

c ar D iA A,
; oO Cc O C
38 000206 20 0-421 0377 1474 1-608
4°7 255 08 1600 1626 2-651 2720
48 260 05 2798 2844 4198

50 271 03
58 314

r= 225 +125°73(0 — 0115)?

r= 225 +120°81(0—-0128)°

r= 2708 +181:31(0— 0087)?

r= 270°8+121:46(0 —-0047)”

C T D i, A,
Cc 0) Cc

3:0 000170 1:6 0388 036 0:924 1:028

3:8 215 12 1037 1-039 1-867 1:919

4-0 225 6 1982 1:942 3-271

42 2374

v= 146°6 + 140°50(0~ 0143)?

7 =146°6+135°91(0 — 0141)?

7 = 258'8 + 142°80(0 — 0072)?

7 = 258°8 + 139°52(8 — 003)?

[15]
[35]
[42]

[—30]
[—42]

[24]

@)
232'8
2703
291°8

259°7
2950

2930

c
232°9
270°2
290°5

2599
291°7

292°9

[24] 2927 292-6

[30 ]
[60°5]
E=ahO:§|
[-—50 ]
[—60°5]

[32]

[—32]

* Note.—It is clear from this value of e, and from the amount of the first rebound, that the cylinder was not hom
the lead-block. This fall is therefore not trustworthy in some of its details.

3011

301°8

239

ein

240 PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT.

Ill. Dovstz Mass.

N R Hh — 30 T D A, A, é
O Cc (0) Cc
2933 3224 6096 41 000212 19 0575 056 1-281 1356 “449
1044 56 289 10 1385 1368 2718 2-680 509
B, 22:23 275 52 269 5 2592 2634 4705 551
-y, 22°06 97 78 403. 5
40 82 494 8
2-0
0 (6
B,,[0] 2183 j
" [20] 2349 7 =218-3-+4136-24(6)? BO
ay ase [50:08] 3229 329-4
By, [0] 2183
ae 2351 7=2183+13361(6 —-0056) [30 1 ee
as eas [—5008] 3216 321-7
v1 [0] 2945
[10] 298-4 7 =294'5 + 132-95(0 — 0031)? [26-04] 3216 3216 ,
[20] 310-4
ye [0] 2945
[—10] 298°8 7 = 294-5 +132-95(0 — 0054)? [—26-04] 3221 3226
[—20] 3112
We
N R Hac 7 a ihe A, e
; a O (G O Cc
228 3318 12192 45 0:00231 24 0-408 0-4 1072 1-150 381
1550 53 272 13 1098 1133 2179 2-938 504
B, 225 367 56 - 287 8 2371 2307 4127 BIB
y, 22°8 116 80, 410° |
47 8 4155
23
(0) 6
B,,[0] 1766
[20] 1933 1 =1766 +137-88(6— 0017)? [80] 2isS 218
reo} ae [60°05] 3817 397-6
B.,[0] 1766
[—20] 1945 r=176'6+138°70(6 — 0103)? [—380 ] 2160 2160
ash oles [—6005] 3328 3320
yp [0] 2959
[10] 3002 = 295-9-+4147°73(6 — 0039)? [29:04] 3328 333-0
[20] 3135
ve [0] 295-9 :
[—10] 3003 1=295-94136-24(6—-0010)? [—29:04] 381-7 3310

PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT.

241

14/6/90. Cork, I.
N R H C ih D A, A, e
(0) Cc (0) Cc
21:7 2964 12192 305 00167 19°0 0390 0373 1:10 1:124 "B55
21°8 1228 44:5 23 $2 1:250 1:230 2°71 ‘461
B, 21°79 22:0 39:8 918 «38
44/ 37-0 202 «1-5
O Cc
Belo | 1735 (17-45] 1825 182-9
[20] 186-5 r=173'244 141°16(0—-0428)? [32-45] 2113 211-9
[40] 233°8 [56:06] 2969 296:8
B19] 1785 [—12°57] 1810 181-4
[—20] 191-2 r=173:29 +.118:18(6 —-0424)2 [—28°57] 2076 2079
[—40] 238-0 [—56:06] 295:9 296-45
IL.
N. R H C T D A, A, e
(0) Cc O (6
224 3061 12192 296 00162 19.0 0:394 0373 1:065 1:106 ray
22:5 1315 45:2 247 98:9 1:204 1196 2578 ‘467
237 403 220 36
B, 22'2 49 385 210 «16
0) Cc
B,,[0] 1748
[20] 189-0 9 =174'7 +144°44(6 — 0244)? [56°35] 3065 3065
[40] 2383
B,,[0] 1748
[—20] 193:8 = 1746 + 124-75(0— 0408)? [—56:35] 3057 3055
[—40] 243°6
Te:
N R H C T D A, A, e
O (6 O Cc
2275 3210 12192 302 00160 188 0'414 0385 1:107 1:167 374
22:8 1282 47-0 249° «8-7 1:226 1:249 2°633 465
. 933 421 993 36
B, 22°47 49 39:2 208 ~=—s«d1+6
0) C
B,,[0] 192-0
[20] 2065 r=191:8+147-73(6 — 0340)? [55:3] 3821 3199
[40] 257-0
B,,[0] 1920
[—20] 211°0 r= 191-8+128-03(6— 0380)? [—55:3] 3209 321-6
[—40] 261-0
VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 8). 20

242 PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT.

IV.
N R H C T OD A, ie 5
) c 0 c
2225 3291 12192 312 00157 185 0-427 0405 1126 1195 379
1875 503 «= 254 91Ss«d:-25'7 :1:263 261I “481
B, 21:94 260 45:0 27° Bi
54 416 210 1465
oO C
B,,[0] 191% | | |
[40] 2521
B.,[0] 1916 | |
[-20] 2100 7 =191-4-4+123'11(6— 0394)2 [—27°74] 2255 2252
[—40] 258:5 [-585 ] 3298 3298

28/7/90. Vuxicanits, I.

N R H C 7 D A, A, ¢
0) G 0 Cc
216 2959 12192 35 000190 25 0394 0388 0:649 0°745 ‘607
3008 44 240 21 0768 0-780 1:297 1:404 592
B, 21°42 852 49 267 0:95 1-426 1435 2-264 630
y, 216 320 5:0 272) 05
150 5:1 278 03
(fe Be 316 0-2
40 65 354 015
O c
B10] *—o2 [20 ] 7°76
[40] 520 r= —5:02+131'31(6—-0370) [60 ] 1280 128-98
[80] 237-5 [88:72] 295°8 294-96
Beto) Fea [—20 ) ]_ 2140 Seis
[—40] 60-0 r= —5°414119-49(9—-0417)2 [-60 ] 1860 1363
[—80] 241°8 [—88'72] 2965 296°7
yv1,[0] 210-7 ;
[20] 225-9 r= 210°7 +130(0—-0007) [46-57] 2965 296-4
[40] 272:8
Yo,[0] 210-7
[—20] 227-0 7 =210°7 +12475(6 — 0126)? [-46:57] 2955 295°7
[—40] 273-6
IL.
N R H C 7 D wet A, ¢
. 0 c 0 ¢
220 3132 12192 30 000157 15 0396 039 0-714 0-779 ‘555 |
2928 40 209 13 0'833 0821 1338 1-486 623
B, 21°91 880 44 281 “95 1458 1-491 2-264 644
y, 21°83 350 41 215-4 ‘

16:0

8, [0]
[40]
[80]

B,,[ 0]

[—40]
[—80]

¥[9]
[20]
[40]

¥2 [9]
[—20]
[—40]

20°6
80:0
2745
20°6
89°2
278°5
225°1
240°5 -
288°8
22571
24.20
289°5

Ill. Dovste Mass.

N R
218 3267

B, 21°75

A, [ 0 ]
[20]
[40]

B,[9]

[—20]
[—40]

221 343:0

B, 2202

H

609°6
172:2
520
19'9
9:2

1551
170°6
218°3
155'1
L7L9
219°5

PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT.

(6) C

[60 ] 1600 1603

iy j YF 2
r= 20°32 + 123°'76(6 — 0479) [—8553] 3132 3141

= 225'1 + 134-92(6— 0110)? [46-92] 313-2 313-2

[r= 225:06+125:40(0—-0185)2 [—4692] 3132 313-0

C 7 D Ay A,
; 0) C Oo Cc
43 000214 21 0:°583 0°58 0:971 1:087
47 OB RY Tey 1:086 1:118 1:°857
59 293 09
5:0 248 0°45
O (6
7=155:1+131:97(6 —-0063) [65°62] 3269 3263
r=155°07 + 126:39(9—0159)? [—65'62] 3267 325-5
C i Dr: A, A,
oO (6) oO (6)
5:0 0:00240 3:2 0°425 0425 0:892 0:989
49? 235? 1°42 0:9852 0:992 1:°7062
6:0 288 1:0
1633 3850 =3=*65
10:7 ils 8

O Cc

[60 ] 261 2606

es . R =e 2
r= 114-9 + 133:28(0 —‘0015) [74°62] 343 340-4

[-60 ] 2624 2621

r= 114-9 + 131-64(6 — 0105)?
1 9+131:64(6 — 0105) [7462] 343:0 341°8

[-60 ] 1686 1686

243

244

24/6/90.

N R
21:95
22:0

B, 21°6

, 22°13

8, 22:02

300'8

8, [0] —867
[80] 199
[90] 272

By [0] —867
[—80] 145
[—90] 2065

yp [O] 1425
[20] 1558
[40] 2040

yo [0] 1425
[—20] 1606
[—40] 2090

6, [0] 2285
[20] 2437
[40]

or) ? [0 ]

[—20]
[—40]

228°5
24.5°5
292°6

II.

N R
21:7
216 .

B, 215

y, 21°49
6, 21°39

310°8

293°4 |

PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT.

VULCANISED INDIA-RUBBER. I.

H G mp iY
12192 146 00079 117
3868 204 lll 88
1580 238 129 6-4
723 253 139 | 45
346 25:0 136 32
165 253 139 21
76 254 139 1-4
35 254 139 0-9
15 253 139 05
6
r= 87 +135:92(0+ 0541)?
r= —86°7 +11852(6)2
r= 142-25 +143:13(6 — 0414)?
7 = 142'36 + 124'42(6 — 0838)?
7 = 228-444 141°49(0 — 0206)?
7 = 228-44 4+ 123-43(6 — 0227)?
H G Tie
12192 155 00080 116
3893 213 Hin Sa
1598 253 131 63
730 266 138 45
B51 265 138 3-2
170 269 140 22
79 277 144 15
36 275 143 0-9
V5 Qh 05

0°400
0737
mA i hg
1570

0374
0°702
1-068
1570

[93-5 ]

[—1032 ]

tO" 7]
[30 ]
[62:97]
[= oon)
F350") |
[—6297]

[10 J

[30 ]
[42:27]

Ost
[—42:27]

A,
) Cc
0-412 0:38
0742 0-722

11382 1:1382
1689 1:682

)
0°680
1054

1600
2'238

B, [0] —785
[60] 80
[80] 197-5

Ba» [0] —785

[—80] 136

[-90] 1955

yp» [0] 151-2
[20]
[40]

YL]
[—20]
[—40]
O1, [ 0 ]
[20]
[40]

52, [ 0 ]
[—20]
[—40]

209°7
1512
168°7
214°8

238°4
252°4
298°7
238°4
2550
300°2

1640

PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT. -

0)

C

[20] —615 —65°9

[-60]

[30 ]
[50 ]
[64-68]
a0 |
[-50 |
[— 6468]

[10]
[63°55]

pee lO™ «|
[— 63°55]

37

182°3
24.46
311-2
156°5
24:8°3
310°3

24:1°4
310°3

243°1
311-1

38'7

182°7
244.8
311°3
156°36
248°6
310°9

241-4
3103

323'5

0°419
0°765
1160
1698

0:407
0741
1141
1726

@) ¢
0670 0679
1087 1:091
1616 1:581
2484

—69°4
202°4
2760

—69°4
158-2
287°0

160°9
173°9
220°0
160°9
1785
225°9
248°3
2630
311°3

Ay,[ 9]
[80]
[90]

B.,[ 0 ]

[—80]

[—100]

vy [0]
[20]
[40]

Y2> [ 0 ]

[—20]
[—40]

6:,[ 0]
[20]
[40]

r= —788+132-63(0+ 0471)? '
r= —78'8+119:17(6 +0536)
r=151-:0+134-92(6 — 0886)?
r= 151-02 + 117:36(0 — 0391)?
7 = 238'32 + 132'53(0 — 0231)
r= 238'3+117'36(0 — 0281)?
H © oT
12192 15% 00078 11°
3920 22-1 110 | Sy
1623 25:8 129 64
750 27°5 138 45
360 27-5 188 3:2
173 27°8 139 22
81 283 142 16
38 30:0 150 10
16 31-0 155 6
r= —69'54+144-45(6 — 0244)
r= —69°5+119°83(0—0314)2
r= 1607 +135'81(6— 0374)
r=160'8+122:28(0— 0316)?
r= 248-24 137-88(6— 0218)

[60]

[—60]

[30]
[64:67]

[io |
[— 6467]

[10 ]
[43°8]

193°0
3234

166°0
323'8

251°5
323'8

541

1928
322'5

166°0
325°2

251-4
3242

245

PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT.

8,,[0] 2483 | mm
[—20] 2647 r= 248-2 +.118°51(9—0237)2 ne
[—40] 3100 Goal
EV
N R | ae . D A,
0) c
21-75 3835 12192 160 00078 115 0-432 0-42
B, 21-6 3926 226 110 89 O771 0:767
y, 21:92 1640 265 129 63 14170 1:185
3, 21°81 742 281 187 44 1739 1°759
354 286 139 31
173 292 142 23
82 294 148 16-
39° 315 158 190
17 3ll bl
6
B,,[0] —605
[80] 219 r= —60°7 +135:26(0—0419)2 [60 ]
[90] 291
By, 0] —605
[—80] 1650 r= —60°6-+12016(@—0262)2 [—20]
[-100] 2945
y,, [0] 1699 [10 ]
[20] 1833 7 =169°7-+141:16(0— 0384) [50 ]
[40] 231-0 [645]
Yo [0] 1699 ae
[—20] 187-4 = 169'8-+ 121:46(9— 0318)?
[—50 ]
[—40] 2345 645]
5,,[0] 259°6
[20] 2745 7 = 2596 +138-21(0 — 0201)? eee
[40] 32341 ae
3y,[ 0] 259°6
[—20] 2768 7=259°5 41217990278 [-30 |
[—40] 3237 Peal
28/6/90. _VULCANISED INDIA-RUBBER. I.
Ne) oe H oo Ti. "Dp A,
, 0 Cc
2175 2934 12192 137 00076 116 0370 087
B, 22:0 4181 182 100 92 0637 0621
y, 22-28 1826 225 124 67 0954 0-942
5, 22-31 895 240 188 51 1368 1342
457 241 184 37
239 245 185 27
125 252 139 149
63 250 188 14
30 253 139 09

2837 283°7
3225 3218

0 Cc
0-722 0-723
1:097 1-088
1659 1652
2402

—44 —481
1723 1723
267°5 2679
3340 336°6

1749 174-9
2071 + 207:2
2697 26971
333°3 332°5

2946 2946
333'3 333'2

2967 296°5
333°2 333°2

0
0601
0°875
1358
1836

Cc
0629
0:922
1326

8B,, [0 ]—1245

[80]
[100]

158
293°5

B,, [0 ]—124°5

[—80]
[-90]
[9]
[20]
[40]
¥2[9]
[-20]
[—40]
6); [ 0 ]
[20]
[40]

62, [ 9 J
[—20]
[—40]

N R

B,, ao) —

. [80]
[90]

2, 19 \|—

[—80]
[—90]
y[9]
[20]
[40]

y2 [9 ]
[—20]
[ — 40]
6,,[ 0]
[20]
[40]

123

190°5
110°6
125°7
1747
110°6
1280
1776
204°6
220°2
269°5
204°6
221°4
270°8

H

21°75 3020 1219-2

4.230
183°9

121

146

215

121°0
114-7
1786
1180
133°0
181°2
1180
135°0
1830
212°6
228°2
276°2

PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT.

r= —124°8+130:00(6 — 0524)?

r= —124-7 +133-29(6 — 0332)?

7r=110'55+139:12(0—-0191)2

r= 1106+ 132:13(0—-0141)

r= 204'6 + 138:2(6— 0128)?

r= 2046 +133:77(0—0054)?

C mo D Wo

144 00077 11:9 0384
19°5 105 9°3 0°652
23:1 124 6°9 0983
24°4, 131 51 1402
25°92? 139 37

25°4: 136 20

25'1 135 lsOs

26°2 141 14

26°5 142 10

r= —121:24+130:00(0 —:0377)?

r= —121-14125-41(6 — 0251)

r=118+136-24(6 — 0168)?

r=118:0+127:21(0—-0169)?

r= 212°6 +132:95(6 — 0065)?

O

[90] 217

Cc

217'8

[-30] —863 —90-0

[50 ] 2123
[66°68] 293-7

[-30 ] 1489
[—50 ] 2140
[—6668] 293-1

[30 ] 2408
[46°55] 293-1

[-30 ] 2422
[—4655] 293°7

2120
292°9

1485
214'3
293°7

240°6
292°9

2420
294°0

0°38 0618 0°644

0°65 0914 0952
0989 1428 1:383

1411 = =1°954

9)

[+20] —105—

[—106-2] 302-5

[30 ] 153-0
[50 ] 2175
[67°72] 3023

[-50 ] 2188
[—67-'72] 3016

[10 ] 216-4
[47-35] 3016

¢

101'8

298°5

1530
217°8
302°9

218°6
300'8

216°3
3020

718

247

248 PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT.

8,,[0] 2126 | |
[—20] 2289 7 = 2126 +128'36(0—-0074)? [-10 ] 2167 2168

elas), aes [—47:35] 3021 3018
Ill. DousLe Mass.
N ieR Hin be 7 aes A, A, é
0 c 0 c
22-45 3256 12192. 167 0:0086 13? 0401 O4 O712 O744 563
8, 225 3507 245 1296 99 O749 0736 1124 1149 -667
yy 2257 1472 310 159 80 1154 1131 1648 1641 700
5, 22°5 705 351 180 60 1-723 1663 2356 731
356 366 188 44
184 372 191 32
97 392 21 23
49 398 204 17
24 406 209 10
12
By, [0] —25°3 [50] 100 975
lo = ;
[60] 147-0 T= — 20 NSaS OMe 201 Sy [872] 8253 3238
[80] 271-0
B,,[0] —25
[—60] 102 = —25°7 +139°53(0—0879)2 [—96'25] 3258 327°8
[—80] 214
y,,[0] 1782 . :
" [20] 194-8 7 =178-2-413788(6 —"0021)? [50 208) ae
Ho) Bb [59] 825-7 3238
vos 0] 1782 [-30] 2161 2162
[-20] 1950 = 1782 +140'34(0—-0031)2 [—50] 2845 2842
[—40] 2460 [—59] 3259 3259
8,,[0] 2553 .
[20] 2723 = 255'3-+139'52(6)2 [40°77] 3259 325-9
[40] 323-3
8, [0] 2553 |
[—20] 272-9 = 255°3-+4+13706(0—0021)? an oe Bae
[—40] 3225 =
IV.
No yee» oeplll eee A, A, e
0 (G 0 Cc
21:6 3375 12192 178 00085 13? 0434 0-428 O-774 O787 -56l
8, 22:0 3609 256 122. 102 0772 0759 1163 1162 664
4, 22°34 1550 320 153 82 14180 1160 1668 107
143 368 176 62 1-741 2376 733

38:0 385 184 46
197 396 189 35
105 40:3 192 25
54 403 192 «17
27 403 192 12
18 403 192 OF | | ‘

B,, [0] —225

[60]
[80]
Bo, [0]
[—60]
[—80]
ywL9]
[20]
[40]
y2,[ 9]
[—20]
[—40]

146°5
2650
—22'5
101
209

182°7

1990
248°5
182°7
199:1
24.8°8

PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT.

r= —24412738(0—'1094)?

7 = —21:71+4136°9(6 —-0928)?

7=182'7 + 136:24(0— 0031)?

r= 182'7 +136°56(0—-0026)

24/7/90. VULCANISED INDIA-RUBBER.
H

N R

216 3029
is, 21°7
y, 22:06
6, 22:42

[80]
[100]

[—80]
[—100]

Yu [ 0 ]
[20]
[40]

¥2L0]
[—20]
[—40]

8, [0]
[20]
[40]

,,[ 0]

[—20]
[—04]

1219-2

45
19
9
4,
2
1

B,,[ 0 ]—148

124°5
2713

8,, [0 ]—148

91
2283

103-7
119-0
167-4

103°7
121-0
1700

206°3
222°5
2726
206'3
2240
274:°7

14
9°8
7:0
90
5'5
33
69
35
16

C

14°3
19°6
232
25°5
26°2
27-0
28:0
29°5
29°95

r= — 148-44 129:02(0—-0581)?

Tt

0:0076

104
123
135
139
143
149
157
157

Tr,

0:387
0639
0:960
1309

r= — 148 +127:38(0 — 0262)

r=103°7 + 135'81(0— 0132)?

rv =103'7 +130:0(9—-0161)

7 = 2063 + 139:19(9—-0077)?

v = 2063 + 185:42(0 — 0127)"

VOL. XXXVI. PART I. (NO. 8).

o)

[40 ] 635
[902 ] 3378

[=40 } 30
[-986 ] 337-8

[30 ] 219-7

[50 ] 2855
[61:27] 337-5

[—50 ] 2863
[—61:27] 337-9

Ay A,
c 0) C
0384 0617 0628

0632 0917 0-924
0940 1:297 1:310
1320 861°778

)

[1036 ] 303

‘736

c

300°7

[—40 ]—86 —905

[—109:4 ] 303

[30 ] 139-0
[50 ] 2041
[60 ] 2496
[69:97] 3031
[-30 ] 1418
[—50 ] 2067
[—60 ] 2508
[—69:97] 302°3

[47:93] 3023

[—47:93] 303°6

3045

139°]
2041
249-0
302°0
1416
206°4
250°7
3027

301°7

3039

250

Il. Dovusie Mass.
N R H
2271 3118 6096
22D 241:0

1130

B, 2211 56-9

y, 22:08 29°3

6, 22:06 15°6

8:2
4:3
23
1:4
8,,[0] 704
[20] 86:0
[40] 184-7
B2,[ 0] 70°4
[=20] ©9877
[—40] 187-0
¥[9] 1980
[20] 2135
[40] 262-0
¥2[9] 1980
[—20] 2145
[—40] 262-6
8,,[0] 25571
[10] 259:0
[20] 271-0
8,,[0] 255°
[—10] 259-2
[—20] 271-4

WE
N R isl
2225 “3288 “12192
DEA 394°8

B, 22°4 169°6

ry, 22:26 82°7

6, 22:87 42-2

«, 23°12 22:0

€, 22:93 116

61
31

15

PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT.

o T D A,
i) (y 0
195 00103 115 0563 0545 0814
66 141 92 0885 0875 1-242
sor) 170 | Fal 1-294 1-285 1-831
359 199 59 1782 1791 2-482
348 184 40
342 181 28
336 178 20
330 “175, 13
275 146 06
[10]
7=704-+4+135'81(6— 0100)? [60 ]
[76:37]
) [=S0ney
r=704-+131:31(6—0142)? [-60 ]
[—76'87]
r=198-:0-+135'42(6— 0106)? [53:18]
r= 198 +129°67(0—-0077)? [—53-18]
r= 255'1 +132:95(0 — 0032)? [37-52]
= 255'14+132-95(0— 0001)? [—37-52]
C8 D A,
: 0 (G 0
162 00081 122 0417 04 0645
2 122 104 O711 O710 1-052
306 154 84 1099 1:089 1553
345 173 66 1530 1522 2087
363 182 49 2102
B73 sna 7 2-917
870 «=s:«186. S25
389 195 18
389 195 13

A,

¢
0:863
1-253
1-798

0
74:3
216:0
3120
108:1
218°8
312°2

c
741
2165
311-2
1084
218°3
311°8

3122 3120

3115 3116

3115 3115

3120 3120

0°704
1-089
1510
2061
2'393

B,, [0] -669
[60] 865
[80] 205

B,, [0] —669

[-60] 746 -

[—80] 188

yp [0] 159-0
[20] 1751
[40] 2240

yn [0] 1590
[—20] 1759
[—40] 225°6
6,,[0] 246-4

[20] 263°1

[40] 314-9
5,[0] 246-4
[—20] 2638
[—40] 3157
ep[0] 286-2

[10] 2906

[20] 3040
[0] 2862
[—10] 2905
[—20] 3036
& [0] 3062

[10] 310-4

[20] 323:5
&,[0] 3062
[—10] 3108
[—20] 3240

PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT.

r= — 669+ 138:21(0—-0063)?

r= —67 +135-91(6— 0265)?

r= 159 +136:24(0—-0053)2

r= 159+ 134:59(0 —-0053)2

7 = 246°4 + 144-05(6—:0085)?

7» = 246-4-+ 141:49(9—-0016)?

7 = 286'2. + 147°73(6—:0019)?

7 = 286:2 + 144°44(6-—:0020)?

r= 3062+ 146-08(0—:0049)?

+= 3062+ 141°16(6 —-0061)

21/8/90. Vutcanisep INDIA-RUBBER.

[96-7]

[-99-4]

[50 ]
[63-37]

[=50 |
[—63:87]

[43-72]

[—43-72]

[31-08]

[—31-08]

[22:53]

[22°53]

329°2

329°2

3282

328°2

3289

329'1

329°36

328°4

328'2

328°7

(This is the trace reproduced in the plate, and the details are given here to show that fair results can be
obtained even when the adjustment is very imperfect. )

R H

22°75 338 = =$12192

C

153
21°5
250
26°6
28:0
30:0
315
33°0

D

11:9
9°6
76
5'5
4:2
30
2°4
i

iM

0:0077

‘0108
0125
‘0133
‘0140
‘0150
0158
0165

)
383
‘660
933

1-418

J
C
‘693
1000 «61
142 1

Ay
0)
636
966 1
354 I:
842

C

655

066
42

252 PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT.
B,, [0 ]—118 [55] 166 18
[80] 1682 = —118+146:09(6 [70] 100 101
[100] 331-7 [90] 249-4 244
B,, [0 ]—118 [-70] 855 886
[—80] 1506 = —1178+413033(0—0368)2 [—-75] 116 1182
[100] 3001 [-90] 2175 2190
¥,[0] 1815 }
[30] 1710 = 1315-4 143-14(6-+-0017) re ne sae
[60] 289-0
ye [0] 1815 [-10] 1359 1359
[—30] 171-0 7 =181'5 +144'45(6—-0007)? [—50] 2418 2413
[-60] 2900 [-65] 3170 3172
8,,[0] 2326 [10] 237 9372
[20] 251-0 7 =232°6 +.149'37(6 +0019) [30 ] 274 2738
[40] 305°8 [405] 3276 3273
&, [0] 2826 [-30 ] 2735 2735
[—20] 250°. 7 =232'6-+14937(0)2 4073] sea
[—40] 305-4

DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATE.

The chief figure is, as above stated, photo-lithographed on the scale of 0°3 from the record of a 4-foot
fall on Vulcanised India-rubber. Even in this reduced scale it shows fairly enough the relative details of at
least eight of the successive rebounds. These are numbered in order. The original showed several more.
As its lines were not only very fine, but in blue, they had to be carefully gone over with a photographically
inactive colour, so that much of the more delicate detail is unavoidably lost. The tuning-fork was kept in
contact with the disc for a little more than a complete revolution. The consequent overlapping of the trace
enables us to see that the angular velocity had not sensibly changed during one revolution of the dise.

The three figures immediately below are (pencil) records of successive impacts on Native India-rubber
(9/1/89). Time of rotation of disc 0*'3.

Then follow records of impacts on Pine Tree (7/11/88) from heights of 8, 4, and 2 feet. These show the
‘* wriggles” spoken of in the text. Time 0*'3.

The group of five which follows belongs to the experiment III. of 23/7/90 with Plane Tree, whose details
are given in the Table. Some of these show traces of wriggles.

The final group contains details of the first eight successive impacts of IV. of 7/6/90 on Vulcanised
India-rubber. ‘To save space, the first and third, as also the second and sixth, which took place at the same
portions of the datum circle, have been drawn together.

In each of the two later groups the time of rotation of the disc was a little more than one second.

The dise always had positive rotation; so that the older figures (those in pencil) must be read the
opposite way to the others, which were reversed in printing from the disc :—7.e., the compression part of the
impact is to the left on the pencilled figures, to the right on the others.

Aa’

3 MAY. 91

PROF TAIT ON

5

IMPACT.

Vol. XXXVI. 9.

The Transactions of the Royat Soctrry or EpinsurcH will in future be Sold
at the following reduced Pices :-—

Vol.

DEST.

Part 1.
Part.2:
XX.
Part 1.
Part 2.
Part 3.
Part 4.
XXI.
Part 1.
Part 2.
Part 3.
Part 4.
XXII.
Part 1.
Part 2.
Part 3.
XXIII.
Part 1.
Part 2.
Part 3.
XXIV.
Part 1.
Part 2.
Part 3.
XXV.
Part 1.
Part 2.

* Vol. XXXV., and those which follow, may be had in Numbers, each Number containing ra a

Ser ee Se ee eee

complete Paper.

PRINTED PY NEILL AND COMPANY, EDINBURGH,

Price to the | Price to Vol Price to the Price to
_ Public. Fellows. a Public. Fellows.
Ont omPrint: XXVL Part 1.| £10 0 | 2otecae
2). 9:0. |. 20°70 Be MPark 2, |). dade eo t- 0-9
011 0 0 9.9 Part S| Ove oi 012 6
O11 6 0 96 oes Parb’’. | 0. tee D 09 6
O18 0° | 045 sOnaloxeew. Port 1.| ° Olee 012 0
OT On) One Part 9, 0. 6nae Oda
La 20 017 0 Spark 3. | Pe 016 0
019 0 016 0 ee Bat At Sil ee 016 0
014 6 0.12) eet Part 1. | -- abe G 1 eae
Baik 6 012 0 Bart 9) ao ORene i. toa
018 0 015 0 ‘7 Part 3.| 0°18 013 6
Tass 20 YG MTR Part 1. | 1 agg 1 6&0
iii 0 1 66 , Part2.| 016 0 012 0
; RX Parte | < Apes 1}: 606
Br a: 0 0. a Panta: |) “Odie aa 012 0
018 0 014 0 . Pat3.| 0 5 0 0 Aan0
KO at: 0 0 788 © part 4.1 OAR oe 0: Bhs
y ONE 0 Geno XXXI eet age 3 3 0
0 7.0 0 Sree RO Pant1.| “1. ow 016. 0
Oat ofPnnt: , Part.2.| 0 18. 10 013 6
22 0 aaa BD) Park 3,.\) Oud 117 6
cp art 4. Oyo 0 4.50
22 0 111 0 Wyyxtin Partl’| 1 1 «0 016 0
018 0 015 0 | Port 2. |. Youngaen 1 ii
» Part 3. 0 12° 0 0 9 6
LO ria O14 0 | xxxiv. 2 2 0 1 al
010 0 0 7 6 || XXXV.*Partl.| 2 2 0 116
010 0 07 6 eal Becta 1.3
010 0 0 we i. Part 3.) olan tn 111 0
* Part 4. eres ke) 016 0
015 0 O Tee P meee, Part].| a qa6 016 0:
010. 0 OLE
070 eae
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Ee B06 uh |
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110 0 1
018 0 013 6
22 0 1 tie

-

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

VAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

XXXVI. PART II.—(Nos. 9 ro 21)—FOR THE SESSION 1890-91.

CONTENTS.

Bhi PAGE
lternate + Knots of Order Kleven. By Professor C. N. Lirrne. (With Two Plates), . 253
On the Foundations of the Kinetic Theory of Gases. IV. By Professor Tarr, : aah Sa

natomical Description of Two New Genera of Aquatic Oligocheta. By Franx E. Bepparb,
M.A. (Oxon.), F.Z.S., Prosector of the Zoological Society of London, and Lecturer on
Biology at Guy’s Hospital. (With Three Plates), ; : é 293

Professor Kelland’s Problem on Superposition. By Rosrrt BRropre. (ith Two Plates), . 307
. On the Solid and Liquid Particles in Clouds. By Joun ArrKEn, Esq., . ; . 313

On the Relation of Nerves to Odontoblusts, and on the Growth of Dentine. By W. G.
_ ArroHison Rozertson, M.D. B.Sc. (With a Plate), . ; : soak

he Development of the Carapace of the ceshonia: By Joun Berry eeaeliiet: Me: Se:,
2 R.S.E. sca a gi : ; : : ; : : . 335

versity of ene Part Il,—Puarmacotogy. (Plates VIII.-XXIIL), . . 843
a S. sce Map and Gee) : . 459

imperial University, Tokyo, Japan. (With Five Plates), ‘ : , . 485
> Winds of Ben Nevis. By R. T. Omonp and Aneus Ranatn, . ' : . 537

By G. Curysrat, Professor of Mathematics, University of Edinburgh, : p . 551

the Anatomy of Ocnerodrilus (Eisen). By Frank E. Bepparp, M.A., Prosector of the
Foo peoeel Society of London, Lecturer on Biology at Guy’s Hospital. ‘(With a Plate),. 563

( Issued November 10, 1891.)

a

: =

( 253 )

I1X.—Alternate + Knots of Order Eleven. By Professor C. N. Lirrue.
(With Two Plates.)

(Read 21st July ; Revised December 1890.)

1. A year ago last April, Prof. Tarr proposed that I should undertake to derive
from Mr Kirxman’s polyhedral drawings the alternate + knots of eleven crossings,
thus doing for order 11 what had been done so admirably by himself in orders 8, 9,
_ 2. The work has been a very protracted one, because of the great number of forms
involved—more than three times as many as in all preceding orders combined. Mr
RKMAN’S manuscript contains 1581 forms, of which 22 are bifilar and 16 duplicates.

| gs

| 3

| 4 | Seeies=

- 5 a = ra| = S >

| +3 - D = aS o o » =|

eielele/2l2 2 ele el

SBleiaie le lee le lo) ee

| sh. | 2 3 te

1S) he le | WER Tel D ISSR Gi) 3

oa | 5. | -5.| Soa | o ARI gal “au lony,

_As this is an odd order, perversion doubles these numbers, making 714 elevenfold
nots, with crossings alternately over and under.

3. It has been thought unnecessary to show upon the Plates more than one form
f each knot; all, however, have been drawn. Knots of each class having the same
ber of forms are grouped together to make more simple the identification of a
cular elevenfold. A small figure following the series number upon the plates
ndicates how many distinct forms each knot can assume. Knots 84, 357, and 238, are
nisplaced.

4. Below each knot-form figured will be found the number of the corresponding
form in Mr KirKmay’s manuscript, and partition symbols to which the following table
gives the key :—
VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 9.) : 250

wa

bo
|

54

PROFESSOR C. N. LITTLE ON ALTERNATE KNO'IS OF ORDER ELEVEN.

bo

bw tw te tw

Qa oo

bo

as)

S24 q0H wn4ZR RAH
Oo 9 pp Nh lUtlOUNDlUNCUWNlCUWN lg

a
=t}

nw

NK SA

te

KS et WHDRHPONWOAMZEBHAH TOR yaQOW>

Crass VI.

674,23
67372?
65723
65432?
65382
64°372
643*
ies Pe
574222
574322
5°34
54°32
5 423°
4432

i >> Hs Sx 6 = a Gee Ao

Crass’ V.

8223
87322
8642?
86322
85222
85432
853°
84°2
84232
774.2?
Cx2Z
1652"
76432
763°
75232
75422
75432
74°3
6°22
67532
67422
62432

Sra osm

672°
6532
64°3*
643728
6342?
574.24
573228
54°328
54332?
532
4493
43372?
4°342
43°

5726
5432°
53°24
432°
423724
43423
362?

Cuiass V.—continued.
Y 65742
Zi 65°"
E, 654°3
A, 644
B, 5#2
C, 5348
D; 524.3

Crass IV.
ae AOPae y 4°27
f 9882 6 43726
g 9742 e 342
h 973?
1 9652
9643
9573
954?
8232
8752
8743
8653
8574
1262
(36
7742
7673
7654
fee

Sescraxyeyos Snr

Crass III.
1022 B 3298
1084
1062
826

20 S&S

Cuass II.
a 11? ry Vee

ond

PROFESSOR C. N. LITTLE ON ALTERNATE KNOTS OF ORDER ELEVEN. 255

5. The manner of using these plates to identify a given elevenfold knot can
be seen from the following example. Having drawn at

yandom the figure in the margin, it is to be noticed that it is a Sas

— reduced, non-composite form of eleven crossings. Mark the kp
parts of the leading partition, and write down Lisrive’s type eo
symbol— ay
: 623222

54°32

As the leading partition has six parts, the knot belongs to Class VI. Write now
a graph of the leading partition showing how the parts are arranged :—

VY BBN
G—2— 6
Sere

;

The two 6-gons have six connections, a 3-gon and 2-gon, a 2-gon, a 3-gon, and two
single crossings, which may be represented, in order, by a, b, c, d, d, and these letters
have six circular arrangements as follows :—

abedd bedad
acbdd acdbd
cabdd abded,

—2—3=
ee
=3—2—

There are, therefore, eighteen distinct forms of this knot. A glance at Plate IL.
shows that it is the last of the six eighteen-form knots there given—No. 353.

A

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se
iw yer Abbe
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Vol. KXXVI.

Eee a
Trans. Roy. Soo. Edin‘ PROF. LITTLE ON ALTERNATE + KNOTS OF ORDER ELEVEN. PI. 1.
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ee ee ee eee ee ee, a = 8 =

X.—On the Foundations of the Kinetic Theory of Gases. IV. By Prof. Tarr.

(Read Jan. 21, 1889, and April 6, 1891.)

INDEX TO CONTENTS.

PAGE PAGE
Preliminary, . - . 260| Part XXI. Relation between Kinetic Energy and
Part XIX. The Tegiienmnal igustions of VAN DER Temperature, . : ; e266
WAALS and CLAUSIUS, ; 260 2
» XX. The Virial Equation for aaa Spheri se oe Eipaiouyot isothermal a oats
cal Particles, . . 263] ,, XXIII. Comparison with Experiment, . . 269

[A few words are necessary to explain why the present paper has hitherto been printed
in Abstract only, and to show what modifications it has undergone since it was read more
than two years ago.

In the paper, as it was first presented to the Society, I contented myself with the usual
practice of extracting from the virial a negative term (—p) to represent at least a
portion of the part due to the molecular repulsion at impact. But, as will be seen by
the Abstract printed at the time (Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., 21/1/89), I stated that though
this procedure is correct when molecular attraction is not taken into account, it requires
considerable modification when such attractions are introduced. I also stated that its
main effect would be to alter one of the disposable quantities (A) in my equation. I[
have since seen that the definition, of what we are now to understand by “ temperature,”

which I then introduced, leads naturally and directly to the writing of a part of A in the
form

—e(E+C/(v+y)),

where E is proportional to the absolute temperature and to the average energy of a free
particle. This remark really substitutes the new undetermined quantity e for the @
which occurred in my former expression. But the equation in its new form, though
containing as many arbitrary constants as before, is considerably more simple to deal
with, as p occurs only in the term pv, in which both factors are directly given by
experiment. The term p(v—f) was a source of great trouble in the attempt to deter-
mine the proper values of the constants. It was recognised by Van DER WaaLs, even
in his earliest paper, that the quantity 6 suffers large changes of value, with changes
of volume of the gas, so that no formula in which it is treated as a constant could
suffice to represent more than a moderate volume-range of the isothermals with any
consistent degree of accuracy.

When I first read my paper, I had made no serious attempt to attack the formidable
VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 10.) Hy Ae

258 PROFESSOR TAIT ON THE

numerical problem of determining values of the constants which should adapt my main
formula to ANDREWS’ experimental data. I contented myself with obviously (and pro-
fessedly) provisional assumptions, which showed that it was well fitted to represent the
results; but I also gave the relations among the constants of the formula and the data
as to the mass, and the critical values of the pressure, volume, and temperature of the
substance.

Later, having carefully reduced ANDREWS’ data to true pressures (by the help of
AMAGAT’S determinations of the isothermals of air at ordinary temperatures), I proceeded
to try various assumptions as to the values of the quantities 0, p, a in my formule, on
which (as = 80°'9 C. was already given by ANDREWS with great precision) all the constants
can be made to depend. I at first endeavoured to adjust these so as to make 8 =0°0017,
in consequence of a statement by Amacat (Ann. de Chimie, 1881, xxii. p. 397) as to
the ultimate volume of CO, But I failed to get results giving more than a general
accordance with ANDREWS’ experiments; so that | made further guesses without taking
account of this datum. I had, however, become accustomed to the employment of it, as
a quantity of the order 10~* of the volume of the gas at 0° C. and 1 atm., so that |
was much surprised to find that one of my chance assumptions, which gave 6 =0°00005,
led to a formula far more closely agreeing with ANDREWS than any I had till then
met with. The reason for this agreement is now obvious :—The term —fp is not the
proper expression for the part of the virial which it is intended to represent; and the
true mode of introducing that part is, as pointed out in my Abstract, to alter the
value of A from isothermal to isothermal, and from volume to volume.

In January last I happened to ask M. Amacar if he could give me the value of pu for
CO, at 0° C. and 1 atm., which is wanting in his remarkable table (in the Ann. de
Chime, above referred to). In reply he kindly furnished me with a new and extremely
complete set of determinations of pv, in terms of p, for CO,; the range of pressures being
1 to 1000 atm., and of temperature 0° to 100° C., some special isothermals up to 258° being
added. My first step on receiving these data was to try how far they agreed with
AnpreEws’ results, which I had carefully plotted (to true pressures) from 31°'1 to 41° C.,
and for volumes from ‘03 to ‘002. My object was to discover, if possible, by compari-
son of the results of two such exceptionally trustworthy experimenters, whether any
modification of the behaviour of CO, is (as some theoretical writers have asserted)
produced by the molecular forces due to the walls of the very fine tubes in which
ANDREWS’ measurements were made. I could find nothing of the sort. The isothermals,
plotted from Amacat’s numbers (which in no case were for any of ANDREWS’ tempera-
tures), took their places in the diagram almost as if they had been an additional part of
the work of one experimenter. The slight discrepancies at the smaller volumes were
obviously due to the trace (1/500) of air which, as ANDREWS pointed out, was associated
with the carbonic acid in his tubes.

But, although I have got from them only negative information as to the molecular
effects said to be due to glass, AMAGAT’s isothermals are so regularly spread over the

FOUNDATIONS OF THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES. 259

diagram as to be far more readily available for calculation than are those of ANDREWS.
I have not, however, the leisure requisite for anything like an exhaustive treatment of
them; and all that I have attempted is to obtain values of the constants in my formula
which make it a fair representation of the phenomena in the experimentally investigated
range of the gas region of the diagram; and, more especially, that portion of it
where the volume exceeds the critical volume. It appears to me that to try to push the
approximation further at present would be waste of time; it cannot be attempted with
any hope of much improvement until certain points, referred to below, have been

_ properly investigated. ‘These may lead to modifications of parts of the formula which,

though unimportant in the regions now treated, may greatly improve its agreement
with the facts, in the remaining portions of the diagram. Besides, there is in the data
the uncertainty due to the presence of air, which was not wholly removed (though
reduced to 1/2500) even in AMaGat’s experiments. This, as above remarked, begins to
tell especially when the volume is small.

It is very much to be regretted that Cravusrus did not avail himself of Amacat’s
data in reducing ANDREWS’ scale of pressures. He expressly says he rejected them
because they were not consistent with those of Carteret. Hence the formula which he
obtained after great arithmetical labour, though it is in close, sometimes in almost start-
ling, agreement with the data through the range of ANDREWS’ work, is not properly a
relation among p,v, and t. If we make it such, by putting in the correction (in terms
of v) for the pressures as measured by the air-manometer, a new v-factor is introduced into
the equation, and its simplicity (which is one of its most important characteristics) is lost.
I tried to obtain hints for the values of the constants in my own formula by making this
change in that of CLaustus. But I found that the factor 1/¢ which Ciaustus introduced
into the virial term (in order to approximate to the effect of the aggregation of particles
into groups at the lower ranges of temperature), made his formula inapplicable to the
wide regions of the diagram which AnpREws did not attack, but which have been so
efficiently explored by AMacat. There are, no doubt, traces of this systematic divergence
even in the special ANDREWS region, but they become much more obvious in the outlying
parts.

It is certainly remarkable that my simple formula, based entirely on the behaviour of
smooth spheres, should be capable of so close an adjustment to the observed facts ; and I
think that the agreement affords at least very strong testimony in favour of the proposed
mode of reckoning the temperature of a group of particles. When this is introduced, it
appears at once that the term of VAN DER WAALS’ equation, which he took to represent
Laptace’s K, is not the statical pressure due to molecular forces, but (approximately) its
excess over the repulsion due to the speed of the particles. And hence the (external)
pressure is not, as CLaustus put it, ultimately the difference between two very large
quantities, but the excess of one very large quantity over the very large difference between
two enormously great quantities ; and thus the whole phenomena of a highly-compressed
gas, or a liquid, are to be regarded as singular examples of kinetic stability. 28/5/91. |

260 PROFESSOR TAIT ON THE

Preliminary.

In the preceding part of this paper I considered the consequences of a special assump-
tion as to the nature of the molecular force between two particles, the particles themselves
being still regarded as hard, smooth, spheres. My object was to obtain, by means of
rigorous calculation, yet in as simple a form as possible, a general notion of the effects
due to the molecular forces. My present objects are (1) to apply this general notion to
the formation and interpretation of the virial equation (in an approximate form), and (2)
to apply the results to the splendid researches of ANDREWS and their recent extension by
the truly magnificent measurements of AMAGAT.

Passing over some papers of Hrrn and others, in which the earliest attempts were
made (usually on totally erroneous grounds) to form the equation of the isothermals of
a gas in which molecular forces are prominent, we come to the Thesis of VAN DER
WaAALS,* who was the first to succeed in representing, by a simple formula, the main
characteristics of ANDREWS’ results. His process is based upon the virial equation, and
his special object seems to have been an attempt to determine the value of the molecular
constant usually called ‘‘ Laptacer’s K.” Though the whole of this essay is extremely
ingenious, and remarkably suggestive, it contains (even in its leading ideas) much that is
very doubtful, and some things which are certainly incorrect. One of these was specially
alluded to by CierK-MaxweELt,t who, in reviewing the essay, said :—‘‘ Where he has
borrowed results from Cxausius and others, he has applied them in a manner which
appears to me to be erroneous.” It will conduce to clearness if I commence with an
examination of the equation which is the main feature of Van DER Waats’ Thesis, and
the modifications which it underwent in the hands of Ciaustus.

X1IX.—The Isothermal Equations of Van der Waals and Clausius.

64. The virial equation (§ 30, above) is
13m) = §pv-+42(Re);
where, to save confusion, we employ u to denote the speed of the particle whose mass is
m. From this Van per Waats derives the following expression :—

(p+ S)v-B)=33(mu) ;

and he treats the right-hand member as a constant multiple of the absolute temperature.
(This last point is of extreme importance, but I shall discuss it farther on ; at present I
confine myself to the formation of the equation.)

* Over de continuiteit van den gas- en vloeistoftoestand. Leiden, 1873. + Nature, Oct. 15, 1874.

FEE

FOUNDATIONS OF THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES. 261

It is certain (§ 30) that, when there is no molecular force except elastic resilience, the

term
45(Rr)

in the virial equation takes, to a first approximation at least, the form of a numerical

multiple of
_>(mu?) ,
vy) y)

and thus that, if this term be small in comparison with the other terms in the equation,

we may call it
— Pp.
Thus the virial equation becomes

p—B)=43(mu),

[So far, all seems perfectly legitimate ; though, as will be seen later, I think it has led to
a good deal of confusion :—at all events, it has retarded progress, by introducing what was
taken as a direct representation of the “ ultimate volume” to which a substance can be
reduced by infinite pressure. When this idea was once settled in men’s minds, it seemed
natural and reasonable, and consequently the left-hand member of the virial equation
is now almost universally written p(v—); although, even in Van DER Waats’ Thesis, it
was pointed out that comparison with experiment shows that 8 cannot be regarded as a
constant. But its introduction is obviously indefensible, except in the special case of no
molecular force. |

VAN DER Waats’ next step is as follows :—Although p, in the virial equation, has
been strictly defined as external pressure (that exerted by the walls of the containing
vessel), he adds to it, in the last-written form of the equation (deduced on the express
assumption of the absence of molecular force), a term a/v’, which is to represent
Laptace’s K. Thus he obtains his fundamental equation

(p+ %))o—6)=130m,

or, as it is more usually written (in consequence of the assumption about absolute tem-
perature, already noticed),

aye so
P= y—B ae

where & is an absolute constant, depending on the quantity of gas, and to be determined
by the condition that the gas has unit volume at 0° C. and 1 atmosphere.

Ido not profess to be able fully to comprehend the arguments by which VAN DER
WAALS attempts to justify the mode in which he obtains the above equation. Their
nature is somewhat as follows. He repeats a good deal of Lapiace’s capillary work ; in
which the existence of a large, but unknown, internal molecular pressure is established,

262 PROFESSOR TAIT ON THE

entirely from a statical point of view. He then gives reasons (which seem, on the
whole, satisfactory from this point of view) for assuming that the magnitude of this
force is as the square of the density of the aggregate of particles considered. But his
justification of the introduction of the term a/v’ into an account already closed, as it
were, escapes me. He seems to treat the surface-skin of the group of particles as if it
were an additional bounding-surface, exerting an additional, and enormous, pressure on
the contents. Even were this justifiable, nothing could justify the multiplying of this
term by (v—) instead of by v alone. But the whole procedure is erroneous. If one
begins with the virial equation, one must keep strictly to the assumptions made in
obtaining it, and consequently everything connected with molecular force, whether of
attraction or of elastie resilience, must be extracted from the term (Rr).

It is very strange that Ciaustrus,* to whom we owe the virial equation, should not
have protested against this striking misuse of it, but should have contented himself with
making modifications (derived from general considerations, such as aggregation of par-
ticles, &c.) which put VAN DER WAALS’ equation in the form

se areal Ba.
P~y—B iu+ay

65. Van DER WAALS’ equation gives curves, whose general resemblance to those plotted
by Anprews for CO, is certainly remarkable :—and it has the further advantage of repro-
ducing, for temperatures below the critical point, the form of isothermals (with physically
unstable, and therefore experimentally unrealisable, portions) which was suggested by
JAMES THOMSON, as an extension of ANDREWS’ work. For a reason which will presently
appear (§ 67), VAN DER Waats’ curves cannot be made to coincide with those of ANDREWS.

The modified equation of Ciaustus, however, seems to fit ANDREWS’ work much
better :—but the coincidence with the true isothermals is much more apparent than real,
because CLausius’ work is based on the measurement of pressures by the air-manometer,
as they were originally given by ANDREws, who had not the means of reducing them to
absolute measure.

But a further remark of CLERK-MaxwELt’s (in the review above cited) is quite as
applicable to the results of CLaustus as to those of Van per WAALS, viz. :—‘ Though this
agreement would be strong evidence in favour of the accuracy of an empirical formula
devised to represent the experimental results, the equation of M. Van per WAALS, pro-
fessing as it does to be deduced from the dynamical theory, must be subjected to a much
more severe criticism.”

66. Before I leave this part of the subject, I will, for the sake of future reference, put
the equations of Van per Waats and Ciavstus in a form which I have found to be
very convenient, viz. :—

eo ee
p=P(1- 2) + ong td =z

* Annalen der Physth, ix, 1880.

LE

FOUNDATIONS OF THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES. 263

and

p=7(1-G wera) +(Heticto) Weer. (BR)

In these equations #, 0, ~ belong to the critical point, determined by the conditions that
at such a point p is a minimax in terms of v. The special advantage of this mode of
representing the isothermals depends on the fact that the first part of the value of p
belongs to the critical isothermal; so that by comparing, at any one volume, the
pressures in different isothermals (as given experimentally) we have a comparatively
simple numerical method of calculating the values of some of the constants in the
equation.

67. But, even if we were to regard the formula of VaN DER WAALS as a purely
empirical one, there is a fatal objection to it in the fact that it contains only two dispos-
able constants. Thus, if it were correct, the extraordinary consequence would follow that
there is a necessary relation among the three quantities, pressure, volume, and tempera-
ture, at the critical point :—so that, no matter what the substance, when two of these
are given the third can be calculated from them. I do not see any grounds on which
we are justified in‘assuming that this can be the case. Certainly, if it were established
as a physical truth, it would give us views of a much stronger kind than any we yet
have as to the essential unity of all kinds of matter. Van DER Waats seems to have
taken his idea in this matter from one of ANDREWS’ papers, in which there is a
hazardous, and therefore unfortunate, speculation of a somewhat similar character. Any-
how, it would seem that, at least until experiment proves the contrary, we are bound to
provide, in our theoretical work, for the mutual independence of at least the three follow-
ing quantities :—

1. The diameters of the particles.
2. The range of sensible molecular force.
3. The maximum relative potential energy of two particles.

Besides these, there is the question of the daw of molecular force, which we are certainly
not entitled to assume as necessarily the same in all bodies, This has most important
bearings on the formation of doublets, triplets, &c., at lower temperatures.

The modified formula of Cuaustus has one additional constant, and is therefore not
so much exposed to the above objections as is that of Van per Waats. Still I think it
has at least one too few.

XX.—The Virial Equation for attracting Spherical Particles.

68. What is required is not an exact equation, for this is probably unattainable even
when we limit ourselves to hard spherical particles. To be of practical value the equation
must (while presenting a fair approximation to the truth) be characterised by simplicity.
And, should the experimental data require it, we must be prepared to give the equation
of any one isothermal in two or more forms, corresponding to various ranges of volume.

264 PROFESSOR TAIT ON THE

It is exceedingly improbable (when we think of the mechanism involved) that any really
simple expression will give a fair agreement with an isothermal throughout the whole
range of volumes which can be experimentally treated.

From the general results of Part III. of this paper we see that the term

42(mu?)

in the virial equation must, when molecular forces are taken into account, contain a
term proportional to the number of particles which are at any (and therefore at every)
time within molecular range of one another. Hence if, when the volume is practically
infinite, we have for the mean-square speed of a particle

E
Pen
ae
(where 7 is the whole number of particles), we shall have, when the volume is not too
much reduced, no work having been done on the group from without,

Cun
1E(mu)=E+ oe

where C and y may be treated as constants, the first essentially positive if the
molecular force be attractive, the second of uncertain sign. Even if the volume
be very greatly reduced it is easy to see, from the following considerations, that
a similar expression holds. The work done on a particle which joins a dense group
is, on account of the short range of the forces, completed before it has entered much
beyond the skin, and is proportional, ceteris paribus, to the skin-density. Hence

the whole work done on the group by the molecular forces is (roughly) proportional
to

UP: Po>

the first factor expressing the number of the particles, the second the work done on
each. But, as we are dealing with a definite group of particles, the first factor is
constant, so that the whole work is directly as p,, or inversely as (say) u+y, because
pox<p. But the work represents the gain in kinetic energy over that in the free
state, so that this mode of reasoning leads us to the same result as the former for
the average kinetic energy of all the particles.

In so far as R depends on the molecular attraction, the term

43(Rr)

is evidently proportional, per unit volume of the group, to the square of the
density :—for the particles, in consequence of their rapid motions, may be treated
as occupying within an excessively short time every possible situation with regard
to one another. Thus, as regards any one, the mass of all the rest may be treated

—— ee

FOUNDATIONS OF THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES. 265

as diffused uniformly through the space they occupy. In volume v, therefore, the
amount is as vp. But, in the present case, the quantity vp is constant, so that,
again, the approximate value of the term is directly as p, or inversely as v. But,
once more, we must allow for the bounding film (though not necessarily to the same
exact amount as before), so we may write this part of the term as

=

U+a’
But there is. another part (negative) which depends on resilience. This is (§ 30) pro-
portional to the average kinetic energy, and to the number of particles and the number
of collisions per particle per second. The two last of these factors are practically the
same as those employed for the molecular attraction. Hence the whole of the virial term
may be written as

A—eE+Clvt+y))
Uta

Thus if we write again A and C for

ee Gace
cc a-y

respectively, the complete equation takes the form

Co Ate
Uty vta’

pou=E+

which is certainly characterised by remarkable simplicity.

69. We must now consider how far it is probable that the quantities in the above
expression (other than p and v) can be regarded as constant. LH, of course, can be altered
only by direct communication of energy; but the case of the others is different.
Generally, it may be stated that there must be a particular volume (depending
primarily upon the diameters of the particles) at and immediately below which the
mean free path undergoes an almost sudden diminution, and therefore we should ex-
pect to find corresponding changes in the constants. In particular, it must be noted
that some of them depend directly on the length of the free path, and that somewhat
abrupt changes in their values must occur as soon as the particles are so close to one
another that the mean free path becomes nearly equal to their average distance from
their nearest neighbours. For then the number of impacts per second suffers a sudden
and large increase. Thus, 7 consequence of the finite size of the particles, we may be
perfectly prepared to find a species of discontinuity in any simple approximate form of
the virial equation. From this point of view it would appear that there is not (strictly)
a “ critical volume” of an assemblage of hard spheres, but rather a sort of short range
of volume throughout which this comparatively sudden change takes place. Thus the
critical Isothermal may be regarded as having (like those. of lower temperature) a finite

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 10). 28

266 PROFESSOR TAIT ON THE

portion which is practically straight and parallel to the axis of volume. That this
conclusion is apparently borne out by experimental facts (so far at least as these are not
modified by the residual trace of air) will be seen when we make the comparison.

In fact we might speak of a superior and an inferior critical volume, and the portions
of the isothermals beyond these limits on both sides may perhaps have equations of the
same form, but with finite changes in some at least of the constants.

Another source of a species of discontinuity in some, at least, of the constants is a
reduction of E to such an extent that grouping of the spheres into doublets, triplets, &c.,
becomes possible. ‘Thus we have a hint of the existence of a “ critical temperature.”

It must be confessed that, while we have only an approximate knowledge of the length
of the mean free path (even among equal non-attracting spheres) when it amounts only to
some two or three diameters, we practically know almost nothing about its exact value
when the volume is so much reduced that no particle has a path longer than one diameter.

[It might be objected to the equation arrived at above, should it be found on com-
parison with experiment that a and y are both positive, that it will not make p infinite
unless v vanish. To this I need only reply that the equation has been framed on
the supposition that the particles are in motion, and therefore free to move. What
may happen when they become jammed together is not a matter of much physical
interest, except perhaps from the point of view of dilatancy. If the equation
represents, with tolerable accuracy, all the cases which can be submitted to experi-
ment, it will fully satisfy all lawful curiosity. |

XXI'— Relation between Kinetic Energy and Temperature.

70. Before we can put the above virial equation into the usual form of a relation
among p, v, and ¢, it is necessary that we should consider how the temperature of
an assemblage of particles depends upon their average kinetic energy.

Van DER WaaLs.and Cxaustus, following the usual custom, take the average kinetic
energy as being proportional to the absolute temperature. CLERK-MAXWELL is more
guarded, but he says:—‘The assumption that the kinetic energy is determined by
the absolute temperature is true for perfect gases, and we have no evidence that
any other law holds for gases, even near their liquefying point.”

On this question I differ completely from these great authorities, and may err
- absolutely. Yet I have many grave reasons on my side, one of which is immediately
connected with the special question on hand. To take this reason first, although it
is by no means the strongest, it appears to me that only if E above (with a constant
added, when required, as will presently be shown) is regarded as proportional to
the absolute temperature, can the above equation be in any sense accurately con-
sidered as that of an Isothermal. If the whole kinetic energy of the particles is
treated as proportional to the absolute temperature, the various stages of the gas
as its volume changes with E constant correspond to changes of temperature with-

FOUNDATIONS OF THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES. 267

out direct loss or gain of heat, and belong rather to a species of Adiabatic than
to an Isothermal. Neither Van per Waats nor Cxaustus, so far as I can see, calls
attention to the fact that when there are molecular forces the mean-square speed of
the particles necessarily increases with diminution of volume, even when the mean-
square speed of a free particle is maintained unaltered; and this simply because the
time during which each particle is free is a smaller fraction of the whole time.
But when the whole kinetic energy is treated as a constant (as it must be im an
Isothermal, when that energy is taken as measuring the absolute temperature), it is
clear that isothermal compression must reduce the value of E. It further follows that
the temperature of a gas might be enormously raised if its volume were sufliciently
reduced by the process (capable of being carried out by CLeRK-Maxwutu’s Demons) of
advancing, at every instant, those infinitesimal portions of the containing walls on which
no impact is impending. ‘This is certainly not probable. If, on the other hand, we were
to look at the matter from the point of view of intense inter-molecular repulsion (such as,
for instance, CLERK-MAXwWELL’s well-known hypothesis of repulsion inversely as the fifth
power of the distance, which was so enthusiastically lauded by Bottzmann), we should be
led to the very singular conclusion that such an assemblage of particles might possibly
be cooled even by ordinary compression ; certainly that the Demons could immensely
cool it by diminishing its volume without doing work upon it.

If this mode of reasoning be deemed unsatisfactory, we may at once fall back on
thermodynamic principles; for these show that a gas could not be in equilibrium if
either external, or molecular, potential could establish a difference of temperature from
one region of it to another. For it must be carefully remembered (though it is very often
forgotten) that temperature-differences essentially involve the transference of heat, on the
whole, in one direction or the other between bodies in contact :—so that if there be a
cause which can produce these temperature-differences, it is to be regarded as a source of
at least restoration of energy. Let the contents of equal volumes at different parts of a
tall column of gas under constant gravity be compared. In each the pressure may be
regarded, so far as it is due to the external potential, as being applied by bounding*
walls. But the temperature is the same in each, and the only other quantity which is
the same in each is E. For, as the particles are free to travel from point to point
throughout the whole extent of the group, the average value of E must be the same for

all; and, therefore, in regions where the density is small, it must be that of free particles :

—i.é., absolute temperature.

71. For the isothermal formation of liquid, heat must in all cases be taken from the
group. This must have the effect of diminishing the value of E. Hence, in a liquid, the
temperature is no longer measured by E, but by E+c, where c is a quantity whose value
increases steadily, as the temperature is lowered, from the value zero at the critical point.
Thus, since of course we must take the physical fact of the existence of liquids as a new
datum in our calculations, and with it the agglomeration into doublets, triplets, &c.
(whose share of the average energy differs in general from that of their components when

268 PROFESSOR TAIT ON THE

free), we see that the state of aggregation which we call liquid is such that, as it is made
colder and colder, a particle which can escape from it requires to have more and more ~
than its average share of the non-molecular part of the energy.

We might be tempted to generalise further, and to speculate on the limiting condi-
tions between the liquid and the solid states. But these, and a host of other curious
and important matters suggested by the present speculation, prominent among which
is the question of the density of saturated vapour at different temperatures (with the
mechanism of the equilibrium of temperature between the liquid and the vapour), must
be deferred to the next part of this paper. It is sufficient to point out here how
satisfactorily the present mode of regarding the subject fits itself to the grand facts
regarding latent heat, and to its steady diminution as the pressure under which ebulli-
tion takes place is gradually raised to the critical value. What we are called upon to do
now is to justify, by comparison with experiment, the hypothesis which we have adopted
as to the proper physical definition of temperature, and the form of the virial equation to
which it has led us. If we have any measure of success in this, we may regard the
main difficulty of at least the elements of these further problems as having been to
some extent removed.

What has been said above leads us, in the succeeding developments, to write (so long
at least as we are dealing with vapour or gas)

Het:

where ¢ is the absolute temperature, and R (whose employment is now totally changed)
is practically the rate of increase of pressure with temperature at unit volume, under
ordinary conditions.

XXII.—The Equation of Isothermals.

72. Assuming the definition of temperature given in last section, the virial equation

of § 70 becomes
vce

m= R14 vty v+a

U+ra

For the minimax, which occurs at the critical point, we must have simultaneously

But
oP A—Ret C
Vn + P= wea? wey

ye? ofp _ _ ARet | 2019) |
"de “du (v+ta)®> (v+y)’ ' i

FOUNDATIONS OF THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES. 269

Denoting by a bar quantities referring to the critical point, these equations give

eASRet C
PD @+a? (+7)
_ A—Ret C

(O+a)> (+)
whence
ned ae gS).
yee a—y

But the first equation of this section can be written as

A-Ré, © |
Uta vU+y¥

po=R(1 + )t-)+RE—

By the help of the values of A—Rez#, and C, just found, and the further condition that
Pp, 0, t satisfy this general equation, we can easily put it in the form

eee =) e \t-t
p=7(1 SS eae: 2 te Ye ©)

There are seven constants in this equation :—viz., p, 0, t, a, y, e, and R; but there are
two relations among them, one furnished by the usual condition that the gas treated has
unit volume at 0° C., and 1 atm. ; the other (from the conditions of the minimax) being
ss Rt
ee ae eae
73. If we compare (C) with the corresponding forms of the equations of VAN DER
Waats and Ciavustus ((A) and (B) of § 66 above) we see that all three agree in a remark-
able manner as to the form of the equation of the critical isothermal. In fact, the only
difference is that in (C) the divisor of (v—%)* contains three distinct factors, while in
each of (A) and (B) two of the three factors are equal. It is quite otherwise with the
term which expresses the difference of ordinates between the critical isothermal and any
other of the series :—so that even if all three equations agreed in giving the correct form
of the critical isothermal no two of them could agree for any other.

XXII.— Comparison with Experiment.

74. We must now compare our formula with experiment. And here I have been
exceptionally fortunate, as the kindness of M. Amacat has not only provided me with a
complete set of values of pv in terms of p for CO, between the limits 1 to 1000 atm. and
0° to 100° C., but has further replied to my request for a set of values of p, at different

temperatures, for certain special values of v. This important table I give in full, inserting

columns of differences. It is very much better adapted than the former to numerical
calculation, as the form of the virial equation requires that v should, for this purpose,
be treated as the independent variable.

270 PROFESSOR TAIT ON THE

Pressure of CO, in terms of Volume and Temperature (AMAGAT).

At 0° C. and 1 atm. the volume is unity. After the experiments were completed the CO, was tested, and left
0:0004 of its volume when absorbed by potash.
The interpolated columns are differences (or average differences, if in brackets) of pressure for
10° at constant volume.

Vol. 02385 “01636 013 ‘01 00768 00578 00428 ‘00316 “0025 002 ‘00187
0 31 34°4 aS 34°4 307°5
2 74 10 10 10 10 10 10
10 33 41°8 44°4 a3 44°4 404
2 3:3 67 119 12 12 12 12 116
20 35 45:1 51°1 56°3 56°4 56°4 64 300 520
2 3-2 4 65 11:9 14:3 14:3 151 45 84 1075
30 37 48°3 55'5 62°8 68°3 70°77 71°5 109 384 627 .
32 S7"4 49 564 64°1 70 73°7 74:6 77
35 38 49°9 57°6 65'8 726 772 79'5 84°7
2 31 4-2 58 83 12-4 171 26°5 46 865 122°5
40 39 51-4 59°7 68°6 76°6 83°1 7°8 98 155 470°5 75
19 31 41 59 82 11:6 0 3 46 89°5 106%
50 40°9 54°5 63-8 745 84°8 94°7 104'8 125°3 201 560 , 6
19 31 40 57 80 28°5 4 91 97
60 42°8 57°6 67°8 80°2 92°8 106°2 121°9 153°8 250°5 651 953°5
19 3-0 4:0 56 1 70 29-4 48 94
70 44:7 60°6 71°8 85°8 100°6 117°5 138°9 1832 298°5 745
19 29 39 5D 2 47°5 8
80 46°6 63°5 757 91:3 108°2 128°8 156°3 211°5 346 832°5
19 3:0 39 54 29 4 85
90 48°5 66°5 79°6 96°7 116 140:2 173°5 240°5 394°5 918
2 30 4:0 56 78 11 17°6 30°5 49 80
100 50°D roe 69°5 as 83°6 oh 102°3 123°8 151°3 1911 271 4 ee nid
. : [3°7 (5-1) [7-2] [10:6] [16-4] [28] 46"
137°5 67 oeh 80 25 9) 25 151 3 . 619
2 : [3°7] [5°3] 72 10:9] 171 [29-4] [48]
198 68 ane 97 Ne 120 153°5 195 sie 7 ‘ pate 554 909
3 ‘75 2°5 [3°3] [4:6] 66 9:8] [15-6]
258 78°5 112 140 181 234°5 ae 316 : 4495

It is obvious, from a glance at the columns of differences, that the change of pressure
at constant volume, while the CO, is not liquid, is almost exactly proportional to the
change of temperature. M. Amacat expressly warned me that the three last tempera-
tures in the table are only approximate, as they were not derived from air-thermometers, _
but simply from the boiling-points of convenient substances.

They appear to indicate a slow diminution of dp/dt (v constant) as the temperature
is raised above 100° C., but this is beside our present purpose.

Leaving them out of account, we find that in the range 31° to 100° C. the fluctuations
of the changes of pressure per 10° (at constant volume) are very small, and do not seem
to follow any law. These fluctuations besides are, especially when the volume of the gas
is small, well within the inevitable errors of observation in a matter of such difficulty.
Hence we take a simple average in each column ; and thus we have the following table :—

Average Change of Pressure per 10° of Temperature at Constant Volume.

v 02385 01636 013 ‘01 00768 00578 00428 00316 -0025 ‘002 =00187

Ap 193 30 40 56 79 Qld 172 985 478 877 a0em
vAp 046 049 052 +056 061 066 ‘074 090 120 175 20?
Calc § 046 049 052 056 061 . 068 077 087

( 061 073 093 122 175 20

FOUNDATIONS OF THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES. 271

The numbers in the fourth row are the values of

10000371 +7 poet)

v+0001

and those in the fifth row are from

10(000371 + O000T )

v—0:0012)°

It is clear that these formule give fair approximations to the data, the first for volumes
down to 0°005 or so, the second for smaller volumes.
Comparing with formula (C) of § 72, we see that the values of R, Re, and a are

respectively
000371, 0000021, and 0-001

for the larger volumes, and
0:00371, 0:000011, and —0-0012

for the smaller. The values of y and 0 can now be determined by the relation in § 72,
and a few experimental data. After a number of trials I arrived at

v=0°0046,

as most consonant with the data for larger volumes ; and I have provisionally assumed

the value
v=0:004

for the lower range of volumes, in agreement with what was said in § 69 above as to the
probable existence of a short, horizontal, portion of the critical isothermal. The value
of y for the first portion of the curve is found to be 0:0008 ; and I have assumed it to be
—0°0008 for the rest, thus ignoring the condition for the minimax at the commencement
of this part of the curve. I consider this course to be fully justified by the arguments
given in§ 69 above. ‘Thus, taking from the assumption below the value 73 atm. for the
eritical pressure, we arrive at the following equations for the parts of the critical isothermal
which lie on opposite sides of the short, approximately straight, portion :—

“nal (v—0'0046)8
P =73(1 aus anieaaaa)
and

9)—()* \3
Grete ( Soe a, :

In a careful plotting of the isothermals of CO, from the whole of Amagar’s data
(including, of course, those given above), I inserted, by means of differences calculated from
the preceding formule for dp/dt, the probable isothermal of 31° C. This is only 0°°1
higher than the critical temperature as given by ANDREWS, which is certainly a little too
low in consequence of the small admixture of air. The experimental data in the follow-

272 PROFESSOR TAIT ON THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES.

ing table were taken directly from the curve so drawn. They are, of course, only
approximate :—especially for the smaller volumes, for there the curves are so steep that it
is exceedingly difficult to obtain exact values of the ordinates for any assigned volume.
It is also in this region that the effects of the slight trace of air are most prominent.

Approximate Isothermal of 31° C.
The third line is calculated from the first of the above formule, the fourth line from the second.

v 1 024 02 015 0125 01 0075 006 ‘005 0045 004 ‘0085 ‘003 0025 002

p (exp.) 112 371 424 516 572 634 696 724 729 73 78 732 76:8 114 392
ae fll3 872 425 514 570 638 696 728 7295 73 7316 744 796 964 149
Pie 4 730 732 7911176 377

For volumes down to 0°0035 the agreement is practically perfect. The remainder of the
data, even with the second formula, are not very well represented. The value of p for
volume 0°003 has given much trouble, and constitutes a real difficulty which I do not
at present see how to meet. It is quite possible that, in addition to the defects men-
tioned above, I may have myself introduced a more serious one by assuming too high a —
value for the lower critical volume, or by taking too low a temperature for the critical
isothermal. Had I selected the data for the isothermal of 31°°3 or so, it is certain that
(with a slight change in 0) the agreement with the formula would have been as good as
at present for the larger volumes, and it might have been much better for the smaller.
But I have not leisure to undertake such tedious tentative work. As it is, the formule
given above represent AMAGAT'’s results from 31° to 100° C. for volumes from 1 to 0°0035,
with a maximum error of considerably less than 1 atmosphere even at the smallest of these
volumes. And, even with the least of the experimental volumes, the approximations to
the corresponding (very large) pressures are nowhere in error by more than some 4 or 5
per cent. This is at least as much as could be expected even from a purely empirical
formula, but I hope that the relations given above (though still extremely imperfect) may
be found to have higher claims to reception.

[Since the above was put in type it has occurred to me that this remarkable agree-
ment, between the results of experiment on a compound gas, and those of a formula
deduced from the behaviour of hard, spherical, particles, may be traced to the fact that
the virial method is applicable, not only to the whole group of particles but (at every
instant) to the free particles, doublets, triplets, &c., in so far as the internal relations
of each are concerned. Hence the terms due to vibrations, rotations, and stresses, in
free particles, doublets, &c., will on the average cancel one another in the complete
virial equation. How far this statement can be extended to particles which are not
quite free will be discussed in the next instalment. 5/6/91. ]

( 273 )

XI.—Anatomical Description of Two New Genera of Aquatic Oligocheta. By Frank E.
BrpparD, M.A. (Oxon.), F.Z.S., Prosector of the Zoological Society of London,
and Lecturer on Biology at Guy’s Hospital. (With Three Plates).

(Read December 1, 1890.)

At present our knowledge of the exotic genera of the aquatic Oligocheta is not very
far advanced. During the last twenty years there has been a considerable accumulation
of descriptions of exotic Earthworms, but the lower Oligocheta have been much less
studied. The principal investigations into this group have been carried on by Ersen, who
has made us acquainted with a number of interesting forms, belonging to the families
Tubificide and Lumbriculide, from North America. Other naturalists, such as Lerpy,
have also dealt with the Oligochztous fauna of that country; but their papers have
chiefly had for their object the discrimination of genera and species, and are not so much
concerned with the description and delineation of anatomical structure. Beyond the
series of papers published by the above-mentioned authors, we have only a few scattered
memoirs by other writers upon exotic species of ‘‘ Iinucolous ” Oligocheeta.

Having recently been awarded, by the Government Grant Committee of the Royal
Society, a sum of money to assist me in the investigation of the Oligocheta, I have been
anxious not to limit myself to Harthworms, but to obtain as many specimens of the
aquatic forms as possible. In the following pages I describe two new genera from New
Zealand, and I hope to be able to offer to this Society later an account of the genus
Ocnerodrilus, of which I have received living examples from British Guiana.

DESCRIPTION OF PHREODRILUS SUBTERRANEUS, nov. gen. n.sp.

Concerning the locality and habits of this worm, Mr W. W. Smirx of Ashburton,
New Zealand, to whom I am much indebted for two specimens, writes as follows :-—

“The two examples of the subterranean species came up in the water of a well near
here. They are occasionally pumped up from various depths, according to the depth the
pipe is driven to reach the ‘flow.’ Their habits at great depths in the shingle of the
Canterbury Plains must be very remarkable, as all their motions are peculiarly snake-
like, and they are extremely nimble and rapid in moving through the water.”

The worms are described by Mr Smiru as being of a “fleshy red” colour during
life. Hach measures about 2 inches in length; even when preserved they have a
graceful appearance, due to the delicate, almost transparent, body walls, and to the pro-
jection of the long sete of the dorsal rows. |

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 11). 2T

ho
“I
He

MR FRANK E. BEDDARD

§ External Characters.

The characters of the sete alone show that this Annelid conforms to no genus of which
we have any adequate description. As in the majority of the Tubificide and the
Naidomorpha, the dorsal setze are capilliform ; but in Phreodrilus there is only a single
dorsal seta on each side of the body in the posterior segments. These setee have the form
which is illustrated in fig. 1, a. The portion implanted in the body is straight and of
some thickness; the free portion is slightly curved and tapers gradually towards its
extremity. Each of these setae was invariably accompanied by two reserve sete of the
same form, one on each side. In no instance did I observe more than a single mature
seta belonging to each of the two dorsal series. On the other hand, the ventral setze were
as invariably paired. The sete of the ventral series (see fig. 1, b) are of two kinds, a
single seta of each kind are found in every pair. In both cases the setee approximate in
shape to those of the Lumbriculidz and of Earthworms; the extremity is not bifid, and
shows no traces of having been worn down. The embedded portion of the seta is nearly
straight, but the free portion is much curved—more so than in the setz of the two
groups referred to. This, however, only applies to the larger of the two sete in each
pair ; the smaller seta has a less marked curvature. I could observe no difference in the
setee in the different regions of the body ; but as the worm was not fully mature, it does
not follow that such differences may not be developed later.

In every case the setee protruded from the apices of well-marked papille.

The prostonwum is obtuse, ending in a wide truncated anterior margin.

The clitellum was visible in neither of the two specimens.

The male genital apertures are paired, and lie on segment XII, in front of the

ventral setee.

The oviducal pores occupy a corresponding position in the interval between

segments XII/XITI.

The spermathecal pores lie in front of the dorsal setee of segment XIII.

§ Integument.

The integument had the same structure throughout. In neither of the specimens
which I examined was the clitellum developed, nor was there the very least indication of
the position of this organ, such as is sometimes afforded in immature Oligocheta. It is
evident therefore, that Phreodrilus, like some other genera, may reach a considerable
degree of sexual maturity of the internal organs without a corresponding development of
the clitellum. As Mr Smrrx has very kindly promised me to look out for some more
specimens of this very interesting Annelid, I may be able at some future time to fill up
this and other blanks in the present Memoir. The integument is covered externally by
the usual chitinous layer, and the epidermis presents no specially noteworthy differences
from other Oligocheta. The glandular cells were, however, remarkably clear and free

ON TWO NEW GENERA OF AQUATIC OLIGOCHATA. 275

from granules, and the interstitial cells seemed to be fewer in number than is ordinarily
the case.

The transverse muscular layer is only about two fibres wide. The longitudinal
muscles consist, as in other of the lower Oligocheta, of a row of muscle-plates, indicated
in fig. 14. These show in transverse sections a disposition to curl up at the free edge.
Isolated fragments of the longitudinal muscle lamelle are illustrated in fig. 15. They
are darkly stained and show no recognisable fibrillation.

§ Nephridia.

These organs commence only in the XI Vth segment (in the worm with sexual organs) ;
the whole organ is furnished with the large vesicular cells so commonly found attached
to the nephridia of the lower Oligochzeta. The funnel opens into the segment in front of
that in which the organ lies; it is small, and is placed to the side of the nerve cord.

§ Alimentary Tract.

As no known genus of the aquatic Oligocheta possesses a gizzard,* it is almost
unnecessary to state that Phreodrilus, which would certainly have been included by
CLAPAREDE in his Oligocheta Limicole, has no trace of such a structure. The alimentary
eanal of Phreodrilus has in other respects the usual simple structure of the lower
Oligocheta. It is also, as in the Naidomorpha and Enchytreeide, ciliated throughout, with
the exception only of the buccal cavity. The cilia of the pharynx and cesophagus are
shorter than those of the intestine, but not less obvious. The buccal cavity is dis-
tinguished by the short columnar cells by which it is lined. .It is abruptly marked off
from the pharynx, particularly on the dorsal side ; the obvious demarcation between the
two structures is not, however, due to a sudden change in the character of the cells, but
to their very rapid increase in length ; the dorsal wall of the pharynx is lined by very
tall cells, which in the space of three or four cells, change their character to the
comparatively flattened epithelium of the buccal cavity. The posterior limits of the
pharynx are not at all clearly marked; the epithelium very gradually decreases in
height, and it is impossible to fix upon any point which might be termed the junction
of the pharynx with the csophagus. The calibre of the intestine is greater than
that of the cesophagus, and its walls are in the same way highly vascular. The
transition between cesophagus and intestine is not very abrupt; the intestine seems
to commence in segment XIII.

§ Vascular System.

The vascular system in these smaller Annelids is most conveniently studied by
examining the living worm. As, however, I am not ever likely to have an oppor-

* The so-called gizzard of the Naidomorpha seems to be hardly comparable to the gizzard of Earthworms.

276 MR FRANK E, BEDDARD

tunity of doing this, I do not hesitate to set down the facts that I have been able to
gather from an inspection of one individual mounted in Canada balsam, and of a
complete series of longitudinal sections of another. ;

Previously to receiving, through the kindness of the author, Dr Sroxc’s beautifully
illustrated Memoir upon the Tubificidee of Bohemia [5], I should have been disposed to
consider that the presence or absence of a supra-intestinal vessel was characteristic of
CLAPAREDE’S two divisions of the Oligocheta Limicole and Oligocheta Terricole. The
vessel in question occurs in so many of the former, and had not been noted in the latter,
However, Sroic figures such a vessel in his genera Lophocheta and Bothrioneuron [5,
pl. ii. figs. 5 and 6]. In both genera it is closely applied to the dorsal cesophageal wall
from segment VI.-IX. ; it is furthermore very interesting to note that, as in some Earth-
worms,* the supra-intestinal vessel is directly connected with the ventral vessel by hearts
(one pair in Lophocheta, two in Bothrioneuron).

In longitudinal sections of Phreodrilus two perfectly separate vessels may be
observed running along the dorsal wall of the esophagus. Their course is fairly
straight, as the worm had been fortunately killed in an extended condition. The two
vessels are different from each other in structure, and cannot therefore be confounded
in sections, where sometimes only one of the two was visible in a particular segment.

The vessel, which is closely applied to the dorsal wall of the cesophagus, is extremely
thin walled and completely filled with coagulated blood. It resembles in these
particulars the ventral blood-vessel.

The other dorsal vessel, which is separated by some little distance from the supra-
intestinal trunk is largely—in some places quite—empty of blood; it has rather
thicker walls, and is of less calibre. This latter fact is probably due to the contraction
of the muscular fibres forming the walls of the tube. ‘There is a certain parallelism
here to the arteries and veins of the vertebrata. The thick-walled tube less full of blood
after death is the artery, and the two thin-walled vessels full of blood are the veins,
The thick-walled vessel appears to be the homologue of the dorsal vessel in Harthworms, —
while the thin wall intimately connected with the dorsal wall of the cesophagus, and
giving off branches to it, is clearly the homologue of the supra-intestinal vessel in that
group of worms. The dorsal vessel is lined with a layer of cells of some thickness, and
its muscular fibres run for the most part in a circular direction.

I have traced the dorsal vessel from the VIth segment in front to the XVth segment
posteriorly. J am not able to make an accurate statement as to the segment in which
it disappears ; but it does not exist for some distance in front of the tail end, as I
have been able to prove by transverse sections through some of the posterior segments.

Another difference which distinguishes the dorsal from the supra-intestinal vessel
is the fact that the latter is coated with chloragogen cells ; the peritoneal cells of the
dorsal vessel are flattened, and have no yellowish-green granules in their interior.

* I state the facts with due reservation. It seems to me far from improbable that the “intestinal heart” may
ultimately prove to be connected, as they are in Eudrilide, for example, with both dorsal and supra-intestinal trunk in
all worms which possess the latter.

ON TWO NEW GENERA OF AQUATIC OLIGOCH ATA. 277.

~ In both vessels, particularly in the supra-intestinal, it is easy to see that the blood
is a corpusculated fluid ; here and there oval bodies, which have in every respect the
appearance of the nuclei in the endothelial lining, may be seen embedded in the
coagulated yellow blood. There is little doubt that Lanxusrsr’s description of
corpuscles in the Earthworm’s blood will be extended to other, to perhaps all the groups
of Oligocheeta, in many of which they have been observed by Vespovsxy.

Here and there the endothelium lining the blood-vessels—particularly at the points
where they traverse the intersegmental septa—is thickened to form valve-like structures ;
Vespovsky has described and figured something of the same kind [7] in many other
Oligocheta. These agglomerations of cells may be the localities where the blood cor-
puscles take their origin through the rapid proliferation of the lining membrane, as
Vespovsky has suggested. On the other hand, the mechanical function of these valve-
like structures, which occur in all Oligocheta that I have examined, both terrestrial and
aquatic, must not be left out of consideration. The supra-intestinal vessel is connected
with the blood-supply of the intestines, and it gives off from the lower side numerous
branches which at once break up and form a plexus lying within the cesophageal or intes-
tinal walls. The supra-intestinal vessel is also connected in the XIIth segment directly
with the ventral vessel. This connection is effected by a pair of great coiled vessels,
which I describe later as blood-glands. Further forward the supra-intestinal vessel ap-
pears to have no direct connection with the ventral vessel; there are, however, a number
of a perivisceral trunks, thin and coiled, which surround the cesophagus and communicate
with the ventral trunk. These take their origin from the dorsal blood-vessel. We thus
have in Phreodrilus, as in Lophocheta and Bothrioneuron, a double system of peri-
visceral trunks—one set connected with the dorsal and the other with the supra-intestinal
vessel. Asin Lophocheta there is only one pair of vessels belonging to the latter set.

The arrangement of the dorsal and supra-intestinal trunks in Phreodrilus is shown
in fig. 34 of Pl. II]. The drawing, however, only illustrates a few segments, since I am
at present uncertain as to the exact segment where the dorsal vessel terminates pos-
teriorly. I have found that in front of the VIth segment it is the only dorsally placed
blood-vessel. In the VIth segment the supra-intestinal finally disappears, becoming
gradually of less and less calibre towards its termination.

It seems to me, however, to be far from certain that the dorsal vessel of Phreodrilus
is the homologue of the dorsal vessel in Tubifex and some of the lower forms.
Professor Srorc’s important investigations evidently show the need for a more detailed
study of the vascular system of Tubifex and other Tubificide ; it may prove that they
are not without the supra-intestinal vessel of Lophocheta and Bothrioneuron. I make
this suggestion in entire ignorance of the text of Srote’s paper, which, being in the
Bohemian language, is absolutely inaccessible to me. In Pelodrilus, however, a new
genus of Phreoryctide, of which I give some account further on in the present paper,
there certainly appears to be no trace of more than one dorsal vessel.

The question then arises, to which of the two vessels of Phreodrilus does the dorsal vessel

278 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD

of Pelodrilus and other of the lower Oligocheeta correspond? The relations of the single

dorsal vessel, which is present in the posterior segments of Phreodrilus, to the intestinal,

suggests that 2 is the equivalent of the single dorsal vessel of other Oligocheta ; in

this case the vessel which I have termed “dorsal vessel” in the anterior segments will
be unrepresented in these Oligocheta. There can, I think, be little doubt that the two
dorsally placed blood-vessels of Phreodrilus are the equivalents of the two in Pericheta,

Acanthodrilus, and a large number of Earthworms. In the simpler forms of Oligocheeta, |
then, the dorsal vessel in most cases has disappeared, while the persistent supra-intestinal

takes on its functions as well as its own.

§ Blood-Glands.

Many of the Lumbriculide are provided with peculiar czecal diverticula of the dorsal
vessel. These have been recently compared by GropBen to the “ pericardial glands”
of the Mollusca. I have myself described in Pericheta a series of “ blood-glands”
formed by a network of capillaries, with frequent dilatations crowded with corpuscles
and surrounded by a layer of chloragogen cells, which appeared to me to be referable
to the same category. In Phreodrilus there is a structure which is more plainly of a
glandular nature than the vascular appendices of the Lumbriculide or the blood-gland of
Pericheta. Inthe XIIth and XIIIth segments is a wide, irregularly coiled tube of which
a portion is illustrated in fig. 34, b.gl. I cannot be certain of its exact shape, as the
bending and twisting was so complicated that I have hesitated to attempt a re-construc-
tion from my sections; this tube exists on both sides of the gut, and appears to
connect the supra-intestinal and ventral blood-vessels. It is the morphological equivalent,
I believe, of the perienteric vascular loop of its segment. But it evidently has a quite
different function.

The vessel in question has the comparatively thick muscular coat of the dorsal blood-
vessel. Its interior is almost entirely solid, but here and there were conspicuous blood-
clots, about the nature of which there could be no doubt; these clots are coloured pink in
my figure (Pl. I. fig. 6, b/.). ?

The solid mass, which occupies the greater portion of the lumen of the tube, is
made up of cells. The arrangement of these cells seems to indicate that they are simply
the lining of the vessel which has, for the most part, become so thick as to occlude
the lumen, or nearly so. The cells are large and vesicular; they are almost unstained,
only the nucleus having been acted upon after a fairly long immersion in borax
carmine ; the cells contain a number of granules. They resemble most nearly the tall
cells which form the valvular structures in the blood-vessels of the Oligocheeta, and like
them are probably to be looked upon as a local proliferation of the lining membrane of
the vessel. I am not aware whether there is any special development of the lining
epithelium of the lateral appendages of the dorsal vessel in Lumbriculus; but 1 am
inclined to believe that the two structures correspond very closely. The immensely
larger size of the blood-gland in Phreodrilus than in the Lumbriculide is, perhaps,

ON TWO NEW GENERA OF AQUATIC OLIGOCH ATA. 279

related to the fact that there are not a large number of such bodies in the former
genus.

It appears to me also possible that these blood-glands are the Spee selcal
equivalents of the “ Herzkorper” of the Enchytraeidz and some Polycheta. The cardiac
body in the former group is seen in two conditions—(1) a distinct, tubular, paired out-
growth from the alimentary tract lying on its dorsal side in Buchholzia appendiculata ;
(2) a solid rod in Mesenchytreus extending through the greater portion of the dorsal
vessel. MurcHar.sEN, who discovered the body in question in Mesenchytreus [15], describes
and figures it: as being attached to the ventral median line of the dorsal blood-vessel. He
makes no definite statement as to its continuity with the intestinal epithelium, but con-
siders that “it must be looked upon as an outgrowth of the intestinal epithelium into the
dorsal vessel, and, therefore, as homologous with certain organs in certain other Enchy-
treide, for example, the diverticulum of Buchholza.” In a later paper MicHaE.sEn [14]
noted the presence of a similar body in the dorsal vessel of Stercutus niveus. These dis-
coveries of MIcHAELSEN are of great interest, as they confirm the suggestion of Horst
[23] that the cardiac body in certain Polycheeta is the homologue of the dorsal diverti-
eulum of Buchholaa appendiculata. The structure of the cardiac body in Mesenchytreus
is evidently much like’ that of Pectinaria belgica. MicHa§E.sEN at first [14] inclined to
the view that the solid cardiac body served the purpose of “ purifying the blood from
useless, perhaps injurious, substances.” This was also, as MIcHAELSEN has pointed out,
the opinion of CLAPAREDE.

A later suggestion of MIcHAELSEn’s, although highly ingenious, does not commend
itself to me as an improvement upon the earlier view. He says[14, p. 485 |:—‘‘ Concerning
the meaning of the cardiac body I have lately formed an opinion which I will take this
opportunity of detailing. It is clear that undulatory contractions of a tube will drive
forward the fluid contained in that tube with a vigour proportionate to the narrowing
of the tube during each pulsation. If the lumen is fairly wide at the maximum of
contraction, a portion of the fluid contents will find a way out in the opposite
direction; this backward flow will be completely hindered if the lumen is absolutely
obliterated during contraction. On the other hand, it is clear that long before this
point is reached the capability of contraction possessed by the tube will have found
its limits. To remove this difficulty dependent upon the limitation of contractility
and preventing a complete pulsation, a compact rod is formed in the tube. By this
means the walls of the tube, by closing round the rod, can obliterate the lumen of
the tube without reaching the limits of their power of contracting.”

This argument might, of course, be applied to the explanation of the lateral
cardiac bodies (or blood-glands, as I prefer to term them) of Phreodrilus; but the
unequal distribution of granules, and the large size of the cells, and their apparently
vesicular nature, is against a purely mechanical interpretation of their function.

Mr CunnincHam has objected [22] to Horst’s identification of the ‘“ cardiac body” in
the Chlorhzemidee with the gut diverticulum of the Enchytreid, on the ground that there

280 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD

is demonstrably no connection between the “cardiac body” and the gut wall in the
former. This can, I think, be hardly regarded as an objection, though it has, of course,
to be proved that this connection does exist at some time or other in Mesenchytreus and
Stercutus.

It seems to me by no means impossible that the paired blood-glands of Phreodrilus
may have been originally paired diverticula—tlike the calciferous glands—and connected
like the latter with a dorsal and ventral vessel. The change of structure has obviously
been followed by some change of function, and I should consider that both the cardiac
body, and the structures which I describe in the present paper, have some relation to
the blood, as CLaPAREDE suggested. In relation to this matter I may refer to a highly
interesting paper by WELDON on the supra-renal bodies of Bdellostoma [18], The con-
nection of a portion of the pronephros in that animal with the blood system, and its
almost complete separation from the rest of the renal organ, is a parallel instance of great
interest ; but a better analogy with the vascular glands of these Annelids is perhaps to be
found in the thymus gland which, originally a diverticulum of the gut, is converted to
some function in relation to the vascular system, and entirely loses its connection with
the gut. The vertebrate spleen is another organ which may be possibly foreshadowed
in these Annelid structures.

§ Nervous System.

The supra-wsophageal ganglia lie between the first and second segments above the
dorsal vessel; a strong nerve leads from the fore part of the brain to a patch of
modified epithelium upon the dorsal wall of the buccal cavity, just in the angle where
it becomes continuous with the epidermis of the prostomium. In my description of
the integument, I have not referred to this organ, which appears to be of a sensory
nature.

The ventral chain commences in the IInd segment. In each segment three
pairs of nerves are given off at approximately equidistant intervals, which at once
perforate the integument, into which they can only be followed for a very short
distance; besides these, separate branches supply the dissepiments. The branches of
the nerve cord furnish characters which appear to be of a certain value for systematic
purposes.

Three equidistant pairs of nerves have been stated to be given off in each segment
of Tubifex rivulorum [see D’UDEKEM, pl. i. fig. 8], and the same number in several of the
genera of Tubificidee described by Sroxe [5| with the addition of dissepimental nerves
which were overlooked by p’UpEKEM in Tubifex, as Vespovsky has pointed out [7, see
pl. vii. fig. 4]. In Lumbricule, on the other hand, VespovsKy could only discover a
single pair of nerves in each segment.

ErseN has mentioned [3] the very anomalous fact of the absence of any branches at
all from the ventral cord of Eelipidrilus, and has lately made the same statement with
regard to Sutroa | 4},

ON TWO NEW GENERA OF AQUATIC OLIGOCHATA. 281

I believe that the reason why EtsEn discovered no lateral branches of the ventral
cord is simply due to the fact that the worms were dissected, and not studied by
the section method. A dissection of Phreodrilus would certainly reveal no lateral
nerves, for these arise from the ventral surface of the cord, and at once become lost
in the subjacent body-wall. In longitudinal sections they are easy enough to see.

Perhaps some of the other nerves of Lumbriculus escaped Vespovsky’s notice for
the same reason. In any case, it is noteworthy that it is in the Lumbriculide only
where observers have partially (?) or entirely failed to find the lateral branches; and
as in the remaining families they have been figured as projecting some way from the
ventral cord [¢f. for Chetogaster, Vespovsky [7], pl. v. fig. 4, and for Dero, Srotc,
[6], pl. i. fig. 6], this fact is so far an indication of affinity to certain Lumbriculide.

As to the minute structure of the ventral nerve cord, I may mention that the
“neurochord ” is a single tube which I traced for a considerable distance forwards.

The connection of the neurochords in Lumbricus with the processes of nerve cells,
and the demonstration of their nervous nature, has been recently the subject of some
admirable investigations by FrRizpLaAnpEeR. I am not aware that these discoveries
have, as yet, been extended to the lower Oligocheta, and I may, therefore, direct
attention to fig. 8 of Plate I., which illustrates a branch of the neurochord passing
down at right angles to the axis of the chord. I have not, however, traced these
branches into ganglion cells, and they seem to occur at the points where nerves are
given off.

§ Testes.

The testes of Phreodrilus lie partly in segment X, but chiefly in segment XI. In
the semidiagrammatic sketch of the genitalia (fig. 5), the testis of each side is repre-
sented as perforating the intersegmental septum between segments X and XI. In
longitudinal sections I have found a perfect continuity between the portions of the testis
which lie in front of and behind this septum. When a section is examined that passes
considerably to one side of the median axis of the testis, an appearance is presented of two
distinct testes, such as CLAPAREDE described in Pachydrilus [1], depending into the coelom
from opposite sides of the same septum. There is, however, no doubt that in Phreodrilus
the germinal tissue is perfectly continuous through the septum. At both extremities
each testis is frayed out into irregularly shaped processes, which contain the germinal
cells in the most advanced stage of development. The body cavity in the neighbourhood
of the gonad is occupied by a quantity of developing and fully developed spermatozoa.
I did not observe anything remarkable about the spermatozoa or their development,
except the important fact that all stages of this development are found in the general
body cavity. There was no trace of a sperm sac, which is a nearly universal structure
among the Oligocheta. As ripe spermatozoa were abundant in the body cavity and in
the circumatrial sac (see below, p. 263), I think it probable that no sperm sac other than the
circumatrial space is ever developed. However, as the worm possessed no recognisable

VOL. XXXVJ. PART II. (NO. 11). 2U

282 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD

clitellum,* it is not possible to be certain about this point, though the male organs had
every appearance of having arrived at full maturity.

§ Vas Deferens.

Phreodrilus is furnished with only a single pair of vas deferens funnels situated in
segment XI. The funnel of one side is illustrated in fig. 2. It is comparatively small
and markedly cup-shaped. The funnel is lined by a single layer of epithelial cells,
which are furnished with particularly long cilia. The length of the cilia is only paralleled
in the case of Chetogaster. The funnel on each side of the body is connected with the
vas deferens, which is a narrow tube lined by comparatively few cells (see fig. 2). In each
case the vas deferens passes back from the funnel, and then bends round towards the septum
separating segments XI and XII; from this point it runs obliquely backwards, and then
is bent upon itself and runs forwards along the side of the sac surrounding the atrium ;
near to the ventral side of the body (see fig. 7), where the atrial sac terminates, the
vas deferens perforates the muscular sac of the atrium ; in the atrial sac it becomes greatly
convoluted, and I have found it impossible to make an accurate diagram of these
convolutions. Near to the opening of the vas deferens into the atrium the cilia disappear,
and the cells become slightly different in character. This portion of the vas deferens is
illustrated in figs. 11, 12.

In longitudinal sections, a large portion of the XIth segment lying anterior to the
circumatrial sac, is occupied by a highly convoluted tube of a different histological
structure from the vas deferens. This tube is, in the first place, of considerably greater
calibre than the vas deferens, and cannot, therefore, be confounded with it; its diameter
is perhaps three times that of the vas deferens. The structure of the tube is as follows :—
The outer coat is formed by a layer of muscles arranged in a circular direction, and
covered externally by a peritoneal layer, or at least by a number of nuclei, which in all
probability belong to peritoneal cells; imside is a single layer of epithelium, which is so
thick as to leave for the most part only a very restricted lumen. The width of the lumen
was found to vary in different parts of the tube. The epithelial cells are very granular,
and thus contrast with the epithelium of the vas deferens, which is not at all granular.
This tube ends blindly in the neighbourhood of the vas deferens funnel; not, however, in
the XIth segment, but in the XIIth, just behind the septum. It is a little dilated
at the blind extremity, and the cells are here a little more unevenly granular. The tube
is entirely confined to the XIIth segment. When followed out it is seen to approach the
ventral extremity of the circumatrial sac. At this point it becomes narrower, and the
epithelium lower; it perforates the sac, and becomes continuous with the vas deferens,
lying in the interior of the sac close to the junction of the latter with the part that lies
outside the sac. Here and there the interior of this blind sac contains a small mass of
darkly stained refracting substance, which is probably the excretion of the epithelium.

* See, however, p. 290, footnote.

ON TWO NEW GENERA OF AQUATIC OLIGOCH ATA. 2838

The structure of this diverticulum of the sperm duct is precisely that of the spermathece,
which lie in the following segment—the XIIIth. Itis, however, of somewhat less calibre,
otherwise it might have been supposed to be a second pair of spermathecee lying in
the XIIIth segment.

§ Atria.

The transition between the vas deferens and the atria is quite abrupt as regards the
character of the epithelium lining the two tubes. But the diameter of the atrium is at
first exactly equal to that of the vas deferens; it becomes gradually wider, and then
narrows again towards its external aperture, which is situated upon the XIIth segment. The
external pores of each side of the body are quite evident in the specimen, which was
mounted entire in Canada balsam, lying in front of the ventral pair of setee of the XI Ith seg-
ment. One remarkable point about the atrium of Phreodrilus isits great length; but instead
of extending through a large number of segments, as in Sutroa [ E1sEn, 4], the entire atrium
is contained in the XIIth segment. It is, however, coiled upon itself several times, and
is thus able to be stowed away in one segment. ‘The structure of the atrium is the same
throughout. It is illustrated in fig. 4 of Plate I.; the atrial epithelium is apparently
composed of columnar cells, the boundaries of which were not visible in my preparations.
The individual cells could only be separated by the nuclei, which were much more darkly
stained than the surrounding protoplasm. The epithelium of the whole atrium was
thrown into folds. I could detect no trace of cilia anywhere; and, as the cilia of the
vas deferens and other organs were beautifully preserved, I am disposed to think that the
atrium of this genus is not ciliated during life. At the external pore the atrial epithelium
passes without any break into the epidermis. There was no trace of a penis, or any
specialisation in the distal section of the atrium. As has been already remarked, the
only difference between the distal and middle region of the atrium is the less calibre of
the former.

The distal section of the atrium, which passes obliquely backwards from the external
pore, in addition to its epithelial lining, is covered externally with a layer of muscular
fibres and a thin layer of peritoneum outside of this. The muscular fibres run in a circular
direction ; inside of them is a recognisable membrane by which they are separated from
the epithelium. The peritoneal layer which covers the muscular layer is extremely thin.
In sections this layer can be only detected by the nuclei, which are quite as large as the
nuclei of the epithelium.

At some distance from the external orifice of the atrium the muscular and peritoneal
coats become widely separated from the epithelial layer. At this point the lumen of the
atrium becomes suddenly contracted, as is shown in fig. 30 of Plate Il. The muscular
layer, and the peritoneum which covers it externally, becomes completely detached from
the epithelium, and a wide space is thus left (see fig. 30, sp., and 9, sp.), which is filled
with spermatozoa. Besides spermatozoa, which lie separately, and are not in any way
ageregated into bundles, this space contained numerous free nuclei, which appear to have

284 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD

no connection whatever with the spermatozoa. These nuclei (fig. 16, .) bear the closest
possible resemblance to the nuclei of the peritoneal cells, but how they have managed to
get into the sac in question is unintelligible to me, ‘There is, of course, no lining of
peritoneum to the circumatrial space, since it is simply caused by the separation between
the muscular layer and the epithelium. There is no doubt, however, that they are merely
nuclei, and not cells. The muscular coat surrounds the convoluted portion of the atrium
and the greater part of the vas deferens, which lies coiled up in the same cavity. Fig. 32
represents a longitudinal section through the space which surrounds the atrium, near to
the periphery. The section, therefore, does not show the convolutions of the atrium or
the vas deferens, The space is seen to be filled with spermatozoa and the mysterious
nuclei already referred to. The section happens to have been cut rather obliquely, and in
consequence the muscular coat is partly shown in longitudinal section. A more highly
magnified section through the muscular layer is illustrated in fig. 33, which shows the single
layer of circular muscular fibres in the membrane which separates them from the space.

In many Oligocheeta the vas deferens is enclosed for a greater or less extent within the
sperm sac—for example, in Pelodrilus, to be described presently. But in Phreodrilus there
appears to be no question of a sperm sac surrounding the vas deferens. The space which
I have described is simply due to the separation between the muscular coat of the atrium
and its epithelial lining. The only other type which I can compare with Phreodrilus
is Eelipidrilus—a most remarkable genus of Lumbriculidze which has been made known
by Etsey. Ez1seEn’s description of the organs in question runs as follows [3, p. 6 |:—‘ The
efferent ducts are two, of enormous size, occupying the segments [X—XIV. The exterior
porus of the duct is situated in the [Xth segment, just behind the ventral spines. Hach
efferent duct consists of two large, rather cylindrical, saclike ducts of nearly equal size, which
at the extremities are connected by a narrow, short tube of the same general structure as
the rest of the organ, except being surrounded by spiral muscles. The interior extremity
of the ducts is free, suspended in the perigastric cavity of the body, but the exterior
extremity is, as usual, attached to the body wall, and a part of it projects beyond the
same, forming a retractile exterior penis proper. The longest of the two bags, which con-
stitute the efferent duct, is the one directly connected with the body wall, and is nearer
its interior end, furnished with three very minute circular openings, through which the
spermatozoa evidently enter.

“ Inside, and freely suspended within this exterior duct, we find another interior one,
of very much the same form and size as the former, only it is somewhat shorter, its exterior
extremity being free and not attached to the body wall, nor being able to be projected
through the same. This extremity is furnished with a large circular opening. The
inner extremity of this interior duct ends blindly, and is always full of spermatozoa, and
serves accordingly as a true seminal vesicle, in which ‘the spermatozoa are stored before
they are ejected through the sexual porus.

“The exterior duct consists of at least three different layers—one exterior epithelial
layer ; one middle layer, much thicker than the others, consisting of heavy longitudinal

ON TWO NEW GENERA OF AQUATIC OLIGOCHATA, 285

muscles ; and one interior membranous layer, which at the exterior extremity is separated
from the two former ones, and forms by itself a pellucid membranous penis at times
found projected through the sexual porus. ‘The two exterior ones of these layers connect
directly with the body wall, of which they seem to be a mere continuation. This
structure of the exterior duct is the same throughout the organ, except at the narrow
tube, which connects the two sacs (the seminal vesicle and the atrium), which former is
surrounded by numerous spiral muscles very similar to those found in Camptodrilus.

“If we therefore consider the course a spermatozoon can take, after having escaped
from the testes, we find that the efferent duct is most admirably adapted to the purpose
of transmitting and storing spermatozoa. A spermatozoon after having entered the
efferent duct, through one of the three small circular openings, passes down the exterior
duct towards the sexual porus, but is on its way intercepted by the exterior opening of
the inner duct, and attracted by the ciliated epithelium of its inner surface, ascends
through the exterior part of the duct up through the narrow tube, and is finally lodged in
the seminal vesicle, and is here stored until of future use. The spiral muscles round the
narrow tube, which can easily be contracted, serve evidently to keep the spermatozoa in
the seminal vesicle, and prevent them from escaping in undue time. From the form and
free suspension of the inner duct, it may easily be seen that its free exterior extremity
can be considerably extended clear down to the penis proper at the moment of copulation.”

The account given by EIsEN is in some respects incomplete, owing to the fact that his
investigations were made upon the living worm. It appears, however, that in Eecli-
pidrilus the vas deferens and atrium is entirely surrounded by a sac, which is of a
muscular nature, and may possibly be the exact equivalent of the sac which has been
described in this paper in Phreodrilus.

But Ersen has not described in Hclipidrilus any funnel such as I have described in
Phreodrilus ; on the other hand, he has figured three ciliated apertures leading directly
from the body cavity into the circumatrial space. Since making myself acquainted with
HisEn’s very interesting paper, I have carefully examined my sections, with a view to
discovering if any apertures of this nature exist in Phreodrilus. I cannot, however,
find anything of the kind, and the difficulty of understanding how the spermatozoa get
into the space which surrounds the atrium, and how the spermatozoa get to the exterior,
is still for me unsolved.

The male efferent apparatus of Phreodrilus thus differs in many details from that
of any other genus of Oligocheta. It may present points of agreement with Eeli-
pidrilus, but I am inclined to agree with Vespovsky when he says that the data
given by Etsmn require confirmation, as the facts described are so very extraordinary.
Nevertheless the account given by Etsy, and quoted in full above, is clear and agrees
plainly with his figures. As to Phreodrilus, in the first place, the great length of the
atrium coiled up itself several times is peculiar, at any rate among the aquatic
Oligocheeta. The absence of any structure comparable to a penis removes Phreodrilus

286 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD

from the neighbourhood of the Tubificidee and brings it nearer to the Lumbriculide,
or the Naidomorpha and some of the lowest groups.

The presence of a diverticulum of the vas deferens is a perfectly unique character
among the Oligocheta. I am inclined to suspect that it may serve as a sperm reservoir ;
but this is only conjecture, as no trace of spermatozoa were discovered in the tube.

The fact that this diverticulum is connected with the vas deferens suggests that it
may be possibly the representative of the second vas deferens, present in the Lumbriculidee
and most Earthworms, converted to another function.

In some Oligocheeta, for example in Perrcheta, Pontodrilus, &c., the atrium is a
diverticulum of the vas deferens, but there can be no question of any such condition in
Phreodrilus, since a structure evidently corresponding to the atrium is present in addition
to this diverticulum.

The coiling of the diverticulum is just as striking as the coiling of the vas deferens,
but it does not extend into the following segment as the second vas deferens of a
Lumbriculid would. However, Sutroa, which is clearly a member of the latter group,
though a somewhat aberrant one, has two pairs of vasa deferentia, which all open into
the same segment.

This interpretation of the diverticulum acquires a fresh significance when its resem-
blance in structure to the spermathecze is borne in mind; a separation from the vas
deferens and the acquirement of an independent opening would result in the formation of
a structure which would be undoubtedly regarded as a spermatheca. There is not, how-
ever, at present any Oligochet known in which the spermatheca opens into the same
segment as the atrium.

The development of spermathecze as appendages of the male and female ducts seems to
be a reasonable conception of their origin, but a great many more facts are required before
they can be satisfactorily connected with these ducts. In the meantime I would again
emphasise the peculiarities of the vasa deferentia in Phreodrilus, which seem to offer a
hint that this is the direction in which the explanation of the origin of the spermatheca is
to be sought.

- One of the most remarkable features about the atrium is the development of a special
sac round the junction of the atrium and the vas deferens, including the greater part of
both tubes. The structure in question does not appear to me to be a ccelomic sac, but
simply a space caused by the separation of the muscular wall from the atrium, which has
then undergone an increase in length resulting in the coiling of the tube within the
muscular sac. Apart from Eclipidrilus, which I have already mentioned, there is no
other Oligochet which shows anything analogous to this very extraordinary state of
affairs. If my interpretation of the nature of the circumatrial sac be correct, it is clear
that there are no grounds for comparing it with the ccelomic spaces surrounding the
genitalia in certain Eudrilids, notably in Hyperiodrilus and Heliodrilus [Bepparp, 11}.
For in these cases there can be no doubt whatever that the sacs which enclose the sper-
mathecz and other organs are coelomic spaces which have been differentiated round them.

ON TWO NEW GENERA OF AQUATIC OLIGOCH ATA. 287

The numerous free nuclei which lie in the circumatrial sac are very remarkable. They
agree very closely in general appearance with the nuclei of the peritoneal cells which
cover the sac externally ; but I have not found any such a layer of nuclei lining the
internal wall of the sac. Although the nuclei lie among the spermatozoa, it has not
appeared to me that there is any connection between the two. And as the spermatozoa,
which I found abundantly in all stages of development in the Xth and XIth segments,
develop in the usual way in which the spermatozoa of Harthworms and other Oligocheeta
have been shown to develop, I cannot see how any such nuclei can be traced to the
germinal cells. Moreover, I could detect no such nuclei among the sperm polyplasts so
abundantly present in segments X and XI.

Another noteworthy point about the atrium of this Annelid is the total absence of
cilia from its lining epithelium ; the vas deferens is of course ciliated, but not the atrium
or the appendix of the vas deferens. ‘The ciliation of the atrium is so constant a feature
of the lower Oligocheeta that it is remarkable to find an exception to the rule in a form
like Phreodrilus, which perhaps comes nearer to the Naidomorpha than to any other group.

§ Ovaries.

These gonads (fig. 5, ov.) are paired, and arise from the intersegmental septum between
seoments XI/XII in a position corresponding to that of the testes; they lie therefore in the
XIIth segment below the funnel of the vas deferens ; but they do not also extend into the
segment in front as the testes do. The ovaries are limited to the XIIth segment.

I have been able to observe certain stages in the development of the ova, which shows
a remarkable parallelism to the development of the spermatozoa.

Towards the attachment of the ovary, the cell outlines were indistinguishable, and the
nuclei alone indicated the separate cells; the rest of the ovary was made up of spherical
groups of cells presenting the structure shown in fig. 37, @; each of the cells is pear-
shaped, the nucleus being in every case embedded in the wide end of the cell; the
apices of the cells nearly meet in the centre of each sphere, where there is a minute
portion of non-nucleated protoplasm, more plainly to be seen in the later stages of develop-
ment. These spherules become detached from the ovary, and undergo their further
development in the body cavity.

Many clumps of developing ova were to be seen lying in various parts of the ccelom of
segment XII. I found others (not so many) in segment XI among the developing sper-
matozoa. This may possibly be due to the presence of an additional pair of ovaries belonging

to the XIth segment, but I have no other evidence which points to such a conclusion.

‘ There was no trace of any egg sac other than a pushing out of the intersegmental sep-
tum between segments XII and XIII, and this is illustrated in fig. 31. Later, it may be

that this pushing out of the septum results in the formation of a nearly closed egg sac.

But in my specimen it opened by a very wide mouth into the cavity of segment XII.

The interior of this sac was nearly full of groups of developing ova.

288 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD

The further stages in the development of the ova are as follows :—The central mass of
protoplasm is always without a nucleus, but soon comes to be clearly separated from the
cells surrounding it; it assumes a polygonal form, which is illustrated in fig. 37, b,c. The
surrounding cells, which form a complete investment for the centre mass, lose their
pear-shaped outline, and become angular when they are in contact with the neighbouring
cells and with the central mass of protoplasm. The outer surface is rounded and convex.

The nuclei of the cells are very large and unstained, except for a number of rounded
granules, of which one is markedly larger than the rest, and corresponds in all probability
to the nucleolus. The protoplasm of the cells is, on the contrary, deeply and uniformly
stained.

One of the cells then (see fig. 37, c) begins to enlarge, and eventually becomes larger (d)
than the entire mass of the remaining cells with which it rests in contact. I presume that
all of the cells become ova in time, but only one (rarely two) was developed at the
same time. I have no facts relating to the further development of the ova, which pro-
bably become a good deal larger, and filled with yolk.

Each sphere of developing germinal cells is covered externally by a few nuclei
(n, fig. 37), which form a kind of follicle.

In the early and middle stages, the resemblance of the sphere to a sperm polyplast
is extremely close. In both we have a central mass of non-nucleated protoplasm sur-
rounded by a single layer of germinal cells, which become ova or spermatozoa, as the case
may be.

The mode of development of the ege in the Oligocheeta is treated of by VusDovsky
[7] in his Monograph, chiefly from his own observations, which are the most important
in this subject. The development of the ova in Phreodrilus is in most respects
similar to the development of the ova in certain Enchytreeidee, which is briefly referred to
by Vespovsky in the work mentioned, and more fully in his “ Monographie der —
Enchytreiden.” The cells of the ovary in certain Enchytreids are arranged in groups
exactly as they are in Phreodrilus, but there is only a single string of these groups
of cells instead of a large mass, such as I describe in the present paper.

The development of the ova in the genus Llyodrilus appears from the figures of Sroxe
[5] to be very similar to Phreodrilus.

§ Oviduct.

The oviduct, as in the Lumbriculide and Tubificide, is very short, and consists of little
more than the funnel; the duct leading to the exterior is very short. The oviduct
funnel opens into the XIIth segment, and the external pore lies on the boundary line
between this segment and the XIIIth. In the only specimen (see fig. 18) which I
studied by means of sections, the oviduct was not ciliated, and the funnel also had
evidently not arrived at maturity. It is interesting to note that the female organs
of this worm are not fully mature at the same time as the male organs; there appears
to be here, as in other hermaphrodite organisms, a dichogamy.

ON TWO NEW GENERA OF AQUATIC OLIGOCH ATA. 289

§ Spermathece.

There is only a single pair of spermathece in this genus, which are situated in the
XIIth segment (fig. 5, sp.) ; at least, their external orifice is placed in this segment, in
front of the dorsal sete. The pouches themselves are extraordinarily elongated, and
extend into the XVth segment.

Each spermatheca is coiled upon itself once or twice; the lumen is at first tolerably
wide and the external pore is large. At this point the epidermis can be seen to be con-
tinuous with the cellular lining of the spermatheca. One spermatheca had the form
illustrated in figs. 5, 10. The former figure represents the genitalia of Phreodrilus
as they would be seen on a dissection of the worm; it is, however, compiled from a
single continuous series of longitudinal sections, of which not a single one was missing.
Fig. 10 represents the spermatheca in longitudinal section. The wider portion of the
spermatheca referred to passes back towards the posterior end of segment XIII; it is
then bent upon itself, and runs back to a point about opposite to the external orifice.
The spermatheca then passes down to the ventral side of the body with a gradually
decreasing lumen; arrived at this point it comes to lie between the ventral blood-
vessel and the nerve cord; the tube is then directed backwards, running still between
the blood-vessel and the nerve, and perforates septum XIII/XIV; in the XIVth
seoment the spermatheca again becomes wider, and lies no longer beneath the ven-
tral blood-vessel; its course is nearly perfectly straight, and after perforating inter-
seomental septum XIV/XV without any decrease of its width, it terminates
blindly in the interior of the XVth segment at a little distance from the septum last
traversed. The constriction of the spermatheca in the middle, which amounts to an
actual occlusion of the lumen in the individual studied by me, recalls the spermatheca of
Anacheta Hiseni figured by Vuspovsxy [8, pl. vii. fig. 22'.

I could not discover any spermatozoa in either of the two spermathecz, and they pre-
sent an appearance of immaturity, owing to the non-glandular character of the lining
epithelium. The immaturity of the spermathece, therefore, corresponds to the immature
condition of the ova and oviducts.

The minute structure of the spermatheca presents no character of any particular
importance. It is covered externally by a circular layer of muscles, and has a lining of a
single layer of cells. Its structure corresponds exactly to that of the diverticulum of the
vas deferens.

The position of the spermathece is that of certain of the Lumbriculide. In all the lower
groups of Oligocheeta, as well as in all Earthworms excepting only Microcheta, Brachy-
drilus, and some of the Eudrilide, the spermathecze lie in front of the ovarian segment.

Furthermore, the great length of the spermathecze, and the fact that they extend
through more than one segment, isa peculiarity almost confined to the genus Phreodrilus.
The only other example that I can recall is the Eudrilid Heliodrilus [see Brepparp, 11],
where the spermatheca extends through three or four segments.

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 11). 2X

290 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD

AFFINITIES OF PHREODRILUS.

This very remarkable genus does not fit in perfectly with any single one of the
known families of Oligocheta. The characters of the setze remove it from any of these
families, and are alone sufficient fer the creation of a new family.

The elongated sete of the dorsal rows agree fairly closely with the ‘“ Haarborsten”
of the Tubificidee, many Naids and Aeolosoma, but the ventral sete have an altogether
peculiar form.

Turning to internal characters, the same difficulty is met with in referring Phreo-
drilus to any of the seven well characterised families into which the aquatic Oligocheeta fall.

The single pair of funnels opening into the XIth segment, recalls the Enchytreeide ;
but, as MicHaxEtsen has pointed out the variability of the position of these essential
organs in closely allied forms, Phreodrilus may be also compared in these particulars to
the Tubificidze and the lower forms generally. The long atrium, apart from the curious
sac in which it is enveloped, is perhaps more like that of the Tubificidee, but it is not
furnished with a prostate, nor with a penis.* However, in Jlyodrilus both these structures
appear to be wanting. Although this latter genus is included by Srorc in his recent
Monograph of the Bohemian Tubificidee [5], it is placed in a special sub-family. I
imagine that if it were not for the position of the genitalia, the worm would be referred
to the Naidomorpha.

The ciliation of the entire alimentary canal, with the exception only of the buccal
cavity, is an important point of resemblance between Phreodrilus and the Naidomorpha,
as well as other lower families of Oligocheta.

In short, it does not seem to me to be possible to refer this genus to any known
family, without extending the definition of that family so as to include many of the
peculiar characters of Phreodrilus.

I therefore propose the following definition of a new family, which is compiled on
the same lines as Vespovsky’s definitions of the remaining families of aquatic Oligocheta.

Fam. Phreodrilide, n. fam.

Setze in four rows ; the dorsal setze long and capilliform, two to each bundle in the
anterior segments; only one posteriorly. Ventral setze of two kinds—one of each kind in
each row—curved and S-shaped without notched extremity.

Testes in X and XI forming a continuous mass on each side, perforating septum
X/X1; ovaries in XII; development of ova as in Enchytreide and Ilyodrilus;
sperm duct much coiled, opening by an atrium also much coiled on to segment XII;
atrium and the greater part of sperm duct inclosed in a muscular sac derived from

* Since the above was written, I have received a more fully adult specimen, in which one of the segments in the
neighbourhood of the XIIIth was furnished with a pair of tubular processes. An unfortunate accident in the prepara-
tion of this specimen for section cutting prevented me from ascertaining whether these are merely the everted atria,

as I believe, or are penes. The clitellum in this specimen apparently occupied about four segments, commencing at
the XIIth or XIII th.

ON TWO NEW GENERA OF AQUATIC OLIGOCH ATA. 291

muscular tunic of atrium ; sperm duct furnished with a long convoluted diverticulum ;
oviducts opening on to intersegmental groove XII/XIII; alimentary tract ciliated
throughout the entire length with the exception of the buccal cavity.

Genus Phreodrilus, nov. gen.

A single pair of very elongated and coiled spermathecz, opening on to exterior in
front of dorsal setze of segment XIII. Septal glands present, connected with pharynx.
Nephridia wanting in anterior segments. No special sperm sacs or egg sacs. (?)

Phreodrilus subterraneus, n.sp.

Long, slender worm about 2 inches long; chloragogen cells upon cesophagus com-
mence towards end of segment VI. Habitat, New Zealand.

The above definitions must naturally be considered as very temporary ; they will no
doubt require revision in the event of the discovery of an allied form.

I should regard the Phreodrilidee as a very low form of Oligocheta greatly
specialised in certain directions. I should explain, however, that in using the expression
“low,” I do not mean that this genus is in any way near the ancestral form of the
Oligochzeta. The simplicity of structure in this and other aquatic genera is rather to
be looked upon as evidence of degeneration. The almost complete ciliation of the
alimentary tract is a feature that Phreodrilus shares with the simpler forms ; so also is
the very complete internal metamerism of the body; | mean as regards the interseg-
mental septa. Whether it actually propagates by the asexual method, is a question upon
which I may possibly have the opportunity of reporting later; but Iam in the mean-
time inclined to suspect that Phreodrilus will prove to be one of the “ Gemmipares”
of dUprxem. Another character by which Phreodrilus shows its low position among
the Oligochzeta is the absence of spermsacs or ovisacs. There are some indications, to
which I have duly referred above (p. 267), that an egg sac is formed by a dragging back
of the septum bounding posteriorly segment XII. However, in the not fully mature
Stylaria lacustris, Verpovsky figures (7, pl. iv. fig 2, v.) an egg sac totally distinct from
the septa, and apparently bearing no relation to them. On the other hand, in Mesen-
chytreus there is an impaired ege sac very like that of Phreodrilus, but longer.
Whatever may be the case as regards the egg sac in specimens of Phreodrilus with
more matured female sexual organs than my example, it appears highly probable that
a sperm sac is never developed.

- I should place the Phreodrilide nearer to the Naidomorpha than to any other group
of Oligocheeta, though I admit that the position of the genital organs suggests an
affinity to the Enchytreide. But what their exact position with regard to these lower
groups is, I regard as a matter which cannot be at present satisfactorily determined.
There are, however, a few points in which Phreodrilus recalls the higher among the

292 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD

aquatic Oligochzeta ; for instance, the ventral sete, with their non-bifurcate extremity.
At present sete of this description are only met with in the Enchytreeide among the
lower forms. The form of the setze in question in Phreodrilus is certainly different in
some details from the setze of the Lumbriculide, but they conform to the same general
type. I have described in some detail (p. 258) the curious “ blood gland” of Phreodrilus,
and have compared it with the dilated branches of the dorsal vessel, which are so
characteristic of the Lumbriculide. Phreodrilus also agrees with some members of that
family in the position of the spermathece ; and if I am right in my supposition that the
cecal appendage of the sperm duct is the metamorphosed equivalent of the second sperm
duct of the Lumbriculus, there is an interesting point of affinity to that group. The
non-ciliation of the atrium, however, removes Phreodrilus from the neighbourhood of
the Lumbriculide no less than from the neighbourhood of the Tubificidee and the lower
forms ; indeed this organ is altogether peculiar.

A survey of the structure of Phreodrilus leads me to the conclusion that it should
be placed some way off the line leading from the more highly developed Lumbriculidee
to the lower Naidomorpha, but that its precise relationships require further study, and
cannot be determined with any probability of success at the present time.

DESCRIPTION OF PELODRILUS VIOLACEUS, nov. gen. n.sp.

The Annelids which form the subject of the present communication, were, like the
last, collected and preserved by Mr W. W. Smith of East Belt, Ashburton, New Zealand,
to whose kindness I have been for some years past greatly, indebted for specimens of
New Zealand Oligocheeta.

They were collected about a mile from Ashburton, in rich wet soil, at a little distance
from aswamp. ‘They are described by Mr Smith as “ flesh-coloured” during life. The
worms were fixed with corrosive sublimate and hardened in alcohol; their colour in the
preserved state is bluish-grey, caused by the transparent walls and the opaque contents
of the alimentary tract.

The length of the specimens varies from 1 to 2 inches; they are very slender,
and resemble a Phreoryctes or Lumbriculus. Most of them have the clitellum well
developed; and this fixes the period of maturity to the month of August, when they
were collected.

I find that they belong to a distinct generic type, for which I propose the name
Pelodrilus. They have affinities both to the Lumbriculide and Phreoryctide.

§ Haternal Characters.

(1.) Prostomium.—The prostomium of Pelodrilus is short and blunt, and very in-
conspicuous in the preserved specimens; it has no resemblance to that of Phreoryctes,
which is divided by a furrow into two portions.

ON TWO NEW GENERA OF AQUATIC OLIGOCH ATA. 295

(2.) Sete.—The setze exist upon all the segments of the body except the first. They are
arranged in four couples, both of which are, in the anterior part of the body at any rate,
rather lateral in position. I could detect no difference of size between the sete of the
more dorsal and of the more ventral couples, such as I have shown to occur in
Phreoryctes [12]. é

The shape of the setzeis in no way distinctive ; as shown in fig. 20, s, they agree with
those of Phreoryctes, the Lumbriculidze, and most Earthworms.

There is, furthermore, an agreement with the two first-mentioned families in the fact
of there being no modification of the setee upon the clitellum or of those in the neigh-
bourhood of the spermathecal apertures. They are present, and are perfectly normal in
shape, as well as in arrangement, upon all the segments of the clitellum.

It appears, therefore, that the setee of Pelodrilus are more like those of the Lumbri-
culide than of any other family or group of Oligocheeta.

(3.) Clitellum.—tThe data with regard to the number of segments occupied by the
elitellum in the Lumbriculide are not very numerous. With regard to Rhynchelmas,
Vespovsky says (9, p. 34), “ Hin solcher [wurm] ist in der Regel im Begriff einen
cocon alzulegen, was sich aiisserlich nach einem weisslichen Auflage am 8-16 segmente
kenntlich ist.” I take this to imply that the VIIIth to the XVIth segments are occupied
by the clitellum, as he has also said (7, p. 67), ‘Bei Rhynchelmis der Giirtel eine
bedeutende Anzahl von segmenten einnimmt.”

In Phreoryctes the clitellum is much more limited, and extends over four segments
only, viz., from XI-—XIV.

In Pelodrilus the clitellum occupies segments XI—XIII. It is only developed on the
dorsal side of the body. In the region of the clitellum the body is much swollen, owing
to the tension caused by the genital products.

So far, therefore, as can be said at present, Pelodrilus comes nearer to Phreoryctes
than to the Lumbriculide. I shall refer to the minute structure of the clitellum under
the heading “‘ Integument.”

_ (4.) Nephridiopores.—These are situated in front of the ventral pair of sete.

§ Integument.

The most interesting fact relating to the structure of the body wall in Pelodrilus is
its great thickness in the anterior, as compared with the posterior, segments. This is
frequently met with among terrestrial Oligocheeta (cf, for example, figs. 4 and 3 in the
plate illustrating my memoir upon Monzligaster [13]), where it appears to have an
obvious relation to the density of the medium in which they live. Increased muscular
power in the anterior segments is not so much needed by worms which swim in water,
and is not developed. Pelodrilus, however, does not live in water, like most of its
allies, but in marshy land ; and its structure bears evidence of its mode of life, not only

294 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD

in the thick longitudinal muscular coat of the anterior segments, but also in the greatly
increased thickness of some of the anterior inter-segmental septa. These latter structures
will be again referred to later (see p. 276).

The epidermis consists of the usual oval glandular cells, between which lie tall inter-
stitial cells.

The circular muscular layer is not more than two fibres thick in the anterior thickened
region of the body.

In connection with the epidermis | may mention the presence of two sucker-like
structures, which lie, one behind the other, in the middle ventral line of segment X.
These bodies seem to be possibly organs of sense connected with the generative function.
I should compare them to the “ Wollustorgane” described by MicHaELsEen [17] in
Acanthodrilus georgvanus.

One is shown in longitudinal section in fig. 20, g. The epidermal cells are here seen
to be somewhat elongated, and to converge towards a point situated in the middle of the
modified area. The cells are, some of them, very granular, and it may be that they have
a glandular function. The integument was not sufficiently well preserved to permit of a
more decisive opinion as to the nature of these bodies.

The clitellar epithelium is one cell thick. These cells are elongated and laden with
granules. The glandular part of the clitellum is only developed dorsally ; on the ventral
side an area surrounding the generative openings appears quite different when the body
wall of the worm is examined from below in a glycerine or Canada balsam preparation.
A number of lines shown in fig. 22 radiate out from the male generative pores. These
lines suggest muscles connected with the widening or narrowing of the genital pores. In
sections I have found it difficult to make out the structure of the integument in this
region ; fig. 28, therefore, which illustrates the opening of the vasa deferentia as seen in
longitudinal section, must be taken to be only very diagrammatic as regards the epidermis.
In any case it is certain that the tall granular columnar cells present on the dorsal
surface of the clitellum are here absent. A darkly-stained area divided into cubical
blocks underlies the epidermis, which is not greatly developed. I take these structures
to represent a series of muscular masses peculiar to this region of the integument, and
concerned with the movements of the clitellar segments during coitus, and perhaps also
with the closure or opening of the genital pores. The structure wants working out on
material that has been specially preserved to this end.

§ Alimentary Canal.

This presents the characters that are usually met with in the lower Oligocheta, that
is, there is no gizzard, and no glands appended to the canal. The buccal cavity occupies
the first segment of the body. Its walls consist of little else than a layer of somewhat
flattened cells) The pharynx also occupies a single segment—the second. It is chiefly

~

ON TWO NEW GENERA OF AQUATIC OLIGOCH ATA. 295

distinguished by the thickened epithelium, developed only on the dorsal side, which
begins and ends abruptly. A few muscles attached to the pharynx connect it with the
body wall. The cesophagus is narrow, but the commencement of the intestine is hardly
wider. ‘The latter is distinguished by its epithelium being ciliated.

The chloragogen cells commence in the Vth segment. It was CLaparkpE who first
noticed that the commencement of the chloragogen layer covering the intestine was a
fixed point often characteristic of the species.

, § Nephridia.

The nephridia, instead of being, as is the rule in the aquatic Annelids, absent in the
genital segments, are present in all the segments of the body, commencing with the VIIth
and excepting the XIth and XIIth.

At present the only instance of an Oligochet, included by CLAPAREDE in his group
“Timicole,” where the nephridia are not absent from the genital segments, is Lwmbri-
culus. This fact has been recently discovered by VesDovsky, who has, however, only
stated that the nephridia persist in the spermathecal seements. A fuller account of this
form is promised by Dr A. Srotc. Now that two genera are known in which the
nephridia persist in the genital segments after the worm has attained sexual maturity, it
is obviously impossible any longer to retain a group “ Limicole,” distinguished by the
absence of nephridia in those segments. VEsDovsKy suggested that the disappearance
of the nephridia in the genital segments of aquatic Oligocheta on the development of the
sexual organs and ducts might be due simply to want of space in these small Annelids.
In support of this suggestion it may be noted that both Lumbriculus and Pelodrilus
are large worms as compared with the majority of the aquatic forms; but as they are
equalled or exceeded in size by many Lumbriculide, and even by certain Tubificidee, and
a species of Pachydrilus, some other cause must be sought for the comparatively rare
persistence of the nephridia in the aquatic Oligocheta, and their almost universal persist-
ence in the generative segments of the terrestrial forms.

I should regard it myself as simply a further illustration of the structural simplifica-
tion which is so frequently associated with smallness of bulk, and which Dourn and
LANKESTER regard as degeneration. On this view we should expect to meet with this
simplification of structure less marked in those forms which approach nearest to the
higher Oligocheeta. And that is precisely the position occupied by the Lumbriculide and
Phreoryctide, in the neighbourhood of which families Pelodrilus should undoubtedly be
placed.

A very convenient method of studying the anatomy of this worm, which I found too
small to dissect, is to cut the anterior end of the body in half by a longitudinal cut; the
ventral and dorsal halves are then mounted in glycerine, and the relative position of the
organs, as well as to a certain extent their minute structure, may then be very easily
studied. This forms a good way of checking the results obtained by continuous series
of longitudinal sections.

296 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD

In such preparations the nephridia are seen to occupy a relatively small space in the
body cavity of their segment; each lies coiled up closely approximated to the anterior
septum ; the duct to the exterior passes off from the ventral surface of the nephridium,
and after a relatively long course opens on to the exterior in front of the ventral pair of
sete. This position 2n front of the ventral pair of setze is also found in Phreoryctes [12],
though apparently not in Phreoryctes filiformis, and in Phreatothrix among the
Lumbriculide.

The nephridial funnel, as in all Oligocheeta in which there are paired nephridia, except
Plutellus, lies in the segment anterior to that in which the nephridia itself is placed. <A
single funnel depending into the [Xth segment is shown in fig. 24; they lie near to
the junction of the septum with the body wall, on a level with the ventral setze.

A single nephridium i situ is illustrated in fig. 2. The coils of which it is composed
are closely pressed together, and under a low power it looks almost as if the nephridium
were simply formed by a comparatively short and broad tube bent a few times upon
itself. A closer examination shows that each coil is really composed of a bundle of fine
nephridial tubules closely pressed against each other, and occasionally anastomosing. They
run for the most along or at right angles to the long axis of the mass. There is hardly
any development of peritoneal cells round the nephridia; certainly the large vesicular
cells, which are so often found in the aquatic Oligocheeta, are absent.

§ Body Cavity.

The septa which separate the ccelom into a series of cavities corresponding to the
external segments are replaced in the four anterior segments by irregularly-placed fibres
and bundles of fibres passing between the alimentary tract and the parietes; after the
Vth segment the regular septa begin. It is interesting to find that the first five of these
are very thick, and consist of two distinct muscular coats, whose fibres run in opposite
directions. The relative thickness of one of these anterior septa, as compared with one
of those that immediately follow, will be seen by a comparison of figs. 25 and 26, which
were drawn with the aid of a camera lucida. The septa are cup-shaped, with the concavity
directed forwards, and in the segments which contain the sperm sacs and ovisacs this con-
cavity is much emphasised by the stretching of the septa, caused by the growth of the
sacs in question.

As far as I am aware, Pelodrilus is the only instance of an Oligocheet, which CLAPAREDE
would undoubtedly have referred to his group of Limicolee, where this increase in thick-
ness of the anterior intersegmental septa is met with. It may very possibly have
a relation to the habitat of the worm in soil, and not in the softer mud at the bottom
of a lake or river; and in any case it shows that no importance can be attached to the
presence of these thickened septa in Earthworms as a character distinguishing them from
the lower Oligocheeta. In view, however, of other points in which Pelodrilus resembles
the higher Oligocheeta, this character, perhaps, gains an additional importance.

ON TWO NEW GENERA OF AQUATIC OLIGOCHATA. 297

Septal Glands.—A few Oligocheeta are provided with peculiar glandular structures
attached to a certain number of the anterior intersegmental septa, which are usually
regarded as glands appended to the cesophagus. They have been hitherto found in the
Enchytreide, in some Naidomorpha, and in Phreatothrix among the Lumbriculide.
They occur also, as I have already pointed out in this memoir, in my new genus
Phreodrilus.

The septal glands are found in segments V—VII ; they form a series of paired structures
lying on the anterior face of the cup-shaped septee which lie between these segments. I
could not find any evidence of their possessing a central lumen such as has been described
by various writers. In all my sections the septal glands were undoubtedly solid structures,
though often furnished with a fibrous core. The cells which compose these glands appear
to have no particular arrangement. They have a glandular appearance, and are pear-
shaped. The extremity of the cell passes into a fine prolongation ; the prolongations of
all the cells unite to form solid strands, which are bound up in a darkly staining sheath,
which is continuous with the sheath of the gland. The fibrous core that has been
mentioned is simply produced by the processes of these cells. In fig. 36 I have sketched
a portion of one of the septal glands showing the fibrous core, which is really a bundle
of the ducts of the unicellular glands, which are associated together to constitute the
septal glands. The fibrous core passes forward towards the pharynx, and then gives off
branches of various sizes, which end in close contact with the basis of the epithelium of
the pharynx on the dorsal side. The dorsal blood-vessel is also shown in the figure
lying just above the “apertures” of the septal glands. The fibrous strands which
connect the septal glands with the pharynx have a few nuclei interspersed. It appears
to me that, at any rate in this Annelid, the septal glands are simply to be regarded as
masses of unicellular gland-cells—each gland-cell being prolonged into a duct which
reaches the pharyngeal epithelium.

The structure of these glands, in fact, is very much like that of the “ capsulogenous ”
glands in Pericheta. In many species belonging to that genus—probably in most—there
are little, white, pear-shaped, glandular bodies opening on the ventral side of the body in
the neighbourhood of the reproductive apertures—both the vasa deferentia and the
spermathece.* The structure of these bodies is very simple; they consist of groups of
unicellular glands bound together ina common sheath, whose ducts can be traced through
the epidermis to the exterior. In Pelodrilus I must confess to having been unable to
trace the ducts of the septal glands through the pharyngeal epithelium. They appeared
to end at these bases of these cells. I am, nevertheless, decidedly of opinion that the
septal glands should be referred to the same category as the integumental glands of
Pericheta, and that both structures are seen in their least specialised condition in the

ce

* I notice that Rosa, in a recent paper, still speaks of the small second appendage of the spermatheca in
Pericheta Houlleti (and P. campanulata) as a diverticulum of the spermatheca. Ifthe structure of the body in question
is the same in Pericheta campanulata as in the species which I investigated, and believed to be identical with
PERRIER’S P. Houlleti, the term is hardly applicable.

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 11). 2

298 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD

single glandular cells which open on to the body surface in Leeches, and appear also,
according to Brnuam [20, pl. xvi. bes, fig. 39], to occur in the Earthworm Microcheta ;
though here the numerous nuclei probably indicate that the glands in question are really
multicellular. It is almost unnecessary to point out that there is every probability of
the pharynx being in Pelodrilus of stomodeeal origin.

§ Testes.

There are two pairs of testes placed in segments X and XI (see fig. 27), and attached
to the anterior septa of their segments. They are of considerable size when fully
developed, and are branched at their free extremities. In the mature worm the testes
are nearly always incomplete in number, owing presumably to the fact that the germinal
cells of one or more of the gonads have been transferred to the interior of the sperm sacs.
Something of this kind possibly accounts for the statements that there are only a single
pair of testes in certain genera of the Lumbriculide, whereas in these very forms there are
two pairs of funnels, and two pairs of testes might therefore be expected to exist. In any
case, a correspondence between the number of gonads and funnels is always met with
among Harthworms. If there are only a single pair of funnels, the testes are reduced to
a single pair, while in the vast majority two pairs of vasa deferentia correspond to two
pairs of testes.

§ Vasa Deferentia.

The characters of the vasa deferentia are, so far as is known at present, very different
in the Phreoryctidee and in the Lumbriculide. From the Lumbriculide I exclude
Ocnerodrilus, which, as I shall point out to this Society in a forthcoming paper, really
shows no particular affinities to the family in which Ertsen first placed it. Eclipidrilus
also is a genus which requires further investigation before its claims to be placed with
family Lumbriculide can be fully recognised. The family contains at present only seven
well-marked genera, viz., Rhynchelmis, Stylodrilus, Claparediula, Lumbriculus, Tricho-
drilus, Phreatothrix, and Sutroa.

In all of these, with the exceptions of Zwmbriculus and Sutroa, the vasa deferentia
have the following arrangement :—There are two pairs of funnels which open respectively
into the [Xth and Xth segments. The vasa deferentia open separately on each side of the
body into the atrium, which lies in the Xth segment. It follows, therefore, that the vasa
deferentia belonging to the second pair of funnels perforate the intersegmental septum
X/XI twice.

As to Lumbriculus, our knowledge is at present confined to a very short note by
Vespovsky [7, p. 150, footnote], which runs as follows :—‘‘ Neuerdings aber erhielt ich
eine gréssere Anzahl der mit vollstiindigem Geschlechtsapparate angeriisteten Exemplare,
an denen ich sichergestellt habe dass die vermeintlichen Samentaschen des 8 Segmentes
voluminése mit ausstiilpbaren Penisrdhren versehene Atrien vorstellen, in welche
ungemein diinne Samengiinge einmiinden.” It is not, therefore, at present quite clear

ON TWO NEW GENERA OF AQUATIC OLIGOCH ATA. 299

whether Lwmbriculus does or does not agree with other Lumbriculide in the relations of
the vasa deferentia.

Sutroa is a somewhat aberrant Lumbriculid, quite recently described by Ersen
[4]. Hach atrium is furnished with two vasa deferentia, the funnels of which both open
into the XIth segment (? XIIth).

Phreoryctes shows no affinities with the Lumbriculide, except in possessing two pairs of
vasa deferentia. The atrium is entirely absent, and the vasa deferentia open separately on
to the XIth and XIIth segments [see No. 12]. In Pelodrilus the conditions differ from both
the Phreoryctidee and the Lumbriculidee, and approach to a certain extent the Lumbricide.

There are two pairs of funnels which open into segments X. and XI. The funnels
are of large size, and the arrangement of the septa is such (see fig. 39) that they face
upwards. In both cases the funnels are completely enclosed by the sperm sacs, which
almost completely fill the segments in which they lie. The cilia are very long, as is
usually the case with the Lumbriculide [cf Craparkps, 1, pl. ii. fig. 1, Vespovsxky, 7].
The position of the funnels agrees with that of the Phreoryctide and most Earthworms.
They are both a segment farther back than in most of the Lumbriculide.

The vasa deferentia are remarkably long and greatly coiled. Fig. 38 illustrates the
coils of one of the second pair of vasa deferentia, which are, like those of the first pair,
almost entirely included within the sperm sac. The vas deferens is for the most part
extremely thin, though it widens out just before joining the funnel, and also for some
little distance in front of the external orifice.

In the extremely thin and much coiled vasa deferentia, Pelodrilus differs from all the
Oligochzeta, to which it presents other points of affinity. In both the Lumbriculide and
Phreoryctidz the vasa deferentia are almost straight, or at most slightly smuous. The
Enchytreidee are more like Pelodrilus in this particular than any other family. The
structure of the vasa deferentia is not in any way peculiar; they are, as is always the
case, composed of a single layer of ciliated cubical cells, and are covered by a delicate
layer of peritoneum.

The communication of the vasa deferentia with the exterior is effected in a way
which is unique among the Oligocheeta.

There is, in the first place, no trace of an atrium—a structure which is present in all
the Lumbriculide. The vasa deferentia open directly on to the exterior, as in Phreoryctes
and the Lumbricide.

The male apertures are situated within the clitellum, and are conspicuous when this
region of the body is examined in a specimen mounted entire. The cells of the clitellar
epidermis are seen to have an arrangement which is illustrated in fig. 35. They radiate

outwards from a conspicuous orifice placed upon the XIIth segment. In such preparations

I have been able to recognise two pairs of orifices upon the XI]th segment corresponding
in position to the orifices of the spermathece upon the VIIIth segment. In longitudinal
sections (fig. 28), two distinct male apertures are to be found upon each side of the body,
placed one in front of the other and on a line with the oviducal pores, as well as with the

300 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD

apertures of the spermathece. The two male pores of each side of the body are very
much nearer to each other than the posterior of the two is to the oviducal pore.

It follows, therefore, that, while the posterior of the two funnels is connected with a
vas deferens which opens upon the following segment, the anterior vas deferens traverses
two segments before it communicates with the exterior. This is the only instance known
to me of an Annelid which would obviously belong to CLaparkpE’s division of the Lamicole,
in which the aperture of the vas deferens is situated further behind its funnel than the
following segment; and this genus forms an unique instance of the vasa deferentia of
each side opening on to the same segment, but by separate orifices.

In the position of the funnel and male orifices this genus appears to be intermediate
between Phreoryctes, on the one hand, and Hisenia (= Tetragonurus) on the other. In
Phreoryctes, each vas deferens opens separately on the segment behind that which con-
tains the funnel. In Pelodrilus, the anterior male pore has receded until it has come to
lie in the same segment with the posterior pore. In Hisenia—probably, we cannot say
certainly, for the worm has never been studied anatomically—both vasa deferentia open by
a common pore on segment XII.

§ Ovaries.

There are a single pair of ovaries (fig. 27, ov) in segment XII. ach is attached close
to one side of the ventral nerve cord. The ovary, as shown in fig. 41, a, is of an oval, some-
what pear-shaped form ; it is for the most part made up of small germinal cells, and con-
tains one or two ova in advanced stages of development. The ova, however, do not undergo
their entire development in the ovary ; masses of cells consisting of developing ova are
apparently from time to time broken off, and undergo their further development in the egg
sac. The fully mature ova (see fig. 41, a) are laden with yolk granules, and are of very
large size; a single ovum will extend through two or three segments. I never observed

(in three specimens investigated by longitudinal sections) more than two or three mature
ova Im a given worm.

§ Oviducts.

The two oviducts open on to the intersegmental groove XII/XIII. One of these is illus-
trated in longitudinal section in fig. 40. What strikes one about the oviducts of this and
other ‘‘ Limicole” is the small size, as compared with the gigantic ova which have to find
their way out of the body cavity through them. The epithelium is of course ciliated—the
cilia being short; the funnel is, as in the Lumbriculide, “ sessile” upon the ventral body

wall just in front of the septum separating segments XII and XIII. The duct is thus
reduced to the smallest dimensions.

§ Spermathece.

Pelodrilus is turnished with a single pair of spermathecee in segment VIII.
Each spermatheca opens close to the boundary line between segments VII and VIII,

at a spot corresponding to the male apertures, 7.¢., between the dorsal and ventral
sete, though nearer to the latter.

ON TWO NEW GENERA OF AQUATIC OLIGOCH ATA. 301

‘The spermathece are very large, and each is doubled upon itself (see fig. 14). The
portion which lies nearest to the external aperture is long and narrow, and lined with
a columnar epithelium of a non-glandular character, which is shown by its being readily
stained by borax carmine; further back (fig. 23) the spermatheca widens out, and the
epithelium becomes laden with secreted granules, and have not been stained to any extent
by the same colouring reagent. I usually found clumps of small spherical granular
cells, each with a minute but darkly staining nucleus near to the blind extremity of the
spermatheca. I am uncertain whether or not to regard these as parasites.

AFFINITIES OF PELODRILUS.

This Annelid my be characterised as follows :—

Genus Pelodrilus, nov. gen.

Moderately long, thin worms, inhabiting marshy soil. Sete simple in shape and strictly
paired ; absent only from the XIIth segment in the sexually ripe individuals. Clitellum
extending over segments XI-XIII (inclusive). Testes, two pairs in X and XI. Vasa
deferentia opening by two distinct pores on each side, placed one in front of the other
upon the XIIth segment, greatly coiled, with funnels in the Xth and XIth segments. No
atria. Sperm sacs occupying segments [IX—XII. Ovaries in XIII; oviducts consisting
of little more than a funnel opening immediately on to the exterior in groove between
segments XII/XIII. Ova large and few, enclosed in thin-walled egg sac. Spermathece, a
single pair in VIII. Septal glands present. Nephridia in all segments after the VIth
with the exception of XI and XII. Some of anterior septa thickened.

Species Pelodrilus violaceus, n.sp.

Prostomium short. Nephridiopores in front of ventral setee. Habitat, New Zealand.

In the above description I cannot, of course, pretend to distinguish between generic
and specific characters; I select as a specific character the position of the nephridio-
pores, for the reason that that appears to be a specific character in Phreoryctes—
the most nearly allied genus.

' There can be, I think, little doubt that Pelodrilus should be included in the family
Phreoryctide.

It agrees with Phreoryctes in the following assemblage of characters :—

1. Testes in X and XI.

2. Sperm ducts, two pairs opening separately.

3. Atrium absent.

4. Spermathecz anterior to testes.

5. Hearts long, thin, and much convoluted,

302 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD

as well asin a number of minor points which need hardly be recapitulated, as they
are found in many of the aquatic Oligocheta. I refer to such points as the shape and
arrangement of the sete, the absence of gizzard, &c. The five points of agreement
between Pelodrilus and Phreoryctes enumerated above are stated in such a way as to
refer only to the families of aquatic Oligocheeta ( “ Zomicole” in the sense of CLaPAREDE),
which I consider alone for the present. The more important points of difference between
Pelodrilus and Phreoryctes are these :—

1. Sperm ducts greatly coiled; both on each side opening upon the XIIth segment,
though separately.

2. Only one pair of ovaries in XII, and one pair of oviducts opening between
XIT/XIIT.

3. The presence of sap glands.

4, Nephridia present in some of the genital seoments.

5. Clitellum occupying only three segments (XI—XIII), and developed only ventrally ; ;
setze of segment XII absent.

6. Some of anterior septa thickened.

These structural characters of Pelodrilus do not indicate much affinity to any other
group of the lower Oligocheta. The Lumbriculide are the only other group with
which any comparisons suggest themselves, and these are really limited to the
characters of the setz, and of the oviduct, which has pretty much the same form. It
is true that Lwmbriculus is the only other genus of aquatic Oligochzta where the
nephridia persist in the genital segments; but this fact, though important enough in
another aspect, is, perhaps, hardly one upon which considerations of affinity can
be based.

The greatly coiled sperm ducts recall those of the Tubificide and Enchytreide,
but other characters do not permit of the establishment of any close relationship
between Pelodrilus and either of these two families.

On the other hand, it does seem possible to indicate some scationstiel between
Pelodrilus and the higher Oligochzta (earthworms), though these are not sufficiently
pronounced to admit of a comparison between Pelodrilus and any particular family
or families of that group.

The general resemblances to the higher forms, other than those shared by
Phreoryctes, are as follows :—

1. Persistence of nephridia in certain of the genital segments. (This is shared by
Lumbriculus.)

2. Several of anterior intersegmental septa greatly thickened.

3. One of the pairs of vasa deferentia traverses two segments between the internal
and external orifice.

Phreoryctes itself comes nearer to Earthworms than does any other genus among
the lower Oligochzta, and Pelodrilus serves to increase the closeness of the family
Phreoryctide to the higher Oligocheta.

—

bo

ON TWO NEW GENERA OF AQUATIC OLIGOCH ATA. 303

LIST OF AUTHORITIES QUOTED.

. CLAPAREDE, Ep. Recherches Anatomiques sur les Oligochétes, Mém. Soc. Phys. et ad Hist.

Nat. de Geneve, 1862, 75 pp., 4 pls.

. DUDEKEM, JULES. Histoire Naturelle du Tubifex des Ruisseaux, Mém. cour. et Mém. des

Sav. ér. Acad. Roy. Belg., tom. xxvi., 37 pp., 4 pls.

. EIsEN, Gustav. Kclipidrilide and their Anatomy: a new Family of the Limicolide Oli-

gocheta, Nova Acta Reg. Soc. Upsala, ser. iii., 1881, 10 pp., 2 pls.

. EIsEN, Gustav. On the Anatomy of Swtroa rostrata, a new Annelid of the Family

Lumbriculina, Mem. Californ. Acad. Sci., vol. ii., No. 1, 1888, 8 pp., 2 pls.

? Stoxc, ANTONIN. Monografie éeskych Tubificidii Morfologické a Systematicka Studie, Abhandl.

k, Bohm. Ges., Bd. vii. Pt. 2, 1888, 45 pp., 4 pls.

. Stoic, ANTONIN. Dero digitata, O. F. Miller, Anatomické a histologickd Studie, S. B. Bohm.

Ges., 1885, pp. 65-95, 2 pls.

. VEJDOVSKY, F. System und-Morphologie der Oligocheten. Prag., 1886.
. VEJDOVSKY, F. Beitrage zur vergleichenden Morphologie der Anneliden. I. Monographie der

Enchytreiden. Prag., 1879.

. VEJDOVSKY, F. Entwickelungsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen, Heft i-ii, Prag., 1888 and

1890.

. BEDDARD, F. E. Abstract of Investigations into the Structure of some Oligocheta, Ann.

and Mag. Nat. Hist., Jan. 1891.

. BEDDARD, F. E. On the Structure of Two New Genera of Eudrilide, &., Quart. Jowr. Micr.

Sci., vol. xxxil. pp. 285-278,

. BepparD, F. E. On the Anatomy, Histology, and Affinities of Phreoryctes, Trans. Roy.

Soc. Edin., vol. xxxv., No. 16, pp. 629-640, 1 pl.

. BEDDARD, F. E. On the Structure of a Genus of Oligocheta belonging to the Limicoline

Section, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvi., No. 1, pp. 1-17, 1 pl.

. MICHAELSEN, W. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der deutschen Enchytreiden-Fauna, Arch. mikrosk.

Anat., Bd. xxxi. pp. 483-498, 1 pl.

. Micwartsen, W._ Enchytrziden-Studien, Arch. mikrosk. Anat., Bd. xxx. pp. 366-378,

1 pl.

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xxvil. pp. 292-304, 1 pl.

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2 pls.

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vol. xxiv. pp. 3-14, 1 pl.

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Mus. Civ. Genova, ser. 2A, vol. x., 16 pp., 1 pl.

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361, 3 pls.

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304 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.
Puate I.

Phreodrilus subterraneus.

Fig. 1. Sete, a, dorsal; 0, ventral.

Fig. 2. Funnel of vas deferens.

Fig. 3. Transverse section of narrow part of atrium.

Fig. 4. Longitudinal section through atrium where lumen is wider.

Fig. 5. Semidiagrammatic view of genitalia. te, testis; /, funnel of vas deferens ; eff, efferent canal ; s, sete ;

od, oviduct ; ov, ovary ; sp, spermatheca,

6. “ Bloodgland.” 01, blood-clots.

Fig. 7. Male efferent apparatus. jf, funnel; spt., septum; v.d,vas deferens; sp’, blind appendix of vas
deferens ; 7, their junction within periatrial sac (sac); ¢, external orifice.

Fig. 8. Longitudinal section through nerve-cord. me, neurochord branching where nerve is given off.

Fig. 9. Longitudinal section through external aperture of atrium, showing adjacent parts of efferent duct.
3, external pore ; at, distal section of atrium ; at’, portion of atrium lying within periatrial space
(psp); v.d, vas deferens ; sp’, appendix of vas deferens.

Fig. 10. Longitudinal section through spermatheca.

Figs. 11, 12. Longitudinal and transverse section through appendix. of vas deferens. a, secreted matter in
lumen of tube.

Fig. 13. External ventral view of genital segments which are numbered and show position of orifices.
¢, male apertures ; od, oviduct pores; sp, spermathecal pores; the nerve-cord is indicated as
showing through the body walls, and the setz are shown.

Fig. 14. Transverse section through body wall. s, seta sac; ep, epidermis; ¢m, transverse muscles ; /m, longi-
tudinal muscles.

Fig. 15. Separate lamelle of longitudinal muscular coat.

Prats II.

Fig. 16. Phreodrilus subterraneus, a portion of the contents of periatrial sac. vd, vas deferens in transverse
and longitudinal section ; sperm, spermatozoa ; n, nuclei lying between them.

Fig. 17. Pelodrilus violaceus, natural size, showing clitellum (c/).

Fig. 18. Phreodrilus subterraneus, oviduct.

Fig. 19. 5 longitudinal section of body wall.

Fig. 20. Pelodr ilus violaceus, section of epidermis to show glandular papilla (y). _s, sete.

Fig. 21. 33 = nephridium as seen on dissection. jf, funnel; spt., septum ; 0, external orifice ;
8, sete.

Fig. 22. " 3 ventral view of genital segments which are numbered. sp, spermathecal pore ;

3, male pores; ¢, oviducal |pore. The extent of the clitellum is indicated
by the dotted portion.

Fig. 23. 3 a spermatheca transverse section. m, nucleus of glandular cells ; a, parasites (1).

Fig. 24. 5 % nephridial funnel. 01, blood capillary.

Figs. 25, 26. ,, 33 septa to show relative thickness of specially thickened anterior septa (fig. 26)
and posterior septa (fig. 25).

Fig. 27. A 4 dissection to show genitalia, semidiagrammatic. sp, spermathece ; sps, sperm

sacs; these are cut open in segments X and XI to show the testes and vasa
deferentia lying within them; ¢, testes; jf, funnel of vasa deferentia ; ov,
ovary ; od, oviduct.

Fig. 28. sy e longitudinal section through external orifices of vasa deferentia of one side of
the body.

Fig. 28a. 3 5 spermatheca.

Fig. 29. ; ee supra-cesophageal ganglia, lateral view. dv, dorsal blood-vessel ; com, peri-

cesophageal commissure.

ON TWO NEW GENERA OF AQUATIC OLIGOCH ATA. 305

Fig. 30. Phreodrilus subterraneus, longitudinal section through atrium at region lettered a in fig. 7, to show
commencement of periatrial sac. sp, space, filled with spermatozoa, pro-
duced by the splitting off of the muscular coat of the atrium.

Fig. 31. - : egg-sac containing developing ova. s, walls of sac, which are simply formed
by a pushing back of the septum ; 0, clumps of developing ova.
Fig. 32. 3 rs periatrial space containing spermatozoa and nuclei.
Fig. 33. cA , muscular wall of periatrial space in transverse section.
PuatE IIT.

Fig. 34. Phreodrilus subterraneus, chief vascular trunks in four of the anterior segments. dd, dorsal vessel ;
h, hearts ; bgl, blood-gland ; v, ventral vessel ; si, supra-intestinal ; ”, network upon csophagus.

Fig. 35. Pelodrilus violaceus, dissection showing apertures of vasa deferentia of one side, opening by separate
pores, 61, 5%. s, sete.

Fig. 36. 3 53 section through commencement of cesophagus to show septal glands (sq), and
their ducts (d) ; 1, dorsal blood-vessel ; sp, septum.

Fig. 37. Phreodrilus subterraneus, developing ova at different stages.

Fig. 38. Pelodrilus violaceus, interior of portion of sperm sac to show the coiling of the vas deferens (v.d)
within the sac; bundles of developing spermatozoa (sp) are also shown ;
sps, wall of sperm-sac.

Fig. 39. a B dissection to show vasa deferentia and oviduct. 7, funnels of vasa deferentia ;
$6, external orifices; spt, septum ; od, oviduct ; s, setz.

Fig. 40. fi 3 oviduct in longitudinal section.

Fig. 41. 5 a, ovary ; 0, nearly mature ovum ; ¢, fully mature ovum.

VOL. XXXVI. PART Il. (NO. 11). 22

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XIIl.—Professor Kelland’s Problem on Superposition. By Ropert Bropte.
(With Two Plates, I., II.)

(Read February 16, 1891.)

From a given square one quarter is cut off; to divide the remaining gnomon into
four such parts that they shall be capable of forming a square.

[See Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., xxi. 271.]

Preliminary problem, viz.: To cut a rectangle into three parts capable of forming a
square (Figs. 1, 2).

Lay off AX and CY=side of square, join BX, draw YZ 1 AB, and 1, 2 and 3 will
be the required pieces, as is evident.

The problem will be impossible when the length of the rectangle is greater than four
times its breadth; four or more pieces may then be required. The problem can be solved
in four different ways by drawing the sloping line BX from each of the four angles,

The above is a particular case of the more general problem, viz., to cut a rectangle
or a parallelogram into three pieces so as to form another with a given side, as AB
(Figs. 3, 4).

In the gnomon (Figs. 5, 6), suppose the square EC placed below in the position BK,
then the rectangle AK is formed, and can be divided into three pieces by FX and YZ,
so as to form a square as before.

YZ+AF=side of square=KG+GY; .. YZ=GY and GZ bisects ZG.

If the piece HXZYK be turned round on ZG it will occupy the position DEZSC, and
will cut a portion off piece 2 exactly the same as BXZS. This is Professor Kelland’s
Case V.

If piece 2 be left untouched, then BXZYG must be so cut that when EDCGZ is
turned upon ZG it will coincide with the lower square.

It is manifest that any lines, straight or curved, drawn from S and Y symmetrical
with ZG will give solutions and an indefinite number (Figs. 7, 8).

If YZand SZ be drawn giving maximum of 4, this is Case II. ; YS joined is Case IV. ;
YG and SG or maximum of 3 is Case I., &e.

Case I. considered.

In Case I. (Fig. 9) EY a portion of 4, coincides with 2, and it will also coincide in
the square if 4 be turned over (Fig. 10). There will here also be an indefinite number
of solutions by any number of lines drawn symmetrically from E and Y.

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO, 12). a

308 MR ROBERT BRODIE ON

The maximum of 2 will be seen in Figs. 11,12. The symmetrical lines may be
drawn to cut portions off 2, as shown by the dotted lines.

Referring to Fig. 9, it is plain that 4 might be placed on the opposite side of 3 as
in Fig. 13.

As in Figs. 9, 10, it is plain that an indefinite number of solutions can be obtained by
laying off BN = BX, and drawing lines symmetrical to XN from X and N (Figs. 13, 14).

The maximum of 4 is seen in Figs. 13, 14. Joining XN or ZP will give two other
solutions. Another solution will be seen in Figs. 15, 16.

This last gives the same shape to 4 as could be got by cutting a portion off 3
in Figs. 9, 10.

Returning to Figs. 9, 10, the portion 4 may be placed alongside of 2 as in Figs. 17,
18. 4 is against 2 both in gnomon and square. If FS be cut off= EY, then any lines
drawn from § and E, straight or curved and symmetrical with SE, will give solutions.
The semicircle gives one solution.

The maximum of 2 is seen in Figs. 19, 20, and is Professor Kelland’s Case VIII.
Considering this fig., it is manifest that 4 might be cut off the bottom of 3, as in Figs.
21, 22, which is Professor Kelland’s Case IX., and here the original 4 has vanished
altogether.

Considering this last figure, 3 and 4 may be joined into one, and a piece cut off 2 as
in Figs. 23, 24, which is Professor Kelland’s Case XI. In this example 3 has taken quite
a new position in the square.

Returning to Figs. 17, 18, and drawing symmetrical lines so as to give the maximum
of 4, Figs. 25, 26 are obtained, and 2 is an equilateral triangle.

As ACE is in contact with 1, if AD=CB, an indefinite number of solutions are
obtained by drawing lines from C and D symmetrical with CD.

The maximum of 2 is seen in Figs. 27, 28. The lines marked x are all the same
length.

The minimum of 2 is shown by dotted line in Figs. 25, 26.

Considering Fig. 25, it appears that if EA be produced a triangle will be cut off equal
to 2, and if 2 be added to 4 and cut off from 1 the solution of Figs. 29, 30 is obtained.

If SF be laid off equal to OL, an indefinite number of solutions are obtained by
symmetrical lines from F and 8. The dotted line shows the maximum of 4.

In Figs. 31, 32, 2 is annexed to 1, which is the same as Professor Kelland’s Case
VII. There are four solutions according to the corner of 3 cut off.

In this arrangement the original piece 2 is absorbed altogether.

If 2 be annexed to 3 and cut off from 1, Figs. 33, 34 are obtained, which are Pro-
fessor Kelland’s Case X.

The following are varieties :—Figs. 35, 36; 37, 38; 39, 40; 41, 42.

Professor Kelland’s Case VI. gives the maximum of 4.

The solution in Professor Kelland’s Case XII. is obtained on a different system,
and does not appear to admit of any distinct variety.

PROFESSOR KELLAND’S PROBLEM ON SUPERPOSITION. 309

It is manifest that many of the preceding solutions, for example, Figs. 9, 10; 33,
34; 41, 42, would apply to gnomons where the breadth of one leg is equal to the length
of the other.

The solutions in Figs. 7, 8; 13, 14; 15, 16 will apply when the legs of the gnomon
are equal in breadth.

On Cutting fectilineal Figures by Straight Lines into Pieces that shall be capable of
forming other Rectilineal Figures.

ie

To cut a parallelogram, ABCD, into another with the same angles, but with a side
equal to EF (fig. 1). First, when EF is less than one of the sides. Lay off DK, BG,
GH, HI, &c., each equal to EF, join AK, and draw parallels. It is manifest the pieces
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 will form the required figure. Second, when EF is longer than either of the
sides. Find by geometrical construction the other and short side, and proceed as before.
Hence to cut a rectangle into a square, (fig. 2), lay off DK, BE equal to side of square, &c.,
and BEFG is evidently equal to the square. If length of rectangle exceeds four times
the breadth, four pieces are required; if exceeding nine times, five pieces are required,
and so on.

II.

To cut two parallelograms having the same angles into one. Cut one so as to havea
side = one of the sides of the other, and place them together.

Or place the parallelorrams ABCD and BEFG as in fig. 3, lay off EK = AB, join DK,
KF, draw DH parallel to KF meeting BC produced in H, join HF, make GL=AB and
LM || BH. The sides of the triangles DCH, KEF are parallel, and side DC=CK, ...
DH=KF, and ... KH is a parallelogram, and the five pieces of which it is composed
are those of the given parallelograms. N.B.—If DK cut BC between G and C, another
piece will be required.

To cut two squares into one, proceed as in fig. 4; and in the same way two similar
rectangles may be cut into a similar rectangle.

III.

To cuta parallelogram, ABCD, (fig. 5), into another, ABEF, on the same base and of
the same height but with a given 2 BAF, or a given side AF not less than the height of
the parallelogram. Lay off 4 BAF, or insert the line AF, and proceed as in fig. 5. The
proof is manifest. N.B.—The above illustrates Euclid, i. 35, by superposition.

310 MR ROBERT BRODIE ON

LV;

To cut a parallelogram, ABCD, (fig. 6), into pieces so as to recompose into a parallelo-
gram, OCFH, similar to a given parallelogram. Find by usual geometrical construction,
Euclid, vi. 25, the length of the sides OC, CF. From B or C insert BE=CF, one of
the above-found sides, produce AE to F, draw CF || BE, and the parallelogram is obtained
having CF =one of the required sides. If E comes on one of the sides AD or DC, then
this first step is done with one cut, BE. Next, taking CF as the base of the parallelogram
EBCF, make 4 FCO = one of the given angles, or insert CO = the other required side,
and complete the parallelogram OCFH, which is = ABCD, and has the required sides.
As the areas are equal, the angles at O and H must be = those of the given parallelo-
gram. Hence a parallelogram can be cut into a square.

Ni

To cut a triangle ABC, (fig. 7), into a parallelogram, or wce versa. Bisect AB, AC, in
D and E, cut in line DE, and place the triangle to right or left as in the figure, and FBCE
and DBCG are obtained. There are evidently six solutions—two for each side of the
triangle. The cutting a parallelogram into a triangle is manifest.

VI.

To cut a A ABC, (fig. 8), into a rectangle. Bisect AB, AC in D and HK, and proceed
as in the figure, and FBCG, FHKG are obtained. There are six solutions for an acute-
angled triangle, but only two in an obtuse-angled triangle, and four for a right-angled
triangle.

Vif.

To cut any rectilineal figure into a parallelogram with given side and given angle.
Divide the figure into triangles, cut each triangle into a parallelogram, each parallelogram
into another with given angle (Case 3), and this parallelogram into another with the
given side (Case 1); then place all the parallelograms together, and it is done. N.B.—
This is nearly the same as Huclid, i. 45.

VIL.

To cut a rectilineal figure into a square. Ascertain the length of the side of the
square, cut the figure into triangles, each triangle into a rectangle, and each rectangle
into another whose length = side of the square, place them together and the square
must be produced.

PROFESSOR KELLAND’S PROBLEM ON SUPERPOSITION. 311

IX.

To cut a rectilineal figure, A, so as to be similar to another rectilineal figure, B.

It is manifest that all the preceding processes are reversible. By Euclid, vi. 25, con-
struct C=A and similar to B, cut A and C into squares, and from the square obtained
from A, which is = that obtained from C, work backwards to C from the square derived

from C.

EXAMPLES.

To cut a A ABC (fig. 9) into another, IKL, with same base and height, and with
the 4 K=a given angle or side IK =a given line not less than the height of ABC.

Bisect the sides in D,H, cut DE, and complete parallelogram DC. Draw BF, making
4 FBO=K, or the line BF =4IK, complete the parallelogram HB. Bisect FH in G, cut
from C to G, turn over AGCH, and IKL is obtained. Or bisect the sides, (fig. 10),
in D and K. Through D draw MDN, making the required angle at N, or the line
DN =4 given side, draw AM || BC, draw MEF through H, and proceed as in the
figure, and IKL is obtained. This illustrates Huclid, 1. 38, by superposition.

To cut a AABGC, (fig. 11), into pieces, so as to recompose another Aabc, of equal
area. Cut off ADE, ade, and form the parallelograms DC, de. Cut parallelogram DC
into de, as in Case 4, proceed as indicated in the figures, and the pieces obtained in ABC
compose abe,

To cut a triangle into a square. Cut into a rectangle, (fig. 8), and then into a
square (figs. 1 and 2).

To cut a regular pentagon into a square (fig. 12). Cut off ECD and place it at BCF,
bisect BF in H, draw KHL || AE, and the parallelogram EK is obtained = pentagon.
Insert EM = side of required square, complete the parallelogram LMNE and the square
EP, &c. The six pieces of the pentagon compose the square EP.

To cut a regular hexagon, ABCDEF, (fig. 13), into a square. Cut off AFED and
place it at CDHG. Insert Al=side of required square. Draw HK || AI, and com-
plete the square HL, &c. The five pieces of the hexagon compose the square.

VOL, XXXVI. PART Il. (NO. 12). 3B

Vol. XXXVI.

MER. BRODIE on SUPERPOSITION. Plate I.

Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin’

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XII.—On the Solid and Liquid Particles in Clouds. By Joun ArrKen, Esq.

(Read 6th July 1891).

Towards the end of May of this year I made my third visit to the Rigi Kulm, for
the purpose of continuing my observations on the amount of dust in the atmosphere and
other meteorological phenomena. It was with a feeling of no little satisfaction that I
found myself at that elevated situation during broken weather, and under conditions
very different from any previously experienced by me. On this occasion I had come
in the hope of finding opportunities for making some observations on the conditions
existing in clouds, in addition to the usual dust observations, and had brought with me
the small instrument for observing the water particles in a fog, described in a previous
communication to this Society. As the weather continued to be variable during the
week of my visit, I was fortunate enough to succeed in making a number of interesting
observations on the water particles in clouds, and also of comparing the conditions
in clouds at this elevated situation with those previously observed in fogs at a low level.

Before giving the results of my observations on the water particles, it may be
desirable to make a few remarks on the solid or dust particles. When making the
ordinary dust observations this year, it was frequently noticed that, when surrounded
by clouds, the number of particles varied greatly at short intervals of time. Even when
making, in quick succession, the ten tests from which the average was obtained in the
usual way, it was sometimes observed that the ten numbers varied more than usual. I[
had previously found when working at elevated situations, that the numbers were fairly
constant for intervals of an hour, and often for many hours, whereas in clouds they
were observed to vary every few minutes.

There are two ways of investigating the cause of this variability in the number of dust
particles in the different parts of the same cloud. By the first we may proceed by
observing the number of particles, and noting the condition of the clouds at the same
time as regards density, &e. This plan, however, requires two observers, one counting
the particles, the other observing the other conditions. The other and simpler plan is to
select extreme conditions, and to observe the air in a cloud and the clear air immediately
outside of it. For my first observations of this kind I had to descend the hill some
distance to get the required conditions, the top being covered with a continuous mass of
cloud. Near the lower limit of the cloud the difference in the amount of dust in the
clear air underneath and in the cloud was quite marked. There were about twice as
many particles in the cloud as in the clear air. On this occasion the clouds were
clearmg away, and there would therefore previously have been a good deal of mixing of
the cloudy with the clear air; no very great difference could therefore be expected,
though there was quite enough to encourage further investigation.

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO, 13.) : 3 0

314 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE

A much more favourable opportunity of testing the relative proportions of dust
particles present in clouds and in clear air occurred on the 25th of the month. The sun-
rise on that morning had been cloudless, and the air clear ; but as the morning advanced
the air gradually thickened, and clouds began to form in different directions and at
different elevations. ‘These newly formed clouds occasionally passed over the mountain
top. It was therefore unnecessary to change the site of making the observations. All
that was necessary was to observe the amount of dust while the cloud surrounded the
observer, and again when the cloud had passed. Readings were taken in this way, from
time to time, between the hours of 9 A.M. and 10.30 a.m.; the numbers so obtained are
entered in the following table, each of them being the average generally of ten tests. In
the table is also entered the state of the air at the time. Many more tests were made,
but as they were taken in more or less clouded air, and the number of particles was
intermediate between the extremes given, it has not been thought necessary to enter them

in the table. After 10.30 a.m. the clouds closed quite in, and the mountain top was in
dense cloud for the rest of the day.

Table showing the Number of Dust Particles in Cloud and in Clear Air on the Rigi on May 25th.

Hour. HBL Ins 9 Teale State of the Air.
per ¢.c.
9 1225 Haze
1625 In cloud
1025 Clearing
2450 In cloud
3250 In dense cloud
3450 ” ”
1250 Clearing
700 Clear
1850 In cloud
10.30 4200 5

The above figures show that on this occasion there was a vast difference in the number
of dust particles in the clouds and in the clear air surrounding them. In this case, as in
all clouds hitherto tested, a greater number of dust particles was observed in the cloud
than in the clear air surrounding it. It may be as well, however, to note here that these
observations were all made in cumulus clouds, and the remark applies only to that form
of cloud. It seems probable that other conditions may exist in stratus and other clouds.

When the above observations began at 9 a.M., it seems very probable that the valley
air had already begun to ascend, as the upper air had thickened a good deal since early
morning, and though no clouds had yet formed, the upper air was rapidly approaching
saturation. Another reason for supposing that the lower air had already begun to ascend,
is that the number of particles on the previous evening was only about 500 per «.c., and
had been about that number for a considerable time. Further, it will be observed
from the figures in the table, that a mass of clear air outside the cloud had only

SOLID AND LIQUID PARTICLES IN CLOUDS. 315

700 particles perc.c. The probability seems to be that on this occasion the upper air had
about 500 particles per c.c., while the lower air which was rising and forming the clouds may
have had somewhere about ten times that number, the ascent of this impure valley air,
and its mixture in different proportions with the purer upper air resulting in the forma-
tion of masses of air having degrees of impurity varying between 500 and 5000 particles
per ¢.c., as indicated by the numbers in the table. Neither extreme number was, of course,
observed, as the conditions would not continue while the whole ten tests were being taken.

As already stated, the number of particles was always greatest in the clouds.
This simply means that the ascending air was both moist and dusty ; and when little of
the valley air was mixed with the upper air, the amount of dust was not greatly increased,
and the humidity was not sufficient to cause condensation. But when the pro-
portion of lower air was large the number of particles was great, and the humidity —
sutticient to cause condensation.

It may be mentioned here, that on testing the lower air at the surface of the lake on
the afternoon of the same day, the number of.particles was a little under 3000 per
ec. It would seem as if the accumulated impurity of the previous day, which had been
nearly calm, had risen to the mountain top, and a purer air taken its place, as the
maximum observed in the clouds was rather higher than that observed at the level of the
lake after the air forming the clouds had risen.

That there should generally be more solid particles in cumulus clouds than in the air
surrounding them, is a result which might have been expected from the conditions. The
clouds which form during the day on hill tops are composed mostly of valley air, which
has ascended to the upper regions, expanded, cooled, and condensed part of its vapour.
The dust in clouds thus acts as a kind of ear-marking, which enables us to trace to
its source the air forming the clouds.

It may be as well to give a word of caution here regarding the observations made
of the dust in the clouds and that in the air surrounding them. In all cases there was
more dust in the clouds than in the surrounding air. But it by no means follows that
this is always the case. It seems quite possible there may be valleys where the air is not
polluted, and from which the moist ascending air may be purer than the air at the time at
a greater elevation.

And now a few words as to the water particles in clouds. To those who have been in
clouds, especially when they are not dense, and who have felt the glow of heat which
radiates from every side, and have seen the surfaces of all exposed objects quite dry, it is
difficult to realize that the air is saturated with moisture, and full of suspended drops of
water, although those who have thought about the subject may have realized that the
thickness is really due to suspended water particles. Yet, so far as [ am aware, no one
has previously seen, far less attempted to count these drops; while now, with the aid of
the instrument already referred to, these particles can be seen and counted with ease.

The instrument for observing these water particles consists of a glass micrometer
Tuled into small squares of 1 mm. or other convenient size. The micrometer is

316 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE

illuminated by means of a spot-mirror, and viewed through a magnifying lens. The
instrument is held in the clouded air with the micrometer horizontal, the observer
watching its surface through the lens, when little drops of rain are seen falling in
rapid succession on the micrometer and rapidly evaporating. One small square is
selected, and the number of drops that fall in a measured time are counted.
The number falling will be found to vary greatly from time to time. If any difficulty
is experienced in counting the drops owing to their rapid evaporation, it will be
found of great assistance to cool the micrometer, either by fixing a piece of wet paper or
a little snow to the metal mounting; or if this is convenient, then a similar effect,
though somewhat short-lived, may be obtained by breathing on the surface of the
glass. It was only after observing with this instrument that I realized the true state
of matters in certain clouds, and saw that though all exposed surfaces were dry, they
were really exposed to a continuous shower of immense numbers of fine drops of rain,

The general result of the observations made in clouds on the Rigi is very similar to
that derived from the observation of fogs at low levels. The size of the particles
and the number falling are about the same in both cases. Of course both the
size and the number vary greatly at both places under different conditions. As
already pointed out, the number of dust particles varies greatly at different parts
of a cloud, and when we are in the midst of clouds and examine them closely, we
find that most of them vary greatly in density or thickness from time to time,
or, more correctly, in their different parts. At one time the passing cloud may be
so dense that we cannot see beyond 30 yards; in a minute or two the limit may
be extended to 100 yards, when it may again close in to its original density. This
variability in the density of clouds is probably greatest in clouds formed of the
air rising from the valleys, where the mixture of the pure and impure air is
necessarily imperfect. Stratus and other forms of cloud probably do not have this want
of uniformity. All the clouds observed on this occasion varied greatly from point to
point, and it was also observed that the number of water particles falling varied greatly.
At times they showered down so quickly that it was impossible to count the number that
fell on one square millimetre ; but generally it was easy to count the number falling on so
small an area, and occasionally they were so few that they only fell at considerable
intervals,

It was observed that the more dense the cloud the greater was the number of
drops falling, and that as the cloud thinned away the number gradually decreased, The
greatest number actually counted was 60 per square m.m. in 30 seconds. If they had
been counted for a shorter time a quicker rate would have been obtained, as they did not
fall so quickly during the last half of the time as during the first. Very heavy falls
seldom lasted more than a few seconds; a rate of 30 drops to the minute was,
however, frequently observed. The maximum rate of 60 drops per square m.m. per
half minute gives 12,000 drops per square centimetre per minute, or 77,400 drops per
square inch per minute. This does seem an enormous rate of fall, yet the particles are so

SOLID AND LIQUID PARTICLES IN CLOUDS. 317

extremely small, they evaporate so quickly, that never more than two or three are ever
visible at a time on one square of the micrometer. As the cloud gradually thins away,
the number of drops diminishes and their size at the same time decreases.

The maximum number of water particles actually observed in a cloud is four times as
ereat as the maximum yet observed in a fog. We cannot, however, from this draw any
conclusion, as the recorded observations are too few to found upon.

There is an interesting point connected with the conditions existing in some clouds,
which I have not yet been able to study as fully as is desirable. The point to which I
refer is, What is the state of the air with regard to humidity im a cloud when all exposed
surfaces are dry? We have seen, that while the fog-counter showed the air to be full of
water particles, showering down at the rate of thousands of drops to the square inch in a
minute, yet all exposed surfaces were frequently quite dry. Not only were they
dry, but if wetted they soon dried again, showing that the air was absorbing moisture
while it was at the same time packed full of water drops. Further, wet and dry bulb
thermometers hung in the open may show a difference of a degree or two, proving that
evaporation is going on.

What, then, is the explanation of this apparent contradiction? Simply this: radiant
heat. The sun’s rays, falling on the upper surface of a cloud, are partly absorbed and
spent in heating it and evaporating some of the suspended water, but a good deal of
the heat penetrates the cloud, and falling on the surface of bodies heats them; while
these heated surfaces in turn heat the air in contact with: them, and the small cloud
particles, when they fall into this hot stratum of air, are either evaporated before reach-
ing the surface of the bodies, or are rapidly evaporated after they touch.

In all cases in which I had an opportunity of testing the humidity of the air in a
cloud, it was found to be saturated. Though the wet and dry bulb thermometers
may have shown a difference of a degree or more, when not properly protected from
radiation, yet they read alike when radiation was completely cut off. That a vast
amount of radiant heat may penetrate through clouded air is easily proved by exposing a
thermometer with black bulb in vacuo. An instrument of this kind exposed while
these observations were being made, indicated 40 and 50 degrees above the tempera-
ture of the air, and it was always above the temperature of the air when surfaces were
dry. Further, when the clouds overhead get thin, a glow of heat can be distinctly
felt on the hands and face. It is this radiant heat passing through the clouded air,
and absorbed by exposed surfaces, which heats them and keeps them dry, though
surrounded by saturated air and exposed to a continuous shower of fine rain.

Although this conclusion has been arrived at by the aid of the fog-counter and the
vacuum thermometer, yet the same conclusion was drawn from some observations I
made on the summit of Pilatus, which I visited last year, while it was in cloud. The
result of the observations made at that time I had incorporated into my dust observa-
tions of last year, which are only yet in preparation, but as they properly belong to the
present subject I have transferred my remarks to this paper.

318 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE

During this visit to Pilatus the top of the mountain was entirely surrounded by
cloud, and the air was thick with fog particles ; and though one might naturally conclude
from this that the air was saturated with moisture, yet wooden seats, walls, and all
exposed surfaces, were quite dry. In a previous communication, from observations
made on the Rigi, I have stated reasons for supposing that this dryness of exposed sur-
faces in a cloud does not necessarily prove that the airis not saturated. That is to say, if
the air is saturated, it does not necessarily follow that all surfaces will be dripping with
the fog particles falling on, or, being driven against them. I therefore made on this
occasion as many observations of the conditions of the different surrounding objects as
possible while attending to the usual dust counting. The following facts were observed :
seats, wall tops, wooden posts, nails projecting from the posts, and stones on the ground,
were all quite dry. But thermometers hung up rapidly got wet, and the pins driven into
the wooden post for hanging the thermometers rapidly got covered with beads of water.

It was of course natural to suspect radiation to be the cause of this difference. It is
true the mountain top was surrounded by a dense mass of clouds, and the sun could not be
seen, nor even a preponderance of light in one direction more than another to indicate its
position ; yet as ight penetrated, it seemed possible that a perceptible amount of radiant
heat might do so also. A thermometer placed on a wooden seat showed that a considerable
amount of heat penetrated the cloud, as it rose to 60°, while one hung up registered
only 48°. As has been explained in a previous communication, bodies exposed to radiant
heat are heated in proportion to their size, the larger bodies being heated to a higher
temperature than the smaller ones. Now the effect of this radiant heat on objects
exposed in clouded air is to heat them above the temperature of the air, and if the
objects are of any size they are considerably heated, and become surrounded by a layer
of hot air, and the water particles are either evaporated in this hot layer before they
touch the surface, or they are evaporated after they have come in contact with it.
This is the reason why the seats, walls, posts, &c., were dry, though surrounded by
saturated cloudy air. These large bodies received so much heat by radiation that they
were able to evaporate the water particles falling on them, but small bodies, such as
thermometers, not being heated to the same degree, on account of the passing air
taking away more heat from them, they did not keep themselves surrounded with
a layer of hot air, and the cloud particles fell on and wet them. It is true that nails,
which were smaller than the thermometer, were quite dry. But they were driven
into wooden posts which were hot, and from this supply the nails drew enough
heat to keep them dry. The pins for hanging the thermometers did not do this,
though driven into the wood, on account of their small cross section compared
with their length not being sufficient to conduct the necessary amount of heat.
These few observations of different objects exposed in a cloud, showed that the air
was saturated, though most of the exposed surfaces were quite dry, and that if it had
not been for the radiant heat everything would have been dripping wet. This
conclusion, written out last year from observations made on Pilatus without

SOLID AND LIQUID PARTICLES IN CLOUDS. 319

special instruments, agrees with the result of our last observations made on the
Rigi.

While on the Rigi this year I tried to find whether the density of cloudy condensa-
tion depends on the number of dust particles present, or on the number of water particles.
The question was, however, much more difficult of solution than I expected, owing to
the great rapidity with which the constituent parts of the passing clouds changed. To
have answered the question satisfactorily in the case of the clouds tested, three observers
would have been required, one observer noting the density of the cloud, one counting the
dust particles, and the third observing the water particles,—all three making their
observations at the same moment. I had, however, to depend on my observations alone,
and so far as they go they point to the conclusion that the density of a cloud depends
principally on the number of water particles. Wherever the water particles fell at the
rate of about 100 drops per square mm. per minute, the limit of visibility in the cloud
was about 30 yards, and as the limit of visibility increased the rate of fall decreased.

There were too few opportunities of testing the effect of the number of particles of
dust on the density of the air in a cloud, as on most occasions the numbers were far too
variable to offer satisfactory results. But on comparing the density of a fog and a cloud
when the same number of drops fell, it would appear that the number of dust particles
has a much smaller effect than the number of water particles. For instance, in a fog
last winter, as stated in a previous paper, drops were observed to fall at the rate of
30 per minute per square mm., and the limit of visibility at the time was about 100
yards. Now this is not very far from the limit of visibility observed on the Rigi when
the rate of fall was the same. But on the Rigi there were only a few thousand dust
particles per c.c., while in the fog there were about 50,000. It would thus appear that in
cloudy condensation the thickness depends chiefly on the number of water particles,
and only in a secondary way on the number of dust particles. The observations are,
however, as yet too few to warrant a definite conclusion.

Although in all the cases of fogey or cloudy condensation investigated by me the air’
was saturated, though it may have appeared to be dry, I do not, however, wish it to be
understood that there is no such thing as a dry fog, only that in my experience I have
not observed one.

We see from the observations made with the fog-counter, that whenever a cloud is
formed, it at once begins to rain, and the drops shower down in immense numbers,
though small in size. These drops fall into the air under the cloud, where they
evaporate if the air is dry, and the distance they fall will depend on their size
and the dryness of the air underneath. So that on a summer day, with white clouds
passing overhead, it is really raining, but the drops being very small, they evaporate in
the air under the cloud long before they reach the earth. It seems probable, therefore,
that much of the melting of clouds is produced in this way, the particles falling from the
saturated air in which they were formed and dissolving in the drier air underneath.

( 321 )

XIV.—On the Relation of Nerves to Odontoblasts, and on the Growth of Dentine.
By W. G. Arrcutson Rozertson, M.D., B.Sc. (With One Plate.)

(Read 16th March 1891.)

Clinical and pathological observation both show that the dentine of the tooth is
very closely connected with the nervous system, and is in consequence highly sensitive.
Upon what structures does the sensibility of the dentine depend? In what manner is
the dentine connected with the nerves of the pulp so as to become so sensitive to external
stimuli ?

Perhaps there is no other structure in the body which is so largely supplied with
nerves as the pulp of the tooth ; even in the smallest fragment we find many nerve fibres.
If we take the pulp from the incisor tooth of an ox and examine it after having allowed
it to lie in a solution of osmic acid for a few minutes, we can see clearly through the
darkened semi-transparent tissue a large blackened nerve trunk passing up the centre of
the pulp, giving off on its way innumerable lateral branches, and dividing in a brush-
hke manner near the upper part of the pulp. All the fine branches are directed towards
the periphery of the pulp. In longitudinal sections of the pulp we can see the same in
greater detail; many large bundles of medullated and non-medullated nerve fibres run-
ning longitudinally near the centre and giving off lateral branches, which are found in
great numbers near the periphery and divide into single nerve fibres just under the
odontoblastic layer, being specially numerous at the apex of the pulp. The separate
nerve fibres enter the layer of odontoblasts and are lost init. Teased specimens of osmic
acid preparations of pulp also show its richness in nerves. I may note in passing that in
many of the teased specimens the axis cylinder of medullated fibres was often found
projecting a long way beyond its medullary sheath (Fig. 1). It appeared as if the
sheath had broken across at one of the nodes of Ranvier, and had been pulled off the
axis cylinder. In these fibres, however, the broken end of the sheath was sharp and
abrupt ; whereas had it given way at a node we should have expected to find its end in-
verted owing to the natural constriction in the sheath at the node. The presence of
these long isolated axis cylinders seems to me to completely refute the idea of Professor
Lrynic, that the nerves are tubes filled with a semifluid substance, and also the assertion
of ENGELMANN that the axis cylinder is not perfectly continuous, but is, like the medul-
lary sheath, interrupted at RaNviEr’s nodes.

Non-medullated nerve fibres are also seen in such preparations, though not so
numerous as the white. In some preparations they may be separated from the medul- .
lated fibres and can be recognised by the nuclei at intervals in the neurilemma
(Fig. 2).

VOL. XXXVI, PART II. (NO. 14). 3D

322 DR W. G. AITCHISON ROBERTSON ON THE RELATION OF

How do these terminal filaments of the nerves end in the odontoblastic layer? Why
should there be such a multitude of nerves in the pulp if they have not a special function
and definite termination? In all other parts of the body, the function of nerves is motor
or inhibitory, sensory, secretory, or trophic, and the fibres mostly end in special ter-
minal structures at the periphery. Do the nerves of the tooth end in the odontoblasts
themselves; or, as MAciror affirms, in a layer of cells beneath the odontoblasts? Do
they pass between the odontoblasts and accompany the dentinal fibres into the dentinal
tubules as stated by WaLpEyeErR ; or do they pass between the odontoblasts and occupy a
special set of tubules in the dentine, as described by Bott? To find the true answer to
these questions was the object of this rather difficult inquiry, and the conclusions I have
arrived at I will now detail.

I shall in the first place describe the odontoblasts as I have seen them in the pulp of
the ox tooth. On examining the microscopic sections of the pulp I was surprised to find
odontoblasts were absent from their periphery. At first I thought they had merely
fallen away during the process of mounting, but their absence was so constant that
another explanation had to be sought. At first I fractured the tooth with a hammer,
and on separating the fragments, the pulp was usually found lying almost free. These
were the pulps which showed an entire absence of odontoblasts when cut into sections.
Professor Haycrart one day happened to pick up a fragment of the tooth thus fractured,
and noticed on its inner surface a shining membrane. This when examined was found to
consist of many cells, often closely aggregated, and having a round, oval or pyriform shape
(Fig. 3). Attached to many of the oval cells there was a long process embedded amongst
the other cells. Other fusiform or tailed cells lay free, each having a large nucleus situated
in the centre of the round or oval cells, and at the broad end of the pyriform cells. These
were the odontoblasts that were missing in the sections. The greater number had remained
attached to the dentine when the pulp was separated, showing that their connection with
the dentine is stronger than with the pulp which they invest, and also demonstrating
the actual existence of the membrana eboris of KOuLikER. The tail or elongated process
of these cells is not the dentinal fibre, for it is directed into the substance of the pulp,
but is the root, central, or pulp process of the odontoblast. The dentinal fibre or
peripheral process had been torn off the greater number of the odontoblasts by the act
of scraping, though in many a small stump of it remained attached to the opposite ex-
tremity of the cell, and in some cases this proximal part of the dentinal fibre could be
seen entering a dentinal tubule. These two processes, the long pulp process and the
dentinal fibre, are the only processes in the odontoblasts of the ox. These cells have ne
lateral] processes.

To see the odontoblasts 7m situ I sawed through some teeth with great care and
removed the pulp by means of a sharp knife. I made sections of these pulps after em-
bedding in paraffin, and found that although not all, yet a very large proportion of
odontoblasts remained attached to the pulp. These were seen to be arranged in two
layers. Many dentinal fibres could be seen projecting from the periphery of the pulp to

NERVES TO ODONTOBLASTS, AND ON THE GROWTH OF DENTINE. 323

varying distances. These had been drawn out from the dentinal tubules and now lay
free (Fig. 4). In one case the dentinal fibre could be seen springing from its odonto-
blast and apparently giving off its lateral branches, the latter, however, bemg mere
rudiments. In other situations, odontoblasts were seen which had become separated from
the other cells and had drawn out along with them their internal or root process. This
was in some cases of great length and could be traced for some distance into the pulp.
In other cases part of the dentinal fibre still remained attached to one extremity of the
separated odontoblast, while from the other extremity the long internal root process was
seen extending into the pulp.

I have not in the course of my reading observed any allusion to the great length of
this internal process of the odontoblast ; on the contrary, WALDEYER’s description is gener-
ally adopted, according to which it is very short and constantly connected with one of
the cells lying immediately beneath the membrana eboris. According to Hrrtz the pro-
cess does not exist. I would therefore again direct attention to its great length, to the
absence of lateral branches, and to the oval, fusiform, or pear shape of the odontoblasts in
the tooth of the ox.

On snipping off small pieces of the outer surface of the pulp, and teasing them in a
1°/, solution of osmic acid, the specimens showed clearly the nerve fibres isolated and run-
ning amongst the odontoblasts, but the latter adhered closely to one another and could
not be separated by teasing, and thus it was impossible to trace the nerve fibres to their
ultimate destination. In order to render the cells more easily separable, some pulps
were placed in a 0°6°/, solution of potassium anhydrochromate for 24 hours. Fragments
from their outer surface were then teased in picrocarmine, with the result that the long
central process of the odontoblast was rendered very evident (Fig. 5). These central
processes ran into the pulp towards the nerves, and could often be traced inwards to a
- distance ereater than six to twelve or more times the length of the odontoblast itself.
From the opposite extremity of each odontoblast the dentinal fibre proceeded, and in
many cases this was also exceptionally long. The central process arises from each
odontoblast gradually, the proximal end of the cell gradually tapering till it becomes the
pulp process. The distal extremity of the odontoblast, on the contrary, rapidly narrows
down to a fine fibre, which is continued onwards as the fibre of Tomes. The nucleus of
each cell seems to be swollen up, and is in these preparations a large oval body filling up
a large part of each odontoblast. When examined by a high magnifying power each
odontoblast appears almost as if a mere fusiform enlargement of the continuous fibre
formed by the long root process and the dentinal fibre with a large nucleus in the
dilated part.

The next point was to trace the further connection of the root process of each odonto-
blast. Many preparations of pulps treated with the potassium bichromate solution were
made and carefully examined in order to find if there were any connection between the
root process and the nerve fibre. I am convinced that the central processes of the
odontoblasts become continuous with the nerve fibrils. The connection is extremely

324 DR W. G. AITCHISON ROBERTSON ON THE RELATION OF

difficult to make out, on account of the extreme delicacy of the processes and the manner
in which they are obscured by overlying cells and neighbouring processes. Nevertheless,
several demonstrations (as in Fig. 7) were obtained, showing that the pulp processes do
pass into groups of nerve fibres, amongst which they seem to run for some distance
before they acquire a medullated sheath. The long central process seems to become the
axis cylinder of a nerve fibre, which gradually acquires a primitive sheath in which the
medullary or white substance slowly accumulates, till an ordinary medullated nerve
results.

In other cases the medullary substance seems to develop to its maximum amount at
once as soon as the odontoblastic central process becomes continuous with the axial band
of the nerve. By the potassium bichromate the axis cylinders and grey nerves are
rendered evident as fine silky yellow fibres, and can be traced as such to the central
processes of the odontoblasts. It is very difficult to say whether all the odontoblasts
send in their long pulp processes to join the nerve fibres. Processes are, however, seen
to pass inwards from both superficial and deep layers of odontoblasts.

I have been unable to find any evidence in support of the view advanced by the late
Professor Bout, that nerve fibres pass up between the odontoblasts to the dentine. It
seems to me probable that the nerve fibres figured by him as passing direct to the
dentine were central processes of the odontoblasts that had been drawn out from the
pulp and from which the odontoblasts had fallen off. Certain of my own preparations,
where this has happened, closely resemble the drawings made by Bout (Fig. 5). Owing
to the extreme slenderness of the processes connecting the odontoblasts with the nerves
of the pulp, the former are extremely liable to fall off, and leave fine threads which might
be mistaken for independent nerve fibres, I cannot agree with Bott when he states that
some dentinal tubules contain dentinal fibres, while others contain nerve fibres. Nor yet
can I at all agree with the statement of Wa.pryeEr, that the nerves accompany the
dentinal fibres into the tubules. What I have already stated I believe to be the true
explanation, viz..—that the axis cylinders of medullated nerves gradually lose their
medullary sheath, and after running through the pulp for a longer or shorter distance in
this way, they become continuous with the central processes of odontoblasts, and that the
odontoblasts and dentinal fibres are the terminal organs of the nerve fibres. This would
explain why the dentine is so sensitive. We may regard the odontoblast with its
peripheral process as an end-organ, which, if not itself sensitive, at once transmits sensory
impulses to the nerve with which it is connected, as the odontoblast is with the axis
cylinder of a nerve by means of its long pulp process. Whether all odontoblasts are
connected with nerves by their root process is a question still unanswered, and con-
sequently I cannot say whether all are to be considered as end-organs. Reasoning by
analogy, it is not necessary that each odontoblast should be in direct communication with
a nerve fibre in order that sensibility may be conferred on the dentine. It is only
certain cells in the epidermis which are specialized to receive sensory or tactile impres-
sions, and these, being connected with the axis cylinders of nerves, confer sensibility to

NERVES TO ODONTOBLASTS, AND ON THE GROWTH OF DENTINE. 325

the whole skin, the ordinary cells of the epidermis merely acting as conductors to convey
impressions to these sensory cells. Such may possibly be the case with the odontoblasts.
It is highly probable also that the nerves of the tooth have a trophic as well as a sensory
function. Since nerves pass to odontoblasts, their trophic influence probably extends
along the dentinal fibres and influences the nutrition of the tooth.

Growth of the Dentine.

While working at the histology of the pulp it was suggested that I might at the same
time investigate the manner in which the tooth increases in size. How does the small
tooth of the young mammal grow into the large tooth of the adult animal? We know
that the increase in its bulk is chiefly confined to the dentine, so to this tissue I confined
myself in this investigation. There has been much controversy as to whether the
enlargement of a bone is to any extent dependent on interstitial growth. To find out
whether in the nearly-allied dentine there is or is not interstitial growth seemed an inter-
esting question; for in this tissue there is no possibility of external deposition, the
dentine being formed from without inwards. If there were an interstitial growth in the
dentine, we should expect to find the dentinal tubules becoming further separated in the
developing tooth by an increased amount of matrix between them, and thus fewer in a
given area in the adult tooth than in the young tooth. To determine whether or not this
mode of growth obtains in dentine was one of the questions | have tried to solve.

Method of Investigation.—I chose for the purposes of this inquiry the lower incisor
teeth of the rabbit, for these teeth grow from persistent pulps and are therefore never
shed. ‘To observe their condition at different stages of growth, I examined them in (1)
a rabbit newly born; (2) in a rabbit one month old; and (3) in an adult rabbit. These
teeth, while still 2 sztw in the lower jaw, were decalcified and sections made in an antero-
posterior direction parallel to their long axis. The sections from the very centre of each
tooth were alone used for measurement, as these contained the largest pulp cavity and
went directly through the centre of the crown. These teeth, as they are worn down in
front, are always being added to from behind and thus pushed forwards. The enamel is
only found on the anterior and lateral surfaces, and is always thickest in the former
position, where also the dentine is harder. Consequently, as the crown of the tooth is
worn down, the anterior part, being harder, is not worn so fast, and thus the tooth becomes
ehisel-shaped. In each tooth I determined with as great accuracy as possible the
following :—

1. The greatest length of the pulp cavity from the root of the tooth to the apex of

the pulp. ;

2. The greatest breadth of the pulp cavity.

3. The thickness of the wall of dentine at the middle of the tooth.

4. The greatest thickness of the dentine at the crown of the tooth.

5. The width of the dentinal tubules at their origin from the pulp cavity.

326 DR W. G. AITCHISON ROBERTSON ON THE RELATION OF

6. The average width of the intertubular substance of the dentine.
7. The course and direction of the dentinal tubules, and if branched.

The following table contains these measurements in the three rabbits :—

Measurements of Lower Incisor Teeth in Rabbits.

Newly-born. One Month Old. Adult.

Total length of tooth, . ; . 1 inch 0:2 3 inch 0°5 14 inch 1:12
Greatest length of pulp cavity, ; yp Oe wy, 0°43 7, gale
Greatest breadth of pulp cavity, . sy» 0:033 gs » 0°04 qr », 0:073
Thickness of dentine at middle of tooth,| >4,; ,, 0:0063 dz » 0°024 aby » 07044
Greatest thickness of dentine at crown, gs » 0°02 qs » 0°08 so » O12
Diameter of dentinal tubules at origin, pzapq , 0°0000416\,7355 ,, 0°0000416) szigg ,, 0°0000416
Width of intertubular dentine, - | sooo » 0°000125 | apbo », 0°000165 sooo >» +9°000165
Character of dentinal tubules, . . | Run obliquely in | Wavy course; not | Wavy course; many

straight lines; no | branched. branches.

branches; slightly
wider near origin.

The results of this table may be summarized as follows :—

1. The fact of the great increase in length of the tooth is evident, it being six times
longer in the adult than in the newly-born rabbit.

2. The pulp cavity increases in length in the same proportion.

The width of the pulp cavity increases in a progressive manner.

4. The thickness of dentine at the middle of the tooth and also at the crown
increases nearly six times.

5. The diameter of the dentinal tubules at their proximal end remains the same at
each stage of growth. They are all slightly larger at their origin and diminish
in calibre very gradually as they are traced outwards.

6. The dentinal tubules become gradually more wavy in their course, and their
lateral branches become evident in the adult tooth.

The odontoblasts we know form a complete lining to the inner surface of the dentine,
and thus form, as it were, a bag enclosing the pulp and having its mouth at the inlet of
the pulp cavity. Dr Haycrarr suggested that the ring of odontoblasts which forms the
mouth of this bag might fitly be called the “formative ring,” because it is apparently
here that new dentine is constantly being formed. The new dentine pushes upwards
that previously formed, which carries with it the odontoblasts attached to its inner surface
by the dentinal fibres. The odontoblasts which once composed the “ formative ring”

2

NERVES TO ODONTOBLASTS, AND ON THE GROWTH OF DENTINE. 327

are therefore carried up by the rising dentine, for as soon as each has deposited a little
dentine at the extreme base of the tooth, it becomes fixed as a permanent odontoblast
and is afterwards lifted up. Fresh cells are continually growing below those engaged
in the production of dentine, and thus the existence of the “formative ring ” is continued.
From whence do these new cells arise? Are they derived from odontoblasts, or are
they derived from the connective tissue cells of the pulp? I am inclined to believe
that they arise from the pulp cells. IPf we trace the layer of odontoblasts downwards, we
find that as the dentine becomes thinner so the size of the dentine-forming cells decreases,
till at the lower limit of the dentine they are small spindle-shaped cells attached to the
dentine by their distal process. Hven below the extreme limit of the dentine we can
still follow the line of odontoblasts downwards as a layer of fusiform connnective tissue
cells gradually becoming smaller till they fade imperceptibly into the pulp tissue. There
is no line of demarcation between them and the ordinary small round cells of the pulp.

The question now is, How are we to explain how the tooth has increased so much in
size? Well, there appears to be four processes all at work at the same time in the
growing tooth. These processes are :—

(1) Increase in length of the tooth by addition of new dentine at the lower end
of the fang. This addition more than compensates the loss caused by the
grinding down of its crown. In adult age, the growth of new dentine and the
wearing down balance one another, and the tooth therefore remains of constant
length.

(2) Increase in width of the tooth by the gradual widening of the “formative ring.”

(3) A slight interstitial increase in the dentine, causing the formation of an increased
amount of matrix between the tubules. This interstitial increase appears only
to occur in the very young tooth.

(4) As the tooth grows, new layers of dentine are deposited on the inner surface of
the already existing dentine. This deposit is probably due to the influence of
odontoblasts, since they are concerned in production of dentine from the
beginning.

As the entire tooth is pushed onwards by the growth of new dentine at its lower end,
the crown is continually being worn down in grinding. The upper end of the pulp
cavity is very narrow and contracted, owing to the large amount of dentine which has
accumulated on its surface, for in this situation the dentine is of oldest date and so is
thickest. Unless provision were made to prevent it, the pulp cavity would soon become
exposed by reason of the grinding down of the crown. It is here, however, at the upper
part of the pulp cavity, that the dentine reaches its maximum thickness, and so reduces
the diameter of the pulp cavity that it persists only as a fine channel of considerable
length leading from the pulp cavity to the free surface of the tooth (Fig. 8). Osseous
tissue is developed in this channel, which, together with many small round cells and
capillaries, prevent any direct communication between the surface of the tooth and

328 DR W. G. AITCHISON ROBERTSON ON THE RELATION OF

the pulp (Fig. 9). No odontoblasts remain in this connecting channel; therefore
since the dentinal fibres in the crown of dentine have lost their connection with nerves
the grinding surface of the rabbit’s incisor has lost sensitivity. These laminz of bone
which help to block up the remains of the pulp-cavity at the apex of the tooth may be
part of the layer of cement which, in the persistently growing teeth of many animals,
covers over the crown of the tooth, and which may when worn away sink into the almost
occluded apex of the pulp cavity and grow there. It may, however, be developed directly
from the tissue of the pulp.

In the adult rabbit’s tooth, then, the growth of dentine at the “formative ring,” the
continual deposition of new dentine on the inner surface of the old, and the extent to
which the tooth is worn down externally, exactly balance one another, and thus the tooth
remains of the same size throughout life. In the young growing animal, however, the
first two of these processes exceeds the third, and so the tooth grows greatly in length,
diameter, and thickness of dentine.

Having seen how a simple conical tooth increases in size, the next question which
naturally arose was, How do flask-shaped teeth, such as the canine tooth of a cat,
increase in size? To answer that question | examined the canine tooth of the lower
jaw in (1) a newly-born kitten ; (2) in a kitten of one month old; and (8) in the adult
cat. These teeth in the cat, as in all carnivora, are shed at an early period of existence.
This introduces a slight fallacy, for it compels us to compare deciduous with permanent
teeth. I made the same measurements in this case that I had made in the rabbit’s
incisor tooth.

(1) Total length of tooth.

(2) Greatest length of pulp cavity.

(3) Greatest breadth of pulp cavity.

(4) Thickness of dentine at middle of tooth.

(5) Thickness of dentine at crown.

(6) Diameter of dentinal tubules at their origin from pulp cavity.
(7) Width of intertubular dentine.

| MnASUREMENTS.

NERVES TO ODONTOBLASTS, AND ON THE GROWTH OF DENTINE. 329

Measurements of Lower Canine Teeth in Cats.

Newly-born. One Month Old. Adult.
Total length of tooth, . : + inch 07196 183 inch 0°366 zoo Inch 0°59
| Greatest length of pulp cavity, ; a » 018 ss » O32 & 5 05
Greatest breadth of pulp cavity, -| ge » 9056 eye 1 0:074 as » 0-04
Thickness of dentine at middle of tooth,| 355 ,, 0006 xto (> 0:036 2 » 0:06
_ Greatest thickness of dentine atcrown,| 5 ,, 0:0166 Sis» 0°046 res » 0°09
_ Diameter of dentinal tubules at origin, z7355 , 0:0000589|,,3,, ,, 0:0000589] at base ,51,, inch
| 00000833
at crown 373oq Inch
0:000037
Width of intertubular dentine, geiko» 9°000235 | z45 4. 0°000235 at base z,4, inch
0000235
at crown gp inch
0000166

(1) This table shows that the lower canine tooth of the adult cat is fully three
times as long as it is in the newly-born kitten.

(2) The pulp cavity grows longer in the same proportion.

(3) As regards the width of the pulp cavity, it seems first to increase in breadth,
but in the adult tooth the breadth is less than in the newly-born kitten ; but I
shall discuss this later on.

(4) At the middle of the tooth the dentine increases to a thickness ten times
greater than in the newly-born kitten ; while at the crown it increases to about
six times.

(5) The diameter of the dentinal tubules was the same in the young kittens. In
the adult cat, however, the tubules at the base of the tooth are one-half larger
than those of the younger cats; but near the crown their diameter decreases
ereatly, being a half less than in the younger cats, and even two-and-a-half
times smaller than at the base of the same adult tooth.

(6) The width of the intertubular substance remains the same in the canines of
kittens and also at the base of the adult tooth. At the crown of the adult
tooth, however, it is only three-fourths of the breadth of what it is at the root,
or in the younger teeth.

Before describing how this tooth grows, I must first call particular attention to a
fact on which the importance of this inquiry rests, viz., this, that the canine tooth of
young kittens is not flask-shaped, but merely conical, resembling the extinguisher of
a candle, the sides (Fig. 10) sloping downwards and outwards from the crown. This
originally conical tooth increases in size as follows :

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 14). 3E

33 DR W. G. AITCHISON ROBERTSON ON THE RELATION OF

(1) By the gradual dilatation of the “formative ring” of cells at the base of the
dentine it is increased in diameter.

(2) It is increased in length by the addition of new dentine at the base of the tooth
and the consequent elevation of the whole tooth. This also is due to the action of the
formative ring.

These two processes go on simultaneously, and so the base of the tooth is always
growing larger while the tooth is growing in length. This outward extension of the basal
formative ring of odontoblasts goes on till a maximum is reached. This broadest part of
the pulp in the growing tooth of the kitten is at ‘the base, while in the adult cat it re-
mains about the middle of the tooth. Thus in the newly-born kitten the broadest
diameter of the pulp cavity was at the base of the conical tooth, and measured 0-056 inch.
In the kitten one month old the basal diameter of the pulp was still the greatest, the
tooth still being conical, and measured 0°074 inch. It had not yet become flask-shaped,
but about this time the pulp cavity attains its greatest breadth and afterwards diminishes.
The elongation of the tooth still continues, but the formative ring now gradually con-
tracts, and thus forms an inverted basal cone and so leads to the production of the flask.
The narrowing of this basal ring continues until in the adult it becomes a small ring
surrounding the vessels and nerves going to the pulp. The elongation of the tooth has
also caused its broadest part to be situated about midway between crown and base.
Thus the tooth is made up of two cones joined at their bases, the “‘crown-cone” being
formed by a dilatation of the “formative rmg” and the “fang-cone” by the gradual
narrowing of the ring.

(3) During the whole time that the tooth is growing in length, a constant deposition of
new dentine is taking place on the inner surface of the old. Thus the maximum diameter
of the pulp cavity in the young tooth becomes lessened, till, in the adult, the original
pulp cavity is much reduced in size compared with its width in the newly-born kitten.
Having reached this stage the processes of growth cease, and thus we have a typical flask-
shaped tooth produced. We see now how the apparent anomaly regarding the width of
the pulp cavity arises. From the table we find that the width of this cavity is less in
the adult tooth than it is in the new-born kitten. ‘This is due to the large deposit of new
dentine on the inner surface of the old causing such a narrowing of the pulp cavity that
the above condition is produced.

(4) It is also shown that there has been an interstitial change. The dentinal tubules
are smaller and closer together near the crown of the adult tooth than near the base. At
the base the amount of intertubular dentine remains the same as it is in the younger
cat’s tooth, though the tubules themselves are a good deal larger in diameter than in the
earlier conditions.

Regarding fang-formation, we have seen how a single fanged tooth, as the canine, is
developed by the gradual narrowing of the basal dentine-forming ring (Fig. 13). If,
however, this formative ring, having reached its maximum dilatation, becomes con-
stricted at two opposite points till these meet like a figure of eight, then two smaller

NERVES TO ODONTOBLASTS, AND ON THE GROWTH OF DENTINE. 301

formative rings are produced. If these both go on forming dentine and diverging from
one another, we have two “ fang-cones” produced springing from one body and giving us
a double fanged tooth. In a similar manner, if the formative ring becomes sub-divided
into three or four rings, we have a three or four fanged tooth resulting. The tooth
follicles themselves, even of the molar teeth, are quite simple and show no indication of
roots. Itis only after the body of the tooth has been completed that the roots are
produced.

This inquiry shows that the growth of a tooth is only to a very slight extent inter-
stitial. Interstitial growth is seen in the incisor tooth of the rabbit, where the dentinal
tubules become further separated by an increase of dentinal matrix, but this appears to
take place only in the young tooth. Probably it causes a slight increase in the size of
the rabbit’s tooth. In the cat, however, it does not cause any increase in the size of the
tooth, the width of the intertubular substance remains the same. It is only in the upper
part of the adult tooth that the tubules are smaller and more closely packed. All we
can affirm in this case is, that the interstitial increase of the matrix simply encroaches on
the size of the tubules and so does not cause any increase in the size of the tooth.

Examination of the Teeth of Young Rabbits fed on Madder.

While working at this subject Professor Haycorart kindly gave me the teeth of three
young rabbits which had been fed on madder for afortnight. I carefully examined these,
as we thought they might throw some light on the mode of growth in teeth.

I. The first rabbit was killed after being fed on madder for two weeks. (The diagrams,
Fig. 14, show by the darker shading the exact localities where the dentine is stained.)
All the stained part of the tooth is that produced while the madder was added to the
food. In the section it is seen that this staining reached the very crown of the tooth,
but only at the centre. This clearly demonstrates what I have already stated, that there
is a constant deposit of new dentine on the inner surface of the old. At the apex of the
pulp cavity the colour is deepest, for most of the new dentine was deposited in that
situation. It is also seen that there is a narrow band of stained dentine which immediately
surrounds the pulp. These teeth also show that the incisor teeth increase in length much
more rapidly than the molars; for, while the incisor is stained in three-fourths of its length,
the premolar is stained in only half its length.

II. The second rabbit was fed for two weeks on madder and then on ordinary food
for a similar period. The lower part (Fig. 15) of the incisor tooth, and also a narrow
strip of dentine surrounding the pulp cavity and extending up to the grinding surface,
is now unstained. This is all new dentine, formed during the last two weeks of the
animal’s life. In the premolar the axial staining is hardly yet worn away. The deeper
staining of the dentine on the concavity of the incisor may be due to the more rapid
growth which there is in this situation, and the greater consequent absorption of the
circulating stain.

332 DR W. G. AITCHISON ROBERTSON ON THE RELATION OF

III. The third rabbit was also fed on madder for two weeks, then on ordinary food
for three weeks. The teeth show merely a further development of what No. II. did
(Fig. 16). The sections hardly require explanation, as they describe themselves. These
madder-stained teeth corroborate entirely the explanation of the growth of the dentine
which I have already given.

The results of this investigation into the growth of teeth may be thus summarised.
There is—

(1) Increase in the length of the tooth by addition of new dentine at its base.

(2) Increase of diameter by dilatation of the basal formative ring. In the case of
teeth with fangs, these are produced by the gradual contraction of this ring with or
without subdivision.

(3) Deposit of new dentine on the inner surface of the old.

(4) A slight increase in the matrix of the dentine by interstitial growth.

I have in conclusion to express my warm thanks to Professor RuTHERFoRD for the free
use of his laboratory, microscopical preparations, and other appliances, and for his careful
revision of this papef, and to Professor Haycrarr, who suggested this subject for research
and who supervised my work personally and helped me with many suggestions in the
execution of it.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Mu.ter, J., Archiv, 1836, p. 3.

Rerzius, A., ‘ Bemerkungen iiber der innern Bau der Zihne, mit besonderer Riicksicht auf den im Zahn-
knochen vorkommenden Rohrenbau,” Miiller’s Archiv, 1837, p. 486.

Nasmytu, Med. Chirurg. Transact., 1839, vol. xxii.

Goopstr, Prof., ‘On the Origin and Development of the Pulp and Sacs of the Human Teeth,” din. Med.
and Surgical Journal, 1839, vol. li.

Tomes, J., Dental Physiology and Surgery, 1848 ; “ On Structure of Teeth,” Pro. Roy. Soc., 1838; “ Teeth of
Rodents,” Phil. Trans., 1850, p. 530; “ On the Presence of Fibrils of Soft Tissue in the Dentinal Tubules,”
Phil. Trans., 1856, p. 515.

Krukensere, A., “ Beitrag sur Lehre von dem Rohrensystem der Zahne und Knochen,” Miiller’s Archiv, 1849.

Owen, Art. “ Teeth,” Zodd’s Cyclopaedia of Anat. and Physiol., vol. iv., 1852.

Huxtey, Articles on Teeth in Quart. Jour. of Micros. Society, 1854, 1855, 1857, 1872, 1878.

Macrrot, Etude sur le Dévelop. et la Structure des Dents, Paris, 1856 ; “ Mémoire sur la Genése et la Morphologie
du Follicule Dentaire chez Homme et les Mammiféres,” Comp. Rend., 1860; “De la Structure et du Dé-
velop. du Tissu Dentinaire dans la Série Animale,” Comp. Rend., 1880, p. 1298.

Rosin Et Maarrot, Jour. de la Physiologie, 1860, 1861.

Macitor pt Licros, Jour. del Anat. et de la Physiol., 1866; “ Origine et Format. du Follicule Dentaire dans les
Mammiféres,” Comp. Rend., 1873, p. 1000; “ Greffes de Follicules Dentaires,” Comp, Rend., 1874, p. 357;
“ Dévelop. des Dents,” Jour. de ?Anat. et de la Physiol., 1876.

Tomes AND DE MorGan, “ Observations on the Structure and Development of Bone,” Phil. Trans., 1853.

FURSTENBERG, “ Ueber einige Zellen mit verdickten Wanden im Thierkorper,” Miiller’s Archiv, 1857.

Kénuiker, “ Manual of Human Histology,” translated by Busk, 1860; Centralblatt, 1872.

Beaux, ‘Structure of the Simple Tissues,” Archiv of Dentistry, 1865.

Hertz, “ Untersuch. iiber den feineren Bau und die Entwicklung der Ziihne,” Virchow’s Archiv, 1866, Bd. 37.

Hout, “ Knochenkorperchen mit eigenthiimlichen Kapseln in der Zahnpulpa,” Archiv fiir Mikrosk. Anat.

1866.
Bout, F., ‘‘ Untersuch. iiber die Zahnpulpa,” Arch. fiir Mikrosk. Anat., 1868, p. 73.

NERVES TO ODONTOBLASTS, AND ON THE GROWTH OF DENTINE. 333

Watpeyer, W., “ Human and Comparative Histology,” Stricker’s Handbook, Syden. Soe., vol. i. p. 463, 1870.

GrcrnBaur, “ Elements of Comparative Anatomy,” 1878, p. 551.

Tomes, C. 8., “ Cuticula Dentis,” Quart. Jour. Micr. Sci., 1872; Manual of Dental Anat., 1876; “On the
Develop. of Teeth,” Quart. Jowr. Micr. Sci., 1876 ; “ On Vascular Dentine,” Phil. Trans., 1878, p. 25.

Frey, Histology, 4th edit., 1879, p. 261.

RurHERFORD, Prof. W., Text Book of Physiology, pt. i., 1880.

Turner, Prof. Sir W., “ Introduction to Human Anatomy,” 1877.

Kisrw anp Nose Smit, Atlas of Histology, 1880.

Batrovr, F. M., Comparative Embryology, vol. ii. p. 638, 1881.

LanpDoIs AND STirRLING’s Physiology, 3rd edit., 1888.

M‘Kenoricr, Text Book of Physiology, 1889.

SHARPEY, Quain’s Anatomy, 9th edit., 1882, vol. ii. p. 552.

Bruny, Dr A. v., ‘‘ Ueber die Ausdehnung des Schmelzorganes und seine Bedeutung fiir die Zahnbildung,”
Archiv fiir Mikrosk. Anatomie, 1887, p. 367.

DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES IN THE ACCOMPANYING PLATE.

Fig. 1. Teased portion of pulp of ox tooth. Shows long projecting axis cylinder processes ; on one a piece of
the white sheath is seen separated from its nerve fibre. z

Fig. 2. Shows medullated and non-medullated nerve fibres.

Fig. 3. Scraping from inner surface of dentine. Shows odontoblasts with their long central processes.

Fig. 4. Surface of pulp. Distal processes of odontoblasts seen projecting from surface. Odontoblasts are
seen pulled away from the surface though still attached to it by their central process. In one both
distal and central processes are seen springing from each extremity.

Fig. 5. Portion of surface of pulp teased in potassium anhydrochromate solution. Shows very long central
process belonging to each odontoblast and entering substance of pulp. The odontoblast has
fallen off in many cases, and leaves the central process projecting like a fine hair or nerve fibre.

Fig. 6. Pallisade-like arrangement of distal processes of odontoblasts seen on surface of pulp.

Fig. 7. Apparent direct continuation of root process of odontoblast with axis cylinder of nerve.

Fig. 8. Section through upper part of incisor tooth of rabbit. Shows obliterated upper end of pulp cavity.
Fig. 9. Shows the same more highly magnified. Osseous lamella, small round cells, and capillaries seen.
Fig. 10. To illustrate various stages in growth of a flask-shaped tooth, as the canine tooth of the cat.

Fig. 11. Diagrammatic representation of the manner of growth of a persistently growing tooth, as a rabbit’s

incisor. Shows gradual widening out of the basal formative ring, with constant deposition of new
dentine.

Fig. 12. Diagrammatic representation of the manner of growth of a flask-shaped tooth ; showing gradual
enlargement of formative ring to form the “ crown-cone,” and then its more gradual contraction to
produce the “ fang-cone”; shows also the diminution in size of the pulp cavity through deposit of
new dentine.

Fig. 13. To show fang-formation—the basal formative ring subdividing into two or three smaller rings
according to the number of fangs to be produced.

Fig. 14. Incisor and premolar teeth of young rabbit fed for two weeks on madder. The shading on the dentine
represents the amount of that tissue formed during the period on which the animal had madder
added to its food.

Fig. 15. Same teeth in young rabbit fed for an equal period on madder, then for two weeks on ordinary food.

Fig. 16. Same teeth in young rabbit fed for three weeks on ordinary food, after having been fed on madder for
two weeks.

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 14),

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XV.—The Development of the Carapace of the Cheloma. By JoHn Berry Haycrart,
M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. (With Plate.)

(Read 28th February 1890..)

All observers are agreed that the bones of the plastron and some bones of the cara-
pace are simple membranous bones, arising from centres formed in a pre-existing fibrous
membrane. Considerable difference of opinion exists as to the development of the
costal and neural plates of the carapace.

OwEN* speaks of the ossification “as extending from the ribs and neural spines into
the substance of the neural and costal plates. The ribs and spines enter into the com-
position of the carapace.”

GEGENBAURT questions whether the ribs of the Chelonia “are not in reality enormously
developed transverse processes, and considers that the neural and costal plates have
developed in the integument.”

_ Cuavst{ remarks that the spinous processes of eight of “ the thoracic vertebrae (2nd to
9th) appear in the middle line as horizontal plates (neural plates), the ribs of the same
yertebree are transformed into broad transverse plates (costal plates).”

Huxtey § says that the neural plates and the costal plates exist as expansions of the
cartilages of the neural spines and ribs of the primitive vertebrze, before ossification
takes place. This being the case, the “neural and costal are vertebral and not dermal
elements, however similar they may be to the nucleal, pygal, and marginal plates.”

It would be difficult to find an example of greater confliction of opinion than is
contained in the above statements, and it is obvious that even the semple facts
of the developmental process have not been made out. The most recent contributions
to the subject are those of Dr ©. K. Horrmann.|| This observer has carefully
described the main features of the development both of the costal and neural plates.
He has shown that the primitive vertebre and ribs, composed of cartilaginous
tissue, become encrusted with bone, but he erroneously describes the costal and neural
plates as arising outside the vertebral and costal periosteum. In reality, as I shall show,
there is no true periosteum at all. His view, undoubtedly incorrect, is that these plates
arise outside the ribs and vertebre, and are not expansions of them; they are mem-
branous ossifications immediately surrounding the ribs and vertebree. He describes very
fully the subsequent calcification and absorption of the costal and vertebral cartilages,
and the obliteration of the primitive bony rib.

* Comp. Anat. and Phys. of Vertebrates, vol. i. p. 63.

+ Elements of Comparative Anatomy, pp. 433, 440.

{ Teat-Book of Zoology, p. 226.

§ The Anatomy of Vertebrate Animals, p. 201.

|| Dr H. G. Bronn’s Klassen v. Ordnungen des Thier-Reichs., Sechster Band, iii. Abtheilung.

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 15). 3G

396 DR JOHN BERRY HAYCRAFT ON THE

My own work on this subject is followed out very much on the same lines; but I

have endeavoured to fill in certain gaps left in his description. Iam obliged to differ .

from him in what is to my mind his most important conclusion he has arrived at. I
shall endeavour to show that there is no true periosteum (perichondrium) around either
the primitive cartilaginous rib, or the primitive cartilaginous vertebre, and that the
costal and neural plates do not therefore arise outside the periosteum as he affirms.
Whereas in the growing rib or vertebra, say of a crocodile, we find an investing perios-
teum, the inner surface of which is alone osteogenetic, the periosteum of a turtle’s rib
consists only of a few fibres of the osteogenetic membrane, of which the carapace is com-
posed, arranged loosely around the bone. In the case of the crocodile’s rib, the deposition of
bone, being on the inner surface of a cylindrical osteogenetic tube, leads to the formation
of a cylindrical rib, whose girth is limited by the growth of the periosteal tube. In the
case of the turtle there is no such limiting membrane, and the bone forming first on the
surface of the cartilage spreads outwards in all directions, gradually involving the whole
carapace. This is a short, and as I believe an accurate description of the formation
of the neural and costal plates. I shall endeavour to amplify this statement in the fol-
lowing pages. When the fucts of the developmental process are thoroughly grasped,
it will be possible to discuss with advantage the relation which the costal and neural
plates bear to the ribs and vertebree.

Thanks to the embryo turtles kindly given me by Professor Mosrtey, I have been
able to investigate the development in its earliest stages. The subsequent steps have
been worked at from a very nearly complete series of fresh-water tortoises. The carapace
was hardened either in alcohol or picric acid. A very convenient method when dealing
with animals that have already begun to develop osseous tissue is to place the carapace
in picric acid, to which a few drops of hydrochloric acid have been added, when the
carapace will soften in a few days, and sections may at once be prepared.

Study of a Series of Sections Transverse to the Length of the Carapace (Plate,
figs. 7-10).

The youngest embryo that I have been able to obtain was a green turtle, measuring
about 1 centimetre in leneth. The vertebral cartilage in this embryo is entirely
cartilaginous, and so are the ribs. The cartilage is in all situations surrounded by
embryonic tissue, such as is found in the rest of the carapace. There is no special
periosteum, for one can hardly speak of the tissue next the cartilage, which has some-
what of a set around it, as a periosteum. Dorsal muscle plates are evident in this
embryo.

Each vertebra is composed of three pieces. The first encloses the notochord, forming a
complete ring around it. The other two encircle the neural canal laterally and posteriorly.
The cartilaginous ribs are attached to the vertebrae by fibrous tissue.

In a somewhat more advanced embryo (fig. 7), the lateral pieces of cartilage have

aa

DEVELOPMENT OF THE CARAPACE OF THE CHELONIA. on

joined posteriorly over the neural canal. The rib is joined by fibro-cartilage both to the
. notochordal cartilage and to the lateral plate of its side. No trace of bone is as yet
apparent.

The further stages of development I have studied both in the green turtle and in the
common fresh-water tortoise. As my specimens of the latter form a more complete series
they will now be referred to, but if in any detail they differ from the green turtles, that
difference will be indicated.

A tortoise of 2°2 centimetres long (fig. 9) has the vertebree composed of one piece of
cartilage, complete fusion of the original pieces having taken place. The rib is now com-
pletely joined to the vertebral column, but the line of juncture is indicated in this and in
older specimens by a curved band of closely-packed cells. I think there can be no doubt
that what has been termed the costal cartilage is indeed a true rib cartilage and not a
developed transverse process as GEGENBAUR affirms. The rib cartilage is from first to
last quite distinct from the vertebral cartilages, whereas a transverse process arises as a
prolongation of one of these. In the 2°2 centimetres tortoise ossification has already
commenced both on the vertebral and on the rib cartilage. The shaft of the rib cartilage is
covered by a thin layer of bone, which extends over part of the head of the rib cartilage.
This layer of bone, neither in this nor in any of the tortoises of larger size, never extends
- quite up to, or blends with, the bone which is now found to encrust the vertebral cartilage.
In addition to the crust of bone on the rib cartilages, bony spicules. project dorsally over
the muscle plate (C, fig. 9), and this growth is one of the first indications of the forma-
tion of the costal plates. In the same specimen: bone has: already formed within the
neural canal, and the neural arch is covered posteriorly by a thin crust of bone which
extends laterally towards, but never blends with, the crust of bone on the nib cartilage.
From the posterior part of the neural arch bony spicules are seen to have extended into
the connective tissue found lying between the vertebree and the superficial scutes, to form
the neural plates. This connective tissue consists partly of those straight interlacing
fibres (in connection with which are numerous connective tissue corpuscles) which are so
characteristic of a membrane destined to be converted into bone.

In a tortoise 2°6 and in another 3 centimetres long, the spongy bone developed
behind the ribs and vertebre had increased in amount, extending round and partly
enclosing the muscle plate.

In a specimen 4 centimetres long (fig. 10), the vertebree are seen to have been covered
and lined by bone, which has extended backwards to form the neural plate. Much of the
cartilage of the vertebree has been removed and replaced by bone, and the same obtains
in the rib cartilage. Of the latter the head alone remains intact, together with some
scattered and often isolated cartilaginous remains of the main body of the primitive rib.

The formation of the neural plate is now far advanced. It extends nearly up to the
tortoise-shell, and laterally it has extended to meet the advancing costal plate. At this
point the bony spicules of the two plates dove-tail very loosely into each other, forming
what may be termed a primitive suture. The spicules of the neighbouring plates

308 DR JOHN BERRY HAYCRAFT ON THE

never, however, come actually into contact one with another. They are invariably
ensheathed and separated from one another by osteogenetic fibrous tissue loaded with
osteoblasts. As the plates grow in size, the suture still remains; there is no bridging
over of spicules from one plate to another.

Larger tortoises simply show further stages of growth. The costal and neural plates
grow in size, and the vertebral cartilage entirely disappears and is replaced by bone.
The fibro-cartilaginous carapace is now replaced by bone, which, forming on the surface
of the cartilage, gradually extends in all directions involving the cartilage itself, and the
whole of the fibrous carapace except a thin layer under the chitinous carapace, which is
converted into ordinary fibrous tissue.

The development of the neural plate has now been fully described, except, indeed,
the process by which the cartilage and the fibrous tissue change into bone, It will be
convenient to study this when the development of the costal plate has been more fully
described. The formation of the latter at its proximal extremity has been already
studied ; it will be advisable to examine a series of sections transverse. to the length of
the tortoise, but passing through the rib cartilage and developing costal plate at its
distal margin, and showing its relation with the marginal plates.

Sections at the Costo-Marginal Junction (Plate, figs, 5 and 6).

It will be sufficient to study two sections, one of the tortoise 2°6 centimetres and the
other of the tortoise 46 centimetres long. In the figure (fig. 5, A) the commencing
marginal plate is shown as well as the external end of the costal plate. The latter
contains the still cartilaginous rib, absorption of this tissue not having been completed.
From the outer end of the rib cartilage (which is not represented in the figure) bony
spicules (C, fig. 5) shoot out towards the marginal plate. The spicules have not nearly
reached the marginal plate, and are still far away from the notch between the superficial
scutes of the carapace.

In the 4°6 centimetres tortoise, the marginal plate has increased considerably in size.
The rib cartilage is seen here and there within the costal plate. Most of the cartilage is
indeed absorbed, but portions are still to be seen, and occasionally almost all the rib cartilage
is left. The rib cartilage is much larger, and itis thicker than the rib cartilage of the 2°6
centimetres tortoise. It seems, then, that during the formation of the costal plate, even
up to a comparatively late period, the cartilage continues to grow, and the absorption
of large masses of the tissue does not seem to interfere with the growth of those portions
which remain within the bony ring in which they are enclosed. Not only has the rib
cartilage grown outwards towards the marginal plate (fig. 6), but the bony spicules have
pushed outwards, and have passed beyond the notch on the superficial scutes. The
marginal plates, which arise as little nodules in the connective tissue, are seen in the 46
centimetres tortoise to have increased considerably in size. Spicules have shot out into —

DEVELOPMENT OF THE CARAPACE OF THE CHELONIA. 309

the fibrous carapace, some of them towards the advancing costal plate. The spicules of
the two plates have loosely dove-tailed into each other to form a primative suture.

A Study of Sections Transverse to the Length of the Ribs (Plate, figs. 1-4).

A section through the distal end of the rib of the green turtle of about 5 centimetres
long (fig. 1) shows that the structure is entirely cartilaginous. It is embedded in the

”

general osteogenetic tissue of the carapace, which has a “set” around it. It cannot
be said to possess a perichondrium.

Fig. 2 represents a section through the proximal end of the same rib. Here is
found the first commencement of ossification, the mesoblastic cells next the cartilage
having become converted into osteoblasts, and having formed a complete ring of bone
around the cartilage. At the sides of the rib (see fig. 9), in the region of the intercostal
spaces, the process is more active, and tiny spicules are seen already to project into the
surrounding tissue. These broaden the rib, and are the first indications of the formation
of the costal plates seen from this aspect.

In the fresh-water tortoise, 2°2, 2°6, and 3 centimetres long (fig. 3), the further
development of the costal plates may conveniently be traced. Spicules of bone penetrate
in all directions, but especially into the intercostal connective tissue. In 4 and 4°6
centimetres tortoises (fig. 4) the process has so far advanced that neighbouring costal
plates have met together, forming the primitive sutures already described, and all the
tissue of the carapace except the sensitive layer under the scutes is converted into ©
spongy bone. The rib cartilage is all absorbed, and so is the little tube of bone which
first invested it (A, fig. 4).

The Osteogenetic Tissue of the Carapace,

The whole carapace of the embryo tortoise, as has previously been mentioned,
consists of embryonic connective tissue, in which are embedded cartilaginous vertebree
and ribs, the whole being covered with epidermic scutes. The tissue is rich in blood-
vessels, and consists chiefly of interlacing collagenous fibres, many of which are
straight and clasped by clasping cells. Many young corpuscles are seen evidently
about to form fresh fibres, traces of which are often apparent. ‘There is no sign
of any segmentation of this osteogenetic tissue. It forms an unbroken sheet of tissue,
in which, of course, the cartilaginous ribs and vertebree are embedded. In fig. 11
the tissue is represented surrounding a rib cartilage. The connective tissue cells near
the cartilage have become osteoblasts, and a thin layer of bone has been formed on the
nib cartilage. At the same time, however, active changes take place in the surround-
ing tissue, especially in that part which is intercostal, The tissue becomes very
vascular near the rib cartilage, and there is a rapid formation of the straight fibres or
spicules destined to be included in the forming bone as SHARPEY’s fibres. In the inter-

340 DR JOHN BERRY HAYCRAFT ON THE

costal region this change is most evident, and by the time some half dozen lamine of
bone have been deposited on the rib cartilage, well-marked processes of spongy bone are
seen to have already projected into the intercostal spaces.

The processes are furnished at these points by little brushes of straight connective
tissue fibres, between which osteoblasts are found in great numbers. Parts of these
straight fibres are already lodged within the processes from which they project, and the
further growth of these processes is, of course, due to the further inclusion of these
and of other fibres. In this way, then, the whole of the membranous carapace becomes
converted into spongy bone, which grows, and is subsequently divided into two, the
outer and the inner, compact plates. These changes are brought about by that modelling
process, seen in all osseous structures, and which seems to consist in a constant deposi-
tion of fresh bone and removal by absorption of superfluous tissue.

What ts a Costal Plate ?

Let us first consider the development of the costal plate, for the neural plate,
developed in precisely the same way, may be included in any deductions we may draw
concerning the homologies of the rib plate.

In the first place, are these intra-cartilaginous or intra-membranous bones? Horr-
MANN and others maintain that they are intra-membranous like the other bony scutes,
because they are developed in membrane, and because the rib cartilage around which
this development takes place is rapidly absorbed. The fact that these plates have been
developed in membranes around the cartilages of the rib, does not, however, make them
membranous bones ; unless, indeed, one looks upon the femur or a human rib as mem-
branous bones. I suppose that it would be safe to say that not one single ounce of bone
in an adult human skeleton was ever in histeogenetic connection with cartilage at all.
The latter tissue is, as far as long and short bones are concerned, a primitive tissue
indicating their future positions, but in no way developing into them. The shaft of the
femur and of a human rib are developed in the membranes which surround the primitive
cartilage, which membrane is called the periosteum. The only way we can possibly look
at the question in the light of modern histology is not whether or not bone is formed
out of membrane, but whether or not its position was taken at an early period of
development by hyaline cartilage. From this point of view the answer is simple. The
costal plate differs entirely from a plastral plate, in that the latter was never in any way
connected with cartilage, while the rib plate was, for it developed like the human or any
other rib around a rib cartilage. It is true that the rib plate developes around the rib
cartilage in a different manner from that in which the human rib developes, but this does
not alter the morphological homologies of these structures. The supposed hard and fast
lines in animal morphology do not exist in fact, and cell structures and cell processes
pass one into another through innumerable transition forms. At one time one or two
typical osseous developments had been described, but it is now known that these types

DEVELOPMENT OF THE CARAPACE OF THE CHELONIA. 341

are bridged between by many intermediate processes. Thus the terminal phalanx of
the finger is an intra-cartilaginous bone, and developes in all respects like the middle
phalanx, except that its distal end shoots out towards the tip of the finger just like the
end of the costal plate of the tortoise shoots out towards the marginal plate. We cannot,
however, consider the costal plates simply as ribs, for most would agree that the term
rib indicates a long cylindrical bone enclosed in a periosteum. We may, however, with
propriety consider the costal plate as a 7b expansion.

If, finally, we contrast the carapace of the Chelonia with the body- all of a crocodile,
the following differences are apparent. In the crocodile we have segmentation into
alternate muscle plates and rib cartilages enclosed in periosteum, the outer layers of
which have differentiated already into fibrous tissue. These structures grow, the muscle
plates forming intercostal muscles, the periosteum being only osteogenetic on its inner
surface secreting a cylindrical rib. In the tortoise the carapace is segmented, but only
to the extent of having cartilaginous ribs within an otherwise undifferentiated body-wall.
The ribs are not ensheathed by any specially differentiated periosteal membrane, and so
the bone where it developes around the cartilages gradually comes to involve the whole
of the intercostal spaces. In the turtles, parts of the ribs, viz., those which join the
marginal plates, preserve their rib-like character. They have not expanded to form
true costal plates, because they are invested by a restraining periosteum, in which true
adult fibrous tissue has already formed.

The study of Chelonia, in which the ossification of the carapace is incomplete, is very
instructive in this relationship. Owing to the lack of material I have not been able to
devote as much attention to this as I should have desired, but such observations as I
have been able to make are worth recording.

If a young Horopas areolatus be dissected, one can remove the scutes and the
membranous carapace, leaving behind true bony vertebree and ribs. I have made care-
ful sections of a Horopas, and find that the bony vertebree and fully-formed bony ribs
show the merest indications of osseous extension into the surrounding carapace. I am
told that my specimen corresponded in point of general development with one of the
larger fresh-water tortoises I have figured, yet the condition of the carapace was very
different. ‘The ribs were cylindrical bony tubes, with here and there indications of a
lateral expansion. They were embedded in a tissue which was no longer embryonic, it
was fairly differentiated fibrous tissue. The ribs were not enclosed in a tube of perios-
teum, hence the attempts at lateral expansion. ‘They were surrounded, however, by
tissue which had already differentiated, and had therefore not the same tendency to be
involved in any osteogenetic changes.

One may conclude with the following general statement. The chest-wall of a typical
vertebrate seements into rib cartilages, surrounded by perichondrial tubes, osteogenetic
on their inner surfaces alone, and muscle plates embedded in connective tissue. The
cylindrical ribs form on the inner surface of the growing perichondrium (periosteum), and
the muscle plates form the intercostal muscles.

342 DEVELOPMENT OF THE CARAPACE OF THE CHELONTA.

In the Chelonia there are no muscle plates, and the perichondrium is absent from the
rib cartilage, except in such situations where ribs are actually seen, as at the outer part
of the carapace of turtles.

In those Chelonia where the carapace forms a complete bony box, the body wall
seoments into rib cartilages embedded in embryonic connective tissue. Ossification
commences on the surface of the rib as in the typical vertebrate, but as there is no
periosteum, it spreads outwards and involves the whole body-wall, the tissue of which
becomes osteogenetic at first near the rib cartilage, and finally throughout its entirety.

In those Chelonia in which the carapace is incomplete, the rib expansions involving
only a part of the body-wall, the following changes occur. ‘The body-wall segments as
before into rib cartilages without true periosteal sheaths, embedded in embryonic con-
nective tissue. Bone forms on the outer surface of the ribs and expands more or less
into the surrounding connective tissue. This does not occur with great rapidity how-
ever, and the intercostal embryonic connective tissue differentiates ito white fibrous
tissue.

The neural plates are developed in a manner which is in every way essentially similar
to the development of the costal plates.

’ DESCRIPTION OF PLATE.

Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4.—Transverse sections through the ribs and costal plates in developing tortoise. A, rib-
cartilage ; B, scutes ; C, young bone; D, suture between approaching costal plates.

Figs. 5 and 6.—Transverse sections through the carapace of developing tortoise at the costo-marginal junction.
A, marginal plate ; B, scutes ; C, costal plate.

Figs. 7, 8, 9, and 10.—Transverse sections through the vertebrae of developing tortoise. A, costal cartilage ;
B, vertebral cartilage ; C, costal bone; D, vertebral bone ; M is placed on the dorsal muscle.

Fig. 11.—Part of a transverse section through a rib of an embryo turtle. A, rib cartilage ; B, a few lamine of
bone ; C, a lateral projection of bone; D, osteogenetic tissue around rib, there being no fully-formed
periosteum ; H is placed in a blood capillary ; K, osteoblast.

(1343.0)

XVI.—Strophanthus hispidus: its Natural History, Chemistry, and Pharmacology.
By Txomas R. Fraser, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.R.C.P.E., Professor of Materia
Medica in the University of Edinburgh.

Part I].—Puarmacotocy. (Plates VIII.—-XXIII.)

(Read 3rd June 1889).

CONTENTS:

PAGE PAGE

C. PHARMACOLOGICAL AcTION— D. Action on Heart and Blood-vessels, é 388
A. General Action, . é 343 E. Action on Lymph Hearts, 3 ‘ 453

B. Action on Onstinae od Neqrure Sieh, 361 F. Action on Respiration, . 5 ; 454

C. Action on Skeletal Muscles, . : : 379 | Explanation of Plates VIII.-XXIIL., ‘ 5 455

C.—PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTION.
A. GENERAL ACTION.

In former papers on the pharmacological action of Strophanthus, dating from 1869, I
selected for description, from the considerable number of experiments that had been
made, merely those experiments which sufficed to illustrate the general features of the
action, and especially such effects as seemed likely to form a basis for the application of
Strophanthus to the treatment of disease.

I had intended to have followed, at no distant date, these preliminary and somewhat
fragmentary notices by a more complete description of the pharmacological action, for
which, indeed, nearly all the required experimental data had several years ago been
obtained ; but unavoidable circumstances prevented this intention from being fulfilled.
In this part of the present paper the fuller description will be given; and if any excuse
were required for doing so, it may perhaps be found in the circumstance that the anti-
aipation of the therapeutic value of Strophanthus has been amply confirmed by the
important position now occupied by it as a therapeutic agent.

It has been shown in Part I. that while many of the constituent portions of the
Strophanthus plant contain the active principle, strophanthin, this principle is most
abundantly present in the seeds. It occurs in the seeds along with substances that are
of little pharmacological interest, such as albumen and mucilage, and also with other
substances that frequently possess active properties, such as resin and fixed oil. The
resin has not as yet been examined.

VOL, XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 16). 3H

344 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

Fixed Oil.

The fixed oil, representing so much as 34 per cent. of the weight of the seeds, has
been administered to animals, after it had been repeatedly washed with water in order to
remove from it any adhering or dissolved strophanthin. When this precaution was
adopted, the oil was found to be inert when administered even in considerable quantities
to frogs and rabbits.

Experiments I. and II.—Thus, 0:1 grain of oil, partly dissolved and partly emulsified in
weak alcohol, was injected under the skin of a frog * weighing 480 grains, and 0°2 grain
was similarly administered to a frog weighing 463 grains, but no observable effect was
produced. In a pithed frog (Kaperiment III.) the heart was exposed, and 0°01 grain of
oil was placed upon it, but the action of the heart was not thereby affected. And,
finally (Expervment IV.), a small young rabbit, weighing only 1 lb. 3 oz., received by
subcutaneous injection on one occasion 01 grain, and on another occasion 0°3 grain, of
pure oil, and neither dose produced any effect.

Alcohol Extract containing Oil.

The extract obtained by acting on the seeds by rectified spirit, and therefore con-
taining oil as well as strophanthin, on the other hand, is very active. Its general action
is illustrated in the following experiments.

Experiment Vi—0‘05 grain was mixed with a few minims of distilled water, and
injected under the skin at the left flank of a frog, weighing 284 grains. In 12 min,
the movements became impaired, and the thoracic extremities were unduly extended.
In 30 min., voluntary movements were sluggish, the pupils were contracted, the skin
was paler than before the administration, the thoracic extremities seemed unable
properly to support the thorax and head, and, soon afterwards, the head was rested on
the table. In 50 min., respiration had ceased, and minute fibrillary twitches were
occurring incessantly over the trunk and head. In 1 hour 20 min., the frog remained
on the back unable to turn, and, on careful examination, no cardiac impact could be
seen, In 1 hour 45 min., the thoracic extremities were slightly stiff, but still fairly
active reflexes of the pelvic extremities could be obtained, and the pupils were now
dilated. In 2 hours 10 min., irritation of any part of the skin produced reflex move-
ments in the pelvic extremities only. In 2 hours 25 min., the latter reflexes could no
longer be obtained.

The left sciatic nerve was now exposed, and on stimulating it with an interrupted
current from one DaNnigELv’s cell and Du Bots RrEymonp’s induction apparatus, feeble
movements were produced in the left leg, but none elsewhere. In 3 hours, stimulation
of the left sciatic nerve no longer produced movement, and the muscles of the left pelvic
extremity, when directly stimulated, reacted very feebly, and only to strong currents.

* Where it is not otherwise stated, the frog used in the experiments was the Rana temporaria. In only a few
experiments Ff, esculenta was used,

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 345

Experiment VI.*—A still larger dose (0'1 grain) was given in the same way to a frog,
weighing 287 grains. In 8 min., the frog was less active in its movements, but the limbs
retained a normal position. In 15 min., when irritated, it jumped feebly. In 19 min.,
the thoracic extremities were weak, and the thorax often rested on the table. In 28
min., the frog was on the abdomen and thorax; and, when irritated, pretty energetic
movements occurred in the pelvic extremities, but the frog was unable to jump, although
attempts were obviously made to do so. The respiratory movements of the throat were
very shallow, and those of the flanks very feeble and infrequent. In 40 min., a good
deal of frothy mucus had been exuded from the skin; the reflex excitability was not
exaggerated. In 40 min., almost incessantly fibrillary twitches were occurring in the
muscles of the abdomen, and both throat and chest respirations had ceased. In 57 min.,
when placed on the back, the frog attempted to turn, but could not do so. No cardiac
impact could be seen. The fibrillary twitches continued, and were best seen at the
lumbar regions and behind the eyeballs. When the skin was irritated, pretty energetic
movements occurred in the pelvic extremities and in the abdominal walls, and only feeble
movements in the thoracic extremities. In 1 hour 17 min., irritation of the skin caused
feeble reflex movements in the two pelvic extremities, but none in the thoracic, which
were now stiffly extended at right angles to the body. The spontaneous fibrillary
twitches had now ceased; when, however, the skin at the coccyx or upper part of the
thighs was irritated, a series of fibrillary twitches occurred at the lumbar and gluteal
regions. In 1 hour 27 min., galvanic stimulation of the muzzle excited feeble reflex
movements in the pelvic extremities, but none elsewhere. In 1 hour 42 min., weak
galvanic stimulation excited no movement; strong galvanic stimulation, however, excited
feeble movements in the pelvic extremities. The four extremities were now stiff and
extended. In 1 hour 44 min., the heart was exposed, and it was found to be motionless,
with the ventricle contracted and pale, and the auricles dilated and dark. Even the
most powerful galvanic current from a DAnrELv’s cell and Du Bots Reymonn’s induction
apparatus, applied directly to the heart’s surface, produced no movement whatever. In
2 hours 2 min., galvanic stimulation of the exposed right sciatic nerve caused only some
feeble and sluggish movements of the right foot ; and strong galvanic stimulation of the
exposed muscles of the right thigh failed to produce any contraction. In 2 hours 22 min.,
galvanic stimulation of the right sciatic nerve no longer produced any effect. When the
muscles of various parts of the body were stimulated, no movement occurred. A certain
degree of general stiffness was present, and the four limbs were still extended. On the
following day, 22 hours after the administration, strong general rigor existed. The
ventricle of the heart was contracted and pale ; the auricles were distended with blood.

Experiment VII.—A rabbit, weighing 3 lbs. 3 oz., was the subject of the next
experiment. The normal rate of the respirations was 28 per 10 sec., and the right pupil
measured $$ x $$ths of an inch. 0°05 grain of extract was administered by subcutaneous
injection. In 2 min., the rabbit was restless. In 10 min., the respirations were 23, and

* Published in 1872 in a preliminary paper in Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, vol. vii. p. 142.

346 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

the cardiac impacts 36, per 10 sec., and the right pupil measured 33 x }$ths of an inch.
The rabbit was sitting quietly in a normal posture. In 14 min., the respirations were
20 per 10 sec., and irregular. In 27 min., the respirations were 26, and the cardiac impacts
33, per 10 sec. In 35 min., the respirations were 15, and the cardiac impacts 34, per 10
sec. In 52 min., nearly constant “nodding” movements of the head were occurring.
In 58 min., the head was resting on its side upon the table, and the thoracic extremities
had yielded so that the thorax was on the table, while the back remained well arched.
The rabbit usually remained in this posture, but every now and then a series of “nodding”
movements of the head occurred, especially when any voluntary movement was attempted.
In 1 hour, the respirations were 17, and the cardiac impacts 35, per 10 sec., and the
pupils measured 3) x }$ths of an inch. In 1 hour 2 min., the respirations were 14, and
the cardiac impacts 36, per 10 sec.; and the respiratory movements had become abrupt
during expiration, and were mainly abdominal. Faint tremors were occurring in the
head and shoulders. In 1 hour 7 min., the respirations were 12, and the cardiac impacts
23, per 10 sec., and the movements of respiration were shallow and abdominal, and with
abruptness of both inspiration and expiration. In 1 hour 10 min., the respirations were
9, and the cardiac impacts 6, per 10 sec., and the rabbit was now lying flaccid on the side.
In 1 hour 15 min., the cardiac impacts were 8 per 10 secs., but only irregular and
infrequent respiratory movements occurred about 3 times per 10 sec. The cornea and
conjunctiva were sensitive, but the right pupil measured 2 x soths of an inch. In 1
hour 17 min., the respirations were merely faint and infrequent gasps; the pupils became
dilated to 3§ x }§ths of an inch, and no cardiac impacts could be felt, although on stetho-
scopic examination a few faint heart sounds were heard at irregular intervals.

Two min. after death, the heart was exposed, and it was found to be contracting
irregularly at the rate of 7 per 10 sec. The pupils had now contracted to <5 x goths of
an inch. ‘Twelve min. after death, the heart was still contracting, but only at long and
irregular intervals ; and all spontaneous cardiac movements ceased 15 min. after death.

Experiment VITI.*—In a rabbit, weighing 4 lbs. 2 oz., it was found that the respira-
tions occurred 42 times and the cardiac impacts 49 times in 10 sec., and that the pupils
measured 3% x }$ths of an inch, immediately before 0°05 grain of extract was injected
under the skin at the left flank. In 3 min., the respirations were 43 per 10 sec., and the
animal was restless. In 7 min., the cardiac impacts were 41 per 10 sec., and the
pupils 35 x4ths of an inch. In 8 min., the respirations were 47, and the cardia¢
impacts 36, per 10 sec. In 9 min., the respirations were 39, and the cardiac impacts 39,
per 10 sec. Grinding movements of the teeth occurred. In 12 min., respiration was
laboured, and a sharp sound (like a “smack”) occurred with them. In 13 min., the
cardiac impacts were 36 per 10 sec., and decidedly reduced in strength. In 14 min., the
respirations were 9 per 10 sec., and the pupils 42x }8ths of an inch. In 16 min., the
respirations were 10 per 10 sec., and the cardiac impacts could not accurately be counted,
but they appeared to be at the rate of 88 per 10 sec. In 24 min., the respirations were

* Published in 1872, Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, vol. vii. p. 147.

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 347

23, and the cardiac impacts 38, per 10 sec. The rabbit was in crouching posture. In 28
min., the respirations were 26, and the cardiac impacts 38, per 10 sec. The lips and
mouth were frequently opened and shut. In 32 min., the respirations were 24 per 10
sec., and jerky. The rabbit showed a tendency to fall over. In 36 min., the respirations
were 13, and the cardiac impacts 33, per 10 sec. The rabbit was in a sitting posture, and
the head often fell slowly and was raised sharply, with nodding movements. The pupils
measured 3§ x $$ths of an inch. In 40 min, the respirations were 8 per 10 sec.
Frequent shaking movements of the head occurred. In 42 min., the cardiac impacts
could not be counted, because of the jerky respiratory movements and of frequent
tremors; but they seemed to occur about 24 times per 10 sec. In 44 min., the respira-
tions were 14 per 10 sec. Incessant tremors, chiefly of the head, were occurring. In 48
min., the rabbit was lying flaccidly, with the lower jaw resting on the table. Tremors
were frequent, and occasionally spasmodic movements occurred, during which the animal
was tossed about. In 51 min., the respirations were 7 per 10 sec., and the rabbit was
lying quietly on the side. In 52 min., the cardiac sounds, as heard with the stethoscope,
were very feeble, irregular, and infrequent. The pupils measured $7 x }§ths of an inch,
and occasionally a gasping respiration occurred. In 53 min., the respiratory movements
had ceased, and the conjunctiva and cornea were insensible.

One min. after death, no cardiac impact could be felt, nor sound heard with the
stethoscope. Three min. after death, the right sciatic nerve was exposed: weak galvanic
stimulation produced no effect when applied to it, or to the surfaces of the exposed
muscles; but very strong stimulation, when applied to the nerve, excited a faint twitch
of the foot, and when applied to the exposed muscles, a slow and feeble contraction.
These conditions were present also at 7 min. after death. Five min. after death, the
pupils measured 3 x {ths of an inch. Nine min. after death, the heart was exposed,
and found to be motionless; while galvanic stimulation, even when powerful, produced
no effect upon it. Twelve min. after death, galvanic stimulation of nerves or muscles
no longer produced any effect. Forty-seven min. after death, general rigor was present,
but it was strong only in the pelvic extremities. The pupils measured 3 x goths of an
inch.

Experiment [X.*—One-tenth of a grain of extract, suspended in 47 of distilled
water, was injected under the skin at the right side of a pigeon, weighing 10 oz. In7
min., the pigeon vomited a large number of entire wheat grains, and repeated doing s0,
frequently, during the following 8 min., towards the end of which time some liquid
excrement was passed. In 17 min., the pigeon was lying on the abdomen, the wings
bemg used to steady the body. The pupils were now dilated. In 18 min., some spasms
occurred, which had an opisthotonic character. In 18 min. 30 sec., respiration had
ceased, and the pigeon was motionless.

One min. after death, the heart was exposed, and found to be motionless. Six min.
after death, galvanic stimulation, even when powerful, of the surface of the heart pro-

* Published in 1872, Journal of Anatomy and Pkysiology, vol. vi. p. 146.

348 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

duced no movement; but the muscles of the limbs and body still actively contracted
when galvanised. The pupils continued to be dilated. Forty-one min. after death, the
muscles of the body no longer contracted under galvanic stimulation, and they had
become somewhat hard.

Alcoholic Extract free from Oil, &e.

As the extract, containing oil and other substances soluble in ether, 1s not a suitable
preparation with which to define the lethal activity of Strophanthus, it was not used
for this purpose. On the other hand, either the alcohol extract after treatment with
ether (see p. 994),* or the alcohol extract obtained after the seeds had been thoroughly
extracted with ether (see p. 994),* provided, in each case, that only a moderate
quantity of strong alcohol had been used in the extraction, is entirely suitable for this
purpose, as both extracts are of fairly constant composition, and are entirely soluble
in water.

The experiments made with extract free from oil have been so arranged in Tables XII.
and XIII. as to show the minimum quantity capable of producing death in frogs and
in rabbits, when the administration was by subcutaneous injection.

TABLE XII1.—Minimum-Lethal Dose of Extract for Frogs.

ee) en Ob ee Result,
oe 410 grs. 0:0002 0:00005 Recovery. Very slight effects.
XI. 440 ,, 0:00025 0:000056 Recovery. Slight effects.
Xoie DOD. 0:000312 0:00006 Death in more than 4 hours.
XIII. 485 _,, 0:000375 0:000077 Death in more than 3 hours.
XIV. 450 ,, 0:000437 0:000097 Death in less than 3 hours.
XV. 430 ,, 0:0005 0:00011 Death in more than 2 hours.
XVI. | 445 ,, 0-001 0:00022 Death in more than 1 hour and 50 min.

TasLe XIII.—Minimum-Lethal Dose of Extract for Rabbits.

No. of Weight of Dose in Dose per lb.

Experiment. | Animal. Grains. of Aniinal. Result.
XVII. 3 lbs. 12 oz. 0:0175 0:0046 tecovery. Distinct effects,
e'anan 3 lbs. 8 oz. 0:02 0:0057 Death in 1 hour and 10 min.

XIX. 3 lbs. 6 oz. 01 0:029 Death in 47 min.

* Trans, Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. xxxv. part iv., 1890,

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 349

It appears from these experiments that the minimum-lethal dose of this extract
is for frogs about 0°00006 grain (ryebooth) for each one hundred grains of weight of
frog; and for rabbits about 0°0057 grain (z?sth) for each pound of weight of
rabbit.

A detailed account of several of the experiments contained in the tables is given
below, including experiments illustrative of the general effects of non-lethal as well
as of lethal doses.

Experiment XI.—0°00025 grain of extract free from fat, dissolved in 4 minims of
distilled water, was injected under the skin of a frog, weighing 440 grains, whose
respirations before the administration were 21 per 10 sec. In 14 min., the frog was
restless ; now and again the fore-feet were brought up to the mouth ; and the respira-
tions were 19 per 10 sec. No further symptoms were observed during the following
hour and a half. In 1 hour 56 min., the thoracic extremities were often unduly
extended, In 2 hours 9 min., the throat and chest respirations were 19 per 10 sec.,
and the thoracic extremities were still unduly extended. In 8 hours 40 min., the
condition remained as last noted, the respiratory rate being still 19 per 10 sec.
On the following day, the frog appeared to be perfectly normal, with 22 respirations
per 10 see.

Hixpervment XII.—A frog, weighing 505 grains, received by subcutaneous injec-
tion 0000312 grain of extract. Before the injection, the respirations were 24 per 10
sec. During the following 2 hours and 30 min., no symptom was_ observed
except restlessness; and the respirations ranged between 18 and 24 per 10 sec. In
2 hours 40 min., the thoracic extremities were frequently extended for several
minutes, and the respirations were regular in time and amplitude, and at the
rate of 20 per 10 sec. In 3 hours 24 min., the respirations were shallow, irregular,
and less frequent, and the throat was retracted. In 3 hours 50 min., the
respirations were very infrequent, usually only 4 occurring per 10 sec, and the
frog was in a normal posture, and jumped well on slight irritation. In 4 hours
4 min., the mouth was occasionally opened widely, the frog moved about restlessly,
and though usually in a normal attitude, now and again the thorax subsided on
to the table. On the following day, 26 hours after the administration, the frog
was lying on the abdomen and thorax, with the muzzle resting on the table; the
four limbs were loosely and irregularly extended; and, when the frog was placed
on the back, no cardiac impact could be seen. On the third day, 50 hours after
the administration, the skin was pale, and there was some stiffness of the thoracic
extremities. On the fourth day, general rigor was present.

Experiment XIII.—A frog, weighing 485 grains, received by subcutaneous injec-
tion 0000375 grain of extract. It was kept under continuous observation for three
hours, but no abnormal symptoms were seen, and the respirations were maintained
at the original rate of between 19 and 22 per 10 sec. On the following day,
20 hours after the administration, the frog was pale in colour, motionless, and

390 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

lying flaccid on the abdomen. No cardiac impact could be seen. A sciatic nerve
was exposed and galvanised, without any response. Galvanic stimulation was
also applied directly to the exposed thigh muscles, but weak currents failed to.
produce contractions, and strong currents a mere depression or dimpling of the
surface of the muscle. The heart was exposed, and it was found to be motionless,
with the auricles large and distended, and the ventricle small and pale, while
mechanical and galvanic stimulation alike failed to excite any movement. On the
third day, general rigor was present.

Experiment XVI.—To a frog, weighing 445 grains, 0°001 grain of extract was
administered by subcutaneous injection. The frog soon became restless; but for 24
min. the posture was normal, and the respiratory movements were maintained at the
original rate of 16 per 10 sec. In 29 min., however, the fore-feet were often rubbed
over the muzzle, the throat was retracted, and the respirations were irregular. In
32 min., the respirations were frequently interrupted by long pauses, and the thoracic
extremities were extended. In 36 min., the respirations were 14 per 10 sec., and
very irregular, the thoracic extremities were still extended, and the fore-feet were
every now and then rubbed over the muzzle. In 39 min., the respirations were 7 per
10 sec., and still very irregular. Im 1 hour 13 min., the thoracic extremities had
become weak, the thorax sometimes rested on the table, respiratory movements had
entirely ceased, and the skin was pale. The frog, however, could still jump actively.
In 1 hour 34 min., the frog could no longer jump normally, and, after an imperfect
jump, the pelvic extremities did not at once reassume the normal flexed position.
In 1 hour 54 min., the condition remained as last noted, and fairly active reflexes
could still be excited. The observations were now interrupted until the following day,
when, 26 hours after the administration, the frog was in general rigor.

Three experiments were made with this extract on rabbits for the purpose of observing
the general action.

Experiment XVII.—A rabbit, weighing 3 lbs. 12 oz., received by subcutaneous
injection 0°0175 grain of extract dissolved in 25 minims of distilled water. Before the
injection, the respirations were 27, and the cardiac impacts 40, per 10 sec. In 18
min., the respirations were 23, and the cardiac impacts 40, per 10 sec. In 20 min,
the respirations suddenly fell to 5 per 10 sec., and they became laboured. The
cardiac impacts also diminished in number, only 18 being felt in 10 sec., and they
were feeble and difficult to define. The rabbit was restless and the head unsteady.
In 22 min., the respirations became more frequent, their rate bemg 15 per 10 sec.,
and inspiration was not so markedly laboured. In 24 min., fibrillary twitches were
seen at the flanks. In 82 min., the respirations were 14 per 10 sec., inspiration
being still prolonged, and the cardiac impacts appeared to be fairly frequent, but
it was impossible to define them accurately on account of incessant fibrillary twitches.
In 46 min., the respirations again became infrequent, only 8 occurring in 10 seé.,
and they were again very laboured. In 50 min., the respirations improved in character

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 301

and rate, the latter being 17 per 10 sec. In 59 min., another disorder of inspiration
again suddenly occurred, the rate becoming 6 per 10 sec., and the character laboured,
with prolonged inspiration and abrupt expiration. In 1 hour, tremors of the head
occurred for a few seconds, after which the rabbit again became quiet, and assumed
a normal posture. The respirations, however, continued infrequent, and retained the
abnormal characters above described. In 1 hour 20 min., an improvement was
noted, the respirations were 10, and the cardiac impacts 39, per 10 sec.; the posture
was normal, and there were no tremors of the head. In 2 hours, the respirations
were 23 per 10 sec., and almost normal in character and rhythm, and the cardiac
impacts were strong, and 41 per 10 sec. The rabbit sat normally, and moved spon-
taneously from place to place without difficulty. No urine nor feces had been passed
during the experiment. On the following day, the rabbit appeared to be perfectly
well.

Eapervmment XVIII.—The rabbit used in this experiment weighed 3 lbs. 8 oz. ;
and, before the administration, the respirations were 12 per 10 sec. but the cardiac
impacts were too indistinct to allow of accurate counting with the hand. The dose of
extract was 0°02 erain, which was given also by subcutaneous injection of a solution in
distilled water. In 12 min., the rabbit was restless, and the respirations were 13 per
10 sec. In 19 min., the respirations were 11, and in 25 min., they were 9 per 10 sec.
In 34 min., expiration became abrupt, and now the cardiac impacts were more distinct,
36 being counted in 10 sec. In 46 min., the head was shaking; the respirations were
11 per 10 sec., with abruptness of inspiration; and the rabbit was lying extended on
the abdomen. In 56 min., the respirations were 10 per 10 sec., inspiration continuing
abrupt ; the thoracic extremities had yielded, so that the chest was no longer supported
properly ; and tremors occurred incessantly in the head and thorax, and prevented the
counting of the cardiac impacts. In 59 min., the mouth was resting on the table,
fibrillary twitches occurred over the body and neck, the respirations were 6 per
10 sec., and the pupils were dilated. In 1 hour 3 min,, the side of the head was
resting on the table, the respirations were 5 per 10 sec., and the cardiac impacts,
which now could again be counted as the tremors had ceased, were 19 per 10 sec.,
and irregular. In 1 hour 5 min. and also in 1 hour 6 min,, the rabbit made
unsuccessful efforts to raise the head, and some struggles, apparently for breath,
oceurred. The respirations were very shallow, and at the rate of about 4 per 10
sec. In 1 hour 12 min., respiration had almost ceased, the cardiac impacts were 13
per 10 sec., and the conjunctiva was sensitive. In 1 hour 13 min., a few feeble
convulsive movements of the limbs occurred, the pupils further dilated, and then all
movement ceased. At various times during the experiment urine and feces had
been passed.

One min. after death, the heart was exposed; it was twitching feebly at the
rate of 5 per 10 sec., but all spontaneous movements ceased in five minutes. The
pupils had now become smaller. Five min. after death, the strongest galvanic

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 16). 31

vo2 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

stimulation from a DANTELL’s cell and Du Bors Reymonp’s induction apparatus failed
to excite any movement when applied to the sciatic nerves, and it excited only
feeble twitches of the thigh muscles when directly applied to them. Eight min.
after death, the thigh muscles no longer contracted, even when stimulated with
the strongest interrupted currents, and the muscles were now found to be acid in
reaction. ‘Ten min. after death, galvanic stimulation of the heart produced a single
contraction restricted to the chamber stimulated; but 39 min. after death, it no
longer did so, and the muscle of the left ventricle was then found to be acid
in reaction.

Strophanthin.

In order to determine the general effects of strophantin, as well as to define its mini-
mum-lethal dose, experiments were made with a specimen obtained by the process
described at pages 1009 and 1010.*

In Tables XIV. and XV. these experiments are so recorded as to exhibit the mini-
mum-lethal dose by subcutaneous injection for frogs and for rabbits.

Taste XIV.—Minimum-Lethal Dose of Strophanthin for Frogs.

Dose per 100 |

Mapenmianiy) © Aina t|) uGeane Weak Gee Result |
XX, 450 grs, 0:000125 0:000027 Recovery. Very slight effects.
XXI. 485 ,, 0:0001875 0:000038 Recovery. Very slight effects.
XXII. 475 ,, 0:000195 0:000041 Recovery. Slight effects.
XXIII. 483 _,, 000025 0:000051 Death in less than 3 hours and 40 minutes.
XXIV. 460 ,, 0:00025 0:000054 Death in more than 2 hours and 50 minutes.
XXV. 450 _,, 0:0005 0-00011 Death in less than 2 hours and 50 minutes.
XXVI. AN? ,, 0-001 0:00024 Death in more than 2 hours and 28 minutes.
XXVII. 480 ,, 0-002 0:00041 Death in less than 1 hour 49 minutes.
XXVIII. 375 ,, 0:005 0:0013 Death in less than 2 hours 15 minutes.
XXIX. 477 ,, 0:01 0-002 Death in less than 1 hour 43 minutes.

* Trans. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. xxxv. part iv., 1890.

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 353

Taste XV.—Minimum-Lethal Dose of Strophanthin for Rabbits.

eae na, | mmx | of Acmal. Result.
XXX. | 3 Ibs. 15 oz. 0:002 0:0005 Recovery. Very slight effects.
XXXI. | 3 lbs. 0:005 0:0016 Recovery. Very slight effects.
XXXII. | 4 Ibs. 6 oz. 0-01 0:0022 Recovery. Slight effects.
XXXIIT. | 3 lbs. 0-01 0:0033 Death in 1 hour and 22 minutes.
XXXIV. | 3 lbs. 15 oz. 0-02 0:005 Death in 1 hour and 17 minutes.
XXXYV. | 3 lbs. 12 oz. 0:02 0:0052 Death in 1 hour.
XXXVI. | 4 Ibs. 12 oz. 0:05 0-01 Death in 27 minutes.

The above Tables (XIV. and XV.) show that, by subcutaneous injection, the mini-
mum-lethal dose of strophanthin is for frogs about 0°00005 grain, or epbooth of a grain,
per 100 grains of weight of frog, and for rabbits about 0°003 grain, or 3}3rd of a grain,
per pound of weight of rabbit. It is possible, however, that Experiment XXXIII. gives
rather too low a minimum-lethal dose, as the rabbit, although healthy, was not quite so
active and well-nourished as the others used in the series. Assuming that 0°0035 grain
rather than 00033 grain is the minimum-lethal dose per pound weight of rabbit, the
dose per 100 grains of rabbit would be 0:00005 grain, which is the same as the mini-
mum-lethal dose of strophanthin per 100 grains of frog (see Table XIV.).

This lethal activity places strophanthin among the most powerful of pharmacological
agents ; for it shows that when contrasted with the aconite alkaloids, strophanthin is in
frogs nearly three times more lethal than aconitine, and nearly ten times more lethal than
pseudo-aconitine ; although in mammals it is less lethal than either of these alkaloids.*

It is noteworthy that strophanthin is shown to be only a little more active than the
pure alcohol extract. This result, however, agrees with what has been stated regarding
the composition of such an extract (pp. 998, 999).

The details which follow of several of the experiments recorded in Tables XIV. and
XY., also show that the general pharmacological effects produced by strophanthin very
closely resemble those produced by the extract.

Experiment X X.—A frog, weighing 450 grains, received by subcutaneous injection
0000125 grain of strophanthin, dissolved in 2 minims of distilled water. No symptom
was observed until 1 hour 7 min. after the injection, when uneasy restless movements were
made, and the thoracic extremities became somewhat extended. The latter symptom
continued for 20 min., and then an entirely normal posture was assumed, and the frog
appeared to be perfectly well. It was observed for 24 hours, but no change from the

* These data are derived from a research made by the author several years ago on the aconite alkaloids, but not yet
published in detail.

354 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

normal occurred, and it was perfectly well also on the following day. During the
experiment the respiratory movements were quite natural, and their rate was from 22
to 24 per 10 sec.

Experiment XXIV.—0°00025 grain of strophanthin was injected under the skin of
a frog, weighing 460 grains. In 17 min., the frog was moving about restlessly. In 35
min., the respirations were 14 per 10 sec., and the frog was at rest in a normal posture,
In 45 min., the respirations were very irregular, the mouth was now and then widely
opened, the throat was retracted, and, when spontaneous jumps were made, the frog fell
on the back, but in a short time turned to a normal position. In 48 min., the thoracic
extremities were extended, and the “gaping” movements of the mouth were being
continued. In 53 min., a straiming or retching-lke movement occurred, involving the
abdomen and mouth. In 58 min., the respirations were very infrequent, as well as very
irregular ; and the extension of the thoracic extremities had given place to weakness, so
that they could no longer support the thorax, which now rested on the table. In 1
hour, the respirations had altogether ceased. In 1 hour 45 min., irritation of the skin
produced only slight reflexes, but no attempt to jump followed the irritation. The frog
now lay unresisting when placed on the back, and on careful examination no cardiae
impact could be seen. The skin was pale. In 2 hours 50 min., the frog was still
motionless and flaccid, but weak reflex movements could be obtained by irritating the
skin. On the following day, 23 hours after the administration, general and strong rigor
was present; galvanic stimulation of exposed nerves and muscles produced no effect;
the muscles were pale, hard, and acid in reaction ; and the heart was motionless and
non-contractile, with large and dark auricles and small and rather pale ventricle. The
general rigor continued for four days, but it was less pronounced on the fourth day,
when also decomposition had become obvious.

Experiment XX VI.—A frog, weighing 412 grains, received by subcutaneous injection
0°001 grain of strophanthin, dissolved in 2 minims of 0°75 per cent. saline. In 43 min.,
restless movements occurred, and the respirations were irregular, and 20 per 10 sec, In
55 min., the mouth was widely opened, straining-like movements were made, and the fore-
feet were occasionally rubbed over the muzzle. In 1 hour 11 min., the thoracic extremities
were extended, and the gaping movements of the mouth were continued. The respira-
tions had now ceased, and the throat and flanks were retracted. In 1 hour 26 min., the
thoracic extremities were still extended, but they now were also abnormally adducted,
apparently by contraction of the pectoral muscles. In 1 hour 30 min., the extension of
the thoracic extremities had ceased, and the chest rested on the taple. Fibrillary
twitches were seen at the flanks. When jumping movements were attempted they were
imperfectly performed, owing apparently to defective action of the thoracic extremities ;
and at the end of an imperfect jump the pelvic extremities failed to recover their usual
flexed position until after several minutes. In 2 hours 30 min., all spontaneous move-
ments had ceased, but irritation of any part of the skin still excited reflex contractions
of the pelvic extremities. On the following day, 24 hours after the administration, the

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 355

frog was in strong general rigor, with inexcitable, pale, hard, and acid muscles. The
ventricle of the heart was small and pale everywhere except at the apex, and the
auricles were dark and large.

Experiment XX VILI.—In this experiment a relatively large dose, viz., 0°005 grain
of strophanthin, was injected in solution under the skin of a frog weighing 375 grains,
whose respirations before the injection were 19 per 10 sec. In 15 min., the frog was
restless, and the respirations were 25 per 10 sec. and irregular. In 22 min., a constrained
posture was assumed, the thoracic extremities being extended, and the chest and head
being thereby abnormally elevated. The throat respirations were 13 for 10 sec. and
irregular, and only rarely did a thoracic respiratory movement occur. In 32 min., the
thoracic extremities had yielded, and the chest was now resting on the table. No
thoracic respiratory movements occurred, and those of the throat were only 3 per 10 see.
The mouth was frequently widely opened. In 41 min., respiratory movements ceased,
but in the following minute three throat respirations occurred, after which they finally
ceased. In 46 min., the frog spontaneously jumped, and then fell on the back, but very
soon recovered a normal attitude. In 50 min., another jump was made, and the frog
again landed on the back; and, after turning to the front, the thoracic extremities
remained for some time loosely extended at right angles to the body. In 1 hour 27
min., the head was resting on the table, and irritation of the skin produced fairly active
reflexes in the four limbs, but no attempt to jump. In 2 hours, the frog remained on the
back unable to turn. On examination, no cardiac impact could be distinguished ; and
irritation of the skin was followed by reflexes in the pelvic extremities only, the thoracic
extremities being now somewhat rigid. In 2 hours 30 min., the heart was exposed ; it
was motionless and non-contractile on irritation, and the ventricle was small and rather
pale. In 3 hours 10 min., the muscles of the arms and thighs were exposed ; they were
hard, and failed to contract with the strongest interrupted current from a DANIELL’s
cell and Du Bots Rrymonp’s coil, and their reaction was acid. On the following day,
general and strong rigor was present, and the auricles of the heart were large and dark
and the ventricle was small and pale. No congestion or other abnormal change could
be seen in the subcutaneous tissue where the injection had been made. Rigor continued
for other two days. The temperature of the laboratory varied between 61° and 64° F.
during the whole time of the experiment.

Haperiment XX XII.—In a rabbit weighing 4 lbs. 6 oz., the respirations were 14,
and the cardiac impacts 32, per 10 sec., before the injection under the skin of 0°01 grain
(=0'0022 erain per lb.) of strophanthin.

After the injection, in 10 min. the respirations were 15, and the cardiac impacts 30,
per 10 sec., and the rabbit was restless. In 22 min., the cardiac impacts were 29 per
10 sec. In 34 min., the respirations were 12, and the cardiac impacts 27, per 10 sec.
The rabbit was sitting in a normal attitude. In 50 min., the respirations were 17, and
the cardiac impacts 30, per 10 sec. In 1 hour 11 min., the rabbit seemed disinclined
to go about, but did so well when stimulated; the respirations were 18, and the cardiac

356 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

impacts 24, per 10 sec. In 1 hour 138 min., the respirations suddenly fell to 6 per 10 see.,
and their character became gasping, with laboured inspiration; and the thoracic
extremities were weak, and did not properly support the chest. In 1 hour 16 min., the
respiratory rate and characters and the other conditions remained as at last note; and
the cardiac impacts were 28 per 10 sec., strong, but irreeular in rhythm. In 1 hour
36 min., the respirations were 12, and the cardiac impacts 26, per 10 sec; and no other
symptom was observed than feebleness of the thoracic extremities, and disinclination to
move about. On the following day the rabbit was perfectly well.

Experiment XX XIII.—In a rabbit, weighing 3 lbs., the respirations were 26, and
the cardiac impacts 29, per 10 sec., and the pupils were of medium size. 0°01 grain of
strophanthin, dissolved in 20 minims of distilled water, was injected under the skin at the
right flank. In 7 min., the rabbit was restless, and the respirations were 21, and the
cardiac impacts 29, per 10 sec. In 15 min, restlessness was still manifested, the rabbit
sometimes lying down on the abdomen for a few seconds, and then rising and moving
about. In 21 min., the respirations were 20, and the cardiac impacts 25, per 10 sec. In
31 min., the respirations were 28 per 10 sec. and laboured, and the cardiac impacts 29 per
10 sec., and stronger than before. The rabbit appeared distressed, and stood with the
limbs somewhat extended. In 50 min., the thoracic extremities appeared weak, and the
thorax rested on the table. The respirations were 22, and the cardiac impacts 34, per
10sec. A large quantity of urine was passed, and the peristaltic movements of the intes-
tines became distinctly visible. In 1 hour 5 min., the rabbit had difficulty in moving
about, chiefly due to weakness of the thoracic extremities, and often the head sank
oradually, and was suddenly raised. In 1 hour 8 min., the chin rested on the table,
the pupils were dilated, and the respirations were 25, and the cardiac impacts 36, per 10
sec. In 1 hour 10 min., one side of the head was frequently rested on the table;
the back was no longer arched ; a general flaccid or limp state existed ; fibrillary twitches
occurred over the whole body ; and the respirations were 15, and the cardiac impacts 34,
per 10 sec. In 1 hour 13 min., the respirations were 13, and the cardiac impacts 30,
per 10 sec., and a little more urine was voided. In 1 hour 14 min., the rabbit was lying
on the side entirely flaccid, and remained in any position in which it was placed. The
respirations were shallow, and yet laboured and abrupt. In 1 hour 17 min, the
respirations were 9, and the cardiac impacts 10, per 10 sec., and the latter were irregular.
In 1 hour 20 min., the pupils were dilated, and the cornea and conjunctiva sensitive.
The rabbit still lay on the side perfectly flaccid. No cardiac impacts could be felt, but
the respirations were 10 per 10 sec. very shallow, abrupt, and irregular. In 1 hour
22 min., a few weak twitches of the body and limbs occurred, the eyeballs became
prominent (exophthalmos), the pupils dilated further, and the cornea was insensitive.
No further respiratory movements occurred.

After death, at 6 min., the heart having been exposed, the ventricles were found to
have ceased contracting except at their bases; but minute fibrillary twitches were
occurring on the surface of each ventricle, and especially of the left, and they continued

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 357

in this ventricle for thirty minutes. At 21 min. after death, even strong galvanic
stimulation, applied to the sciatic nerve or the gluteal muscles, failed to produce any
effect, and the pupils were no longer dilated. At 26 min. after death, with the excep-
tion of the fibrillary twitches, the heart was motionless; slight irritation, however,
was followed by a faint contraction of one or other of the auricles, but the ventricles
remained motionless. Intestinal peristalsis still continued.

Experiment XXX V.—In a rabbit, weighing 3 lbs. 12 oz., before the administration
of strophanthin, the respirations were 20, and the cardiac impacts 29, per 10 sec., and the
pupils measured }$ths of an inch in diameter. 0°02 grain of strophanthin, dissolved in
4 minims of distilled water, was injected under the skin at the left flank. In 4 min., the
rabbit became restless, and the respirations were 26, and the cardiac impacts 31, per 10 sec.
In 10 min., restless movements continued, and the respirations were 20, and the cardiac
impacts 24, per 10 sec. In 20 min., spontaneous fibrillary twitches of muscles were
observed at the flanks; and the respirations were 25, and the cardiac impacts 24, per 10
sec. In 22 min., frequent movements of the mouth occurred, as if the rabbit were rapidly
chewing. In 26 min., the respirations were 20, and the cardiac impacts 24, per 10 sec.
Expiration was now abrupt, and the pupils measured 4¢ths of an inch. For some
minutes the rabbit had been sitting quietly in a normal posture. In 35 min., the twitches
had become more general and stronger, and, especially in the gluteal muscles, each twitch
involved more of the muscle than formerly. Expiration continued abrupt, and the
respirations were 21, and the cardiac impacts 28, per 10sec. In 45 min., the neck muscles
had become weak, and the head was frequently rested on the table. Whenever an
attempt was made to raise the head, a number of tremors of the head, and even of the
shoulders and thoracic extremities, were excited. In 50 min., the respirations were 9,
and the cardiac impacts 22, per 10 sec., and the pupils measured }2ths of an inch. In
42 min., after some general tremors, the rabbit rested on the side; some dry fecal pellets
were passed; the conjunctiva and cornea were still sensitive; and the pupils measured
T4ths of an inch. In 53 min., the respirations, still laboured and shallow, were 11, and
the cardiac impacts, now very weak, were 12, per 10 sec. In 56 min., the respirations
occurred only at long intervals, and were very shallow, and the cardiac impacts were
weak and irregular, and at the rate of 6 per 10 sec. The pupils measured }2ths of an
inch. Occasional tremulous movements occurred in the thoracic extremities, with local
spasms in the lumbar region, frequently involving the pelvic extremities, and apparently
caused by exceptionally strong and large twitches of the muscles. In the intervals the
rabbit lay flaccid on the side. In 59 min., the conjunctiva and cornea were insensitive ;
the pupils measured 3ths of an inch; weak and scarcely distinguishable cardiac impacts
appeared to be occurring at the rate of 4 per 10 sec.; a few twitches occurred at the
mouth ; and respiration altogether ceased, and the rabbit lay motionless and flaccid on
the side. In 60 min., the pupils measured 4$ths of an inch.

After death, at 5 min., the exposed heart was found to be feebly and irregularly
contracting, with twitch-like movements, at the rate of 5 per 10 sec. ; but at 6 min. after

358 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

death, these spontaneous movements had altogether ceased, although they could be excited
by touching the heart 18 min. after death. At 7 min. after death, intestinal peristalsis
was active. At 23 min., strong galvanic stimulation of the right sciatic nerve produced
no effect; but the gluteal muscles contracted feebly when directly stimulated with
interrupted galvanic currents of moderate strength. At 35 min. after death, the right
elutea] muscles no longer contracted, even with the most powerful galvanic stimuli; but
the freshly-exposed left gluteal muscles pitted slightly between the electrodes with the
secondary coil at 50 mm. At this time, sections were made into the gluteal muscles and
test-papers inserted, and blue litmus-paper was distinctly reddened. After tying the
cardiae vessels the heart was removed, and its ventricles separately opened ; the right
contained much blood, the left only a small quantity. The kidneys, spleen, liver, and
lungs were removed for microscopic examination. At 40 min. after death, general, though
not strong, rigor was present.

The microscopic examination of the removed viscera failed to show any congestion or
other morbid change.

Experiment XXX VI.—In a rabbit, weighing 4 Ibs. 12 0z., the respirations were 30,
and the cardiac impacts 35, per 10 sec., and the right pupil measured 32x }§ths of an
inch, immediately before the administration of strophanthin. 0°05 grain of strophanthin,
dissolved in 10 minims of distilled water, was injected under the skin at the left flank. In
6 min., the rabbit was restless, and constant minute fibrillary twitches were occurring
at both flanks. In 7 min., the respirations were 25, and the cardiac impacts 20, per 10
sec. In 10 min., the respirations were 16, and the cardiac impacts 12, per 10 sec., and
the latter had become irregular. In 11 min., the thoracic extremities were somewhat
extended ; the respirations, and especially the inspirations, were laboured ; and the right
pupil measured 3§x4éths of an inch. In 15 min., the respirations, retaining the
characters last noted, were 6, and the cardiac impacts, which were weak, were 11, per
10 sec. The rabbit was sitting quietly, with the body rather extended. In 17 min,
the respirations were 7, and the cardiac impacts 11, per 10 sec., but the latter were so
weak that the rate could not accurately be determined. Incessant fibrillary twitches
were occurring all over the body, and when any movement was attempted rapid tremors
occurred in the head and shoulders. In 19 min., the head drooped and often rested on
the table, the fore-limbs began to yield, and when efforts were made to gain a normal
posture, tremors of the head, shoulders, and thoracic extremities were started. In 21
min., the respirations were 6, and the cardiac impacts 7, per 10 sec. The rabbit was
quiet, with the exception of fibrillary twitches, and lay extended flaccid on the abdomen
and thorax, with the side of the head resting on the table. In 24 min., the respirations
were very infrequent, shallow, and at irregular intervals, and intestinal peristalsis was
very marked through the abdominal walls. In 25 min., spasms occurred in the legs, the
rabbit lay on the side, and shivering-like tremors passed over the body. The respirations
were 4 per 10 sec., but no cardiac impact could be felt, and the pupils measured }¢ x $$ths
of an inch. In 27 min., a few gasping-like shallow respirations occurred, and then

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 309

respiration finally ceased; the pupils measured }§ x $$ths of an inch; and the eyeballs
were insensitive.

One min. after death, the exposed heart was found to be motionless; but when
touched, feeble twitches occurred of all the chambers, and continued for about 2 min.
The large abdominal veins appeared to be distended; but the lungs did not exhibit
any appearance of congestion. Fifty min. after death, the heart was removed after its
vessels had been tied: the auricles and right ventricle contained much blood; the left
ventricle was hard and small, and contained only a little blood; and blue litmus-paper
inserted into a section of the wall of the left ventricle soon became distinctly reddened.
Eleven min. after death, strong galvanic stimulus (secondary of Du Bots’ coil at 50) of
the sciatic nerve was required to cause even faint movements, which were restricted to
the toes, and to cause even slight contractions of the gluteal muscles when directly
applied to them; but at 33 min. after death, the strongest galvanic stimulus produced
no contraction when directly applied to freshly-exposed thigh muscles, and the muscles
were then stiff and hard, and acid in reaction. At 11 min. after death, the pupils had
contracted to 2% x ssths of an inch, but they afterwards gradually dilated, so that at 55
min. after death they measured 3% x}%ths of an inch. After tying the communicating
blood-vessels, the kidneys were removed to be hardened in MU.zEr’s fluid for microscopic
examination.

These organs, as well as those removed from the rabbit used in the previous experi-
ment, were examined for me by Dr Bruce, Pathologist to the Royal Infirmary. His
report confirms the opinion I had arrived at, that no evidence of congestion could be
obtained by microscopic examination.

Summary of General Effects in Frogs.—It appears from the above experiments that
when a moderately large lethal dose of Strophanthus, whether in the form of an alcohol
extract or of the active principle, strophanthin, is given to a frog, the chief effects that
follow are :—Manifestations of uneasiness, which may be the only symptoms observable
for many minutes. The mouth is soon repeatedly opened, and, occasionally, the fore-feet
are rubbed over the muzzle or even thrust into the mouth, and retching or straining-
like movements take place. The thoracic extremities become unduly extended, and
remain so for a long period, and, occasionally, they are also adducted by tonic contraction
of the pectoral muscles. The respiratory movements become slow and very irregular,
series of movements alternating with pauses of varying duration; and, by and by,
they altogether cease, the respiratory movements of the flanks ceasing before those of
the throat. Muscular weakness occurs, and is first distinctly manifested in the thoracic
extremities, which fail to support the head and thorax. Spontaneous fibrillary twitches
appear, at first at long intervals, and near the part where the subcutaneous injection
has been made, and, by and by, unceasingly over the whole body; but they rarely
continue for a long period, and they always remain minute and insufficient to produce
spasms. Pallor of the skin supervenes. Jumping is effected with difficulty ; sometimes
delay is observed in the flexing of the limbs aftera jump; then, each jump lands the

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 16). 3K

360 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

frog on the back, and although, at first, the frog is able, after a little delay, to turn,
it afterwards cannot do so, and remains motionless on the back. If the oppor-
tunity given by the condition of paralysis be taken advantage of to examine the
precordial region, the most careful examination fails to discover any cardiac impact.
Reflex movements are yet obtained, but, by and by, they also disappear, and nearly
simultaneously with their disappearance, or soon thereafter, stimulation of a motor nerve
or of a muscle is not followed by any muscular contraction. If the heart be now
exposed, it is generally found to be altogether motionless; but in some of the experi-
ments with such doses as are here referred to, both or one of the auricles, or the sinus
venosus only, were still contracting. The ventricle is small, and either entirely pale or
mottled, and the auricles are large and dark. When altogether motionless, the heart
fails to respond to galvanic or other stimulation; and its muscular substance, in a short
time, acquires an acid reaction. The skeletal muscles also soon become hard and
acid ; and general rigor sets in at an unusually early period after death. ?

Summary of General Effects im Rabbits —When a similar lethal dose is given to a
rabbit, restless movements also at first occur. Ina short time, fibrillary twitches are seen ;
at first, in the region of injection and at long intervals; but, afterwards, over the whole
surface of the animal, incessantly, and with increasing coarseness and strength, so that
even spasmodic contractions may be produced in the hmbs. The rate of the respiratory
movements is diminished. Expiration acquires an abrupt character, the respirations then
become shallow and irregular, and inspiration as well as expiration is brief and abrupt.
The heart’s action also becomes reduced in frequency and strength, but the changes that
occur cannot be well appreciated. Bye and bye, the thoracic extremities assume a
position of continuous extension, but they soon become feeble, and their weakness as well
as that of the neck and other muscles allows the head every now and then to sink to the
table, until it can no longer be raised, and the head and thorax rest on the table. The
arching of the back afterwards yields, and soon the animal lies quietly extended on the
side. This quietness, associated with very infrequent and shallow respirations, and with
‘slow and feeble cardiac impacts, is, after a time, interrupted by a few spasms, generally
of the head and limbs only, but sometimes of the trunk also; the pupils, which had
previously become slightly contracted, now widely dilate; the eyeball becomes insensi-
tive; and death occurs. In only a few experiments were the bowels and_ bladder
evacuated before death.

After death, the pupils at first become smaller and they afterwards again dilate. If
the heart be exposed immediately after death, it is found, apparently in accordance with
the dose, either to be contracting feebly or to be at complete standstill. In the
latter case, one contraction or a number of successive contractions follow each mechanical
or galvanic stimulation ; but soon the heart ceases to respond to stimulation, and in a
short time its muscle is found to be acid in reaction. Very rarely spontaneous fibrillary
twitches of the heart’s muscle have been observed. The right side of the heart is usually
distended with blood, and, especially with large lethal doses, the left ventricle contains

~~

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 361

but little blood. For several minutes after death, galvanic stimulation of a motor nerve
usually causes contractions of the muscles supplied by the nerve; but in several experi-
ments it failed to do so. Almost without exception, it was found that the muscles are
contractile for a short time after death; they, however, soon become non-contractile,
hard, and acid in reaction, and general rigor is not only established very soon after death,
but it persists for an unusually long period.

Neither in frogs nor in rabbits has any distinct effect on secretion been observed
after single lethal or non-lethal doses, except occasionally in frogs an increase of the
skin secretion.

The details of the foregoing experiments, as well as the summary that has been
given of the symptoms and post-mortem conditions observed in them, render it
obvious that Strophanthus acts upon the heart and the skeletal muscles, and they
suggest, without rendering it unambiguous, that a direct action may also be exerted
upon respiration and upon several parts of the cerebro-spinal nervous system. In order
to determine whether the latter are directly affected, and to discover also the nature of
the action on each of the chief functions and structures that are acted upon, further
experiments, however, are required.

B. AcTION ON THE CEREBRO-SPINAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.

Brain.

In the experiments designed to exhibit the general action of Strophanthus, no
symptom was observed that suggested a direct action on the brain; nor was any
symptom discovered when experiments were made for the special purpose of revealing
such an action. The two following may be quoted.

Experiment XX X VII.—Having ligatured the right and left aorta immediately
above their function to form the abdominal aorta, and the right aorta close to the
heart, in a frog weighing 526 grains, 0°0025 grain of extract of Strophanthus was
injected into the left aorta. In 17 min., the reflexes were still active, and the posture
normal. In 30 min., opening of the mouth occurred, and was repeated several times
during the following 15 min. In 47 min., the reflexes and attitude were normal, and
the frog continued to move about well. In 1 hour 20 min., the reflexes were yet
normal, but the frog was on the abdomen, thorax, and head, and no longer moved
about. In 1 hour 50 min., the reflexes had altogether ceased.

Experiment X XX VITI.— After the abdominal aorta and the right aorta of a frog,
weighing 487 grains, had been ligatured, 0°001 grain of extract of Strophanthus
was injected into the left aorta. During the following 15 min., the reflexes,
attitude, and spontaneous movements of the frog remained normal. Another injec-
tion of 0°001 grain of extract of Strophanthus was now made. During the following 30
min., the spontaneous: movements and reflexes remained normal, except that the

362 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

latter were weaker than originally. In 35 min. after the second injection, the reflexes
were decidedly weakened, and spontaneous movements had ceased. In 1 hour after
the second injection, reflexes could be obtained only when strong stimulation was
applied. The condition was the same 30 min. afterwards.

These two experiments show that the injection of Strophanthus into the blood-
vessels leading directly to the brain and cord is not followed by any evidence of an
action on the brain. They, as well as many of the experiments previously described,
however, suggest that the reflex function of the cord may be directly affected; for
in Experiment XXXVII. this function disappeared in less than 2 hours after the
injection ; and in Experiment XXXVIII. it had become much enfeebled in 1 hour and
45 min. after the first injection.

Medulla.

The action on the cord is further displayed in the three succeeding experiments.

Experiment XXXIX.—A_ frog, weighing 305 grains, received 0°05 grain of
extract by subcutaneous injection. In 36 min., a normal sitting posture was retained,
and the frog jumped well when irritated. In 1 hour 5 min., the frog was lying on
the abdomen, chest, and head, and, although unable to jump, irritation caused active
reflexes in the two pelvic extremities. In 2 hours 35 min., reflexes could no longer
be obtained even with strong irritation. A sciatic nerve was exposed, and when
stimulated by weak galvanism, contractions occurred in the limb supplied by the
nerve, but not elsewhere. A feeble galvanic stimulus was then passed through the
upper part of the cord, and it produced active movements in both pelvic extremities.

Experiment XLI.—In a frog, weighing 188 grains, a ligature was tied round the
right thigh, excluding the sciatic nerve. Three min. afterwards, 0°1 grain of
extract of Strophanthus was injected under the skin at the left flank. In 1 hour
35 min., the reflexes in both pelvic extremities were sluggish. In 2 hours, even
strong mechanical or galvanic stimulation failed to excite any reflex movement im
the non-poisoned (left) pelvic extremity as well as elsewhere, but slight stimuli applied
to either sciatic nerve still caused movements in the limb supplied by the nerve,
which were, however, much stronger in the non-poisoned than in the poisoned limb,
In 2 hours 10 min., the muscles of the thoracic extremities failed to contract when
directly galvanised, and a cut section of these muscles was found to be acid in re-
action. In 2 hours 15 min., galvanism of the left (poisoned) sciatic nerve failed to produce
any contraction, and the exposed muscles of the left thigh were found to be acid in
reaction, hard and pale. Even feeble galvanic stimuli, when applied to the right
(non-poisoned) sciatic nerve, still caused active contractions of the right pelvic extremity ;
and when applied to the upper part of the spinal cord, contractions also occurred in the
right pelvic extremity. On the following day, marked rigor existed everywhere except
in the right pelvic extremity ; the right sciatic nerve was now inactive; but the muscles
of the right pelvic extremity contracted when directly galvanised.

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 363

Experiment XLI.—In a frog, weighing 350 grains, a ligature was tied round the
structures of the right thigh, excepting the trunk of the right sciatic nerve. 0°1 grain of
extract of Strophanthus was injected under the skin at the left flank. In 50 min.,
the voluntary movements were feeble, and respiration very irregular and infrequent.
In 1 hour 5 min., nearly constant fibrillary twitches were occurring in the left (poisoned)
thigh. In 1 hour 16 min, slight irritation, anywhere applied, caused a series of
movements in the body and four extremities, but these movements were more active in
the right (non-poisoned) pelvic extremity than in the left. In 2 hours 35 min., mechani-
eal or galvanic stimuli, anywhere applied, failed to cause any reflex movements; but
when a galvanic current was passed through the upper part of the cord, contraction
occurred in the right (non-poisoned) as well as in the left (poisoned) pelvic extremity.
In 2 hours 50 min., each pelvic extremity still contracted when its nerve was stimu-
lated. In 3 hours 20 min., however, the left (poisoned) pelvic extremity no longer
contracted when its nerve was stimulated, although active movements still occurred in
the right (non-poisoned) pelvic extremity on stimulation of the right sciatic nerve above
the position of the ligature, or on stimulation of the spinal cord. The muscles of the
left thigh and calf and of the thoracic extremities were exposed, and it was found that
they no longer contracted when directly stimulated, and that cut sections of these
muscles had an acid reaction. In 4 hours, the right sciatic nerve and the muscles of the
right (non-poisoned) pelvic extremity were still active and responded to stimulation ; but
rigor was present in all other parts of the body, being strongest in the thorax and its
extremities.

It therefore appears that the reflex function of the spinal cord is destroyed before the
motor columns of the cord fail to conduct impressions, and also before the motor nerves
and the skeletal muscles have lost their activity. IfStrophanthus acts directly upon the
cord, the action is thus limited to the reflex cells or the sensory or afferent fibres con-
nected with them. An action on the latter, sufficient to explain the loss of reflex
function, is rendered improbable by the circumstance that, in a tied limb, stimulation of
a sensory (non-poisoned) nerve-trunk or of its peripheral extremitics does not fail to
cause reflex movements until stimulation of the poisoned sensory nerves also fails to do
so, the motor nerves and the muscles in the poisoned as well as in the non-poisoned
regions being still active.

It is, however, premature to conclude from these data alone that Strophanthus
paralyses the reflex apparatus of the cord by a direct and primary action. It has been
stated in many of the preceding experiments that the heart early ceases to contract, and
it is necessary to determine if this standstill of the heart is sufficient to account for the
paralysis of the spinal reflex function. The time-relation between the two events is
indicated in the following experiments.

Experiment XLII.—A ligature was tied round the upper part of the right thigh,
excluding the sciatic nerve, of a frog weighing 320 grains. The heart was exposed, and
it was found that its contractions were regular, and at the rate of 14 per 30 sec.

364 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

01 grain of extract was then injected under the skin of the left Hank. In 9 min. after
the injection, the heart’s ventricle was motionless, small, and pale, the contractions having
previously been imperfect, only portions of the ventricle having dilated during diastole.
In 28 min., the auricles had also ceased to contract, but the frog was still able to jump.
In 1 hour 42 min.—that is, in 1 hour 33 min. after the ventricle had ceased to con-
tract—irritation of the skin anywhere caused pretty active reflexes in the two pelvic
extremities, though none in the thoracic extremities, which already were slightly rigid.
In 2 hours 7 min., however—or 1 hour 58 min. after the ventricle had ceased to contract
—neither mechanical nor galvanic stimulation was able to produce reflex movements in
either (poisoned or non-poisoned) pelvic extremity or elsewhere. Both sciatic nerves
were as yet active, and contractions of each extremity could be caused by stimulating
the sciatic nerve supplied to it.

In other four experiments, in which the heart had been exposed previously to the
subeutaneous injection of extract of Strophanthus, it was found that the intervals which
elapsed between standstill of the ventricle and loss of reflex function were 1 hour 13 min.,
1 hour 26 min., 1 hour 25 min., and 1 hour 8 min. It must be admitted that the blood
supply of the cord would become insufficient at some period before the heart’s ventricle
had been brought to complete standstill; but no important addition can on that account
be made to the interval of time elapsing between the two events, as in all the experi-
ments referred to the ventricular paralysis occurred in less than ten minutes after the
administration of Strophanthus.

In order to determine how soon after mere stagnation of the circulation the reflex
function of the cord is destroyed, the heart of a frog was ligatured at.its base, and it was
found that the spinal reflex function had not disappeared at the end of three hours.*
The inference appears warranted that Strophanthus paralyses the reflex function of the
spinal cord by a direct and primary action, although this action, relatively to others that
are produced by Strophanthus, is but slight and unimportant.

Sensory or Afferent Nerves.

The circumstances, already described (pp. 362-3) and illustrated (Experiments XL.,
XLI, and XLII.), that when Strophanthus is administered to a frog having one limb
protected from its contact action, stimulation of this nerve-trunk or of any part of the
protected limb does not cause reflex movements after stimulation of nerve-trunks, or of
other parts to which Strophanthus had direct access had ceased to do so, are sufticient to
indicate that no general or powerful action is exerted upon sensory or afferent nerve fibres.
As a more concentrated contact might, nevertheless, be capable of disordering the normal
conditions of these nerve fibres, several experiments were made in which such contact was
effected with both the nerve-trunk and its peripheral terminations.

* During this experiment the temperature of the laboratory was nearly the same as during the immediately fore-
going experiments.

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 365

Experiment X LIII.—In a large frog (Rana esculenta) the cord was divided between
the occiput and atlas, and the brain destroyed. A ligature was passed beneath the left
sciatic nerve, and then tied round the upper part of the thigh close to the pelvis. The
isolated sciatic nerve was divided at the knee, and the limb was amputated immediately
below the ligature encircling it. A considerable length of nerve, retaining its connection
with the spinal cord, was thus obtained. After having been immersed in 0°75 per cent.
saline for ten minutes, the nerve was stimulated by opening shocks from a Dv Bots
REYMOND’S induction apparatus attached to a DanreLt’s cell, and the minimal shocks
required to produce reflex contractions were ascertained. About half an inch of the ter-
minal portion of the nerve-trunk was then immersed in a solution of 1 part of strophan-
thin in 2500 parts of 0°75 per cent. saline, and the minimal shocks required to excite
reflex contractions were from time to time again determined. The results were as
follows :—

In normal saline—

Secondary coil at, . : : : d 140 mm. : ; 2 reflex.
5 5 : : ; ; ; WO) : : ; reflex.
, 3 s , ; : : 160 _,, : : : reflex.
- " ; : : : : GO 55 2 ie ee no reflex.

In strophanthin solution—

After 0 hr. 12 min., : 3 : : 170 mm. : : : no reflex.
= - be INO) ; L : faint reflex.
es » 2 min,, . : 3 : , LON ss 4 : ; faint reflex.
yo Wave Banoo : F : : WiO” 5 : 5 : no reflex.
a és : : f : : 160 _,, : : : no reflex.
ns x ey : 4 : E : 150 _,, : ; : faint reflex.
- { is . : ; F ; TAQ. F E : reflex.

Immersion for more than an hour of a nerve-trunk containing sensory fibres in a
moderately strong solution of strophanthin does not appear therefore to impair, to any
material extent, the conducting power of the sensory or afferent nerve fibres. This test,
as well as those indicated in the experiments that have been referred to, are not, however,
sufficiently delicate, and slight reductions in sensory excitability or conduction might
_ be overlooked if they alone were trusted to. The effect following the application of
Strophanthus to the highly sensitive surface of the eyeball was accordingly, in the next
place, examined.

Expervment XLIV.—A slight touch with the point of a blunt stylette of the con-
jJunctiva or cornea of either eyeball of a rabbit having been found to produce reflex
closing of the eyelids, 00025 grain of strophanthin, dissolved in half a minim of water,
was placed on the left eyeball. In 18 min., no reflex occurred when the left eyeball was
touched with the stylette, whether gently or with some force; but the right eyeball
responded as acutely to gentle touches as before the application. This condition of anzes-

366 DR THOMAS R, FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

thesia of the surface of the left eyeball continued for 25 min. In other 10 min., although
no reflex followed gentle touches, moderately strong touches were followed by closing of
the left eyelids; and in other 40 min., or 1 hour and 43 min. after the application of
Strophanthus, the left eyeball was as sensitive to gentle touches as it originally had been.
The pupils remained of equal size throughout the experiment.

Experiment XLV.—At 9 min. after the application to the surface of the right eye-
ball of a rabbit of 0°005 grain of strophanthin, dissolved in 1 minim of water, the reflexes
of the eyelids were unaffected. At 18 min., however, the right cornea and conjunctiva
were quite insensitive to gentle and moderately strong touches. This insensibility,
restricted to the right eyeball, continued for 48 min. In other 12 min. the surface of
the right eyeball had slightly recovered its sensibility ; but complete recovery of it was
only slowly attained, and did not occur until 3 hours and 30 min. after the application,
or 3 hours and 12 min. after the production of complete tactile insensibility.

Experiment XLVI—Having ascertained in a rabbit that the pupils of both eyes
were equal and moderately diluted (28th of an inch), and that the tactile sensibility was
acute, 0°01 grain of strophanthin, dissolved in 2 minims of water, was placed upon the
right eyeball. In 10 min., the surface of the right eyeball continued to be as sensitive as
originally. In 14 min., gentle touches of this eyeball produced no effect, but stronger
touches were followed by closing of the eyelids. In 21 min., the right eyelids no longer
closed when the cornea or conjunctiva was touched with moderate force ; and the pupils
were equal, and 3$ths of an inch in diameter. In 1 hour 20 min., the surface of the
right eyeball was still quite insensitive ; and now the right pupil was contracted to }$ths
of an inch, the left remaining as before 2¢ths. This insensibility of the surface of the
right eyeball, with moderate contraction of its pupils, lasted altogether for 2 hours and
15 min. ; and even during the following 1 hour and 15 min., the tactile sensibility of the
right eyeball was distinctly less acute than that of the left, and the right pupil was
smaller than the left.

Experiment XILVII.—Before applying 0°02 grain of strophanthin, dissolved in 2
minims of water, to the left eyeball of a rabbit, it was ascertained that the surface of each
eyeball was normally sensitive to touch, and that each pupil measured }ths of an inch.
In 18 min. after the application, the eyelids of the left eye no longer closed when the
eye was pretty forcibly touched with the point of a blunt stylette; and the left pupil
measured 32ths and the right }$ths of an inch. This condition of absence of tactile
sensibility and of moderate contraction of the pupil continued in the left eye for at least
3 hours and 35 min. Latterly, the sensibility of the right eyeball seemed also to he
slightly blunted. On the following day, 22 hours after the application, the surface of
the left eyeball was still slightly less sensitive than that of the right; but both pupils
were equal and measured 3$th of an inch.

These observations show that in rabbits the corneal and conjunctival sensibility to.
touch is distinctly reduced when strophanthin is applied to the surface of the eyeball,
and, therefore, that this substance exerts a paralysing action on the sensory or afferent

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 367

nerves. It has incidentally been shown, also, that, by local application, Strophanthus
produces moderate contraction of the pupil—an effect which has already been described
among those observed during the lethal action of Strophanthus when it is administered
by subcutaneous injection. Contraction of the pupil, however, was produced only by
the larger quantities (0°01 and 0°02 grain) that were applied; but not by so small
quantities as 0°002, 0:0025, and 0°005 grain, although the latter were sufficient to lessen
the tactile sensibility. No distinct vascular change was observed in these experiments,
nor was there any other evidence of irritation than repeated closing of the eyelids, soon
after the application had been made.

As paralysis of the sensibility of the eyeball, associated with contraction of the pupil,
would be in some special respects of value in ophthalmic practice, it appeared desirable
to extend the observations to the human eye. This has been done for me by my friend,
Dr Gzorce Mackay, Assistant Ophthalmic Surgeon to the Royal Infirmary; but the
results did not indicate that Strophanthus could be usefully employed in ophthalmic
practice. When such quantities as 0°003, 0:005, and 0°01 grain of strophanthin, dis-
solved in water, were applied to the surface of the human eyeball, only slight and
transient blunting of sensibility was produced, and the blunting was accompanied with
disagreeable irritative sensations in the eye, especially at its inner canthus, and with a
bitter taste in the mouth. No effect was observed on vision, accommodation, or intra-
ocular tension.

Motor Nerves.

In the description of some of the foregoing experiments on frogs (Experiments XL.
and XLI.), in which a limb or its blood-vessels had been ligatured before the adminis-
tration of Strophanthus, and had thus been protected from its direct action, it has been
stated that stimulation of the nerve-trunk of that limb, even above the point of ligature,
produced contractions of the ligatured limb for a longer period than stimulation of the
nerve-trunk of the non-ligatured limb did so in the limb supplied by it. Thus, in
Experiment XLI., stimulation of the nerve-trunk of the right (ligatured) pelvic ex-
tremity continued to produce contractions in the limb supplied by it, for at least forty
minutes after stimulation of the nerve-trunk of the left (non-ligatured) pelvic extremity
had failed to excite contraction in the left pelvic extremity.

This difference is also illustrated, along with some other effects, in the following
experiment.

Experiment XLVIII.—After a ligature had been tied round the structures of the
right thigh, excluding the sciatic nerve, of an average-sized frog, 0°1 grain of extract of
Strophanthus was injected under the skin of the left flank. In 2 hours after the adminis-
tration, the reflexes were entirely abolished; but galvanic stimulation of either sciatic
nerve still produced contractions in the limb supplied by it, which were more active and
more easily excited in the right (ligatured) pelvic extremity than in the left (non-
ligatured). In 2 hours 15 min., however, galvanism of the left (non-ligatured) sciatic

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 16). 3

3638 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

nerve no longer produced any contraction; but it was also found that direct galvanic
stimulation of the exposed muscles of this (left) thigh and calf was not followed by any
contraction of the muscles stimulated. For at least an hour longer, stimulation of the
right sciatic nerve, and even of the spinal cord, produced well-marked contractions of the —
right (ligatured) pelvic extremity, but none elsewhere. At the end of this time, all the
muscles to which Strophanthus had direct access were rigid and acid in reaction. On the
following day, 25 hours after the administration of Strophanthus, the right sciatic nerve
was no longer able to conduct motor impressions ; but the muscles of the right pelvic
extremity still contracted, though feebly, when they were directly stimulated, and, in
contrast with the muscles in every other part of the body, they were non-rigid and
alkaline in reaction.

This experiment, as well as others already described, shows that if a direct action be
exerted on motor nerves, the part acted upon is not the nerve-trunk, but the peripheral
terminations in the muscles. The experiment further shows that in the regions to which
Strophanthus was conveyed by the blood-stream, not only do the motor nerves become
unable to produce contractions of the muscles, but also that the muscles lose their
contractility at about the same time as the motor nerves fail to excite muscular
contractions on being stimulated.

Further, complete paralysis of the muscles was preceded by their enfeeblement,
rapidly increasing until complete paralysis occurred ; and this enfeeblement might alone
be a cause, before complete muscle-paralysis had been produced, of the inability of the
motor nerves to excite contractions.

It is, therefore, difficult to decide by such experiments as have as yet been described
whether Strophanthus actually paralyses the motor nerve terminations.

Other experiments were accordingly made for the purpose of determining this point.

Experiment X LIX.—To a frog, weighing 410 grains, 0°004 grain of extract of Stro-
phanthus was administered by subcutaneous injection. In 8 min., the anterior extremities
were maintained in an unduly extended position. In 48 min., the frog was resting on
the abdomen and thorax, respiratory movements had ceased, the pupils were contracted,
and spontaneous fibrillary twitches were occurring over the back. In 51 min., the frog
remained on the back, after a little resistance, and no cardiac impulse could be seen.
In 1 hour and 16 min., the fibrillary twitches had almost ceased, and reflex movements
could no longer be excited by irritation of the skin, even when severe. ‘The left sciatic
nerve and thigh muscles were now exposed, and from time to time stimulated by an
interrupted galvanic current. The minimal stimulations required to cause contraction,
when applied to nerve and muscle respectively, are recorded below :—

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 369

Mm. of Secondary Coil.

Time. —— Effect of Stimulus,
Nerve. Muscle.
Inl hour 19 min., . . 340 e No reflex, only faint movement
of left leg.
a 20 ,, : sii 130 Only faint contraction.
ah) Oe yg? ¢ 340 130 Only faint contraction.
ays, Oras + 5 : 340 70 Only faint contraction ; 70 applied

to the back, near the head, caused
faint movements of both legs.
meamours 9 , . . 300 =e Faint movement of toes of left leg,
and, even when the secondary
was at 0, the movements were
equally faint.

me sy He : ns No movement at 0. | This strong current, when applied
to the thigh muscles, however,
produced faint twitches of one
toe, obviously because of conduc-
tion to the trunk of the sciatic
nerve; and a current of 70,
applied to the back, produced
the same effect.

ee 55 SOM ats ; 100 Se Very faint of one left toe, and no
greater effect when the nerve was
stimulated with the secondary
at 0.

The muscles of the thighs and legs, and also of thorax and thoracic extremities, were
now distinctly hard, and faintly acid in reaction. They were carefully removed from
the body, placed immediately in absolute alcohol, cut into small portions, and macerated
for several hours in the alcohol. The extract obtained by the evaporation of the filtered
alcohol was then mixed with a little distilled water, and on filtration a nearly colourless
acid fluid was obtained. When this fluid was tested with UrrELMANN’s carbolic acid and
iron reagent, the violet colour of the reagent was immediately changed to a pale yellow.
Lactic acid in considerable amount was thus indicated to be present in the muscles; but
no attempt was made to determine the amount.

Although these experiments, on the whole, indicate that in frogs Strophanthus
produces paralysis, in so far as motor nerves and muscles are implicated, by an action
on the muscles rather than on the motor nerves, and that the marked impairment and
the final loss of the power of the motor nerves to produce contraction of muscles is due
to an action on the muscles rather than on the nerves, it might still be the case that the
motor nerves themselves have their conductivity lessened and even destroyed by
Strophanthus, for the detection of such an action was necessarily rendered difficult, if
not impossible, by the rapidly advancing paralysis of the muscles.

The appreciation of a paralysing action on motor nerves would be possible only if,
by some means, the muscle-action were prevented or delayed. As some previous
experiments had indicated that this delay could be produced by soaking the muscle in

370

DR THOMAS R, FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS,

normal saline, the following experiments were made, in which this modification was

introduced.

Experiment L.—After the skin had been removed from both pelvic extremities of a
pithed frog, the trunk of the sciatic nerve in each extremity was dissected and isolated
from the pelvis to the knee, and divided close to the pelvis, and then each leg was

amputated immediately above the knee-joint.

Two nerve-muscle preparations were thus

obtained, A and B, and each was placed in a separate watch-glass containing 0°75
per cent. saline, and was tested, in the conditions below noted, by opening shocks from
a Du Bors Reymonn’s induction apparatus attached to a DANTIELL’s cell, so as to ascertain
the minimal shocks required to produce contractions of the muscle.

Conditions of
Experiment and
Notes.

Time.

2.50 | Both nerve and
muscle placedin
normal saline.

2.55
2.57 | Nerve placed in
solution of
strophanthin,
in normal
saline
(1 : 2500).
3.4 bare oh.
3.30
3.45
3.50
4,0 seh eas
4.9 | Muscle also
placedin above
strophanthin
solution.
4.10
4.1
4.30
4.35
4.40
4.45
4.50
| 5.0
5.8
6.12

A.

Min. Stimulus re-
quired to cause Con-
traction of Muscle
when applied to

Nerve. Muscle.

Mm. of
Secondary | Secondary
Coil. Coil.

220

220
240
260

260
260

270

280
280

280
260
250
260

Mm. of

Notes.

No spontaneous fi-
brillary twitches.
Rarely spontane-
ous _ fibrillary
twitches.
Do.
Nearly constant fi-
brillary twitches.
Nearly constant fi-
brillary twitches.
Tested at 170,
the contraction
is powerful, and
relaxation slow.

Strong, almost
constant fibril-
lary twitches.

Time.

3.48

4.138

4.55

Conditions of
Experiment and
Notes.

.Both nerve and
muscle placedin
normal saline,

B.

Min. Stimulus re-
quired to cause Con-
traction of Muscle
when applied to

Nerve. Muscle.

Mm. of
Secondary | Secondary
Coil. Coil.

160

190

160

190

Mm. of

Notes.
No _ spontaneous
fibrillary twitches.
Do.
Do.

DR THOMAS R, FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

Conditions of

Time. Experiment and
Notes.

Muscle also
placedin above
strophanthin
solution

5.16

5.20

5.35

5.46

5,55

6.2 | No contraction
when nerve
stimulated,
even with the
secondary at

6.5 Do.

A.
Min. Stimulus re-
quired to cause Con-
traction of Muscle
when applied to Notes.
Nerve. Muscle.
Mm. of Mm. of
Secondary | Secondary
Coil. Coil.
con Fibrillary twitches
are less frequent
and strong.
230
220 Fibrillary twitches
are only infre-
quent,
80 Very rarely feeble
fibrillary
| twitches.

70 Do. Very faint
contraction on
stimulation of
nerve.

50 Do.

0 80 Do.
0 80 Do.

Time.

6.10

Conditions of
Experiment and
Notes.

Min. Stimulus re-
quired to cause Con-
traction of Muscle
when applied to

d71

Notes.

Nerve. Muscle.

Both nerve and
muscle placed in
normal saline.

Mm, of
Secondary

Mm. of
Secondary

Coil.

210

210

Coil.

No spontaneous
fibrillary twitches.

When, therefore, a motor nerve-trunk was .placed in solution of Strophanthus in
saline, its conductivity was not lessened in 1 hour and 3 min.; but when the muscle
containing peripheral endings of the motor nerve was placed in the same solution of
Strophanthus, the nerve altogether failed to excite contraction of the muscle in 1 hour
and 53 min., although the muscle supplied by the now paralysed nerve still responded to
direct stimulation.

Results of a similar description were obtained in the next experiment.

[ Experiment LI.

372 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

Experiment LI.—Nerve-Muscle Preparations of both Pelvic Extremities of a Frog,
prepared in the same way as in Experiment L.

A. B.
Min. Stimulus re- Min, Stimulus re-
quired to cause Con- quired to cavse Con-
Conditions of traction of Muscle Conditions of traction of Muscle
Time.| Experiment and when applied to Notes. Time.| Experiment and when applied to Notes.
Notes. a PO eee Notes. ani» fi a ee
Nerve. | Muscle, Nerve. Muscle,
Mm. of Mm. of Mm. of Mm. of
Secondary | Secondary Secondary| Secondary
Co oil. Coil. Coil.
2.5 | Both nerve and 5 2.5| Both nerve and
muscle placed muscle placed
in 0°75 per in 0°75 per
cent, saline. cent, saline.
2.10 es aed 190
2.12 ae Wee 190
2.15| Nerve placed ae 2.14| Muscle placed ane
in solution of in solution of
strophanthin strophanthin
(1 : 1000). (1: 1000).
Muscle left in Nerve left in
normal saline. normal saline.
2.20 ‘ae ere 170 ... | No — spontaneous }
fibrillary twitches.| —
2.25 aap me 170 a Do. ,
2.35 ele ane 170 ae Do.
2.40 avs is 210
2.45 ane me 170 ava Do.
PDst5y5) ie sag 170 a4 Do.
3.5 foe a 180 ss Rarely spon-|
3.7 one 308 210 nat No _ spontaneous taneous fibrillary | _
fibrillary twitches. twitches Ee
3.10 ee oe 210 ses Do.
3.15 toa 210 De Do. ah
3.25 Sc0 pa 200 ... | Nearly continuous | —
fibrillary twitches.|
3.30 and sae 200 ats Do., and fre- |
quently strong. |
3.35 ee fee 180 ... | After contracting, |
the muscle re-| —
mains contracted |
for an unusually |
3.42 a0 203 200 ee Do. long period. P
3.45 ae = 180 ... | Nearly continu-|
ous moderately |
strong fibrillary | —
twitches. Hh
3.50 mts isk 190 353 Nearly continuous | —
but feeble fibril- |
lary twitches, |
4.0 ne 536 190 spe Rarely ——_ feeble! —
4.15 ay Be 210 ei Do. fibrillary twitches.|

4.20| No contraction
when nerve

stimulated, ,
even with the t,
secondary at . 0 ... | Feeble fibrillary
twitches very
rarely. ie
4,25 wen i 500 90 | Fibrillary twitches} —
have ceased. =|
4,35 ute S08 cht 90 | Only faintcontrac- |
4,36 bee 35 170 te Do. tion is produced |
by the direct}
stimulation, — |
5.5 Ras buts sid 80 Do. 60, however, |
produced moder- |
ately strong con- |
traction, ia
5.35 ane athe ane 60 Only faint con
5.38 170 555 Do. traction,
On the following day, 23 hours after the last note, the strongest || On the following day, 23 hoursafter the last note, the strongest |
| galvanic shocks when applied to the nerve did not produce galvanic shocks produced merely a faint depression of the |
| any effect, but when applied to the muscle produced a faint muscle between the electrodes, but only if the electrodes |
depression of it. A cut section of the muscle was alkaline were not far apart. A cut section of the muscle was alka-
in reaction. line in reaction. i

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 319

In this experiment, the nerve-trunk attached to the muscle, which was steeped with
its nerve-endings in strophanthin dissolved in normal saline (B), lost its power of
stimulating contraction of the muscle in 2 hours and 6 min., although the muscle itself
retained its contractility for at least 1 hour and 15 min. longer. That the paralysing
action of the nerve is exerted on its terminations and not on its trunk is shown in A,
where the nerve-trunk alone was steeped in strophanthin solution, and still retained its
conductivity for 3 hours and 23 min.

Experiment LII.—Nerve-Muscle Preparations of both Pelvic Extremities of a Frog,
prepared in the same way as in Experiment L.

A. B.
Min. Shocks required Min. Shocks required
to cause Contraction to cause Contraction
Conditions of of Muscle when Conditions of of Muscle when
Time.| Experiment and applied to Notes. Time, Experiment and applied to Notes.
, Notes. Notes.
Nerve. Muscle. Nerve. Muscle,
Mm. of Mm. of : Mm. of Mm, of
Secondary | Secondary Secondary | Secondary
Coil. Coil. Coil. Coil,
2.24 | Both nerve and 2.24 | Both nerve and
muscle placed muscle placed
in 0°75 per cent. in 0°75 per cent.
saline. saline.
2.35 we Be 330
2.37 300 “ag 350
2.44 | Both nerve and
muscle placed
in solution of
strophanthin
(1: 2500).
2.46 ae oe ae 210
2.56 sda ade 440
2.59 see ae 350
3.5 Sat aco 440 nae No spontaneous
fibrillary
twitches.
3,12 sti nae 08 300 Rarely spontane-
ous fibrillary
twitches.
3.15 os ea 370 |
3.17 ae See 350 |
3.20 o5t ee 380 a. Fibrillary twitches
more frequent. |
3.35 ate = 380 |
3.36 ee uae 390 |
3.50 “oF a6 390 ae Fibrillary twitches |
stronger and
more frequent.
3.54 ae as 380
4,5 sae Ri 370 es Do.
4.12 ee Bot 380
4.30 206 aAS 390 ... | Fibrillary twitches
weaker and less
frequent.
4.50 Psi 56g 390 sti Fibrillary twitches
very feeble and
infrequent.
5.8 “fae Pee 390
5.10 ae ea 330
5.12 ae oe 100 oe: Fibrillary twitches
have ceased.
5.14 Neh oe 380
5.15] No contraction |
when nerve
stimulated,
even with the
secondary at . 0
5.17 Do. ie 110
5.20 Do. fe 120
5.27 ais Sy 390
5.40 Do. oe 120
5.45 ate ae ee 120

The results are similar to those obtained in the previous experiment.

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

When the

muscle with the nerve-endings and the nerve-trunk were placed in saline containing
strophanthin (A), the nerve became paralysed in 2 hours and 31 min., while the muscles
continued to respond to direct stimulation for at least 25 min. longer.

Experiment LIII.—Nerve-Muscle Preparations of both Pelvic Extremities of a Frog,

prepared in the same way as in Experiment L.

A.

Min. Shocks required
to cause Contraction

Conditions of of Muscle when

Time. Experiment aud applied to Notes.
Notes.
Nerve. Muscle.
Mm. of Mm. of
Secondary | Secondary
Coil. Coil.
1.8 | Both nerve and
muscle placed
in 0°75 per
cent. saline.

1.17 420

1.25 ae ser 420

1.27 | Both nerve and

muscle placed
in solution of
strophanthin
(1:5000)! in
normal saline,

1,40 410 Rarely slight
spontaneous fi-
brillary twitches.

1.55 440 Frequent slight
spontaneous fi-
brillary twitches.

2.10 410

2.15 410 Rarely slight
spontaneous fi-
brillary twitches.

2.25 410

2.40 400 Fibrillary twitches
have ceased.

2.45 60

2.53 | No contraction

when nerve

stimulated,

even with the

secondary ‘ 0
3.16 60
6.0 50

On following day, 20 hours after last note, muscle non-con-
tractile with strongest shocks. Two hours afterwards, the
reaction of a cut surface was alkaline.

Conditions of

Tlme. Experiment and

Notes.

1.8 | Both nerve and
muscle placed
in 0°75 per
cent. saline.

1,20

1.45

2.12

2.27

2.47

2.55

3.17

6.5

On the following day
at 2.15 P.M., . :

B.

Min. Shocks required
to cause Contraction
of Muscle when

applied to Notes.
Nerve. Muscle,
Mm. of Mm. of a.
Secondary | Secondary
Coil. Coil.
|
410
380
430
440
180
400
400 170
380 140 |
340

145 |

In this experiment, when the nerve-trunk and the muscles containing the nerve-
endings were placed in strophanthin dissolved in normal saline (A), the nerve became
paralysed, abruptly, in 1 hour and 26 min., while the muscle responded to direct

stimulation for at least 3 hours and 7 min. longer.

When these structures, removed

—
die

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 375

from the other pelvic extremity of the same frog, were placed in normal saline alone (B),
galvanic stimulation applied either to the nerve-trunk or to the muscles caused contrac-
tion of the muscle for at least 24 hours.

When, therefore, motor nerves and muscles are together subjected to the contact
action of strophanthin, dissolved in 0°75 per cent. saline, it is clearly indicated that the
motor nerves entirely lose their power of inducing contraction of the muscles at a consider-
able period of time before the muscles themselves cease to respond to direct stimulation.
Thus, in Experiment L., the motor nerves were completely paralysed within 1 hour 53 min,
after both nerves and muscles had been immersed in salt solution containing Strophan-
thus, while the muscles continued to respond to direct stimulation for several minutes
longer ; in Experiment LI., paralysis of the motor nerves occurred at least 1 hour 15 min,
before paralysis of the muscles; in Experiment LII., paralysis of the motor nerves
occurred at least 25 min. before that of the muscles; and in Experiment LIII., paralysis
of the motor nerves occurred at least 3 hours 7 min. before paralysis of the muscles.

The inference appears clear that Strophanthus is capable of exerting a paralysing
action on motor nerves, by affecting the peripheral endings of these nerves in the
muscles, .

The experiments by which this action has been rendered apparent in frogs, by the
employment of normal chloride of sodium solution, to delay the otherwise rapidly-induced
paralysis of muscles, confirm the experiments in mammals, in which, without this delaying
influence, Strophanthus has been observed to produce paralysis of motor nerves, while
muscles supplied by them still contracted, though only feebly, under direct stimulation
(see Experiments XVIII. and XXXV.). In both circumstances also, and in both warm
and cold blooded animals, a peculiarity of the motor nerve paralysis would appear to be
the abruptness of its production.

This action on motor nerves, however, is obviously of secondary importance when
contrasted with the action on muscle; but still it requires to be taken into consideration
in explaining the motor weakness so prominently exhibited in both warm and cold
blooded animals after the administration of large doses of Strophanthus.

Fibrillary Twitches.

A conspicuous phenomenon among the effects of Strophanthus has incidentally been
mentioned in the account of the last and of many previous experiments, viz., the
occurrence of spontaneous fibrillary twitches in the muscles. Soon after Strophanthus
has been administered to an animal by subcutaneous injection, a slight muscular twitch
occurs here and there, and altogether irregularly in time and locality, although first and
most distinctly near the position of subcutaneous injection. The twitches then become
more frequent, and involve a larger number of muscles, and often also larger fasciculi of
individual muscles, until they recur unceasingly over the body, and even in independent
fasciculi of single muscles, where either minute or larger fasciculi are twitched in irregular
succession. When they have attained their greatest development, the condition of non-

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 16), 3M

376 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

rhythmical unceasing contractions may be likened to the muscular contractions of the
eraver forms of chorea; this Strophanthus-chorea, however, involving in succession
independent fasciculi of many single muscles, in contrast with the involvement of entire
muscles that occurs in true chorea. After attaining their greatest development, the
twitches gradually become less frequent, until the initial condition of single feeble twitches,
occurring at considerable intervals, is reproduced, and they then finally cease, the cessa-
tion coinciding usually with the time when the motor nerves become unable to excite
contractions in the muscles.

These twitches appear to involve all the striped muscles of the body, and they have
been observed even in the muscle of the heart (Experiment XXXIII.). They are
apparently produced whatever be the manner in which Strophanthus is brought into
contact with the parts affected; for they have been observed when the administration
was by the stomach, rectum, subcutaneous tissues, or blood-vessels, and also when muscles
were immersed in solutions of Strophanthus. In tracings 4 to 7, Plate VIII., 4 to 10,
Plate IX., and 2 to 4, Plate XI., illustrations are given of the curves produced by
muscles immersed in Strophanthus dissolved in normal saline ; and the curves graphically
display the rapid recurrence of the twitches, as well as their irregularity in time and
extent of movement.

Some experiments were made for the purpose of determining whether they are of
nerve or of muscle origin.

In the first experiment it is shown that the fibrillary twitches are not produced by an
action on the brain or spinal cord.

Experiment LIV.—The brain and the whole of the spinal cord were thoroughly
destroyed in a frog, weighing 295 grains. Soon afterwards, 0°05 grain of extract of
Strophanthus, dissolved in 3 minims of water, was injected under the skin of each thigh
(0°l grain in all). In 47 min., feeble and very infrequent twitches were seen at each
thigh. They occurred only there until about 57 min. after the injection, when twitches
appeared also at the flanks. They increased in frequency, and continued in the thighs
and flanks for at least 15 min. They then became less frequent, and ceased to occur at
the flanks; but they continued at the thighs for at least 1 hour 7 min. after their
first appearance, or until 1 hour 54 min. after the administration of Strophanthus.

In Experiments LI., LI., and LIII., it has been demonstrated that the fibrillary
twitches precede the production of paralysis of motor nerves, and terminate with this
paralysis, or soon after it has been produced, and also that they terminate before the
muscles themselves have lost the power to contract when directly stimulated. These
facts suggest that the twitches might be caused by an action upon the terminations of
the motor nerves in the muscles. If they are so caused, they should be prevented from
occurring by paralysing the terminations of the motor nerves before the administration of
Strophanthus. To obtain this condition, two experiments were made in which the motor
nerves were paralysed with curare before these nerves and the muscles in which they
terminate were subjected to the action of Strophanthus.

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

377

Experiment LV.—For the first experiment two frogs were selected, as similar to each
other as possible in weight and general condition.

the other, B, 298 grains.
Strophanthus only was administered.

The one, A, weighed 300 grains, and

To A, curare was administered before Strophanthus, and to B,
Immediately before the experiment the skin of

each frog was moderately dark, and the pupils were of medium size.

2.51

3.8

3.25

3.40

4.48

A. Curare before Strophanthus.

0:0003 grain of curare in 2 minims of distilled
water was injected under the skin of the left
flank.

Frog motionless and flaccid, and no reflexes obtain-
able. Cardiac impacts 7 per 10 sec.

0-01 grain of extract of Strophanthus was injected
under the skin of the right flank.

No fibrillary twitches. Cardiac impacts 7 per 10 sec.

No fibrillary twitches. Cardiac impacts 7 per 10 sec.
No fibrillary twitches. Cardiac impacts 4 per 10 sec.

No fibrillary twitches. No cardiac impact visible.

No fibrillary twitches. No cardiac impact visible.
The pupils are smaller than before, The skin has
become paler.

No fibrillary twitches. No cardiac impact visible.
No reflex movement can be obtained by me-
chanical irritation anywhere.

The right sciatic nerve was exposed and stimulated,
but no contraction occurred even with the second-
aryat5mm. The thigh muscles were exposed:
with the secondary at 140 mm., no contraction
occurred ; but at 130 mm., the stimulated muscles
contracted feebly.

Strongest galvanic stimulation of the trunk of the
sciatic nerve produced no effect, but when directly

2.30.30
2.35
2.37
2.38

2.46
2.48
2.52
2.54

4.10

4.17
4,20

4.40

applied to the exposed thigh muscles slight
twitches were produced. ,

On the following day, at 1 p.m., general rigor was present in both frogs.

B. Strophanthus only.

0:01 grain of extract of Strophanthus was injected
under the skin of the right flank.
Active throat and chest respirations.

Thoracic extremities somewhat extended. No fibril-
lary twitches.

Do. Respirations infrequent.
No fibrillary twitches. Respirations very feeble and
infrequent.

Rarely weak fibrillary twitches at flanks and back.
Thoracic extremities still extended.

Do., but twitches more frequent, and also in thighs
and arms. The respiratory movements have ceased.

Thoracic extremities no longer extended. When
placed on back, remains after a few ineffectual
efforts to turn. No cardiac impact can be seen.

Continuous fibrillary twitches. They occur in the
four extremities, abdomen, thorax, and head.
The pupils are contracted. The frog rests on the
abdomen and thorax. The reflexes are active.

The fibrillary twitches are less frequent.
pale.

Do. The reflexes are feeble.

The fibrillary twitches have ceased ; on exposing the
muscles of the thighs, no twitches are seen.

No reflex movement can be obtained by mechanical
irritation anywhere.

The skin is

The right sciatic nerve was exposed : galvanic open-
ing shocks, with the secondary at 180 mm., pro-
duced no contraction ; at 170 mm., merely a faint
twitch of one toe occurred ; and even at 20 mm.,
merely a faint twitch of two toes occurred, but no
reflex contractions. The calf muscles were ex-
posed: with the secondary at 60 mm., no con-
traction was produced ; at 50 mm., merely aslight
depression of the muscle occurred; and no greater
effect with the secondary at 2mm. The pupils-
are still contracted.

The strongest galvanism of the sciatic nerve no longer
produces any contraction. When the calf muscles
were directly stimulated, no effect was produced
with the secondary at 40 mm., and merely a faint
depression of the muscle with the secondary at
30 mm.

Strongest galvanic stimulation of the muscle no
longer produces any effect.

The left sciatic nerve and thigh muscles were ex-
posed; strongest galvanic stimulation applied to
the trunk of the nerve, or ditectly to the muscles,
failed to produce any effect.

Cut sections of the thigh muscles were found to be
acid in reaction.

378 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

Both frogs having received Strophanthus, but one also curare in sufficient quantity
to paralyse the motor nerves, in the latter, A, no twitches were observed at any period of
the experiment, while in the former, B, they occurred at 18 min. after the injection of
Strophanthus, and continued for about 30 min.

In the former, also, the nerves and muscles were nearly paralysed within 10 min.
after the twitches had ceased, and they were absolutely paralysed 47 min. afterwards, or
1 hour 47 min. after the administration of Strophanthus.

In the experiment with previous administration of curare, A, the muscles were feebly
contractile at 1 hour 10 min. after the administration of Strophanthus, and they were
not entirely non-contractile even at 2 hours 18 min.; while in B the muscles were
previously to this time not only non-contractile, but stiff and acid. The fibrillary
twitches, therefore, appear to hasten muscle paralysis and rigor.

Experiment LVI.—In the second experiment, a frog, weighing 380 grains, was
pithed, a ligature was tied round the upper part of the right thigh, excluding the sciatic
nerve, and the right pelvic extremity, with the sciatic nerve-trunk attached to it, was
amputated at the knee. The amputated leg, from which the skin had been removed, was
put aside, well covered by the removed portion of skin. Immediately thereafter (2 P.m.),
0°0004 grain of curare, dissolved in 4 minims of water, was injected into the anterior
thoracic and abdominal lymph-sacs through the floor of the mouth. Half an hour subse-
quently, the left pelvic extremity was amputated above the knee-joint, with the sciatic
nerve-trunk (divided, as in the right leg, close to the pelvis) attached to the amputated
leg. There were thus obtained two nerve muscle preparations, in one of which, A, the
nerve had not been subjected to the influence of curare, and in the other, B, the nerve
had beew subjected to the influence of curare.

A. Curarised (Left) Leg. B. Non-curarised (Right) Leg.

2,56 | Placed nerve and muscle in solution of extract 2.55 | Placed nerve and muscle in solution of extract tract of
of Strophanthus in normal saline (1 to 3750), to Strophanthus in normal saline (1 to 3750).
which, guided by previous experiments, 0°00061
grain ‘of curare had been added to ensure a con-
tinuance of paralysis of the motor nerve-endings, 3.18 | Rarely feeble spontaneous fibrillary twitches,
3.20 | No fibrillary twitches.
!

3.24 | Do. Galvanic stimulation of the nerve produced
no effect even with the secondary at 0. Galvanic ; ‘ ,
stimulation directly applied tothe muscle produced || 3.25 | Unceasing fibrillary twitches, which often are

no effect with the secondary at 110 mm., but pro- strong.
duced a faint twitch with the secondary at100 mm. 3.40 Do.
3.35 Do. do. 3.52 | Strong, unceasing fibrillary twitches,
4.0 Do.

4.10 | Do. Galvanic stimulation of the muscle did not

cause contraction until the secondary was at 90mm.
4,25 | Do. do, 4,25 | Fibrillary twitches continue strong, but not so

incessantly. Galvanic stimulation of the muscle
produced contraction with the secondary at 90

mm., but none with the secondary at 100 mm.

5.0 Do. do. 4.32 Do. do,
5.10 | Do. Do., but now the contraction on stimulation 4.45 | Infrequent fibrillary twitches,
of the muscle is a mere feeble twitch. 4.55

5,15 Thespontancousfibrillary twitcheshave ceased. Gal-
vanic stimulation of the muscle did not produce any
contraction until the secondary was at 70 mm.,
and this stimulus caused merely a feeble twitch.

On the following day, the strongest galvanic stimulation of || On the following day, the strongest galvanic stimulation of

| the nerve or muscle failed to produce any contraction. the nerve or muscle failed to produce any contraction,

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 379

In this experiment, as in the previous one, the muscles, whose motor nerves had
been paralysed by curare, were not affected by fibrillary twitchings ; while the muscles
supplied by non-paralysed motor nerves exhibited these twitchings in a marked form,
and for a long period of time.

Experiments LV. and LVI. have, therefore, clearly shown that the spontaneous
fibrillary twitches of the muscles, which constitute so marked a feature among the
symptoms produced by large doses of Strophanthus, are caused by an action on the
terminations of the motor nerves in the muscles.

C. Action oN SKELETAL MUSCLES.

In many of the preceding experiments, and especially in Experiments VI., VIIL., IX.,
XVIII., XXVITL., XXXITT., XXXV., XXXVI, XL., XLI., XLVIII., and XLIX., evidence
has been given of the circumstance that the skeletal muscles are markedly affected by
Strophanthus. The action on these muscles is definite, conspicuous, and direct; it places
in the background the other actions as yet specially considered, which, relatively, are slight
and obscure ; and it is of much importance in its immediate and secondary consequences.

Under the influence of Strophanthus the muscles become enfeebled, somewhat rigid,
affected with fibrillary twitchings, whose production has already been discussed, and,
finally, non-contractile, pale and hard; and then, or soon afterwards, it is found that their
reaction has been changed from the normal alkaline to an acid reaction, and that lactic
acid can be separated in considerable quantity from the muscles. In fact, Strophanthus
paralyses the muscles chiefly by diminishing their capability to relax, and it then rapidly de-
stroys this capability by producing a condition indistinguishable from that of rigor mortis.

It is a significant confirmation of the view that the final pharmacological effect is the
production of a true rigor mortis, that this effect may be postponed for many hours by
steeping the muscle in a weak solution of chloride of sodium, and also that such treat-
ment delays not only the paralysis and rigidity of the muscle, but likewise the change
from the alkaline to the acid reaction (see Experiments LI., LII., and LIII.).

As has already been stated, the heart is early paralysed by such moderately large
- lethal doses of Strophanthus as are necessary to display prominently the effects on muscle.
In order to determine whether the cardiac standstill has any causal relation to any of the
special effects produced upon the skeletal muscles, the following experiment was made.

Experiment LVII.—Two frogs were selected—one, A, weighing 266 grains, and the
other, B, weighing 268 grains.

A. B.
JAN, 12. JAN. 12. .
1.15 | The heart was exposed. 1.21 | The heart was exposed,
1.20 | Heart’s contractions 12 per 380 sec, 1.23 | Heart’s contractions 12 per 30 sec.

1.25 | A ligature was drawn tightly round the base of the
heart so as completely to stop the circulation. Im-
mediately the respirations became interrupted by
long pauses, at the end of which struggles occurred.

380

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

Experiment LVII.—continued.

1,49

2.0

2.25

2.34

2.37

JAN. 13.

0:1 grain of extract of Strophanthus was injected
under the skin of the two thighs,

Ventricular contractions have ceased, and the ven-
tricle is pale and contracted. Auricular contrac-
tions, 11 per 30 sec., and feeble.

Auricular contractions have ceased.

The frog jumps about actively.

The thoracic extremities are a little stiff, though
still mobile. The frog can no longer jump, but it
pushes itself about by vigorous movements of the
pelvic extremities.

The thoracic extremities are very stiff. Irritation
produces pretty active reflex movements of the
pelvic extremities. Respiratory movements have
ceased. Fibrillary twitches occur at the lower
part of the abdomen.

Irritation of the skin produces no reflex movement
unless it be powerful, when strong movements
are slowly produced in the pelvic extremities.

The pelvic extremities are now somewhat stiff, and
when the skin is irritated very sluggish and
feeble reflex movements occur in them. The
fibrillary twitches have ceased.

Strong galvanic stimulation applied to any part of
the skin produces no effect, except when it is
applied to one of the feet, when feeble movements
occur which are restricted to the parts through
which the galvanic current has been passed.
Galvanic stimulation applied to the exposed left
sciatic nerve produces feeble movements below
the left knee, but no reflex contractions.

Strong galvanic stimulation applied to the exposed
sciatic nerve produces no contraction; when
applied to exposed muscles in the left thigh and
calf, no movement occurs.

General rigor is present everywhere, and the muscles
are pale, hard, and acid. The heart’s ventricle
is pale and rigid.

Do. do.
Do. do.

The muscles are now softer. The heart’s ventricle
is less rigid, and in several places dark |patches
are seen.

JAN. 12.

1.33

1.35

1.45

1.48

1.50

1.57

i)

10

2.30

2.35

3.0
4.15

JAN. 18.
1.0 P.M.

B.

Mouth frequently opened widely. Respirations in-
terrupted by long intervals, during which none
occur,

Prolonged cessation of respiration.

Gaping movements following series of a few feeble
respirations.

Mouth kept widely open for a long time, then the
frog jumped, and afterwards mouth was shut,
and a number of strong thoracic respiratory move-
ments occurred, and were followed by numerous
feeble throat respirations,

The frog jumps about actively. Long respiratory
pauses alternating with two or three laboured re-
spirations.

Do. do. Occasional laboured respirations.

The frog continues to jump about actively.

The frog jumps only feebly when irritated. Active
spontaneous movements, however, still occur.

The frog jumps spontaneously.

vigorous movements of the four extremities.

The frog has for some time been lying on the abdo-
men and thorax. Irritation causes well-marked |
reflex movements.

Irritation no longer excites reflex movements. Gal-
vanic stimulation of an exposed sciatic nerve
causes only feeble movements of the limb sup-
plied by the nerve ; but when directly applied to
exposed muscles, it causes strong contractions in

The frog cannot jump, but it pushes itself about by
them. The body and limbs are perfectly flaccid. | —

|

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 381

In this experiment, therefore, the muscles of the frog (A) that had received Stroph-
anthus soon became stiff, and fibrillary twitches occurred in them, and, finally, they
became non-contractile and hard within 1 hour and 15 min. after the ventricle of the
heart had ceased to contract ; whereas, in the control experiment (B), the muscles remained
contractile for 24 hours after the heart had been ligatured, and no fibrillary twitch or
stiffness of the muscles was observed during the experiment. The experiment accord-
ingly demonstrates that the stoppage of the circulation produced by the action of
Strophanthus on the heart is not the cause of the paralysis of the skeletal muscles, or

of any of the other phenomena observed in them after the administration of Strophanthus.

In the next experiment it is shown that the muscle paralysis is not caused by any
influence conveyed by the motor nerves or originating in these nerves.

Experiment LVIII.*—One-twentieth of a grain of sulphate of methyl-strychnium,
dissolved in 4 minims of water, was injected under the skin at the left flank of a
frog, weighing 296 grains. One hour thereafter, galvanic stimulation of the exposed
left sciatic nerve failed to produce any muscular contraction in the left pelvic extremity
or elsewhere. A ligature was then passed below the left sciatic nerve, and tied
tightly round the middle of the left thigh; the nerve, therefore, not being included in
the ligature. Five min. afterwards, 0°1 grain of extract of Strophanthus was injected
under the skin at the right flank. On the following day, 23 hours after the adminis-
tration of Strophanthus, both thoracic extremities and the right pelvic extremity were
distinctly rigid ; and exposed muscles in these extremities and in the trunk did not con-
tract under galvanic stimulation. The left (ligatured) pelvic extremity, however, was
flaccid and freely mobile, and its muscles were contractile. On the second day, the
conditions were the same as on the previous day ; the muscles in the regions to which
Strophanthus had direct access being non-contractile and stiff, while those in the
left (ligatured) pelvic extremity continued to be contractile and flaccid. On the
third day, the muscles in the left pelvic extremity, as well as elsewhere, failed to
contract under galvanic stimulation.

The next experiments render it obvious that the changes produced in the muscles
are due to a direct action of Strophanthus upon them.

Experiment LLX.—The blood-vessels of the right thigh were ligatured, and the
heart exposed, of a frog, weighing 320 grains. After a short interval, the cardiac
contractions were found to be regular and at the rate of 14 per 30 sec. O°1 grain
of extract of Strophanthus was then injected under the skin at the left flank. In
9 min. after the administration of Strophanthus, the heart’s ventricle had ceased to
contract and had become pale and small, but the auricles continued contracting
at a gradually diminishing rate for 28 min. longer. In 37 min. after the
administration, the frog was able to jump only feebly, and the mouth was at times
widely opened. In 1 hour 42 min., the frog was on the abdomen and thorax, with
the thoracic extremities adducted and extended stiffly at right angles to the body;

; * Published in 1872 in Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, vol. vii. p. 152.

382 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

and slight irritations of any part of the skin caused reflex movements in both
pelvic extremities. Im 2 hours 7 min., reflex movements could no longer be obtained,
although both pelvic extremities continued to be flaccid, and galvanic stimulation
of each sciatic nerve produced well-marked contractions in the limb supplied by it,
In 2 hours 32 min., the thoracic extremities were still rigid, and the pelvic extremities
flaccid, and the muscles of each pelvic extremity responded to galvanic stimulation of
the sciatic nerve of the himb. When, however, the muscles of the thoracic extremities
were exposed and directly stimulated by galvanism, they failed to contract, and it was
found that these muscles were pale and rigid, and acid in reaction. On the following day,
24 hours after the administration of Strophanthus, galvanic stimulation of either sciatic
nerve failed to produce any contraction. The muscles of both thighs were exposed, and
directly galvanised: those of the right (ligatured) thigh contracted actively, but those
of the left (non-ligatured) thigh remained motionless. The exposed muscles of the right
(ligatured) thigh were non-rigid, and they were alkaline in reaction; while those of the
left (non-ligatured) thigh, and, indeed, of all parts of this extremity, were hard and pale,
and acid in reaction. Rigor was present in all parts of the body, excepting the right
(ligatured) pelvic extremity. On the fourth day, the whole animal, including the right
(ligatured) pelvic extremity, was in rigor, and all the muscles were acid in reaction; and
it was not until the seventh day that this rigor became markedly lessened, coincidently
with evidences of decomposition, and with disappearance of acidity of the muscles,
Experiment LX.—In a frog, weighing 350 grains, a ligature was tied tightly round
the structures of the right thigh, excepting the trunk of the right sciatic nerve,
01 grain of extract of Strophanthus was then injected under the skin of the left
flank, In 50 min., the voluntary movements were feeble, fibrillary twitches were
occurring at the flanks and the left thigh, and the left pelvic extremity was usually
partially and flaccidly extended. In 1 hour 16 min., slight irritation apphed anywhere
caused a series of movements in the body and four extremities, but these movements
were now more active in the right (ligatured) pelvic extremity than in the left.
In 2 hours 35 min., galvanic stimulation applied to the muzzle caused contractions of
the right (ligatured) pelvic extremity, but none elsewhere. In 2 hours 51 min., galvanic
stimulation of the sciatic nerve of the left (non-ligatured) pelvic extremity caused
movements of that extremity ; but it failed to do so in 3 hours 30 min., when, however,
active movements of the right (ligatured) pelvic extremity were still produced by
galvanic stimulation of the trunk of the right sciatic nerve above the point of ligature,
and even of the spinal cord itself. The muscles of the left (non-ligatured) thigh were
now exposed, but galvanic stimulation, even when strong, failed to produce any
contraction when applied directly to them. The muscles of the left pelvic extremity,
and of the thoracic extremities, were pale and hard, and cut sections of them were
acid in reaction. In 4 hours, the last noted conditions were still present. The thoraci¢
extremities were very rigid, and the left (non-ligatured) pelvic extremity was slightly
so; while the right (ligatured) pelvic extremity was flaccid and its muscles were con-

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 383

tractile and alkaline. On the following day, the nerves and muscles in the non-poisoned
as well as in the poisoned regions were entirely inactive, and slight rigidity was now
present in the right (ligatured) pelvic extremity also.

In these two experiments, therefore, the muscles to which Strophanthus had direct
access became non-contractile, rigid, and acid, in from two and a half to three and a half
hours; whereas, in the same animals, the muscles protected from the direct contact
influence of Strophanthus remained contractile, non-rigid, and alkaline for many hours
longer.

The long duration of the state of muscular rigidity, with acid reaction of the muscles,
is illustrated in Experiment LIX., where these conditions persisted for six days.

The similarity of the muscular rigidity induced by Strophanthus to the ordinary
muscular rigor of death is displayed not only in an acid reaction of the muscles
being common to both, but also in the circumstance that the rigidity and acid reaction
persist in both until flaccidity with alkaline reaction take their place, on the occurrence
of putrefactive decomposition.

These various characteristics of the muscle action of Strophanthus, which, in this
section, have been investigated by means of experiments on frogs, are also manifested
in warm-blooded animals, and they have been described in connection with them in
previous sections (see Experiments VIII., IX., XVIII, XXXV., and XXXVI).

In order still further to examine the action on muscle, and at the same time to
record the changes that are produced in its condition, a number of experiments were
made with single detached muscles immersed in solutions of Strophanthus, and attached
to a lever connected with a revolving cylinder. For this purpose, an ordinary prepara-
tion of the gastrocnemius muscle of the frog was made, and the muscle was placed in a
small glass cylinder, which was closed by a cork at its lower end so as to retain the solu-
tions, but was left open at its upper end so as to render easy their introduction into, or
removal from, the cylinder. The muscle was fixed by its tendon to a small steel or
platinum S-shaped hook at the bottom of the cylinder, which was connected with a wire
passing through the cork, and leading to one of the poles of an induction apparatus.
One end of a similar hook was passed through the tendon at the knee-joint, and the
other end was attached, by means of a fine wire in electric connection with the other
pole of the induction apparatus, to a light lever adjusted for marking on smoked
paper covering a revolving cylinder. The muscle could thus be directly stimulated by
galvanism, and its stimulated or its spontaneous movements could be recorded by the
lever. In several of the experiments, the nerve-trunk was left attached to the muscle,
and arrangements were made to allow of its being stimulated independently of the
muscle. Single opening shocks from a DaNntELL’s cell and Du Bois Reymonn’s apparatus
were used for stimulating either the muscle or the nerve.

The usual procedure was to place 0°6 per cent. solution of common salt in the cylin-
drical reservoir so as to surround the muscle, and after having recorded the movements
and stimulated contractions of the muscle, to substitute for the simple saline solution

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 16.) 3N

384 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

a solution of extract of Strophanthus or of strophanthin, dissolved in saline, and again
record the movements and stimulated contractions of the muscle.

When a muscle, with the above arrangements, was placed in a solution of Stroph-
anthus, the first change observed was a shrinking or shortening of the muscle, which
was manifested by elevation of the point of the lever. In some of the experiments, this
shortening occurred so rapidly as very soon to require a readjustment of the lever. It
usually reached its maximum early in the experiment, and retained this maximum until
the end; but in a few experiments, relaxation gradually took place before the termination
of the experiment.

At some considerable time after a solution of Strophanthus has been in contact with a
muscle, slight jerking movements of the lever, produced by spontaneous fibrillary twitches,
are observed. These movements gradually become more frequent and larger, until incessant
movements occur of small and large size, and of great irregularity in time and character.
They, bye and bye, again become smaller and less frequent, and, finally, they altogether
cease. Curves produced by these spontaneous fibrillary twitches of the muscle are repre-
sented in Plate VIII., tracings 4and 5; Plate IX., tracings 4 to 10; and Plate XI., tracings
2,3, and 4. It has already been stated (p. 376) that the time of their cessation nearly
coincides with the time when the motor nerve is no longer able to excite contraction of the
muscle ; and this coincidence will further be illustrated in Experiments LXIL. and LXVI.

When the spontaneous fibrillary twitches have ceased, or nearly ceased, if the muscle
be directly stimulated, a remarkable change is observed in the character of its contraction.
It may, in general terms, be described as a delay in the attainment of the state of
relaxation. This delay is produced in two ways chiefly. In one, after the attainment of
the first complete, or nearly complete, relaxation, quickly succeeding the stimulated
contraction, the muscle again contracts, and the subsequent contraction and relaxation
are of mueh longer duration than the original ones. These abnormalities are illustrated —
in Plate VIII., tracings 3, 7, and 8, and Plate IX., tracings 13, 14, 15, and 16.

The other chief way in which the delay of relaxation is produced, is by a great prolonga-
tion of the period both of maximum contraction and of subsequent relaxation. When
curves illustrating this description of abnormality are examined (Plate X., tracings 3 to
8; Plate XI., tracings 7 to 10; and Plate XII., tracings 3, 4, and 5), it is seen that
after an initial maximum has been briskly attained, the curve either continues slowly to
rise further before it begins to fall, or it at once begins slowly to fall; but, in both cases,
the fall is so gradual that many revolutions of the recording cylinder are made before the
base-line is reached. In both varieties, this fall, usually, is at first slow, then rapid for a
brief period of time, until the abscissa is nearly reached, and, finally, again slow to the
abscissa.

From a considerable number of experiments, during each of which many tracings were
taken, the following six experiments, with a few of their tracings, are given for the
purpose of illustrating the foregoing statements.

Experiment LXI.—The gastrocnemius muscle placed in 0°6 per cent. saline, and

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 385

afterwards in extract of Strophanthus dissolved in 0°6 per cent. saline, 1:25,000. The
muscle only was stimulated (Plate VIII).

2.8. Muscle fixed in myograph, and immersed in 0°6 per cent. saline.

2.15 to 2.17. Several tracings taken with the secondary coil at 70 mm.

2.17. Tracing No. 1. Secondary at 70 mm.

2.18. Solution of Strophanthus extract, 1 : 25,000, substituted for simple saline.
2.20 to 6.58. Numerous tracings taken :—

2.45 to 5.17. Spontaneous fibrillary twitches were occurring in the muscle. They were frequently
strong, and were nearly continuous between 3.15 and 4.53. During the periods of the strongest
and unceasing twitches, stimulation failed to excite any contraction of the muscle, but it produced
a restricted contraction during the intervals when the muscle was relatively quiescent, At 4.20,
during the period of strongest twitches, the muscle did not contract with the secondary coil at
30 mm.; but at 5.33, after the twitches had ceased, it contracted with the secondary at 60 mm.,
and continued to do so with the latter stimulus until the termination of the Experiment (6.58).

3.10. Tracing No. 2. Secondaryat 70 mm. ‘The descending line shows numerous short curves produced
by the commencing fibrillary twitches.
3.35. Tracing No. 3. Secondary at 70 mm. Taken during an interval of muscle quiescence.

3.40. Tracing No. 4. Do. Muscle stimulated during a period of active spontaneous
twitches,

4.13, Tracing No. 5. Do. Do.

4.27, Tracing No. 6. Secondary at 30 mm.

4.47, Tracing No. 7. Do. Marked secondary rise of muscle curve.

5.40. Tracing No. 8. Do. Only slight secondary rise of muscle curve.

Experiment LXII.—Gastrocnemius muscle placed in 0°6 per cent. saline, and after-
wards in extract of Strophanthus dissolved in saline, 1:2500. Nerve and muscle
stimulated separately (Plate [X.).

1.32. Muscle fixed in myograph and immersed in 0°6 per cent. saline.:

1.52 to 1.54. Several tracings taken with the secondary coil at 80 to 100 mm.

1.49. Tracing No. 1. Nerve stimulation ; secondary at 200 mm.

154. Tracing No. 2. Muscle stimulation ; secondary at 80 mm.

1.58. Solution of Strophanthus extract, 1: 2500, substituted for simple saline.

2.9 to 5.45. Numerous tracings taken in which the nerve and muscle were stimulated separately :—

2.10 to 3.35. Spontaneous fibrillary twitches occurred in the muscle, which were very strong and nearly
unceasing between 2.20 and 3.0. During the period of strongest continuous twitchings, galvanic
stimulation of either the nerve or the muscle failed to excite any contraction, but it succeeded
in doing so in intervals of comparative quiescence, and, also, after the twitches had ceased.
Very soon after the disappearance of spontaneous twitches, stimulation of the nerve, even
with the secondary coil at 0, failed to excite any contraction of the muscle, whereas direct
stimulation of the muscle succeeded in doing so for a long time afterwards. At 2.30, the
muscle no longer responded to a stimulus of 80 mm., but did so to one of 60 mm.

2.10. Tracing No. 3. Muscle stimulation, with secondary at 80 mm.
2.20. Tracing No. 4. Curves produced by spontaneous fibrillary twitches.

2.24. Tracing No. 5. Do.
2.29. Tracing No. 6. Do.
2.34. Tracing No. 7. Do.

2.49. Tracing No. 8. Curves produced by spontaneous fibrillary twitches, with a contraction caused by
nerve stimulation. Secondary, 200 mm.

2.50, Tracing No. 9. Do., with a contraction caused by muscle stimulation. Secondary, 80 mm.

3.14. Tracing No. 10. Do. do.

386 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

3.41, Tracing No. 11. Muscle stimulation ; secondary, 60mm. Spontaneous twitches have ceased. The
strongest galvanic stimulation applied to the nerve, fails to excite any contraction.

3.57. Tracing No. 12. Muscle stimulation ; secondary at 60 mm.
4.19. Tracing No. 13. Do. secondary at 30 mm.
5.2. Tracing No. 14. Do. secondary at 40 mm.
5.5. Tracing No. 15. Do. secondary at 50 mm.
5.15. Tracing No. 16. Do. secondary at 60 mm.

Experiment LXIII.—Gastrocnemius muscle placed in 0°6 per cent. saline, and

afterwards in extract of Strophanthus dissolved in 0°6 per cent. saline, 1:2000. The
muscle only was stimulated (Plate X.).

1.48. Muscle fixed in myograph, and immersed in 0°6 per cent. saline.

1.50 to 1.57. Several tracings taken with the secondary coil at 50 to 60 mm.

1.57. Tracing No. 1. Secondary at 50 mm.

2.0. Solution of Strophanthus extract, 1:2000, substituted for simple saline.
2.12 to 10.0. Numerous tracings taken :—

2.4 to 3.13. Spontaneous fibrillary twitches occurred, which were strong and frequent between 2.22
and 2.40; but stimulated contractions of the muscle were followed by a few twitches, even
at 4,48 (see Tracing Ne. 2). After the twitches had nearly ceased, the muscle continued to
respond to a stimulus of 50 mm. until 10.0.

4.48. Tracing No. 2. Secondary at 30mm. Fibrillary twitches started by stimulation of muscle.
5.10. Tracing No. 3. Secondary at 50 mm. Great prolongation of the stimulated contraction.

5.40. Tracing No. 4. Do. Great prolongation of the stimulated contraction, with slow
attainment of the maximum contraction, and gradual relaxation.
6.0. Tracing No, 5. Do. do.
6.40. Tracing No. 6. Do. do.
8.50. Tracing No, 7. Do. do.
10.0. Tracing No. 8. Do. do.

Expervment LXIV.—Gastrocnemius muscle placed in 0.6 per cent. saline, and

afterwards in extract of Strophanthus dissolved in 0°6 per cent. saline, 1:2000. ‘The
muscle only was stimulated (Plate XI.).

1.10. Muscle fixed in myograph, and immersed in 0°6 per cent. saline.
1.20 to 1 24. Several tracings taken with the secondary coil at 60 mm.
1,24. Tracing No. 1. Secondary at 60 mm.
1.26. Solution of Strophanthus extract, 1: 2000, substituted for simple saline.
1.37 to 5.26. Numerous tracings taken :—
1.35 to 2.50. Spontaneous fibrillary twitches occurred, which were strong and nearly continuous
between 1.41 and 2.12. Except during strong twitches, the muscle continued to respond well to
a stimulus of 60 mm., until 3.12.
1.41. Tracing No, 2. Secondary, 60 mm. Muscle stimulated during fibrillary twitches.
1.50. Tracing No 3 Do. do.
2.0. ‘Tracing No. 4. Curves produced by spontaneous fibrillary twitches.
2.25. Tracing No. 5. Secondary, 60 mm. Muscle stimulated during fibrillary twitches.
2.36. Tracing No. 6. Secondary, 60 mm.
3.42 Tracing No.7. Secondary, 30 mm.
3.51. Tracing No. 8. Secondary, 50 mm.
4.32. Tracing No. 9. Secondary, 20 mm.
l

5.21. Tracing No. 10. Secondary, 20 mm.

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 387

Experiment LX V.—Gastrocnemius muscle placed in 0°6 per cent. saline, and after-
wards in extract of Strophanthus dissolved in 0°6 per cent. saline, 1: 25,000. The
muscle only was stimulated (Plate XII.).

4.5. Muscle fixed in myograph, and immersed in 0°6 per cent. saline.

4.19 to 4.25. Several tracings taken with the secondary coil at 90 mm.

4,22. Tracing No, 1. Secondary, 90 mm.

4.27. Solution of extract of Strophanthus in saline, 1:25,000, substituted for simple saline.
4.33 to 8.7. Numerous tracings taken :—

4.42 to 6.18. Spontaneous fibrillary twitches occurred, which were moderately strong between 5.15
and 6.0. The muscle ceased to respond to a stimulus of 90 mm. at 4.36, but thereafter responded
well to one of 60 mm., except when the twitches were strong and nearly continuous, when,
sometimes, even a stimulus with the secondary at 0 failed to excite any contraction.

5.43. Tracing No. 2. Secondaryat 60mm. Fibrillary twitches excited by the stimulated contraction of

the muscle.
6.22. Tracing No. 3. Secondary at 60 mm. Slow relaxation following a good contraction.
6.35. Tracing No. 4. Do. do.
8.7. Tracing No. 5. Do. do,

Only a few experiments were made with strophanthin itself, and the phenomena
described and represented in the preceding experiments were reproduced in them. The
delay in muscular relaxation only has been represented in the tracings illustrative of the
next experiment.

Experiment LX VI.—Gastrocnemius muscle placed in 0°6 per cent. saline, and after-
wards in strophanthin dissolved in 0°6 per cent. saline, 1:20,000. Both nerve and
muscle were stimulated (Plate XII.).

12.46. Muscle fixed in myograph, and immersed in 0°6 per cent. saline.

1.5 to 1.16. Several tracings taken.

1.16. Tracing No. 1; muscle stimulation ; secondary at 50 mm.

1.19. Solution of strophanthin, 1: 20,000, substituted for simple saline.

1.33 to 4.41. Numerous tracings were taken, in which the nerve and muscle were separately stimulated :—

2.10 to 2.31. Spontaneous fibrillary twitches occurred in the muscle. Stimulation of the nerve at
1.12 produced a good contraction with the secondary coil at 200 mm. ; from 2.8 to 2.29 it produced
only a feeble contraction with the secondary at 170; and at 2.31 it altogether failed to produce
. any contraction, even when the secondary was at 0.

3.18. Tracing No. 2. Muscle stimulation; secondary at 50 mm. Greater part of relaxation fairly
normal, but latter part very slow.

4.4]. Tracing No. 3. Muscle stimulation ; secondary at 30 mm. Do.

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

ie)
io 8)
io 8)

D. AcTION ON THE HEART AND BLOOD-VESSELS.

A. Heart.

In the description of many of the experiments illustrative of the general action of
Strophanthus, as well as of such of its special actions as have already been considered,
the existence of a conspicuous and powerful action upon the heart has been rendered
apparent.

In order to determine the nature of the changes produced upon this organ and the
energy of the action, and to define the structures whose function is modified, as well as
the character of the modification, a number of further experiments were made. Having
previously shown that the pharmacological action of the two extracts used in this
investigation and that of strophanthin are altogether the same in quality, it is unnecessary
to distinguish, by any arrangement of the narrative, the experiments made with each of
these substances.

1. Nature of the Changes.—a. After Absorption into the Blood.

Eaxpervment LX VII.*—One-tenth of a grain of extract was injected under the skin
of a small frog, whose heart had previously been exposed. Five min. thereafter, the
ventricular systole was somewhat prolonged; in 6 min., the ventricular diastole was
imperfect, so that only portions of the ventricle dilated to admit blood from the auricles ;
in 6 min. 80 sec., the greater portion of the ventricle was continuously pale and
contracted, each auricular systole propelling merely a small drop of blood into the
ventricle, where it produced a dark pouch-like projection, which at times disappeared,
and at other times only changed its position during the imperfect systole of the
ventricle; in 7 min., the ventricle altogether ceased to contract, while the contractions
of the auricles continued at nearly the original rate; and in 18 min., the auricles, in
their turn, became motionless, but, in place of being small and empty like the ventricle,
they were large and full of blood. Notwithstanding this absolute paralysis of the heart,
respiratory movements occurred for 25 min. after the ventricle had ceased to contract,
and the frog jumped about for some time afterwards.

Experiment LX VIII.—In a frog, weighing 305 grains, the exposed heart was found
to be contracting regularly, at the rate of 15 per 30 sec. 0°05 grain of extract was
injected under the skin at the lower part of the right flank. In 5 min,, the heart's
contractions were 15 per 30 sec., and regular. In 6 min., however, they had become
irregular ; the ventricular systole was prolonged, and pouching of the ventricle occasion-
ally occurred. In 7 min., the rate was 8 per 30 sec.; and in half a minute afterwards,
only minute portions of the ventricle darkened in diastole. In 8 min., the whole of
the ventricle was in a state of continuous systole, while the auricles contracted with

* Published in Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. vii., 1869-70, p. 101.

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 389

regularity at the rate of 12 per 30 sec. ; respiratory movements still continued, and the
frog was able to jump about actively. In 18 min., the auricles were motionless and
dilated, having previously become irregular in their contractions. In 36 min., respiratory
movements still occurred, though at irregular intervals, but they soon afterwards
ceased.

Experiment LXIX.—In this experiment, 0°025 grain of extract was injected under
the skin of a frog, weighing 226 grains (=0°011 grain per 100 grains of animal), whose
heart had previously been exposed, and found to be contracting at the rate of 16 per 30
sec. In 5 min. after the injection, the contractions were slightly irregular, and at the
rate of 17 per 30 sec. In 6 min., the contractions were arhythmical. In 7 min., the
ventricular systole was greatly prolonged, and diastole was imperfect. In 8 min., the
ventricle contracted 9 times per 30 sec., but its diastole now consisted merely of
dilatation of small portions of the ventricle. In 9 min., the ventricle had altogether
ceased to contract, and had become pale and small. The auricular movements ceased
in other 4 min., and then irritation of the ventricle or of the auricles was not
followed by movement of any part of the heart. In 34 min., the frog could jump with
considerable activity, and respiratory movements still occurred. In 38 min., the frog
could jump only imperfectly, but even at this time an occasional respiratory movement
was observed.

Strophanthin, also in doses considerably above the minimum-lethal, was administered
in the next two experiments.

Experiment LX X.—The exposed heart of a pithed frog, weighing 385 grains, was
found to be contracting with regularity at the rate of 21 per 30 sec. 0°005 grain of
strophanthin in 5 minims of water was injected under the skin of the left flank. In 4 min.,
the heart’s rate was 18 per 30 sec. In 10 min., it was 12 per 30 sec., and the ventri-
cular systole was markedly prolonged, and the diastole imperfect. In 13 min., only a
small part of the base of the ventricle dilated during diastole. In 14 min., diastolic
dilatation could scarcely be observed in any part of the ventricle, and two auricular
contractions occurred for each imperfect ventricular contraction. Almost immediately
afterwards, the ventricle altogether ceased to contract, and it remained permanently
small, pale, and inexcitable; and in other 2 min. the auricular movements also ceased.
In 43 min., the heart has removed, and a section of the muscle of the ventricle was
found to be acid in reaction.

Experiment LX XI.—A frog, weighing 350 grains, received by subcutaneous injection
000125 grain of strophanthin dissolved in 5 minims of water (=0°00035 grain per 100
grains). In 7 min., the thoracic extremities were frequently in an unduly extended
position, respiratory movements were active, and the frog jumped about naturally. In
22 min., no obvious change having occurred in the above conditions, the frog was pithed,
and the heart exposed. The heart was found to be perfectly motionless, with the
ventricle very pale and small, and the auricles, especially the left, large and dark. In
26 min., mechanical irritation of the heart failed to produce any movement.

390 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

In the next two experiments, Strophanthus was introduced into the stomach and
rectum, respectively, of frogs.

Experiment LX XII.*—tThe heart was exposed in a frog, weighing 310 grains, and
its contractions were found to average 13 per 30 sec. By means of a narrow gum-elastic
tube, 0°2 grain of extract was injected into the stomach. Almost immediately after the
withdrawal of the tube, violent efforts to vomit occurred, and a portion of the solution
was ejected from the stomach. In 3 min. after the injection, the heart’s rate was 15 per
30 sec. In 4 min., “ pouching” was observed at the apex of the ventricle. In 6 min.,
the heart’s rate was 14 per 30 sec. In 10 min., the rate was 15 per 30 sec., and it
continued at this rate, without further “ pouching,” for other 12 min. In 29 min,
the ventricular diastole was imperfect, and “ pouchings” again occurred. In 30 min,
the ventricular diastole had ceased, but at times a faint ventricular movement occurred,
although the state of systolic contraction was continuously maintained. In 33 min., all
movement of the ventricle had ceased, the ventricle remaining motionless in systole; the
auricles, however, contracted regularly, at the rate of 13 per 30sec. In 47 min,, the
auricles contracted 6 times per 30 sec. ; but in 52 min., they also ceased to contract.
Irritation of the auricles was occasionally followed by feeble movements in them, but
irritation of the ventricle failed to excite any movement. For several minutes subse-
quently, the frog was able to jump about with considerable activity.

Experiment LX XITI.t —The exposed heart of a frog, weighing 330 grains, was found
to be contracting at the rate of 12 per 30 sec. 0°1 grain of extract was injected into the
rectum. In 14 min. thereafter, the heart was still contracting at the rate of 12 per 30
sec., but the apex of the ventricle now ceased to dilate during diastole. In 43 min., the
contractions were arhythmical, the ventricle contracting 5 times per 30 sec., and the
auricles 13 times per 30 sec., and frequently the ventricle remained motionless in systole
during two auricular contractions. In 50 min., the ventricular diastole was imperfect
and incomplete, occurring at the apex only, while the upper half of the ventricle remained
continuously contracted. In 52 min., 6 imperfect ventricular, and 12 perfect auricular,
contractions occurred per 30 sec. The upper two-thirds of the ventricle now remained
continuously pale and small, and only the lower third dilated during diastole. The
diastole of the ventricle consisted, therefore, of a mere pouching of its lower third, and
it was very brief in duration, being almost immediately followed by contraction of that
third, which remained in a contracted state during two auricular contractions. In 55
min., 6 imperfect ventricular contractions occurred in 30 sec., and diastole consisted
merely of the appearance of a small dark “ pouch” at the apex, and the less frequent
appearance of a similar “ pouch ” at the left base ; the auricles contracted regularly at the
rate of 12 per 30 sec. In 1 hour, only at long intervals, a feeble movement occurred in
the ventricle, which was entirely contracted and pale; the auricles contracted 12 times
per 30 sec. In 1 hour 1 min., the ventricular movements altogether ceased, but those of

* Published in 1872 in Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, vol. vii. p. 142. + Ibid., p. 145.

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 391

the auricles continued irregularly, at the rate of 6 per 30 sec. In 1 hour 7 min., the
auricles also ceased to contract. They were dark and distended, while the ventricle was
pale and small. Throat respirations still occurred, at irregular intervals, and they were
observed also 9 min. afterwards. In 1 hour 20 min., irritation of the surface of
the ventricle caused an extremely feeble movement ; while irritation of the surface of the
auricles caused a series of contractions limited to the auricles, and continuing for 1
min. In 1 hour 23 min., irritation of the ventricle produced no effect; and of the
surface of the auricles, a single contraction followed by complete rest. In 1 hour 41 min.,
galvanic irritation, even when powerful, applied to various parts of the ventricle and
auricles produced no movement of the heart, but it excited strong local contractions of
the skeletal muscles and well-marked general movements of the body.

The changes produced in the heart’s action by large doses of Strophanthus are
therefore seen to be slowing of its rate with prolongation of the ventricular systole ;
irregular and arhythmical contractions of the heart; imperfect diastolic dilatation of
the ventricle, producing “ pouchings” of its walls; and, finally, standstill of the ven-
tricle in extreme systolic contraction. In this final standstill, the ventricle is small,
pale, and rigid ; it contains almost no blood; it is incapable of resuming contraction,
whatever be the stimulation to which it is subjected; and the reaction of its muscle
soon becomes acid.

After the ventricle has become permanently non-contractile, the auricles, however,
continue to contract for many minutes, though, latterly, in an irregular manner ; and
when they have ceased to contract, they are large and dark, and they remain in this
state for several hours.

Although the effects of large doses upon the heart have not been followed, in their
yarious stages, in warm-blooded animals, the appearances presented when the heart was
examined soon after death indicate that the final ventricular standstill is in them of the
same nature, and render it probable that the changes preceding standstill are also of the
same character as in frogs (see Experiments IX., XXXV., and XXXVI).

In the next experiment it is shown that the changes produced in the heart’s action
by small doses of Strophanthus are, in many respects, widely different from those
produced by large doses.

Experiment LX XIV.—A frog, weighing 320 grains, received by subcutaneous injection
0'00025 grain of strophanthin(=0:000078 grain per 100 grains) in 4 minims of water.
The thoracic extremities became, bye and bye, unduly extended, and the voluntary move-
ments sluggish ; but no other important symptoms were observed during three hours and
a half following the injection.

On the following day, 22 hours after the injection, the posture was natural, and
respiratory movements were occurring, but the frog had considerable difficulty in jumping.
The heart was now exposed, after the frog had been pithed, and at 22 hours 25 min.
after the injection, the following was noted :—Heart motionless and very large and dark,
and it continued so for two minutes and a half; struggles and respiratory movements

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 16). 30

392 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

~

then occurred, when four strong and rhythmical cardiac contractions took place during
20 sec., but the auricles appeared to contract less powerfully than the ventricle ;
the heart then became motionless in extreme diastole of both ventricle and auricles,
for 2 min. and 40 sec., when, after a few struggles, one rhythmical and strong
cardiac contraction occurred, and was again followed by standstill of the heart in
extreme diastole, lasting for 40 sec., at the end of which time two contractions took
place after a few struggles, and were followed by standstill of the heart in extreme
diastole. During the state of motionlessness all the chambers of the heart were always
large and dark, contrasting markedly with the state of systolic contraction with paleness
of the ventricle observed in Experiments LXVII.-LXXXIII. ; when several contractions
occurred to interrupt the prolonged pauses of the heart, the intervals were longer between
the later than the earlier of the contractions ; and the diastolic dilatation of the ventricle
during the more prolonged pauses was greater at the beginning than at the end of the
pause. At 24 and at 26 hours after the administration, the heart’s action was characterised
by the same features as those above noted, and, even at the latter time, throat respirations
frequently occurred; but while the heart was motionless, struggles or respiratory moye-
ments were not now followed by contractions of the heart so invariably as before, and
the periods of standstill in extreme diastole often exceeded 3 min.

In view of the obvious bearing upon the use of Strophanthus in the treatment of
heart disease, it would have been valuable to have obtained evidence of the nature of
the changes produced by small doses on the heart’s contractions, from the time of adminis-
tration until the production of the final effects, in animals with the entire cardiac
innervation uninjured ; but the requisite permission to perform these experiments could
not be obtained from Her Majesty’s Secretary of State. The experiment quoted, however,
appears to show that, after absorption into the blood, small, as contrasted with large,
doses of Strophanthus increase the diastole of the ventricle, and slow the heart by
prolonging diastole rather than systole. Further evidence of the production of these
effects by small doses will be adduced in the description of the experiments in which
Strophanthus was directly applied to the surface of the heart in pithed frogs.

b. After Direct Application to the Surface of the Heart.

Effects of a similar kind to those observed when the administration is so effected that
Strophanthus is conveyed to the heart by the blood-stream, and similarly varying with
the dose, are produced when it is directly applied to the heart. In the experiments
subjoined, illustrative of these effects, the frogs had been recently caught, and they were
in perfect health and nutrition. The experiments were made in the month of August.
In each experiment, after the brain had been destroyed, the heart was exposed, and the
pericardium was generally removed from its anterior surface.

Laperiment LXXV.—In this experiment the frog weighed 662 grains, and 0°001
grain of strophanthin was applied to the heart (=0°000151 grain per 100 grains).

ds

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 393

11.34 a.m. The brain was destroyed, and the frog secured on its back.

11.40.
11.45.

11.47.
11.50.

11.51.
11.53.
M57.
11.59.

12.2.
12.4.
12.5.

ieee
12.10.

12.12.

12.14.
Bz17.
12.31.

12.37.
12.57.

3.0.

Heart exposed, and the pericardium cut, and drawn off the front of the heart.

Heart’s contractions 22 per 30 sec. Ventricular systole deliberate, but at its completion the
ventricle is only moderately pale ; diastole is abrupt and complete.

Heart’s contraction 22 per 30 sec. Do.

Placed on the heart 2 minims of a solution of 0-05 grain of strophanthin in 100 minims of 0°6 per
cent. of saline (=0-001 grain).

Heart’s contractions 22 per 30 sec.

Heart’s contractions 21 per 30 sec. During systole, the ventricle becomes paler than before.

Heart’s contractions 20 per 30 sec. Diastole of ventricle still abrupt.

Heart’s contractions 18 per 30sec. Ventricular systole longer than before ; diastole less complete.

Heart’s contractions 15 per 30 sec. ; diastole markedly less complete ; auricles distended.

Only slight dilatation of ventricle during diastole. Heart contracts irregularly.

Heart’s contractions 12 per 30 sec. Ventricle small and pale, and almost no movement during
either systole or diastole ; auricles distended, and their movements ample. Frequent struggles.

Ventricle motionless in systole ; auricles contract 18 per 30 sec. Frequent struggles.

Ventricle motionless in extreme systole ; auricles contract 18 per 30 sec., but the contractions are
mainly in the left auricle.

Do. ; the left auricle, and mainly its left upper portion, contracts 5 per 30 sec., the right auricle
being motionless.

Do. ; left auricle feebly twitches, 9 times in 30 sec.

No spontaneous movement of any part of heart. Frequent struggles.

Do. do. Mechanical irritation of the ventricle and auricles produces no effect. The auricles
are dark and large, and the ventricle is small and very pale. Occasional weak struggles.

General reflex movements can be excited on slight irritation of any part of the skin.

Reflex movements can no longer be excited.

Do. Irritation of an exposed sciatic nerve is followed by movements of the limb supplied by it.
With the exception of the ventricle of the heart, all parts of the frog are perfectly flaccid.

Expervment LX. XVI.—In this experiment the frog weighed 542 grains, and the
dose of strophanthin applied to the heart was 00005 grain (=0°000092 grain per 100

grains).

11.35.
TY) .39.
11.44.

11.52.
11.54.

The brain was destroyed, and the frog tied down on its back.

Heart exposed, but pericardium not removed from its surface.

Heart’s contractions 26 per 30 sec. Ventricular systole good, but when complete the ventricle is
only moderately pale ; diastolic movement abrupt.

Heart’s contractions 25 per 30 sec.

Applied to surface of heart 1 minim of solution of 0:05 grain strophanthin in 100 minims of
0°6 per cent. saline (=0-0005 grain).

11.55 and 11.58. Heart’s contractions 25 per 30 sec.

12.2.
e229.

12.14.
12.18.
12.19.
12.21.
12.23.

12.25.

Heart’s contractions 24 per 30 sec. Both systolic and diastolic movements seem larger.

Heart’s contractions 24 per 30 sec. Dilatation of ventricle rather less during diastole.

Heart’s contractions 20 per 30 sec. Ventricular systole decidedly prolonged.

Heart’s contractions 17 per 30 sec.

Heart’s contractions 14 per 30 sec; slightly irregular, and occasionally a short pause in extreme
ventricular diastole.

Heart’s contractions 5 per 30 sec. Distinct pauses in extreme ventricular diastole ; systole very
complete, with small and nearly white ventricle at its termination.

Heart’s contractions 5 per 30 sec. Pause in diastole of ventricle about 7 sec., the systolic move-
ment occupying about 3 sec. Occasional respiratory movements of throat.

Do. do.

394 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

12.33. Heart’s contractions 6 per 60 sec.; slightly irregular; diastolic pause about 12 sec., sometimes
9 sec.

12.41, Heart stopped in extreme ventricular diastole for a little more than 3 min.; auricles not much
distended.

12.43. A drop of saline placed on heart caused a single contraction, followed by rest in moderate diastole,

12.44. Heart contracting spontaneously at rate of 12 per 30 sec.; then stopped in moderate diastole;
and during pause frequent throat respirations.

12.48. Contractions spontaneously resumed, and continued for 45 sec., during which time 23 good con-
tractions occurred, now without much increase in period of ventricular diastole ; and, then, pause
in moderate systole. Auricles are not distended.

12.45. No contraction of heart since last note. The ventricle is smalland moderately pale. Rare throat
respirations.

12.55. Contractions of heart spontaneously resumed for 1 min. at the rate of 12 per 30 sec.; and
they then ceased, when the ventricle was small and very pale. During the contractions, the
ventricular diastole was very slight, the ventricle remaining always pale. The auricles are now
larger than before.

1.0. Do., with pause of ventricle for 40 sec. Do,

6.) Do:

1.20. No contraction of heart since last note. The ventricle is small and very pale, the auricles are
somewhat large and dark. No respiratory movements. Irritation of skin caused strong general
movements, but no movement of the heart occurred during them.

1.30. No contraction of heart since 1.8. Ventricle pale and very small, auricles dark and distended.
A drop of saline was placed on the heart, and the ventricle and auricles were separately and
strongly irritated with the point of a scalpel, without movement following in any part of the
heart. General reflex movements were easily excited.

1.55. Sections of the excised ventricle were found to have an acid reaction.

Experiment LX XVII.—The frog in this experiment weighed 666 grains, and the
dose of strophanthin was 0:000625 grain (=0°'0000938 per 100 grains).

2.23 p.m. The brain was destroyed.

2.26. Heart exposed, and pericardium removed.

2.29. Heart’s contractions 17 per 30 sec. Diastole brief and abrupt, systole longer than diastole, but ven-
tricle only slightly pale in extreme systole.

2.31. Heart’s contractions 17 per 30 sec. Do.

2.32. Heart’s contractions 18 per 30 sec. Do.

2.34. Applied to surface of heart 1} minims of solution of 0:05 grain of strophanthin in 100 minims of
0°6 per cent. saline (=0-000625 grain).

2.36. Heart’s contractions 18 per 30 sec. Diastole brief and abrupt, systole longer, and ventricle becomes
only slightly pale.

2.38 to 2.41. Do. do.
2.43 to 2.45. Heart’s contractions 17 per 30 sec. Do.
2.46 to 2.48. Heart’s contractions 16 per 30 sec. Do.

2.50 to 3.0. Heart’s contractions 14 per 30 sec., systole decidedly longer, and during it the ventricle
becomes paler and a little smaller than before.

3.4. Heart’s contractions 14 per 30 sec. Ventricular diastole interrupted by pause on contraction of
auricles and before completion of ventricular diastole.

3.7 to 3.16. Heart’s contractions 13 per 30 sec. Both systole and diastole of ventricle very complete,
and in systole the ventricle becomes paler than before.

3.18 to 3.38. Heart’s contractions 12 per 30 sec.; the pause before completion of diastole has latterly
been more marked, Observations interrupted until

wr

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 395

4.5, p.m. Heart’s contractions 8 per 30 sec. LDiastole is only slowly completed, and the ventricle rests

4.8.

4.11.
4.13,
4.14,
4.16.

5.23.

motionless in complete diastole for about 5 sec. Ventricular systole is strong and complete, the
ventricle becoming small and pale.

Do. do. A little irregularity.

Heart remained motionless in extreme ventricular diastole for 1 min. 30 sec.

Heart’s contractions spontaneously resumed at rate of 6 per 30 sec.

Heart’s contractions 3 per 30 sec. Pauses in extreme ventricular diastole for about 5 sec.

Pause in extreme ventricular diastole for 30 sec. ; then 4 contractions in 25 sec.; then pause for
40 sec. ; then 1 contraction ; then pause for 3 min. ; then 5 contractions in 30 sec. ; then pause
for 3 min, ; then 2 contractions in 15 sec. ; then pause for 1 min.; then 10 contractions in 50
sec. ; then pause for 35 sec. ; then 5 contractions in 30 sec. ; then pause for 1 min. 10 sec. ; and
then 6 contractions followed again by pause. During the standstill of the heart, the ventricle is
always in the condition of extreme diastole ; and during the contractions, the ventricular systole is
powerful, and the ventricle becomes very pale and small. This remarkable condition of the
heart’s action continued, with much the same irregularities and characteristics, until 5.20.
Towards the end of this time it very frequently happened that, immediately before a movement
occurred of the ventricle, resting in extreme diastole, this movement was preceded by an auri-
cular contraction, which was not followed by contraction of the ventricle until the auricles had
again contracted. After the ventricle had contracted, also, complete diastole was only slowly
attained, contrasting markedly with the abrupt diastoles before Strophanthus had been applied
to the heart.

Heart’s contractions 1 per 60 sec. An interval of about 9 sec. elapses between the end of a com-
pleted ventricular systole and the attainment of complete diastole; then a pause of varying
duration, with the ventricle very large and dark; and then a powerful systolic contraction by
which the ventricle is thoroughly emptied of blood.

5.26 to 5.56. Do, At 5.56, however, 3 contractions occurred quickly after each other in 1 min. ;

7.30.

the first two with moderately abrupt ventricular diastole; the third with very slow attain-
ment of complete diastole, without, however, any observable antecedent contraction of the
auricles.

Heart’s contractions 1 per 60 sec. Pauses in extreme diastole ; systole strong and complete.

On the following day, at
10 a.m. Heart’s contractions 2 per 120 sec. Each movement from commencement of systole to slowly

completed extreme diastole occupies about 10 sec., and in the intervals the ventricle is
quiescent in extreme diastole. The systolic contractions are strong, and produce great pallor of
the ventricle.

10.36, 11.18, 12.30, and 2.30. Do. do. do.
On the third day, at

10.55.
10.58.

11.4,
Vai

1.20.

Heart’s contractions 6 per 30 sec. Pauses in extreme ventricular diastole.

Applied to the surface of the heart 3ths of a minim of the solution of strophanthin (=0-000375
grain),

Heart’s contractions 6 per 30 sec. Nearly regular and synchronous.

Pause in extreme diastole at times for 30 sec.; then for several minutes nearly regular contractions
at the rate of 6 per 30sec., with slowly attained extreme ventricular diastole ; then pause in
extreme diastole for 80 sec. ; then contractions, &c.

No contraction has occurred for 4 min. Irritation of the toes causes reflex movements of the
toes irritated, and also of the toes of the thoracic extremity of same side. Heart’s auricles are
large and dark, and the ventricle is large and moderately dark. Irritation of ventricle excites a
faint contraction in it, succeeded by slow relaxation to the former condition ; irritation of an
auricle excites a contraction of the auricle irritated. All spontaneous movements of the heart
have ceased. Excised the heart ; all its chambers contain much blood ; red litmus-paper applied
to a section of the ventricle gives a doubtful reaction.

396 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

am

Experiment LXXVIII.—Frog 556 grains in weight. 0°0005 grain of strophanthin
applied to the surface of the heart (= 0°000089 grain per 100 grains).

11.31 a.m. Brain destroyed.

11.36. Completed exposure of heart.

11.38 to 11.40. Heart’s contractions 18 per 30 sec.

11.42. Applied to the surface of the heart 1 minim of a solution of 0:05 grain of strophanthin in 100
minims 0°6 per cent. saline (=0-0005 grain).

11.44 to 11.56. Heart’s contractions 18 per 30 sec.

11.57. Heart’s contractions 18 per 30 sec. Systole seems stronger.

11.59 and 12.0. Do. do.
12.3. Heart’s contractions 14 per 30 sec. Diastole seems greater, and is more slowly attained than
before.

12.4. | Heart’s contractions 12 per 30 sec. Slight pause in extreme diastole.

12.6. Heart’s contractions 12 per 30 sec. Both systole and diastole seem increased. Diastole is inter-
rupted, and consists, first, of dilatation with moderate darkening, and then, after a faint pause,
of further dilatation and darkening, immediately succeeding contraction of the auricles.

.8 to 12.17. Heart’s contractions 14 per 30 sec. The pause during diastole has disappeared.

21. Heart’s contractions 12 per 30 sec. Peristaltic movements occur involving the whole heart.

.24 to 12.26. Heart’s contractions are not synchronous; 2 auricular contractions occur to 1 ventricular,
and in the pause the ventricle is in extreme diastole. Ventricular systole is powerful.

12.28. Fifteen auricular contractions to 1 ventricular contraction per 60 sec. Ventricle very large and

dark during standstill.

12.29. Some general struggles, immediately succeeded by a number of synchronous heart’s contractions.

12.30 to 12.32. The ventricle is motionless in extreme diastole. Auricular contractions 12 per 30 see.

12.32.30. Heart’s contractions spontaneously became again synchronous at rate of 8 per 30 sec. After
a minute, the pauses in extreme ventricular diastole become longer, and then the ventricle
ceased to contract; after 4 contractions of the auricles, the whole heart remained motionless
in diastole for 3 min.

12.36. Nine synchronous contractions spontaneously occurred ; then 2 contractions of the auricles (the
first strong, the second very feeble), and the whole heart again became motionless in extreme
diastole for 2 min.

Trregularities of a similar kind, with, invariably, standstill in extreme ventricular diastole, con-

tinued to occur till 12.59.

1.0. Heart’s contractions were limited to the auricles, which contracted at rate of 2 per 60 sec., and the
ventricle was motionless in extreme diastole. Occasionally respirations occur.

1.3. General struggles, followed by a few synchronous contractions of the heart.

1.5. | Ventricle motionless in extreme diastole ; rarely a feeble auricular contraction.

LS; Do. do.

2.30. Heart motionless. Ventricle large, but not quite so dark in colour as at 1.8. Irritation of any
part of the heart fails to excite contraction. General reflex excitability has disappeared.

In the preceding four experiments, the heart was brought to a standstill in systole,
in the experiment (LXXV.) in which the largest dose of Strophanthus was applied to its
surface ; systolic and diastolic exaggeration were both displayed in the experiment
(LXVI.) in which a rather smaller dose was applied, but systole ultimately prevailed,
and, when brought to a standstill, the heart’s ventricle was small and pale; while in the
two latter experiments (LXXVII. and LXXVIII.), in which the doses were the smallest,
ventricular diastole greatly predominated throughout, and the heart frequently paused

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 397

for several minutes in extreme diastole before it ultimately ceased to contract, with the
ventricle large and dark.

In the two latter experiments, also, although there was so great a predominance of
ventricular diastole, the systolic contractions of the ventricle were very strong and
complete during the greater portion of each experiment.

The reaction of the heart’s muscle was examined in two only of these experiments.
It was found to be acid in one of the experiments (LX XVI.) in which the systolic effect
predominated, and neutral, or nearly so, in one of the experiments (LX XVII.) in which
the diastolic effect predominated.

Cardiograph Tracings with Small and Large Doses respectively.

Several experiments were made for the purpose of obtaining graphic representations
of the changes produced in the heart’s contractions by Strophanthus. It was found a
comparatively easy matter to represent the changes produced by the application of such
doses as cause an exaggeration of the ventricular systole ; but difficulty was encountered
in obtaining tracings representative of exaggeration of the ventricular diastole, as the
tendency of even slight mechanical irritation, such as that produced by light pressure
upon the heart, is to divert the diastolic into the systolic type of change.

The plan adopted was to place the small metal plate of a Marry’s en ane
provided with a very light glass lever-rod, on the ventricle of the exposed heart of a
pithed frog. Large German frogs (Rana esculenta) were used, and care was taken to
place the metal plate of the cardiograph accurately upon the surface of the ventricle,
avoiding especially any contact with the auricles. The free distal extremity of the glass
rod was so adjusted as to record its excursions, with as little friction as possible, on a
revolving cylinder covered with smoked glazed paper. In some of the experiments the
brass plate resting upon the ventricle became displaced by the movements of the heart ;
but, in order to avoid any fallacies that might be caused by failure in accurately
replacing the plate in its original position, these experiments have been excluded, and
only those are recorded in which the plate retained exactly, or nearly exactly, its original
position throughout the experiment.

The first of these experiments, with its tracings, illustrates the type of action in
which systole predominates.

Experiment LXXIX.—Weight of frog (Rana esculenta), 1160 grains. 000375
grain of strophanthin in 0°05 per cent. solution (=0°000323 grain per 100 grains)
applied to the heart in divided doses during 3 hours 9 min. (Plate XIII.)

llam. Frog pithed.

3.45 p.m. Cardiograph applied.

3.51. Tracing No. 1.

3.54, Applied to the heart 4 minim (= 0-00025 grain) of above strophanthin solution.
4.20. Tracing No. 2.

4.21. Second application of strophanthin solution, } minim (=0-00025 grain).

398 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

4.26. Lowest portion of curve has fallen to the abscissa-line ; the drum was slightly lowered.

4.38. Third application of strophanthin solution, $ minim (= 0-00025 grain).

4.49, Tracing No. 3. The ventricle is much larger than before, and diastole is much increased.

5.20. Fourth application of strophanthin solution, 1 minim (=0-0005 grain),

5.24. Tracing No. 4. The curve has risen further above the abscissa-line.

5.35. Tracing No. 5.

5.42. Fifth application of strophanthin solution, 1 minim (=0-0005 grain),

5.46. Tracing No. 6.

6.7. Sixth application of strophanthin solution, 1 minim (=0-0005 grain).

6.33. Seventh application of strophanthin solution, 1 minim (=0-0005 grain).

6.40. Tracing No. 7.

7.38. Eighth application of strophanthin solution, 2 minim (=0-001 grain).

7.10. Tracing No. 8. The curve has risen still further above the abscissa-line.

7.13. Tracing No. 9.

7.18. The curve has risen much above the abscissa-line.

7.24. Tracing No. 10. The larger curve corresponds with the contraction of the auricles. Almost no
ventricular systole—only a slight ventricular impulse follows the propulsion of a little blood
into the ventricle from the auricles, and is represented by the second of the two curves. Only a
small part of the ventricles dilates.

Tracing No. 11. Do. do. The ventricle is small, and nearly the whole of it is continuously pale.

~I
oo
bo

The tracings in this experiment show, in the first place, considerable increase in the
movements of the ventricle, the diastolic expansion being large, and the systolic con-
traction very complete. Soon, however, the ventricular movements became diminished
by an exaggeration of the systolic condition, which increased so that very little ventricular
expansion occurred in the period of diastole, and long pauses took place in extreme
ventricular systole. Even in the last tracing, when the ventricle is almost motionless,
the auricular movements continued to be fairly large. (Plate XIII, tracing 11, a.)

Experiment LXX X.—Weight of frog (Rana esculenta), 1082 grains. 0°0025 grain
of strophanthin in 0°05 per cent. solution (=0°00023 grain per 100 grains) applied to
the heart in divided doses during 3 hours 17 min. (Plate XIV.)

1.30 am. Frog pithed.

3.40. Cardiograph applied.

3.43. Tracing No. 1.

3.47. Applied to the heart } minim (=0-00025 grain) of above strophanthin solution.

4.27. Second application of strophanthin solution, } minim (=0-00025 grain).

4.29. Lowest portion of cardiograph curve has fallen to the abscissa-line ; readjusted the lever.

4.40. Tracing No. 2.

4.42. Third application of strophanthin solution, 14 minims (=0-00075 grain).

4.45, Frequent fibrillary twitches of muscles of thorax and abdomen.

4.55, Tracing No. 3. Cardiograph curve has risen above abscissa-line. First portion of ascending line
of curve corresponds with contraction of the auricles, which is now much increased.

5. Tracing No. 4.

5.29. Tracing No. 5. First portion of ascending line of curve corresponds with auricular contraction.

5.56. Fourth application of strophanthin solution, 1 minim (=0-0005 grain).

6,0. Tracing No. 6. Great increase of both auricular and ventricular contraction, and also of

ventricular dilatation.
6.4. Fifth application of strophanthin solution, 1 minim (=0-0005 grain).

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 399

6.26. Tracing No. 7. First portion of ascending line indicates dilatation of the ventricle caused by
contraction of the auricles. The beginning of ventricular systole corresponds with the second
portion. Long pause in ventricular diastole. Both systole and diastole are exaggerated.

6.43. Sixth application of strophanthin solution, 1 minim (=0-0005 grain).

7.2. Tracing No. 8. See note at 6.26.

7.4. Seventh application of strophanthin solution, } minim (=0-00025 grain).

7.17. Tracing No. 9. See note at 6.26.

7.25. Tracing No. 10. Do.

7.50. Tracing No. 11. Do.

The cardiograph was removed from the heart, and the frog put aside until the following morning, when, at

11.30 a.m. The heart was motionless, with the exception of the left auricle, where faint spontaneous
movements were occurring at long intervals. The ventricle was moderately dark and dilated.

3.0 p.m. The ventricle is still motionless, but it is much smaller and much paler than at 11.30. The
auricles have become larger and darker, and they also are motionless.

In this experiment also, at first, there was shown considerable increase of ventricular
movement, with exaggeration of systole. Bye and bye, both the ventricular and auricular
movements were together increased, the increase of the latter being very great for a long
period. Later, ventricular systole predominated over diastole, although, for some time
during the experiment, ventricular diastole was the predominating condition.

Experiment LXXXI.—Weight of frog (Rana esculenta), 1310 grains. 0°001 grain
of strophanthin in 0°05 per cent. solution (=0'0000763 grain per 100 grains) applied to
the heart in two doses of 0°0005 grain each, separated by an interval of 25 min.

(Plate XV.).

115 2.m. Frog pithed.

On the following day, at
12.15. Cardiograph applied.
12.20. Tracing No. 1. Heart’s contractions very feeble.
12.26. Applied to heart 1 minim (=0-0005 grain) of above strophanthin solution.
12.26.40. The curve has fallen nearer to abscissa-line.
12.40. Tracing No. 2. First curve corresponds with contraction of the auricles; the second with con-
traction of the ventricle.
12.51. Second application of strophanthin solution, 1 minim (=0:0005 grain).
12.53. Tracing No. 3.
1.15. Tracing No. 4.
1.33. Tracing No. 5. Contractions of the heart irregular in character, bijeminal, the ventricular systoles
being alternately weak and powerful.
1.45. Tracing No. 6. Do., to even a more marked degree.
1.52. Tracing No. 7. Contractions again regular, with much increase both of systole and diastole of
ventricle.
2.2. Tracing No. 8. Do., ventricular systole less powerful. The curve has fallen nearer abscissa-line.
2.25. Tracing No. 9. Great increase of condition of systole in ventricle. The curve has risen.
2.32. Tracing No. 10. Do. do. Still further rise of curve from abscissa-line. Greater dilatation of
ventricle and auricles.
2.40. Curve again fell, and as it soon reached the abscissa-line, a readjustment of the lever was required.
2.45. Tracing No. 11. Contractions of heart, arhythmical, two auricular contractions occurring for one
ventricular contraction.

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 16). 3 P

400 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

2.58. Tracing No. 12. Contractions of heart irregular.

3.5. Tracing No. 13. Do., but less than before. Systole and diastole of ventricle both exaggerated.

3.25. Tracing No. 14. Great increase in systole and diastole both of ventricle and auricles. Long
pauses in diastole of ventricle. The curve has fallen below the abscissa-line.

3.42. Tracing No. 15. Great increase of ventricular diastole, with powerful and complete systolie con-
tractions. Rate very slow, only two contractions during two rotations of the drum (two beats
during 2 min. 30 sec.).

3.52. Tracing No. 16. Do. Rate still slower, only three contractions of the heart during eight rota-
tions of the drum (three beats during 8 min.). Long pauses in extreme ventricular diastole.

4.2. Tracing No. 17. Do., but systole not so strong. Two contractions of the heart during seven rota-
tions of the drum (two beats during 7 min. 48 sec.). The contractions are irregular in time and
character.

The cardiograph was now removed from the heart ; the ventricle was seen to be very
large and dark, and it remained motionless for many minutes in this state; but when
the heart was lightly touched, two or three strong and synchronous contractions took
place, and then the heart again became motionless with all the chambers, and especially
the ventricle, dark and large.

When again examined, at 5.17, the heart was motionless in the above state for 5 min.,
when two auricular contractions spontaneously occurred, which were followed by stand-
still of the heart in diastole for 9 min., when a single good contraction of the whole heart
occurred. After this contraction, the ventricle was not at first so large as it had been
before the contraction ; but it gradually became larger and darker, until the condition of
extreme. diastole was again assumed.

On the following day, at 11 a.m., the heart was motionless, with the ventricle of
medium size and no longer of dark colour. No contraction of any part followed
mechanical irritation. The muscle of the ventricle had a neutral reaction, and the skeletal
muscles, which were not rigid, had a distinctly alkaline reaction.

In Experiment LXXXI. there early occurred great increase of the ventricular move-
ments, even before the rate of contraction had become slowed, and then a relatively
brief period in which ventricular systole predominated over diastole, followed by a period
of irregularity in the character of the ventricular contractions during which a bijeminal
type was maintained (Plate XV. tracings Nos. 5and 6). This was succeeded by regularity
with much increase of ventricular movement, greater strength of contraction, and slowing
due mainly to pauses in ventricular diastole. Ventricular systole again predominated for
a short time ; but afterwards, and to the end of the experiment, ventricular diastole pre-
dominated, there being, at the same time, powerful and complete contractions of the
ventricle and of the auricles, until, after a period in which long pauses occurred in
diastole, the heart ceased to contract with all its chambers large and dark.

While, therefore, the graphic representations of Experiments LXXIX., LXXX., and
LXXXI., confirm the observations made in the previous experiments, they also pro-
minently display several effects that were not distinctly apparent in them.

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 401

Summary of Changes produced in the Heart's Action.

The evidence derived from the experiments in which the changes produced by Stroph-
anthus in the heart’s movements have been specially observed, appears to show that :—

1. A systolic type of change is produced by large doses and a diastolic by small
doses.

2. Whatever be the type, great increase occurs in the movements of the heart, by
exaggeration of expansion as well as of contraction. This occurs only tempo-
rarily where the type is systolic, but throughout, or nearly throughout, the
action where the type is diastolic.

3. Slowing of the rate of contraction is always produced. In the systolic type of
action, by prolongation of ventricular systole, and by actual pauses in extreme '
systole ; in the diastolic type, by prolongation of diastole, and by pauses in
extreme diastole.

4. The auricular expansions and contractions are increased as well as the ventricular,
and most obviously where the type is the diastolic one. The pumping capa-
bility of the whole heart, and not merely of the ventricles, is therefore increased,
especially when non-lethal or small lethal doses are administered.

5. The production of this increase in the movements of the heart, constituted by a
greater amplitude of diastolic expansion and a more complete systolic contrac-
tion, is significantly emphasized when the action of Strophanthus is produced
in an enfeebled and insufliciently acting heart, as in Experiment LXXXI.; and
this experiment is therefore of peculiar value in demonstrating the therapeutical
value of Strophanthus in heart disorders.

6. In the systolic type of action, the reaction of the muscle of the heart rapidly
becomes acid, indicating that Strophanthus acts on the heart muscle in the
same way as on the skeletal muscles; in the diastolic type of action, on the
other hand, the muscle of the heart is neutral or it may remain alkaline, even
for a considerable period of time after paralysis of the heart has been induced.

Il. Energy of Action on the Heart.

Many of the preceding experiments have shown that very minute doses of Stroph-
anthus are able to modify the contractions of the heart. They do so with an energy
sufficient to cause arrestment of the heart’s contractions, when, for instance, the ydoth
part of a grain of strophanthin is administered to a rabbit, and the go/opth part of a grain
to a frog, by subcutaneous injection.

Although these doses are undoubtedly very minute, still more striking evidence of
this great energy of the action upon the heart has been obtained in a further series of
experiments, in which extremely dilute solutions of extract and of strophanthin were

402 DR THOMAS R, FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

pumped through the isolated heart by its own contractions, according to WILLIAMS’
method.*

In these experiments, the heart was removed from a pithed frog, and the vertical limb
of a Y-shaped canula was inserted into the ventricle and tied at the auricles. Each
oblique limb of the canula was in connection, first, with a glass valve, and then, above
the valve, with a reservoir. The valve connected with the reservoir containing the
solution intended to enter the heart, closed on contraction of the ventricle, and so pre-
vented regurgitation out of the heart; while the valve connected with the reservoir
intended to receive the solution pumped out of the heart, closed with the back-flow of
the solution after it had been pumped out of the heart, and so prevented regurgitation
into the heart. Above the latter valve, a tube led to a mercury manometer, in which
floated a pen, by which the contractions of the ventricle could be recorded. The reservoirs

‘were placed at an elevation of from 8 to 9 inches above the heart, and the temperature
of the laboratory varied from 60° to 68° F. )

A mixture of blood-serum and saline (one part of defibrinated ox-blood and two parts
of 0°75 per cent. chloride of sodium solution) was first allowed to pass through the
heart, and, afterwards, this fluid, with a certain proportion of Strophanthus extract or of
strophanthin dissolved in it. It was found, then, when fed with the above mixed serum
and saline fluid, a frog’s heart was able to contract with regularity for many hours.

The results obtained in a number of experiments are stated below.

Experiments with Extract of Strophanthus.

No. of Experiment. Petey fee anaes Result.
LXXXII., 1: 10,000. Paralysis of heart in 5 min.
LXXXIILI, 1: 20,000. y ‘s 5 min.
LXXXIV., 1: 33,000. s E 8 min.

ae .@.0.0' 5 1 : 40,000. Fe 11 min.
| LXXXVL, 1 : 75,000. 0 : 14 min.
| LXXXVIL., 1 : 750,000. 5s 5 20 min.
LXXXVIIL., 1: 1,500,000. , a 20 min.
LXXXIX., 1 : 3,000,000. 7 > 31 min.
aC, 1: 3,000,000. : A 37 min.
ACL; 1 : 3,500,000. 5, ie 15 min.
XCII., 1 : 4,500,000, a . 22 min.
XCIIL., 1: 6,000,000. 33 # 20 min.
XCIV., 1 : 6,000,000, 5 * 26 min.
XCV., 1 : 8,000,000. 5 53 32 min.
OW Ls 1 : 9,000,000. ¥ 32 min.
MOWLE, .. 1 : 10,000,000. eur en 19 min.
SOVILL, . 1: 10,000,000. y 5 52 min.
| XCIX., 1: 15,000,000. “a 6 about 2 hours.
Cas 1 : 20,000,000. Heart not completely paralysed in 1 hour 5 min.
cr 1 : 20,000,000. Heart not completely paralysed in 3 hours.

* Archiv fiir Experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie, vol. xiii., 1881, p. 1.

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 403

Experiments uith Strophanthin.

Strength of Solution of

No. of Experiment. Strophanthin, Result.
CIL., : : ; 1 : 15,000,000. Paralysis of heart in 40 min.
CII, : : : 1 : 20,000,000. Heart nearly paralysed in 1 hour 50 min.
CIV., : : : 1: 20,000,000. Heart nearly paralysed in 1 hour 10 min.
OWE F : ; 1: 20,000,000. Paralysis of heart in 1 hour 53 min.

It is thus seen that so extremely dilute solutions as one part of extract in fifteen
million parts of fluid, and one part of strophanthin in twenty million parts of fluid, not-
only modify the contractions of the heart, but actually paralyse that organ. With solu-
tion of 1:4,500,000, 1:6,000,000, 1:8,000,000, 1:10,000,000, and even 1:20,000,000, the
reaction of the muscle of the ventricle, also, was found to be acid, within a few minutes
after paralysis had been produced.

In an unpublished series of experiments, made with my former assistant, Dr Srock-
MAN, the effect on the heart of a number of other substances has been examined by this
method. It is interesting to state that none of them was found to be so powerful as
Strophanthus. Assuming one part of strophanthin in fifteen million parts of fluid to be
the limit of dilution able to paralyse the frog’s heart, the experiment showed that
strophanthin is about eight times more powerful than adonidin, scillitoxin, or erytho-
phleeine ; twenty times more powerful than helleborein ; thirty times more powerful than
convallamarin ; three hundred times more powerful than digitalin ;* six thousand times
more powerful than saponin ; and more than thirty thousand times more powerful than
sparteine and caffeine.

The action of strophanthin upon the heart is, therefore, more powerful than that
of any other substance, with regard to which data exist wherewith to institute a
comparison.

I. Structures Involved and Nature of Involvement in the Production of the Changes
im the Heart's Action.

In the generally recognised uncertainties regarding many points in the physiology
of the heart, the problem of the determination of the action or actions by which
Strophanthus produces its effects upon this organ becomes a difficult one to solve. In
endeavouring to arrive at a solution, several facts, in addition to those already stated,
have, however, been ascertained, which appear at least to narrow the problem.

* This is when strophanthin is compared with Merck’s purest digitalin. When experiments were made with the
English digitalin, used in the experiments on blood-vessels (p. 420), strophanthin was found to act upon the heart three
thousand times more powerfully than it.

404 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

That the changes in the heart’s contractions are not the result of any action upon the
brain, has already been shown by the experiments in which they were produced after
destruction of the brain.

In other experiments, such as the following, the whole medulla, as well as the brain,
was destroyed before the administration of Strophanthus.

Experiment CVI.—Fifty-four min. after the brain and cord of a frog, weighing
250 grains, had been destroyed, the exposed heart was contracting regularly, though
feebly, at the rate of from 9 to 10 per 30 sec. 0°05 grain of extract of Strophanthus
was then injected under the skin of one thigh. In 30 min. thereafter, the heart’s con-
tractions were 10 per 30 sec.; and in 40 min., 8 per 30 sec. In 2 hours, the heart had
ceased to contract, and when standstill occurred the ventricle was pale and small, and
the auricles were large and dark. Mechanical irritation applied to the ventricle produced
no movement ; but when applied to the auricles, it produced a single faint contraction of
the auricles, which recurred on each of several repetitions of the irritation.

That this paralysis of the heart in ventricular systole was not due to destruction of
the brain and cord is shown by the following experiment.

Experiment CVII.—A. Twenty min. after the brain and cord had been destroyed
in a frog, weighing 290 grains, the exposed heart was contracting with regularity, at the
rate of 8 per 30 sec. 0°1 grain of extract of Strophanthus was then injected under the
skin of a thigh. The heart continued to contract, nearly regularly, for 1 hour thereafter.
In 1 hour 6 min., the auricles occasionally contracted twice for one contraction of the
ventricle. In 1 hour 15 min., the ventricle had become motionless in moderate systole,
while the auricles contracted 6 times in 30 sec. In 1 hour 20 min., the auricles had
also ceased to contract. For 15 min. subsequently, mechanical irritation of the ventricle
was followed, on each of several repetitions of the irritation, by a single contraction of the
ventricle and auricles; but soon afterwards even strong irritation failed to excite any
movement of the heart. The ventricle was now small and pale, and the auricles were
dilated and dark.

B. At the same time as Experiment CVII., A, was made, the brain and cord were
destroyed, and the heart was exposed in a frog, weighing 289 grains. The initial rate
of the heart—8 per 30 sec.—was maintained for 4 hours. On the following day the
heart’s rate was 6 for 30 sec. On the third day it was 7 per 30 sec., and the only other
change was feebleness of its contraction. On the fourth day it was 3 per 30 sec. On
the fifth day the heart was motionless, and non-contractile on irritation. (Experiment
CVII., A and B were made in winter, and the frogs were kept in a cold room with a
temperature that ranged between 36° and 40° F.)

In Experiments CVI. and CVIIL. paralysis of the heart was very slowly produced,
considering that the doses of Strophanthus were large. In both experiments, however,
it was found that the circulation in the web of the foot had become extremely sluggish
before Strophanthus had been administered. With the exception of this slowness of
action, the result of delayed absorption, the experiments show that destruction of the

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 405

brain and cord does not prevent Strophanthus from producing the same effects upon the
heart as follow the subcutaneous administration of large doses to uninjured animals. The
changes produced by such doses, therefore, are not the result of any action exerted upon
the brain and medulla.

Influence of the Vagus.

The characters of the modifications produced in the heart’s contractions, and especially
the increase of its diastole, rendered it of importance to determine if these modifications
are im any way dependent upon an influence exerted by Strophanthus upon the physi-
ological condition of the vagus. With this object, paralysis of the vagus was produced
by atropine before Strophanthus was applied to the heart, and also after the heart’s
action had already been affected by Strophanthus. A 0:2 per cent. solution of sulphate
of atropine was used, and, in preliminary experiments on frogs with the brain destroyed
and the heart exposed, it was found that the application of 2 minims of this solution
to the surface of the heart caused complete paralysis of the cardio-inhibitory function of
the vagus, lasting for at least 24 hours.

The experiments were made in Autumn with well-nourished and perfectly healthy
frogs. The brain was destroyed; and, after a moderate interval of time, the heart was
exposed, and the pericardium removed from its anterior surface, and the rate and
characters of the heart’s contractions were recorded.

Atropine before Strophanthin.—In the following five experiments the application of
strophanthin to the heart’s surface was preceded by the application of atropine.

Experiment CVIII.—Frog weighs 630 grains. 0°0045 grain of sulphate of atropine
applied to the heart before 0'001 grain of strophanthin.

10.46. Brain destroyed.

10.50. Frog tied down, heart exposed, and pericardium removed.

10.55. Heart’s contractions 12 per 30 sec. Ventricular systole deliberate, and ventricle becomes moder-
ately small and pale on its completion.

10.58. Do. do.

11.0. Applied to surface of heart 0-003 grain of sulphate of atropine in solution.

11.3 to 11.10. Heart’s contractions 13 per 30 sec.

11.12. Applied to surface of heart 0-0015 grain of sulphate of atropine in solution.

11.15 to 11.19. THeart’s contractions 13 per 30 sec.

11.20. Applied to surface of heart 2 minims of solution of 0:05 grain of strophanthin in 100 minims
0-6 per cent. saline (=0-001 grain).

11.23. Heart’s contractions 13 per 30 sec.

11.25. Do. No interruption of ventricular systole ; ventricular systole complete, and during it ventricle
seems smaller and paler than before.

11.27 to 11.46. Do. do.

11.49. Do. Systole longer, and diastole rather more abrupt than before.

11.51. Heart’s contractions 12 per 30 sec. A spot at apex of ventricle does not become pale during
systole.

11.52 and 11.53. Do. do.

11.55. Heart’s contractions 11 per 30 sec. Ventricular systole good ; diastolic dilatation greater than
before, and with faint interruption ; occasionally, a small “ pouch” during systole, at apex.

406 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

12.1. Heart’s contractions 10 per 30 sec. Systole good ; the diastolic movement seems now of same
length as the systolic ; no pouching of ventricle,

12.5. Heart’s contractions 8 per 30 sec. Ventricular diastole less complete; a small area at apex
remains continuously pale ; auricles are large and dark.

12.7. Heart’s contractions 10 per 30 sec. A larger area at apex remains continuously pale; ventricle
smaller.

12.9. Only a small area at right base of ventricle now dilates and darkens during diastole; ventricle small.

2.10. Ventricle motionless, small, and pale ; auricles contract 8 per 30 sec.

12.12. Do. do.

12.15. Heart’s contractions 6 per 30 sec., regular and rhythmical ; but while the auricles expand and
contract well, the ventricular diastole consists merely of an extremely faint darkening of the
ventricle, immediately followed by a return to a condition of paleness.

12.16. Ventricle again entirely motionless in extreme systole; auricles contract 6 per 30 sec., and they
are large and dark during diastole, especially the left auricle.

12.21. Ventricle remains motionless in extreme systole; auricular contractions irregular, 4 and 6 per

30 sec.

24. Auricular contractions 6 per 30 sec., feeble.

26. Auricular contractions irregular in time and strength and usually extremely feeble ; ventricle still

motionless in extreme systole.

12.27 to 12.34. Auricular contractions 1 per 30 sec.

12.37. No contractions of auricles ; the left auricle is moderately large ; the right is small.

12.38 to 1.28. Do.

1.30. Do. Inritation of ventricle does not produce any movement ; irritation of auricle produces a very
faint contraction, which is slow and almost restricted to the part of the auricle that was
irritated. Irritation of skin causes active general reflex movements.

1.34. Excised the heart: the ventricle contains a minute quantity of blood ; the auricles contain much
blood.

1.35. Sections of the walls of the ventricle have an acid reaction.

Experiment CLX.—Weight of frog, 670 grains. 0°006 grain of sulphate of atropine
was applied to the heart’s surface before 0°001 grain of strophanthin.

10.15. Brain destroyed.

10.21. Heart exposed, and pericardium removed from its anterior surface.

10.24 to 10.25. Heart’s contractions 17 per 30 sec. Diastole abrupt; systole relatively long, but when
complete the ventricle is still dark.

10.27. Applied to surface of heart 0-003 grain of sulphate of atropine in solution.

10.30. Heart’s contractions 17 per 30 sec.

10.33. Heart’s contractions 18 per 30 sec.

10.34 to 10.41. Heart’s contractions 19 per 30 sec. Ventricle does not become pale at end of systole.

10.42. Applied to surface of heart 0-003 grain of sulphate of atropine in solution.

10.49 to 10.52. Heart’s contractions 19 per 30 sec.

10.53 to 10.54. Applied to surface of heart 2 minims of solution of 0°05 grain of strophanthin in 100
minims 0°6 per cent. saline (=0-001 grain).

10.58 to 11.8. Heart’s contractions 18 per 30 sec.

11.9. Heart’s contractions 18 per 30 sec. Ventricle, and especially its apex, becomes paler in systole.

11.12. Heart’s contractions 17 per 30 sec. Ventricular systole is longer, and during it ventricle becomes
smaller and paler than before strophanthin had been applied.

11.13 to 11.25. Heart’s contractions 16 per 30 sec. Do.

11.28. Do. Ventricle remains dark in systole ; diastole is very complete.

11.31 Do. Both systole and diastole very complete.

11.34 to 11.40. Do. do.

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 407

11.42. Heart’s contractions 14 per 30 sec. Ventricular systole prolonged ; diastole brief and abrupt.

11.44 to 11.46. Do. do.

11.47. Heart’s contractions 10 per 30 sec. Often a slight pause at the end of completed diastole.

11.52. Heart’s contractions 9 per 30 sec. Systole greatly prolonged ; diastole abrupt.

11.54. Do. Ventricular systole strong and prolonged, and frequently having a peristaltic character.

11.56 to 12.1. Heart’s contractions 10 per 30 sec.

12.4. _Heart’s contractions 11 per 30 sec. Ventricular diastole abrupt ; systole prolonged, and area near
apex remains continuously pale. The pauses are in systole, and the ventricle dilates but little
during diastole, which consists of an abrupt and not great expansion immediately following the
contraction of the auricles.

12.7. Heart’s contractions 9 per 30 sec. Auricles large; ventricle, even when blood forced in by
auricles, scarcely one-half the original size, and nearly the whole of the posterior half is
continuously pale.

12.9 to 12.18. Do. Ventricle latterly very small, only a narrow strip, behind and extending from
base to near apex, darkens when the auricles contract, and the pauses are in ventricular systole.
Some general struggles.

12.22. Auricles now contract feebly, and cause merely a faint and brief redness of the small ventricle.
General struggles.

12.23. Auricles contract 11 times per 30 sec. No ventricular movement, and ventricle continuously pale.

12.27. Auricles contract 10 times per 30 sec., the contractions being at times strong and at other times
very feeble ; frequent general struggles.

12.36. Auricles contract 7 times per 30 sec. Ventricle motionless, pale, and small.

2.20. Excised the altogether motionless heart: ventricular cavity empty ; sections of the walls of the
ventricle tested with blue litmus-paper gave a distinctly acid reaction.

Experiinent CX.—Weight of frog, 860 grains. ‘Two applications, each of 0°003 grain
of sulphate of atropine, before application of 0°00075 grain of strophanthin.

12.24. Destroyed the brain.
12.29. Exposed the heart, and removed pericardium.
12.32. Heart’s contractions 17 per 30 sec. Diastole of ventricle abrupt, systole longer, but ventricle
remains dark throughout systole.
12.35 to 12.40. Do. do.
12.41. Applied to surface of heart 0°003 grain of sulphate of atropine in solution.
12.45 to 12.50. Heart’s contractions 20 per 30 sec. During systole, the ventricle becomes only slightly pale.
12.51 to 12.55. Heart’s contractions 21 per 30 sec. Do.
12.56. Again applied to surface of heart 0-003 grain of sulphate of atropine in solution.
12.59 to 1.3. Heart’s contractions 21 per 30 sec.
1.8and 1.11. Heart’s contractions 19 per 30 sec.
1.13. Applied to surface of heart 1 minim of solution of 0°05 grain of strophanthin in 100 minims
(=0-0005 grain).
1.15 to 1.26. Heart’s contractions 19 per 30 sec. Diastole still abrupt; systole more complete than formerly.
1.30. Heart’s contractions 17 per 30 sec.
1.32. Heart’s contractions 16 per 30 sec. Faint interruption before extreme diastole of ventricle ; both
systole and diastole complete.
1.35 to 1.49. Heart’s contractions 14 per 30 sec. Do.
1.54. Heart’s contractions 13 per 30 sec. Do.

Observations interrupted until
2.40. Ventricle and auricles very large and dark and motionless.
2.42. Strong general struggles, when contractions of heart recommenced.
2.47 to 3.23. Heart’s contractions irregular, 7 per 30 sec. Often two contractions follow each other
quickly, and then a pause occurs in extreme ventricular diastole. Ventricular systole is powerful,
and the ventricle becomes small and nearly colourless in systole, contrasting with its contractions

VOL. XXXVI. PART IL. (NO. 16), 3 Q

408 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

before strophanthin had been applied. Soon, standstill again occurred for 3 min. in extreme
ventricular diastole; then a single contraction, followed by standstill in extreme diastole for a
minute and a half; then a single strong contraction followed by diastolic standstill for a minute
and a half; and then 7 contractions during 45 sec. again followed by a long pause in extreme
ventricular diastole. This irregular action continued until 3.23, the pauses being invariably in
extreme ventricular diastole, and the systolic contractions of the ventricle being usually powerful.

3.24. At the end of a long pause, strong general struggles occurred ; and during this, and for a brief period
subsequently, the heart contracted rapidly. A long pause again occurred, and again struggles
with a brief resumption of the heart’s contractions took place; and this was several times repeated.

3.41 to 5.19. Heart’s contractions vary from 4 to 7 per 30 sec., the pauses are in extreme diastole, but
the ventricular systoles are powerful.

5.20. Applied to surface of heart 0°5 minim of solution of 0°05 grain of strophanthin in 100 minims
(=0:00025 grain).

5.22 to 7.45. Heart’s contraction much as described from 2.47 to 3.23, with similar irregularities, and
with pauses of from 7 sec. to 4 min. duration, with the ventricle in extreme diastole.

On the following day, at

5.30 p.m. The heart was contracting regularly and synchronously, at the rate of 9 per 30 sec., and there
was no evident exaggeration of either systole or diastole. Two minims of strophanthin solu-
tion (0°05 grain in 100 minims) were applied to the heart’s surface; and at 7.15 p.m., the
heart was motionless, with the ventricle small and pale.

Experiment CXI—Weight of frog, 410 grains. 0°003 grain, and afterwards 0:004
grain, of sulphate of atropine applied to the heart before 0°00062 grain of strophanthin.

2.38. Brain destroyed.

2.40. Heart exposed, and pericardium removed.

2.44 to 2.47. Heart’s contractions 16 per 30 sec.

2.48, Applied to surface of heart 0-003 grain of sulphate of atropine in 0-2 per cent. solution.

2.51 to 3.1. Heart’s contractions 16 per 30 sec.

3.4. Applied to surface of heart 0°004 grain of sulphate of atropine in 0°2 per cent. solution.

3.6 and 3.8. Heart’s contractions 16 per 30 sec.

3.9. Applied to surface of heart 14 minim of solution of 0:05 grain of strophanthin in 100 minims
(= 0°00062 grain).

3.12 to 3.16. Heart’s contractions 16 per 30 sec.

3.18. Heart’s contractions 15 per 30 sec. Ventricular systole appears slightly longer than before ;
diastole abrupt and without interruption.

3.26 to 3.29. Heart’s contractions 13 per 30 sec.

3.32. Heart’s contractions 12 per 30 sec., both systole and diastole good, but with slight interruption
towards end of diastole.

3.39. Heart’s contractions 11 per 30 sec. Distinct pause during ventricular diastole before complete
dilatation by contraction of auricles.

3.41 to 3.58. Heart’s contractions 10 per 30 sec. Ventricular systole is rather longer than the diastole.

4.0 to 4.8. Heart’s contractions 8 per 30 sec. Pauses in extreme diastole of the ventricle, for from 2 to
6 sec. The pause is before auricular contraction, which increases the amount of ventricular
dilatation, and is immediately followed by a strong and complete contraction of the ventricle,
after which the ventricle slowly dilates.

4.13. Heart’s contractions 6 per 30 sec. Do. do.

4.16. Complete standstill of the heart for 12 min., with very large and dark ventricle, and moderately
large auricles. A drop of saline applied to the heart did not excite any movement. Pinching
a foot caused some struggles, when a single contraction of the whole heart occurred, and was
followed by complete standstill with extreme ventricular diastole for 7 min. The observations
were now interrupted until

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 409

4.51. Heart still motionless in extreme ventricular diastole. On touching the heart, 4 contractions occurred,
and then the heart became motionless in the above condition, and it continued so until 5.0,
On the following day, at
11 am. ‘The heart was still motionless, but the ventricle was less distended than when the observations
were stopped on the previous day. Mechanical irritation produced no movement of ventricle
or auricles.

Experiment CXII.—Weight of frog, 662 grains. 0:003 of sulphate of atropine,
followed by 1 minim of 0°05 grain strophanthin in 100 minims (=0°0005 grain), applied
to heart.

11.4. Brain destroyed.

11.9. Heart exposed, and pericardium removed.

11.11 to 11.13. Heart’s contractions 23 per 30 sec. Abrupt diastole, relatively prolonged systole.

11.14, Applied to heart’s surface 0-003 grain of sulphate of atropine in 0-2 per cent. solution.

11.15 to 11.16. Heart’s contractions 22 per 30 sec.

11.17 to 11.25. Heart’s contractions 21 per 30 sec.

11.27 to 11.29. Heart’s contractions 22 per 30 sec.

11.30. Applied to surface of heart 1 minim of 0-05 grain of strophanthin in 100 minims (=0-0005 grain).

11.32. Heart’s contractions 22 per 30 sec.

11.33 to 11.38. Heart’s contractions 19 per 30 sec. Abrupt diastole, relatively prolonged systole of ventricle.

11.40 to 11.47. Heart’s contractions 18 per 30 sec. Do.

11.49 to 11.52. Heart’s contractions 16 per 30 sec. Do.

11.53 to 11.58. Heart’s contractions 15 per 30 sec. Slight interruption in early part of ventricular diastole.

12.0. Heart’s contractions 13 per 30 sec.

12.2 and 12.3. Heart’s contractions 10 per 30 sec.

12.4. Heart’s contractions 9 per 30 sec. Diastole of ventricle slow, with slight pause in complete diastole ;
systole powerful, complete, and deliberate.

12.6 to 12.9. Heart’s contractions 8 per 30 sec. Do.

12.13 to 12.22. Heart’s contractions 7 per 30 sec. Do. Ventricle is very large and dark in complete
diastole, and distinct pause then occurs.

12.29. Heart’s contraction 5 per 30 sec. Do. ; regular.

12.33. Heart’s contractions 4 per 30 sec. Irregular; distinct pauses of ventricle in complete diastole

12.34. Heart motionless for 1 min. in complete ventricular diastole.

12.35. Heart’s contractions 8 per 30 sec. Irregular pauses. Once two auricular contractions occurred for
one ventricular.

12.37. Pause for 40 sec. in complete ventricular diastole ; then a contraction followed by a pause for 40
sec. ; then a contraction followed by a pause for 30 sec.; and heart so continued to contract,
with varying pauses in extreme diastole of ventricle, till

1.5. When ventricle ceased to contract spontaneously, and remained at rest in extreme diastole. The
auricles continued to contract with diminishing rate and strength till 1.40.

1.41. Slight mechanical irritation of the ventricle or of either auricle was followed by a single feeble

- contraction of the chamber irritated. After the contraction the heart became motionless, with

the ventricle in extreme diastole, and the auricles in a moderately dilated condition ; and no
further spontaneous contractions occurred.

3.15. The ventricle is not quite so large as at time of previous note. The heart was excised, and sections
of the ventricular walls gave with red litmus-paper a distinctly alkaline reaction.

In these five experiments, therefore, the previous administration of atropine did not
prevent, nor, indeed, in any conspicuous manner modify, the production by Strophanthus
of the changes in the heart’s contractions which have been shown to follow its application
to frogs to whom no atropine had been administered (Experiments LXXV.—LXXVIII.).

410 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

Large doses caused changes in which ventricular systole predominated, and were soon
followed by acidity of the heart’s muscle; while small doses caused changes in which
ventricular diastole predominated, and the reaction of the heart’s muscle remained
alkaline for some time after standstill of the heart had been produced.

Further proof of several of these statements is given in the graphic representations
that illustrate the two following experiments.

Experiment CXIII.—Weight of frog (Rana esculenta), 1410 grains. 0°003 grain
of sulphate of atropine applied to the heart, and afterwards 0°001375 grain of strophanthin
in divided doses (Plate XVI.).

3.0. Frog pithed.
On the following day, at
11.40. Cardiograph applied.
11.45. Tracing No. 1.
11.48. Applied to heart 00015 grain of sulphate of atropine in solution.
11.53. Tracing No. 2.
11.54. Second application of 0:0015 grain of sulphate of atropine in solution.
12.5. Applied to heart 1 minim (=0-0005 grain) of 0-05 per cent. solution of strophanthin.
12.6. | Curve has fallen closer to abscissa-line.
1.30. Tracing No. 3. Auricular contractions much increased. Ventricular systole exaggerated.
2.5. Second application of strophanthin solution, 4 minim (=0°00025 grain). Curve has fallen to
abscissa-line ; raised the frog and cardiograph slightly.
2.40. Tracing No. 4.
3.25. Third application of strophanthin solution, } minim (=0:00025 grain),
3.27. Cardiograph curve rose further above the abscissa-line.
3.30. Tracing No. 5. Both auricular and ventricular movements continue to be larger.
4.7. Fourth application of strophanthin solution, $ minim (=0-00025 grain).
4,24. Tracing No. 6. Irregular. Long oblique line represents slow filling of ventricle before auricular

contraction.
4.46. Tracing No.7. Do. do. Large auricular and ventricular movements. Pauses in extreme diastole.
5.12. Tracing No. 8. Do. do. do. do.

5.54. Fifth application of strophanthin solution, + minim (=0-000125 grain).

5.58. Tracing No. 9. Pauses in diastole. Large first portion of rapidly ascending line of curve repre-

sents filling of ventricle by auricular contraction.

6.11. Tracing No. 10. Do. Do., but several auricular contractions precede each ventricular contraction.

6.38. Tracing No. 11. Do. Ventricular systole rather more prolonged.

The cardiograph was now removed: the auricles are large, and the ventricle
moderately large and dark. Two or three auricular contractions precede each ventricular
contraction, each contraction of the auricles expanding and darkening the ventricle, until
it has become of considerable size, when a fairly good ventricular contraction occurs.

On the following day, at

3.30 p.m. General rigor was present, and the heart was motionless, with the ventricle moderately large
and somewhat dark.

Experiment CXIV.—Weight of frog (Rana esculenta), 1510 grains. 0°003 grain of
sulphate of atropine applied to the heart, and afterwards 0°001625 grain of strophanthin
in divided doses, during two days (Plate XVIL.).

11.50. Frog pithed.
12.6. Cardiograph applied.

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 411

12.13. Applied to heart 00015 grain of sulphate of atropine in solution.

12.18. Second application of 0:0015 grain of sulphate of atropine in solution.

12.28. Tracing No. 1.

12.31. Applied to heart } minim (=0-00025 grain) of 0:05 per cent. solution of strophanthin.
12.42. Second application of strophanthin solution, 1 minim (=0-0005 grain).

1.0. Ventricular systole seems rather longer than diastole. Curve has risen from abscissa-line.

2.2. Tracing No. 2. Curve has fallen. Long pauses are in ventricular diastole.

2.22. Tracing No. 3. Long pauses in extreme ventricular diastole. In the curves, the first portion of
the nearly perpendicular ascending line represents auricular contraction ; the remainder of the
ascending line and the descending line to the end of the horizontal portion of its interruption
represents ventricular systole; and the remainder of the descending line and the oblique line
to the abrupt rise represents ventricular diastole.

2.45. Third application of strophanthin solution, + minim (=0-000125 grain).

4.9. ‘Tracing No. 4. Do. as at 2.2 and 2.22, with pauses in extreme ventricular diastole.

5.5, Removed cardiograph,

On the following day, at

3.30. Heart’s action rather feeble, but ventricular systole and diastole fairly good. Replaced cardiograph.

3.43. Tracing No. 5.

3.44. Fourth application of strophanthin solution, } minim (=0°00025 grain). Curve soon fell nearer
abscissa. Raised frog and cardiograph slightly.

4.28. Tracing No. 6.

4.30. Fifth application of strophanthin solution, } minim (=0:00025 grain).

4.57, Sixth application of strophanthin solution, 4 minim (=0-00025 grain). Curve again fell nearly
to abscissa-line. Raised frog and cardiograph slightly.

5.44, Tracing No. 7. Long pauses in ventricular diastole.

6.2. Tracing No. 8. Irregular, long pauses in extreme diastole of ventricle. Three good contractions
during two rotations of the drum, succeeded by a long pause in extreme diastole of the ventricle.

6.7. Removed cardiograph ; the heart is entirely motionless, with the ventricle and auricles large
and dark.

On the third day, at
2.40. The frog was in general rigor, and the heart, especially the ventricle, was pale and small.

Tn these two experiments, strophanthin was applied to the heart in such quantities as
to produce changes of the diastolic type, as they, obviously, are the only changes likely to
be produced by any influence exerted upon the heart through the vagi nerves. The
previous administration of atropine, however, did not succeed in preventing strophanthin
from producing changes in which diastole predominated markedly over systole.

Atropine after Strophanthus.

In the next series of experiments, an endeavour was made to ascertain if after the
production of early or of advanced Strophanthus effects, the administration of atropine
prevented the further usual effects from being developed, or removed those effects that
had already been developed.

Experiment CX V.—Large frog. 0°0005 grain of strophanthin applied to heart, and
0°004 grain of atropine applied 23 min. afterwards.

12.15. Cord divided at base of brain.

12.18. Heart exposed, and pericardium removed.

12.21 to 12.23. Heart’s contractions 22 per 30 sec.
12.25. Applied to surface of heart 1 minim of solution of 0-05 grain of strophanthin in 100 minims

(=0-0005 grain).

412

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

12.27 to 12.30. Heart’s contractions 22 per 30 sec.

12.35. Heart’s contractions 16 per 30 sec.

12.38 to 12.41. Heart’s contractions 13 per 30 sec. Ventricular systole markedly increased.

12.42. Heart’s contractions 10 per 30 sec. Ventricular systole greatly increased and peristaltic; very
little expansion in diastole. A distinct interval seems to separate contraction of each chamber
of heart.

12.48. Applied to heart’s surface 0:004 grain of sulphate of atropine in solution.

12.49. Heart’s contractions 5 per 30 sec. Ventricular diastole seems greater ; no peristalsis.

12.51 and 12.52. Heart’s contractions 1 per 30 sec., synchronous. Ventricle is larger and darker in diastole.

12.53. Some general struggles.

12.53.30. Heart’s contractions 10 per 30 sec. Several struggles.

12.55. Heart’s contractions 7 per 30 sec. Then no contraction during 4 min., with ventricle small and
pale, except a few small] areas of darkness,

12.59. Heart’s contractions spontaneously resumed for 30 sec., when 11 contractions occurred of ventricle
alone, which, however, remained pale during diastole,

12.59.30 to 1.0. Heart motionless in ventricular systole till

1.2, | When, after some strong general struggles, spontaneous contractions were resumed for 3 min.,
starting at rate of 15 per 30 sec,, but gradually becoming slower and feebler; and during this
time no darkening, and almost no expansion, of the ventricle occurred in the intervals between
the contractions.

1.5. Heart motionless. General struggles occurred several times, but were not now followed by resump-
tion of contractions. Ventricle small and pale.

1.7. Mechanical irritation of either auricle produced no contraction ; but of the ventricle, a single very
feeble contraction of the ventricle if the irritation was strong. Latterly, only the left base
of the ventricle contracted on irritation.

1.12 to 1.30. Heart motionless, even on strong irritation, with the ventricle very small and almost
white, and the auricles rather small. Occasionally throat respirations occur.

Experiment CX VI.—Weight of frog, 440 grains. 0°0005 grain of strophanthin

applied to the heart, and 0°003 grain of atropine applied 15 min, afterwards.

2.42. Brain destroyed.

2.45. Heart exposed, and pericardium removed,

2.48 to 2.51. Heart’s contractions 21 per 30 sec.

2-53. Applied to surface of heart 1 minim of solution of 0°05 grain of strophanthin in 100 minims
(=0-0005 grain).

2.55 to 3.3. Heart’s contractions 21 per 30 sec.

3.6. Heart’s contractions irregular. ‘‘ Pouches” form in the ventricle.

3.7. Heart’s contractions 8 per 30 sec., non-synchronous, frequently two contractions of auricles to one of
ventricle. Ventricular systole strong and prolonged, and diastole brief and incomplete.

3.8. Applied to surface of heart 0:003 grain of sulphate of atropine in solution.

3.10 to 3.15. Heart’s contractions 10 per 30 sec., generally two contractions of auricle for one contraction
of ventricle.

3.21 to 3.28. Ventricular contractions 6, auricular 17, per 30 sec., and often only the left auricle
contracts,

4,0. Heart’s contractions have altogether ceased. All the chambers are pale, and the ventricle is very
small.

4.1. Mechanical irritation of the ventricle or of either auricle fails to cause any movement. Frequent
general struggles occur, and the reflexes are active.

In Experiments CXV. and CXVL, therefore, the application to the heart of atropine

after the production of distinct effects by relatively large doses of strophanthin did not

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 413

remove these effects, nor prevent the development in the heart of changes characteristic
of the systolic type of action of Strophanthus.

Experiment CXVII.—Weight of frog, 460 grains. 0:0005 grain of strophanthin
applied to heart, and afterwards 0°003 grain of atropine.

12.48. Divided the cord at the base of the brain.
12.52 to 12.59. Heart’s contractions 21 per 30 sec.

1.0. Applied to surface of heart 1 minim of solution of 0:05 grain strophanthin in 100 minims (= 0-0005
grain).

1.1 to 1.6. Heart’s contractions from 21 to 20 per 30 sec.

1.8 to 1.23. Heart’s contractions from 19 to 15 per 30 sec.

1.24, Heart’s contractions 14 per 30 sec. ; slightly irregular.

1.25 to 1.31. Heart’s contractions 13 to 11 per 30 sec.

1.32. Heart’s contractions 4 per 30 sec. Ventricle pauses in extreme diastole, during which several
auricular contractions occur.

1.34. Heart’s contractions 8 per 30 sec., irregular, and immediately after systole the ventricle occasionally
“pouches” at its apex.

1.36. Ventricle motionless in extreme diastole for 50 sec.; the auricular contractions are 18 per 30
sec,

1.37 to 1.39. Heart’s contractions irregular and non-synchronous ; ventricle often at standstill for 40 sec.
in extreme diastole, while auricular contractions are proceeding. When the ventricle is motion-
less, general struggles usually cause a resumption of its contractions.

1.42 to 1.46. Ventricular contractions 2, and auricular 12, per 30 sec. Ventricular standstill is in
extreme diastole.

1.47 to 1.49. Ventricle motionless in extreme diastole, Auricular contractions 12 per 30 sec.

1.49.30 to 2.3. Ventricular contractions from 2 to 3 per 30 sec. ; auricular contractions from 9 to 12
per 30 sec. ; pauses of ventricle are in extreme diastole, and its systolic contractions, though
brief, are powerful and complete.

2.5 to 2.15. Ventricle is motionless in extreme diastole, and notwithstanding occasional struggles.
Auricles contract from 7 to 3 per 30 sec.

2.20. Ventricle motionless since 2.5 ; now the auricles also have ceased to contract.

2.21. Strong struggles, during which one ventricular contraction, followed by standstill in extreme
diastole.

2.22. Applied to the surface of the heart 0-003 grain of sulphate of atropine in solution.

2.23 to 2.27. Heart motionless, except on two occasions, when violent general struggles were followed by
one or two feeble contractions of ventricle and auricles.

2.30. Struggles, during which only the auricles contracted.

2.32. Struggles are no longer followed by contractions. The ventricle continues large and dark.

2.40 to 2.58. Do., but the ventricle, though still in marked diastole, has gradually become smaller. f

2.59 to 3.17. Mechanical irritation of ventricle always produces a good contraction of it, succeeded by
standstill in extreme diastole, but the diastole gradually and spontaneously becomes less extreme.
Towards the end of this time, irritation of the auricles caused no movement, while irritation of
the ventricle caused a good contraction, restricted to the ventricle.

5.15. Ventricle is now small and pale, and irritation causes no movement.

In this Experiment the diastolic type predominated, and was not removed by the
application of atropine. Although the ventricle ultimately assumed a systolic condition,
this is explained, at least partly, by the frequent mechanical irritations which were
purposely applied to the heart after its standstill in diastole.

414 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

Experiment CX VIII.—Weight of frog, 620 grains. On first day, 0°0005 grain of
strophanthin applied to heart, and on each of two subsequent occasions 0°003 grain of
atropine ; on second day, 0°003 grain of atropine applied, and 17 min. afterwards 0°00075
grain of strophanthin.

12.44. Destroyed brain.

12.50. Exposed heart, and removed pericardium.

12.51 and 12.52. Heart’s contractions 20 per 30 see.

12.54. Applied to surface of heart 1 minim of solution of 0°05 grain of strophanthin in 100 minims

(=0-0005 grain).

12.56 to 1.14. Heart’s contractions from 19 to 13 per 30sec. Latterly, both systole and diastole more

complete than before application.

1.16 to 1.30. Heart’s contractions from 12 to 11 per 30 sec. While ventricular systole continues to be
very complete and strong, faint pauses occasionally, and especially latterly, occur at the end of
diastole.

1.37 to 1.59. Heart’s contractions from 9 to 4 per 30 sec. Distinct pauses in complete diastole of
ventricle, often for 4 or 5 sec. ; latterly, occasional slight irregularities in rhythm.

2.0 to 2.24. Heart’s contractions from 4 to 3 per 30 sec., regular and synchronous. Pauses in extreme
diastole of the ventricle for 7 or 8 see.

2.25. Applied to surface of heart 0°003 grain of sulphate of atropine in solution.

2.28 to 3.3. Heart’s contractions from 4 to 3 per 30 sec. Ventricle pauses in extreme diastole for 7 or
8 sec.

3.5. Applied to surface of heart 0:003 grain of sulphate of atropine in solution.

3.8 to 5.27. Heart’s contractions from 3 to 2 per 30 sec. Ventricle pauses in extreme diastole for 8 or
10 see.

On the following day, at

3.35 p.m. Heart’s contractions 14 per 30 sec. Whole heart is large and very dark in diastole, and a
faint pause occurs before auricular contraction in extreme ventricular diastole ; ventricular
systole is weak.

3.38. Applied to surface of heart 0:003 grain of sulphate of atropine in solution.

3.24 to 3.54. Heart’s contractions from 14 to 13 per 30 sec.

3.55. Applied to surface of heart 14 minims of solution of 0:05 grain strophanthin in 100 minims

( =0-00075 grain).

3.58 to 4.7, Heart’s contractions 12 per 30 sec. Ventricular systole feeble, and when complete the
ventricle is still dark, and is not very small.

4.9. Heart’s contractions 12 per 30 sec. Ventricular systole stronger, and longer in duration ; diastole
rather less, and left base of ventricle does not darken during it.

4.10 to 4.13. Heart’s contractions from 11 to 4 per 30 sec., and only the apex and right base of the
ventricle now darken during diastole.

4.17. Heart’s contractions 3 per 30 sec, Ventricular diastole very imperfect; ventricle nearly con-
tinuously small and pale.

4.21. No diastole or movement of ventricle during 90 sec. ; then a few fairly strong contractions, during
which, however, the ventricle remains small and pale; and then complete standstill of heart,
with ventricle very small and white, and auricles large and distended.

4.27 to 4.54. Heart continues motionless in extreme systole of ventricle. The heart was now excised,
and sections of the wall of the ventricle produced a faint redness of blue litmus-paper.

In this experiment the inability of atropine to remove extreme diastolic preponder-
ance of change was clearly shown during the first day. In the second day, the renewed
application of atropine, previously to that of strophanthin, failed in preventing the
latter from converting the diastolic into the systolic type of Strophanthus action.

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 415

Experiment CXIX.—Frog weighs 530 grains. 0°00075 grain strophanthin applied

to the heart, and in 30 min. afterwards 0-003 grain of atropine.

1.20. Brain destroyed.

1.23. Heart exposed, and pericardium removed.

1.29 and 1.31. Heart’s contractions 14 per 30 sec.

1.32, Applied to surface of heart 14 minims of solution of 0°05 grain of strophanthin in 100 minims
(=0-00075 grain).

1.37. Heart’s contractions 13 per 30 sec.

1.42 to 1.48. Heart’s contractions 10 per 30 sec. Slight pause in ventricular diastole.

1.53. Heart’s contractions 9 per 30 sec. Do. Both systole and diastole of ventricle more complete.

2.0. Heart’s contractions 8 per 30 sec. Do. do.

2.2. Applied to surface of heart 0-003 grain of sulphate of atropine in solution.

2.4 to 2.8. Heart’s contractions 8 per 30 sec. Good diastole and increased systole of ventricle. Some
struggles.

2.10 to 2.16. Heart’s contractions 9 per 30 sec. A small portion of apex of ventricle does not become
so dark in diastole as the rest of the ventricle.

2.19. Heart’s contractions 2 per 30 sec. Pauses for 4 or 5 sec. in extreme diastole of ventricle.
Both systole and diastole of ventricle very complete.

2.24 to 2.28. Pauses of ventricle for from 30 to 50 sec. in extreme diastole, each followed by four
or five complete systolic contractions.

2.32 to 2.40. Do., but ventricle pauses are usually for 60 or 65 sec.

2.43 to 3.20. Heart motionless for about 24 min., with ventricle very large and dark ; then two good
contractions in which the ventricle becomes very pale; and then complete and final standstill,
with ventricle very dark and large.

6.12. Heart still motionless, but the ventricle is not so dark or large as at 3.20. The auricles are of
medium size.

In the above experiment, after a moderate production of Strophanthus action
indicative of the diastolic type, the application of atropine failed to arrest the usual
further developments of this type, and even the complete standstill of the heart in
extreme ventricular diastole.

Experiment CXX.—Weight of frog, 558 grains. 0°0005 grain of strophanthin

applied to the heart, and afterwards (on following day) 0°003 grain of atropine.
12.23. Brain destroyed.
12.30. Exposed heart, and removed pericardium.
12.33 to 12.35. Heart’s contractions 21 per 30 sec.
12.36. Applied to surface of heart 1 minim of solution of 0°05 grain of strophanthin in 100 minims
(=0-0005 grain).
12.38 to 12.54. Heart’s contractions 21 per 30 sec.

1.3 to 1.37. Heart’s contractions from 19 to 13 per 30 sec.

1.39 to 1.51. Heart’s contractions from 12 to 9 per 30 sec. Both systole and diastole of ventricle very
complete, and occasionally a brief pause during latter. Latterly some irregularities in rhythm.

1.56 to 2.23, Heart’s contractions from 8 to 3 per 30 sec. Regular, with distinct pauses during each
ventricular diastole.

2.27 to 3.25. Heart’s contractions 3 per 30 sec. Ventricle sometimes pauses in extreme diastole for 8 sec.

3.28, Heart's contractions 24 per 30 sec., and synchronous. Both ventricular systole and diastole very
complete, the former being brief, and the latter slow with long pauses in extreme diastole.
Auricular systole immediately precedes the ventricular, and, accordingly, extreme ventricular
diastole is attained long before blood is forced into the ventricle by the auricular systole.

3.45 to 7.10. Heart’s contractions from 1 to 14 per 30 sec. Long pauses in extreme diastole of the ven-
tricle, often for 25 sec., in which case the time from the commencement of systole to complete
diastole is about 4 sec.

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 16). 3R

416

7.16.

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

Do. Occasional throat respirations, and fairly strong general struggles.

On the following day, at
10.30 to 10.40 a.m. Heart’s contractions from 1 to 14 per 30 sec. Pauses in extreme diastole of the ventricle.

10.43.

Applied to surface of heart 0:003 grain of sulphate of atropine in solution.

10.47 to 1.55, Heart’s contractions from 1 to 2 per 30 sec. Pauses in extreme diastole of ventricle. No

respiratory movements. Active reflex contractions.

It is shown by this experiment that after the diastolic type of cardiac action had been
in existence for several hours, atropine was unable to prevent its continuance for at least
3 hours longer.

In the next two experiments of this series, the changes in the heart are illustrated by
cardiographic tracings exhibiting the systolic and the diastolic type, respectively, of
Strophanthus action.

Experiment CX XI.—Weight of frog (Rana esculenta), 1320 grains. 0°002 grain of
strophanthin applied to heart in divided doses, and afterwards 0°003 grain of sulphate of

atropine.

DU:
1.25.
1.30.
1.34.
1.49.
2.15.
2°55.
3.1.
3.18.

3.20.
3.30.
3.35.
3.48.

4.20.

(Plate XVIIL)

Frog pithed.

Cardiograph applied.

Tracing No. 1.

Applied to heart 4 minim of 0:05 per cent. solution of strophanthin (=0-00025 grain),

Second application of strophanthin solution, 1 minim (=0-0005 grain).

Third application of strophanthin solution, 1} minims (=0:00075 grain).

Cardiograph curve has fallen below abscissa-line ; raised frog and cardiograph.

Fourth application of strophanthin solution, 1 minim (=0-0005 grain).

Tracing No. 2. Slowing and considerable increase of auricular contraction. Ventricular pauses
are in diastole.

Applied to heart 0-003 grain of sulphate of atropine in solution.

Cardiograph tracing has risen further from abscissa, requiring a readjustment.

Ventricle is smaller and paler, and it dilates much less during diastole.

Tracing No. 3. Curve is chiefly produced by auricular contraction, only the slight elevation in the
descending portion being produced by the ventricle systole.

Tracing No. 4. Extremely faint, doubtful contractions of ventricle, which is small and pale.
Removed the cardiograph: ventricle very pale and small ; auricles large and dark.

Experiment CXXII.—Weight of frog (Rana esculenta), 780 grains. 0°0015 grain
of strophanthin applied to heart in four doses, and afterwards 0°003 grain of sulphate of

atropine.

tractions,

10.50.
2.30.
2.38.
2.48.
3.0.
3.15.
4.0.
4.2.
4.26.
4.46,
4.57.
5.16.

On the following day, the vagus tested, and tracings taken of the heart’s con-

after a fifth application of strophanthin. (Plate XVIIL)

Frog pithed.

Heart exposed.

Heart’s contractions 16 per 30 sec.

Applied to heart 1 minim of 0:05 per cent. solution of strophanthin (=0-:0005 grain).

Heart’s contractions 14 per 30 sec.

Heart’s contractions 12 per 30 sec. Ventricular systole complete, diastole prolonged.

Heart’s contractions 11 per 30 sec. Do.

Second application of strophanthin solution, } minim (=0:00025 grain).

Heart’s contractions 10 per 30 sec. Distinct pauses of ventricle in extreme diastole.
Do. do.

Third application of strophanthin solution, } minim (=0-00025 grain).

Heart’s contractions 8 per 30 sec. Ventricle occasionally pauses in extreme diastole.

5.26.

6.5.

6.6.
6.8.

6.21.
6.38.
6.41.
6.50.

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 417

Fourth application of strophanthin solution, 4 minim (0-00025 grain).

Heart’s contractions 3 per 30 sec. ; pauses for 10 or 12 sec, in extreme diastole of the ventricle ;
nearly regular, but occasionally 2 auricular for 1 ventricular contraction.

Applied to heart 0-003 grain of sulphate of atropine in solution,

Heart’s contractions 3 per 30 sec. Pauses in extreme ventricular diastole, systole strong and complete.

Do. do.
Heart’s contractions 2 per 30 sec. do.
Do. do.

Heart’s contractions usually 2 per 30 sec., but now and then 5 or 6 per 30 sec. Pauses in extreme
diastole of ventricle, but systole is complete.

On the following day, at
2.0 p.m. Heart’s contractions 6 per 30 sec. Pauses in extreme ventricular diastole.

2.5. Vagus exposed and isolated.

2.30. Vagus stimulated with induced interrupted currents from a Danretw’s cell and Du Bots Reymonn’s
coil; no cardiac inhibition was produced with the secondary at 80, 50, 10, or 5 mm. ; and slight
acceleration of the heart followed each vagus stimulation.

2.45 and 3.0. Do.. do.

3.25 and 3.45. Heart’s contractions 6 per 30 sec.

4.3. Heart irregular and occasionally pauses for 30 sec. in extreme ventricular diastole.

4.8. Cardiograph applied.

4.16. Tracing No. 1.

4.18. Fifth application of strophanthin solution, $ minim (=0-00025 grain).

4,45, Tracing No. 2. Pauses in extreme diastole of ventricle.

5.20. Tracing No. 3. Do.

5.22, Removed cardiograph.

5.25. Ventricle at standstill in almost extreme diastole for more than a minute.

5.30. A few, 9 or 10, contractions of heart ; then standstill of auricles and ventricle for 4 min., during
which yentricle large and dark ; then a few contractions, the latter with longer intervals between
them than the former ; and then standstill of all chambers for 5 min.

5.40. During standstill slight mechanical irritation is followed by several good contractions, with gradually
increasing intervals, until contractions cease with the heart large and dark.

5.47. During a series of excited contractions each vagus was stimulated with galvanism, but no cardiac
inhibition resulted, even when the secondary coil was at 0.

5.98. During a lengthened standstill of the heart, mechanical irritation, even when strong, of the ventricle

and auricles of the heart failed to cause any contraction ; but, nevertheless, spontaneous con-
tractions again occurred in series of 6 or 8 contractions which were rhythmical, and attended
with strong ventricular systole and large diastole.

6.0 to 6.15. Do. do. A series of 6 or 8 spontaneous contractions occur every 5 or 6 min., and each

series is followed by a long standstill with the ventricle in diastole.

On the third day, at
4.0 p.m. The ventricle was motionless, and of medium size and moderately dark ; while the auricles were

contracting regularly 2 per 30 sec.

While the first of these two experiments (CX XI.) merely illustrates the inability of
atropine to prevent systolic arrestment of the ventricle by Strophanthus, the second
experiment (CX XII.) is peculiarly instructive, not only because it gives further evidence
of the inability of atropine to remove the already produced diastolic type of change in
the heart’s action, but also because it gives illustrations of this type of change after
demonstration of the existence of atropine paralysis of the cardio-inhibitory function of
the vagus.

The experiments in which atropine was administered, either before or after Stroph-

418 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

anthus, have therefore shown that the production by relatively large doses of Strophanthus
of increase of ventricular systole and of standstill of the heart, with the ventricle pale and
strongly contracted, cannot be prevented by atropine. Contrary to expectation, they
have also, however, shown that paralysis of the cardio-inhibitory branches of the vagus by
atropine cannot prevent relatively small doses of Strophanthus from producing slowing of
the heart by prolongation of ventricular diastole, and even from producing standstill of the
ventricle in a condition of extreme diastolic enlargement. At the same time, it has been
found that these results of small doses of Strophanthus are more ditlicult to be obtained
when atropine is also administered ; but this difficulty may be explained by the removal,
as a result of the administration of atropine, of the normal and continuously operating
influence of inhibition, which, when present, aids the action of small doses of Strophanthus
in producing exaggeration of diastole. As the diastolic type of action may also occur
after distraction of the brain and medulla, it is, therefore, indicated that the exaggeration
of ventricular diastole, which is caused by Strophanthus, is not the result of stimulation
of any part of the vagus cardio-inhibitory apparatus.

At the same time, as the followmg experiment shows, the inhibitory power of the
vagus over the heart is not paralysed by Strophanthus, during the time in which profound
changes in the heart’s action are being produced by it.

Experiment CX XIII.—In a pithed frog, the heart was exposed and the trunks of the
vagi nerves were dissected and isolated. The minimal current froma Du Bots induction
coil and a DaANTELU’s cell, capable of arresting the heart’s contractions, was that obtained
with the secondary at 90 mm. After the several stimulations of the vagus required to
determine this minimal, the contractions of the heart became slow and feeble, the rate
being only 6 per 30 see.

One minim of a solution of 0°05 grain of strophanthin in 100 minims of water
(=0°0005 grain) was placed upon the heart’s surface. The contractions soon after-
wards became irregular, and occasionally they ceased for several seconds at a time,
with the ventricle in extreme diastole. In 12 min., in 15 min., and in 40 min. after the
application of Strophanthus, the minimal current that produced cardiac standstill was
90 mm.; but in 57 min. it was 80 mm. After the last stimulation, the pauses of the
ventricle in extreme diastole became so prolonged and so irregular in occurrence, that
trustworthy results could no longer be obtained.

Further evidence of the retention by the vagi of their cardio-inhibitory function
during the action of Strophanthus, will be adduced in the description of experiments on
the circulation in rabbits.

Summary of Examination of Structures involved, and Nature of Involvement, in the
Production of the Changes in the Heart’s Action.

The consideration of the structures affected, and of the pharmacological change
produced upon them, has rendered it very apparent that one of the structures is the

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 419

cardiac muscle itself. It is directly acted upon by Strophanthus ; and the chief result of
the action is an increase of its contractility, rendering systole more prolonged and perfect.

With a considerable or a large dose of Strophanthus, the systolic type of change is
produced, in which, by a direct action on the heart’s muscle, the capability to relax is
diminished, until diastole becomes impossible, and the heart ceases to pulsate, with the
ventricle so thoroughly contracted that its cavity is almost effaced, and with the cardiac
muscle so profoundly modified that it passes at once into a state indistinguishable from
that of rigor mortis. The cardiac muscle appears, therefore, to be affected in the same
way as the skeletal muscles.

While the production of the type of cardiac action distinguished as the systolic
admits of clear explanation, there is considerable difficulty in satisfactorily explaining the
production of the changes characterising the diastolic type. Being produced only by small
doses, this type has the special interest that it is representative of the changes which
must occur when Strophanthus is administered for therapeutic purposes. Even in the
extreme form of its production, the irritability and contractility of the heart are not
destroyed ; for, in experiments that have been described, during actual standstill of the
heart in extreme diastole, mechanical irritation nearly invariably caused a perfect contrac-
tion of the heart, and rhythmic contractions every now and then spontaneously occurred ;
while actual loss of contractility appeared only when the largely-dilated ventricle, after
along period of suspended action, gradually lost its abnormal dilatation by slowly and
imperceptibly shrinking to normal or smaller than normal dimensions.

The evidence afforded by the experiments in which the diastolic type of change
occurred notwithstanding the administration of atropine, appears to exclude stimulation
of any part of the cardio-inhibitory apparatus as the cause of its production. There
remain as possible explanations a direct action either on the muscle of the heart or on
the excito-motor nerve structures.

The former explanation is improbable, as it implies that Strophanthus is capable in
small doses of exerting an action on muscle of a kind contrary to that which it
undoubtedly exerts in large doses. It is also contrary to evidence, for even in extreme
forms of the diastolic type of action, the contractions of the heart are strong, although
not rapid, and they are sufficient completely to empty the ventricle of the large volume
of blood which it had contained during its exceptionally dilated state. Further, no
experimental evidence has been obtained of a dilating action on muscle.

In favour of a weakening of the excito-motor nerve structures are the circumstances
that such a weakening, combined with an increase of muscle contractility, would account
for the changes constituting the diastolic type of cardiac action ; that when the ventricle
is at rest in diastole, strong stimuli may cause it to contract, while gentle stimuli fail to
do so; and that spontaneous contractions sometimes occur after several successive con-
tractions of the auricles have greatly distended the ventricle, although a single auricular
contraction does not interrupt the standstill of the ventricle in moderate diastole.

At the same time, weakness of the excito-motor nerve structures alone would not

420 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

adequately explain the changes in the heart’s action characterising the diastolic type. It
is necessary to regard this action as operating simultaneously with the action on muscle
that tends to increase its contractility ; the former slowing the rate of contraction, and
giving an opportunity for the heart to receive an exceptionally large volume of blood,
the latter rendering each contraction a more perfect and complete one than it otherwise
could be. In such combination, therefore, as results from the administration of minimum-
lethal or of non-lethal or therapeutic doses, the expansion of the heart’s chambers is
augmented, the systolic contractions are rendered more complete, and the working power
of the heart is enhanced.

B. Blood- Vessels.

In order to determine if Strophanthus produces any change in the size of blood-
vessels by an action on their structures, perfusion experiments were made on frogs
with solutions of extract of Strophanthus and of strophanthin in normal saline. The
same preparation of each substance was employed in the experiments, so as to avoid any
fallacy that might arise from possible variations in these substances.

For purposes of comparison several experiments were also made with normal (0°75
per cent.) solution of chloride of sodium, and with digitalin—the latter beg sometimes
used alone, and at other times substituted for solutions of extract of Strophanthus or
strophanthin, in experiments in which one or other of these substances had already
been allowed to flow through the blood-vessels. The digitalin was an English specimen,
entirely and freely soluble in water, and the same digitalin as was also used in some of
the experiments on isolated frogs’ hearts (footnote, p. 403).

The perfusion apparatus consisted of three reservoirs, the contents of which were
maintained at a nearly constant level by means of Marriorrr’s flasks. One of the
reservoirs contained normal saline, another a solution of extract of Strophanthus or
strophanthin in normal saline, and the third a solution of digitalin, also in normal
saline. Hach reservoir was connected with one of the limbs of a four-limbed canula by
an india-rubber tube, to which was attached a binding screw.

After the brain and medulla oblongata and spinalis of the frog had been destroyed,
the venze cavee were divided, and the fourth limb of the canula was inserted into the
ductus arteriosus. The binding screw on the tube leading to the reservoir containing
normal saline was then opened, and after the blood had been entirely washed out of the
blood-vessels, the saline escaping from the venze cavee was collected in a graduated glass,
and measured at brief intervals. The normal flow was thus ascertained, and thereafter
the tube leading to one or other of the reservoirs containing Strophanthus and digitalin
was opened, and the tube leading to the saline reservoir was closed. The flow under the
action of Strophanthus or digitalin was thus ascertained. In some of the experiments
the contents of the three reservoirs were successively passed through the blood-vessels.
It is almost needless to state that increase of flow would imply dilatation of blood-vessels,
and reduction of flow contraction.

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. A421

In all the experiments the reservoirs were placed at a height of 7} inches above the
frog. The temperature was recorded at the beginning and during each experiment, and
in the whole series it ranged between 57° and 62° F. As in many of the experiments
considerable general cedema occurred, the frog was weighed before and at the termination
of each experiment.

It was found that normal saline could usually be passed through the blood-vessels for
“more than an hour without producing any important change in their diameter. This
absence of change is well illustrated in the following experiment.

Experiment CX XIV.—Normal saline only (Plate XX.).

Time in Flow per Min. in Time in Flow per Min. in Time in Flow per Min. in
Minutes. Cub. Cent. Minutes. Cub. Cent. Minutes. Cub. Cent.
] 13 43 11 85 0°8
2 Lei 44 11 86 0°8
3 1:3 45 11 87 0:8
4 1-2 46 1:0 88 0:8
5 1:3 47 1:0 89 08
6 1:3 48 Hell 90 0:8
7 1:2 49 11 91 0:8
8 1:3 50 1:2 92 0:8
9 1:3 51 11 93 0-9
10 13 52 well 94 0-9
11 13 53 11 95 09
12 1:3 54 1:0 96 0:8
13 1:3 55 1-0 97 0:8
14 1:2 56 1:0 98 0-7
15 1:3 57 1:0 99 0-7
16 i 58 iL 100 0-7
17 Bes 59 1:0 101 0-7
18 Se 60 10 102 0°8
19 Dt 61 1:0 103 08
20 13 62 10 104 08
21 13 63 0:9 105 07
22 3 64 1:0 106 0-7
23 1:3 65 1:0 107 0-7
24 1-4 66 0:9 108 0-7
25 1:3 67 0-9 109 0-7
26 1:3 68 0:9 110 0°8
27 1:2 69 0:9 111 0:8
28 1:2 70 0:9 112 0°8
29 1:2 ql 0-9 113 0-7
30 1:2 72 0:8 114 0:8
31 1:3 73 0-9 115 0:8
32 13 74 0:9 116 0:8
33 1:2 75 0:8 117 0-7
34 1:3 76 0°8 118 0:8
35 13 77 0-7 119 08
36 1:2 78 0:9 120 0:8
37 Hel (hs) 0-9 121 On
38 12 80 0:8 122 0-7
39 12 81 0°8 123 0-7
40 1-2 82 0°8 124 0°8
41 11 83 0°8 125 07
42 1:2 84 0:8

A gain in weight of 70 grains occurred in this experiment ; before the experiment
the frog weighed 455 grains, and at its termination 525 grains.

422 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

Experiment CXXV.—Normal saline followed by solution of extract of Strophanthus
in saline, 1: 50,000 (Plate XIX.).

Time in Flow per Min. Time in Flow per Min, Time in Flow per Min,
Minutes. in Minims. Minutes. in Minims, Minutes. in Minims.
1 24} 39 32 79 32
2 25 40 32 80 32
3 27 41 33:8 | 81 A
4 Chie: 42 33:8 82 29
5 oT 43 33 | 83 29
6 26 | 3 44 33 84 29
7 26 45 33 | 85 29
8 26 46 33 86 29
9 27 | 47 32 87 29
Strophanthus solution 48 30 88 28
turned on. 49 30 89 28
10 30 50 50 | 90 27
11 32 51 30 91 Mi
12 32 52 30 92 25
13 32 53 29 93 25
14 29 54. 30 @ 94 2358
15 30 BB 28 E 95 22 | &
16 28 56 28 = 96 17/8
17 28 57 28 | = 97 vie
18 27 58 Qe ae 98 vaes
19 28] 59 oT TB 99 12,2
20 a7 | 3 60 7 | 100 ile
21 28 | 3 61 Dip ees 101 8/3
2D, 28 | § 62 Dalles 102 5 ae
23 23S 63 a7 | 103 7\ 4
24 28 > 8 64 27 104 7
25 DB alive 65 27 105 10
26 Bl 66 27 106 9
27 30 | 3 67 25 107 12
28 30| 4 68 oi 108 13
29 30 | 4 69 27 109 13
30 30 70 25 110 13
31 30 71 Ne 111 15
32 30 72 27 112 15
33 32 73 27 113 16 |
34 32 74 30 114 16
35 32 75 33 | 115 16
36 32 76 33 116 16
37 34 77 33 | 117 16
38 34 J 78 5 aj 118 16
==

The experiment was continued for an hour longer, when the flow was 15 minims per 60
sec. Considerable cedema occurred, as the frog weighed 277 grains before the experiment,
and 392 grains at its termination, representing a gain in weight of 115 grains.

The effects of this dilute solution of extract are seen to be dilatation of blood-vessels
followed by very slowly increasing contraction. If the curve of this experiment be com-
pared with that of Experiment CXLIV. (Plate XX.), in which digitalin, also in a solution
of 1: 50,000 was used, a very marked difference will become apparent. In solutions of
equal strength, extract of Strophanthus produced no contraction in 80 min., whereas
digitalin practically occluded the blood-vessels in 17 min.

}
.

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

423

Experiment CX X VI.—Normal saline followed by solution of extract of Strophanthus
in saline, 1 : 20,000 (Plate XIX.).

Time in Flow per Min.
Minutes. in Minims,
1 22 |
2 22

3 22

4 DOAN se
5 24| 4
6 24/("s
7 on
8 24

9 22
10 24 |
Strophanthus solution

turned on.

11 | 24
12 24
13 22
14 24
15 22
16 |
17 22 | 2
18 32 | 3
19 21) B
20 20 | a,
21 21 \ 5
22 20 {7
23 20'S
24 21 3
25 2S
26 22 |
27 22
28 21
29 21
30 20
31 18
32 20

Time in Flow per Min.
Minutes. in Minims.
33 20 |
34 22
35 22
36 22
37 22
38 22
39 22
40 29
4] |
42 22
43 22
44 22
45 27aes
46 22/8
47 2 a
48 94 | "s
49 92 | &
50 20 [2
51 90 |
52 20) 8
53 20| 8
54 20 | 4
55 21
56 19
57 18
58 18
59 Ly
60 Le
61 18
62 18
63 20
64 18
65 18
66 18 |

Time in Flow per Min.
Minutes. in Minims.
67 18 }
68 18
69 18
70 18
71 16
2: 18
73 14
74. 18
75 16
76 14
17 16
78 16 :
79 14) 2
80 15/38
81 13| 8
82 14 a
83 3) 8
84 ie
85 12| °
86 13 | S
87 13 3
88 12/8
89 12
90 14
91 12
92 13
93 13
94 13
95 14 |
96 12 |
97 12
98 12
99 10
100 12

The increase of weight by cedema was 111 grains; the frog having weighed 323

grains before the experiment, and 434 grains at its termination.

As represented by the

rate of flow, the blood-vessels were practically unaffected for nearly an hour by this
solution of extract (see Plate XIX.). A corresponding experiment with digitalin (Experi-
ment CXLV.) gave a very different result, for in less than 15 min. the flow through the
blood-vessels was almost arrested by the extreme contraction that had been produced

(Plate XIX.).

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 16).

38

424

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

Experiment CX X VII.—Normal saline followed by solution of Strophanthus extract

in saline, 1 : 10,000.
Time in Flow per Min.
Minutes. in Minims.
1 36
2 36
3 35
4 42
5 41} 9
6 39 }.8
7 411 A
8 42
9 42
10 42
11 4]
12 Strophanthus solution
turned on. 2
13 43 a 3
14 43 | 3
15 40a 8
16 38 a 5
17 40 -

Time in

18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35

Minutes.

Flow per Min. Time in Flow per Min.
in Minims. Minutes. in Minims.
40 36 UES)
38 37 15
39 38 13
40 39 11
36 | 2 40 15 | @
34 | 3 41 14| 4
28) 3 42 10| &
24) 3 43 10 | 4
24 (8 44 9 g
25 { m 45 9|n
25) 3S 46 8 | S
21) 38 47 Sas
| & 48 7 &
18354 49 8
19a 50 ol ia
22 51 10
18 52 oi
16 |

Before the experiment, the frog weighed 601 grains, and at its termination 655 grains,
representing a gain of only 54 grains by cedema.
After remaining unaffected for 10 min., a slow and steady contraction of the

blood-vessels then occurred in this experiment.

Experiment CX X VIII.—Normal saline followed by solution of Strophanthus extract

in saline, 1 : 6800.
Time in Flow per Min.
Minutes. in Minims.
1 30
2 31
3 32
4 331 3
5 34 + .8
6 33 |B
if 32
8 32
9 32
Strophanthus solution
turned on.

Time in

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22

Minutes.

Flow per Min.
in Minims.

30]

26

Extract of Strophanthus.

Time in
Minutes.

23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35

Flow per Min.
in Minims.

Extract of Strophanthus.

Before the experiment, the frog weighed 462 grains, and at its termination 586

grains.

The gain by cedema was, therefore, 124 grains.

A few minutes after contact with the blood-vessels, the Strophanthus solution pro-

duced a gradual contraction.

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

425

Experiment CX X [X.—Normal saline followed by solution of extract of Strophanthus
in saline, 1 : 5000.

Time in Flow per Min. Time in Flow per Min. Time in Flow per Min.
| Minutes. in Minims. Minutes, in Minims, Minutes. in Minims.
1 (oa 13 60 | 26 30 ]
2 19 14 56 | | 27 30| |
3 78 | 4 15 56 | 3 28 29) |e
4 77 8 16 Bs 29 alee
5 76 | a 17 50 | 8 30 26 | 8
6 76 18 50 | S' 31 25 | 5
fi 76 19 48 + 3 32 pe ee
Strophanthus solution 20 44 | on 33 22 |
turned on. a 21 oie} || a= 34 22 | +2
8 73) 38 22 38 | 38 35 20| &
9 62/24 23 36 | % 36 19| %
10 60+ ES 24 35 | RF 37 17 |=
11 59 | i & 25 31) 38 18
12 59 | 7B

At 31 min., the frog was very cedematous; and it gained 216 grains during the
experiment, having weighed 648 grains before and 864 grains after it. Almost from the
moment of contact the blood-vessels began slowly to contract.

Experrment CX X X.—Normal saline followed by solution of extract of Strophanthus

in saline, 1: 3000.

Time in Flow per Min. Time in Flow per Min. Time in Flow per Min.
Minutes. in Minims. Minutes. in Minims. Minutes. in Minims.

1 35 | 23 16) 46 14

2 36 | 24 16 47 13

3 36 | 25 16 48 12

4 37 | § 26 16 49 10

5 35 f'a 27 16 50 10 |

6 35 | 2 28 16 Bl 9

7 36 29 1Sy ee 52 HO: || 9
8 » ©2386 30 1 eS 53 8| 5
Strophanthus solution 31 12| 3 54 eae

turned on. 32 17| 8 5D Oe

9 31 33 17 |S 56 OS
10 34 34 16-Z 57 Ds
1h 29| 35 18 | 4 58 Blea
12 Dip) ee 36 17 | 2 59 Oates,
13 DN ah 17| 8 60 ae
14 AN rs 38 16 | % 61 8| 4
15 24| 8 39 MS 62 8 | 4
16 22 f 2 40 20 63 7

17 D2)| 41 18 64 |
18 19°|"s 42 16 65 8

19 NOP) Bes 43 15 66 6

20 19| 4 44 15 67 7

21 19 45 15 | 68 6 |

22 17 |

426 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

Only slight cedema occurred; the frog before the experiment having weighed 385
grains, and at its end 432 grains, representing a gain by cedema of 47 grains only. A
little cedema of the extremities was observed at 36 min., but it never became marked.
The contraction of the blood-vessels proceeded more rapidly than in the previous experi-
ment, but even at the end of 30 min. of contact with this strong solution of Stroph-
anthus, the vessels were sufticiently open to admit of a moderate flow through them.

Experiment CX XX I.—Normal saline followed by solution of extract of Strophanthus
in saline, 1 : 2000 (Plate XIX.).

Time in Flow per Min. Time in Flow per Min. Time in | Flow per Min.
Minutes. in Minims. Minutes. in Minims. Minutes. in Minims.
1 58] 22 37 45 11)
2 59 | ¢ 23 37 46 12
3 58 i: 24 38 47 12 |
4 58 |B 25 37 48 12
5 +] 26 33 | 49 13 |
Strophanthus solution 27 33 50 10
turned on. 28 33 ill 10] |
6 58 29 BL || 2 52 10152
7 5D 30 28 | 3 53 10| 3
8 50 31 25) & 54. 10 | 3
9 45 | 2 32 22 | "a BD 10{ 8
10 45| 8 33 23 ' & | 56 10%
11 42| 8 34 20 | 2 | en, 10 | us
12 49 | 2 35 18 | | 58 10} =
13 41 \ & 36 Ales 59 10| §
14 41] 37 eS eles 60 11) &
15 41| 38 14] 4 61 9
16 41| 8 39 14 62 11
17 41| 8 40 15 | 63 10
18 45 | A 41 14 64 10
19 43 49 12 65 9
20 44 43 1 | 66 9
21 41 | 44 12}
|

The frog weighed 354 grains before the experiment, and 401 grains at its termina-

tion. The gain of weight was only 47 grains, indicating but slight cedema.

experiment.

The amount
of contraction produced in the blood-vessels was much the same as in the previous

Experiment CX X XII.—Normal saline followed by solution of extract of Strophanthus

in saline, 1 : 1000.

Time in Flow per Min.
Minutes. in Minims.

bo
ie}
Saline.

BNO Wh
co
oO

Time in Flow per Min. Time in
Minutes. in Minims. Minutes.
Strophanthus solution 15

turned on. 16

9 30] 4 17
10 25| 34 18
11 254\ 3 19
12 281 £4 20
13 281 8 8 21
14 27) Dm 22

Flow per Min,
in Minims.

29
28 i
27| S48
23138
24 f Be,
22!

bo
ee
—

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 427

Haperiment CX X XIT.—continued.

Time in Flow per Min. Time in Flow per Min. Time in Flow per Min.
Minutes. in Minims. Minutes. in Minims. Minutes. in Minims.
23 22 | 38 16 ] 52 9 |
24 20 | 39 14 53 8 |
25 20] | 40 14) 2 54 9 | a
26 20| = 4] 14/4 55 9| 3
Pith Di) Be 42 123 56 Sie
28 18| 3 43 12 | 3, 57 8 | a
29 20| = tt ee 58 Os
30 19 \ 8 45 12/2 59 8 2
31 18 3 46 LE irs 60 8 | OS
32 17 | + 47 11} 61 7 3
33 7|3 48 10 | g 62 Se
34 1H 49 11| & 63 Tle
35 ie 50 11 64 9
36 | 51 10 | 65 8;
37 16

Considerable cedema occurred, and the frog, which before the experiment weighed
324 grains, gained 92 grains in weight. As this strong solution did not produce con-
traction more rapidly or to a greater degree than the less strong solutions used in the
immediately preceding experiments, another experiment was made with a solution of the
same strength, but, as will be seen below, the results were the same.

Experiment CX X XIII.—Normal saline followed by solution of extract of Stroph-
anthus in saline, 1 : 1000.

Time in Flow per Min. Time in Flow per Min. Time in Flow per Min.
Minutes. in Minims. Minutes. in Minims. Minutes. in Minims,
1 34 ) 15 23 30 18 }

2 35 16 22 31 18
3 36 17 22 = 32 16] |
4 351 8 18 Zoe (Ss 33 LG, ee
5 20 fa 19 24) 5 34 iy
6 as | 20 23 | 3 35 17 | 4
7 36 21 21) s 36 16 | §
8 38 | 22 2445 37 5) eae
Strophanthus solution 23 22 | 38 16 | 4
turned on. 24 20 | = 39 15 | 3
38 3 25 21/8 40 16 | 3
10 38 | SB 26 21| % 41 12 | %
11 20,88 27 92 |= 42 le
12 16 £3 28 19 43 13
13 20 | gq 2 29 19 J 44 1)
14 ZA I eee

_ In this experiment much cedema occurred, causing an increase in weight of 153
grains, in a frog which before the experiment weighed 324 grains.

To render the comparison between the effects of Strophanthus and digitalin even more
distinct than by contrasting, as has been done, separate experiments in which similar
solutions of each substance had been used, two experiments were made, in which after a

428 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

solution of extract of Strophanthus had been allowed to flow for some time through the
blood-vessels, a weaker solution of digitalin was substituted in the same frog for the
solution of Strophanthus.

Experiment CX XXIV.—Normal saline followed by solution of extract of Stroph-
anthus in saline, 1:2000, and 15 min. afterwards by solution of digitalin in saline,
1: 20,000 (Plate XIX.).

Time in Flow per Min. Time in Flow per Min. Time in Flow per Min.
Minutes. in Minims. Minutes. in Minims, Minutes. in Minims,
1 27 16 25 | 31 3.
2 26 Lr 26 A 32 3
3 ZO ie 18 241 3 33 2
4 pore 19 24| os 34 1 |
5 30 tS 20 22+ ss 3 35 it
6 DSi 21 22| %& 36 1
7 27 22 22|FAS 37 lo
8 27 | 23 DD: Wrree 38 Lil
Strophanthus solution 24 20 39 08 [ -E
turned on. Digitalin solution 40 08 | a
9 28 ‘ turned on. 4] 0:5
10 27) 3 25 20 42 0°5
| 11 27 | 28 26 12/ 3 43 08
| 12 26 SS 27 8\'3 44 0:8
| 13 28 | %a 28 6 [ “& 45 0°8
| 14 26 || ee 29 4 ra 46 0°8 J
15 25.) 30 3

At 46 min., the flow of the digitalin solution was stopped, and the original Stroph-
anthus solution again turned on; but no effect was thereby produced, the blood-vessels
continuing to remain in the nearly occluded condition caused by digitalin. No oedema
occurred in this experiment, as the weight of the frog both before and after the experi-
ment was 355 grains.

Experiment CX XX V.—Normal saline followed by solution of extract of Strophanthus
in saline, 1: 500, and 45 min. afterwards by solution of digitalin in saline, 1 : 20,000
(Plate XIX.).

Time in Flow per Min. Time in Flow per Min, Time in Flow per Min.
| Minutes. _ in Minims. Minutes. in Minims. Minutes. in Minims,
1 60 | Ht! 70 | 23 75 |
2 60 12 65 | 2 24 72 | @
3 65 13 65 | 5 25 64| 4
4 69 | |; 14 67 | 4 26 65°
5 70 | 4 15 (Ca ese 27 67 |
6 70 + 3 16 73 | 2 28 67 | 2
ff 72 ue 75 [ @ 29 61 {f @
8 ia 18 80 | 30 60 |
9 72 19 76| 4 may 56}
10 72 | 20 79| & 32 52| & |
Strophanthus solution 21 78 | 3 33 49 | 4 |
turned on, 22 75 34 50 |

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 429

Experiment CX XX V.—continued.

Time in Flow per Min. Time in Flow per Min. Time in Flow per Min.
Minims. in Minims. Minutes. in Minims, Minutes. in Minims.
35 47 49 27 ) z : 61 3)
36 o : 50 27 | 3 62 3 |
37 44 | 3 51 25| 23 63 4
38 44/3 52 23le s 64 2
39 41] 3 53 24) hm 65 al se
40 38 | “B. 54 oa 66 2|
41 36 | 3 5D Cah ese 67 es
42 839) Digitalin solution 68 7) Ise
43 35'| 3 | turned on. 69 9|A
44 34] 8 56 24) . 70 1 |
45 a2) 2S 57 22 | -s 71 1 |
46 27 | 3 58 7's 72 ts
47 28 59 9 | 2 73 1J
48 28 | | 60 5) A

Only moderate cedema occurred, the frog having gained 77 grains on its original
weight of 601 grains.

In Experiment CXXXIV., a solution of 1 : 2000 of extract of Strophanthus reduced
the lumen of the blood-vessels so slightly, that in 15 min. the flow through them had
been lessened by only one-fourth ; whereas a solution of 1: 20,000 of digitalin, passing
through the blood-vessels immediately after the solution of Strophanthus, reduced the
flow in 9 min. to one-twentieth, and practically occluded the vessels.

In Experiment CXXXV., a much stronger solution of Strophanthus extract (1 : 500)
than that used in the former experiment, at the end of the long period of 45 min. con-
_ tracted the vessels so that only one-third of the original flow could be maintained; and
still digitalin in a solution forty times weaker (1:20,000) was able rapidly to contract
the vessels to such an extent that the flow through them had in 5 min. been reduced to
nearly one-fifth and in 15 min. to one-twenty-third.

These results and contrasts are graphically represented in the curves of the experi-
ments (Plate XIX.).

Experiments similar to those that have been described with the extract were also
made with strophanthin.

[ Experiment CX XX VI.

430

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

Experiment CX XX VI.—Normal saline followed in 1 hour by solution of strophanthin
in saline, 1: 100,000 (Plate XX.).

the gain of 108 grains representing considerable general cedema.

Time in Flow per Min. in Time in Flow per Min. in
Minutes. Cub. Cent. Minutes. Cub. Cent.

1 2°6 | 37 ’
2 2°6 38 Sept a=
3 2°6 39 A ae
4 2°6 40 pai 2
5 2°5 Strophanthin solution
6 2:5 turned on.
7 So 4] 2°4
8 27 42 2°2
9 2-7 43 2°2

10 27 44 2°3

11 2°7 45 2°3

12 2-7 46 sis

13 2°6 47 ae

14 2°6 48 21

15 2°6 49 2°2

16 2°6 50 2:2

Nef Zion 51 2°2

18 26 | 8 52 22:1 4

19 . (3 53 Z| eS

20 Bie ice 54. 20| 8

21 ae 55 I =e

22 Sor 56 Al || 2

23 Sa 57 21| a

24 ee 58 2-0

25 sat | 59 2:0

26 : 60 2-1

27 te 61 2-1

28 2°3 62 2°1 |

29 2°3 63 2:1

30 2°3 64 2-1 |

31 2:3 65 271

32 2°3 66 2-0

33 se 67 2:0

34 noe | 68 2:0

35 a 69 2:0 J

36 4)

Time in
Minutes.

Flow per Min. in
Cub. Cent.

70
ia

2:0
2:0
9:

Se ee ee ee ee Oe ee Old Oe Oe Od Co Wo

DODDHDOHDDDOSSSSSOSHSHSOOSHSOSSSOSOSOSOSS

—

————_—_

Strophanthin.

The frog weighed 327 grains before the experiment, and 435 grains at its termination ;

Notwithstanding that

saline alone had already been passed for 40 min., the vessels contracted very little
on subsequent contact with 1:100,000 strophanthin solution; indeed, they remained
almost unchanged after 40 min., and became only slightly contracted after 1 hour of

contact with this solution of strophanthin.
the first 30 min. of the passage of saline has been omitted.

In the curve of this experiment (Plate XX.)

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 431

Eapervment CXXXVIT.—Normal saline followed by solution of strophanthin in
saline, 1: 100,000, and 50 min. afterwards by digitalin in saline, 1: 50,000 (Plate XX.).

Time in Flow per Min. in Time in Flow per Min. in Time in Flow per Min. in
Minutes. Cub. Cent. Minutes. Cub. Cent. Minutes. Cub. Cent.
1 3°6 | 31 2°6 | 63 2-6
2 36 | 32 2-7 64 2
3 3°7 | 33 2°8 65 2°5
4 3°8 34 2-7 66 2°5
5 38 | 35 27 67 25
6 3'8 | 36 2°6 68 2-6
7 | 37 2:6 69 26)
8 38 | 38 2°5 70 220) ice
9 38 39 2°6 71 25 | 3
10 38 40 2°7 72 257s
11 th 41 2°6 ie 2-5 |
12 38 42 27 74 25) 8
13 3:8 43 2-7 75 Pip, |
14 Sell 44 2°6 | 4 76 26
15 36 | 45 26] <4 an 2°6
16 By Ee 46 2'61| = 78 2:5
17 3g ee 47 OS | ay 79 2°6
18 34 48 26) 8 80 2°6 |
19 a3 49 25 | W 81 2°7 |
20 3° 50 2°5 Digitalin solution
21 3°4 51 2°6 | turned on.
22 3°6 52 27 82 2°8
23 3:3 53 2°5 | 83 2°4
24 34 54 2:5 84 2°3
25 3:2 55 2:5 | 85 Mea ||
26 3:2 56 2:5 86 GT ess
27 3°2 57 2°5 | 87 10438
28 Bll 58 2°5 88 0:8) | =
29 3-0 59 2-6 89 07 | A
30 2°9 | 60 2°6 90 0:4
Strophanthin solution 61 2°6 91 0-4 |
turned on. 62 2°6 | 92 0-2 |

The frog weighed 412 grains before the experiment, and 502 grains at its termina-
tion, representing a gain of 90 grains by moderate cedema. The second part of this
experiment confirms the previous experiment by showing that 1:100,000 solution of
strophanthin produces no appreciable effect on the calibre of -blood-vessels. After saline
had passed for 30 min., this solution of strophanthin left the flow unaffected at the end
of 51 min. When, however, a solution of 1:50,000 of digitalin was now passed, the
vessels rapidly contracted, and in 11 min. they had become reduced to one-fourteenth,
and had become practically occluded.

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 16). 3 T

432 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

Experiment CX XX VIII.—Normal saline, followed in 16 min. by solution of _
anthin in saline, 1 : 50,000.

Set Time in Flow per Min. in Time in Flow per Min. in Time in Flow per Min. in
Minutes. Cub. Cent. Minutes. Cub. Cent. Minutes. Cub. Cent.
1 30) 24 2:5) 49 19
2 De 25 2°5 50 1:9
3 2°8 26 25 51 1:9
4 2°6 27 2-4 52 18
5 As 28 2-4 53 1:7 |
6 26 29 2-4 54 18
7 25) 30 24. 55 1:8
8 25 | 8 31 on 56 seri
9 2-6 ("3 32 2-1 57 17
10 2-5 33 2-0 58 17s
11 2°6 34 21\ 59 17s
12 2°6 35 Del || ee 60 l7\
13 2°6 36 20> 8 61 18/8
14 2°6 37 21 | 62 1-7 |e
15 2-6 38 20| & 63 17s
16 2°6 39 20 | 2 64 16
Strophanthin solution 40 2°0 65 ALi
turned on. 41 1-9 | 66 18 |
17 Lae 42 1:9 67 17
18 2-6 | A 43 2-0 | 68 16 |
19 25 | = 44 2-0 | 69 16
20 2548 45 19 70 16
21 2-5 |B 46 1:8 71 16
22 O66 ee 47 18 72 17
23 | pales 48 19

Considerable cedema occurred, represented by a gain of 107 grains in a frog whose
original weight was 407 grains.
The solution of strophanthin of 1 : 50,000 produced almost no effect in 20 min. ; and
even at the end of 55 min., the blood-vessels had become reduced by only one-third.
Expervment CX X XIX.—Normal saline followed by solution of strophanthin in
saline, 1 : 20,000.

Time in Flow per Min. in Time in Flow per Min. in Time in Flow per Min. in
Minutes. Cub. Cent. Minutes. Cub. Cent. Minutes. Cub. Cent.
1 2°1) 10 2°3 21 16
2 2°2 11 2:0 22 sy
3 1:9 12 1:8 23 16
4 DOtlees 13 19) 4 24 16 | 4
5 rade a= 14 9, ls 25 18/2
6 19) 3 15 18/8 26 2-0 E

7 20 16 18 | 27 18 |B

8 2:0 17 18| 8 28 19| 2

9 2:0 | 18 Depa 2 29 17 |@
Strophanthin solution 19 ere 30 i
turned on. 20 7 |) 31 19

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

Experiment CX X X1X.—continued.

433

Time in
Minutes.

32
33
34
35
36
37
338
39
40
41
42
43

Flow per Min. in Time in Flow per Min. in Time in Flow per Min. in
Cub. Cent. Minutes. Cub. Cent. Minutes. Cub. Cent.
Mery +4 a) 56 1:2
7 | 45 Bee 57 1:2
of 46 1-4 | 58 1-1 :
i! 47 15 3 59 110) || Je
2 48 166 60 ees
! = 49 15 ts 61 ll +s
3 a
(a 50 14/3 62 1:3 | =
“(| :3 Bl 14] s 63 co) alee
19) 8 52 tscellies 64 Ee 2
cng 53 1:3 65 115
age 54 1-2 | 66 ell |
ae 55 1:2 J

The cedema which occurred in this experiment was considerable, as the frog gained

117 grains on its original weight of 423 grains.

The solution of 1: 20,000 of strophanthin produced but little effect on the blood-
vessels in 30 min. ; and even in 55 min., the reduction in their calibre amounted to only
one-half. This experiment may be compared with Experiment CXLV. and its curve
(Plate XIX.), in which rapid and great contraction of the blood-vessels by 1 : 20,000
solution of digitalin is exhibited.

Experiment CXL.—Normal saline followed by solution of strophanthin in saline,
1: 10,000, and 19 min. afterwards by digitalin in saline, 1 : 20,000 (Plate XX.).

Time in
Minutes.

OMONDOK Wh

Strophanthin solution
turned on.

Flow per Min. in Time in Flow per Min. in Time in Flow per Min. in
Cub. Cent. Minutes. Cub. Cent. Minutes. Cub. Cent.

15 | 20 7 45 bay
16 21 18 46 13) SS
ae | 22 1:8 47 Wea) |)
es 23 17 48 13 +8
a 24 ey 49 13 | &
18 25 16 50 1:25 | 8
18 26 15: 51 eas ||
Leys 27 16 Digitalin solution turned on.
MT | 3 28 1°5 52 1:2
174.8 29 16 53 1 05
17 | a 30 16.| 5 54 1-05
i Bi 16 | 3 BD iy
17 32 Ge 56 1-1
eG 33 16] & 57 0-9
17 34 16] 5 58 0-7 :
1-7 35 156 Wee 59 05 | 8
1-7 36 16 60 03 +3
ECs 37 16 61 0-2 =
1:7 38 16 62 0:2

39 1:6 63 01

40 16 64 0-1

4] 15 65 0-1

42 15 66 Ol

43 15 67 0:05

44 1-4 J 68 0:05 |

454 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

The cedema produced in this experiment was moderate, as it was represented by a
gain of 70 grains in a frog whose original weight was 388 grains.

After normal saline had passed for 19 min., and 1:10,000 strophanthin solution for
32 min., without any material change having occurred in the blood-vessels, they became
so rapidly contracted when 1:20,000 digitalin solution was passed through them that —
the flow was reduced to one-half in 6 min., and was all but arrested in other 10 min.
(Plate XX.).

Experiment CXLI.—Normal saline followed by solution of strophanthin in saline
1: 5000 (Plate XX.).

Time in Flow per Min. in Time in Flow per Min. in Time in Flow per Min. in
Minutes, Cub. Cent. Minutes. Cub. Cent. Minutes. Cub. Cent.
1 3°3 eee | 40 19) 81 10)
2 3°2 | 41 ale’ 82 0-9
3 3°2 | 42 1:8 83 0-9
4 3-2 43 18 84 0:9
5 3°2 44 17 85 0:8
6 0a 45 16 86 0:8 |
ag 2-9| 8 46 15 87 0:8
8 2°9 { “s 47 1:6 88 0-7
9 28 Cm 48 1” 89 0:8
10 27 | 49 ile7 90 0:8
iat 2°6 50 15 91 0-9
12 2-7 51 15 92 0:8
13 2°6 52 1-4 93 0:8
14 2°5 53 14 94 07
Strophanthin solution 54 1°5 95 0°8
turned on. 55 1-4 96 0:8
15 2°4 56 1:3 | on 0-7
16 2°3 57 14 98 Os} |)
Veh 2°2 58 14) 8 99 0:8 3
18 2-0 B9 14] 3 100 09) 3
19 2:0 | 60 138 101 09 -
20 2:0 61 14] & 102 0-8 | &
21 1:9 62 is) |) 103 0:8 C=
22 20 63 8 ne 104 08
23 2-0 64 11 105 o-7"
24 PA) || | 65 1-1 106 0:8
25 2:0 5 | 66 11 107 0:8
26 2:0 | 67 Hell 108 0-7
27 2:0 8 68 iol 109 0:7
28 20 | & 69 10 110 07
29 2:07] 3s 70 10 111 0-9
30 190 | ee 71 1-0 12 0-6
31 18 aay | 1-0 113 07
32 Wey (fe) 1:0 114 0-7 |
33 ii 74 iil 115 0°6 |
34 Lisi, 75 1:0 116 0:5
35 hy 76 Li iy 0-7
36 IE UO 11 118 0°6 |
37 1:9 78 1:0 119 0°6
38 19 19 1:0 120 0'5 |
39 18 80 1:0 J

In this experiment the frog gained 77 grains in weight, having weighed 385 grains
before the experiment, and 462 grains at its termination.

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 435

The experiment lasted for 2 hours. While normal saline alone was being passed the
outflow fell with exceptional rapidity, and this fall was continued for the first 2 or 3
min. after 1:5000 strophanthin solution had been substituted for the saline. After-
wards there was a gradual and moderate fall for 45 min., and then the outflow remained
nearly stationary for other 40 min.

Experiment CX LI.—Normal saline followed by solution of strophanthin in saline,
1:5000, and 40 min. afterwards by solution of digitalin in saline, 1: 50,000 (Plate

Time in Flow per Min, in Time in Flow per Min. in Time in Flow per Min. in
Minutes. Cub. Cent. Minutes. Cub. Cent. | Minutes. Cub. Cent.
1 2°2 ) 24 20] 49 16 }
2 2°2 25 19 50 e¢
3 2-1 26 ig 51 Le
4 1°8 27 I) 52 Loy 3
5 Ig) | 28 1:9 53 1:75 | 33
6 1-9 2 1:8 | 54 17 | |
7 1-9 30 18 55 16 fa
8 2°0 31 <i | 56 Tey °
9 ah |} acs 32 eo 57 16 |a
10 2:2 > 8 33 le 58 7
11 211 B&B 34 ered ie 59 16
12 2-0 35 16) 3 60 16 |
13 21 36 1648 Digitalin solution
14 2:0 Bi 1-6 | | turned on.
15 2-0 | 38 17| | 61 16
16 2-0 | 39 1g|2 | 62 16
17 1-9 40 1:8 63 1:4
18 i 2 4] 17 | 64 12 ‘
19 49 17 65 09 | 8
Bifophanthin ae 43 16 | 66 0°8 \3
turned on. 44 Lor 67 0-6. EP
20 Sh Ba 45 17 68 055 | A
21 2-0 ("a.8 46 1:8 69 0°35
22 21( 83 47 ee | 70 0-2 |
23 QZ1sJRe 48 istey | 71 O25)
|

The original weight of the frog was 465 grains, and there was an increase of only 69
grains in the experiment. No great contraction of the blood-vessels was produced by con-
tact for 40 min. with 1 : 5000 solution of strophanthin. On the substitution of 1 : 50,000
solution of digitalin, however, the vessels immediately began to contract, and they had
become almost occluded in 10 min.

In order to complete the comparison between strophanthin and digitalin, for which
materials had to some extent been obtained in many of the already described experi-
ments, it would be necessary to determine the results of the passing of solutions of
digitalin through blood-vessels which had not previously been subjected to the action of
Strophanthus. The next three experiments were accordingly performed ; in the first of
which a 1:100,000 solution, in the second a 1:50,000 solution, and in the third a
1: 20,000 solution of digitalin was used.

436 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

Experiment CX LIII.—Normal saline followed by solution of digitalin in saline,
1: 100,000 (Plate XX.).

Time in Flow per Min, in Time in Flow per Min. in Time in Flow per Min. in
Minutes. Cub, Cent. Minutes. Cub. Cent. Minutes. Cub. Cent.
1 19) 28 1:2 57 0-4 |
2 Lg 29 1:3 58 0-4
3 1:9 30 1-2 | 59 0-4
4 1S i 31 1:2 60 0-4
5 19\ 4 32 1:2 | 61 0°3
6 2-0 f 3 33 12 62 0-4
7 20H 34 11 63 0-4
8 1°9 35 ile! 64 0-4
9 20 36 ito 65 0:3
10 2°0 J 37 11 66 0:3
Digitalin solution 38 1:0 67 0-4
turned on. 39 1:0 68 0:3
ll 20 ] 40 09] ; 69 0:35
12 2-1 41 Oo 70 03 | 8
13 21 42 0-9 be val 03 tS
14 1g) 43 0:8 a 72 0°3 =
15 16 44 0°8 73 0:3
16 16 45 0-7 74 03
17 1:5 46 0-7 75 0:3
18 14] 5 47 0-7 76 o-onae |
19 14) 48 0-6 Zoi 0-2 |
20 1:4 | 2 49 06 78 0-2 i
21 1:3] 50 0-6 79 02 !
22 Irs 51 0:5 80 0:3
23 133} 52 0:5 81 0:2
24 13 53 05 82 0°3 1
25 1°3 54 05 83 0-2
26 1°3 55 0-4 84 0:2
27 1:2 J 56 0-4 | 85 0-2

Moderate cedema was produced, the frog having gained 85 grains. The weight
before the experiment was 324 grains, and at its termination 409 grains.

As contrasted with the experiment in which 1:100,000 solution of strophanthin
(CXXXVIL.), had been perfused without almost any effect on the blood-vessels, in this
experiment with 1: 100,000 of digitalin, the vessels were contracted to one-half in 27
min., to one-quarter in 40 min., and to one-tenth in about 60 min. The curve of this
experiment (Plate XX.), may instructively be compared with that of the above referred to
experiment with strophanthin (Plate XX.).

[ Experiment OX LI

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 437

Haperiment CXLIV.—Normal saline followed by solution of digitalin in saline,

1: 50,000 (Plate XX.).

Considerable cedema occurred in this experiment.

Time in Flow per Min. in Time in Flow per Min, in Time in Flow per Min. in
Minutes. Cub. Cent. Minutes. Cub. Cent. Minutes. Cub. Cent.
1 3:05 } 17 31 | 31 PH
2 2°9 18 31 32 1:8
3 2:8 19 3:1 | 33 1°5
4 30 20 315| g 34 12,
5 al 21 3°15 rs 35 0:8
6 372 22 Bele se 36 0:8
7 32 ; 23 31 | 37 06 | 4
8 B27 8 24 32 | 38 Ora ali
9 31 f 2 Digitalin solution 39 Oo iles
10 SEES turned on. 40 0351/4 |
11 3-15 25 3°] | 41 0°35
12 3:2 26 SOE 42 0:3
13 3°25 | 27 30 | 43 0:3
14 3-2 28 27 (Ss 44 03
15 3-2 29 22 | 2 45 0:25
16 Bay, ol 30 29 JR 46 0-25 J

The weight of the frog was 407

grains before and 514 grains after it ; the gain of weight being, therefore, 107 grains.
After normal saline had passed for 24 min. without any effect, 1: 50,000 solution of
digitalin contracted the blood-vessels to one-half in 9 min., and to one-fourteenth in

20 min.

Experiment CXLV.—Normal saline followed by solution of digitalin in saline,

1:20,000 (Plate XIX.).

Time in Flow per Min. Time in Flow per Min. Time in Flow per Min.
Minutes. in Minims. Minutes. in Minims. Minutes. in Minims.
1 37 10 43 | 21 15
2 37 11 28 22 15
3 39 12 17 23 15
4 42 | 13 12 Z 24 ]
5 49 5 14 8 | 8 25 | |
6 42 |~m 15 3 +s 26 3
7 43 16 2 BP 27 Oa ee
8 43 17 Dp fe 28 hee ets
9 44 | 18 2 29 | OMT
Digitalin solution 19 2 30 7
turned on. 20 1:5 | 31 |
32 J J

|

No edema occurred, as at the end of the experiment the weight of the frog was the

same as before the experiment, viz., 478°3 grains.

After slight dilatation had been pro-

duced in the blood-vessels by normal saline, passed through them for only 9 min., this
solution of digitalin immediately produced contraction, and with such rapidity that the

438 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS,

vessels had been reduced to one-twentieth in 8 min., and had become almost occluded in
about 25 min.

A consideration of the above experiments appears to show that dilute solutions,
represented by from 1:100,000 to 1:20,000 either of extract of Strophanthus or
of strophanthin, are incapable of producing contraction of the blood-vessels. With
stronger solutions some evidence of contraction is obtained; but even with so con-
centrated a solution as 1:1000 of the extract, the maximum degree of contraction was
moderate, and, after contact for 35 min., a fair flow still took place through the blood-
vessels.

In appreciating the shghtness of the effect, it is necessary to take into account the
circumstances that even with normal saline the flow through the blood-vessels usually
becomes reduced within 30 or 40 min., and that the reduction most frequently and
decidedly occurs when the original state of the blood-vessels is one of dilatation rather
than of moderate contraction.

The best proof, however, of the feeble power of Strophanthus to contract blood-
vessels is obtained when a comparison is made between the results of experiments in
which Strophanthus and digitalin were given in combination or separately. The con-
trast in the former case is clearly exhibited in the curves of Experiments CXXXIV.,
CXXXV., CXXXVII, CXL., and CXLII. In the case of the experiments with each
substance in different frogs, Experiments CXLIII., CXLIV., and CXLV. show that a
solution of even 1:100,000 of digitalin promptly reduced the lumen of blood-vessels,
and that this was done with still greater promptness and completeness by solutions of
1:50,000 and 1:20,000; whereas no effect was produced by similar solutions of Stroph-
anthus extract or of strophanthin.

No exact statement of the relative energy of the two substances is possible; but
from a comparison between the results of certain of the experiments—e.g., of Experi-
ments CXXXV. and CXLIV., by which 1: 50,000 of digitalin is seen to have produced
at least as great contraction as 1:500 of strophanthin, and of Experiments CXXXIIL
and CXLIIL., by which it is seen that 1: 100,000 of digitalin produced as much con-
traction as 1:1000 of Strophanthus extract, it seems indicated that, in respect of
this action, digital is about 100 times stronger than strophanthin or extract of
Strophanthus.

As the central nervous system had been entirely or partially destroyed in the frogs
used in this series of experiments, any change that is produced on the blood-vessels by
Strophanthus acting on nervous centres outside of them, might not have been made
manifest by the experiments. In the next series of experiments, however, an opportunity
was given for the manifestation not only of the effects of direct contact with the blood-
vessels, but also of any effects on them that may be produced by an action on their con-
trolling nerve centres.

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

439

ec. Circulation.—Heart and Blood-Vessels—Blood-Pressure Experiments.

The blood-pressure experiments were made on rabbits, an ordinary Ludwig’s kymo-
graph being connected with one of the carotid arteries.
the effects of Strophanthus were produced without any purposely introduced compli-
cation; in the fourth experiment, the vagus was also from time to time stimulated, in
order to determine if its cardio-inhibitory function was affected ; and in the fifth experi-
ment, atropine was administered before and subsequently to Strophanthus.
Portions of the blood-pressure curves of four of these experiments, illustrating the
most important changes that occurred in the circulation, have been reproduced in Plates

XXI., XXII. and XXIII.

Experiment CXLVI.—Weight of rabbit, 4 lbs. 11 oz.

In the first three experiments,

0°06 grain of strophanthin,

dissolved in 30 minims of water, injected under the skin of the abdomen (Plate XXI.).

Time,

Blood-pressure Pulse-rate | Respirations
in mm. per per
Substance

administered,

and its Dose. | yiaxi-| Mini-|Aver-| 10 | 60 | 10 | 60

mum.|mum.}| age. | sec. | sec. | sec. | sec.

106 96 101 40 | 240 9 54

Strophanthin,
0:06 grain,

injected sub-
cutaneously.

cop 118 108 113 37 222, 7 42

102 96 99 36 =| 216 9 54

120 102 111 35 | 210 2 2

72 64 68 27 2 2 10 60

72 48 60 15%) 90 12 72

54 36 45 16? 2 12 72

68 50 59 15 90 12 72

68 36 52 13 78 12 72

76 28 52 10?} 60? 6 36

12 72 8 48

360 Sid aN 13 78 6 36

118 72 95 14 84 6 36

Notes.

Respiration waves well marked
and regular. Pulse move-
ments 1 mm.

Do. Pulse movements occa-
sionally 14 mm.

Do. do.

Pulse movements considerably
larger, occasionally 3} mm.,
but irregular.

Respiration waves nearly obli-
terated. Some struggles im-
mediately preceded, with
several irregular oscillations
of the pulse curve.

Pulse movements large, from
25 to 10 mm., but irregular

in size. Respiration waves
indistinguishable,
Do.

Pulse movements large, from
6 to9 mm., and more regular.
Respiration waves indistin-
guishable. Animal quiet.

Pulse movements large, from
10to12mm. Do. do.

Pulse movements from 10 to 14

mm. Do. do. Inspiration
abrupt.

Do. do.

Do. do.

Pulse movements from 6 to 10
mm. Do.

VOL.

XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 16).

3U

440 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

Expervment CXIVI.—continued.

Blood-pressure Pulse-rate | Respirations

in mm. er er
Substance P P

Time. | administered,

and its Dose. | y7,5;.| Mini-| Aver-| 10 | 60 | 10 | 60 | i128
mum, | mum. age. sec. sec, sec. sec,

Trac- Notes.

4.50.45 ook 110 86 98 14 84 6 36 6 | Pulse movements 9 to 10 mm., |

nearly regular and uniform.
Do.

4.53.15 at 120 92 | 106 16 96 6 36 ... | Do. do. Expiration now
abrupt.

4.55.45 3h 154 | 116 | 135 17 ‘| 102 5 30 7 | Pulse movements 5 to 6 mm.

4.56.20 8c 162 | 146 | 154 25 | 150 Salt sabe ... | Pulse movements about 3}

mm., and nearly uniform.
Animal quiet. Respiration

shallow.
4.57.20 500 158 138 148 25 150 4 24 8 | Do. do.
4.58 Sc 160 | 142 | 151 25 | 150 4 24 9 | Pulse movements less regular,
| from 2to3mm. Do,
5.0.50 es 116 | 108 | 112 27 | 162 2 52 10 | Do., from 14 to 24mm. Do.
5.2.15 oes 92 68 80 16 96 2 2 11 | Pulse movements usually 5
mm.
5.2.40 500 74 56 63 17 102 500 Sac aes
5.4.5 Bee 20 16 18 9 54 2 2 12

The fall of blood-pressure which began at 5.0.30 gradually increased until the abscissa was reached at 5.5. At the
latter part of this time, a few feeble general spasms occurred.

After death, at 5.9, the exposed heart was found to be motionless, but irritation produced several weak twitches.
The auricles and right ventricle were large, and the left ventricle was small. At 5.12, a cut surface of the left

ventricle was acid in reaction.

In this experiment the blood-pressure, with the exception of an unimportant rise
during the injection, was scarcely affected until 4.34, when it began to fall, and it
remained at its lowest level (45 to 59 mm.) between 4.37 and 4.43. The pressure then
rose gradually until the maximum was reached at about 4.55.20, and this maximum
(148 to 154 mm.) was maintained till 5.0. A gradual fall then occurred until the heart
ceased to contract at 5.5.

The pulse movements were largest between 4.40 and 4.43, when the blood-pressure
was low; but even when the pressure was high, the pulse movements were much
larger than normal. During the final fall of blood-pressure, the pulse movements
became irregular, but large excursions occurred even then and until a short time
before death. Large and nearly uniform pulse movements occurred between 4.39.30
and 5.1, but they were not so large between 4.56 and 5.1, when the blood-pressure
was highest, as between 4.39.30 and 4.55.30, when the blood-pressure was lower than
normal.

The pulse-rate fell markedly at 4.34, and remained slower than normal until death
occurred ; but between 4.55 and 5.2, the rate was more rapid than between 4.34 and
4.55.

The respirations increased in frequency soon after the injection, and remained above

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 441

the normal rate until 4.41. They then gradually became slow, laboured, irregular, and

shallow.

The period of the highest blood-pressure coincided with that of disordered respiration,
and of the secondary increase in the pulse-rate.

Experiment CXLVII.—Weight of rabbit, 4 lbs. 0°012 grain of strophanthin,
dissolved in saline, injected in three divided doses into the left jugular vein (Plate

peXII.).

Blood-pressure Pulse-rate | Respirations
Substance Oca a ee No of
Time. | administered, |- : Trac- Notes.
gad its Dose. Maxi-| Mini-| Aver-| 10 60 10 60 | 8:
mum./mum.} age. | sec. | sec. | sec. | sec.
— eT EEE
4.22.20 oe 110 | 104 | 107 45 | 270 8 48 1 | Normal. Respiration waves well
marked. Pulse movements
rather less than 1 mm.
4,25.45 ate 104 | 100 | 102 45 | 270 83 51 Dos do.
4.26.50 | Strophanthin,
to 0-002 grain,
4.27.30 | injected into
jugular vein.
4.27.35 dae 114 | 108 | 111 44 | 264 94 57 ... | Respiration waves well marked.
4.29.25 oe 112 | 100 | 106 40 | 240 9 54 ... | Do. Pulse movements slightly
larger than normal, and at
irregular, infrequent intervals
an intermission occurs, with
large diastolic fall (10 mm.)
and equally large systolic rise.
4.32.20 380 116 106 lll Z 252 9 54 sor Do. do.
4,35.20 3 118 112 115 41 246 8 48 one Do. do.
4.37.4 ast 116 | 108 | 112 39 | 234 9 54 2 | Do. do. One of the inter-

missions referred to above
(4.29.25.) is represented in
the tracing.

4.38.40 |Strophanthin,| ... e ae sis as ie seth ... | Almost immediately the pulse
to 0:004 grain. movements became larger ;
4.40 at commencement of injection
they were 1 mm., and in 10

sec. 1$ mm.
4.39.45 ne 128) | 122) | 125 33 | 198 8h 51 ... | Respiration waves well marked.

Pulse movements still larger,
about 2 mm.

4.40 ee 128 | 118 | 123 32 | 192 8 48 3 | Do. do. Second part of trac-
ing shows commencement of
more frequent intermissions,
with exaggerated diastole and
systole, which, after lasting
for 10 sec., passed gradually
into condition shown in next
tracing.

| 4.40.12 aia 128 100 | 114 11 66 2 2 4 | Respiration waves obliterated,
but animal quiet, and breath-
ing regularly and fully at rate
of 52 per 60sec. Pulse move-
ments very large (9 to 12
mm.), and nearly regular,
This condition of cardiac
action lasted for 25 sec., and
then irregularities occurred
in rate and size of movement,
such as represented in next
tracing, No. 5.

DR THOMAS R, FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

Time.

4.41.30

4.42.25

4.43.20
4.44.15

4,45.15

Substance
adininistered,
and its Dose.

Strophanthin,
0:006 grain.

Expervment CX LV II.—continued.

Blood-pressure
in mm.
Maxi-| Mini- | Aver-
mum. | mum. | age.
126 96 | 111
118 90 | 104
112 82 97
114 84 99
102 80 91
96 90 93
98 84 91
126 | 110 | 118
100 82 91
126 | 114 | 120

Pulse-rate
per
10 60
sec. | sec.
19 114
18 108
18 108
19 114
18 | 108
35 210
977) 162 2
252) 150?
25 2) 150 2
19 114?

Respirations
er No. of
Trac-
10°) 60) |, 748"
sec. | sec.
2 2 5
?
2 f
2 2
2 2
? 6
2 2 7
ret
2 2 9

Notes.

The irregular pulse movements
became regular again for a
few seconds, but afterwards
again irregular, and they con-
tinued irregular, as in the
first portion of the tracing,
for5min. Rabbit quiet, and
breathing well.

Respiration waves indistin-
guishable, but rate about 52

per 60 sec. Pulse movements
irregular, both large and
moderately small oceur-
ring.

Do. do,

Do. do. Respirations seem

rather more frequent.

Do., but rate about 64 per 60
sec. Pulse movements less
irregular, but smaller (from
4 to 9 mm.), and more fre-
quently the latter than the
former. Two or three brief
and weak spasms occurred at
4,45.

The pulse movements gradually
became smaller, until, at 4.49,
they had assumed the charac-
ters shown in tracing No. 6.

Pulse movements very small,
1 to 15 mm. _ Respiration
waves indistinguishable.

Pulse movements irregular, and
rapidly becoming larger.

Pulse movements irregular, but
usually large, 6 to 9 mm.
They continued so with only
slight changes in the average
blood-pressure till 5.6. Ani-
mal quite quiet.

Tracings interrupted.

Respiration wavesindistinguish-
able. Respiration slow, irre-
gular, and shallow. Pulse
movements regular and large,
5 mm. After being irre-
gular, though still large, for
several seconds, they became
again regular and very large
at 5.12, immediately before
which some slight spasms
occurred.

DR THOMAS R,. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

Expervment CXL VII—continued.

Substance
administered,
and its Dose.

Time.

5.12.10

5.12.40

5.13.45

6.14.55

5.15.26

5.16

5.16.12

5.19

Blood-pressure Pulse-rate | Respirations
in mm. per per

Maxi-| Mini-| Aver-| 10 60 10 60
mum.|/mum.| age. | sec. | sec. | sec. | sec.
106 78 92 8 48 2 2
130 120 | 125 25 150 2 2
130 | 122 | 126 30 | 180 ? 2

2 44 58 2 127) 2 q

98 74 86 10 6C ? 2

18 12 15 2 12 0 0

11

12

44

Notes.

Respiration wavesindistinguish-
able. Respiration slow, irre-
gular, and shallow. Pulse
movements regular and very
large, 12 to 14 mm. At
5.12.26, the pulse movements
became irregular, though re-
maining large ; and the aver-
age pressure rose till, at
5.12.34, the maximum pres-
sure was 132 mm.; and at
the same time the pulse move-
ments became much smaller
(5 to 6 mm.), and their rate
increased to 72 per 60 sec.

Pulse movements nearly regular
and small,2 to 3mm. _ Re-
spiration very slow, shallow,
and irregular, and at rate of
about 20 per 60 sec.

Pulse movements as above, but
smaller. They continued as
in tracing till 5.14.50, when
they became irregular, and
the blood-pressure began to
fall, and some general con-
vulsions occurred.

Blood-pressure fell in 53 sec.
from 96 mm. to 38 mm., and
the pulse movements be-
came very slow, 2 only occur-
ring in 15 sec., but with large
pulse movements. Respira-
tion very infrequent, shallow,
and irregular; long pauses
without any.

The pulse movements soon
afterwards became rather
more frequent, and the blood-
pressure rose a little.

Pulse movements 10 and 12 mm.
The rate gradually increased
and the movements decreased
proportionately in size, and
the blood-pressure rose.

Pulse movements 7 to 10 mm.
Respiration has almost ceased.
Eyelidsand cornea insensitive.

Some convulsions, during which
blood-pressure rose to 126
mm., and the pulse move-
ments became small and
rapid. In a few seconds the
blood-pressure again rapidly
fell, and irregular slow pulse
movements of larger size
occurred. These continued
until 5.20, when the heart’s
action altogether ceased.

Pulse movements about 14 mm.

444 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

At 5.27. The heart was exposed ; occasionally faint twitches of auricles, varied by weak peristaltic movements ;
rarely feeble twitches of the right ventricle; no movement in left ventricle. Lungs rather pale.
Fairly active peristalsis of large and small intestines.

» 5.30. After ligaturing its vessels, the heart was excised. When an incision was made into the left ventricle
only a little blood escaped ; but when the right ventricle was incised a large quantity of blood escaped
from it.

» 5.34, A section of the wall of the left ventricle was found to be faintly acid in reaction. The thigh muscles
were acid in reaction.

The blood-pressure was but little affected in this experiment, until it rose moderately
during respiratory embarrassments towards the end of the experiment, and sank shortly
before death, when the pulse-rate had become very slow.

The pulse-rate sank after each dose of strophanthin, but it recovered a little before
the third dose. The pulse movements were much increased in size. At 4.40, soon after
the second dose, the excursions were of large size; and at this time the blood-pressure
was slightly above the normal, and the pulse-rate was much slower than it had originally
been. The excursions were also very large at 5.12, after the third dose, when the blood
pressure was slightly, and the pulse-rate greatly, below the normal. Large pulse excur-
sions also occurred at 5.11, when the pressure was higher than the normal, and the pulse-
rate much below the normal.

The respirations were slowed throughout the experiment, and the temporary
rises of blood-pressure, which occurred before the heart’s action had become extremely
disordered, appeared to coincide with special impairment of the respiratory move-
ments.

Experiment CXLVIII.—Weight of rabbit, 3 lbs. 12 0z. 0°01 grain of strophanthin,
dissolved in saline, injected in four divided doses, into the left jugular vein (Plate XXI.).

Blood-pressure Pulse-rate | Respirations
Substance aac PS aa No. of
Time. | administered, Trac- Notes.
and its Dose: | vaxi-| Mini-|Aver-| 10 | 60 | 10 | 60 | 6
mum.|/mum.| age. | sec. | sec. | sec. | sec.
3.37 ae 172 | 154 | 163 44 | 264 8 48 1 | Pulse and respiration regular.
Pulse movements about 1
Strophanthin, mm.
3.39 0-002 grain,
to into jugular
3.41 vein.
3.39.5 “pe 166 | 150 | 158 38 | 228 7 42 ... | Respiration waves indistinct.
3.39.50 ee 168 | 154 | 161 32 | 192 72 | 42 ... | Pulse movements larger, 14 to
2mm. _ Respiration waves
indistinct. 5
3.40.40 bee 168 | 150 | 159 34 | 204 if 42 2 | Do
3.43.15 sae 152 138 145 35 210 6 36 450 Do.
3.44.30 poe 156 | 132 144 34 | 204 8 48 .. | Do. For a short time at
4.43.50 the pulse movements
were 4 mm.
3.47.30 “n 146 | 134 | 140 36 | 216 7 42 Respiration waves well marked.
Pulse movements 1} to 2
mm.
3.54 “sy 158 | 148 | 151 35 | 210 64 | 39 Pan || LD te do.

dies

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

Expervment CXL VIII.—continued.

445

Time.

Substance
administered,
and its Dose.

3.56 |Strophanthin,

to
3.58.30
3.56.20
3.58.15

3.58.46

4.7.40

4.10
4.13.30

0°003 gr., into
jugular vein.

Strophanthin,
0'008 gr., into
jugular vein.

Strophanthin,
0:002 gr., into
jugular vein.

Blood-pressure Pulse-rate | Respirations
in mm, per per

Maxi-| Mini-| Aver-| 10 60 10 60
mum.|mum.| age. | sec. | sec. | sec. | sec.
160 146 153 36 216 7 36
182 | 164 | 173 38 | 228 8% | 51
208 | 184 | 196 39 =| 234 9 54
176 156 166 39 234 9 54
164 148 156 38 228 g) 54
172 | 148 | 160 | 33 | 198 8h | 51
182 158 170 32 192 2 2
170 | 158 | 164 33 | 198 103 | 63
172 158 165 37 222 103 | 63
168 156 162 37 222 103 63
166 152 159 30 180 92) 54
176 | 150 | 163 34 | 204 93 | 57
150 138 144 4] 246 9 54
136 120 128 40 240 5 30
134 122 125 40 240 8 48
158 142 150 31 186 97) 54
168 156 162 31 186 11 66
172 160 166 32 192 Il 66
178 164 171 31 186 11 66
180 168 174 33 198 103 63
180 168 174 38 228 11 66
174 162 168 34 | 204 105 63
172 158 | 160 30 | 180 105 | 63
180 | 158 169 30 | 180 11 66
184 | 162 | 173 AN 162 92) 54
192 154 173 24 144 3727] 18
188 144 166 21 126 37] 18
198 144 171 18? | 108 37] 18

Notes.

Respiration waves well marked.

Respiration waves wel! marked.
Pulse movements less regu-
lar, 1 to 24 mm.

Respiration waves indistin-
guishable. Pulse move-
ments 1 to 3 mm.

Do. do.
Do. do.
Do do

Do. Pulse movements mark-
edly irregular, 2 to 6 mm.
o. Pulse movements less
irregular, from 2 to 3 mm.
Do. do.

Respiration waves well marked
and regular. Pulse move-
ments from 14 to 24 mm.

Do. do.

Respiration waves irregular.
Do.

Respiration waves regular and
well marked. Pulse move-
ments from 14 to 3 mm.

Respiration waves irregular.
Pulse movements smaller.

Respiration waves nearly re-
gular. Pulse movements
irregular, 1 to 24 mm.

Do., but pulse movements less
irregular, from 3 to 4 mm.
Do. Pulse movements from

2 to 4mm.

Do. do,
Do. do
Do. do
Do. do.
Do. do.

Respiration waves less regular.
Pulse movements more uni-
form, 3 to 4 mm.

Do. Pulse movements are
larger, 3 to 5 mm.

Do. Pulse movements still
larger, 3 to 6 mm.

Do. Do., 5 to 9 mm.

Do. Do., 5 to 10 mm.

Do. Pulse movements very
large, usually 10 to 18 mm.

446 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

Experiment CXLVIIT.—continued.

Blood-pressure Pulse-rate | Respirations
Son tenor in mm, per per No. of
| Time, | administered, | __|—________}________} Tyae- Notes.
| and its Dose. | wraxi-|Mini-|Aver-| 10 | 60 | 10 (60 | 2&
mum.|mum.| age. | sec. | sec. | sec. | sec.

4.45.30 vee 202 | 182 | 192 23 | 138 37) 2 ... | Respiration waves have almost
disappeared. Pulse move-
ments large and nearly
uniform, 8 to 10 mm.

4,46 aa 236 | 218 | 225 33 | 198 2 2 ... | Do. Pulse movements uni-
form, but not so large as at
4.45.30.

4.46.55 vee 224 | 208 | 216 28 | 168 32 ? 6 | Do. Pulse movements 44 to 6
mm., and nearly uniform.

4.47.50 nee 220 204 | 212 32 192 42 2 sae Do. do.

4.48.20 ae 210 196 203 30 180 2 2 S86 Do. do.

4.50.40 oe 176 | 170 | 173 34 | 204 2 2 ... | Do. Pulse movements much
smaller, though larger than
normal, about 2 mm.

5.4 ar 84 64 74 q 2 2 2 Pulse curve rapidly fell, and
pulse movements became

almost obliterated, and the
rate very slow and irregular,
5.4.25 aoe 94 72 83 8? | 48? 2 2 ad Respiration waves very irre-
gular, about 4 per 60 sec.,
but distinguishable until
5.7.

5.7.35 ae 36 32 34 57] 30? 2 2 ... | Respiration waves indistinguish-
able. Pulse movements irre-

gular, about 2 mm., and

with very gradual diastolic

fall. The movements alto-

gether ceased at 5.8.30, when

the no-pressure line was

suddenly attained.

After death, at 5.15, the exposed heart was no longer contracting, but feeble peristaltic movements were occurring
in both ventricles, and they continued for 20 sec. At 5.16, the heart was motionless, and no contraction followed
strong mechanical irritation, When excised, very little blood escaped from the left ventricle, but a considerable
quantity from the right ventricle. The lungs were rather pale, Neither urine nor faces were passed during the —
experiment, but after death a considerable quantity of urine was found in the bladder.

In this experiment the blood-pressure was almost unaffected until the second injection
of strophanthin, when it rose a little, to fall again to the normal before the third injection,
after which it again slowly rose until slightly above the normal. A few minutes after
the fourth injection, a marked increase of blood-pressure occurred which, as in the
previous experiments, suddenly gave way to a rapid fall a short time before death
occurred,

After the first injection of strophanthin, and throughout the remainder of the
experiment, the pulse-rate was slower than normal, but when the blood-pressure
was highest, the rate, although still below the normal, was not so slow as at other
times.

The pulse movements were increased after each injection, and the largest movements

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 447

occurred during the high blood-pressure following the fourth and last injection. This
result is not the same as in the two previous experiments, in which the largest uniform
movements took place when the blood-pressure was low, or but little removed from its
initial state.

The respiration rate increased after the second injection, and it remained, generally,
above the normal until 2 min. after the fourth injection had been commenced. The
respirations then became slow, irregular, and laboured, and while these characters existed
the blood-pressure attained its maximum elevation; and, as has been stated, the pulse
movements also were then larger than at any other period of the experiment. The
largest pulse movements, however, occurred before the blood-pressure had attained its
maximum.

The experiment, therefore, shows that the pulse movements may be nearly
uniformly large even when the blood-pressure is much above its original eleva-
tion.

Experiment CLXIX.—Weight of rabbit, 5 lb. 0°012 grain of strophanthin, dis-
solved in weak saline, injected in four divided doses into a jugular vein. Vagus nerve
stimulated before and after the administration of strophanthin.

Blood-pressure Pulse-rate | Respiration
Au a ae in mm. per per
Time. | administered, = Notes.
d its Dose.
au | Maxi-| Mini-|Aver-| 10 | 60 | 10 | 60
mum.|mum.] age. | sec. | sec. | sec. | sec.
4.2 ue air ee HER ae ae e6: ... | Left vagus cut.

4.7.10 oe 144 | 138 | 141 49 | 294 8 48 | Respiration waves well marked.

4.7.30 si a a te ae = eh Vagus stimulated: secondary at 30,
no effect; secondary at 25, heart
slowed and pressure fell, tem-
porarily.

4.8.30 a 146 | 1386 | 141 49 | 294 9 54 | Respiration waves well marked.

4.10.30 | Strophanthin,

to 0:004 grain,

4.12.30 | into jugular

vein.

4.10.45 sn 136 | 126 | 131 47 282, i+ 45 Do.

4.12.20 ase 148 140 144 49 294 9 54 Do.

4.14.20 a 144 | 130 | 137 47 282 8 48 Do.

4.14.30 in By vt seeGa lneeee oa Fa ... | Vagus stimulated: secondary at 25,
heart slowed and pressure fell, tem-
porarily.

4.17.15 me 160 | 150 | 155 48 | 288 8 48 | Respiration waves well marked.

4.21.15 ies 120 | 112 | 116 50 300 63 39 Do.

4.21.35 He wr Ra aes Ate ae 6 ... |Wagus stimulated: secondary at 25,
heart slowed and pressure fell, tem-
porarily.

4.24.30 | Strophanthin,

to 0-004 grain.
4.26.30
4.25 a 132 | 126 | 129 46 | 276 8 48 | Respiration waves well marked.

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 16). 3x

448 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

Experiment CX LIX .—continued.

Blood-pressure Pulse-rate | Respiration

: cl
Substance on me Re pet

ime.) ad nis tore ee Notes.

and 2s Dorel Nts Min | Ayrors| e100 )| SeouMl ar RmERGD
mum, | mum. age. sec. sec, sec. sec,

4.26.15 ae 160 | 150 | 155 44 | 264 5% 2 Respiration waves very indistinct,
and they became so when pulse

movements became larger, at
4.26. ;

4.26.50 45 180 | 166 | 173 442] 264 82 48? | Do. Pulse movements irregular.

They remain large, but it is difficult

to be satisfied as to the rate, which

may be only 24 and not 44 per 10

sec.

4.27.30 a si on i. aide Pr Si .. | Vagus stimulated: secondary at 25,
immediate slowing and slight fall of
pressure. |

4.28.15 Acr 174 | 164 | 169 41 | 246 ? 2 Pulse movements irregular, frequent | —

considerable diastolic falls. This
condition has been present since

4.27.

4.29.30 on 162 | 150 | 156 42 252 2 ? | Do. do.

4.29.45 ae 300 350 os aes 506 nes ... | Vagus stimulated: secondary at 25,
slowing and fall of pressure, tem-
porarily.

4,31 Bs 150 | 142 | 146 | 42 | 252 | 10 | 60 | Pulse movements less irregular, but |

still larger than before strophanthin
was administered.

4.34.30 | Strophanthin,

to 0-002 grain.
4.36
4.34.30 oe 130 | 122 | 126 43 | 258 2 ? Do. Respiration waves too indistinct |
to be counted.
4.36 ase 190 | 172 | 181 43 258 2 2 Do. do.
4.36.45 Ss 170 | 162 | 166 | 41 | 246 | 8? 48? | Pulse movements irregular. They be-
came so at 4.36.35. re
4.37 a sa alee =n pe ue aS ... | Vagus stimulated : secondary at 25, |
slowing and fall of pressure, tem-
porarily. y°
4.40 das 130 | 126 | 128 41 | 246 7} 42? | Pulse movements smaller and nearl:
regular. Tracing nearly nor _

except that respiration waves are |

indistinct.
4.43 | Strophanthin,
to 0-002 grain.
4.45 .
4.43.5 mae 126 122 124 42 252 8? 48? | Do. is
4.44.50 ae 134 | 122 | 128 | 37 | 222 | 7? ? | Pulse movements regular, and they |

have gradually increased slightly in |

size since the beginning of the last |

. injection. i

4.46.20 oa 198 | 150 | 174 | 25 | 150 | 3 18? | Pulse movements large (2 to 8 mm.) |
and irregular. They assumed this 7

character at 4.45.30. |

4.46.40 sie 160 | 128 | 144 19 | 144 32 18? | Do. Pulse movements for a short time |

from 8 to 10 mm. i)

4.47 aah iT ae ne ae ms a .. | Vagus stimulated: secondary at 25 |
mm., marked slowing and fall of |

pressure. |
Pulse movements large (3 to 4mm.)

and slow. Pressure has fallen

steadily since 4.47.

4.47.20 nee 98 68 83 10 60

—_—
~_—

DR THOMAS R, FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

Experiment CX LIX .—continued.

449

Substance
administered,
and its Dose.

Time.

Blood-pressure Pulse-rate | Respiration
in mm. per per

Maxi-| Mini-| Aver-| 10 60 10 60

mum.|/mum.| age. | sec. | sec. | sec. | sec.

Notes.

Vagus stimulated: secondary at 25,
moderate slowing and very slight
fall of pressure.

Pressure has

fallen to the abscissa.

For about 60 sec. previously the
pressure line was only slightly in-
terrupted by very faint oscillations.

This experiment shows that the cardio-inhibitory function of the vagus is not para-
lysed by strophanthus.

produced in the experiment.

Experiment CL.—Weight of rabbit, 5 lbs. 2 oz.

No long-continued uniform and large pulse excursions were

0°019 grain of strophanthin and

0°35 grain of sulphate of atropine, each dissolved in weak saline, injected in divided

doses into the jugular veins,

Substances
Ti administered,
ppae and their
Doses.
3.45
3.49.10
3.50
3.53 Atropine
to Sulphate,
3.53.30 | 0:1 grain,
injected into
jugular vein.
3.59 nOL
3.59.50
4.0
4.0.30 ace
43 |Strophanthin,
to 0:003 grain,
4.4.30 | injected into
jugular vein.
4.3.5 hoe

Blo

Maxi-
mum.

136

144

106

Vagus nerve stimulated from time to time (Plate XXIII).

od-pressure Pulse-rate

in mm. per
Mini-| Aver-| 10 60
mum.| age. | sec. | sec.
120 128 44 | 264
126 | 135 47 | 282
98 102 42 | 252

Respirations
per
10 60
sec. | sec.
5 30
10 60
13 98

Notes.

Artery connected with kymo-
graph.

Normal curve. Respiration
waves well marked. Pulse
movements 4 to 1 mm.

Vagus stimulated : secondary
at 25 mm., no effect; at 20
mm., marked slowing and
fall of pressure.

Respiration waves well marked.
Pulse movements $ to 1 mm.

Vagus stimulated : secondary
at 20 mm., no effect.

Do.: secondary at 12 mm., no
effect.

Do.: secondary at 0, no effect.

Respiration waves well marked.

450

Time.

4.6.15

4.9

4.11.5
4.14

to
4.15.30

4.36.20
4.40.30
to
4,42
4.41.50
4.42.50
4.44.30
4.49.10
4,50
to
4.51

4.53.10

al

to
5.2.30
5.1.10
5.1.50
5.3.35
5.5.80

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

Substances
administered,
and their
Doses.

Strophanthin,
0004 grain,
injected into
jugular vein.

Atropine

Sulphate,

0:05 grain,
injected into
jugular vein.

Strophanthin,
0:004 grain,
injected into
jugular vein.

Atropine

Sulphate,

0-1 grain,
injected into
jugular vein.

Strophanthin,
0-005 grain,
injected into

jugular vein.

Expervment CL.—continued.

Blood-pressure

Maxi-|} Mini- | Aver-

mum, | Mum,

132

126
118

110

116
110
150
184

in mm.

110

122
104

102
96

102

92
96
94

90

96
98
134
146

age.

121

131
115

110
103

107

100

106
104
142
165

Pulse-rate
per
10 60
sec. | sec.
39 234
38 228
40 240
4] 244
39 234
38 228
39 234
39 934
38 238
37 229,
37 222,
31 186
34 204
33 198
32 192
297 | 174

Respirations
per
10 60
sec. | sec.
q ?
9 54
9 54
8 48
7 42
64 | 39
5 30
5 30
5 30
5 30
5 30
44| 27
4k | 27
4 | 24
5 30
? 2

Notes.

Respiration waves indistinguish-
able. Pulse movements } to | —
1mm.

Respiration waves fairly well
marked. Pulse movements
larger (1 to 15 mm.) and
irregular i in size.

Do.

Do.
Do. Pulse movements 14 to 2 |
mm.

Do. do.
Do. do.
Do. do
Do. do.
a Br

Vaeus stiniulateal » scbondeiet |
at 10 mm., marked slowing te
and fall of ] pressure.

Vagus stimulated : secondary |
at 10mm., no effect. Respi
tion waves well marked, ise 1
movements considerably larger |_
than normal, 2 to 4 mm.

ag
ww
fe

ae
‘

Respiration waves and pulse” ;
movements as at 4.53.10. |

Do. Pulse movements more |
uniform, from 2 to 25 mm.

Do., but pulse movements sti
larger, 2 to 4 mm.

Since 5.5 respiration waves J
indistinguishable and pulse 4
movements irregular, with i
frequent large descents and |

ascents, from 5 to 15 mm. |

|

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 451

Experiment CL.—continued.

Blood-pressure Pulse-rate | Respirations
Substances in mm, per per AGE
Time, | *ministered, "Tn @ Not
os and their Prac- otes.
Doses. | Maxi-/ Mini-) Aver-| 10 | 60 | 10 | 60 | ™S
mum.|mum.| age. | sec. | sec. | sec. | sec.
5.5.40 56 180 | 128 | 154 272) 162 2 2 ... | Respiration waves, etc.: Vagus
stimulated: secondary at 10
mm., no obvious effect.
5.6.10 i 184 | 144 | 164 | 19?/1142| 32] 182] ... | Respiration waves indistinct,

Pulse movements large (8 to
10 mm.) and less irregular.
5.6.40 x 184 | 148 | 166 34 | 204 47) 242) ... | Respiration waves indistinct.
Pulse movements irregular ;
majority about 2 mm., but
every fourteenth or sixteenth
as much as 15 mm.

5.7.30 i 188 | 146 | 167 34 | 204 42] 242 see || Do do.

5.7.45 a 170 | 146 | 158 11?) 662 ? ? ... | Respiration waves indistinguish-
able (at 5:8, however, the re-
spirations were 22 per 60 sec.,
fulland regular). Pulse move-
ments are nearly regular and
large, 9 to 11 mm.

5.8.34 ee 168 | 142 | 155 112} 66 ? 1 6 | Do. do. Pulse movements,
however, again became irregu-

lar at 5.8.40.
5.9 = ae ee aes oe fi at See ... | Vagus stimulated for 6 sec.:

secondary at 10 mm.; at end
of stimulation four slow beats,
and slight fall of pressure.

5.9.55 09 200 | 190 | 195 41 | 246 5 30 7 | Respiration waves well marked.
5.13 Atropine Pulse movements regular, and
to Sulphate, ; much smaller than before.

5.14.30 | _ 0°1 grain,
injected into
jugular vein.

5.18 |Strophanthin,
to 0-003 grain,

5.19.10 | injected into
jugular vein.

5.18.40 ies 162 | 176 | 149 32 | 192 2 2 ... | Respiration waves indistin-

guishable. Pulse movements

very irregular, and varying

in size from 3 to 10 mm.

5.20 ue 182 | 156 | 169 33 | 198 2 2 ... | Respiration waves indistin-

guishable ; respirations

counted at 5.22 were 22 per

60 sec. regular and full.

Pulse movements less irregu-

lar and smaller, 2 to 4 mm.

At 5.20.12 pulse move-

ments again became as at

4.18.40.
5.20.25 5 be sia oa ee fe was sh 8 | Vagus stimulated : secondary
to at 20 mm., no effect.
5.20.31
5.23.52 a 170 | 148 | 159 14 84 2 2 9 | Respiration waves indistin-

guishable ; but when counted
at 5.22, the respirations were
22 per 60 sec., full and regu-
lar. Pulse movements regu-
lar and large (9 to 11 mm.),
they became so at 5.23.42,
and continued till 5.24.18,

452 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

Experiment CL.—continued.

Blood-pressure Pulse-rate | Respirations |
Substances im mm. [glee Dey Norot
administered, Tne Noted
and their ie :
Doses. Maxi-| Mini-]Aver-} 10 60 10 60 | Ss
mum.|mum.} age. | sec. | sec. | sec. | sec.

Time.

5.24.15 sas aR zd sp aa ant = oe .. | Vagus stimulated: secondary
| at 10 mm., doubtful slowing.
5.25 aH 170 | 140 | 155 24 2} 144 ? 2 |) Respiration waves indistin-
Lio guishable. Pulse movements
| irregular, majority very large.
5.25.2 ie iyo | 140 |155 | 2a7iaae | 2? | 2. (y Vagus stimulated : secondary
at 20 mm., no effect.
5.25.35 sth Ee ne at ee SH ee 46 ... | Vagus stimulated ; secondary
at 15 mm. for 5 sec., slight
slowing and fall of pressure
for 2 sec. at end of stimula-
tion.
5.26.10 He 172 | 160 | 166 29 | 174 5 30 ... | Respiration waves fairly well
marked. Pulse movements
regular and moderately large,
3 to 4 mm. The pulse
changed to these characters
at 5.25.50, immediately atter
some struggles.
5.26.20 Be ee Eas ~ aes as nas she ... | Vagus stimulated : secondar
at 10mm. Slowing and fa
of pressure.
5.26.45 = 168 | 156 | 162 29 | 174 4 24 ... | Respiration waves fairly well
marked. Pulse regular and
movements moderately large,
3 to 4mm.
5.26.55 ae dee ee ie ae 668 a 580 11 | Vagus stimulated; secondary
at 15 mm., no effect.
5.27.15 ie a Bae 508 a ee 500 oe ... | Vagus stimulated : secondary
at 10 mm., distinct slowing
and fall of pressure.

5.27.43 ane 166 | 154 | 160 29 | 174 4 24 12 | Respiration and pulse as at
5.26.45.
5.30 ae pee 500 “3° noc aay aes sec ... | Began to inject more atropine ;

suddenly the pulse curve fell
rapidly to 10 mm., and the
respirations became very in-
frequent and laboured.

The pulse curve remained at about 10 mm. above the abscissa-line for more than half a minute longer, and during
this time the pulse movements were irregular and small (1 to 2 mm.), and at the rate of 24 per 10 sec.

In this experiment, the atropine, which was administered before strophanthin,
produced its usual effects in elevating the blood-pressure, and in increasing the rate
of the pulse and of respiration.

After the first dose of strophanthin the blood-pressure fell slightly, but recovered
its former state before the second dose of strophanthin, and it fell again after this
dose. The third dose was followed by a still further fall; but the blood-pressure
rose above its original elevation after the fourth and fifth doses, and it remained
considerably above the normal until, as in the first three experiments, a sudden great
fall occurred a few minutes before the heart ceased to contract.

The acceleration of the pulse-rate caused by the first injection of atropine, was

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 453

followed by slowing after strophanthin began to be administered; but this slowing
was only inconsiderable, and even after the last (fifth) dose of strophanthin, the pulse-
rate immediately before death was so rapid as 174 in the minute. When the blood-
pressure was high as well as when it was low, the pulse-rate was at times slow and at
times rapid.

The pulse movements were markedly increased in size by strophanthin, notwith-
standing the repeated administration of atropine; and large and uniform movements
occurred, both when the pressure was about the normal as well as when it was much
above it. This increase of pulse movement was exhibited while the vagus cardio-
inhibition was much weakened, and even when, apparently, it was- paralysed by atropine
(see Tracing Nos. 4, 10 and 11).

The usual effects of strophanthin on respiration, as well as on the pulse-rate, were
interfered with by atropine, as the respirations remained above or at the original rate
until a few seconds before death.

In fact, the administration of atropine failed in preventing strophanthin from
producing its usual effects on blood-pressure and on the size of the pulse movements,
although it succeeded in lessening its effects on the rate of the pulse and of respira-
tion.

Further, the experiment suggests that the paralysing action of atropine on the
eardio-inhibitory function of the vagus is lessened by strophanthin, for, notwithstanding
the repeated administration of atropine, considerable difficulty was encountered in main-
taining paralysis of the vagus throughout the experiment.

These experiments (CXLVI., CXLVII., CXLVIIL, CXLIX., and CL.), therefore,
appear to confirm the experiments on frogs by affording evidence of there being but
little action produced by Strophanthus on the blood-vessels ; of there being a powerful
action produced on the heart, whereby both the diastolic expansion and the systolic
contraction of that organ are much increased ; and of there being no necessary implica-
tion of the cardio-inhibitory function of the vagus in the production of the diastolic
expansion, which constitutes so prominent a feature of the action of Strophanthus upon
the heart.

EK. Action oN THE LymMPH-HEARTS OF THE FROG.

Notwithstanding the powerful action of Strophanthus upon the blood-heart, it affects
the lymph-hearts only feebly and slowly. In the experiment illustrative of this state-
ment, the dose administered was a large one.

Experiment CLI.—The posterior lymph-hearts were exposed in a frog, weighing 340
grains. They were pulsating, nearly regularly, at the rate of 18 per 30 sec. One-tenth
of a grain of extract of Strophanthus was injected under the skin at the thorax. The
lymph-hearts were continuously observed, and it was found that their pulsations con-
tinued at the rate of from 15 to 21 per 30 sec. during the 20 min. succeeding the

454 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

injection. At this time, the blood-heart was exposed, and its ventricle was found to be
motionless in strong systole, although the auricles yet continued to contract at the rate
of 3 per 30 sec. During the following 20 min., the lymph-hearts spontaneously and
nearly regularly pulsated at the rate of from 16 to 21 per 30 sec. ; but 6 min. afterwards,
the pulsations had become infrequent and irregular. The observations were now
interrupted, and when resumed, at 1 hour and 25 min. after the administration of
Strophanthus, the pulsations of the lymph-hearts had altogether ceased. At this time,
and for 20 min. longer, active general reflexes could easily be excited.

The lymph-hearts, therefore, retained their power of spontaneously pulsating for at
least 26 min. after paralysis of the ventricle of the blood-heart had been produced.

F, Action on RESPIRATION.

The relation between respiration and circulation is so intimate, especially in warm-
blooded animals, that much disturbance of the circulation, such as is produced by large
doses of Strophanthus, must affect respiration.

In several of the previously described experiments on rabbits, the changes that occur
in the respiratory movements, as well as in the heart’s action, have been noted (see
Experiments VII., VIII, XVI, XVIII, XXXII, XXXIIL, XXXV., and XXXVI).
In a few experiments, an increase occurred in the rate of the respirations soon after the
administration of Strophanthus, but it was only slight and of brief duration; and it was
soon succeeded by a diminution in the rate, nearly coinciding with a reduction in the
number of the heart’s contractions. In all the experiments in which lethal doses had
been administered, this diminution, like the similar change in the heart’s rate, became
abruptly marked towards the end of the experiment.

While, however, in only a few of the experiments did decided slowing of the heart’s
contractions occur earlier than of the respirations, in the majority of the experiments
distinct slowing in respiration occurred earlier than in the heart’s contractions.

With considerable or large lethal doses, the slowing of respiration appeared almost
entirely to result from the rapid and energetic effects of such doses upon the heart;
but with minimum-lethal or non-lethal doses a slight direct paralysing action on
respiration appeared to be indicated in addition to the indirect effect produced by
changes in the circulation.

The explanation of this direct action upon respiration may probably be found in
the feeble action of Strophanthus on the spinal reflex functions, and above all in the
powerful action on muscular contractility already discussed. Even before marked slowing
of respiration had been produced, the latter was manifested by the fibrillary twitches
that occurred, and by the general muscular feebleness which rendered the muscles of the
neck and limbs unfit steadily to support the head and body of the animal.

That the marked embarrassment and failure of respiration which so conspicuously
follow the administration of large doses, depend more upon failure of the heart’s action

po

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 455

than upon any direct action on the respiratory movements, is made clearly apparent
by the results of some of the experiments on frogs. When the heart had been exposed
before the administration of Strophanthus, it was found that respiratory disturbances
and dyspnoea quickly followed the marked changes produced in the heart’s action,
and that the respiratory movements did not entirely cease until from 14 to 32
min, after the ventricle had been brought to a standstill and the circulation had
consequently ceased (see Experiments LIX., LXVII., LXVIII., LXIX., and LXXIIT.).
The changes in respiration observed in these and other experiments are, indeed, much
the same as those that occur when the circulation is stopped by ligaturing the heart of
afrog. When this is done, the respirations soon become extremely irregular, gaping
movements of the mouth occur, intervals of prolonged dyspneea are exhibited, and
the respiratory movements of the throat do not cease until 30 or 35 min. after
the heart has been ligatured (see Experiment LVIL, B).

The independence in frogs relatively to mammals of pulmonary respiration upon the
cardiac action, would also lead to the anticipation that if Strophanthus acts to any
important extent on respiration, there should be a greater difference in the minimum-
lethal dose for frogs as contrasted with rabbits than has been found. As a matter
of fact, this dose is almost the same per 100 grains for each animal. If, however,
Strophanthus added to its emphatic cardiac action a decided paralysing action on the
respiratory movements, the minimum-lethal dose for any given weight of animal should
be considerably smaller for rabbits than for frogs; for the added respiratory action
would operate in producing death, much more effectively in the rabbit than it would in
the frog.

For assistance received in various parts of this investigation, I have to thank my
present Assistants, Dr Tittre and Mr Srzar, M.B., and my former Assistant, Dr
STOCKMAN.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Puate VIII.
Experiment
LXI. Tracings of detached gastrocnemius muscle of frog. Muscle only stimulated. 1, muscle in normal
saline ; 2 to 8, muscle in saline solution of extract of Strophanthus (1:25,000). Tracings 3 to
7 show irregularities caused by fibrillary twitches. Reads left to right.

Prats IX.
LXII. Tracings of detached gastrocnemius muscle of frog. Both nerve and muscle stimulated ; nerve
stimulated in tracings 1 and 8; and muscle in tracings 2, 3, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, and
16. Tracings 1 and 2, muscle in normal saline; 3 to 16, muscle in saline solution of extract
of Strophanthus (1:2500). Reads right to left.
VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 16). 3 Y

456 DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.

Experiment Puate X.

LXIII, Tracings of detached gastrocnemius muscle of frog. Muscle only stimulated. 1, muscle in saline ;
2 to 10, muscle in saline solution of extract of Strophanthus (1:2000). Fibrillary twitches are
represented in tracings 2 to 5. Reads left to right.

Puate XI.

LXIV. Tracings of detached gastrocnemius muscle of frog. Muscle only stimulated. 1, muscle in normal
saline ; 2 to 10, muscle in saline solution of extract of Strophanthus (1:2000). Reads right to
left.

Puate XII.

LXV. Tracings of detached gastrocnemius muscle of frog. Muscle only stimulated. 1, muscle in normal
saline ; 2 to 5, muscle in saline solution of extract of Strophanthus (1:25,000). Reads left to
right.

LXVI. Tracings of detached gastrocnemius muscle of frog. Although curves were obtained by stimulation
of both nerve and muscle, only those obtained by stimulation of the muscle have been reproduced,
1, muscle in normal saline; 2 and 3, muscle in saline solution of strophanthin (1:20,000),
Reads right to left.*

Puate XIII.

LXXIX. Frog-heart tracings. 1, before, and 2 to 11, after application of strophanthin to the heart. 3, shows
increase of ventricular dilatation and contraction, and slowing of the rate due to prolongation of
ventricular diastole ; 10 and 11, show increased systole with lessened ventricular dilatation, and
in both the latter the larger portion of each curve (a in 11) represents the effect on the ventricle
of contraction of the auricles, and the smaller succeeding portion the greatly reduced ventricular
movement during contraction of the now continuously small ventricle.

Pratt XIV.

LXXX. Frog-heart tracings. 1, before, and 2 to 11, after application of strophanthin to the heart. Great
increase of the ventricular dilatation caused by the auricular contractions is shown in tracings 4
to 9, and, especially, in 5, 6, and 7.

Puate XY.

LXXXI. Frog-heart tracings. 1, before application of strophanthin, shows a feebly acting heart, due to the
frog having been pithed on the previous day ; 2 to 17 show the changes produced by the appli-
cation of strophanthin. In 3 and 4, the ventricular movements are much increased ; in 5 and 6,
they have become irregular ; in 9 and 10, the systolic condition has been much increased in the
ventricle, allowing of only slight dilatation of its cavity ; and in 11 to 17, the ventricular move-
ments have again become large, both diastolic expansion and systolic contraction being much
greater than at any previous time, and the heart’s rate has become slowed by great prolongation
of ventricular diastole.

Puate XVI.

CXIII. Frog-heart tracings. 1, before atropine ; 2, after application of atropine to the heart; and 3 to 11,
after application of atropine and strophanthin. Tracings 3 to 10 show much increase of the
effect of the auricular contractions on the ventricle. During the latter part of the experiment,
slowing of the rate was chiefly caused by stand-still of the ventricle in diastole, but, ultimately
(tracing 11), ventricular diastole was lessened.

* In Experiments LXI., LXITI., and LXV. the speed of rotation of the drum was greater than in Experiments
LXIL., LXIV., and LXVI.

DR THOMAS R. FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. 457

Experiment Puate XVII.

CXIV. Frog-heart tracings. 1, after atropine; 2 to 8, after atropine and strophanthin. The effects are
much the same as in the previous experiment, but more decided increase of ventricular diastole is
indicated.

Puate XVIII.

CXXI. Frog-heart tracings. 1, before strophanthin ; 2, after strophanthin ; 3 and 4, after both strophan-
thin and atropine. Tracings 3 and 4 show the production by strophanthin of greatly exaggerated
ventricular systole, with consequent reduction of diastole, notwithstanding the application of
atropine.

OXXII. Frog-heart tracings. 1, 2, and 3, after application to the heart of both strophanthin and atropine.
The tracings show slowing caused by increase of ventricular diastole, although the vagus was
paralysed by atropine.

Pratt XIX.

Curves of Experiments CXXV., CXXVI., CXXXI., CXXXIV., CXXXV., and CXLV., representing the effects
produced on the blood-vessels of frogs by perfusion of solutions of extract of Strophanthus and
of digitalin.

Pate XX.

Curves of Experiments CXXIV., CXXXVI., CXXXVII, CXL, CXLI, CXLII., CXLIII, and CXLIV.,
representing the effects produced on the blood-vessels of frogs by perfusion of solutions of stro-
phanthin and digitalin.

Puate XXI,

CXLVI. Blood-pressure tracings from carotid artery of a rabbit. 1, before strophanthin; 2 to 12, after
0:06 grains of strophanthin had been injected under the skin. The tracings show great
increase of pulse movements, with blood-pressure below, above, and equal to its initial state.

CXLVIII. Blood-pressure tracings from carotid artery of a rabbit. 1, before strophanthin ; 2 to 6, after injec-
tion of strophanthin into a jugular vein (total dose, 0°01 grain). The average blood-pressure was
little affected until towards the end of the experiment, and after the last of the divided doses
of strophanthin had been injected ; but the pulse movements were markedly increased during a
considerable part of the experiment, and both when the average blood-pressure was little removed
from its normal elevation and when it was high.

Puate XXII.

CXLVII. Blood-pressure tracings from carotid artery of a rabbit. 1, before strophanthin ; 2 to 13, after
injection of strophanthin into a jugular vein (0-012 grain). These tracings also show much
increase of pulse movements in varying states of blood-pressure.

Pirate XXIII.

CL. Blood-pressure tracings from carotid artery of a rabbit. Atropine was injected at various intervals
after repeated doses of strophanthin, and the vagus nerve was stimulated from time to time. 1
and 2, before injection of atropine ; 3 to 12, after injection of atropine and strophanthin. In 2,
the cardio-inhibitory action of the vagus is shown to be active before the injection of atropine.
In 4, 8, 10, and 11, it is shown to be paralysed after injections of atropine ; and yet strophanthin
succeeded in producing changes in the blood-pressure and on the pulse movements similar to
those recorded in the experiments in which no atropine had been administered (Plates XXI. and
XXII.).

Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin'— Vol. XXXVI
FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.— Prare IX

EXPERIMENT LX{I. MuscLe TRACINGS. EXTRACT OF STROPHANTHUS

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After Strophanthin. | >

FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS — Prare XXI
EXPERIMENT CXIVI BLoop PRESSURE TRACINGS STROPHANTHIN ONLY

Mgnt

Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin}— Vol. XXXVI

VN
6 7 8
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wad Torte Tine

EXPERIMENT CXIVIII. BLoop PRESSURE TRACINGS. STROPHANTHIN ONLY

by a pn, hh!

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. Trans ikuy. coc. Eidim,— Vol. XXXVI.
FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS.— Puare XXIL

EXPERIMENT CXIVII. BLooD PRESSURE TRACINGS.STROPHANTHIN ONLY

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(neti arate Seconds.

FRASER ON STROPHANTHUS HISPIDUS. — Prare XXIII
EXPERIMENT Cl Blood PRESSURE TRACINGS ATROPINE AND STROPHANTHIN VAGUS STIMULATED

Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin Vol. 205XV1

AW

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Seconds,

XVII.—On the Composition of Oceanic and Inttoral Manganese Nodules.
By J. Y. Bucnanan, Esq., F.R.S. (With Map and Plate.)

(Read January 9, 1891.)

The following analyses were made some years ago, principally with the object of
ascertaining the state of oxidation of the manganese in the nodules. The nodules
examined came from three different localities, two of them oceanic and the third littoral.
Samples marked I[., IJ., and III. are from nodules brought up in the trawl on board the
“Challenger,” on 13th March 1874, in lat. 42° 42’ S., long. 134° 10’ E. The depth of
the water was 2600 fathoms, and the temperature of the bottom water 0°2° C. The
density of the bottom water was 1:02570 at 15°56° C. Being from a high southern
latitude, and therefore near the source of surface aeration, the water is highly charged
with atmospheric gases, especially oxygen. It contained, per litre, 18°4 cc. of mixed
nitrogen and oxygen, of which 31°81 per cent. was oxygen, and 27°33 «c., or 53°7
milligrammes, loosely-bound carbonic acid. The position of the station is about 400
miles south-west of the nearest part of the Australian coast, and about 500 miles west of
Tasmania. It was the deepest water observed in the Antarctic voyage between the Cape
of Good Hope and Melbourne. The haul was a very abundant one, and a few notes
which I made at the time may be interesting :—‘“‘ The water was found unexpectedly
deep, the bottom being red clay, with some Foraminifera. The bag of the trawl came
up quite full of this mud, with many animals and a large number of manganese nodules.
These were of all shapes, and with the characteristic mammillated surface, which in some
was accentuated to such a degree as to give them a botryoidal appearance, like specimens
of Psilomelane. Many of them were perfectly spherical, others formed groups of spheres.
One of these spherical nodules was found, on being broken, to contain a hard kernel of a
mineral, giving a powder of the colour of bichromate of potash, with a conchoidal fracture
and resinous lustre. Round this the spherical shells of manganese were gathered, and
could be easily broken off with the fingers. Another nodule was noticed with the same
yellow resinous-looking substance in the centre, but 1t mixed with the manganese forming
part of the substance, and could not be detached from the surrounding shells. It has a
light wine-yellow colour by transmitted light, and polarises light. Many flat pieces were
observed, with horizontal stratification and botryoidal surface. Whether flat or spherical,
the manganese was put on in layers, separated by very fine sheets of the mud of the
locality. There was one nodule which had formed round the fragment of another, and
therefore older nodule, the distinction between the two being well marked by the
inclination of the mud sheets of the kernel to those of the shell. There were many where

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 1%). 3 Z

460 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN, F.R.S., ON THE

the clay or mud formed a large percentage of the mass, either as interbedded layers or
as pockets, and in some of these pockets Foraminifera were to be seen. Amongst the
collection were two ear-bones of whales and a very fresh shark’s tooth, covered with the
incrustation. The occasional occurrence of icebergs at the surface was made probable by
the presence of two pieces of granite, the one with a very thin covering, and the other
with over one-eighth of an inch thickness of manganese. On the fracture of one of the
pieces, it was evident that the manganese had filtered into the interior of the stone,
colouring the quartz a beautiful amethyst purple.”

This haul was remarkable in many ways; and not the least in being the only
important haul which we got in the vicinity of continental Jand, and with no volcanic
islands near. The samples taken for analysis were— |

I. The outer rind or shell of a spherical nodule, which was detached without
any trace of the kernel. It was 10 millimetres thick.
II. A similar piece, detached from another spherical nodule, but with traces of
the kernel attached. It was also 10 millimetres thick.
II]. A piece of a horizontally stratified concretion, with botryoidal upper surface.
It was 15 millimetres thick.

Samples marked IV. and V. are from one nodule. IV. is part of the outer rind,
13 millimetres thick, consisting of concentric layers, most of them mottled with reddish
yellow spots, and separated by fine seams of purple-brown oxide of manganese, without
yellow specks. V. is the kernel of the same nodule. It is harder than the rind, from
which it easily splits away. It is nearly spherical, with a radius of 16 millimetres. At
the centre is a small colourless piece of mineral matter.

This nodule was one of an enormous haul made by the “Challenger” on the 12th
July 1875 in the North Pacific, in lat. 37° 52’ N., long. 160° 17’ W. The depth of the
water was 2740 fathoms. The temperature of the bottom water was 1°0° C., and its
density at 15°56° C. was 1:02573. The gaseous contents of the water were—-17°7 c.c.
mixed nitrogen and oxygen, of which 16°95 per cent. was oxygen, and 21°48 c<¢., or
42 milligrammes, carbonic acid per litre. It will be seen that the water contains very
much less oxygen than was contained in the bottom water off the Australian coast. In
fact, in this water the dissolved oxygen has been reduced to almost exactly half the
amount which it contained when it left the surface. All over this district, where
manganese greatly abounds, the dissolved oxygen has been reduced from 34 per cent. of
the mixed gases, as at the surface, to from 16 to 22 per cent. at the bottom.

The position of this station lies midway between the Aleutian Islands and the
Sandwich Islands, being 1000 miles distant from the nearest island of either group ; it
is 1600 miles distant from the nearest point of the North American continent in the
same latitude. Hence, although there were many stations further from land than this,
it can claim to be quite beyond the reach of any continental influence. ‘The station from
which samples I., II., and III. come, although comparatively close to the Australian coast,

~ \

COMPOSITION OF OCEANIC AND LITTORAL MANGANESE NODULES. 461

may be said also to be practically beyond the sphere of its influence, as, owing to its
climate, it is almost destitute of drainage.

The Littoral Nodules, samples M, N, P, Q, K, R, &c., are from Loch Fyne, one of
the most important arms of the Firth of Clyde. They are from a lump of mud which
came up on the fluke of the deep-sea kedge-anchor of the steam yacht “ Mallard” after a
series of temperature observations in the deepest part of the loch on the 21st September
1878.

The Firth of Clyde is the name given to the most remarkable group of fiord-like
channels and sea lochs in the British Islands. They form a compact basin or depression,
and it has been named after the principal stream which empties itself into it—the river
Clyde. If we draw a straight line through the Craig of Ailsa and Sanda Island, at the
extremity of the Peninsula of Cantyre, we shall have delineated the Firth seawards, and
a line of soundings along this line discloses an almost perfectly uniform depth of water
of from 23 to 25 fathoms. If we run a line of soundings at right angles to this line,

_ we shall find the water deepening as we retire from the line whether we go north-

wards or southwards. If we go northwards we find the depth increase gradually
and steadily as we pass the Island of Arran, whether by the main channel on the
east, or by Kilbrennan Sound on the west; so that Arran stands, as it were, on an

Ardlamont Shelf

0 Cables 0 Sea Mile
a Se a oe ee ae

Loch Fyne. Section I.—Cantyre to Cowal.

inclined plane sloping northwards from the north of the Firth, attaining a depth of
90 fathoms off the N.E. point of the island, and continuing as a deep trough into
Loch Fyne, with a maximum depth of 104 fathoms* close to Skate Island and about
three miles from the entrance of the loch. This deep trough only occupies a portion of
the width of the loch, as is shown by the chart and sections. At its mouth the loch
measures four nautical miles across, but the width of the portion of it over 50 fathoms in
depth is only one mile. Both the loch, as a whole, and the deep channel contract until
they reach a minimum of sectional area, where this deep spot is. Here the whole width
across from Skate Island to the south shore is only 1°6 mile, and of this one-half, or

* See Map.

462 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN, F.R.S., ON THE

0°8 mile, is occupied by a shallow tongue, with about 20 fathoms, projecting from the
south shore. The deep channel, with over 50 fathoms, is here contracted to little over
0°3 mile. It will be seen from these data that dredging in the deepest water is difficult,
because it implies drifting; and as the deep channel, besides being narrow, makes here a
sort of elbow or sinuosity, as if there had been foldings in a vertical plane, it would seem
to be impossible, as I generally found it to be in practice, to drift for any distance in any
direction without rapidly getting into shallower water.

The chart is taken from Admiralty Charts Nos. 2133 and 2321, on the scale of
2 inches to the sea mile. Where the depth is less than 30 fathoms it has been left
uncoloured, depths over 30 fathoms have been coloured blue, and those over 80 fathoms
dark blue, showing the trend of the deepest parts. The great constriction at Skate
Island, with the deepest spot lying immediately on one side, is well shown both in

—Y
a
®
oo
~~
Ss
2
Q.

Loch Fyne. Section I1.—Cantyre to Cowal through 20-fathom bank and Skate Island.

the map and in Sections II. and III. In Section II. the area of the whole section is 52,190
square fathoms ; that of water lying at a greater depth than 30 fathoms is 17,940 * square
fathoms. In Section III. these quantities are 61,500 and 21,500 square fathoms. For
comparison with these we have Section I. at the mouth of Loch Fyne and Section VI. at
the widest part, towards Loch Gilp. In the former of these the total area is 154,820 square
fathoms, and the area of water over 30 fathoms is 61,920 square fathoms; in the latter
these figures are 129,200 and 67,500. Sections IV. and V. show transition stages from the

eee

Section I1A.—The same as Section II. on natural scale.

narrowest to the widest portions of the landward portions of the loch. Section IIA. is
constructed on a uniform scale of lengths and depths, and gives the natural proportions
at the narrowest points.

* In marine charts the unit of distance is always the nautical mile, which is equal to one minute of are of a great
circle of the globe, and it is subdivided into 10 cables of 100 fathoms each ; so that the nautical mile is 1000 fathoms.
Hence, in applying the decimal system to geographical measurements, the fathom is the natural unit so long as we
retain the subdivision of the circumference of the circle into degrees and minutes as at present. The metre and kilo-
metre are very inconvenient and clumsy in this respect.

COMPOSITION OF OCEANIC AND LITTORAL MANGANESE NODULES. 465

As the locality where the nodules are found is very restricted, it is important to fix
its position as nearly as possible. Now, there is not much difficulty in fixing a vessel’s
position in a direction up and down the loch. Skate Island and adjacent features make
it possible to get good leading marks in a direction perpendicular to the coast, but to find
her place on this line is very difficult, as there is no feature that gives any leading, and
there is nothing near and in the right direction to take bearings from; still, with careful
work, it was always possible to find the spot. Thus, on the day in question, 21st September
1878, the first sounding gave exactly 104 fathoms, and everything was done to drop the
anchor in the same spot; yet, when it was let go, it took the ground in 60 fathoms, the
vessel having drifted, owing to the south-westerly breeze, towards the north shore. The

N 47°E

Si72 W ee ee SN eee
= Avidh Island

104 Fajhoms
Loch Fyne. Section III.—Cantyre to Cowal through deepest spot parallel to Section II.

cable was immediately brought to the winch and the anchor hove up, though it required
a good deal of humouring to get it out of the ground. The anchor was not brought quite
up to the bows, but, when about 5 fathoms of cable were still out, the yacht was steamed
out to the proper position and the anchor immediately dropped, and the depth, as given
by the wire-rope cable, was as nearly as possible 104 fathoms. More cable was then given,
until 150 fathoms were out. It must be remembered that I was using a small kedge-

. se

oY Ping 15

yung 460942]

Loch Fyne. Section 1V.—Cantyre to Cowal through Tarbert Bank and Kiln, Buidhe.

anchor of ordinary type and weighing half a hundredweight, and my object was simply to
anchor the vessel in the deepest water so as to be able to take temperatures and collect
samples of water at leisure and without having to manceuvre the vessel. Although the
anchor had not dragged, she had tailed before the south-west wind so far toward the
north shore that when I put over the sounding-line with a number of deep-sea ther-

464 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN, F.R.S., ON THE

mometers, bottom was struck at 60 fathoms. On getting up the anchor, and after
heaving in the extra cable which had been paid out, I sounded when the cable was up
and down, and found exactly 104 fathoms, so that the anchor had held and remained in
the deep place while the ship swung into water that was 44 fathoms shallower. When

N 85°E

ry © by
wy Q
A 3 Ss
S§ b>
7)
® yy
S
i~ J
i=)
&
5

Loch Fyne. Section V.—Knapdale to Cowal through Barmore and Black Harbour.

the anchor was brought up, a large mass of clay and dead shells, principally Pecten, was
sticking to one of the flukes; and this was the specimen which contained the manganese
nodules, which at that time were not supposed to exist anywhere out of the deepest

oceans. As the anchor held firmly in the first instance in 60 fathoms, and was not

WwW E
a

guoogsunig

i ae at

Loch Fyne. Section VI.—Knapdale to Cowal through widest part.

examined before being lowered into the 104-fathom spot, it might be held to have picked
up the sample in 60 fathoms, and kept it all the time it was holding the ship in 104
fathoms ; but this is not likely. On 24th September 1878 the anchor was again dropped
in apparently exactly the same spot, and it brought a quantity of clay and shells exactly
like those of the 21st, but containing no nodules. On 1st October a few nodules were
got in the deep trough; and dredging in 50 fathoms on the north side and in 40 fathoms
on the south side none were found. On the south side the ground was very rough and
rocky in 40 fathoms.
Although everything went to show that the abundance of nodules really oceurred in
the deep trough, it was disappointing that I could never get complete confirmation.
On 15th July 1881, however, I was again successful, for the anchor-dredge brought up
a large bagful of mud, containing abundance of nodules. On this occasion the position of
the ship was carefully watched, showing that she dragged over about half a mile of
ground, beginning in 100 fathoms and gradually shoaling to 85 fathoms, when the

COMPOSITION OF OCEANIC AND LITTORAL MANGANESE NODULES. 465

anchor was brought up. There can, therefore, be no longer any doubt that it is
really in the deep trough that the nodules occur, and only in a very limited area
of it.

The mud of 21st September 1878 was divided in two equal portions, one of which was
preserved and the other was analysed mechanically. It was separated into three consti-
tuents, the nodules, the shells, and the residue, a sandy clay. The number of nodules thus
obtained was 83, and they weighed 142°7 grammes, whence the mean weight of a nodule
was 1°7 gramme. Packed as closely as possible in a graduated cylinder of 37 millimetres
internal diameter, they occupied a length of 130 millimetres, reaching to 146 c.c. on the
eraduation. I then poured in 100 cc. water, which stood at 158 c.c. Hence the
volume of the nodules was 58 c.c., and the average volume of one was 0°7 c.c., and their
density 2°46. The shells were all dead, and principally Pecten ; they weighed 35 grammes.
The following was the mechanical composition of the mud :—

Nodules, : : : 141 grammes. 30 per cent.

Shells, . ‘ , Sonne 7 -

Sandy Clay, . : : 289) 623 "1
465, 100 »

Of twenty-two nodules which were split open, sixteen contained soft nuclei of about the
size of a pea, and apparently very rich in manganese. One of these nuclei was so
slightly attached to the rind as to fall out when the nodule was split. The rind is
always very hard and gritty, and when the oxides of iron and manganese are removed
by hydrochloric acid, it falls into a mass of sand, similar to that which makes up a large
proportion of the rd. This agrees with the idea that the nodules are agglomerations
of the mud found im situ, and cemented by the ochreous oxides. One nodule (No. 24)
was interesting, as showing the complete soft kernel, loose, in a cavity of mud, the rind
not having as yet formed, although it was evidently forming, the mud being stained from
the inner wall of the shell outwards. No. 25 was a similar nodule, only the kernel had
no free space round it. The mud round it was stained yellow. ‘This seems to be very
general with the growing nodule; the oxide of iron spreads itself in front of the oxide
of manganese. A little of the yellow shell gives no manganese reaction with hydro-
chloric acid. A nodule of the size of a pea was found, resembling the others perfectly,
except that it contained Fe,0;, and no MnO,. Very careful examination of the mud
from which the nodules and shells had been removed showed that perfect nodules exist
down to the size of a pin-head, and all through the mud there were specks showing where
probably nodules had begun to form. Although so near the shore, the mud contains
hardly any pebbles larger than a grain of sand. ‘This shows conclusively that the nodules
have not been washed down into their present position ; and that they have been formed
m situ is further shown by the fact that the mud round them is generally stained
yellow with ferric oxide. A number of nodules were picked out for illustration and
analysis.

466 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN, F.R.S., ON THE

In the Plate, fig. 1 represents a nodule which was found attached to the rim of a
dead pecten shell. It is represented in one and a half times the natural size.

Figs. 2 and 2a represent, in twice natural size, a nodule entirely filling up a
shell.

Figs. 3, 3a, and 3b represent, in twice natural size, (3) a nodule found attached to a
dead pecten shell; (8a) the under side of the nodule, showing bases of attachment ; and
(30) a view of the shell, showing surfaces of attachment.

Fig. 4, in one and a half times natural size, shows a remarkable nugget-shaped
nodule.

Fig. 5, in twice natural size, shows a pear-shaped nodule, with stem of attachment.

Fig. 6, in twice natural size, shows a spherical nodule of the commonest form.

Figs. 7 and 7a show a nodule split through the middle, and with a semi-detached
nucleus. The half of the kernel protrudes in fig..7, and the corresponding cavity is
visible in fig. 7a.

All these nodules were got on 21st September 1878.

The nodules taken for analysis are as follows:—M and N (called Nos. 10 and 14 in
original notes) were chosen as average specimens. P was a rather softer and Q a rather
more stony nodule. K and R are the kernels and rinds respectively of five nodules.
These nodules were split, and the kernels and rinds separated as carefully and as com-

pletely as possible. Their approximated weights were—

Kernels, . : ; : 1127 grammes.
Rinds, 3 ; ; ‘ LOO Sy
Total, : ; esse 33

S is an average sample taken from a number of nodules pounded up and mixed.

The analyses of these samples was undertaken at first only to show the state of
oxidation of the manganese. In the case of the Loch Fyne nodules, it was carried
further, with a view of showing the nature of the other principal constituents. The
analyses under the letters X, Y, and Z constitute together a complete analysis, though it
was not at first intended to be such, otherwise the whole of the requisite material would
have been prepared and extracted at once. These analyses were made in 1879 by Dr
Grorce M‘Goway, F.R.8.E., now of Bangor, and were carried out with the greatest care
and attention.

ANALYTICAL METHOD FOLLOWED FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE STATE OF OXIDATION
OF THE MANGANESE.

The analysis of these nodules was conducted as follows (any particular point
relating to any one nodule will be given in detail along with the analysis of that

nodule) :—

COMPOSITION OF OCEANIC AND LITTORAL MANGANESE NODULES. 467

A. The nodules were reduced to an impalpable powder in an agate mortar, and were
not dried previous to analysis.

B. In two separate portions (of about 2 decigrams each) the available oxygen was
determined by Bunsen’s iodometric method.

C. Two portions, of about 0°5 grams each, were dissolved in about 5 c.c. of pure
strong hydrochloric acid, in a small covered beaker, heat being applied cautiously at first
to prevent loss by effervescence of chlorine. The mixture was then evaporated to
dryness over a water-bath, covered with a glass shade; the residue, when free from all
excess of acid, moistened with a few drops of strong hydrochloric acid, and the insoluble
residue filtered off, ignited, and weighed.

(a) Insoluble Residwe.—This insoluble residue was kept in a corked tube, and after-
wards fused with (NaK)CO, (in the proportion of about four parts of carbonate
to one of residue) for the estimation of silica. The filtrate from the silica was
examined qualitatively for the bases present.

(b) The filtrate from the insoluble residue was treated with a moderate excess of
pure carbonate of baryta. In practice about 2 grams were required. ‘This
was added in a state of cream to the liquid in a small flask. The flask was
corked and allowed to stand some hours, being shaken occasionally. The
liquid was then filtered off, and the precipitate, after thorough washing, tested
for manganese with carbonate of soda on platinum foil.

D. To the filtrate from the carbonate of baryta precipitate excess of sodium acetate
was added, so that there should be not less than 3C,H,O, to HCl in the solution (in
practice 15 to 20 cc. of a 1 in 10 solution of NaA were added). Before adding the
acetate it is well to drop in a little acetic acid, otherwise an immediate precipitation of
barium salt occurs. Bromine in excess was then added to the sufficiently dilute fluid,
and the flask corked and placed in a moderately warm place for some time. Gentle
warming at first greatly aids the precipitation of the MnO, When the manganese had
beeun to deposit, and the liquid in the flask was at a temperature of about 50°, it was
removed to a colder place (at the ordinary temperature of the room), and allowed to stand
over-night. If necessary, a little more bromine was first added; this is regulated by
practice. Next day the flasks were heated in order to drive off all superfluous bromine,
a few drops of alcohol being added towards the end to get rid of the last traces. When
the solution became perfectly colourless it was filtered, all the MnO, that came easily out
of the flask being thrown on the filter and washed with boiling water. The filtrate was
tested first for more MnO, with NaA and bromine, and then for nickel and copper (vide
below).

(a) The filter, on which was the bulk of the MnO, precipitate, was dried. When
dry, the MnO, was returned to the original flask (on the sides of which some
MnO, remained sticking), the filter was ignited, and its ash also dropped into

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 17). 4A

468 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN, F.RB.S., ON THE

the flask. This manganese precipitate was then dissolved in a few drops of
strong HCl, the chlorine boiled off, and the solution slightly diluted. It was
found that the MnO, always brought down some baryta with it, and this was
separated by precipitation with a few drops of sulphuric acid. This solution
was then filtered from the BaSO,; evaporated to dryness over a water-bath to—
get rid of all excess of hydrochloric acid; the residue taken up with water ;
the solution filtered again if necessary; and the manganese precipitated by
pure carbonate of soda solution, only a very slight excess being used. The
MnCO; was washed first by decantation, then dried, and ignited to Mn;O,.

The filtrate from the MnCO; was always kept over-night, when sometimes a second
minute precipitate came down. The Mn;O, was kept, and the nickel and cobalt im it

determined afterwards.

(b) The filtrate from the MnO, precipitate with bromine was, in the case of the
“Challenger nodules,” neutralised with NH,OH, and then excess of NH,HS
added, the flask filled up and corked, and allowed to stand for one or more
days. Generally a minute black precipitate, accompanied by much barium
sulphate, came down. This was filtered off, ignited, dissolved in HCl, the
solution evaporated to dryness in a small basin, the residue taken up with
water, and preferably a drop of H,SO, and filtered. In the filtrate the nickel
oxide was precipitated by a drop or two of pure caustic potash. After ignition
this precipitate was always tested for purity. It is better, however (and this
was done in the case of the Loch Fyne nodule), to neutralise the filtrate from
the MnO, with NH,OH, add NH,HS, and then acetic acid in excess, and pass
H,S gas through the gently-warmed solution (as is done in the separation of
MnO from NiO and CoO). Thus, after standing over-night, minute traces of
nickel came down, which remained dissolved in the NH,HS solution.

E. The Mn,0, precipitates were dissolved in a few drops of strong HCl in a small
basin, the solution evaporated to dryness over the water-bath, taken up with water, and
the solution filtered. To the filtrate, after neutralising any trace of acid present with
NH,OH, sulphide of ammonium and acetic acid were added, and sulphuretted hydrogen
gas passed through the gently-warmed solution to precipitate the nickel and cobalt as
sulphides. After standing over-night (the flask being full and corked) this precipitate
was filtered off, and the filtrate treated in the same manner with ammonia, ammonium
sulphide, acetic acid, and sulphuretted hydrogen. In this way a minute additional
precipitate was obtained. The two precipitates were dried, ignited, and dissolved
together in hydrochloric acid, and exactly the same process gone through again, so as
to get rid of all traces of manganese. The second two precipitates of cobalt and nickel
sulphides were again dried, ignited, redissolved in hydrochloric acid, the solution
evaporated to dryness, the residue taken up with water, and this solution filtered. The

COMPOSITION OF OCEANIC AND LITTORAL MANGANESE NODULES. 469

nickel and cobalt in the filtrate were then precipitated by a few drops of pure caustic
potash. This precipitated the nickel and cobalt together. The precipitate was ignited
and weighed as NiO +Co;0,. It was then again dissolved in hydrochloric acid, all excess
of acid evaporated off, the residue taken up with water, the solution filtered into a small
beaker, and gently evaporated down. During this evaporation very often a minute
quantity of silica and ferric hydrate came down, and the solution had to be refiltered.
After the liquid became very concentrated—reduced to a few drops, in fact—the cobalt
was precipitated as double nitrite of cobalt and potassium. A solution of 1 in 4 nitrite
of potassium was used.

(a) The cobalt precipitate, after being filtered off and washed with acetate of soda,
was dissolved in water or dilute hydrochloric acid, the filter ignited, and the
ash added to the solution. The solution was evaporated to dryness, water
added, and the solution filtered. The cobalt was then precipitated by caustic
potash solution. It was ignited to Co,O,.

(b) To the filtrate from the potassium nitrite precipitate excess of hydrochloric acid
was added, the solution evaporated, and the nickel precipitated by caustic
potash. It was found necessary to redissolve this nickel precipitate and
reprecipitate it, on account of the relatively very large quantity of potassium
chloride which had to be washed out of it. This gave the nickel as NiO.
The nickel and cobalt precipitates were afterwards tested in the dry way.

TaBuLAR List oF NODULES SUBMITTED TO ANALYSIS.

Oceanic Nodules—

Nos. I., I]., and III. are from a locality 400 miles south of the Australian coast, in
lat. 42° 42’S., long. 134° 10’. Depth, 2600 fathoms. I. is from the outer
rind of a large spherical nodule, and it was detached without any trace of the
kernel. II. is a similar piece taken from the outside shell of a smaller spherical
nodule, with traces of an augitic kernel. III. is a piece of a horizontally-
stratified nodule with botryoidal upper surface.

Nos. IV. and V. are from the same nodule, which was collected on the 12th July
nego mm the North Pacific in lat. 37° 52’ N., long. 160° 17’ W. Depth,
2740 fathoms. IV. is a portion of the outer shell, 13 millimetres thick,
consisting of concentric layers, most of them mottled with reddish-yellow
spots. V.is the kernel of the same nodule, and is harder than the rind, from
which it easily splits away. It was nearly spherical and with 16 millimetres
radius. At the centre was a small colourless piece of mineral.

Littoral Nodules—

These are all from Loch Fyne in 104 fathoms (see page 3). M,N, P, and Q are
separate selected nodules; K and R are the kernels and rinds of five nodules.

470

MR J. Y. BUCHANAN, F.R.S., ON THE

The analytical details have been collected in a series of tables, as follows :—

TABLE L—Determination of Available Oxygen by the Iodometric Method.

Number of
Sample.

Weight of
Sample taken
grammes).

M

IO oe

wor

ie

01802
0:1620

071924
071650

01514
01731

0:1768
0:2210

0:1859
0:2547

01754
0:2117

071945
01815

0-1116
071004
0:0553

0°2286
0°3070

Volume of
Hyposulphite
used

(¢.c.).

Equivalent Weight of

Todine
(grammes).

e=0°012310.

0714856
0:23465

016647
0°16040

0°1502
0°13601

0:12439
0:106567

0:102246
0°11875

011113
0'1391

0:07307
0°10057

0:10073
0:1203

0:10375
0:09636

0°12296
0°16446

Oxygen
(grammes).

d=0°063¢e.

0:009358

0:01478

0:010486
0:010104

0:009463
0:0085677

0:0078356
00067129

0:00644
0:0073546

0007001
0:008762

0:004603
0:006335

0:006345
0:007578

0:006535
0:00607

0007746
001036

Equivalent

Oxygen per cent. of
per cent. MnO,

d

e= 100 f=5°'4375e,
5°47 29°74
5°48 29°80
5°78 31:43
5°82 31°65
5°25 28°55
5°29 28°76
4:07 22°13
4:07 22°13
4°25 23°13
4°25 23°13
3°96 21°53
3°96 21°53.
2°48 13°48
2°47 13°54
3°62 19-67
3°58 19°47
3°36 18°27
3°34 18°18
6°25 34:00
6°33 34°43
6:21 33°77
3°39 18-43
3°37 18°32

TABLE II.

Number of
Sample.

100

1008

HEY’.

M

GOS

COMPOSITION OF OCEANIC AND LITTORAL MANGANESE NODULES. 471
TABLE I].—Determination of Insoluble Residue.
. Weight of Si0, per cent.
c Weight of S 2
ee ae Insoluble | Insoluble ee Weight of
at Residue Residue iboats Si0, Equivalent
(grammes). | per cent. : (grammes). In Insoluble in
(grammes). SiO, Residue. Nodul
Estimation. Cae:
b ei oS ; bal
q b e=100— d ¢ f= 00a Gg —7
0:5290 0:1088 20°56 aes : ’ :
0-4733 0-0961 20-30 0:0958 0-0819 85°45 17°46
0:4802 0:0815 16°96
06001 0°1018 16°95 0°1475 071278 86°75 14°75
05254 00894 17-01
0°5633 0:0937 16°63
0°5839 00983 16°83 0:1291 0:1127 87°26 14:68
0°5566 0:0937 16°83
0°5035 0:1386 27°52
0:5248 01453 27°68 01727 01442 83°47 23-09
0°4943 0°1858 27°63
0:5015 0-1001 BES )5) : ‘ : :
0-4895 0-0967 90-03 071139 0-0961 84°34 16°86
0°4977 0°1469 29°51 ; , : 95.
0:5516 01646 29:83 01631 11388 85°10 25°24
0:5021 071395 27°78 197 : : a
0532] 0-1496 28°10 01377 01161 84:28 23°55
0°4639 01491 32°13 . ; : oe
0:4767 0:1535 39-17 0°1458 01217 83°44 26°83
0°5045 0:1463 28°99 p : 5 ;
0-5110 0:1478 98-91 0°1436 0:1208 82°70 23°94
05814 OTL 29°56
05144 0°1503 29°21

an

MR J. Y. BUCHANAN, F.R.S., ON THE

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COMPOSITION OF OCEANIC AND LITTORAL MANGANESE NODULES. 473

TABLE IV.—Oceanic Nodules. (Summary of Results.)

Number of oe *Per cent. Oxygen MnO Co,0, Ni,0, Formula of
Sample. SiO, in per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. Peroxide.
per cent.
it 20°56 (17-46) BAT 23°71 * a iS (Mn0,.o45)
20°30 85:45 5:48 23°76 0°19 1:23 Mn0,.9;
II 16:95 aie sem om
17°01 (14°75) 5-78 2 ee bs (Mn0,.o;,)
16:96 86°75 5:82 26:94 0-19 1:46 MnOWaes
III. 16°83 te 5:25 2
16°83 (14°68) 5:29 ees a rs (Mn0,.979)
| 16°63 87-26 5:28 23°91 0:21 1:00 ) MnO-03,
IV. 27°68 es fe: a ie a 8 $u2
27°63 (23-09) 4:07 Ls 1 Se (Mn0O,.9;;)
27-52 83°47 4:07 18°69 0-19 0:75 Mn0}.996
V. 19-95 (16°86) 4°95 19°30 ae da (Mn0,.o74)
20:03 84:34 4°25 19°41 0:34 0:47 MnO}

In calculating the “ Formula of Peroxide” the MnO equivalents of the Co,0; and
Ni,0 are taken in the lower ones, and only the MnO found is taken in calculating those
in brackets.

TaBLE V.—Littoral Nodules. (Summary of Results.)

Number of Tate *Per cent. Oxygen MnO Co,O NiO and | Formula of
S Residue ae © 2° 3 :
ample, SiO, in per cent. per cent. per cent. CuO. Peroxide.
per cent.
M 29°51 (25-24) 3-96 31:36 i A i:
29°83 85:10 3°96 31°34 0:02 = Mn0}..66
oO
N 27°78 (25°55) 2°48 27°90 oa eS a ae
28°10 84:28 2°49 27°91 0-02 oo Mn0\.594
a s'3
P 32°13 (26:83) 3-62 28-56 hy Beg te
32°17 83°44 3°58 28-52 0-05 x A & Mn0)j-55¢
ET
Q 28-99 (23-94) 3-36 29-95 ee Sas ie
28°91 82°70 3°34 29°30 0-03 ao Mn0,. 597
g os}
K 6-25 $85
6°33 ss ga ie’
6°21 37°15 =e Mn0,.y5
Bak
R 29:56 ee 3°39 29:79 e oe
29-21 si 3°37 29°49 a) Mn0j. 595

* The upper numbers, in brackets, refer to the original substance, the lower ones to the Insoluble Residue.

474 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN, F.R.S., ON THE

In connection with these Tables it may not be amiss to quote the analyses which I
made of some nodules in 1876, and published in the Proceedings of this Society.* The
samples analysed were from four different localities, two of which are identical with those
from which the nodules I.—V. came.

Nos. 2, 4, and 5 were from the same place, No. 2 being the matter collected round a
shark’s tooth as nucleus, Nos. 4 and 5 being the outside rinds of ordinary nodules,

The results are given in the following Table, the numbers being in many cases the
means of several observations :—

Locality. x B C D E F G
ee MnO, | MnO | Fe,0, | Al,0, | H,O | Na,O
Lat. Long.
13° 52'S. |149°17' w.| 2 | 17-55 | 623 | 33:30 | a7-18 |... 4 ¥
x a 4 | 15:30 | 592 | 32-23 85386 |) -
< i 5 | 1530 | 649 | 35-28 | 9685 | oh 109.
37° 52/ N.|160°17'W.| 6 | 3624 | 649 | 24-41 . | g016 | 383 | 7-70 | 5-98
49° 498. |134°10'E.| 7 | 1798 | 754 | 4111 | 3353 | 1804 | 955] 7-31 |...
99° 918, ]150°17'W.| 8 | 21-74 | 519 | 28-20 . | 2452 | 7-67 | 854 | 85

A is the residue which remains undissolved after treating the mineral with strong
hydrochloric acid, evaporating to dryness and redissolving. In No. 5 it contains 55°16
per cent. silica, and in No. 6, 82°27 per cent.

B is the available oxygen determined by Bunsen’s method.

C is the MnO, equivalent to the available oxygen.

D is the MnO found by weighing as Mn,Q,.

E is the Fe,O, found by titration with SnCl,.

F is the alumina found by subtracting the Fe,O, found in E from the weight of the
precipitate with acetate of soda.

G is the water expelled on ignition; it is obtained by deducting two-thirds of the
oxygen found in B from the loss of weight by ignition.

The samples were dried for ten or twelve hours at 140° C., and therefore the
percentages are higher than those in Table IV., the samples in it having been analysed
air-dried.

From these Tables it will be seen that nodules from all localities have similar composi-
tion. The most important difference between the littoral and the oceanic nodules is, that
in the former the manganese is less highly oxidised than in the latter. In the oceanic
nodules, when we consider the manganese alone, the peroxide is very little short of MnO, ;
in the littoral ones it is very little over Mn,O;. In both oceanic and littoral ones the
manganese is more highly oxidised in the kernels than in the rinds ; this difference is par-
ticularly marked in the littoral ones. Nickel, cobalt, and copper are probably present in

* Proc. Roy. Soc. Hdim., 1876, vol. ix. p. 287.

COMPOSITION OF OCEANIC AND LITTORAL MANGANESE NODULES. 475

all, but their relative proportions are different in the littoral and in the oceanic nodules.
Cobalt can be determined in both, and ranges from 0°02 per cent. in Loch Fyne nodule
M to 0°34 per cent. in oceanic nodule V. Nickel is present in large though variable
quantity in the oceanic nodules, as much as 1°46 per cent. of oxide in II., falling to
0°47 per cent. in V. In the Loch Fyne nodules the presence of nickel was doubtful.
Copper was present in both classes of nodule. In the oceanic ones, however, the traces
were not always very distinct, whilst in the Loch Fyne ones they were very pronounced.
In testing for thallium, it was sufficient with oceanic nodules to moisten a piece of the
size of a bean with HCl and place it in a platinum triangle over a Bunsen burner to get
a strong thallium line in the spectroscope. Thallium could not be detected in this way
in the Loch Fyne nodules.

The insoluble residues were always tested quantitatively, and consisted, besides silica,
of alumina and ferric oxide, with smaller quantities of lime and magnesia. The silica,
however, of the Loch Fyne nodules was largely quartz, which was not the case with the
oceanic nodules. The percentage of insoluble residue varies much in both sorts, but it is
always greater in the Loch Fyne ones than in the oceanic ones. The percentage of silica
in the Loch Fyne nodules varies very little from 25, leaving from 2 to 6 per cent. of
bases in the insoluble residue. In the oceanic nodules, excepting IV., the silica varies
between 14°68 and 17‘46 per cent., leaving from 2 to 3 per cent. bases in the
residue. In IV. the amount would be 44. In the kernels (K) the moisture driven off at
100°, the carbonic acid, and the Fe,O,;+Al,0; were determined, and we have the
following tabulated summary :—

Sample K—Kernels of Loch Fyne Nodules.

Carbonic acid, . ; 2 0°83 per cent.
Moisture at 100° : ‘ 8:23 if
Available oxygen, ; : ; 6°26 i
MnO, . ‘ : . B31) i
Fe,O,+Al,0,, . : F ATS
CuO, . , ; : : trace

NiO, . : : : : doubtful trace.

The insoluble residue was not determined.

In order to obtain some knowledge of the other constituents of the Loch Fyne
nodules, a number of nodules were pounded up and mixed, so as to form an average
sample in which the determinations were to be made. They contained a certain amount
of soluble matter from the sea water, and, if it had been intended at first to make a
complete analysis, the whole of this sample would have been extracted at once. This
was not done, and the various portions, X, Y, and Z, have been treated separately.
Particulars follow.

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 17). 4B

476 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN, F.R.S., ON THE

X. General Analysis.

A sample of air-dried Loch Fyne nodules was thoroughly extracted with boiling water.
The weight taken was 50405 grammes, and the insoluble portion, when dried at 100°,
was found to weigh 4°5458. |

A. Estimation of Moisture.—0°1910 of the sample was dried at 100°, and found to
lose 0°0010 grammes, 7.e., the percentage of water in it driven off at 100° is 0°53.

B. Estimation of the Oxygen reducible by Hydrochloric Acid.-—0°1195 grammes
were boiled with strong hydrochloric acid. The chlorine liberated was passed into a
solution of potassium iodide, and the amount of iodine liberated found by titration with
sodium hyposulphite. There was found to be 4°104 per cent. of available oxygen,
representing 22°32 per cent. of MnO,,

C. Estimation of Weight lost on Ignition.—0'1263 grammes were strongly heated
over a Bunsen flame. The loss of weight was found to be 0°0224 grammes ; that is,
17°74 per cent.

D. Estimation of Insoluble Residue, Fe,O3, Al,03, and Co,03.—2°0880 grammes were
treated with strong hydrochloric acid in a covered beaker, the mixture evaporated to
dryness over a water-bath, the residue moistened with a few drops of strong hydrochloric
acid, taken up with water, and the solution filtered.

The insoluble residue was heated over the water-bath with a strong solution of
carbonate of soda. The heating was carried on for about forty-five minutes, water being
occasionally added to keep the solution of constant strength. The solution was then
decanted through a filter, more carbonate of soda solution added to the insoluble residue,
and the same process repeated. This was done altogether three times. What remained
undissolved was washed, ignited, and weighed. It was found to weigh 0°5790 grammes,
that is, 27°73 per cent., consisting of silica and silicates, which resist the action of sodium
carbonate solution.

The silica which had dissolved in the sodium carbonate was precipitated from it by
hydrochloric acid as usual, filtered, ignited, and weighed. It weighed 0°11928 grammes,
that is, 5°71 per cent. of soluble silica.

The filtrate from the insoluble residue was treated with excess of carbonate of baryta
to precipitate the iron and alumina. The precipitate was filtered off and redissolved in
hydrochloric acid, the baryta present precipitated with sulphuric acid and filtered off, the
filtrate made up to 250 ¢.c. volume, and two estimations of Fe,O,+ Al,O; made.

100 cc. (="8352 grammes of substance) gave 0°03368 grammes, FeO, + Al,O;, 1.€.,
4°03 per cent.; 75 cc. (='6264 grammes of substance) gave 0°02568 grammes,
Fe,0,+ Al,0s, 7.¢., 4°09 per cent. The two precipitates of FeO; and Al,O; were united
and fused with bisulphate of potash. An insoluble residue of silica, weighing 0°00898
grammes, was found. ‘This represents 0°61 per cent. of silica in the nodules, which, when
added to the previously found 5:71 per cent., gives altogether 6°32 per cent.

COMPOSITION OF OCEANIC AND LITTORAL MANGANESE NODULES. 477

Also, subtracting 0°61 from 4°06 (the average of the iron and alumina estimations),
we find 3°45 per cent. of Fe,O;+ Al,O3.

In 50 c.c. of the above-mentioned 250 ¢.c. solution 0°00676 grammes of iron were
found by titration with stannous chloride. This is equivalent to 2°31 per cent. of FeO,
in nodules. Subtracting from 3°45, there remains 1:14 per cent. Al,O3.

In the filtrate from the barium carbonate precipitate the manganese was not estimated,
but the cobalt was. It was separated by means of sulphide of ammonium and acetic acid,
as usual, then precipitated as Fischer’s salt with nitrite of potash, and this precipitate
dissolved in HCl, and the cobalt reprecipitated with a few drops of carbonate of soda
solution. It should be mentioned that, before treatment with sulphide of ammonium and
acetic acid, sulphuric acid was added to precipitate the excess of barium; to the filtrate
from BaSO, sodium carbonate was added to precipitate both manganese and cobalt, and
this precipitate dissolved up and the cobalt separated. 0°'00049 grammes of Co;O, were
found, representing 0°025 per cent. of Co,O; in the nodules.

EH. Estimation of Carbonic Acid.—0:1792 grammes of nodules were treated with
solution of phosphoric acid, the carbonic acid gas liberated passed into baryta water of
known strength, and the excess of baryta determined by titration with hydrochloric acid.
0°015905 grammes of Co, were found, representing 8°87 per cent. of carbonic acid in the
nodules.

Another estimation was made; 0°1704 grammes of nodules were found to contain
0°015285 grammes of carbonic acid gas, that is, 8°91 per cent.

¥. Estemation of Phosphoric Acid.—O°7162 grammes of nodules were converted into
chlorides by treatment with HCl (the insoluble residue being removed in the usual way),
and the solution made up to 250 c.c.

125 c.c. of the solution was treated with acetate of soda, and the phosphoric acid
obtained as a precipitate of ferric phosphate. This precipitate was fused with bisulphate
of potash and the fused mass dissolved in water. There was just a mere trace of insoluble
matter. To this acid solution a very slight excess of pure sodium carbonate was added
to neutralise any free sulphuric acid present, and then excess of nitric acid. The solution
was then evaporated down, large excess of ammonium molybdate added, and the solution
allowed to stand in a warm place till all the phosphoric acid was precipitated. The
precipitate was filtered off and dissolved in ammonia, and the phosphoric acid precipi-
tated with magnesia mixture as usual. The precipitate was ignited and weighed. It
weighed 0°00319 grammes (Mg,P,0,), representing 0°57 per cent. P,O,.

Estimation of Lime and Magnesia.—120 c.c. of the above-mentioned 250 c.c. solution
(equivalent to 0°3438 grammes nodules) were treated with sulphide of ammonium,
filtered, the ammonium sulphide in the filtrate destroyed by means of hydrochloric acid,
evaporated and filtered from sulphur, and the lime precipitated twice with ammonium
oxalate as usual. After the second precipitation the calcium oxalate (which seemed to
contain alumina) was redissolved, and the lime precipitated a third time with ammonium
oxalate. The precipitate was filtered, ignited, and dissolved in hydrochloric acid. It

478 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN, F.R.S., ON THE

weighed 0°0433 grammes. The solution was just rendered alkaline with ammonia. This
precipitated the trace of alumina. It was filtered and weighed, and found equal to
0°00414 grammes. Subtracting this from 0°0433 grammes, we have 0°03919 grammes
of CaCO, that is, 6°38 per cent. of CaO.

The sulphide of ammonium precipitate, together with the small precipitate of alumina,
was worked up for any lime that might be present in it as phosphate. It was ignited,
dissolved in hydrochloric acid, the solution evaporated. The phosphoric acid, iron, and
alumina present were precipitated by adding acetate of soda. In the filtrate from this
the manganese was precipitated with ammonium sulphide. In the filtrate from the
manganese sulphide a small additional quantity of lime was obtained on addition of
ammonium oxalate; 09154 grammes of CaCO; were thus obtained. This is 0°45 per
cent. of CaO of the nodules. Adding this to the previously found 6°38 per cent., we
have altogether 6°83 per cent. of CaO in the nodules.

The filtrates from the oxalate of lime were evaporated down, and the ammonium salts
driven off. The residue was taken up with hydrochloric acid and water, and filtered.
Ammonia and phosphate of soda were added. A precipitate was obtained, which was
filtered off, ignited, and weighed as Mg,P,0,. It weighed 0°03366 grammes, representing
3°53 per cent. of MgO in the substance. Another estimation gave 4°08 per cent. of MgO.

G. Estimation of Moisture at 162° C_—0°6215 grammes of substance were exposed
in a small bath to a temperature of 162° for about forty minutes. The water driven off
was collected in a calcium chloride tube. It was found after heating that the substance
had lost 0°0085 grammes (1°37 per cent.), while the calcium chloride tube had gained
00098 grammes (1°57 per cent.) ; mean, 1°47.

H. Estimation of Carbon (by combustion).—0°6215 grammes were ignited with pure
lead chromate and oxide of copper in a stream of air free from CO,. The carbonic acid
given off was collected in a soda-lime tube, and found to weigh 0°0596 grammes, that is,
9°59 per cent. As 8°89 per cent. of carbonic acid as such were found in the substance,
this gives us 0°70 per cent. of carbonic acid due to organic carbon, or 0°20 per cent. of
organic carbon.

Y. Estimation of MnO and Alkalies.

5°3893 grammes of the same sample of air-dried Loch Fyne nodules were boiled
with water as before, filtered, and the filtrate evaporated. The residue, which crystallised
out when dried at 110°, weighed 0°1240 grammes, that is, 2°30 per cent. of the nodules
were found soluble in water. The insoluble part was dried at 100°, and separated from
the filter-paper. The latter was then ignited, and the ash added to the rest. The
whole was then air-dried, and this air-dried mass was used for analysis.

A. Estimation of Moisture (driven off at 150°-160°).—0°3609 grammes were heated
in a small bath, and the water driven off absorbed by a calcium chloride tube. The
heating continued for over half an hour. The substance was found to have lost 0°0194
grammes (5°53 per cent.), while the calcium chloride gained 0°0183 grammes. The

COMPOSITION OF OCEANIC AND LITTORAL MANGANESE NODULES. 479

moisture in X is 1°47 per cent. and in Y 5°53 per cent. ; the difference is 4:06. There-
fore, 95°94 parts of Y are equivalent to 100 parts of X, and we must multiply the results
in Y by 1°042 to make them comparable with those in X.

B. Estimation of Alkalies.—3°7014 grammes were dissolved in hydrochloric acid,
and the insoluble part removed as usual. The solution was made up to 250 c.¢.; 100 cc.
of this solution was used for the estimation of the alkalies. In the first place, however,
the barium hydrate and ammonium carbonate to be used in the separation were tested
for their purity. 5°518 grammes of barium hydrate were dissolved in water, and carbonic
acid gas passed through the solution to saturation. The whole was then boiled and
filtered. The barium carbonate precipitate was dried and roughly weighed. It weighed
from 2°95 to 3 grammes, 7.e., about 47°6 per cent. of Ba(OH), in the barium hydrate
used, the rest being water. The filtrate from the barium carbonate was evaporated nearly
to dryness in a platinum basin, a little barium carbonate which settled out was filtered
off, and the filtrate evaporated to dryness. The residue was redissolved in water,
refiltered, evaporated to dryness again, and weighed. It weighed 0:0017 grammes,
2.€., 0°031 per cent. of alkalies as chloride in the baryta hydrate. N..—This hydrate of
baryta had previously been recrystallised.

The ammonium carbonate was then tested. It was a solution of 1 part of salt in 5 of
water. 5 c.c. of it were evaporated to dryness in a platinum basin, and the residue
ignited, and then moistened with hydrochloric acid and ignited again. It weighed
0:0012 grammes, therefore 1 ¢.c. of the ammonium carbonate solution leaves 000024
grammes of residue.

To the above-mentioned 100 c.c. solution (containing 1°4805 grammes of substance)
4088 grammes of barium hydrate were added. It dissolved completely, and the whole
was allowed to stand over-night. Next morning carbonic acid gas was passed through
the turbid solution to saturation, and the solution boiled to get rid of excess of carbonic
acid gas; it was then filtered. The precipitate was dried and transferred to the original
flask in which precipitation took place, and the ignited filter ash added.

The filtrate was evaporated down to a bulk of from 25 to 50 ¢.c., and the barium
and calcium present precipitated by the addition of 5°5 cc. of ammonium carbonate.
This precipitate was dried and added, along with its filter ash, to the flask in which were
the other bases and excess of barium carbonate. The reason for doing this was, that on
evaporation of the filtrate from the bases, a further small quantity of a dark-brown
precipitate (MnO, most likely) came down.

The filtrate from the ammonium carbonate precipitate was evaporated to dryness in a
platinum basin, the ammonium salts driven off, and redissolved in water. A good deal
of grey powder, probably barium carbonate, remained undissolved. This was added to
the precipitate of bases mentioned above. The filtrate was evaporated to dryness and
ignited. It weighed 0:0279 grammes. ‘This, then, is the weight of alkalies as chlorides.
When dissolved in water it left a mere trace of insoluble matter, coloured with carbon.
This was filtered off, ignited, and weighed. It weighed 0°0004 grammes.

480 MR J. Y. BUCHANAN, F.R.S., ON THE

Thus, to find the weight of alkalies as chlorides in the 1°4805 grammes of nodules
used, we have to subtract from 0°0279 grammes 0°00132 grammes (residue left by 5°5 ce.
ammonium carbonate solution) +0°00127 (which is the residue in 4°088 grammes of
barium hydrate) + 0°0004 (insoluble matter). This leaves 0°02491 grammes (or 1°68 per
cent.) of alkalies weighed as chlorides.

The potasscwm in the above alkaline salts was estimated by means of platinic chloride.
0°01356 grammes of the double chloride of potassium and platinum (2KCl. PtCl,) were
found—that is, 0°01356 grammes of potassium chloride in 1:4805 grammes of nodules, or
0°91 per cent. of KCl. This is equivalent to 0°45 per cent. of K,O, leaving 0°41 per cent.
of Na,O.

The error due to the ratio of potash to soda in the nodules being different from that
in the reagents can be but trifling.

C. Analysis of the Precipitate of Bases obtained in separating the Alkalies.—Dis-
solved this precipitate in hydrochloric acid, and made up the solution to 250°85 c.c.

Estimation of Manganese.—Took 100 c.c. of the above solution (0°5902 grammes
nodules). Evaporated to dryness to get rid of excess of acid, took up the residue with
water, and, as usual, added barium carbonate to precipitate iron and alumina. In the
filtrate precipitated the manganese, as usual, as MnO, by means of bromine, filtered off
the MnO,, dissolved it in hydrochloric acid, removed any baryta as BaSQ,, evaporated
solution to dryness, took up with water, and precipitated the manganese with sodium
carbonate as MnCO;. Filtered, ignited to Mn,O,, and weighed. The Mn,;0, weighed
019646 grammes (or 33°29 per cent.). This is equivalent to 30°96 per cent. of MnO
(including cobalt) in the nodules.

BaCO, Precipitate.—Dried this precipitate, redissolved it in hydrochloric acid, and
precipitated the baryta with sulphuric acid. Evaporated the solution over water-bath to
eet rid of excess of acid. Took up with water, filtered from traces of insoluble matter,

‘diluted, and precipitated with a slight excess of ammonia, boiling till all excess was
expelled. The precipitate of Fe,O;+Al,0; when ignited weighed 0°0266 grammes.
Fused it with bisulphate of potash in order to see if silica was present. 0°00194 grammes
of the fused mass was insoluble, leaving 0°0246 grammes of Fe,O;+Al,0;, 1¢., 4°17
per cent.

To make the figures obtained for the alkalies and manganese comparable with those
obtained in X, we have in both cases used substances extracted with water, and therefore
free from soluble matter; but in X the substance was used dried at 100°, while in Y it
was exposed to the air after extraction, and was therefore in an air-dry condition. X
contained 1°47 per cent. moisture, which was driven off at 162° C.; Y contained 5°53
per cent., the difference bemg 4:06. Therefore 95°94 parts of Y are equivalent to 100
parts of X, and we must multiply the results in Y by 1:042, and we have MnO =32°28
per cent., K,O0 = 0°47 per cent., and Na,O = 0°43 per cent.

Some of the same air-dried samples of nodules were examined without being extracted
with boiling water, or rather the extraction formed part of the analysis.

COMPOSITION OF OCEANIC AND LITTORAL MANGANESE NODULES. 481

A. Estimation of Moisture driven off at 180°.—0°8078 grammes of nodules (unex-
tracted) were heated in an air-bath to 180°. The heating was continued for about three
hours, two hours being between 160° and 180°. The loss of weight was found to be
00363 grammes (4°50 per cent.).

B. Estimation of Matter soluble in Water.—8°8078 grammes were (after the moisture
had been driven off) extracted with hot water. The solution was evaporated to dryness,
ignited, and weighed. It weighed 0°0169 grammes, that is, 2°09 per cent. of the
nodules.

The dry residue was redissolved and tested for potash, and found to contain a little.

C. Estimation of Insoluble Residue, Manganese, Iron, and Alumina.—Treated what
was insoluble in water of the above 0°8078 grammes with hydrochloric acid, and separated
the silica and silicates as usual. The imsoluble residue weighed 0°26106 grammes, equal
to 32°32 per cent.

The filtrate from the insoluble residue was made up to 100 cc. 50 ce. of the
solution (equal to 0°4039 grammes of nodules) were used for manganese estimation, and
01349 grammes of Mn,O, found. ‘This gives 31°11 per cent. of MnO.

The won and alumina were precipitated by barium carbonate in 100° c.c. of the
solution. (It was the filtrate from this precipitate that was used for the manganese
estimation.) The precipitate was redissolved in hydrochloric acid, the baryta present
precipitated with sulphuric acid, and iron and alumina precipitated from the filtrate from
the barium sulphate. 0°0146 grammes of Fe’O, + Al,0; were found, representing 3°60 per
cent. in the nodules. This was fused with bisulphate of potash, and found free from
silica.

To make the figures comparable with those of X, we have 2°09 soluble matter and
4°05 moisture, together 6°14; from which we deduct 1°47 moisture in X, leaving 4°67 ;
whence 95°33 of Z are equivalent to 100 of X. We must therefore multiply the figures
obtained in Z by 1:°049. We have then MnO = 32°62 per cent., insoluble residue = 33°90
per cent., and Fe,O,+ Al,0O;= 3°77 per cent. After making all reductions we have—

Insoluble Residue.—In X 34:05 per cent., and in Z 33°90 per cent. As the soluble
silica was determined in X, and the value of the total residue in Z agrees closely, we
take the values for X, namely, soluble SiO, 6°32 per cent., and remainder of residue
27°73; together, 34°05 per cent.

Fe,O; and Al,0°.—As the figure found in Z for the sum of these constituents agrees
sufficiently with that found in X, we take the value for the individual constituents found
in it, namely, Fe,O;, 2°31 per cent., and Al,O3, 1°14 per cent.

Manganese.—The results obtained in Y and Z agree well, and we take the mean,
32°43 per cent. of MnO.

Loss on Ignition—The amount of substance taken for this determination was
01263 grammes. Recent experiments show that it would lose about three-sevenths of
its available oxygen on ignition, and it may therefore be safely concluded that all the

482

MR J. Y. BUCHANAN, F.R.S., ON THE

CO, would be driven off, also all the water, and two-thirds of the available oxygen. We

have then

Moisture removed at 162°,
6.0 :

3/7 available oxygen,
Balance,

Total loss found,

We have then the following composition :—

Moisture,
Carbonic acid,
Available oxygen,
MnO, ‘
Co,03,

CuO,

PLO ae

Soluble $i0,,

Balance of insoluble residue,
Do., loss on ignition,

1-47 per cent.
887 a
1:76 z
564 ;

17°74 3

1:47 per cent.
8°89 :
4°10 2
32°43 ¥
0025 ,
traces
2°31 per cent.
1:14
6:83 e
4-08 es
0°47 |
0:43 °5
0:57 J
6°32 :
2013 z
5°64 '

102°43 .

If we assign the CO, first to the CaO and then to the MgO, we shall have—

CaCO,, .
MgCO, .
MgO,

12°20 per cent.
5:17 2
2°41 5

ANALYSIS OF THE MupbD IN WHICH THE NODULES FROM LocH FYNE WERE FOUND.

The mud was air-dried, and had been freed from manganese nodules and shells. The

moisture, carbonic acid, available oxygen, manganous oxide, and insoluble residue were

determined, with the following results :—

Moisture at 162° C.,
Carbonic acid,
Available oxygen,
MnO, :
Insoluble residue,
CuO,

5°92 per cent.
AA 515) ss
merest trace.
0:71 per cent.
74°26 if
distinct traces.

COMPOSITION OF OCEANIC AND LITTORAL MANGANESE NODULES. 485

With regard to the available oxygen, 0°5750 grammes were taken, and, after boiling
with strong HCl as usual, the solution of potassium iodide remained colourless. On
adding a little starch solution to it, however, a slight purple tint was produced, which
the smallest drop of hyposulphite sufficed to decolorise. There is, therefore, only the
smallest possible trace of MnO, present, and the 0°71 per cent. MnO is really present
as MnO.

ANALYSIS OF PECTEN SHELLS PICKED oUT oF THE LocH Fyne Mop.

Qualitative Analysis.—These shells were well scrubbed with pure water, so as to free
them from all adhering mud, and then air-dried. They contained—

Organic matter, : : 3 A little.
COn> &: 3 : : A large amount.

© SO,, ; ; : : ; Small amount.
S105; : : ; Very small amount.

No metals precipitable by H,S in HCl solution. Very small precipitate with sulphide
of ammonium—

C205 : : Very large amount (no BaO).
Mgo, . ; : ; : Trace.

Qualitative Estumation of MnO and P,O;.—1:5695 grammes were treated with dilute
HCl. There was very little organic’ matter present, which shows that the shells were
very old. The insoluble residue was filtered, ignited, and weighed; it weighed 0:0063
grammes=0°4 per cent. insoluble residue. To the filtrate from the insoluble residue
added FI1,Cl, and precipitated all the P.O; with acetate of soda. In the filtrate from this
the manganese was precipitated with bromine. The following results were obtained :—

Insoluble residue, : 0:40 per cent.
POE &: : 0:09 p
MnO, . : : : 1:00 _

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 17). 4¢

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MR. BUCHANAN ON MANGANESE NODULES.
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. Vol. XXXVI.

A. RITCHIE & SON, EDINR.

DEPTH CONTOURS—FATHOMS

Be
Bo000

NATURAL SCALE

LUCH FINE

Y. BUCHANAN, DELT.

10 CABLES

J.

Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin®™ Vol. XXXVI.

M’ BUCHANAN ON MANGANESE NODULES.

M‘Farlane & Erskine, Lith=’ Edin®

XVIIL—On Some Relations between Magnetism and Twist in Iron and Nickel (and
Cobalt). Parts I], and III. By Caremi G. Knorr, D.Sc. (Edin.), F.R,S.E.,
Professor of Physics, Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan. (With Five Plates.)

(Read 1st June 1891.)

PARTS

1. This paper forms the continuation of a paper already communicated to the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, and published in the Transactions (vol. xxxv. pp. 377-390).
Strictly speaking, it is third of a series bearing on the same subject. In the first* I
showed that when a current is passed along a longitudinally magnetised nickel wire a
twist is produced similar in character but opposite in direction to the twist which
WIEDEMANN discovered to be produced in iron similarly treated. This was the chief
result arrived at; but other results were also obtained, especially with regard to the
influence of tension, which called for further investigation. In the later paper, the
influence of tension was more thoroughly studied; and also the effect of change of
temperature. I also discussed more fully the suggestion first made by Maxwe tut that
the effect discovered by WIEDEMANN can be explained in terms of the changes of length
which JouLE observed in iron when maenetised. Obviously the same explanation must
be extended to the case of nickel, which Barrerr had found also to be subject to changes
of length when magnetised. Mr Brpwe w’s recent elaborate measurements of these
changes of length enabled me to make an approximate calculation of the twist in an iron
tube longitudinally and circularly magnetised. The comparison of the result as calcu-
lated for a tube with the result observed for a wire of the same diameter, established, in
my opinion, the sufficiency of MaxweE t’s explanation. This conclusion, however, WIEDE-
MANN does not seem to admit (see Bezbliitter, xiii. p. 718).

2. The present paper consists of two main sections. The first is a further discussion
of the properties of the twist due to superposed magnetisms in iron and nickel; and the
second is mainly an investigation into the longitudinal polarity produced by twisting
wires along which a current is flowing. Paragraph (12) is concerned with cobalt, and
paragraph (28) relates to some rather curious experiments on magnetically neutral wires.

In these latest experiments on the Wiedemann effect (as, for brevity, I have termed
the twist in the magnetic metals due to superposed magnetisms) a modified method of
experiment was adopted. In all previous work on the subject, whether by W1EDEMANN,

* “On Superposed Magnetisms in Iron and Nickel,” Zrans. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. xxxii. p. 193, 1883.

+ In an appendix to Gorn’s paper on “ Electrotorsion ” (Phil. Trans., 1874), Sir W. Tuomson suggests the

same explanation, apparently unaware that Maxwe tu had anticipated him, or that Wi1epEMANN had anticipated
Gore.

VOL, XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 18). 4D

486 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON SOME RELATIONS BETWEEN

Gore, or myself, the wire or rod that was being studied was hung vertically inside a
magnetising helix. In such cases, the effect of the earth’s vertical field had to be allowed
for. Certain discrepancies in GoreE’s observations may, I think, be explained in terms of
the effect of this permanent downward field, acting with or against the field inside the
helix, according to the direction of the magnetising current.

The most satisfactory way to get rid of this permanent effect is to have the wire
perpendicular to the earth’s field. At the same time it must be left free to twist. These
conditions were completely fulfilled as follows. Two identical magnetising coils were set
horizontally in line, and perpendicular to the magnetic meridian. The wire to be
examined passed through both coils, and carried a small mirror fixed to its middle point.
The contiguous ends of the magnetising coils were separated a few centimetres to allow
of the adjustment by hand of the mirror on the wire. A vertical scale was reflected from
the mirror and read by means of a cathetometer telescope suitably adjusted. The current
was led through both coils put on in series in such a way that the coils formed two
electromagnets oppositely directed as regards polarity. ‘Thus the iron or nickel wire
that threaded the helices was magnetised in two halves, so that its middle was one kind
of polarity, and its extremities the other kind. When a current was passed along such a
wire, the two halves were subjected to opposite twists; and, since the extremities were
clamped, the middle point of the wire with its attached mirror rotated through the angle
corresponding to the twist. It seems reasonable to suppose that the angle of rotation of
the mirror in this arrangement will be very nearly the same as would be produced if the
half length of wire were hung vertically, and subjected to the same combination of
longitudinal and circular magnetic forces. It is possible, however, that the different
conditions of constraint in the two methods may give rise to differences in the twist
produced by a given combination of magnetisms. There are indications of such
differences, but they are not great.

The tension in the wire was applied by means of ascrew at one end, and was measured
on a spring dynamometer at the other. After a given tension was applied, the wire was
lifted slightly on two brass edges just outside the coils at the further ends of the cores.
A free length of wire, 77 cm. long, was thus kept stretched from end to end of the double
coil. Of this length 7°5 em. lay in the region between the coils—that interval being
necessary so as to admit of easy adjustment of the small central mirror.

In both the coil and line circuits galvanometers were included, and were placed
sufficiently distant from the coils and from one another so as to prevent any electro-
magnet disturbances. The mercury commutators, by which the currents were made,
broken, and reversed, were placed within easy reach of the observer, who sat with his
eye at the cathetometer telescope.

3. The most interesting result brought out by these experiments is that the twist
produced by a given combination of circular and longitudinal magnetisms depends largely
upon the order in which these are applied. This peculiarity was mentioned in the last
paragraph of Part I. Gore has also recorded certain observations which indicate the

MAGNETISM AND TWIST IN IRON AND NICKEL. 487

same peculiarity ; but he does not seem to have tried to co-ordinate these observations,
and has made no attempt to follow up the inquiry.

In what follows, the recorded twists are produced by reversal of one of the currents,
the other being kept steady. A very few reversals of the one current suffices to bring the
wire into a cyclic condition as regards the twist produced. After the twist, correspond-
ing (say) to steady line current and reversed coil current, has been observed, the coil
current, or longitudinal field, is in its turn kept steady, and the twist taken that
corresponds to the reversal of the line current. In general these two twists are different.
We shall distinguish them hereafter as the field-reversal twist and the current-reversal
twist, the unqualified word “current” being always used in the sense of the current
along the wire. The current that produces the longitudinal magnetic field will be
distinguished as the coil current.

If no magnetic asymmetry exists in the wire, the magnitude of the field-reversal
twist should be the same whatever be the direction of the steady current, and the
magnitude of the current-reversal twist should be the same whatever be the direction of
the steady field. This was always found to be the case when the current (whether coil
current or line current) that was being reversed was tolerably strong. But when it was
weak, the magnitude of the twist sometimes depended on the direction of the steady
current. When this happened, the mean of the twists obtained for the two directions of
steady current or field was taken as the value of the twist for the particular combination.

4, Numerical Results for Iron.—The iron wire used in the first series of experiments
had a diameter of 0°83 mm. It was threaded through the coils in the manner described
in section 2, and the twists under various combinations of tension, current, and field
were measured. These are tabulated in Table I. The first column gives the tension in
kilogramme-weight per square centimetre of section ; the second, the current (C) along
the wire in amperes; and the third, the longitudinal field (H) acting on the wire in
C.G.S. electromagnetic units. The fourth and fifth columns contain the resulting twists
for field reversal and current reversal respectively. The twists are given in thousandths
of radians, and are the total twists on the wire. To reduce to twists per unit centimetre,
we should divide by half the length of the wire, if that half length were wholly included
in the magnetising coil. But from the form of the arrangement it is clear that the half
length is not subject along its whole extent to the same field. If, however, we divide the
total twist by 35, we shall get a result that cannot differ by more than 10 per cent. from
the twist per centimetre in the heart of the coil. The object of the present inquiry not
being the accurate determination of the amounts of twist corresponding to a given
combination of currents, it is not essential to make the final reduction to twists per unit

length.

488

PROFESSOR KNOTT ON SOME RELATIONS BETWEEN

Tension Kg.-Wt.

per Sq. Cm. in Ampéres.
“fh C
907 1:2
907 2°2
907 3°14
907 3°84
1814 3°78

TaB_E 1.—For Iron Wire, 0°8 mm. in diameter.

Line Current

Longitudinal
Field Electrom.

Units, C.G.S.

H

—
EBEWUROMMUWNHH

BD 9 CO OTD St AT 09 TUT I D OO

BPODRDOOKFHE WONHNONHHE OF

woewmwl oOrearwra)S pas

Twist + H in
Thousandths of
Radians.

ht

Twist + C in
Thousandths of
Radians,

ct

Curve Number,

(3)

(4)

(

)

MAGNETISM AND TWIST IN IRON AND NICKEL.

Tas_eE 1.—For Iron Wire, 0°8 mm. in diameter—continued.

c é Longitudinal | Twist + Hin | Twist + Cin
Tension Kg.-Wt.| Line Current Bae
per Sq. Cm. in Ampéres. aoe cs a hoes of eae of | Curve Number,
T C H ht ct No.
2721 2°8 2-7 0-61 1:83 (6)
9-2 3°91 2:14
14:2 4:20 2°00
29°74 3°51 151
70°2 2°08 0:69
93-6 1°55 0:42
130°4 1:05 0:08
210:0 0:40 — 0:20
————— |
3537 26 2°6 0:46 0:69 (7)
6:2 2°06 0:95
9°3 2°73 1:01
12°6 2°88 1:01
16:4 2°88 0:95
41:8 2°18 0°63
93:0 1:09 0-15
125°8 0:78 — 0:04
206°4 0:25 — 0:25
aod 3D2 2°0 0°36 1:09 (8)
6:2 2°31 1°85
16°9 3°61 1:93
28°3 3°40 1:68
48°2 2°67 1:09
79-0 1:85 0:67
99-6 1-41 0-42
1882 172% -—0:19
3537 1:74 isi 0:08 0:08 (9)
al 0-74 0:19
ill 1:89 0:27
10°3 2°18 0:25
25°6 Wee 0:27
44:6 1:60 0:19
66:0 1:16 0:06
93°8 0-78 — 0:02
132-1 0:57 —0:15
188°9 0-21 — 0:25
2721 3°32 372 1:05 2°42 (10)
11:4 4:58 2°86
17-2 4-73 2°69
28°6 4:20 2:14
49°5 3°23 1:47
77°6 2:18 0°88
98-2 1:72 0°59
185°5 0:53 — 0:04
907 3°04 07 0:04 2°84 (11)
20 0:34 4°64
6°3 4°62 6°30
11:4 7°39 6°32
17-2 7:98 5:67
28°6 7:20 4°62

490

PROFESSOR KNOTT ON SOME RELATIONS BETWEEN

Tas_E I.—Vfor Iron Wire, 0°8 mm. in diameter—continued.

| : ; Longitudinal Twist + Hin | Twist + Cin
Tension Kge.-Wt.| Line Current Sri : 7
per Sq. Can: in Ampires. F Harrod ae bars niece of ae of | Curve Number.
T C H ht ct No.
907 30-4 (11)
48°3 5°42 3°15
76:2 3°80 2°10
NT 3:00 1°64
180°5 1:43 0°63
907 1-06 27 0°38 0:50 (12)
8°5 4:16 0-74
| ay 4:28 0:76
36°3 3°23 0°53
57°8 2°21 0°36
86°1 1°68 0°19
106-0 1:28 0:15
132° 1:11 0:06
243°2 0:78 — 0:08

The corresponding curves are shown in Plate I.; and to facilitate reference each set .
having the same tension and current is numbered in accordance with the numbers given
in the last column of the table. For each set there are two curves, since there are two
sets of twists to be plotted in terms of the longitudinal fields.

5. Discussion of the Results for Iron.—The collocation of curves on Plate I. shows at
a glance many of the features which have been discussed in my former papers. For
example, the property of the maximum twist is well marked in all, and when the field
is high enough the wire twists in the opposite direction as first noticed by BrmDwELL.
In the present experiments, this phenomenon shows itself only when the twist is obtained
by reversal of the line current. With higher fields, however, there is little doubt that
the change of direction of twist would be produced by reversal of the field also.

Again, if we group the curves according to the tensions, we shall find that each group
(e.g., 1, 2, 8, 4) brings out very distinctly the occurrence of the maximum twist in
higher fields as the line current is taken stronger and stronger. The effect also of
increased tension in diminishing the twist for the same combination of magnetising
forces can be clearly traced—a point which was specially discussed in Part IL.

Passing to the consideration of the new features, we see at a glance that the field-
reversal twist and the current-reversal twist are, except in very special cases, quite
different. When the field is high enough, the field-reversal twist is always the greater ;
in the curves, that one of each pair which is uppermost in fields higher than 15 is the one
obtained from the field-reversal twists. The current-reversal twist, however, is the
greater in low enough fields—excepting the case of No. 9.

Leaving this single case out of account, we see that there is a particular field for each
current, for which the twist is the same whether the field or current is reversed. ‘This
particular field corresponds, of course, to the point of intersection of the corresponding

MAGNETISM AND TWIST IN IRON AND NICKEL. 491]

pair of curves. ‘This “point of equal twists,” as I shall call it for shortness’ sake, occurs
in higher fields for higher values of the line current, other things being the same.
Compare, for example, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 11, 12, or Nos. 7, 8, 9, or Nos.6 and 10. On the
other hand, the effect of increasing tension is to bring the point of equal twists into
lower fields. This may be inferred from a comparison of Nos. 4, 5, 8, 10, or Nos. 2, 6, 7,
in which groups the line currents are near enough in value to enable us to make the
comparison. The following table will bring out the remarkable simplicity of the relations
connecting the value of the field for equal twists with the tension and the line current.
The last column gives the ratio of the field to the current.

Field for

Tension. Current. Bigual Twists, Ratio.
907 1:06 4 ehh
907 Ly 4°2 3°50
907 22, 5-9 2°71
907 3°04 9°5 olull
907 3:14 9 2°85
907 3°84 11:5 2:92

1814 3°78 75 1:98
DaifeAll 2°8 4:5 1:60
2721 3°32 5-2 1:56
3537 1:74 q te

3537 26 3°5 1:34
3537 3:52 4-5 1:28

For each group with the same tension, there is an approximately linear relation
connecting current and field for the point of equal twists; and as the tension increases
the ratio of current to field distinctly falls off. This, however, we may regard as a
secondary aspect of the general effect of increasing tension. As already mentioned, the
increase of tension causes a decrease of twist; and, by a study both of the table and the
curves, we may readily establish that under increased tension the point at which the
curve cuts through the axis of co-ordinates is shifted backwards towards the origin. This
is the point of vanishing twist, which, again, shifts into higher fields when the line
current is taken stronger. ‘Thus in every case the effect of a stronger current is opposite
to the effect of a greater tension. The shifting of the point of vanishing twist into lower
fields when the tension is increased is, if we are to explain the Wiedemann effect in
terms of the Joule effect, in good accord with Mr Binwe.vr’s results. He found that
under greater tension iron begins to contract in lower magnetic fields—+.e., the field for
no change of length was smaller at the higher tensions.

We know nothing so far regarding the changes of length when an iron wire carrying
@ current is subjected to longitudinal magnetising forces. But from the fact just
established that an increased current along the wire affects the point of vanishing twist
im a manner opposite to that in which an increased tension affects it, we should be
inclined to conclude that the pure strain effects of these influences are of an opposite
character. The strain produced by a current along a wire has not been directly studied ;

492 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON SOME RELATIONS BETWEEN

but if JouLr’s conclusion as to the contraction of iron at right angles to the direction of
magnetisation be correct, we should expect a current along a wire to have a shortening effect
upon it. This shortening effect, if it exists, will depend on the value of the magnetising
force due to the current, and will be different for each cylindrical layer. The resulting
strain will be far from simple. An originally plane section will probably become warped,
the end becoming concave outwards. An experimental attempt to find evidence of such
a change of curvature in the polished end of an iron rod failed, possibly because I had no
means of getting a strong enough current along the rod. A current of 100 ampéres along
a rod half a centimetre in diameter might be expected to give a good measurable effect.

6. Results for Nickel.—Before discussing other interesting features of the phenomenon
in iron, we shall give the results for nickel, so as to be able to draw comparisons between
the two metals. Two nickel wires of diameters 0°5 mm. and 0°94 mm. respectively, and
of length 77 cm., were studied in exactly the same manner as the iron. ‘The results are
given in Tables II. and III., and Plate II. contains the curves corresponding to the latter
table. Similar curves may also be drawn for Table IL, but as they lead to identical
conclusions it does not seem necessary to give them. ‘The units used are the same as in
the case of iron, but the ordinates representing the twists in nickel are drawn to half the
scale of the same quantities for iron. It is necessary to bear this in mind in comparing
the curves for the two metals.

Tas_E I].—For Nickel Wire, 0°5 mm. in diameter.

c = = : Longitudinal Wi in | Twis i :
Tension Kg.-Wt.| Line Current | yie1q Blectrom. Tene fee ane of Experiment
per Sq. Cm. in Ampéres. Units, C.G.S. Radians. Radians. Number.
fi C H ht ct No.
924 0:94 5:2 0:46 0°25 (1)
9°9 1:21 0:92
22:3 7:13 2°72
38°5 14:21 3°87
798 25°87 5:60
143°8 25:92 7:27
172°2 22°99 7°69
1155 1:02 9-2 1-11 1:02 (2)
22°6 8:84 3°05
40°4 18:08 4°35
88:1 27:84 6°46
166°2 25°08 8:03
210:2 21°80 8:15
1155 1-68 55 1-04 1:60 (3)
10:3 5°63 5°46
24°8 19°38 9:08
40°7 29°48 11:29
68°8 36:00 13°33
98°5 37°69 14°38
165:1 33°44 15°60
199°8 30°63 15:10

MAGNETISM AND TWIST IN IRON AND NICKEL. 493

Tas.E Il.—For Nickel Wire, 0°5 mm. in diameter—continued.

Z : Longitudinal | Twist + Hin | Twist + Cin *
Tension Kg.-Wt.| Line Current aa 5 Experiment
peng Gins] im Ampires. "ld Metro. | Thousedthe of | Thonsadths of | "mer
T C H ht et No.
1155 2°80 5:0 2°81 10°73 (4)
9-2 8°54 15:00
| 22:0 24°38 22-40
59°2 43°79 31°81
93:0 48°12 33:00
1172 47°29 32-71
' 151°4 44°50 32°14
1848 3°00 1:8 1:05 2:05 (5)
5:1 3:11 6:21
111 7-86 11:08
21°5 17:97 17:97
561 41-4] 30°93
82°6 51°62 36°16
137°6 57:48 39°50
151°4 56°95 39°50
131°4 57°20 39-08
104°6 55°49 37°83
66:0 45°56 32°40
27:0 21:95 19°86
111 773 10°64
2310 2°80 5-1 2:21 2:38 (6)
10°3 4:64 4-74.
19°8 9:09 8:80
53:9 26°70 19-48
OFT 45-77 28°21
137°6 53°71 32:00
150°3 55‘76 33:02
egalieit 56°95 33°75
3003 2°40 13'1 1°61 1°46 (7)
311 5:39 3°41
74:8 ICH 6:37
110°6 26°04 8°99
1332 30°51 8:99
2502 31°50 9-11
3003 1:76 14:0 0:75 0:56 (8)
29:9 4:12 1:44
57:8 10°45 2°80
92:2 18°94 4:03
123°3 24:22 4°81
199°2 31:35 7:04
2502 32°40 7-84
1155 3°16 9-6 2°70 3:16 (9)
19°8 7:02 5:81
46°8 20°75 10°47
75:1 30°68 13°31]
104°6 35:07 15:05
161°3 36°38 17:93
203°6 34:13 18:48
260°9 31°66 18:60
VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 18). AE

494

PROFESSOR KNOTT ON SOME RELATIONS BETWEEN

Taste II].—for Nickel Wire, 0°94 mm. in diameter.

Tension Kg.-Wt.
per Sq. Cm.

Ab
0

654

1112

Line Current
in Ampéres.

8°20

6-08

3°24

214:7

Longitudinal

Field Electrom. | Thousandths of | Thousandths of

Units, C.G.S.

H

164-1
121°4
97-0
50:9
19:8
7:2

192°6
152°4
1156

Twist + H in

Radians.

ht

Twist + Cin

Radians.

Experiment
Number.

No.
(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

MAGNETISM AND TWIST IN IRON AND NICKEL. 495

TaBLeE II].—For Nickel Wire, 0:94 mm. in diameter—continued.

Longitudinal | Twist + Hin | Twist + Cin

Tension Kg.-Wt.| Line Current Field Electrom. | Thousandths of |} Thousandths of Experiment

per Sq. Cm. in Ampéres, Units, C.G.S. Radians. Radians. Number.
a C H ht ct No.
1439 2°44 181°6 20°9 6°4 (7)
137-6 20°8 5'6
108:0 18:7 4-6
86°7 16°2 4°]
476 8-0 2:3
29-2 3°9 1:5
12°7 09 0°6
154:1 19:3 4:5
1439 3°64 130°7 24:0 10:1 (8)
8-2 18:4 8:0
39-1 86 4:9
16:0 2°6 2°4
5:9 0°8 0:8
56:1 6:2 58
101°8 226 85
641 2°86 21071 © 17:0 10°8 (9)
170°6 19-2 11:2
146-4 20°5 111
126°6 20°9 11:0
80°8 21°3 9°9
69:1 20°4 9:4
53°3 18:1 8:7
25:9 97 6:2
13-1 3°8 37
72 1°6 2°2
78:1 20°7 9°7
196-1 17:3 10°5
641 5:20 198 26°8 22°9 (10)
123°8 29°4 24°4
95:7 29°6 23°8
63°8 26°7 21°4
35°5 18:0 15°8
13°8 6°8 77
5:6 2°5 3°4
0 4°88 165:0 Ayo 18:2 (11)
108-9 22°8 19°9
72°71 23°5 20°4
32°2 21:2 19:0
13°3 11-1 14°9
0 2:98 225°5 12:9 8:2 (12)
134°8 14-7 9-1
97:9 15-7 9:3
56°4 16:3 8:8
25:0 14:2 7:0
13°4 7:2 4°5
2 2:2 2:7

496 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON SOME RELATIONS BETWEEN

Tasie IL— For Nickel Wire, 0°94 mm. in diameter—continued.

Bae : ; . ;
[Tension on: ei iene Coen! Ricli“Electrom, pie ae Thossnithe of Experiment
per Sq. Cm. in Amperes, Units, C.G.S. aeaGacei Re Member
T C H ht ot No.
0 5-60 178°8 21-2 17-7 (13)
135°3 99-3 thes
88-0 23-5 19-4
49-0 23°6 18:8
29°7 20°4 MTsz,
10:0 UP 11:7
7:0 4°] 8-5
21 0:8 2-9 :

It will be seen that the attainable twists in nickel are much greater than those in iron.
In high enough fields and with strong enough currents there is indeed no difficulty in
secing the wire twist with the naked eye.

7. Discussion of the Results for Nickel.—In many respects the features of the nickel
curves strongly resemble those of the iron curves. There are, for example, well-marked
maximum points; and the fields in which these occur depend on the currents along the
wire, being higher for the stronger current. The current-reversal twist begins by being
greater than the field-reversal twist, but becomes smaller when the field is high enough.
The point of equal twists moves into higher fields as the line current is taken stronger ;
compare Nos. 1, 2, 3, and Nos. 5 and 6. On the other hand, the point of equal twists
moves into lower fields as the tension is increased.

In some particulars, however, there are differences in the behaviour of the iron and
nickel. In the case of nickel, an increase of tension has a marked effect on the form of
the curve, and leaves a permanent change on the wire. Thus in No. 13 the twists are
smaller than in No. 2—the only difference between the two experiments being that No.
2 was made before, and No. 13 after the wire had been subjected to a considerable
tension. Again, the effect of tension on the magnitude of the twist in higher fields is,
under certain circumstances, to increase it. Compare, for instance, Nos. 3 and 4 in Plate
II. Thus the first effect of an increasing tension is to increase the twist for a given
combination of magnetising forces—a conclusion already arrived at in my earlier paper
(see Part I.). Ultimately, however, as the tension is made greater and greater, the twist
begins to diminish; compare curves 4 to 8. In my earlier paper (see p. 383), it was
not possible for me to compare this effect of tension on the twist in nickel with the effect
of tension on the contraction of nickel. Mr Browett has recently, however, given a
further instalment of his investigations on changes of length of magnetic metals, and has
found a peculiarity in the behaviour of nickel under tension very similar to what I have
more fully described in Part I. In a preliminary paper, published in the Proceedings of
the Royal Society (vol. xlvii. p. 467, July 17, 1890), he shows that in weak fields the
magnetic contraction of nickel is diminished by tension, but that in fields of more than

MAGNETISM AND TWIST IN IRON AND NICKEL. 497

140 or 150 units the. magnetic contraction is increased by tensional stress up to a certain
critical value. This critical value les somewhere between 600 and 1000 kilos. per square
centimetre, a result which is in good.agreement with my own results as indicated in
curves 2, 4, 5. There is also a distinct resemblance in the manner in which tension
affects the form of the curves of contraction and twist obtained respectively by Mr
BIDWELL and myself.

lt seems to me that here we have a further corroboration of the truth of MaxweE L.'s
explanation of the Wiedemann effect. As I pointed out in my first paper, Professor
BaRRETT’s discovery of the contraction of nickel in magnetic fields at once suggested that
the Wiedemann effect in nickel should be opposite to that in iron. Experiment fully
bore this out. Then, again, the peculiarity of the influence of tension in the Wiedemann
effect in nickel suggested that a similar peculiarity would be found to exist in the
influence of tension on the contraction effect; and this Mr Brow has completely
verified. In short, the more we study the details of the Joule and Wiedemann
magneto-strain effects in iron and nickel, the more are we convinced of their intimate
connection.

Another feature common to the iron and nickel is the wider distance apart of the
current-reversal and field-reversal curves, when the line current is taken smaller. This
feature is particularly noticeable in the case of nickel, for which, in some instances in
which the line current is strong (e.g., Nos. 3 and 4), the curves nearly coincide in the
higher fields.

8. Numerical Comparison of the Twists in Iron and Nickel.—In Part I.* I obtained
an expression for the twist in an iron or nickel tube under the combined influence of
circular and longitudinal magnetising forces. ‘This expression was

_ 2(@,—- 901) af
i 7 a?+ (6?

6

in which @ is the twist per unit length of the tube, 7 is the radius, a and B are the two
magnetising forces, @ is the elongation in the direction of the resultant magnetising
force, and o the elongation in directions at right angles thereto. This expression was
obtained on the assumption that the direction of maximum elongation in a strained
element coincides with the direction of the resultant magnetising force. We shall discuss
the merits of this assumption immediately. Meanwhile let us compare the quantities
(a,:-o,) for iron and nickel wires; or, more strictly, let us compare the unknown
multipliers (&) in the expression

ee: .
7 a’ + 3?

Take the iron curve No. 3, Plate I., and the nickel curve No. 1, Plate II. The greatest

* It may be well to point out that in equation (5), on page 388, the letter @ is inadvertently used in two
different senses. Since, however, the one @ is brought in for a single transformation, there is no confusion in
the final result.

498 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON SOME RELATIONS BETWEEN

twist in nickel occurs in field B=65, and its value is 0= —28°3. The circular field
at the circumference of the wire is
3634 te
= 047 = 145.

The greatest twist in the iron is = +6°8, occurring in field B=17°5, and for a current
producing at the circumference a field

AG Qa 0 oe
re 156.
These values give
ies ule, 5 .
23:3'= 047 x i440 for nickel
+68= LZ x 51 for iron.
704° 550

Hence ke BLS cs ms E

B14 21

Now, according to Mr BrpweEtz’s measurements, iron of length unity in a field of 21
units lengthens by 5x 107‘, and nickel of length unity in a field of 67 units contracts
by 110x10~% Thus the ratio of the elongations is — 4, being almost exactly the
same as the ratio of the multipliers just found. In other words, these multipliers for the
two different metals are proportional to the elongations. Thus Maxwe.1’s explanation
receives a further corroboration. It applies equally well to nickel and iron; so that,
although the formula used is admittedly based on assumptions only approximately
fulfilled, and at best cannot be expected to apply rigorously to wires, yet the approxima-
tion is almost exactly the same for both nickel and iron. When it is borne in mind
how different the strain effects are in these metals, it will surely be admitted that the
remarkable equality in the ratios of the twists and of the elongations proves a very close
connection to exist between them.

9. Evidences of Atolotropy and After-effect.—One of the most interesting features
brought out by these experiments is the dependence of the twist on the order in which
the magnetising forces are applied. Jn other words, longitudinal and circular magnetis-
ing forces do not, so far as regards their strain effects, fulfil the simple law of superposi-
tion or composition. The elongations and twists involved are certainly within the limits
of elasticity ; hence we may conclude that these magnetic forces are not superposable as
regards their magnetic effects. Evidently, then, we are dealing with another instance of
the general phenomenon of the magnetic after-effect, or hysteresis, as Professor Ewine
has named it.

The best known illustration of this phenomenon is the residual magnetism which
persists in iron or nickel after the magnetising force has been removed, or, as it is more
convenient to express it at present, after a given magnetising force + h has been
reduced to zero by the superposition of an equal but opposite force —h. In such

MAGNETISM AND TWIST IN IRON AND NICKEL. 499

circumstances, when the magnetising force has been reduced to zero, the wire is left
magnetised positively. If, however, we had first applied the force — h, and then reduced
it to zero by the superposition of the force +h, the wire would have been left negatively
maecnetised. Thus the ultimate magnetic effect of the successive application of two equal
and opposite forces, the final result being the force zero, depends entirely upon the
order in which the balancing forces are applied. Such being the case for forces acting
in the same line but in opposite directions, it is not surprising that something similar
results when the superposed forces are mutually orthogonal.

It is evident, in fact, that a combination of circular and longitudinal magnetic forces
impresses upon the wire a very complicated magnetic eolotropy. There is produced in
the wire a particular kind of helical magnetisation, with a particular twist and magnetic
xolotropy associated with it. Representing this particular combination by the symbol
(+C, +H), we may suppose one of two thingsdone. We may superpose either the circular
magnetising force (—2C) or the longitudinal magnetising force (—2H), giving rise
respectively to the combination (—C, +H) or (+C, —H). The eolotropy being of a
helical character, the effect of applying the foree —2C will in general differ from the
effect of applying the force —2H. The pitch, so to speak, of the magnetisation helix
due to the combination (+C, +H) will depend on the relative values of C and H; and
this helical zeolotropy will in general have different geometrical relationships to the
circular or longitudinal magnetising forces that build up the resultant magnetising force.
Bearing in mind the great difference already referred to between the magnetic effects
of the very simple combinations + h — h and —h +h, we should expect as funda-
mental a difference to exist between the magnetic effects of the more complex combina-
tions (—C, +H) and(+C, —H). What these magnetic effects are we know only in a
rough way. In the present instance, we are studying them by their accompanying
strain effects which show forth after their own fashion the predominating influence of the
magnetic after-effect.

10. Complete Cycles.—So far we have considered only the total twists produced by
reversal of either of the component forces. But clearly, if the phenomenon of the
magnetic after-effect is at all evident, we should expect to find it declaring itself in the
course of any one cyclic variation. With a given combination of magnetising forces,
there are two ways of going through a cycle according to the particular component we
choose as the variable. A few examples will suffice to indicate the law by which the
changes of twist lag behind the changes of current or field.

In Table IV. four complete cycles are given, and the corresponding curves will be
found in Plate III. The first three sets are for cyclic variations of the field; the fourth
is for cyclic variations of the current. In each case the second and third columns contain
the twists, which should be read down in the former and up in the latter, if it is desired
to go through the cycle in the order of experiment. By this arrangement the after-
effect is evident at a glance.

500

PROFESSOR KNOTT ON SOME RELATIONS BETWEEN

TaBLE [V.—(a) For Iron.

Tnne Current = 4°94 amp.

Field.

+1942
162°3
Y 122-1

Twist.

+ 0°62
0°83
1:03
1:24
1:45
1:96
2°54
2°93
3°22
3°30
3:03
2°70
2°50

2°06

1:86

1:78

1:59

1:20
+062
— 0°45
— 2°43
— 2°92
— 3°29
— 3°50
— 3:27
— 2°67
— 2:06
-171
— 1-44
—1:13
— 0°88

(b) For Iron.

Field.

|
Re pw on
Hm bo We

wWOIMWNH OSSD’
SSCSCKAND KOR WY

a
—_—

Twist.

+ 3°40
3°46
3°34
3°30
3°09
2°84
2°64

2°16
1:96
1°85
1°65
1:24
+ 0:60
— 0:76
= 11243}
— 2°51
— 3:19
— 3:46

Field.

ty

+187
1568
123
100

Twist.

+1°0i
1:24
1°55
1°80
2°06
2°68
3°30
3°51
3°30
2°93
+ 2:23
-—0°72
— 1:23
— 1:64
—1:85
— 1:97
—2°18

— 2°61
— 2°84
- 3:13
— 3:40
— 3°40
— 3°33
— 3:09
— 2°67
— 2:12
— 1:69
— 1:44
— 1:25
— 1:02

Inne Current = — 4:16 amp.

Field.

it At
ee
orp

@

|
S SG Ae eS SO aust
ORNIND KO WHWKORNNATOH

+
_

Twist.

+ 3°46
3°15
2°51
1:85

+0:78

— 0°52

-117

— 1°65

— 1:85

—1:96

— 2°18

— 2°41

— 2°64

— 2°86

— 3:09

— 3°30

— 3°34

— 3°46

MAGNETISM AND TWIST IN IRON AND NICKEL.

Taste IV.—(c) For Nickel.

Line Current = 2°85—continued.

Field. Twist, Field. Twist.
=73-2 + 20°5 ee 506
— 67°9 20:7 — 67°6 +21°5
— 64°4 21°5 —=62"3 222,
—47:0 22-0 — 45-6 23°7
— 35°3 22°1 — 35'3 23°5
—25°9 21:3 — 25:9 21°8
-—11°8 iil -11°8 + 84

0 + 85 0 -—10:1
+109 -—14°0 + 88 —-178

24:1 —21°5 24-1 — 20°8

33°8 — 23:0 33'8 — 21:5

44°7 — 23:0 44:7 — 218

52°3 —22°5 52:9 — 21:4

61:7 — 21:3 + 62°6 — 20°8
+670 ~20°7 n Mi

_—__
(d) For Nickel. Field =56°6.

Current. Twist. Current. Twist
— 2:70 +17°9 n —2°57 +16°7
— 2:16 15:8 = WEIN} 13°4
=e G a8 — 1:54 8-7
= joi 11:0 — 1:09 4:8
—0°79 9°3 —0:78 Sel
— 0°47 7:3 — 0°45 - 04

0 4°] 0 — 4:1
+ 0°46 + 0°5 +0°45 — 62

0:76 -— 2° 0:78 = OY

1:08 — 50 1:10 -—10°9

1:50 — 92 1°55 — 13:2

2:06 —13°9 +211 — 156
+ 2°53 -17-4 8M

===

The first two cycles (a and b) were made with the same iron wire as was used in the
experiments of Table I., and were made at the same time as these, in the spring of 1887.
The third and fourth cycles, however, are for a nickel wire, 27 cm. long.

It was wholly enclosed in one of the magnetising coils (already described) set
vertically, so that the wire hung free in the earth’s vertical field when no current was
circulating in the coil. These two experiments were made in the spring of 1890, and
belong to a series of experiments carried out for a different object. The twists are, as
formerly, the total twists in the length of wire used.

The two cycles for the iron differ chiefly in the range of field used. In cycle (a) the
range is from nearly + 200 to —200, so that the field for the maximum twist is far
exceeded. In cycle (b), on the other hand, the field is carried just so far as to bring
the twist to near its maximum, that is, to about + 18. These cases are represented
graphically in fig. 1, Plate III., the dotted curve referring to the smaller field range.

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 18). AF

502 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON SOME RELATIONS BETWEEN

To bring out the form of the dotted curve more clearly, it is plotted on a larger scale so
far as the field is concerned. Also, to prevent confusion with the lines of the other
curve, it is taken with a negative line current. These and other particulars are clearly
indicated in the figure.

The two nickel cycles are represented by figs. 2 and 3, Plate III. The former is
for a field cycle, and is essentially of the same character as the first curve for the iron.
The latter is for a current cycle; and the fundamental difference between the characters
of the field and current cycles is apparent at a glance. It should be mentioned that
these curves are but samples of a great number of experiments which were made with
various values both of currents and fields. So far as the purpose of the present paper is
concerned, however, the features are essentially the same in all cases.

Tt will be noticed that the field corresponding to the maximum twist varies according
to the manner of the approach, being smaller for the descending than for the ascending
branches. Also the twist itself is greater at the ascending maximum, so that the
complete cyclic graph intersects itself in two points. For zero field a definite residual
twist is left, being positive or negative according to the sien of the recently acting field.
The reversed field which reduces the twist to zero is, for both iron and nickel, almost
identical in value with the field which reduces the residual longitudinal intensity to zero,
as studied in such full detail by Professor Ewine.* Such a correspondence is quite to be
expected, since residual strain effects will always be associated with residual magnetic
effects, and will probably vanish when these vanish.

In the case of the iron the residual twist for zero field is greater than the twist for
the highest field. This phenomenon, when observed experimentally, is a very striking
one, the twist increasing when the twisting agent is apparently removed. The reason
of it is, of course, at once evident when the cyclic graph shown in fig. 1 is considered
in its full significance. For it matters not whether the field is reduced to zero suddenly
or gradually—in either case the twist must pass through its maximum, so that the
residual twist is really in great measure the after-effect of the maximum twist. The

Line : Limiting Range Residual
Current. IIE ol of Twist, Range.
1:06 8°5 4-16 3°36
15:1 4:28 3°78
23°1 3°93 3°88
36°3 3°23 3°78
57°8 2°21 3°59
86°1 1°68 3°51
106-0 1:28 3°40
iBppll 111 3°36
243°2 0-78 3°33

* “ Experimental Researches in Magnetism,” Pel. Trans., 1885, and ‘‘ Magnetic Qualities of Nickel,” Phil.
Trans., 1888.

~

MAGNETISM AND TWIST IN IRON AND NICKEL. 505

residual twist seems to vary very little in value, so long as it is derived from the cessation
of a field higher than the field that corresponds to the maximum twist. This is shown in
the accompanying Table, giving the limiting twist ranges for different field cycles and
the residual ranges corresponding. In a good symmetrical cycle the residual range is
double either of the residual twists measured from the mean position.

It is possible that with high enough fields nickel might be made to show the same
peculiarity ; but up to the highest fields which I have been able to use the residual
twist in nickel is always smaller than the limiting twist.

The cyclic graphs for nickel (figs. 2 and 8) bring out very clearly the differences in
the field and current cycles. In one particular they agree, namely, in the fact that the
rate of untwisting is always less than the rate of twisting near the limiting range of
twist. This, of course, is the usual law of the after-effect, and holds for all the four
types of curves depicted. In the details of its form, however, the current-reversal graph
differs distinctly from the field-reversal graph. This difference must correspond to some
fundamental difference in the characters of the longitudinal and circular magnetic fields.
Such a difference is not far to seek, inasmuch as the distribution throughout the wire of
the magnetic field due to a current passing along it is known to be quite different from
the distribution of the field due to a current flowing in a coil surrounding it.

It may safely be concluded, then, that the different features presented by the field-
reversal and current-reversal graphs are the result of the magnetic after-effect. We
have already pointed out that, in the field-reversal cycle, the reversed field needed to
reduce the residual twist to zero was almost identical in value with what Dr J. Hopxty-
son has called the coercive force.

11. Effect of Simultaneous Reversal of both Magnetising Forces.—It has
generally been stated, or at any rate left to be inferred, that the reversal of both
magnetising forces which produce the Wiedemann effect is unaccompanied by any
twisting. This is not so, however. A small twist is generally produced. The simplest
way of effecting the simultaneous reversal of both is to make them depend on the same
current. Thus, let the current be led through the iron or nickel wire and the magnetis-
ing coil set in series in the same circuit. Then, if the current is reversed, a twist 1s
produced, although the reversal of the current implies the simultaneous reversal of the
field. This is shown in the following table, which gives the result of an experiment
made with a nickel wire under the same conditions of tension and length as in Nos. 7 and
8 of Table II. The first column gives the line current, the second the longitudinal field,
and the third the twist due to the simultaneous reversal of both current and field.

A comparison of the first combination with experiments Nos. 7 and 8 of Table IL. will
show that nearly all the fields are, for a current of 1°76 ampéres, above the field corre-
sponding to the point of equal twists. For smaller currents this will also be the case ;
and we may plausibly assume it to hold for the last and smallest field and current given.
In fact, the twist ‘04 for this last combination is in the same direction as the twist 2°5 for

504 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON SOME RELATIONS BETWEEN

the second and third cases, for which certainly the field-reversal twist with steady current
is much greater than the current-reversal twist for steady field.

Current. Field. Twist.
sy, 118 2°3
PNY 82°9 2°45
1:9 71:8 2-5
1:81 68:3 2°3
1:27 47°5 1°25

‘99 37°5 ‘90
‘79 29°8 73
66 25-4. 63
53 19:9 42,
44. 16°6 33
*B5 13°2 29
09 3°3 04

This result, namely, the obtaining of a twist when both magnetising forces are
simultaneously reserved, is of considerable interest. It demonstrates in a very simple
manner what all the other experiments here discussed also show, that the law of the
after-effect for circular magnetisation differs largely from that for longitudinal magnetisa-
tion. Suppose, for example, that a nickel wire is subjected for the first time to the
combined influence of a line current and a longitudinal field. Whatever be the directions
of the magnetising forces the initial twist produced will have the same numerical value,
provided the wire is quite symmetrical with regard to its axis. Nevertheless, if the
currents, after producing this initial twist, are simply reversed, so that their directional
relation is unchanged, the twist changes. Thus, if we are to explain the Wiedemann
effect in terms of the elongations and contractions associated with magnetisation, we
must suppose that the lines of magnetic induction in the wire are not simply reversed
with the direction of the magnetising forces. In short, we must assume a magnetic
eolotropy. The phenomenon just described seems to me to be a demonstration of the
existence of such an eolotropy, which on general grounds is a plausible enough
hypothesis.

12. Magnetic Twists in Cobalt.—So far as I am aware, no attempt has been made
to obtain the Wiedemann effect with cobalt. The practical impossibility of obtaining a
cobalt wire is perhaps a sufficient explanation of this. Nevertheless it seemed very
desirable to find out if there was any hint at all of the existence of the phenomenon in
this third magnetic metal. It struck me that if Maxwe.t’s explanation were the correct
one, the effect ought to be visible with a thin rod of rectangular section. No doubt a
cylindrical rod or wire is much to be preferred ; but the same strain effects ought to be
produced to some extent in rods of any form of section. Accordingly, from a piece of
rolled sheet cobalt supplied to me two years ago by Professor Tarr, I cut a strip 36'1
em. long, and with a rectangular section of 0°45 mm. by ‘(068 mm. This I set hanging

MAGNETISM AND TWIST IN IRON AND NICKEL. 505

vertically in the magnetising helix, and subjected it to the usual treatment. I had
hoped for an indication, but I got measurable results as follows :—

Line Longitudinal ‘ :
Current. Field. Twist + H. Twist + C.
73°9 0°42 0:18
47-1 0°18 0-10

As in previous cases, the twists are given in thousandths of a radian. They are much
smaller than for nickel, and considerably smaller than the maximum twists for iron.
This may to some extent be explained in terms of the rectangular section of the rod. At
the same time, up to the highest field used, 100 namely, the twists in a cobalt wire might
well be expected to be less than the twists in iron or nickel wires, if we accept MaxweEL1’s
explanation. For, according to Mr BIpwEtt’s measurements, it is not until much higher
fields are used that the contraction of cobalt attains a maximum of magnitude somewhat
ereater than the maximum elongation of iron. The interest of the present experiment
lies chiefly in the fact that the direction of the twist in cobalt is the same as in nickel,
but opposite to the direction of the twist in iron in low fields. Thus my prediction in
Part I. (p. 386) has been partially verified ; and we may now say that the Wiedemann
effect in iron is positive in low fields and negative in high; in cobalt, it is negative in
moderate and probably positive in very high fields ; in nickel it is always negative.

It will be noticed that the current-reversal twist is much smaller than the field-
reversal twist ; probably with stronger currents and higher fields we should find cobalt
behave very similarly to iron and nickel.

13. The Behaviour of Nickel Strips—The satisfactory manner in which the cut
cobalt rod behaved induced me to try similar experiments on five nickel strips of varying
breadth cut from the same sheet. The sheet was 0°34 mm. in thickness; and the strips
varied in breadth from 111 mm. to 3 mm. ‘They were all 26°6 cm. long. The following
concise Table gives some of the results obtained. The longitudinal field in all cases was
the same, namely, 60. Three different values of current along the strip were taken for
each ; and measurements were made of both the field-reversal and current-reversal twists.
These form the six columns headed + H, + C; and each row of twists belongs to the
strip whose diameter completes the row on the left. The line currents are given as
headings to the three pairs of twist columns. The twists are in thousandths of radians.

Twists of Nickel Strips in Field h = 60.

Line Current.

Breadth of 3-4 1 12
Ds: +H =O +H +C +H +C
1-1 195 8:3 14:4 4°3 10°4 oy)
15 13-1 4:6 10°1 26 7:3 1:4
2:0 11:5 4:0 8:5 sae 5-9 11
2°6 10°3 31 7:7 1:8 5d 9
30 10:0 2°8 7-5 16 56 8

506 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON SOME RELATIONS BETWEEN

A comparison of these numbers with the numbers given in Table IL. above will show
that the twists in the thinnest strip, though smaller than these in the wire, are of the
same order of quantity. The strip, in fact, is quite comparable to the wire as regards
sensitiveness to the twisting strains of superposed magnetising forces. I am not aware
that the distribution of magnetic force on the surface of a strip of rectangular section,
when a current is flowing along the strip, has been even attempted.* But from our
present point of view it is easy to see in a general way that the amount of twist will
depend in great measure upon the value of the magnetic force along the medial line of
the strip. Consider a small square central surface element, with its sides parallel and
perpendicular to the edges of the strip. Such an element will tend to be distorted mto
a rhombus form with its longer diagonal inclined at 45° to the medial line. The longer
axes of the two corresponding elements on the opposite sides of the strip will be
perpendicular to each other. Hence the originally rectangular parallelopiped formed by
the opposing elements, and the cross planes joining their edges each to each, will be
twisted into a warped rhomboidal figure with anticlastic surfaces for its sides. So far as
the direct strain effects of the magnetising forces are concerned, there will be distinct
advantage in the circular section over the rectangular section; but this will be partly
balanced by the greater ease with which the strip yields to twisting.

The same considerations would lead us to expect the twisting effect in different strips
to be a simple function of the current density, so Jong as the resulting magnetic force
remains small. Since in the present case the strips have all the same thickness, the
current densities will be proportional to the quotients of the currents by the breadths.
On forming these quotients, and arranging them in order of magnitude with their
corresponding twists, we shall find that they fall naturally into five groups. Taking the
mean of each group, we get the following table of relations between current densities and
twists :—

No. of points | Current Density Field Reversal | Current Reversal
in each Group. | proportional to Twist. Twist.
1 3°09 19°5 8:3
3 1:96 13 43
4 1:23 10°2 2°7
1 84 78 a
(3) a(t oe 16
3 “49 57 9

Plotting the twists in terms of the current densities we obtain nearly straight lines
if we neglect the first group of highest value; and slightly curved lines if we take this
first single point into account. ‘The result sufficiently well bears out the statement that
the Wiedemann effect in strips of different breadth, other things being the same, is

* For the circular magnetisation in a cylinder of elliptic section, see a paper by M. Jannr in the Journal de
Physique, t. ix., 1890.

ee

MAGNETISM AND TWIST IN IRON AND NICKEL. 507

approximately proportional to the current density, that is, within the limits of the
experiments, to the mean magnetising force acting on the strip.

14. General Summary.—For convenience, we shall, before taking up the second
section of the present paper, summarise the preceding results under four headings.

A.—When an iron, nickel, or cobalt wire or rod, magnetised longitudinally, is
subjected to a cyclic variation between equal positive and negative values of a current
passing along it, or when the same, carrying a steady current, is subjected to a similar
cyclic variation of a longitudinal magnetic field, the amounts of twist are, for the same
combination of current and field, in general different. In the case of iron and nickel, the
current-reversal twist is less than the field-reversal twist in high fields (see Plates I. and
II.). In very low fields, however, the current-reversal twist is the greater. To each
line current there corresponds a particular field, for which the two modes of reversal give
the same twist. This point of equal twists occurs in higher fields as the current is taken
stronger, and in lower fields as the longitudinal tension is taken greater. The stronger the
line current, other things being equal, the less is the difference between the two twists.
In the few observations made on cobalt, the current-reversal twist was always the smailer.

B.—Detailed study of the various stages of the cyclic twisting in iron and nickel
shows that for every same value of the changing current or field there are in general two
values of twist, so that the cyclic graphs (see Plate III.) form closed areas. When the
eycle is established by variations of the longitudinal field, and when the field is taken
between high enough limits, the cyclic area has three loops, the ascending and descending
branches intersecting each other near the points of maximum twist. Otherwise the
eyclic graphs for the twist are very similar to the cyclic graphs for magnetic induction,
studied by WarsurG and Ewine.

C.—The direction of the twist is in all three metals exactly what would result if we
try to explain it in terms of the simpler magnetic strains of elongation and contraction as
studied by JouLz, Barrett, BIDWELL, and others. In moderate fields, iron twists right-
handedly when the line current and longitudinal field are co-directional; nickel and cobalt,
on the other hand, twist left-handedly.

D.—The comparison of the various phenomena as they exist in iron and nickel gives
an ever-strenethening argument of a cumulative character in favour of this explanation,
first suggested by MaxweE tt, that the Wiedemann effect is essentially determined by the
Joule effect. In Part I. I have given a formula applicable to thin tubes, which connects
the magnetic elongations with the magnetic twists. To apply this formula to the case
of wire cannot be expected to lead to accurate numerical results; and yet a direct
calculation by means of this formula, from observed twists in given circumstances of
eurrent and field, of the ratio of the elongations of iron and nickel, was wonderfully

‘concordant with Mr Bipwe v's direct observations of these elongations. The continuously
diminishing effect of increasing tension upon the twist im iron, and the somewhat more
complex effect of increasing tension upon the twist in nickel, correspond accurately with

508 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON SOME RELATIONS BETWEEN

the effects of tension on the elongations of these metals, as recently established by Mr
BroweLt. If these coincidences do not demonstrate that the elongation and twisting
phenomena are related as cause and effect, they at all events demonstrate a very close
connection between them—a connection which should be an essential feature in any
theory that would satisfactorily co-ordinate any one group of these magneto-strain
phenomena.

Part III,

15. I now pass to the discussion of certain results which at first sight seem to belong
to a reciprocal set of phenomena. The experiments form a detailed investigation into
certain magnetic changes produced by twist. Some four years ago I planned a series of
researches bearing on this subject, with the aim of filling up the many gaps in our
knowledge of the relations of magnetism and twist. Professor WIEDEMANN’s paper of
1886* especially suggested many lines of inquiry. Accordingly, in the spring of 1887, I
set Mr Imagawa, one of our students of physics, to work at one of the simplest of these
problems. Other scientific work prevented me working up these results or in any way
following them out till 1889. I then published, in the Journal of the College of Science
(Imperial University, Japan), vol. ili, 1889, a short account of the most striking
peculiarity observed by Mr Imacawa, under the title ‘““On Magnetic Lagging and
Priming in Twisted Iron and Nickel Wires.” This peculiarity was that, whereas for
small twistings the changes in the longitudinal magnetic moment take place during
untwisting from either limit more slowly than during the immediately preceding
twisting, nevertheless for sufficiently large twistings the reverse holds true. If we speak
of the former effect as a lagging of the magnetic change behind the strain that produces
it, the result may be simply expressed thus: For small cyclic twistings of an iron or
nickel wire magnetised either circularly or longitudinally, there is magnetic lagging in the
changes of the longitudinal magnetisation ; for large cyclic twistings there is magnetic
priming. Or otherwise thus: If we draw the graph representing the march of magnetic
change with twist, we shall find that below a certain range of twisting the closed graph
is gone round (say) counter-clockwise, while above the critical range it is gone round
clockwise. The area, in fact, changes sign; and there is a particular range of twisting for
which the area vanishes. In the earlier experiments, as conducted by Mr Imagawa, the
wire was circularly magnetised by a current passing along it; and nearly all the experi-
ments were made with nickel wire. A few experiments were tried with the same wire
longitudinally magnetised, with the view of finding if the same curious reversal of
magnetic lag was obtained with it. The effect was also found to exist for longitudinally
magnetised nickel wire. By a strange oversight, Mr Imagawa did not observe at the
time that circularly magnetised iron wire showed the same peculiarity as nickel, conse-
quently he did not search for an analogous effect in longitudinally magnetised iron. It
was only when I came to collate the results of all the experiments that the reversal effect

* See Wiepemann’s Annalen, vol, xxvii. p. 377, translated in the Philosophical Magazine (1886).

MAGNETISM AND TWIST IN IRON AND NICKEL. 509

was found to exist also in the case of iron. By that time, however, the various effects
of twist on longitudinally magnetised iron and nickel wires had been elaborately
investigated by Mr Nagaoka, assistant in the Physical Laboratory, whose papers *
form a very valuable addition to our knowledge of the relations of magnetism and strain
in the magnetic metals. I shall have frequent occasion to refer to some of Mr Nacaoka’s
results.

Those earlier investigations suggested several distinct lines of research, some of which
I have myself worked out more or less fully during the spring of 1889. These have all
to do with wires circularly magnetised by currents passing along them.

16. This phenomenon, namely, the production of longitudinal magnetic polarity in a
circularly magnetised wire by twisting of the same, is in a certain sense reciprocal to the
phenomenon discussed in the earlier paragraphs of the present paper. But consideration
will show that the reciprocity is more apparent than real. For, as will be seen immedi-
ately, the mechanical strains involved in the one case are huge compared to those involved
in the other. In the experiments now to be described, the wire is twisted to and fro
through angles far beyond the so-called limits of torsional elasticity. The elements of the
wire are sheared to an extent that must be physical torture as compared with the slight
molecular strains involved in the phenomenon of magnetic twisting. There is, however,
as emphasised by WIEDEMANN, a similarity in the two classes of phenomena, inasmuch
as the effects are opposite in iron and nickel. In iron, a current in the direction of
magnetisation twists the wire so that any straight line in it parallel to the axis becomes
a right-handed helix; in nickel the twist is the other way. Then, again, when an iron
wire conveying a current is twisted so that a straight line in it parallel to the axis
becomes a right-handed helix, the longitudinal magnetic intensity produced is co-
directional with the current; in nickel, on the other hand, it is anti-directional. For
the same truth, stated in a somewhat different way, see WIEDEMANN’S paper already
referred to (Wied. Ann., vol. xxvii. p. 383).

My object in the experiments now to be discussed was to study the manner in
which the general phenomenon varied in detail under different combinations of twists
and currents. Four nickel wires of different diameter, and two iron wires of the same
diameter, were experimented with. Hach wire, when in use, was stretched horizontally
at right angles to the magnetic meridian ; and at a suitable distance from the western end
of the wire a small mirror magnetometer of the usual construction was adjusted in line
with the wire. The eastern end was attached to the twisting apparatus. This requires
no particular description more than to say that the twisting was effected by a gearing of
toothed wheels, so that it could be applied very steadily and gradually. The method of
experimenting consisted in studying in succession the effect of a series of cyclic twistings
of different range, each cyclic twisting being taken in combination with a succession of
currents of different values. After the wire had been subjected a sufficient number of
times to the cyclic twisting of the required range, a cycle was gone through more slowly,

* Journal of Coll. of Sct., Imp. Univ., Japan, vols. ii. and iil.
VOL. XXXVI. PART Il. (NO. 18). 4G

510 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON SOME RELATIONS BETWEEN

and at convenient stages the deflections of the mirror magnetometer were noted. To
reduce these readings to definite units it was necessary to know the position of the
magnetic pole corresponding to the longitudinal magnetism produced. To assume this
pole to lie at the end of the wire did not commend itself as a necessarily sufficient
approximation, and the following method was adopted instead.

Let the reading @ mark the position of the magnetometer on a horizontal centimetre
scale in line with the wire, and let x be the unknown position of the nearer pole of the
wire as measured on the same scale. Then, if / is the length of the wire—more correctly,
the distance between the poles—and m the strength of the pole, we have for the field at
the position # the value

m{(a—«)-?—(a+l—a)-*\.

For a given cyclic twisting with a given current let the range of deflection of the
magnetometer mirror be the angle @. Then the above expression is proportional to
tan 4 @. Let now the position @ be changed to a’, everything else remaining the
same. For the same cyclic range, the angle of deflection of the magnetometer mirror will
be changed say from @ to 6’. We have then at once the equation

(C—O) = (Olt) tee
(a’—a)-?-(av+l—-a)-?
2

from which the quantity « can be calculated. It was found that the term involving the
length of the wire was negligible to the degree of accuracy possible in the experiment.
When « is known, the distance of the pole from the magnetometer magnet is known also,
being (a—«) or (a’—«) according to the position chosen. In terms of this distance and
the known horizontal component of the earth’s field, the magnetic intensity in the wire
can be calculated from the observed deflection.

17. Results for Nickel.—The most complete series of experiments is for nickel wire
No. 1 (diameter = 0°86 mm.). Table IV. contains the numbers for it given in full detail.
The first column gives the currents along the wire, and the second the stages of twist in
degrees at which readings were taken. The third and fourth columns, under the one
heading “ Intensity,” give the magnetic moments per unit volume (in C.G.S. electro-
magnetic units) corresponding to the successive stages of twist. The third is read
downwards and the fourth upwards; and in this way the cycle is completed. The fifth
column, headed “ Lag,” gives the difference between the intensities that correspond to the
same nominal stage in the twisting. When this difference is positive we have true
magnetic lagging ; when negative, we have what might be called magnetic priming. The
next column, headed “ Area+ 7,” contains numbers proportional to the areas of the closed
or nearly closed cyclic graphs. These numbers may be taken as measuring the average
magnetic lags for the different combinations of current and cyclic twisting. The last

MAGNETISM AND TWIST IN IRON AND NICKEL. 511

column gives the range of change of intensity due to the twisting. The areas, it should
be mentioned, are estimated on the supposition that the graphs are built up of straight
lines drawn from point to point. When the points are not too few, this cannot be far
wrong, inasmuch as the true graph has about equal convexities and concavities towards
the interior.

Taste IV.—Nickel Wire, 76 cm. long, 0°86 mm. in diameter.

Se ee, Twist. Intensity. Lag. Area. Range.
0:3 — 90° 108 108 0 29°5 216
— 60 100 85°7 14:3
: — 30 85:1 49°8 35:3
0 54°5 11-6 42°9
+ 30 — 116 — 64:9 53:3
+60 - 626 — 93:8 31:2
+90 — 108 0
0-4 — 90 123 123 0 42°3 245
— 60 115 ST-7 17:3
— 30 oT 58-1 396
0 66°5 - 85 75
+30 3°6 -— 75 786
+ 60 — 67°9 —110 43°1
+90 — 122 0
06 - 90 155 156 - 1 55:0 309°5
— 60 146 130 +16
— 30 127 75 52
0 87-7 — 12-1 99°8
+ 30 134 — 97-7 eae
+60 — 82:8 — 135 52°2
+90 — 154 0
0-72 — 90 174 175 - 1 61:4 348°5
— 60 163 147 +16
— 30 144 89-2 54:8
0 SETS - 177 117-4
+30 + 14:1 -112 126:1
+ 60 — 97°7 — 153 55:3
+90 -174 0
0°91 — 90 194 194 0 67°9 387
— 60 182 167 15
— 30 165 103 62
0 109 - 198 128°8
+30 + 17:7 — 124 141-7
+60 —111:0 -171 60
+90 -—193 0
1:21 — 90 213 212 1 67°3 424°5
— 60 198 189 9
— 30 175 132 43
0 126 -— 185 144:5
+30 + 18:5 — 135 153°5

PROFESSOR KNOTT ON SOME RELATIONS BETWEEN

Taste LV.—WNickel Wire, 76 cm. long, 0°86 mm. in diameter—continued.

Current in

‘Ampares. Twist. Intensity. Lag. Area+ 7, Range.
2:08 — 90° 236 235 1 56°7 471
— 60 221 215 6
— 30 192 167 26
0 +137 +85 128°5
+ 30 —- 15 —145 143°5
+ 60 —172 — 207 35
+ 90 — 235°5 0
she? — 90 246 243 5 43°1 489°5
— 60 231 227 4
— 30 202 180 22
0 +137 + 41:9 95:1
+ 30 — 33'3 — 147 113°7
+ 60 — 191 — 212 21
+ 90 — 245 0
0:23 — 135 91°6 94°6 — 3 42 185°4
— 90 87:8 66 +21°8
— 45 69 + 21 48
0 127 =— 41:3 54
+ 45 — 42 — 76:3 34:3
+ 90 — 74:3 — 871 12°8
+135 - 93°8 0
0°53 — 135 190 191 - l 103°7 379°5
— 90 180 126 +54
— 45 143 + 14:3 128°7
0 + 36:1 — 102°9 139
+ 45 — 85'5 — 160°6 75:1
+ 90 — 159 —178 19
+135 —189 0
0°84 — 135 249 249 0 876 497
— 90 235 188 47
— 45 +186 + 39:4 146°6
0 — 394 —138 98°6
+ 45 —159 — 210 51
+ 90 — 227 — 234 7
+135 — 248 0
1-22 —135 269 267 2 73:2 536
— 90 256 250 6
— 45 227 202 15
0) +138 + 2°5 135°5
+ 45 — 78:9 rf —193 11471
+ 90 — 219 — 239 20
+135 — 266 0
2°12 ~— 135 281 281 0 56:0 562
— 90 272 266 6
— 45 239 224 15
0 +133 + 25:9 yell
+ 45 — 128 — 204 76
+ 90 — 243 — 254 11

MAGNETISM AND TWIST IN IRON AND NICKEL,

513

TaBiE [V,—Nickel Wire, 76 cm. long, 0°86 mm. in diameter-—continued.

Besos, Twist Intensity. Lag Area +7. Range.
0:3 — 160° 187 187 6 95:0 366
— 90 175 +107 68
0 + 49°8 — 76°5 126°3
+ 90 — 135 — 163 8
+160 — 182 0
0:62 — 160 243 243 0 96:0 486
— 90 224 +185 39
0 + 51 -—104 155
+ 90 — 209 — 219 10
+160 — 243 0
1:05 — 160 265 265 0 74:4 530
— 90 241 +223 18
0 + 32°8 — 102 134°8
+ 90 — 236 — 236 0
+160 — 265 0)
1:48 — 160 275 275 0) 58°3 550
— 90 250 +241 9
0 + 14°6 — 90 104°6
+ 90 — 248 — 255 7
+ 160 — 275 0
1:84 — 160 279 279 0 40:9 561
— 90 +255 + 245 10
0 -— 24 — 80-2 778
+ 90 — 255 — 250 - 5
+160 — 282 0
2°62 — 160 287 | 284 3 +146 569-5
— 90 260 253 a
0 — 146 — 63:2 48°6
+ 90 — 259 — 250 = §)
+160 — 284 0
3°98 — 160 284 284 0 - 8 568
— 90 255 258 - 3
0 - 36°5 — 365 0
+ 90 — 260 — 243 -17
+160 — 284 0
0:28 -170 127 132 3) 53°8 258°5
— 90 117 86 al
0 + 42°6 — 19-4 62
+90 - 87 — 105 18
+170 — 129 0
0-61 —170 204 206 —- 2 55'8 409
— 90 179 +146 +33
0 + 26 — 52°7 78:7
+ 90 — 167 —172 5)
+170 — 204 0
0:98 -170 229 231 - 2 31:0 459
— 90 203 +190 +13
0 + 12 — 42°6 54:6
+ 90 -— 197 - 192 - 5
+170 = 229 0

514 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON SOME RELATIONS BETWEEN

TaBLE I[V.—Nickel Wire, 76 cm. long, 0°86 mm. in diameter—continued.

Current in Twist.

‘Ampares. Intensity. Lag Area +7. Range.
1:46 — 170° 244 244 0 + 2-1 489
- 90 +214 +211 Tie
0 — 13:9 — 25:9 + 12
+ 90 — 215 — 205 - 10
+170 — 245 0
1:94 -—170 252 252 0 -—11°3 505
-— 90 220 219 atl
0 — 25 — 148 — 102
+ 90 — 225 — 210 -— 15
+170 — 253 0
3°05 —170 262 262 0 —41°8 523
— 90 +228 231 - 3
0 — 509 + 13 — 63:9
+ 90 — 234 — 215 - 19
+170 — 261 0)
0716 — 180 95 92 3 28°7 186°5
— 90 82 59 23
0 + 75 - 92 16:7
+ 90 — 62 - 77 15
+180 — 93 0
0:31 — 180 170 174 - 4 54°1 344
— 135 160 154 + 6
— 90 147 119 28
— 45 107 63°5 435
0) + 24:2 — 15:9 40-1
+ 45 — 551 —104 48:9
+ 90 —lll1 — 149 38
+135 — 149 —165 16
+180 —172 0
0°55 — 180 248 249 - | 46°4 497°5
— 135 240 231 + 9
— 90 213 194 19
— 45 154 +117 37
0 + 30 — 19-2 49:2
= + 45 — 102 — 136 34
+ 90 — 185 — 213 28
+135 — 227 — 239 12
+180 — 249 0)
1:06 — 180 281 281 0 -1:5 561
-— 135 271 271 0
— 90 242 243 - 1
— 45 174 181 - 7
0 + 5 + 19 - 14
+ 45 — 158 — 166 + 8
+ 90 — 232 — 238 + 6
+135 — 264 — 262 + 2
+180 — 280 0
1°48 -— 180 293 294 - Jl — 31:0 587
— 135 282 283 - |
- 90 253 260 - 7

bP \

MAGNETISM AND TWIST IN IRON AND NICKEL,

TaBLe [V.—Nickel Wire, 76 cm. long, 0°86 mm. im diameter—continued.

Current in
Ampeéres.

1:48

2°59

0:29

0°52

0°75

1-40

2°58

Twist. Intensity. Lag. Area > 1. Range.
— 45° +179 206 -27
Ones te — gi6 + 51 — 66
+ 45 = 186 ie 214
+ 90 — 253 ~251 =o
+135 _ 281 ~275 = 36
+180 ~ 294 0
— 180 307 307 0 —748 614
— 135 295 300 - 5
— 90 263 280 Sat
— 45 +177 236 — 59
0 — 5d + 90 — 145
+ 45 — 216 -170 — 54
+ 90 — 272 — 260 - 12
+135 — 295 — 289 - 6
+180 — 307 0
-—190 153 155 - 2 +15°7 308
- 135 149 134 + 15
— 45 + 84 + 66 18
+ 45 - 61 — 62 1
+135 —143 — 146 3
+190 — 154 0
—190 206 208 - 2 -5°7 415
— 135 196 183 + 13
— 45 + 95 + 91 se
+ 50 — 126 -110 - 16
+135 — 197 —195 - 2
+190 — 208 0
— 190 229 230 - 1 — 27-4 460°5
— 135 217 210 apt
— 45 + 95 +114 —- 19
+ 45 — 149 -113 — 36
+135 — 222 — 215 - 7
+ 190 — 231 0
— 190 249 250 - | — 60°6 499°5
— 135 237 232 + Oo
— 45 + 90 +143 — 53
+ 45 —178 -119 — 59
+135 — 243 — 230 - 13
+190 — 250 0
— 190 267 267 0 — 85°3 532
— 135 252 251 + 1
— 45 + 86 +165 - 79
+ 45 — 196 -118 - 78
+ 135 — 258 — 243 - 15
+190 — 265 0
— 190 275 275 0 — 105 550
—135 259 261 - 2
— 45 + 74 +178 — 104
+ 45 — 210 —112 — 98
+135 — 268 — 262 - 6
+190 — 275 0

515

516 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON SOME RELATIONS BETWEEN

Taste 1V.—Nickel Wire, 76 cm. long, 0°86 mm. in diameter—continued.

Wes ee Twist. Intensity. Lag. Area - 7. Range.
0:20 — 225° 175 175 0 — 46 351
—180 168 162 + 6
— 90 +111 Ly: —- 6
0 - 27 + 45 — 72
90 -—119 — 95 — 24
+180 — 163 — 166 tet
+235 Sais 0
0:46 — 225 260 260 0 ~ 140 521
~ 180 243 251 = 8
= 90 +142 205 — 63
0 = §§9 + 60 ~ 142
+ 90 ~ 212 = 170 2558
+180 — 254 ~ 252 3: Hs
+295 — 261 0
0:92 — 225 284 284 0 — 182 567
~ 180 273 278 = h5
= 90 179 246 = (67
0 +112 +113 ~ 225
+ 90 ~ 944 ~ 182 ~ 62
+180 = oN —272 235
4225 — 283 0
1°62 — 225 302 300 ee — 261 604
— 180 283 296 - 18
-— 90 +160 +270 —110
0 ~ 166 +149 — 315
+ 90 =973 = |\ =195 ~ 78
+180 — 300 — 292 = 8S
+ 225 — 303 0
2°73 — 225 311 311 0 — 285 625
- 180 295 306 - ll
— 90 +179 283 — 104
0 -— 183 +175 — 358
+ 90 — 287 — 198 - 89
+180 —3l1l — 303 - 8
+225 — 314 0

18. Magnetic Lagging and Priming.—The principal features embodied in this table
are indicated in figs. 1-5 of Pl. IV. Figures 1, 2, and 3 are examples of complete cycles
for three different ranges of twist. The twists are taken as abscissee and the intensities
as ordinates. The intensity scale is the same for all, but in fig. 3 the twist scale is con-
tracted for convenience of representation. ‘The number placed at the left-hand cusp of
each cyclic graph is the current corresponding ; so that the graph can be easily associated
with the numbers in the table. The sign + or — at the right-hand cusp is an indication
of the manner in which the graph is gone round; the positive sign being clockwise
(lagging), and the negative counter-clockwise (priming). Fig. 1 gives four out of the
eight distinct experiments for the twist cycle + 90°. All show positive lagging. Fig, 2
gives three out of the six experiments for the twist cycle + 180°. For the smallest

as

MAGNETISM AND TWIST IN IRON AND NICKEL. 517

eurrent the lagging is positive ; for the intermediate current it is positive at the lower
end, but on the whole negative—indeed almost zero ; and for the strongest current it is
distinctly negative. Fig. 3 gives three out of the five experiments for the twist cycle
+225°. All show negative lageing; although in the case of the smallest current there
is a slight indication of positive lagging near the extreme values. The graph, in fact,
has three loops ; and a slightly weaker current for this twist of + 225° would probably
have given a much closer graph intersecting itself in several places.

In fig. 4 (Pl. IV.) the manner in which the area of the graph varies with current and
twist is represented graphically for all the cases tabulated in Table 1V. There are seven
curves in all, corresponding to the seven ranges of twist. The abscisse give the currents
along the wire ; and the ordinates are proportional to the areas of the cyclic graphs.
For all but one of these curves there is a maximum point. The lag-area begins positive,
attains a maximum for a particular value of current, then begins to decrease, and
ultimately, if the current is strong enough, becomes zero and changes sign. For the twist
eycles + 90° and + 135° the current is not taken high enough to show the change of
sign ; but a close study of the graphs of fig. 1, or of the numbers in the table, will show
how these graphs begin to contract when the current is strong, as if preparing for a
change of sign for a current of about 6 or 7 ampéres. Except for the two lowest twist
eycles, all the curves which have a maximum point cut the zero line. The curve for
+225° has apparently no maximum point; but it may possibly have one for a very
small value of current, as indicated by the dotted line. From fig. 4 we may construct
the following table showing the maximum positive area for each twisting, the current
corresponding to that area, and the current corresponding to the vanishing point of the
area.

Twi Max. A Current Current for Zero
wist. :
Tr. corresponding. Area.
90° 68 I (one
135° 105 ‘6 1 Saat
160° 105 “42 3-4
170° 60 “40 15
P SOF 54 38 1:05
190° 16 uth “48
225° q ‘04 1 08 2

The general truth here indicated is that imcreasing range of twist and increasing
current alike have the tendency to bring about a negative lagging, the first effects of
untwisting from either limit being greater than the immediately preceding effects of
twisting up to that limit.

In fig. 5 (Pl. IV.) the ranges of intensity for three of the cyclic twistings are plotted
against the currents. From these it is evident that the range increases somewhat rapidly
at first, increasing more and more slowly as the currents and twistings are taken higher
and higher. And this holds for all cases, the range of polarity increasing with the twist
and with the current.

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. NO. 18). 4H

518 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON SOME RELATIONS BETWEEN

19. Other Results for Nickel.—Table VI. is a condensation of the results for three
other nickel wires. Only the areas and ranges are tabulated along with the currents
and total twists—the complete cycles being omitted. The first column gives the
diameter of the nickel wire ; the others sufficiently explain themselves by their headings.
In all three cases, the length of wire was the same as in the first case (see Table V.),
namely, 76 cm.

TasiE VI.
D cai Wire | Current in Ampéres. es e a Range of Intensity.
1:3 0:3 45° (59) 123
0:64 H 15:1 234
1:26 5 20°1 325
2°98 b 17-7 406
4:05 1H 14:8 420
3°94 95 TIP as 454*
0:27 90 11:0 291
0°62 0 14:8 390°2
1:02 6°4 444
1:22 % + 15 461°5
1:54 x -— 4:4 480°5
2:04 +5 -—15:1 501
3°60 35 — 35:3 529
3°54 55 — 89°6* 526*
3°47 3 — 32°8 527
1:84 6 - 15:0 502
0:96 ” + 30 464
0:28 5 +173 364
0:27 » — 45°2* 391*
0°30 100 + 72 365
55 BA — 64:1* 393*
0°53 y - 21 395
5 Ps — 90°7* 432*
0°74 re - 78 428
1:22 x) —21°5 475
2°06. 1 — 36°9 505
3°46 x — 56°8 525
0:87 0:59 45 167 333
of “ 0.8% 386*
0:96 A 20-4 337
1:37 7) 19:2 358
2°32 os +153 384
2°23 3 — 6:5* 416*
0:45 90 + 25:1 445
a y — 52°3* 439*
0:80 ay +29°6 44
1:15 9 25:1 464
1:55 3 20°5 471
1:98 ” +148 482
se 5 — 75:8* 482*
3°55 2 - 15 500
3°48 ~ — 80°4* 489*
0-51 100 +25°1 501
A x — 56°6* 484*
0:90 "9 + 12:2 502

1:25 5 + 82 515

MAGNETISM AND TWIST IN IRON AND NICKEL. 519

TaBLeE VI.—continued.

D seta Wire Current in Amperes, oe ae sy ee Range of Intensity.

0:87 1:99 100° - 45 531
Ls ‘ ST 2* 532*
2°52 eI = os 543
0:27 110 + 19-4 469
x cd ee eteae 473%
0-47 io + 26-2 458
0:87 i + 86 499
1:18 - = 2 517
1:88 A — 15-2 540
2°47 é ~ 25:9 556
it ¥ — 143-8* 540*
0-48 135 — 33°3 510
0°84 : —~ 683 534
151 * 2 Oe: 552
5 ~217-8* 528*

20 0°15 45 — 02 3°6
0-25 i - 09 115
0-47 és =) 0:5 29:5
0-68 a aed 44:5
1:05 3 aoa 74
1°62 i =) 938 149
212 a = 0-4 187
3°69 % - 24 285
0:27 90 —- 64 43
0°59 é — 12:8 92
112 « = i179 184
1°85 as = 46 197
3:47 M + 94 258
3°3D op + 19:0* 326*
0:30 135 — 16 40
0-66 » 293 66
1:46 3 — 39 122
2°16 ‘ — 45 207
3-40 * — BB 275
3:27 3 — 97* 316*

It will be seen on inspection that two of these wires, the first and second namely,
behave very similarly to the first one. For small twists and small currents the magnetic
lageing is positive, but changes to negative for higher twists and stronger currents. To
bring out the general characteristics we may construct for these two wires the following
short tables, and compare them with the similarly constructed table of the preceding
paragraph. The first three rows are for the wire of diameter 1°3 mm.; the last four for
the wire of diameter 0°87 mm. It should perhaps be mentioned that the wires of Table
VI. were obtained three years ago from the same manufacturer, whereas the wire of Table
VY. belongs to a piece I have had for eight years in my possession, and is probably not so
pure a specimen as the others.

Here the same tendency to the vanishing away of the positive lagging, under the
influence of strong currents and large twistings, is clearly shown.

The results for the nickel wire of 2 mm. diameter are, so far as regards the lagging

520 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON SOME RELATIONS BETWEEN

effects, altogether different from those for the other and thinner wires. The magnetic:
lagging begins negative, changing to positive for the twists +45° and +90° when. the.

Twi Max. Area Current Current for Zero
wist. ee :
Tr, corresponding. Area.
45° 21 16 q
90 15 ‘D4 1:3
100 8 Ty) 48
45 Zi 1:0 2
90 30 8 3°4
100 25 5 1:83
110 26 “4 1:14
135 none none none

current has reached a value of about 3 ampéres. For the twist +135°, however, it
continues negative throughout up to the highest current used. It is possible that this
discrepancy is to be explained as due to the greater strains which the thick wire suffers
when twisted. ‘There were indeed many irregularities in the manner in which the thick
wire went through its cyclic changes.

The cyclic graphs, instead of having the smooth sweeps so characteristic of the graphs
for the thinner wires, had in most cases very irregular broken forms. One of these
is shown in fig. 6, Pl. IV. Again, while the twisting was being applied, the wire gave
audible clicks, proving that the strainmg was accompanied by cracking and wrenching.
Then the effect of tapping the wire was, in many cases, very peculiar, the first effect
being sometimes of an opposite character to the final effect. A single tap occasionally
did more in changing the magnetic moment than a whole twisting to the opposite
extreme, ‘These facts show that the wire was really too thick for such experiments, or
at any rate was not annealed to a sufficient uniformity.

20. Effect of Tapping.—In Table VI. certain of the numbers. are marked with an
asterisk. In these cases the wire was vigorously tapped all along its length at the
different stages. In all instances the effect of tapping is to increase the negative lag.
The range, however, is not greatly changed. The following is given as a specimen of
the effect of tapping upon a complete cycle. The twisting was through +90° ; the wire
was of diameter 0°87 mm.; and the current was 1°98 amperes.

Not Tapped. Tapped.
Twist.

Intensity. Lag. Intensity. Lag.

-— 90 + 242 + 240 + 2 + 237 +244 - 7
— 45 +198 +194 + 4 +170 +210 - 40
0 - 4 - 40 + 36 — 108 +112 — 220
+45 —190 — 200 +10 — 208 — 168 - 40
+90 — 241 0 — 242 0

In this particular case, a distinct positive lagging is changed by tapping into a pro-

MAGNETISM AND TWIST IN TRON AND NICKEL, 521
nounced negative lagging. In other cases the positive lagging is diminished, but still
remains positive ; while, in still a third group, the negative lagging is greatly increased.
In all, however, the effect of the tapping is the same, Now the very operation of
twisting a wire must be somewhat of the character of jarring or tapping; and the
greater the twist the greater the accompanying jarring. ‘This consideration seems to
explain the earlier occurrence of the negative lagging with the larger twist, and the
disappearance of the positive lagging altogether for high twistings. Similarly, if we
assume that stronger currents are associated with more pronounced molecular dis-
turbances, we may look upon the change from positive to negative lagging, when the
current is high enough, as an illustration of the same principle. But the recognition of
this principle can carry us no distance in explaining the existence of positive lagging
under the conditions favourable to it.

21. After-effect of the Second Order.—It is worthy of notice that the change of sign
in the lagging occurs for descending as well as for ascending values of current. This is
shown in Table VI. for the wire of diameter +3 mm. and for the twist +90°. The
change of sign does not, however, occur for exactly the same combination of twist and
current in the ascending and descending series. For descending values of current, there
is a persistence of the negative lagging that characterises the higher values, so that the
change of sign occurs for a value of current lower than that for which the change of sign
occurs in the ascending series. Thus the effect of a cyclic twisting with a given current
depends upon the previous history of the wire. This is a true after-effect, which we
must regard as of the second order, since already in the individual cycle itself an after-
effect exists, as evidenced by what we have throughout called the lagging.

A similar phenomenon shows itself when, with steady current, we subject the wire to
increasing and decreasing ranges of twist. An example of this is given in the following
table, which shows the lagging for a series of cyclic twistings from +135° down to 15°
and up again to +90°. The twist numbers occupy the first column, and the other
columns contain the lag numbers, their arrangement sufficiently indicating to what cyclic
range of twisting they belong. Along the top row are entered the corresponding values
of the current, which fell off slightly as the experiment proceeded ; and along the bottom
row the complete ranges of intensity are given. It should be mentioned that each
column of lag numbers corresponds to a cycle which was observed after the permanent
state for that cycle had been established by repeated to-and-fro twistings.

| Table

Vt
bo
bo

PROFESSOR KNOTT ON SOME RELATIONS BETWEEN

Table showing the effect of decreasing and increasing Cycles of Twist (diameter of
| Nickel Wire=1'3 mm.).

PN 2089) °2:03) | SOAs e186 1eS4as PES Taleo 172) ee eee ae
SK
—135 0 tap. tap tap.
— 90 |=. 94 0 = + 33
= 45 |=140'| =24 0 + 2) =]
— 30 +24) -— 1 0} — 1/+ 29; - 5
— 15 +84 0 +73 |) -12
- 5 +1
O ||-297 | -91]} +94] +83 | +37 +4) +86 | —21 |/+120] —82] -—48 |—281
+ 5 0
+ 15 +23 0 +24) -— 3
+ 30 +10 0 0) O/;+ 12|] - 6
+ 45 |!-119 | -13 0 0 0
+ 90 |I- 21 0) 0 0
+135 0
Range 526} 501 416 331 166 | 4] 328 399 409 448 | 497 494

This table contains in epitome many of the features that have been discussed in the
preceding paragraphs. The new point to note is this after-effect of the second order, in
virtue of which the positive lagging is greater and the negative lagging is less when the
corresponding twisting is approached from lower values than when it is approached
from higher values.

22. Results for Iron.—We now pass to the consideration of the iron, the results for
which are given in Table VIL., constructed after the fashion of Table VI. Since, however,
it was necessary to work up to considerably higher twists, it has been found more con-
venient to express the half-twists as submultiples or multiples of 7. Asin Table VI,
the numbers marked with an asterisk belong to experiments in which the wire was
vigorously tapped throughout its length at each stage of observation.

Taste VII.—ZTron Wires.

Diameter in Current in Half-Twist in Area Range of
mm. Ampéres. Multiples of 7. TT. Intensity.
0:86 0-077 4 19 60

H 55 14* 112*
O'151 a 51 138

of - 45°5* 208*
0:276 59 78°5 212
0:48 ¥) 102°3* 274*
0°87 5 139°5 365
1:48 7 1516 401°5
2°58 5 131 377
3°80 + 121°8 350°5
3°50 A 84°4* 544:5*
0:14 1 102 260
0°38 ; 280 460
0:70 = 353 586

ene a ee a a ae a Aa a a a a

MAGNETISM AND TWIST IN IRON AND NICKEL.

Diameter in
mm.

0:86

0°86

TasBLeE VII.—Jron Wires—continued.

Current in
Amperes.

1:23
3°10
3°02
0:15
0:15
0°33
0°67
1:20
2°43
3°70
3°63
0°28

0°61
1:18
2°54
3°84
4:27
4:19
3°98
3°95
2°86
2°84
2°81
279

0:60
1:54
0:27
0:59
0°58
1:37
2°26
2°22
0:25
0:54
0-54
0°83
1-42
1:40
1:39

”
1:38

1:37
1:36

”
1:74
1-72
1:68
1:66
1:62
1:60
1:57
1:50
1:50

Multiples of z.

Half-Twist in

RIES pa} iboptopiaioo

bobo}

RP bo ee

- 80

Area

T.

405
318
120*
206
20°5*
341
436
537
544
533
303*
- 366
- 654*
— 637
— 699
— 925
— 900
— 779
— 529
- 410
— 330
— 306
- 311
-— 141
+ 353

— 127
— 101
110

|
wo
>
fo)

K

Intensity.

Range of

658
641
758*
259
270*
426
571
668
726
728
765*
362
385*
567
658
732
724
720
691
680
666
657
644
546
438

527
735
308
481
515
614
639
749*
281
AT4
549*
580
638
624
602
565
Cols
498
360
624*
85
PUGS
359
630*
521
606
635
745*
640
674
139*

o1

ie)

524 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON SOME RELATIONS BETWEEN

As in the case of Table VI., each row of numbers here given belongs to a complete
eycle, the character of which varies with the current and the twist, and with the tapping
or non-tapping, very much as in the similar experiments with nickel. As illustrations
of the character of such complete cycles, I have picked out the following ones, the twists
being expressed in fractions and multiples of a, the currents in ampéres, and the
intensities in C.G.S. electro-magnetic units.

Table showing complete Cycles for Iron Wire.

(1) Current = 1°23, (2) Current = 1:18,
Twist. Intensity. Lag. Twist. Intensity. Lag.
1 — 328 — 328 0 -3 — 284 - 287 - 3
— 3 — 330 — 295 35 —2 — 292 —-295 | - 3
-4t — 332 — 213 119 -1 — 229 —295 | — 66
- —324 | + 27 351 0 +240 | —257 | —497
0 —290 |%+289 579 +1 +290 | +228 — 62
+ - 50 +325 375 +2 +289 | +296 +f
+4 + 208 + 332 124 +3 +281 0
+7? +295 | +332 37
+1 wis + 330 0
(3) Current = 1°39. (4) Current=1-39. Tapped.
Twist. Intensity. Lag. Twist. Intensity. | Lag.
-1 — 281 —-284 | - 3 -1 -— 356 | —356 0
-4 — 275 —212 | + 63 -4 — 334 —312 | 422
0 — 187 +125 | +312 0 + 6 — 90 - 96
+4 +187 | +270 | + 88 +4 +318 | +328 | +10
+1 + 282 0 +1 +359 0

No. 1 is for the first specimen of iron wire; the others are for the second specimen.
The representative curves are shown in figs. 1, 2, and 3, Pl. V. The curve for the cyclic
twisting +7 (fig. 2) shows distinct positive lagging, while the curve for the cyclic twist-
ing +3 7 is characterised as distinctly by a negative lagging. The arrows in the figure
indicate how the curve is to be gone round. ‘Thus, just as with nickel, a high enough
twisting produces in iron a negative lagging. Very similar, too, is the effect of tapping
as shown in complete cycles (3) and (4), and in their graphs in fig. 3(Pl. V.). The dotted
curve is for the case of tapping. In other particulars the conditions of experiment are
identical. In this example tapping has had a distinct effect, not only on the form of
the cyclic graph, but also on the range of intensities ; and a study of the numbers in
Table VI. will show that in the case of iron, tapping has distinctly more effect on the range
than in the case of nickel.

23. Dominating Influence of the After-effect.—The results embodied in Table VII.
are partly shown in fig. 4, Pl. V.,im which the march of the lag-area with current is
represented for three different twists. In all cases there is a tendency to a maximum as

|

MAGNETISM AND TWIST IN IRON AND NICKEL. 525

the current is increased ; but in no case did I obtain a change of sign on working up to

higher currents or down to lower for a given twist. For the cyclic twistings + = +7

+2 7, the lagging is positive ; for +3 7, it becomes (in the first series of experiments)
negative even for small currents. It will be seen also that for this largest cyclic twisting
there is a maximum in the lag-area for a current of about 24 amperes. Now it was very
natural to suppose that by working backward to lower twistings we should be able to hit
upon a twisting which should give a zero area, or one which should give a positive or
negative lagging according to the value of the current along the wire. The result of the
attempt to obtain such a critical twisting is shown in the last seven experiments of the
first half of Table VII. Gradually the cyclic range of twist was diminished from +24 7
to +14 7, and still the lagging persisted negative. The last experiment, however, gave
a positive lagging. It was quite clear, then, that we have here to do with a very pro-
nounced after-effect, so that, for a cyclic twisting of + 2 7 the lagging was negative or
positive according as this twisting was or was not preceded by a twisting of + 37. At
this stage a new specimen of the same wire was taken, a careful inspection having shown
that the first specimen had suffered a large permanent distortion near its middle point.

With the new specimen, a twist of + 24 7 was first tried, which for a current of 0°6
ampére give a small negative lagging. ‘The smaller twist, + 2 7, also gave the lagging
negative ; but with the twist +14 z, the lagging became positive. On trying the some
what higher twist +12 7, I obtained the negative area again. ‘The series of experiments
beginning with the current 1°42 for the twist +17 7, and finishing with the current 1°36
and the twist + 4+ 7, shows the change of sign in the lag-area, and the manner in which
this area rises to a positive maximum for the twist +7, and falls off towards zero for
smaller twists. Similar conclusions are borne out by the succeeding series, which ends
with a large twist of + 4 7.

24. Hffect of reversing the current along a twisted wire.—On 23rd April 1889, just
after completing the experiment on the first nickel wire for current 2°59 and twist
+180", I tried the effect of changing the direction of the current along the wire. The
effect was to reverse the polarity from +307 to—300, that is, through almost exactly
the same range as had just been obtained by twisting the wire from —180° to +180’.
On carrying the operation of change of current slowly from its greatest positive value to
its greatest negative value, I found that until the current had passed through zero, and
reached a negative value of nearly one ampére, the change in the magnetic intensity was
very small. Thereafter, however, a rapid change of intensity set in as the current was
increased towards its negative limit. The features of the phenomenon are best shown
graphically. In figs. 5 and 6, Pl. V., two examples are given, one for nickel and one
for iron. In the case of nickel (fig. 5) a current of 2°7 ampéres was reversed along the
wire, which had been twisted through an angle of +225° from its original position.
The dotted curve represents the same kind of curve obtained when the wire was
vigorously tapped before each reading. It will be seen at a glance that tapping very

VOL. XXXVI. PART Il. (NO. 18). 41

526 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON SOME RELATIONS BETWEEN

much diminishes the area of the cyclic graph. The symmetrical character of the curve
for nickel as shown in fig. 5 is very remarkable, especially since in the case of iron
(fig. 6) there is distinct asymmetry. Here we have an iron wire twisted through an angle
of 90° and subjected to a variation of current from — 3°94 ampéres to +3°4 and back to
—3°47. The original negative polarity makes itself felt throughout the whole cycle, so
that the positive longitudinal intensity never exceeds 150, although the greatest negative
intensity obtained was 260. As is very distinctly brought out in fig. 6, the negative
intensity first increases as the current is diminished, and begins to diminish only after
the current has been changed in direction, and has attained a value of about half an
ampére. This is a very remarkable result, and hints at a very complex magnetic
eolotropy.

Another peculiarity in connection with the reversal of the current is worthy of notice.
When the wire was untwisted from either of its limiting positions to some intermediate
stage, and the current then reversed, the intensity changed in a manner quite different
from what was observed when the wire was fully twisted. Take, for example, the follow-
ing experiment with nickel wire, with which, at each successive stage of twist as
indicated in the first column, the current was varied from its positive value to an equal
negative value, and back again to the original positive value. After the completion of
this cycle, the twisting was continued through its complete cycle and one stage more.
At this stage the current was again varied cyclically, then the twisting continued through
another cycle and one stage more, and so on till throughout one half cycle of twisting the
effect of reversing the current at every stage had been studied. The second, third, and
fourth columns contain the intensities corresponding to the limiting values of the
cyclically varied current; the fifth column gives the range, and the sixth the mean
polarity.

+3°4 — 3-4 +3°4 Range. Mean.

— 225 + 232 — 186 fey) +413 sey)
-—180 OED SZ +210 +388 Ee,
— 135 +188 + 98 +158 +271 +38
— 90 HAL HB Ie +100 + 48 +92
— 45 — 33 +100 ey =195 +36
0 — 134 +134 = 109 = i162 4+ 8

+ 45 —190 amb! =82 — 360 =G
+ 90 = 219 +193 902 — 400 =i
+135 — 992 +205 =i, Ap, =aG
+ 225 — 233 +213 — 999 — AA Bas)

In this particular case the reversal of the current at the stages of greatest twisting
does not produce quite so great an effect as the reversal of the twist for steady current.
There is nearer approximation, however, to a symmetrical change than in the case of
several of the other stages. Notably is there a lack of symmetry for the stage — 90°, in
which the polarity is throughout positive, the range of intensity being comparatively small.

<<

a Pa ~
iam Ben ee ae

MAGNETISM AND TWIST IN IRON AND NICKEL. 527

Up to this stage, the positive current is associated with the greater positive polarity ;
but when the next stage, —45°, is taken, it is the negative current that becomes
associated with the greater positive polarity. Somewhere between these two stages a
reversal of the current should produce no change at all in the intensity. An attempt
was made to catch this exact condition ; but this proved a difficult matter, there always
being some small change perceptible. It is evident, in fact, that the magnetic after-eftect
will have a variable disturbing influence upon the position of this critical stage. In any
case we see that it cannot lie far from the stage in the twisting cycle at which the wire
changes polarity ; for the first and fourth columns change sign between the same stages.
Further, the greatest average polarity for the current reversal seems to occur at or near
the position at which the intensity due to the twisting cycle varies most rapidly.

To sum up: When a nickel wire with a steady current flowing along it has been
brought into a cyclic magnetic state by to-and-fro twistings through a given range, the
reversal of the current when the wire is at either limit of twist is accompanied by a
reversal of the longitudinal intensity. If the current is reversed at any intermediate
stage of twist, the accurate reversal of the longitudinal intensity takes place only for
certain stages. It may perhaps be said that so long as the back-twisting is of the
character of an wn-twisting, there is a certain residual polarity in the wire which is
unaffected by the reversal of the current. In such cases in which a nearly symmetrical
reversal of longitudinal intensity accompanies the reversal of the circularly magnetising
force, we are clearly face to face with eolotropic magnetic susceptibility. No simple
theory of rotatable molecules will satisfy the phenomenon. For let it be granted that
the effect of twisting a wire circularly magnetised is to impose upon the molecules a
certain average pointing along the wire, what warrant is there for supposing that a
reversal of the circularly magnetising force could do other than bring back the molecules
to a circularly magnetised configuration? It seems almost as if we should have to
assume an eolotropy in the molecules themselves.

25. Iron and Nickel compared generally.—As regards the kind of polarity
established under a given combination of current and twisting, iron and nickel form a
contrast. In regard to other particulars, however, they present remarkably similar
characteristics. For small twistings the magnetic changes lag behind the changes of
strain, there is true magnetic lagging, or the return descending curve in the cyclic graph
hes above the ascending curve. For high enough twisting this relation is altered, the
lagoing changes sign, so that the magnetic changes seem to run ahead of the changes of
strain. For a given twisting, the value of the current has very much the same effect
for both metals on the form and range of the cyclic graph, whose area tends to a
maximum for moderate values of current. The change of sign of this area when with
same twisting the current is gradually increased in strength—a phenomenon so beauti-
fully shown by the nickel—has not so far been obtained with iron. A careful and
prolonged search would probably, however, lead to its detection. For high twistings
the area of the cyclic graph, which measures the negative lagging, becomes very great.

528 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON SOME RELATIONS BETWEEN

This was established in the earlier experiments carried out by Mr Imagawa. These same
features, namely, the change of sign of the cyclic area and its high negative value for
large twistings, are also characteristic of the phenomena which accompany the cyclic
twisting of longitudinally magnetised wire. As mentioned above (sect. 13), we owe to
Mr Nacaoxa the complete working out of this line of experiment,—complete, excepting
in one point. He did not investigate the effect of tapping, which we may, however,
infer to be very similar to its effect in the experiments on circular magnetisation. The
following general conclusions seem to be applicable to both lines of experiment.

It is important to bear in mind the essential difference between experiments in which
mechanical straining is the cause of magnetic change, and those in which magnetising
force is the cause. Take, for example, the well-known case so frequently discussed, of
a wire subjected to a continuously varying longitudinal field, and, to fix our ideas,
consider more especially the behaviour of the wire in a diminishing field. Here there is
true hysteresis ; true magnetic lageing as the magnetic force is in part removed. But
when the wire is twisted through a large angle, the operation of untwisting the wire is
no mere removal of twist, but is really a superposition of an opposite twist. Now we
know that the induced magnetism due to a given field is apparently destroyed by a
reversed field of smaller value. It is this effect, as much as the effect of mere diminution
of the field to zero, that is to be compared to the effect of untwisting, especially if it is
untwisting from a large twist. If the twist, however, is small,—that is, not greatly
beyond the limits of torsional elasticity,—the untwisting will be aided by the elasticity of
the wire, so that it will have something of the character of a mere undoing. From this
point of view, then, small twistings and untwistings will be to a certain extent compar-
able to applying and removing magnetising force ; while large twistings and untwistings
are to be compared rather to applying first a given magnetising force, then removing it,
and then applying a reversed magnetising force. Thus for small cyclic twistings there
is true magnetic lagging, while for large cyclic twistings there is magnetic “ priming.”
The fact that the limits of torsional elasticity for iron are much higher than the same
for nickel fits in admirably with the result that the critical twist at which lagging
changes sign is much higher for iron than it is for nickel.

The effect of tapping in always diminishing the positive lagging, reversing it indeed
under certain circumstances, and increasing the negative lagging, seems to indicate that
the tendency of cyclic twisting is to produce a negative lagging, modified however by
the property of magnetic retentiveness. In the case of a twisting cycle with steady
current, tapping may reverse the sign of the graph area (see sect. 19); but it can only
diminish the positive area in the case of a current cycle performed on a twisted wire (see
sect. 23, fig. 5, Pl. V.). In the comparison of these two cases, we have the difference
between them strongly accentuated. The changes of molecular configuration which
result from these operations, although they are accompanied, broadly speaking, with
very similar total changes of magnetic intensity, can be in few other respects compar-
able. Here, in fact, we have an experimental demonstration of the well-known theorem

MAGNETISM AND TWIST IN IRON AND NICKEL. 529

that external magnetic action can lead to no certain knowledge of internal magnetic
distribution.

26. Although it seems to have escaped distinct notice by other experimenters, there
is something very striking in the magnitude of the magnetic changes produced by twist-
ing. Thus, in the three thinnest nickel wires experimented on, a cycle twisting of + 90°
in association with a current of 1 ampére along the wire produced a range of intensity
of fully 400. We may suppose half this quantity, or 200, to be the intensity due to a
single applied twist of 90° in a wire 76 cm. long,—that is, a twist of 1°*2 per centimetre
length. For a twist of 2°°4 per centimetre length with the same current, the resulting
longitudinal intensity becomes 270. The similar quantities for iron wire (see Table VIL,
sect. 22) are 190 and 310.

Now the magnetic field at the circumference of a wire 0°86 or 0°87 mm. in diameter,
when that wire has a current of 1 ampere passing along it, is barely 5 units. In a
longitudinal field of this value, soft, well-annealed iron wire might be magnetised to an
intensity of nearly 1000. If we may suppose this to be something like the value of the
circular magnetisation induced at the circumference of the wire by the current that
passes along it, we may perhaps have no great difficulty in explaining the production of
a longitudinal intensity of 190 or 310 in terms of the average rotation of the molecules
under the influence of the twist of 1°:2 or 2°'4 per centimetre length. It is conceivable
that such twist should produce an average rotation of molecules through angles whose
sines are 0°19 or 0°31 respectively.

But with nickel it is very different. Ordinary unstrained nickel wire, in a
longitudinal field of 5, acquires an intensity of at most 50. Twisted nickel wire,
however, as shown by Mr Nacaoxa, may in the same field acquire an intensity of 200 or
300, so long as the twist does not exceed 3° per centimetre length. In these cases the
magnetisation curve rises very abruptly between the fields 3 and 5, almost immediately
attaining a value approximating to practical saturation. Let us assume that twist has a
similar effect on the susceptibility of the wire to circularly magnetising forces, and that
the intensity induced by the sustained current has the value 300 at the circumference.
The average value across a section of the wire will of course be less ; and yet by simply
twisting the wire to and fro we can obtain a variation of longitudinal intensity of as
much as 540 units. Further, it must be borne in mind that this longitudinal intensity
is largely residual—falling off very slightly, if at all, when the current is reduced to
zero. But, again, it is of an essentially different character from the residual longitudinal
intensity produced in the ordinary way by removal of a longitudinal magnetic field, for
(sect. 24) it is reversed if the current is reversed along the wire. This pronounced
polarity, then, in a twisted nickel wire must be derived directly from the circular
magnetisation sustained by the current along the wire, assisted to a certain extent by the
helical zeolotropy produced by the twisting.

If the current is broken, a succession of to-and-fro twistings continues to be accom-
panied by a corresponding cyclic change in the magnetic polarity, but this change, as we

530 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON SOME RELATIONS BETWEEN

should expect, takes place through a much diminished range. In one case, for imstance,
the range of polarity in a nickel wire twisted through an angle of +100° fell from 321
when a current of 2°5 ampéres was flowing along it to 120 after six complete twistings
with the current off. The average polarity in the final cycle was slightly negative
although the current had been broken when the polarity was at its maximum positive
value. This persistence of the effect with residual magnetism is more marked in nickel
than in iron, as indeed are all the changes accompanying twisting in wires whether
magnetised circularly or longitudinally. The magnitude of the effect is, however, much
more striking in the experiments now under discussion than in those in which the
magnetising force is longitudinal.

The explanation of this is probably to be looked for in the following general
considerations.

27. In the first place, the whole phenomenon of hysteresis is an illustration of
MAXWELL’s general theory of viscosity in solid bodies, and depends upon the manner in
which molecular groups assume new configurations under the influence of varying forces.
Ewine’s recent experiments on groups of little magnets form a very beautiful practical
corroboration of this view, which I believe was first stated distinctly by Barus. Now,
although we do not understand the mechanical connection between magnetic force and
electric currents, we see that they are so associated that electric currents never exist
without magnetic force, and that the distribution of the latter can (within certain limits)
be inferred from the former. It is usual, accordingly, to speak of the magnetic force
due to a current; but such a view is probably incorrect, or at all events incomplete.

The tendency of modern thought is to regard magnetic energy as transmitted in
some way through a medium, while the electric currents which in many cases
accompany this transmission are evidences of dissipation of electric (or magnetic)
energy. We see at once, then, that longitudinal magnetisation of a metal by means of
a current in a neighbouring conductor is a very different thing from circular magnetisa-
tion by a current through itself. In the one case, the dissipation of electric and
magnetic energy takes place (nearly) altogether outside of it ; in the other case it takes
place (nearly) wholly within it. From the ordinary though incomplete point of view,
we may put it in this way. In cases of ordinary induced magnetisation, the magnetic
force must penetrate into the metal from the outside ; and many well-known phenomena
show that the magnetic metals have a screening magnetic influence. It is highly
probable that the thinnest of iron wires in a magnetising field is not magnetised
uniformly across its section. On the other hand, the magnetic action of a current along
an iron wire is quite different. Here any internal portion is, on the ordinary theory,
subject to the direct magnetic action of all current elements lying nearer to the axis
than itself. Under any twisting action, then, it is conceivable that the inner portions of
the wire will have a proportionately greater effect when the wire is under the domina-
tion of a current passing through it, than when it is being magnetised by a current
altogether outside of it. In our ignorance of the internal distribution in a magnetised

\

MAGNETISM AND TWIST IN IRON AND NICKEL. 531

wire, we can say nothing as to the probable result of any given combination of magnetic
force and mechanical stress. On the other hand, experiments on the magnetic effects
of twist may lead to some clearer knowledge regarding the magnetic distribution in the
heart of a wire.

28. Take, for example, the following experiments, which well illustrate the extra-
ordinary complexity in the magnetic distribution of a nickel wire that is being twisted
or has been twisted. The wire, after being heated to a dull red heat, was placed
horizontally along the core of a magnetising coil, which extended five or six centimetres
beyond each end of the wire. The coil lay north and south, so that the wire was
magnetised inductively by the earth’s horizontal force. A magnetometer was placed as
near as possible to the coil, and opposite the position that was to be occupied by the one
end of the nickel wire. This end was brazed to a stout brass rod which was clamped to
the magnetising coil. The other end was similarly fastened to a copper wire, which was
long enough to be gripped by a twisting apparatus set up close to the end of the coil.
The direct electromagnetic action of the magnetising current upon the magnetometer
was balanced by the action of a flat coil, included in the same circuit and suitably
adjusted.

The deflections of the magnetometer magnet were measured by means of a beam of
light reflected in the usual manner from a mirror. The scale over which the spot of
hght moved was divided to half millimetres, and was situated at a distance of 110
centimetres from the magnetometer.

The purpose of the experiment was to study the effect of twist upon a nickel wire,
which, so far as the magnetometer indications could tell, was demagnetised.

What follows is simply an account of the experiment as conducted, and the
deflections are the unreduced scale readings.

Deflection.
Magnetometer zero : : : : : 5 : : 589
Nickel wire put into coil : : 414
Adjustment of resistance in coil aout until ths hegre camer made to flow
just demagnetises the wire . 589
[I call this first current 100, and express fall eames omens in ems of it. |
- 45° twist applied ‘ : , é : F 3 813
0 ‘ ‘ : ‘ : : : é : 824
+45 ; : . 5 : 5 : ‘ about 1200*
0 3 : : : : : : , . 935
— 45 : ‘ : : ; : ; 5 : 947
0 4 : : : : : f : about 1090
Current off ‘ : : : : : - é about 1020
Wire tapped. . ‘ , . 5 ‘ 816
After another twist lk and oats : : : . : : 758
Current +30, wire tapped : : : : : : ; 700
Current + 44, ,, * : : s : E ; é 400
Current — 44, ,, Fe : ; i é ; : F 620
Current + 30, ,, é ; ‘ é : ; 599

* Readings above 1000 are rough estimates ; the spot of light was off the scale.

532 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON SOME RELATIONS BETWEEN

Deflection.
Current — 18, wire tapped : : ; : : ; : 580
Current — 24, ,, 5 : F fs i ; ‘ : 589
— 45° twist applied ; deflection rises to 650, then falls and settles at : 535
0 ; : ; ; : : ; : : 620
+10 , : : ‘ : E : . 650
20 : ; : x ; ‘ : : 5 687
30 : ; : : , ‘ : . : ra
45 : : c ; ( ‘ ; : ; 750
30 : ’ ; : : . 4 : : 695
20 : : s 2 : : ‘ F : 630
10 ; : : : : 3 : 2 : 567
0 : : d é : : ; : : 545
-—10 : ; : : : : : ‘ ; 610
— 20 ; : 5 : : ‘ ; : ; 590
— 30 ; : : : . 3 : : ‘ 570
— 45 : i : ; : : ‘ ‘ : 540
— 30 : . : : : ; : : , 590
— 20 ‘ ; s : : ; : : : 655
-10 : , : . : 5 : : : 655
0 : : : : : ; : : ; 660

From this condition of apparent negative polarity the wire was reduced by means of
a series of alternating and diminishing currents, being vigorously tapped at every stage.
Finally, with
Current — 5, the deflection was : ; é ; : : 600
Current off, ,, 5 5 ; : 4 ; ; : 596
In this condition the wire, although set longitudinally in the earth’s horizontal field,
had practically no action on the magnetometer. Then followed the twistings.

Deflection.
0° twist : : : : P é : : 597
-5 ,, applied 3 a: : : : i 578
0 : : : : : ‘ : F ; 600
+5 . : ; : : : 5 : 3 625
0 : : ; : ; ; : F : 606
+5 : : ' ' : j ; : 4 585
0 : : : : ‘ : ; : : 604
+5 ! : t 4 5 : ; , 5 625
0 : : ; : : : : F 606

Thus a very slight twist is sufficient to disturb the equilibrium of apparently
balanced magnetisms in a wire.

At first, the inductive effect of the earth’s field was balanced by the superposed
magnetic effect of a current flowing im a coil surrounding the wire. This negative
current must, as is well known. be a little greater than the positive current, which, acting
alone, would have produced a field equal to that of the earth. My belief is that the
principal magnetic effect of the negative current is confined for the most part to the
surface layers. Here the molecular groupings may be supposed to be reversed as regards
polarity. These, by their very reversal, will have a sustaining effect upon the contiguous

MAGNETISM AND TWIST IN IRON AND NICKEL. 533

inner layer of molecules. In short, if we imagine the existence of an inner and outer
layer of oppositely polarised groupings, we see at once that they will be separated by a
neutral layer, and will have a mutually sustaining action.

Let us suppose such a distribution of magnetic polarity to be self-annulling as
regards external action, and consider the probable effect of a twist applied to the wire.
The wire is, of course, most strained towards its surface ; and where the greatest strain
exists, there presumably will the magnetic changes set in most quickly. The outer layer
of polarised molecules will be more sensitive than the inner layer, and the magnetic
balance will be destroyed.

The effect of the first twist in the experiment given above is almost startling in its
magnitude. A left-handed twist of barely 1° per centimetre length suffices to bring into
view an average negative polarity a quarter greater than the original positive polarity
which the current annulled. Now we know from WIEDEMANN’s experiments that the
first effect of twist is to increase the magnetic moment of a magnetised nickel wire. In
the present case the effect of the twist is clearly to increase the magnetic moment of
what we have supposed to be the negatively polarised outer layer. Thus the hypothesis
fits in admirably with known facts of experiment.

On untwisting the wire and applying a right-handed twist of the same amount, we
get the negative polarity to increase to nearly four times the original compensated positive
polarity. This imposed polarity persists in spite of the removal of the positively
magnetising force, and in spite of tappings and twistings.

By suitable alternations of currents combined with tapping the wire is brought a
second time to a neutral condition. The current required for this purpose is still
negative, but only one-fourth of the current that was required during the first
experiment.

A left-handed twist of the same amount as before imposes on the wire a positive
polarity ; but it was noticed, as the twist was being applied, that the deflection rose first
to 650 and then fell, passed through zero, and finally settled at 535. Here is evidence
apparently of the sub-surface layers of positively polarised groupings coming more
strongly into play as the twist grows. The very first effect, however, is that due to the
negatively polarised surface layer under the influence of the magnetising current ; while
over all there is a preponderance of the negative polarity.

In the third experiment the magnetic distribution in the wire must be very compli-
cated indeed. There is an accumulation of the after-effects of a succession of different
magnetising forces and of many to-and-fro twistings. The wire is in a practically
neutral condition, although it is resting in an uncompensated horizontal field ; and yet it
has at no time been subjected to an extra soogueue force greater than that originally
applied to compensate the field.

A very minute twisting of less than 7 minutes of arc on either side of its normal
position produces a very distinct rise and fall in the magnetic moment.

Other experiments of a similar character were tried, with various modifications

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (No. 18). 4K

534 PROFESSOR KNOTT ON SOME RELATIONS BETWEEN

introduced. For example, in one case the wire, subject only to the earth’s field, was
twisted to and fro through a small angle of + 14’ per centimetre length, and the changes
in magnetic moment noted. The range was 23 in scale units. Then the compensating
eurrent was applied, the wire being vigorously tapped, and the current gradually
increased in value until the neutral condition was attained. ‘The same small to-and-fro
twisting was again applied ; and it was found that the range of magnetic change was 36,
or half as great again as in the original simply magnetised condition, with a tendency to
a negative accumulation of polarity. On the twisting being increased to + 28’ per
centimetre length, the range of the magnetic change rose to 92, and the wire during the
first cycle acquired a considerable negative polarity.

In another case the wire was annealed as it hung in a vertical position. On cooling,
it became magnetised under the influence of the earth’s vertical force, which in Tokyo is
somewhat greater than the horizontal force. In this position it was vigorously tapped
and then introduced into the coil in such a manner that its south pole pointed north.
The magnetometer indicated a large negatwe polarity, which vigorous tapping only
reduced to about two-thirds of its original value.

To get the wire into a neutral condition it was necessary to apply a positively
magnetising current, that is, one whose field would be co-directional with the earth’s
horizontal field. On the balance being effected, the twisting was proceeded with as in
the former experiments. The result was an accumulation of positive polarity, so that
here also it is the more recently applied magnetisation which is more powerfully
influenced by the twist.

As already stated, these results seem to point to the existence of a neutral layer
separating two regions in the wire, which differ in the sign of their longitudinal polarity.
The inner core of the wire is magnetised in accordance with the natural effect of the first
magnetising force. The outer shell surrounding this core is magnetised in accordance
with the natural effect of the second magnetising force, which has to be applied to bring
the wire to a neutral condition. The first effect of a twist being to offer facilities for the
molecular groupings to break up and assume configurations of less potential energy, is
clearly to tend to increase the longitudinal polarity induced by a constant magnetising
force. Evidently the outer shell of molecular groupings will be more sensitive to the
disturbing effects of the twist than the inner core; the magnetic change will therefore be
determined by the sign of the average polarity of this outer layer.

In the hint here given of what might be called a periodic magnetic distribution we
may perhaps find an explanation of the curious discovery made by Mr NaGaoxa that a
twisted nickel wire can sustain a distinct negative polarity in a tolerably strong positive
field.

29. ConcLusion.—To summarise concisely the results of Part III. is not easy. I
shall content myself with drawing attention to what seem to be the phenomena which
have most importance from a theoretical point of view.

There is, first, the contrast between iron and nickel as regards the sign of the

p \

MAGNETISM AND TWIST IN IRON AND NICKEL. 539

polarity which is produced when the wire conveying the current is twisted. Notwith-
standing this fundamental contrast, however, there is great similarity between the two
metals in other respects. The phenomenon of the magnetic “lagging and priming”
exists in both ; and the effect of tapping is, broadly speaking, the same.

A striking feature is the reversal with the current of the polarity acquired by the
twisting. ‘This polarity is powerfully residual, and has, especially in the case of nickel,
aremarkably high value. Such phenomena point to a very complex molecular structure ;
and none of the ordinary simple theories of molecular magnetism can satisfactorily
explain these various effects. Not until we have some clearer conception as to the
properties of groups of magnetic molecules can we hope for anything like a co-ordination
of the complex relations of twist and magnetism. These relations, however, worked out
experimentally, may lead us finally to this very conception which we at present lack.

One thing, however, is clear. The first effect of a shearing stress upon the molecular
groupings is not only to increase the average intensity in the direction of the magnetising
force, but also to bring into promunence a relatively high intensity in directions at right
angles thereto. For longitudinal magnetising forces this truth is established by experi-
ments on the transient current, as carried out by Mr Nacaoxa, and more recently by
Dr Zennper (Wired. Ann., 1890). Mr Nacaoxa has shown that the reversal of the
magnetising force after the wire has been twisted produces a transient current of the
same order of intensity as the transient current produced by twisting the magnetised
wire. This is essentially the same magnetic phenomenon as the reversal of polarity when
the current is reversed along a twisted wire, so that the remark made a few sentences
back is a perfectly general one.

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XIX.—The Winds of Ben Nevis. By R. T. OMonp and Ancus RANKIN.

(Read Ist June 1891.)

Noting the direction of the wind is part of the regular routine of observations at
the Observatory on the summit of Ben Nevis. Owing to the climatic conditions,
especially the frequency of frozen fogs in winter, anemometers are practically useless,
but the record is made complete enough for many purposes by the system of hourly
observations; at each hour of the day and night the wind, at the time of making
the observation, is noted, and the number of entries of each wind direction in the
day, month, or year must very nearly represent the relative frequency of such winds
for that time. Table I. is a summary giving the number of times each wind is
observed in each month of the year on an average of six years (1884-89); February
being given in duplicate, that in the body of the table contaming 28 days, and
that at the foot 29, with the winds divided in the same proportion. The wind
is observed to 32 points, but the entries have been reduced to 8 points for this paper
by counting all the bys to their adjacent octant, and halving the 8 intermediate points
between the octants; thus all N. by E. count as N., all N.E. by N. as N.E, while
the N.N.E. entries are halved between N. and N.E., and so on. Perhaps a stricter
method of reduction would have been to divide the intermediate points in the ratio
of the relative frequency of the adjacent octants, but this would have been considerably
more laborious, and of doubtful utility; still 1t should be borne in mind that the
method used tends to smooth out any sudden changes in the frequency of winds
of nearly the same direction. In Table II. the frequency of each wind is expressed
in percentages, thus equalising the varying lengths of the months, and making each
month easily comparable with the whole year; thus in January, out of the 744 hours
of the month, there are 120 hours or 16:1 per cent. of N. wind.

A glance at these tables will show some interesting features. The most frequent
wind is N., next come S.W., S.E., and &., all about equal, and the least frequent
is H. N. is the pomt of greatest frequency in all months except May, when
§.H. takes its place; in May 1889 there were only 15 hours in the whole month
with N., N.W., or N.E. winds, and during three-fourths of that month the air was
moving from the 8. or 8.E. This was, of course, an exceptional month, but in the six
years there are only two (1887-88) in which N. was the most frequent wind in May.
The exact determination of northerly winds is not very easy on Ben Nevis, owing to the
Shape of the hill: the great cliff, 2000 feet high, that forms its northern face, breaks
these winds up, and makes them squally and uncertain; some may be entered as N.
that should be really N.E. or N.W. If we group the percentages of N., N.E., and N.W.,
and 8., S.E., and 8.W. together, we get 36°0 for the former, and 39°4 for the latter,

VOL, XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 19). ae

538 MESSRS OMOND AND RANKIN ON THE

thus throwing the preponderance of frequency to the southward, but only by a small
percentage. In either case, taking the observations as they stand or as grouped, the
relative frequency is totally different from what it is at sea-level. For comparison,
Table III. has been drawn up giving the percentage frequency of each wind for all
Scotland, as calculated by the Registrar-General from observations at 55 stations in
Scotland. ‘This table is for the same six years (1884-89), and it agrees very closely with
a similar table prepared by Dr Buchan from twenty-three years observations (see Jowr.
Scott. Met. Soc., vol. iii. page 293), from which we may conclude that the distribution
of winds during these six years was normal. At sea-level the most frequent wind is
W.; and 8.W., W., and N.W. include nearly half of the total observations—more
than half if we exclude calms. This latter order of winds is in strict harmony with
the distribution of barometric pressure over the British Isles, according to Buys Batuior’s
law, by which the winds blow counter-clockwise round areas of low pressure, such
an area lying to the north of the British Islands; but the Ben Nevis winds do not
fit in with such a distribution of pressure at all, and we are forced to the conclusion
that isobars drawn at the level of Ben Nevis (4400 feet) would le in quite different
directions from those at sea-level. In other words, the distribution of average barometric
pressure which extends over the North Atlantic and North-Western Europe, and dominates
the surface winds over that area, does not in this country extend to a vertical height
of one mile. To make certain that this startling difference in the wind directions was
not due to any difference in the method of observing on Ben Nevis, we have, jist,
taken the Ben Nevis winds as observed at 9 a.m. and 9 P.M. only, the hours at
which almost all of the observations on which the Registrar-General’s reports are
founded are taken; and, second, eliminated all winds of less than 10 miles per hour,
so as to exclude shifting breezes that might play about the sides of the hill, and
be merely local in character. As in neither case did we find any serious difference in
the relative frequency of the different winds, we may conclude that the Ben Nevis
winds, as given in Tables I. and II. really represent the average direction of air
motion at the level of the hilltop; and, as these six years are normal in their
wind observations at sea-level, presumably they closely approximate to the true
average for Ben Nevis. Individual observations show similar differences between the
Ben Nevis and sea-level winds. Thus, if a cyclonic storm of small area is lying
to the north-eastward, the sea-level winds are W. or N.W., but the Ben Nevis
wind may be N.E., blowing straight out from the centre of the low-pressure area.
In larger storms, the Ben Nevis winds are practically the same as at sea-level,
indicating that in the latter case the disturbance extends to a greater height as well
as covers a larger area. But it is remarkable that, with a cyclone covering perhaps
Scotland, the North Sea, and Southern Norway, and having the usual circulation of
wind round it, the wind at such a low elevation as Ben Nevis should be utterly
different. This outflowing wind seldom or never occurs when the centre of the storm
is to the 8. or W., but only when it lies to the N. or E., and is most marked

|
|

WINDS OF BEN NEVIS. 539

when an anti-cyclone or high-pressure area is on the other side; the wind appears
to be a feeding current carrying the ascending air of the cyclone over to supply
the descent in the anti-cyclone. Why this action should only be observed when
the cyclone lies to the N. or E. is not very clear, but possibly may be due to
the fact that in this case the current is passing from a colder to a warmer atmos-
phere, and, displacing the lighter warmer air, sinks to the level of Ben Nevis,
while in the opposite case it is constantly meeting colder air, and rising higher passes
over it far above the level of the hilltop. If the wind on the hilltop is not
at a right or greater angle from the sea-level wind, it is generally very nearly the
same as it. The supposed veering of the wind at great heights, required by the
theory that a cyclonic storm is a whirling column drawing the air in spirally below
and pouring it out spirally above, is so seldom observed as to be the exception rather
than the rule. There is, on the whole, a slight tendency for the wind to blow more
nearly parallel with the isobars, and to have less indraught than at sea-level, but
this may be simply due to the greater freedom from ground friction, a freedom which
appears also in its increased velocity.* The complete change in average wind direction
with height is, as far as can be gathered from comparison with other mountain
stations, a peculiarity of cyclonic regions. The percentage frequency of the different
winds on the Sintis (8094 feet), and the Puy de Déme (4813 feet), as given by
Dr Bucwan in the Challenger Report on “ Atmospheric Circulation,” are as follows,
Ben Nevis being added for comparison :—

NG N.E. E. S.E. S. Soiives W. N.W. Calm.
Santis, . : F ¢ 2°7 3°8 4-9 4°] 85 22°5 27'7 9-1 16-7
Puy de Déme, . : ‘ 8:2 11°5 (ae) 74 96 15'6 27:7 12:1
Ben Nevis, : < Sy) se) 8-9 76 13-1 13:0 13°3 11:5 8:3 55

The low-level winds near the Sintis and Puy de Dome are on the average of
the year westerly, the maximum frequency tending towards 8.W. in winter, and N.W.
in summer ; but at the hill stations W. is the maximum point all the year. Here we
have mountain stations whose winds agree in direction with those blowing below; but
Santis in Switzerland, and Puy de Dome in France, both lie in anti-cyclonic or high-
pressure regions, and are not comparable with a high-level station like Ben Nevis,
standing on the side of a great barometric depression, and close to the track of the
eyclones that sweep our north-western coasts. In connection with this, it should be
noted that May, the month in which the north or contra-isobaric winds are at a
minimum on Ben Nevis, is the month in which the depression in the North Atlantic

* The average velocity of the wind on Ben Nevis is 17 miles per hour, exactly the same as that given in the Challenger
Report for the mean velocity in the open sea far from land.

540 MESSRS OMOND AND RANKIN ON THE

is most broken up and dispersed and the high-pressure area which lies off the N.W.
of Africa extends towards and partly includes the British Islands.

Although the Ben Nevis winds differ so much from those at sea-level, the variations
in the relative frequency of each wind from month to month follow the same course.
In Table IV. is given the percentage excess or defect of each wind on Ben Nevis in each
month from the mean of the year; heavy type indicating an excess, and italic type a
defect. This table is constructed from Table IL; thus the mean of the year for N.
winds is 18°8, but in January they are 16:1, «e., 2°7 or 14 per cent. below their
annual mean. Table V. is drawn up in identically the same way for the sea-level
winds. The most obvious features of these tables are the excess of easterly winds in
spring, and of westerly in early winter, both of which departures from the mean are
more marked on Ben Nevis than at sea-level. The average percentage increase of N.E.,
K., and §8.E. winds for the months March, April, May is 34 at Ben Nevis, and 31
at sea-level; while the average increase for 8.W., W., and N.W. in November, December,
January is 16 for the former, and 13 for the latter. At the foot of the tables are given
the extreme departures from the annual mean, with the range or sum of the positive and
negative differences. It will be seen that the maxima and minima for the various winds
occur at much the same time of the year on Ben Nevis and at sea-level, except
the maxima of the N. and W. winds, and the minimum of the N.E., which are the
three directions generally affected in cases where the Ben Nevis and sea-level winds
differ largely in direction as described above. ‘The difference of the winds from month
to month is, on the whole, rather greater on Ben Nevis than at sea-level, the average
range of the eight winds—excluding calms—being 71 for the former, and 65 for
the latter; thus indicating that the seasonal changes in wind direction affect the
whole stratum of the atmosphere up to at least the height of Ben Nevis, and are
not merely loca] or surface currents, and that their causes must be looked for in
correspondingly great and widespread changes of pressure and temperature. The
easterly winds of spring are not a mere spilling over of cold air from Central Asia,
extending by virtue of its density as a thin film under the lighter and moister western
air, but are a great bodily movement through a considerable depth of the atmosphere ;
they begin earlier on Ben Nevis, February showing an increase, but last longer at sea-
level.

It is interesting to compare the high and low level winds during the harvest months
of August and September. During these months there is an average diminution of
33 per cent. in the N.E., E., and 8.E. winds at Ben Nevis, but of only 16 per cent.
at sea-level; while the increase in the S, 8.W., and W. winds amounts to 16 per
cent. at the former, and only 8 per cent. at the latter. Thus at this season, not
merely is there an increase of the warmer south-westerly winds, and a diminution of
the cold easterly currents, but both the increase and the decrease are doubled in the
higher regions of the atmosphere, a matter of great importance in the prevention of
descending masses of cold, dry air, which, accumulating in flat or hollow ground,

npn’ 2s

aa

WINDS OF BEN NEVIS. 541

ce

are so liable to cause “radiation frosts.” October presents a complete contrast. The
S., S.W., and W. are 8 per cent. below the annual mean at sea-level, and 15 per cent.
below on Ben Nevis; and the N., N.E., and E. winds are 13 per cent. above the yearly
average at sea-level, and 15 per cent. above on Ben Nevis; showing an increase in the
colder currents, slightly greater at high levels, and a diminution in the warmer currents,
markedly greater in the upper atmosphere. Comparing for the same six years the
monthly average night radiation temperatures—minimum on grass—as given in the
Registrar-General’s tables for all Scotland, we find that in no August did the mean
fall below 41°, and in no September below 38°, while in several Octobers it is near
the freezing-point, a result quite in harmony with the analysis of the winds of these
months given above. The last column in Tables IV. and V. gives the annual variation
in calms and variable winds. On Ben Nevis there is a well-marked yearly period
of most simple character, the maximum is in June, July, and the minimum in January ;
at sea-level, on the contrary, the maximum is in September, and the minimum in April,
while there is a curious secondary maximum in December. Thus the frequency of calms
on Ben Nevis has the same annual period as the amount of solar radiation, and is of the
same character as are the temperature changes, but is always about one month in advance
of these. At sea-level, on the contrary, the number of calms seems to be connected with
the barometric pressure, but the curve is so irregular that it is not easy to trace the
exact connection. The mean monthly velocity of the wind, independent of direction, is
ereatest in January and least in June on Ben Nevis, and it would seem that the same
solar effect which causes the daily and yearly variation in velocity controls the number
of calms.

In order to see how far the rainfall of Scotland is influenced by the winds, a pre-
liminary examination has been made of the fall in each month on the east and west
coasts. For the east coast the rainfall of each month at the four stations, Marchmont,
Barry, Fettercairn, and Gordon Castle, have been tabulated for the six years treated
of in this paper; and for the west coast, the four stations Rothesay, Fort-Wilham,
Roshven, and Scourie. These rainfalls are given in the Jour. Scot. Met. Soc., and
a few missing cases have been carefully interpolated by comparison with other places
near. Taking the average rainfall for each month at each place, and then grouping
the four east coast and four west coast places together, we get a fairly representative
rainfall for each side of Scotland. The yearly total of the west coast is nearly
double that of the east, the numbers being 56:27 and 2829 inches respectively.
To make the months comparable inter se, they were reduced to 30 days each; thus
January having 31 days in it one-thirty-first part was subtracted from its rainfall, in
February two-twenty-eighths were added, andsoon. The average of these twelve months
gives the average month, or what each month would have if the rainfall were distributed
equally over the year, and the following table shows the departure of each month from
this average in percentages, for the east and west coast respectively, heavy type being
above the mean, and italic type below it.

542 ‘MESSRS OMOND AND RANKIN ON THE
Jan, Feb. | March. | April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. Nov. | Dee.
| Kast, . : il 16 8 7 4 47 36 13 rs) 18 29 4
West, . : 39 24 1S 37 30 51 19 10 9 19 26 48

June was an exceptionally dry month all over Scotland in several of the years,
and it is probable that in a longer series of years the extremely low values of this
table—only about half the mean fall—would be modified. Comparing the other
months with the wind Tables IV. and V., we see that the heaviest rainfall on the
west coast occurs during the winter maximum of westerly winds, and the least during
the spring maximum of easterly winds, and that the summer secondary maximum of
westerly and southerly winds in July and August does not affect the west coast, but
does largely increase the east coast rainfall, July being actually the month of heaviest
fall there. If we combine the east and west percentages, and assume the result to
be representative of the rainfall for the whole country, we get the greatest excess in
November. The winds of November have this peculiarity, 8.W. is in excess both
on Ben Nevis and at sea-level, but E. and N. are slightly below their mean
at sea-level, and are above it on Ben Nevis, poimting to the fact that the cyclones
which have caused the heavy rainfall of November have not extended upwards to
the height of Ben Nevis, but have there caused reversed or outflowing winds. In
connection with this, it may be noted that while the November rainfall of the east
and west coast stations average 274 per cent. above their means, that of Ben Nevis
is only 26 per cent. above its mean; a difference too small to lay any stress on, but
at least not contradictory of what is indicated by the winds, viz., that Ben Nevis is
frequently at that season above the inflowing and ascending air of the cyclones from
which the greater part of the rainfall comes. The month with the greatest difference
between the east and west coast rainfall is December, in which the former is 14 per
cent. below, and the latter 48 above, its mean. The winds of December show a marked
increase of §.W. and W. at sea-level, but of N.W. and N. on Ben Nevis, and a
diminution of N.E., E., and S.E. at sea-level, and of E. and 8.E. on Ben Nevis,
indicating that the cyclonic storms of this month were of sufficient depth to include
Ben Nevis, and give winds there only differing shghtly from those at sea-level. The
December rainfall of Ben Nevis for these six years is about 70 per cent. above the
monthly average. It would appear that the cyclonic winds of December, mostly
W. and §.W., are largely drained of their moisture in passing over the hills of western
Scotland, although the region of precipitation in them extends to a height so far
exceeding the highest of these mountains as to enormously increase the rainfall there.

From what has been stated above, it will be evident that no hill station, yet in
operation, can be regarded as being in the true upper currents of the atmosphere,
and that we are still dependent for our knowledge of their motions on observations

Be

WINDS OF BEN NEVIS. 543

of the cirrus clouds. A very careful series of observations on these clouds has
been made at Blue Hill Observatory, Massachusetts, by Mr Clayton, which may be
taken as typical for the North Temperate Zone. In the year 1887 over 1500
observations were made, giving the following percentages of frequency in the directions
of motion :—S.W., 17; W., 40; N.W., 26; all other directions, 17. In other words,
for two-thirds of the time the clouds were moving from the W. or N.W., and for
half of the remainder from the 8.W., leaving only about one-sixth of the total
observations for the other five points. These observations were made on 290 days
during the year, there being 75 days on which no upper clouds could be seen, either
because there were none, or because the sky was overcast with lower clouds. Assuming
that the observations taken were fairly distributed over the 290 days, there might
have been about 390 observations made on the remaining 75 days had it been
possible to observe on them; and even on the extreme hypothesis that on none of
these occasions were the upper currents 8.W., W., or N.W., «e., putting all the 390
into the “other directions,” it would not seriously reduce the preponderance of
westerly motion, the percentages being then S.W., 14; W., 31; N.W., 21; all other
directions, 34; thus still leaving more than half of the winds W. or N.W., and more
than a third of the remainder 8.W. Of course, it is not likely that none of the missing
observations were S.W., W., or N.W., and probably the percentages of the actual
observations given above are the nearer to the true average. These upper currents
have the same character as, and are an exaggeration of, the surface winds of Massa-
chusetts, where N. and N.W. are the points of greatest frequency, and the relationship
of the two is akin to that between the winds of Santis or Puy de Dédme, and their
low-level winds as given above. But Massachusetts lies in the continuation of the
European belt of high pressure, and far removed from the North Atlantic depression
which influences the relation between the Ben Nevis and sea-level winds in Scotland.
The highest station from which data are available is Pikes Peak in Colorado, 14,134
feet, and the percentages of wind directions as given in the Challenger Report, page
Mameare as follows-—N., 10: N.E., 9; BE; 1; SE, 2; S&, 5; S.W., 32; W., 20;
N.W., 18; calm, 3. Here we have a marked predominance of 8.W. and W. winds,
but nothing like the excess from one direction of the cirrus cloud motion indicated
by the Blue Hill observations; it would seem that even at this great height the
observers are not wholly in the upper currents, though the percentage of westerly
winds is in excess of that at any low-level station in that part of North America.
The measurements of the heights of clouds taken at Upsala confirm this (see Nature,
vol. xxxvi. p. 321). They show three layers of clouds—Lower, 2000 to 6000 feet,
in or near which most hill stations are; Middle, 12,000 to 15,000, in which Pikes
Peak is; and Upper, 20,000 to 27,000, which are the true upper current clouds.

Any attempt to elucidate the behaviour of the atmospheric currents in cyclonic storms
must be based on a careful study of individual cases, and not on general means, such as
are dealt with in this paper. For this we have neither had time nor opportunity as yet,

544 MESSRS OMOND AND RANKIN ON THE

but the following points should be borne in mind when studying the development and
behaviour of cyclones.

1. The height of a cyclone is so small compared with its area, that any attempt to
represent a vertical section of it diagrammatically is useless and misleading.

2. From the laws of fluid motion it is probable that the upper end of a rotating mass
of air, with or without an ascending motion in it, behaves in a very different manner in
the free atmosphere from its lower end, which is bounded by the surface of the earth.
It is unsafe to lay off isobars for the level of Ben Nevis from the winds observed there
according to Bauuor’s law; they may blow directly from high to low pressure, or accord-
ing to some other yet unknown law.

3. The small diurnal variation in wind direction will enable us to study the changes
of wind connected with variations of pressure, &c., independent of the time of day of
their occurrence.

In Table VI. are given the percentage excess and defect from the six years means of a
year made up of (1) warmest months on Ben Nevis, (2) coldest months, (3) driest months,
and (4) wettest months. In each case the sea-level excess or defect is also given, for the
year made up of the same months as the Ben Nevis part. This table shows some inte-
resting points when studied along with results already discussed by the writers, viz., The
Thermal Windrose at the Ben Nevis Observatory (Proc. ftoy. Soc. Edin., 1886-1887,
p-. 416), and The Winds and Rainfall of Ben Nevis (Jour. Scot. Meteor. Soc., vol. viii.
p- 18). In the year made up of warmest months, the southerly winds are most in excess
on Ben Nevis and also at sea-level; while north-easterly are most in defect on the
summit, and northerly below. That is to say, in our warmest weather on the summit,
the average departures from the normal approximate to the same as the departures at
sea-level, more nearly in the case of the excess than of the defect. In the year of coldest
months, easterly winds are in excess on the summit, and northerly at sea-level; and
the points of greatest defect are south on Ben Nevis, and south-east at sea-level. Thus
in both the excess and defect the directions are on the summit several points to the
right, looking out from centre of compass, of those at sea-level,—eight in the case of the
excess, and four in the defect. That is to say, in our coldest weather on the Ben, the winds
that are most in excess there are at right angles to, and to the right of, those in excess
at sea-level. If we look now at Tables IV. and V., and examine the excesses month by
month, we see that the following point is pretty well indicated, namely, that given an
excess at sea-level, an excess on the summit is, as a rule, found to the right of that
direction, this more particularly in the winter months than in the summer. The number
of points that the upper excess is to the right of the lower is not constant, but varies
from 1 to 8 or more. If this apparent veering of the wind with altitude is, as some
writers maintain, a law of the winds, then Table VI. shows that Ben Nevis Observatory
is more pronouncedly a high-level observatory in winter than in summer, in cold weather
than in warm. Here it must be remembered we are dealing with average results, for we
find that in some of our exceptionally warm weather, anticyclonic weather, the con-

|
“
:

WINDS OF BEN NEVIS. 545

ditions on the summit are purely and entirely characteristic of high-level observatories.
But we have already indicated that we do not hold that the veering of the wind on Ben
Nevis, relative to the sea-level winds, is the theoretical veering of the wind with altitude,
for reasons already given, and for the following. Since the Ben Nevis winds approxi-
mate so closely to the sea-level winds in the year of warmest months, and differ so much
from them in the year of coldest, we might expect to find, if this were a real veering
with altitude, similar relations between the upper and lower winds in the course of one
day, about the times of maximum and minimum temperature respectively,—that is to say,
a daily variation in the direction of the wind which would show on Ben Nevis a backing
from being in the early morning several points to the right of the sea-level wind, to being
almost coincident with it at the middle of the day, and a veering again towards night.
In other words, that from the time of the morning minimum temperature, the Ben
Nevis winds would back steadily till about the time of the afternoon maximum, and veer
again thereafter. That there is no such backing and veering in the Ben Nevis winds
is pointed out below, with an explanation of the peculiar changes that do occur;
so that this difference in the excess above and below must be due to some other cause,
the most probable being that already given—the nature of the upper current, whether
polar or anti-polar. The thermal windrose, already referred to, shows that the warmest
point on the mean of the year is 8S. and the coldest N.E., so that in a year of warmest
months we would expect to find southerly winds in excess, and N.E. in excess in a year
of coldest months, which Table VI. shows to be the case. The warmest point on the
Ben Nevis windrose oscillates through 90 degrees from S.W. in winter to 8. and 8.E.
in summer, and we see that all these points are in a warm year in excess of what
they are in an average year. ‘These points, again, are in a cold year in defect of what
they are in an average year, while the points of the northern half of the compass
are in excess. If we take the sea-level excess as an index to the distribution of pres-
sure at sea-level, we have in the Ben Nevis warm year an excess of pressure somewhere
to the east or south-east, and low pressure to the west or south-west, superimposed on
the normal excess in the south, and defect in the north-west or north. With this
distribution of pressure, then, we see that the excess winds above and below are
from about the same point of the compass. Similarly, in the cold year the sea-level
wind excess indicates an excess of pressure to the west or north-west, and a defect to
the east. Here we see that the Ben Nevis excess blows straight out from the indicated
centre of low pressure,—that it is, in fact, an out-flowing wind.

In the year of driest months, N., N.E., E., and S.E. are in excess, and &%., S.W., W.
in defect above and below, while N.W. is in defect above and in excess below. Both the
excess and defect are more pronounced below than above. In the paper on the “ Winds
and Rainfall of Ben Nevis,” already referred to, the wettest direction of wind is N.W.
and the driest E., both in cyclonic and anti-cyclonic areas. In the year of wettest
months we have, on the summit, an excess of W., N.W., N., and N.E.,—N.W. being most
in excess ; and at sea-level, an excess of S.W., W., and N.W.,—W. being most in excess.

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 19).. 4M

546 MESSRS OMOND AND RANKIN ON THE

Here, again, we see that the Ben Nevis excess is four points to the right of the sea-level
excess. This fact seems to pomt to the cause of the heavy rainfall experienced with
north-westerly winds on the summit, and with south-westerly and westerly winds at
sea-level. The south-westerly and westerly sea-level winds sweep in from the Atlantic,
and in rising over the high hills on the west coast they meet with a north-westerly wind,
which is a much colder direction on the summit than §.W., and in consequence a rapid
condensation of vapour, resulting in a heavy precipitation, takes place. Thus the rainfall
is greatly increased by the action of the N.W. cold condensing current at and above the
level of Ben Nevis, over what it would be from the mere effect of altitude on the ascend-
ing warm currents from below. The table indicates that in this kind of weather there
is an excess of pressure (at sea-level) to the south, and a defect to the N. or N.W.; and
that the wind excess on Ben Nevis is very nearly an outflowing wind from the centre
of low pressure. This explains the heavy rainfall usually experienced in or near the rear
of shallow depressions ; for when we have a warm, moist current below, and a current
from a much colder direction above, and when the warm current tends to ascend and
the cold current to descend, we have the most favourable conditions for producing a
heavy rainfall. In almost all storms that pass our western and north-western coasts we
have these conditions, and the result is that our west coast is about the wettest spot in
Europe. In the driest year we have a distribution of sea-level pressure exactly opposite
to that in the wet year. Here we see that with a low pressure to the south of Ben
Nevis, the excess winds are much the same above and below,—that there is no indi-
cation of an outflowing wind. It is rather remarkable that in both the driest and
wettest years we have N. and N.E. somewhat in excess on the summit, but in the driest
year these directions are much more in excess at sea-level than above, while the moisture-
bringing sea-level winds are much in defect, showing that the dryness is due in a great
measure to the defect in the sea-level oceanic winds, and that the wetness even on Ben
Nevis is due more to the sea-level winds than to the high-level winds; that is to say,
though the N.W. wind on Ben Nevis is the wettest wind, yet all its wetness comes from
below,—it is a moist current only in virtue of its being a condensing medium for the
warm and moist ascending currents from below. Rainfall is a very important element
of climate, and it is very interesting to note the considerable differences which exist at
moderate altitudes, as shown by these tables, in the direction of the wind, and conse-
quently in the temperature of the air, when it is most abundantly produced.

Diurnal Variation in the Direction of Wind.

There is no marked diurnal variation in the direction of the wind on Ben Nevis,
though the mean wind-velocity shows a distinct daily period. The latter, as at all true
hill stations, rises to a maximum in the very early morning, and falls to its minimum in
the afternoon, the reverse of what occurs at sea-level. But the direction of the wind

WINDS OF BEN NEVIS. 547

shows no appreciable changes, even in fine summer weather, when the power of the sun
is greatest, and such changes might be looked for. To make certain of this, the number
of observations of each of the four cardinal points were tabulated for each month of the
seven years, 1884-90, and the difference of the total number at each hour from the
mean of the whole day taken out. Combining the E. and W. winds into one table,
we find that there is no regular diurnal change, except a very slight tendency to an
excess of W. at night and of E. in the forenoon. The table of N. and 8. winds
shows a rather more marked variation, most pronounced in the summer months: from
1 to 9 a.m. the N. is in excess, from 10 a.m. to 6 P.M. the S., and for the rest of
the day both are rather below the mean of the whole day.

This result is substantially the same as that arrived at by a more elaborate examina-
tion of the summer winds of Ben Nevis for two years, communicated to this Society in
1886 (see Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xiii. p. 839). We see no reason to alter the
explanation of this very slight diurnal variation given in that paper, viz., that it is
entirely due to radiation on the N. and §%. sides of the hill, and is not connected
with any general system of land and sea breezes. It is rather remarkable that on Ben
Nevis there should be practically no diurnal variation in the direction of the wind,
situated as it is near the Western Sea, and with the elevated plateau of the Moor of
Rannoch, and the great mass of the highest hills of Scotland to the E. of it. At any
sea-level station in the neighbourhood, doubtless a diurnal change of marked character
would have appeared in a similar set of observations.

TABLE I.—Howrs of Each Wind. Ben Nevis Observatory. Means 1884-89,

N N.E E S.E s S.W W Tey |
January, . : : co eO) 67 43 96 104 118 103 78 15
February, ; - E 124 79 65 86 83 101 67 52 15
March, . ; : 2 138 105 76 109 81 87 68 56 24
April, é ; ‘ : 133 87 85 103 94 65 61 48 44
May, : : : : 79 89 71 135 115 88 73 48 46
June, . : : Pal elas 57 60 90 89 99 89 59 65
iuly, . ‘ ‘ . | 130 34 53 Wd 102 88 91 68 67
August, . ; ; . | hol 38 34 78 121 99 101 59 63
September, . : si elss 33 34 86 113 103 102 61 55
October, : : = Pelss 68 61 90 73 94 72 54 44
November, F ‘ » Ph elag 56 66 100 74 Halal 84 62 18
December, , : = F190 68 30 63 83 113 92 84 21
fear, : : . | 1647 | 781 678 | 1147 | 1132 | 1166 | 1003 729 477
February (Leap year), 2) 81 68 89 86 104 70 54 15

548 MESSRS OMOND AND RANKIN ON THE

TABLE Il.—Howrs of Each Wind. Ben Nevis Observatory. Percentages.

N. N.E. E. S.E. S. S.W. Ww. | wow. (oe
January, . : i A ie a 9-0 5'8 12:9 14:0 159 13°8 10°5 2-0
February, : : | erp 11°8 37 12°8 12°3 15:0 10:0 (ei 2°2
March, . : é » |ots"6 14-1 10-2 146 10:9 ey) 9:2 75 3°2
April, ‘ : 2 | eso 12:1 lies 14:3 13:0 9-0 85 6:7 61
May, : : : - |, L0G 12:0 9°5 181 15:5 11°8 9°8 6°5 6-2
June, . : «My 156 79 8:3 125 12:4 13°7 12-4 8-2 9-0
July;, )'» . : : ve Nips 4°6 wl 14°9 13:7 1168, ir? 9°2 9:0
August, . ; ; . | 203 51 4°6 10°5 16°3 13:3 136 Ue) 8-4
September, . i . } 185 4°6 4°6 12:0 157 14:3 14-2 8°5 76
October, . : 3 . | 25:3 Pil 8:2 12-1 9°8 126 O57 7:3 59
November, : : 2) 20sr 78 9-2 13:9 10°33 | 15-4 116 8-6 2:5
December, ; ; aa 2515 9-1 4:0 8°5 11:2 15°2 12°4 11:3 2°8
Year). . : ; De boxe 8-9 76 13:1 13-0 13:3 115 8:3 55

TaBLE III.—Percentage Winds. All Scotland. 1884-89. From Registrar General's Returns

published in Journal of Scott. Metr. Soe.

N N.E E S.E S. S.W w. | Now. |e
January, . 7:0 5-4 9+] 75 9-1 22-1 23-7 9-7 6-4
February, : i f 9-4 7 NOS 77 9:4 18°8 | 188 | 10:0 59
March, . ; . | 10-2 8:6 14:5 9-7 9-7 151 16°1 10:7 54
April, 111 13°3 18-4 9-4 8-9 11:7 14:4 8-9 39
May, 75 9-1 156 10:7 10:2 14:5 16:2 10:2 6-0
June, 6°7 9°4 13:9 8-3 9-4 13:3 21:2 111 6°7
July, 7:0 75 124 75 | 102 | 156 | 221 10:7 7-0
August, TD 7:0 9-7 5-9 11:3 8's.) 21:0) | aOR 8:1
September, 8:3 6-7 10°5 6-7 8:9 | 18:3 | 21-7 8:9 | 10:0
October, . Lory, 9-7 11:3 5-9 75 15:6 | 21-0 11°3 7:0
November, 7:8 7 Ney 72 94 W189 | O11 10-0 67
December, 9-7 4:3 5-4 54 9-1 21:0 24:7 11:8 86
Year, : : : 8°6 8-0 12:0 17 9-4 17:0 20:2 10:3 6:8

WINDS OF BEN NEVIS.

549

TABLE 1V.—Percentage Monthly Excess or Defect of Each Wind from Mean of Year.

Ben Nevis Observatory.

January, .
February,
March,
April,
May,
June,

July,
August,
September,
October, .
November,
December,

Extremes,

Range,

N.E. EK. S.E. Ss.
1 24 2 8
33 28 2 5
58 34 | 12 16
36 55 9 -
35 25 | 38 19
11 9 5 5
48 faite! 5
48 40 | 20 25
48 40 8 21
2 8 8 25
12 21 6 21
2 47 | 36 iW)
58 55 || 48 25
48 a7 Se 25
LO GH snlOO males 50

52

| Calm or

Var.

TaBLeE V.—Percentage Monthly Excess or Defect of Hach Wind from Mean of Year. All Scotland.

January, .
February,
March,
April,
May,
June,

July,
August,
September,
October, |
November,
December,

Extremes,

Range,

51

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 19).

N.E. E. S.E. S. S.W. W. N.W. pes
82 Qh 8 3 30 17 6 6
4 Spi ss ze 11 2 3 13
8 21 26 3 11 20 4 21
66 53 22 5 $1 29 uy 48
14 30 39 9 15 20 1 12
18 16 8 she 22 5 8 1
6 3 & 9 Lh 9 4 3
2 19 3; 20 11 4 4 19
16 12 18 5 8 7 U4 47
21 6 23 20 8 4 10 3
10 2 6 ae 11 4 3 jl
46 55 380 8 23 22 15 26
66 53 39 20 30 22 15 47
46 55 30 20 Bal 29 14 43
112 108 69 40 61 51 29 90

4N

550 MESSRS OMOND AND RANKIN ON THE WINDS OF BEN NEVIS.

TasL_E VI.—Percentage Excess or Defect from Sia Years Mean of a Year made wp of—

(1) Warmest Ben Nevis Observatory Months.

Ben Nevis Observatory
winds, . 5 : ;
Sea-level winds, : ‘ 40

(2) Coldest Ben Nevis Observatory Months.

Ben Nevis Observatory
winds, . ; : : 27 37 42 25 46 24 5 2
Sea-level winds, ‘ ; 46 26 4 32 28 19 3 2

(3) Driest Ben Nevis Observatory Months.

Ben Nevis Observatory
winds, . . . : 7 9 23 14 5 13
Sea-level winds,

(4) Wettest Ben Nevis Observatory Months.

Ben Nevis Observatory |,
winds, . : : 5 4 17 5 20 23 dd 24 31
Sea-level winds, : : it 14 24 22 6 il 19 9

( 551 )

XX.—A Demonstration of Lagrange’s Rule for the Solution of a Innear Partial
Differential Equation, with some Historical Remarks on Defective Demonstrations
latherto Current. By G. Curystat, Professor of Mathematics, University of Edin-
burgh.

(Read June 15, 1891.)

It seems strange that a principle so fundamental and so widely used as Lagrange’s
Rule for Solving a Linear Differential Equation should hitherto have been almost
invariably provided with an inadequate demonstration. I noticed several years ago that
the demonstrations in our current English text-books were apparently insufficient ; but, as
the method by which I treated Linear Partial Differential Equations in my lectures did
not involve the use of them, it did not occur to me to analyse them closely with a view
to discovering in what the exact nature of the defect consisted. The consideration of
certain special cases recently led me to examine the matter more closely, and I was
greatly surprised to find that most of the general demonstrations given are vitiated by a
very obvious fallacy, and in point of fact do not fit the actual facts disclosed by the
examination of particular cases at all.

The point where the demonstrations fail is in showing that every solution of the
differential equation Pp+Qq=R must be of the form /(u,v)=0; where w=a, v=b
are two independent integrals of the Auxiliary System da/P = dy/Q = dz/R.

In Forsytu’s Differential Equations (§ 186), for example, a demonstration is given |
which is briefly this. Let

W(a,y,z) =0 : : : : : E (A)
be any solution of

Pp+Qq=R ; : , : (B):
then, it can be shown that

oy dow dy |=0 : ; , : (C).

6x OY

ou dw dou

6a dy be

ov dv ov

ie by 2

From (C) it is inferred that there must be a functional relation between y, u, ¥, so
that (x,y,z) = F(u,v).

Now, this application of Jacosr’s well-known theorem is not justified, unless the
equation (C) be an identity in x, y, z The premises, however, requires merely that (C)
shall be satisfied in consequence of (A). Not only is it not proved that (C) is an

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 20). 40

552 PROFESSOR CHRYSTAL ON LAGRANGE’S RULE FOR THE

identity in x, y, 2; but this is not in general true, as may be shown by taking a case at
random. 7
The first example of Lagrange’s Rule, given in ForsytH (§ 189), is the equation

xp+yq=z . : f : : : : (B).
Now,
ye—v=0 . : : : (A)

is a particular solution, as may be readily verified. Here we may take u=a/z, v=y/z.
Since b=yz— x’, we find

O(yuv) _ -yz#— a?
OayzZ) =—_-¥®

?

which does not vanish identically, but only as a consequence of (A).

The fallacy thus disclosed consists in a confusion between a conditional equation and
an identity—an error that has occurred very often in the history of mathematics. The
cause of the defects in the various demonstrations lies somewhat deeper, as we shall point
out by and by.

The following attempt at a rigorous demonstration was given more than a year ago,
in a correspondence with Mr Forsytu on the subject. Owing to pressure of other work,
I have not found time to publish it until now. Meanwhile, M. Goursat’s Legons sur
l' Integration des Equations aua Dérivées Partielles du Premier Ordre have been pub-
lished, and there I find the first rigorous demonstration of Lagrange’s Rule with which
I am acquainted. His demonstration depends on the thorough discussion of the passage
from the ordinary linear equation to Jacoprs homogeneous linear equation ; so that it is
totally different from mine. The form in which the latter now appears owes something
to the private criticisms of Mr Forsyru, and something to my perusal of M. Goursat’s
able and interesting Legons.

I give at the end of this paper a short historical account of the earlier demonstrations
of Lagrange’s Rule, all of which are more or less defective.

Proof of Lagrange’s Rule for the Solution of a Linear Partial Differential Equation.

Let us take, for simplicity, the case of two independent variables; and let the

equation be
Ppt+QgeB. . - .. « . ZZ

where P, Q, R are single valued functions of a, y, z, and p = 6z/da, q = 6z/dy, as usual.
By a solution of (1) we understand an equation of the form

V(a,y2)=0 . : , : : : ; (2),

which leads to one or more determinations of z as a finite, continuous, single-valued

SOLUTION OF A LINEAR PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION. 553

function of x and y, such that the resulting values of P, Q, R, p,q make (1) an
identity. .

We farther suppose, 1st, That the related values of (x,y,z) do not constitute a critical
point of any one of the functions P, Q, R.

For example, if P={z— ,/(¢—aw—y)}/{z-2x%—y}, the relations z=x+y and z=2x+y are
excluded, because the first corresponds to a locus of branch-points of P, and the second to a locus of
infinity-points.

2nd, That the related values of (x,y,z) do not cause all the three functions P, Q, R
to vanish.

Any solution which has either of the two peculiarities just mentioned is classed as a
Singular Solution of the equation, and the followimg demonstration does not necessarily
apply to it. We shall speak of values of (x,y,z) which violate the two conditions above
(whether they constitute a solution of (1) or not) as Critical Values.

The auxiliary system of LAGRANGE, viz.,

d=) @ ae He ee 3)
has,* if we exclude critical values of x, y,z, the integral system
w= 08. : : : (4),

where wu and v are independent functions of (x,y,z), which may be taken to be single-
valued, continuous, and finite for all values of (x,y,z) which constitute an ordinary
solution of (1). If, for example, u became infinite for any such solution, we could
replace the integral w=a by 1/u=a’.

Now (4) gives us
ashe ia ; (5)
vxzda + v dy + v,dz=0
whence, by (3),
Me tae ; (6).
VzP + Vy Q + v,R=0

Since a and b do not occur in (6), and do occur separately in (4), the equations (6)
cannot be merely conditional, but must be identities. Therefore, since P, Q, BR cannot all
vanish for any non-critical values of (2,y,z), we must have, for all such values, the
identities

Bia da =O} |e, u,| =) anu, @:
Hence, ey ee ae
Prop. I. If we neglect any factor which contains (x,y,z) alone, the equation (1) as
equivalent to
Uz Uy Uz
Uz Vy Uzi

* By Caucuy’s “Fundamental Theorem regarding the Existence of the Solution of a System of Differential
Equations.” For a demonstration, see Madame KowatewskI, Crelle’s Journal, Bd. 1xxx. (1875).

554 PROFESSOR CHRYSTAL ON LAGRANGE’S RULE FOR THE

We shall now prove the following :—
Prop. Il. Jf any solution of (1) can be put deo the form

x—g(uv)=0 . ; ‘ ; : : ee (-)))

then the relation between (x,y,z) involved in this solution must make P=0; in like
manner, if any solution can be put into the form

y—h(uv)=0 . . 3 : : c . Gor
it must make Q=0; and, of any solution can be put into the form }

z—k(uv)=0 . ; : : : . pia
it must make R=0. =

Let 5 denote differentiation of the functions g, h, k on the supposition that w and v
are replaced by their values as functions of (#,y,z), say

u= U(x,y %) , v= u(a,y,2) ‘ é ; ; : (13),

(x,y,z) being supposed unrestricted so far as the differentiation is concerned. Then
6
Sees

from which it is evident that Sg/5z cannot be infinite in consequence of (9); for if g, and
J» were infinite that would involve a relation of the form /(u,v)=0, and wu, and v, are
finite by our hypotheses. It must be observed, however, that dg/8z2 may vanish. 5
From (9) we have
fle 2) 9 58 /89,
p=( da} / bz? 21> ~gy/ bz

Hence (1) or (8) is equivalent to

ég _og9 _&g| /ég

ee tars
Ux Uy Uz
ten Oe an

Since g is a function of u and v,

and (14) reduces to

Og _ .
/Z-o a

=0 . . » . .—_—_—

SOLUTION OF A LINEAR PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION. 555

The two other parts of the proposition are established in exactly the same way.*
We can now prove that

Prop. II. Every non-singular solution of (1) can be expressed in the form

fup)y=0 . : : P : E ‘ (17).

Since the functions wv and v are independent, not more than one of the determinants
in the matrix
Uy Uy Uz
OP Ore aOy,

(18)

can vanish identically.

1st, Let us suppose that none of the determinants in (18) vanish. Then, by means
of the equations (13), we can express any function ¥(a,y,z) in each of the three forms

X1(2,U,V), xXY,U,V), xa(2,U,v).

Hence the solution (2) of the differential equation (1) will be a derivative of (but not
necessarily equivalent tot) each of the three equations

x1(@,U,0)=0 (191), xa(y,u,v)=0 (192), xa(z,u,v) =0 (19s).

Now (19,) leads to relations of the forms «— (u,v) =0, or f(u,v) =0; (19.) to relations
of the forms y—/(u,v)=0, or f(u,v)=0; (193) to relations of the forms z—k(u,v) =0, or
F (u,v) = 0. .

It follows, therefore, that any relation which is part of a solution of (1) is either a

derivative of an equation of the form f(u,v)=0,f or else it can be expressed in each of
the three forms
x—g(uv)=0, y—h(u,v)=0, z—k(u,v)=0,

* The above is sufficient for our present purpose; but it is interesting to notice that the condition (16) is not
sufficient if dg/0z=0. In that case we must add the further condition

Sahel It ep ee ea
Vy Uz

It is obvious that, in general, 69/62 will vanish under the conditions supposed, and that the condition (16’) will not in
general be satisfied ; for, it is clear that if we set down an equation such as (1) at random, and connect (a,y,z) by the
relation P=0, the equation will not in general be satisfied. This leads to some curious analytical theorems which I
have partially verified in connection with the above theory.

In like manner, in the case of a solution of (1) of the form y—A(u,v)=0 which makes 6h/dz=0, in addition to the
condition Q=0, we must have

= oo v)

L
y=h(u,v)

Also in the case of a solution of the form z—h(u,v)=0 which makes 1 — 0k/dz=0, in addition to R=0, we must have

L
2=K(u,v)

Uz Uz

Uz Ux

is Gl /(@: = %)=0-
vy oz

+ Forgetfulness of this point seems to have been the real root of the many defective demonstrations that have been
given of Lagrange’s Rule, beginning with his own.

+ Any particular non-singular solution may come from all the three forms (19) in the form /(u,v)=0; or it may
come from (19,) in the form x—g(u,v)=0; and from the other two in the form f(u,v)=0; and so on. It should also be
noticed that the given solution may be only a derivative of, and not wholly equivalent to, f(u,v)=0. I insist on these
elementary matters because they are so very much overlooked, especially by English mathematicians, the result having
been a plentiful crop of fallacies.

556 PROFESSOR CHRYSTAL ON LAGRANGE’S RULE FOR THE

and is therefore such that it makes
P=0) @=0. seo,
that is to say, it is a singular solution.
2nd, Let us suppose that one of the determinants (18) vanishes identically, then by (7)
we must have : .
P=0, or Q=0, or R=0.

That is to say, we have to prove Lagrange’s Rule for the special equations

Qq=R : ; : ‘ 4 , . + GD
Pp=R ; : : ’ ; : (21);
Pp+Qq=0. : ; ; : : : (22).

Let us consider (20). The corresponding auxiliary system is
dx/0 = dy/Q(a,y,z) = dz/R(a,y,z) .
One integral of this is =a; the other is given by

dy/Q(a,y,z) = dz/Ri(a,y,z).

Since neither Q nor R vanish identically, this last equation has no integral of the
form y=const. or z=const. Hence its integral may be written v(a,y,z)=b, where v —
contains both y and z. In the present case, therefore, we may put

U0, UO 2):

We can, therefore, express (x,y,z) in each of the two forms x,(y,w,v), x3(2,u,2).

It follows, therefore, precisely as before, that any part of a solution of (20) is either
a derivative of an equation of the form f(u,v)=0, or else is expressible in each of the
two forms y—h(u,v) =0, z—k(u,v) =0, and therefore makes Q=0, R=0; that ‘is to say,
is a singular solution of (20). Similar reasoning applies to (21) and to (22).

The above reasoning is obviously immediately applicable to the case of n independent
variables. It therefore affords a rigorous general demonstration of Lagrange’s Rule, so
far as that rule is correct. It would be in vain to attempt to extend the demonstration
to singular solutions, because solutions of this kind can be produced for which Lagrange’s
Rule is not true. See below, p. 557. |

It may be well to illustrate the foregoing theory by a few examples.

Ex. 1. Let us consider the solution
z—xa—y=0
of the equation
ap —vq=(2—-2—-y)?.
Here we may take
u=aoty, v=a(z—-x—y)/(z—-2x—y).

We have

b (wy 2)=e-B—Y :
and

Xi(@,U,v) =x] (v < a) ;

Xl YUv=(U—y)of(V—U+y) ;
X,(2,U,v)=2—-U.

SOLUTION OF A LINEAR PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION. 557.

It will be seen that the solution z—a—y is given in the Lagrangian form, viz, v=0, if we consider
Xi(@,U,v) = 0 or x,(y,u,v) =0, but in the form z—w=0, if we consider y,(z,u,v) =0.

Ex. 2. Consider
z2—2e—y=0,

which is a solution of the same differential equation as before. Here, in order to avoid the infinite

value of v, we choose
U=a+Yy, v=(4-2e-y)/a(z-—a—-y).
We then find

Xi(a,u,0)=a0/(1— ve) ;
Xo(Y,U,v)=(u —y)?o/A —vw+ vy) ;
x3(2,0,0)=(4 ‘vu u)v/(1 —VwU+ V2) 3

In this instance the solution in question is given in the Lagrangian form in all three cases, viz.,
v=0.
Ex. 3. W(ay,2)=zy—2=0;
ap+yq=z.
u=alz, v=y/z.

X(@,u,v)=a(v — vu ;

XAYUv)=y(v —u?)/v? ;

x,(Z,Uv)=2(v—u*)/v.

In this case also the solution is given in LAGRANGE’s form, v—u?=0, in all three cases.
Ex. 4,
Way 2)=2-"—y;
{1+ /@—a—-y)}pt+q=2.
u=ly—z2, v=yt2J/(e-x-y).

X1(,U,v)=2 +0 -u—“—2 /A+v—u—2@);

XlYwvy=rv—y)

X;(2,U,v)=}(20—u—2z)?.
Here the solution z—«—y=0 cannot be put into the Lagrangian form at all. This is in agreement
with our demonstration ; for the relation z—a#—y=0 gives a locus of branch-points of the coefficient
of p. The solution in question is therefore a sungular solution of the linear equation. It sometimes
happens that the solutions classified as singular for the purposes of the above demonstration are
particular or limiting cases of a Lagrangian solution; but this is not the case in the example just
given.

Historical Remarks on the Previous Demonstrations of Lagrange’s Rule.

The first germ of the Rule itself was given by Lacrance in § 52 of his memoir “ Sur
les Intégrales Particuliéres des Equations Différentielles” (Nowv. Mém. d. 0 Ac. d. Berl.,
1774).* It is given in a complete and general form in Art. V. of his memoir “ Sur-dif-
férentes Questions d’Analyse,” &c. (ibed., 1779) ;+ and is there accompanied by a verifi-
eation that the Lagrangian integral satisfies the differential equation. He returns to the
subject (ibid., 1785) t in a memoir entitled “ Méthode Générale pour intégrer les Equations
aux Différences Partielles.” In so doing, he says :—‘“‘ Mais, comme cette méthode n’y

* Huvres, t. iv. p. 82. + Guvres, t. iv. p. 624, { Quvres, t. v. p. 548.

558 PROFESSOR CHRYSTAL ON LAGRANGE’S RULE FOR THE

(in the memoir last quoted) est exposée qu’en passant et. presque sans démonstration, jai
cru qwil serait avantageux aux progrés du calcul intégral de la présenter de nouveau de
la maniére la plus directe et avec toute la généralité dont elle est susceptible.”

The demonstration, which seems intended to prove that every possible solution is of
the Lagrangian form, may be summarised as follows. We have to determine p and q as
functions of («,y,z), so that the two equations

Pp+Qq=R, pdxe+gqdy=dz
may be simultaneously satisfied. As a consequence of these we have
q(Pdz—Rdx)+q(Qdz—Rdy)=0. . . . . ~ (A).
Let u(x,y,z) =a, v(x,y,z) =b be the integrals of the system
Pdz-Rdx=0, Qdz—Rdy=0;

then, if we replace the variables (x,y,z) by u,v, and any one of the others, say z, we
can readily show that
Pdz—Rda=R(v,du—u,dv)/T,
Qdz—Rdy = R(u,dv—v,du)/T ,
where T U,Uz—UgVy -
Hence (A) becomes
R 3
ap {(Pey— WV )AU + (QUz—pu,)dv} =0 ; ; : : (B).
LaGRANGE then rejects the factor R/T, and writes (B) in the form
Gta Py s
Tt eae ame , : : : : ' (C).
Then he reasons thus. Since (C) contains only the two differentials du and dv, it can
only subsist if the coefficient of dv be a function of u and v alone. Consequently, if

we substitute for x and y their values in terms of (w,v,z) as determined by the equations
Uu(x,y,z) =U, (x,y,z) =v, the variable z must disappear of itself, and we must have
(QUz—pty)|( pry—Qa)=fuv) «(DD
(C) then becomes du+/(u,v)dv=0; the integration of which gives us a relation of the
form F(u,v) = 0.
This demonstration is utterly unsound. So far from demonstrating that all solutions
have the Lagrangian form, it does not even apply to solutions that actually have that
form. a
In the first place the equation (B) might be satisfied by R/T=0. If, for example, 4
we take the equation xp —a’q = (z—x—y)’, and consider, the solution z—x—y=0, :
Then p=1, g=1; and we may take

U=n2+y+a(z—x—y)/(2—2e—y);
v=a(z—x—y)/(2—2x—y):

SOLUTION OF A LINEAR PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION. 559

and we have for the equation (B) of Lacrancr’s theory

(z—u)? (—du+dv)=0;
and for the equation (C)
—du+dv.

Now (B) is satisfied by the solution z—x—y=0, that is, z—w=0, on account of the

occurrence of the factor (2—wu)?; but Lagraner’s equation (C) is not satisfied by the
solution at all.

There is a still more fatal objection. The statement which I have italicised in
LAGRANGE’S demonstration is quite erroneous, as may be easily verified in the simplest
eases. Consider, for example, the same linear equation as before, along with the obvious
solution z—2x%—y=0. In this case p=2, q=1; and we may take

WH=E+Y 5
v=(e—20—y)Ja(e—a—y)—1[(w+y).

The factor R/T im this case reduces to —a?(z—a#—y)?, and does not furnish the
solution in question. The equation (C) reduces to

[2(v+1/u){1/(¢-u)+v4+1/u} —20/u—v? |du —dv ,
and instead of LaGRANGE’s conclusion (D) we get

ge Dy s ese
P%—-Q, 2Av+1/u){1/(eZ—u)+o+1/u} —20/u—v? ;

from which z does not disappear. It is perfectly true that the solution in question, viz.,
z—2x2—y=0, or, as it may be written,

(V+ 1/uj(e—u)/{1+(0+1/ue—w} =0,

the effective derivative of which for the present purpose is v+1/w=0, is a Lagrangian
solution, and does satisfy the equation (C), as may be readily verified ; but this does not
happen in the way required by LacraNncE’s demonstration. The fallacy seems to have
arisen from forgetfulness of the fact that (C) does not require to be satisfied identically,
but only as a derwative of the relation which constitutes the solution. LAGRANGE’S
proof is, therefore, utterly defective.

LAGRANGE gives two other demonstrations of his rule, one in his Legons sur le Calcul
des Fonctions (Lecon 20°), the other in his Théorie des Fonctions (chap. xvi.). The
latter is merely a verification that every linear equation admits of a Lagrangian solution
(u,v) =0, and need not be considered here. The former is another example of the
fatality which has pursued the attempts at a complete demonstration. It runs as
follows :—

Let \(x,y,z) =0 be a solution of Pp+Qq=R; then
Eee Oss Ry Oh 0 eee et ame

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 20). 4P

560 PROFESSOR CHRYSTAL ON LAGRANGE’S RULE FOR THE

Regard now «, y, z as functions of a fourth variable ¢; then

ety tabeaWw(ayz) . . . . . (B).

Using (A), we get Hate ae
(w@Q—yP)W,+(@R—2P),= —Pr(w,y,z) : : : (C).

We see from (C) that (a,y,2) will vanish if we establish between the three variables («,y,z)
relations such that wat a
xQ—yP=0, «R-—zP=0;
that is, —
da[P=dy/Q=d2/R . . -. . =. = op

These equations connecting «, y,z will determine x and y as functions of z; it follows,
therefore, that by the substitution of these values of « and y, (x,y,z) will become a
function of z. Hence, since the differential coefficient of .b(x,y,z) must then vanish, it
follows that z must diswppear of itself from \(x,y,z) after the substitution.

If, then, u(x,y,z) =a, v(x,y,z) =, (E) be the integral system of (D), we must have as a
consequence of these equations

w(a,y,2) =fla,b) a a |
But as a consequence of (F) and (E), we must have the identity
Way =f {u(x,y,2), Uaey,2)} -

Therefore, the supposed solution (x,y,z) =0 may be written in the form f(w,v) = 0.
Overlooking the neglect of the possibility that P=0 may be a derivative of the
system (E), and thus (C) be satisfied, although ~(,y,z)-0, it is easy to show that the —
above demonstration is quite fallacious. It is forgotten that the equation (C) is only
arrived at by means of (A); therefore, in order that («,y,z) may vanish, it is not
sufficient merely to replace x and y in terms of z by means of (E), we must also use (A),
or its equivalent, (x,y,z)=0. (a,y,z) does not vanish identically, and therefore
LAGRANGE’S inference (in the words italicised above) that (F) results from (E) falls to the
ground. The simplest particular case will show the justice of this criticism. .
Consider the equation wp+yq =z and its solution zy—a?=0. Here b=zy—«?, and
we have

v= — 2x0 +2y +y2 4

We may take u=a/z=a, v=ylz=b as the system (E). Therefore w=az, y=bz; 80
that
y= {—2ax+be+y}z.

Replacing w and y by their values in terms of z, we find

Y= 2(b—a*)zz

SOLUTION OF A LINEAR PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION. 561

so that Ny does not vanish as a mere consequence of (EH). Also, if we replace « and y in
v by their values in terms of z, we get

W=(b—-a?)2*,

from which z does not disappear of itself.

There is in this demonstration the same fallacy of confusion between identical and
conditional equality that was pointed out in the former one. It is certainly very strange
that this proof, occurring in a book so widely read as the Calcul des Fonctions, should
not have been questioned before.

Jacost, in his “ Dilucidationes de Aiquationum Differentialium Vulgarum Systematis,”
&c. (Crelle’s Jour., 1842, Werke, Bd. iv. p. 150), refers to LaGRANGE’s work as follows :—
“Jil. Lagranee (Acad. Ber. a., 1779, pp. 152-160) equationum differentialium primi
ordinis linearium solutionem, hoc est reductionem ad zequationes vulgares, primum obiter
et adumbrata tantum demonstratione dedit. De illa demonstratione pretiosa alio loco
mihi agendum erit.* Aliam postea dedit demonstrationem in commentatione” (“ Méthode
Générale,” &c., Acad. Berl. a., 1785, pp. 174-190).

It does not appear from this that Jacosr had read Lacrancr very closely. The
“‘Demonstratio Adumbrata” is a perfectly clear and good proof so far as it goes, while the
“ Alia Demonstratio” is fallacious, as we have seen.

JACOBI'S own method is very beautiful. He first considers the ‘‘ Homogeneous”

equation,
of .y of Of _

Det Rape test Kage aO. 0 AD,
where Z, X,,...., X, are functions of z, a, ...., 2,3; and shows that every integral
of (A) is of the form

HCE fy 2 a0 ee ee ee ae
where
é ij C—O oS : ; , 3 : (C)
is the integral system of
PAE = dies (X ix. 42 = des ade) eu i ee he a te:
He then shows that the equation
dz bz bz
es, ft hae Se
ean be transformed into (A) by supposing
Zia, & 2/3 10m) Ce « ‘ 3 : i : (F),
where a is an arbitrary constant, to be a solution of (E), and replacing 62/da,,.... by

their values — (6f/8x,)—(df/oz), .. . .

So far as proving that every possible solution of (H) is contained in (B) is concerned,

* I have not been able to find this “alium locum.”

562 PROFESSOR CHRYSTAL ON LAGRANGE’S RULE.

this process is no better than LaGrancr’s “ Demonstratio Adumbrata,” for the question
how far the equation (A) derived in this way from (E) is really equivalent to (E) is not
discussed. at all. We now know that (A) is not equivalent to (E). Of this Jacopi
himself seems to have been in some measure aware, for he says :—‘‘ Extat interdum
wequationis (E) solutio, quae neque ipsa Constantes arbitrarias implicat neque e solutione
Constantes arbitrarias implicante provenire potest valores us tribuendo particulares. Que
solutiones per methodum anticedentibus traditam ex zequatione (A) solutionibus elici
nequeunt, sed, si extant, absque omni integratione inveniuntur. De quibus solutionibus
singularibus hoc loco non agam.”

In Bootr’s Differential Equations (2nd ed., 1865, p. 332) a demonstration is given
in which the confusion between a conditional equation and an identity occurs twice over.

Serret (Calcul Integral, 1868, p. 601) comes nearer the true demonstration. He
points out that we can express (x,y,z) in the forms y,(x,u,v), xo(y,u,v), and shows
that

Ox _ OX?
p= O37:

He then reasons that, since dy,/dx and dy,/Sy are by hypothesis not identically null, the
solution Y=0 must make P=0, Q=0, R=0, for “we cannot admit that dy,/dc=0 and
dx,/dy = 0 can be satisfied as a consequence of x, =0 or y.=0, for the elimination of « or
of y would give a final equation between w and v, which implies contradiction.” He
seems to forget that it may happen that dy,/d¢ and x. may have a common u-v- factor,
or otherwise be such that the two equations dy,/da=0, x,=0 are not independent. This
is what actually does happen in general. See the examples given above (p. 557).

ImscHENETSKY (Archiv der Mathematik und Physik, Th. 1., 1869, p. 295) reproduces
the demonstration given by LAGRANGE in the Calcul des Fonctions without alluding to
the fallacy 1t contains. }

The demonstration given by Grarxporer (Mémoire sur UIntégration des Equations
aux Dérwées Partielles, 1872, p. 12) contains the usual fallacy of confusion between an
identical and a conditional equation. The same remark applies to the proof given by
Manston (Théorie des Equations aux Derivées Partielles du Premier Ordre, 1875,
p- 35), which is in form the same as that given by Forsytu. It is needless to criticise
the demonstration given by Jorpan (Cours d’ Analyse, t. i. p. 312), because, even if it
were clear and convincing so far as it goes, it does not pretend to be complete.

This little piece of mathematical history shows us that human judgment even of the
best judges is fallible even in such a simple thing as mathematical reasoning. It teaches
us to distrust general demonstrations which are not built on the most obvious elementary
foundations. All such demonstrations should constantly be brought to the test of parti-
cular instances. The difficulty in proving Lagrange’s Rule was no doubt insuperable
until the nature of singular solutions had been determined, and the cases separated in
which it was not true; but this was no excuse for the bad logic of the pretended
demonstrations,

XXI—On the Anatomy of Ocnerodrilus (Kisen). By Frank E. Bepparp, M.A.,
Prosector of the Zoological Society of London, Lecturer on Biology at Guy’s
Hospital. (With a Plate.)

(Read 2nd March 1891.)

The worms which form the subject of the present communication were forwarded to
me, in a living condition, from Kew Gardens.

I have received lately a considerable number of living Oligocheta from those Gardens,
through the kindness of Mr Dyrr,* who permitted me to have the earth arriving from
different parts of the world in the Wardian cases, in which plants are packed for travel-
ling, thoroughly sifted, with a view to preserving the worms which had been accidentally
included. By these means I have succeeded in obtaining some very interesting new
forms, as well as a number of others which are stillimperfectly known. The species which
I describe in the present paper appears to be a new species of E1sen’s genus Ocnerodrilus.
The genus Ocnerodrilus was formed by Eisen in 1878 [1] for a small worm found
in Fresno County, California. The specimens were all met with in “an irrigation box,”
where they were found crawling among the algz which covered the boards. It is
evidently, therefore, aquatic in its habits, but Eisen contrasts its slow movements with
the rapid swimming of Lumbriculus and Rhynchelnuis, comparing it in general appear-
ance with a small species of Lumbricus.

My own specimens, eight in number, came from British Guiana in a Wardian case
containing plants; they also presented the appearance of a small Earthworm rather than
of any Lumbriculid with which I am acquainted. The colour, which seems to agree
with that of Ocnerodrilus occidentalis, is reddish, caused of course by the blood seen
through the transparent body-walls, which are, however, rather thick for so small a
worm. ‘These specimens may be terrestrial in habit, but there was a Pachydrilus in the
same earth with them, which may perhaps indicate an especially moist locality. As,
however, Allurus can live equally well in earth and in water, it is not surprising to
meet with other forms which possess the same power of adapting themselves to different
circumstances. The size of the species, when contracted by the corrosive sublimate with
which they were preserved, is shown in fig. 5; it is therefore somewhat smaller than
Ocnerodrilus occidentalis. During life, it is almost unnecessary to state, these dimen-
sions were considerably exceeded by the power of extension of the body which the worm
possessed.

* T desire also to record my appreciation of the careful way in which Mr Crisp, one of the employés at Kew, has
sorted out and transmitted to me these and other specimens.

VOL. XXXVI. PART IL. (NO. 21. 4Q

564 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD ON THE ANATOMY OF OCNERODRILUS.

The genus has been recently met with by Ersen in Central America, but at present
there are no particulars as to the structure of the four new species, which he briefly
mentions as having been found by himself [2, p. 5, footnote |.

Ocnerodrilus, therefore, has probably a wide range over the warmer parts of the
American continent, and is, so far as we know at present, confined to that continent.

I. STRUCTURE OF OcyEzRODRILUS.

§ External Characters.

Figure 5 shows an individual of the natural size after preservation in corrosive
sublimate, followed by alcohol. Fig. 2 illustrates some of the principal external
characteristics.

The prostomium is present, but not in any way specially remarkable.

The sete are strictly paired, and are of the usual shape that is met with in Earth-
worms. There is no modification of the clitellar sete, except that the ventral pair of
segment XVII in fully mature individuals are totally wanting.

Dorsal pores are absent.

The clitellum includes segments XIII-XVIII; it commences and terminates abruptly.

‘The nephridiopores open in front of and a little to the outside of, the ventral pair
of setze ; there are a pair to each segment, commencing with the third.

The spermathecal pores lie between segments VII and VIII, on a line with the ©
ventral setze.

The oviducal pores are upon the XIVth segment, in front of the ventral pairs of sete.
The male pores occupy a corresponding position upon the XVIIth segment, though the
sete are absent. ;

Judged by external characters only, Ocnerodrilus would be referred to the Crypto-
drilidee among Earthworms. We shall see that its internal anatomy shows many resem-
blances to that family.

§ Body Wail.

EIsEN gives no account of the histology of the body wall in Ocnerodrilus, referring
only to the characters of the sete, which are figured [1, pl. i. fig. 2). Nor is the clitellum
described. This organ is of great importance in determining the affinities of the different
genera of Oligocheeta, particularly in some families. Had the clitellum been developed
in any of the specimens examined by Eisen, he would hardly have referred the genus to
the family Lumbriculide.

A considerable proportion of my examples were furnished with a fully developed
clitellum ; but there were others, fully mature as regards the sexual organs themselves, in
which there was no trace of a clitellum. Eisen states that his species is mature in the

MR FRANK E. BEDDARD ON THE ANATOMY OF OCNERODRILUS. 565

latter part of October. This statement implies that, as in the Lumbriculidee and other
families of aquatic Oligocheta, Ocnerodrilus passes the greater part of the year in a
state of reproductive inactivity. My own specimens must have been collected in June
or July, and I think it very probable that, as in Harthworms generally, some individuals
are mature during every month of the year. In any case the clitellwm, when developed, 1s
very extensive, and easily recognisable in the worm without a microscopical examination.
It commences at the XIIIth segment, and extends back as far as the XVIIIth, thus
occupying altogether six segments. It is absolutely limited to these segments, and
does not, as is so often the case with this organ, trespass upon a portion of the adjoining
segments at either end.

‘ The extent and position of the clitellum alone, without going into any details of
structure, is sufficient to show how much Ocnerodrilus differs from any of the aquatic
groups which are known.* In most of these the clitellum consists of a small number of
segments—not more than four, and generally less—which immediately surround the
genital pores. Ocnerodrilus is, however, like all the “ Zimicole,” and the majority of
EHarthworms, intraclitellian in PrERRIER’s sense, 2.e., the oviducts and sperm ducts
open on to this modified region of the integument. The intraclitellian condition is
regarded by Brennan [9] as the more primitive; but it is difficult to see any reason for it
shifting back to a point far behind the generative apertures, as is the case with the Lum-
bricidze (sensor stricto). Supposing this to be explained, it is then equally difficult to
account for the fact that in Pericheta the male apertures usually lie behind the clitellum.

In Ocnerodrilus and other forms it looks very much as if the clitellum had extended
to keep pace with the changed position of the male pores.

I formerly advocated the same view as Mr Brnuaw, for the reason that the glandular
liming of the atria has a certain relation to the structure of the clitellum. In Earthworms,
where the clitellum consists of two distinct layers of cells, the atrium is lined with two
layers of cells, on the whole similar to those of the clitellum. On the other hand, the
aquatic genera, with a clitellum consisting of only a single layer of cells, have atria which
are lined by a single layer of cells only. I shall, however, point out later that Ocnero-
drilus forms an exception to this rule, at present the only one known. Unless this can
be explained on other grounds, it is necessary to abandon this view of the relations of
the atria to the clitellum. I am still, however, disposed to believe that the intraclitellian
position of the generative opening is the primitive one. It seems to be the most
natural position for the development of the clitellum.

In its minute structure the clitellum of Ocnerodrilus differs from all the aquatic
families, and agrees with Harthworms. In all of the former the clitellum consists of a
single layer of cells only, while in Earthworms there are two distinct layers, and Ocnero-
drilus (see fig. 14) is in this respect an Earthworm, and differs from the Lumbriculide.

* With regard to the Lumbriculide, the number of segments occupied by the clitellum has not yet been accurately

described in many types. In Rhynchelmis, VespovsKy [15] implies that the clitellum occupies segments VIII-
XVI.

566 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD ON THE ANATOMY OF OCNERODRILUS.

This difference, which really distinguishes CLAPAREDE’S two groups of Limicole and
Terricole, can hardly be due to the small size of the former group, for many of them
considerably exceed Ocnerodrilus, Microscolex, and some other forms in bulk ; it must
therefore have some importance.

The only explanation that suggests itself to me is the need in terrestrial forms for an
especially thick cocoon to prevent evaporation and drying up of the contents; a thin-
walled cocoon would be in this respect sufficient for those forms which live in water, or
particularly damp localities. On the other hand, it must be remembered that the
increased thickness of the clitellum in terrestrial forms is accompanied by an increased
specialisation in the cells. Brennam figures four kinds of cells in the clitellum of
Microcheta, and the clitellum of other Earthworms seems to me to be equally com-
plicated. It is possible, therefore, that the structural diversity of the elements com-
posing the clitellum implies a physiological specialisation. The clitellum may perform
more functions than that of secreting the cocoon.

§ Alimentary Canal.

The first section of the alimentary tract is a very thin-walled buccal cavity, which is
evidently capable of being to a certain extent protruded at the will of the animal. In
one of the specimens studied by longitudinal sections the buccal cavity was slightly
everted, but did not actually project beyond the oral aperture ; its thin walls are attached
by comparatively few muscular strands to the parietes. It is these facts which lead me
to the inference that the buccal cavity can be protruded without the oral cavity, though
I did not notice anything of the kind in the living specimen.

The pharynx immediately follows the buccal cavity, and occupies only a single
segment, the [[Ird. It agrees in structure with the pharynx of many Harthworms,
having the usual mass of muscles upon the dorsal surface ; into this, as is also generally
the case, there project slight diverticula of the lumen of the alimentary tube.

The @sophagus is a narrow tube, extending as far back as the end of the VIIIth
segment. The lining epithelium consists of narrow columnar cells, which are covered
with a very thin chitinous layer. The lining membrane of the cesophagus is thrown into
irregular folds. Its muscular walls are tolerably thick. In segment LX the cesophagus
becomes widened out, and receives the ducts of a pair of glandular appendices (fig. 4d),
which he in this segment. These structures evidently correspond to the “sac-like
appendices” of which Eisen has recorded the presence in Ocnerodrilus occidentalis ;
they seem, however, in my species to be situated a segment further back. Hisun has
stated that there is no structure in the Limicole with which these glandular diver-
ticula can be compared. I am inclined, however, to compare them with the ‘‘Chylus
Taschen” of the Enchytreeidee on the one hand, and with the calciferous glands of the
terrestrial Oligocheta on the other. Among the Lumbriculide they do not appear to
have any equivalent.

MR FRANK E, BEDDARD ON THE ANATOMY OF OCNERODRILUS. 567

These bodies are not, as might possibly be inferred from EtsEn’s description, simple
diverticula of the cesophagus ; their lumen is divided up by a network of anastomosing
folds of epithelium, the subdivision being more complete towards the blind end of the
gland. The aperture into the cesophagus is very wide. The epithelium of the gland
appears to be everywhere ciliated, and the alimentary tract from the orifice of the glands
becomes ciliated. The structure of the glands is much like that of the calciferous glands
of many Harthworms, which are in some cases, at any rate, ciliated.* The corresponding
structures in certain species of Hnchytreus are also ciliated, though here the cilia are
undergoing degeneration [cf MicHaxELsEn, 17, figs. 5, 6, dt],

’ Inthe Xth and XIth segments the cesophagus, which is, as already mentioned, ciliated,
is extremely narrow, and has tolerably thick muscular walls.

In the XIIth segment it suddenly increases to more than double its previous dimen-
sions, and undergoes no further change, except that it becomes narrower as the body of
the worm narrows towards the anus.

It is important to point out that there is no trace of any gizzard, and that the intestine
has no typhlosole, and no ceca or glands of any description.

Eisen has correctly noted the presence of septal glands in this Oligocheet, which in
his species occupy the first few segments through which the cesophagus passes.

Ocnerodrilus Hiseni also possesses these organs. This genus is at present almost the
only type of Oligochet with unmistakable points of affinity to Harthworms, in which
these structures, so characteristic of many of the lower Oligocheta, occur. The only
other parallel instance known to us is Photodrilus, an Annelid which shows other points
of resemblance to Ocnerodrilus. GiarD, who has investigated the anatomy of Photo-
drilus, writes as follows with regard to the septal glands :—‘‘ Dans la région antérieure
(anneaux 5 & 9) lcesophage est recouvert latéralement et dorsalement par des glandes
volumineuses qui vont en décroissant d’avant en arriere ; la plus petite est située dans le
neuvieme anneau. Je les considére comme homologues des glandes septales, découvertes
par Vespovsky chez les Enchytreides. Malgre la place quils occupent contre lintestin
ces organes ne sont pas des glandes digestives; ils débouchent au dehors du cdoté dorsal
et je crois que cesta leur sécretion qu'il faut attribuer la propriété photogénique du
Photodrilus.” EtseN says nothing about the apertures of the glands in question in
Ocnerodrilus ; but the ordinarily accepted view is that they open into the cesophagus.
HENLE was, according to VEspovsky, the first to detect an opening into the pharynx.
VesDovsky asserted that in Anacheta bohemica the glands in question did open into the
pharynx; but as there were isolated masses of gland-cells totally unconnected with the
collecting duct, he preferred to use the term “septal” gland instead of salivary gland.
Further details as to Anacheta bohemica are to be found in his monumental work upon
the Oligocheeta [p. 105], where it is stated that the glands possess a lumen communicating

* In Acanthodrilus antarcticus and in the young of A. multiporus. I do not know how far this ciliation is prevalent
among Earthworms.

568 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD ON THE ANATOMY OF OCNERODRILUS.

with that of the duct. The isolated masses are figured, and it is shown that they have
no connection with the duct.

These latter—although it is stated that their structure is that of the large septal
masses which are connected with the duct—are compared to the “ Zellenwucherungen ”
which occur on the dissepiments of T'ubifex and other forms.

Besides occurring in other Enchytreids, septal glands are found in the Lumbriculid
Phreatothrix pragensis and in Naidium and Pristina. Vuspovsky’s statement that they
also occur in Criodrilus is not referred to by Rosa [11].

Dr MicHaztsgEn, in one of his admirable papers upon the Enchytreeide [17], notes
some important facts with respect to the septal glands of Stercutus niveus.

The difficulty of discovering the duct is stated to be due to the fact that they can
only be properly seen when the glands are in action. The duct is figured (but without a
lumen) attached to the dorsal pharyngeal wall. In Mesenchytreus setosus multipolar
ganglion cells were discovered in the interior of the septal glands, and the connec-
tion of these with brain explains why the earlier observers regarded the septal glands as
ganglia.

In Ocnerodrilus Eisent almost the entire space lying between the walls of the
cesophagus and the parietes of segments was occupied by the septal glands.

§ Vascular System.

I regret my inability to give anything like a complete account of the circulatory —

organs of Ocnerodrilus Kisent. This is, however, the less to be regretted, since EIsEn
has given a tolerably full description, illustrated by one good figure, of the circulation in
Ocnerodrilus occidentalis [1, pl. 1, fig. 8}, But if I had been aware that the worms, when
they first arrived from British Guiana, belonged to this genus, I should have made
greater efforts to study the distribution of the blood-vessels before preserving the speci-
mens for microscopical investigation. As it was, the pressure of other work led me to
preserve them at once. However, I can say something about these organs, since I
succeeded in satisfactorily preserving the worms with acid corrosive sublimate and alcohol,
which left the blood-vessels very distinct in sections.

I quite agree with EIsen in regarding the vascular system of Ocnerodrilus as widely
removed from that of the Lumbriculide. I do not follow him, however, in his comparison
with the Tubificidee. This comparison is based upon the presence of the “ large pulsating
hearts” in segments VIII and IX. It is perfectly true that many of the Tubificide, e.g.,
the genus Limnodrilus, are characterised by these vessels. But Eisen did not mention
that, as his enumeration of the segments of the Oligocheeta differs from that of CLAPAREDE,
who first distinguished Iamnodrilus [19] from Tubifex, the position of the hearts is really
different ; according to ErsEn’s figure, they are in segments IX and X in Ocnerodrilus
(VILIth and IXth setigerous seements).

MR FRANK E. BEDDARD ON THE ANATOMY OF OCNERODRILUS. 569

In my species I find that, as Eisen has discovered, there are (fig. 31) two pairs of
specially dilated perivisceral vessels, but that they lie in segments X and XI instead of
IX and X. A comparison with Limnodrilus is thus rendered less valid. In Microscolex
and Photodrilus there are three pairs of such vessels—in X, XI, and XII, and it is
rather with these that I should be disposed to compare Ocnerodrilus. The reduction of
the last pair of the three in Microscolex and Photodrilus brings about the condition which
characterises Ocnerodrilus. As compared with these forms, therefore, Ocnerodrilus occu-
pies a lower position, which I am inclined to attribute to degeneration. The dorsal vessel
is simple ; and there is a supra-intestinal trunk (fig. 3, s.n.).

§ Nephridia.

Dr Hisen found that in Ocnerodrilus occidentalis “ the segmental organs are present
in all setigerous segments except in the 13th and 16th. In the former they are replaced
by the oviducts, and in the latter by the efferent ducts and receptacle.”

This is not the case with my species.

In a mature individual with the clitellum fully developed, which was studied by
means of longitudinal sections, the nephridia were clearly visible in all the segments of
the body, commencing with the IIIvd, excepting only the XIth and XIIth.

The shape and structure of certain of the anterior nephridia agrees perfectly with
Kisen’s description and figures ; and I can fully bear out, from my own observations, his
comparison with the nephridia of the Tubificidee. The appearance of the nephridia is quite
unlike that of any earthworm, owing to the entire absence of blood-capillaries. This
point is not specially remarked upon by E1sen, though he figures no capillaries. This is
the first instance of an Oligocheet having, as I shall point out later, marked affinities with a
particular family of Earthworms in which the nephridia are not furnished with a plexus of
vascular capillaries. Correlated with the absence of blood-vessels is the very small
development of the peritoneal layer surrounding the organs. E1sEN does not indicate in
his figure any trace of such a structure at all, and I cannot say that I have been more
successful in detecting its presence in the nephridia of the anterior segments.

I understand from E1sEn’s description that the nephridia of Ocnerodrilus occidentalis
present the same characters throughout the whole body, and he particularly remarks upon
“the absence of large translucent cells like those found in Rhynchelmis.” I have also
already stated that this applies to the anterior nephridia of Ocnerodrilus Eisenc; but
from segment XX onwards the nephridia are seen to be partly embedded in a huge mass
of clear cells. A section through a nephridium of this segment 1s illustrated in fig. 9.
At the bottom of the figure are seen some of the coils of the tubules. These are surmounted
by a mass of cells, and a little to the left is another mass of similar cells, which in the
section selected for illustration appears to have no connection with the mass. This,
however, is merely due to the fact that the particular section does not show the con-
nection. The mass of cells in which the nephridium is partly embedded consists of

570 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD ON THE ANATOMY OF OCNERODRILUS.

elements of two kinds: firstly, large clear cells (b) with a deeply stained nucleus and a
very evident limiting membrane; and secondly, small granular deeply staining cells (a).
The latter I believe to be simply perivisceral corpuscles which have become attached
to the mass of hyaline cells. They agree in every particular with cells found floating freely
in the perivisceral fluid.

The mass of clear cells partly surrounding the nephridia are no doubt modified
peritoneal cells, which correspond to the similar cells which are found in connection with
the nephridia in the Lumbriculidz, Phreoryctidee, and some other aquatic Oligocheta,
Among Earthworms, Pontodrilus is furnished with similar cells. This discovery was made
by Perrrer [21], and is justly regarded by him as a point of affinity between Pontodrilus
and some of the lower Oligocheeta. PrRrier’s figure [21, pl. xiv., fig. 11] does not repre-
sent the microscopic appearance of these cells very well if they are exactly like those of
Ocnerodrilus. Another point of resemblance between Pontodrilus and Ocnerodrilus is
the commencement of these cellular masses round the nephridium in the XI Xth (Ponto-
drilus) or XXth (Ocnerodrilus) segment. But in Pontodrilus there are no nephridia
before the XVth segment, whereas in Ocnerodrilus these organs commence in the I Ird.

I have stated that there are no nephridia in the XIth and XIIth segments.

The XIIth segment is very much reduced as compared with the neighbouring seg-
ment. On each side of the body it is occupied by a mass of cells, perfectly independent of
the alimentary tract, which is illustrated in fig. 10 of the plate. This mass occupies nearly
the whole of the available space, and towards the dorsal side of the body (the right
of the figure) completely fills the seement from side to side; ventrally the mass of cells
becomes narrower, and is bent upon itself. The bending is not shown in the figure. The
cells of which this body is formed are of two kinds, which it is unnecessary to describe
further as they agree perfectly with the cells surrounding the nepbridia of the posterior
segments. In the XIth segment is a similar mass, which is, however, much smaller.

These bodies seem to me to represent the last trace of the nephridia of the XIth and
XIIth segments. This is probably accompanied by an increase in the number of the
clear peritoneal cells which exists in the following nephridia, though they are very few
in number as compared with the nephridia of the posterior segments. ‘There is, in fact,
not a complete change, as in Pontodrilus, between the anterior and posterior sets of
nephridia. I could find no hyaline cells attached to the nephridia of the first three or
four segments ; but from this segment to the XXth a few such cells were present ; and I
believe that the peculiar bodies of the XIth and XIIth segments are simply due to a
proliferation of these cells after the disappearance of the nephridium.

The funnels of the nephridia are small and composed of comparatively few cells. One
side of the funnel (see fig. 11) is considerably longer than the other; the cilia are well
developed. As the nephridia of segments XI and XII are rudimentary, I was naturally
unable to find any nephridial funnels depending into the Xth and XIth segments. Nor
did I succeed in observing any nephridial funnel attached to the posterior wall of segment
XHI. The nephridia of seement XIV, however, are present and well developed. From

MR FRANK E, BEDDARD ON THE ANATOMY OF OCNERODRILUS. 571

the XIVth segment onwards I easily found the funnels, and also in segments VI-IX.
I did not observe any funnels in the segments anterior to this, but as they were so
crowded with the septal glands, it is more than probable that the funnels were there but
escaped my observation.

The easiest way of demonstrating the external pores of the nephridia is to divide the
worm longitudinally, and then to mount the two halves in glycerine. The duct of the
nephridium is much more plain in specimens treated in this way than in either longitu-
dinal or transverse sections.

Fig. 2 represents the anterior segments of a specimen of Ocnerodrilus Kiseni, with the
nephridiopores indicated. As will be seen, they lie in front of and a little to the outside
of the ventral pair of setz in all the segments except the first two and XI and XII.

§ Testes.
In the position of these bodies Ocnerodrilus Eisen differs much from Ocnerodrilus
occidentalis. Hisen [1, p. 8] says:—“‘In Ocnerodrilus . . . . we find always two

pairs of testes of rather minute development and constant size. One pair is situated in
the VIIIth setigerous segment, where it is affixed to the dissepiment between the VIIIth
and IXth segment. The second pair is found in the Xth segment, but is affixed to the
dissepiment between the [Xth and Xth segments. Thus we find the testes affixed to two
consecutive dissepiments, but not in two consecutive segments.” This description agrees
with his figure [1, pl. i. fig. 9], but not with the definition of the genus given on p. 2 of
his Memoir. It is there stated that “the testes are two pairs in the VIIIth and IXth
setigerous segments.”

In a more recent work [2, p. 5, footnote] E1srn redefines Ocnerodrilus, writing that
the testes are “two pairs in 1Xth and Xth segments.”

If the latter definition is to be accepted, with the proviso that “IXth and Xth
segments” means IXth and Xth setigerous segments, Ocnerodrilus Hiseni agrees with
other species of the genus.

The testes are small bodies, lymg on the Xth and XIth segments, as in all Earth-
worms where there are two pairs present. Although they are not larger than the testes
of other Earthworms, they are large as compared with the size of the worm; they extend
right across the segment.

The first pair of testes are attached to the anterior wall of the segment, and are some-
what fusiform in shape. The second pair are attached in a corresponding position to the
anterior wall of the XIth segment (see fig. 8), and have the same shape. It is a little
difficult to be certain, in the case of the second pair of testes, whether the attachment is
to the anterior or to the posterior wall of the segment. They reach right across, as shown
in fig. 8, and come into close contact with the sperm sac of the XIth segment, where it
_ passes through the septum to become continuous with the sperm sac of the XIIth segment.

The testes are not enclosed within the sperm sacs, though they are in contact with
them for nearly the whole of their length.

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 21), 4k

572 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD ON THE ANATOMY OF OCNERODRILUS.

The minute structure of the testes calls for no particular description.

§ Sperm Sacs.

The sperm sacs are not mentioned by Eisen. They are, however, present in Ocnero-
drilus Eiseni, and indicate a closer resemblance to Earthworms than to any Lumbriculid.

There are in all four pairs of these sacs, situated in seoments X, XI, XII, and XIIT.

Each sperm sac consists of a delicate nucleated wall, and its interior is not subdivided
by trabeculee as it is im Earthworms. The sperm sacs were in every instance crowded
with masses of developing spermatozoa, and they often contained a few—but a very few—
Gregarines. The sacs are of rounded but somewhat irregular form; those of the XIth
and XIIth segments are pressed out of shape by the large “hearts” of those segments.

The sperm sacs of the Xth segment (fig. 1) are perfectly independent of those of the
next segment, and they are also independent of each other, though they nearly come into
contact on the dorsal side of the intestine. As already mentioned, each sperm sac is in
close contact with, but does not enclose, the testis of its side. Neither does it enclose
the funnel ofthe vas deferens.

The sperm sacs of segment XI have the same relations to the testes, and the same
absence of any relations to the vas deferens funnels ; they become attached to the septum,
dividing this segment from the XIIth by a slender cord which perforates the septum, and
is continuous with the sperm sac of segment XII. There is, however, no continuity of
lumen between the two sperm sacs, though very possibly this may occur at certain stages
of development.

The sperm sac of the XIIth segment projects through the septum for a considerable
distance into segment XIII. The aperture of communication is quite wide.

It follows from the above description that the sperm sacs of Ocnerodrilus agree in
their general form with those of Earthworms, but differ from Earthworms and agree with
the lower Oligocheeta in the fact that their lumen is not divided into numerous compart-
ments by anastomosing trabecule.

§ Vasa Deferentia.

The vasa deferentia commence with the funnels in the Xth and XIth segments.
Generally the funnels of the vasa deferentia lie opposite to their testes, but in Ocnerodrilus
the funnels lie below the testes, which, as already said, extend right across their segment.
The simple character of the funnels is shown in ErsEn’s drawing, which would represent
Ocnerodrilus Eiseni as well as O. occidentalis.

The two vasa deferentia unite before they open on to the exterior, but I am not

certain as to the segment in which this junction is effected. In O. occidentalis it appears
to be segment XVI.

MR FRANK E. BEDDARD ON THE ANATOMY OF OCNERODRILUS. 573

Atria.

These organs were noted by Eisen in his original paper upon Ocnerodrilus, but
regarded, on account of their opening on to the exterior independently of the vasa
deferentia, as spermathece.

Vespovsky [15, p. 149], in a woodcut illustrating the male ducts of the Annelid,
figures this supposed spermatheca as an atrium.

That this interpretation, which I have myself already accepted, is correct, | am
able to prove in the present paper. Eisen himself has lately admitted the justice of
VEJDOVSKY’S correction of his statement [15]. He says in a footnote to p. 5: “ The organs
which I have there described as seminal receptacles are undoubtedly nothing but the
atrium. During a recent visit to Central America I found four new species of Ocnero-
drilus, and a cursory microscopic investigation showed me immediately that the seminal
receptacles existed in several pairs in some of the anterior segments, which makes it
evident that the large bodies which open in the same porus as the efferent ducts must
be considered as atrium. In the Californian species, which I described as O. occiden-
talis, these small seminal receptacles were evidently overlooked.” I refer to the last-
mentioned point on p. 14. As to the atria, I find in my species that they do not open
on to the exterior independently of the vasa deferentia. It is very possible that the
study of the living worm as a transparent object might lead to this conclusion, since the
vasa deferentia only communicate with the atria just before the latter open on to the
ventral surface of the body. On the other hand, it is equally possible that both Eisen
and myself are right, and that there is actually this difference between the two species,
which are nevertheless in other respects closely allied. The degree of connection
between the vasa deferentia and the atria in the Oligocheta presents a most interesting
series of modifications between absolute independence at one extreme and perfect con-
tinuity at the other.

The following Table indicates the several stages, so far as they are known at
present :—

I. Atria presenting the appearance of a simple ter- | IV. Vasa deferentia opening into the atrium just
minal dilatation of the vas deferens (or vasa before its opening on to the exterior—
eseata Ocnerodrilus Hisent.

Chetogaster, Tubifex, Psammoryctes, &ec.

V. Vasa deferentia opening independently of and

II. Vasa deferentia opening into the atrium at the ; : é
just behind the atrium—

side—

Lumbriculide,* Eudrilide, Moniligaster.* Typheus, Rhododrilus.

Ill. Vasa deferentia opening into the atrium at the
commencement of the non-glandular por-
tion—

Perichceta, Pontodrilus, &e. Neodrilus, Acanthodrilus.

VI. Vasa deferentia opening independently of the
atrium in the next segment—

* In these Oligocheta there is hardly any distinction between a glandular and non-glandular section of the atrium.

a74 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD ON THE ANATOMY OF OCNERODRILUS,

It will be noticed from the above list that it is almost entirely among Harthworms
that we meet with this tendency for the vasa deferentia to become separate from the
atria.* If it were not for the striking instance to the contrary afforded by the Eudrilide,
this point alone would be sufficient to justify the reference of Ocnerodrilus to Harth-
worms. As it is, the relationship of the vasa deferentia to the oviducts is an important
point of difference from all the Lumbriculidee.

In Dr Etsey’s figure [1, pl. i. fig. 9, 7, s] the atria are represented as passing back as
far as the XXVIth segment in a slightly undulating course, which is more marked
towards their ceecal extremity. I have found that in my species the atria may also be,
but are not always, directed posteriorly from their point of opening on the XVIIth
seoment. It is this position of the atria which gives them so unusual an appearance in
EtsEn’s figures, and perhaps led him to regard them at first not as atria but as spermathece.
As a matter of fact, very little importance can be attached to the position occupied by
these organs in Oligocheeta, where they extend through more than one segment. Asa
general rule, they are more or less coiled up, and are limited to two or three segments in
the neighbourhood of that which bears their external orifice. But even in Acanthodrilus,
where this has been, according to my experience, always the case, there is one species,
viz., Acanthodrilus spegazzinu, in which the four atria extend back through a large

* T assume that the structures which have been usually termed “ prostates” in the Earthworm correspond to the
atria of the aquatic genera. This question has been lately revived by BmnHamM, who is not of my opinion [10].

Before pointing out the reasons which lead me to adhere to my own view, I would say a few words concerning an
apparent confusion in my description which is pointed out by Bunnam. He says: “Brpparp takes up rather a
curious position in regard to the prostate of Moniligaster. For him, the peritoneal coat, outside the muscular wall of the
atrium, is the ‘prostate, and is homologous with the ‘Cementdriise’ (or prostate) of Tubifex. Now this prostate in
Tubifex has been shown by VEJDovsKy to be formed by a proliferation and outgrowth of the atrial epithelium at a
certain point, which bursts through the muscular wall of the atrium and projects into the body cavity. The atrial
epithelium is derived from the epidermis, so that the ‘Cementdriise’ is epiblastic, whereas the glandular covering of
the ‘atrium’ of Moniligaster, Stylaria, Rhynchelmis, &c., is mesoblastic,—if it is in reality a modification of peritoneal
cells. Hence BEDDARD would regard the epiblastic ‘ prostate’ (Cementdriise) of Tubifea as the homologue of the meso-
blastic covering of the atrium of Moniligaster ! !”

In my own Memoir, to which Brenuam refers [23], I compare (on p. 120) the glandular investment of the atrium
of Moniligaster with a corresponding investment of the atrium in Rhynchelmis, which I write down as “ prostate,”
indicating by the inverted commas that I follow the nomenclature of Vespovsky. Further on I again (on p. 126)
make use of the term prostate in describing this glandular investment, but have omitted the inverted commas, which
renders my terminology a little confusing. I do not, however, in that paper compare the glandular investment of the
atrium in Moniligaster and Rhynchelmis with the Cementdriisen of Tubifex.

In a preliminary notice of these facts, however [22], I did make this comparison, which appeared to me to be to
some extent justified by the remarkable fact that the Cementdriisen of Tubifex are not covered by a peritoneal coating.
I came to the conclusion later that the apparent discrepancy between Vespovsky’s statements and figures might be of
less importance than I had thought it.

As to the terminal glandular structures attached to the vasa deferentia of Eudrilide, Perichetide, Acanthodrilide,
&c., it appears to me impossible to refer them to more than one category.

Mr Benuam indicates very clearly (except in fig. 4) the different layers which dangannie these organs in a number
of types, but omits any representation of the family Eudrilide ; it is precisely here that we meet with conditions which
render it impossible to distinguish between “atrium” and “ prostate.” Mr Benxam allows “that a portion of the
prostate of Perichwta, Eudrilus, and other genera in which the sperm duct and the prostate join, is probably the homo-
logue of the ‘atrium’ of Tubifex.” To follow out this admission to its logical conclusion it is necessary to draw a
distinction between the part immediately preceding and the part immediately succeeding the point of opening of the
vasa deferentia ; that is to say, we must regard as different two parts of a tube in the Eudrilide and in the Lumbri-
culid between which there is no trace of a break, and not the faintest difference in minute structure ! !

MR FRANK E. BEDDARD ON THE ANATOMY OF OCNERODRILUS. 575

number of seements (as far as the XXXVth) from their external pores. As these organs
probably grow inwards from an invagination, various circumstances might easily prevent
their growing in one direction or prevent their growth in another, and thus lead to great
variations in the amount of the coiling of the tube.

In one specimen which I examined the atrium of one side of the body was divided
into two tubes, which, passing under the nerve cord, lay upon the side of the body
opposite to that upon which the external pore was situated.

The atrium, as shown in Dr Etsen’s figures [1, pl. 1. figs. 4, 9], is divisible into a
muscular and a glandular region ; this is usually the case with the atria in Earthworms,
though not in Nemertodrilus |Bepparp, 5]. The muscular portion communicates
directly with the exterior; it is lined by a low layer of epithelial cells which is sur-
rounded by a thick coat of muscular fibres, chiefly circular in direction. The glandular
portion of the atrium is in certain points peculiar. The great length of the atrium,
extending as it does as a cylindrical tube through a considerable number of segments,
recalls the tubular atrium of Pontodrilus, Acanthodrilus, Dichogaster, and some other
genera of Harthworms, and I had expected to find its structure identical with that of the
atria of those Oligocheta. I find, however, that in Ocnerodrilus. Eiseni, as in Ocnero-
drilus occidentalis, the atrium is lined by a single layer of glandular cells. This differ-
ence in minute structure is of some importance. In all Earthworms in which a
“tubular” atrium is present its glandular epithelium consists of two distinct strata of
cells, which are not unlike those of the clitellum. It is only in the Moniligastride and in
the ‘‘ Limicole” that the glandular part of the atrium agrees with the non-glandular
portion in having an epithelial lining only one cell thick. Ocnerodrilus and Monaligaster,
therefore, render it impossible to utilise this character as distinctive of the “ Limicole,”
which it otherwise would be.

But, in any case, the possession of an atrium showing this structure is a point of
similarity to the lower aquatic Oligocheeta.

It might be supposed to bear some relation to the small size of the worm were it not
for the fact that in Microscolex, which is hardly larger, the atrium has the characteristic
structure of Earthworms.

Fig. 13 of the Plate illustrates a transverse section through the atrium. It
is covered externally by a very thin peritoneal layer, which appears to contain a few
delicate muscular fibres; the nuclei belonging to this layer were very evident. The
lining epithelium looks at first sight as if it were made up of a layer of large glandular
cells only. These cells are somewhat oblong, oval in shape, and have abundant granular
contents which are not stained by the colouring reagent used (borax carmine) ; towards
the base of the cell is a large spherical deeply-staining nucleus.

The glandular cells lining the atrium are separated from each other by darkly stained
but very thin structures, which are really non-glandular cells. A few of these can be
always seen in a given section to be furnished with a nucleus (see fig. 13) placed near to

the middle of the cell.

576 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD ON THE ANATOMY OF OCNERODRILUS.

§ Spermathece.

E1sen did not record the presence of spermathecze in Ocnerodrilus occidentalis, but
subsequently found these organs to be present in several other species of the genus from
Central America. This discovery led him to suspect that the organs in question must
have been overlooked in O. occrdentalis. This supposition may not be necessary, for
these organs certainly do not exist in Criodrilus lacuwm [see Rosa, 12] and in Lumbricus
Eisen and Allolobophora constricta ; possibly also a species of Pericheta has no sperma-
thece | Bepparp, 4]. Ocnerodrilus Eisena has a single pair of spermathecze in the VIIIth
segment, which open on a line with the ventral pair of setse into the furrow which
separates this segment from the VIIth.

The spermathecee (fig. 6) are a pair of spherical sacs, without any trace of a diverticulum.

I found them to be absent in some of the specimens which I examined; and this
fact suggests that they may really occur in O. occidentalis and have been over-
looked. The specimens of O. Evsent in which I found spermathecze were fully mature,
with the exception of the clitellum, which was quite undeveloped. On the other hand,
examples with a fully formed clitellum showed no traces of spermathece. This is some-
what remarkable, as one is inclined to associate the presence of a clitellum with complete
maturity of the other organs belonging to the reproductive system. It is possible that
this relation is only an accidental coincidence. The absence of a diverticulum is to be
noted in relation to the affinities of the worm. Among Earthworms, all the genera
included in my family [3] Cryptodrilide possess one or more diverticula appended
to the spermathece; and it is with this family that Ocnerodrilus would have to be
associated if it were definitely referred to the terrestrial Oligocheta. The absence of
diverticula is therefore a point of resemblance to the Lumbriculide, Phreoryctidee, and
other families of aquatic Oligocheta.*

§ Ovaries.

The position of the ovaries in Ocnerodrilus Eiseni appears to be very different from
that of O. occidentalis. In the latter they occupy a very unusual position, in their seg-
ment being situated upon its posterior wall; they are stated to lie in the XIth segment
(XIth setigerous) on the mesentery, between that andthe XIIIth. Among Earthworms,
Acanthodrilus annectens and A. multiporus are the only species known in which the
ovary lies on the posterior wall of the segment. Nor is this a point of resemblance to
the Lumbriculide, for Vespovsky has figured [15] both in Phreatothriz and Claparedilla
the ovaries as attached to the anterior wall of their segment, which is here the XIth.t
In Ocnerodrilus Kiseni the paired ovaries occupy the position which they are found to

* Tam inclined to think that Rosa’s failure to find spermathece in Microscolex dubius may be due to the fact that
they are only, as in Ocnerodrilus, present for a short period.

+ Vuspovsky’s figures of Phreatothrix (15, pl. xi., figs. 18, 19] show the XIth as the ovarian segment, but his table
on p. 132 states the Xth segment.

MR FRANK E. BEDDARD ON THE ANATOMY OF OCNERODRILUS. 577

occupy in the vast majority of Earthworms ; that is to say, they are attached to the front
wall of the XIIIth segment near to the ventral body wall. In this species, however, the
XIIth segment has a very restricted lumen, and it appears to me quite possible that the
delicate septum which separates this segment from the XIIIth may have been overlooked
by Ersen, who studied only the living worm as a transparent object. This suggestion is
perhaps hardly borne out by the figure which he gives of the entire reproductive system
of the Annelid. I feel convinced, however, that there must be some error in EISEN’S
description and figure, as it would be difficult from his statements to understand how the
ova could reach the exterior. J am not aware that there is any case known in which the
ovary lies in a different segment from that which contains the oviducal funnels, except
Sutroa {see Eisen, 2|. Iam of opinion that these apparent exceptions require reinves-
tigating before they can be regarded as certain. Contrary to H1sEen’s statement, I did
find ova detached from the ovary and floating freely in the perivisceral cavity of the
XIIIth segment. In one specimen there were two such ova on one side of the body, and
six on the other. As my sections formed a continuous series, cut by the Cambridge
Rocking Microtome, I am confident of this fact. I imagine, from the absence of any
mention of the clitellum in Eisen’s description, that this organ was not yet developed in
his specimens, and that the worms were therefore not fully mature. This may account
for the fact that he did not see any ripe ova floating freely in the body cavity.

The point may be in reality one of some little importance in relation to the question
of the affinities of Ocnerodrilus. A large number of Earthworms have been shown to
develop special sacs for the reception of the ripe ova; probably the majority are thus
provided. Similar structures occur in a considerable number of genera belonging to the ~
“TLimicole”; but there are several, particularly among the Enchytreide, where these
receptacles do not occur.

§ Summary.

Ocnerodrilus Eisent presents the following structural characters :—

The sete are strictly paired, and are of the usual Lumbricid pattern. They are not
modified upon the clitellum; the ventral pair are wanting upon the XVIIth segment,
which bears the apertures of the vasa deferentia and atria.

The clitellum occupies segments XIII-XIX. It has the same structure as in Harth-
worms.

The nephridiopores open in front of the ventral pair of sete.

The ovducts open upon the XIVth segment.

The atrial pores are upon the XVIIth segment.

The spermathecal pores are in the [Xth segment, on the border line between this and
the VIIIth segment, in front of the ventral sete.

There are no dorsal pores.

The alumentary tract consists of (1) a buccal cavity occupying the first three segments ;

578 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD ON THE ANATOMY OF OCNERODRILUS.

(2) w pharynx with muscular walls, extending from this point to the end of the Vth
segment; (3) a narrow @sophagus with much-folded walls, which become widened out in
the VIIIth segment, where it receives (4) a pair of calciferous glands. (5) The ciliated
intestine is a very narrow tube in segments LX and X, after which it is suddenly widened
but has no typhlosole.

The brain lies between segments III and IV.

The vascular system is chiefly remarkable for the presence of two large hearts—one
pair in the Xth, the other pair in the XIth segment.

The nephridia are paired, and exist in all the segments from the IIIrd; in some of
the genital segments they become degenerate, viz., the XIth and XIIth.

The reproductive organs consist of (1) two pairs of testes in segments X and XI,
attached to the front wall of the segment ; (2) of a pair of ovaries occupying a correspond-
ing position in segment XIII; (3) of vasa deferentia, which open into the segments
containing the testes, and pass back, becoming fused, to open on to the exterior in
common with (4) the atria, which are long, often coiled, tubes, divisible into a muscular
and a glandular portion. The epithelial lining consists throughout of a single layer of
cells; (5) the oviducts open into the XIIIth segment by a funnel, and on to the exterior
of seoment XIV. There are no egg-sacs, and the ova are of comparatively large size
and few in number. (6) One pair of spermathece, without diverticula, exist in
seoment VIII.

II. Systematic Postrion oF OcweRopRiLUs.

In discussing the affinities of Ocnerodrilus I shall pass over the question of
CLAPAREDE'’S division of the Oligocheeta, since most of those who have subsequently
studied the group agree in rejecting it. Rosa, however, retains the Terricole. As I have
already pointed out [3], his definition of this group hardly excludes Phreoryctes,
which is indeed a link between the Lumbriculide and certain Harthworms.

The most recent contribution to this question is a paper by Brenna [9], chiefly
devoted to the classification of Harthworms, but containing also some observations upon
the major divisions of the group Oligocheeta.

Mr Brennan divides the Oligocheta into two sub-classes, viz., Naidomorpha and
Lumbricomorpha, to be distinguished by the occurrence or non-occurrence of asexual
reproduction.* |

There are few other points which distinguish these groups. Mr Bennam mentions the
situation of the male genital pores upon or in front of segment VII, the colourless blood,
and the frequent “ cephalisation.”

We must strike out the second character, since the blood is coloured in Naids; ‘also
the third character, on account of the absence of setee on the anterior segments of
Onychochata and Deodrilus (Brpparp, Nos. 6 and 7).

* We require, however, more information about Ilyodrilus, which resembles the Naidomorpha in certain points.

MR FRANK E. BEDDARD ON THE ANATOMY OF OCNERODRILUS. 579

I am inclined, however, to agree with Mr Brenuam, and to retain this group on
account of the occurrence of the asexual mode of generation.*

The second sub-class, Lumbricomorpha, contains all the remaining Oligocheeta, which
are divided into two series, Microdrili and Megadrili.

The only character which absolutely distinguishes these two is the presence in
Megadrili of a capillary network upon the nephridium, and its absence in Microdrili, and
it is admitted that this difference may be due to size. Ocnerodrilus renders this division
no longer tenable.

Mr Benuam has, however, not mentioned three points, which he might have used to
distinguish the two groups. These are—(1) large size of ova, (2) clitellum consisting of
only a single layer of cells, (3) sexual maturity at a fixed season. Until the publication
of the facts contained in the present paper, these points would, so far as I am aware,
apply to all Microdrili, and to none of the Megadrili. However, in Ocnerodrilus the ova
appear to approximate in size to those of the Microdrili. The question to be now con-
sidered is, How far are the two last points sufficient to characterise the Microdrili? If
they are sufficient, it will be tantamount to restoring the old grouping into Limicolz and
Terricolz, for the Naidomorpha in these points agree with the Microdrili. The classi-
fication would be as follows :—

I. Clitellum one cell thick.
Sexual maturity at a fixed period.

A, Asexual reproduction occurs, Naidomorpha.
B, No asexual reproduction, sexually mature at fixed periods, Microdrili.

II. Clitellum, composed of two distinct layers.
Sexual maturity more or less continuous.

Megadrili.

This mode of division does not appear to me so satisfactory as the one proposed by Mr
Brnuam, and I should be inclined, therefore, not to divide his Lumbricomorpha, except
of course into families and genera.

I do not propose to discuss the limitations of these families, as I have already done so
elsewhere [3] in so far as concerns Earthworms.

The question is whether Ocnerodrilus is referable to any known family, or whether
it should form a distinct family.

This genus was originally placed by Ersen [1] in the family Lumbriculide, though
the reasons which led to this view are not plainly stated. Indeed, the whole paper is
occupied with a description of the differences between Ocnerodrilus and other genera
of Lumbriculide ; nowhere is there any indication of what are regarded as the points of
affinity between Ocnerodrilus and other Lumbriculidee.

* This scheme is practically identical with that proposed by D’UprKem in 1853 [13], and further elaborated in
1863 [14]. The division is into “ Agemmes” and “ Gemmipares,” these names implying the principal distinction between

the two groups. Another distinction referred to is the persistence of the genital organs in the “ Agemmes,” and their
appearance only at certain epochs in the “ Gemmipares.”

VOL. XXXVI. PART II. (NO. 21). 4s

580 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD ON THE ANATOMY OF OCNERODRILUS.

Vespovsky [15] considers that there are no valid reasons for retaining this genus
within the Lumbriculid, and points out the resemblance in the genital system to
Earthworms. Later Eisen [2] himself takes the same view, and refers Ocnerodrilus to
a distinct family.

It may be considered, I think, quite certain that Ocnerodrilus has no particular
relation to the Lumbriculide. The points in which Ocnerodrilus does agree with the
Lumbriculide are not sufficiently characteristic ; they are as follows :—

(1) Setze paired, not bifid at their extremities,

(2) Septal glands present (as in Stylodrilus),

(3) Nephridia absent in some of the genital segments,
(4) Atrium lined by a single layer of cells,

(5) Ova moderately large,

and a number of other points which are not more conclusive than the above in determining
the affinities of the Worm, for they occur in many of the families of aquatic Oligocheeta.

As to Earthworms, it is evidently with my family Cryptodrilide that Ocnerodrilus
shows the greater number of points of resemblance, and particularly with the genera
Pontodrilus, Photodrilus, and Microscolex. Its general resemblances to the Crypto-
drilidze are as follows :—

(1) Clitellum (composed of two distinct layers of cells), extending over segments
XIII-XIX.

(2) Vasa deferentia (commencing by funnel-shaped orifices in X and XI), opening
on to the XVIIth segment in common with an atrium, which is long and
tubular in form, and is separable ito a glandular and a muscular portion.

The special resemblances to the genera Pontodrilus, Photodrilus, and Microscolex
may be gathered from the following Table :—

Ocnerodrilus. Pontodrilus. Photodrilus. Microscolea.
Sete, . ; , : ; . | Strictly paired. In 8 series. In 8 series. In 8 series,
Clitellum, . : ; ; : 13-19 13-17 13-17 13-17
3 pores, : ; ; : : 17 18 18 17
Dorsal pores, . ; : ; : 0 0 0 0
Gizzard, P ; ; : é 0 Rudimentary. 0 Rudimentary.
Nephridia, . ; : : . | Commence in 3 ;|\Commence in 15.| Commence in 14., Common in 5,
absentin 10, 11.
Atrium, ; ; : F : Tubular. Tubular. Tubular. Tubular.
Penial sete, . ‘ ; : ; 0 0
Spermatheca, . : . : . | One pair in 8, | Two pairsin 8,9, One pair in 8, | Absent, or one
no diverticula. | with diverticula.) with diverticula.) pair in 9 with
diverticula.
Typhlosole, . ; ; : é 0 0 0
Subnervian vessel, : é 0 0 0 0
Hearts, . , , : : ' In 10, 11 12, 13 10, 11, 12 10, 11, 12
Septal glands, ; ; ; é + 0 + 0

MR FRANK E. BEDDARD ON THE ANATOMY OF OCNERODRILUS. 581

As regards the facts of structure enumerated in the above Table, it appears that
Ocnerodrilus shows no affinity to any one of the three genera in particular ; it cannot be
said to come nearest to Pontodrilus, or to Microscolex, or Photodrilus.

It differs from all of them in the following characters :—

(1) Greater extent of the clitellum.

(2) Setze strictly paired.

(3) Gizzard totally absent (7as to Photodrilus).

(4) Spermathecze without diverticulum.

(5) Atrium lined by a single layer of cells.

(6) Absence of a vascular network upon the nephridia.

The last four characters, which are evidently the most important, show a further
simplification in the structure of Ocnerodrilus as compared with its nearest allies among
the Cryptodrilide. This simplification of internal structure is in the direction of
many families belonging to the aquatic Oligocheta, to none of which, however, is there
more than a general resemblance, brought about merely by this simplification.

Our present knowledge, however, of the aquatic Oligochzeta is much less than of the
terrestrial forms; nothing can be said as to the position which Ocnerodrilus occupies
with regard to the aquatic families until some link turns up which may give a clue. In
the meantime it is evidently some way removed from even the simplest forms of one
group of Karthworms to a distance which appears to me to be sufficient to need the
formation of a special family for its reception. The family may be thus defined :—

Family Ocnerodrilida, Eisen.

~ Small Oligocheta, with paired setee of Lumbricid pattern. Testes, two pairs in X and

XI. Vasa deferentia open on to segment XVII, in company with an atrium lined by a
single layer of cells only, and divided into a glandular and non-glandular portion.
Ovaries paired in segment XIII; oviducts opening on to segment XIV. Ova moderately
large ; septal glands present, but no gizzard. A single pair of glandular diverticula of
esophagus in [Xth segment. Nephridia abortive in some of the genital segments ; in
the posterior region of the body, imbedded in a mass of large vesicular peritoneal cells.

Genus Ocnerodrilus, Eisen.
Ocnerodrilus, Eisen, Nov. Act. R. Soc. Upsal., 1878.

Clitellum extensive, inclosing the reproductive pores.

One or more pairs of spermathece in anterior segments, without diverticula. No
penial sete. Vascular system consisting of a dorsal and ventral trunk, and two lateral
vessels given off from dorsal vessel in the VIIth and VIIIth segment. Two large hearts
in segments X, XI.

582 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD ON THE ANATOMY OF OCNERODRILUS.

Ocnerodrilus Eiseni, n. sp.

Clitellum occupying segments XIII-XIX. Ventral setze of segment XVII entirely
absent. Septal glands in anterior segments. One pair of spermathece in segment VIII
opening on to border line between this segment and the one in front.

The affinities of the genus appear to me to be capable of being expressed in the
accompanying scheme, which only contains those Earthworms (viz., the Cryptodrilidee)
which come nearest to Ocnerodrilus.

Ocenerodrilus.

Lumbriculide. Phreoryctide.

“ Limicole.”
ve.

ie hee

/ Photodrilus. Microscolex. Pontodrilus.

“ Terricole.”

Cryptodrilide.

LIST OF MEMOIRS CONSULTED.

[1] Ersrn, G., “On the Anatomy of Ocnerodrilus,” Nova Acta Reg. Soc. Sct. Upsaliensis, ser. iii., vol. x.
(1878), 12 pp., 2 pls.

[2] E1sen, G., “On the Anatomy of Sutroa rostrata, a new Annelid of the Family Lumbriculina,” Mem.
California Acad. Sci., vol. ii, No. 1 (1888), 8 pp., 2 pls.

[3] Bepparv, F. E., ‘The Classification and Distribution of Earthworms,” Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc., vol. x.
(1890-91), pp. 235-290, 2 maps.

[4] Bepparp, F. E.,, ‘Observations upon an American Species of Pericheta and upon some other Members
of the Genus,” Proc. Zool. Soc. for 1890, p. 52, pls. iv. v.

[5] Bepparn, F. E., ‘On Two New Genera of Earthworms belonging to the family Eudrilide, with some
Remarks upon Nemertodrilus,” Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., new ser., vol. xxii. p. 235, pls. xvii-xx.

[6] Bepparp, F. E., “On the Structure of a Species of Earthworm belonging to the Genus Diacheta,”
Quart. Journ. Micr, Sci., new ser., vol. xxxi. pp. 159-174, pl. xx.

[7] Bepparp, F. E., “On a New Genus of Earthworms and on Anal Nephridia in Acanthodrilus,” Quart.
Journ. Micr. Sci., new ser., vol. xxxi, p. 467, pls. xxiii. xxiiia.

[8] Bepparp, F. E., “Observations upon the Structure of a Genus of Oligochxta belonging to the
Limicoline Section, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvi., pt. 1, No. 1.

MR FRANK E. BEDDARD ON THE ANATOMY OF OCNERODRILUS. 583

[9] Bennam, W. B., “An Attempt to classify Karthworms,” Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., new ser., vol. xxxi.

p. 201.

[10] Beyuam, W. B., “ Atrium or Prostate,” Zool. Anz. (1869).

[11] Rosa, D., “ Nuova Classificazione dei Terricoli,” Boll. Mus. Zool., Torino (1888).

[12] Rosa, D., “Sul Creodrilus lacuum,” Mem. R. Acad. Sei. Torino (1887), 17 pp., 1 pl.

[13] D’Uprxem, Juxes, “Nouvelle Classification des Annélides Sétigeres Abranches,” Bull. Ac. Roy.
Belgique, t. xxii., No. 10.

[14] D’Uprxem, Juuss, “ Mémoire sur les Lombriciens,” Mém. Ac. Roy. Belgique, t. xxxvi.

[15] Vespovsxy, F., “System u. Morph. d. Oligocheten,” Prag., 1884.

[16] Vespovsxy, F., “ Entwickelungsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen,” Prag., 1888 and 1890.

[17] Micuaztsen, W., “ Ueber Chylusgefassystem bei Enchytreiden,” Arch. mikr. Anat., Bd. xxviii. p. 292.

[18] Mrcuaztsen, W., ‘“‘Beitrage zur Kenntniss der deutschen Enchytreiden-Fauna,” Arch. mikr. Anat.,
Bd. xxxi. p. 483,

[19] Cuaparépg, E., “ Recherches Anatomiques sur les Oligochétes,” Mém. Soc. Phys. Geneve, t. xvi.

[20] Grarp, A., “Sur un noveau genre de Lombriciens Phosphorescents et sur ’Espece Type de ce genre
Photodrilus phosphoreus,” Dugés, Comptes Rendus, Nov. 1887.

[21] Prrrizr, E., “ Ktudes sur l’Organisation des Lombriciens Terrestres,” Arch. d. Zool. Exp., t. ix. p. 175.

[22] Bepparp, F. E., “On the so-called Prostate Glands of the Oligocheta,” Zool. Anz., 1887.

[23] Bepparp, F. E., “ On the Structure of Three New Species of Earthworms,” &c., Quart. Journ. Mier. Sci.,
vol. xxix. p. 101, pls. xii. and xin.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.
Ocnerodrilus Hiseni, n. sp.

Fig. 1. Dissection to show genital system.
Fig. 2. Ventral view of anterior segments. , nephridiopores ; s, spermathecal pores ; ?, oviducal pores ;
g, pores of vasa deferentia.
Fig. 3. Main vascular trunks in segments x. xi.; d, dorsal vessel; v, ventral vessel ; s¢, supra-intestinal ;
h, heart.
4, Alimentary canal. ph, pharynx ; d, diverticula of cesophagus.
5. The worm of the natural size.
Fig. 6. Spermatheca in longitudinal section.
7. A seta.
8. Longitudinal section through segments XI, XII, to show connection of testes (¢) with sperm sac
(sp. s.) and intersegmental septa.
Fig. 9. Nephridium in transverse section. mph, nephridium itself; 6, vesicular cell; a, small granular
cells,
Fig. 10. Rudimentary nephridium of segment XI. sp, intersegmental septum ; other letters as in fig. 9.
Fig. 11. Nephridial funnel. sp, intersegmental septum.
Fig. 12. Longitudinal section through intestine. Among the columnar ciliated cells are large granular
glandular cells.
Fig. 13. Atrium, transverse section.
Fig. 14. Section through a point near to opening of atrium (afr.) and vas deferens (vas. de/.).

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if CONTENTS.

XIT. The Maltese Fossil Echinoidea, and their Evidence on the Correlation of the Maltese Rocks. iii

. By J. W. Grecory, B.Sc., F.G.S., F.Z.S., of the British Museum (Nat. Hist.).
Communicated by Joun Murray, LL.D. (With Two Plates), ; } . 585

I ‘ The Clyde Sea Area. By Hucu Rosert Miin, D.Sc, F.R.S.E. (With Twelve Plates
and Maps), . é : 3 : ; . : 3 ., 641

APPENDIX.

Clb OF THE Socizry, . ; ‘ » 734
AL List or THe Onprvary Fruows; ; ree yen ie TBD
cORARY Frttovws, : : : : 5 ; ; ’ ‘ oe rey 43.0)
RDINARY FELLOWS ELECTED DURING SzEssion 1889-90, ; , , é . 452
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OF THE StTatutoRY GENERAL Mervines, 251H November 1889 anv 241H NovEMBER

771
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( 585 )

XXII.—The Maltese Fossil Echinoidea, and their Evidence on the Correlation of the
Maltese Rocks. By J. W. Gregory, B.Sc., F.G.8., F.Z.S., of the British Museum
(Nat. Hist.). Communicated by Jonn Murray, LL.D. (With Two Plates.)

(Read July 6, 1891.)

CONTENTS.
PAGE PAGE
1. Introduction, ; . 585 4, List of Species and their Distribution, . 629
2. Description of the Echinoidea, . . 586 5. The Correlation of the Maltese
3. Miscellaneous Records, : : . 627 Series, . d : : c . 631
INTRODUCTION.

The rocks which form the Maltese islands have been at various times referred to
very different parts of the Cainozoic group. At first they were all assigned to the
Eocene, but a further knowledge of their fossils led to the transference of the whole
series to the Miocene, in which system they have been included by most English writers.
Herr Tu. Fucus, however, who first attempted any precise determination of the horizons
of the subdivisions, correlated the Upper Limestone with the Leithakalk* and the Blue
Clay with the Schlier,t and included the two lowest beds in the Oligocene. Dr Murray,
however, in the course of his recent Memoir,{ has explained the striking paleeontological
differences between the faunas of the different deposits as due to altered conditions of
formation rather than to lapse of time, and seems to follow earlier authors in including
the whole series in the Miocene.

The Echinoidea of these deposits were originally described by Dr Wricut in 1855,§
with additions and corrections in 1864 ;|| but since that time much work has been done
on the allied faunas. Many of the species identified by Dr Wricut were only known to

* Tu. Fucus, “ Das Alter der Tertiarschichten von Malta,” Site. kh. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, \xx., Abth. 1, 1874, pp. 92-

105; “Die Versuche einer Gliederung des unteren Neogen im Gebiete der Mittelmeers,” Zeit. deut. geol. Ges., Xxxvii.,
1885, p. 141.

+ Tu. Fucus, “Uber den sogenannten ‘ Badner Tegel’ auf Malta,” Sttz. hk. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, \xxiii., Abth. i., 1876,
pp. 67-74, pl. i.

tJ. Murray, “The Maltese Islands, with special reference to their Geological Structure,” Scott. Geogr. Mag., vi.,
1890, pp. 449-488, pl. i. ii.

§ T. Wricut, “On Fossil Echinoderms from the Island of Malta, with Notes on the Stratigraphical Distribution
of the Fossil Organisms in the Maltese Beds,” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (2), xv. pp. 101-127, 175-196, 262-277, pl. iv.—vii.
(This paper was also issued in the Proc. Cotteswold Field Club, ii., 1855, pp. 55-117, pl. iv.—vii., and some of the species
should perhaps really date from that work; but as it happens to make no difference, the more accessible publication

_ only is referred to.)

|| T. Wriext, “On the Fossil Echinide of Malta, with additional Notes on the Miocene Beds of the Island, and
the Stratigraphical Distribution of the Species therein, by A. Lurra Apams,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xx., 1864,
pp- 470-491, pl. xxi. xxii. Professor ForBus had previously published a few lines on the Echinoids, “ Report on the
Collections of Tertiary Fossils from Malta and Gozo,” Proc. Geol. Soc., iv., 1844, pp. 231-282.

VOL. XXXVI. PART III. (NO. 22), 4vU

586 MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA.

him by the meagre descriptions of the Catalogue Raisonné, or the indistinct figures of
Sismonpa. Hence it is not surprising that in many cases Dr Wricut’s conception of a
species should not have been the same as that of Continental paleontologists. As they had
access to the types and enjoyed far greater opportunities for the study of the Oligocene
and Miocene Echinoidea than those possessed by Dr Wricur, their conclusions have
been generally accepted. Additional elements of uncertainty have been introduced into
Dr Wricut’s “ Table of the Stratigraphical Distribution of the Echinoderms,” * as it has
been found that he included the evidence of specimens sent from Malta, but which had
been collected in Sicily and Egypt; and, moreover, it appears probable that many of the
identifications upon which that Table was constructed were made by Dr Lerru Apams
without Dr Wricut himself seeing the specimens. Hence a revision of this group of
Maltese fossils is now desirable; and an opportunity for this has been afforded by the
kindness of J. H. Cooxs, Esq., F.G.8., in allowing his large collection of Maltese Echino-
derms to be sent to England. As Mr Cooxe has preserved the exact horizons of all his
specimens, the collection is of especial value. He has further earned the thanks of
Echinologists by generously presenting all the new material to the British Museum (Nat.
Hist.), where many of Dr WricHt’s types are now preserved. As it is therefore possible
to check the distribution of the species with little chance of positive error, it has been
thought advisable to revise the whole group, as by so doing the evidence it affords as to
the correlation of the deposits and as to the past physical history of the Mediterranean
basin may be more safely discussed. ‘he determination of several doubtful points has
been rendered possible by the kindness of the Earl of Duciz in lending me several of the
specimens referred to by Dr Wricut. I must also express my best thanks to Sir A.
GrIKIE for the loan of and permission to describe some specimens in the Museum of the
Geological Survey, to Dr Woopwarp, F.R.S., for allowing me to use some new material in
the National Collection, and also to Messrs W. Rupert Jongs, and Brown for their kind
help when examining the “ Leith Adams” collection now in the Museum of the Geological
Society.

II. DrscriprTion oF SPECIES.
Family CIDARIDAL.
Genus Cidaris, Leske, 1778.

Species 1. Cidaris melitensis, Wright, 1855.
Synonymy—

Cidaris melitensis, pars T. Wright, 1855, “ Foss. Ech. Malta,” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (2), xv. p. 107,

lS AV. tosh

99 7 E. Desor, 1858, Syn. Ech. foss., p. 453.

5s 1A. Gaudry, 1862, Anim. foss. et Geol. Attique, Paris, pp. 440, 441, pl. xiii.
f. 10-15,

"9 33 T. Wright, 1864, Quart. Journ. Geol, Soc., xx. p. 474.

* Op. cit., p. 490.

MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA. ‘587

Cidaris melitensis, R. J. L. Guppy, 1866, “Tert. Ech. fr. W. Indies,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xxii.
p. 299.
s i R. Etheridge, 1869, in “Sawkins’ Rep. Geol. Jamaica,” Mem. Geol. Surv., p. 335.
ss , G. Cotteau, 1875, “Descr. Ech. Tert. St Barth. and Anguilla,” K. Svensk. Vet. Akad.
Handl., xiii., No. 6, pp. 8-10, pl. i. f£. 1-10.
r e G. Mazzetti, 1879, ‘‘ Ech. foss. Montese,” Att Soc. Nat. Modena, xiii. p. 118.

- ie A. Manzoni, 1880, ‘“‘ Ech. foss. Mol. serp.,” Denk. Ak. Wiss. Wien, xlii., Abth. 2,
i p. 186.
4 e A. Manzoni, 1881, ‘“‘Spugne Mol. mioc. Bolognese,” Atte Soc. Tose. Sci. Nat., v.
p. 174, :

Type.—Coll. Earl of Ductz.

Distribution.—Malta— Upper Coralline Limestone (common). West Indies—Anguilla
Miocene. ?Greece—Munychie (Pliocene), Pireus. Italy—Montese, Modena; Serra di
Guidoni, Bologna (Serpentinosa molassa).

Remarks.—Specimens of this species are fairly common in the uppermost bed of the
Maltese series. Dr Wricur referred some plates and spines from the Lower Coralline
Limestone to this species, but these are here regarded as a new species, C. olugocenus.

Species 2. Cidaris scille, Wright, 1864.
Cidaris scille, T. Wright, 1864, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xx. p. 474.

Type.—Geol. Soe. Coll.

Distribution —Malta—Globigerina Limestone.

This species was based by Dr Wricut on a specimen now in the collection of the
Geological Society, which he identified with the Cidaris figured by Scitua.* This author
gives two figures, from the better of which this species is almost certainly distinct. It
agrees most closely with Cidaris adamsi, Wright, but the miliary region is narrower
and the plates larger.

Species 8. Cidaris avenionensis, Desmoulins, 1837. Plate I. fig. la-c.
Synonymy—
Cidaris avenionensis, Desmoul., 1837, “3"° Mém, Ech.,” Actes Soc. Linn. Bordeaux, ix. pp. 182, 183.
Ag. and Des., 1846, Cat. rais. Ann. Sct. Nat. Zool. (3), vi. p. 335.
Fe 3 E. Desor, 1855, Syn. Ech. foss., p. 17, pl. vii. f. 7, 8.
Tournouer, 1868, “Terr. tert. de Rennes et Dinan,” Bull. Soc: géol. France 2 (2),
xxv. p. 381.
Peron, 1868, ‘Terr. tert Sud. Corse,” Bull. Soc. géol. France (2), xxv. p. 672.
J. B. Greppin, 1870, ‘Descr. géol. Jura Bernois,” Mat. Carte géol. Suisse,
8m livr. p. 181.
Kaufmann, 1872, ‘ Rigi et Mollasse Gebiet der Mittel Schweiz,” Mat. Carte géol.
Suisse, Lime livr. p. 489.
A. Manzoni, 1873, “Il Monte Titano,” Boll. R. Com. geol. Italia, iv. p. 17.
Locard, 1873, “‘ Faune terr. tert. Corse,” Bull. Soc. géol. France (3), i. p. 238.
G. Seguenza, 1873, “Cenni serié terz. di Messina,” Boll. R. Com. geol. Italia, iv.
p. 262,

* De Corporibus Marinis Lapidescentibus (1747), ed. 2, 1752, pl. xxiii. xxiv.

588 MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA.

Cidaris avenionensis, P. de Loriol, 1875, ‘Ech. tert. Suisse,” Mem. Soc. pal. Suisse, ii, p. 15, pl. i.
f. 8-13.
n 53 G. Cotteau, 1877, “ Faune tert. Corse,” Ann. Soc. Agric. Lyons (4), ix. pp. 235-7,
352, pl. viii. f. 3-7.

ae » +?G. Vasseur, 1881, “Rech. geol. terr. tert. Fr. Occid. I. Bretagne,” Bibl. Ecol.
Habet, Etudes, xxiii., No. 1, p. 375.

- » Cf. Th. Fuchs, 1883, “ Miocen Fauna Aigyptens,” Palwontogr., xxx. Th. ii. p. 64,
pl. xxi. f. 9-12.

s " Bazin, 1884, ‘Ech. Mioc. moy. Bretagne,” Bull, Soc. géol. France (3), xii. pp. 35,
36, pl. i. f. 1-14 (var. sancti-juvati).

ms * Th. Fuchs, 1885, “Gliederung unt. Neog. Mittelmeers,” Zezt. deut. geol. Ges.,
XXXvli, p. 156.

5 ~ L. Baldacci, 1886, ‘‘ Descriz. geol. Sicilia,” Mem. descr. Carta geol. Italia, i.

p. 91.
Cidaris stemmacantha, A. Agassiz, 1840, “Ech. Suisses,” Nouv. Mém. Soc. helv. Sct. nat., iv. p. 73,
pl. xxi. a, f. 4.
* 5 A. Agassiz, 1840, Cat. Hctyp. Ech. Foss. Mus. Neoc., p. 10.
= 5 G. Mazzetti, 1882, ‘‘ Ech, foss, Montese,” Ann. Soc. Nat. Modena (2), xv. p. 112.

Type.—Agassiz’s casts, 8. 14, 8. 22.

Distribution.—Malta—Globigerina Limestone. Brit. Mus., No. 1957, and Geol.
Soe. Corsica—Bonifacio (bed, No. 6, “Zone 4 dents de poissons”). Sicily—(Argille
scagliosa Aquitanian), Messina (Langhien). Egypt—Gebel Geneffe ; Miocene. Italy—
Monte Titano (Aquitanian) ; Montese (Serpentinosa molassa, Langhien). Switzerland—
Ste Croix; La Chaux de Fonds. Molasse (Helvetian). France—Les Angles, Avignon,
and St Paul trois Chateaux (Helvetian); St Juvat, Bretagne (Faluns d’Anjou; Upper
Helvetian).

Remarks.—Of this species there is a specimen in the British Museum Collection
(No. 1957), showing half one sector with a few spines. Of the identification of the
species there can be little doubt, though it has not previously been recorded from
the island. It differs from C. adams, Wr., and C. scille, Wr., by the narrowness of
the miliary region ; isolated plates have some resemblance to those of C. melitensis, Wr.,
but in the species under discussion there is a greater number of plates in a vertical
series, the ambulacra are more sinuous and more granulated ; moreover, in C. melitensis
the height of the plates is more equal to their breadth, and the scrobicular circles are
quite distinct. Cidaris stemmacantha was based only on spines.

Species 4. Cidaris adamsi, Wright, 1864.
Synonymy—
Cidaris adamsi, T. Wright, 1864, “ Foss. Echinide Malta,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xx. pp. 474—

475, pl. xxi. f. 5.

as » ?1. Cafici, 1880, ‘Sulla determ. cronol. calcare a selce pir. S. E. Sicilia.,” Boll. RB.
Com. geol. Italia, xi. p. 501.

a: .; Th. Fuchs, 1883, “‘ Miocen Fauna Aigyptens,” Paleontogr., xxx. Th. ii. p. 50.

. » ?L. Baldacci, 1886, “Descriz. geol Sicilia,” Mem. descr. Carta geol. Italia, i.
p. 94.

MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA, 589

Type.—Brit. Mus., E. 1868.

Distribution.—Malta—Lower Limestone (Tongrian). Sicily—Calcare di Siracusa
(Helvetian ?). Egypt—Siuah Oasis (Base of Upper Miocene).

Remarks.—This species is sharply marked off from the others by its very wide
miliary region, the numerous sharp but small granules of its scrobicular circles, and the
coalescence of these circles to a narrow band on the horizontal sutures, It is possible
that the specimen found by Baron Carict is really one of C. scale.

Species 5. Cidaris oligocenus, n. sp. Plate I., fig. 2-4.

Diagnosis.—Test probably circular; depressed above ; turbinate.

Ambulacra very sinuous and narrow; one granule only on each plate, except on a
few at the ambitus, which bear a second but much smaller granule.

Interradu: Of large, high plates, 5 or 6 in a vertical series. The scrobicular circles
are large, and the tubercles prominent. The scrobicular circles are never quite distinct ;
near the apical area they fuse to a broad band which separates the two scrobicular areas ;
but nearer the mouth these areas are confluent. Miliary region narrow. Tubercles per-
forate and non-crenulate, Spines large, sometimes cyathiform.

Type.—Brit. Mus., EH. 3401.

Distribution Malta—upper part of Lower Coralline Limestone; Ricasoli. Brit.
Mus. ; Geol. Soc. ; Letra Apams’ Coll.

Remarks.—This species belongs to the same group of species as does C. melitensis,
Wr., from the Upper Coralline Limestone. It clearly differs from this, in that the ambu-
lacra are more sinuous and much narrower. Dr Wricur’s figure (Ann. (2), xv., pl. iv.
f. 1, c) shows in his species a series of small granules on each ambulacral plate in
addition to the single tubercle of this new species. The narrowness of the miliary region
at once separates it from C. scale and C. adamsi. From C. avenionensis it may be
distinguished by the greater prominence of its scrobicular circles, which are distinct
except on the lowest.

I entertain little doubt that this is the species figured by ScrLxa in the plates* which
Dr Wricut quoted as illustrating his species C. scale. Fortunately, however, Dr
Wricut’s type specimen is preserved in the Museum of the Geological Society, mounted
on one of his own tablets, and labelled by himself; the fact that the miliary region was
apparently much narrower in the specimen figured by Scrtta, Dr Wricur probably
attributed to a misrepresentation in the drawing. Now, however, that some plates have
been found which agree with those figures, these may be taken as illustrating the new
species. Dr Wricut’s C. scill@ may ultimately prove to be only a variety of C. adamsi.

* De Corporibus Marinis Lapid., ed. 2, 1852, pl. xxiii f. 2; pl, xxii" f, 2; pl. xxiv.

590 MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA.

Family KCHINIDAL.
Genus Echinus, Linn., 1758.

Species 1. Echinus duciei, Wright, 1855.
Synonymy— |
Echinus duciei, T. Wright, 1855, “Foss. Echinod. Malta,” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (2), xv. p. 109,
pl. iv. f. 2, a—f.
Psammechinus duciei, Desor, 1856, Syn. Ech. foss., p. 121. :
‘ » TT. Wright, 1864, ‘Foss, Echinide Malta,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xx. .

p. 475.
. » G. Seguenza, 1869, ‘ Posiz. stratig. Cly. altus,” Atti Soc. Ital. Sci. Nat., xii.
. p. 658.
3 »» G. Laube, 1871, “Ech. cesterr.-ung. ober. tert. Ablag.,” Abh. k. k. geol. Reichs,
v. p. 59.

Type.—Coll. Earl of Ducts. ;

Distribution.—Malta—Upper Coralline Limestone; Garschenthal (second Mediter-
ranean stage, Tortonian). Italy—Pianosa (Tortonian).

Remarks.—In a note by Dr Lerrx Avams, quoted in Dr WricuHt’s second paper, the
absence of this species in the Globigerina Limestone is remarked, and it is recorded in
abundance from the Lower Coralline Limestone ; these latter specimens, however, belong
to a new species, HL. tongrianus.

Species 2. Hchinus tortonicus, n. sp. Plate I. fig. 5a-d.

Diagnosis.—Small, circular, very depressed.

Apical dise small; large antero-lateral basals, with a well-marked madreporite on
that of the right side. The posterior basals are small. The postero-lateral radials enter
the anal ring. One granule on each basal.

Ambulacra: A pair of rows of tubercles in each area; primary tubercles smaller than
those of the interradii, A good number of coarse granules down the middle of each area.

Interradi: A vertical row of large primary tubercles down the adambulacral side of —
each series of plates. Each primary tubercle is surrounded by a circle of granules —
composed of a horse-shoe-shaped line on the one plate, completed to a circle by a few
granules on the lower plate. At the ambitus a large secondary tubercle appears on the
inner side of each plate, while a small secondary is developed on the adambulacral side ;
the latter may be replaced by two coarse eranules placed one above the other. The
granules are coarse, but sparse.

Dimensions.—Diameter, 20 mm.; height, 6 mm. Ambulacra, width at ambitus,
4°5 mm. Interradii, width at ambitus, 7 mm.

Distribution.—Malta—Upper Coralline Limestone (bed c).

Type.—Brit. Mus., E. 3402.

MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA. 591

Remarks.—This species appears to be confined to the upper beds, and the type
specimen came from the white limestone at the base of the ‘Gozo Marble.” The promi-
nence of the vertical row of primary tubercles down each side of the interradii gives
it a certain resemblance to Stvrechinuss cille, Desmoul. (see p. 627), but from this it is
quite distinct. This species may be readily distinguished from EH. ducier, Wr., which
occurs on the same horizon, by the structure of the apical disc and the paucity of primary
tubercles. From EF. tongrianus, to which it is allied by the former character, it may be
distinguished by the greater abundance of the tubercles.

The differences in the distribution of the epistroma in the species may be thus
diagrammatically expressed (pl. I. f. 5d, 6, and 7d).

As this species seems to be the representative in the Tortonian of the EH. tongri-
anus of the Lower Coralline Limestone, it is named after the horizon of which it is
characteristic.

Species 3. Echinus tongrianus, n. sp. Plate I. fig. 7a-d.

Diagnosis.—Test small, slightly pentagonal, tumid sides ; slightly conical.

Apical system small; the antero-lateral basals are large, and push the anus backwards,
and exclude the anterior radials from the anal ring. The postero-lateral radials, however,
enter the ring.

Ambulacra: The trigeminal arcs are considerably inclined from the vertical. Each
area is ornamented by a row of prominent tubercles, practically equal in size to those of
the interradi. Miliary granules few.

_ Interradii: A pair of rows of tubercles down each area; every primary tubercle is
surrounded by a scrobicular circle, composed of a crescentic arch, completed adorally by
the granules of the adjoining plate. The granules are few in number.

Dimensions.—Diameter, 15 mm. ; height, 6 mm.; width of ambulacra at ambitus,
3 mm.; width of interradius at ambitus, 5 mm.

Distribution.—Malta—Oligocene ; Scutella, bed of the Lower Coralline Limestone.

Type.—Brit. Mus., E. 3403.

Remarks.—This species may be readily distinguished from specimens of Hchinus
duciei, Wr., by the structure of the apical system (cf Wricut, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.
(2), xv., pl. iv. f. 2, e), and by the fact that there is but one row of primary tubercles down
each side of the interradii. The species is most closely allied to Hchinus biarritzensis
(Cott.) from the “ Couches 4 Rotularia spirulea”* (7.e., Bartonien) and the “ Calcaire &

astéries” (Tongrian) of the 8. of France. This latter species has, however, a secondary

tubercle on each interradial plate, and the pores are in a nearly vertical row.

* “Echinides fossiles des Pyrénées,” Congres scientifique de France, sess, xxviii. t. iii., Bordeaux, 1863, pp. 222, 223,
pl. I. f. 5-9,

592 MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA.

Species 4. Echinus hungaricus, Laube, 1871.

Synonymy—

Echinus hungaricus, G. C. Laube, 1871, “ Ech. cesterr.-ung. ob. Tertiarabl.,” Abh. k. k. geol. Reichs.,
v. p. 60, pl. xvi. f. 3.

Echinus hungaricus, A. Manzoni, 1880, “ Ech. foss. Plioc.,” Atti Soe. Tose. Sci. Nat., iv. pp. 330,
331,

Type—Mus. Buda-Pest.

Mstribution—Hungary—Bid, near Buda-Pest ; Leithakalk. Italy—Castell Arquato
(Pliocene). Malta—Coll. Geol. Soe. |

Remarks.—The collection of the Geological Society contains a specimen of a large
Echinus 80 mm. in diameter, which agrees fairly closely with the above species. <A —
series of small specimens presents variations suggesting that Professor Lausr’s type is
only a very large Hchinus ducier. The increase in the horizontal row of tubercles is just
what would be expected in an especially well-developed specimen of that species. The
Leithakalk form has more tumid sides and a more regularly distributed granulation, and
thus it may be a good species. Further material may, however, not unlikely necessitate
the abandonment of this species.

Family FIBULARIIDAs.
Genus Echinocyamus, Van Phelsum, 1774.

Species 1. Echinocyamus studeri (E. Sismonda), 1842. Plate I. fig. 8-10.

Synonymy—
Anaster studeri, E. Sismonda, 1842, “ Ech. foss. Piem.,” Mem. R. Ac. Sci. Torino (2), iv. p. 44,
Pl: die f.18,, 9
Fibularia studert, E. Sismonda, 1842, “App. Ech. foss. Piem.,” Mem. R. Ac. Sct. Torino (2), iv.
p. 388.

Fibularia studeri, Michelotti, 1847, ‘Foss. Terr. Mioc. Ital. Sept.,” Vatuurk. Verh. Holl. maatsch.
Wetensch. Haarlem (3), iii. St. 2, p. 64, pl. ii. f. 17 and 18.
Echinocyamus studeri, Agassiz and Desor, 1847, Cat. rais. Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. (3), vii. p. 142.
iy A E, Sismonda, 1847, Syn. meth. anim. invert. pedem foss., p. 8.
Bi - E. Desor, 1857, Syn. Ech. foss., p. 219.
a Mi A. Gaudry, 1862, “Géol. ile de Chypre,” Mém. Soc. géol. France (2), vii,
No. 3, p. 301.
ns 5 A. Manzoni, 1873, “11 Monte Titano,” Boll. R. Com. geol. Ital., iv. p. 20.

Distribution.—Malta—Globigerina Limestone (bed b); Brit. Mus. Italy—Superga,
near Turin (Helvetian), and Monte Titano (Aquitania), Cyprus—Mavrospilios; Pliocene
( fide Gaudry).

Remarks.—Had there been only two or three specimens of this species available for
examination, no doubt it would have been made a new species, distinguished from

MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA. 593

Echinocyamus studeri by the more posterior position of the mouth and the more anterior
position of the anus. But the series sent by Mr Cooxs, and the specimens previously in
the British Museum, show such variations in character that I can find no constant
difference between them and the North Italian form. It differs from Hchinocyamus
lebesconti, Bazin,* by the inframarginal position of the anus in that species. From
some varieties of H. piriformis, Ag.,t it would be very difficult to distinguish some
specimens of the Maltese species. Hchinocyamus triangularis, TouRNOUER,| is another
very close ally.

Family CLYPEASTRIDA..
Genus Clypeaster, Lamarck, 1816.

Species 1. Clypeaster altus, (Leske), 1778.
Synonymy—

Echinanthus altus, Leske, 1778, Add. Nat. dispos. Ech., p. 189, pl. liii. f. 4.
ey » Gmelin, 1790, Syst. Mature, ed. 13, p. 3187.
Clypeaster », Lamarck, 1816, Anim. sans Vert., ili. p. 14, No. 2.
a »» Defrance, 1817, Dict. Sct. Nat., ix. p. 449.
7 ,, Deslongchamps, 1824, Encycl. méth. Zooph., p. 199, pl. exlvi. f. 1, 2.
a », Mare. de Serres, 1829, Géogn. Terr. tert., p. 157.
- » Blainville, 1830, Dict. Sci. Nat., lx. p. 197.
< , Grateloup, 1836, ‘“Mém. géo.-zool. ours. foss. Dax,” Actes Soc. Linn. Bordeaux,
vill. pp. 143, 144, pl. i. f. 5, 6.
af » L. Agassiz, 1836, ‘‘ Prod, Mon. rad.,” Mém. Soc. Sct. Neuchatel, i. p. 187.
= , Desmoulins, 1837, “3° Mém, Ech.,” Actes Soc. Linn. Bordeaux, ix. p. 62.
* » L. Agassiz, 1840, Cat. Syst. Hetyp. Ech. Mus. Neoc., p. 6.
a3 , H. Sismonda, 1842, “ Ech. foss. Piemonte,” Mem. R. Ac. Sct. Torino (2), iv.

pp. 38, 39.

a , 4. Sismonda, 1844, “Ech. foss. Nizza,” Mem. R. Ac. Sci. Torino (2), vi. pp.
386, 387.

‘ » . Sismonda, 1842, Syn. meth. anim. invert. pedem. foss., p. 13.

s re ‘5 1847, 5 ‘3 ed. 2, p. 8.

= ,, Agassiz and Desor, 1847, Cat. rais. Ann. Sct. Nat. Zool. (3), vii. p. 130.

Bs », G. Michelotti, 1847, ‘Foss. Terr. mioc. Ital. Sept.,” Vatuwrk. Verh. Holl. maatsch.
Wetensch. Haarl. (3), iii. St. 2, p. 65.

Es », E. Requien, 1848, Cat. coquilles Corse, p. 95.

Fe , A. Aradas, 1850, “ Monog. Ech. viv. foss. Sicilia,” Attic Ac. Gioen. Sci. Nat.
Catania (2), vi. pp. 209, 210.

- .. RB. A. Philippi, 1851, “Clyp. altus, &c.,” Paleontogr., i. p. 323, pl. xxxix.

. ». J. Miller, 1854, “Bau der Ech.,” Abh. k. Ak. Wiss. Berlin (1853), p. 156.

Bs , T. Wright, 1855, “Foss. Echinod. Malta,” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (2), xv. pp.
111-114.

* “Sur les Echinides du Miocéne moyen de la Bretagne,” Bull. Soc. géol. France (3), xii., 1884, pp. 37, 38, pl. iii.
f. 1-6.

t+ See, ¢.g., that figured by R. Tournourr, “ Recensement des Echinodermes de V’étage du Calcaire 4 Astéries dans
le S. O. de la France,” Actes Soc. Linn. Bordeaux, xxvii., 1869, pl. xv. f. 2, c and b.

t “Etude sur les fossiles de l’étage tongrien (d’Orbigny) des environs de Rennes en Bretagne,” Bull. Soc. géol. France
(2), vii., 1879, p. 467, pl. x. f. 14.

VOL. XXXVI. PART III. (NO. 22), AX

594 MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA.

Clypeaster altus, Leymerie and Cotteau, 1856, “Cat. Bch. foss. Pyrénées,” Bull. Soc. géol. France

”

(2), xiii. p. 329.
» G. Meneghini, 1857, Palewont. tle Sardaigne, p. 532.
» . Desor, 1857, Syn. Ech. foss., p. 240.
» H. Michelin, 1861, “ Monog. Clypéastres foss.,” Mém. Soc. géol. France (2), vii.,
No. 2, pp. 122, 123, pl. xxv. f. a-g.
» G. Michelotti, 1861, “Etudes Mioc. infér, Ital. Sept.,” Natwurk. Verh. Holl.
maatsch, Wetensch. Haart. (2), xv. p. 24.
5, G. Cotteau, 1863, “ Ech. foss. Pyrén.,” Congres Scien., sess. xxviii., t. iii. pp.
245, 246.
» IL. Wright, 1864, “Foss. Echinide Malta,” Quart. Journ, Geol. Soc., xx. p. 477.
P. Fischer, 1866 (?), in ‘‘Tchihatcheff Asie Mineure,” Paléont., p. 308, pl. vii. —
i
K. Mayer, 1864, in Hartung, Geol. Beschr. Madeiré und Pto Santo, p. 192.
G. Seguenza, 1869, “Intorno la posizione stratigrafica del Clypeaster altus,’ Lam.,
Atti Soc. Ital. Sci. Nat., xii. pp. 657-661.
,, A. Locard, 1873, “‘Faune Terr. tert. Corse,” Bull. Soc. géol. France (3), i. p. 239.
A. Quenstedt, 1874, Petref. Deut. Ech., IIL., p. 534.
G. Cotteau, 1877, “ Faune tert. Corse,” Ann. Soc. Agric. Lyons (4), ix. pp. 269-273.
C. de Stefani, 1877, “Terr. plioc. et mioc. Toscana,” Boll. R. Com. geol. Ital.,
viii. pp. 393, 394.
» G. Seguenza, 1879, “Formaz. Terz. prov. Reggio,” Mem. R. Ac. Lincei (3), vi.
p, 8%, pl Vill, 17.
» G. Bukowski, 1889, “Geol. Bau I. Kasos,” Sitz. &. Ak. Wiss. Wien, xcviii. Abth. i.

p- 664,
Scutella pyramidalis, Risso, 1826, Hist. nat. Hur. merid., v. p. 284, pl. vii. f. 35.
8 i Blainville, 1830, Dict. Sez. Nat., lx. p. 202.
- * H. G. Broun, 1832, Reisen, Th. II., Uber Italien, p. 641.
Clypeaster ,, H. Michelin (non Risso), 1861, op. cit., p. 124, 125, pl. xxvii.
3 5 G. C. Laube, 1871, “Ech. cesterr.-ung. ob. Tertiirablag.,” Abh. k. k. geol. Reichs.,
v. p. 64.
9 ne Th. Fuchs, 1874, Sttz. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, 1xx. Abt. i. p. 96.

» pars G. Seguenza, 1879, op. cit. (3), vi. p. 86, pl. ix. f. 1 (p. 541%).
portentosus, Desmoulins, 1837, op. cit., ix. p. 64.
=, Dujardin, 1840, in Lamarck, Anim. sans Vert., ed. 2, p. 290.
5 H. Michelin, 1861, “Mon. Clypeastres foss.,” Mém. Soc. géol. France (2), vii.,
No. 2, pp. 125, 126, pl. xxviii.
4 G. Cotteau, 1863, “Ech. foss. Pyrén.,” Congrés Scien., sess. xxviii, t. iii.

p- 246.

iy T. Wright, 1864, “Foss. Echinide Malta,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xx.
p. 478.

3 G. C. Laube, 1871, “ Ech. cesterr.-ung. ob. Tertiirabl.,” Abh. k. k. geol. Reichs.,
v. p. 64.

a G. Seguenza, 1879, op. cit., Mem. R. Ac. Lincei, p. 86, pl. ix. f. 3 (var. elatior).
turritus, L. Agassiz, 1840, Cat. Syst. Ectyp. Foss, Ech. Mus. Neoc., p. 6.
“5 R. A. Philippi, 1851, op. cit., Paleontogr., i. p. 323, pl. xxxviil.
- Desor, 1857, Syn. Ech. foss., p. 240.
alticostatus, H. Michelin, 1861, op. cit., Mém. Soc. géol. France (2), vii., No. 2, pp. 126,
127, pl. xxix.
* G. C. Laube, 1871, op. cit., Abh. k. k. geol. Reichs., v. p. 64.
i A. Locard, 1873, op. cit., Bull. Soc. géol. France (3), i. p. 238.
* G. Cotteau, 1877, “ Feces tert. teal Amn. Soc. Agric. Lyons (4), ix. pp.
274, 275.

MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA. 595

Clypeaster alticostatus, G. Seguenza, 1879, op. cit., Mem. R. Ac. Lincei (3), vi. p. 87.

FF Pe G. Bukowski, 1889, ‘Geol. Bau I. Kasos,” Sitz. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, xcviii.
Ab. i. p. 664,

7 agassizt, H. Sismonda, 1844, “ Ech. foss. Nizza,” Mem. R. Ac. Sct. Torino (2), vi.
pp. 388, 389, pl. ii. f. 5-7.

5 insignis, G. Seguenza, 1879, op. cit., Mem. R. Ac. Lincei (3), vi. p. 87, pl. ix.
1 AGRON

£6 »» Var. acuminatus, 1879, op. cit., Mem. R. Ac. Lincet (3), vi. p. 87, pl. iv. f. 2, 26.

Type.—56, Q. 17.

DNstribution.—Malta—Greensand (common), Upper Coralline Limestone; Dingli,
La Binjemma, Ghain Toffika. Corsica—Santa Manza, Aleria, &c. France—Dax,
Bordeaux, &c. Austria—Hisenstadt (Leithakalk), Raubstallbrunn (2nd Mediteran.-Stufe).
Italy—Nice, Superga (near Turin), San Miniato, Reggio, &c. (Helvetian), Dego (?).
Sardinia; Sicily ; Kasos; Asia Minor; Crete; Madeira; Cordova; Oran.

Remarks.—Clypeaster altus was originally figured by Scrttta,* but he gave no
adequate description, and simply referred to it as one “in nonnullis aliis echinis petre-
factis.” The species was first named binomially by Lusk, but as his figure is less
satisfactory than that of Scriua, reference is usually made to the earlier one. Thanks to
the clearness of this, there has been but little confusion as to the main type; but as the
species is a very variable one, many names have been given to forms which seem to be
best included within it. Several of the best marked of these varieties occur at Malta.
Desor, in the Catalogue raisonné, briefly diagnosed a species from Taurus and Crete
as C. tawricus. From this description Wricut identified as such a thick pentagonal
form from Malta. Having had the opportunity of examining this specimen, through the
kindness of the Earl of Ductr, in. whose collection it now is, I have no hesitation in
regarding it as only a massive variety of C. altus. There is another specimen in the
collection of the Geological Society, labelled C. tawricus, by Dr Wricut ; but this lacks
the great tumidity of the anterior margin, which seems to be the most important charac-
teristic shown in MicHEtn’s fine figure of C. tauricus; and this feature is probably only
due to the great size of the type specimen.

Far more unlike the typical form are those described as C. portentosus, Desml.,
C. pyramidalis (Risso), and C. turritus, Ag.; but these all possess the same funda-
mental characters, and M. Corrzau has readvanced the view of their specific identity,
suggested by Acassiz and Dusor in 1847. A collection in the Museum of Practical
Geology contains a fine series of these forms, and a gradual transition between the
extreme types can here be traced. C. alticostatus, it seems to me, must necessarily
follow, though M. Corrsav has retained it as distinct. The great thickness of the whole
test and the prominence of the ambulacral areas seem to be variations correlative with
increase in height.

The var. portentosus is common at Malta; there are several specimens in the Museum

* De Corporibus Marinis Lapid., ed. 2, pl. ix. f. 1, 2.

596 MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA.

of Practical Geology, one in that of the Geological Society, and Dr Murray has pre-
sented one to the British Museum.

Species 2. Clypeaster marginatus, Lam. 1816.

Synonymy—
Clypeaster marginatus, Lamarck, 1816, Anim. sans Vert., iii. p. 14.

‘5 3 Defrance, 1817, Dict. Sci. Nat., ix. p. 450. »

FS * Deslongchamps, 1824, Encycl. meth. Zooph., p. 200.

<3 3 Mare. de Serres, 1829, Géogn. Terr. tert., p. 157.

Rs s Blainville, 1830, Dict. Sct. Nat., lx. pp. 197, 198.

Pa ‘4 Grateloup, 1836, “‘Mém. géo.-zool. ours. foss. Dax,” Actes Soc. Linn. Bor-
deaux, vill. pp. 142, 143.

- * L. Agassiz, 1836, “ Prod. Mon. Rad.,” Mém. Soc. Neufchatel, i. p. 187.

os C. Desmoulins, 1837, ‘3° Mém. fich.,” Actes Soc. Linn. Bordeaua, ix. p. 64.

om Pr L. Agassiz, 1840, Cat. Syst. Hcetyp. Ech. Mus. Neoc., p. 6.

3 i; Fr. Holl, 1843, Handb. der Petrefactenkunde, 2nd ed., iv. p. 383.

" L. Agassiz and Desor, 1847, Cat. rais. Ann. Sct. Nat. Zool. (3), vii. p. 131.

a a E. Requien, 1848, Cat. coguilles Corse, p. 95.

s % A. Aradas, 1850, ‘Mon. Ech. viv. foss. Sicilia,” Atte Ac. Gioen. Sci. Nat.
Catania (2), vi. p. 214.

s re T. Wright, 1855, “Foss. Echinod. Malta,” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (2), xv.
pp. 114-116. :

- ~ Leymerie and Cotteau, 1856, ‘Cat. Ech. foss. Pyrénées,” Bull. Soc. géol.
France (2), xiii. p. 329. ;

= # E. Desor, 1857, Syn. Ech. foss., p. 242.

; 7 H. Michelin, 1861, ‘‘ Mon. Clypeastres foss.,” Mém. Soc. géol. France (2), vii.
No.-2, p. 130, pl. xix. f. 1, a-e.

“e 29 G. Cotteau, 1863, “Ech. foss. Pyrénées,” Congres Scien., sess. xxviii. t. iii.
pp. 246, 247.

‘3 ss T. Wright, 1864, “Foss. Echinide Malta,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., =x.
p. 478.

= is A. Locard, 1873, ‘“‘Faune Terr. tert. Corse,” Bull. Soc. géol. France (3),
i. p. 238.

5 i G. Cotteau, 1877, ‘‘Faune tert. Corse,” Ann. Soc. Agric. Lyons (4), ix. pp.
263-5. }

- ‘ var. tenuipetalus, G. Seguenza, 1879, “ Formaz. Terz. Reggio,” Mem. R. Ac.
Lincei (3), vi. p. 88, pl x. f. 3.

9 - G. Seguenza, 1879, “Formaz. Terz. Reggio,” Mem. R. Ac. Lincei (3), vi.
p. 183.

M9 tarbellianus, Grateloup, 1836, op. cit., Actes Soc. Linn. Bordeaux, viii. p. 142.

s 3 C. Desmoulins, 1837, op. cit., Actes Soc. Linn. Bordeaua, ix. p. 64.

t 3 folium, T. Wright (non Ag.), 1855, op. cit., Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (2), xv. pp. 116, 117.

Type.—57.

Distribution.—Malta—Greensand; Dingli, Gozo. France—Mimbaste (near Dax),
Narosse (Landes), Touraine. Corsica—Bonifacio, Sta Manza (lower beds). Italy—
Reggio (Tortonian and Helvetian), Sicily.

Remarks.—Clypeaster marginatus, with its flattened pentagonal form, sinuous

MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA. 597

‘margin, and large anus, is an easily recognised species. In its young stages it is liable to
confusion with C. foluwm, Agassiz, the type of which came from Palermo. Dr Wricut
recorded this latter species from Malta, on the strength of a specimen in the Earl of
Dvctz’s collection: it was probably a young form of this species. In the collection of
the Geological Society there are four Clypeasters which enable the young stages of
C. altus and C. marginatus to be compared. The two largest specimens are of almost
the same size, so that the following measurements may be of interest :—

C. altus. C. marginatus.
Height, . ; , ; . 26 mm. 20 mm.
Length, . . . : S9 HDi TAU
Width, . , ; : say peo eae Bis ts
Diameter of anus, d , ; 2: Die 4 (2) ,,
Shape, ‘ . : : . Oval. Pentagonal; margin

more sinuous,

Fam. SCUTELLID:.
Genus Scutella, Lamarck, 1816.

Species Scutella striatula, Mare. de Serres, 1829.
Synonymy—
Scutella striatula, Marc. de Serres, 1829, Géogn. Terr. tert., p. 156.
5 5 L. Agassiz, 1836, “Prod. Mon. Rad.,” Mém. Soc. Neufchatel, i. p. 188.
53 " Desmoulins, 1837, ‘3"° Mém. Bch.,” Actes Soc. Linn. Bordeaua, viii. p. 80.
x 3 L. Agassiz, 1841, Mon. Scutelles, p. 81, pl. xviii. f. 1-5.
* Agassiz and Desor, 1847, Cat. rais. Ann. Sct. Nat. Zool. (3), vii. p. 134.
3 5 E. Desor, 1857, Syn. Ech. foss., p. 232.
_ Pe T, Wright, 1855, “Foss. Echinod. Malta,” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (2), xv. pp.
119-120.
R. Tournouer, 1869, “ Recensement Echinod. Calcaire 4 Astéries,” Actes Soc. Linn.
Bordeaux, xxvii. pp. 278-82.
5 or Benoist, 1885, Deser. géol. paléont. St Estephe et de Vertheudl, p. 62.
G. Cotteau, 1891, Pal. Franc. Terr. tert. Hoc. Ech., Il. pp. 240-2, pl. cclxii.
eninciiiedis subrotundus, pars Leske, 1778, Addtt., ‘P- 206, pl. xvii. f. 7.
Scutella subrotunda, pars G. Michelotti, 1861, “ Etudes Mioc. inf. Italie Sept.,” Matuwrk. Verh.
Holl. maatsch. Wetensch. Haarl. (2), xv. p. 23.
(non Leske), G. Seguenza, 1879, “Formaz. Terz. Reggio,” Mem. R. Ac. Lincei
(3), vi. 42.

? ”

Type.—Ag. Casts, 8. 78.

Distribution.—Malta—Lower Coralline Limestone (Oligocene). France—Le Tremble,
near Bourg (Mid. Eocene). Gironde—Calcaire a Astéries (Tongrian).

Remarks.—Scitia, in his De Corporibus Marinis Lapidescentibus, gave three figures
of a Scutella which he called “‘ Echinus melitensis,” &c.; his name was not binomial, and
as it is pre-Linnean, his figures are only of value from the use made of them by later
writers. Lxske, in his Additamenta, gave a new figure of a Maltese Scutella which he

598 MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA. °

named Echinodiseus subrotundus, but he included in the same species specimens from
France and Switzerland ; thus he gave as references paragraph 229 of Davixa’s Catalogue,*
in which specimens from Avnis with long petals are expressly mentioned, and ANDREA’S
figure t which is however of a Maltese specimen. Lamarck followed LEskx, and applied
his name to the common French species. MARCELLES DE SHRRES was the first to notice
the differences between the specimens from the “ Calcaire & astéries” and those of higher
horizons: he separated the former as a new species S. striatula, keeping the name S, sub-
rotunda for the long-petalled forms from the Faluns de Léognan. This was rather
unfortunate, as had MarceLLes DE SERRES examined LEsKr’s figures, he would have seen
that it was the species from the higher horizon that required a new name, and that his
S. striatula was identical with the specimen figured by Leskn as EH. subrotunda. If we
take Leskr’s figure as the type, then the use of the names of the French species should
be reversed ; this, however, would lead to sad confusion, as they are both important
zonal fossils. But the wisely-drafted rules of the British Association fortunately enable
such a step to be avoided, for as Luske included both species in his name, it was open to
MARCELLES DE SERRES to decide for which one the old name should be retained. No
doubt great subsequent confusion would have been avoided had pr SeRREs retained
S. subrotunda for the species originally figured as such, but this need not entail any
alteration in the customary interpretation, except that the Maltese species must be
known in future as S. striatula. The range of the two species has been discussed with
care by TouRNOUER.|

Genus Heteroclypeus, Cotteau, 1891.
Species 1. Heteroclypeus hemispheericus, n. sp. Plate I. fig. 1la-c.

Diagnosis.—Test large and massive, nearly circular, the antero-posterior diameter
very slightly exceeding the transverse. The base is flat, the sides curve gently to the
depressed upper surface. In some cases a tendency to become conical.

Ambulacra: Poriferous zones narrow, but the petals extend to the margin, flush with
the test.

Apical system central.

Epistroma: Small granules uniformly scattered over the whole test; each of the
small tubercles set in a small scrobicule.

Peristome a little before the centre, transverse, surrounded by a prominent floscelle ;
the bourrelets are high and strong; the doubled pores in the phyllodes distinct.

Perignathic girdle high.

Anus inframarginal, transverse.

* Catalogue systematique et raisonné des Curiosités, iii., Paris, 1767, p. 184.

+ AnpDREA, Briefe aus der Schweiz nach Hannover geschreiben, ed. 2, 1776, p. 40, tab. v. f. g.
t “Recensement Echinod. du Cale. a Astéries,” Actes Soc. Linn. Bordeawa, xxvii., 1869, pp. 278-282.

“f MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA. 599

Dimensions—
H, semiglobus (33, b),

Agassiz’s Cast.

Length, é ; i 2 : 155 mm. 137 mm.
Width, d ; : 3 : 150s; 136 ,,
Height, ; é : é : 64 ,, 66,
Max. width of poriferous zone, : : on om
Pr nit interporiferous zone, . ; 1 (ae S10}
Apical system, distance from anterior margin, Wty 55 69,
Mouth do. do. , AP 69 ,,
Anus, width, ; : : : Las; 14 ~=C«,
5 length, : : a : a oe Tele 55

Distribution. —Malta—Greensand.
Type.—Brit. Mus., 40368.

Remarks.—This species must be compared with the species (Galerites semiglobus) so
well figured by GraTELoup,* and which M. Corrzav has made the type of a new genus,
Heteroclypeus.t

The Maltese species differs from the type in that in the latter (1) the mouth is either
central or has a slight tendency to become posterior ; (2) the form is conical; and (3)
there is a slight concavity running round the test just above the margin, so that the edge
is thin. Of far greater importance is the fact that the poriferous zones are much wider
in H. senuglobus, and in the same species the petaloid areas close at but a little distance
from the ambitus.

The species is common in Malta, and was identified by Dr Wrigur as Conoclypeus
plagiosomus, Ag.; but in this species there is no raised perignathic girdle, and hence it
belongs to a different group, and is a true Echinolampad. After having had a specimen
from Corsica in the British Museum cut to determine this point, I heard from M.
Correav that he had no doubt that Acassizs species was a Palzolampas.

Species 2. Heteroclypeus subpentagonalis, n. sp.
Synonymy—
Conoelypeus plagiosomus, Laube (non Agassiz), 1871, “ Ech. cesterr.-ung. ob. Tertiarbl.,” Abh. k. k.
geol. Reichs., v. pp. 67, 68, pl. xix. f. 3.
Galerites conoideus (non Lamarck), A. Aradas, 1850, ‘‘Monog. Kch. viv. foss. Sicilia,” Atti Ac.
Groen. Sci. Nat. Catania (2), vii. pp. 237, 238.
Conoclypeus A A G. Mazzetti, 1882, “Ech. foss. Montese,” Atti Soc. Nat.
Modena (2), xv. p. 124, pl. i. f. 1.

Type.—K. k., geol. Reichs. Wien. Coll. Earl of Ducts.
Distribution.—Malta—Greensand (Helvetian). Italy?—Montese (Serpentinosa

* “Mémoire de Géo-Zoologie sur les Oursins fossiles (Echinides),” Actes Soc. Linn. Bordeauz, viii., 1836, pp. 155, 156,
yl. fiz.*7.
+ “Pal. Franc. Terr. Tert.,” Hoc. Ech., ii., 1891, p. 194.

600 MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA.

molassa). Austria
(Tortonian).

Remarks.—Professor G. C. LAvusE, trusting to Dr Wricut’s identification of the last
species, figured as Conoclypeus plagiosomus, Ag. ‘‘ Teste Wright,” as he cautiously added—
a specimen from the Austrian Leithakalk. His figures, which are very expressive, show
that while it belongs to the same genus as the last, a new species must be made for it:
it is more conical, the apical disc is more anterior, while the shape is pentagonal, and
widest near the posterior end. There is a large specimen from the Earl of Ductn’s
collection from Malta, which no doubt belongs to this species, though, as the actinal
surface is not preserved, this cannot be decided with certainty.

Gross H6flein, Oedenburg; Zirknitz, Styria, both in Leithakalk

Family HOCHINONEID Ai.
Genus Amblypygus.
Species Amblypygus melitensis, Wright, 1864.

T. Wright, 1864, “ Foss. Echin. Malta,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xx. pp. 482, 483, pl. xxi. f. 3.

Type.—Brit. Mus., E. 1580.
Distribution —Malta—Upper Coralline Limestone.

Family CASSIDULID.
Genus Breynella, nov. nom.

In 1855, Dr Wrrcur described a species which he named Pygorhynchus vasali: in
1864, he gave a couple of figures of the species, and that of the actinal surface showed
the absence of the bare median band characteristic of the genus Pygorhynchus. M.
Desor had previously transferred the species to the genus then known as Hchinanthus,
and an examination of the specimen shows the correctness of his opinion. This, there-
fore, compels a consideration of the questions connected with the different use of the —
term LEchinanthus in neontology and paleontology. At present many neontologists
follow Professor A. Acassiz in using Hchinanthus for the tumid Clypeasters, while most
European paleontologists apply it to a genus of Cassiduloidea. The question aptly
illustrates the difficulty accompanying the adoption of pre-Linnean genera ; Hchinanthus
was first used by Breyntus for all Echinoidea with a central or subcentral mouth, and a
marginal or submarginal anus. This definition covered the majority of the irregular
Echinoidea, and Breynius figures as belonging to the genus a collection of species
now distributed among Hchinolampas, Pygorhynchus, and Cassidulus, while his refer-
ences include Clypeaster and Echinanthus (sensu A. Acasstz). The name was first
used among post-Linnean authors by Luskz, who apparently took as his type his
figure of Kchinanthus humilis—a synonym, at least in the main, of Echinus rosaceus,

MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA. 601

Linn. auct. (the true Hchinus reticulatus, Linn.),* a reference to which heads his list of
literature. Lxske did not, however, limit his genus with much discretion, and his two
other species were a large flat-based Clypeaster and an Echinolampas ovatus. No great
stress however was laid by Leske on his third species, and he clearly established the
genus for the Clypeasters. Hence Gray, in 1825, abandoned the Clypeaster of LAMARCK
as a synonym of Hchinanthus, and the latter term was henceforth largely used by
zoologists. J. MULLER,t in 1854, showed that the genus Clypeaster included species of
two very different types of internal structure, but he did not follow his discovery to its
logical conclusion, and left both groups in the same genus. It was left to Professor A.
Acassiz { to apply MULLER’s discovery to the subdivision of the genus. He restricted
Clypeaster to the flat-based forms, with C. subdepressus as the type, while the species
with tumid margins he grouped as Echinanthus, with EH. reticulatus (Linn.) (2.e., £.
rosaceus, Linn., as actually quoted) as the type. According to the 5th of the British
Association Rules for Zoological Nomenclature,§ one is bound to follow Professor
Agassiz, and this one does without reluctance, as his conclusions certainly seem in accord-
ance with common sense. His own type of Echinanthus is that which LEsKE seems also
to have regarded as the most representative of the genus.

In the late Professor Duncan’s ‘‘ Revision of the Genera of Echinoidea” || he has dis-
cussed this question at some length, and it is with great regret that I feel obliged to differ
from some of his conclusions. Though Professor Duncan admitted that Breyntus’ use of
the term Hchinanthus was so general that “it is, therefore, useless to prolong the dis-
cussion regarding his priority” (p. 149), nevertheless, in a later section of the work he
retains the name, with Breynius as the author, for a genus of Cassidulide. As he follows
Professor AGassiz in restricting Clypeaster to the flat-based large forms, he has founded
_ the genus Diplothecanthus for the tumid species, with Hchinus reticulatus, Linn., as the
type, and a second new genus, Plesianthus, for Echinanthus testudinarius, Gray.
Professor A. Pomst, however, had resuscitated the name Echinorodum (one of LEskn’s
translations of Van PuEtsum’s terms) for the tumid Clypeasters. It is synonymous
with Professor Duncan’s Diplothecanthus, except that it also includes Plesianthus. As
Van Puetsum’s name has been abandoned, M. Pomet was of course within his rights
in employing it, and thus it would have precedence over Protessor Duncan’s name. In
fact, if this name were accepted on Van PueEtsum’s authority, it would be older than
‘Leske’s Echinanthus; but, as Professor LutkEN ** has shown, Leske, who first gave it

* See Loven, “On the Echinoidea described by Linneus,” Bihang Till. K. Sv. Vet. Ak. Handl., xiii. Afd. No. 5, pp.
172-176.

+ “Uber den Bau der Echinodermen,” Abh. k. Ak. Wiss. Berlin (1853), 1854, pp. 153-157, pl. v.

{ “ Revision of Echini,” Ill. Cat. Mus. Comp. Zool., No. vii., 1872, pp. 306-310.

§ “When the evidence as to the original type of a genus is not perfectly clear and indisputable, then the person
who first subdivides the genus may affix the original name to any portion of it at his discretion, and no later author has
a right to transfer that name to any other part of the original genus.”—Brit. Ass. Reports (1842), 1843, p. 111.

|| Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool., xxiii., 1889, pp. 149-151.

I Classification Méthodique et Genera des Echinides vivants et Fossiles, Paris, 1883, p. 68.

** Cur. F. Lurken, Bidrag til. Kundskab om Echiniderne, Vid. Medd. 1863, pp. 116, 117.

VOL. XXXVI. PART III. (NO. 22). | AY

602 MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA.

a Latinised form, did not accept it, and Hchinorodum therefore dates only from 1883. —
Both this and Diplothecanthus have therefore to be abandoned in favour of Hehinan-
thus, and it becomes necessary to propose a new name for the genus of Cassiduloidea,
which paleontologists have long known as such. The name Breynella is therefore —
proposed for it.

t

The following table will show the various uses of the names in question :—

LESKB, LAMARCK, Gray, Desor, A. AGASSIZ, PoMEL, Duncan, GREGORY,
1778. 1816. 1855. 1857. 1872. 1883. 1889. 1891.
{ Clypeaster. Clypeaster. Clypeaster. Clypeaster.
Echinanthus. Clypeaster. Echinanthus. Clypeaster.

( Diplothecan- Echinanthus.
Echinanthus. Echinorodum. thus.
Plesianthus, Plesianthus.

Echinanthus. Echinanthus, Echinanthus. Breynella.

‘Species 1. Breynella vasalli (Wright), 1855.

Synonymy— ;
Pygorhynchus vasalli, T. Wright, 1855, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (2), xv. pp. 271, 272.
oy wie 55 is 1864, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xx. p. 479, pl. xxii. f. 6.
Echinanthus » E. Desor, 1857, Syn. Ech. foss., p. 296.
a corsicus, G. Cotteau, 1877, ‘‘ Faune tert. Corse,” Ann. Soc. Agric. Lyon (4), ix. pp. 288—
290, pl. xi. f. 1-5.

Type.—Brit. Mus., E. 1581. |

Distribution.—Malta—Globigerina Limestone. Corsica—Zone 4 Pecten bonifaciensis. —

Remarks.—Dr Wricut having persisted in retaining his species in the genus Pygo- _
rhynchus, in spite of M. Drsor’s opinion, it was natural that M. Correau should not have
been led to compare his Hchinanthus corsicus more closely with it. The species agrees
very closely with M. Corrgav’s careful figures of this species. The absence of the pos-
terior rostrum which overhangs the anus in Breynella vasalli would be alone a specific
difference between this and Pygorhynchus collombi; and the latter is a true Pygo-
rhynchus, so that M. Corrmav’s action in making WricHT’s species a synonym of this
cannot be followed.

Species 2. Breynella equizonata, n. sp. Plate II. figs. la—c.

Diagnosis.—Form oval, flattened posteriorly. Actinal surface flat. The upper
surface is regularly rounded. The maximum height is a little behind the apical system.
The posterior slope is fairly steep to the low vertical posterior margin. The anterior
margin is tumid. The posterior interradius is raised into a blunt rounded ridge.

Apical system very excentric anteriorly ; four genital pores. |

Ambulacra: Petals short but wide; closed below. The poriferous zones on the
two sides of each paired ambulacrum are of unequal length. The outer pores are wider

MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA. 603

than the inner series; pores conjugate. The antero-lateral petals shorter than the
postero-laterals.

Mouth subcentral ; floscelle rather indistinct.

Anus small, oval on the low posterior margin.

Dimensions—
Length, ; ‘ : : 30 mm. Posterior ambulacrum, number of pores,
Width, : ? ; d Hy | ant. zone, ; P 35,
Height, : ; : Vai; Posterior ambulacrum, cerIDOF of pores,
Height of Poststignsn margin, . oe As ' post. zone, : : 27
Anterior ambulacrum, length, : Sp Posterior ambulacrum, lensthe A 10°5 mm.
Js % width, 3 Ores - = width, : 35
Anterior ambulacrum, number of pores, Mouth, distance from anterior margin, 1S
ant, zone, ; 20 Apical system, distance from anterior
Anterior ambulacrum, Tene of pores, margin, a F 2 es
post. zone, : : : 32

Type.—Brit. Mus., H. 3404.

Distribution.—Pembroke Camp, Malta—Lower Coralline Limestone.

Remarks.—This species differs from Breynella vasalli (Wright) in that the apical
system is more anterior, the petals shorter, and the highest point is further from the
posterior margin. A perhaps more important point is the great inequality in the length
of the poriferous zones in the paired ambulacra. In fact, this may be of generic value.
Professor F. Jurrrey Bux has established the genus Palwolampas * for those species of
Echinolampas in which the poriferous zones on each side of an ambulacrum are equal in
length. If this genus be accepted, as has been done, though with a different interpreta-
tion, by M. Pomeit and by Professor Duncay,f{ then Breynella must be subdivided on
the same lines. Breynella will be the equivalent of Paleolampas, and a new division
made to correspond with Echinolampas. M. ve Loriot, however, has advanced some
weighty objections to the adoption of Paleolampas, and as I agree with him, I leave
those who believe in the value of this character to apply it to the subdivision of
Breynella, Catopygus and other allied forms. )

Genus Studeria, Duncan, 1889 (as subgenus).

Species Studeria spratti (Wright), 1864, n.d.

Var. elongata, n. var.
Synonymy—
Pygorhynchus spratti, Wright, 1864 (name and figure only), “‘ Foss. Echinide Malta,” Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc., xx., pl. xxi. f. 6.

© “On Paleolampas, a new genus of the Echinoidea,” Proc. Zool. Soc., 1880, pp. 43-49, pl. iv.
+ Classif. meth. et Gen. des Echinides, p. 62.
{ Revision, Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool., xxiii. (1889), p. 194.

604 MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA.

Distribution.—Malta—Globigerina Limestone (Coll. Brit. Mus.).

Diagnosis.*—Form elongated, cylindrical. The test is widest at a third of its length
from the posterior margin; the anterior end is well rounded, and from this the lateral
margin curves gently to the widest point; thence there is a straight sharp tapering to
the narrow flat posterior margin. Seen from the side the anterior margin is tumid, and
the posterior is vertical; the greatest height is near the posterior end. The lower
margin is wavy.

Apical system excentric anteriorly ; three genital pores.

Ambulacra: Petals almost equal; inner pores smaller than the outer. Petals wide;
closed below. The lengths of the poriferous zones on each side of the ambulacra are
almost equal.

Mouth large; placed before the centre, in a depression, Phyllodes large and wide ;
bourrelets very slightly raised.

Anus high on the vertical posterior margin; above a slight groove.

Dimensions— .
Brit. Mus., Dr Wright’s
‘ No. 46,450. Figures.
Length, . ‘ t ; : 18 mm. 21 mm.
Width, . ‘ : : : TD. 455 1d's5
Height, maximum, . : ; : ie Ls,
55 at post margin, . ‘ : Sma. (3) gy
Petals, length, : Z , : OM bss . 6 2,,
» width, : : : : Dis 55 21,,
» No. of pores, ; 12-138
Apical system, distance from anterior margin, 7 mm. vee

Type.—Brit. Mus., 46,450. Dr Wricut’s type: locality unknown.

Distribution.—Malta—Globigerina Limestone. Marsa Formo, Gozo—Third Nodule
Seam. |

Remarks.—Vhe British Museum Collection includes two specimens of a species which,
though not quite of the same proportions as that figured by Dr Wricut as Pygorhynchus
spratti, may be regarded as belonging to an elongated variety of that species. The
whereabouts of the type of the species is not known.

The general form of the specimen, the vertical character of the posterior margin, and
the shape of the anus show that this species cannot be retained in the genus Pygo-
rhynchus, but must be removed from the alliance of Cassidulus to that of Catopygus.
From the type of this latter alliance this species differs in that the extrapetalous pores
are in a single series, and it therefore belongs to Prof. Duncan’s subgenus Studeria, The
character seems to me, however, of fully generic value. |

Mr Cooke has collected two specimens, which agree closely with those in the British
Museum, from the third nodule of the Globigerina Limestone, and the other specimens
seem also to have been derived from this horizon.

* Dr Wricur having omitted to describe this species, only naming it on the explanation of the plates, a diagnosis is
here given.

MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA. 605

Genus Eichinolampas, Gray, 1825.

Species 1. Echinolampas hemisphericus (Lamarck), 1816.
Synonymy—

Clypeaster hemisphericus, Lamarck, 1816, Anim. sans Vert., iii. p. 16.
id i Defrance, 1817, Dict. Sc. Nat., ix. p. 450.

a Deslongchamps, 1824, Hneycl. méth. Zooph., p. 201.
Bon a Mare. de Serres, 1829, Geog. Terr. tert., p. 157.
ee * Blainville, 1830, Dict. Sci. Nat., lx. p. 198.
+ bs Grateloup, 1836, “Mém. géo.-zool. ours. foss. Dax,” Actes Soc. Linn. Bor-
deaux, vil. pp. 146, 147.
Echinolampas ,, L. Agassiz, 1836, “ Prod. Mon. Rad.,” Mem. Soc. Sci. Neufchatel, i. p. 187.
+5 * - 1840, Cat. Syst. Ectyp. Ech. Mus. Neoc., p. 5.
3 - a and Desor, 1847, Cat. rais. Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. (3), vii.
p- 165.
% F A. Gras, 1848, Deserip. Oursins foss. Isére, p. 52.
ie a Requien, 1848, Cat. coquilles Corse, p. 96.
a i A. Gras, 1852, Cat. corps organisés dep. de VIsere, p. 47.
~ rf Delbos, 1855, Hssaz descrip. geol. bassin de Adour, p. 337.
x ss Leymerie and Cotteau, 1856, ‘Cat. Ech. foss. Pyrénées,” Bull. Sec. géol.

France (2), xiii. p. 335.

‘. a E. Desor, 1857, Syn. Ech. foss., p. 307.

5 4s G. Meneghini, 1857, Paleont. tle Sardaigne, pp. 529, 530.

5 if A. Gaudry, 1862, Mem. Soc. géol. Fr. (2) vii. No. 3, p. 301.

_ is G. Cotteau, 1863, “Ech. foss. Pyrénées,” Congrés Scien., sess, XXViii.,
t. iii. p. 268.

a s T. Wright, 1864, “Foss. Echinidee Malta,” Quart. Jowrn. Geol. Soc.,
_xx. p. £80.

re A C. Desmoulins, 1869, ‘‘Specif. noms légitimes de 6 Echinolampes,” Actes

Soc. Linn. Bordeaux, xxvii. p. 315.

f % G. Seguenza, 1869, “ Posiz. stratig. Clyp. altus,” Atti Soc. Ital. Sci. Nat.,
xll. p. 658.

¥ A A. Locard, 1873, ‘‘ Faune Terr. tert. Corse,” Bull. Soc. géol. France (3),
i. p. 238.

+) 53 A. Manzoni, 1873, “Il Monte Titano,” Boll. R. Com. geol. Italia, iv.
palo: ;

5 i. var. linki, Goldf., G. C. Laube, 1871, “‘Ech. cesterr.-ung. ob. Tertiarabl.,”

Ath. k. k. geol. Reichs., v. p. 66, pl. xviii. f. 3.

5 5 var. rhodensis, G. C. Laube, 1871, op. cit., p. 66, pl. xviii. f. 2.

var. linki, L. Loczy, 1877, “Ech. a. d. Neogen Abl. Weisser Korosthales,”
Termsez. Fuz. I. p. 64.

2% ¥ G. Cotteau, 1877, ‘Faune tert. Corse,” Ann. Soc. Agric. Lyons (4), ix.
pp. 281, 282.

G. Seguenza, 1879, ‘“‘Formaz. Terz. prov. Reggio,” Mem. R. Acc. Lincei
(3), vi. pp. 43, 55.

A. Manzoni, 1880, “Ech. foss. Plioc.,” Atti Soc. Tosc. Sci. Nat., iv. pp.

332, 333.

Ue A. Manzoni, 1881, ‘“‘Spugne Mol. mioc. Bolognese,” Atti Soc. Tose. Sct.
Nat., v. p. 174.

ee 8 G. Mazzetti, 1882, ‘Ech. foss. Montese,” Att: Soc. Nat. Modena (2), xv.

p. 123.

%
'
;

606 MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA.

Echinolampas linkit, Goldf., 1829, Petref. Germ., i. lief 2, p. 133, pl. xlii. f. 4.
as », Agassiz and Desor, 1847, op. cit., t. vii. p. 166.
» Desor, 1857, Syn. Ech. foss., p. 309.
Oigpesiee semiglobus, Grateloup, 1836, op. cit., Actes Soc. Linn. Bordeaux, viii. p. 145, pl. i. f. 7.

Type.—-No. 34.

Distribution.—Malta—Upper Coralline Limestone, Ghain Toffica, Greensand. Corsica
—Cadelabra. France—St Paul trois Chateaux, Couronne Martigues; near l’Isére
(Helvetian); Marrosse, Landes (Faluns blues). Italy—Pianosa (? Tortonian); Castel
Arquato (Pliocene) ; ? Montese (Serpentinosa molassa, Langhian) fidé Mazzetti. Austria
—Kalksburg, Soskut, &c. (Second Mediteran-Stufe). Cyprus. Asia Minor.

Species 2. Echinolampas manzoni, n. sp.*
Synonymy—

Echinolampas richardi (non Desmar), T.. Wright, 1855, “ Foss. Echinod. Malta,” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.

(2), xv. pp. 124, 125.

- laurillardi (non Ag. and Des.), 'T. Wright, 1864, “ Foss. Echinidee Malta,” Quart. Journ,
Geol. Soc., xx. p. 480.

Ff depressa (non Gray), A. Manzoni, 1880, “Ech. foss. Mol. serp.,” Denk. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien,
xii. Abt. 2, pp. 186, 187, pl. i. f. 4-15.

- (non Gray), A. Manzoni, 1881, ‘‘Spugne Mol. mioc. Bolognese,” Atti Soc.
Tose. Sct. Nat., v. p. 174.

na (non Gray), G. Mazzetti, 1882, “Ech. foss. Montese,” Atti Soc. Nat. Modena
(2), xv. p. 123.

Diagnosis.—Form elongated, well rounded in front, produced into a prominent
rostrum behind; sides flat. Seen from the side it is high and conical. The apex is
coincident with the apical system, and excentrie anteriorly. The whole abactinal surface
is well rounded and tumid. The lower margin is wavy; the anterior margin is tumid,
while the posterior is lower, as from the apical system there is a long gradual backward -
slope. The actinal surface is concave around the mouth.

Apical system: Excentric anteriorly ; four genital pores irregularly arranged.

Ambulacra: The length of the poriferous zones is very unequal in all the ambulacra.
In the anterior ambulacrum either the right or left side of the petal may be the longer.
In the antero-lateral petal the posterior pair are nearly twice as long as the anterior pair.
In the postero-lateral the proportion is reversed. |

The petaloid areas are wide, the pores small, round, and nearly equal.

Epistroma: Of uniform tubercles of the ordinary size; evenly scattered. dl

Mouth subcentral, but a little before the anterior; situated in the centre of a de-—
pressed area. Pentagonal in shape; phyllodes broad ; bourrelets low and inconspicuous.

Anus oval, transverse ; on a conspicuous rostrum.

* M. Pome suggested this name in 1883 (Genera, p. 62), but gave no diagnosis, and appears to have subsequently
abandoned it, so it may be dismissed as a list name only.

MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA. 607

Dimensions—
; Manzoni, B. M.,
pl. i. f. 4, 5. 24,621.
Length, . . : : ‘ : , : : 56 mm, 34 mm.
Width, : : : : F ; i : a ee WAS on
Height, . ; 35°5 ,, 7.
Petal of anterior ambulacrum, length, ; ; : i DONE as | dae
x Pints width, : : : ony ;
53 os No. of pores, right side, ; : 32
8 A left side, : : 22
Petal of antero-lateral ambulacrum : length, . 21 mm. LOR.
4 % width, . : : Gass os
53 a No. of pores, anterior side, : IS
5 "i ¥ posterior side, : 30
Petal of postero-lateral ambulacrum, length, : : ; 21 mm. 1 ees
ei a width, . P ‘ 3 3
‘ “f No. of pores, anterior side, : 28
ng . a posterior side, : 16
Mouth, distance from anterior margin, : : : : mm. TB ge
Apical system, 5 B Zi iem tee aliss,

Type.—Brit. Mus., 24,621; Mawnzonr’s figure (pl. i. f. 14).

Distribution.—Malta—Nodule Seams of Globigerina Limestone. Italy—Serpentina
molassa of Serra di Guidoni, Bologna.

Remarks.—This species has been rather unfortunate. Manzoni, impressed by the
resemblance of the ambulacra to those of the West Indian Echinolampas depressa, Gray ,*
identified this as the same species. Though it belongs to the same group of species, the
two, however, seem clearly distinct, as M. pz Lortout has already suggested. The
species with which it is perhaps most closely allied is the Hchinolampas angulatus, Mér.,
from the same horizon in Tuscany. M. pre Lortou has pointed out the differences
between them in his elaborate description of this species.t From EL. richardi and
FE. laurillardi, with which it was confused by Dr Wricut, it differs in the great
inequality: of the poriferous zones. ‘The same character serves to distinguish it from
Echinolampas scutiformis (Leske).

Species 3. Echinolampas wrighti, n. sp.

Synonymy—
Echinolampus deshayesi (non Desor), T. Wright, 1855, ‘“ Foss. Echinod. Malta,” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.
(2), xv. pp. 122-124, pl. iv. f. 3.
hayesianus (non Desor), T. Wright, 1864, ‘‘Foss. Echinide Malta,” Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc., xx. p. 480.

”

* “Description of two new Genera and some new Species of Scutellide and Echinolampide in the Collection of
the British Museum,” Proc. Zool. Soc., xix., 1851, p. 38.

+ “Description des Echinides des environs de Camerino (Toscane),” Mém. Soc. Phys. Hist. Nat. Geneve, xxviii., No. 3,
1882, p. 16.

608 MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL: ECHINOIDEA,

Diagnosis.—Form oval; slightly flattened at both ends; depressed; highest at the
apical system, which is a little excentric anteriorly.

Ambulacra: Petals long, narrow, and tapering gradually at each end. Outer pores
small slits; inner, small and round. Poriferous zones almost equal on each side.
Ambulacra nearly equal.

Epistroma: Of coarse granules.

Mouth oval ; floscelle very imperfectly developed.

Anus large, oval; a slight tendency to form a rostrum.

Dimensions—
Length, ‘ ‘ : . 52 mm. Ambulacra, postero-lateral length, . 16mm,
Width, . ; : : A AR ek, = 5 ‘width, +) OS
Height, , ~ »20;5),, Apical system, distance from anterior
Ambulacra, antene taneral eee bh UDB ae ‘margin, . : : ‘ . 205

width, Sa AD; Mouth, distance from anterior margin, . 23 ,,

” ”

Type.—Coll. Earl of Ducts.

Distribution. —Malta—Greensand (Helvetian),

Remarks.—This species differs from Hchinolampas deshayesi, Desor, in that the
form is much more depressed and the petals are much shorter. ‘Thus in the specimen
from Corsica figured by M. Correau, the length, breadth, height as 100 : 92°4 : 56°6,
whereas in this species the proportion is as 100:90°5:38. The differences in the petals
is still more conclusive.

‘Species 4. EKchinolampas hayesianus, Desor, 1847.

Synonymy—

Echinolampus hayesianus, E. Desor, 1847, Cat. rais, Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. (3), vii. p. 166.
. . E. Desor, 1857, Syn. Ech. foss., p. 308.
e by G. Cotteau, 1877, “Faune tert. Corse,” Ann. Soc. Agric. Lyons (4), ix.
pp. 283-4, pl. x. f. 2-4.
a 3 G. Mazzetti, 1882, “Ech. foss. Montese,” Atti Soc. Nat. Modena (2), xv.
p. 123.
Echinanthus > D’Orbigny, 1854, “Note rect, divers genres Kch.,” Ren Mag. Zool. (2),
vi. p. 24.
D’Orbigny, 1855, Pal. Franc. Terr. Cret., vi. p. 296.
non Rinse ieeiusen T. Wright, 1855, “Foss. Echinod. Malta,” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (2), xv.
pp. 122-4, pl. iv. f. 3.
5 3 T. Wright, 1864, “Foss. Echinide Malta,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xx.
p. 480.

Type.—V. 17. .

Distribution.—Malta—Globigerina Limestone; Nodule Seam No. 4; Fommer Reh.
Corsica—Cadelabra (Helvetian?), Oran and Cartagena. Italy—Montese (Langhian ;
Serpentinosa molassa ; fide Mazzetti).

MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA. 609

Remarks.—This species is somewhat doubtfully retained in the Maltese fauna on the
strength of an imperfect specimen collected by Mr Cooxr. It was recorded from Malta
by Dr Wricut, and M. Correat has accepted the figure given in the Annals as correctly
identified. Nevertheless, I feel bound to cast Dr Wricut’s specimen out of this species
owing to the great difference in shape and in the length of the petals. In M. Corrzav’s
admirable figure the petaloid portions of the ambulacra are seen to reach nearly to the
ambitus when the specimen is examined from above, whereas in Dr Wricur’s figure of
the upper surface of his specimen, the petals close at some distance from the margin.
Moreover, Drsor in his diagnosis (Synopsis, p. 308), says that the species is “renflée,
subconique ;” Dr Wricur describes his specimen as ‘“ depressed at the dorsal surface,”
and ‘‘dorsal surface not so elevated as in L. scutiformis.” One has only to look at the
following measurements and compare them with those of EL. scutiformis (notice especially
the specimen described by M. Corrgav) to see that Dr Wricut’s specimen is of a different
species. As I have failed to geaey it with any described form, a new species must be
founded to receive it.

Dimensions—
Length, Breadth, Height,
mm. mm. mm,
Specimen from Corsica (M. Cotteau), ; ; , 53 49 30
‘i Malta (Cooke’s Coll.), ; : , 35 30 19
Bs » (E. deshayesi, Wr.), . ; : 21 19 8

Species 5. Echinolampas posterolatus, n. sp.

Echinolampas scutiformis, T. Wright, 1864 (non Leske), “ Foss. Echinide Malta,” Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc., xx. pp. 481, 482, pl. xxi. f. 4.

Diagnosis.—Form elliptical, well rounded; widest at the posterior part of the
postero-lateral interradii; highest poimt coincident with the apical system. The anterior
slope is short and curved, the posterior is long and gradual.

Apical system excentric anteriorly ; four genital pores.

Ambulacra: Petals long, extending more than two-thirds of the distance to the
ambitus. In the anterior the interporiferous area is narrow and the left pori-
ferous zone the shorter. In the antero-lateral petals the interporiferous area is wide,
owing to the curve of the posterior poriferous zone ; the anterior zone is straighter and
shorter. In the postero-lateral pair the anterior poriferous zone is the longer and more
curved. —

Interradii: The postero-lateral pair occupy an exceptionally large amount of lateral
margin. ‘The posterior interradius is depressed.

Mouth in a deep depression, before the centre.

Anus transversely oval, almost marginal.

VOL. XXXVI. PART III. (NO. 22). 42Z

610 MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA.

Dimensions—
Length, . ; ; ; . 85 mm. | Ambulacra: antero-lateral—length of an-
Width, . ' F é SOHTSh tero-poriferous zone, . . 25 mm.
Height, . ? Z 2 foSes, Ambulacra:; Fiano Intec ee of post-
Apical system : patanee from anterior poriferous zone, : «> 30 a
margin, : Dies: Ambulacra : bhterolaieiel nee . " Bsbiee
Ambulacra : havnt iete of ret 4: postero-lateral—length of an-
poriferous zone, ; 30.6, tero-poriferous zone, « Soon
Ambulacra; anterior—length of left pori- 4 postero-lateral—length of post-
ferous zone, . : os el las poriferous zone, . ) Oa ae
Ambulacra : aaeentan etal é 2 plied lls ” postero-lateral—width, OID

Type.—Brit. Mus., E. 1865.

Distribution.—Malta—Lower Coralline Limestone (Oligocene).

Remarks.—This specimen was well described and figured by Dr Wricut in the work
above cited; but for reasons already given (p. 609), it is considered by the writer that
this is not the same species as that which Continental paleontologists accept as H. scuti-
forms, Leske. It differs from this in the more depressed form, the anterior position of
the apical disc, and the absence of the rostrum. From F. swess:, Laube,* which has
been recordedt+ on the corresponding horizon in Sicily, it may be readily distinguished
by the more central position of the apical dise in Dr Lavsw’s species.

Family SPATANGIDAK.
Division Prymnadetes.
Genus Hemiaster, Desor.

Species 1. Hemiaster cotteaui, Wright, 1855.
Synonymy—
Hemiaster cotteaui, T. Wright, 1855, “Foss. Echinod. ea Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (2), xv. pp.
190; LON; spl. vil tee
5 , E. Desor, 1858, Syn. Ech. foss., p. 375.
o a T. Wright, 1864, ‘Foss, Echinide Malta,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xx. p. 483.
bs i G. Mazzetti, 1882, “Ech. foss. Montese,” Atti Soc. Nat. Modena (2), xv. p. 117.
Opissaster A Pomel, 1883, Classif. meth. et genera Ech., p. 38.

Type.—Brit. Mus., E. 1584 (?).

Distribution. — Malta—Globigerina Limestone. Italy —Montese (Serpentinosa
molassa).

Remarks.—In retaining this species in Hemiaster, it is not intended to suggest that

* “Vicentinische Ech.,” Denksch. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, xxix. Abt. ii. p. 24, pl. iv. f. 2.
+ L. Baupaccr, Mem. on Carta geol. Italia, i. p. 109; A. DE Gruaorio, 1881, Fauna Argille Scaghosa di Sicilia,
Palermo, p. 11, pl. i. f. 2.

MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA. 611

this genus should not be subdivided, though doubt is expressed as to the value of the
characters upon which M. Pomet has based his subdivisions. The writer has previously
had to refer to this subject,* and is still unable to accept the genera of MM. Pomet and
Mevunter-Cuatmas. In the case of the present species, at least, it is advisable to leave it
in Hemuaster, as the structure of the apical disc is not known with certainty. A specimen
labelled as the type of this species came into the possession of the British Museum in the
Wright Collection, but this is more depressed than it should be if Dr Wricut’s measure-
ments are correct ; it, however, agrees closely with the figure. This specimen has
distinctly four genital pores.

Dr Lerrn Apams identified a series of specimens from the Upper and Lower Coralline
Limestones, as well as from the Globigerina Limestone, as belonging to this species ; but
I have only been able to obtain satisfactory evidence of its existence in the last bed.

Species 2. Hemiaster scille, Wright, 1855.
Synonymy—
Hemiaster scille, T. Wright, 1855, ‘‘ Foss. Echinod. Malta,” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (2), xv. pp. 191-193,
pe vit. ft. t:
i » E. Desor, 1858, Syn. Ech. foss., p. 375. :
ss » TL. Wright, 1864, “Foss. Echinide Malta,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xx. pp.
483, 484.
Opissaster ,, Pomel, 1883, Classif. meth. et gen. Ech., p. 38.

Type.—Coll. Earl of Ducte.

Distribution.—Malta—Nodule Seams in Globigerina Limestone. Seam No. 4 at
_Fommer Reh.

Remarks.—The nearest ally of this species appears to be Henuaster rotundus, LAUBE,t
and the differences between them have been pointed out by Professor Lause. But this
latter species Professor Pomet places in T'rachyaster, and it seems to me that Hemiaster
scille really agrees more with the diagnosis of that genus than with that of Opissaster ;
thus the form is globular instead of cordiform, and there are four (? three) genital pores,
and not only a couple. It differs from both genera in the central position of the apical
disc. The only specimens in the British Museum Collection do not enable the structure
of the apical system to be clearly determined, but it appears to be ethmophract ; and
hence the species may be allowed to remain in Hemuaster.

The largest specimen I have seen is 39 mm. long, 36 mm. broad, and 34 mm. wide.

Species 3. Hemiaster vadosus, n. sp. Plate II. fig. 6a—d.
Diagnosis.—Shape—Well rounded, but with a slight tendency to become hexagonal.
* “Some Additions to the Australian Tertiary Echinoidea,” Geol. Mag., 1890 (8), vii. p. 489; and “A Revision of

the British Cainozoic Echinoidea,” Proc. Geol. Ass., 1891, xi. p. 21.
+ “Ech. oesterr.-ung. ob. Tertiirabl.,” Abh. kh. &. geol. Reichs., v., 1871, pp. 68, 69, pl. xviii. f. 6.

612 MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA.

There is no notch in the anterior margin. The posterior margin is high, and nearly
vertical. The greatest width is at a third of the length of the test from the anterior
end. When seen from the side it appears high, and with tumid sides; there is
a slight depression below the anus. The highest point is close to the posterior
margin; thence there is a gentle slope forward to the steep, well-eurved anterior
margin,

Ambulacra: Petals v0 short, and but shghtly depressed ; anterior ambulacrum
narrow; the depression disappears where crossed by the fasciole. The antero-lateral
ambulacra are broad, shallow, and blunt; one and a half times as long as the postero-
lateral. These are curved backward beside the raised posterior interradius.

Interradu : The postero-lateral pair are wide near the apical system ; the corresponding
portions of the antero-lateral pair are sharp, and bear coarser tubercles than elsewhere. |

Fasciole wide, distinct, and fairly regular in its course.

Apical system excentric posteriorly ; three genital pores ; ethmophract, madreporite
small and raised.

Anus elongated, oval; placed above a depression in the posterior margin. Anus just
visible from above.

Mouth strongly bilabiate.

Dimensions—
Specimen from Citta Vecchia. Pee a
Length, : : : : : ' 16°5 mm. 28 mm.
Height, ; f ‘ : : ara 230s
Width at anterior find: , : : : 16... 2 * 5,

e. posterior PP ; ; F : Toon 4 23:9:
Maximum, . ; z sa0 Dine
Apical system : distil from aitetion margin, sis 9°. ,, LSE 5,
Mouth ; distance from anterior margin, ' : Ash See
Antero-lateral ambulacrum: length, . ; - oF. TO*%

- 53 width, . : : 2D 5 Yan
% i number of pores (post. zone), 16 ide
Postero-lateral : length, , : : : 3 mm. 45* ,,

% width, : : Lbs Dae
. number of pores (ater vane a8

Distribution. —Malta—Globigerina Limestone (beds 6, &c. ). Citta Vecchia—Nodule
Seam No. 4, Fommer Reh.

Remarks.—This pretty little species may be readily distinguished from Hemiaster —
scille, which also occurs in the nodule seams, by the fact that in the latter species the —
apical system is slightly before the centre, the greatest width is across the same point,
and that the greatest height is at some distance from the posterior margin. The
measurements above quoted, especially those marked by an asterisk, bring out the
principal points of difference ; but in addition to these there is the greater depression of
the petals in H, scille.

MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA, 613

Professor Loven has pointed out that the Hchinoids that inhabit deep water have
their petals less impressed than those that live in shallower seas. If this character can
be relied on, then the zones on which this species occurs may mark periods of especial
depression in the Maltese area. ‘The species may, in fact, be the deep-sea representative
or variety of H. scillae. Apart from the other varieties, the difference in the petals
seems quite of specific value. The species, however, helps to throw doubt on the
advisability of classifying the Spatangoids into those with flush petals (Spatangidze), and
those with depressed petals (Brisside), as is at present. done by some eminent foreign
Echinologists. A character that may be independently acquired at any time by a mere
migration to deeper water is not one that can be adopted as a family character.*

This species agrees more closely with Hemiaster gibbosus, A. Ag.,t than with any
fossil species that I know. It differs from this deep-sea form in that this has the
posterior margin more vertical, and the maximum width at the posterior end (see Pro-
fessor A. Acassiz’s figure, No. 6). As the apical disc is ethmophract, it belongs to
Henuaster even as limited by M. Pomet.

Genus Pericosmus, Agassiz, 1847.

Species 1. Pericosmus latus (Agassiz), 1840.
Synonymy—
Micraster latus, L. Agassiz, 1840, Cat. Syst. Ectyp. Foss, Mus. Neoc., p. 2.
Pericosmus (Hemiaster) latus, Agassiz and Desor, 1847, Cat. rais. Ann. Sct. Nat. Zool. (3), t. viii.
p. 19s tb vip. va. tee
As . T. Wright, 1855, “ Foss. Echinod. Malta,” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (2),
xv. pp. 193-5.
M ; i E. Desor, 1858, Syn. Ech. foss., p. 396.
53 55 K. Mayer, 1864, in Hartung Geol. Beschreib. Madeira und Porto Santo,
p. 193.
E n T. Wright, 1864, “ Foss. Echinide Malta,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,
xx. p. 487.
> 5 A. Locard, 1873, ‘“ Faune terr, tert. Corse,” Bull. Soc. géol.. France
(3), i. p. 238.
a * A. Manzoni, 1873, ‘Il Monte Titano,” Boll. R. Com. geol. Italia,
iv. p. 20.
G. Cotteau, 1877, “ Faune terr. Corse,” Ann. Soc. Agric. Lyons (4),
ix. pp. 316-318.
A. Manzoni, 1880, “Ech. foss, Mol. Serp.,” Denk. Ak. Wiss. Wien,
int ab. sie, py Leds qlee Onli.
G. Mazzetti, 1882, “ Ech. foss. Montese,” Att¢ Soc. Mat. Modena (2),
KVe Dallas

* §, Loven, “On Pourtalesia, a Genus of Echinoidea,” Kongl. Svensk. Vetensk, Ak. Handl., N.S., xix., No. 7,
~ 1883, p. 95.
t Al, Acassiz, “Preliminary Report on the Echini of the Exploring Expedition of H.M.S. ‘Challenger,” Proc.
Amer. Acad. (Boston, 1879), xiv. p. 210. Al. Acasstz, “ Report on the Echinoidea dredged by H.M.S. ‘Challenger’
during the years 1873-1876,” Challenger Reports, Zool. LII., No. 1, 1881, pp. 184-186, pl. xx. f. 5-16.

614 MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA.

Pericosmus latus, Th. Fuchs, 1885, “Gliederung unt. Neog. Gebiete Mittelmeer,” Zeit. dewt. geol.
Ges., xxxvii. p. 141.
Hemiaster latus, E. Requien, 1848, Cat. coquilles ile de Corse, p. 96.
Schizaster grateloupi, E. Sismonda, 1842, “ Mon. Ech, foss, Piemonte,” Mem. R. Ac. Sei. Torino (2),
ive pi 2b‘ pl. ii. £152:
. - E. Sismonda, 1842, Syn. meth. anim. invert pedem. foss., p. 13.
Ks x R. Heernes, 1875, “Fauna Schliers Ottnang.,” Jahrb. k. k. geol. Reichs., xxv.
p. 389.
. : Th. Fuchs, 1877, “Geol. iibers. jung. Tertiiirbild. Wiener Beckens,” Zeit. deut.
geol. Ges., Xxix. p. 663.

Hemiaster ie Agassiz and Desor, 1847, Cat. rais. Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. (3), viii. p. 19.
= 3 E. Sismonda, 1847, Syn. meth. anim. invert. pedem. foss., ed. 2, p. 8.
1 Brissopsis i Ippolito Cafici, 1880, Boll. R. Com. geol. Italia, xi. p. 501.
? is ‘ L. Baldacci, 1886, ‘‘ Descriz. geol. Sicilia,” Mem. descr. Carta geol. Italia,
i. p. 94.

Distribution.—Malta — Globigerina Limestone. Corsica — Bonifacio; St Florent.
Sicily (?)—Caleare di Siracusa (Tortonian). Italy—Colline de Turin (Helvetian). Nice.
Monte Titano (Aquitanian). Bologna; Montese; Serpentinosa molassa (Schlier).
Austria—Ottnang (Schlier). Madeira.

Types.—Ag, Casts, M. 23, T. 40.

Remarks.—Owing to the imperfection of much of the material and of Sismonpa’s
fieure of S. gratelowpi, and the fact that Acassiz’s cast of this species (T. 40) appears to
be missing from the set available for reference, I am only able to express a somewhat
doubtful opinion upon this species. M. Corrzavu, who has given the synonymy with
care, has followed DEsor in merging Sismonpa’s S. gratelowps in Pericosmus latus ; he,
however, omits any reference to WricHT’s Brissopsis grateloupi, so that he appears to
have suspected that Dr Wricut’s identification was erroneous. ‘The Maltese specimen is
certainly distinct from P. latus, by the absence of the notch on the anterior margin.

In the collection of the Geological Society there is a specimen labelled by Wricur
as Pericosmus latus, and it agrees fairly well with the cast of Acassiz’s type of that
species, and with M. Correav’s careful description. It differs, however, from the speci-
mens identified by Dr Wricut as Brissopsis (or Hemiaster) grateloupi by the pro-
minence of the anterior furrow, the conical form (when seen from the side), and the less-
marked divergence of the antero-lateral petals. The high posterior interradius of the B.
grateloupi, Wr., is the best character for their separation; this species has a form much
like that of Micraster coranguinum, while P. latus, Wr., may be compared with the
form of Epiaster gibbus. It therefore follows either that WricHT was wrong in referring
his specimens to S. gratelowpr; Sism., or else MM. Desor and Correau were wrong in
making this a synonym of P. latus. As the English paleontologist did not enjoy the
same opportunities for the study of this group as were possessed by these two eminent
Continental Echinologists, it seems wisest to accept their decision, especially as there are
differences between the Maltese specimens and Sismonpa’s figure. A new species, there-
fore, has to be made for the forms referred by Wricut to Brissopsis gratelowpr (Sism.).

MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA. 615

Professor LauBE has clearly indicated* the differences between Pericosmus altus and
his P. affins, from the Leithakalk.

Species 2. Pericosmus coranguinum, n. sp. Plate II. figs. 3 and 4a, b.

Synonymy—
Hemiaster grateloupi, T. Wright (non Sism.), 1855, “ Foss. Echinod. Malta,” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.
(2), xv. pp. 189, 190.
Brissopsis 5 T. Wright (non Sism.), 1864, “ Foss. Echinide Malta,” Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc., xx. p. 484.

Diagnosis.—Form—Species large, as wide as long, nearly circular, anterior margin
not indented by the anterior furrow, or very slightly so. Sides tumid. Seen from the
side, the posterior margin is vertical, and from the summit of this the posterior inter-
radius rises very slightly to the highest point just behind the apical disc. From this
point the anterior slope is somewhat steep to the well-rounded anterior margin. There
are a couple of prominent areas in the lower posterior margin, separated by a broad but
shallow depression which runs up to the anus.

Ambulacra: Paired petals long, deeply impressed, and subequal in length. The
anterior ambulacrum is shallow, and disappears at or is continued only as a very slight
depression below the fasciole. The antero-lateral petals are strongly divergent ; at the
lower ends they curve forward slightly. The posterior pair are a little shorter than the
others, and curve back towards the ridge of the posterior interradius.

Apical System central; four genital pores; ethmolysian ; the posterior part of the
madreporite greatly expanded.

Fascioles: The peripetalous is well marked, but the lateral indistinct.

Anus oval; high on the vertical posterior margin.

Mouth bilabiate ; very near to the anterior margin.

Dimensions—
Type Type
Specimen. Specimen.
Length, : § ; : 507 mm. Mouth, distance from anterior margin, 9 mm.
Width, , 3 ; : 60T ,, Antero-lateral ambulacrum, length, . 2} ec
Height, : : ; : 36) .;, ‘5 s width, . 4a os 35
» of posterior margin, : olay Postero-lateral ambulacrum, length, . Sees
Apical system, distance from anterior oF width, . 4D ,,
_ margin, ; ‘ F 29%, 3h

Type.—Brit. Mus., E. 3405.
Distribution.—Malta—Globigerina Limestone.

* “Ech. osterr.-ung. ob. Tertiarabl.” Abh. k. k. geol. Reichs. v. 1871, p. 68, pl. xvii. f. 2.
+ The length has been reduced by crushing; a specimen that better retains its shape gives a length of 62 inn. and

a width of 60 mm.

616 MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA.

Remarks.—This species differs from P. affinis, Laube,* from the Leithakalk, in
several characters; in the Austrian species the length is greater than the width, the
apical dise is more posterior, and the posterior border overhangs the anus, instead of
being vertical. From P. callosus, Manz.,f from the Bologna Schlier, and the Molassa
serpentinosa of Montese and Africa, it differs in the greater depth of the anterior furrow
in P. callosus, and in the lower elevation of the posterior margin. The species is in

some ways more allied to P. altus (Ag.), but the differences between them have been
already pointed out.

Genus Schizaster, L. Agassiz, 1847.

Species 1. Schizaster parkinsoni (Defrance), 1827.
Synonymy—

Spatangus lacunosus (pars), Parkinson, 1811, Organic Remains, iii. p. 29, pl. iii. f. 12.
* parkinsont, Defrance, 1827, Dict. Sct. Nat., t. 1. p. 96.
i 3 C. Desmoulins, 1837, “ 3" Mém. Ech.,” Actes Soc. Linn. Bordeaux, ix. p. 240.
Schizaster - Agassiz and Desor, 1847, Cat. rais. Ann. Com. Sci. Nat. Zool. (3), viii. p. 22.
‘ ra T. Wright, 1855, “Foss. Echinod. Malta,” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (2), xv.
pp. 266, 268, pl. v. f. 3.
i ss G. Meneghini, 1857, Paléont. ile de Sardaigne, p. 534.
ss 3 E. Desor, 1858, Syn. Ech. Joss., p. 392.
5 . T. Wright, 1864, ‘Foss. Echinidz Malta,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xx. p. 484.
a s P. Fisher, 1866, in “‘ Tchihatcheff Asie Mineure,” Paléont., p. 310.
rf . G. L. Laube, 1871, “ Ech. cesterr.-ung. ob. Tertiarabl.,” Abh. hk. k. geol. Reichs.,
v. p. 70.
5 3 G. Cotteau, 1875, “ Descrip. Ech. tert. iles St Barth. et Ang.” K. Svensk. Vet.
Ak, Handl., xiii. No. 6, p. 6.
3 3 G. Cotteau, 1876, “ Ech. tert. iles St Barth. et Ang.,” Bull. Soc. géol. France,
(3), v. p. 130.
. 3 G. Cotteau, 1877, “Faune tert. Corse,” Ann. Soc. Agr. Lyons (4), ix. p. 303,

304,
st Ok ese W. Dames, 1877, “Ech. vicent. veron. Tertiarablag.” Palwnt., xxv. p. 64.
#5 re G. Cotteau, 1877, “‘Observ. sur les foss. terr. tert. moy. Corse,” Bull. Soc. géol.

France (3), vi. p. 74.

HL BF G. Cotteau, 1882, “ Desc. Ech. foss. Cuba,” UE Soc. géol. Belge, ix. Mem.,
pp. 38, 41.

5 goldfussi, L. Agassiz, 1840, Cat. Syst. Ectyp. Ech. foss. Mus. Neoc., p. 3.
xs at; E. Requien, 1848, Cat. coquilles Corse, p. 96.
5, raulini, Agassiz and Desor, 1847, Cat. rais, Ann. Sct. Nat. Zool. (3), viii. p. 22.

Types.—P. 89. P.94. RB. 23. R. 24, RB. 82,

Distribution.—Malta—Globigerina Limestone (especially bed b). Corsica—Sta Manza
(Zone & P. bonifacrensis). Sardinia—Porto Torres. France—Martigues, St Paul trois
Chateaux (Helvetian). Italy—Schio Schichten? (Aquitanian). Austria—Kalksburg,

* LAUBE, op. cit., p. 68, pl. xvii. f: 2.

+ A. Manzonl, “Ech, foss. Schlier Bologna,” Denksch. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, xxxix., Abt. 2, p. 155, 156, ri i f 4-7,
pl. i. f. 8, 9.

MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA. 617

second Med. Stufe (Tortonian). Asia Minor—Near Tarsus. West Indies—Anguilla,
Matanzas, Cuba (Miocene ?).

Remarks.—The range in time is therefore from the Aquitanian to the Tortonian, but
in the former case the record is given with doubt; and, as Professor LauBE gives no
figure or description, some hesitation may be felt at accepting it in the uppermost
division of the Miocene. But from its great range in space, a correspondingly long life
must be granted to this species. It is one of the most shallow-water species found in
the Globigerina Limestone, and has not yet been recorded from the Italian or Austrian
Schlier.

Species 2. Schizaster desori, Wright, 1855.

Synonymy—

_ Schizaster desori, T. Wright, 1855, “Foss. Echinod, Malta,” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (2), xv. pp. 264,
266, pl. vi. £. 3 a-c.
» E. Desor, 1858, Syn. Ech. foss., p. 391.
G. Michelotti, 1861, “ Etudes Mioe. infér. Ital. Sept.,” Vatuurk. Verh. Holl. maatsch.
Wetensch. Haarl. (2), xv. p. 22.

fe 5 G. Meneghini, 1857, Paléont. ile de Sardaigne, pp. 534, 535.

T. Wright, 1864, ‘Foss. Echinide Malta,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xx. p. 485.

G. C. Laube, 1871, “Ech. oesterr.-ung. ob. Tertiarablag.” Abh. k. k. geol. Reichs,
We ps iL.

E. Pavay, 1874, “ Foss. Seeigel Ofner Mergels,” Magys. Foldt. Intez. Evk., iii. p. 282,
f. 3, p. 284.

G. Cotteau, 1877, ‘“Faune tert. Corse,” Ann. Soc, Agric. Lyons (4), ix. pp. 305, 306.

A. Manzoni, 1880, “‘Ech. foss. Mol. serp.,” Denk. Ak. Wiss. Wien, xlii. Abt. 2,
pp. 188, 189, 190, pl iii. f. 29, 30.

Ippolito Cafici, 1880, Boll. R. Com. geol. Italia, xi. p. 501.

A. Manzoni, 1880, “Geol. Bologne,” Ann. Soc. Nat. Modena (2), xiv. p. 22.

G. Mazzetti, 1882, “Ech. foss. Montese,” Attz Soc. Nat. Modena (2), xv. p. 116,
pl. i. f. 4.

L. Baldacci, 1886, “ Descriz. geol. Sicilia,” Mem. descr. Carta geol. Italia, i. p. 94.

Type.—Coll. Earl of Ducts.

Distribution.—Malta — Globigerina Limestone. Corsica—Sta Manza. Sardinia.
Austria—Baden Tegel (Tortonian). France—Martigues (Helvetian). Sicily—Calcare
di Siracusa (Tortonian). Italy—Dego? (Aquitanian). Bologna and Montese, Modena
(serpentinosa molassa).

Species 3. Schizaster scillee (Desmoul.), 1837.
Synonymy—
Spatangus scille, C. Desmoulins, 1837, “ 3" Mém. Ech.,” Actes Soc. Linn. Bordeaum, ix. p. 258.
Schizaster ,, Agassiz and Desor, 1847, Cat. rais. Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. (3), viii. p. 21.
Leymerie and -Cotteau, 1856, “Cat. Ech, foss. Pyrénées,” Bull. Soc. géol, France
(2), xiii. p. 341.
VOL. XXXVI. PART III. (NO. 22). oA

” ”

618 MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA.

Schizaster scille, E. Desor, 1858, Syn. Ech. foss., pp. 389-90.

ss » G. Cotteau, 1862, “Ech. foss. Pyrén.,” Congres Scient., Sess. xxviii, t. iii. p. 294,

S » T. Wright, 1864, "ee Foss, Echinide Malta,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xx. p. 484.

x » P. Fischer, 1866 ({), in “Tchihatcheff Asie Mineure,” Paléont., p. 310.

: » Rk. J. L. Guppy, 1866, “Tert. Ech. W. Indies,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xxii.
p. 301.

- » RR. Etheridge, 1869, in “Sawkins’ Report Geol. Jamaica,” Mem. Geol. Surv.
p. 335,

ss » G. Seguenza, 1869, “ Posiz. stratig. Clyp. altus,” Atti Soc. Ital. Sei. Nat., xii.

: p. 658.

Bs » G.C. Laube, 1871, “Ech. osterr.-ung. ob. Tertiarabl.,” Abh. k. k. geol. Reichs., v.
pievas

_ » G. Cotteau, 1877, “Faune tert. Corse,” Ann. Soc. Agric. Lyons (4), ix. pp. 298
301.

5 » G. Cotteau, 1877, ‘“Observ. foss. terr. tert. moy. Corse,” Bull. Soc. géol. France (3),
vi. p. 74.

» ¢f 5, W. Dames, 1877, “Ech. vicent. veron. Tertiarabl.,” Palwontogr., xxv. p. 64.
- » G. Cotteau, 1880, “Descr. Ech. Tert. Belg.,” Mem. cour. Ac. roy. Bruwx., xliii.
fasc. 3, pp. 69-71, pl. vi. f. 3.

- » G. Cotteau, 1881, “Note sur Heh. terr. tert. Belgique,” Bull. Soc. géol. France (3),
ix. pp. 215-219.
» Fr. Coppi, 1881, “Le Marne Turchine ed i loro fossili nel Modenese,” Ann, Soc.
Natur. Modena, xv. fase. 1, p. 27.
" » G. Cotteau, “Descr. Ech. foss. ile de Cuba,” Ann. Soc. géol. Belgique, ix. Mém.,
pp. 35-38.
os » G. Mazetti, 1882, ‘Ech. foss. Montese,” Atti Soc. Wat. Modena (2), xv. p. 116.

» EE. Fournier, 1890, Hsquisse géol.-envir. Marseille, p. 93.
Sanaa lacunosus, (pars) Leske, 1778, Addit. Dispos. Echinod., p. 227, pl. xxvii. f. a.
r canaliferus, Grateloup, 1836 (non Lamarck), ‘“ Mém. géo.-zool. ours. foss, Dax,” Actes
Soc. Linn. Bordeaua, viii. pp. 169, 170.
Schizaster eurynotus, L. Agassiz, 1840, Cat. Syst. Ectyp. Ech. Foss. Mus. Neoc., p. 2.

5 ms E. Sismonda, 1844, “Ech. foss. Nizza,” Mem. R. Ac. Sct. Torino (2), vi. pp.
371-2, pl. ii, £. 2-3.

5 ys Agassiz and Beas 1847, Cat. rais. Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. (3), viii. p. 21.

x 3 Requien, 1848, Cat. coquilles Corse, p. 96.

is . T. Wright, 1855, “Foss. Echinod. Malta,” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (2), xv. pp.
262-264.

3 Gs G. Meneghini, 1857, Pal. ile de Sardaigne, p. 533.

s es A. Locard, 1867, “Faune terr. tert. Corse,” Bull. Soc. yéol. France (3), i.
p. 238.

"4 ‘ A. Quenstedt, 1874, Petrefactenkunde Deutsch Echinod., iii. p. 672, pl. Ixxxix.
f. 6.

Types.—P. 86.

Distribution.—Malta—Upper Coralline Limestone ; Dingli; Wardeia. Corsica—Sta
Manza, Bonifacio. Sardinia; Morea; Nemroun; Asia Minor. France—Grand Vallat,
near Marseilles (Helvetian) ; Perpignan (Pliocene). Austria—Badener Tegel (Tortonian).
Italy—(?) Schio Schichten (Aquitanian) ; Montese (Langhian, serp. mol.) ; Pianosa (Tor-
tonian?); Modena (Piacentino); Nice, Asti, Bologna (Pliocene); Palermo? (Astian).
Belgium—Antwerp (Scaldisian). West Indies—Anguilla ; Cienfuegos, Cuba (? Miocene).

MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA. 619

Genus Prenaster, Desor, 1853.

Species 1. Prenaster excentricus, Wright, 1855.

Synonymy—
Pericosmus excentricus, T. Wright, 1855, “Foss. Echinod. Malta,” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (2), xv. pp.
195, 196.
Prenaster 35 T. Wright, 1864, ‘‘Foss. Echinide Malta,” Quart. Journ. Gleol. Soc., xx.

p. 487, pl xxii f. 3.

Types.— | U
Distribution.—Malta—Upper Coralline Limestone (Brit. Museum).

Genus Brissus, Leske, 1778.
Species 1. Brissus latus, Wright.

Synonymy—
Brissus latus, T. Wright, 1855, ‘“ Foss. Echinod. Malta,” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (2), xv. pp.
Est; 183, ple v. £1.

E. Desor, 1858, Syn. Ech. foss., pp. 404, 405.
T. Wright, 1864, “Foss. Echinide Malta,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xx. p. 485.

” 99

”»> ?

Type.—Coll. Earl of Ducts.
Distribution.—Malta—Upper Coralline Limestone (Coll. Brit. Mus., Geol. Soc.).

Species 2. Brissus imbricatus, Wright, 1855.

Synonymy—
Brissus imbricatus, T. Wright, 1855, “Foss. Echinod. Malta,” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (2), xv. pp.

183, 184.
T. Wright, 1864, “Foss. Echinide Malta,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. xx. p.

486, pl. xxii. f. 2.
G. Seguenza, 1869, “ Posiz. stratig. Clyp. altus,” Atti Soc. Ital. Sct. Nat., xii.

p- 658.
scillee, (pars) KE. Desor, 1858, Syn. Ech. foss., pp. 408, 404.

” ”

”

Type.—Brit. Mus., E. 1867. |
Distribution.—Malta—Upper Coralline Limestone. Italy—Pianosa (Tortonian 2).

Remarks.—Dr Wricut gave no figure of this species with his original diagnosis, and
M. Desor was led by this to suggest that it was a synonym of Brissus scille, Ag., which
is itself a synonym of B. unicolor, Leske.* Dr Wricut’s figure, however, in 1864,

shows that the two species are very distinct.

* Cat. rais. Ann. Sct. Nat. Zool., 1847 (3), viii. p. 13.

620 MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA.

Species 8. Brissus tuberculatus, Wright, 1864.
“Foss. Echinide Malta,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xx. pp. 486, 487, pl. xxii. f. 1.

Type.—Brit. Mus., E. 1866.
Distribution.—Malta-—Upper Coralline Limestone.

Species 4. Brissus oblongus, Wright, 1855.
Synonymy—

Brissus oblongus, T. Wright, 1855, ‘Foss. Echinod. Malta,” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (2), xv. pp.
184, 185, pl. v. f. 2.
» cylindricus ? E. Desor, 1858, Syn. Ech. foss., p. 404.
= Ps T. Wright, 1864, “Foss. Echinide Malta,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xx. p. 485.

Type.—Brit. Mus., E. 1562.

Distribution.—Malta—Upper Coralline Limestone and Globigerina Limestone (?).

Remarks.—Dersor suggested that this species might be the same as B. cylindricus,
Ag.; but the original diagnosis of this species lays stress upon its resemblance to B. col-
umbarius (Lam.),* (7.e., B. unicolor, Leske), from which this species is very different.
Nevertheless Dr Wricut, in his later work on the Maltese Echinoidea, accepted the
suggestion unreservedly, and abandoned his species. But as an examination of some
Brissi from the Palermo Pliocenes has led me to place B. cylindricus as a synonym of
B. unicolor,t it is necessary to resuscitate Dr WricHT’s species.

The type specimen has been so thoroughly scraped that no trace of tubercles or
fascioles remains; nevertheless the species is well marked. On the evidence of some
imperfect specimens of an allied species, Dr Wricur recorded B. cylindricus from the
Lower Limestone. These, however, seem to differ from the typical form in the more
anterior position of the mouth. Mr Cooxr’s collection includes a very typical specimen
from the lower horizon of the Upper Limestone at Entahleb.

Species 5. Brissus depressus, n. sp. Plate II. fig. 2.

Diagnosis.—Form depressed, elliptical ; anterior margin thin.

Apical system not very excentric anteriorly ; four genital pores.

Antero-luteral ambulacra very divergent, almost in a straight line; in broad but
shallow depressions. Postero-lateral ambulacra are narrower and more depressed, and

curve outwards at the end, though the general direction is backward, close to the keel of —

the posterior interradius. The anterior ambulacrum is very narrow, slightly raised, and
with very small pores.

Interradi: The antero-lateral pair are very wide up to the apical system; the
posterior interradius is narrow and keeled.

* Lamarck, Anim. sans Vert., iii., 1816, p. 30.
+ “Revision of the British Fossil Cainozoic Echinoidea” Proc. Geol. Ass., xii., 1891, p. 41.

MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA. 621

Fascioles: The peripetalous is very sinuous; in the antero-lateral interradii it makes
either one or two sharp inward bends. The subanal is distinct.
Mouth close to the anterior margin ; strongly bilabiate.
Dimensions (average of five specimens)—

Length, . ; : ; 66 mm, Postero-lateral ambulacra: length, . 19 mm.
Width, . ; ‘ : 56, Distance of apical system from anterior
Antero-lateral ambulacra; length, . 24 ,, margin, ‘ ; ‘ 7 ie ie

Type.—Brit. Mus., E. 3428.

Distribution.—Malta—Upper Coralline Limestone.

Remarks.—This species differs from B. oblongus, Wr., the only form on the island
with which it could be confused, by the less excentric position of the apical system and
by the much greater width. In the former character it tends to approach Brissopsis.

Genus Metalia, Gray, 1855.

Species 1. Metalia melitensis, n. sp, Plate II. fig. 5 ~~

Diagnosis.—Test of moderate size, thin, depressed ; the posterior margin is continued
back as a projection overhanging the anus. Actinal surface flat, except for a prominence
on the posterior end of the amphisternum, ‘The outline is well rounded, except that the
anterior border is flattened and very slightly indented. The highest part of the test is
half-way between the apical system and the posterior margin.

Apical System excentric in front.

Ambulacra: Anterior in a very shallow groove ; pores small and few. Antero-lateral
strongly divergent ; pores large and close. Petals closed ; interporiferous areas of medium
width. Postero-lateral pair much the longer; pores smaller and closer. Interporiferous
areas proportionally narrower. Petals almost flush with the test. Of the six pairs of
pores on each side of the area within the subanal fasciole, only four pairs are well marked.

Anus transverse.

Mouth rather far from the front margin ; semilunar.

Dimensions—

Length, : : i . 49 mm. Antero-lateral ambulacra: length, . 15 mm.

Height, é : ‘ lO, * 3 width, . 5 ,,

Width, : ; " 4D) 5 Postero-lateral i leneth, . Wi 4,

Apical system: distance from anterior % 3 width, . 6 ,,
margin, . : é Shy 55 Inter-subanal plastron : width, . 8 ,,

Mouth: distance from anterior margin, 12 ,, “ 3 height... 14 ,,

Type.—Coll. Mus. Pract. Geol.
Distribution.—Malta—Globigerina Limestone.
Remarks.—Of the species with which this has been compared it agrees most with

622 MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA.

Metalia loveni (Cott.) from the Eocene (?) of St Barthélemy,* but from this it may
readily be distinguished by the greater depth of the anterior groove and the absence
of the overhanging posterior projection in the West Indian species. In both of these
points this new species more resembles Metalia elegans (Agassiz, M.S. ;+ Archiact), but
in that species the apical system is more central, and the anterior ambulacra less
divergent and equal in length to the posterior pair. Dr Damus§ has described as Metaha
cfr. elegans, Ag., a specimen from the Schio Schichten in which the apical system is
excentric anteriorly ; this is very likely to be the same as the Maltese species. It occurs
on approximately the same horizon, whereas ArcurAc’s type came from a much lower
bed. But as Dr Dames includes among his synonyms the figures of Von ScHauROTH’s ||
referred to B. elegans, they may be distinct. The Coburg type is clearly different, and
the figures show it to be a true Brissopsis allied to B. crescenticus, Wr. ; but as Professor
Dames’ opinion is not one that can be lightly disregarded, probably the specimen shows
structures missed by Von ScuaurRotyH’s artist.

Genus Brissopsis, L. Agassiz, 1840.

Species 1. Brissopsis duciei, Wright, 1855.
Synonymy—

Brissopsis duciei, T. Wright, 1855, “Foss. Echinod. Malta,” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (2), xv. pp. 185-7,
plow £. 1
e » E. Desor, 1858, Syn. Ech. foss., p. 379.
= » JT. Wright, 1864, “ Foss. Echinide Malta,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., p. 484.

Type.—Coll. Earl of Ductn.
Distribution.—Malta—Upper Coralline Limestone.

Species 2. Brissopsis crescenticus, Wright, 1855.
Synonymy—

Brissopsis crescenticus, T. Wright, 1855, “Foss. Echinod. Malta,” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (2), <7
p Li, opl. vied. 2s

Toxobrissus 5 A. Gaudry, 1862, “Géol. tle de Chypre,” Mém. Soc. géol. France (2), vii.
No. 3, p. 300. |

* G. Corrnan, “Ech. tert. Iles St Barthélemy et Anguilla,” K. Svensk. Vet. Ak. Handl., xiii., No. 6, 1875, pp. 41, 42,
pl. viii. f. 7, 8.

+ Brissopsis elegans, Agassiz, 1840, Cat. Syst. Ectyp. Foss. Ech. Neoc., p. 3.

¢ D’Arcutac, “Description des fossiles du groupe nummulitique recueillis . . . . aux environs de Bayonne et de
Dax,” Mém. Soc. géol. France (2), iii., 1850, p. 424, pl. x. f. 20.

§ W. Dames, “ Die Echiniden dee vicentinischen und veronesischen Tarhtirablaacthugent Paléontographica, xxv.,
1877, p. 70.

| C. von Scuaurorn, Verzeichniss der Versteinerungen im Herzoglichen Naturalien Cabinet zu Coburg, Coburg, 1865
p. 192, pl. xi. f. 2,

MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA. 623

Brissopsis crescenticus, G. Cotteau, 1877, “Faune tert. Corse,” Ann. Soc, Agric. Lyons (4), ix.

pp. 312-14.
a y, Th. Fuchs, 1885, “ Gliederung unt. Neogen Mittelmeers,” Zeit. deut. geol. Ges.,
Xxxvii. p. 157.
Toxobrissus a E. Desor, 1858, Syn. Ech. foss., p. 400, pl. xlii. f. 6-8.
- a T. Wright, 1864, “Foss. Echinide Malta,” Quart. Jowrn. Geol. Soc., xx.
p- 487.
” iz G. Mazzetti, 1879, Ann. Soc. Nat. Modena, xiii. p. 188.

. - A. Manzoni, 1880, “Ech. foss. Plioc.,” Attz Soc. Tosc. Sct. Nat., iv. p. 334.

Type—Brit. Mus., E. 1583.

Distribution.—Malta—Globigerina Limestone. Corsica—Sta Manza (lower beds),
and Zone a P. cristatus, and Zone & Cerites et Pleurotomes. Italy—Castell Arquato
(Pliocene ?); Modena (Moll. marmosa). Cyprus—Hagia Phylla (Mioc.).

Remarks.—This species appears most closely to resemble some varieties of B. ottnan-
gensis, Heernes,* especially some of those figured by M. pg Lortot,t but the confluence of
the lateral ambulacra is a very distinctive feature in the Maltese species.

Genus Spatangus, Leske, 1778.
Species 1. Spatangus delphinus, Defrance, 1827.

Synonymy—
Spatangus delphinus, Defrance, 1827, Dict. Sct. Nat., t. 1, p. 96.
0 * Blainville, 1834, Man. Actinol., p. 204.
" x C. Desmoulins, 1837, 3™° “ Mém. Ech.,” Actes Soc. Linn. Bordeaua, ix. p. 256.
5 5 L. Agassiz, 1840, Cat. Cyst. Hctyp. Ech. Foss. Mus. Neoc., p. 2.
a a Agassiz and Desor, 1847, Cat. rads. Sci. Nat. Zool. (3), viii. p. 7.
D np E. Desor, 1858, Syn. Ech. foss., p. 421.
rE *} T. Wright, 1864, “Foss. Echinide Malta,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xx.
pp. 488, 489, pl. xxii. f. 4.
e Fe P. de Loriol, 1875, “‘ Ech. Tert. Suisse,” Mem. Soc. pal. Suisse, ii. pp. 134, 135,
plecxnt. f. 1.
53 5 G. Mazzetti, 1882, ‘‘ Ech. foss. Montese,” Ann. Soc. Nat. Modena (2), xv. p. 115,
pleut f. 5.
< desmaresti, T. Wright, 1855 (non Goldf.), ‘ Foss. Echinod. Malta,” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.
(2), xv. p. 104, 272-3.
Type.—M. 20.

Distribution.—Malta—Upper Coralline Limestone and Greensand. France—St Paul
trois Chateaux (Helvetian). Switzerland—tLes Verrieres (Helvetian). Italy—(?) Montese
(Langhian, serp. molassa). '

Remarks.—This species has often been regarded as synonymous with S. corsicus, Des.,
but M. Corruau { regards them as quite distinct, and enumerates a series of characters

* R. Harness, “Die Fauna des schliers von Ottnang,’ Jahrb. k. k. geol. Reichs., xxv., 1875, pp. 389-91, pl. xii.
f. 4, pl. xv. f. 2-7.

+ P. pm Loriou, “ Description des Echinides des environs de Camerino (Toscane),” Mém. Soc. Phys. Hist. Nat. Geneve,
xxviil., No. 3, 1882, pl. iii. f. 4-7.

{ “Faune tert. Corse,” Ann. Soc. Agric. Lyons (4), ix., 1877, p. 340.

624 MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA.

which seems quite sufficient to establish the separation. Dr Experr has discussed * the
relations of this species and S. desmaresti, Miinst.

Species 2. Spatangus pustulosus, T. Wright, 1864.

Synonymy—
Spatangus pustulosus, T. Wright, 1864, “ Foss. Echinidee Malta,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xx. Pe
489, pl. xxi. f. 2.

Ippolito Cafici, 1880, Boll. R. Com. geol. Italia, xi. p. 501.

Th. Fuchs, 1885, “‘Gliederung unt. Neogen Mittelmeers,” Zedt. deut. on Ges.,
xxxvil. p. 157.

L. Baldacci, 1886, “Descriz, Geol. Italia,” Mem. deser. Carta geol. Italia, i.
p. 94.

t 4, aequidilatatus, G. Mazzetti, 1882, “Ech. foss. Montese,” Ann. Soc. Nat. Modena (2), xv.

pp. 113, 114, pl. iii, f. 6.

” ”

” ”

” ”

Type.—Brit. Mus., E. 1675.
Distribution.—Malta—Globigerina Limestone ; Greensand (Cooke’s Coll.). Sicily—
Calcare di Siracusa. Italy—Montese (?); (Langhien). Greece—Eubcea.

Genus Huspatangus, L. Agassiz, 1847.

Species 1. Huspatangus de konincki (Wright), 1855.

Synonymy—
Spatangus de konincki, T. Wright, 1855, “ Foss. Echinod. Malta,” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist, (2), xv. pp.
178-181.
Luspatangus ,, T. Wright, 1855, dbid., p. 274.
ss ss E. Desor, 1858, Syn. Ech. Joss., p. 415.
53 konincki, T. Wright, 1864, “ Foss. Echinide Malta,” Quart. Jowrn. Geol. Soc., p. 487,
pl. xxii. f. 5.
Type.—. 1582.

Distribution.—Malta—Blue Clay (fide Dr Wricut)—Globigerina Limestone.
Remarks.—Dr Wricut also records this species from the Lower Coralline Limestone,
but I have seen no specimen from that horizon.

Genus Sarsella, Pomel, 1883.

Species 1. Sarsella duncani, n. sp.
Sunonymy—
Spatangus hoffmanni, T. Wright, 1855 (non Goldf.), “Foss. Echinod., Malta,” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.
(2), xv. pp. 176-178.
pana T. Wright, 1864 (non Defrance), ‘‘ Foss. Echinidee Malta,” Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc., pp. 487, 488, pl. xxi. f. 1.

”

* Th. Exert, “ Die Echiniden des Nord und Mitteldeutschen Oligociins,” Abh. geol. Specialk. Preussen, ix., Abt. 1.,
1889, pp. 55, 56.

MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA. 625

Diagnosis.—Form cordate, a broad shallow notch on the anterior margin ; it tapers
slightly to the posterior margin, which is abruptly truncated. Seen from the side it is
seen to be depressed, and with a wavy margin produced by a depression around the
apical system and the carinate posterior interradius. The latter overhangs posteriorly.

The actinal surface is flat, but bulging at the posterior margin.

Ambulacra: Anterior widest with minute pores ; interrupted by the internal fasciole.
Antero-lateral large, extending quite two-thirds of the distance to the ambitus; the pores
of the anterior zone disappear close to the apical system. The direction of the antero-
lateral pair is very divergent. The postero-lateral ambulacra curve back beside the keel,
and bend outwards at the lower ends. The paired petals are flush with the test.

Apical system excentric anteriorly ; four genital pores. Ethmolysian.

Peristome excentric in front ; mouth semilunar.

Epistroma ; Abactinally a number of large tubercles set in deeply sunk scrobicules on
the paired interradii; some coarse granules occur on the anterior ambulacrum ; in addi-
tion to these, there is a granulation of uniform minute granules. Actinally, there is a
broad bare band with a few granules, and on either side an area covered with deeply
scrobiculate tubercles.

Fascioles: Internal fasciole sinuous, forming a key-shaped area with the apical
system in the centre of the expanded part. There are eight pairs of large pores on either
side of the area within the subanal fasciole.

Anus large, oblong, overhung by the posterior iterradius.

Dimensions—
Length, . . ‘ z . 55mm. | Antero-lateral ambulacra: No. of pores
Width, . : ‘ ; ely in ant. zone, . ; ; 10-11
Height, . ; : é Se PLU B Posterior ambulacrum: length, . . 19 mm.
Apical system: distance from anterior - 5 width, . thelOlt:;
margin, ; F ns Dil ae 5 No. of pairs of
Mouth: distance from anterior margin, . 13 ,, pores in ant.
Antero-lateral ambulacra : length, ata’ ces side, . 5 oe
2 " width, oe SR 3 Fe No. of pairs of
5 % No. of pores in pores in post.
post. zone,. 13 side, . . 20

Type.—Brit. Mus., H. 3406.

Distribution.—Malta—Globigerina Limestone.

Remarks.—This species was originally identified by Dr Wricut as Spatangus hoff-
manni, Goldf., and subsequently as S. ocellatus, Defr., but the occurrence of the internal
fasciole necessitates its removal to the Lovenia group. This was pointed out by Pro-
- fessor Duncan,* and the species is accordingly named after him. DrEFRancer’s species is
a true Spatangus.

This species differs from Sarsella peroni (Cott.)+ by the shape of the internal fasciole,
and the proportions of the pore areas in the antero-lateral ambulacra.

* Revision, Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool., xxiii., 1889, p. 265.
+ G. Corrzau, Ann. Soc. Agric. Lyons (4), ix., 1877, pp. 334, 335, pl. xvi. f. 3-4.

VOL. XXXVI. PART III. (NO. 22). 5B

626 MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA.

Sarsella anteroalta, n. sp. Pl. II. figs. 7 and 8.

Diagnosis. —Form elliptical, but with the anterior margin flattened, and but slightly
furrowed by the anterior ambulacrum. The test is depressed, with a thin margin
posteriorly ; at the anterior end it is tumid, and the whole of the anterior ambulacrum is
upon a broad raised area. The highest point is in front of the apical system. The
posterior interradius is somewhat carinate.

Ambulacra: The anterior is in a broad shallow groove upon the top of a raised area.
In addition to the adjoining interradii, parts of the antero-lateral ambulacra take part in
the formation of this raised area. The paired ambulacra are in broad shallow depressions ;
in the front pair the anterior poriferous zone is very short, as the pores are not continued
up the steep, almost vertical wall of the raised area. The posterior pair also terminate
abruptly against the fasciole.

Apical system: Four large genital pores; ethmolysian ; the madreporite is continued
far behind the posterior pores.

Fascioles: The internal fasciole is broad and distinct; it crosses the anterior ambu-
lacrum at about a third of the length of this from the anterior margin; it is continued
back on the upper part of the sides of the raised area, and extends for some distance
behind the apical system, the two halves meeting at an acute angle on the posterior
interradius. The details of the subanal are not discernible.

Anus on the thin posterior margin.

Epistroma: A few large tubercles, with deep scrobicules, occur in the antero-lateral
interradii, and in the extreme anterior corner of the posterior pair.

Dimensions—
B. M., E. 3420. —_-E. 3421.
Length, ; “ : = 3 4 ‘ 26 mm. 30 mm.
Width, : ; : ; ; : ; 24 5, 28s
Height, : ‘ ; : ; : 6 5 ake.
Distance of apical system from anterior margin, : : 15 ae 1s: 3
Antero-lateral ambulacra: number of pores in anterior zone, . 5 if
59 PA i» 5 posterior ,,_. “) 11
Postero-lateral a *s i anterior ,, . 9 10
yh Ps ‘ 3 posterior ,, . 10 11

Type.—Brit. Mus., E. 3420, 3421.

Distribution.—Malta—Globigerina Limestone ; bed 6 at Dueira.

Remarks.—This species may be readily distinguished from any other Sarsella by the
depressed condition of the ambulacra, a character especially marked in the youngest
specimens. If the division into Spatangidz and Brisside be accepted, including in the
former those with flush and in the latter those with depressed petals, then a new genus
must be created for this species. But in all other respects it is a true Sarsella, and it is —
here allowed to remain in this genus; the reasons for this have been already stated on

MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA. 627

p- 613 when considering Henmuiaster vadosus. As Sarsella duncani occurs on the same
horizon, the two species must be compared. The following table shows the marked
distinctions between these species :—

Sarsella duncan. Sarsella antero-alta.
Petals, . : : ; Flush, Depressed.
Posterior interradius, . : Carinate. Not carinate.
Maximum height, ; ; Posterior. Anterior.
Posterior margin, . : : Overhanging. Vertical.
Postero-lateral ambulacra, . Long, sinuous. Broad, blunt ; not sinuous.

Sides straight, ending
behind as an acute
angle, and further from
the apical system.

Internal fasciole, . - : Key-shaped ; blunt behind.

II].—Miscettantous ReEcorps.

Family KHCHINID2:.
Genus Stirechinus, Desor, 1856.

Species 1. Stirechinus scillze (Desmoulins), 1837.

Synonymy—
Echinus scille, C. Desmoulins, 1837, “3m Mém. Ech.,” Actes Soc. Linn. Bordeaum, ix. p. 136.
Stirechinus scille, Desor, 1857, Syn. Ech. foss., p. 131.
J. Seguenza, 1868, ‘‘ Formation Zancléene,” Bull. Soc. géol. France (2), xxv.
: p. 476.
Echinus » T. Wright, 1864, “Foss. Echinide Malta,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xx. pp. 475,
476,
°S costatus, Agass., 1846, Cat. rais. Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. (3), vi. p. 370.

” ”

Fype.—(K. costatus), V. 26.

Remarks.—Dr Wricut described a specimen as Echinus scille, which is apparently
the above species; and the fact that he placed his own name after it was probably only
an inadvertence. A specimen of Stirechinus scille from the Sicilian Zanclean is included
in Dr Letra Apams’ Collection, and this may have led to the mistake.

Family CLYPEASTRID.
Genus Clypeaster, Lamarck, 1816.
Species 1. Clypeaster reidi, Wright, 1855.

Clypeaster reidi, T. Wright, 1855, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (2), xv. p. 268-70.
Michelin, 1861, “Mon. Clypéastres foss., “ Mém. Soc. géol. France (2), vii., No. 2,

p. 124, pl. xxvi.

” ”

The type specimen of this species, a very close ally of C. gubbosus, is preserved in the
British Museum; the condition of preservation of the specimen, however, suggests that

628 MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA.

it came from Sicily or Corsica rather than from Malta. It has been recorded from the
latter by M. Corrgau * and by G. Sxcurnza from Calabria,t but has not apparently been
since obtained from Malta, There is no specimen in Mr Cooxr’s Collection; hence it
does not seem advisable to retain it on the Maltese list.

Species 2. Clypeaster gibbosus (Risso), 1826,

Synonymy—

Scutella gibbosa, Risso, 1826, Hist. Nat. Europe merid., v. p. 284.
Clypeaster gibbosus, Marc de Serres, 1829, Géogr. terr. tert. France merid., p. 157.
# os Th. Fuchs, 1874, Sitz. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, Ixx., Abth. 1, p. 96.

This species is quoted by Herr Fucus from the Greensand, but I have seen no
specimen from Malta.

Species 3. Clypeaster melitensis, Michelin, 1861.
“* Mon. Clypéastres foss.,” Mém. Boe. géol. France (2), vii. p. 129.

This species was founded on some internal casts, and it is probable that they came

from Egypt. There are no specimens in any English collection from Malta in a similar
condition of preservation. ‘

Species 4. Clypeaster latirostris, Agassiz, 1840.
Synonymy—

Clypeaster latirostris, L. Agassiz, 1840, Cat, Ect. foss. Ech. Mus. Neoc., p. 6.

95 is T. Wright, 1864, “Foss. Echinide Malta,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xx.
p- 479.

Family SCUTELLIDZ:.

Genus Scutella, Lamarck, 1816.
Species 1. Scutella subrotunda, pars Leske, 1778.

This species has been recorded from Malta in mistake for S. striatula. Dr Wricut,
however, recorded both species in his earlier paper;{ but as he abandoned S. striatula >
in his later list, it is probable that he recognised that only one species occurred on
the island. The reasons why this was given as S. subrotunda have been already
mentioned,

* “Faune tert. Corse,” Ann. Soc. Agric. Lyons (4), ix. pp. 275-278.

+ “Formaz. terz. Reggio,” Mem. R. Ac. Lincet (3), vi. p. 88, pl. x. f. 2.
} Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (2), xv. pp. 118-120.

MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA. 629

Family CASSIDULIDA,
Genus Echinolampas, Gray, 1825.

Species 1. Echinolampas kleini (Goldfuss).
Synonymy—
Clypeaster kleini, Goldfuss, 1829, Petref. Germ., p. 133, pl. xlii f. 5.
Echinolampas kleini, Desmoulins, 1837, “3™ Mém. Ech.,” Actes Soc. Linn, Bordeaum, ix. p. 192.
re » I. Wright, 1855, “Foss. Echinod. Malta,” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist, (2), xv.
pp. 121, 122.

Remarks.—This species is recorded by Dr Wricut from the Greensand. The
identification of the specimen seems subsequently to have caused Dr Wricut some
misgivings, as the species is not mentioned in his later paper. The Earl of Ductz has
kindly lent me the specimen, and I not only question the specific determination, but
whether it ever came from Malta. The condition of preservation is very different to
that of any Maltese fossil 1 have seen, and it is. probable that it came from Sicily. It is
a close ally of the Hchinolampas hofmanm, Desor, from the Pliocenes of that island.
Dr Tu. Eperr,* in his recent elaborate description of this. species, makes no mention of
Dr Wricut’s record, so he apparently does not accept it.

Family SPATANGIDAi.
Genus Brissus, Leske, 1778.

Species Brissus cordieri, L. Ag., 1847.
Cat. rais. Ann. Set. Nat. Zool. (3), viii. p. 14.

This species is recorded by M. Desort from Malta, but I have seen no specimen:
referable to it.
TV.—DistRipuTion oF THE EcHINOIDEA.

The list in the Table annexed includes 46 species, of which 28 are: peculiar to. the.
Maltese beds; in the Upper Coralline Limestone there are 15, species, and in the
Greensand 6, of which 2 also occur in the upper horizon. The Blue Clay has so far
yielded but one recognisable species, but a fragment of a Clypeaster is of interest, as
showing the shallower water in which this bed was deposited. The one-species identified
also occurs in the Globigerina Limestone, where it is associated with 20 other species.
The Lower Coralline Limestone has yielded 6 Echinoids, none of which occur in the
higher beds. Dr Wricut mentions several as ranging through the whole series, and
though this is not impossible, J have seen no sufficient evidence. And in the south

* Tu. Expert, “ Die Echiniden des Nord- und Mitteldeutschen Oligocins,” Abh. geol. Specialk, Preussen und Thiir..

St., ix., Abt. 1, 1889, pp. 39, 43, pl. ii. £. 1-3; iii £.1,2;x.£1.
+ Syn. Ech. foss., p. 404.

630 MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA.

Malta. Ttaly.
63 7 SS ee Be dee Z
No. Species. 2 Ae 8 Sl S2 8 HS BB Piso 2 2 d| a 8 Miscellaneous, |
SB |8 8\s\o|Hso 3] § WEES Ble seal s|s|s
4 Palgeele ble lala sls s8 | 2/2) 3
PSs a4] S (S67 WS Fe sre | db | a
1 | Cidaris melitensis, Wr. = = W. Indies, Greece,
2 » scille, = -
3 4» @ventonensis, Desml. - 6 AL) —- A.L.|| H. | H. Egypt.
4 » adamsi, Wr. - > Egypt. if
5 » oligocenus, Greg. - |
6 | Echinus duciet, Wr. —_ Tt. Tt.
7 5, tortonicus, Greg. | - |
8 » Aungaricus, Laube q Pp Tt.
“) » tongrianus, Greg. - ;
10 | Echinocyamus studeri, | (Sism.) - A.H. Cyprus (Pl.).
11 | Clypeaster altus, (Leske)| -— |- - | H H, Tt. |Crete, Asia Minor,
Madeira, &. =|
12 4 marginatus, | Lam. - 2 || Tt.
Hi,
13 | Scutella striatula, M. de x Te. |
Serr.
14 | Heteroclypeus hem- Greg. =
sphericus,
15 5, subpentagonalis,| ,, - t Tt.
16 | Amblypygus melitensis, | Wr. -
17 | Breynella vasalli, (,, i - 3
18 + equizonata, Greg. -
19 | Studeria sprattt, (aay -
fig.
20 | Echinolampas hemi- |(Lam.) | — |— 6 2 Ab. BEL Tt. |Cyprus, Asia
sphericus, iP: Minor, &c.
21 || 3 manzont, Greg. - —
22 Ke wrighte, ee =
23 x hayesianus, | Des. - -|-
24 . posterolatus,| Greg. -
25 | Hemiaster cotteaut, Wr. - = |
26 | Hemiaster scille, a = q
27 % vadousus, Greg. - ~ a
28 | Pericosmus latus, (Ag.) - 3.4 || — - | A. Sch.|Madeira,
H.
29 , coranguinum,| Greg. -
30 | Schizaster parkinsoni, | (Defr.) - 3 A.
31 B desori, Wr. - - - A. || H. Tt. |Sardinia.
32 3 scille, (Desml.)| — 3.4 — | Tt. |H.Pl Tt. |Belgium (Pl.), v|
5 12 Indies, Sardinia |
Asia Minor, &e, | |
33 | Prenaster excentricus, (Wr.) | - |
34 | Brissus latus, Wy, - |
35 » tmbricatus, 5 - Tt.. |
36 » tuberculatus, 5 - |
37 » oblongus, P -
38 5, depressus, Greg. | —- |
39 | Metalia melitensis, _ -
40 | Brissopsts duciet, Wr. - |
41 % crescenticus, $3 - 4.5 P. 1 Cyprus. |
42 | Spatangus delphinus, Defr. | — H.
43 i pustulosus, Wr. - = - Greece.
44 | Euspatangus de konincki\ ( ,, ) -| - |
45 | Sarsella duncani, Greg. = |
46 » anteroalta, ,s - |
j

A., Aquitanian ; H., Helvetian; L., Langhian ; P., Pliocene; Sch., Schlier; Tg., Tongrian ; Tt., Tortonian. The Nos. in
the column for Corsica refer to M. Locard’s six divisions.

MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA. - 631

of France, where the conditions varied much less than in Malta, we find, as TouRNOUER
says, that “the Faluns of Léognan and of Saucats contain scarcely anything in common
with the fauna of the Calcaire 4 Astéries or of Gaas.” * .

The number of species peculiar to the islands is very high, and might lead one at
first to suppose that species had been made on too minute differences; but a closer
comparison of these with their nearest allies in other parts of the Mediterranean basin
shows that they are as a rule separated by very distinct characters. The same feature is
noticed.in the corresponding beds in Italy and Corsica. The Echinoids described by
M. Corrzau from the latter number 45 species, of which 21 are confined to the island ;
while the interesting little fauna described by M. pr Lorioz, from Tuscany, contained
8 new species, and only two which were known elsewhere, and one of these is doubtful.
When we consider the wide distribution of the species of lower and of higher horizons,
this localisation of the deep-sea species is of great interest.

VY. THE CorRELATION OF THE MALTESE, Bens.

The Miocene deposits of the Mediterranean basin have been classified upon: two
different principles. On the one hand, Professor Stss showed, in 1866,t that the richly
fossiliferous sands and limestones of the Vienna basin, then known as the “ Mediterranean
stage,” belonged to two different epochs in the Miocene era, and that they were shallow
water beds separated by a deposit formed at a much greater depth. The two former he
grouped as the first and second “ Mediteran-Stufen,” and to the intermediate bed he
applied the term “ Schlier.”{ Later workers have filled in the details, and, though not
without opposition, as:that of Dr Srur in Austria,§ and of Professor CaPELLINI||'‘in North
Italy, have shown that Professor Stss’s classification has given the clue to the unravelling
of the sequence of the varying deposits of the Cainozoic group of the Hastern Mediter-
ranean. Foremost amongst these geologists is Herr Tu. Fucus, who, in conjunction with
‘Karrer 1 in the Vienna basin, supported by Manzont,** and Mazzerritt in Romagna;

* “Note stratigraphique et paléntologique sur les faluns du département de la Gironde,” Bull. Soc. géol. France (2),
xix., 1862, p. 1069.

+ Untersuchungen iiber den Character der oesterreichischen Tertidrablagerungen. I, “ Ueber die Gliederung der
tertidren Bildungen zwischen dem Mannhart, der Donau und dem ausseren Saume des Hochgebirges,” Sitz. k. k. Ak.
Wiss. Wien, liv., 1866, Abt. 1, pp. 87-149. { Ibid., p. 118.

§ Dr Srur, “ Beitrage zur Kenntniss der stratigraphischen Verhiltnisse der marinen Stufe des Wiener Beckens,”
Jahrb. k. k. geol. Reichs., xx., 1870, pp. 303-342. “ Zur Leithakalk-Frage,” Verh. k. k. geol. Reichs., 1871, pp. 230-234.

|| G. CapPeiini, “Sui terreni terziari di una parte del versante settentrionale dell? Appennino,” Mem. Acc. Se.
Instit. Bologna (3), vi. 1876, pp. 587-621. “Sulle marne glauconifere dei dintorni di Bologna,” Boll. R. Com. geol.
Ftalia, viii., 1877, pp. 398-406; and Rendic. Acc. Sct. Ist. Bol., 1877, pp. 110-121.

‘ Tu. Fucus and F. Karrer, “Geologische Studien in den Tertiarbildungen des Wiener Beckens,” No. 1-21,
Jahrb. k. k. geol. Reichs., Bd. xviii.-xxv.

** A. Manzoni, “Lo Schlier di Ottnang nell’ Alta Austria e lo Schlier delle colline di Bologna,” Boll. R. Com.
geol. Italia, vii., 1876, pp. 122-132. “Geologia della provincia di Bologna,” Ann. Soc. Nat. Modena, xiv., fasc. 1, 1880,
pp. 1-33. “Gli Echinodermi fossili dello Schlier delle colline di Bologna,” Denk. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, xxxix., Th. 2,
1879, pp. 149-164, pl. i-iv. “Echinodermi fossili della Molassa serpentinosa e supplemento agli Echinodermi dello
Schlier delle colline di Bologna,” 2b., xlii., Th. 2, 1880, pp. 185-190, pl. i.-iii.

++:G. Mazzurtt, “ La molassa marnosa delle montagne Modenesi e Reggiane e lo Schlier delle colline Bolognese,”
Ann. Soc. Nat. Modena, xiii., 1879, pp. 105-126.

632 MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA.

-~

and alone* in Greece, Asia Minor, Malta, and North Africa, has proved that Professor
Stss’s classification could be applied over a much larger area than that for which it was
originally proposed. At the same time, he has established the synchronism of beds which,
formed of different materials, and under very dissimilar conditions and depths, along the
steep shores of Miocene Italy, or in the deep gulfs of the Vienna basin, now yield .
different faunas, and had been assigned to different epochs. Thus he and his collaborators
have taught us that near Vienna the Leithakalk is the littoral representative of the
Baden Tegel; along the Apennines the Schlier is the deep-sea continuation of the Molassa
marnosa and Molassa serpentinosa ; and in Sicily the Astian is, in part at least, the shore
deposit of the Zanclean. He, in fact, worked out among the Mediterranean Miocenes the
same principles which have been applied with such brilliant results by Professor Lap-
wortHt to the “ Sequence of the Southern Uplands” of Scotland.

But while Herr Fucus was thus engaged in the more central part of the Mediterranean
basin, ANDRUSOV was proving the applicability of the same classification in the extreme
East by finding in the Crimea and around Stavropol that the “black clay with Meletta ”
contained Pecten denudatus, and other species characteristic of the Schlier, while the
overlying Chokrah Limestone yielded the fauna of the second “ Mediteran-Stufe.”{ The
physical history of the Mediterranean, as revealed by these researches, has been sum-
marised by Professor Stiss himself in his well-known essay on the “ Mittelmeer,” § while
later we owe a brilliant sketch of the same subject to the master hand of the late Pro-
fessor Neumayr.|| Further details and sketch-maps of the eastern part of the area have
been given by Professor LvosTRANZEV.1

But in the western part of the Mediterranean basin the Vienna classification has not
met with such general acceptance. The system worked out by Professor Carl Mayer in
Liguria has not only held its ground there, but been adopted in France and Spain on
the one side, and as far south as Algeria on the other; while, even in the Vienna basin,
the accepted classification has been severely criticised in a couple of weighty papers by
Dr A. Birrner,** whose arguments may show that the differences between the two
‘“‘ Mediteran-Stufen” in the most typical area are less clearly marked than has been
thought. Though Fucus has shown that the Maltese sequence is in agreement with that

* Vide the series of papers by Tu. Fucus, Sitz. k. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, lxvi.-lxxvii.

+ C. Lapwort, “On the Ballantrae Rocks of South Scotland, and their place in the Upland Sequence,” Geol.
Mag. (3), vi., 1889, pp. 20-24, 59-69.

{ N. I. Anprusov, “Gheologhicheskiya izslyedovaniya v zaradnoi polovinye Kerchenskagho polyostrova proizve-
dennuiya lyetom 1884 ghoda,” Zap. Novoross. Obshch. Est., xi., pt. 2, pp. 117, 118, 121; see also “O tretichnuikh
otlozheniyakh Daghestana,” Trud. St. Pet. Obshch. Est., xix., pt. 2, 1888, p. xv ; and ‘‘O kharaksherye Miotzenobuikh
ocadkov Kpuima,” Trud. St. Pet. Obshch. Est., xvii., pt. 2, 1886, pp. 59-61.

§ E. Suss, Das Antlitz der Erde, i., 1885, pp. 375-414.

|| M. Neumayer, Erdgeschichte, ii. 1887, pp. 515-522.

“J A. InostRANzEV, Gheologhiya, ii., 1887, pp. 394-396.

** A. Brrtnmr, “ Ueber den Charakter der sarmatischen Fauna des Wiener Beckens,” Jahrb. k. k. geol. Reichs., xxxiil.,
1883, pp. 181-150. “Zur Literatur der dsterreichischen Tertiirablagerungen,” 7b., xxxiv., 1884, pp. 137-146. “ Noch ein
Beitrag zur neueren Tertiirliteratur,” 4b., xxxvi., 1886, pp. 1-70. Also “Neue Daten tiber den Charakter und die
Herkunft der sarmatischen Fauna,” Verk, k. k. geol. Reichs., 1891, pp. 195-8.

MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA. 633

of Austria,* no attempt seems to have been made to apply this classification to the six
divisions of the Miocene adopted by M. Locarpt in Corsica. The Maltese beds seem, in
fact, to have been on the border line between two areas, in which different sequences of
conditions have necessitated two different classifications of the deposits of the middle part
of the Cainozoic era. Hence it may be of interest to see how far the Maltese beds can
be correlated with those of the two halves of the Mediterranean region, and see what
light the Echinoidea throw on the physical condition of the period.

The precise correlation of beds in islands with those of other areas is rarely entirely
free from some doubt, as the final appeal to stratigraphy cannot be made. But in the
case of the Maltese beds there is an additional source of uncertainty, as the comparison
frequently has to be made between deposits laid down under very different conditions ;
the slight variations produced by age may be completely overshadowed by differences due
to altered circumstances, and hence the evidence of palzecontology must be accepted with
considerable caution. Thus in Malta the calcareous marls, with fish teeth, &c., occur near
the base of the series, and the great Clypeaster beds above ; but in Corsica the succession
is reversed. As an area subdivided, its fauna must have withdrawn to shallower regions,
whence, on its re-elevation into more favourable zones, they returned to oust the deeper
forms that had temporarily supplanted them. Hence the area in question affords illustra-
tions of a series of “ colonies,” though their migrations must have been limited to a much
shorter period of time than in the cases, now discredited, for which this theory was
originally proposed.

- Before any correlation of the Maltese subdivisions can be attempted with much chance
of success, their faunas must be studied with greater care than has apparently been
devoted to any of the invertebrates except the Foraminifera and the Echinoidea. As the
latter are good zonal fossils, the evidence they afford may be more reliable than that of
other groups, at least until far more care has been bestowed on the mollusca than has as
yet been done. The Echinoidea, moreover, now offer the additional advantage that their
distribution in the Maltese series is known with greater certainty than previously,
owing to the care with which Mr J. H. Cooxs has collected these fossils. As in the list
compiled by Dr Wricut{ specimens from Sicily, and probably Egypt, have been included,
and errors both of specific identification and of geological horizons seem to have
occurred, it has not been accepted as evidence in the compilation of the table of dis-
tribution.

The following table gives the succession of the Maltese beds. It has been kindly
compiled for this paper by Mr Cooxr. The names are those proposed by Dr Murray, to
whose Memoir reference is made for further details, and especially the microscopic struc-
ture of the rocks.

* Sitz. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, lxx., Abth. i., 1874, pp. 92-105.

+ A. Locarp, “ Description de la Faune des Terrains tertiares moyens et supérieurs de la Corse,” Ann, Soc. Agric.
Lyons (4), ix., 1877, pp. 345-360.

t Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1864, vol. xx. p. 490.

VOL. XXXVI. PART III. (NO. 22). 5 ¢

634 — MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA.

Table of Maltese Strata.

Upper Coralline Limestone a. White Goralline Limestone.
c

} “ Gozo Marble.”
(300 feet),

b. Reddish-yellow Limestone.
. Soft White Limestone.

Greensand (35 feet), a. Indurated Yellow Sand. (Clypeaster bed.)
Blue Clay (40 feet), b. Friable Black Sand.

a. White rotten Limestone. (Fossils badly preserved.)
1st Nodule seam.
b, Fine hard-grained Limestone.
Globigerina Limestone 2nd Nodule seam.
(250 feet), e. Compact semi-crystalline Limestone.
3rd Nodule seam.
bo Yellowish soft Limestone. (Fossils well preserved.)
4th Nodule seam.

Scutella bed.

s a.
HRMS RAEN UU 5 { b. Hard compact Limestone.

It is fortunate that the Maltese series of deposits begins and ends with shallow water
limestones, which admit of comparison on equal terms with their representatives on the
mainland. The succession which is of most value for this purpose is that so well
described by SeGuENZA in his elaborate Memoir, ‘‘ Le Formazioni Terziarie nella Provincia :
di Reggio (Calabria).” *

There are rocks in Sicily which seem to agree more closely lithologically with those of
Malta, but their Echinoidea have not been so well monographed. The Calabrian series
is of special value, as it includes a succession of littoral deposits from the Tongrian to the
Tortonian, that is, throughout both the Oligocene and Miocene systems. In the Tongrian
there we find Scutella stridtula, Marc de Serr. (recorded, however, as S. subrotundat),
which is’ the best-known fossil of the Lower Coralline Limestone. It is the most —
characteristic species of the Tongrian throughout the Mediterranean basin; in France it
occurs in the Calcaire & Astéries, while the true S. swbrotunda (Leske, pars) is the typical
species of the Faluns of Léognan (z.e., the base of the Langhian). Similarly in the
Vicentin district the latter occurs in the Schio Schichten (Aquitanian), and S. tenera, Lhe.
(a very near ally of S. striatula), is the representative of the older species in the Lower
Oligocene. Similarly other Echinoids from the Lower Coralline Limestone have their
nearest allies in the Tongrian fauna; thus Echinus tongrianus, Greg, most resembles
E. biarritzensis, Cott., from the Calcaire & Astéries in the south of France, and from the
Castel Gomberto beds of Vicentin (both of which are Tongrian). Unfortunately, the
larger bed of this division in Malta is so hard that the fossils have not been so well
collected as from higher horizons, and the specimens are usually covered by the limestone ;
but, so far as the fauna is known, it appears to be certainly Oligocene and probably
Tongrian. It may have been that the Scutella striatula fauna lived on longer in the south

* Atti. R. Ac. Lincet, 34 Ser. Mem., vol. vi., 1879, pp. 1-446, pl. i.—xvii.
+ See the remarks on this species, ante, p. 597-98.

MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA. 635

than in the north, and thus it may in part have been synchronous with the Aquitanian ;
but it appears to be clearly homotaxial with the Lower Oligocene. That some consider-
able lapse of time intervened between this and the Upper Coralline Limestone is indicated
by the fact that when the same genera reappeared, with the return of the old conditions,
they were always represented by new species.
The Upper Coralline Limestone does not contain many Echinoidea, but the Green-
sand (the Heterosteginakalk of Fucus) yields a large number of Clypeasters. These may
be included in two species—Clypeaster altus and C. marginatus. The former species is
represented by several well-marked varieties, such as C. pyramidalis, C. portentosus,
C. alticostatus, C. turritus, and C. tauricus (2). The same species, with the same
varieties, are found in Calabria in the Helvetian, and they seem sufficient to determine
this horizon. Batpacct, moreover, has assigned the Heterostegina Limestone of Syracuse,
the Sicilian representative of the Greensand, to the Helvetian.* Two horizons may thus
be regarded as fairly settled, while the Upper Coralline Limestone may be readily
dismissed as the Tortonian, both from its superposition to the Helvetian and the agree-
ment of its fossils with those of the Leithakalk, as shown by Herr Fucus.t

It is thus obvious that the Globigerina Limestone and the Blue Clay together
represent the Aquitanian (Upper Oligocene) and the Langhian (Lower Miocene); and no
doubt it would be very convenient to follow Fucus in drawing the line between these two
systems at the change in the lithological character of the deposits. This change
Dr Morray { has shown to be due to some change in the physical conditions of the area,
whereby a larger proportion of clastic material was introduced into the sea in which
the higher deposit was being laid down. ‘This is probably, as Dr Murray has said,
owing to elevation into a shallower zone. It is of interest to inquire whether this
alteration of level exactly coincided with the opposite change whereby the littoral and
land deposits of the Ligurian Aquitanians and the Viennese Sotzka and Eggenburg
Schichten were replaced by the deep-sea Langhians and Schlier.

Herr Fucus’ conclusions as to the correlation of the Blue Clay and of the Globigerina
Limestone were based on 18 species of mollusca in the former, and on two in the latter.
The Echinoidea of the lower horizon, numbering 21 species belonging to 14 genera,
would appear to offer much better data. Of these species, 9 are peculiar to the Maltese
islands, and so are of little value, while, on the other hand, 4 species may be neglected,
as their range is so extensive both in time and space. Thus Schizaster parkinsoni, e.g.,
lived from the Aquitanian to the Tortonian, and has been found from the West Indies,
on the one side, to Eastern Asia Minor, on the other.

As a result of Herr Fucus’ identification of the Globigerina Limestone with the
Aquitanian, one is led to compare its Kchinoids with those from this series in Italy. Not
one of the species occurs in the Aquitanian of Reggio, but that is possibly due to the fact

* “Descrizione geologica dell’ Isola Sicilia,” Mem. descr. Carta geol. Itaha, i., 1886, pp. 93, 108.

t+ Sttz. k. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, \xx., Abth i., pp. 95, 96.
Scott. Geogr. May., vi. p. 480.

636 MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA.

that only shore deposits are there represented. The absence of the Maltese species
(except two widely distributed forms doubtfully recorded) from the Vicentin beds is of
more value. The same genera occur there, such as Pericosmus, Metalia, Spatangus,
Sarsella, &c., but they are represented by different species.*

The Echinoid faunas with which that of the Globigerma Limestone has most in
common are those of the Schlier and the Zone & Pecten bonifaciensis in Corsica. To
the former it is allied by the presence of several species in both deposits and by a general
resemblance of others. .Thus 9 species also occur in the Schlier or its shore deposits—

e “ Serpentinosa molassa” and “ Molassa marnosa” of Northern Italy. The number
is not a large one, but remembering the limited distribution of the species of Echinoidea
in these and corresponding deposits of the same age, and comparing the general
characters of the two faunas, one is led to accept the evidence as of more value
than the actual numbers would suggest. Moreover, the Echinoidea of the Globigerina
Limestone differ completely from those of the beds above and below the Schlier, so
that, if they do not represent this formation, there is nothing in the Vienna basin
with which they can be compared.

The evidence afforded by the fauna of the Zone & Pecten bonifaciensis in Corsica is
of considerable value on this question. Seven of the Hchinoidea of the Globigerina
Limestone occur in Corsica: four of these oceur in the Zone & Pecten bonifaciensis, and
two of these, with another species, occur in the Zone 4 Pecten cristatus ; one is found in
the Zone a Cerites et Pleurotomes, one in the Zone 4 dents de Poissons, and one is
unplaced. Hence it is clearly to the two first zones that the Globigerina Limestone is
allied. Now the mollusca of the former of these two zones agree more closely with those
of the Eggenberg Schichten than with any other bed in the Viennese series; thus the
short lists given by Locarpt and Fucus{ from these horizons have five species in
common. The Zone a Pecten cristatus is similarly the equivalent of the Grunder
Schichten, though it contains some species characteristic of a higher level. Now the
Egegenberg Schichten are below, and the Grunder Schichten above, the Schlier, so that
this last seems to have no definite representative in Corsica. Nevertheless, as far as the
evidence of palzeontology goes, the Zone 4 Pecten cristatus appears to be the equivalent
of the Maltese Blue Clay; but the Maltese beds contain species, such as Pecten denu-
datus, characteristic of a lower horizon; and the intermingling in the Zone 4 Pecten
cristatus of some of the species of the Badner Tegel would also suggest that the Corsican
is the later of the two deposits.

But in considering the Blue Clay apart from the Globigerina Limestone, it should be
remarked that this is done only owing to the convenience of separating a bed so very
different lithologically. There seems hardly any reason paleontologically to separate

* See List by W. Dames, “ Die Echiniden der Vicentinischen und Veronesischen Tertiarablagerungen,” Paldéontogr.,
xxv., 1877, pp. 93, 94.

+ Op. cit., p. 347.

} Zeit, deut. geol. Ges., xxix., 1877, pp. 661, 662

eo

MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA. 637

this bed from the underlying limestone, and its stratigraphical relations also show the
intimate relations between the two. Dr Murray* describes the Blue Clay as being
35 feet thick in some places, while elsewhere it is wholly wanting, and sometimes a
gradual transition can be traced from the clay into the limestone. It would thus appear
to represent merely a local argillaceous phase of the Globigerina Limestone produced
during the elevation of the Maltese area into the shallower zones in which the later
formations were laid down.

The equivalents of the Globigerina Limestone, with its overlying cap of Blue Clay,
may then be tabulated as follows :—

Corsica, Malta. Vienna Basin. Series.
Meena oren Honiacinsis) { Lower Globigerina Limestone, (Sotzka Schichten), Aquitanian.
Upper s 53 \ Horner *5 } Langhian.
Zone 4 Pecten cristatus, . - Blue Clay, Schlier, ;
Zone a Cerites et Pleurotomes, Greensand, Grunder Schichten, } Helvetian.

It seems only by the recognition of the dual affinities of the Globigerina Limestone
Echinoidea that one can explain the association of two groups of species having characters
of the faunas of different depths. The Corsican species and their allies are a set of
forms that might be expected on the deeper slopes at a little distance from the mainland,
while the small elongated Hchinolampas, the Studeria, the thin-tested fragile Sarsella
anteroalta, and the ethmophract Hemiaster. vadosus, indicate a much greater depth.
There is nothing so truly abyssal as the Clezstechinus described by M. DE Lortout from
the Tuscan Schlier, but the whole facies of this latter group of Maltese species has a
deep-sea aspect. The occurrence of these two groups of Echinoidea in the same deposit
appears to indicate that Malta was on the border-line between two parts of the Mediter-
ranean basin which had a different physical history. It seems that the Maltese area
must have undergone alternate elevations and depressions. With the former, the shallow-
water types from the north-west entered the district, and were supplanted by species
from the deeper eastern sea as subsidence again set in. When the elevation became
permanent, the deeper forms finally left the Maltese area and survived only in the
deeper seas of the Adriatic. .

These considerations therefore suggest that, instead of the deep-sea deposits of the
Globigerina Limestone of Malta, the Langhien of Liguria, the Schlier of Vienna, the Zone
4 dents de poissons of Corsica, the Black Clay with Meletta of Southern Russia, &c.,
being on one horizon, and representing a period of regional submergence, they mark only
a series of local subsidences of basins which in the main were isolated from one another
by areas of shallow sea. Thus may be explained the high proportion of peculiar species
in each of these limited areas, while the general resemblance of the faunas may be due

* Op. cit., pp. 465, 466.
+ “Description des Echinides des environs de Camerino (Toscane),” Mém. Soc. Phys. Hist. Nat. Geneve, xxviii.,
No. 3, 1882, pp. 27-30, pl. i, £ 12-14.

VOL. XXXVI. PART III. (NO. 22). 5D

638 MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA.

mainly to the influence of similar conditions acting on the allied littoral faunas from
which these were derived. In some places it appears rather as if a wave of depression
had travelled northward, and some of the deeper species may then have followed it in
its course ; but in other cases the action seems to, have been a strictly local change of —
level.

If the lower part of the Globigerina Limestone be accepted as Aquitanian, then the
Maltese area was the first to sink, the subsidence commencing there at the end of the
Tongrian, and though there were periods of slight uplift marked by the coarser lime-
stones and the occasional abundance of such species as Schizaster parkinsonz, the per-
manent re-elevation did not come till late in the Langhien ; hence it seems that, as part
of the Globigerina Limestone is Miocene and part Oligocene, there is in Malta no such
sharp line of division between these two systems as can be drawn elsewhere. Further
north in Liguria the maximum subsidence was not established till towards the close of
the Maltese depression, and it was perhaps still later on the other side, of the Apennines.
Probably the deposition of the Schlier was not commenced at the same time as the base
of the Langhien, while it certainly seems to have lasted longer, and to represent also a
part of the Helvetian series ; and similar beds of later age indicate that the same condi-
tions still prevailed, though over more limited areas. Above the shore deposits which
crept out seaward over the gradually-rising Schlier occur the Badner Tegel and the
Pteropod Marls of Tortona, represented on the. other side of the Apennine axis by the
Corsican Zone & dents de poisson. And later still than these Tortonian deposits the
“Tegel” of Monte Vaticano and the Zanclean of Sicily continue through the Pliocene.
the record of the conditions. of the deeper basins of the Mediterranean Sea. —

EXPLANATION QF PLATES.
Prate I,

Fig. 1. Cidaris avenionensis, Desmoul., Globigerina Limestone, Malta, B.M., EH. 1957. Fig. la, Part: of;
actinal side; nat. size. Fig. 1b, Ambulacral plates enlarged. Fig. 1c, Spine on the same slab.

Figs. 2, 3, and 4. Cidaris oligocenus, n. sp., Lower Coralline Limestone, Malta. Figs. 2 and 3, Spines. B.M.,
E. 3409. Fig. 4a, Ambulacrum and interradius; nat. size. Fig. 46, Ambital ambulacral plates
enlarged. B.M., E, 3401. .

Fig. 5. Echinus tortonicus, nu. sp., Upper Coralline Limestone, Malta. B.M,, E. 3402. Fig. 5a, Abactinal)
surface, x 2 dia. Fig. 5b, Side view; nat. size. Fig: 5c, Apical system. Fig. 5d, An ambital,
interradial plate, magd.

Fig. 6. Echinus duciei, Wright. Ambital interradial plate.

Fig. 7. Lehinus tongrianus, n. sp., Scutella, bed of, Lower. Coralline Limestone, Malta. B.M:, E. 3403,
Fig. 7a, Abactinal surface, x 2 dia. Fig. 7b, Side view; nat. size. Fig. 7c, Apical system.
Fig. 7d, Ambital interradial plate, magd.

Pigs. 8, 9, and 10. Echinocyamus studeri (KE. Sism.), Globigerina Limestone, Malta. Figs. 8 and 9. B.M.,
75,687. Fig. 10a, b,c, x 4 dia, B.M., E. 3427.

Fig. 11. Heteroclypeus hemisphaericus, n. sp., Greensand, Malta. B.M., 40,368. Half nat, size.

MR J. W. GREGORY ON THE MALTESE FOSSIL ECHINOIDEA. 639

Prate II.

Fig. 1. Breynella equizonata, n. sp., Lower Coralline Limestone, Pembroke Camp, Malta. B.M., E. 3404.
. Nat. size.
Fig. 2. Brissus depressus, n. sp., Upper Coralline Limestone, Malta, B.M., E. 3428.

Figs. 3 and 4. Pericosmus coranguinum, un. sp., Globigerina Limestone, Malta.
B.M., E. 3405.

view of the same.
Fig. 5. Metalia melitensis, n. sp., Globigerina Limestone, Malta.
Fig. 6. Hemiaster vadosus, n. sp., Globigerina Limestone, Malta.
Fig. 6d, Apical system of the same specimen.
Figs. 7 and 8, Sarsella anteroalta, n. sp., Globigerina Limestone, Malta.

Fig. 3, Abactinal surface.
Fig. 4a, Posterior view of another specimen. B.M., E. 3429. Fig. 4b, Lateral

Mus. Prac.’ Geol.
Fig. 6a, b,c. B.M.; E. 3422. x 2 dia.

B.M., E. 3420-1.

Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin®, Vol. XXXVI.

Mf? J.W. GREGORY ON MALTESE FossiL ECHINOIDFA.— Puare I.

(
Fe

rs

Ee

a

n

Do

Woodward, del. et. lith. M¢Farlane & Erskine, Lith’? Edin? f

Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin”, Vol. XXXVI.

GREGORY ON MALTESE FoSSIL ECHINOIDEA.— Prats II.

Mr J. W.

M‘Farlane & Erskine, Lith"’ Edin®

G. M. Woodward. del. et. lith

( 641 )

XXII.—The Clyde Sea Area. By Hucu Ropert Mitt, D.Sc., F.R.S.E.
(With Twelve Plates and Maps.)

(Read May 18, 1891.)

Part I.—PuystcaLt GEOGRAPHY.

The fjord-like inlets or sea-lochs which form so conspicuous a feature in the scenery
of the west of Scotland stand in marked contrast to the shallow, low-shored firths of
the east coast. When Dr Jonn Murray decided to extend the physical and biological
work of the Scottish Marine Station to the west coast he foresaw that many interesting
conclusions were likely to be derived from the study of these isolated sea-basins. Various
papers, published by him and other workers, contain preliminary discussions of many of
the phenomena observed, fully justifying the anticipations which had been formed.

For one year my work, as described in this paper, was carried out under the pro-
visions of an Elective Fellowship in Experimental Physics of the University of Edin-
burgh, to which I had been elected in 1886 ; and subsequently by a personal grant from
the Government Grant Committee for Scientific Research. The Committee also devoted
several sums of money in payment of expenses in compiling this discussion. The
Scottish Marine Station throughout gave the use of the steam-yacht “ Medusa,” and the
necessary apparatus.

The work of the physical department of the Marine Station, of which I had charge,
was mainly to observe the temperature, salinity, and chemical composition of the water.
This was carried out systematically on the west coast during the years 1886, 1887, and
1888, and occasional observations were also made in 1889. For many reasons the con-
nected system of channels and sea-lochs lying within the Mull of Cantyre was more
thoroughly examined than the northern lochs, and it seems to me best to attempt a
somewhat complete discussion of these results, bringing in those obtained in Loch Etive
and the northern inlets, mainly for the purpose of explanation and comparison. I have
ventured to introduce the term Clyde Sea Area to designate this region, which is often
referred to loosely as “the Firth and Lochs of Clyde.” It lies between latitudes 55°
5’ and 56° 17’ N., and longitudes 4° 30’ and 5° 40’ W. An outline of the configura-
tion and general physical geography of the region, derived mainly from the Admiralty
charts for the water, the one-inch maps of the Ordnance Survey for the land, and the
records of the Scottish Meteorological Society, is given as an essential introduction.

The long peninsula of Cantyre forming the western boundary of the Clyde Sea Area
(see Plate I.) stretches southward to within 11 miles of the coast of Ireland, from

which it is separated by the North Channel. This channel, 11 miles wide, places the
Atlantic in communication with the Sea Area, ‘and a wider channel, 21 miles across
at the narrowest part between the south-eastern end, the Rinns of Galloway, and
VOL. XXXVI. PART III. (NO. 23). | DE

642 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

the coast of Ireland, gives access to the Irish Sea. A line drawn from the peninsula
of Cantyre to the nearest point of the Rinns is 23 miles long, nearly parallel to
the Irish coast from Fair Head to Belfast Lough, and marks the southerly boundary
of the region under consideration. It thus appears that currents sweeping through the
North Channel from the Atlantic to the Irish Sea, or vice versa, set across the entrance
of the Clyde Sea Area. From the southern boundary line the channel extends north-
ward, divided by the large and mountainous island of Arran into the narrow Kilbrennan
Sound on the west, and the wider expanse of water usually termed the Firth of Clyde
on the east. Bute, Inchmarnoch, and the Cumbraes, smaller islands lying farther north,
split up the channel into narrow sounds, which are continued inland by a remarkable
series of deep inlets which run northward into the mountainous peninsula of Cowal. The
north-western corner of the channel is prolonged into the inlet called Loch Fyne, which
curves toward the north-east, and the north-eastern corner extends into the straighter and
narrower Loch Long. The latter inlet running nearly north, is joined from the east at
right angles by the shallow estuary of the Clyde, which is the only large river entering
the area. The name “Firth of Clyde,” as usually applied, must be understood as
referring to a totally different physical feature from the “Firths” of Forth or Tay. The
Sea Area has no more intimate physical relation with the river after which it is named
than the North Sea has with the Thames or the Rhine.

The Clyde Sea Area falls into certain natural regions distinctively marked out by
their configuration, and only corresponding in part with the topographical divisions that
are familiarly employed. The sketch-map (Plate I.) shows the relation of the two systems
of partition ; and in what follows, the physical rather than the topographical names will
be usually employed. In this paper I follow the orthography of the Admiralty Charts
for place-names ; but the maps prepared by Mr BarrHoLomeEw, being reduced from the
Ordnance Survey, give different spellings in some cases.

The entire Sea Area includes about 1160 square miles, or 881 square sea miles, of water
surface, toward which 3350 square miles of land surface slope. The total volume of water
in the Area at low tide, estimated from data which will be described later, is about 25°5
cubic sea miles, and the average depth is 29 fathoms. At high water, about 1°15 cubic
sea miles of water are added, and the average depth is increased to 304 fathoms.

The contoured map (Plate I.) shows that we can distinguish the following regions
under the water surface, some of them being more distinct than others; and that they
fall into the two classes—submarine plateaux and deep channels or basins. The plateaux
serve to separate the basins, and in most cases they are merely narrow bars, which it is
unnecessary to consider separately. The basins consist either of one narrow straight
trough, or of a succession of more or less distinct depressions in one line, or they may be
branched and curved ; but all are alike in being much elongated in one direction :—The
most important physical divisions are :—The Great Plateau, the Arran Basin, Loch Fyne
Basin, Kyles of Bute and Loch Ridun, Bute Plateau, Loch Strivan Basin, Dunoon Basin,
Holy Loch, Loch Long Basin, Loch Goil Basin, Estuary, Gareloch Basin.

CLYDE SEA AREA. 643

The Clyde Sea Area belongs geologically to two distinct regions separated by the
line of the Great Fault, and the change in the nature of the rocks coincides with
a change in the character of the channels as well as of the scenery of the coast.
North-west of the fault, amongst the slates and schists of the Highlands, the typical
fjords with their deep rock basins occur : south-east of the fault the Old Red Sandstone
and Carboniferous formations edge the wider and shailower reaches of the “ firth.”

The Great Plateau is a barrier ridge separating the deep water of the North
Channel from the deep water of the enclosed basins. The average depth over it is
about 24 fathoms, and its area 313 square miles. The central ridge, as limited by
the 25-fathom contour lines, is wide both on the Cantyre and the Ayrshire coasts,
but narrows toward the centre, and from its narrowest part the great basaltic mass
of Ailsa Craig (two-thirds of a mile in diameter), rises to a height of 1097 feet
above the surface. The bottom of the plateau is apparently composed of fine mud
and sand, ‘The coast is comparatively steep on both sides. On the Cantyre shores
only a few small burns enter, and the drainage area of streams entering between
Davaar Island and Cove Point only measures 3 square miles; but on the Ayrshire
side, the Stinchar and Girvan, each having a course of about 20 miles, flow down the
Silurian strata of the western slopes of the southern uplands, and enter the sea,
carrying the drainage of 280 square miles. The most remarkable feature of the
Great Plateau is its extreme flatness, and the absence of marked banks or hollows
(see sections. 1, 2, Plate VII.; sections 9, 10, Plate VIIL). It is important to remember ©
that the exchange of water between the ocean and the Area must take place across this
great natural counter, and must be passed to and fro in sheets having a thickness not
ereater than 24 fathoms, or 144 feet, at the utmost. The entire volume of water
covering the Plateau at low tide is 5°8 cubic sea miles, and at high tide, 0°3
additional. The contour line of 50 fathoms runs almost straight across from the
Mull of Cantyre to the Mull of Galloway.

The whole Sea Area might be supposed to be an extension of the Great Plateau
in which various basins have been hollowed out, and it is at least possible that the
formation of these basins was due to some such action.

The Arran Basin is the largest depression inside the Barrier Plateau, having a
total area of 685 square miles, one half of which has a depth greater than 30
fathoms. The outline of this basin resembles the Greek letter d, the long stroke
representing the eastern part of the basin, which lies east of Arran, the shorter
stroke, the western branch of the basin occupyimg Kilbrennan Sound. The slope of
the basin is extremely steep in the angle between the two limbs off the rugged north
coast of Arran, but along the Ayrshire coast the slope is very gentle, corresponding
to the wide shallows of Ayr and Irvine Bays, and the low-lying ground which borders
them inland. The basin surrounds the south of Bute, and runs up “Lower Loch
Fyne” to the Otter Spit. Axial sections along the west, east, and central divisions
(sections 1, 2, 4, Plate VIL), show its relation to the Barrier Plateau and to

644 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

Loch Fyne. A few mountain burns from the granite heights of Arran—the area
of this island being about 160 square miles—and the shores of Cantyre (drainage
area 160 square miles), and Cowal (64 square miles), enter the narrow and deep
part of this basin; but the wide shallow bay on its eastern shore receives the
Doon, the Ayr, and the Irvine—rivers which drain 690 square miles mainly of
Carboniferous strata, an area about equal to the water area of the basin. A narrow
isolated tract, exceeding 50 fathoms in depth, lies between Bute and the Cumbraes,
and a much larger A-shaped area of greater depth surrounds the north of Arran, and
occupies nearly one-third of the basin. The deepest water occurs in a straight trough
about half a mile wide, running nearly north-west for 20 miles through Bute Sound
and Inchmarnoch Water, terminating opposite Barmore Peninsula. Small isolated
depressions, lying in the same straight line, occur a few miles off each extremity of
the main trough, and of these, the southern, opposite Brodick Bay, will be frequently
referred to. The Arran Basin is a depression wide, shallow, and sloping very gently
in the south from the Great Plateau; but toward the north it gradually becomes
narrower, deeper, and very much steeper in its descent from the shore. The maximum
depth of about 107 fathoms occurs two-thirds of a mile west of Skate Island, near
the northern extremity. The abruptness of this depression is strikingly shown in
section 19, C and D, Plate IX., which are on the same scale as the longitudinal sections,
and refer to direction nearly at right angles to the axis, crossing it at the point D.
Section 16, D, Plate IX., represents the same section on a natural scale, showing
the true slope, the steepest part of which appears to form an angle of 25°, or a
oradient of 1 im 3. ‘This depression is the deepest in the Clyde Sea Area, and is
so small that shifting the position by 100 yards in any direction brings a vessel into
water shallower by 10 or 20 fathoms. By a fortunate coincidence, two white houses
on the Cowal shore are seen, at opposite extremities of a well-marked peninsula behind
Skate Island, from the deepest point, and this landmark enables the precise spot to be
picked up immediately in clear weather. The 685 square miles of water surface in the
Arran Basin receive the drainage of 1071 square miles of land, and the entire basin contains
18 cubic sea miles of water at low tide, and at high tide 0°7 more. The average
depth is 34 fathoms at low water, 354 at high water, but along the axis of greatest
depth the mean is 68 fathoms. From its gradual narrowing and deepening toward
the north, the Arran Basin is particularly well situated for the free entrance of
sea water across the Barrier Plateau, and the abrupt descent in the narrow northern
region is an obstacle to land water getting access to the deeper parts. In the deepest
part the bottom is very fine mud, in which Mr J. Y. Bucwanan has shown that
manganese nodules are comparatively abundant. ,

Bute Plateau has a depth of about 20 fathoms, and stretches from the north end |
of Great Cumbrae northward to Toward Point occupying Rothesay Bay. It separates
the Arran Basin from the basins of the north-east. The surrounding shores are low
and sandy, with no streams. Part of this plateau, with Rothesay Bay, is included

CLYDE SEA AREA. 645

for purposes of calculation in the Loch Strivan Basin, the remainder is reckoned in
the Dunoon Basin.

Dunoon Basin, 47 square miles in area between coast lines, and averaging 20
fathoms in depth, contains a straight narrow trough with an axial mean depth of
39 fathoms, which runs from near the north end of Great Cumbrae for 20 miles due
north up “Loch Long” to the junction with Loch Goil. At first the depression keeps
close to the east shore (Renfrewshire) under the hilly uplands which there approach
the sea, then it crosses to the west side where the deepest part (56 fathoms) is
found just to the south of Gantock Beacon, opposite Dunoon. Another depression
marks the end of the trough off Dog Rock at the extremity of the mountainous
peninsula known as Argyll’s Bowling-Green, where Loch Goil and Loch Long meet. |
Section 6, Plate VII., shows the profile along the axis of greatest depth for the Dunoon
Basin and Loch Long. The southern part of this basin communicates with the north-
eastern branch of the Arran Basin across Bute Plateau, the northern part runs under
a steep and lofty line of hills on the west side. Besides innumerable torrents which
bring down the rainfall after every shower, Dunoon Basin receives through the shallow
indentation of the Holy Loch the fresh water drainage from Loch Eck, which occupies
a narrow inland valley. The land draining into the Dunoon Basin measures 86 square
miles, and is mainly on the eastern side. The whole volume of water it contains at low ~
tide is 0°75 cubic sea miles, with an addition of 0°05 at high tide.

The Clyde Estuary joins Dunoon Basin about the middle; the line of demarcation
may be taken as that joining Cloch Point and Baron Point. For 4 miles eastward the
estuary has a width of about 24 miles, and the depth of water decreases gradually until
between Greenock and Roseneath Point, where the mouth of the Gareloch suddenly
doubles its width, and it shoals abruptly to 5 fathoms. From this position eastward for
10 miles to Bowling the estuary is very shallow, full of sandbanks, and diminishes
steadily in width. But for the bold front of the Kilpatrick Hills, along a short stretch of
the bank east of Dumbarton, the shores of the estuary are low and flat. The Leven at
Dumbarton carries in the overflow of Loch Lomond. The estuary up to Bowling has a
superficial area of 27 square miles, and, excluding the river Leven, receives, in addition
to the river Clyde, the drainage of 60 square miles of land. Loch Lomond, tributary to
the estuary, with its surface at a level 23 feet higher, belongs geographically to the
Clyde Sea Area, and a slight subsidence would admit sea water. The northern part of
this loch, with regard to its general trend, its narrow trough-lke configuration under the
surface, and the steep, close mountain walls of crystalline rock which hem it in, is exactly
similar to the other fjords which wind amongst the Western Highlands.* It serves to
earry the overflow from a region of very high rainfall into the estuary. The area of
Loch Lomond, including its islands, is 28 square miles; and no less than 267 square
miles of rugged land drain into it, mainly from the north and east. The navigable
channel of the Clyde, maintained by dredging from Port-Glasgow to Glasgow, is entirely

* J. Y. Bucnanan, “On the Distribution of Temperature in Loch Lomond,” Proc. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. xiii. p. 403.

646 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

artificial, more than 382,000,000 cubic yards of material having been excavated, and
deposited mainly at the mouth of the estuary in Dunoon Basin, during the last fifty years.
The mean low water depth of the estuary is 5 fathoms, and the volume of water it
contains 0°11 cubic sea miles ; but the entrance of 0°03 cubic sea mile additional at high
water increases the mean depth to 64 fathoms.

The iver Clyde, although a tidal canal from Bowling to Glasgow, has a great
drainage area, extending mainly to the east and south. With its tributaries it drains a
surface of 1140 square miles, which is not taken into account in discussing the drainage
area of the estuary. The Clyde drainage area is thus nearly one-third of the whole, and
is equal to the entire water surface under consideration. The upland course of the river
and its tributaries lies in a drier region than any of the other affluents of the Sea Area—
a fact which largely neutralises the effect of its great catchment basin.

The name Gareloch I restrict to the part of the inlet lying north and west of Row
Point, and measuring 44 square miles. Row Point is a sandy spit on the east shore, which
narrows the entrance to the loch to 300 yards, and is continued across the mouth by a
bar with less than 5 fathoms on it at low water. This bar separates the deeper water of
the loch from a narrow depression a little more than 10 fathoms deep, which runs in from
the Dunoon Basin. The Gareloch is 5 miles long, and averages rather less than 1 mile in
breadth. It runs N.N.W. to within a mile of Loch Long, from which it is separated by
land under 500 feet in elevation. It is more open to the estuary than to the Dunoon
Basin, and on account of its shallow and narrow entrance the tidal currents are very strong.
The profile of the Gareloch is shown in section 17, Plate IX. The land surrounding it
rises with a gentle slope and is well wooded; its height is slight, and only a few very
small burns trickle into the loch. Along the centre its depth averages 18 fathoms, and
the bottom is in all parts thickly covered by sewage-laden mud, carried in by the tides
from the estuary. The land drainage area to this loch is 125 square miles, the low water
volume 0°024 cubic sea miles, with an average depth of 74 fathoms, raised to 9 fathoms —
at high water, when 0°005 cubic sea mile more water is present.

Loch Long (Upper Loch Long) is a continuation of the Dunoon Basin, and
separated by a bar which rises to about 18 fathoms from the surface (section 6, Plate VIL).
It is remarkably straight, running N.N.E. by E. for 84 miles, and preserves a nearly
uniform breadth of half a mile all the way. The greatest depth, 35 fathoms, occurs
4 miles from the bar, or about half way up. The head of this loch is greatly shallowed
on account of the detritus carried in by a small river; and at intervals along the coast
the innumerable torrents which foam down after a shower have formed a narrow beach.
The shore on both sides is mountainous and the slopes steep, the contour line of 1000
feet approaching within half a mile of the water's edge, and some summits exceeding
2000 feet. The superficial area is about 4 square miles, and the area of land drainage
29 square miles. The low water volume is about 0°033 cubic sea mile, with an average
depth of 24 fathoms along the axis, and 10 fathoms over all. At high water a rise of 1}
fathoms is produced by the addition of 0005 cubic sea mile of additional water.

CLYDE SEA AREA. 647

Loch Goil, 34 square miles in area, opens, like Loch Long, into the head of the
Dunoon Basin, and appears on the map to run in continuation of the Gareloch. It has a
curving outline, both coasts remaining parallel, and at first directed N.W., then N.,
but finally N.N.W. The bar at the entrance has about 7 fathoms in the deepest part
(sections 7, 8, Plate VII.), and the loch is contracted to about half its average width,
which is three-quarters of a mile. The length, measured along the central line, is 5 miles,
and the greatest depth (47 fathoms) occurs 32 miles from the mouth, or three-quarters of
the way to the head of the loch. The mountain-wall investing this basin is the steepest
and highest in the Clyde Sea Area, and the torrents which leap down the bare rocky
sides hurry almost the entire rainfall of the slopes into the water. The area is small—
34 square miles; but the drainage area is comparatively extensive—34 square miles.
The volume at low tide is 0037 cubic sea mile, and at high tide 0:004 more. The low
tide mean depth along the axis is 304 fathoms, and the average depth over all 14 fathoms.
As in Loch Long, the upper end has been greatly silted up. The river-borne debris
forms a remarkably steep talus at the head, over which the river is gradually encroaching
on the deep basin by rolling silt down the slope in the manner of a railway embankment.
For 2 miles inland'from the head of the loch the stream winds through a flat valley less
than a mile wide, and limited by steeply rising mountain slopes. This irresistibly
suggests that it is the old bed of the loch, reclaimed by the river and elevated by the
last great land movement which bordered Scotland with a line of raised beaches.

The Holy Loch is an inlet 24 miles long, running N.W. by W. parallel to the lower
part of Loch Goil. It occupies the mouth of a long inland valley which runs on the
whole N.N.W. for 16 miles right across to Loch Fyne, its highest point being 173 feet.
The middle of this valley is occupied by Loch Hck, 67 feet above the sea, 6 miles long,
and about a quarter of a mile wide, running parallel to the general direction of Loch Goil.
The Holy Loch looks straight up the estuary across the deep trough of the Dunoon Basin,
on which it opens at right angles. The depth decreases gradually from the mouth of
the loch toward the head, where it shoals with extraordinary abruptness, the silting up
at the head being like that at Loch Goil, but more pronounced, as the larger River
Kchaig, carrying the overflow of Loch Eck, enters through a flat-bottomed clayey valley.
This valley may be compared to a great barrier raised above the water-level, so as to cut
off what might at one time have been a sea-loch. The area of the Holy Loch is only 14
square miles, and into this is carried the drainage of 72 square miles of country. The
volume of water in Holy Loch at low tide is about 0°01 cubic sea mile, and at high
water 0:0016 more; the average low-water depth is 84 fathoms. Loch Hck les in a
steep narrow cleft of the hills, its maximum depth, as far as I could judge from a hasty
survey made in August 1889, is 25 fathoms 12 miles from the head. Its area is 14
square miles, and the surrounding drainage area is 38 square miles. The loch is famous
for rising rapidly after rain; it is stated that a rise of 2 feet between the morning and
afternoon of a very rainy day has frequently been noticed. This would correspond to a
fall of 1 inch of rain over the entire area, and is probably an exaggeration.

648 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

Loch Strivan runs N. by W., parallel to Loch Eck and Loch Goil for 9 miles, but,
unlike these basins, the width decreases uniformly from mouth to head. Its area is 5
square miles, or, including Rothesay Bay and part of the Bute Plateau, 12 square miles.
The hill slopes on both sides are unusually steep and unbroken, and scored to a
remarkable extent by the narrow gullies of torrents. The trough of deep water, which
has a maximum depth of 42 fathoms one-third of the distance from the head, runs for a
mile south of Strone Point, which marks the west side of the mouth. In this Loch
Strivan is unique, as the entrance is not crossed by a bar. If, however, we disregard the
shallow opening of the Kyles, the true mouth of Loch Strivan appears opening parallel
to that of the Holy Loch and of Loch Goil between Toward and Bogany Points. Then
the Bute Plateau would form the barrier, and the tongue of the Arran Basin running
northward between Bute and Cumbrae would be the natural continuation of the depres-
sion. Section 12, Plate VIII. illustrates this configuration. The land drainage area ex-
tends to 37 square miles. The volume of water present at low tide is 0°162 cubic sea
mile, corresponding to an average depth of 174 fathoms, and a mean depth of 294
fathoms along the axis. The tidal rise adds 0°014 cubic sea mile of water.

The Kyles of Bute, separating Bute from Cowal, may be viewed as made up of three
parts. The east channel runs N.W. by W. for 53 miles from Ardmaleish Point in Bute,
with an average breadth of two-thirds of a mile between hills of considerable height and
steep slope. The depth is about 23 fathoms in the centre and diminishes toward the
northern end, where the channel is broken by the Burnt Islands into several shallow
passages. ‘lhe north channel, of slightly greater width, with steeper and loftier walls on
the north or Cowal side, runs 24 miles in a 8.W. direction, and finally the west channel
runs §.8.E. for 5 miles into Inchmarnoch Water, and increases to a width of 24 miles off
Ardlamont Point. The shore on each side becomes low, but the depth in the centre of
the channel increases steadily, merging into the deep water of the Arran Basin,

Loch Ridun, running for 23 miles N. from the Burnt Islands at the acute angle
between the east and north channels of the Kyles, has a breadth of half a mile, and is
inclosed on both sides by cliffy hills of exceptional ruggedness and steepness. The loch
shoals uniformly half the way up, but the upper half is tidal, at low water forming a sandy
flat, across which the long Ruel River winds sluggishly. Glendaruel, a long and remark-
able valley parallel to Loch Fyne, is flat but steeply walled, and the river, which has so
thoroughly silted up Loch Ridun, is reinforced by countless mountain burns, The water
surface of Loch Ridun and the Kyles taken together is 10 square miles, and the area of
land drainage—most of it into the loch—is 67 square miles. The volume of water con-
tained in this system is about 0°097 cubic sea mile at low water, with an addition of 0:012 at
high tide. The mean low-tide depth is 124 fathoms, and the mean axial depth 21 fathoms.

Loch Fyne (Upper Loch Fyne), with an area of 28 square miles, is the most
interesting, and in many respects most typical of all the divisions of the Sea Area. As
the conditions of its temperature, salinity, and the singular nature of its fauna have been

worked out in more detail than is the case for other regions considered, it is necessary to —

CLYDE SEA AREA. 649

describe its configuration at greater length. The length along the axis from the Otter
Spit to the head is 26 miles, but a straight N.E. line, joining the middle of the channel
off Otter with the head, measures only 244 miles. The width at Otter is 12 miles at
high water, but only about ? at low tide, when the maximum depth on the barrier is
15 fathoms. The loch varies in width irregularly from 3 to 1 mile as far as Inveraray,
but in the last 6 miles diminishes uniformly to less than } mile. The Arran Basin has a
due north direction at the point where Loch Fyne joins it, and a short branch or bay of
shallow water—Loch Gilp—reaches further in that direction. Loch Fyne runs from the
end of the Central Arran Basin for 9f miles N.E. by N.; then, from a contraction at
Crarae, N.H. by E. 2? E. for 4 miles to Kenmore; thence, curving once more, N.E. by N.
4.N., 45 miles to Inveraray, where the shallow bay of Loch Shira, connected by a short
tidal river to the fresh Dubh Loch, runs on in the same direction. Here Loch Fyne
swerves to N.H. by E. + EL, its final direction, which is held for 61 miles to the head.
Loch Fyne is divided into two distinct hollows, or subsidiary basins (section 3, Plate I.).
From Otter Spit, where the depth is 15 fathoms in mid-channel, to the islands forming
Minard Narrows, where there are two narrow and shallow passages, is a distance of
74 miles, and the depth increases uniformly from both ends to the centre, where there is
a line of soundings of from 30 to 32 fathoms. This may be termed the Gortans Basin,
after a headland which projects from the eastern shore. It is a sort of trap, with double
bars retarding the access of sea water to the depths of the Upper Basin. The Upper Basin,
beginning at Minard Narrows, deepens at first somewhat irregularly, but then sinks
abruptly to a depth of nearly 80 fathoms off Pennimore Point, 44 miles from Minard ; then
rises gradually until, off Inveraray, the slope becomes much steeper, and the upper end of
the loch shallows rapidly. Sections 18, Plate 1X., show on a natural scale the trans-
verse profile at three important points in Loch Fyne. The coast on both sides of the
Gortans Basin slopes more gradually than on any of the other lochs except the Gareloch,
but the upper 5 miles is invested by a close, steep, and lofty mountain-wall. The land
area draining to Loch Fyne is disproportionately small, as the valley of the Ruel on the
east and that of the Add on the west run parallel to the main depression collecting the
streams, and conveying them to Loch Ridun and Loch Crinan respectively. Near the
head the Aray, Shira, and Fyne are the largest rivers which enter, and these are all short,
and carry much water only after rain. The water area of Loch Fyne is 283 square miles,
and the land draining into it is 188 square miles, mainly to the north-east. The total
yolume at low water is very nearly 0°5 cubic sea mile, and at high tide 0°029 in addition.
The mean depth is 224 fathoms, and the average depth along the axis 405 fathoms at
low tide.

The peninsula of Cowal, which stretches between the roughly-parallel inlets of the
Arran Basin with Loch Fyne, and the Dunoon Basin with Loch Long, is trenched by a
series of transverse valleys, most of which are occupied by deep loch basins, and these have
a general trend to N.N.W. ‘The south-east margin of the Arran Basin-Loch Fyne depres-
sion from Ardlamont Point to Glen Fyne is edged with a line of high ground, gradually

VOL. XXXVI. PART III. (NO. 28). 5) de

650 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

becoming higher and steeper toward the head. This brae is broken by only three glens or
valleys, all short and steep, as the watershed runs within 2 miles of the margin of Loch
Fyne. The Glen at Strachur meets that of Loch Eck, the Glen at St Catherine’s meets
Hell’s Glen, which drains to Loch Goil, and that of Ardkinelass, at a still greater elevation,
joins Glencroe, which descends to Loch Long. The summit levels at which the water-
sheds occur in these cross glens are respectively 173 feet, 720 feet, and 860 feet. Coach
roads traverse each, and these supply practically the only routes across the peninsula.
In strong contrast to this uniform margin, the north-west edge of the Dunoon Basin-
Loch Long hollow is deeply indented by the openings of numerous long glens, many of
them containing sea lochs, others slightly elevated above sea level, and all directed
toward Loch Fyne, cutting up the peninsula into a number of rudely ovoid mountain
masses, with their longer diameters north and south. The drainage area of the narrower —

and smaller Dunoon-Loch Long Basins is thus very much greater than that of the wider
and larger Arran-Loch Fyne Basins.

Tables and Statistics of Physical Geography.

For purposes of calculation it is more convenient to employ the sea mile of 6000 feet,
or 1000 fathoms, as a unit of measurement than the statute mile of 5280 feet; the
former is also very nearly equal to 1’ of latitude—an additional advantage, as the charts
from which many of the measurements are made are simply graduated into degrees and
minutes. Volumes and mean depths of sea basins are most easily calculated by using
the sea mile, since a square sea mile of water 1 fathom deep is 0°001 cubic sea mile; and
the volume of a basin in cubic sea miles, divided by the superficial area in square sea
miles, gives the mean depth in fathoms by shifting the decimal point. In all cases,
except the statement of volumes, the measurements were originally made in statute
miles, and translated, when necessary, into other units. The land maps of the Ordnance
Survey and the reduced Ordnance maps of Mr Bartholomew, on which the drainage areas
were measured, are supplied with scales of statute miles. Most of the land measure-
ments, and some of those of the sea, were made on Bartholomew’s Reduced Ordnance
Survey Maps, on the scale of 2 miles to 1 inch. The watersheds were first marked on
the map in red ink, and then traced on transparent paper divided into squares of th
of an inch in the side. The number of squares occupied by each drainage area was.
counted, and, divided by 25, gave the superficies in square miles.

Classed according to their drainage areas the natural divisions of the Clyde Sea Area
fall into four distinct groups. Loch Hck, and consequently also the Holy Loch, have by
far the greatest catchment area compared with water surface, and although much less
extreme, Loch Goil and Loch Lomond may also be classed as having a drainage area
more than ten times as extensive as the water surface. Loch Long, Loch Ridun and
the Kyles, and Loch Fyne come together with a land drainage about seven times as large:

CLYDE SEA AREA. 651

as the water surface. Loch Strivan and the Gareloch have the average ratio for the
whole Sea Area, their drainage basin being three times as large as their water surfaces,
while Dunoon Basin, Arran Basin, and the Estuary (excluding Loch Lomond and the
Clyde) have a ratio of 2 or less. This serves as a measure of the extent to which
the physical conditions of the water in the various basins are subject to the meteoro-
logical variations of the land surface.

The calculation of the volume of the various basins is founded on the low tide
soundings recorded on the Admiralty charts. From the charts sections were drawn on
millimetre logarithmic paper, a longitudinal section being made in the first instance along

TABLE l.—Drainage Areas and Ratio to Water Surface in Square Miles.

Water Land

Basin, a Onsnreee, Total Area, Ratio.

W. E; A i Was: li tak,
Gareloch, . , : . 4:23 12°40 16°63 We 293 ode
Loch Goil, . F ‘ : 3°36 33°85 37°21 P1007 107
Loch Long, . d , . 4°18 29°10 33°28 he 6967-96
Holy Loch,* . é ; : 1:60 72°52 74:12 1 : 45°32 : 46°32
Loch Strivan, &c., . ‘ ‘ 11°88 36°92 48°80 eosin aoe
Loch Ridun and Kyles, . : 10:00 67°24 77°24 TOBE (Pape (E702
Loch Fyne, . ? ; : 28°44 188°44 216°88 WeGo2, 702
Dunoon Basin, ‘ ; 47°64 86°36 134:00 1: 181: 2°81

Clyde River (to Bowling), : Gs 1143°20 1143°20 BA ost
Estuary (excel. L. pomend), : 26°80 60°16 86°96 1: 224: 3-24
Loch Lomond, °. : 27°72 266°92 294°64 I 59-6o7 1063
Arran Basin, . : : ; 685:00 1071:10 175610 De Oh 259
Great Plateau, ; ‘ é 313°48 282°50 595-98 001,90
" Potal,. . ‘ é . | 1164°33 3350°71 4515-04 1: 2°88": 3°88
* Including Loch Eck, P 1°60 38:08 39°68 1 : 23°80 : 24°80

the axis of maximum depth, the scale of depth being exaggerated fifty times in comparison
with that of length. Cross-sections at right angles to the axis were made at the position
of each observing station, and when necessary at intermediate points, so as to divide up
each basin into a number of short portions, the coast-lines of which were comparatively
regular. In many cases the cross-sections, in addition to being drawn on the same scale
as the longitudinal sections, were produced on a true scale of heights and depths. This
afforded an opportunity of checking the calculations of the area of those cross-sections.
Representative examples of the longitudinal and transverse sections are given in Plates
VIL, VIII, [X., and the more important of the corresponding lines are laid down on
the map (Plate I.) with references.

The mean of the area of two neighbouring cross-sections multiplied by the distance
between them gave approximately the volume of the portion, and the sum of all these
portions—the cross-sections varying in number from two in the case of the Holy Loch

652 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

to thirty in the case of the Arran Basin—gave the total volume of the basin in
question as accurately as the observations to be made use of renders necessary.

The tidal rise at spring and neap tides was taken from the charts and from the
Admiralty Sailing Directions for the West of Scotland; the mean rise is assumed to be
the arithmetical mean of the spring and neap rise.

The average depth is obtained in each case by dividing the volume by the superficial
area.

TABLE Il—Volume and Average Depths of the Divisions of the Clyde Sea Area.

Average
Average owe Volume
Number | Area in | Volume. Low Tien Tidal of Tidal |
Division. of Cross- | Square Cubic Water Aeiale Rise. Increment.
Sections. |Sea Miles.|Sea Miles.) Depth. een Feet. Cubic Sea |
st Fathoms. | 5, aes Miles,
Fathoms.
Gareloch, | : P ; 3 3°28 0:0240 7h 18 9 0:0049
Loch Goil, : ; : ou 2°61 0:0372 14 304 9 00039 |
Loch Long, : 6 3°24 00326 10 24 9 0:0048 |-
Holy Loch, : : 2 1°24 0:0107 84 123 8 00016
Loch Strivan, Rothesay
Bay, Ges. 0s , , 9 9°22 01619 174 294 9 00138
Loch Ridun and Kyles 4 9 775 00971 124 21 9 00116
Loch Fyne, ‘ ; : 10 22°00 04981 224 401 8 0°0286
Dunoon Basin, : : 15 36°92 07378 20 382 8 00480
Estuary, . : : ; 8 20°80 0:1089 by aap 9 00312
Arran Basin, Central, 2 10 bod 2°0197 ame 764 cae
# » astern, : 7 ae 11°9671 BA; 744
2 » Western, : 6 aa 3°5420 ace 61
v4 » North-eastern, is te 0°5084 aia 474 ae a
3 a eeLotale =e ; 30 531:00 |18:°0372 34 68 8 0°6900 ©
Great Plateau, . : : 7 242°90 Brood 24 se 74 0°3140
Total of Sea Area, . 102 880°96 |25°5452 29 ae 84 1:154

Tidal Conditions.

The tidal currents of the Clyde Sea Area are, as a rule, not very rapid in the
wider channels, nor in the upper reaches of the loch basins. The strength of the
current is most apparent in the Channel, where a thorough mixing of water from
surface to bottom appears to take place at each flood and ebb. Similar effects are
seen at the narrow entrances to the loch basins, especially at Otter, the entrance to
Loch Fyne, and Row, the entrance to the Gareloch. At each of these places a
long spit of sand or shingle runs out from the eastern shore, and is only covered
for a short time about full tide. Hence the current is forced to pass through a J

CLYDE SEA AREA. 653

narrow and shallow channel where it attains a high velocity, and raises short sharp
waves in the calmest weather, mixing the water from surface to bottom at the same
time. The following data, regarding tidal streams, is taken from the Admiralty charts
and sailing directions.

At full and new moon, the hour of high water is 10.35 at the Mull of Cantyre,
and 11.12 at the mouth of Loch Ryan. From Sanda Island across the Plateau to
Turnberry Point, the hour of high water is about 11.40, and at Campbeltown, 11.45.
Over the eastern and western divisions of the Arran Basin, up to and surrounding
the Island of Bute, the hour of high water is 11.50. In the Central Arran Basin
up to Otter, the hour is 11.53, and in Loch Fyne the tidal wave is retarded from
11.53 at Otter to 12.0 at Inveraray. In the Dunoon Basin the wave passes from
the south end at 11.50 to Dog Rock about 12.0, and reaches the head of Loch Goil
and Loch Long at 12.6. It is high water at the head of Loch Strivan at 11.55.
In the Estuary, the hour of high water is retarded from about 12.0 at Gourock
to 12.8 at Greenock, 12.20 at Dumbarton, 12.50 at Bowling, and 1.25 at Glasgow,
in the river. In the Gareloch it is high water about 12.10. Thus, excluding the
Estuary and the Plateau, high water takes place almost simultaneously over the
whole Area, the difference between Lamlash and the head of the remotest lochs being
only 17 minutes.

The tidal stream sweeps through North Channel from the Atlantic with a velocity
of 8 sea miles an hour (in nautical language 3 knots), in midchannel, but near the
Mull of Cantyre there is a tumultuous race of over 5 knots. The main body of
the tidal stream turns southward, a portion sweeping across the Plateau toward
Ailsa, turns northward up the western and eastern arms of the Arran Basin, at the
rate of from 24 to 3 knots for spring tides.

The tidal conditions about the south coast of Cantyre are uncertain and imperfectly
understood, being much affected by the wind. The flood stream which sets round
the Mull of Cantyre, about 14 hours before low water, divides off Deas Point, the
inshore branch rushing through Sanda Sound at 5 knots, and sweeping up Kilbrennan
Sound with half that velocity. The southern branch, which is locally known as the
Black Tide, sets round the south of Sanda north-eastward across the Plateau toward
Pladda Island at the south of Arran, turning northward up the Hast Arran Basin
with a velocity of from 23 to 3 knots. The flood tides of the East and West Arran
Basins meet midway between Skipness and Inchmarnoch, and pass on at 2 knots
toward Otter, where the narrowed and shallowed entrance to Loch Fyne causes an
acceleration to 34 knots, which slackens to 2 knots in the Gortans Basin, increases
to 24 at Minard Narrows, and then gradually falls off to only 1 knot off Dunderawe.

A branch current passing through Inchmarnoch Sound flows up the West Kyle
of Bute, and, passing the narrows at the Burnt Islands at the rate of 3 knots, pours
along the Hast Kyle until it meets the tidal flow which came round the south
and east of Bute off Strone Cotes. Loch Strivan is practically free from tidal current

654 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

and Holy Loch is similarly unaffected. No data are given as to Lochs Long and
Goil, but from observations made, the tidal currents in these basins appear to be
very slight. In Dunoon Basin the flood stream moves at about 1 knot, and the
same rate prevails in the Estuary, except off Gourock, where the narrowing of the
channel doubles the rate of flow. At the entrance to the Gareloch, ie tide swirls
tumultuously past Row Point at 5 knots.

Speaking generally, the ebb stream is opposite to the flood, and of equal velocity
and duration. Loch Fyne is an exception, the ebb being usually about half a
knot more rapid than the flood, and at Otter Narrows attaining even the rate of 54
knots at springs.

At the entrance of the Sea Area, also, there is a similar difference between flood
and ebb. The ebb stream through Sanda Sound meets that from the south and
east off Deas Point, and since the Sanda stream begins two hours before high water
and runs to the westward for seven hours, or until one hour before low water, it meets
the increasing force of the Mull of Cantyre flood stream, which commences to flow
strongly one and a half hours before low water. The result is a frightfully tempestuous
sea when there is high wind.

Races and overfalls are formed off several of the prominent points where the
channel] is suddenly constricted, as at Carradale in Kilbrennan Sound, or where, as
at Garroch Head, the flood stream splits and two branches of the ebb tide meet.
Taking the average rise of high tide as 84 feet for the whole Sea Area, it follows
that the volume of water introduced and withdrawn at each tide is 1°1524 cubic
sea miles.

Rainfall and River Discharge of Clyde Sea Area.

The Clyde Sea Area is very poorly supplied with meteorological stations, especially
in the region of maximum rainfall to the north-east; but by the kindness of Dr A.
Bucuan, of the Scottish Meteorological Society, I have been put in possession of all
available data, both as regards the average rainfall for the period 1866-1885, and
for the period over which our observations on salinity extended in 1886 and 1887.

Tables III. and IV. give the mean monthly rainfall for the years 1866-83 at twenty-
four stations, grouped into the landward and seaward portions of the Area in order to
facilitate comparison with the salinity results. Tables V. and VI. give the actual
monthly rainfall of 1886 and 1887 for the same stations. Some of the values are inter-
polated from the consideration of results at neighbouring stations.

CLYDE SEA AREA.

TABLE III.—Mean Rainfall of Landward Portion.

}
|

1866-1885.
Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April.| May. | June.| July. | Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year.
Glasgow, . 4:20) 3°41 | 2°39 | 2°12 | 2°20 | 2°76 | 3°33 | 3°61 | 3°81 | 3°86 | 3°61 | 3°82) 39°12
Bothwell, . 3°19] 2°35 | 1°76 | 1°65 | 1°78 | 2°11 | 3°01 | 3°11 | 3°01 | 2°86 | 2°75 | 2°74) 30°32
Dumbarton, . 750| 6:00 | 4°40 | 3°30 | 3:10 | 3°20 | 4:00 | 4°60 | 5°40 | 5°60 | 5°40 | 6°50) 57°80
Helensburgh, . | 6:11/ 4°96 | 3°70 | 2°99 | 2°64 | 3:16 | 3°90 | 4°55 | 5°03 | 5°50 | 5°24 | 5°55) 53°33
Arrochar, . {10°07} 8:97 | 7:10} 5°05 | 4°38 | 5°18 | 5:95 | 6°73 | 7°70 | 9°64 | 7-77 |10°44| 88°98
Greenock, 8:08 | 6°40 | 4°44 | 3°33 | 3°38 | 3°53 | 4:09 | 5°00 | 5°92 | 6°65 | 6:00 | 7°60) 64:42
Paisley, 5°44| 4°10 | 2°84 | 2°08 | 2:00 | 2:20 | 3°06 | 3:09 | 4:06 | 4°61 | 4:04 | 4:96] 42°48
Rothesay, 5°61) 4°44 | 3°53 | 2°61 | 2°55 | 3°34 | 3°98 | 4°46 | 4°86 | 5°28] 4°81 | 5°19) 50°56
Ardrishaig, . 8:00} 5°80 | 4°80 | 3°50 | 3:20 | 3°80 | 4:60 | 5:20 | 6°10 | 7°60 | 7°20} 8:00) 67:20
Kilmory, 750} 5°64 | 4°66 | 3°02 | 2°92 | 3°69 | 4°34 | 4:94 | 5°83 | 6°86 | 6°40 | 7:20| 63-00 |
Callton Mor, 5°71} 4°73 | 3:80 | 2°60 | 2°51 | 3°62 | 4:39 | 4°63 | 5°54 | 6°16 | 5°47 | 5°93) 55-09 |
Inveraray, 7°25 | 6:00 | 4°59 | 2°58 | 3°08 | 4:12 | 4°39 | 5°06 | 6:00 | 7°15 | 6°69 | 8°83) 65°74 |
Mean, 6:56 | 5:23 | 3-99 | 2-90 | 2°81 | 3:39 | 409 | 458 | 5-27 | 5-93 | 5-46 | 6:39) 56-60
TaBLE IV.—Mean Rainfall of Seaward Portion.
1866-1885.
Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April.) May.| June. | July.| Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec. | Year.
Middleton, . 6°87 | 5:08 | 3°80 | 2°80 | 3°00 | 3°38 | 3°75 | 4°76 | 5°53 | 5°72 | 5°23 | 6:01 | 55°93
North Craig, 4°32 | 3:29 | 2°39 | 2°02 | 2°03 | 2°70 | 3°36 | 3°91} 4°25 | 4:28 | 3°85 | 3°97 | 40°37
Ardrossan, . 4°54 | 3°47 | 2°59 | 2:23 | 2°20 | 2°63 | 2°92 | 4:08| 3°87 | 4°31 | 3°95 | 4:05 | 40°84
Glen Drishaig, 5:00 | 4°70 | 3°50 | 2°40 | 2°30 | 2°60 | 3°00 | 3°50) 4:20 | 5:00 | 4°80 | 4°80 | 45°80
Pinmore, 5°80 | 4°86 | 3°84 | 2°54 | 2°46 | 2°85 | 3°49 | 3°96) 4°77 | 5°82 | 5°41 | 5°30 | 51°10
Auchendrane, 4°40 | 3°94 | 2°77 | 2°12 | 2°10] 2°96 | 3°10 | 3°68] 3°96 | 4:00 | 4:05 | 4°57 | 41°65
Turnberry, . 4:20 | 3°40 | 2°86 | 2°18 | 2°00 | 2°70 | 2°75 | 3°50| 3°75 | 3°65 | 3°80 | 4°58 | 39°37
Lamlash, 4°30 | 3°70 | 2°85 | 2°30 | 2°10 | 2°60 | 3°20 | 4:00} 4°30 | 5:00 | 4°60 | 5°20 | 44°15
Pladda, . | 4°23 | 3°65 | 2°84 | 2°38 | 2°04 | 2°50 | 3°12 | 3°88) 4°20 | 4°45 | 4°20 | 4°06 | 41°55
Mull of Cantyre, . | 3°79 | 3°77 | 3:00 | 3:00 | 2°32 | 3°36 | 3°78 | 4°20| 3°87 | 4:08 | 4:01 | 4:04 | 43°22
Davaar, . . | 5°48 | 4:31 | 3°19 | 2°37 | 2°23 | 2°57 | 2°93 | 3°58} 4:09 | 5°28 | 5:06 | 5:09 | 46°18
Corsewall, 3°92 | 3°30 | 2°58 | 2°33 | 1°98 | 2°04 | 2°61] 3:20) 3°67 | 3°73 | 3°89 | 3°49 | 36-74
Mean, 4°74 | 3°95 | 3°02 | 2°39 | 2°23 | 2°41 | 3°17 | 3°85| 4°20 | 4°61 | 4°40 | 4°59 | 43°56

DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

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CLYDE SEA AREA. 657

From the much more extensive lists of stations for which the mean annual rainfall has
been calculated by Dr Bucway, and published in the Journal of the Scottish Meteoro-
logical Society, 3rd series, vol. vii. (1884), pp. 131-152, a map of the general distribution
of rainfall over the district was drawn, and from the less complete data for 1886 and
1887 a map of the average rainfall of those two years was also constructed. For
assistance in preparing these maps (Plates V. and VI.) I am indebted to my friends, Mr
J. G, BarrHotomew and Mr R. C. Mossman. Plate VI. shows not only the very small
rainfall of the years in question, but also the fact that the rainfall exceeded 50 inches
only in the hills above Loch Doon in the east of Ayrshire, a small patch around Ardrish-
aig at the head of the Central Arran Basin, and an area stretching over the upper part
of the Dunoon Basin from the Holy Loch over the Gareloch, Lochs Goil and Long,
and across Loch Lomond about Tarbet. The greater part of Loch Fyne, the whole
drainage area of Loch Strivan, the southern part of the Dunoon and of the Arran Basin,
had a rainfall of about 40 inches, while over the Plateau less than 30 inches fell.

Table VII. gives the mean of the rainfall at 18 stations, which are mentioned in
each of the above tables, for each month, thus serving as a rough measure of the relative
dryness of the period under observation and the fluctuations in its rainfall.

TaBLteE VIl—Mean Monthly Rainfall of the Clyde Sea Area and its associated Area of Land Drainage—
18 Stations.

Jan, | Feb. | Mar. | April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year.

Mean, : . :
1866-83. | 5°53) 454) 3°39

2| 246) 2:99) 354) 417) 465) 517) 4:77) 5:22] 49°05
oral l886,; 500} 2°29) 3°19 2/ 328) 1:55) 3:04) 2°67) 5°32] 426) 482] 458) 42°22
Diff. 1886, |—0°53 |— 2°25 |—0°20 |— 0°40 |+ 0°82 | —1°44 | —0°50 |— 1°50 |+0°67 |—0°91 |4+ 0°05 |—0°64 | —6°83
moriss7,| 4:00; 311} 2:02) 2:48; 1:50] 1:33] 3:25) 3:00) 3°97) 2:14) 3°34) 3:97) 34-11
Diff. 1887, }—1°53 |—1°43 |—1°37 |—0°14 |— 0:96 |— 1°66 ; — 0°29 |—1:17 |—0°68 |— 3°03 |— 1°43 |—1°25 |— 14°94
Motaet888,| 3:50; 1:40] 3:10.| 2:30) 400) 2:10) 510) 3°70} 2°00) 2:35} 650] 4:30] 40°35
Diff. 1888, |— 2°03 |— 3:14 | —0-29 | —0°32 |+ 1°54 |—0°89 |+ 1°66 |—0°47 |— 2°65 | — 2°82 |4+ 1:73 |—0°92 | — 8-70

bo o&

“¢

ow bv

The differences given are those from the mean. From these figures it is evident that,
considering the Sea Area as a whole, the minimum rainfall occurs in May. From that
month the rainfall increases steadily to October, falls slightly in November, and comes to
its maximum in January, falling thereafter more rapidly but very uniformly to May. The
rainfall during the period when salinity was observed, April 1886 to September 1887,
was, disregarding some minor fluctuations, about 1 inch less than the mean for every
month, but the curve ran fairly parallel, crossing the mean on two occasions only, and
that not to a great extent. It is obvious that the data of monthly rainfall summarised in
Table VII. are too meagre to justify a quantitative comparison of the two years between
themselves or with the mean. The 18 stations do not represent proportionally the

Mok, XXXVi. PART I: (NO. 23). ~ 5G

658 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

various parts of the drainage area, and thus they serve only as an indication, not a measure
of the seasonal range and fluctuations of precipitation over the district. It is satisfactory
to note that although the May minima, both in 1886 and 1887, are pushed forward to
June in each year, and the maximum occurs in November 1886 instead of the following
January, yet the maxima and minima are distinctly marked, and may be reasonably
expected to give rise to something closely resembling the normal changes in the salinity
of the water. (See curves in Plates XI. and XII.)

The question of the amount of river-discharge corresponding to a given rainfall is
complicated and difficult. Considering a very long period and a very large surface, the
rain which falls on a given drainage basin is almost entirely accounted for by the quantity
which is discharged into the sea by rivers, plus that which is returned to the atmosphere
by evaporation from the rivers and the wet earth, and by the transpiration of plants.

In a small area considered for a limited time, other factors must receive attention.
A certain proportion of the precipitated moisture is evaporated directly, a certain
proportion runs off the land surface and enters the sea by streams and rivers; a certain
proportion also is taken up by plants and animals, and is not fully returned until
their death. This acts in spring by reducing the amount of surface-drainage water, as
the growing vegetation requires an increasing amount of liquid in its tissues; in autumn
the gradual ripening and withering liberates this moisture, most of which is taken up by
the atmosphere, although some, as in the case of heavy dews, may return to the surface-
drainage. Again, rain falling after a prolonged drought is not so effective in swelling
rivers as rain falling after a heavy rainfall. In the former case much is retained by
capillary attraction in the soil and amongst the roots and fibres of grass and mosses,
whence it drains out slowly, and ultimately reaches the streams or gradually
evaporates. A still more serious objection is presented by the underground circulation
of water. Water-bearing strata, after a prolonged drought, not only absorb large
quantities of the rainfall percolating through the surface soil, but it is quite possible to
conceive cases where heavy rainfall may thus be conducted underground across a water-
shed and reappear in springs on an area where the rainfall has been much less, and from
which the drainage flows to a distant sea. It appeared unnecessary to attempt any
detailed study of the geology of the district in order to arrive at an estimate as to the
amount of water falling on the Clyde Sea Area drainage basin that might thus cross
the watershed, nor was it possible to estimate the influence of the other causes except in
very rough manner. With the advice of Dr A. Bucwan, and in the light of several sets
of published experiments on evaporation, I assumed that the average evaporation over the
land surfaces of the West of Scotland amounted to 15 inches in the year, including for
this purpose all the narrow arms of the sea as land, while for the wide water surfaces of
the Arran Basin and Plateau the annual evaporation was taken as 25 inches. Mr G. J.
SYMONS was subsequently kind enough to draw my attention to a prolonged and very
valuable series of experiments reported in his British Rainfall for 1889. Here he
shows that in London during the five years 1885-89 the amount of annual evaporation

CLYDE SEA AREA. 659

ranged from 12°60 inches to 16°78 inches; and in the fourteen years 1870-1883 the
mean annual evaporation in a large tank evaporimeter at Strathfield Turgiss was 18°03
inches, varying from 13°66 inches in 1879 to 23°61 inches in 1870. Mr Symons’
discussion contains many valuable data connecting the evaporation with rainfall and
surface temperature; but, on account of the very general nature of any conclusions
which could be arrived at on the subject, I hesitated to undertake the labour of
recalculating the conditions deduced from the less complete estimate.

Studying the rainfall maps (Plates III. and IV.) it was possible to make a rough estimate
by inspection of the probable average rainfall over the entire drainage basin of each of
the main divisions. ‘The data were not numerous enough to place reliance on measure-
ments of the areas lying between the several isopluvial lines. Table VIII. gives the
various areas, the mean annual rainfall, the actual rainfall for 1886-87, and the volume
in parts of a cubic sea mile of rain-water assumed to reach each of the basins in a year
after evaporation is deducted. It appears that in the years of observation only 3 of the
average amount of fresh water could have reached the basins.

TABLE VIII.—Zstimate of Volume of Rain falling on the Clyde Sea Area and the in-sloping Land,
deducting the Evaporation, estimated as 15 Inches per Annum over Land and Narrow Lochs,
25 Inches over Arran Basin and Plateau Water-Surfaces.

R. R.-E. R.-E. R.-E., 1886-87.
Sq. SeaMiles,| Average |Rainfall—| Rainfall— |, Volume. . || [866-87 a ae ae
er Tiuhes, py aa = Siles Sea Miles, || Inches. | tenes. | Sea Miles. | Sea Miles.
NepGareléch,.§. 0.7). «-s 12°8 60 45 0-00063 0°00806 55 40 0:00056 0:00717
ZauoehGoil; «= 28°9 75 60 0°00090 0°02601 55 40 000056 0°01618
8. Loch Long, . .. . 25°8 80 65 000093 0:02399 50) 40 0:00056 0°01445
4, Holy Loch, ... . 57°4 70 55 0:00080 0°04592 50 385 000050 0°02870
5. Loch Strivan, . . . 37°8 60 45 0°00063 0°02381 40 25 000036 0°01361
6. Kyles, &., . . . . 60°5 65 50 0:00072 0°04356 40 25 0°00036 0°02178
7. Loch) Fyne,..... = : 168°0 70 55 6:00080 0°13440 45 30 0:00042 0°07056
8. Dunoon Basin, .. . 107°0 60 45 0°00063 0°06741 45 30 0°00042 0°04494
Clyde proper (to Bow-
HIMES) oe 886'0 40 25 0°00036 0°31896 35 20 000030 0°26580
Estuary (excluding
Loch Lomond), . 67°4 50 35 0°00050 003370 45 30 0°00042 0°02831
Loch Lomond, . . 228°0 75 60 0:00090 0°20520 50 385 0:00050 0°11400
9, Arran Basin (water), . 531:°0 45 20 0:00030 0°15750 30 5 0:00008 0:04200
An (land),. . §35°0 50 35 0:00050 0°41750 35 20 0°00030 0°25050
10. Plateau(water),. . . 243°0 40 15 0°00021 0°05145 30 5 0:00008 0°01960
eeeland); « - « 217°0 45 30 0°00042 0°09114 30 15 000021 0°04557
Total Mean, .. 3505°6 52 35 0°00050 1°64891 38 20 0:00028 0:98317
Total, minus Arzan Basin
and Plateau,. .. . 1679°6 55 40 0:00055 0°93132 40 25 0:00037 0°62550
R. in Sea R. in Sea
Rainfall irrespective of Eva- mie: me:
poration,. . .... 3505°6 52 Ses 0°00075 2°64600 38 one 0°00055 1°81600

* and and water included, except where otherwise mentioned. The proportion of rainfall lost by evaporation is that
suggested by Dr A. BucHAN.

From Table VII. the percentage of the annual rainfall which occurred in each
month was calculated, and that applied to Table VIII. gave the following estimate
(Table IX.) of the distribution of volume of inflowing fresh water :—

660 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

TABLE IX.—Volwme of Rain-water received during each Month of the Average Year,
and of the Years of Observation.

Jan. Feb. | March. | April. | May. June. | July. | August.| Sept. Oct. Nov. Dee. Year. |

| 4
| 1866-85, %. .|1127 | 928 | oss | 5:35 | 5:03 | 609 | 719 | 8-45 | 9:51 |10°55 | 9°75 |10°65 |100-00 |
| Cubic sea miles, | 1873] 1543] 1147] -0892| 0834] 0999] 1189] 1395] -1543| -1749| 1563] -1763| 1-6490|
1886,%. . . {11:80 | 5-48 | 7:60 | 5:30 | 7°80 | 3-70 | 7:22 | 6:35 |12°55 |10-00 {11:40 | 10:80 |100-00 |
Cubic sea miles, | 1281] -0595| -0825| -0575| -0847| 0402] -0784| -0689/ 1363] 1086] 1238] 1172] 41-0857]

1887,%. . 11°65 9°20 6:00 7°30 4°40 3°90 9°55 8°70 11°60 6°30 9°80 {11°60 |10000 |

Cubic Sea miles, | 1080] 0809] -0528| -0642] 0387) -0343) 0840] 0765] 1016] -0554| 0-0870) 1016] 0-8800|

1888) Fie ht) (S567, 3°47 7°68 5°70 9°91 5°20 12°64 9:17 4°96 5:98 15°95 10°67 | 100°00 |
_ Cubic sea miles, 0895 0358 0793 0588 1080 0536 1320 0950 0515 0624 1651} °1060} 1:0320)

This table does not take into account the greater evaporation of the summer than
the winter months. If this could be applied as a correction, it would notably reduce
the amount of rainfall received between March and September, and increase that
between September and March.

Temperature of the Air.

In order to complete the summary of meteorological conditions, Tables X., XI.,
XIL, XIII. are given. They have been compiled for me from the records of the
Scottish Meteorological Society, by Mr R. C. Mossman. The discussion of these
conditions will be undertaken in Part III., which will deal with the general thermal
conditions of air and water in the region under investigation.

TABLE X.—Awr Temperatwre—Mean for 1866-85.

Station. Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April.) May. | June. | July.| Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dee.
Glasgow, . ; . | 38:0 | 39°4 | 40°5 | 44°9 | 49°5 | 55°3 | 58°1 | 57-7 | 53-4] 46°9 | 40:9 | 37°8
Greenock, . j . | 39°0 | 39°3 | 40°4 | 45:4] 50°2 | 56°0 | 58:4 | 581] 54:2] 47°8 | 41:3 | 39°8
Paisley, . ; . | 38°3 | 39°4 | 40°6 | 45°7 | 49°9 | 55°7 | 57°9 | 57°6 | 54:2 | 47°3 | 40°8 | 39-1
Pinmore, . é . | 38°83 | 40°0 | 41:0 | 45°1 | 49°7 | 55°0 | 58:1 | 57°38 | 53:1] 47:1 | 41°8 | 38°7
Auchendrane, . . | 38°3 | 40°0 | 40°9 | 45°7 | 50°0 | 55°9 | 58°0 | 57°5 | 54:1 | 48°0 | 41°4 | 39°7
Rothesay, . : . | 39°1 | 39°9 | 41°0 | 45°7 | 50°1 | 56°0 | 58°3 | 58-1 | 53:8 | 47:9 | 42:3] 39-2
Mull of Cantyre, . | 41°1 | 40°9 | 41°4 | 44°9 | 48°8 | 53°7 | 56°3 | 57°3 | 54:2 | 49°1 | 43°9 | 41°6

Callton Mor, . . | 88°6 | 39°3 | 40°6 | 44:7 | 49°2 | 55:1 | 57-4) 57-6 | 53°3| 47-0] 41°3 | 383

CLYDE SEA AREA. 661

TaBLeE XI.—Air Temperatwre—1886.

Station. Jan, | Feb. | Mar. |April.| May. | June.| July.| Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec.
Glasgow, . : . | 34°6 | 34°8 | 38°6 | 444 | 48°8 | 54:2 | 57°6 | 57:0) 52°8 | 50°4) 44:4 | 34:0
Helensburgh, . | 36°8 | 36°5 | 38:2 | 44:0 | 48:2 | 54-4) 57°8 | 56°8 | 52:7 | 511 | 45°4 | 36°3
Dumbarton, ; . | 35°2 | 34°8 | 37°6 | 44:4 | 48°0 | 54:3 | 57°8 | 56°3 | 53:2 | 50°3 | 43:2 | 33°8
Greenock, . ; . | 35°4| 34°8 | 37-4 | 43:2 | 47-2 | 53:4) 56°8 | 56°7 | 53°0 | 50°3 | 44°2 | 35:0
Paisley, . : . | 35°6 | 35°9 | 39°0 | 45°4| 48:7) 2 | 586 | 57°8) 55°8| 51:0) 44°8 | 351
Ben Quhat, : . | 29°9 | 31:2 | 33°7 | 40°5 | 44°3 | 49°7 | 52°1 | 52°8 | 49°2| 7% | 39°6| 30:0
Pinmore, . : . | 34°8 | 35°9 | 38°5 | 44°8 | 47°8 | 53°0 | 56°8 | 564) 51°8 | 49°8 | 43°8 | 34°1
Auchendrane, . . | 35°0 | 35°5 | 38:2 | 44:4 | 47:2 | 53:6 | 57°6 | 55°7 | 51°8 |) 498) 2 a
Rothesay, . : . | 36°0 | 36°6 | 39°0 | 45:0 | 47°8 | 53°9 | 56°6 | 56°2 | 53°5 | 51°1 | 45:0 | 36:0
Lamlash, . : . | 39°4| 371 | 38:0 | 44:0 | 47°6 | 53-2 | 6671 | 55°9 | 53°8| 51°0 | 46°5 | 38°6
Pladda, . 4 . | 37:0} 38°3 | 38°0 | 44:1 | 47°4| 52:1 | 55°7 | 55°6 | 53°6 | 51°7 | 46°3 | 38°0
Mull of Cantyre, . | 37°4 | 38°3 | 39°0 | 43°7 | 47:0 | 51°3 | 56°0 | 56°2 | 54:0 | 50°9 | 46°3 | 39-2
Davaar, . : . | 38°3 | 39°1 | 39°3 | 44:0 | 47°71 | 52°7 | 56:3} 56°0 | 54°7 | 52°5 | 47-1 | 39°3
Corsewall, . 6 . | 37°7 | 37:0 | 38:1 | 43°9 | 46°8 | 51°7 | 56°9 | 56°3 | 53°3 | 51°7 | 46°5 | 39°6
Ailsa Craig, ; : q 2 ? | 47°38] 489] 541] 591) 2% | 55°3 | 53:3] 47:9 | 40°3
Callton Mor, . . | 35°9 | 35°0 | 38°6 | 44:0 | 47°2 | 52°6 | 56:1] 544) 53:0} 72 | 43°8| 34°8
Turnberry, . : . | 36°8 | 37:0 | 38:5 | 44°0 | 47:1 | 52°8 | 56°4 | 55°9 | 53°3 | 50°9 | 46°4 | 38:3
Skeir Vuile, : . | 87:9 | 38°7 | 39:0 | 43°8 | 47°5 | 51:7 | 55°0 | 55:3 | 53°6 | 51°6 | 46°9 | 39°7
M‘Arthur’s Head, . | 37:2 | 37-7 | 38:0 | 43°8 | 46°6 | 51:7} 550} 2% | 53°8| 504] 46:4 | 38°7

Difference from Average-—1886.

Glasgow, . : . |—3°4 |—4°6 | —1°9 |—0°5 |—0°7 |— 1-1 |—0°5 |—0°7 |—0°6 | 3'5 | 4-35 |—3'8
Greenock, . ; . |—3°6 |—4°5 | —3°0 |—2°2 |—3°0 |—2°6 |—1°6 |—1°4 |—1°2 [+52 |4-2°9 |— 48
Paisley, . : . |—2°7 |—3°5 |—16 |—0°3 |—1:2| 2 |+4+0°7 |+0°2 |4+0°4 |4+3°7 |+4°0 |—40
Pinmore, . : . |— 4:0 |— 41 | —2°5 |—0°3 |—1°9 |—2°0 |— 13 |—1°4 |—1°3 | 4-27 | +20 |— 46
Auchendrane, . . |—3°8 |—4°5 |— 2°7 |—1°3 |—2°8 |—2°3 |—0'4 |—1°8 |—2°3/4+18] 2 2

Rothesay, . . . |—3'1 | —3°3 | —2°0 |—0°7 | —2°3 |—2°1 |—1°7 |—1°9 | —0°3 [4 3°2 |4-2°7 | — 3:2
Mull of Cantyre,. . |—3°7 |—2°6 |—2°4 |—1-2 |—1°8 |—2°4 |—0°3 |—1°1 |—0°2 [4 18 |-2°4 |—2°4
Callton Mor, . . |—2°7 |— 4:3 |—2°0 |—0°7 |—2°0 |—2°5 |—1°3 |—3'°2 |—0°3 | 2 |4+2°5 |—3°5

|

662

DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

TABLE XII.—Air Temperatwre—1887.

Jan. | Feb.

Glasgow,
Helensburgh, .
Dumbarton,
Greenock,
Paisley, .

Ben Quhat,
Pinmore,
Auchendrane, .
Rothesay,
Lamlash,
Pladda, . :
Mull of Cantyre,
Davaar, .
Corsewall,

Ailsa Craig,
Callton Mor, .
Turnberry,

Skeir Vuile, .
M‘Arthur’s Head,

Glasgow,
Greenock,
Paisley, .
Pinmore,
Auchendrane, .
Rothesay,

Mull of Cantyre,
Callton Mor, .

Mar. | April.| May.

Difference from Average—1887.

+0°9| 2
—0'2)+0°7
+0°8)+1°8
—2'1; 00
q t
—0'1\/+1'8
+0°3)/+1'8
—0°4)/+1°1

—1'1|—1°4)4+-1°6
—17|—2°4)—0°5
— 0°6)/—1°4)4+ 2°1
— 1°0/—2°5/+0°3

? q t

# j—1°9/+0°5
—0°3|}— 2°0)—0°3
—2°8)—1°7)+ 1:0

+3°6|+2°0
+2°8|41°6
+4:2/43-2
443/415
alee
424/411
441)49°7
+4°5|4+2°0

.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec.

37°3
358

Glasgow,
Helensburgh, .
Dumbarton,
Greenock,
Paisley,

Ben Quhat,
Pinmore,
Auchendrane,
Rothesay,
Lamlash,
Pladda, .
Mull of Cantyre,
Devaar,
Corsewall,

Ailsa Craig,
Callton Mor, .
Turnberry,
Skeir Vuile, .
M‘Arthur’s Head,

Glasgow,
Greenock,
Paisley,
Pinmore,
Auchendrane,
Rothesay,

Mull of Cantyre,
Callton Mor, .

CLYDE SEA AREA,

TABLE XIII.— Air Temperatwre—1888.

663

41°2
42°2

42°4
42°2

. |April.

43°2
44°4
43°0
42:9
44:4

37°9
37°5
38°5
36°5
37°2
38°7
37°5

.| June, July,

54:1
54°9
54°0
53°5
55°6
50°1
552

q 4
54°5
52°8

55°6
55°4
55°3
54°5
56°0
50°4

53°8
53°5
531
55°2
53°4
53°5
53°3

52°6

Difference from Average-—1888,

+1'8)—2°4
+0°7|—3'1
+1°9)—1°5
—0°8| — 4°4
—0°2/— 4:2
+1°8}—2°2
+1°7|—2°5
+01} 2?

—3°4/—17
—3°9|/—2°5
—2°6)/—1°3
—4:0|—1°6
— 4°3|—2°2
—3°3/—1°9
—3°3/—1°7
—41)/—17

+0°8
—O7
+0°8
+02
—0°5
—0°3
—02
+04

—1°2)—2°5
—2°5)—2°9
—01/—1°9
+0°2|—3°2
2 t
—15/—3'2
+0°1)—2°2
+0°1)/—2°3

Aug. | Sept.

42°2

664 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

Part [l.—Sarrmiry AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE WATER.
1886-1887.

Collection of Samples.

Surface samples can be most readily obtained by using an ordinary draw-bucket,
either when the steamer is in motion or at rest. In this way a fair mixture of the upper
six or eight inches of water may be procured. Throughout this memoir the term
“ surface-water ” is used to denote specimens collected in such a manner. In some instances
a film of almost pure rain or river-water, perhaps approaching an inch in thickness, has
been found overspreading a much salter layer with which it had not had time to mix.
Consequently in taking samples for analysis, when the water-bottle about to be described
was employed, care was taken to enclose the contents at the depth of about 1 foot.

Where it was desirable to take a sample of a definite layer, the plan adopted was to
attach a narrow-necked stoppered bottle to a sounding-line weighted with a 7-lb. lead (fig. 4,
Plate X.) and lower it to the exact depth required. The stopper was withdrawn by a thin
line, and the bottle quickly filled itself from the layer in which the mouth was situated.
This method only serves for depths under 10 fathoms and for calm water, as when sunk
to a great depth the two lines are apt to become twisted, and, if the stopper fits accurately,
the pressure of the superincumbent water often prevents it from being withdrawn.

Samples beneath the surface were in almost all cases obtained by the use of the form
of slip water-bottle described to this Society in 1886 (Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xiii.
pp. 539-546). It was adapted for use on the same line as the deep-sea reversing
thermometers, and consisted essentially of a brass cylinder which, when set free by the
fall of a weight, struck and was automatically clamped to a base-plate. The external
springs used in the clamping arrangement were apt to be damaged by striking against
the vessel’s side; and a reserve supply of springs had to be carried in case of accident.
When asked to assist the Fishery Board for Scotland in preparing new apparatus in 1886,
I devised a more satisfactory form, which is known as Mill’s Self-Locking Water Bottle.
The instrument has been adopted by many investigators, in this country and abroad,
with complete satisfaction, and a detailed description may be suitably given (fig. 1,
Plate X.).

The back-bone of the instrument is a strong brass tube, about 2 feet 6 inches long and
of ?-inch bore, through the axis of which the sounding-line passes and on which the whole
apparatus is built up (fig. 2, Plate X.). About 4 inches from the lower end of the tube a
brass base-plate about 5 inches in diameter and } of an inch thick is fixed, a wide ring of
soft vulcanised indiarubber of the same diameter being cemented ina recess on the upper side.
A brass top-plate of somewhat thinner metal is similarly fixed about 1 foot higher on the
tube, and is connected with the base-plate by three thin brass plates set radially to act as.

CLYDE SEA AREA. 665

guides for the slip cylinder. On the upper part of the top-plate there is a slight hollow
which causes a dise of soft indiarubber, 4 inches in diameter, fixed by a nut screwed down
from above, to assume a saucer-like shape. Above the top-plate the central tube is
surrounded by an outer tube of brass, 14 inches. in diameter, the lower end of which is
screwed firmly into the top-plate, and the upper end is brazed to a flange on the top of
the central tube. About 4 inches above the top-plate two windows, 1 inch long and 3 inch
wide, are cut opposite each other in the outer tube, and through these project two brass
catches cut square below but tapered in a convex curve above, so that the points remain
just within the central tube while the bases project about one-eighth of an inch. These’
catches are brazed to long brass springs firmly riveted to the central tube some distance
below the windows. The upper extremity of the outer tube is surrounded by a counter-
sunk brass ring from which three equidistant detaching springs of hammered brass, about
3 inches long and one third of an inch wide, turned sharply out at the end, radiate down-
ward and outward like an inverted shuttlecock. This completes the fixed part of the
apparatus. A slip-cylinder about a foot long, made of brass tube 4 inches in diameter,
terminates below in an edge roughened by a narrow groove being cut in the centre so as
to give it a A-shaped section and enable it to indent the indiarubber ring of the base-
plate, when shut down, with a very firm grip. The upper edge of the cylinder has an
annular knife-edge projecting inward, and so adjusted that it presses on the indiarubber
saucer of the top-plate when the lower edge rests on the ring of the base-plate. A brass
dome of three limbs, weighted with lead inside, springs from the upper end of the slip
eylinder and carries a strong ring sliding easily on the outer tube. The upper end of
this ring is prolonged into an annular gallery in the side of which, internally, a deep
groove is cut; and on the floor of the gallery there are two notches opposite each other,
about 2-inch wide, cut in from the tube. A third part of the apparatus is a short
detaching tube which slides easily over the shuttlecock springs at the top of the instru-
ment, drawing them in close against the side of the tube. An indiarubber buffer and
broad perforated brass disc above prevent this tube from being driven down far enough
_ to strike the projecting tips of the springs. The slip cylinder is slipped on the outer
tube before the shuttlecock-spring is placed in position. Then, by pressing the detaching
tube over the shuttlecock, the arms are brought in, and, the gallery of the cylinder being
brought to its place, the detaching tube is raised, and the shuttlecock-spring, expanding
into the groove in the side of the gallery, suspends the cylinder, holding it very firmly.
To close the water-bottle the detaching tube is pressed down, thus withdrawing the
shuttlecock retaining-spring and the cylinder slips by its own weight along the guides.
When the lower edge of the ring reaches the windows in the outer tube the locking
springs are pushed in, and when the edges of the cylinder strike and indent the two
indiarubber surfaces, the locking springs shoot out above the floor of the gallery on which
they press, locking the slip cylinder firmly to the body of the apparatus and securely
retaining the water it contains. Care must be taken in adjusting the slip cylinder that
the notches in the gallery are not opposite the windows of the outer tube. To re-set the
VOL. XXXVI. PART III. (NO. 23). oe

666 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

bottle it is only necessary to rotate the cylinder until the locking springs fall into the
notches, when the cylinder can be raised. The base-plate is perforated with two
apertures; one closed by an ordinary stopcock is connected with a narrow brass tube
which opens close below the top-plate. Its function is to admit air when the bottle is
being emptied ; and, if left open when the apparatus is sent to a great depth, it acts as a
safety-valve, allowing the excess of contained water to be expelled as it expands on the
diminution of pressure. The other opening simply perforates the base-plate, and is used
for drawing off the water. The stopcock is turned by a key—the ordinary broad lever
being apt to be opened by pressure of the external water in hauling up—and a few
inches of indiarubber tubing serve to conduct the water into the glass bottle in which it
is preserved. Without some such precaution it is difficult to avoid spilling a good deal
of the water when the sea is rough and the vessel unsteady.

The water-bottle is fixed by the sounding line being passed through the central tube,
the lower end of which is bell-shaped and rests on a knot or on a “ toggle,” a short bar of
wood spliced into the rope. The detaching tube is depressed by the fall of a heavy brass
messenger dropped along the line from the vessel or from a reversing thermometer.

Preservation of Samples.—When a sample of water was obtained in the water-bottle,
it was immediately run off into a blue-glass stoppered bottle of about 14 litres capacity,
similar to those employed on the ‘“ Challenger” expedition. A small portion of the
sample was first run in and the bottle thoroughly rinsed out with it, then the glass bottle
was completely filled, the ground-glass stopper labelled and dropped into its place, and
the bottle placed in a wooden box divided into fifteen cork-padded compartments and
supplied with a lid which protected the bottles completely from rain or sun. As a rule,
the determination of density was proceeded with at once, but when the weather was bad
it was necessary to keep the samples until in harbour for the night, or until another
opportunity presented itself. If any delay seemed probable, the stoppers were firmly
tied down when the sample was secured.

After many experiments with adhesive labels of several kinds, and with parchment
strips tied round the necks of the bottles, the plan was adopted of simply writing the
necessary data in pencil on the ground-glass stopper. This was easily read through the
neck of the bottle, and was quite secure from risk of obliteration when in its place, and
as soon as the sample was done with, a rub with the finger or with a towel left the stopper
clean and ready for use again. The data recorded on the stopper were the date, the
index letter of the sample, and the position from which it came. Thus “ 22.12.86, C, Bot.”
indicated that it was the third sample collected on December 22, and that it came from
the bottom. In the record of the temperature sounding, which was invariably taken
when samples were collected, the same letters were entered, and reference could thus be
made at any time to the hour of collection, the position, and the temperature at the place.
When a sample of water was reserved for chemical analysis, it was a duplicate of that
taken for determining the density, and was at once securely tied down and the stopper
covered by a cap of vegetable parchment firmly tied on, so as to reduce the risk of acci-

CLYDE SEA AREA. 667

dent in transit by rail to a minimum. In all cases the cork-lined boxes were used for
carrying sample-bottles, a layer of straw over the top allowing the lid when tied down to
exert a uniform light pressure on the stoppers, and so prevent shaking.

Salinity and its Measurement.—The careful experiments of many investigators, but
particularly of THorrr and Rucker,* and of Dirrmar,t have shown that the density of
sea water at constant pressure is a function of salinity and temperature alone. Therefore
in order to compare the salinity, 2.e., the ratio of dissolved solids to the whole sea water,
of different samples, it is sufficient to determine the density and the temperature of the
water in question. The words density and specific gravity are frequently used as if they
were synonymous, and much confusion results from this habit. The density of a sub-
stance is the ratio of its mass to its volume, and the numerical value of this ratio, of
course, depends on the units of mass and volume employed, e.g., pounds per cubic foot,
or grammes per cubic centimetre. To obviate this difficulty, the ratio of the density of
the substance under consideration to that of some standard substance has been adopted
as the quantity for comparison, and to this ratio the term specific gravity is given. Pure
water is universally accepted as the standard substance, but the temperature at which it
is held to be the standard varies, and the density of water is a function of its tempera-
ture. Hence we find that the term “specific gravity of sea-water” is susceptible of
several distinct meanings, and is, indeed, employed in several different ways.

The maximum density point of pure water (4° C.) is the natural temperature to take
as a standard for density, and if this is adopted the specific gravity of sea water may be
determined, either at the same or at some other standard temperature, and by means of
the tables of dilatation of sea water compiled by the authorities cited, the value of the
specific gravity at any temperature may be calculated from the determination at any
other temperature. Dirrmar represents by ,S¢ the ratio of the density of sea-water at ¢°
to the density of pure water at 4°; and he adopts as the standard ¢= 60° F. or 15°'56 C.,
because that temperature was employed in reducing the “ Challenger” results obtained at

sea by means of Hubbard’s tables. The unit ,8j5.55 will, for the sake of uniformity with

the “Challenger” work, be employed as the standard density to which to reduce the
experimental results given in this paper.

The term “specific gravity,” as used in the publications of the British Meteorological
Office, indicates the ratio of the density of sea water at 15°'56 to pure water at 15°°56 ;
as used in the reports of the German Hydrographic Office and other continental
authorities, it is the ratio of the two densities at 17°°5. Dr J. Grsson{ uses specific
gravity to mean the ratio of the two densities at the freezing point, 0° C.; and this
method has special advantages, inasmuch as it admits of rigidly accurate comparison of
specific gravities without any theoretical. reductions to standard temperature. For
accurate work, where a fine balance and abundant time are available, Dr Ginson’s method
(using a modified Sprengel’s pyknometer) is certainly the only one that should be

* Phil. Trans., exlvi. (2), p. 405. + Challenger Reports, “ Physics and Chemistry,” vol. i.
+ Siath Annual Report of the Fishery Board for Scotland, 1887.

668 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

employed. For convenient use at sea, the hydrometer seems to be the most satisfactory
instrument. The optical densimeter, in which the refractive index of the sea water is
measured, and the density directly deduced, would appear to be at once more convenient
and easily used; but although it has been experimented with by the U.S. Coast Survey,
I am not aware that it has been found satisfactory. Standard total immersion areometers,
to which the water is rendered ee in density by dilution with distilled water, have
been successfully used in some cases.*

Determination of Density.—One of the “Challenger” hydrometers has been in Be
during the whole of the work of the Marine Station. At first the observations were
made only on land, but nearly all the Clyde work was done on board the little steam-
yacht “ Medusa.” As in Mr Bucanan’s sea-work the glass jar was hung by three cords
to a hook in the roof of the cabin, but it was only in perfectly calm weather that it was
possible to use the hydrometer, the quick motion of. the “ Medusa” making the stem
bob up and down, so that it was impossible to read the scale. In good weather there
was usually time to determine three densities while the “Medusa” went from one
observing station to the next, and a surface, bottom, and intermediate sample were taken
at each stoppage. In bad weather only two samples were usually taken at each station,
as with three the accumulation of bottles was too great to be worked off before the next
day’s trip. .

The following description of the hydrometer used and discussion as to its accuracy
is mainly copied from the first part of my thesis for the degree of Doctor of Science
presented to the University of Edinburgh in 1886.

The hydrometer is a glass instrunient with a cylindrical body about ’5 centimetres in
diameter and 12 centimetres long, terminating above in a stem of the same length, 3
millimetres in diameter, and loaded below with a bulb containing mercury. The
constants of the instrument were ascertained in June 1884 by BucHanan’s method,t and
all the observations made were reduced in accordance with these values, which were
verified in 1886. The mass of the instrument, corrected to a vacuum, is 150°1478
crammes, and can be increased by the addition of small hat-shaped brass weights placed
on the top of the stem, and by rings which rest on these, to 155°8384 grammes, through
thirty-six gradations. The volume of the areometer up to the first mark on the millimetre
scale enclosed in the stem, is at 0°, 150°207 cubic centimetres, and at 25°, 150°321, the
volume of the graduated 100 millimetres of stem is 0°850 cubic centimetre, and assuming
it to be cylindrical, each millimetre corresponds to an immersed volume of 0°0085 c.c.

Three tables were constructed from these data. The first gives the volume of the body
of the instrument at each tenth of a degree from 0° to 30°. The second contains the
volume of stem immersed, corresponding to each half-millimetre of scale, and this quantity
is assumed not to vary appreciably with temperature. The third table gives the mass
of the whole instrument when loaded with each of the possible combinations of weights.

In redetermining the constants of the hydrometer much difficulty was found in

* Thoulet’s Oceanographie. + Chall. Repts., “ Phys. Chem.,” vol. i. pt. 2.

CLYDE SEA:-AREA.-~ . 669

securing concordant results. The quantities to be measured are in most cases extremely |
small, and the conditions affecting them are numerous and variable.

Dirrmar’s estimate of the probable error of the method, founded on an examination
of the hydrometer used on the Challenger, and on the salinity of some samples of water
whose densities had been measured by it, is = 0°07, where distilled water is taken as
- 1000:00; but as his investigation was not carried out with the view of improving the
hydrometer as an instrument of precision, he did not study all. the causes which lead to
the observed uncertainty. My experiments give practically the same conclusion, as I
have found the uncertainty to be greater than + 0°03, but less than + 0°09.

To ascertain the density I followed BucHanan’s method exactly. A tall jar, of 1 litre
capacity, is rinsed out with the sample to be examined, then filled up to about 800 ce.,
and the temperature of the water taken by a thermometer the correction of which is
known. The hydrometer is then placed in the liquid, and loaded so as to immerse about
one-third of the stem. When it comes to a position of equilibrium it is read to half a
millimetre by looking along the under surface of the water. Another weight is then
added to immerse fully two-thirds of the stem, and a second reading is made. The
hydrometer is then removed, dried, replaced im its box, and the temperature of the
water again observed. The whole operation occupies about ten minutes to perform.
The bottles of water, having been left in the laboratory from a day to a week (in the
case of the work done on the Firth of Forth), had very nearly the temperature of
the air, and never changed more than half a degree during the determination. In the
subsequent work on the Clyde the observations were almost invariably made when at sea,
shortly after collection ; equilibrium of temperature was not so nearly attained, and the
change in course of the observations was somewhat greater.

Density is calculated from the observed readings by the formula

W+w

en ae

’

where ,8¢ is the density (or specific gravity compared with water at 4°) of the sample at
the observed temperature ¢° (mean of two readings), W+w the mass of the loaded hydro-
meter, Vt the volume of the body of the instrument at ¢°, and v the volume of the
portion of the stem immersed (100—7, where 7 is the reading, because the scale in this
instrument is graduated from above downward). For purposes of comparison the
densities are reduced by Drrrmar’s tables to their value at 15°°56 (60° F.), so that the
recorded densities are 4S15.56-

The following example of an actual case will illustrate the manner in which all the
determinations of density recorded in this memoir have been obtained. It has been
found more rapid to work by contracted division than by logarithms with a table of
differences for the main calculation, but logarithms are used for the temperature
reduction. The “Specific Gravity Book” is ruled in columns, each corresponding to a
single determination :— 5

670

DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON

No. of Sample,
Date,
Hour of Callesiton:

Position,

Depth of Sea,

Depth of Sample (d),

Temperature (¢) of Sea at d,

State of Tide, :

Weather,

Colour and Transparency of Water,
Collected by, .

Date and Hour of Determination,

Temperature of Water (?’),

THE

491
22.5.85,
135.
May Light, N.E. by E.
| North Berwick Law, S. } E.
29 fm.

Bright, swell,
Deep green.
H.R.M.

23.5.85-——16"6.

a Il.
1374 — 13°80),

Hydrometer Load, 1 1+6.
Hydrometer Reading, . 90:0 32°0.
: 3 — ; : ; . : 1:02548,
Densliy ahi hey que . ” BBB.
Mean Density att’, . : : ‘ , ; 102551.
Density at 15°56, ; : ; ‘ ; 102506.

The working out of the results is preserved in the “Calculation Book,” and in the
instance in question was as follows :—

Calculation of Density.

491 (1) 2608
085
150°3458)154°1763(1-02548
3°8305
8236
719
118
102551
491 (2) 2626
578
150°8406)154°6950(1°02555
38544
8376
834
80

Correction to Standard Temperature.

491 646 99782 1:02600
551 97772 94 (‘5)
95 97554 1-02506

The above statement shows that the two values for the density, calculated from the
two readings, differ by 7 in the fifth decimal place. This difference is nearly always in —

CLYDE SEA AREA. 671

the same direction, 7.e., when more of the stem is submerged the density appears higher.
Hither the difference in mass is thus less than was supposed, or the difference in immersed
volume is greater. The brass pieces were frequently weighed, and were not found to
change perceptibly, but my experiments indicate the presence of both sources of error.
Moisture adhering to the stem makes the first density appear too low (the capillary
attraction is alike in both cases), and the stem instead of being truly cylindrical is very
slightly conical.

It is of interest to note the frequency with which differences of each value occurred
in the two readings. For convenience the 1440 double observations discussed are
divided into 760, made in 1884—85, and 680 made in 1886-87.
mainly determined on shore in a properly equipped laboratory with good light, and the
mean difference between the two readings was 7°9. The latter set were almost all
observed at sea or in temporary work-rooms where the light was not always satisfactory,
and it is not surprising to find that the mean difference in them amounted to 8°7. The
prevalence of positive values (over 95 per cent.) is a sign that the difference is at least
largely a constant one, and is not due to errors in reading the scale. Hence for com-
parative purposes the salinities deduced are quite satisfactory, and the mean values do
not in any case differ very widely from those deduced from chlorine-determinations.

The former group were

TABLE XIV.—Trustworthiness of Hydrometer Readings.

First Group. Second Group.
Discrepancy of Densities. Total
(Units of Fifth Decimal place.) per cent.
Times in 760. | Times per cent.| Times in 680. | Times per cent.
Negative Values, . : 30 39 36 53 4°6
0, : : 14 19 19 28 2°4
1 22 2°9 10 1°5 2°2
2, 36 4'8 21 30 3°9
3, 51 6'9 27 40 54
4, : , : 38 51 18 2°8 4:0
5, ‘ : ; 64 84 52 Fe 8-0
6, 79 10'4 48 IED 88
7, 47 64 37 54 59
8, 80 10°6 76 I1‘2 10°9
9, , ‘ : 48 65 67 98 81
10, ; : ; 50 6'8 32 47 5°8
i ‘ ‘ é 45 59 73 10°7 8°3
12, : ; 4 37 49 39 57 5:3
13 to 18, . : ; 95 02 Dei 142 12°7
19 to 24, . : : 13 1°38 12 To) 18
Over 24, 11 16 16 Zee. 19
Total, : : 760 100'0 680 100°'0 100-0
Mean discrepancy, . “ ied 87 8:3

672 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

In order farther to test the action of the hydrometer by means of the double readings,
we may consider the amount of depression produced by the addition of the same weight
in different cases. The examples are taken from the first group of 760 determinations,
in order to take advantage of their slightly greater accuracy due to more favourable
conditions of observation.

When weight No. 7 was added to the hydrometer it produced a mean depression of
36°8 mm. of stem. It weighs 0°3312 grammes, and the difference of volume immersed
by it due to variations in’temperature and salinity was shown by calculation and experi-
ment to be less than half a millimetre in water ranging from 1:020 to 1:026 in density
for 10° of temperature. This weight was employed in 305 cases with the results stated
in Table XV.

TaBLe XV.—Variation in ydrometer Readings—I.

Number of Times Weight 7 Produced Depressions of —
Discrepancy in Density Determinations, .

(Units of Fifth Decimal place.)
35°5 | 36:0 | 365 | 37:0 | 37°5 | 380 | 385 | 39:0 |

eo Tales 2 AO Sasa at al 10 2
5to7, . ; conlaweHs 1 1eioel-84 Brkt 3 |e :
ef ; oh Deals Bt al 5iy 3 2

Lotal;. | (can . : We eee 74 | 102 47 14 10 2

Weight No. 6, weighing 0°5184 grammes, and producing a mean depression of 57°7
millimetres, was employed 293 times with the results shown in Table XVL, arranged
according to the value of the density discrepancies in the double readings.

TABLE XVI.—Variation in Hydrometer Readings—IL.

. ight 6 produced Depressions of —
Pieestpaney in eee meee Number of Times Weig produced Depressions of
minations,

(Units of Fifth Decimal place.) | 56.9 | 565) 57-0) 573| 58:0 | 585 |.59-0 | 59-5 | em

— 5, ’ : : 1 1 eee 3 5 12 13 3 5
5 to 7, : : P noe oor 2 2 27 27 1 oi 1
as , : ; 8 18 27 57 61 10 4 4 1

Total, : ; 9 19 29 62 93 49 18 if 7

Notwithstanding their short range these tables show plainly that when the

CLYDE SEA AREA. 673

discrepancies in the two density determinations are greatest the depression produced by
a given weight is least. Thus it is probably some cause which prevents the weight from
exerting its full power, or which enables it to act more strongly than it would unaided,
that produces unusually high or unusually low discrepancies. Errors in readings would
also partially account for the range. The cause was not. discovered, but many observa-
tions pointed to a difference in capillary attraction due to differences in the cleanness,
and consequently the surface tension of the liquid. Most of the exceptionally high
depressions occur, as might be expected, in the case of exceptionally fresh samples of
water, and before using the indications to measure the apparent error of density deter-
minations these should be excluded. Table XVII. gives the result of the 598 determina-
tions which were investigated without excluding any of the cases.

TaBLE XVII.—Summary of Hydrometer Variations.

Deviation from Mean Depression. 0 0°5 10 | 15 2-0
Times in 598, 195 232 105 2 hs2 48 ily
Times per cent., . : eee 39-0 17°5 | 8-0 2°8

Thus in 71°7 per cent. of the cases the reading differed from the mean value by half
a millimetre or less, which corresponds to 0°00003 in the density of a sample of sea
water of ordinary salinity. The less favourably conducted work on the Clyde Sea Area
was liable to a somewhat higher uncertainty, but this scarcely exceeded 0:00005, so that
the densities may be relied upon to the fourth decimal place, and for purposes of com-
parison they are not meaningless in the fifth.

In order still farther to test the accurary of the hydrometer, and to provide a
standard by which the salinity deduced from its readmgs may be compared with
Drrrmar’s work, the chlorine determinations of Mr Dick1n* have been employed. The
value of x, z.e. total halogen considered as chlorine, in grams per litre, in 96 cases was
written down, and the value (,8¢) of the density of the water deduced from Dirrmar’s
table was set opposite it. The actual density determined by hydrometer on the “Medusa”
in a duplicate sample of the water was then taken, and the difference between this and
Dirrmar’s theoretical density noted. Out of the 96 cases the densities were identical
in 3, the observed density was higher than the calculated in 59 cases, and lower in
34. The average deviation, irrespective of sign, was 0°000118, or considering the
sion the average deviation was an excess of the hydrometer—determined over the
calculated density of 0°000024. The observed densities in these cases were determined
on board the “ Medusa,” and being thoroughly typical of the whole Clyde work show,

* Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xiv. p. 422 ; vol. xv. p. 283.
VOL. XXXVI. PART III. (NO. 23). 5I

674 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

like the previous discussion, that the densities may, in dealing with large averages, be
trusted to the fourth decimal place, and have some meaning in the fifth.

The hydrometer work done by Dr Gisson* with an instrument in every way similar
to that employed in the work under discussion, when examined with reference to his
halogen determinations and Dirrmar’s tables, showed a mean deviation of 0°000157
for 22 determinations made at sea, but a considerably better result—deviation of
0:000087—for 46 determinations in the laboratory. In both sets, when the sign of
the deviation is taken into account, the average showed the density determined by
hydrometer to be 0°000047 above the calculated.

This in a general way confirms my results, and shows that the hydrometer is a
thoroughly satisfactory instrument, provided the reasoning based on its use does not
assume accuracy beyond the fourth decimal place.

Observers and Observing Stations.—The determinations of density and calculation of
results were made by myself personally in most cases, but I have to acknowledge the
assistance of Mr J. T. Morrison, M.A., on the trips of April and June 1886, while the
observations in August 1886 were made by him alone. Mr H. N. Dickson assisted me
on the trip of September 1886, and many of the calculations were subsequently worked
out by Mr J. B. Crark. To those three gentlemen I have to record my thanks.

The observing stations for salinity were not quite so numerous as those at which
temperature was ascertained, nor were the observations so regular and systematic, as it
was impossible to determine the densities in rough weather, and impracticable to keep
a great number of samples. The average number of density determinations on each
trip was about 65. Particulars respecting the 37 stations of which the most regular
records have been secured are given below in a compressed summary. The exact
position is given by bearings, but as a rule the observations were made in positions
which varied slightly, being usually fixed by one bearing on land, and confirmed by the
depth. Reference to the plates on which the cross-sections of these stations are shown
is added. They are all shown on the accompanying key-map (Plate I.) :—

Place. Bearing, Magnetic, and Distance in Sea Miles and Tenths. Section. Plate. Depth.
Garetocu, (Longitudinal Section 17, Plate 9)—
Garelochhead.—Mid-channel, 4 mile from head of loch, ‘ ‘ lfa 9 10 fathoms,
Shandon.—Mid-channel between Shandon and Mamore Farm, ; ply p ems 2) 21 :,
Row II. (inward),.—Beacon on Spit, S. 4 mile, : : ‘ lic 9 23 ‘
Row IIL. (seaward).—Beacon on Spit, N.} mile, . : i seen ithe 12 f
Loca Gorm, (Longitudinal Section 7, Plate 7)—
Lochgoilhead.—Pierhead, E. by S. 4 mile, . ; ; 5 Sa 7 27 é
Stuckbeg—Stuckbeg Farm, E.S.E. 4 mile, . : 5 2 8B OT 40 .
Loc Lone, (Longitudinal Section 6, Plate 7)—
Arrochar.—Church, 8.E. 4 mile, ; : ; ; l6a 9 10 P
Lhornbank.—Thornbank House, 8.E. 4 mile, : : ; Bal) OA 35 5
Hoty Locu, (Longitudinal Section 5, Plate 7)—
Kilmun.—Pier, E.N.E. 4 mile, ; ‘ ; : : eS ae 10 ,

* Siath Annual Report of Fishery Board for Scotland, 1887.

CLYDE SEA AREA. 675

Place. Bearing, Magnetic, Distance in Sea Miles and Tenths. Section. Plate. Depth,
Locx Srrivay, &c., (Longitudinal Section 12, Plate 8)—
Head.—House, N.W. by N. 2 cables, : : : ; 12a 8 12 fathoms.
Clapochlar.—Clapochlar Point, W.N.W. 3 cables, . : : 12c 68 40 .
Bogany.—Bogany Point, W.S.W. 4 mile, . : : ‘ ldr 8 27 b
Kyuss oF Burts, &c.—
Strone Cotes.—Mid-channel between Strone and Balacraig Farm, = iat 20 s
Burnt Islands.—Centre of Caladh Island, W.N.W. 3 cables, . : ot ai 28 5
Ormidale, Loch Ridun.—Pier, W.N.W. 2 cables, . ‘ : bee ae 10 A
Locn Frnz, (Longitudinal Section 3, Plate 7)—
Cuill—Cuill, N. by W. 14 cables, . ; : : : Aer . 15 as
Dunderawe.—Castle, N. 24 cables, . ; : : i Hee cee 35 _
Inveraray.—Castle, N.N. W.l mile, , : ae At 60 4)
Strachur.—Fairy Hill, 8.W. by 8S. i S. 2 aileg 8 lee : : K8p 9 75 2
Furnace.—Fairy Hill, S.E. $ E. ah miles, . : : see ae 35 a
Gortans.—Loch Gair cninerae N.W. by N. 9 cables, : , 18:1 9 30 -
Otter I1.—Beacon, S. by E. 2 cables, ? ‘ : : 18k 9 20 0
Dunoon Basty,: (Longitudinal Section 6, Plate 7)—
Dog Rock.—Dog Rock, N.N.E. 4 cables, . ‘ : 7 lép 9 50 x
Coulport. Pier, E. by S. 4 cables, . : 3 : By ae 42 -
Strone Point.—Strone Point, W. by S. 8 aller: : : : - ue 30 s
Gantock.—Dunoon Beacon, N. by W. 4 mile, : : : oa af 55 a
Knock.—Knock Castle, E. S. E. 9 cables, : : : be aan 40 e
Arran Basty, (Longitudinal Sections 1, 2, and 4, Plate 7 ; Section 12, Plate 8)
Otter I—Otter Beacon, N.E. by E. 7 pables k 30 y
Skate Island.-—Skate Island centre, E } 8. 7 cables, . : 16 eal 19¢ mye) 107 A
Inchmarnoch.-—Skipness, W. by N. 4 N .d3miles, . ; : 19: 9 88 x
Ardlamont.—Ardlamont Point, W. 1 mile, . j : ¢ Se aa 30 5
Carradale.—Port-Cranaig Pier, W.S.W. 14 mile, . F , l4e 8 80 *
Garroch Head.—Little Cumbrae Light, 8. E. 4 E. 6 cables, . : ee i 60 5
Brodick.—Goatfell, N.W. by W. 3 W. 54 miles, . 3 : bs ie 90 *
Largybeg.-—Largybeg Point, W.N.W. 24 miles, j . : Aue Ey ge y
Great Puateav, (Sections 1 and 2, Plate 7 ; Sections 9 and 10, Plate 8)——
North-west.—About midway between Sanda and Pladda Isles, ; be a 22 o
Southern.—In the neighbourhood of Ailsa Craig, . s ; sds a 27 -
CHANNEL—
Sanda.—More than 5 miles S. or S.W. of Sanda Island, : iat + 40) to. GOR ..

Results of Salinity Observations.

Salinity Observations.—Observations of fluctuating conditions over a wide area
require to be made simultaneously at numerous stations in order to allow of direct com-
parison at stated periods. It is only on the basis of numerous simultaneous observations,
frequently repeated, that a discussion becomes possible sufficiently exhaustive to ensure a
reasonable degree of success in assigning the cause of the fluctuating conditions and in
tracing their probable effects. Simultaneous observations were impracticable in the present
instance, and the records of the salinity of the Clyde Sea Area were necessarily obtained
successively from the various stations, from six to ten days elapsing before the whole number
had been visited, and it was not always possible to follow the same order in every trip.
The general order was, however, as follows :—Gareloch, Dunoon Basin, Loch Goil, Loch
Long, Holy Loch, East Arran Basin, Great Plateau, West Arran Basin, Loch Strivan,

676 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

Kyles of Bute, and Loch Fyne. The various trips made by the “Medusa” will be
described in detail when discussing the temperature of the water; meantime a brief
reference to the twelve trips on which density observations were made is sufficient.

In the Appendix, all the determinations of density are recorded in chronological order
for each of the natural divisions of the Area. The date, hour, and position are first
stated; then the depth in fathoms of the water, the depth from which the sample was
obtained with its temperature im situ, the state of the tide and of the weather. The
temperature (in centigrade degrees) of the water when its density was determined, the
density as found at that temperature and as calculated to 60° F. (15°56 C.), and the
amount of chlorine in grammes per litre of water, calculated by Dirrmar’s table
(“calculated salinity”), conclude the summary.

The Twelve Salinity Trips.—The maximum, minimum, and average densities of
surface and bottom water for each station, together with the number of observations
from which they are deduced, are given in Table XVIII, and serve as a rough approxi-
mation to the normal conditions prevailing during the period over which the observations
extended. They are also shown on the two maps, Plates V. and VI.

The surface salinity appears to be subject to great fluctuations, the density ranging
from a minimum of 1:00114 to a maximum of 1°02560, a range of 0°02446. In narrow
channels, and particularly at the head of lochs, the density was apt to be lowered by
spells of wet weather, or even by exceptionally heavy showers, in a manner that makes
the average for these stations quite uncertain. In the wider reaches of water the fluctua-
tions diminished as the sea was approached, and the density increased. Consideration of
surface density alone suggests the division of the Sea Area into two parts—the land-
locked lochs and narrow Dunoon Basin in the north, and the wide open Arran Basin and
Great Plateau in the south; the two divisions may be termed the Landward and Seaward.

The density of bottom water presents very remarkable constancy in all parts of the
area and at all depths. The extreme range is from 1°02239 to 1°02550, a range of 0°00811,
or little more than ;\5th of the range of surface density. It is remarkable, also, that the
minimum occurs, both for extremes and means, in the Gareloch and not in any of the
regions of high rainfall and steep hill slopes. Excepting those in the Gareloch, which are
in many respects dominated in their character by the neighbourhood of the Estuary, none
of the stations show a close dependence of bottom salinity on distance from the sea or
amount of rainfall. To speak more accurately, the superficial freshening in no case
extends to a very great depth. The densities observed in each trip were written out
on separate maps of the area for surface and bottom, which are reproduced.to show the
maximum, mean, and minimum illustrating Table XVIII. The density results of each trip,
corrected to the standard temperature, were entered on two maps of the area, one showing
surface density, the other density at the bottom and intermediate depths. The wind, as
observed at each sounding, was marked by an arrow denoting its direction and strength,
and particulars of the weather for each day were entered in the margin. The changes in
the atmosphere over the area were taken from the Daily Weather Report of the Meteoro-

CLYDE SEA AREA. 677

logical Office for each day of observation ; and a statement of these, together with a brief
summary of the weather (especially rainfall) of the periods between the trips, was also
noted so as to be readily referred to.

TaBLE XVIII —Average Density of Water at each Station.

Surface. Bottom.
Station. ; aT
a Mean. Max. Min. nese Mean. Max. Min.

Cuill, . : : 4 10 1:01435 | 1:02420 | 1:00114 9 1:02427 | 1:02463 | 1:02359
Dunderawe, . : : 9 1914 440 0657 9 450 479 412
Inveraray, . 5 ‘ 12 2130 439 1311 10 456 487 404
Strachur, 12 2246 446 1197 ee 458 517 430
Furnace, 9 2380 452, 2134 9 463 488 421
Gortans, . 9 398 452 224 9 467 493 403
Otter (lochward), . : 4 434 483 383 4 479 |. 498 451
», (seaward), - 5 461 486 416 5 497 507 470
Skate Island, 13. 446 497 373 13 508 530 471
Inchmarnoch, 6 447 481 |. 424 6 496 539 450
Carradale, 7 455 482 422 7 495 526 553
Great Plateau, N. W,, 19 459 547 285 14 503 548 462
S., 4 495 511 483 4 529 536 523
Clunmtal 12 536 560 490 10 540 550 527
Largybeg, 3 423 496 284 2 529 537 522
Brodick, 7 444. 487 323 6 522 541 507
Garroch Head, 6 417 483 349 6 506 517 485
Knock Hill, . 4 262 A457 1759 4 473 509 440
*Gantock, 12 325 455 1307 12 476 505 434
Kilmun, 9 1926 373 1438 9 439 487 398
Strone Boing. L. "Oe 11 2297 389 1864 11 471 501 430
*Ardentinny, 9 305 427 1181 8 465 487 438
Dog Rock, 11 280 416 1867 11 463 504 420
Stuckbeg, 11 293 44] 2036 10 452 471 410
Lochgoilhead, 9 236 427 1797 9 440 465 400
Thornbank, . 9 292 408 . 1937 9 465 494 |. 44]
Arrochar, 11 1945 419 1302 8 440 463 402
Row (seaward), Li; 7 2223 387 1985 7 407 ATT 367
» (lochward), Tite 4 254 363 2013 5 341 380 * 239
Shandon, . : 10 233 378 1914 9 353 398 323
Garelochhead, 3 : 11 238 390 1913 9 339 396 287
Bogany, a3 : ‘ 8 337 488 2105 8 482 496 462
Clapochlar, . ; ; 10 347 448 1901 11 484 516 429
Lochstrivanhead, . : 11 135 48] 0834 11 465 49] 419
Strone Cotes, 3 ; 10 375 466 | 2243 10 463 558 319
Burnt Islands, ‘ ‘ 10 371 480 2156 10 467 495 408
Ormidale, . : : 8 287 420 1978 7 476 493 44]
Ardlamont, . : , 7 427 483 2339 7 497 515 A474

* The minimum being very abnormally low is omitted in calculating the mean.

Salinity Trip of April 1886.—The first salinity trip extended from 13th to 21st
April 1886, no observations being made on the 18th. During the whole year 1885 the

678 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

rainfall had been under the average, and the first three months of 1886 were also much
drier than usual for the season, and the prevailing winds had been northerly and north-
easterly, conditions which would tend to increase the salinity of the area. In Marcha
few rainfall-stations had shown slightly more than the average rainfall, and in April,
while the amount of rain falling on the area as a whole was beneath the average, it ex-
ceeded the normal amount in a belt, stretching from Greenock and the Ayrshire coast to
Lochgilphead. During the cruise the Clyde Sea Area lay under an anti-cyclone, the centre
of which jay to the north. The first half of the cruise was almost dead calm, in the latter
half north-easterly winds, varying from a light breeze to a gale, were experienced. No
rain fell. The Gareloch and the Dunoon Basin were examined on the 13th and 14th, and
again on the 21st, and the lapse of a week was found to have produced a remarkable
effect on the salinity. In the Gareloch there was practically no change except a slight
freshening on the surface at the head of the loch, but in the Dunoon Basin, at Gantock
Beacon, the surface density had risen to 1°02420 from 1°01905 in the previous week ;
part of this increase might be due to the state of the tide, which was near low water on
the first and near high water on the second occasion ; but the second salinity was greater
than any found nearer than the south of Arran a few days previously. Moreover, off
Brodick the surface density was 1°02268 cn the 15th and 1:02325 on the 17th, when the
tidal phase was nearly the same. Everywhere, except in the Gareloch, there was a rapid
increase of salinity in progress, partly, no doubt, by evaporation, partly by the north-
easterly wind driving the surface water seaward. Loch Fyne showed the remarkable
relation of a steady increase of salinity on the surface from the mouth to the head, where
the highest density ever observed, 1°02420, was noted; at the bottom the density
gradient was as usual in the opposite direction. Exactly the same state of matters was
observed in Loch Strivan, and in both these lochs the wind had been blowing straight
down from the head for several days previously. The fresh water had thus evidently been
driven out, and the salter deep layers, raised by reaction, delivered salt water on the
surface at the head of these lochs. In Loch Goil and Loch Long, which were visited in a
dead calm, the surface water was freshest at the head of the lochs; and in the latter, at
Arrochar, the density was the lowest ever observed, 1°01302, although the previous day it
was 1°01813. The difference between bottom and surface salinity was greatest in these
lochs, least in the Channel, where the water seemed thoroughly mixed throughout its whole
depth. Inthe Gareloch, also, the difference between bottom and surface density was slight.
The seaward portion of the area had a lower salinity than was ever met with again.
Salinity Trip of June 1886.—This trip took place almost exactly two months after
the former, the interval between the central day of each being sixty-one days. Throughout
May the rainfall had been greatly above the average in all parts of the Clyde-drainage
area, except at Inveraray and Arrochar, but in June not half the average rainfall was
experienced. The winds throughout this period were northerly, and from the 16th to
the 22nd, while the trip lasted, the northerly winds continued, changing ultimately to
north-west and west, blowing strongly, and accompanied by bright sunshine with no

CLYDE SEA AREA. 679

rain. The densities observed were on the whole much higher than on the previous trip,
both at bottom and surface, but the same general distribution prevailed—freshest in the
lochs nearest the Clyde Estuary, the salinity increasing gradually seaward. The range
between surface and bottom salinity was as before—zero in the Channel, increasing to a
maximum at the heads of the lochs—Gareloch excepted. The salinity at the head of
Loch Goil was very much greater than that at the head of Loch Long on the surface, a fact
which is explained by the strong and steady north-westerly breeze sweeping straight down
Loch Goil while blowing transversely to Loch Long. Loch Strivan showed this effect
even better. On the 18th the wind blew strongly down the loch driving the fresher
water seaward, so that the salinity gradient was reversed completely at the surface, the
density at the head of the loch being 1:02491, half way down 1:02448, and at the mouth
1°02384. The corresponding bottom densities were 1°02478, 1°02490,-and 1:02500. In
the Kyles of Bute the water from surface to bottom was much salter than the average, a
fact especially noted in Loch Ridun, the fresh water of which seemed to be blown down
the East Kyle, while the salt bottom water of the Arran Basin was drawn in through the
west branch. When Loch Fyne was reached, on the 21st and 22nd, the wind was blow-
ing straight up the loch, and salinity decreased from mouth to head; the salinity at Cuill
was, however, still high even on the surface At Otter the surface density was found to
be higher than any inside the Barrier Plateau, except the head of Loch Strivan, indicating
an upwelling of salter water, probably caused by the rush of the tidal current through the
narrow and shallow channel. The inward current had just ceased at the time of observa-
tion, which was at high water. At all stations but Cuill, this month was the maximum
for surface densities in Loch Fyne.

Salinity Trip of August 1886.—From the middle of the June trip forty-nine days
elapsed to the middle of the August trip, which extended from the 3rd to the 12th; no
observations, however, were made on the 8th and 9th. The rainfall of July had been
over the average in almost all parts of Scotland except that draining into the Clyde Sea
Area, where comparatively little rain fell, and in August the same unusual distribution
held good. The prevailing winds were south-westerly. During the trip a succession of
small cyclones passed over the area, producing constant changes of wind and frequent
showers. The commonest directions of the wind were south-west and south. During
this trip the area, as a whole, had the highest salinity observed in the whole period of
observation. The heads of Loch Goil, Loch Long, and Loch Strivan showed unusually
high salinity, but from Inveraray upward the surface water of Loch Fyne was unusually
fresh. The wind was blowing up all the lochs, but was a very light breeze, except in
Loch Fyne, where it was fresh on the 10th and stiff on the 11th. The trip is remarkable
in showing the maximum densities of surface water at nearly all stations except those in
Loch Fyne and the Kyles, while it shows maximum densities of bottom water in Loch
Fyne and the Kyles, and at scarcely any other stations. This appears to indicate that
the increase of density in some cases affects the surface water first, in other cases the
deeper layers.

680 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

Salinity Trip of September 1886. This trip lasted from September 22nd to 27th, —
its central date being forty-eight days after the central date of the August trip. The |
kindness of Mr Marxxson of Liverpool in giving Dr Murray the use of his yacht
‘“Oimara” for the 22nd, enabled observations to be made farther out to sea than was
usually practicable in the “ Medusa.” The latter part of August had been warm and dry ;
during September the rainfall was much above the average for most of the Clyde drainage
area, but during the cruise the weather was only slightly showery, and the winds, being
under the influence of a large cyclone, varied from a light south-easterly to a stiff
westerly breeze. At several stations the bottom density was higher than in the previous
month, but the surface density was usually lower. Loch Goil, Loch Long, Loch Strivan,
and the Gareloch were examined in dead-calm weather, and in all cases the density was —
nearly the same from end to end, being slightly higher at the head than farther down in
Loch Goil and the Gareloch. The lowest salinity observed was not in any of the lochs
but in midchannel of the Dunoon Basin off Gantock Beacon during flood-tide. The great
salinity of the lower layers in Dunoon Basin and the Kyles, and the freshness of the
surface in these localities, was one of the most striking features of the trip. Only two
observations were made in Loch Fyne on this occasion, so that the condition of that part
of the area was not fully ascertained. ‘This trip caught the Area beginning to freshen,
after a prolonged spell of warm dry weather and northerly winds had produced unusually
high salinity throughout. The freshening was more marked in the seaward than in the
landward portion of the Area, and least change was observable in the deep water of the
loch basins.

Salinity Trip of November 1886.—This trip lasted from November 11th to 18th, no
observations being made, however, on the 14th, and its central day was fifty-two days
later than that of September. October had been an exceptionably warm month, and its
rainfall, particularly over the Clyde draimage area, was far under the average for the
season. The rainfall of November was on the whole a little above the average, but
varied greatly in different parts of the area. Easterly winds prevailed during October,
and there were frequent storms. ‘The first week of November was characterised by stiff
south-westerly and westerly breezes. During the trip the weather was very disturbed.
From the 11th to the 13th, when all the landward part of the Area—except the Kyles
and Loch Fyne—were examined, there was a calm with occasional showers, and snow |
lying on the hills. On the 14th there was a south-west gale, which continued with rain
on the 15th, when the Kyles were visited. Severe squalls with much rain were met with
on the 16th and 17th in Loch Fyne, but the 18th was calm and hazy. The heavy local
rain and melting snow were found to have greatly freshened the whole Area, especially the
landward portion, on the surface. The head of Loch Fyne was the freshest of any of the
lochs, probably on account of the south-west wind banking up the fresh water, while at
Arrochar on Loch Long the saltest surface water was found, the density being greater
than in any other part of the loch or in the whole Dunoon Basin. There was no record
of a north-easterly wind to account for this state of matters. At Otter the salinity was

CLYDE SEA AREA. ~~ 681

greater on the surface than at Skate Island or Gortans; this was at the end of flood-tide.
The stormy weather made it impossible to take samples in the East Arran Basin, but in
Kilbrennan Sound and on the Plateau to the south, the water throughout its whole depth
was fresher than between Skate Island and Garroch Head. It is noticeable that the
bottoms of the lochs were freshening much more slowly than all other regions, and were
now much salter than the surface water of the seaward portion. The increase of rainfall
coincides with a marked general freshening. The Kyles were fresher on the west than
the east side.

Salinity Trip of December 1886.—This trip, forty-one days later than the last,
occupied from the 22nd to the 30th of December. The weather of the latter part of
November was wet and stormy, while in December the storms continued, and the rainfall,
though very unequally distributed, was on the whole about equal to the average for the
season. During the trip the weather varied greatly. On the 22nd, when observations
were made on Lochs Long and Goil and the Dunoon Basin, there was continuous heavy
rain and a northerly breeze. On the 24th it blew stiffly from the north-west, changing
on the 25th to a gale from the south-west. The 26th and 27th were calm, with snow-
showers and frost; on the 28th there was a westerly gale with squalls of snow and hail ;
but the 29th and 30th were calm and bright, with deep snow on the hills and ice on the
water. In spite of the rainy weather, the salinity of the Sea Area had increased gene-
rally since the November trip, and this -was particularly observed at the head of the lochs,
the Gareloch alone showing freshening. Although the wind was blowing directly down
Loch Goil, the flooded streams and heavy rain prevented it from producing a greater
salinity at the head than at the mouth, although the gradient of density was so slight as
practically to prove the ascent of much salt water at the head. The most interesting
appearance was presented by Upper Loch Fyne. The night of December 29th had been
clear, dead calm, and intensely cold, and on the morning of the 30th, at 9.45, the air-
temperature was 32°, and the weather still calm and clear. In proceeding up the loch at
that hour the ‘‘ Medusa” ran into a sheet of thin ice which stretched from shore to shore,
about 1 mile below Dunderawe and, as far as could be seen, extended to the head of the
loch. The ice was very smooth and glassy, forming a homogeneous sheet about 32-inch
thick, and as it cut through the copper sheathing of the “ Medusa’s” bow, we had to
return without reaching the head of the loch. The temperature at a depth of 6 inches
was 41°, at 2 inches 35°°9. The ice was thus scarcely likely to be frozen loch-water. A

sample lifted by a bucket from under the ice hada density of 1°01815. Probably the

ice-cold water, oozing into the loch from the melting snow of the previous afternoon, had’
spread over the surface as a thin sheet and froze solid while floating there. About
3 miles farther down the loch a similar sheet of ice had formed, preventing the “ Medusa”
from leaving. On the following day the ice had vanished. Probably the belt between
these sheets did not freeze on account of the current of the swollen rivers Aray and
Shira. It seems to be only very small streams or simply surface drainage that can
spread their quota of snow-water so gently and smoothly. over the surface as to prevent
VOL. XXXVI. PART III. (NO. 23). 5K

682 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

mixture taking place with the water of the loch. Ice is very frequently formed on Loch
Fyne opposite Inveraray, but never, so far as I can ascertain, in the neighbourhood of
the rivers when these are unfrozen. While the surface water over all, and the bottom
water of the seaward portion, increased in salinity between November and December, the
bottom water of the landward portion, as a whole, maintained its former salinity
unaltered. |

Salinity Trip of February 1887.—This took place forty-three days later than that of
December, and lasted from the 3rd to the 12th, omitting the 6th. During January and
February the rainfall was under the average for the season, but in February there was
much snow. The wind was strong from the west on February Ist, and equally strong
from the south on the 2nd. A series of small cyclones produced strong south wind again
on the 4th, north-west on the 5th, with rain and hail, a stiff south-easterly breeze on the
7th; but from that date to the end of the trip an anticyclone brought a calm clear sky,
with hard frost and mist. Floating ice was encountered in Loch Long, especially at
Arrochar, where it formed a homogeneous glassy sheet $-inch thick; on Loch Goil to
such an extent that the “ Medusa” could not get up to the head; in the Holy Loch, and-
along the west side of the Dunoon Basin from Hunter's Quay to near Toward Point.
The temperature of the water in which the ice was floating along the Dunoon shore was
33° F., that of the air at the time 29° F. This trip showed a general increase of fresh
water in the area much greater than would be suspected from the rainfall. Surface
salinity was everywhere lower, and, with the exception of Loch Fyne and the Arran
Basin, had attaimed a minimum for all stations. Bottom salinity appeared to have
reached its minimum everywhere. It is unfortunate that the stormy state of the weather
throughout most of this cruise made it impossible to determine the density at all the
usual stations, hence there is a little uncertainty as to the details of actual distribution of
salinity. The water at the head of Loch Long, although ice was floating on it, was the
saltest found at a loch head on this trip, and a light breeze was blowing across the loch.
In the case of Loch Strivan and Loch Fyne the salinity at the head was very low, and ~
_ the wind was blowing straight up as a stiff breeze. The surface density at Otter was
remarkably high, although the observation was made farther west than usual (where the
depth was 55 fathoms), and the tide was nearly three hours’ ebb. Since the December
trip the decrease in density of the landward surface water was enormous at all stations, the
average falling from 1°02248 to 1:01655, or by 0°00593; the fall in bottom salinity
everywhere, and in surface salinity for the seaward portion, was almost exactly 0°00040
in each case. .

Salinty Trip of March 1887.—This trip, forty-eight days later than the last,
occupied from the 25th to the 30th, with the exception of the 28th. During the latter
part of February and the whole of March, precipitation over the Clyde drainage area was
under the average of the season, and a considerable part of it assumed the form of snow.
From the 24th to the 25th a passing cyclone produced strong winds, shifting from south-
west to north-west, with heavy rain on the 24th and 26th. The north-westerly gale

CLYDE SEA AREA. 683

lasted over the 27th and until the afternoon of the 28th, when it gradually moderated,
and on the 29th and 30th the conditions were anticyclonic, calm and hazy. On the 31st
another severe gale commenced, putting a stop to observations in the East Arran Basin,
and compelling the ‘“ Medusa” to take shelter in Lamlash Bay for two days. During
this trip there was a general increase of salinity at all depths, and at all stations, except
those in Loch Fyne. They were distinctly fresher than in the previous months; the
densities at Cuill, Strachur, Furnace, and Otter being the lowest recorded during the
whole period of investigation ; and at all, except Strachur, the bottom salinity was also at
aminimum. The bottom water of Loch Goil, and most of the Dunoon Basin, was also at
its minimum of salinity. When Loch Fyne was examined, a light south-west wind was
blowing up, which might partially account for the diminished salinity, but as the wind
had been much stronger and almost directly down-loch for the two previous days, it
seems more reasonable to assign the freshness of the water rather to a large influx of
drainage than to damming-back. This is confirmed by the precisely similar state of
things in Loch Goil, the only other mountain-girdled basin examined during this trip ;
and the heavy snow-wreaths which fed the mountain streams in these districts fully
accounted for the freshening. The low surface salinity at Otter is specially noticeable—
only 1:02383—while the bottom density at the same place was 102451, showing a much
greater range than usual, but partly accounted for by the fact that the tide ‘was half-ebb,
and the current hurrying through the narrows was mainly composed of the freshened
surface water of the loch.

Salimty Trip of May 1887.—This trip, taking place forty-one days after the last,
occupied from the 6th to the 11th, omitting the 8th and 9th, and it took account only of
the landward portion of the area as regards salinity, the sea being too rough in the Arran
Basin to allow of density determinations being made. ‘The rainfall during April was
very nearly the average for the season, exceeding it over many parts of the Clyde
drainage area, and snow fell on several occasions. The first week of May was dry, and
no rain was observed during the trip, which was characterised by light and variable
breezes, increasing to half a gale from the west on the 9th. There was a general
increase in salinity everywhere, all parts of the area coming up to their average con-
dition. «There was a diminution of surface density in the Gareloch, Loch Goil, and Loch
Strivan, but a marked increase in the salinity of water at the bottom in those basins. In
Loch Fyne the density had noticeably increased both at surface and bottom. The
salinity increased slightly on the surface from the mouth to the head of Loch Long. The
weather at the time was calm, and it is impossible to find out whether a down-loch wind
had been blowing on the previous days, although, from the distribution of density, one
would be inclined to believe this*was the case.

Salinity Trip of June 1887.—This trip took place after an nee of thirty-eight
days, and continued from the 13th to 18th. On account of the remarkably fine weather,
density observations were made in unusual number, and the data are exceptionally trust-
worthy. During May the rainfall for the district had been much below the average for

684 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

the season, and in June not half the usual amount of rain fell, some parts of the Clyde
drainage area in fact received only one-fifth of the usual rainfall. The memorable
“ Jubilee anticyclone,” which overspread the. British Islands for the first half of June,
brought great heat, dead calm or the lightest airs, and general haziness. The only rain
that fell during the trip was in the form of some drizzling showers on the 14th. In the
light of these conditions of climate the salinity results brought out are anomalous and
perplexing. The Gareloch was salter than at any other time under observation, both at
surface and bottom, and the salinity increased uniformly from the mouth to the head of
the loch. The same arrangement of surface salinity was found in Loch Goil. The
Arran Basin, Plateau, and Channel were also at their maximum of salinity, and there
was a general slight increase in the density of bottom water in the landward portion.
But the surface of the landward portion was in very many cases fresher than in May,
and at Kilmun and Inveraray the lowest surface densities ever recorded were found.
With the exception of Gareloch and Loch Goil the surface water at the head of all the
lochs was remarkably fresh. Taken as a whole this trip showed great increase of salinity
in surface, and particularly in the bottom of the seaward portion, an increase in the bottom
water of the landward portion; but a marked decrease in the surface, which had lost
almost all the extra salinity gained in May. ‘The increase of salinity was evidently
taking place from the sea landward, and would appear to be due rather to the intro-
duction of salt sea-water than the evaporation of fresher surface layers.

Salimty Trip of July 1887.—This was a short trip twenty-two days after that of June,
and occupied only from the 6th to the 8th. It was intended merely to run a rapid line
of observations through one set of characteristic stations, those chosen being from the
Plateau through Kilbrennan Sound to the head of Loch Fyne. June had been warm and
very dry, and in the early part of July the rainfall had also been low. During the trip
the 6th was dull and showery, but the remaining two days were bright, calm, and dry.
The highest surface density was found off Loch Ranza, the highest bottom density off
Skate Island. Loch Fyne had greatly increased its surface salinity, but thes water off
Inveraray was again found fresher than that on either side,

Salinity Trip of September 1887.—This was the last trip on which systematic
density determinations were made, and took place eighty days after that of July, occupy-
ing from the 20th to the 30th of September, but on account of various reasons no work —
could be done on the 25th, 26th, and 27th.

In July and August the rainfall was much under the average, especially in the south
of the Clyde drainage area, and during September it was close to the average for the
season. The first part of the trip, when the seaward portion—-Loch Fyne and the Kyles—
was visited was calm, with mist or haze, on account of a well-marked anticyclone. The
latter part was dominated by an equally well-marked cyclone, north-west and south-west
winds prevailing on the 26th and 27th, the central calm happening on the 28th, and a
stiff north-east breeze, with frequent squalls, being encountered on the 29th and 30th.

The conditions were very similar to those of the previous trip, except that the surface

CLYDE SEA AREA. 685

salinity of the seaward portion of the Area was considerably reduced—a sudden increase
of rainfall having occurred over that region, which in September was rainier than
the landward portion. ‘The wind was blowing up Loch Fyne during the time it was
examined, and the salinity diminished steadily and uniformly from mouth to head. The
surface density at Otter was unusually high, being equal to that in the south of the
Arran Basin; it was observed shortly after half-flood, when the tidal race was at a
maximum. In all the other lochs, except Loch Goil, the wind was blowing strongly
down, and the maximum surface density occurred at the head of Loch Strivan, Loch
Long, and the Gareloch, in all of which densities were found greater than any occurring
on the surface of the rest of the landward portion. The bottom density at Inveraray
was lower (1°02404) than had ever previously been found, and, as at stations farther
down Loch Fyne, it was above the average, and at the stations nearer the head of the
loch attained an absolute maximum, it appears possible that some mistake may have been
made in collecting the sample or reading the hydrometer. Another anomalous bottom
density of this trip is that at Kilfinan (1°02544), which is greater than was found any-
where else in the Area, and equal to that of the channel south of Sanda.

General Result of the Salinity Trips.—Table XVIII. summarises the actual results
for each station, as calculated in the Observation-Book, and printed in detail in the
Appendix. In order to present a fairer idea of the average conditions the data were
corrected in one or two cases where there seemed to have been an error of observation
or a mistake with regard to labelling a sample, and by careful comparison of neighbour-
ing observations on the maps for each trip the densities for stations which for any reason
had been omitted were supplied. These numbers are printed in Tables XIX. and XX.,
the interpolated or otherwise manipulated figures being printed in a special type. In
the case of July 1887 for the landward division, and May and July 1887 for the seaward
division, the interpolated data are so numerous as to deprive the column read vertically
of much of its value; but read horizontally it adds considerably to the probability of
accuracy in the station means for the whole period.

[TABLE

686

* Minimum for Station.

DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

TaBLE XIX.—Surface Densities (Supply 1:0).

+ Maximum for Station.

Observed Densities, thus—2450 ; Interpolated, thus—2450.

Garelochhead,
Shandon, .
Row, .
Lochgoilhead,
Stuckbeg,
Arrochar, .
Thornbank, .
Strivanhead, .
Clapochlar,
Holy Loch,
Dog Rock,
Coulport, .
Strone Point,
Gantock, .
Knock,
Bogany,
Strone Cotes,
Burnt Islands,
Ormidale, .
Ardlamont,
Cuill, .
Dunderawe, .
Inveraray,
Strachur, .
Furnace, .
Gortans, .
Otter IT., .

Mean of
Landward
Diyision,

Kilfinan, .

Skate Island,
Inchmarnoch,
Carradale,
Brodick, .
Largybeg, .
Plateau,

Mean of
Seaward
Division,

Mean of all
above Sta-
tions, .

|

April
1886.

*1640
2063
*1985
1950
2036
1558
1954
2385
2308
1438
1867
1890
1864
2200
2300
2200
2320
2329
2302
2379

. | $2420

2438
2400
2429
2417
2416
2416

2145

*2400
#2374
*2395
*2400
*2300
*2290

. | *2400

2366

| 2190

June
1886.

2325
2330
2331
2378
2390
1385
1937
+2491
2448
2031
2312
2358
2353
2376
2420
2418
2440
2474
+2420
+2483

2373
+2440

Aug.
1886.

2368
2369
+2384
+2441
+2439

2384

+2408

2481
$2485
+2373
+2416
+2400

2355
$2455
$2457
+2488
+2466
+2480

2497

2414

Sept.
1886.

2331
2323
2328
2427
2420
2398
2400
2412
2424
2230
2388
2380
2377
2303
2442
2330
2402
2410
2339
2409
2370
2390
2405

2452

2400

Novy.
1886.

2268
2223
2127
2068
2200
2210
2379
2308
2324
2184
2362
2368
2240
2274
2360
2312
2367
2308
*1978
2339
0336
0657
1534

2410

2172

Dec.
1886.

1992
2079
2068
2347
2378
2316
2362
2169
2406
2188
2381
2383
2369
2391
2410
2400
2269
2440
2378
2442
1000
1815

2460
2465
2470
2452
2487
2472
2472

2468

2293

March
1887.

-Feb.
1887.

2000
*2010
2013
*T400
*1474
RU Z27,
*in22
*0834
*1901
1788
*1200
sg idly eal)
*1200
*1307
*1759
*1780
*2243
*2156
2200
*2170i) 2420
0136 | *0114
*0440| 0893
1800] 1662
*1197
*2134
2334
*2383

2094

2430
2442
2425
2430
2435
2450
2470

*2400
2387
2440
2442
2427
2440
2457

2440

1815] 2170

May
1887.

2175
2179
2168
1965
2147
2251
2222
2200
2434
1953
2201
2237
2272
2321
2400
2313
2430
2391
2409
2412
1759
2298
2325
2355
2380
2441
2460

2266

2450
2440
2450
2450
2450
2455
2480

2454

June

1887.

2390
ee
2369
2360
2109
1410
2283
1347
2398:
+1092
2168
2256
$2410
2388
2440
2437
2431
2297
2201
2460
0897
1532
PLOT
2418
2410
2431
2475

2152

+2491

2486
2472
2482
2476
2488

+2513

2480

July
1887.

2305
2375
2370
2300
2370
2200
2390
2380
2470
2000
2300
2330
2300
2390
2430
2420
24.10
2410

2400 | $2420

2410
2271
2401
2374
2442
2439
2440
2452

2365

2485

2305

2190

2392

Sept. |Corrected
1887, | Average.

2335
2316
2308
2343
2381
+2419
2353
2461
2401
2192
2368
2360
2340
2348
2420
2410
2400
2410

2203
2245
2229
2148
2220
1963
2175
2155
2369
1964
2188
2205
2200
2256
2354
2318
2380
2375
2311
2409
1477
1823
2164
2298
2369 |
2410

2448

2425
2263
2298
2316
2377
2413
2442
2468

2370

2464} 2455)

2389 | 2256

* Minimum for Station.

CLYDE SEA AREA.

TABLE XX.—Bottom Density (Supply 1:0).

687.

t Maximum for Station. Observed Densities, thus—2450. Interpolated, thus-—2450,

April | June | Aug. | Sept. | Nov.
| 1886. | 1886. | 1886. | 1886. | 1886.
| |Gareloch,. .| 2337] 2340] 2381] 2354| 2314
| Shandon,. .} 2330] 2351) 2376] 2373! 2336
Wueiow, . . .| 2367| 2329] 2380|+2477| 24192
Lochgoilhead, | 2440] 2458|+2465| 2462] 2449
Stuckbeg, .| 2449] 2446] 2471/2456] 2443
| Arrochar,. .| 2430| 2420) 2460] 2461] 2437
Thornbank, .| 2460) 2465! 2465|+2494| 2444
Strivanhead,.| 2481] 2478]/+2490] 2462] 2461
Clapochlar, .| 2485} 2490/2516] 2504] 2491
Holy Loch, .| 2415] 2406)/2487| 2455] 2440
Dog Rock, .| 2440] 2468|/+2501| 2428] 2480
| Coulport,. .| 2438) 2476|+2493| 2430] 2448
Strone Point, | 2449] 2484] 2488|+2501| 2468
Gantock,. .| 2490] 2502) 2490/+2505| 2465
Knock Hill, .| 2496|/+2510| 2498] 2509] 2480
Bogany, . .| 2496/+2500) 2495] 2478) 2481
Strone Cotes, | 2460) 2470] 2506|+2558| 2482
Burnt Islands,| 2483] 2493] 2495|+2500/ 2450
Ormidale,, .| 2480] 2490|+2493| 2482) 2441
Ardlamont, .| 2513| 2492/72515| 2508) 2483
Suill,. . 2440| 2458] 2451] 2460] 2402
Dunderawe, .| 2454] 2460| 2465] 2462 /*2412
Inveraray, .| 2456] 2486)/12487] 2473] 2447
Strachur,. .| 2450] 2481|12517| 2483 | *2429
Furnace, . .| 2482 +2488 2476| 2485] 2440
Gortans, . .| 2490| 2490|72493| 2490] 2445
Otter IL, . 2497 |+2507| 2498] 2500] 2469
Mean |
Landward 2449] 2460} 2475) 2474] 2443
Division, f
Kilfman, . .| 2500|° 2510|] .2515|- 2510| *2475
Skate Island, | 2515) 2516/+2530| 2525| 2479
Inchmarnoch, | 2520] 2512} 2525) *2450| 2485
Carradale, .| 2510) 2501) 2520] 2519) 2479
Brodick, . .| 2510/ 2529] 2521) 2507 |*2470
Largybeg, .| 2510] 2528] .2522|] 2520|*2470
Plateau, . .| 2504] 2527| 2535] 2536 | *2469
Mean of
Seaward f 2510) 2517) 2524) 2509) 2475
Division,
Bijean of al of ay
aa 2460| 2472) 2485) 2480) 2449
tions
Mean of all
Stations | 2325| 2420] 2450] 2440} 2310
e & &B.,

Dee.
1886.

2287
2323
2371
2445
2438
2435
2441
2467
2473
2451
2455
2450
2437
2451
2470
2463
2480
2473
2471
(2474
2430
2433

2465
2472
2457
2463
2479

2443

2490
2505
2500
2489
2524
2508
2500

2502

Feb.
1887.

*2240
*2240
*2239
*2400
2420
2402
*2430
*2419
*2429
*2398
2440
2435

2434
*9434

2445
*2440
*2A11
*2408
*2400
*2410

2366

2420

2430

2441

2440
*2403

2470

2402

2470
*2471

2470
#2453
*2470
*2470
*2469

2468

March
1887.

2307
2320
2391
2400
*2410
*2400

May
1887.

2304
2328
2380
2420
2430
2433

2435
2446
2458
2400
2441
*2426
*Q497
2437
*2440
2462
2443
2450
2439
2440
*2359
2414
2423
2430
*2421
2465
*2451

2422

2481
2487
2484
2480
2480
2490

2449
2458
2483
2435
*2420
2450
2461
2493
2490
2485
2472
2477
2483
2500
2430
2437
2450
2447
2400
2476
2480

2444

2490
2498
2500
2490
2505
2510

2500

2486

2520

2502

June
1887.

+2396
+2398
2395
2424
2454
2449
2475
2472
2508
2444
2479
2477
2481
2479
2490
2494
2485
2479
2472
2494
2450
2479
2469
2477
2474
2485
2500

July
1887.

2380
2385
2390
2430
2440
2450
2460
2470
2500
2440
2480
2475
2480
2485
2495
2490
2490
+2500
2485
2500
2461
2464
2464
2479
2470
2487
2498

2464

2510
2529
2530
2520
2525
2520
2515

_ 25921

Sept.
1887.

2367
2365
2380
2448
2455
$2463
2476
2477
2492
2466
2486
2487
2494
2488
2490
2485
2490
2495
2473
2490
+2463
+2470
*2404
2472
2474
2489
2495

2466

$2544
2500
2504
2499
2527
2530
2530

2519

Corrected
Average.

2334
2344
2376
2436
2443
2436
2458
2463
2486:
2436
2459
2457
2467
2476
2485
2481
2479
2475
2467
2485
2432
2448
2460
2465
2464
247%
2487

2450

250C
2507
2502
2499
2509
2510
2512

2505

686

* Minimum for Station.

DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

TABLE XIX.—Surfuce Densities (Supply 1:0).

+ Maximum for Station. Observed Densities, thus—2450 ; Interpolated, thus—2450.

Garelochhead,
Shandon, .
Row, . :
Lochgoilhead,
Stuckbeg,
Arrochar, .
Thornbank, .
| Strivanhead, .
Clapochlar,
Holy Loch,
Dog Rock,
Coulport, .
Strone Point,
Gantock, .
Knock,
Bogany,
Strone Cotes,
Burnt Islands,
Ormidale, .
Ardlamont,
Cuill, .
Dunderawe, .
Inveraray,
Strachur, .
Furnace, .
Gortans, .
Otter IT., .

Mean of
Landward
Diyision,

Kilfinan, .

Skate Island,
Inchmarnoch,
Carradale,
Brodick, .
Largybeg, .
Plateau,

Mean of
Seaward
Division,

Mean of all
above Sta-
tions, .

April
1886.

*1640
2063
*1985
1950
2036
1558
1954
2385
2308
1438
1867
1890
1864
2200
2300
2200
2320
2329
2302
2379

. | +2420

2438
2400
2429
2417
2416
2416

2145

*2400
*2374
*2395
*2400
*2300
*2290

. | *2400

2366

! 2190

June
1886.

2325
2330
2331
2378
2390
1385
1937
+2491
2448
2031
2312
2358
2353
2376
2420
2418
2440
2474
+2420
+2483
2373
+2440
+2439
+2446
+2452
+2468
+2486

2341} 239]

2485
+2496
2481 | +2496
2481 | +2500
2456 | +2496
2476 | +2496
2483} 2510

2475
2462

2473) 2497

2368| 2414

Sept.
1886.

2331
2323
2328
2427
2420
2398
2400
2412
2424

2386

2440
2413
2424
2422
2466
2490
2510

2452

2400

Nov.
1886.

2268
2223
2127
2068
2200
2210
2379
2308
2324
2184
2362
2368
2240
2274
2360
2312
2367
2308
*1978
2339
0336
0657
1534
1854
2371
2411
2418

2103

2418
2417
2436
2434
2440
2455
2469

2410

2172

Dee.
1886.

1992
2079
2068
2347
2378
2316
2362
2169
2406
2188
2381
2383
2369
2391
2410
2400
2269
2440
2378
2442
1000
1815
2142
2349
2358
2400
2458

2248

2460
2465
2470
2452
2487
2472
2472

2468

2293

-Feb.
1887.

2000
*2010
2013
*1400
*1474
ball AF
1523
*0834
*1901
1788
*1200
*1181
*1200
*1307
*1759
*1780
* O43
*2156
2200
*2170
0136
*0440
1800
2028
2180
*2224
2400

1655

*2400
2387
2440
2442
2427
2440
2457

2427

1815

June

1887.

March | May
1887. | 1887.

2175
2179

2378

ae

2369
2360
2109
1410
2283
1347
2398
+1092
2168
2256
+2410
2388
2440
2437
2431
2297
2201
2460
1759 | 0897
2298] 1532
2325 | *1311
2355| 2418
2380] 2410
2441] 2431
2460| 2475

2168
1965
2147
2251
2222
2200
2434
1953
2201
2237
2272
2321
2400
2313
2430
2391
2409
2412

2334
*2383

2094} 2266] 2152

2430
2442
2425
2430
2435
2450
2470

2450 | +2491
2440} 2486
2450| 2472
2450| 2482
2450| 2476
2455| 2488
2480 | $2513

2440} 2454

2170| 2305] 2190

2365

2470
2486
2490
2495
2485
2485
2485

2480) 2485

2392

Sept. Corrected
1887, | Average.

2203
2245
2229
2148
2220
1963
2175
2155
2369
1964
2188
2205
2200
2256
2354
2318
2380
2375
2311
2402
1477
1823
2164
2228
2369
2410
2448

2370| 2207

2464} 2448
2462| 2444
2443 | 2452
2469 | 2455
2446| 2447
2470] 2455
2496} 2480

2464] 2455

2389 | 2256

* Minimum for Station.

CLYDE SEA AREA.

TABLE XX.—Bottom Density (Supply 1:0).

+ Maximum for Station.

Gareloch,. .

Shandon, .
Row, .. .
Lochgoilhead,
Stuckbeg,
Arrochar,. .
Thornbank, .
Strivanhead, .
Clapochlar,
Holy Loch,
Dog Rock,
Coulport, .
Strone Point,
Gantock,. .
Knock Hill, .
Bogany,
Strone Cotes,
Burnt Islands,
Ormidale, ,
Ardlamont,
Cuill, .
Dunderawe, .
Inveraray,
Strachur, .
Furnace, .
Gortans, ,
Otter IL, .

Mean of
Landward
Division,

Kilfinan, . .
Skate Island,
Inchmarnoch,
Carradale,
Brodick, .
Largybeg,
Plateau,

Mean of
Seaward
Division,
Mean of all

above Sta-
tions, .

Mean of all
Stations

S & B.,

April
1886.

2337
2330
2367
2440
2449
2430
2460
2481
2485
2415
2440
2438
2449
2490
2496
2496
2460
2483
2480
2513
2440
2454
2450
2450
2482
2490
2497

June
1886.

2340
2351
2329
2458
2446
2420
2465
2478
2490
2406

2468] +
2476 |’

2484
2502
+2510
+2500
2470
2493
2490
2492
2458
2460
2486
2481
$2488
2490
+2507

Aug.
1886,

Sept.
1886.

2354
2373
+2477
2462
+2456
2461
$2494
2462
2504

2510

2517

2515
+2530
2525
2520
2521
2522
2535

2524

2509

Novy.
1886.

2314
2336
2412
2442
2443
2437
2444
2461
2491
2440
2480
2448
2468
2465
2480
2481
2482
2450
2441
2483
2402
*2412
2447
*2429
2440
2445
2469

2443

*2475
2479
2485
2479

*2470

*2470 |

*2469

2475

Dec.
1886.

2287
2323
2371
2445
2438
2435
2441
2467
2473
2451
2455
2450
2437
2451
2470
2463
2480
2473
2471
2474
2430
2433
2465
2472
2457
2463
2479

2443

2490
2505
2500
2489
2524
2508
2500

2502

March
1887.

Feb.
1887.

*2240| 2307
*2240| 2320
*2239| 2391
*2400| 2400
2420 | *2410
2402 | *2400

May
1887.

2304
2328
2380
2420
2430
2433

*2430| 2435
*2419| 2446
*2429|. 2458
*2398| 2400
2440| 2441
2435 | *2426
2434 | *2427
*2434| 2437
2445 | *2440
*2440| 2462
*2411] 2443
*2408| 2450
*2400| 2439
*2410| 2440
2366 | *2359
2420| 2414
2430| 2423
2441) 2430
2440 | *2421
*2403| 2465
2470 | *2451

2402) 2422

2481
2487
2484
2480
2480

2470
*2471

2470
#2453
*2470

*2470
*2469

2490
2500

2468) 2486

2449
2458
2483
2435
*2420
2450
2461
2493
2490
2485
2472
2477
2483
2500
2430
2437
2450
2447
2460
2476
2480

2444

2490
2498
2500
2490
2505
2510
2520

June
1887.

+2396
+2398
2395
2494
2454
2449
2475
2472
2508

2444
2479
2477
2481
2479
2490
2494
2485
2479
2472
2494
2450
2479
2469
2477
2474
2485
2500

2465

2507

2527
+2539
+2526
+2541
+2537
+2537

2530 |.

687.

July
1887.
2380| 2367
2385 | 2365
2390| 2380
2430| 2448
2440| 2455
2450| $2463
2460| 2476
2470} 2477
2500} 2492
2440| 2466
2480} 2486
2475| 2487
2480} 2494
2485] 2488
2495} 2490
2490| 2485
2490) 2490
$2500] 2495
2485 | 2473
2500] 2490
2461 | +2463
2464 | +2470
2464 | *2404
2479 | 2472
2470} 2474
2487 | 2489
2498} 2495

2464

2510
2529
2530
2520
2525| 2527
2520
2515

Observed Densities, thus—2450. Interpolated, thus-—2450.

Sept. Corrected
1887, |Average.

2334
2344
2376
2436
2443
2436
2458
2463
2486:
2436
2459
2457
2467
2476
2485
2481
2479
2475
2467
2485
2432
2448
2460
2465
2464

688 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

The average results for surface and bottom of the twenty-seven landward and of the
seven seaward stations are represented graphically, along with the rainfall, in Plates XI. and
XII. For this purpose the total rainfall of each month (see Part I., Tables IV., V., VI., VII.)
is referred to the central day, as it was impossible to make any estimate as to the average
distribution throughout the month. The density is, however, entered on the day of the
month corresponding to the middle of the period occupied in observing the density of
that part of the Area, and is thus not strictly comparable with the rainfall curve. Indeed,
the two are in a sense incomparable in nature as well as in period, because the rainfall
represents the total cumulative effect of a month, whereas the density is only one phase
of a constantly-varying quantity ; but, as the quantities in neither case can be rigorously
defined, it is reasonable to assume that the salinity curve corresponds in a general way
with the rainfall curve, and to draw such deductions as this assumption may warrant.

Salinity of Landward Portion.—The mean of all surface density observations in the
landward portion of the area gives a curve (Plate XI.) which, although abrupt in its inflec-
tions, exhibits remarkable symmetry, and shows a distinct annual periodicity. There isa
well-marked maximum in August and September of both years, subsidiary minima in
November and June, subsidiary maxima in December and May, and a profound minimum
in February. The normal rain curve of this portion of the area presents one very well-
marked minimum in May, a double maximum in October and January, with a subsidiary
minimum in November. One would expect that in calm weather the salinity curve would
be inverse to that of rainfall, but retarded in period. Assuming that such is the normal
state of matters, the actual salinity curve—calm weather being necessarily postulated—
must be compounded of the normal salinity curve, and of an abnormal curve derivable
from the curve of excess or defect of rainfall. It ought therefore to be possible to derive
the normal salinity curve, so far as regards its period and amplitude, from consideration
of the actual salinity curve in the light of the normal and actual curves of rainfall. The
position of the normal salinity curve, 7.e., the actual value of salinity at each period, may
also be sought after, although with less probability of success. ‘Table XXI. shows the
occurrence in time of the minima (—) and maxima (+) of the actual curves—

TABLE XXI.
Fluctuations of Rainfall and Salinity.

~ > - - - -

Actual rainfall, . October

June. September, : November. May. July.
a (slight). y sf
Actual sal | ie or - a af ‘
ctual salinity, . . .~ August November December February
(early). (early). (late). (early). pak Septenaes

The correspondence of the later maxima.and minima is not very distinct, but in the
earlier, where the changes were more rapid and of greater amount, the rainfall minimum
or maximum appeared to bring about a salinity maximum or minimum ina little less
than two months. Assuming that the period is six weeks, I subtracted the curve of rain-

CLYDE SEA AREA. 689

fall abnormals, displaced forward by six weeks, from the curve of actual density. The
result was that the June maxima were each split into a pair of maxima separated by a
small minimum, while in other parts of the curve the amplitude alone is changed and not
the form; the subsidiary maxima of December and May are reduced, but all the minima are
lowered to an even greater extent. The curve of bottom salinity having less amplitude,
and being much more uniform, the scale of the curve of deviations subtracted from it was
only one-tenth of that used in the previous case. This curve, uncorrected, has a distinct
relation to the rainfall; maxima occur in August and September, and a single well-
marked minimum in February. The subsidiary maximum of the surface curve in
December is indicated by a flattening of the descending curve. The result of applying
the correction is to produce the effect of a double maximum in July and September,
separated by a slight minimum in August, and to bring out a slight minimum in
December with a slight maximum in December, but it is otherwise unchanged.

The rainfall, although generally under the average amount, was as a rule higher and

-lower month about, so that a two-monthly curve, giving the year’s fall by a line drawn

through six (instead of twelve) points, would be almost parallel to the normal curve, only
the maxima occurred in September and November instead of October and December.
The annual variation of rainfall may be said to account fairly for the annual variation of
salinity observed. But, according to the rainfall, there was no occasion for the very
low surface minimum of February 1887, and the maxima of December 1886 and May
1887. The bottom salinity, in fact, bears a closer relation to the rainfall than does the
surface salinity. In February the low salinity is fully explained by melting snow, and by
the hard frost which prevailed during the trip freezing the freshened surface water which
was headed up Loch Fyne and Loch Strivan by winds blowing up the loch, while the
other lochs were calm or traversed by light cross breezes. In December Upper Loch
Fyne was calm, ice-laden, and very fresh, the comparatively high salinity of the landward
portion was contributed by Lochs Goil, Long, and the Gareloch, down which a strong
wind was blowing, raising deep salt water at the loch heads. There is no apparent
reason for the subsidiary maximum of May 1887. The subsidiary minimum of June
1887 is obviously a wind effect, as in that month there was a steady breeze up the lochs
tending to head back the fresher water, and allow whatever circulation took place to be
at the expense of the deeper layers, in contrast to June 1886 when a general down-loch
wind prevailed.

The conclusion to be drawn from this consideration is, that the calm condition of the
weather, postulated as an essential for the critical comparison of the rainfall and salinity
curves, did not prevail, and that consequently it is impossible to deduce the normal
salinity curve with any degree of confidence. But an approach to this can be made by an
arbitrary assumption, smoothing the curves of actual salinity and rainfall by taking the
two-monthly means of the latter, and allowing for wind and frost effects in the former.

The curve of normal surface salinity for the landward division, as traced in this way,
shows one yearly maximum in August three months after the minimum rainfall of May,

VOL. XXXVI. PART III. (NO. 23). DL

690 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

and one yearly minimum in February corresponding to the maximum rainfall of December
and January. It is quite to be expected that increased rainfall freshens the water more
rapidly than diminished rainfall increases its salinity, since evaporation is most active
(according to Mr Symons’ recent results*) in July, and is practically at a standstill from
October to February. Thus in the four rainiest months on the Clyde drainage area
there is almost no evaporation, while during the four driest months evaporation is active.

Salinity and Rainfall of Seaward Portion of Area.—The mean rainfall curve of this
division (Plate XIL.) is similar in form and period to that of the landward division. The
minimum monthly rainfall is 0°4 inches lower, and the maximum 1°8 inches lower than the
other. The actual rainfall curve runs closely parallel to that of the landward division, but
its maxima occurred in September and December. ‘The surface and bottom salinity curves,
as might be expected, run much more nearly parallel to each other than do those of the
landward division. The surface landward curve stands by itself in its great range and
irregular variations, but the bottom landward curve accords very well with the seaward
ones, being intermediate between the seaward surface and bottom. The seaward curves
show a steady rise to a maximum in August, a steady fall to November, a sudden rise in
December, a nearly equal fall in February, and then a steady rise to July or August.
The double minimum in November and February, with the intermediate maximum in
December, appear to correspond to the double maximum of rainfall in September and
November and the intermediate minimum in October. If this be so, the change of
salinity affects the whole mass of water, from surface to bottom, within two months of
the rainfall producing it. There is no evidence to show that the sea water entering the
Area across the Great Plateau varies sufficiently in salinity from month to month to
produce any marked effect. Yet, without invoking an explanation from the open sea, it
is difficult to understand how the comparatively slight reduction of rainfall, in a season
when the evaporation must be very small, can effect an increase of salinity throughout
the whole mass of the water.

The main result from the consideration of these curves may be stated in the words—
Salinity throughout the whole mass of water varies in some inverse ratio to the rainfall
of the previous month.

Quantitative Relation between Rainfall and Salinity.—The period April to Siete
falls within the observations of the two successive years 1886 and 1887. In order to
endeavour to connect rainfall and salinity in a quantitative manner, the rainfalls of each
of these and of the three previous months were written out, and the salinities of the
middle of the corresponding months taken from the mean curves of landward and sea-
ward divisions, surface and bottom, were also tabulated. The differences between the
two years were calculated, as given in Table XXII., and these differences were plotted in
curves (not reproduced in this memoir) in order to bring out any relation which might
exist. On account of the disturbing influence of wind and local freshening on surface
salinity, a close coincidence is & priori less probable for the surface curves than for the

bottom curves.
* British Rainfall, 1889.

CLYDE SEA AREA.

TABLE XXII.— Quantitative Relation between Rainfall and Salinity.

691

Landward Division. Jan. | Feb, | Mar. | April. | May. | June. | J uly. Aug. Sept.
Rainfall, 1886, 6°25 2°42] 3°51 2°44 319 1:65 3°28 2°69 611
5 1887, 4:75 3°73 | 2°49 2°59 EL? 1:34 3°89 3°76 4°02
Difference 1886-87, . ISG, |— 131 | , 102 =p a5 2°02 o'3I | —O°61 | —1°07 2°09
Surface Density, 1886, . 2145 | 2240 2340 2365 2390 2385
- £2 1887, 2170 | 2265 | 2315 | 2365 | 2365 | 2365
Difference 1886-87, . | —0025 |—0025 0025 | 0000} 0025 0020
Bottom Density, 1886, . 2455 2455 2460 2470-|.. 2475 |-°2470
re ; LSS iy. 2430 2450 2465 2465 2465 2465
Difference 1886-87, . 0025 | O©005 |—0005 | ©005 |} OOIO | O005
Seaward Division.

Rainfall, 1886, 4°32 2°22 | 2°95 1:89 313 1:37 2°84 2°36 4:41
‘ TERY S 8 nes 3°66 2°61} 1°82 2°74 1°86 0°94 2°84 2°38 4°09
Difference 1886-87, . 0°66 |—0'°39] I°13 | —0'85 Tey 0°43 O'00 | —0'02 0°32
Surface Density, 1886, . 2365 2410 | 2470 | 2490 | 2495 | 2460
3 5 1887, . 2450 2460 2480 2480 2475 2465
Difference 1886-87, . —0095 |—0050 |—OOIO | OOIO | 0020 |—0005
Bottom Density, 1886, . 2510 2515 2515 2520 2520 2515
tt yi; mons LOS, 2485 | 2505 | 2530] 2520] 2520 | 2520
Difference 1886-87, . 0025 | OOIO |—OOI5 | 0000 | CD00 |—O0005

The surface landward curve shows a regular rise and fall of salinity two months after a
fall or rise in the rainfall, the bottom landward curve shows a similar effect, but the period
is retarded two months in April and lengthens to four months in September. |

The surface seaward curve follows at an interval of about four months, and the
bottom seaward curve at an interval of three months at first and four months latterly.
This generally confirms the deductions drawn from consideration of the general curves
for the whole period, and extends it, showing that when evaporation is at a minimum
bottom water is most rapidly affected by rainfall, when evaporation is at a maximum
least rapidly ; and that the period is somewhat greater for the seaward than for the land-
ward divisions. As to quantitative relations, it appears unsafe to draw any conclusion
from the surface data; and by considering the data for bottom water, the most probable
guess seems to be that an increase of 2 inches of rainfall per month would cause a decrease
of density of 000025 within two months. If this be correct, it would follow that an
increase of 200 inches of rainfall would reduce the density by 0°02500, or completely
freshen the water in two months. It is obvious that to completely freshen the water of
the area, at least 25 cubic miles of rain water would be necessary, that being the total
volume of the area. If the area were pumped dry of salt water and the fresh water
allowed to flow in, this quantity would suffice. But our hypothesis is that the fresh
water drives out the salt water and takes its place; and as this must occur by successive
dilution, it is evident that more than the minimum quantity of water is necessary. A
fall of 200 inches over 3500 square area miles amounts to only i0 cubic sea miles, so that

692 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

if this argument holds, a fall of more than 500 inches would be necessary to completely
freshen the area in two or three months. Granting that this result would follow, it would
necessitate a fall of 5 inches of rain to diminish the density by 0:00025, or 1 inch of
rain would diminish the density by 0°00005. This may be taken as the maximum
freshening power of rain, and applying the datum to interpret the relation of the differ-
ence between the smoothed rainfall curve (taking two-monthly means) and the normal
rainfall curve to the actual density curves for bottom water, we get the general statement
in Table XXIII, allowing that change of rainfall takes two months to produce its full
effect on salinity.

TABLE XXIII.— Rainfall and Salinity (Supply 1°0).

1886. 1887,

April. | May. | June.| July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. |) Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April.| May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept.

Landward Division, from
Curve, . 2. s+» «© «

M d fi o
career Sng aot 2441 | 2453 | 2458 | 2472 | 2468 | 2466 | 2451 | 2450 | 2433 || 2430 | 2392 | 2411 2423 2443 | 2463 | 2458 | 2456 | 2464

Normal deduced from cage;
fall Smoothed Curve,

Actual Bottom Salinity,
2455 | 2455 | 2460 | 2470 | 2475 | 2470 | 2460 | 2445 | 2440 || 2430 | 2400 | 2420 | 2430 | 2450 | 2565 | 2465 | 2465 | 2465

2448 | 2450 | 2460 | 2469 | 2470 | 2463 | 2455 | 2444 | 2487 || 2428 | 2393 | 2410 | 2423 | 2443 | 2462 | 2459 | 2455 | 2461

The result for the landward area is unsatisfactory, inasmuch as it fails to give closely
accordant’ values for the same months of the two years ; but in the necessary uncertainty
attendant on the inexact data at our disposal, it is still possible to draw a curve freehand,
taking the mean value of months of the same name, and so arrive at the best idea
practicable of the normal distribution of salinity. When this is done, we get as a result
the following estimate for average normal density.

TABLE XXIV.—Normal Density of Bottom Water in Clyde Sea Area.

Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April.| May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year.

aac ie UL} 2495! 2410] 2416 | 2434 | 2445 | 245812464 | 9464/2460 | 2452 | 2440/2430 | 2442
ensity, 1:0, §

Seaward, . . .| 2480/2465 | 2470 | 2490 | 2500 | 2515 | 2520 | 2520 | 2515 | 2505 | 2495 | 2485 | 2497

The figures for the landward division were calculated as explained above, those for the
seaward division were arrived at by the assumption that the normal curves would run
practically parallel, and be at the same interval apart as the actual curves. The upwelling
and heading back of the water by wind make it impossible to give more than a rough guess
at the normal density of the surface water, which it would not be worth while expressing
in figures, but the dotted curves on Plates XI. and XII. show the probable arrangement.

The Increase of Salinity with Depth.—The general tables giving the average salinity
for each station, show that from the Channel landward the difference of salinity between

CLYDE SEA AREA, 693

surface and bottom steadily increases. The actual figures are given in Table XXV. The
great range and variability of the difference between surface and bottom salinity is due
almost entirely to the great, sudden, and erratic changes of surface salinity as affected by
temporary conditions of rainfall, frost, and wind. It is apparent that the range as well
as the amount of difference between surface and bottom water is least toward the open
sea, and greatest in the landward basins. Samples of water from intermediate depths
were frequently taken, and Table XXVI. contains a statement of all such cases. Here
there is an opportunity of breaking up the change of salinity into two parts, namely, from
the surface to the intermediate depths, and from the latter to the bottom. The summary,
including the results of eleven stations, for which there were three or more observations
of intermediate salinity, shows that on the average, when the intermediate sample was
taken so as to make its distance from the bottom 3°8 times greater than from the surface
(or roughly at one-fifth of the depth), the change of salinity in the upper division was
five times as great as in the lower. In other words, five-sixths of the total difference of
salinity between surface and bottom water occurs in the superficial layer one-fifth of the
total depth. Hence it appears that in a typical case there is a sheet of comparatively
fresh water, the salinity of which increases rapidly with its depth, resting upon a mass of
much salter water four times as deep, throughout which there is a very slight increase of
salinity with depth. Supposing that the rate of increase of density with depth through-
out each layer is uniform, the average salinity would be given by the formula

AFH, ,Bw
ory sina

A+4B+52_
5a or TO

hye. ! : : sere)!

when A = surface salinity, B = bottom salinity, n = salinity at one-fifth of depth, and «=

' mean salinity. But

n—A=5(B—n) or 5B+A=6n, eee : é : Be),

Substituting in (1) we get 0°17A+4+0°82B=z, and this formula will in an average case
give the mean salinity at any position where the bottom and surface salinities are known.
Of course the assumption of a uniform rate of change of salinity from surface to bottom
of the two sections is not correct ; but there are no data to determine the exact curve of
salinity, which must vary greatly with circumstances, and the assumed uniform rate gives
a first approximation to the truth, all that can be looked for in the circumstances.

The summary gives, in column A, the numerical ratio which the depth of the layer
below the intermediate point bore to that above it; and in column B the ratio of the
change of salinity above the intermediate point to that below it.

It will be noticed in the summary that at the head of Loch Goil and of Loch
Strivan the change of density in the superficial layer is less than that in the lower ; this
is probably a consequence of the very pronounced action of wind at the head of these lochs
on the days when observations were made.

In order to estimate the average salinity in a vertical section at each station, the

DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

TABLE XXV.—Difference in Salinity between Bottom and Surface Water
(in units of the 5th decimal place of density).

694

April
1886.
(Goma, Garelochhead,| 697
| Shandon, . 260
Row, 382
Lochgoilhead, *490
Stuckbeg, 413
Arrochar, . *872
Thornbank, *506
fl Birivanhd.. 96
| Clapochlar, 177
Holy Loch, 977

( Dog Rock, 573
! Coulport, . 548
4 Strone, 585
| Gantock,. .| 290
(Knock, *196
Bogany, 296
Strone Cotes, | 140
Burnt Islands,| 154
Ormidale, 178
Ardlamont, 134
(Cuil, oe": || #20
Dunderawe, . 16
Inveraray, *56

4 Strachur, . 21
Furnace, 65
Gortans, *74
(Otter IL.,. 81
MeanLandward, 304
Kilfinan, . . | *100
Skate Island, | 141
Inchmarnoch, | *125
Carradale, *110
Brodick, *210
Largybeg, *220
Plateau, 104
Mean Seaward,| 144
Channel, . . 8

Mean of all ) “
Observations, f ihe

June |August| Sept.
1886. | 1886. | 1886.
15 13 23
21 7 50
—2/] —4}] 149
80 24 35
56 32 36
1035 76 63
528 57 94
—13 9 50
42-| *31 80
375 | 114 | *225
156 85 40
118 93° | -*50
131 |. 183 | 124
126 35 | 202
sai 0) 41 67
82 7 | 148
30 40 | 156
19 15 | *90
70 | 220 | 143
9 36 we
85 | 666 | *90
20° 296°)" S72
47 | 233 68
35 | 106 55
36 46 | *50
*22 Al *32
21 15 20
119 84 88
35.) PESO “*70
54 34 |} 112
31 | *29 26
20 | *20 97
Taj te25 41
*52 26.| *30
34 25 26
44 27 57
—4/] —5 10
53 37 52

Nov.
1886.

Feb. | Mareh| May
1887. | 1887.
16; 129
*25 | 149
94 | *212
603 | 455
128) 283
*700} 182
535) 227
40| 258
34 49
*300| 482
185} 219
*156) 213
107} 189
LES w72
30| *90
151] 172
57 42
*50 86
29 74
*20! *88
2245 | 671
1p20 | “139
761) 125
1233 92
287 | *80
131 35
68 | *20
328 | 178
51| *40
45 58
59| *50
50| *40
45 | 5D
*40 | *55
*30 | ¥40
46 48
15 il) YP kOe
130 79

* One or both of the density values interpolated not directly determined.

1887, Mean
32 130
[(-—4)=21]
49 99
[(—4)=87]
72 147
105 288
[(—4)=67]
74 223
44 473
123 283
16 308
91 117
274. 472
118 275
¥*127 255
154 267
140 220
*70 130
*75 163
*90 99
*85 100
53 156
*65 83
200 955
172 625
148 296
95 237
61 95
47 63
27 39
96 244
80 52
38 63
61 50
30 44
81 62
60 54
34 32
45 50
—1 5
47 100

CLYDE SEA AREA,

TABLE XXVI.—Vertical Distribution of Salinity—Intermediate Cases.

B= Bottom ; I, Intermediate; 8, Surface Density in units of 5th decimal place; (5), &c.= Depth of
Intermediate Sample in fathoms.

Date and
B.—L|L-—S.| Depth
of I.
Cuill.
(5)
15 70 | 22.6.86
(10)
14 71 | 22.6.86
(33)
97 569 | 11.8.86
(4)
26 640 | 11.8.86
. (6)
3 663 | 11.8.86
(3)
140 2105 | 29.3.87
(5)
48 623 | 10.5.87
2
160 1397 | 16.6.87
63 767 (5)
Knock Hill.
(6)
7 34 6.8.86
Dog Rock.
(6)
40 45 5.8.86
(15)
57 78 11.11.86
49 62 (104)

Date and Date and
B.—I.| 1.—8S.| Depth || B.—I.| 1.—S.| Depth
of I. of I.
Locw Fyne.
Dunderawe. Inveraray.
(20) (5)
7 13 | 22.6.86 OA 20 | 21.6.86
(6) (25)
75 1680 | 17.11.86 21 26 | 21.6.86
(1) (33)
99 539 | 30.12.86 29 204 | 10.8.86
(6) (5)
66 572 | 30.12.86 |} 112 801 | 17.11.86
(3) (6)
71 1450 | 29.3.87 80 243 | 30.12.86
(2). (3)
157 790 | 16.6.87 73 688 | 29.3.87
| (2)
79 857 (6) 128 1030 | 16.6.87
67 430 (11)
Otter. Furnace.
(6) (6)
49 2 |17.11.86 31 20 | 16.11.86
Dunoon Basin,
Coulport. Strone Point.
(6) (5)
33 4.8.86 52 78 17.6.86
(15) (6)
8 72 11.11.86 40 93 4.8.86
52| (104). | -46.+--85 (54) |

Date and
B.—1. | 1.—S. | Depth
of I.
Strachur.
(5)
37 0 | 21.6.86
(36)
49 57 | 11.8.86
(6)
85 512 | 17.11.86
(3).
87 1156 | 29.3.87
64 431 (123)
Gortans.
(6)
34 0 | 16.11.86
(3)
73 58 | 29.3.87
53 29 (44)
Bogany.
(6)
20 —13 6.8.86
Gantock.
(5)
64 62 | 17.6.86
(6)
26 9 6.8.86
(21)
6 185 | 12.11.86
3) 85 (104)

696

DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

TABLE XXVI—continwed.

| Date and | Date and Date and Date and
B.—I.|L—S.|} Depth || B.—L|/L—S.| Depth || B.—L|1I.—S.| Depth |B.—I.] L—S.| Depth
| of I. | of I. of L of I.
Loc Gott. Loc Lone.
Head. Stuckbeg. Arrochar. Thornbank.
(5) (5) ' (5) (11)
57 23 17.6.86 48 8 17.6.87 17 18 17.6.86 23 500 17.6.86
(3) (6) (6)
29 —5 4.8.86 —2 5.8.86 (5) 25 46 4.8.86
(2) (13) 27 217 | 12.11.86 (6)
234 221 7.5.87 16 227 |12.11.86 14 29 5.8.86
(3) (3) (2) (5)
16 48 14.6.87 49 303 14.6.87 81 101 7.5.87 15 51 12.11.86
84 72 | (34) 36 134 (7) | 49 112 (4) 19 156 (7)
GARELOCH. Hoty Loca.
Row Shandon. (7)
(7) (5) 1 976 14.4.86
13 4.8.86 || 9 | —2 | 3.886 ; (6)
: 34 80 5.8.86
iNnae 528 (64)
Loca Strivan. Loca Ripun anp KyYLEs.
Head. Clapochlar. Mouth. Ormidale.
(5) (5) (7) (3)
9 |—22 18.6.86 31 11 18.6.86 49° 67 18.6.86 15 55 18.6.86
(6)
2° 78:86 (11) (2)
(5) 44 124 | 13.11.86 70 201 15.6.87
78 75 13.11.86 - see | <r
————|| 38 68 (8) 43 128 (23)
44 | 98 (5)
ARRAN Basin.
Ardlamont. Skate Island. Carradale. Tighnabruaich.
70 74 =| 16.11.86 14 42 21.6.86 15 5 19.6.86 || 31 46 10.8.86
Garroch Head. (6) Inchmarnoch.
(6) 46 |—12 10.8.86 (18)
ia). 3B 6.8.86 23 8 19.6.86
(21) (41) (6) Strone Cotes, Kyles.
14 12 | 15.11.86 3 59 | 16.11.86. on (5)
cee ace ne ie 9 | 18.11.86 1 19 18.686
Bey 14) 21 | 30 | (26) || 40 0 | (12)
Otter I. Kilfinan. Puateau (W.).
(5) | (6) (13)
| 16 | 5 | 21.6.86 || 49 | 2 | 29.3.87 || 96 8 | 6.7.87

Cuill,

Station.

Dunderawe,

Inveraray,
Strachur,
Gantock,

Lochgoilhead,

Stuckbeg,
Arrochar,

Thornbank, 5
Loch Strivanhead,
Skate Island,

above formula was applied to

Tables XIX. and XX. For the

Mean,

CLYDE SEA AREA. .

TaBLeE XXVIL. —Summary.

Or

Oe PHOT OTR DS eb
Or

= |

. B-l.
1

I-S,
Depth, Change of Salinity.

I

697

Intermediate Depth.
Fathoms,

the surface and bottom salinity averages given in
sake of convenience the results were translated into

percentages of pure sea water at each point, on the assumption that the mixture of sea
This is not quite the case, as

and river water takes place without change of volume.
experiments made with the hydrometer gave evidence of a slight contraction, too little,
however, to appreciably modify the results. Pure sea water is taken as having a density
of 1°02600, and the proportions corresponding to each density are given in Table X XVIII.

TaBLE XXVIII.—Average Percentage of Sea Water at each Station, 1886-87.

STATION.

Garelochhead, .
Shandon,
HOW; « .. «© «
Lochgoilhead, .
Stuckbeg,
Arrochar,
Thornbank, .

Lochstrivanhead, .

Clapochlar, .
Holy Loch, .
Dog Rock, .
Coulport,
Strone Point, .
Dunoon,. .
Knock Hill,
Bogany, .
Strone Cotes, .

VOL. XXXVI. PART III. (NO. 23).

Percentage/Percentage|
of Pure

of Pure

Sea Water] Sea Water
at Surface.| at Bottom.

84°6
86°3
85°7
82°6
86:0
755
83:0
82°9
91:0

15°5
84°]
84:7
84:6
86°7
90°5
89°2
91°5

89°8
90°2
91:3
93°8
93°9
93°8
94°5
94°8
95°5
93°8
94°5
94°4
94°9
95°1
95°5
95°4
95°3

Percentage

Section.

889
89°5
90°4
9159
92°6
90°8
92°6
92°8
94°7
90°7
92°8
92°8
93°2
93°7
94°3
94:2
94°7

Estimated

Percentage
of Pure
Sea Water
at Surface.

Vertical Th STATION.
Normal
Year.
88°4 || Burnt Islands, .
89:1 |) Ormidale,
9071 || Ardlamont, .
91:4 || Cuill,
92°2 || Dunderawe,
90°3 || Inveraray, .
92-2 || Strachur,
92°3 || Furnace,
94-4 || Gortans,
90°3 || Otter, . .
92°5 || Skate Island,
92°5 || Inchmarnoch, .
93:0 || Carradale,
93°5 || Brodick, .
94:0 | Largybeg,
94:0 || Plateau, .
94°3 || Channel,

91°3
889
92°4
56°8
70°1
83:2
85°7
91-0
92°7
93°0
94:0
94°2
94°4
94:0
94:4
95°3
97°6

Percentage
of Pure
Sea Water
at Bottom.

95:1
94°9
95°5
93°4
94°2
94°6
94°8
94-7
94°9
95°7
96°5
96°3
96°2
96°5
96°6
SONGHT/
earl

Percentage
of Sea
Water in
Vertical
Section.

94°5
93°9
95°0
87:3
90°2

2a
93°3
94:1
94°5
95°2
96:0
95°9
95°9
96°0
96:2
96°4
97-7

Estimated
Percentage
Vertical in
Normal
Year.

94:1
93°4
94:7
86°8
89°8
92°3
93°0
93°8
94:2
94°9
95°7
95°6
95°6
95°7
96°0
96°2
97°6

5M

698 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

TABLE XXIX.—Density at 15°56 and Percentage of Sea Water.

Density at 15°56. Percentage Sea Water. Differences.
1:01300 50°0 Density. Percentage.
1600 61°5 30 io
2300 88'5 ee eee
2400 92°3 000003 O01
2500 96°2 5 02

2600 1000 7 0°3

The most striking fact brought out by Table XXVIII. is the full justification it affords
of the term “Sea Area” as applied to the Estuary and Lochs of the Clyde. It is only in
the Gareloch and at the very head of Loch Fyne that there is less than 90 per cent. of
pure sea water present, the average of all the stations being 93:4 per cent. As the
stations were most numerous in the freshest parts of the area, this figure is, of course,
much under that expressing the true mean salinity of the Area, which must be arrived at
by a longer process. |

The normal salinity added in the table is estimated from the assumed normal values
given for bottom water in Table XXIV. The assumption is that all the stations in the
landward and seaward divisions respectively have their salinity reduced in the same
proportion as the normal rainfall is distributed—most at the extremities of the landward
divisions. The surface-normals bore to the bottom-normals the same ratio as that actu-
ally found in the observations.

The Amount and Fluctuation of Sea Water in each Division.—Combining the per-
centage composition of the water at each station, I have calculated the actual volumes of
sea water and river water present in the Area as an average for the period under observa-
tion. Todo this in the case of a basin such as is represented in section in fig. 1, in which

, the letters A, B, C, D represent the percentage of sea
oe water at the respective stations, and the letters a, b, c

D Cc

¢c b

the distance in sea-miles separating these stations, the

= RE, _ average of percentage A and B is supposed to prevail

’ throughout the a miles separating the stations, the
average of B and C throughout the next 6 miles, and so on. Thus the actual’ percentage
of sea water in the basin, supposing each station to represent the salinity in the cross-
section and not only in the centre, is :-—

_(A+B)a+(B+C)b+(C+D)c_
2(a+b+c)

CLYDE SEA AREA. 699

TABLE XXX.
Quantitative Salinity of Clyde Sea Area.

Low Tide | Low Tide | Low Tide Weicht Weight
Rage Per cent.| Volume. Volume Volume _ | Percentage 9 s It River-
Sea Water} Cubic Sea | Sea Water. [River Water.| Sea-Salts, 5 pili eri
by Vol. | — Miles. CAS. |e Sar Sree Tons.
Gareloch,. . . 89°6 0:0240 00215 00025 3136 4,850,000 625
och Goik =. ./ 92°3 0°0372 0:0344 0:0028 3230 7,760,000 700
Loch Long, . /. 92°2 0°0326 0:0301 0:0025 3227 6,790,000 625
Loch Strivan, . 94°3 01619 071527 0:0092 3°300 34,530,000 2,300
Holy Loch,. .' { 91:0 00107 0:0097 0:0010 3185 2,190,000 250
Dunoon Basin, . 93°5 0:7378 0°6899 0:0479 3272 165,700,000 | 11,900
Bae ae \ 946 | 00971 | 00917 | 00054 | 3311 | 20,690,000] 1,350
Loch Fyne,*. . 93°3 0°4981 0°4647 0:0334 3°266 105,950,000 8,350
Arran Basin,. . 96:0 18-0372 17°3156 0°7216 3°360 |3,910,000,000 | 180,400
Plateams . 9. 96°9 57997 56200 0:1797 3°391 |1,269,850,000 | 45,000
Channel, =... 1-7 = ee ba 3'420 Ree ae
Estuary (est.), ‘ 50:0 0°1089 0:0544 0:0545 1:750 12,480,000 | 13,600
Total, aed ; F ‘ ‘
95°8 25'5452 24°4847 1:0605 3°353 |5,540,790,000 | 265,100
Giana
Total aoa
aoe stennyine 90°7 17083 15491 0:1592 3175 | 360,940,000] 39,700
cluding KEs-
tuary, .
eotel lon! 96:2 | 23-8369 | 229356 | 09013 | 3-367 |5,179,850,000 | 225,400
Division
Pure Ocean,. 100°0 Ae ot Ae 3°500
Landward Divi-
sion, exclud- 93°5 15994 14947 01047 3272 348,460,000 | 26,100
ing Estuary,
aaa ‘} 90:3 | 17083 | 15426 | o-1657 | 3161 | 347,730,000| 41,400
Rvormal’ Senwaed: 95:9 | 23°8369 22°8641 09728 3°355 = |5,161,790,000 | 243,200
Normal Total, . 95°5 25°5452 24°4067 1:1385 3°343 |5,509 520,000 | 284,600

Table XXX. gives the result of this calculation, and the quantities of salts present
deduced from the proportion of sea water and fresh water. The following constants were
employed in the calculation :—One cubic sea mile (sea mile = 6080 feet) of fresh water, at
15°°56 C., weighs 6,261,000,000 tons, and supposing it to contain 3 grains in the gallon,
or 0004 per cent. of dissolved salts, these salts weigh 250,000 tons. One cubic sea mile
of standard sea water, of density 1:02600, at 15°°56, eae hs 6,422,000,000 tons, and
contains 3°5 per cent. or 225,770,000 tons of salts.*

* For comparison with other calculations it is well to point out that a cubic mile (statute mile=5280 feet) of fresh

water weighs 4,100,000,000 tons, and a cubic mile of sea water, 1:0260 density, weighs 4,206,000,000 tons, both at 15°-56.
1 cubic sea ‘eile is egaal to 4:16 cubic kilometres.

700 DR HUGH’ ROBERT MILL ON THE

In the table the proportion of salts. in the Estuary is an estimate founded on a small
number of observations, and does not claim to be so accurate as the others. In the
whole Sea Area, at low water, there were 5500 million tons of sea salt in the period
1886-87, and probably for a year of normal rainfall there would be 31 million tons less.
Each tide brings in and withdraws 1°3215 cubic miles of sea water, containing about
98 per cent. pure sea water, and about 290 million tons of sea salts.

In ordinary circumstances it is evident that, if the average annual salinity of the Area
is maintained, as much fresh water must leave the system as enters in a year. The only
inlet of fresh water to be considered is rainfall, in its two forms of direct and occasional
precipitation on the surface and gradual and continual supply through streams. The
outlets are evaporation from the surface and outpouring into the open sea. It happens
that in this district the season when the evaporation is greatest is that in which rainfall
is nearly least, and when the rainfall is greatest evaporation is practically suspended.
This tends to intensify the annual extremes and leads to an accumulation of fresh
water in winter and early spring, when outflow is the only means of carrying it away,
and to a defect of fresh water in summer and early autumn, when evaporation comes
into the field as well. In winter the supply of fresh water is greatly increased, and the
means of removal diminished, while in summer the supply is greatly reduced and the
means of removal increased.

The flood-tide is at many points of the coast less rapid than the ebb, and, although
the difference is too slight to be readily detected, the outflowing water must be somewhat
fresher than the inflowing. The action of the tide on the general salinity of the area is
to carry in salt water and carry out fresh water in the proportion required to maintain
the normal salinity at each season. It thus plays the part of a great sponge of salt water,
absorbing and removing a certain amount of fresh water at each application. The water
of the Channel, with 97°7 per cent. of pure sea water, is uniform in composition from
surface to bottom, in consequence of the overfalls and upwellings produced by the tidal
stream setting against the sloping seaward face of the shallow Barrier Plateau, on which
the incoming tide is mixed with fresher water to the average extent of 1 per cent. Here
the denser incoming water sinks to a lower level, and is covered by a layer of surface
water which is carried further inland by the flowing tide, becoming diluted as it proceeds.
The normal tidal effect in a wide open estuary like the Firth of Forth, is a sort of piston
action, the tidal current dams up and heads back the water of the estuary, so that any
given particle has only a short range to and fro; but as the disparity of density between
surface and bottom water increases, the piston action changes to a wedge action, the
denser water ebbing and flowing underneath the fresher.

The configuration of the Clyde Sea Area prevents the wedge action from setting in to
any extent, as the shallow bars separating the various basins act like the Barrier Plateau
itself, throwing up the bottom water and thoroughly mixing the whole section. It is to
this effect of configuration on a mass of moving water, and to the occasional and even
more effectual inversion produced by wind action in narrow inlets, that the remarkable

CLYDE SEA AREA. ; 701

uniformity of salinity is maintained, and the difference between surface and bottom water
kept so low as it is.

In an average year the rainfall over the Clyde drainage area amounts (Table VIII.)
to 2°646 cubic sea-miles, of which it is estimated that nearly 1 cubic sea mile is removed
by evaporation from the surface of land or water, leaving 1°646 cubic miles to be with-
drawn seaward, The data given above appear to countenance the hypothesis that this
fresh water is got rid of, not by the flowing away of a very fresh superficial layer after
each shower, but by mixing thoroughly with the mass of water, and slightly diluting
the whole retirmg tidal stream. It is remarkable that the whole mass of river water
accumulated in the Clyde Sea Area is considerably less than the amount which passes
through it yearly, and less than one half of the total annual rainfall. There are about
670 tidal rises and falls in a year, and this represents a total introduction and withdrawal
of 890 cubic miles of Channel water—enough to change all the water of the Area thirty-
five times, or once in ten and a half days—and to that we must add the withdrawal of the
1°646 cubic mile of fresh water brought in during the year, or 0°18 per cent. of volume.
The incoming water in a normal region, having an average salinity of 97°5 per cent. pure
sea water, the outgoing water would contain on an average only 97°3 per cent. The
densities corresponding to these quantities are 1°02535 and 1:02530 respectively, a
difference just too small to be certainly detected by the methods employed.

If the rainfall over the entire Area were to cease for a year, and evaporation proceeded
at the ordinary rate assumed above—25 inches—the result would be the removal of
0°3172 cubic mile of fresh water. This would increase the normal average salinity from
95°5 to 97°0 per cent. of pure sea water, and if the state of matters continued for a second
year the average salinity would increase to 98°4, and in a third year of complete drought
the area would be occupied by pure sea water. When the equalising effect of tidal inter-

change is taken into account, however, it is evident that the total cessation of rainfall for
one year would convert the whole contents into pure sea water. It is difficult to assign
the time that would be required to entirely freshen the Area, supposing evaporation
suspended, as the tidal intrusion of salt water would continue, and probably assume a
limiting value, beyond which any fresh water added would flow away on the surface and
leave a layer of comparatively salt water in the depths.

- A comparison of the actual salinity of each of the basins on the occasion of maximum
salinity in August 1886, and of minimum salinity in February 1887, presents many
features of interest. The data are given in Table XXXI.

| TABLE

02 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

Taste XXXI.—Percentage of Sea Water, and Amount of Salts present at the Periods of observed
Maximum (August 1886) and Minimum (February 1887).

August 1886. February 1887.
Basin. Vol. Sea Vol. River Vol. Sea Vol. River
Per cent. Water. Water. Per cent. Water. Water.
Sea Water. Cubic Cubic Sea Water. Cubic Cubic

Sea Miles. Sea Miles. e Sea Miles. Sea Miles.
Gareloch, . : : : 91°4 0:0219 0:0021 84°6 0'0203 0:0037
Loch Goil, : : : 94°8 0:0353 0°0019 86°7 0°0324 00048
Loch Long, : : 5 94°7 0:0309 0:0017 871 0:0284 0:0042
Loch Strivan, . : A 96°6 01564 0:0055 86°4 071400 | 0:0219
Holy Loch, : 5 : 95°2 0:0101 00006 88°7 0:0095 00012
Dunoon Basin, . . 95-4 0°7046 0:0332 86°1 0°6353 0°1025
Loch Ridun and Kyles, : 95°7 0:0927 0:0044 91°3 0:0885 0°0086
Loch Fyne, A : 95:1 0:4737 00244 88°8 0°4422 00559
Arran Basin, . ; F 96°9 17-4776 05596 94°7 170811 0°9561
Plateau, . : ; : 97°9 56880 Oy 95:4 5°5330 0°2667

Channel, . P f 98°5 = oer 96°7 be Sts
Estuary (estimate), ‘ ; 55:0 00572 00517 40:0 0°0435 00654
Total, excluding Channel, . 96°8 24°7484 0°7968 94:2 24°0542 14910
Total, Landward Division, . 92°5 15828 0°1255 84°3 14401 02682
Total, Seaward Division, . 97:2 23°1656 0°6713 94°8 22°6141 1:2228

Total, Landward, excluding

Estuary, : : : 95:3 15256 0:0738 87°4 1°3966 0:2028

In August 1886 the entire Sea Area contained 96°8 per cent. of sea water, in February
1887 it contained only 94°2 per cent. In the former month there was present 0°7968, and
in the latter 1°4910 cubic miles of fresh water, or almost double the amount. Between
August and February 0°6942 of a cubic sea mile must have been received in excess of
what was removed by evaporation and tidal action. The fresh water sent in by the
Clyde drainage area for the six months, August 1886—January 1887, was 0°9294 cubic
sea miles (Table [X.), supposing that one half of the annual evaporation had taken place
in that period, the total rainfall thus amounting practically to 1°43 cubic sea miles.
Mr Symons’ researches (British Rainfall, 1889) show that only 30 per cent. of the annual
evaporation takes place in the six months, August—January. This would withdraw 0°30
cubic mile from the Sea Area, leaving the nett increase of fresh water by rainfall as 1°18
cubic miles. But the average action of the tides would account for the withdrawal of
0°823 cubic miles in that period, leaving an accumulation of only 0°307 cubic miles to
freshen the water, which is considerably less than half the amount actually found. If
instead of 30 per cent. of the annual evaporation taken place in the six months under dis-

CLYDE SEA AREA. 703

cussion, it were assumed that there was no evaporation, the rainfall would just account for
the observed difference of salinity. These facts are pointed out as justifying the opinion
that the tidal withdrawing action cannot remove the fresh water as rapidly as it is poured
in, and that consequently the salinity falls very much in proportion as the rainfall increases ;
but the uncertainty of all the data make it impossible to prove any definite hypothesis.
on the subject.

The data given in the various tables, although only treated in a general manner,
might be utilised for making a detailed study of the variations of salinity in any one of
the various basins. I had made some progress with an exhaustive treatment of the
seasonal and occasional variations of salinity in Loch Fyne, for which the observations
are most numerous, when it became evident that the uncertainty of the rainfall statistics
did not justify the great labour which would be necessary in order to complete the work.
The differences to be reasoned upon lay in most cases within the limits of probable
error. The provisional conclusions come to may, however, be given, fragmentary though
they be.

Salinity of Loch Fyne.—Calculations were made to show the distribution of salinity
for each of the trips with the following results:—Table XXXII. shows the average
density of a vertical section of the water at each station for every trip. By comparison
with Table XIX., the small effect on the mass of water produced by great variations of
surface density becomes apparent. The stations of Kilfinan and Skate Island, outside
the basin of Loch Fyne, are added for comparison.

TABLE XXXII.—Density of Water in Loch Fyne (Supply 1:0).

Cuill. |Dunderawe.| Inveraray.| Strachur. | Furnace. | Gortans, Otter. Kilfinan. | Skate Isld.

April 1886, | 2430 2445 2440 2442 2462 2470 2472 2472 2475
June 5 2445 2450 2470 2470 2473 2480 2495 2500 2500
August os 2340 2370 2394 2445§ 2460 2480 2490 2503 2515
September ,, | 2430* | 2435* | 2455* | 2465*: | 2470* | 2480* | 2490* || 2490* | 2490*
November _,, 2150* -|, 2215 2368 2360 2410 2430* | 2450* || 2460* | 2465*
December _,, 2290* | 2349 2405 2498* | 2424* | 2440* | 2468* || 2480* | 2490*
February 1887,| 2090* | 2280* | 2360* | 2390* | 2390* | 2350* | 2450* || 2450* | 2450*
March A 2086 2311 2385 2388 2380* | 2418* | 2426* || 2462* | 2473*
May 35 2310 2400 2410 2415* | 2435* | 2460* | 2470 2475 2480
June 3 2282 2381 2392 2455* | 2455* | 2470* | 2490* 2500* | 2510*
July re 2410*, |. 2440* | 2435* | 2465* | 2459* | 2470* | 2486* | 2495* | 2518*
September _,, 2390 2410 2430t | 2440 2450 2475 2485 2510 2490

Mean, . .| 2304 2374 2412 2431 2439 2452 2473 2483 2487

* No intermediate sample taken ; twice as much weight given to bottom as to surface density.
+ The figures of this trip are for the most part interpolated.

+ Recorded observation 2375, probably a mistake.

§ Recorded observation 2485, probably a mistake.

The mean salinity at surface and bottom, and the average salinity assumed for a

704 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

vertical section at each station along the axis of the loch and neighbouring parts of: the
Arran Basin, are shown in the form of curves in Plate XII.

The figures of Table XXXII. may be put in the form of percentages of nonieall sea
water present, and this is done in Table XXXII.

TABLE XXXIII.— Percentage of Normal Sea Water (Density de 0260) im Loch es
at Various Dates.

Date. Cuill, |Dunderawe.| Inveraray.| Strachur. | Furnace. | Gortans. Otter. . Kilfinan, | Skate Isld.

April 1886,| 93°5 94:0 93°8 93°9 94°8 95:0 95°1 951 | 95-2

June * 94°2 94°3 95°0 95°0 95:1 95°5 96:0: 96°2 96°2
August iJ 90:0 91:2 92-1 94:0 94°7 95°5 95°8 96°33 oF {967
November _,, 82°7 85°4 oil 90°8 92°7 93°5 94:2 94:7 94:9
December _,, 88°5 90:0 92°2 93°4 93°2 93°8 94°9 95°5 95:8
February 1887,| 80°74 87°7 90°8 92°0 92°0 92:0 94°2 94:2 94°2
March . 80°7 89-0 91°8 91°9 91°6 93:0 93°4 94°8 95°1
May : 88°8 92°4 92°7 93:0 93°7 94:7 95-0 95°2 95°5
June, e 88:0 91°6 92°0 94°5 94°5 95:0 95°8 96°2 96°7
July F 92°7 93°8 93°6 94°9 94:7 95:0 95:7 96°0 9679
September _,, 92:0 92°7 93-4 93°8 94:2 95-2 95°6 96°7 95°8
Mean, . .| 883 91:0 92°6 93:4 93°7 94°4 95-1 95°5 95°7

Calculating from these results, itis easy to find the approximate percentage of normal
sea water and of fresh water in the loch at any given time. Since the volume of the
loch from Cuill to Otter is known to be almost exactly half a cubic sea mile, and the total
drainage area of its basin, including the water surface, to be 167°64 square sea miles, the
percentages can be reduced to actual volumes, and the volume of the inflowing fresh
water between any two periods of observation expressed in inches of rain over the area.
In Table XXXIV., which gives the results of the calculation, evaporation is expressed as
negative rainfall.

The last column in the table gives the average of the rainfall at Inveraray, Arrochar,
Ardrishaig, and Kilmory, as nearly as can be calculated for the intervals between the
successive trips. In looking at Loch Fyne with reference to the interchange and
mixture of sea and fresh water, it is necessary to observe, that evaporation may be viewed
as negative rainfall, or as a rainfall of sea water, since we assume in this discussion that
the level of Loch Fyne remains in equilibrium with the Arran Basin. But in addition to
the increase of the proportion of normal sea water by evaporation, there is an increase due
to actual inflow during flood-tide of salter water from the Arran Basin, in which the
fluctuations of salinity are much less. This inflow brings, on the average, about 95°5 per
cent. of its volume of sea-water and 4°5 per cent. of its volume of fresh water. Thus, if
by an exceptionally dry season prevailing over the Loch Fyne drainage area, the water
in Loch Fyne had become concentrated to a higher degree than 95:5 per cent., the inflow
from the Arran Basin would count as a contribution of fresh water and not of sea water.

CLYDE SEA AREA,

705

There are thus two ways by which salt water and fresh-water may be brought into the
loch, and also two ways of escape for fresh water, by evaporation and by outflow.

TABLE XXXIV.— Volume of Sea Water and Fresh Water in Loch Fyne at Different Dates, and
Amount of Rainfall or Evaporation between these Dates.

Difference Corresponding to Rain-| Probable
Cubic Sea Miles. ae ualeras fall over whole Actual
Date Sea Of Fresh Drainage Area of Rainfall.
; Water.
Per Cent. pelt
Sea Fresh gite
Water Tee Mile. Sea Mile. | Inches. Inches
April, 1886, 94:4 0°4720 Ee: —0:0035 |—0:000021 —15 6:20
June, ; 9571 04755 0:0245 0065 - : :
em ricss | o4c00 | oosi0! | goo gooooas| | Be ee
December, 5 92:7 04635 0°03654 0:0095 0:000056 4:0 6:90
Bech, ” oe ee Ht Ee —0-:0110 |—0-000065| —4:7 4-40
ay, x : . 2 Skin _ 0: ye {
Ee) Gs |) 4888, |, 00385), onus |= o-00n000)|,.-07 200
September, ,, 93°9 0°4695 0:0305
Mean, ; 93-1 0°4655 0°0345 Excess of | Rainfall, . 08 | Total, 73°40

Table XXXIV. clearly shows that there is no tendency for the accumulation of fresh
water in Loch Fyne, the average salinity appears to come to a maximum in June and
July, the months of least rainfall and most evaporation, and then to diminish steadily to
the month of February at the period of maximum rainfall and minimum evaporation.
Evaporation is probably the most potent factor in carrying away any excess of rainfall
during the summer months.
necessarily, by raising the level, accelerate the ebb tide and so run off an excess of fresh
water with considerable rapidity. On the other hand, after a long dry spell the tendency
of evaporation would be to lower the general level and so accelerate the flood tide, thus
increasing the salinity from without.

The Circulation of Loch Fyne.—In the action of the tide we may look for an explan-
ation of the tendency to get rid of superfluous fresh water which the observations show
to exist. The observations on tidal effects were not very numerous, and it would be well
to carry out a series of careful density determinations off Otter Spit, at frequent intervals
during a complete tide, both when the average salinity of the loch is exceptionally
high, and when it is exceptionally low.

VOL. XXXVI. PART III. (NO. 28). 5 .N

A great accession of fresh water on the surface must

706 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

The observations quoted above serve to suggest an explanation of the action of the
tide. The cross section of the sill at Otter Ferry, over which the tide flows, is almost
exactly 0°01 square sea miles, the opening in fact is so large that if the whole loch basin
were pumped dry, and water from the Arran Basin admitted as a current running at 5
knots past Otter Spit, ten hours would be required to fill Loch Fyne. The mean tidal
increment of Loch Fyne is, however, only -,th of the volume of the loch, being repre-
sented by an average rise of 8 feet over a surface of 22 square sea miles in area, 7.e., mea-
suring 0°029 cubic sea miles. Now if we were to suppose that a solid mass of water the
width of the entrance to the loch, and 8 feet thick, were to be inserted, sliding over the
surface, until in six hours the whole surface was raised by that amount, the average velocity
of the current at the Spit would be very nearly 5 miles an hour. Such a velocity is found
at spring tides but only for a short time, and this fact alone is sufficient proof that the
tidal current is not entirely superficial. That the tide sweeps across the bar at Otter
to the full depth is proved from the salinity observations already referred to, and if the
whole tidal increment entered in this way its average velocity would be about half a
knot.

We might suppose that the flood tide entered in this way, carrying in 0°029 cubic
mile of water, containing 95 per cent. of pure sea water, and that a superficial stratum,
8 feet deep, from the whole surface of the loch poured out at ebb tide. This, judging
from our observations, would contain 88 per cent. of pure sea water. The amount of
fresh water carried in by each tide would be 0°001465 cubic mile—that carried out
0°003516, so that at each tide 0°002051 cubic mile of fresh water would be removed
from the loch. But to supply such an outflow of fresh water, and maintain the average
salinity, the effective inflow of rain water would require to be equal to 618 inches per
annum over the whole area. This demonstrates that the outflowing tide is not a mere
skimming of the loch. If we suppose that an amount of rain equivalent to a fall of 30
inches per annum over the whole area reaches the loch, the nett effluent of fresh water
at each tide would be 0°0001 cubic mile; the ebb tide would then contain 94°6 per cent.
of sea water, while the flood tide contained 95 per cent. ‘This is probably the order of
magnitude of the difference in salinity of the inflowing and outflowing tides. It
corresponds to a difference of 0°00010 in density at 60° F., and is a quantity which could
be demonstrated with perfect certainty by the hydrometer employed. The current of
ebb tide evidently affects the water to a considerable depth, at any rate in the Gortans
Basin. In Part III. of this memoir temperature observations will be adduced to show
that in all probability the currents of the Upper Basin of Loch Fyne are not produced
nor much affected by the tides.

If, as we assume above, each tide brings in 0°0290 cubic mile of water, it appears
that the whole Loch Fyne Basin might have its contents changed in eighteen tides or
nine days. ‘This is the minimum which can be assigned on the assumption of thorough
mixture of the tidal water throughout the mass, and it is probably not far from the

CLYDE SEA AREA. 707

truth for the Gortans Basin. It is probable that the tidal rise in a loch, especially in its
upper reaches, takes the form of an oscillation in a plane slightly inclined to the
horizontal, 7.e., an upthrusting of the mass of water from nearer the mouth, and a return
to the state of equilibrium at low water. An average velocity of 1 knot for the surface
current appears from the Admiralty Charts to be a maximum estimate of the surface tidal
currents in Loch Fyne’ At that rate, since the ebb stream lasts about one hour longer
than the flood, a given particle of water on the surface would be carried 1 mile down
the loch by each tide supposing the weather calm, and the lower 7 miles would be
completely changed. In the absence of more detailed observations, it is impossible to
do more than guess at the time necessary for complete change of water in the upper
basin. Probably the direction and force of the wind are very potent factors in deter-
mining it.

Chemistry of Water in the Clyde Sea Area.

During the salinity trips of November 1886 and of February, March, May, June,
and September 1887, samples of water were collected with special precautions and sent
to Professor Dirrmar’s laboratory in Glasgow, where they were analysed by Mr A.
Dicxiz. The results of analysis were communicated to this Society and published in
the Proceedings (Proceedings R. S. H., xiv. 422-427, xv. 283-286). The attempt to
determine the suspended solid matter in the water was abandoned on account of the
great labour involved in filtering a large volume of liquid, and weighing a very small
residue. Mr DickrE determined in each case the amount of chlorine present per litre of
water, the amount of sulphuric acid, and the alkalinity. In his papers he expresses the
alkalinity both in milligrammes of carbonic acid per litre of sea water analysed and in
milligrammes per 100 parts of total salts (7.e., per 55°43 parts of chlorine). In the first
paper he reduces the value of the sulphuric acid determinations to milligrammes per
millioramme of chlorine as well. I have calculated the results in his second paper to the
same units, and have grouped the results in various ways, in order to discover any
relations of general interest which they may contain.

Reference has already been made to the chlorine determinations as forming a valuable
means of testing the accuracy of hydrometer work on which the foregoing discussion of
salinity depends. In order to study the proportions of sulphates and carbonates I shall
make use exclusively of the ratios to amount of chlorine, in order to eliminate the
accidental variation due to salinity.

The whole set of observations (117 in number) were first written out in a column in
the order of their amount of chlorine, and means were taken of eight groups comprising
different ranges of salinity, so as to determine whether the amount of fresh water present
notably affected the proportions of sulphuric and carbonic acids. Table XXXV. is the
result.

708 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

In this summary, group 1 may be omitted from consideration on account of the small
number of cases which compose it, and because in water of such slight salinity the actual
amount of barium sulphate weighed in determining the sulphuric acid was very small and
difficult to weigh accurately. No reason appears for supposing that any of the other
determinations are subject to error from which the rest are free. Taking the mean of

TaBLE XXXV.—Relation of Sulphuric and Carbonic Acids to Salinity.

Correspondin
N - Bae of ‘ ae BOs : CO,
Cane o. of | Range of Chlorine} po ontace Mean Percentage | Amount of| Milligrms.
Cases. |Grammesperlitre. | 6» wopmal Chlorine. of Chlorine | per 55°45
Gaa Wares: Sea Water. = grs. Cl.
Surf. Deep
1 8+ 0 1169 —14'982 4:0 —73°1 8963 42°0 0711255 | 071591
2 10+ 0 | 16:009—16782 | 82°7—86°0 16°487 85°7 011740 | 01478
3 5+ 1 | 16880—17°:224 | 865—880 17059 87:2 0711753 | 071495
4 5+ 8 | 17433-17693 | 89'4—90°8 17°555 90°1 011671 | 01458
5 14+15 | 17°800—18:280 | 91:4—93°9 18-065 92°8 0°11727 | 01466
6 7+23 | 18:292—18-492 | 94:0—94°9 18°393 94:5 011713 | 01473
7 1+14 | 18548—18°776 | 95°2—96°6 18°639 95°8 011727 | 01478
8 2+ 4 | 18844—18:946 | 97:0—97%5 18°888 97:2 011678 | 01449

groups 2 to 5, which contain 57 cases, and of groups 6 to 8, which contain 51 cases, we
find that the proportions are as follows :—

. Percentage Sulphuric Carbonic
Groups. CHbaie: Sea Water. Acid. Acid.
2-5 17°291 88°9 011723 01474
6-8 18640 95°8 011706 0°1467

Here there appears a distinct suggestion that in water of low salinity the proportion
both of sulphates and of carbonates is greater than in water of higher salinity. In other
words, the greater the proportion of river water the higher is the percentage of sulphates
and carbonates in comparison with chlorides. It is true that no regular change in the
proportion of the salts is shown by the individual data arranged in order of salinity, and
even the arrangement into groups of means, as in Table XXXV., fails to give a clue to
the numerical relation. The results, indeed, are so irregular that the relation pointed
out is rather suggested than demonstrated—the low values of both sulphuric acid and
carbonic acid in group 8 and their high value in group 3 are very difficult to understand
on the theory of the influence of river water. Groups 6 to 8 are almost entirely com-
posed of water from depths beneath the surface, while in groups 2 to 4 surface waters
predominate. Group 5 contains a nearly equal number of each kind, and, in the small

CLYDE SEA AREA. 709

range of salinity it represents, it is interesting to notice whether position in vertical
depth produces any effect. The result—leaving out of account two samples taken from
a few fathoms beneath the surface—is as follows :—

Corresponding
. Percentage of Sulphuric Carbonic
eeeri Normal Acid. Acid.
Sea Water.
14 surface samples, . LUGO 92°5 0711725 0°1483
13 bottom samples, . © Le i57 93°3 0711729 071451

Here we find the amount of sulphuric acid practically the same in both sets, but the
alkalinity of the fresher surface water is markedly greater than that of the salter water
from the bottom, thus confirming, in a sufficiently satisfactory way, the deduction from
the previous discussion.

Taking the 116 determinations of sulphuric acid in order of magnitude of the ratio, it
is-found that of the 58 cases in which the ratio was higher than 0°11740, 26 were surface
samples, 28 were bottom samples, and 4 from intermediate depths; while of the 58 cases
in which the ratio was lower than 0°11740, two samples were from intermediate depths,
and 28 each from surface and bottom. The amount of sulphuric acid would thus appear
to be practically independent of depth, and, by implication, independent also of salinity.

Treating the carbonic acid, or rather the alkalinity, results in the same way, a well-
marked concentration of high values amongst surface samples is found, and a still more
distinct concentration of low values amongst bottom samples. The 58 alkalinity ratios
higher than 0°1464 referred to 31 samples of surface water, 2 from intermediate depths,
and 25 from the bottom. The 58 lower than 0°1464 referred to 23 samples of surface
water, 3 from intermediate depths, and 32 from the bottom. In 12 cases, of which 8
were surface samples, the alkalinity was over 0°1559; and of the 12 cases in which the
alkalinity was under 071425, no less than 10 were bottom samples.

It is matter of regret that the density of the specimens of water analysed had not
been determined by an exact gravimetric method such as that used by Dr Jonn Gipson
in his “ Analyses of North Sea Water” (Report of Fishery Board for Scotland for the
Year 1889), so that the ratio of chlorine to specific gravity could be used as a basis for
estimating the chemical differences between different samples. Hydrometer results,
however valuable they may be for sketching in broad differences of salinity, are not
sufficiently accurate for this purpose. The number of analyses required to be made in a
short time prevented Mr Dickte from even attempting the very elaborate process of
determining density by actual weighing. We must therefore confine our discussion to
the ratios of the three quantities which were determined.

In order to see whether there were any marked changes in the chemical composition
of the water during the different trips, I have prepared Table XXXVI, in which
account is taken of all the observations for each trip, omitting only those cases of low
salinity in which the amount of chlorine was less than 6°0 grammes per kilogramme.

710 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

TABLE XXXVI.

Chemical Conditions of Clyde Sea Area.
Average ratio of CO, per 55°43 grammes Cl and of SO, per 1 gramme Cl.

s=surface sample, i=intermediate sample, b= bottom sample.

Surface. Intermediate. Bottom.
Trip. of
CO. co co
Samples. so 2 SO 2 so 2
Per 1'OL Per 55°43 Por 1 CL Per 55°43 Per 1 OL Per 55:43
Cl. Cl. Cl.
12s. 011737 St 011719 tes 011729 Pa
November 1886,. . 3 i. 0°1487 0:1450 0:1457
14 b. ) |JCl=16:902 i Cl= 18-053 ra Cl=18°320
6s. 0°11752 an ee ae 0711764 aa
February 1887, : 071525 071448
7b. |Cl=15-402 “re Cl=18:196 PRE
48. 0711754 ad ,0°11746 ee 0°11734 a
March 1887, = Wee Bk 0:1467 0°1450 0°1456
6b. ) |Cl=16-466 a Cl=17-421 wat Cl=18:449
7s. | 0-11770 7 oli761 || oe
May 1887, P 0:1494 071515
8b. |Cl=17:244 ae she Cl= 18-282 x.
8s, | 011770 ecg hl 0:11770) a
June 1887, ; 0:1476 01473
8b. |Cl=17°894 ae Cl=18°572 fue
14s 0:11609 ro a aa 0:11634 te
September 1887, . .. 01463 01471
14b. |Cl=17-690 aa a ax Cl= 18-433 ae
6 s.* 011732 on: ane a 0:11732 we
Mean of Six Trips, . 0:1485 0°1470
6b.* |ICl=16:933 uae Eee “ee Cl = 18°375 me
5ls. 0711715 ae 0°11732 sek 011721 ie
Mean of 114 Samples, 6 i. 0°1489 0°1450 0°1470
57b. ) |Cl=17-110 abe Cl=17°737 co Cl=18°376 eee

Mean of all Observa- a 011719
tions at every Depth, ! 114 01477
114 in all, a Bolt Cl=17:776
0:11722 san
Mean of Intermediate and Bottom Samples classed together, . 0°1467
Cl=18°315

The total halogen determined as chlorine is given for the sake of comparison along
with the ratio of sulphuric acid to chlorine.

CLYDE SEA AREA. 711

Here it is seen that the amount of sulphuric acid proportionally to chlorine in the
surface water increased steadily from November 1886 to June 1887, and fell off in a very
remarkable manner in September. With the exception of an increase in February
followed by a diminution in March, the same is true of the bottom water. February was
the month of minimum salinity in the whole Area, while in September the conditions
were very nearly the average. Taken in connection with the salinity curves, and the
data of the salinity trips, the sulphuric acid results are very puzzling. So far as can be
gathered from Mr Dicxte’s papers the method of analysis was the same in all cases, yet
the altogether exceptional lowness of nearly all the September results, and the fact that
almost all the very low values of the sulphuric acid ratios occur in that set of analyses
would seem to indicate that a different and probably less satisfactory method of analysis
had been employed.

The alkalinity results are more uniform, and the maximum surface alkalinity
occurring in February is in accord with the very low surface salinity of that month,
but the very low bottom alkalinity (the minimum) associated with it is not easily
understood.

Although too irregular in their variations to be of much value in elucidating the
changes consequent on the introduction of fresh water into the Sea Area, the chemical
results—if we omit those for September—show that the composition of sea water is on
the whole fairly constant, and that the proportion of sulphuric acid to chlorine is
distinctly higher than that of the open ocean. The ratio of sulphuric acid to total
halogen, estimated as chlorine, found by Professor Dirrmar for the ‘“‘ Challenger” samples
from the open ocean, was 0°11576, that obtained by Dr Gipson for Moray Firth water
was 0°11707, while the amended mean of Mr Dickir’s results for the Clyde Sea Area is
0°11755.

It remains to discuss the chemical results for each station.

{TABLE

Date.

Feb.
March ,,
May ,,
Sept. ,,

?

Mean,

March 1887, |11°335 |°11755 | :1532

May =,,
June ,,
Sept. ,,
Mean,
Feb.
March ,,
Sept. _,,
Mean,
Nov.

Feb.

March ,,
May
June ,,
Sept. ,,
Mean,

Nov. 1886,
Feb. 1887,
March ,,
May 2
June ,,
Sept. "3
Mean,

P. Nov. 1886,
P. Feb. 1887,
C. March
C. June
G, Sept.

PP)
”

”

1887, |

: | 6873

1887, |16°674 |-11781

1886, |18-103 |-11773
1887, |17:979 |:11765

. |18°225 |"11740 | ‘1501

DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

TABLE XXXVII.—Chemical Composition of Water at Various Stations,

Surface. Bottom
so, | 80,
Cl per Cl
: per | 55-43 : per
1.0L] "Cy b Gl

Cur (Loch Fyne).

2°667 [10543 1588 |17-563 |:11770
1°169 |-09855 | 1682 |17-847 |:11748
18°155 |°11715
18°308 |:11797

16-782 |-11743 | +1478

‘10714 | ‘1583 ||17°698 |"11757

Srracuur (Loch Fyne).

18-226 (11717
18334 |"11748
18°466 |'11757
18°370 [11625

17693 [11693
17-979 |-11759
17°635 |"11653

"1455
1483
1431

16°160 |'11715 | 1475

Gortans (Loch Fyne).

1458
1452
1462

17561 |-11711
18-145 |-11649

17°460 |"11714 | 1457 re3e7 "11789

Sxare Isnanp (Arran Basin).
1412
1499
1515
1613
1465

18-269 |-11780
18-481 |-11794
18-292 |-11590

18°666 |"11709

CarraDatx (Arran Basin).

18142 |-11748 | +1483 ||18°618 |-11767
18°274 |-11725 | 1464 118-373 |-11779
18°309 |"11749 | -1442 |/18-583 |-11766
18375 |'11721 | -1489 118-634 |-11774
18°418 |-11748 | -1415 |/18-728 |-11829
18°328 |"11546 | -1471 |/18-640 |-11642

18°308 |"11706 "1461

PLATEAU AND CHANNEL.

18-421
18:487
18882
118-946
'18-908

18°386
18°66]
118-844
18892

‘11740 | 1450
"11800 | 1443
11796 | 1441 |
11479 | 1432

Mean,

° \18°697

"11704 | 1441 ||18°729

18°349 |'11712 | ‘1484

(18-041 |:11830 | -1665
18-468 |-11744 | 1452
18-473 |11795 | -1447

18-640 |-11713 | -
18-452 |-11680 | -
18°687 |°11735 | -
18°715 |:11749 | -
18-854 |"11792 | -
18-650 |"11588 | -

18'596 |"11759|°

"11787 |<
"L1795)|*
11696 | -
11760):
11546 | -

"TryTy |e

1346
142]
1470 | Sept. _,,

1499 ed

Nov.

1886, {17-036 |-11735
June 1887, {17-878 |-11748

Surface. Bottom.

co co

80, 2 SO, 2

per per
oe | Pay, (peas | ON Ee soe

Bulen Gt my Cl

ws ee! eee =.
Cuarocaiar (Loch Strivan).

1459
1437
1479

18°561 |-11800 | 1490
18-776 |-11770 | -1601

17°835 |11544 18586 |:11586 | +1443

Mean, . |17°583 [11676 | 1458 18641 |'11719 | “1511
"1434
OrMIDALE (Loch Ridun).
Nov. 1886, |14°879 |-11746 | -1451 ||18-195 |-11704 | +1502
1454 | Sept. 1887, |17°826 |-11685 | 1477 ||18-391 |-11715 | 1479
1545 ~—aa Ia... ....
1475 | Mean, 16°352 |"11715 | ‘1464 ||18'293 |"11710| "1490
1463
Srucksee (Loch Goil).
Nov. 1886, |16:009 |:11717 | -1458 |/18-294 |-11713 | 1452
Feb. 1887, |10°907 |"11804 | *1607 ||18-209 |-11709 | 1494
May y> _|16°121 |°11813 | -1480 118-225 |-11758 | -1459
June ,, |16°583/:11794 | 1461 18-393 |-11766 | -1492
Sept. ,, |17°493 |:11542 | 1441 118-321 |-11604 | -1475

Mean, . |15°423 |'11734| 1489 |118°288 |'11710 | "1474
sae THORNBANK (Loch Long).
Nov. 1886, (17°800 |:11724 | -1481 18-316 |:11720 | 1447
May 1887, |16°622 |:11777 | 1461 ||18°365 |-11777 | 1477
1421] June ,, {17-137 |:11741|-1457 |]... +: Be:
aa Sept. ,, |17-538 "11604 | -1442 ||18-434 |-11557 | -1582
Mean, . |07°274 [11711 | 1460 ||18°372 |'11685 | “1502
Gantook (Dunoon Basin).
‘1448 | Nov. 1886, |16-880 |-11776 | 1491 |)18-428 |"11793 | 1451
Feb. 1887, |10°192 |:11698 | -1673 ||18:247 |-11792 | 1462
May _,,,_—[17224|-11828 | -1559 |/18°392 |-11805 | 1522
June ,, {16°583 |:11794 | 1461 |/18°492 |-11799 | 1459
‘1460 | Sept. ,, |17°566 |-11602 | 1471 18-483 |-11654 | -1456
1438 laa ree
1446 | Mean, 15°689 |'11739 | 1531 ||18°408 |'11769 | “1470
‘1661
1472 Kitmun (Holy Loch),
1462 | Nov. 1886, |16°505 [11648 | 1482 |[18°251 |°11728 | 1420
Sept. 1887, |16°569 |-11627 | 1486 |18-419 |-11557 | :1428
Mean, 16°537 |"11638 | °1484 ||18°335 |'11643 | ‘1424
Smanpon (Gareloch).
Nov. 1886, (16-608 (11728 | °1516 17-473 |-11635 | -1494
May 1887, |16°403 |:11777 | °1501 117-433 |-11766 | -1561
June ,, |17°832|11781]°1500 117-923 |11691 | -1405
Sept. ,,.- (177171 |°11653 | -1515 17-592 |-11620| 1524
Mean, 17°OOF [11735 | "1508 ||17°605 |"11678 | "1496

CLYDE SEA AREA. 713

Leaving out of account the Cuill observations on account of the small salinity of the
water, and ignoring the September readings, which are almost certainly too low, the
previous table may be condensed into the summary presented in Table XX XVIII.

TaBLE XXXVIII.— Amended Means of Sulphuric and Carbonic Acids for Stations on the
Clyde Sea Area.

Surface. Bottom.
Station. No. of No. of
Observa-| SO, ratio. |CO, ratio.) Observa- | SO, ratio. |CO, ratio.

tions, tions.
Strachur, 3 0711736 | 01490 3 011741 | 01491
Gortans, . Z 011746 | 01455 2 011787 | 071458
Clapochlar, 2 011741 | 01448 2 011785 | 0:1545
Ormidale, 1 011746 | 071451 1 011704 | 071502
Stuckbeg, 4 0711782 | 01501 4 011736 | 01474
Thornbank, 3 011747 | 0:1466 2 0711748 | 071462
Holy Loch, 1 0711648 | 0:1482 1 011728 | 0:1420
Gareloch, . 3 0711762 | 071506 3 011697 | 0:1487
Gantock, . 4 011774 | 071546 4 011797 | 071473
Skate Island, 4 011778 | 01510 5 011734 | 071439
Carradale, 5 : 5 011738 | 0:1459 5 0711783 | 071495
Plateau and Channel, 3 011775 | 01445 4 011759 | 01471
Mean Landward, . 23 0711753 | 01492 DP) 011751 | 071480
Mean Seaward, 12 011760 | 0:1472 14 0°11759 | 01468
Mean over all, 35 011756 | 01485 36 011754 | 0:1475

Results of Chemical Work.—In Table XXXVIII. the depth is again seen to have
little or no determining influence on the distribution of sulphates, while the higher
alkalinity of surface waters in all, or nearly all, cases is brought out conspicuously. No
definite geographical distribution of sulphates can be traced ; the water of the Plateau
and Channel are seemingly as rich in sulphates as many of the lochs. The very high
proportion of sulphates in the surface water of Loch Goil could be explained by the
exceptionally high ratio of its catchment area to its surface, but the exceptionally low
ratio at the bottom is against this theory; while the single observation in the Holy
Loch, which has a still greater catchment area for rain, shows an exactly opposite effect.
The Landward portion of the area, as a whole, seems to contain slightly less than the
Seaward portion, which is a very unexpected result. It indicates that in the river
water draining into the Clyde Sea Area the ratio of sulphates to chlorides in solution is
no higher than in the nearly pure sea water of the North Channel. Or it may be taken
as a proof that evaporation is a much less potent factor than tidal action in effecting
the circulation of water in the loch-basins, a result at which the salinity observations also
hinted. Supposing the rivers entering the Clyde Sea Area to carry in as large a propor-

VOL. XXXVI. PART III. (NO. 23). 50

714 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE CLYDE SEA AREA.

tion of sulphates as the average rivers of other regions of crystalline rocks do, it would
necessarily happen that if the tidal or wind circulation was insufficient to produce a
somewhat rapid change of water, the proportion of sulphates would be increased by
evaporation, and the loch-basins would thus become richer than the open sea in these
constituents. The figures before us only serve to suggest, not to solve, these problems ;
and the high proportion of sulphates in the Sea Area, compared with the North Sea and
the open ocean, becomes very perplexing.

The average alkalinity of surface water is almost always greater than that of bottom
water, and the alkalinity of the Landward portion of the area is distinctly higher than
that of the Seaward portion. This is what may be expected from the distribution of
salinity, and it shows that the dissolved carbonates of river water produce a marked
effect in the composition of the water of the Area. The Gareloch, Loch Goil, and the
upper basin of Loch Fyne are characterised by high alkalinity both at surface and
bottom. Skate Island has also high surface alkalinity, but at the bottom it is much
below the average. The great depth of the water (107 fathoms) may possibly account
to some extent for this observation. Carradale in Kilbrennan Sound showed a very
high alkalinity at the bottom, which it is difficult to explain.

Peculiar interest is attached to Mr Dicxin’s figures for the station at Gantock in the
Dunoon Basin. The proportion of sulphates found in the water there was very high,
particularly at the bottom, while the alkalinity, especially on the surface, was also the
highest observed. It seems to me possible, or even probable, that this is in consequence
of the large quantity of alkali waste discharged into the Dunoon Basin. The insoluble
calcium sulphide would naturally accumulate as sediment in the deepest part of the
basin, where the observations appear to show that it is undergoing gradual oxidation into
sulphate. Possibly the high surface alkalinity is due to traces of alkaline carbonates, or
perhaps even to soluble sulphides, which were dissolved before the sediment had time to
sink. Here, again, the observations only suggest, but do not demonstrate, an explana-
tion. ;

It is somewhat remarkable that so prolonged, wide-spread, and careful a set of,
analyses as those of Mr Dickie do not show more direct relations with the remarkably
contrasted physical conditions of the regions from which the samples worked upon were
taken. I confess to much disappointment with the results; but, in the hope that others
with greater skill or courage in the treatment of statistics than I possess may be induced.
to look into the matter, I am induced to publish my discussion of the work so far as it
has gone.

( 715 )

CONTENTS OF PARTS. I & IL

Part I. PaystcaL GEOGRAPHY— PAGE | Part II. Saninity AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

Introductory, : 641
Configuration of the ‘Miatinatt tact, ; 642 Collection of Samples and Use of Hydro-

Great Plateau, 643 meter, : :

Arran Basin, . 643 Surface Samples,

Bute Plateau, 644 Samples beneath the Sarees

Dunoon Basin, 645 Mill’s Self-Locking Water-Bottle,

Clyde Estuary, 645 Preservation of Samples,

River Clyde, . 646 Salinity and its Measurement,
Gareloch, 646 Determination of Density, :
Loch Long, 646 Table XIV. Trustworthiness of
Loch Goil, 647 Hydrometer,

Holy Loch, 647 » XV. Variation in Hydro-

Loch Strivan, 648 meter Readings—l.,

Kyles of Bute, 648 » XVI. Variation in Hydro-

Loch Ridun, . 648 meter Readings—II.,

Loch Fyne, 648 » XVII. Summary of Hydro-
atistics of Physical Geography, : 650 meter Variations, .

ee ae es oes Be a} Water Observers and Observing Stations,
Surface, 651 Results of Salinity Observations, .
», LI. Volume and fecemed Bepies 652 Salinity Observations,

; a The Twelve Salinity Trips, . :
Bie Dancin, re Table XVIII. ee Density at
Rainfall and River Discharge, . 654 each Station,

Table III. Mean Monthly Rainfall Salinity Trip of April 1886,

of Landward Portion, . 655 a5 55 June a
IV. Mean Monthly Rainfall ” » August ,,
of Seaward Portion, 655 i ip September ,,
. VY. Monthly Rainfall, Land- ” ” November ,,
ward Portion, 1886-88, 656 ” » December ,,
» WI. Monthly Rainfall, Sea- ay By February 1887,
ward Portion, 1886-88, 656 » » March ”
» VII. Mean Monthly Rainfall ” » May ”
of Clyde Sea Area, : 657 ” ” June ”
» VIII. Volume of Total Rainfall 9 » duly ”
of Clyde Sea Area, 659 September ,,
» IX. Volume of Monthly Rain- Gener Readli of Salinity Trips,
fall of Clyde Sea Area, 660 Table XIX. Surface Densities at
each Station for each
Temperature of the Avr, . 660 Trip,
Table X. Mean Air Temiperatnire, » XX. Bottom Denes mS
1866-85, F 660 each Station for each
» Al. Air Temperature, 1886, 661 Trip,
» XII. Air Temperature, 1887, 662 Salinity and Rainfall of Tendrara
», XIII. Air Temperature, 1888, 663 Portion, . : ;

OF THE WATER.

PAGE
664
664
664
664
666
667
668

671

672

672

673
674

675

675
676

677
677
678
679
680
680
681
682
682
683
683
684
684
685

686

687

688

716 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

Results of Salinity Observations—Contd.

Table XXI. Fluctuations of Rain-
fall and Salinity,
Salinity and Rainfall of Seaward

Portion,
Quantitative Relation hate aire
fall and Salinity, .

Table XXII. Quantitative mee
tion between Rainfall and Sali-
nity, °

Table XXIII. Rainfall Saal Sali

nity, .
»» XXIV. Normal Density of
Bottom Water,
Increase of Salinity with Depth,
Table XXV. Difference in Sali-
nity between Bottom
and Surface,

5 X&XVI. Vertical Distribu-
tion of Salinity,

» XAXVII. Summary, .

» XXVIII. Average Porsentage
of Sea Water at
each Station,

» XXIX. Density and Per-
centage of Sea
Water,

Amount and Fluctuation of Sea Water
in each Division,

Table XXX. Quantitative Salinity

of Clyde Sea Area,

PAGE

688

690

690

691

692

692

692

694

695

697

697

698

698

699

Results of Salinity Observations—Contd.
Table XXXI. Percentage of Sea
Water and Amount
of Salts at Max.
and Min., .
Salinity of Loch Fyne,
Table XXXII. Density of Water
in Loch Fyne,
» XXXITII. Percentage of Nor-
mal Sea Water in
Loch Fyne,
» XXXIV. Volume and Fluc-
tuation of Normal
Sea Water in Loch
Fyne,
The Circulation of Loch Fyne,
Chemistry of Water in the Clyde Sea Area,
Table XXXV. Relation of Sulphuric
and Carboni¢e Acids
to Salinity, .

» X&XXVI. Chemical Conditions
of Clyde Sea Area, .

» X&XXVII. Chemical Composition
of Water at Various
Stations,

» SXXVIII. Amended Means at
Sulphurie and Car-
bonie Acids,

Results of Chemical Work,
Summary and Contents, .
Appendix.—Observations of Density on
the Clyde Sea Area, .

PAGE

702
703

703

704

712

713
713

715

717

CLYDE SEA AREA. . TG

APPENDIX.—SALINITY.

OBSERVATIONS OF DENSITY ON THE CLYDE SEA AREA.

Estuary.

Caras | Cay | oes fe ity. 3
tim [28 (28| 221 5 i Re
Date. Hour. Position. eye = 5 =| lide: Weather. ees 55
oO = ~~ SS
A & aAnlas ea St. 4915-56 a a
7.7.84. | 19.35 | Off Renfrew, ds S. 65° 1. w. Dull. Dry. 155 | 0°9989 | 0:9990 | 0:000
| 8.7.84. | 14.0 », Gourock, ik S. 57°2 | 2h. e. Bright. Calm. 15°4 | 1:02371 | 1:02367 | 3:199

13. 4.86. 9.52 », Cardross, ahs Ss. 44:0 |4} he. Dull. Calm. 7°6 | 1:00348 | 1:00207 | 0:491
» > | 10.45 | ,, Greenock, 14 | S| 44:8 /5he. i x 11:8 | 1-02166 | 1-02095 | 2°845
” ” ” ” ” aw ” B. 41°4 ” or) ” 11:2 478 391 | 3°230

24.9,86. 8.50 | ,, Whitefarland, .} 16 S. | 526 |f¢h.e. N.E. Light. 117 404 328 | 3°230
alee oy 6) 3 Pes Ap B. 52°7 4h a nn 11°8 564 487 | 3°355

11.11.86.; 8.15 ,, Bowling, 3 Ss. 42°5 | 2th. f. Bright. Calm. 81 | 1°00031 | 099945 | 0:000
a 8.50 | ,, Dumbarton, 23| S. | 43-7 |2ah.f - rn 6°8 462 | 1-00361 | 0°691
Sig 33 ” ” ” On at ” B. 44°0 ” 9 3 73 546 450 | 0°807
eS, 9.45 | ,, Port Glasgow, . 3 S. 47°2 | 3¢h. f. Dull. Calm. 8°5 | 1°01871 | 1:01754 | 2°418
ag 99 ” ” ” ” B. 48°0 ” ” ” 9-1 1°02109 997 | 2°718
»» 9s | 10.40 | ,, Greenock, 13 | Se | ars ise £ “ 3 8°5 057 936 | 2°639
99099 ” ” ” ” B. 511 ” 9 ” 9°7 558 | 1°02445 | 3-300

28.12.86.| 15.30 | ,, _ 134 | S. 42°9 |1th.e.} Dull. Haze. Calm. 53 302 139 | 2:903
vs ae ” ” ” ee ” B. 461 ” ” ” 5°4 569 399 | 3°241
6.5.87. | 15.0 | Roseneath Buoy, .| 11 S. 47°0 |2¢h.e.| Dull. Haze. N.W. 129 286 233 | 025 |;
nee. Ge. a oH Poe 6 13}, 44°5 nh Aa 5 ial 512 424] 273

18.6.87. ' 11.55 - * S. 52°0 | 1. w. Mist. Rain. 12°2 439 372| *206

GARELOCH.

13.4.86. | 12.30 | RowL., 5 OH) anal} B. 41'1 | Zh. f. Calm. Clear. 10°4 | 102467 | 1:02367 | 3:199
a 4 nf eral) 33 SI eer ae i ie 10°8 077 | 1:01985 | 2-702
Mee 235 "Shandon? . .|°20'| S. | 43-0 | 2h. f . i. 12°4 | 1:01975 914 | 2-610
a oe. “ eee: | Bar 400i 3: 3 53 11°5 | 1-02410 | 1-02330 | 3-151
aryl 13.25 | Gareloch Head, .| 14 S. 43°7 | 2h. f. 3 11‘7 | 1:01982 | 1°01913 | 2-609

21.4. 86. 14,25 FP Mee eee |e Be 418 |4he Bright. Calm. 7'7 | 1:02473 | 1:02337 | 3-160
me. H os || ee 8. 45-1 5 “a is 77 363 226] ‘016
S., | 1455 | Shandon, . .| 28 | S. | 447/1he. 33 6°8 371 223| -012

16.6.86. | 15.5 Row II., 5 || 3283 s. 49°0 | 3h. e. | Bright. N.N.W. Strong. | 15:0 346 333 | 155
i, ss i oy | Ss il a ee ae fe i 14:3 356 329 | -150
fe) 12.30°|'Shandon, . .|» 28 |-S. | 486 |\12h.e a 5 16-0 322 330] -151
ae See EB. |) 25851 2, ; 12°7 409| 351| -17
* 2?" | 14.0 | Gareloch Head, .| 102} S. | 484 |1%h.e. is i 12°3 392 325| 144
4,8.86. 9.45 | Row I., < o |eelil Ss. 52°3 |4 h. f. Bright. Calm. 14°7 406 8387 | *225
ce . $ Some ||) By | Ska) 2 * 13-1 445 394] -234
4.8.86. 9.35 | Row Point, eo | ere s. 52:4 | 2h. f. 3 A 13°2 432 381] :217
pa, 55 9.20 | Row IL., So 2G 7 52°8 | 4h. f sa ae 13°2 414 3863} 194
ae A: s es | Be | 52°39, |) . Ss. 12°9 431 378 | ‘211
3.8.86. | 18.30 | Shandon, = ely eal Ss. 53'7 | 4h. e ss nf 131 420 369 | *202
,, i a Fane bee iw | bao: aes ze 4 13-2 416 367 | -199
aie, 3) ” ” . a9 B. 52°8 ” ” ” 13°0 429 376} ‘211
55 18.5 Gareloch Head, 104) S. 54:0 | 34h.e AA nh 15°7 365 368 | °200

‘haa ‘ i. : eee. | 52:81. 5 ‘ ; 14-4 406 381| 217

24.9.86. | 10.0 Row L., 114 Ss. 53:0 |lh.e Dull. 9 401 3828 | ‘149
_., ‘i lied, | 52:8 | 2 ;, - 12°0 550 477 | +342
oie 10.40 | Shandon, 194 s. 53°7 | 1¢h.e Bh 1271 392 823 | +142
~~, "i a ; Pee. | 5830) sy 121 443 373 | -207
, 4» | 11.0 | Gareloch Head, 10 | S. | 538/2he ie 13:0 384 331] “152
- ss . : Pies | 58:8 | + 13°3 403 354] 182

11.11.86.| 11.20 | RowlL., 12 Ss. 48°2 | 52h. f. Dull. Calm. 89 248 127 | 2°887
ee 811.20 - ee | 51:0, iM 3 9°7 567 454 | 3°312

{ oe. || 12.30" || Row II., Was | 503.) 5, : i 9-4 495 379 | -215
. i” ¥ Shandon, 23 | S. | 490 |th.e i 9°6 333 223 | -012
| 12.10 - ; Pe eeBan |) 50-9 | & 3 if 101 440 336 | °159
on aff Gareloch Head, 11 S. 49°3 |th.e x 5 9°7 378 268) -202

ooeiten 13.0 mA 6 % B. 50°9 3 5 10°1 420 314} °130

28.12.86. 50 Row L., 11 Ss. 42°8 | 5h. f. Dull. N.N.W 4°7 234 068 | 2°812

Gg

VOL. XXXVI. PART III. (NO. 2 5P

QO}
(es)
~S

718 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE
GanrELocH—continued.
| wo | BS : Densit 3
3) : eee ensity.
: ad |ae| 38 AS a
Date. Hour. Position. SS | 28 | ge | Tide Weather. 38°. a i
as Aalad HBO) St | Sisss aa
28.12.86.) 13.0 | RowL., Sie B. 45°8 | 5h. f. Dull. N.N.W. 4°9 | 1°02544 | 1:02871 | 3:204
ss» 99: | 13.45 | Shandon, , a et es. | ao beh ft Dull. Sleet. 49 243 079 | 2:825
ee s * abil Ga Bel 45D ley ‘. - Bil 493 323 | 3-142
See a 14.15 | Gareloch Head, ./| 11 S. 40:0 |¢h.e. ae > 5'1 152 | 1:01992 | 2°712
oe # ’ Ra geal (aie: B. 45°0 3 % = 53 455 | 1°02287 | 3-095
12,2.87. | 13.15 | Row II., woe | 26 |S. | aoe3 het. Bright. E. 7:0 154 013 | 2739
” ”? ” ” err ” B. 43°3 ” ” 27. 79 374 239 3033
25.3.87. 14.30 | RowL, sae 13 s. 42°8 |1dh.e. Dull. Rain. N.W. 10°0 405 297 | ‘108
” »” ” ” oe 9 B. 43°2 | 29 ” BE) 10°7 485 391 “230
Phere 15.50 | Gareloch Head, .| 11 S. 42°8 | 2¢h.e. 55 A 79 427 291} -100
ie e 4 eee Bee) 45r1 ible ny ‘: Be 8-4 436 307 | *121
6.5.87. | 17.15 | Shandon, et |e S. 49°3 | 1. w. Dull. Haze. S. 11°3 261 179 | 2:955
site: E3 a Psi pe Bip 403 he a - 11°4 410 328 | 3-150
Samia 16.40 | Gareloch Head, . 94) S. 51°9 |5hh.e Dull. Haze. S.E. 11:2 258 175 | 2-949
ob 4 & et BM) 250) “a A 11°2 391 304 | 3-117
13.6.87. 9.30 | RowL, ae 114 Ss. 51°8 | 4h. e. Dull. W. 13°9 404 369 | +202
ry eee |) 29 ” oe y) B. 50°5 9 2 ” 14:0 426 395 234
oat 3 10.15 | Shandon, eelurctal llen 241E S. 52°4 | 42h.e. Dull. Rain. S.W. 12:7 435 378 | ‘214
eee as a Sar ee B. 48-2 Be op 6 12°5 459 398 | +240
sain dss 10.50 | Gareloch Head, . 84 | S. 52'1 | 5¢h.e. a na 12°3 455 390] +229
Ed ad es 2 Cua a Bea ||-b0°2 fe 3 if: 4 12°4 460 396 | +237
30.9. 87. 7.40 | Row IL., pune | el S. 53°8 | 2th. f. Bright. N.N.E. 12:2 377 808 | +123
” ” Le) ” ee Ly) B, 54°0 Bh ”? ” 13°0 432 380 *216
ied 8.10 | Shandon, Sa) 2a.) SP iss-7 gent se “ 12°1 384 316| -133
i 5% Ae BS Se cul ates B. 54:2 y 5 *, 12°5 427 365 | ‘196
yi fag 8.35 |Gareloch Head, .| 10 S.> | 54:2 |3phf Bright. N.E. 12°7 393 335 | *157
ee 3m ” ” oh nats ” B, 54°5 UB ” oF) 13°5 409 367 “199
Dunoon Basin.
13.4.86. | 16.30 | Dog Rock, eal lech S. AD ale Heide Calm. Dull. 10°0 | 1:01964 | 1:01867 | 2-549
ey ” 55 rian ise B. | 41°4 5 3 : 8°4 | 1:02570 | 1:02440 | 3-294
14.4.86. | 11.36 | Coulport, og || “evel SE 46°0 | 3h. e. Bright. Calm. 10°2 | 1:01983 | 1°01890 | 2°579
7 a eal ees B. 41°5 ae nA 8 8°5 | 1:02563 | 1:02438 | 3-292
| 13.4.86. | 15.25 |Strone Point, . .| 284] S. 44:8 | 2h. f. Dull. Calm. 10°5 | 1:01952 | 101864 | 2°545
1 99 a 56 eyed loess B. 41:4 a re iw 9°9 | 1:02555 | 1:02449 | 3:306
14.4.86. | 138.50 | Gantock, 5 aie 2a Sh 45°3 | 54h. e. y 5s 11°3 | 1:01979 | 101905 | 2°598
ah! as 9 An ake 45 B. 41°6 as of * 11°0 | 1:02572 | 102486 | 3:354
ae, 15.17 | Bogany, oP reall nee Ss. 459 | 1th. North. 10°5 195 105 | 2°858
lt phen vag ” 59 es FA B. 41°4 of AN 10°1 598 496 | 3°367
| 15.4.86. | 10.0 | Rothesay Bay,. .| 20 8. 441 |/the Dull. Calm. 11°3 286 210 | 2°995
99 ” ” Cis ” B. 41°4 ” ” ” 10°2 574 473 | 3°339
aaa dg 11,35 | Between Bute and] ... S. 46:0 | 2h.e. Bright. Calm.. 87 216 059 | 2°799
Cumbrae, |

| 17.4.86. Sas *B Raa aces Ss. ‘ee Ms seid 11:0 274 191] ‘970
21.4.86. | 11.55 | Gantock, 5 ol eo) 8. 43°2 | 4th. f. Bright. N.E. (ul 558 420 | 3°268
hence - Ber | es Baa eailap ” ne . Madi 640 498 | 370
| 16.6.86. 16.10 | Strone Point, . .| 24 Ss. 49:2 |} 4h. e. Bright. W.N.W. 12°0 449 380} ‘216
| 94 ” ” ” re a ” B. 44°3 9 ” ” 11°8 569 493 "363
17.6.86. | 10.3 | Dog Rock, sy stl 749 s. 50°8 | 34 hf. Dull. N.W. 15°4 314 312| °128
» 9 ” ” es as B. 43°1 5 55 tf 14°4 493 468 | °331
ates sa 9.20 | Coulport, neal aS Ss. 49°3 |2h h. f. ys 3 14:7 377 358 | +188
” 99 9 * come 5 B. 43°1 Af * a9 13°5 519 476 | 341
pated a 16.45 | Strone Point, . .| 334] S. 49°7 |4h.e. Dull. 19°8 251 354| °182
$4°0° 99 ” ” ais ” B. 44°3 ” 9 18°3 419 484 "B51
fey ” ” » is ” 5 SoD ” ” 19°2 344 432 "284
ir 18.0 | Gantock, a -e{) “63 Ss. 49°8 |5} he. > 19°0 294 376 | ‘211
ne es + sg Pee eae B | AGI a ¥ 18°3 373 438 | +299
9» ” ” Ane ” B. 44:3 2. ” 21'1 364 502 375
5.8.86. 12.0 Dog Rock, eral OF Ss. 52°8 | 2h. f. Dull. E.S.E. 14:7 435 416 | °263
om aa ” ” . ” 6 48°2 9 ” a0 14°7 485 461 821
yp” iss ” ” ay ae ’9 B. 47°3 ose ” ” 16°1 489 501 373
4.8.86. | 12.20 | Coulport, BS annaee Ss. 53°3 | 3h. f. Bright. S. 14°7 446 427 | *277
tee ” ” te A 6 49°5 i Sq 35 14°2 490 460 | *320
5.8.86. | 15.35 ‘9 Fh ee Ss. B21) (5 hee: Dull. Rain. Calm. 15:0 413 400 | °242
999 ” 99 Nieted| ares B. 47°5 os 5% i 14°3 521 493 | +363
4.8.86. | 10.4C |Strone Point, . .| 381 Ss. §2°8 |1ph. f. Bright. S. | 18°8 392 855 | 183
99 oe) ” aes ” 6 50°3 ” ” ar) | 14:1 479 448 “305
T Reet ” ” Cpe OP) ” B. 47°9 ” ” ” 13°7 528 488 343

CLYDE SEA AREA, 719

Dunoon Basin—continued.

6G | os as A ese Density. 3 S

ae reas iyles ea oe Ne gas 2

Date. Hour. Position. B= | BS | go | Tide. Weather, 2 So B.A
33/ aul ss Sole gisee eis a3

SS Ses a ant. 4915-56 | 5a

6.8.86 9.30 | Gantock, | 2 soe |) “SI 51°6 | 4¢h.e. Dull. Rain. S.W. 13°8 | 1°02492 | 1:02455 | 3°313
Ee EH) ” ” Se %: 6 50°0 3p a5 op 13°7 503 464 | °325
ag 39 ”? ” saeco ” B, 48°3 ” oF A6 13°7 530 490 | °359
ee 11.5 | Knock Hill, . .| 42 S. | 52°6 | dh.f. ‘ eA 14°6 478 457 | 316
je a8 ” ” a 1G ” 6 47°9 on 5h An 13°2 540 491 | °360
22 9 bed ” 2 4 29 B. 50°5 ” 99 ”? 13°6 540 498 370
ee 14.45 | Bogany, Se wah eao 8. 52°6 | 4h. f. “3 7 13°2 537 488 | °357
i S, #3 - ale, G-sl5oas\) “t ‘ 14°8 492 475 | 339
29 th) a9 Le) . C ” B. 48 or ” 20 137 535 495 *365
24.9.86 13.50 | Dog Rock, > al 20 S. 52°8 | 42h.e Dull. 12°6 448 388 | °227
a 95 ” ” Sane ” B. 51'9 i nD Wy) 487 428 ‘279
45 12.25 |Strone Point, . .| 31 s. 52°9 | 3hh.e K 12°4 441 377 | °212
> 99 ” ” oye te ” B. 52°1 ” 90 12°7 560 501 373
23.9.86 18.30 | Gantock, perro OW 8. 53'1 |4i hf. Dull. N. 12°0 376 303 | ‘116
9» D % as cl ory B. | 52:0 MA Fe - 12:2 574 505| °378
een) 17.500) Knock ial, . .| 43- | “Si ) 53-3] oh f ‘ 12°7 481 422} ‘271
> 99 ” on Supa eee B. 517 55 ie re 12°8 566} 509} °383
25.9.86 10.0 Bogany, 5 ode YY S. 53'1 | h. w. Dull. 12°2 397 330} ‘151
Pee: _ F Berlicas, ih) sBa) (DONO yg ‘i 11°6 55S 478 |. °344
11.11.86.) 15.15 | Dog Rock, 6 ol) sve ass 49°4 55 Dull. N.W. 9°5 483 369 | °202
09 ” ” on ” 15 ls} 34 he OF 20 9°6 561 447 “303
es: » °F B. | 51-4 a9 9°3 626 504] °377
12.11.86.) 12.55 op 44 Ss. 49°3 | the. Bright. N. 9-4 472 356 | *185
99 » » ey 5 Be olen 4 - 10:0 564 456 | °3815
11.11.86.} 14.35 | Coulport, = =| -380 S. 49°8 |2hh.e. Dull. N.W. 97 479 368 | °202
a dell np saat les 5) || fileB} 4 FA ¥ 9°5 556 440 | *294
99 , » Se Fol 35 Bae olor, 5 f 9°8 561 448 | +305
12.11.86.) 14.10 | Strone Point, . .| 338 Ss. 49°3 | 1¢h.e. Bright. N. 9°5 353 240} *034
99 2 ” a), an 9 B. Gy lGye 33 ne) AG 10°7 564 468 B31
ae 16.5 | Gantock, a Oller) Ss. 48°6 | 3th.e t -% 9-1 392 274} °078
ee) ” ” a a eS 21 51°5 pf D5 nA 8°8 585 459 *319
Benes) ” - Ol) oe B. 51°7 a3 a A 8°8 591 465 | °326
13.11.86.) 8.45 | Bogany, cereal) dl 8. 48°6 | 12h. f. Mist. Rain. Calm. 9°0 432 812] 128
29 99 ” ” aE tell! x B, 52:1 29 30 an 9°7 594 481] ‘347
22.12.86.} 11.10 | Dog Rock, 2 | bs Ss. 45-7 |1fth.e. Duli. Rain. N. 6°6 536 SS = 2N7
a. 93 ” 3 Gas oa B. 48°0 a Fp 4, 6°5 613 455 | ‘313
ae 14,0 | Coulport, eis 39 Ss. 45:9 | 4h. e. Dull. Rain. 74 527 383 | °220
ay 93 ” 3 oy 39 B. 47°8 “9 5¢ 35 7:0 601 450 | °3807
aan 14.45 |Strone Point, . .| 80 Ss. 45°5 | 4¢h.e. Dull. N. Bal 540 369 | °202
” ? ” ” Oo 4 ” B. 47-6 ” a0 a0 5) 609 437 | °290
23.12.86.| 9.40 | Gantock, || 49% | SS. 45:6 | 5h. f. Dull. N.W. 6°5 548 391] ‘230
ami yy ” ” soe ” B. 46°4 ” 2 ri 70 603 451 “308
» » | 11.0 | Bogany, os) 24 S. | 45°6 | h. w. Bright. W. 70 551 400] 242
a 199 ” ” se ” B. 47°3 ” ” ” 72 614 463 “324
8.2.87 11.10 | Coulport, i ey 8. BiB) || Blo, te, Bright. Mist. 3°5 | 1:01325 | 1:01181 | 1°763
mA 9.35 | Gantock, meet ae S. 39°0 | 8¢ hf. Mist. E.S.E. 4:0 | 1:01452 807 | *921
99 ” ” a ” B. 44-0 ” Hn os 4:0 1°02618 | 1:02434 | 3°286
9.2.87. 9.45 | Knock Hill, . .| 42 Ss. 39:0 | 3h. f. Bright. Mist. 5:4 | 1:01909 | 101759 | 2°406
>» » ” Beall ap B. 44:1 7 5 - 51 | 1:02619 | 1:02445 | 3°300
25.3.87 11.0 | Dog Rock, oui 20) S. 42°38 | 5hf. Dull. N. 9°5 369 256} °055
‘ae ” ” <i *y B. 43°6 ” 3 Ay 15:0 456 441 "295
ee: 13.15 | Blairmore, 3x || 2 8. 43:0) | 4 bh. e. Bright. N.W. 8°3 451 320] +138
ae ; im ee By. 436 |e ee ra AS 8°8 552 497 | +277
ie 5 18.15 | Strone, ay ofr S. 43°1 |5fh.e. Bright. N. 72 469 . 823.) 142
ey) ” ” Cue or 39 B. 43°5 ” Ao as 78 570 430 "281
26.3.87 9.10 | Gantock, hah GBT, S. 42-7 | 12h.f. Dull. Calm. 4 430 319] +137
— 2 " "ec WOR Bee | 43-7 . ¥ 10°1 540 437 |. -290
ons, 16.30 | Knock Hill, . .| 42 S. 43:0 | 3h.e. Dull. Rain. S. 8°6 538 410} °255
oe , a - . See BY. || 45h (0 of) &: iF 9°0 563 440 | +294
me 4; 10.30 | Bogany, Oy alt uF 8. 43-1 | 3ph.f. Dull. Calm. oni 422 811} ‘126
eo) Dp bb 3 foil Gs B. 44-0 55 3 $5 10°0 568 462 | °323
6.5.87. | 13.45 | Gantock, io) Bh) Ss. 46°5 | 24h.e. Dull. Haze. W. 13°0 573 321} +1389
7.5.87. 9.50 | Dog Rock, . .| 493] Sz 49:4 | 4h.f. Bright. S. 131 501 201 | 2983
17 ” » BAR | was B. 43°7 56 54 3 15°3 426 420 | 3:268
Ben oy 13.20 | Coulport, 2 ak 38 S. 49°0 |Ithe Dull. S. 10°5 333 237 | *030
oy 33 » a oo Walt bes B. 43°8 e o5 e 10°3 553 450 | °307
oe aD 14.10 |Strone Point, . .| 382 8. 47°3 |2h he. Dull. W. by S. 9°7 382 272 | 076
Se RD ” ” Ci ” 15) 44°4 oF ” si 10°0 570 461 B21
oct es 16.30 | Bogany, ool 23 s. 48°5 | 4¢h.e Bright. W. 10°0 418 313 | *129
Sen 9 2 cee sillanee B. 44°2 PA ei a 99 594 485 | °352

a

720 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

Dunoon Bastn—continued.

So j.> 3 | 2-5 | Oa Density.
| Je Se ed ee ce afc
Date. Hour, Position. aS ae g@ | Tide. Weather. eee
AQ & AwZ|eas , BO} 4St 4915:56
13.6.87. 12.20 | Blairmore, As | Ss. 516 | £hf. Dull. Rain. 12°1 | 1:02502 | 1°02432
14.6.87. | 10.30 | Dog Rock, se | 248 S. §2°5 | 4h.e. Dull. S. 14°2 195 168
” ” 9 ”? ud ne 2? B. 45°2 ) 99 9 13°7 518 479
Fas 11.40 |Coulport, © . .| 37 8. 53°4 |5¢h.e.| Dull. S.W. Showers. | 13°5 296 256
” ” ” ” o) Ux ” B. 45°2 ” ” ” 9 13°1 529 477
rans 12.30 | Strone Point, . .| 31 S. GPA || IRSA Dull. Rain. S. 12°7 448 389
Try) ” ” oa »” B. 45°2 » ” ” ” 12°5 544 481
Mer 14.0 | Gantock, sy ail 46 S. 51°5 | 1bh.f. Dull. Rain. S.W. 12°4 463 399
09 9 ” Si ” B. 46°2 re) ” ” ” 12°5 536 473
me 15.30 | Bogany, it Gales Ss. 51°6 | 8th. f.| Dull. Rain, Calm. 1 2Ri. 507 437
” ”? 9 ” 4 = 9 B. 45°6 99 99 ” > 11°8 570 494
18.6.87. | 17.20 | Gantock, BH eas Ss. 56°2 | Sh. f. | Bright. Haze. S. Light.| 18°4 320 387
9 99 9? ”? A id 99 B. 47°0 9 9 9 ” 39 175 440 485
29.9.87. | 11.50 | Dog Rock, 3 el oo S. 54°1 | Lhe. Bright. N.E. 131 419 368
”? 9 9 ” ‘A = 9? B. 53°2 PP) ” ” 13°5 529 . 486
sat ise 10.55 | Coulport, £ eed| 4a s. 54°1 | h. w. Bright. E.N.E. 13°0 478 427
” ” Le) ” P > 9 B. 53°6 ” > a 12°9 542 487
an an 10.5 |Strone Point, . .| 338 Ss. 53°4 | 5th. f. Dull, Rain. N.E. 12°4 404 340
9 ” a9 +B) - - 9 B. 54:1 9 99 ” > 13°5 537 494
ae 9.0 | Gantock, ss tal s. 53°7 | 4th. f. Bright. N.N.E. 12°2 414 | 348
9 ” 29 ” p e >B) B, 54:1 2? | 9) ” 14°5 510 488
Locu Gott.
13.4.86. | 17.50 | Stuckbeg, a oe 3G SP SE 44°6 | 4th. f. Dull. Calm. 86 | 1:02154 | 1:020386
? 9 »” - B. 41°5 ce 99 re) 8°2 580 449
17.6.86 14.25 5 474 | S. 47°9 | 1ldhe. Dull. N.W. 13°4 433 390
» Oo» ” ” ” ey fll » 5 13°6 438 398
yO” ” ” ” 23 42°4 ” ” 55 13°7 496 457
a: ” ” ” Oe #0 29 B. 41°9 ” ” ” 13°0 499 446
ph aia 15.0 Lochgoilhead, . .| 28 S. 47°6 | 2h. e. - es 15°2 387 378
” ” ” ” 7 Sp ” 5 46°6 ” ” ” 15°1 413 401
i302 sy ” ” oe ” B. 42°3 ” ” ” 14:0 492 458
4.8.86. | 17.35 | Stuckbeg, tlle 26a an. 51°5 | Qi h.e. Bright. 14:4 465 439
9” ” ” 2 oi 95 B. 43°1 ” ” 14°4 497 471
sm ge 17.0 Head, a eh eee S. §1°3 | 13h.e. Bright. S.E. 14°7 460 441
” ”? 2? ” i 2 ”? 6 50°2 0? ” ” 14°0 469 436
any 35 . eo ere 5 B. 43°7 A Ee . 13°8 503 465
5.8.86. | 12.40 | Mouth, e il Sug, S. 52°9 | 2th. f, Dull. S.E. 16‘1 412 424
9 9”? ” 9 i 29 B. 46°9 99 9) rT} 14°7 492 473
ee se 13.10 | Stuckbeg, 3 eal, 46 Ss. 515 | 3h. f. 3 is 14°8 458 441
0? 9 ” es AS ie 6 50°7 ” 29 ” 14°7 458 439
24.9.86. | 14.45 53 tr) 48 Ss. 52°7 | 5th.e. Dull. 12°2 488 420
22? 29 ” 0 ” B. 44°0 9 ” 10°4 557 456
y> 99 ~| (15.15 | Head, sl ea al Sorell (5272 1 5a hee: * 12-0 499 427
999 ” ” Bur » B. 45°0 55 5 10°5 561 462
12.11.86.) 8.45 | Stuckbeg, . | 44 Ss. 47°3 | th. f. Bright. Calm. 75 340 200
” ” ” ” eee ” 13 51°0 ” ” ” 8:7 555 427
%? ” 39 ? - - 2? B. 45°6 9 9? 29 75 588 443
nt igs 8.0 Head, 5 yl a! s. 48°3 | 1th f. as 3 6°7 213 068
” 9 ” 99 4 = ” B. 47°1 99 99 99 6°3 602 442
22,12.86.) 12.5 | Stuckbeg, By | eb: s. 45°7 | 2th.e. Dull. Rain. N. 6°8 531 378
” ” ~9 ” Oe go ” B. 47°7 ” ” ” ” 6°5 597 438
Bn as 12.40 | Head, socal’ 28 S. 46°1 | 22h.e. Dull. Rain. Calm. 6°8 499 347
941 39 » » Poul! ios B, | 47°8 » ” » » 6-4 604 445
8.2.87. | 15.5 Carrick Castle,. .| 32 S. 39°0 | 22h.e. Mist. Calm. 51 | 1:01618 | 1:01474
Pig 93 or jg 0 rs B. 47°1 *5 As F 5:0 | 102594 | 1:02420
25.3.87. 9.20 | Stuckbeg, gale S. 42°83 | 23h. f. Dull. Rain. 11:2 367 282
99. 32 ”? 9 om ts ” B. 43°9 ” ” ” 9°8 520 410
oo” 815 | Head, «telly Ab Ss. 40°0 | 14h. f. Bright. 6°2 | 1:01941 | 1:01797
hae, ” ” ree Ps B. 44°7 h is 7°2 | 1:02547 | 1:02400
5.87 y; Stuckbeg, |. .| 44 s. 49°7 | 2bh.f. Dull. Haze. S. 127 204 147
”» 99 ” ” o 8 ” B. 44°2 ” 9 ” ” 12°5 492 430
one 4 7.40 | Head, . .| W | | so0loine i an = 12°7 018 | 1:01965
”» ” Pr aya 44 2 47°0 95 5 45 5 11°4 266 | 1:02186
” oo» ” ” ie a3 B. 44°2 5 a Af 45 ey 497 420
14,6.87. 8.55 | Stuckbeg, oe al eo, S. 52°56 | 2th,e. Dull. W.S.W. 13°7 155 109
Te ” “ ” 3 51°2 ” ” ” 13°5 455 412
ses ” ” - ue ” B. 44°9 a3 3 53 14°7 474 454

‘Calculated
Salinity.

—

Date.

14.6.87.

”

Position.

Head,

Stuckbeg,
Head, x

2

Arrochar,

”
Thornbank,

2)

?

9
Arrochar,

)

Thornbank,

2)

2?
Arrochar,

2?
Ardarroch,

”?

Le)
Thornbank,

”
Arrochar,

Thornbank,

2

5 :
Ardmay Point,

9

>
Arrochar,

Thornbank,
Arrochar
Thornbank,

9
Arrochar,

”

Thornbank,
Arrochar,

Thornbank,

3?
2

9
Arrochar,

2?

Kilmun,

Mouth, c §
Hunter’s Quay,

Depth of
Sea (fms. )

CLYDE SEA AREA.

Locu Gort—continued.

Depth of
Sample.

WMH nnn, Mim d nnn nan Rane nna nnnnawatnn sins Wnty .. 2

Gr bd ts ow Sn

Weather.

Tempera-
ture(F’.).
ze
Qu
oO

513 | 2h. e. Dull. W.S.W.
51°0 ” ” ”

Bright, E.N.E.

550 |2h.e.| Dull.’ Rain. E.N.E.

52°9 3) 9 2? 9

: Calm. Dull.
461 |} Lhe. Bright. Calm.
53°0 | 4hh. f. Dull. N.W.

9? 9? 9

4th. f, % -
541 | 52h. f. Bright.
Pi! 99
Bright. 8.
Bright, Calm.

ib) a
‘ Dull. Rain. Calm.
50°5 29 99 oP) 2?
46°9 99 ” 3’)
52°0 | Lh. f. Dull.
470 2 12
51°6 | 18h. f. Fi

ii

Bright. Calm.

9? ? LE]

471 15h. f. “Bright.”

h.f. Dull. Rain.
e. ” ”

h. e. Mist. Calm.’ Tce.

Bright. Ss.
wf Dull. Calm.

533 |2he.| Dull.”
Dull. 'S.W.

Clear. Calm.

2) ”?
c Gh Bright. N.E.
51°8 99 99 29
541 |5th.e. es if
53°38 | 5, » ”

Hony Loca.

46-4 | 5$h.e. Bright. Calm.
41 “f/ ” 29 2?

41°5 : ” ”
Bright. W.N.W.

49-2 | 5h. e.

46°4 ” 29 9
Dull. W.N.W.

93 9

C.° (2).

Tem-
perature

12°5
13°1
11°5
13:0
11°4
12°7
12°6

13°7
12°4
14°2
12°7
12°8
13°6
13°0
12°6
12°8
14°4

fot st et et

—

a

H

a
VO AKONGSHWMDOSIAIVNANSABRDSKAMKRKASSNWAANS

DWNPNNWAHWONDDDOOUDOUNANTNRMOONDOMWOOCOHMHOMW

Pe ee

a
He He 09 CO bh
© bd CON DD 1 0d

Density.

4st.

Sis: 56

1°02425 | 1:02860

459
507
432
538
401
509

1°01844
3853
965
1°02496
514
506
1°01434
1:02480
460
433
493
503
403
499
449
464
498
481
598
484
552
502
526
562
327
530
555
504
547
471
506
597
1:01475
1:02573
332
548
361
464
545
343
579
1°01452
1°02532
262
529
410
541
482

531

408
424
381
455
343
448

1:01813
302
937
1:02437
458
465
1°01385
1°02420
403
408
454
479
384
460
412
441
455
400
494
398
461
378
429
444
198
415
442
387
437
316
362
441
327
402
222,
449
251
352
433
273
469
1:01410
1:02442
293
480

353 |

476
419
463

1:01491 | 1:01438
1°02490 | 1:02414

532
078
482
475
453

415
031
406
447
406

721

Calculated
Salinity.

3190
253
273
PA)
313°
168
305

2°479
1-915
2°640
3°290
318
*326
2°024
3'268
246
"253
*312
*345
221
320
*258
*295
313
"242
364
240
321
"214
280
*299
2°980
3°261
‘297
225
*290
133
193
*295
1:947
3°245
‘O11
306
048
180
"285
077
332
2°055
3°297
103
346
“181
341
267
324

2°092
3°260
261
2°762
3°250
“303
‘276

722 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

Hory Loca—continued.

nee lie Bice 2. Density. =
x aa lae| 28 |_ aes Ye
Date. Hour, Position. $2 | BE | de> | Tide. Weather. oo, 2.8
© oa a) =| Se) S S os.
Ag |A® HS a dt. 1556 | SM
5.8.86. 9.30 | Kilmun, 5. Ne 14 s. 53°8 | 5fh.e. Dull. Calm. 14°1 | 1:02404 | 102378 | 3°207
”» ” ” * 8 ” 6 49°5 ” ” 2 14°5 477 453 “811
9299 ” ” oe oe B. 47°9 a 5h i 14°5 511 487 | °3855

12.11.86.) 14.45 » Rear e S. | 49°5 |2th.e. Bright. N. 10°1 395 291 | *100
ry) ” ” B. 51°4 iy nf of 107 545 ' 450 | °307
aes 15.15 | Head, tz |S: 49°4 | 2¢h.e 55 ao 9°7 176 069 | 2°812
2999 99 9 » B. | 514 A i ss 10°3 532 428 | 3279

22.12.86.) 15.30 | Kilmun, 12 S. 454 |6h.e. Dull. N. 5°5 350 188 | 2:967
yo ” »” % B. 48°1 a 3 = 59 616 451 | 3°308

12:2.87. | 11585 7; 15 S. 40°8 | 2th. f. Bright. E. 6°7 | 101927 | 101788 | 2°446
oy ” » » Be seed i i * 81 | 1:02534 | 1:02898 | 3-240
7.5.87. | 14.40 5 14 s. 50°0 | 2h h.e. Bright. W. 10‘1 050 | 1°01953 | 2°661
ey) ” ” ” B. 44-2 Fr 3 7 9°8 547 | 1:02435 | 3°287

14.6.87. } 13.15 a 12 Ss. 51°6 | J. w. Rain. Calm. 13°0 | 1°011385 | 1:01092 | 1°641
29) 33, ” ” ” B. 48°2 ” 93 OD 12°6 | 102505 | 1°02444 | 3°299

29.9.87. 8.0 a 13 Ss. 531 |38hh.f. |Rain. EH. by S., Squally. | 12°2 259 192 | 2°793
a38 35 » ” ” B. 53°8 3 “3 AD 12°8 522 466 | 3°328

Locw StrRIvan.

14.4.86. ; 17.55 , Clapochlar, . . 31 S. 44°0 |3hhf. 14°3 | 1:02329 | 1:02308 | 3°123
ey) ” ” - 9 B. 41°4 oo Es Pl 632 485) ‘352
oo» 17.10 | Head, Se 114 | S. 42°6 | 2hh.f. Dull. Calm. 85 510 885 | °222
ears. 9% 9 ” ss ” B. 41°7 ” ae ne 82 615 481 847

18.6.86. | 10:25 | Mouth, ee 33 S. 50°2 | 84 h. f. Bright. N.W. 15°2 398 384] °221
rey) » » “as PY) 7 45°9 * ie mee 14°2 481 451] °308
er) ” 1 oi as ” B. 44°1 AA a as 12°5 560 500 372
9 11.45 | Clapochlar, . .| 36 8. 477 | 4th. f. Bright. N.N.W. 15°3 455 448 | °305
S34 33 ” ” Dig? ” 5 44°6 ” a os 13:2 507 459 319
»» 99 | 14.55 ” - .| 345) B. | 42°5 | 12h.e. * i 9°7 603 490} 859
Ay 12.20 | Head, 5 ol) Wee |) Sb 459 | 5h. f. A me 12°6 522 491 | *360
9) 98 } 98 ” Di ” 5 43°0 ” ” ” 12°3 536 469 332
2999 ” 2 mage ” B. 43°2 9 An a LiLo 557 478 B44
7.8.86. | 12.50 | Clapochlar, . . 36 B. 45:9 | 1h. f. | Dull, W.N.W., Squally.| 14°8 533 516] °3892
pe iy 13.50 | Head, > ow |) | ee 55:3 | 2h. f. Dull. W. 13°9 517 481 | °347
98 ” ” oy ts ” 6 48°5 ” 9, ie 14°1 515 483 *350

25.9.86. | 18.29 | Ciapochlar, . .| 35 s. 54:0 | 3h h.e. Dull. 12°6 484 424 | °273
09 ” ” * 2 35 B. 47°9 3 9 11°6 584 504 377
Aaya 12.20 | Head, | ee) 8 s. 53°9 | 2h h.e. 54 11°8 488 412] ‘258
Py th, rr) ” Choke 9 B. 52°6 s = 111 551 462] °323

13.11.86.} 10.0 Clapochlar, . . 354 | S. 47°1 | hh f. Dull. N. 8°5 452 824) °143
9 ” ” p70 11 11 51°3 mh 9 ” 10°2 551 447 | °308
» oo» » ” mus ” B. 51°8 - - hs 111 580 491] ‘360
» » | 10.45 | Head, he Le aS a A as Rain. N. 9°4 424 308| "123
» ” ” ” aes ” 5 49°6 as oh 55 9°3 501 383 *220
Tre) » ” 2 fie 9 B. 51°3 ~ - 3 10°1 567 461] ‘321

23.12.86.| 14.30 | Clapochlar, . .| 33 8. 451 | 4h.e. Dull. Rain. N. 71 555 406 | ‘250
a5] « 12) ” af Ay B. 47°9 A a * 7°4 619 473 | °337
» 9» 13.40 | Head, 11 S. | 441 |/8}h.e.| Dull. Rain. S.W. 66 318 169 | 2°942
9 99 ” ee) ” B. 476 ” ” ” 74 613 467 | 3°329
7.2.87. | 16.40 | Clapochlar, 33 S. 42°0 | 5th.e. Dull. Rain. S.E. 3°6 071 | 1°01901 | 2°593
22» ” ” ” B. 44°1 ” 9 sa 3°6 619 | 1°02429 | 3°280
mo» 15,40 | Head, 11 S. 39°2 | 4th.e. Dull. Haze. S.E. 4°9 | 1:00960 | 1:00834 | 1°306
m9. 92 %9 2” ” B. 44°9 ” ” ” 6°5 | 1°02577 | 1:02419 | 3:267

26.3.87. | 11.50 | Clapochlar, 40 S. 43°6 | 42h. f. Dull. Calm. 9°3 542 424] ‘2738
ee) ” ” ” B. 44°0 os ae ie 9°7 571 458 | ‘318
ee 12.45 | Head, 114| S.: | 44°0 | 52h. f. Dull. Calm. Rain. 80 543 406 | ‘250
” ” ”) ” ” B. 44°0 ” 9 21 81 583 446 "302

11.5.87. | 17.20 | Clapochlar, 34 S. 45°2 | 22h.e. Dull. Mist. N.W. 83 569 435 | *287
99 9 ” 4 B. 44°0 oF is a 8-2 619 483 | 350
9998 18.0 | Head, 11 S. | 45°38 |3th.e a 9:2 316 200 | 2°982
” oe) ” ” ” B. 44°2 ” ” 93 8°3 591 458 3°318

14.6.87. | 19.0 | Clapochlar, 34 | S. | 51:2) Lw. | Dull. Rain. Calm, 11°5 479 398 | 240
” ” ” ” ” B. 46°2 ” ” ” 10°6 ; 606 508 "383
» 9 | 18.15 | Head, 11 S. | 51°5 |54h.e zs a 12:2 | 1:01406 | 1:01347 | 2015
” 99 ” ” ” B. 47 °2 ” ” 4 10°6 | 1°02569 102472 | 3°336

28.9.87. | 15.30 | Clapochlar, 33 S. | 53:2 | 5%he. Bright. N.E. 122 470 401] *248
” ” ” ” ” B. 49°5 ” 35 9 ital) 580 492 "362
»» 99 | 16.15 | Head, 11 S. | 54:6 |1dhf. se A 12°7 520 461 | °321
a ” ” ” B. 55°3 ” : 9 ” 12°0 550 477 342

_____ eee

CLYDE SEA AREA. 123

Kyies or Bute.

ise | te lt ais >. Density. B rey

ng celts) | eles || ls , ger =

Date. Hour. Position. Be | S89 | go | Tide. Weather. os°. 3.8
As aaleaed at Ss al a S, Sisss | 373

mM OR

21.4.86. 9.0 |Strone Cotes, . .| 21 8. 43°5 | 1th. f. Bright. S.E. 7°5 | 1:02458 | 102320 | 3-138
Pe ‘. 53 souk oe. | Bie. ly died ee B: cs 75 643 319| -137
20.4.86. | 17.25 | Burnt Islands,. .| 224] S. 43°9 |4th.e. Rough. E. ail 465 329} 150
999 » ” as ” B. 41°2 3 Fs) Si 77 622 483 *350
>» 17.50 | Loch Ridun, . .| 11 S. 447 |4¢h.e. E.N.E. Rough. 7°6 438 302| °115
55 16.10 | Ardlamont, . .| 33 s. 43'S |3 he. 5 ps USE 516 879 | +215
i ae i eer | By) aieon ee es 77 652 513| -388
18.6.86. | 16.27 | Strone Cotes, . .| 23 s. 49-2 | 3th.e. Bright. W.N.W. nae 391 440] -294
ee. é e are) sy 5 | apap oo. i, a 12°0 531 459| -319
%,, k 7 es. BL | deepen i “4 1071 576 470| 333
aoeen 17.15 | Burnt Islands,. .| 30 s. 46-1 |4he i. 11°3 559 474| 338
ae ‘ rf weed, Bl) ihe k 10-9 585 493 | +363
oe 5 17.45 | Loch Ridun, . .| 123] S. 50°8 |4th.e Dull. N.N.W 12°4 484 420| +268
en, : e | ae Bo PedBror |e ‘ ie 13°9 510 475 | +339

| a, i‘ ‘ Soy hea Be ln deol is s a 11:3 575 490| +359
39 19.0 Strone Point, — s. 50°1 |5¢h.e. as 11°4 501 418| +266
19.6.86. | 11.40 | Ardlamont, . .| 28 s. 48-0 | 4th. f. Bright. Calm. 14°3 511 483 | +350
oe, ne i Me |) Bas aeeoues ae a 13°9 528 492| -362
7.8.86. | 11.50 | Strone Cotes, . .| 21 8. 53:0 | l. w. Dull. W.N.W. 14°5 490 466 | -328
a ., . ye? erly Be eral aes x is 14:6 527 506 | +380
en 10.40 | Burnt Islands,. .| 27 S. 52°2 |5th.e. Dull. Rain. S.W. 14°7 499 480) -346
Yan 98 ” ” ci 2 B. 49°0 ” ” cr) ele? 514 495 *365
Hy, | 11.5 | Roch Ridan, . -| 12 | S. | 54:7 loRhve. Bright. S.W. 14:8 289 273| 077
ain 33 ” ” oF 39 B. 50°3 a An oo 14°5 517 493 | +362
10.8.86. | 12.5 |Tighnabruaich, .| 15 8. 54°8 |2¢h.e. Dull. Calm. 13°5 475 432| +284
.., 7 i Be»; || poroile ms F ie 13:3 527 478| +344
o, is fe REA ee | Bic lcaereele a $ %. 14:2 477 447 | +303
6.8.86. | 19.50 | Ardlamont, . .| 30%] S. 539 |3h.e. Bright. S.W. 13°3 526 479 | :345
ae ‘, a Brats ) Be eaycoale as 5 ie 13°4 561 515| -390
25.9.86. | 14.30 | Strone Cotes, . .| 20 Ss. 53°9 |4¢h.e. Dull. Rain. 12°7 461 402] +245
re yr - re eeecale 99 B. 51:0 a a 4 12°3 626 558| :447
a ss 15.10 | Loch Ridun, . .| 12 s. 53°3 |5hh.e. Dull. 12°2 407 339 | +163
_ is ee by | BE cps FE 12°4 547 482| 349
on sy 16.45 | Ardlamont, . .| 334] S. 53:4 | $h. f 4 14-1 442 409] +254
e - in itae) |B \ Bias! 3 14:0 542 508| -383
15,11.86.| 11.35 | Strone Cotes, . .| 20 Ss. 49°7 | 33h. f. Dull. Rain. S.W. 10°6 464 367 | +199
7 ” ” ” < x 9 B. 52°0 29 a9 Le 114 566 482 “349
an 13.5 | Burnt Islands,. ,| 24 S. 49°9 | 5th. f. 55 i 6:2 466 308 | +123
LJ ” ” Cia, jg 92 B. 51-1 ”? 2? ”? 61 613 450 “307
WS ss 12.30 | Loch Ridun, . .| 12 Ss. 49°1 | 43h. f. _ iy 11:0 064 | 1:01978 | 2°694
. , i See | -Be || Sbetlle in 5 11-0 531 | 1-02441 | 3-295
16.11.86.| 8.40 | Ardlamont, . .| 82 Sa |) 482851) low: Bright. W. 75 482| . 339] -163
i ” ” Mae 9 6 49-4 Pr An a5) 75 bsg 413 "295
,. Fs o eee) Bir | 5x01) ay, A .; 74 630 483| +350
27.12.86.) 15.30 | Strone Cotes, . .| 21 S. 42°2 |2th.e. Dull. Mist. Sleet. 4°8 440 269 | -072
8) ” ” ao a ” B. 48-1 ” ” ”? 47 659 480 “346
5 14.40 | Burnt Islands,. .| 3804] S. 45°7 |1¢h.e. Dull. Mist. 4°7 617 440] -294
“i ry) 29 OG ” B. 47‘1 ” ” ” 4:8 650 473 337
ae 14d hoch Ridun, : . |" 13 S. 44-6 |Lh.e a Fi 4°7 555 3878 | -214
5) ed) ”? ” ae is 9 B. 47-0 ” oh) re) 4°6 650 471 “334
29.12.86.) 11.10 | Ardlamont, Goh, a S. 45-7 | 3h. £ Bright. N.W. 6'°8 596 442 | +297
Bt, if 2 ras. || 47:0°1, x. # iy 71 625 474| +338
.2.87. | 16.55 | Strone Cotes, . .| 204 S. 43-1 | 3$h. f. Bright. W. 7:3 387 243] +038

2”) 9 a9 Le © L 29 B. 44°2 9 ”? ”? 6:0 574 411 "256
2.87. | 13.30 | Burnt Islands,. .| 25 8. 42°3 |2Lh.e. Dull. Rain. S.E. 58 314 156 | 2:925

0 2 9 29 . - 29 B. 44-1 2? LE) 2) 61 570 408 3°253
28.38.87, | 11.0 Strone Cotes, . .| 21 S. 43°4 | 23h. f. Dull. N.W. 8:4 517 3886 | +224
” 9 ” 1 se] oy B. | 43:7 » 0 ” 8°8 569 443 | +298
ae 53 12.5 Loch Ridun, . .| 12 S. 43°6 | 32h. f. Dull. N. 9°8 520 410] +255
aa nf i eS A i een ee - a 9°6 552 439| +293
11.5.87. | 16.35 |Strone Cotes, . .| 20 Ss. 45°7 |2h.e. Dull. Haze. N.W. 8&8 555 430 | 281
- ,, ¥ e Be) 1 eee i Y 9°6 586 472| +336
oo Oe 15.55 | Burnt Islands,. .| 29 Ss. 46°6 |1ih.e. Dull. Mist. N.W. 9°8 500 391] +230
,; - - eo. | re eee _ 4 9°7 589 477 | +342
oo: a 15.35 | Loch Ridun, . .| 11 Ss. 46°6 |Lh.e np 3 9°5 524 409 | :254
Bo 93 on % ae teal os B. | 45:2 9 _ 101 589 483 | -350
14.6.87. | 20.20 | Strone Cotes, . .| 19 Ss. 51°6 | 1h. f. Dull. W 13°7 469 431 | +282
yo ” DE rs np B. 45°5 ; 7 * 13°6 526 485 | -352
15.6.87. 9.20 | Burnt Islands,. .] 29 Ss. 51'°8 |2h.e Bright. N.W. 13°8 334 297 | -108
Pa si # e nee Bes e26225) > x, 4 5 13°8 515 479| -345

724 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

Kyies or Butte—continued.

| Sea) | ites ony Density. Be

r s8/ ae | 36 gas A Bs

Date. Hour. Position. Be | 8 | ao | Tide. Weather. ® Bo S.A
23| 24/88 Ee) ast s aa

Ag |A ale ey gt. 4°15°56 | Sa

15.6.87. 8.45 | Loch Ridun, 10 S 51°7 | 1ldh.e. Dull. N.W. 11°8 | 1°02275 | 102201 | 2:983
ee “ Pr + 2 49°5 = sy a 11°5 483 402 | 3:245
39. * aR ” ” ” B. 47 °2 ” 9 ” 12°3 539 472 *336
gies 10.30 | Ardlamont, 27 S. 521 | 3hh.e. Bright. N.W. 16°9 429 460 | °320
3 ias »» 9 x B. 46'5 iy is ih 171 459 494) +364

24.9.87. | 15.5 | Loch Ridun, 12 Ss 56°2 | 4h. f. Bright. Calm. 14:2 450 420| ‘268
” ” ” ” B 54°2 ” ” 99 14°9 487 | 473 337

Locn Fyne.

19.4.86. | 17.25 Furnace, > ol 8 S. 44°8 | 43h.e. Dull. N.E. 7°5 | 1:02557 | 1°02417 | 3-264
» 9» » ” = is || ites B, | 41:9 5 53 ra 74 625 482| 349
ree 18.0 Pennimore, . .| 58 S. 42°5 |5h.e.} Dull. Rough. N.E. 7°6 568 429 | +280
re) ” ” aia. B. 41°9 ” 30 Ae 9 7¢ 5) 590 450 *307
sh cece 19.0 Inveraray, a ol) G8 Ss. 42°5 |}6h.e.| Dull. N.N.E. Rough. 7°6 588 449] -806

20. 4.86. 8.30 55 Pe eal ts S. 42°38 |1h.f. Dull. E.N.E. 7°4 492 352] °180
eer: 9.40 | Dunderawe, . .| 30 S. 42°1 | Qh. f. on i, 75 576 438 | *292
199 9 9 oi sg Bi | 41:5) i, 53 5 (es: 595 454] °312
ee. 10.15 | Cuill, Seen all S. 42°0 | 22h.f.| N.N.E. Gale. Rough. 75 558 420) +268

22.6.86. | 13.5 Furnace, oh cet S. 47-4 | 3h. f Dull. Mist. W. 17°8 399 452) +310
3. 99 ” ” Joe ee B. 43°9 ” ” 9 ” 17°9 432 488 "357

21.6.86. | 18.0 Strachur, BP aie” feel) ask 49°2 |1$h.e.| Dull. Mist. W. Squally.| 15:9 437 446 | *302
oD 5 30 a ahh op 5 47:0 * ki a a a 17°0 413 446] *302
er po 18.0 a eee) ss B. 43°8 | 1th.e. 5 3 a Es 16°6 457 481] °3847
Sarna 19.15 | Inveraray, 5 of) Oo S. 48°1 | 2¢h.e.| __,, a - _ 16°6 415 439 | °293
a9) * WS ” os é 55 5 45°6 a5 sn i a 59 17°9 429 459] °319
23) 39 ” ” os ” 25 44°2 ” ” ” 3 9 17:0 432 465 "326
Ao 9 ¥) cae 7H B. 43°9 \ a = a 55 16°7 460 486] °354

22.6.86. | 11.15 | Dunderawe, . .| 29 Ss. 48°3 | 1h. f. Dull. W. 17:7 389 440 | °294
ya, 29 ” ” oi a ” 20 42°2 ” ” ” 17°6 404 453 811
9 » » a a|| 4 B. | 42°9 af i i 15°6 411 460| °320
sates 10.35 | Cuill, 5 a) pe Re 501 | ih. f. se a 17-1 339 873 | *207
enn ” 49 q 4 oF 5 48°3 3 ai oo 18°8 365 443 | °*298
99,8 199 ” ” J a ” 10 45°9 ” ” oD 17°6 396 444] +299
apes ” 3 i. ail aes B. 42°4 ES re es 17°5 412 458 | °318

10.8.86. | 17.0 | Otter IL, . .| 22 | S. | 5a211bh mY ea 13-2 532 483| 350
9 » » a al) 3 1 CS || Es , 129 553 498 | 870

11.8.86. | 14.55 | Gortans, 5 ai] Gill s. 52°1 | 4¢h.e. Bright. §.S.W. 13°7 491 452} °310
Path) ” ” one D B. 48°3 ” ” ” 141 525 493 363
ey, 13.5 Furnace, o. el Ss. 53°9 | 24 h.e. és 55 16°0 420 430 | *281
a9. ©1395 ” ” so. ” B. 44°3 ” ” ” 14°3 504 476 341
es, 11.40 | Strachur, a ahl| 75) S. 54:1 | 1th.e. D i 15°8 406 411] °256
eed) ” ” Qo ” 36 43°4 ” ” a 14°5 492 468] °331
” ed Le ” Oe 2 ?? B. 44°2 ” ” ” 16°1 505 517 393

10.8.86. | 19.25 | Inveraray, 5a) ae) SE 56°0 | 32h. f. Dull. S. 15:0 265 254} 052
ee hy ” ” De o ” 33 43°3 ” ” ” 14°9 473 458 318
9999 ” ” oF 2 B. 44°1 ” ” y) 15°2 495 487 335
11.8.86. | 10.30 | Dunderawe, . .| 31 Ss. 55°4 | h. w. Bright. S.S.W. 15°8 263 268) ‘071
ee os 5 ateiet || aes B. 45°8 mA ca a 15°3 471 465 | °326
aoe. is 9.40 | Cuill, 5 onl. 105 Ss. 55°4 | hh. f. 5 - 15°2 | 1°01792 | 1:01785 | 2°444
ner) ” ” Oo ” 35 55°1 PY) ” a 15°4 | 1°02358 | 1:02354 | 3°182 |.
Noi higs oe 5 . 4 51°3 ih 5 us 151 436 425 | *274
fhe) ” ” ” 6 50°5 ” ” 59 14°2 478 448 *305
” 9» ” a3 a BA 185, 46°5 oe as ‘ 15'1 462 451} °308
27.9.86. 9.20 | Strachur, Sees 71 Ss. 52°4 | 383 hf. Dull. 13°7 467 428} °279
9 ” +) aes ee B. 44°1 - an 13°3 531 483 | *350
a 10.25 | Inveraray, cna ell od Ss. 52°7 | 4¢h.f. Bright. 14:2 436 405] °248
umes 9 D Be atlb 6 B. 44°] * * 14:0 506 473 | °337
17.11.86.| 14.25 | Otter Ferry, . .| 18 S. 49°4 | 43h. f. Bright. N.W. 7°6 562 418] °266
” ” 2 ore! es 6 49°6 35 a ms 7°6 563 420] +268
” ” By ” he a ” B. 50°9 ” o9 Pp 8:2 604 469 "332
16.11.86.) 13.45 | Gortans, . «ill 100 Ss. 491 |5 hf. Dull. S.E. 8°7 539 411 | °256 |,
” ” ” ” 2 ” 6 49°8 23 9 23 8°4 542 411 +256
vis - cs Sas: B. | 506] ,, ig 4 8-7 573 445| -300
ya ee x 15.10 | Furnace, aie oe Ss. 49°1 | h. w. | Dull. Showers. N.E. 5:8 535 871) *204

pu kgs » ” o) is5|| ies 6 49°3 re a3 a AG 74 536 391] *230
emai * i er &: B, || 48i6ahee ce i, * a 6°2 582 422| ‘271
17.11.86.| 11.55 | Strachur, Ay 08 8. 46°3 | 1¢h.f.| Bright. Showers. W. 71 | 1:01990 | 1:01854 | 2°532
hae 4 y bogs ange 6 | dope 8 4 i. 4 8°1 | 1:02501 | 1:02366 | 3°198

CLYDE SEA AREA, 725

Locu Frnze—continued.

Tog | Sion | aes 1 ees Density. 2s
Date. Hour, Position. sé | <4 Ey 2 | Tide. Weather. Be. ea
a~ | 2 So Ax os
AS|Aaa| 25 BO] 4Se. Sisss | SB
pn|A as On
17.11.86.) 11.55 | Strachur, .|-76 | B. | 44:2 /1ah.f.| Bright. Showers. W..| 7:4 | 1:02597 | 1-02451 | 3-308
Bate oy 8.35 | Inveraray, ee |) 5G: S. 44:0 | 4th.e. Bright. 6°5 | 1:01669 | 1°01534 | 2:216
” ” » ” ci 8 ” 5 49°2 Bs of ee 1:02474 | 1°02335 | 3°157
33) 39 ” ” Die mc ” B. 44°9 by ” 6°3 607 447 303
2» 10.30 | Dunderawe, . .| 34 Ss. 43°9 | 1. w. if 6°3 | 1:00727 | 100657 | 1:076
» 9» ” : ” iv 5 6 49°1 F Ps 674 | 1°02493 | 1:02337 | 3°160
033 ” ” mn ” B. 48°2 % AI 75 556 412 +258
appt 9.50 | Cuill, 5 olf ale Ss. | 39°7|5h.e fs 6°4 | 1:00443 | 100336 | 0-789
oo” ” ” ass 3 5 49-2 Be o 6°8 | 1°02483 | 102331 | 3:152
9 ” ” ” sia oe 29 1B 49°7 . oa 67 556 402 “945
29.12.86.| 15.10 | Gortans, ne ba eee} S. 452 | thie. Bright. Calm. 6°9 551 400] :242
ce 29 ” OW oD ” B. 46°9 iA £9 ” 7°3 612 463 "324
ase wee 16.20 | Furnace, ara Ss, 45:0 | ithe. e 5) 17 557 358| 188
EY ” ” On 0 ” B. 46'9 As ay An 1:3 662 457 316
»» 9» | 17.5 | Strachur, els vee Sa 410 eves Clear. Calm. 0°8 552 349| -176
33, #3 ” ” ours ” B. 44-7 3 A a. 0°3 683 472 336
30.12.86.) 9.0 | Inveraray, oh S. | 43°7 | 5dh.e. Dull. Calm. 3°3 321 142 | 2:907
33.33 ” ” A) 2 6 45°4 an 3 by 4-1 567 885 | 3°222
on ey ny oh ae “4 B. 45:2 3 FY oA 3°8 653 465 | :326
on ata 9.50 | Shira Point, .-..| 49 8. 36°0 | 6h. e. Bright. Calm. Ice. 2°6 | 1:01986 | 1:01815 | 2°481
aa ag ” ” cos ” 5 ft, | 44°4 - i xy 4-1. | 1°02535 | 1°02354 | 3:182
39, 919 ” ” a ” 6 46°0 55 ” ” 4-4 ; 568 387 "225
rey ” ” oan ” B. 47°1 5 49 os 40 638 453 “311
5.2.87. | 14.0 | Gortans, + » } 26 Ss. 43°9 | 4th, e.| Bright. Showers. Squally.| 6:2 379 224] :013
” ’ ” ” Oy ” B. 44°5 £5 9 ”9 56 569 403 “246
4.2.87, | 15.50 | Strachur, sole 72.008, “LhaB:O | oi ave: Dull. S.W. 6:1 180 028 | 2°759
99 ” ” ste ” B. 45°9 i i 55 61 604 441 | 3°295
-2.87. | 9.15 | Cuill, . .{ 18 |; S. | 406 53h. £] Dull. Rain. S.W. 6-1 | 1:00241 | 1:00136 | 0-399
AT iD 9 ”? Cet ” B. 45°0 q i 49 Sn 6:2 | 1:02527 | 1:02366 | 3198
29.3.87. | 17.50 | Otter IL, a4 | S. | 445 |Shie. Dull. Calm. 73 529 383 -220
ya 39 ” ” ” B. 44:0 on a9 99 6°9 603 451 308
ian 17.10 | Gortans, 35 Ss. 45:0 | 2th.e. Pe 55 5:9 500 334] +156
ci ng ” ” so ” 3 44:2 rs PY sr, 6°4 549 392 | +232
2 99 oe) ” Cod ” B. 44:0 on Br AN 6°3 625 465 326
as | 16.15 >)Paddy Rock, . .| 46 | S. | 45°0 | 14h. e 1 23 8°6 413 287 | -095
cee 4 ” ” ass ” B. 43°8 ny 3 73 55 609 440 "294
fy 15.50 | Minard Beacon, .| 13 S. 44-7 |hhoe i 89 449 327 | +147
er) ” ” ce eal ” B. 44:0 i A) o9 8°8 577 451] +308
ks 15.0 Furnace a ell) ved S. 45°1 Ww P a 97 241 1384 | 2°896
ry er) ” ” a are ” B. 43°9 $5 3 a 10°0 530 421 | 3:269
» 9 | 14.0 | Strachur, - -| 75 | S. | 44:9 }54h.f,| Dull. Rain. Calm. 11:0 | 101270 | 1-01197 | 1:778
ee 193) ”? ” my ie ” 3 44:3 op ae 3 10°3 1°02454 | 1:02353 | 3°181
ay 39 ” ” oan ” B. 45°5 ss 6x) ab 10°6 526 430] :281
mea. | 19.0" \panverary, . . | 66° G4 45-0] bh le a :, 10°7 | 1:01747 | 1:01662 | 2-289
oe a5 Ap 50 ee fs 3 44°3 , $5 i 11:0 | 1702441 | 1:02350 | 3-177
oa ” ” oS ” B. 45°2 = se a 11°0 513 423 272
quae 11.50 | Dunderawe, . .| 84 Ss. 43°9 | 3th. f. Dull. W. 8:4 | 1:00996 | 100893 | 1°383
cpl ees 00 Fs 4 ee 3 44°5 % ‘4 G 9-1 | 1:02463 | 1702343 | 3:168
we 9) ” ” ae ” B. 45°2 An ” ” 9°5 529 414 “260
» » | 11.0 | Cuill, sled | Se | 4951 Oth £ Bright. W. 88. | 1:00198 | 1:00114 | 0-371
on A Dn 7 ve 5 3 44°4 i 6 a 10:0 | 1°02325 | 1°02219 | 3:007
ea. 39 ” ” eo || = hr B. 44-7 ., s bis $8) 468 359 | 189
10.5.87. | 13.15 | Gortaus, a euense || 46-0 | 5h oe Dull. N.W. 12 510 441] +295
OC ” oe) CeO: |e ats B. 45°0 99 3 Bs 10°6 573 476 *341
» » | 15.80 | Strachur, » ai wee) St | 4834 1h e a - 10°7 449 355 | +183
99 re ” sits nD B. 44°7 a5 33 49 10°7 546 447 | 301
ona 16.30 | Inveraray, « «68 S. 49:4 | 2ih.e o * 10°1 429 825 | +144
oO) ” ” so ” B. 44°6 A 53 Bey 9-2 571 450 *307
> > | 18.45 |Dunderawe, . .| 35 S. | 50:0 | 4th. e, Bright. W. 9°8 406 298 | -109
ae ” ” DS Ay B. 44:2 o6) ni qp te) 547 437 *290
ae 19.30 | Cuill, 5 oll ule Ss. 49°8 | 5¢h.e. Dull. W. 10°1 | 1701856 | 1:01759 | 2-408
2” ” ” Bo on 5 47°9 ny 60 a 9°6.. | 1°02495 | 1:02382 | 3-219
ry. 59 ” ” xe ” B. 45°7 5 nf 45 9°7 541 430} -281
-15.6.87. | 17.0 | Gortans, Sinn] Bs) Ss. 50°9 | 3th. f. Dull. Calm. 12°1 502 431 | 282
” ” ” ” oh is ” B. 46°6 2 ” ” 12°3 552 485 *352
ay 35 17.45 | Paddy Rock, . .| 16 S. 52°3 | 4h. f. Dull. N.W. 13°2 447 400 | :242
Ce EY) ” ”? co ” B. 438°1 ry ” ” 12°6 529 469 ce py)
16.6.87. | 12.30 Ay So volltaeets Ss. 54°5 | 8¢h.e. Bright. Calm, 13°9 438 403] +246
15.6.87 18.20 | Furnace, 5 eth Bet S. 52°6 | 4h. f. Dull. N.W. 13°9 445 410} +255
299 ” ” Oho Fn B. 45°9 oy on nc 14°2 504 474] -338
7 VOL. XXXVI. PART III. (NO. 23), 9 Q

726 DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

Locu Fyne—continued.

Soe | eg] = wees Density. ts Ss

a a fel es) Set gE> 3:8

Date. | Hour. Position. ee | 28 | g'o | Tide. Weather. aS ees |
AS |Aa/S= BO} St. Sisss | SA

R Hp oz

15.6.87. 19.20 | Strachur, eee ee S. 62:4 | 5h hf. Dull. Calm. 14:2 | 1:02497 | 1°02418 | 3°266
Mn ifs ‘ i. 1A as et IMRT ORD etre - f, 15°5 478 477| °342

16.6.87. | 10.50 | Inveraray, 5 Sf OO Ss. 57°4 | 2th.e. Bright. Calm. 18°4_ | 1:01252 | 101311 | 1°926
aed % 5 re eee 2 | 530] ,, i a 15°6 | 1-02340 | 1-02341 | 3-165
a 4: . if AW ee B. | 45-2] ,, - if 16°8 441 469| °332
ao) is 8.50 | Dunderawe, . .| 36 Ss. 561 | h. w. Bright. 17:0 | 1:01508 | 1°01532 | 2°214
eed. ¥ F MeN Bee 2 50:6 1. x 16°3 | 1:02305 | 102322 | 3:141
ZY ike i z Sit ees LB. Lipa aca ees « 17°5 434 479 | °345
ees 9.40 | Cuill, saat leLO Ss. 58°3 | 1h.e. as 17°9 | 1:00859 | 100897 | 1°388
Si eas : s eh lene 2 | 522] ,, i 16-2 | 102275 | 1-02290 | 3-099
1 aa - a ee es ae va oe +e 16°6 426 450| +307
(<fe8e | 17,20'-| Otter IE; eS AZ Ss. 55°6 | 33h.e. “64 15°7 447 452] ‘310
ates it 2 + Mi die Ee || BEE Wek BO ee Bright. 15°9 490 498] °370
Real HH, 18.10 | Gortans, beret lt doe Ss. 55°8 | 4k he. Dull. Calm. 15:4 448 444) -299
ree .. - ee B, (| 48-2¢ 3 be i 14:2 | | 517 487 | 355
8.7.87. | 13.30 | Furnace, tel) cow S. 60°0 | 54h. f.| Bright. S.W., Squally. | 18°9 359 439} +293
deg x x el cera Beal SoS ee M x 15°9 462 470| 3338
ae 12.15 | Strachur, Ree ey 62) S. 571 | 4h. f. Bright. S., Squally. 17°5 398 442| -297
ae, = e ee Be» |45°9 | 1 sf : 17°2 441 479| +345
xa 11.20 | Inveraray, Soe |) 0 S. 61:1/}3h.f.| Dull. S.E., Squally. 18°3 309 874] °*208
oY as 3 . OS ee I ON son te ns 13°8 502 464| +325
A dere 10.30 | Dunderawe, . .| 34 | .S. 60°5 | 24+h. f. Bright. S.E. 17°3 362 401] +295
Tee “i a 2 ah) mbes) |B WC abe eee - _ 13°6 505 464| °325
eh toe 9.50 | Cuill, ate) Meelis 59°5 | 14h. f. Bright. Calm. 18°0 213 271 | :074
(er : H soll) ibn ale aenoal Agee Pale 4 13°6 504 461| 321

23.9.87. | 14.0 | Gortans, 35 S. 54°3 |32h.f.| Dull. Haze. Calm. 13°8 479 442) +297
ae Sy et Mi rb: ae eis |e ¥ ¥ 13°6 530 489 | +358
yy ~| 14.45 | Paddy Rock, 16 | S. | 536 |4th.f. Dull. W. 12°9 494 440 | +294
ay i Ch pel) game itt Be Doral nck Y % 13°6 517 476| 341
ee 15.30 | Furnace, om) 8h) Ss. 54°7 | 5th. f. A 5 14°2 442 4138 | 259°
33) 122 27 ” - Ly) B. 47°6 ” ” ” 13°9 510 474 339
mel oe 16.40 | Strachur, 74 Ss. 551 | th. e. Bright. Haze. W. 157 374 377 | *212
Re * ie oe il ie B. | 45:41 | ¥ “3 13°3 519 472| °336
Wet 45 17.30 | Inveraray, oo se | 164 8. 551 ]/1lhe 3 As 14:0 359 316] °133
sa q . Fe case ee I Abrot as i) i 13°9 440 404| +247
> 9, | 1810 |Dunderawe, . .| 36 | S. | 55°8 |1%h.e ie % 140 333 298| +109
shie ¥ v cel (uate Me aE 5] MAZE A ah s is 141 502 470 | 333
ess 18.45 | Cuill, Sele aS Ss. 56°5 | 2hh.e. Dull. Haze. Calm. 14°3 290 263 | *064
at he us 3 pad eh WenBe) iepeath|| aaa > " 140 497 463 | -324

West Arran Basin,

19.4.86. ; 15.0 Otter L., - «{ 388% Ss. 43°4 |2}h.e. Dull. Rough. 11‘1 | 1°02498 | 1:02416 | 3:263
Ses xf BE. a | ee Me eee (7 (2 hon ii 5 114 576 497| -368
, 5 | 13.10 | Skate Island, . .| 1033] S. | 440 ah e. ie is 11:0 459 374| -208
ee - re nets,” Bei | 4i3 1 3 a i 11°3 595 515] °390

21.6.86. 15.25 | Otter L., eal, Oe Ss. 45°8 | H. Ww. Dull. Calm. 16°0 477 486 | °*354
eS e * les Re ese le ‘s a 16-0 482} °491| 360
SP & z. Ge MP IRE) * - 16:0 | 498 507 | -381
Dee, 13.15 | Skate Island, . .| 107 Ss. 48°3 | 4th. f.| Dull. Rough. N.W., Sq. | 15°9 453 462] °323
Bir 3 ‘., eM as 30) |;48-5 | o & iy 16°0 495 504| °377
nea 4 é sl! ie Sel) Been async ie 16:0 507 516| 392

19.6.86. | 12.25 | Inchmarnoch, . .| 85 S. 47°3 | 42h. f. Bright. N.W. 13°9 516 481] ‘347
ie _ re mat HE 8 AR OD | ree a - 12°1 560 489| 358
sie : es se timl) ope | Baw |p aac ee i 12°9 567 512| +387
si ee 15.0 Carradale, Resa ae (ch Ss. 51°9 | 1th.e. Bright. Calm. 15‘7 479 481] 347
eg a i A lis. 2 25 |. ade@l ae ma i 13°5 529 486] °354
hae & is fe - vl) Se heel 438-Onl ve - é 14°3 527 501] 373
10.8.86. 16.40 | Otter I., es 26 B. 481 | 1th. f. Dull. W. 14°9 511 496 | °367
Suh isis 14.15 | Skate Island, . .| 1034 Ss. 53°6 | 5h. e. Dull. S.W. 13°1 549 496 | 367
a: ‘ 2 | 6. | bee. ba se 13-0 537 484 | -851
oA a . Ee vl gg | eo ee - é 13-0 586 530| -410
26.9.86. | 12.50 4 - «| 106 S. 54°0 | 2h he. Bright. 14°4 538 413] 259
9 39 49 aa as B. 47°4 5 wi 14°6 546 525| +403
25.9.86. | 17.40 |Inchmarnoch,. .| 82 s. 53°7 | 1#h-f. Dull. 14°2 453 424} -273
ne + . «| a | Be eee :: 14-4 475 450| -307
26.9.86. | 10.55 | Areverga, or hs Ss. 53°9 | H. Ww. Bright. 13°8 459 422} -270

Ee: s i . «|. opel Boul 40oK % 140 553 519| 396
16.11.86.| 9.50 | Skate Island, . .| 104 S. 49°3 | 1h, f. Bright. N.W. 7'6 560 417 | °264

Date.

16.11.86,
29 Le]
18.11.86.

Position.

mas 4
Inchmarnoch, .

ced

Carradale,

Otter L.,
Skate Tsland,
Kilfinan,
Skate Tsland,
Carradale,
Davaar,
Kilfinan,

”
Inchmarnoch, :
Off Loch Ranza,
Skate Island,

Le)
”

Otter L ;
Kilfinan,
Skate Island,

)
2

Inchmarnoch, ,
Off Loch Ranza,
Carradale, ‘
Skate Tsland,
Off Loch Ranza,
is Davaar, :
Otter Te
Kilfinan,

Skate Island,
Inchmarnoch, i

Carradale,

>

Brodick, 4

Mount Stewart, :

Corrie, A

CLYDE SEA AREA.

=
te]
n
ce

ARRAN Bastn—continued.

727

‘| Skate Island,

Depth of

BY GY oF

[Yo SY

90

22

Sea (fms. ).

oe

Depth of
Sample

me

DRODAWARWRHMAWRWRNRAWAWROAWAWRWAWAWARDADAWNDaPWRWAWRDRWAWNRWRWNWa RHO

Daw cn

Tempera-
ture (F.).

HE OV Or
ome
= 5, 3

50°0
51:3
49°5
51°5
46°8
47°8
46°3
48°1
46°6
474
44°2
45°7
43°7
44°3
43°3
43°8
43°7
43°8
44°3
44°1
43°9
44°0
43°9
44°3
44°8
43°8
439
46°5
44°3
50°0
46°0
50°1
45°2
51°1
46°3
53°2
46°5
54°7
46°5
58°2
46°4
57°6
46°2
53°4
46°2
559
46°2
56°5
47-7
54°4
52°4
54°8
49°2
54°3
49 °2
54°9
48°6
55°8
51°5

46°5

45°6 | 2kh.e.

Tide.

_e.| Bright. W.S.W. Rough.
i

te

H.W.

Le)

sd

fox
HED
Weather. © 8°;
ood
Qy
Bright. N.W.

Bright. N.N.E.

Bright. N.W.
Bright. N.
Bright. N.W.

pa

ONINOHM OFM CONT O OONW NHN OF DH 0 OW WONTON AMD HOMINID NITONN OP OO OO CONTAT

Se
8.8. W.
"S.W.
Bright. Calm.

2) >

Bright. Calm. Haze.

Dalles Rain.
Dull. ’ Mist.
Dull.” Mist.

East Arran Basin.
54:8 | 23h.e.

Bright. Haze. Calm. 1
39 > 1
Dull. N.W. Showers.
Dull. N. 1
2 99 1
Dull. N.W. 1
2? 29 1
? 2? 1
) ») 1
Bright. N.W. 1
9 9 1
Bright. 8. 2
2? 2 I
2? 2 1
97 9 2
Bright. Calm. 2
2 2? 2
2? 2 2
29 99 2
Dull. S.W. il
22 99 1
Bright. N. 1
22. 29 19 3
Dull. S.W. 18-4
é 20 Led 1 8 i
Bright. Haze. Calm. 14:
ch) 9 15 2
Bright. Mist. Calm. 14:2
” 2 19°7
Bright. W. 11°5
» » 124
Bright. W.S.W. 11°3
» ” 12°0
Bright. Calm. 15:0
2? 2) 14 5
Bright. Calm. 13°0
2 29 13 “al
C0 11:0
Bright. 12°7

Density.
4St. 451556
102621 | 1°02476
630 479
559 436
552 427
601 485
545 434
586 479
628 452
662 489
609 458
628 479
603 465
655 505
587 425
635 470
553 387
636 471
615 442,
624 453
621 462
631 464
578 430
565 432
622 481
545 425
615 484
482 431
556 461
568 442
611 487
520 440
603 498
542 475
582 500
539 491
565 507
474 476
529 530
370 497
492 524
378 472
428 539
348 486
404 517
344 482
392 526
452 486
489 529
415 500
424 515
423 492
440 515
485 468
503 495
493 464
432 544
544 462
566 500
529 443
577 504
481 469
523 499
1°02527 | 1:02474
577 523
272 191
183 132

Calculated
Salinity.

728

15.11.86.
”? 99

27.12. 86.|

Position.

Brodick,

2?
Lamlash Bay,
Off Whiting Bay, :
Largybeg, aan
Garroch Head, .

Largybeg,
Brodick,
Garroch Head,

Brodick,
Off Whiting Bay,

Brodick, :
Garroch Head, .

Brodick,
Largybeg,
Garroch Head,
Off Brodick, .
In Brodick Bay,

In Irvine Bay,

29

Sanda, S.

- WwW. .
Pladda, E. by N.
10 miles, 5
Pladda, E. by N.
10 miles, E
Pladda, E. 7 miles,
Pladda, E. 44 miles,
Pladda, Wrst

Deas Point,

Ailsa,”

Pladda,

Sanda,

Pladda, E.N.E. 12

* miles,

Pladda, E.N. E. 12
miles,

Sanda, W. 3 miles,

Ailsa, 'E. 4 miles, .

”

Depth of
Sea (fms. )

24%

East Arran Bastn—continued.

Depth of
Sample.

|

AWRHAHa RN MINN ninth

be £0 2 od a a os 0 Wo Wn BO 8

Wah WNW RNR A MM

ww

ce
=o Tide. Weather.
28
Ap
44-4 |ogh.e. Bright
41°3 55 a3
43°0 | 5¢h. f. A
41 3 2? 9
45°1 | 4th. f. Dull. Calm.
44°9 ” 9 a3
45°1 |4th.e. Bright.
45°9 | 5 hie. 5
51°0 | 12h. f Dull. N. Rough.
43:9]
54°3 | 6h. f Dull.
51 8 2) 2?
47°2 99 ”
54°5 | 54h. f. Dull. S.W.
46°3 » » »
54°0 | 3hh.e. Bright. N.E.
51 0 ”) 9 2)
50°5 |14h.f.|Dull. Rain. Mist. S.W.
Rough.
51 3 Le] ” 9?
51°2 , » 3
42°0 |3ih. f. Bright. Mist.
46°3 9 ee] 27
45°7 | 2b h.e Dull. N.
479 ” 2 27.
461 |Zh.e Bright. N.
4771 Le] a9 99
43°3 | 5¢h. f, Bright. Mist.
55°3 | 3h. f. Bright. Calm.
46°4 39 99 ”
57°3 |1th.e Dull. Haze. Calm.
46°5 29 ” 9
55°5 |32h.e.| Bright. Calm, Haze.
46°3 39 »” 2?
55°0 | 24h, f. Bright. Calm.
530) ,, » 9
55:1 | 4h. f. Bright. N.N.W.
49°2 9) ” ?
560 54 bet. ” ”
555 | ,, ” »
561 | 3h e Bright. Calm.
55°5 ” ” »
PLATEAU.
44°5 |5th.e. Bright. Calm.
42.9 |}+h.e. Dull. Calm.
43°7 |1th. f. Bright. Rough.
42°0 ”? 9 2?
44°38 | ih. f. es a
44°7 | L. W. Dull.
45°7 |5th.e. es
481 |5he. Bright. W.N.W.
47°5 »” ” 9
53°8 |4¢h. f. Bright. S.
46°8 9? ” 99
53°9 | H. w. Bright. W.
46°0 te] 2? >
53°0 |38h.e.} Dull. 8.W. Rough
52°8 9 ? ”?
54°1 |2}h. e. “ 7
52°9 a0 ng *9
53°9 | 5$h. f. Bright. N.E.
54 2 29 > 9?
53°6 |44h. f. es ik
54°3 -

?

”

DR HUGH ROBERT MILL ON THE

Tem-
perature
C.° (t).

12:5
121
10°9
111
11°0
11‘1
13°0
12°1
16°7
16°0
14°0
13°2
13°7
14°0

Het
bo bo 0
OO

et et et

ORR RRR WWWWON HOM ON HHH RARE
SOUAWKROTINIANINAMHHOSCAANSSSS BD

Hee eee ppp prpD

111
13°7

11°4

12°1
12°1
117
12°0
15°7
15°7
16°0
15°8
160
15'8
14°0
14°6

14:0

13°6
13°0
13°0
12°6
12'9

501}. =

483 |" *

Density.
4St. i556
1°02325 | 1 02268
566
411 325
594 509
383 299°
550 466
845 299
347 284
396 398
509 516
517 483
535 486
553 513
530 496
558 522
521 466
568 507
521 431
564 473
580 487
530 349
670 485
691 487
729 524
674 472
710 508
600 437
328 477
387 517
335 476
358 541
294 488
331 537
403 364
556 516
481 446
542 527
429 403
449 427
492 476
513 500
102500 | 1:02418
554 522
541 463
569 504
458 894
377 803
851 285
531 533
532 534
472
524 527
466 476
481 488
581 547
572 548
543 509
579 535
562 509
581 525
573 511
592 536

Calculated
Salinity.

CLYDE SEA AREA. 729

PratTEAu—continued.

: cs)

oF C3 ae ay Es Density. £5

Date. Hour. Position. SaCSy || Genie) Ey © | Tide. Weather. 58°, 2.8
Se ae ee eS Lease Sere isees

Ss = Am es i=) 40l. 41556 on

18.11.86.) 13.45 | Pladda, E. by S.| 22 Ss. 50'5 | 3i hf. Bright. N.N.W. 10:0 | 1:02579 | 1:02469 | 3°332

7 miles.

ee. ¥ iy eee By sharon) ee f . 9°5 585 469| °332
en 14.45 | Davaar, a nage al S. 50°0 | 44h. f. Bright. Calm. 9°7 568 455 | °313
Aes : a Elie Bee |e50-0le - . 9-7 576 462| 323
ast Sy 15.0 |Campbeltown Loch, | 10 S. 491 | 45h. f. Dull. Haze. 9°3 575 456] ‘315
ie ue u ies B. 49-4. oy te fe 9-0 581 457| °316

25.12.86.} 10.10 | Rhuad Point, . .| 18 8. 45°9 |} 43h.f.| Bright. S.W. Rough. 5:5 622 452) °310

| Nh ”? 9 ie 2? B. 47°5 27 oP) Wy) 5°6 685 516 “392
6.12.86.| 11.15 | Pladda, E.S.E. 7] 18 S. 46°4 | 4¢h.f. Dull. N.W. 2A 672 472} °336

miles,
— b < Peel) So ab. cern lap % i 21 673 472,| 386

11,2.87. | 10.30 |Rhuad Point, N.} 238% |. S. 43°5 | 22h. f. Bright. E. 6°4 616 457 | °316

2 miles,
A * i Uae een ee eel ee f . 7-2 618 469| “332

31.3.87. 9.50 | Pladda, E.S.E. 9] 21 Ss. 43°8 | tL. w. | Dull. Rain. W.N.W.| 13°6 503 459 | °319

miles, Rough.
Aa . % ere se cen li 4 i 14:2 496 467| 329

17.6.87. | 15.30 | Pladda, N. by E.| 26 S. by (3) Ae Cloudless. Haze. 225 336 513 | 3888

10 miles,
ae, y, i a ae B. }) 48:6... f - 22:8 350 537 | 419
.7.87. | 19.15 | Pladda, E. by N.| 26 Ss. 56°5 | ¢h. f. Dull. S. Rough. 20°8 355 485 | °352
9 miles,
ay - © elt 13 | 49:8] ,, z: A 21°5 344 493| °363
er - - es hearts 17 | 49-64), 5; “ ‘i 21-1 381 519] -396
0 3g 5 “e cae “0 20 50°0 50 of 0 21°1 375 515] °391
21.9.87. | 10.45 | Turnberry Light,| 31 S. 55°6 |24h.f.| Dull. Mist. Calm. 15°5 489 488 | °357
S.E. 2 miles,
mar iss 3 <3 Be es 55 B. 55°5 ny oF; 59 15°3 528 523] “401
eee, | 02.45) | Ailes, Sk Bah Sy licbaehs | nek i 3 15°2 505 497| °368
Mens, . E Cae Ue BCA poco lien iM . 15°5 582 531| *411
CHANNEL.
16.4.86. | 10.50 | Sanda, N. 3 miles, | 434] S. 42°5 | ¢h.e. Dull. Calm. 14°5 | 1'02554 | 1°02536 | 3°418
» » » See || 22 B. | 42°0|_ ,, “A 3 13°3 568 527 | -406
en a 12.10 | Mull of Cantyre,| 70 S. 45-2 |1th.e. - . 11°3 612 530] °410
N. by E. 3 miles.

i) EN 2 ” oes: ”? B. 42°0 29 ” ” 8°5 667 537 “419

>» >» | 18.18 |Mull of Cantyre,| ... | S. | 42:2 | 2th.e. a - 11°2 626 543| 42
N.N.W.

5 14.4 Mull of Cantyre, Ss. 43°0 | 3¢h.e. Bs ‘ nS, 571 490 | ‘359
N.W. ;

12.8.86. | 15.10 | Mull of Cantyre,| 50 8. §2°8 |5h.e.} Dull. S.W. Rough. 13°7 589 549 | °435
N.N.W., 2 miles.

orp A rr 6 npr e e B. 52°4 sh a 56) 13°6 584 542 | °426

22.9.86. | 11.0 Mull of Cantyre,| 66 8. 54°3 | 83th.e Bright. N.N.E. 11°3 638 560} +429
S.E. 3 miles.

oj Be “5 oe Macs A B. 54:3 65 of AG 11°8 628 550 | *436

> 3 | 13.50 | Maidens, S.W. 64] 72 | S. | 55:0] Low Bright. N.E. 11°9 628 552| +439
miles.

foe an 1) oF, 58 95 B. 54°9 53 os 35 12°6 607 543 | °427

oer 15.15 | Carsewell Point, | 47 S. 54:2 | 1th f - BA 12°3 603 535 | °416
S.E. 9 miles.

0D ” ” hears 9 B. 54°6 oH 9 ey 12°7 595 535 “416

25.12.86.| 11.50 | Sanda, N.N.W. 3| 44 S. 48°3 | H. Ww. Bright. W. Rough. 6°3 703 541) -424
miles.

39833 np es o B. 48°5 30 me * 61 705 539 | °422

30.3.87. | 17.15 | Sanda, N. 5 miles, | 50 8. 44-7 |2h.e. Bright. Calm. 12°4 571 506 | -380
Bor 3 9 35 ae a5 B. 44°2 aH ‘, 35 12°9 587 531] -411

17.6.87. | 17.45 | Sanda, N. by E. 45] 58 8. 52°1 | 24h. f.| Cloudless. Haze. S.S.W.| 22°4 371 544] °428

miles.
6). OF 5A op ect ap B. 48°7 D 55 5 2271 386 550| °436

21.9.87. | 15.40 | Sanda, N. by E. 5| 46 S. 56°0 | 1ph.e. Dull. Mist. Calm. 15°6 543 543) +427

miles.
0° oe a np aye 5 B. 56°0 an a9 Ap 15°7 542 544 | 428

VOL. XXXVI. PART III. (NO. 23). 5R

/ és
—»
4 4 : o 7
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Senet dneranera ¢ — s+ tw aeeetinnesineeedl a_i.
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pans.Roy. Soc. Edin® Vol. XXXVI .

i toe ae Tnverbeg \\
: \

PL,

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RRAN Hone

Hf

Ni

THE CLYDE SEA-AREA
KEY MAP

oe
“2 SHowinG NAMES & Limits oF PHysicaL DIVISIONS
Stations shown thus +

gh Geosraphical Institute John Bartholomew & Co.,

D
er ahhy

Pr

A 5 bmn )\, =
os D; et ideal
bo yaooe

Dunotly biter oh Digbo4

a ‘S

CONFIGURATION OF

THE BASIN OF THE CLYDE

REFERENCE TO COLOURING
Tr =

000 Feet

Contones shove 000

(7 2 5 Height of Land”)

Sea Level

j F i 10 Fathome

Sa Po hong) Bec) ro pe ee 1 aN :

y ; Bice . : > (es ~ Contours showing
Depth af Se:

Tullis
oH
click:

a saAeOr

Crisuch Marry 7

: ( ee
SAY fis ‘ ‘ emoriz = & TRRISES

pi J 4 Duckray\ a
Bs Bi i j E (S02 Zonet
oh y Dia — gif ; i Grthtmorag | Wz Pty

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Teta) Tae

Dy,

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mh nl

1 Ca
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sd N /
Charleyiomi— BN
Limekiln —
R

Drathahas|
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Pa frachiensy

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Witla bert Hy

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a 9 Shad fy | ‘ EC % Dy hae SN BUTE iS UMW of
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Ediiburgh Geographical lusutate = = John Bartholomew & Co,
THE OROGRAPHICAL COLOURING IS CONFINED TO THE BASIN OF THE CLYDE

Trams. Roy: Soc. Rdin® VolXXXVL

ge
= THE BASIN OF THE CLYDE
SY MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL
1866-1885
From Scottish Meteorological Society

S

ih

| a)

|| Strait of Corrieyreckean
| ;

gekwatertoor

‘The Edinburgh Geographical Institute

THE AMOUNT OF RAINFALL ALONG EACH LINE IS NOTED IN INCHES
- THE RAINFALL COLOURING IS CONFINED TO THE BASIN OFTHE CLYDE

‘|
S

Plate 4

Trans Roy. Soc. Hin: Vol
sirams. 10

yale donna, Naf 3 be, 7 i, lath }\t J i Z
a, nesters gD ye eg et hee oN alien EU ool CLYDE
j ie y Ys j : Ae io, VErUE,
aN RAINFALL, AVERAGE FOR
1886 - 1887

lagJizs
We Hr

y
rahi
Ze

mop 5
Wd

Bands

l

————————————
=a : :
aoe THEAMOUNT OF RAINFALL ALONG EACH LINE 1S NOTED IN INCHES

: THE RAINFALL COLOURING IS CONFINED 10 THE BASIN OF THE CLYDE

|

wo
oll] |
AY f
oO
of
5
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Gr 2 IIR
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Nite

Ped
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aed

Plate 6.

Soc. Edin? Vol. XXXVI.

John Bartholomew & Co

MIN.

MEAN,

SURFACE WaTeR DENSITY

THE CLYDE SEA-AREA
MAX,

N DENSITY.

MEA

GREATEST

THE DARKEST TINTS OF GREEN INDICATE

~s---lL
= = SB Sees

~)eographical Institute

1 | = Vol. XXXVI.
F SANDA to INCHMARNOCH W ‘ATER, ALONG AXIS OF MAXIMUM DEPTH.
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. |. SECTION of ARRAN BASIN and BARRIER PLATEAU (West). 5 MILES SOUTH (tAUE) OF rririenan
OHANNEL
sw.

JE,
MILES.
4. SECTION of ARRAN |BASIN (CenTRAL). INCHMARNOCH WATER To OTTER, ALONG axis
3. SECTION of LOCH FYNE (OTTER To CUILL), ALONG AXIS OF MAXIMUM DEPTH. Afgan cas ; OF MAXIMUM DEPTH.
WEST & EAGT | OTTER
Fms.0

+ Gace
a

| a lie tel Tp Te sal iz
| I J { E “4 [ Lo | IL L = | 4 A
iooF - —— >

5. SECTION of HOLY LOCH, atone axis: 6. SECTION of DUNOON BASIN ano LOCH LONG. OFF S.E. PoINT oF CUMBRAE TO ARROCHAR, ALONG AXIS OF MAXIMUM DEPTH.

7 SECTION of LOGH GOIL. 8. LOCH GOIL.

Along Axis of Maximum Depth. CrossiSectionza

NOTH A—The diagrams on this plate
are ruled in squares of 56 millimetres

NOTE B—The vertical scale of the
in the side.

sections on this plate is 50 times
the horizontal scals,

A RITCHIEA SOW LTH (01K

SS eee

CC
Dr. H. R. MOLL on Clyde Sea Area. Plate 7. : :

Vol. XXXVI.

Plate 8.

Dr. H. R. MILL on Clyde Sea Area.

ans. Roy. Soc. Edin.

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Plate 9.

Dr. H. R. MILL on Olyde Sea Area.

Roy. Soc. Edin.

Vol. XXXVI.

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125
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vai yy (saan at | a

fr ail :

Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.

Dr. H. R. MILL on Clyde Sea Area.

Plate 10.

COLLECTION OF WATER SAMPLES.

SECTION OF MILL’S

SELF-LOCKING WATER-BOTTLE (Open).

Fig 2.

aa Central Tube.

6 Base Plate.

c Indiarubber Ring on which the edge
J rests when the bottle is shut.

d Stop-cock for running off water.

*e Stop-cock for admitting air.

S Edge of Slip Cylinder.

g Metal Guides for Cylinder.

h# Indiarubber Saucer on which the
flange z rests when the bottle is
shut.

z Knife-edged Flange.

JJ Outer Tube protecting lock.

k Flanged Gallery on head of Slip
Cylinder.

22 Springs sustaining Slip Cylinder.

m Tube which when forced down
withdraws Springs // from Ledge
# and allows Cylinder to slip.

mw Indiarubber Buffer.

o Locking Springs projecting through
windows in Outer Tube 7 and
catching on the floor # of Gallery
as the bottie closes.

Vol. XXXVI.

WATER-BOTTLE (CLoseED).

Fig 1.
a Water Bottle.
B Toggle by which the line is secured.
C Sounding Lead.
D Bottle for water—sample being
filled by an indiarubber tube.
ooLocking Springs pressing down
floor of Gallery %.

22 Detaching Springs withdrawn from
ledge of Gallery & by pressure of
Tube 7 driven by Messenger ~

dropped from the lowest thermo-
meter.

ENLARGED PLAN OF LOCK.
Fig. 3.

CG

\
\

\

\

g
\\)
\\
“y

os

99 Slots in side of Gallery 2. When
the bottle is to be opened, the
locks resting on # /, the Slip
Cylinder is rotated until the
Springs o o fall into the Niches
qq; then the Cylinder may be
raised and suspended by the
Springs 7 7, care being taken to
hang it so that when it slips*o 0
will catch at the points f J, or
near them.

VERE,

fas

“Sy

Sam

SSsexesc
f weno wae:

MTT
be SSS

ARRANGEMENT FOR COLLECTING
WATER SAMPLES FROM SLIGHT DEPTHS.

A Glass-stoppered Bottle.
B Sounding Line.
C Thin Line to withdraw Stopper.

A RITCHIE & SON. LITH EDIN®

Dr. H. R. MTULGL on Clyde Sea Area. Plate 11.
AVERAGE DENSITY OF WATER,AND RAINFALL,IN LANDWARD DIVISION OF THE CLYDE SEA AREA—1886-1887.
frans. Roy. Soc. Edin. Vol. XXXVI.

NSITY 1886 1887
9250: Jan. 1. Feb. Mar.

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Sareseema reer toto he
ee eee i ee
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Dr. H. R. MILL on Clyde Sea Area. Plate 12.

AVERAGE DENSITY OF WATER,AND RAINFALL,IN SEAWARD DIVISION OF THE CLYDE SEA AREA - 1886-1887.
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. Vol. XXXVI.

ENSITY 1886 1887
#992530 Jan. 1. I s r. ay Jun. Jul. : : ct. Nov. Dec. _— dan. _—s Feb. = Mar. — Apr. May dun. Jul. 3 F Oct.

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| on SECA |

u ze ali

ee 7] eS The Density Results are oe of 7 Staciayis. ape \
| The Rainfall Results are Averages of 12 Stations. 4 pee cade es weal N

CENTRAL ARRAN BASIN AND LOCH FYNE: MEAN DENSITY OF WATER—1886- 1887,

SKATE ISL. KILFINAN OTTER GORTANS i FURNA CE £STRACH UR INVER ARAY DUNDERAWE CUILL
1:0250 250
---}---F--+4---f---}---4-o -J__" J 7-—
{ o=
j = a a ==
| ! oo Mean Yale si S— &
| 240 eos 240
| Aen
~
= 4) fa =
tse
{ 230 280
—- 4h | + sim Ae > —
‘-,
220 C, 220
; <
; 210 {210
f | |
: | |
. Comes |
|
: 200 200
|
; 190 190
7 { +=
180 180
q
170 | | 170
!
=| IL all
160 | 160
+ et et EP Nha | aL eel —_ ail em dk
150 150

Ot 23 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 #16 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 238 24 25 26 27 28 29 39 31 Sea Miles.
{ Bitehe & Sen bith Edin

APPENDIX.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

CONTENTS.

THE COUNCIL OF THE SOCIETY, . ‘ : : ’ é ; 734
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS, . : : : 735
LIST OF HONORARY FELLOWS, : : : : : ; ‘ 750
LIST OF ORDINARY FELLOWS ELECTED DURING SESSION 1889-90, . : 752
FELLOWS DECEASED, RESIGNED, OR CANCELLED, 1889-90, ; : 753
LIST OF ORDINARY FELLOWS ELECTED DURING SESSION 1890-91, . 754
FELLOWS DECEASED, RESIGNED, OR CANCELLED, 1890-91, . ; : 755
LAWS OF THE SOCIETY, , zs : : ‘ : ‘ : 757
THE KEITH, BRISBANE, NEILL, AND GUNNING VICTORIA JUBILEE PRIZES, 764

AWARDS OF THE KEITH, MAKDOUGALL-BRISBANE, AND NEILL PRIZES,
FROM 1827 TO 1889, AND OF THE GUNNING VICTORIA JUBILEE PRIZE
FROM 1884 TO 1890, ; : : : : : 767

PROCEEDINGS OF THE STATUTORY GENERAL MEETINGS, 5 ; : 771

LIST OF PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS AND INDIVIDUALS ENTITLED TO RECEIVE
COPIES OF THE TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL
SOCIETY, . ; : ia

INDEX, . ; , 783

ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

COUNCIL,

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ORDINARY FELLOWS,

AND LIST OF HONORARY FELLOWS,

At November 1891.

THe -COUNC EE

OF

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH

NOVEMBER 1891.

PRESIDENT.

Srr DOUGLAS MACLAGAN, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., LL.D., Professor of Medical
Jurisprudence in the University of Edinburgh.

HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENTS, HAVING FILLED THE OFFICE OF PRESIDENT.

His Grace tHE DUKE or ARGYLL, K.G., K.T., D.C.L. Oxon., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Tue Rient Hon. Lorp MONCREIFF, of Tullibole, LL.D. he
Sm WILLIAM THOMSON, LL.D., D.C.L., Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour of

France, Member of the Prussian Order Powr le Meérite, P.R.S., Foreign Associate of
the Institute of France, Regius Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University

of Glasgow.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

Tue Rev. Proressor FLINT, D.D., Corresponding Member of the Institute of France.
GEORGE CHRYSTAL, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in the University of

Edinburgh.

THOMAS MUIR, M.A., LL.D., Mathematical Master in the High School of Glasgow.
Sir ARTHUR MITCHELL, K.C.B., M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., LL.D., Commissioner in

Lunacy.

A. FORBES IRVINE, Esq. of Drum, LL.D., Sheriff of Argyll.
Srrk WILLIAM TURNER, M.B., LL.D. D.CL, F.RCS.E., F.RS., Professor of
Anatomy in the University of Edinburgh.

GENERAL SECRETARY.

P. GUTHRIE TAIT, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh.

SECRETARIES TO ORDINARY MEETINGS.
ALEXANDER CRUM BROWN, M.D., D.Sc, F.R.C.P.E., F.R.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh.
JOHN MURRAY, LL.D., Ph.D., Director of the Challenger Expedition Publications.

TREASURER,

ADAM GILLIES SMITH, Esq., C.A.

CURATOR OF LIBRARY AND MUSEUM,
ALEXANDER BUCHAN, M.A., LL.D., Secretary to the Scottish Meteorological Society.

COUNCILLORS.

W. H. PERKIN, Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the Heriot-Watt College.

A. BEATSON BELL, Advocate, Chairman of the
Prison Commission, Scotland.

The Right Hon. Lorn KINGSBURGH, C.B.,
LL.D., F.R.S., M.S.T.E. and E., Lord
Justice-Clerk, and Lord President of the
Second Division of the Court of Session.

ALEXANDER BRUCE, W.A,, MD;;
M.R.C.P.E.

R. H. TRAQUAIR, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.

BYROM BRAMWELL, M.D., F.R.C.P.E.

RALPH COPELAND, Ph.D., Astronomer-Royal
for Scotland, and Professor of Practical
Astronomy in the University of Edinburgh.

THe Hon. Lorp M‘LAREN, LL.D. Edin. and
Glas., F.R.A.S., one of the Senators of the
College of Justice.

WILLIAM RUTHERFORD, M.D., F.R.C.P.E.,
F.R.S8., Professor of the Institutes of Medi-
cine in the University of Edinburgh.

STAIR AGNEW, C.B., M.A., Registrar-General
for Scotland.

Tue Rev. J. SUTHERLAND BLACK, M.A.

ROBERT KIDSTON, F.G.S.

Date of
Election,

1879
1871
1888

1881

1878

1875

1889

1888
1878

1856

1886
1874

1883
1883
1881

(57385)

ALPHABETICAL LIST

OF

THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY,

B.
K.
IN
Vek
18

KP:

Bee.

Pe:

CORRECTED TO NOVEMBER 1891.

N.B.—Those marked * are Annual Contributors.

prefixed to a name indicates that the Fellow has received a Makdougall-Brisbane Medal.

” ” 25 Keith Medal.

» » 56 Neill Medal.

os 35 ; : _ the Gunning Victoria Jubilee Prize.

7% ap », contributed one or more Papers to the TRANSACTIONS.

Abernethy, Jas., Memb. Inst. C.E., Prince of Wales Terrace, Kensington
* Aonew, Stair, C.B., M.A., Registrar-General for Scotland, 22 Buckingham Terrace
* Aikman, C. M., M.A., B.Sc., F.1.C., F.C.S., Lecturer on Agricultural Chemistry in Glasgow
and West of Scotland Technical College, 183 St Vincent Street, Glasgow
Aitchison, James Edward Tierney, C.LE., M.D., LLD., F.BS., F.LS., F.RCS.E.,

M.R.C.P.E., Corresp. Fell. Obstet. Soc. Edin., Brigade-Surgeon, retired, H.M. Bengal
Army, 20 Chester Street
* Aitken, Andrew Peebles, M.A., Sc.D., F.LC., 57 Great King Street 5

* Aitken, John, F.R.S., Darroch, Falkirk
* Alison, John, M.A., Secretary to the Edinburgh Mathematical Society, 15 Woodburn
Terrace
* Allardice, R. E., M.A., 16 Nile Grove, Morningside
Allchin, W. H., M.B., F.R.C.P.L., Physician to the Westminster Hospital, 5 Chandos
Street, Cavendish Square, London
Allman, George J.. M.D., F.R.S., M.R.TA., F.L.S., Emeritus Professor of Natural History,
University of Edinburgh, Ardmore, Parkstone, Dorset 10
* Anderson, Arthur, C.B., M.D., Ex-Inspector-General of Hospitals, Pitlochry
Anderson, John, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., late Superintendent of the Indian Museum and Pro-
fessor of Comparative Anatomy in the Medical College, Caleutta, 71 Harrington
Gardens, London
* Anderson, Robert Rowand, LL.D., 19 St Andrew Square
Andrews, Thomas, Memb. Inst. C.E., F.R.S., F.C.S., Ravencrag, Wortley, near Sheffield
Anglin, A. H., M.A., LL.D., M.R.I.A., Professor of Mathematics, Queen’s College,
Cork 15

736 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY.

Date of

Election. :

1867 Annandale, Thomas, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., Professor of Clinical Surgery in the University of
Edinburgh, 34 Charlotte Square

1883 Archibald, John, M.D., C.M., F.R.C.S.E., Woodhouse-Eaves, Loughborough

1886 * Armstrong, George Frederick, M.A., Assoc. Memb. Inst. C.E., Professor of Engineering in
the University of Edinburgh

1849 Argyll, His Grace the Duke of, K.G., K.T., D.C. L, LL.D., F.R.S. (Hox. Vicr-Pres.),
Inveraray Castle

1887 * Ashdown, Herbert H., M.D., The Elms, Coningsby, Boston 20

1885 * Baildon, H. Bellyse, B.A., Duncliffe, Murrayfield, Edinburgh

1879 * Bailey, James Lambert, Royal Bank of Scotland, Ardrossan

1875 * Bain, Sir James, 3 Park Terrace, Glasgow

1879 * Balfour, George W., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., LL.D., 17 Walker Street

1877 | P. |* Balfour, I. Bayley, Sc.D., M.D., C.M., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Univer-
sity of Edinburgh, Inverleith House 25

1870 * Balfour, Thomas A. G., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 51 George Square

1889 * Barbour, A. H. F., M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 24 Melville Street

1886 * Barclay, A. J. G., M.A., 5 Ethel Terrace

1872 * Barclay, George, M.A., 17 Coates Crescent

1883 * Barclay, G. W. W., M.A., 91 Union Street, Aberdeen 30

1887 Barlow, W. H., Memb. Inst. C.E., High Combe, Old Charlton, Kent

1882 Barnes, Henry, M.D., 6 Portland Square, Carlisle

1874 Barrett, William F., M.R.I.A., Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, Dublin

1889 Barry, T. D. Collis, Staff Surgeon, M.R.C.S., F.L.S., Prof. of Chemistry and Medical Juris-
prudence to the Grant Medical College, Bombay, and Acting Chemical Adviser.to the
Indian Government, Malabar Hill, Bombay

1887 * Bartholomew, J. G., F.R.G.S., 12 Blacket Place 35

1857 Batten, Edmund Chisholm, of Aigas, M.A., Thornfaulcon, near Taunton, Somerset

1880 * Bayly, General John, C.B., R.E., 58 Palmerston Place

1888 * Beare, Thomas Hudson, B.Sc., Assoc. Memb. Inst. C.E., Professor of Engineering and

"Mechanical Technology in University College, Gower Street, London
1882 | P- Beddard, Frank E., M.A. Oxon., Prosector to the Zoological Society of London, Zoological
Society’s Gardens, Regent’s Park, London

1887 * Begg, Ferdinand Faithful, 13 Earl’s Court Square, London, 8S. W. 40

1886 * Bell, A. Beatson, Advocate, Chairman of Prison Commission, 143 Princes Street

1874 * Bell, Joseph, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., Pres. of the Medico-Chirurgical Society, 2 Melville Crescent

1888 * Bell, William James, of Scatwell, B.A., LL.D., F.C.S., Barrister-at-Law, Scatwell, Muir
of Ord, and 1 Plowden Buildings, Temple, London

1887 * Bernard, J. Mackay, 25 Chester Street

1875 Bernstein, Ludwik, M.D., Lismore, New South Wales 45

1881 * Berry, Walter, of Glenstriven, K.D., Danish Consul-General, 11 Atholl Crescent

1880 * Birch, De Burgh, M.D., Professor of Physiology, Yorkshire College, Victoria Universi
16 De Grey Tee Leeds

1884 * Black, Rev. John S., M.A., 6 Oxford Terrace

1850 Blackburn, Hugh, M.A., LL, Emeritus Professor of Mate matie in the University of

Glasgow, Roshven, satis
1863 | P. Blackie, John S., Emeritus Prof. of Greek in the Univ. of Edin., 9 Douglas Cres. 50

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 737

Date of
Election.

1862 Blaikie, The Rev. W. Garden, M.A., D.D., LL.D., Professor of Apologetics and Pastoral
Theology, New College, Edinburgh, 9 Palmerston Road
1878 | P. |* Blyth, James, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Anderson’s College, Glasgow

1884 Bond, Francis T., M.D., B.A., M.R.C.S., Gloucester

1872 * Bottomley, J. Thomson, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S:, Lecturer on Natural Philosophy in the Uni+
versity of Glasgow, 13 University Gardens, Glasgow

1869 * Bow, Robert Henry, C.E., 7 South Gray Street 55

1886 * Bower, Frederick O., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Regius Professor of: Botany in the University
of Glasgow, 45 Kerrsland Terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow

1884 Bowman, Frederick Hungerford, D.Se., F.R.A.S., F.C.S., F.L8., F.G.S., West Mount,
Halifax, Yorkshire

1871 * Boyd, Sir Thomas J., Chairman of the Scottish Fishery Board, 41s Moray Place

1873 * Boyd, William, M.A., Peterhead

1886 * Bramwell, Byrom, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 23 Drumsheugh Gardens 60

1886 Brittle, John Richard, Memb. Inst. C.E., Vanbrugh Hill, Blackheath, Kent

1877 Broadrick, George, Memb. Inst. C.E., Hamphall, Stubs, near Doncaster:

1890 * Brodie, T. D., W.S., 9 Ainslie Place

1888 | P. |* Brook, George, F.L.S., Lecturer on Comparative Embryology in the University of Edinburgh

1887 * Brown, A. B.,; C.E., 19 Douglas Crescent 65

1864 |K. B.| Brown, Alex. Crum, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.C.P.E., F.R.S. (Secretary), Professor of Chemistry

P. in the University of Edinburgh, 8 Belgrave Crescent

1881 * Brown, J. A. Harvie, of Quarter, Dunipace House, Larbert, Stirlingshire

1883 * Brown, J. Graham, M.D., C.M., F.R.C.P.E., 16 Ainslie Place

1885 * Brown, J. Macdonald, M.B., F.R.C.S.E., Apsley Lodge, 12 South Mansionhouse Road

1861 | PB Brown, Rey. Thomas, D.D., 16 Carlton Street 70

1870 Browne, Sir James Crichton, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., 7 Cumberland Terrace, Regent’s Park,
London

1883 * Bruce, Alexander, M.A., M.D., M.R.C.P.E, 13 Alva Street

1878 Brunlees, Sir James, Memb. Inst. C.E., 5 Victoria Street, Westminster’

1867 Bryce, A. H., LL.D., D.C.L., 42 Moray Place

1888 * Bryson, William A., Electrical Engineer, 11 Bothwell Street, Glasgow 75

1869 |B. P.|* Buchan, Alexander, M.A., LL.D., Secretary to the Scottish Meteorological Society
(Curaror oF Lisrary), 72 Northumberland Street
1870 | K. P.| * Buchanan, John Young, M.A.,F.R.S., 10 Moray Pl., Edinburgh, and Christ’s Coll., Cambridge

1882 * Buchanan, Tt R., M.A., M.P. for the West Division of the City of Edinburgh, 10 Moray
Place, Edinburgh, and 12 South Street, Park-Lane, London, W.

1887 * Buist, J. B?, M.D., F.R’C.P.E., 1 Clifton Terrace

1887 * Burnet, John James, Architect, 18 University Avenue, Hillhead, Glasgow 80

1888 * Burns, Rev. T., F.S.A. Scot., Minister of Lady Glenorchy’s Parish Church, 13 Cumin Pl.

1883 * Butcher, S. H., M.A., LL.D., Prof. of Greek in the University of Edin., 27 Palmerston PI.

1887 | P. |* Cadell, Henry Moubray, of Grange, Bo’ness, B.Se.

1869 * Calderwood, Rev. H., LL.D., Professor of Moral Philosophy. in the University of Edin-
burgh, Napier Road, Merchiston

1879 * Calderwood, John, F.I.C., Belmont Works, Battersea, and Gowanlea, Spencer Park, Wands-
worth, London, 8. W. 85

1878 Campbell, John Archibald, M.D., Garland’s Asylum, Carlisle

VOL. XXXVI. PART III. 5S

738 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY.

Date us

iare Carrington, Benjamin, M.D., Eccles, Lancashire

1882 * Cay, W. Dyce, Memb. Inst. C.E., 1074 Princes Street

187 * Cazenove, The Rev. J. Gibson, M.A., D.D., 22 Alva St., Chancellor of St Mary’s Cathedral

1866 Chalmers, David, Redhall, Slateford 90

1890 Charles, John James, M.A., M.D., C.M., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology, Queen’s
College, Cork

1874 * Chiene, John, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., Professor of Surgery in the University of Edinburgh,
26 Charlotte Square

1875 * Christie, John, 19 Buckingham Terrace

1872 Christie, Thomas B., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., Royal India Asylum, Ealing, London

1880 | K. P.| * Chrystal, George, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in the University of Edinburgh
(Vice-PRrESIDENT), 5 Belgrave Crescent 95

1891 * Clark, John B., M.A., Mathematical and Physical Master in Heriot’s Hospital School,
58 Comiston Road

187 * Clark, Robert, 7 Learmonth Terrace

1886. * Clark, Sir Thomas, Bart., 11 Melville Crescent

1863 | P. Cleghorn, Hugh F. C., of Stravithie, M.D., LL.D., F.L.S., St Andrews, United Service
Club, 14 Queen Street

1875 * Clouston, T. S., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., Tipperlinn House, Morningside 100

1887 * Cockburn, John, F.R.A.S., Glencorse House, Milton Bridge, Midlothian

1888 Collie, John Norman, Ph.D., F.C.S., University College, London

1886 Connan, Daniel M., M.A., Education Department, Cape of Good Hope ‘

1872 * Constable, Archibald, 11 Thistle Street

1891 * Cooper, Charles A., 15 Charlotte Square, Edinburgh 105

1890 * Copeland, Ralph, Ph.D., Astronomer-Royal for Scotland, and Professor of Practical
Astronomy in the University of Edinburgh, 15 Royal Terrace

1879 * Cox, Robert, of Gorgie, M.A., 34 Drumsheugh Gardens

1875 * Craig, William, M.D., PROPE, F.R.C.S.E., Lecturer on Materia Medica to the College
of Surgeons, 7 E oumitenala Place

1886 * Croom, John Halliday, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 25 Charlotte Square

1887 * Crawford, William Caldwell, Lockharton Gardens, Slateford, Edinburgh 110

1887 * Camming, A. 8., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 18 Ainslie Place

1878 * Cunningham, Daniel John, M.D., F.R.S., F.Z.S., Professor of Anatomy in Trinity College,
Dublin, 69 Harcourt Street, Dublin

1886 * Cunningham, David, Memb. Inst. C.E., Harbour Chambers, Dock Street, Dundee

1877 * Cunningham, George Miller, Memb. Inst. C.E., 2 Ainslie Place

1871 * Cunynghame, R. J. Blair, M.D., President of the Royal College of Surgeons, 18 Rothesay
Place 115

1885 * Daniell, Alfred, M.A., LL.B., D.Sc., Advocate, 3 Great King Street

1891 * Darling, The Hon. Lord Stormonth, one of the Senators of the College of Justice, 10
Great Stuart Street ;

1884 Davy, Richard, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to the Westminster Hospital, 33 Welbeck St., Cavendish
Square, London

1876 * Denny, Peter, Memb. Inst. C.E., Dumbarton

1869 | P. |* Dewar, James, M.A., F.R.S., Jacksonian Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy
in the University of Cambridge, and Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal
Institution of Great Britain, London 120

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 739

lection.
1884 * Dickson, Charles Scott, Advocate, 4 Heriot Row
1888 * Dickson, H. N., Marine Biological Association, The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth

1876 | P. |* Dickson, J. D. Hamilton, M.A., Fellow and Tutor, St Peter’s College, Cambridge

1863 | P. Dittmar, W., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry, Anderson’s College, 11 Hillhead
Street, Glasgow

1885 Dixon, J. M., M.A., Prof. of English Literature in the University of Tokio, Japan 125

1881 * Dobbin, Leonard, Ph.D., Assistant to the Professor of Chemistry in the University of
Edinburgh, 16 Kilmaurs Road

1867 | P. Donaldson, J., M.A., LL.D., Principal of the United College of St Salvador and: St Leonard,

St Andrews

1882 * Dott, D. B., Memb. Pharm. Soc., 7 Victoria Terrace, Musselburgh

1866 Douglas, David, 22 Drummond Place

1880 * Drummond, Henry, F.G.S., Professor of Natural: History. in the Free Church College, 3\Park
Circus, Glasgow 130

1860 Dudgeon, Patrick, of Cargen, Dumfries

1876 * Duncan, James, of Benmore, Kilmun, 9 Mincing Lane,. London

1889 * Duncan, James Dalrymple, F.S.A. Scot., Meiklewood, Stirling

1870 * Duncan, John, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., F.R.C.S8.E., 8 Ainslie Place

1878 * Duncanson, J. J. Kirk, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 22. Drumsheugh Gardens 135

1859 Duns, Rev. Professor, D.D., New College, Edinburgh, 14 Greenhill Place-

. 1888 * Durham, James, F.G.S., Wingate Place, Newport, Fife:

1874 * Durham, William, Seaforth House, Portobello

1869 * Elder, George, Knock Castle, Wemyss Bay, Greenock

1885 * Elgar, Francis, Memb. Inst. C.E., LL.D., The Admiralty, London 140

1875 Elliot, Daniel G., New York

1855 Etheridge, Robert, F.R.S., Assistant-Keeper of the Geological Department at the British
Museum of Natural History, 14 Carlyle Square, Chelsea, London

1884 * Evans, William, F.F.A., Secretary Royal Physical Soc.,, 18a Morningside Park, Edinburgh

1863 | P. Everett, J. D., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Prof. of Nat. Philosophy, Queen’s Coll., Belfast

1879 * Ewart, James Cossar, M.D., F.R.C.8.E., F.L.S., Professor of Natural History, University
of Edinburgh, 2 Belford Park 145

1878 | P. | * Ewing, James Alfred, B.Sc., Memb. Inst. C.E., F.R.S., Professor of Mechanism and Applied
Mechanics in the University of Cambridge, Langdale Lodge, Cambridge

1875 Fairley, Thomas, Lecturer on Chemistry, 8 Newton Grove, Leeds

1888 | P. |* Fawsitt, Charles A., 4 Maule Terrace, Partick, Glasgow

1859 Fayrer, Sir Joseph, K.C.S.1., M.D., F.R.C.P.L., F.R.C.S. L. and E., LL.D., F.R.S., Honorary
Physician to the Queen, 53 Wimpole Street, London

1883 * Felkin, Robert W., M.D., F.R.G.S., Fellow of the Anthropological Society of Berlin,
20 Alva Street, Edinburgh 150

1888 * Ferguson, John, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Chemistry in: the University of Glasgow

1868 * Ferguson, Robert M., Ph.D., 12 Moray Place

1874 * Ferguson, William, of Kinmundy, F.L.S., F.G.S., Kinmundy House, Mintlaw

1886 Field, C. Leopold, F.C.S., Upper Marsh, Lambeth, London

1852 Fleming, Andrew, M.D., Deputy Surgeon-General, 8 Napier Road 155

1876 * Fleming, J. S., 16 Grosvenor Crescent

740 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY.

Date of
Election.

1880

BE.

Bak;

B. P.

* Flint, Robert, D.D., Corresponding Member of the Institute of France, Corresponding
Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Palermo, Professor of Divinity in the
University of Edinburgh (Vicr-PresipEnt), Johnstone Lodge, 54 Craigmillar Park

Forbes, Professor George, M.A., Memb. Inst. C.E., M.S.T.E. and E., F.R.S., E.RAS., 34
Great George Street, Westminster

Forlong, Major-Gen. J. G., F.R.G.S., R.A.S., Assoc. C.E., &., 11 Douglas Crescent

Foster, John, Liverpool 160

Fowler, Sir John, Bart., K.C.M.G., Memb. Inst. C.E., LL.D., Thornwood Lodge, Kensing-
ton, London

Fraser, A. Campbell, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., Emeritus Professor of Logic and Metaphysics
in the University of Edinburgh, Gorton House, Hawthornden

Fraser, Thomas R., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., F.R.S., Professor of Materia Medica in the University
of Edinburgh, 13 Drumsheugh Gardens

* Fullarton, J. H., M.A., D.Sc., Zoologist to the Fishery Board for Scotland, 101 George

Street
* Fulton, T. Wemyss, M.B., Secretary for Scientific Investigations to the Scottish Fishery
Board, 20 Royal Crescent 165

* Galt, Alexander, B.Sc., F.C.S., 40 Renfrew Street, Glasgow
Gayner, Charles, M.D., Oxford
* Geddes, George H., Mining Engineer, 8 Douglas Crescent
* Geddes, Patrick, Professor of Botany in University College, Dundee, and Lecturer on
Zoology, 6 James’ Court, Lawnmarket
Geikie, Sir Archibald, LL.D., F.R.8., F.G.S., Corresponding Member of the Institute of
France, Corresponding Member of the Royal Academy of Berlin, Director of the
Geological Surveys of Great Britain, and Head of the Geological Museum, 28 Jermyn
Street, London 170

* Geikie, James, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.8., Professor of Geology in the University of
Edinburgh, 31 Merchiston Avenue

* Gibson, G. A., D.Sc., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 17 Alva Street

* Gibson, George A., M.A., 11 Huntly Terrace, Kelvinside, Glasgow

* Gibson, John, Ph.D., 15 Hartington Gardens

* Gibson, R. J. Harvey, M.A., Lecturer on Botany, Victoria University, 41 Sydenham
Avenue, Sefton Park, Liverpool 175

* Gilmour, William, 9 Inverleith Row

* Gilruth, George Ritchie, Surgeon, 48 Northumberland Street

Gosset, Major-General W. D., R.E., 70 Edith Road, West Kensington, London

* Graham, James, LL.D., 198 West George Street, Glasgow

* Graham, Richard D., 11 Strathearn Road 180

* Gray, Andrew, M.A., Professor of Physics in University College, Bangor, North Wales

Gray, Thomas, B.Sc., Professor of Physics, Rose Polytechnic Institute, Terre Haute,

Indiana, U.S.

* Greenfield, W. S., M.D., Professor of General Pathology in the University of Edinburgh,
7 Heriot Row

* Grieve, John, M.A., M.D., F.L.S., 212 St Vincent Street, Glasgow

* Griffiths, Arthur Bower, Ph.D., Lecturer on Chemistry in the School of Science of the City
and County of Lincoln, Richmond House, Charlotte Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham 185

- 1890
1881 |N. P.

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 741

Date of
Election.

1883

1888

1886
1867

1881

1876
1886

1888
1869
E7
1880

1862

1876 |K. P.

1890
1884

1889

1871
1859
1879
1885

1881
1883
1886
1872

1887
1887

1864

1882
1874

1886
1875

E.

deg
iP:

Gunning, R. H., Grand Dignitary of the Order of the Rose of Brazil, M.D., LL.D., 12
Addison Crescent, Kensington
Guppy, Henry Brougham, M.B., 17 Woodlane, Falmouth

* Haddington, The Right Hon. the Earl of, Tyninghame House, Haddington
Hallen, James H. B., F.R.C.S.E., Inspecting Veterinary Surgeon in H.M. Indian Army,
Pebworth, near Stratford-on-Avon
* Hamilton, D. J., M.B., F.R.C.S.E., Professor of Pathological Anatomy in the University
of Aberdeen, 14 Albyn Place, Aberdeen 190
* Hannay, J. Ballantyne, Cove Castle, Loch Long
* Hare, Arthur W., M.B., F.R.C.S.E., Professor of Surgery, Owens College, 23 St John Street,
Manchester
* Hart, D. Berry, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 29 Charlotte Square
Hartley, Sir Charles A., K.C.M.G., Memb. Inst. C.E., 26 Pall Mail, London
Hartley, Walter N., F.R.S., Prof. of Chemistry, Royal College of Science for Ireland, Dublin
* Haycraft, J. Berry, M.D., D.Sc., Lecturer on Physiology in the University of Edinburgh,
20 Ann Street
Hector, Sir James, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., Director of the Geological Survey, Wellington,
New Zealand
* Heddle, M. Forster, M.D., Emeritus Professor of Chemistry in the University of St Andrews
Helme, T. A., M.D., St Mary’s Hospital, Manchester
* Henderson, John, jun., Meadowside Works, Partick, Glasgow 200
* Hepburn, David, M.D., Principal Demonstrator of Anatomy in the University of Edinburgh
* Herdman, W, A., D.Sc., Professor of Natural History in University College, Liverpool
Hewitt, William Morse Graily, M.D., Emeritus Professor of Obstetric Medicine in University
College, London, 36 Berkeley Square, London
Higgins, Charles Hayes, M.D., M.R.C.P.L., F.R.C.S., Alfred House, Birkenhead
Hills, John, Major-General, C.B., Bombay Engineers, United Service Club, London 205
Hislop, John, Secretary to the Department of Education, Wellington, New Zealand
Hodgkinson, W. R., Ph.D., F.LC., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry and Physics at the Royal
Military Academy and Royal Artillery College, Woolwich, 8 Park Villas, Blackheath,
London
* Horne, John, F.G.S., Geological Survey of Scotland, Sheriff-Court Buildings, Edinburgh
* Hoyle, William Evans, M.A., M.R.C.S., 25 Brunswick Road, Withington, Manchester
Hunt, Rev. H.G, Bonavia, Mus. D. Dub., Mus. B. Oxon., F.L.S., La Belle Sauvage, Lond. 210
* Hunter, Colonel Charles, of Plis Coch, Llanfairpwll, Anglesea, and Junior United Service
Club, London
* Hunter, James, F.R.C.S.E., F.R.A.S., Rosetta, Liberton, Midlothian
* Hunter, William, M.D., M.R.C.P. L. and E., M.R.C.S., 61 Wimpole Street, Cavendish
Square, London
Hutchison, Robert (Carlowrie Castle), and University Club

* Inglis, J. W., Memb. Inst. C.E., 19 Montpelier, Edinburgh 215
* Trvine, Alex. Forbes, of Drum, LL.D., Advocate, Sheriff of Argyll (Vicz-PRESIDENT),
25 Castle Terrace
* Irvine, Robert, Royston, Granton, Edinburgh
Jack, William, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in the University of Glasgow

742

Date of
Election.

1889
1882

1860
1880
1865
1869

1867
1877
1874
1888

1866
1891
1886
1877
1880
1886

1883
1878

1889
1891

1875
1886
1878
1885
1870

1881

1872
1882
1883
1863
1874
1889

1870

1882
1884

ae, EY

E,.F.

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY.

* James, Alexander, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 44 Melville Street
* Jamieson, A., Memb. Inst. C.E., Professor of Engineering in The Glasgow and West of
Scotland Technical College, Glasgow 220
Jamieson, George Auldjo, Actuary, 24 St Andrew Square
Japp, A. H., LL.D., The Limes, Elmstead, near Colchester
Jenner, Charles, Easter Duddingston Lodge
Johnston, John Wilson, M.D., Surgeon-Major, Dacre House, Shrewsbury Road, Oxton,
Birkenhead
Johnston, T. B., F.R.G.S., Geographer to the Queen, 9 Claremont Crescent 225
* Jolly, William, H.M. Inspector of Schools, F.G.S., Greenhead House, Govan
Jones, Francis, Lecturer on Chemistry, Beaufort House, Alexandra Park, Manchester
Jones, John Alfred, Memb. Inst. C.E., Vice-President, and Engineer, City of Madras,
Peter’s Road, Madras

Keiller, Alexander, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., LL.D., 21 Queen Street
Kerr, Joshua Law, M.D., Croft House, Crawshawbooth, Manchester 230

.|* Kidston, Robert, F.G.S., 24 Victoria Place, Stirling

* King, Sir James, of Campsie, Bart., LL.D., 12 Claremont Terrace, Glasgow

* King, W. F., Lonend, Russell Place, Trinity

* Kingsburgh, The Right Hon. Lord, C.B., Q.C., LL.D., F.R.S., M.S.T.E. and E., Lord
Justice-Clerk, and Lord President of the Second Division of the Court of Session,
15 Abercromby Place

* Kinnear, The Hon. Lord, one of the Senators of the College of Justice, 2 Moray Place 235

* Kintore, The Right Hon. the Earl of, M.A. Cantab., Keith Hall, Inglismaldie Castle,
Laurencekirk

* Knott, C. G., D.Se., 2 Lauriston Park, Edinburgh

* Kyllachy, the Hon. Lord, one of the Senators of the College of Justice, 6 Randolph Crescent

* L’Amy, John Ramsay, of Dunkenny, Forfarshire, 107 Cromwell Road, London

* Laing, Rev. George P., 17 Buckingham Terrace 240

* Lang, P. R. Scott, M.A., B.Sc., Professor of Mathematics in the University of St Andrews

* Laurie, A. P., B.A., B.Sc., King’s College, Cambridge

* Laurie, Simon S., M.A., Professor of Education in the University of Edinburgh, Nairne
Lodge, Duddingstone

* Lawson, Robert, M.D., Deputy-Commissioner in Lunacy, 24 Mayfield Terrace

* Lee, Alexander H., C.E., Blairhoyle, Stirling 245

* Leslie, Alexander, Memb. Inst. C.E., 12 Greenhill Terrace

* Leslie, George, M.B., C.M., Old Manse, Falkirk

Leslie, Hon. G. Waldegrave, Leslie House, Leslie

* Letts, E. A., Ph.D., F.L.C., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry, Queen’s College, Belfast

* Lindsay, Rev. James, B.D, B.Sc, F.G.S., Minister of St Andrews Parish, Springhill
Terrace, Kilmarnock 250

* Lister, Sir Joseph, Bart., M.D., F.R.C.8.L., F.R.C.8.E., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Professor of
Clinical Surgery, King’s College, Surgeon Extraordinary to the Queen, 12 Park Crescent,
Portland Place, London

* Livingston, Josiah, 4 Minto Street

* Low, George M., Actuary, 15 Chester Street

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 743

Date of

Election.

1888 * Lowe, D. F., M.A., Headmaster of Heriot’s Hospital School, Lauriston

1849 Lowe, W. H., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., Woodcote, Inner Park, Wimbledon 255

1886 Lyster, George Fosbery, Memb. Inst. C.E., Gisburn House, Liverpool

1855 Macadam, Stevenson, Ph.D., Lecturer on Chemistry, Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh, 11 East
Brighton Crescent, Portobello

1888 * Macadam, W. Ivison, Lecturer on Chemistry, 6 East Brighton Crescent, Portobello

1887 M‘Aldowie, Alexander M., M.D., 4 Brook Street, Stoke-on-Trent

1891 Macallan, John, F.I.C., 2 Marino Terrace, Clontarf, Dublin 260

1888 | P. M‘Arthur, John, “ Wilcroft,” Nicosia Road, Wandsworth Common, London

1885 * M‘Bride, Charles, M.D., Wigtown

1883 *M‘Bride, P., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 16 Chester Street

1867 M‘Candlish, John M., W.S., 27 Drumsheugh Gardens

1886 * Macdonald, William J., M.A., 6 Lockharton Terrace 265

1847 Macdonald, W. Macdonald, of St Martin’s, Perth

1888 * M‘Fadyean, John, M.B., B.Sc., Lecturer on Anatomy, 9 East Hermitage Place, Leith

1878 | P. Macfarlane, Alex., M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., Professor of Physics in the University of the State
of Texas, Austin, Texas
1885 | P. |* Macfarlane, J. M., D.Sc., 15 Scotland Street

1877 * Macfie, Robert A., Dreghorn Castle, Colinton 270
1878 + M‘Gowan, George, F.1I.C., Ph.D., University College of North Wales, Bangor
1886 * MacGregor, Rev. James, D.D., 11 Cumin Place, Grange

FeSO | P. MacGregor, J. Gordon, M.A., D.Sec., Professor of Physics in Dalhousie College, Halifax,

Nova Scotia

1869 | N. P.| * M‘Intosh, William Carmichael, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Natural History
in the University of St Andrews, 2 Abbotsford Crescent, St Andrews

1882 * Mackay, John Sturgeon, M.A., LL.D., Mathematical Master in the Edinburgh Academy,
69 Northumberland Street 275

1873 | P. | * M‘Kendrick, John G., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of the Institutes of
Medicine in the University of Glasgow

1840 Mackenzie, John, New Club, Princes Street

1843) P. Maclagan, Sir Douglas, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., LL.D. (Presper), Professor of Medical Juris-
prudence in the University of Edinburgh, 28 Heriot Row

1853 Maclagan, General R., Royal Engineers, LL.D., 4 West Cromwell Road, S. Kensington,
London, S. W.

1869 * Maclagan, R. Craig, M.D., 5 Coates Crescent 280

1864 M‘Lagan, Peter, of Pumpherston, M.P., Clifton Hall, Ratho

1869 | P. |* M‘Laren, The Hon. Lord, LL.D. Edin. and Glasg., F.R.A.S., one of the Senators of the
College of Justice, 46 Moray Place

1888 * Maclean, Magnus, M.A., Assistant to the Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University
of Glasgow, 21 Hayburn Crescent, Partick

1870 * Macleod, Sir George H. B., M.D., F.R.C.S.E., Regius Prof. of Surgery in the University of
Glasgow, and Surgeon in Ordinary to the Queen in Scotland, 10 Woodside Crescent,
Glasgow

1876 * Macleod, Rev. Norman, D.D., Westwood, Inverness 285

1883 * Macleod, W. Bowman, L.D.S., 16 George Square

1872 * Macmillan, Rev. Hugh, D.D., LL.D., Seafield, Greenock

744 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY.

Dateof
Election.

1876

EP;

* Macmillan, John, M.A., B.Se., 26 Frederick Street

* Macpherson, Rey. J. Gordon, M.A., D.Se., Ruthven Manse, Meigle

* M‘Roberts, George, F.C.S., Todhill, Newton-Mearns, Renfrewshire 290
Mactear, James, F.C.S., 2 Victoria Mansions, Hyde Park, London

* M‘Vail, John C., M.D., 2 Strathallan Terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow
Malcolm, R. B., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 126 George Street
Marsden, R. Sydney, M.B., C.M., D.Sc, F.LC., F.C.S., 65 Grange Mount, Claughton,

Birkenhead
Marshall, D. H., M.A., Professor of Physics in Queen’s University and College, Kingston,
Ontario, Canada 295

Marshall, Henry, M.D., Clifton, Bristol
* Marshall, Hugh, D.Sc., Assistant to the Professor of Chemistry in the University of Edin-
burgh, 1 Lorne Terrace
Marwick, Sir James David, LL.D., Town-Clerk, Glasgow
Masson, David, LL.D., Professor of Rhetoric and Englisk Literature in the University of
Edinburgh, 58 Great King Street
* Masson, Orme, D.Sc., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Melbourne 300
* Matheson, The Rev. George, M.A., B.D., D.D., Minister of St Bernard’s, Edinburgh, 19 St
Bernard’s Crescent
* Methven, C. W., Memb. Inst. C.E., Engineer-in-Chief to the Natal Harbour Board,
Engineer’s Office, Harbour Works, Port Natal
* Mill, Hugh Robert, D.Sc., F.C.S., Braid Road, Morningside, Edinburgh
* Miller, Hugh, H.M. Geological Survey Office, George IV. Bridge
Milne, Admiral Sir Alexander, Bart., G.C.B., Inveresk 305
* Milne, William, M.A., B.Sc., Mathematical and Science Teacher, High School, Glasgow
Mitchell, Sir Arthur, K.C.B., M-A., M.D., LL.D:, Commissioner in. Lunacy (Vice-PREst-
DENT), 34 Drummond Place
* Mitchell, A. Crichton, D.Sce., Professor of Pure and Applied Mathematics, Maharajah’s
College, Trivandrum, Travancore, India
Moir, John J. A., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 52 Castle Street
* Moncreiff, The Right Hon. Lord, of Tullibole, LL.D. (Honorary Vice-Presipent), 15
Great Stuart Street 310
* Moncrieff, Rev. Canon William Scott, of Fossaway, Christ’s Church Vicarage, Bishop-Wear-
mouth, Sunderland
Mond, R. L., B.A. Cantab., 23 Windsor Terrace, Glasgow
* Montgomery, Very Rev. Dean, M.A., D.D., 17 Atholl Crescent.
Moos, Nanabhay A. F., L.C.E., B.Se., Assistant Professor of Engineering, College of Science,
Bombay
More, Alexander Goodman, M.R.I.A., F.L.S., 74 Leinster Road, Dublin 315
* Muir, Thomas, M.A., LL.D. (Vice-Prestpent), Mathematical Master, High School, Glasgow,
Beechcroft, Bothwell, Glasgow
* Muirhead, George, Mains of Haddo, Aberdeen
Mukhopadhyay, Asfitosh, M.A., F.R.A.S., Examiner in Mathematics in the University of
Caleutta, Professor of Mathematics at the Indian Association for the Cultivation of
Science, 77 Russa Road North, Bhowanipore, Calcutta
* Munn, David, M.A., 2 Ramsay Gardens
* Munro, Rev. Robert, M.A., B.D., F.S.A. Scot., Free Church Manse, Old Kilpatrick 320

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 745

Date of

Election.

1891 * Munro, Robert, M.A., M.D., Secretary of the Soc. of Antiquaries of Scotland, 48 Manor PI.
1857 Murray, John Ivor, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., M.R.C.P.E., 24 Huntriss Row, Scarborough

L377 | B.N. * Murray, John, LL.D., Ph.D. (Szcrerary), (Society’s Representative on George Heriot’s
Trust), Director of the Challenger Expedition Publications, 28 Douglas Crescent, and
Ep ts United Service Club.

1888 * Murray, R. Milne, M.A., M.B., F.R.C.P.E., 10 Hope Street

1887 |. Muter, John, M.A., F.C.S., Winchester House, 397 Kennington Road, London 325
1888 Napier, A. D. Leith, M.D., C.M., M.B.C.P.L., 67 Grosvenor St., Grosvenor §q., London
1877 * Napier, John, C. Audley Mansions, Grosvenor Square, London

1887 * Nasmyth, T. Goodall, M.B., C.M., D.Sc., Cupar-Fife

1866 Nelson, Thomas, St Leonard’s, Dalkeith Road

1883 * Newcombe, Henry, F.R.C.S.E., 5 Dalrymple Crescent, Edinburgh 330
1884 * Nicholson, J. Shield, Professor of Political Economy in the University of Edinburgh,

f Eden Lodge, Eden Lane, Newbattle Terrace
1880 | P. |* Nicol, W. W. J., M.A., D.Sc., Lecturer on Chemistry, Mason College, Birmingham
1878 Norris, Richard, M.D.

1888 | . * Ogilvie, F. Grant, M.A., B.Se., Principal of the Heriot-Watt College, 27 Blacket Place
1888 * Oliphant, James, M.A., 50 Palmerston Place 335
1886 Oliver, James, M.D., F.L.S., Physician to the London Hospital for Women, 18 Gordon

Square, London
1884 | P. |*Omond, Robert Traill, Superintendent of Ben Nevis Observatory, Fort-William, Inverness

1877 Panton, George A., 73 Westfield Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham
1886 * Paton, D. Noel, M.D., B.Sc., F.R.C.P.E., 4 Walker Street
1889 * Patrick, David, M.A., 25 Gillespie Crescent 340

1881 | N.P.|* Peach, B. N., F.G.S., Acting Paleontologist of the Geological Survey of Scotland, 13
Dalrymple Crescent

1889 * Peck, William, F.R.A.S., Town’s Astronomer, Murrayfield, Edinburgh

1863 Peddie, Alexander, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 15 Rutland Street

1887 * Peddie, Wm., D.Sc., Assistant to the Professor of Natural Philosophy, Edinburgh University

1886 * Peebles, D. Bruce, Tay House, Bonnington, Edinburgh 345

1869 Pender, Sir John, 18 Arlington Street, Piccadilly, London

1888 * Perkin, W. H., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Heriot-Watt College

1889 * Philip, R. W., M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 4 Melville Crescent

1883 Phillips, Charles D. F., M.D., LL.D., 10 Henrietta Street, Cavendish Square, London, W.

1859 | P. Playfair, The Right Hon. Sir Lyon, K.C.B., M.P., LL.D., F.R.S., 68 Onslow Gardens,
London 350

1877 Pole, William, Memb. Inst. C.E., Mus. Doc., F.R.S., Atheneum Club, London

1886 * Pollock, Charles Frederick, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., 1 Buckingham Terr,, Hillhead, Glasgow

1874 Powell, Baden Henry Baden-, Forest Department, India

1852 Powell, Eyre B., C.S.I., M.A., 28 Park Road, Haverstock Hill, Hampstead, Iondon

1888 Prain, David, Surgeon, Indian Medical Service, and Curator of the Herbarium, Royal
Botanic Gardens, Shibpur, Calcutta 355

1875 Prevost, E. W., Ph.D., Elton, Newnham, Gloucester

1849 Primrose, Hon. B, F., C.B., 22 Moray Place

VOL. XXXVI. PART III. 5) ae

746 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY.

Date of

Election.

1882 * Pryde, David, M.A., LL.D., 10 Fettes Row, Edinburgh

1885 * Pullar, J. F., Rosebank, Perth

1880 * Pullar, Robert, Tayside, Perth 360

1884 Ramsay, E. Peirson, M.R.LA., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S., F.R.G.S., F.G.S., Fellow of the Imperial and
Royal Zool. and Bot. Soc. of Vienna, Curator of Australian Museum, Sydney, N.S.W.

1891 * Rankine, John, Advocate, Professor of the Law of Scotland in the University of Edin-
burgh, 23 Ainslie Place

1882 * Rattray, James Clerk, M.D., 61 Grange Loan

1885 | P. |* Rattray, John, M.A., B.Sc., Dunkeld |

1869 Raven, Rev. Thomas Milville, M.A., The Vicarage, Crakehall, Bedale 365

1883 * Readman, J. B., D.Se., F.C.S., 4 Lindsay Place, Edinburgh

1889 Redwood, Boverton, Glenwathen, Ballard’s Lane, Finchley, Middlesex

1875 * Richardson, Ralph, W.S., 10 Magdala Place

1872 Ricarde-Seaver, Major F. Ignacio, Conservative Club, St James’ Street, London, and
2 Rue Laffitte, Boulevard des Italiens, Paris

1883 * Ritchie, R. Peel, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 1 Melville Crescent 370

1880 Roberts, D. Lloyd, M.D., F.R.C.P.L., 23 St John Street, Manchester

1872 * Robertson, D. M. C. L. Argyll, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., Surgeon Oculist to the Queen for Scot-
land, 18 Charlotte Square

1859 Robertson, George, Memb. Inst. C.E., Athenzeum Club, Pall Mall, London

1886 * Robertson, Right Hon. J. P. B., Q.C., LL.D., Lord Justice-General of Scotland and Lord

President of the Court of Session, 19 Drumsheugh Gardens
1877 | P. |* Robinson, George Carr, F.I.C., Lecturer on Chemistry in the College of Chemistry, Royal

Institution, Hull 375
1881 * Rogerson, John Johnston, B.A., LL.B., LL.D., Merchiston Castle Academy
1881 Rosebery, The Right Hon. the Earl of, LL.D., Dalmeny Park, Edinburgh
1880 Rowland, L. L., M.A., M.D., President of the Oregon State Medical Society, and Professor
of Physiology and Microscopy in Williamette University, Salem, Oregon
1880 * Russell, The Right Hon. J. A., M.A., B.Sc, M.B., F.R.C.P.E., Lord Provost of Edinburgh,

Woodville, Canaan Lane
1869 | P. | * Rutherford, Wm., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., F.R.S., Professor of the Institutes of Medicine in

the University of Edinburgh, 14 Douglas Crescent 380

1864 Sandford, The Right Rev. Bishop D. F., LL.D., Boldon Rectory, Newcastle-on-Tyne

1891 Sawyer, Sir James, M.D., Haseley Hall, Warwick

1885 Scott, Alexander, M.A., D.Sc., Trinity College, Cambridge

1880 Scott, J. H., M.B., C.M., M.R.C.S., Professor of Anatomy in the University of Otago, New
Zealand

1888 * Scott, John, C.B., Shipbuilder, Hawkhill, Greenock 385

1875 Scott, Michael, Memb. Inst. C.E., care of Alexander Grahame, Esq., 30 Great George Street,
Westminster

1889 * Scougal, Andrew E., M.A., H.M. Inspector of Schools, 12 Blantyre Terrace

1872 * Seton, George, M.A., Advocate, St Mary’s Axe, London

1887 * Sexton, A. H., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry, College of Science and Arts, 38 Bath Street,
Glasgow

1872 * Sibbald, John, M.D., Comr. in Lunacy, 3 St Margaret’s Road, Whitehouse Loan 396

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 747

Election.

1870 * Sime, James, M.A., Craigmount House, 52 Dick Place

1871 * Simpson, A. R., M.D., President of the Royal College of Physicians, Professor of Mid-
wifery in the University of Edinburgh, 52 Queen Street

1888 * Sinclair, D. S., 328 Renfrew Street, Glasgow

1859 | P. Skene, W. F., W.S., LL.D., D.C.L., Historiographer-Royal for Scotland, 27 Inverleith Row

1876 * Skinner, William, W.S., Town-Clerk of Edinburgh, 35 George Square 395

1868 * Smith, Adam Gillies, C.A. (TREASURER), 64 Princes Street

1891 * Smith, Alexander, B.Sc., Ph.D., Wabash College, Crawfordsville, Indiana, U.S.

1882 | P. Smith, C. Michie, B.Sc., Professor of Physical Science, Christian College, Madras, India

1885 * Smith, George, F.C.S., Polmont Station

1883 Smith, James Greig, M.A., M.B., 16 Victoria Square, Clifton 400

1871 * Smith, John, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., LL.D., 11 Wemyss Place

1886 * Smith, Major-General Sir R. Murdoch, K.C.M.G., R.E., Director of Museum of Science and

Art, Edinburgh

1871 | P. |* Smith, Rev. W. Robertson, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Arabic in the Univ. of Cambridge

1880 Smith, William Robert, M.D., D.Sc., Barrister-at-Law, Professor of Forensic Medicine in

King’s College, 74 Great Russell Street, Bloomsbury Square, London

1846 |K. B.| Smyth, Piazzi, LL.D., Ex-Astronomer-Royal for Scotland, and Emeritus Professor of
P. Astronomy in the University of Edinburgh, Clova, Ripon 405

1880 Sollas, W. J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., late Fellow of St John’s College, Cambridge, and Pro-

fessor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of Dublin, Talbot House, Merrion

Avenue, Blackrock, County Dublin

1889 * Somerville, William, of Comiston, Dr Oec., B.Sc., Professor of Agriculture and Forestry in
the Durham College of Science, Enerdale, Fernwood Road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne

1882 * Sorley, James, F.F.A., C.A., 18 Magdala Crescent

1874 | P. |*Sprague, T. B., M.A., Actuary, 29 Buckingham Terrace

1891 * Stanfield, Richard, Professor of Mechanics and Engineering in the Heriot-Watt College 410

1885 * Steggall, J. E. A., Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in University College,
Dundee

1886 * Stevenson, C. A., B.Sc., Memb. Inst. C.E., 9 Manor Place

1884 * Stevenson, David Alan, B.Sc., Memb. Inst. C.E., 45 Melville Street

1877 * Stevenson, James, F.R.G.S., Largs

1888 * Stevenson, Rev. John, LL.D., Minister of Glamis, Forfarshire 415

1868 Stevenson, John J., 4 Porchester Gardens, London

1888 * Stewart, Charles Hunter, M.B., B.Sc., 6 Carlton Terrace

1868 Stewart, Major-General J. H. M. Shaw, late R.E., Assoc. Inst. C.E., F.R.G.S., 61 Lancaster
Gate, London, W.

1878 * Stewart, James R., M.A., 31 George Square

1866 Stewart, T. Grainger, M.D., Pres. R.C.P.E., Professor of the Practice of Physic in the
University of Edinburgh, 19 Charlotte Square 490

1873 * Stewart, Walter, 22 Torphichen Street

1877 * Stirling, William, D.Se., M.D., Brackenbury Professor of Physiology and Histology in

Owens College and Victoria University, Manchester
1889 * Stockman, Ralph, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 12 Hope Street
1823 Stuart, Captain T. D., H.M.LS.

1848 | P. Swan, Wm., LL.D., Emeritus Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of St
Andrews, Ardchapel, Helensburgh 495

Ld >
748
Date of
Election,
1875

1885

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY.

1 ee
Vas.

led

* Syme, James, 9 Drumsheugh Gardens
* Symington, Johnson, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., 2 Greenhill Park

Tait, The Venerable A., D.D., LL.D., Archdeacon of Tuam, Moylough Rectory, Ballinasloe,
County Galway, Ireland
‘Tait, P. Guthrie, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh
(GENERAL SECRETARY), 38 George Square
Tanakadate, Aikitu, Tokyo, Japan 430
* Tatlock, Robert R., F.C.S., City Analyst's Office, 156 Bath Street, Glasgow
* Teape, Rev. Charles R., M.A., Ph.D., 15 Findhorn Place
* Thompson, D’Arcy W., F.L.S., Prof. of Natural History in University College, Dundee
* Thoms, George Hunter, of Aberlemno, Advocate, Sheriff of the Counties of Orkney and
Zetland, 13 Charlotte Square
* Thomson, Rey. Andrew, D.D., 63 Northumberland Street 435
* Thomson, Andrew, M.A., D.Sc., Assistant to the Professor of Chemistry in the University
College, Dundee, 10 Pitcullen Terrace, Perth

|* Thomson, James, LL.D., F.R.S., Emeritus Professor of Engineering, 2 Florentine Gardens,

Hillhead, Glasgow
* Thomson, J. Arthur, M.A., Lect. on Zoology, School of Medicine, 30 Royal Circus, Edinburgh
Thomson, John Millar, 53 Princes Square, Bayswater, London
Thomson, Murray, M.D., late Professor of Experimental Science, Thomason College, Roorkee,
India, 44 Victoria Road, Gipsy Hill, London, S.E. 440
* Thomson, Spencer C., Actuary, 10 Eglinton Crescent
Thomson, Sir William, LL.D., D.C.L. (Honorary Vicre-Presipent), Grand Officer of
the Legion of Honour of France, Member of the Prussian Order Pour le Mérite,
P.R.S., Foreign Associate of the Institute of France, and Regius Professor of Natural
Philosophy in the University of Glasgow
Thomson, Wm., M.A., B.Se., Professor of Mathematics, Victoria College, Stellenbosch, Cape
Colony
* Thomson, Wm. Burns, F.R.C.P.E., F.R.C.S.E., 112 Newington Green Road, London
Thomson, William, Royal Institution, Manchester 445
Thorburn, Robert Macfie, Uddevalla, Sweden

.|* Traquair, R. H., M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Keeper of the Natural History Collections in the

Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh, 8 Dean Park Crescent
* Tuke, J. Batty, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 20 Charlotte Square
* Turnbull, Andrew H., Actuary, The Elms, Whitehouse Loan
Turner, Sir William, M.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.C.S.E., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the
University of Edinburgh (Vics-PRrEsIDENT), 6 Eton Terrace 450

* Underhill, Charles E., B.A., M.B., F.R.C.P.E., F.R.C.S.E., 8 Coates Crescent
Underhill, T. Edgar, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., Broomsgrove, Worcestershire

Vernon, Henry Hannotte, M.D., 7 Talbot Street, Southport, Lancashire
Vincent, Charles Wilson, F.I.C., F.C.S., M.R.L., Librarian of the Reform Club, Pall Mall,
and Royal Institution, Albemarle Street, London

Walker, James, M. Inst. C.E., Engineer’s Office, Harbour Works, Douglas, Isle of Man 455
* Walker, James, D.Se., Ph.D., 8 Windsor Terrace, Dundee

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 749

Date of
Election.

1873
1886
1891

1870
1866
1866
1862
1887
1882
1887
1890

1881
1883

1887
1879
1868

1888
1879

1878
1875

1882
1891
1889

1870
1886

1884
1890
1864

1887
1882

1882

* Walker, Robert, M.A., University, Aberdeen
* Wallace, R., F.L.S., Prof. of Agriculture and Rural Economy in the University of Edinburgh
* Walmsley, R. Mullineux, D.Sc., Professor of Physics and Electrical Engineering in the
Heriot-Watt College
* Watson, James, 0.A., 45 Charlotte Square 460
Watson, John K., 14 Blackford Road
Watson, Patrick Heron, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., LL.D., 16 Charlotte Square
Watson, Rev. Robert Boog, B.A., F.L.S., Free Church Manse, Cardross, Dumbartonshire
* Webster, H. A., Librarian to University of Edinburgh, 7 Duddingstone Park, Portobello
* Wenley, James A., Treasurer of the Bank of Scotland, 5 Drumsheugh Gardens 465
* White, Arthur Silva, Secretary to the Royal Scottish Geographical Society, 22 Duke Street
White, William Henry, F.R.S., Assistant Controller of the Navy, and Director of Naval
Construction, The Admiralty, London
Whitehead, Walter, F.R.C.S.E., 202 Oxford Road, Manchester
Wickham, R. H. B., M.D., F.R.C.S.E., Medical Superintendent, City and County Lunatic
Asylum, Newcastle-on-Tyne, West Mead, Dawlish, South Devon
* Wieland, G. b., Whitehill, Rosewell, Mid-Lothian 470
* Will, John Charles Ogilvie, M.D., 379 Union Street, Aberdeen
* Williams, W., Principal and Professor of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery, New Veterinary
College, Leith Walk
* Williamson, George, F.A.S. Scot., 37 Newton Street, Finnart, Greenock
* Wilson, Andrew, Ph.D., F.L.S., Lecturer on Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in the
Edinburgh Medical School, 118 Gilmore Place
* Wilson, Rev. John, M.A., 27 Buccleuch Place 475
Wilson, Sir Daniel, LI..D., President of the University of Toronto, and Professor of English
Literature in that University
Wilson, George, M.A., M.D., 7 Avon Place, Warwick
* Wilson, John Hardie, D.Sc., Royal Botanic Garden
Wilson, Robert, Memb. Inst. C.E., St Stephen’s Club, and 7 Westminster Chambers,
Victoria Street, London
Winzer, John, Chief Surveyor, Civil Service, Ceylon, 7 Dryden Place, Newington 480
* Woodhead, German Sims, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., Examination Hall, Victoria Embankment,
London, W.C.
Woods, G. A., M.R.C.S., Lansdowne, 36 Hoghton Street, Southport
* Wright, Johnstone Christie, 7 Cluny Avenue
Wyld, Robert 8., LL.D., 19 Inverleith Row

* Yeo, John §., Carrington House, Fettes College 485

* Young, Frank W., F.C.S., Lecturer on Natural Science, High School, Dundee, Woodmuir
Park, West Newport, Fife

* Young, Thomas Graham, Westfield, West Calder 487

LIST OF HONORARY FELLOWS.

ETS

OF HONORARY PEL LOWS

AT NOVEMBER 1891.

His Royal Highness The PRINCE oF WALES.

FOREIGNERS (LIMITED TO THIRTY-SIX BY LAW X.).

Elected.

1884
1889
1864
1877
1883
1889
1858
1877
1888
1883
1884
1864
1879
1875
1864
1875
1876
1864
1881
1888
1886
1864
1881
1886
1874
1889
1886
1881
1878
1886
1874
1868

Pierre J. van Beneden,
Marcellin Pierre Eugéne Berthelot,
Robert Wilhelm Bunsen,
Alphonse de Candolle,
Luigi Cremona,

Ernst Curtius,

James D. Dana,

Carl Gegenbaur,

Ernst Haeckel,

Julius Hann,

Charles Hermite,

Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz,

Jules Janssen,

August Kekulé,

Albert Kolliker,

Ernst Eduard Kummer,
Ferdinand de Lesseps,

Rudolph Leuckart,

Sven Lovén,

Demetrius Ivanovich Mendeléef,
Alphonse Milne-Edwards,
Theodore Mommsen,

Simon Newcomb,

H. A. Newton,

Louis Pasteur,

Georg Hermann Quincke,
Alphonse Renard,

Johannes Iapetus Smith Steenstrup,
Otto Wilhelm Struve,

Tobias Robert Thalén,

Otto Torell,

Rudolph Virchow,

Total, 32.

Louvain.
Paris.
Heidelberg.
Geneva.
Rome.
Berlin.
New Haven, Conn.
Heidelberg.
Jena.
Vienna.
Paris.
Berlin.
Paris.
Bonn.
Wurzburg.
Berlin.
Paris.
Leipzig.
Stockholm.
St Petersburg.
Paris.
Berlin.
Washington.
Yale College.
Paris.
Heidelberg.
Gand.
Copenhagen.
Pulkowa.
Upsala.
Lund.
Berlin,

LIST OF HONORARY FELLOWS.

BRITISH SUBJECTS (LIMITED TO TWENTY BY LAW X.).

Elected.

1849
1835

1889

1865

1884.

1874
1881

1883

1884

1876

1845

1886

1881

1884
1864

1874

1864

1883

John Couch Adams, LL.D., F.R.S., Corresp. Mem. Inst. of France,

Sir George Biddell Airy, K.C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Foreign
Associate Inst. of France,

Sir Robert Stawell Ball, Kt., LL.D., M.R.1.A., Professor of
Astronomy in the University of Dublin, and Royal Astronomer

for Ireland,

Arthur Cayley, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Corresp. Memb. Inst. of
France,

Edward Frankland, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Corresp. Mem. Inst. of
France,

John Anthony Froude, LL.D.,

The Hon. Justice Sir William Robert Grove, LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S.,

Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, K.C.8.1., M.D., LL.D., D.C.L,, F.R.S.,
Corresp. Mem. Inst. of France,

William Huggins, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Corresp. Mem. Inst. of
France,

Thomas Henry Huxley, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Corresp. Mem.
Inst. of France,

Sir Richard Owen, K.C.B., M.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Foreign
Associate Inst, of France,

The Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., LL.D., Sec. R.S., Corresp. Mem.
Inst. of France,

The Rev. George Salmon, D.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Corresp.
Mem. Inst. of France,

J. S. Burdon Sanderson, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.,

Sir George Gabriel Stokes, Bart., M.P., LL.D., D.C.L, F.RS.,
Corresp. Mem. Inst. of France,

James Joseph Sylvester, LL.D., F.R.S., Corresp. Mem. Inst.
of France,

The Right Hon. Lord Tennyson, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Poet
Laureate,

Alexander William Williamson, LL. D., F.R.S., Corresp. Mem. Inst.
of France,

Total, 18

Cambridge.

Greenwich.

Dublin.
Cambridge.

London.
London.

London.
London.
London.
London.
London.
London.

Dublin.
Oxford.

Cambridge.
Oxford.
Isle of Wight.

London,

fou

752 LIST OF MEMBERS ELECTED.

ORDINARY FELLOWS ELECTED
Durine Session 1889-90, |

ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE DaTE OF THEIR ELECTION.

2nd December 1889.

Professor Ratpa CoreLanb, Astronomer-Royal for Scotland. G. A. Greson, M.A.

6th January 1890.

Davin Hersurn, M.B. ) ; Witi1am Henry Wuirs, F.R.S.

3rd February 1890.

Argitu TANAKADATE. Rev. Grorcr Matuerson, M.A., D.D-

3rd March 1890.

Jonn C. M‘Vart, M.D.

2nd June 1890.

Professor J. J. CoareEs, M.D. R. L. Mono, B.A.

7th July 1890.

JOHNSTONE Curistie WricHt. T. D. Broprs, W.S.

T. A. Hetmeg, M.D.

LIST OF MEMBERS DECEASED, ETC. 753

FELLOWS DECEASED, RESIGNED, OR CANCELLED

Durine Session 1889-90.

ORDINARY FELLOWS DECEASED.

Sir Perer Coats. Professor James LORIMER.

J. MartHews Duncan, M.D. Lzronarp Scoumitz., LL.D.

A. Y. Fraser, M.A. Professor W. Y. Srtiar, LL.D.
Anprew Grauam, M.D. JAMES STARK, M.D.

Rev. James Grant, D.D. Patrick Don Swan.

Davin Mitne Home, LL.D. Major-General Davin WELSH.
Hen. Lorp Lez. THomas ALEXANDER Wise, M.D.
James Lesnie, M. Inst. C.E. ANDREW YOUNG.

Davip Grieve. Died in June 1889, death only intimated February 1890.

RESIGNED.

J. T. Cunnrneuam, B.A M. M. Partison Murr.
CHARLES WATSON.

CANCELLED.

St Joun Vincent Day, C.E. T. Armstrone Exuiot, M.A.

HONORARY FELLOW DECEASED.

Szssion 1889-90,

BRITISH.

Colonel Hunry Yui, C.B.

5 U

754 LIST OF MEMBERS ELECTED.

ORDINARY FELLOWS ELECTED
DurinG SEssIon 1890-91,

ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE DATE OF THEIR ELECTION.

lst December 1890.

Henry Hannorte Vernon, M.D. JamMES Waker, D.Sc., Ph.D.
J. H. Futuarton, M.A., D.Sc. ALEXANDER SmitH, Ph.D., B.Sc.

JosHua Law Kerr, M.D. Cuaries A. Coops.

2nd February 1891.

Joun B. Cuarg, M.A.

2nd March 1891.

The Hon. Lorp Ky.iacuy. Professor R. STANFIELD.
Professor JoHN RANKINE. Sir James Sawyer, Knight, M.D.
Professor R. M. Wautmsuey, D.Sc. The Hon. Lorp SrormontH Darina.

6th April 1891.

Joun Harpiz Wixson, D.Sc. _ Joun Macauuan, F.1.C.

4th May 1891.

Ricaarp D. Granan. T Wemyss Foxton, M.B.

6th July 1891.
Ropert Munro, M.A., M.D.

LIST OF MEMBERS DECEASED, ETC. 755

FELLOWS DECEASED, RESIGNED, OR CANCELLED

DurinG SEssion 1890-91.

ORDINARY FELLOWS DECEASED.

Professor Cosmo INNES Burton, B.Sc. Tuomas Mitusr, M.A., LL.D.
Davin Davison. R. W. Myunz, C.E., F.R.S. (died in July 1890).
Sir Joun HawxsuHavw, F.R.S. JAMES SANDERSON, F.R.C.S.E.
W. E. HeATHFIELD. Epwarp Sane, C.E., LL.D.
The Right Hon. Joun Ineuis, LL.D., ADOLF P, ScHULZE.
D.C.L., Lord-Justice-General. Patrick J. Stirtine, LL.D.
JAMES Duncan MatTTHEWs. A. Camppett Swinton of Kimmerghame, LL.D.

JoHn TurnBuLL of Abbey St Bathans, W.S.

RESIGNED.

ALEXANDER Bennett M‘Gricor, LL.D.

CANCELLED.

THomas Ginray, M.A. ‘CHARLES PRENTICE.

HONORARY FELLOWS DECEASED.

Session 1890-91.

FOREIGN.

JAMES RussELL LOWELL. WILHELM EDUARD WEBER.

VOL. XXXVI. PART III. 5). 10)

“1

LAWS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH,

AS REVISED 20TH FEBRUARY 1882.

( 759 )

LAWS.

[ By the Charter of the Society (printed in the Transactions, Vol. VI. p. 5), the Laws cannot
be altered, except at a Meeting held one month after that at which the Motion for
alteration shall have been proposed. |

I.

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH shall consist of Ordinary and
Honorary Fellows.

HWE

Every Ordinary Fellow, within three months after his election, shall pay Two
Guineas as the fee of admission, and Three Guineas as his contribution for the
Session in which he has been elected; and annually at the commencement of every
Session, Three Guineas into the hands of the Treasurer. This annual contribution
shall continue for ten years after his admission, and it shall be limited to Two
Guineas for fifteen years thereafter.*

ITI.

All Fellows who shall have paid Twenty-five years’ annual contribution shall
be exempted from further payment.

EWe

The fees of admission of an Ordinary Non-Resident Fellow shall be £26, 5s.,
payable on his admission ; and in case of any Non-Resident Fellow coming to
reside at any time in Scotland, he shall, during each year of his residence, pay
the usual annual contribution of £3, 3s., payable by each Resident Fellow ; but
after payment of such annual contribution for eight years, he shall be exempt

* A modification of this rule, in certain cases, was agreed to at a Meeting of the Society held on
the 3rd January 1831.

At the Meeting of the Society, on the 5th January 1857, when the reduction of the Contribu-
tions from £3, 3s. to £2, 2s., from the 11th to the 25th year of membership, was adopted, it was
resolved that the existing Members shall share in this reduction, so far as regards their future annual
Contributions.

Title.

The fees of Ordin-
ary Fellows residing
in Scotland.

Payment to cease
after 25 years.

Fees of Non-Resi-
dent Ordinary
Fellows.

Case of Fellows
becoming Non-
Resident.

Defaulters.

Privileges of
Ordinary Fellows.

Numbers Un-
limited.

Fellows entitled to
Transactions.

Mode of Recom-
mending Ordinary
Fellows.

760 LAWS OF THE SOCIETY.

from any further payment. In the case of any Resident Fellow ceasing to reside
in Scotland, and wishing to continue a Fellow of the Society, it shall be in the
power of the Council to determine on what terms, in the circumstances of each
case, the privilege of remaining a Fellow of the Society shall be continued to
such Fellow while out of Scotland.

Ls

Members failing to pay their contributions for three successive years (due
application having been made to them by the Treasurer) shall be reported to
the Council, and, if they see fit, shall be declared from that period to be no
longer Fellows, and the legal means for recovering such arrears shall be
employed.

VE

None but Ordinary Fellows shall bear any office in the Society, or vote in
the choice of Fellows or Office-Bearers, or interfere in the patrimonial interests
of the Society.

VII.

The number of Ordinary Fellows shall be unlimited.

VALE

The Ordinary Fellows, upon producing an order from the TREASURER, shall
be entitled to receive from the Publisher, gratis, the Parts of the Society’s
Transactions which shall be published subsequent to their admission.

IX,

Candidates for admission as Ordinary Fellows shall make an application in
writing, and shall produce along with it a certificate of recommendation to the
purport below,* signed by at least fowr Ordinary Fellows, two of whom shall
certify their recommendation from personal knowledge. This recommendation
shall be delivered to the Secretary, and by him laid before the Council, and
shall afterwards be printed in the circulars for three Ordinary Meetings of
the Society, previous to the day of election, and shall lie upon the table during
that time.

* “A. B., a gentleman well versed in Science (or Polite Literature, as the case may be), being
“to our knowledge desirous of becoming a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, we hereby
“ recommend him as deserving of that honour, and as likely to prove a useful and valuable Member.”

LAWS OF THE SOCIETY, 761

X,

Honorary Fellows shall not be subject to any contribution. This class shall Honorary Fellows
consist of persons eminently distinguished for science or literature. Its number Tha
shall not exceed Fifty-six, of whom Twenty may be British subjects, and Thirty-

six may be subjects of foreign states.

XI.

Personages of Royal Blood may be elected Honorary Fellows, without regard Royal Personages.
to the limitation of numbers specified in Law X.

XII.

Honorary Fellows may be proposed by the Council, or by a recommenda- Recommendation
tion (in the form given below*) subscribed by three Ordinary Fellows ; and in ie
case the Council shall decline to bring this recommendation before the Society,
it shall be competent for the proposers to bring the same before a General
Meeting. The election shall be by ballot, after the proposal has been commu- Mode of Election.
nicated viva voce from the Chair at one meeting, and printed in the circulars

for two ordinary meetings of the Society, previous to the day of election.

XII.

The election of Ordinary Fellows shall only take place at the first Ordinary Election of Ordi-
Meeting of each month during the Session. The election shall be by ballot, ~” ue
and shall be determined by a majority of at least two-thirds of the votes, pro-
vided Twenty-four Fellows be present and vote.

XIV.
The Ordinary Meetings shall be held on the first and third Mondays of Ordinary Meet.

every month from December to July inclusively ; excepting when there are ae
five Mondays in January, in which case the Meetings for that month shall
be held on its third and fifth Mondays. Regular Minutes shall be kept of
the proceedings, and the Secretaries shall do the duty alternately, or

according to such agreement as they may find it convenient to make.

* We hereby recommend
for the distinction of being made an Honorary Fellow of this Society, declaring that each of us from
our own knowledge of his services to (Literature or Science, as the case may be) believe him to be
worthy of that honour.

(To be signed by three Ordinary Fellows.)

To the President and Council of the Royal Society
of Edinburgh,

The Transactions.

How Published.

The Council.

Retiring Council-
lors,

Election of Office-
Bearers,

Special Meetings ;
how called.

Treasurer’s Duties.

762 LAWS OF THE SOCIETY.

XV.

The Society shall from time to time publish its Transactions and Proceed-
ings. For this purpose the Council shall select and arrange the papers which
they shall deem it expedient to publish in the 7ransactions of the Society, and
shall superintend the printing of the same.

The Council shall have power to regulate the private business of the Society.
At any Meeting of the Council the Chairman shall have a casting as well as a
deliberative vote.

INI.

The Transactions shall be published in parts or Fasciculi at the close of
each Session, and the expense shall be defrayed by the Society.

XVII.

That there shall be formed a Council, consistng—First, of such gentlemen
as may have filled the office of President ; and Secondly, of the following to be
annually elected, viz.:—a President, Six Vice-Presidents (two at least of whom
shall be resident), Twelve Ordinary Fellows as Councillors, a General Secretary,
Two Secretaries to the Ordinary Meetings, a Treasurer, and a Curator of the
Museum and Library.

XVITI.

Four Councillors shall go out annually, to be taken according to the order
in which they stand on the list of the Council.

XIX.

An Extraordinary Meeting for the Election of Office-Bearers shall be held
on the fourth Monday of November annually.

OX

Special Meetings of the Society may be called by the Secretary, by direction
of the Council; or on a requisition signed by six or more Ordinary Fellows.
Notice of not less than two days must be given of such Meetings.

XXI.

The Treasurer shall receive and disburse the money belonging to the Society,
granting the necessary receipts, and collecting the money when due.

He shall keep regular accounts of all the cash received and expended, which
shall be made up and balanced annually ; and at the Extraordinary Meeting in
November, he shall present the accounts for the preceding year, duly audited.

LAWS OF THE SOCIETY. 763

At this Meeting, the Treasurer shall also lay before the Council a list of all
arrears due above two years, and the Council shall thereupon give such direc-
tions as they may deem necessary for recovery thereof.

XXIT.

At the Extraordinary Meeting in November, a professional accountant shall Auditor.
be chosen to audit the Treasurer’s accounts for that year, and to give the neces-
sary discharge of his intromissions.

XXITI.

The General Secretary shall keep Minutes of the Extraordinary Meetings of General Secretary's
the Society, and of the Meetings of the Council, in two distinct books. He ae
shall, under the direction of the Council, conduct the correspondence of the
Society, and superintend its publications. For these purposes he shall, when
necessary, employ a clerk, to be paid by the Society.

XXIV.

The Secretaries to the Ordinary Meetings shall keep a regular Minute-book, Secretaries to
in which a full account of the proceedings of these Meetings shall be entered; i
they shall specify all the Donations received, and furnish a list of them, and of
the Donors’ names, to the Curator of the Library and Museum ; they shall like-
wise furnish the Treasurer with notes of all admissions of Ordinary Fellows.
They shall assist the General Secretary in superintending the publications, and
in his absence shall take his duty.

XXV.

The Curator of the Museum and Library shall have the custody and charge Curator of Museum
of all the Books, Manuscripts, objects of Natural History, Scientific Produc- ie
tions, and other articles of a similar description belonging to the Society ; he
shall take an account of these when received, and keep a regular catalogue of
the whole, which shall lie in the Hall, for the inspection of the Fellows.

XXVI.
All Articles of the above description shall be open to the inspection of the Use of Museum
Fellows at the Hall of the Society, at such times and under such regulations," °
as the Council from time to time shall appoint.

XX VII.

A Register shall be kept, in which the names of the Fellows shall be Register Book.
enrolled at their admission, with the date.
VOL. <exvi. PART Li. a” Xe

( 764 )

THE KEITH, MAKDOUGALL-BRISBANE, NEILL, AND
GUNNING VICTORIA JUBILEE PRIZES.

The above Prizes will be awarded by the Council in the following manner :—

I. KEITH PRIZE.

The Keita Prize, consisting of a Gold Medal and from £40 to £50 in
Money, will be awarded in the Session 1893-94 for the “ best communication
on a scientific subject, communicated, in the first instance, to the Royal Society
during the Sessions 1891-92 and 1892-93.” Preference will be given to a
paper containing a discovery.

II. MAKDOUGALL-BRISBANE PRIZE.

This Prize is to be awarded biennially by the Council of the Royal Society
of Edinburgh to such person, for such purposes, for such objects, and in such
manner as shall appear to them the most conducive to the promotion of the
interests of science ; with the proviso that the Council shall not be compelled
to award the Prize unless there shall be some individual engaged in scientific
pursuit, or some paper written on a scientific subject, or some discovery in
science made during the biennial period, of sufficient merit or importance in
the opinion of the Council to be entitled to the Prize.

1. The Prize, consisting of a Gold Medal and a sum of Money, will be
awarded at the commencement of the Session 1892-93, for an Essay or Paper
having reference to any branch of scientific inquiry, whether Material or
Mental.

2. Competing Essays to be addressed to the Secretary of the Society, and
transmitted not later than 8th July 1892.

3. The Competition is open to all men of science.

APPENDIX—KEITH, BRISBANE, NEILL, AND GUNNING PRIZES. 765

4. The Essays may be either anonymous or otherwise. In the former case,
they must be distinguished by mottoes, with corresponding sealed billets, super-
scribed with the same motto, and containing the name of the Author.

5. The Council impose no restriction as to the length of the Essays, which
may be, at the discretion of the Council, read at the Ordinary Meetings of the
Society. They wish also to leave the property and free disposal of the manu-
scripts to the Authors; a copy, however, being deposited in the Archives of
the Society, unless the paper shall be published in the Transactions.

6. In awarding the Prize, the Council will also take into consideration
any scientific papers presented to the Society during the Sessions 1890-91,
1891-92, whether they may have been given in with a view to the prize or not.

III. NEILL PRIZE.

The Council of the Royal Society of Edinburgh having received the bequest
of the late Dr Patrick NEILL of the sum of £500, for the purpose of “the
interest thereof being applied im furnishing a Medal or other reward every
second or third year to any distinguished Scottish Naturalist, according as such
Medal or reward shall be voted by the Council of the said Society,” hereby
intimate,

1. The Nem. Prize, consisting of a Gold Medal and a sum of Money, will
be awarded during the Session 1892-93.

2. The Prize will be given for a Paper of distinguished merit, on a subject
of Natural History, by a Scottish Naturalist, which shall have been presented
to the Society during the three years preceding the 8th July 1892,—or failing
presentation of a paper sufficiently meritorious, it will be awarded for a work
or publication by some distinguished Scottish Naturalist, on some branch of
Natural History, bearing date within five years of the time of award.

IV. GUNNING VICTORIA JUBILEE PRIZE.

This Prize, founded in the year 1887 by Dr R. H. Gunning, is to be awarded
triennially by the Council of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, in recognition of
original work in Physics, Chemistry, or Pure or Applied Mathematics.

766 APPENDIX—KEITH, BRISBANE, NEILL, AND GUNNING PRIZES.

Evidence of such work may be afforded either by a Paper presented to the
Society, or by a Paper on one of the above subjects, or some discovery in them
elsewhere communicated or made, which the Council may consider to be
deserving of the Prize.

The Prize is open to men of science resident in or connected with Scotland.

The first award shall be in the year 1887, and shall consist of a sum of
money. In accordance with the wish of the Donor, the Council of the Society
may on fit occasions award the Prize for work of a definite kind to be under-
taken during the three succeeding years bya scientific man of recognised
ability.

ee

(e767)

AWARDS OF THE KEITH, MAKDOUGALL-BRISBANE, NEILL, AND
GUNNING VICTORIA JUBILEE PRIZES, FROM -1827 TO 1890,

1. KEITH PRIZE.

1st Brennrat Periop, 1827—29.—Dr Brewster, for his papers “on his Discovery of Two New Immis-
cible Fluids in the Cavities of certain Minerals,” published in

the Transactions of the Society.

2np Brenniau Periop, 1829-31.—Dr Brewster, for his paper “on a New Analysis of Solar
Light,” published in the Transactions of the Society.

3rD BrenniAu Periop, 1831—33.—THomas Granam, Esq., for his paper “on the Law of the Diffusion
of Gases,” published in the Transactions of the Society.

47H Brenniat Periop, 1833—35,—Professor J. D. Forsss, for his paper “ on the Refraction and Polari-
zation of Heat,” published in the Transactions of the Society.

5raH Brennrau Pertop, 1835-37.—Joun Scorr Russet, Esq.,for his Researches “on Hydrodynamics,”
published in the Transactions of the Society.

6TH Brenntau Periop, 1837—39.—Mr Jonn Suavw, for his experiments “on the Development and
Growth of the Salmon,” published. in the Transactions of the
Society.

77H Brenniat Pertop, 1839—41.—Not awarded.

8TH Brenniat Periop, 1841—43.—Professor James Davin Forpss, for his papers “on Glaciers,”
published in the Proceedings of the Society.

97H BrennraL Pariop, 1843-—45.—Not awarded.
107TH Brenniat Periop, 1845—47.— General Sir THomas Brispane, Bart., for the Makerstoun Observa-
tions on Magnetic Phenomena, made at his expense, and
published in the Transactions of the Society.

117TH Brenniat Pertop, 1847—49.—Not awarded.

127TH BrenniaL Periop, 1849-51.—Professor Krtzanp, for his papers “on General Differentiation,
including his more recent communication on a process of the
Differential Calculus, and its application to the solution of
certain Differential Equations,” published in the Transactions
of the Society.

137TH BrenniaL Periop, 1851—53.—W. J. Macquorn Ranxine, Esq., for his series of papers “ on the
Mechanical Action of Heat,’ published in the Transactions
of the Society.

147TH BrenntaL Periop, 1853-55.—Dr Tuomas Anpsrson, for his papers “on the Crystalline Con-
stituents of Opium, and on the Products of the Destructive
Distillation of Animal Substances,” published in the Trans-
actions of the Society. ;

157H Brenntat Psertop, 1855-57.—Professor Boots, for his Memoir “on the Application of the Theory
of Probabilities to. Questions of the Combination of Testimonies
and Judgments,” published in the Transactions of the Society.

167TH Brenntau Periop, 1857-59.—Not awarded.

177 Brenntat Periop, 1859-61.—Joun Arian Broun, Hsq., F.R.S., Director of the Trevandrum
Observatory, for his papers “on the Horizontal Force of the
Earth’s Magnetism, on the Correction of the Bifilar Magnet-
ometer, and on Terrestrial Magnetism generally,” published in
the Transactions of the Society.

768 APPENDIX—KEITH, BRISBANE, NEILL, AND GUNNING PRIZES.

18ru Brenna Perron, 1861—63.—Professor Wit11am THomson, of the University of Glasgow, for his
Communication “on some Kinematical and Dynamical
Theorems.”

197H Brenniat Periop, 1863—65.—Principal Fores, St Andrews, for his “Experimental Inquiry into
the Laws of Conduction of Heat in Iron Bars,” published in
the Transactions of the Society,

207m Brenna Periop, 1865-67.—Professor C. P1azzi Smyta, for his paper “on Recent Measures at
the Great Pyramid,’ published in the Transactions of the
Society.

21st Biennrau Periop, 1867—69.—Professor P. G, Tair, for his paper “on the Rotation of a Rigid
Body about a Fixed Point,” published in the Transactions of
the Society.

22np Brennrat Psrtop, 1869-71.—Professor Crerk Maxweut, for his paper “on Figures, Frames,
and Diagrams of Forces,” published in the Transactions of the
Society.

23RD Brennrau Periop, 1871—73.—Professor P. G. Tarr, for his paper entitled “ First Approximation
to a Thermo-electric Diagram,” published in the Transactions
of the Society.

247H BrenniaL Pertop, 1873—75.—Professor Crum Brown, for his Researches “ on the Sense of Rota-
tion, and on the Anatomical Relations of the Semicircular
Canals of the Internal Ear.”

25rH Brenniat Periop, 1875-77.—Professor M. Forster Hxeppuz, for his papers “on the Rhom-
bohedral Carbonates,” and “on the Felspars of Scotland,”
published in the Transactions of the Society.

267TH Brenniat Periop, 1877—79.—Professor H. C. Finemine Jenkin, for his paper “on the Appli-
cation of Graphic Methods to the Determination of the Efi-
ciency of Machinery,” published in the Transactions of the
Society; Part II. having appeared in the volume for 1877-78.

277TH BrenniaL Perron, 1879-—81.—Professor Grorer Curystat, for his paper “on the Differential
Telephone,” published in the Transactions of the Society.

28rH Brennan Periop, 1881—83.—Tuomas Muir, Esq., LL.D., for his “ Researches into the Theory
of Determinants and Continued Fractions,” published in the
Proceedings of the Society.

297TH BrenniaL Perron, 1883-85.—Joun ArrKen, Esq., for his paper “on the Formation of Small
Clear Spaces in Dusty Air,’ and for previous papers on
Atmospheric Phenomena, published in the Transactions of
the Society.

30TH Brenniat Periop, 1885-87.—Joun Youne Bucuanan, Esq., for a series of communications,
extending over several years, on subjects connected with
Ocean Circulation, Compressibility of Glass, &c.; two of
which, viz., “On Ice and Brines,” and “On the Distribution
of Temperature in the Antarctic Ocean,” have been published
in the Proceedings of the Society.

31sv Birynrat Perron, 1887—89.—Professor E. A. Lurrs, for his Papers on the Organic Compounds
of Phosphorus, published in the Transactions of the Society.

32nd Brenniat Periop, 1889-91.—R. T. Omonn, Esq., for his Contributions to Meteorological Science,
many of which are contained in Vol. XXXIV. of the
Society’s Transactions.

APPENDIX—KEITH, BRISBANE, NEILL, AND GUNNING PRIZES. 769

II. MAKDOUGALL-BRISBANE PRIZE.

lst Brewntan Periop, 1859.—Sir Roprrick Impry Murcuison, on account of his Contributions to
the Geology of Scotland.

2np Brenniat Periop, 1860—62.—Wixiiam Sevier, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., for his “‘ Memoir of the Life
and Writings of Dr Robert Whytt,” published in the Trans-
actions of the Society.

3RD Brenntat Periop, 1862~64.—Joun Denis Macponatp, Esq., R.N., F.B.S., Surgeon of H.M.S.
“Tcarus,” for his paper “on the Representative Relationships
of the Fixed and Free Tunicata, regarded as Two Sub-classes
of equivalent value; with some General Remarks on their
Morphology,” published in the Transactions of the Society.

47H Brenniat Periop, 1864—66.—Not awarded.

51H Brennrau Periop, 1866—68.—Dr Atnxanper Crum Brown and Dr Taomas Ricwarp Fraser,
for their conjomt paper “on the Connection between
Chemical Constitution and Physiological Action,” published
in the Transactions of the Society.

6TH Brenntat Periop, 1868—70.—Not awarded.

7TH BIENNIAL Periop, 1870—72.—Grorcr James Anpman, M.D., F.R.S., Emeritus Professor of
Natural History, for his paper “ on the Homological Relations
of the Coelenterata,’ published in the Transactions, which
forms a leading chapter of his Monograph of Gymnoblastic
or Tubularian Hydroids—since published.

8TH Brennrat Periop, 1872—74.—Professor Lisrsr, for his paper ‘‘on the Germ Theory of Putre-
: faction and the Fermentive Changes,” communicated. to the
Society, 7th April 1873.

9TH Brenniau Periop, 1874—-76.—A.exanprerR Bucwan, A.M., for his paper “on the Diurnal
Oscillation of the Barometer,” published in the Transactions
of the Society.

107TH Bienniau Periop, 1876—78.—Professor ARcHIBALD Gurtxin, for his paper “on the Old Red
Sandstone of Western Europe,” published in the Transactions
of the Society.

1178 Biznniat Periop, 1878—80.—Professor Piazzi SuytH, Astronomer-Royal for Scotland, for his
paper ‘on the Solar Spectrum in 1877-78, with. some
Practical Idea. of its probable Temperature of Origination,”
published in the Transactions of the Society.

127H Bienn1aL Periop, 1880-—82.— Professor James Grtxin, for his “Contributions to the Geology of
the North-West of Europe,” including his paper “on the
Geology of the Faroes,” published in the Transactions of the
Society.

13TH BienniaL Pariop, 1882—84.—Epwarp Sane, Esq., LL.D:, for his paper “on the Need of
Decimal Subdivisions in Astronomy and Navigation, and on
Tables requisite therefor,” and generally for his Recalculation
of Logarithms both of Numbers and Trigonometrical Ratios,
—the former communication being published in the Pro-
ceedings of the Society.

147TH Brenniat Periop, 1884—-86.—Joun Murray, Esq., LL.D., for his papers “On the Drainage
Areas of Continents, and Ocean Deposits,” “The Rainfall of
the Globe, and Discharge of Rivers,” “'The Height of the Land
and Depth of the Ocean,” and “The Distribution of Tem-
perature in the Scottish Lochs as affected by the Wind.”

157TH Brenniat Periop, 1886—&8.—ArcuipaLp Geixin, Esq., LL.D., for numerous communications,
especially that entitled “ History of Volcanic Action during
the Tertiary Period in the British Isles,” published in the
Transactions of the Society.

770 APPENDIX—KEITH, BRISBANE, NEILL, AND GUNNING PRIZES.

167TH Brenniau Periop, 1888-90.—Dr Lupwie Broker, for his Paper on “The Solar Spectrum at
Medium and Low Altitudes,” printed in Vol. XXXVI.
Part I. of the Society’s Transactions.

Ill. THE NEILL PRIZE.

ist TrrenniaL Periop, 1856-59.—Dr W. Lauper Linpsay, for his paper “ on the Spermogones and
Pycnides of Filamentous, Fruticulose, and Foliaceous Lichens,”
published in the Transactions of the Society.

2np TRIENNIAL PERIOD, 1859-—62.—Rogpert Kays Grevitiz, LL.D., for his Contributions to Scottish
Natural History, more especially in the department of Cryp-
togamic Botany, including his recent papers on Diatomacez.

3rp TrrnniaL Periop, 1862—65.—Anprew Crompie Ramsay, F.R.S., Professor of Geology in the
Government School of Mines, and Local Director of the
Geological Survey of Great Britain, for his various works and
Memoirs published during the last five years, in which he
has applied the large experience acquired by him in the
Direction of the arduous work of the Geographical Survey of
Great Britain to the elucidation of important questions bear-
ing on Geological Science.

4vn Trienniat Pertop, 1865—68.—Dr Wittiam Carmicuart M‘Intosq, for his paper “on the Struc-
ture of the British Nemerteans, and on some New British
Annelids,” published in the Transactions of the Society.

51TH TRIENNIAL Periop, 1868—71.—Professor WitL1aM Turner, for his papers “on the great Finner
Whale ; and on the Gravid Uterus, and the Arrangement of
the Foetal Membranes in the Cetacea,” published in the
Transactions of the Society.

6TH TRIENNIAL PERiop, 1871—74.—Cuartes Wittiam Peacg, Esq., for his Contributions to Scottish
Zoology and Geology, and for his recent contributions to Fossil
Botany.

7TH TRIENNIAL Purtop, 1874—77.—Dr Ramsay H. Traquair, for his paper “on the Structure and
Affinities of Tristichopterus alatus (Egerton), published in
the Transactions of the Society, and also for his contributions
to the Knowledge of the Structure of Recent and Fossil Fishes.

8TH TRIENNIAL Puriop, 1877-80.—Joun Murray, Esq., for his paper “on the Structure and Origin
of Coral Reefs and Islands,” published (in abstract) in the
Proceedings of the Society.

97TH TRIENNIAL PeRiop, 1880—83.—Professor Hurpman, for his papers “on the Tunicata,” published
in the Proceedings and Transactions of the Society.

10ra Trienn1aL Periop, 1883-86.—B. N. Peacu, Esq., for his Contributions to the Geology and
Paleontology of Scotland, published in the Transactions of
the Society.

llra Trienniat Periop, 1886—-89.—Roperr Kinston, Esq., for his Researches in Fossil Botany, pub-
lished in the Transactions of the Society.

IV. GUNNING VICTORIA JUBILEE PRIZE.

lst T'rignniaL Periop, 1884—87,—Sir Witt1am Tuomson, Pres. R.S.E., F.R.S., for a remarkable
series of papers “on Hydrokinetics,” especially on Waves
and Vortices, which have been communicated to the Society.

2nv TrenNIAL Periop, 1887-90.—Professor P. G. Tart, Sec. R.S.E., for his work in connection with
the “Challenger” Expedition, and his other Researches in
Physical Science.

>

AS (te?

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

STATUTORY GENERAL MEETINGS,

25TH NOVEMBER 1889

AND

24TH NOVEMBER 1890.

VOL. XXXVI. PART III, 5 Y

STATUTORY MEETING.

HUNDRED AND SEVENTH SESSION.

Monday, 25th November 1889.

At a General Statutory Meeting,
Dr Joun Murray in the Chair.

The Minutes of last General Statutory Meeting of 26th November 1888 were read,

approved, and signed.

Messrs SKINNER and YOUNG were appointed Scrutineers, and a Ballot took place for

the proposed new Council.

It was resolved, after discussion, that in future the word wnanimously should not occur
in the Minutes, but that the word duly should alone be employed to record the result of an
Election.

The Treasurer’s Accounts were submitted with the Auditor’s Report, and approved.

The Scrutineers reported that the following Council had been duly elected :——

Sir Wituram Tuomson, LL.D., F.R.S., President.
Professor Sir DouGiuas MacLaGan,

Hon. Lord M‘Larsn, LL.D.,

Rev. Professor Fuint, D.D.,

Professor CurystaL, LL.D.,

Tuomas Muir, Esq., LL.D.,

Sir ArtHur Mrrcuett, K.C.B.,
Professor Tarr, M.A., General Secretary.
Professor Sir Wm. Turner, F.R.S.,
Professor Crum Brown, F.RB.S.,
Apam Gites Situ, Esq., C.A., Treasurer.

ALEXANDER Bucuan, Esq., M.A., LL.D., Curator of Library and Museum.

Vice-Presidents.

f Secretaries to Ordinary Meetings,

774 APPENDIX.—PROCEEDINGS OF STATUTORY MEETINGS.

COUNCILLORS.
Dr J. Barry Tuxs, F.R.C.P.E. Professor Jack, LL.D.
Professor Bower, F.L.S. Professor James GurKiE, LL.D., F.R.S.
Dr G. Smits Woopneap, F.R.C.P.E. W. H. Perrin, Esq., junior.
Rosert Cox, Esq. of Gorgie, M.A. A. Beatson Bex, Esq., Advocate.
Professor Isaac B. Batrour, F.R.S. The Right Hon. Lord Kinessuren, F.R.S.
Professor Ewine, F.R.S. Joun Murray, Esq., LL.D.

On the motion of Mr ForseEs IRVINE, seconded by Mr Skinner, the Auditor was

reappointed.

On the motion of the GENERAL SECRETARY, a vote of thanks was accorded to the

Chairman.
WILLIAM THOMSON.

( 775 )

STATUTORY MEETING.

HUNDRED AND EIGHTH SESSION.

Monday, 24th November 1890.

At a General Statutory Meeting,
Sir WILLIAM THOMSON in the Chair.

The Minutes of last General Statutory Meeting of 25th November 1889 were read,

approved, and signed.

On the motion of Dr Buchan, the Rev. Professor Duns and Dr R. M. FerGuson were

requested to act as Scrutineers.

The Treasurer’s Accounts were submitted, along with the Auditor’s Report, and

approved.

The Scrutineers reported that the following Council had been duly elected :—

Sir Dovetas Mactacan, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., President.
Hon. Lord Maciaren, LL.D., F.R.A.S.,
Rev. Professor Frnt, D.D.,
Professor Curysta, LL.D.,
Tuomas Muir, Esq., LL.D.,
Sir Artaur MitcHe.., K.C.B., LL.D.,
A. Forses Irvine, Esq. of Drum, LL.D.,
Professor Tarr, General Secretary.
Professor Sir Wu. Turner, LL.D., D.C.L.,

F.B.S., Secretaries to Ordinary Meetings.
Professor Crum Brown, F.R.S.,
Apam GiuLies Suit, Esq., C.A., Treasurer.
ALEXANDER Buowan, Esq., M.A., LL.D., Curator of Library and Museum.

Vice-Presidents.

COUNCILLORS.
Professor Isaac B. Batrour, F.R.S. Joun Murray, Esq., LL.D.
Professor Ewine, F.R.S. ALEXANDER Bruce, M.A., M.D.
Professor Jack, LL.D. Dr R. H. Traquair, F.R.S.
Professor James Gurnre, LL.D., F.R.S. Dr Byrom Bramwett, F.R.C.P.E.
Professor W. H. Prrxin, D.Sc., F.R.S, Professor Coprnanp, Astronomer-Royal for
A, Bratson Bett, Esq., Advocate. Scotland.

The Rt. Hon. Lorp Kinessuragu, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S.
JouN Murray, Esq., LL.D., Society’s Representative on George Heriot’s Trust.

776 APPENDIX.—PROCEEDINGS OF STATUTORY MEETINGS.

On the motion of Mr Forses Irving, seconded by Dr Bucuan, the Auditors were
thanked for their Report, and reappointed.

Dr Crum Brown proposed a vote of thanks to the Chairman, which was unanimously
agreed to, and Sir WILLIAM THOMSON returned thanks.

The newly elected President also returned thanks to the Meeting on his appointment.

DovucLas MAcLAGAN.

( 777 )

The following Public Institutions and Individuals are entitled to receive Copies of
the Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh :—

London, British Museum.
(Natural History De-
partment), Cromwell
Road.
Royal Society, Burlington House,
London,

Anthropological Institute of Great Bri-
tain and Ireland, 3 Hanover Square,
London.

British Association for the Advancement
of Science, 22 Albemarle Street,
London.

Society of Antiquaries,
House.

Royal Astronomical Society, Burlington
House.

Royal Asiatic Society, 22 Albemarle
Street.

Society of Arts, John Street, Adelphi.

Athenzum Club.

Chemical Society, Burlington House.

Institution of Civil Engineers, 25 Great
George Street,

Royal Geographical Society, Burlington
Gardens,

Geological Society, Burlington House.

Royal Horticultural Society, South Ken-
sington.

Hydrographic Office, Admiralty,

Royal Institution, Albemarle Street, W.

Linnean Society, Burlington House.

Royal Society of Literature, 20 Hanover
Square.

Medical and Chirurgical Society, 53
Berners Street, Oxford Street.

Royal Microscopical Society, 20 Han-
over Square.

Museum of Economic Geology, Jermyn
Street.

Royal Observatory, Greenwich.

Pathological Society, 53 Berners Street.

Royal Statistical Society, 9 Adelphi
Terrace, Strand, London.

Royal College of Surgeons of England,
4 Lincoln’s Inn Fields.

Burlington

London, United Service Institution, Whitehall
Yard.
University College, Gower Street.
Zoological Society, 3 Hanover Square.
The Editor of Nature, 29 Bedford
Street, Covent Garden.
The Editor of the Hlectrician, Salis-
bury Court, Fleet Street.
Cambridge Philosophical Society.
University Library.
Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society.
Liverpool, University College Library.
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society.
Oxford, Bodleian Library.
Plymouth, Marine Biological Laboratory, Citadel
Hill.
Yorkshire Philosophical Society.

SCOTLAND.

Edinburgh, Advocates Library.
University Library.
Royal College of Physicians.
Highland and Agricultural Society,
3 George IV. Bridge.
Royal Medical Society, 7 Melbourne
Place, Edinburgh.
Royal Observatory.
Royal Physical Society, 20 George
Street,
Royal Scottish Society of Arts, 117
George Street.
Royal Botanic
Row.
Aberdeen, University Library.
Dundee, University College Library.
Glasgow, University Library.
Philosophical Society, 207 Bath Street.
St Andrews, University Library.

Garden, Inverleith

IRELAND,
Royal Dublin Society.
Royal Irish Academy, 19 Dawson Street,
Dublin.
Library of Trinity College, Dublin.

778 APPENDIX.

COLONIES, DEPENDENCIES, WC.
Bombay, Royal Asiatic Society.
Elphinstone College.
Calcutta, Asiatic Society of Bengal.
Geological Survey of India.
Madras, Literary Society.
Canada, Library of Geological Survey.
Queen’s University, Kingston.
Royal Society of Canada, Parliament
Buildings, Ottawa, Canada.
Quebec,
Society.
Toronto, Literary and Historical Society.
The Canadian Institute.
aS University Library.
Cape of Good Hope, The Observatory.
Melbourne, University Library.
Sydney, University Library.
Linnzan Society of New South Wales.
Royal Society of New South Wales.
Wellington, New Zealand Institute.

Literary and Philosophical

CONTINENT OF EUROPE.

Amsterdam, Koninklijke Akademie van Weten-
schappen.
X Koninklijk Zoologisch Genootschap.
Athens, University Library.
Basle, Die Schweizerische Naturforschende Gesell-
schaft.
Bergen, Museum.
Berlin, Konigliche Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Physicalische Gesellschaft.
Bern, Allgemeine Schweizerische Gesellschaft fiir
die gesammten Naturwissenschaften.
Bologna, Accademia delle Scienze dell’ Istituto.
Bordeaux, Société des Sciences Physiques et
Naturelles.
Brussels, Académie Royale des Sciences, des
Lettres et des Beaux-arts.
Musée Royal d’Histoire Naturelle de
Belgique.
L’Observatoire Royal de Belgique, Uccle.
La Société Scientifique.
Sucharest, Academia Romana.
Buda-Pesth, Magyar Tudomdnyos Akadémia—Die
Ungarische Akademie der Wissenschaftén.
Kénigliche Ungarische Naturwissenschaft-
liche Gesellschaft.
Catania, Accademia Gioenia di Scienze Naturali.
Christiania, University Library.

Christiania, Meteorological Institute.
Coimbra, University Library.
Copenhagen, Royal Academy of Sciences.
Danzig, Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
Dorpat, University Library.
Ekatherinebourg, La Société Ouralienne d’Ama-
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APPENDIX. 779

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VOL. XXXVI. PART III.

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5 Z

780 APPENDIX.

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APPENDIX. 781

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782 APPENDIX.

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783

(

)

INDEX TO VOL. XXXVI.

A

Adipic Acid, Synthesis of, 217.

AITKEN (JoHN). On the Solid and Liquid Particles
in Clouds, 313.

Alethopteris, 79.

Arran Basin, Configuration of, 643.

Artisia, 95.

B

Becker (Lupwic), Ph.D. The Solar Spectrum at
Medium and Low Altitudes. Observations of
the Region between Wave-Lengths 6024 and
4861 A. U., made at Dunecht, during 1887 to

1889, 99. The Instrument, 102. The Obser-
vations, 105. The Reductions, 112. Absorp-
tion at Different Altitudes, 118. Probable

Error of the Results, 123. The Telluric Lines,
127. Catalogue of Lines, 134, 138. The
Maps described, 135. M. Thollon’s Observa-
tions at Nice, 135.
Bepparp (Frank E.) M.A., F.Z.S. Observations
on the Structure of a Genus of Oligocheta
belonging to the Limicoline Section, 1. Ana-
tomy of Moniligaster Barwelli, 2. Body-Wall,
4, Alimentary Canal, 4. Nephridia, 6. Re-
productive Organs, 6. Affinities and Syste-
matic Position of Moniligaster, 9. Postscript
(Moniligaster Beddardii), 15.
Anatomical Description of Two New Genera
of Aquatic Oligocheta, 273 (Phreodrilus Sub-
terraneus, 273, and Pelodrilus Violaceus, 292).
—— On the Anatomy of Ocnerodrilus (Eisen), 563—
583. Body-Wall, 564. Alimentary Canal,
566. Vascular System, 568. Nephridia, 569.
Testes, 571. Sperm sacs and Vasa deferentia,
572. Atria, 573. Ovaries, 576. Systematic
Position of Ocnerodrilus, 578.
Ben Nevis, The Winds of. By R. T. Omonp and
Ancus RangIn, 537.
Bracke (Emeritus Professor). Phases of the Living
Greek Language, 45.

Buackr& (Emeritus Professor). Apamantios Korars
and his Reformation of the Greek Language,
57.

Bropis (Rosert), Professor Kentanp’s Problem on
Superposition, 307,

Breynella, Maltese Fossil, 600.

Brissopsis, Maltese Fossil, 622.

Brissus, Maltese Fossil, 619.

Brown (Professor ALexanpER Crum) and WaLkKER
(Dr James). Electrolytic Synthesis of Dibasic
Acids. Part I., 211. Synthesis of Succinic
Acid, 216. Synthesis of Adipic Acid, 217.
Synthesis of Suberic Acid, 219, Synthesis of
Sebacic Acid, 220. Synthesis of n-Dicarbo-
dodecanic Acid, 221. Synthesis of m-Dicarbo-
decahexanic Acid, 222.

Bucuanan (J. Y.), F.R.SS. Lond. and Edin. On the
Composition of Oceanic and Littoral Manganese
Nodules, 459.

Bute Plateau, Configuration of, 644.

C

Calamitec, 68.

Calamocladus, 71.

Carapace of the Chelonia, Development of, by Joun
Berry Haycrart, 335. Sections of the Costo-
Marginal Junction, 338. Osteogenetic Tissue
of the Carapace, 339. What is a Costal Plate?
340.

Cassidulidw, Maltese Fossil, 600, 629.

Cayuzy (Professor), Note by, on Dr Puarr’s Paper
on the Transformation of Laplace’s Coefficients,
43.

Chelonia, Development of the Carapace of the
Chelonia. By Joun Berry Haycrart, M.D.
D.Se., 335.

CurysTaL (Professor Grorce). A Demonstration
of Lagrange’s Rule for the Solution of a Linear
Partial Differential Equation, with some Historical
Remarks on Defective Demonstrations hitherto
Current, 551.

784

Cidaride, Maltese Fossil, 586.

Clausius, Isothermal Equation of, 260.

Clouds, The Solid and Liquid Particles in Clouds.
By Jonn ArrKen, 313.

Clyde Sea Area. Part I.—Physical Geography, 641.
Part I1.—Salinity and Chemical Composition
of the Water, 664. By Hucn Rosert Mitt.

Clyde Estuary, Configuration of, 645.

Clyde, River, Configuration of, 646.

Clypeastride, Maltese Fossil, 593, 627.

Cordaitew, 95.

D

Dentine. On the Growth of.
Rosertson, M.D., 325.
Dicarbodecahexanic Acid. Synthesis of, 222.
Dicarbododecanic Acid. Synthesis of, 221.
Dictyopteris, 76.
Differential Equations.
Solution of.
Dunoon Basin.

By W. G. Arrcnison

Lagrange’s Rule for the
By Professor G. Curystat, 551.
Configuration of, 645.

E

Echinide, Maltese Fossil, 590.

Echinoidea, Maltese Fossil, and their Evidence on
the Correlation of the Maltese Rocks. By J.
W. Grecory, B.Sc., F.G.S., 585.

Echinolampas, Maltese Fossil, 605.

Echinoneide, Maltese Fossil, 600.

Eremopteris, 73.

Euspatangus, Maltese Fossil, 624.

F

Fibulariide, Maltese Fossil, 592.
ilicacece, 72.

Fossil Flora of the Staffordshire Coal Fields. By
Rosert Kipston, 63.

Fossil Trees found in Eastwood Marl Works, Hanley,
Staffordshire, 90.

Fraser (Professor Tuomas R.), M.D., F.R.SS. Lond.
and Edin. Strophanthus hispidus : its Natural
History, Chemistry, and Pharmacology. Part
IIJ.—Pharmacology, 343.

Fyne (Loch). Configuration of, 648.

G

Gareloch, Configuration of, 646,

On the Foundations of the Kinetic Theory
of Gases. IV. By Professor Tarr, 257.

Goil (Loch), Configuration of, 647.

Gases.

INDEX.

Greck Language, Phases of, 45. Conditions of
Change, 45. Current Greek of Newspapers,
45. The Literary and the Popular Greek.
Greek of the Peasantry, 46-51. Restoration
of the Greek of Literary Currency by Koraes,
51-52. Present Neo-Hellenic Standard, 52.
Scheme for Teaching Greek as a Living
Language, 53. By Professor Buackin.

Greek Language, On the Reformation of the, by
Adamantios Koraes. By Professor Buacxin,
57.

Grecory (J. W.), B.Sc, F.G.S. The Maltese
Fossil Echinoidea, and their Evidence on the
Correlation of the Maltese Rocks, 585. De-
scription of the Echinoidea, 586. Miscellaneous
Records, 627. List of Species and their Dis-
tribution, 629. Correlation of the Maltese
Series, 631.

H

Haycrart (JoHN Berry), M.D., D.Sc. The De-
velopment of the Carapace of the Chelonia,
335. Sections of the Costo-Marginal Junction,
338. Osteogenetic Tissue of the Carapace, 339.
What is a Costal Plate? 340.

Hemiaster, Maltese Fossil, 610.

Holy Loch, Configuration of, 647.

I

Impact. By Professor Tarr, 225.

Iron and Nickel and Cobalt, Relations between
Magnetism and Twist in. By Professor C. G.
Kwnort, 485.

Isothermal Equations. See Tarr (Professor P, G.).

K

Ketianp (Professor). His Problem on Superposi-
tion. By Roserr Broptz, 307.

Kipston (Roperr). On the Fossil Flora of the
Staffordshire Coal Fields, 63.

Kinetic Theory of Gases. Part IV. By Professor
P. G. Tart, 257.

Kinetic Energy and Temperature, Relation between,
266.

Knots. Alternate + Knots of Order Eleven, 253.

Kworr (Professor Careint G.), D.Se. On some
Relations between Magnetism and Twist in
Tron and Nickel (and Cobalt). Parts II. and
III., 485. Discussion’ of the Results for Iron,
490, 522 ; for Nickel, 496, 510.

INDEX.

Korags (Apamantios), and his Reformation of the
Greek Language. By Emeritus Professor
BuAcKtTE, 57.

Kyles of Bute, Configuration of, 648.

L

Lagrange’s Rule for the Solution of a Linear
Partial Differential Equation, with some His-
torical Remarks on Defective Demonstrations
hitherto Current. By Professor GrorcE
CurRyYsTAL, 551.

Laplace's Coefficients, Transformation of.
Gustave Prarr, 19.

By Dr

Linear Partial Differential Hquations. See
CurysTA (Professor G.).
Lirrnz (Professor C. N.). Alternate + Knots of

Order Eleven, 253.
Long (Loch), Configuration of, 646.
Lycopod Macrospores, 86.
Lycopodiacee, 81.
M

Magnetism and Twist, Relations between Magnetism
and Twist in Iron, Nickel, and Cobalt. By
Professor C. G. Kwort, 485.

Manganese Nodules, Composition of. By J. Y.
Bucuanan, F.R.SS. Lond. and Edin., 459.

Mariopteris, 78.

Metalia, Maltese Fossil, 621.

Mitt (Dr Hue Rosert). THe Crype Sea Arg,
639. Part I.—Puystcan GrocGraPHy, 639.
Tables and Statistics of Physical Geography,
650. Tidal Conditions, 652. RaInrALL AND
River Discnarce of Clyde Sea Area, 654.
Air Temperature, 660. Part II.—Sauinity
_AND CHEMICAL Composition of the Water, 664,
675. Hydrometer Readings, 671. Chemistry
of Water in Clyde Sea Area, 707. Appendix.
Sauinity. Observations of Density in Clyde
Sea Area, 717.

Moniligaster Barweili. See Bepparp (FRANK E.).

N

Neo-Hellenic Language. See Greek Language.
Neuropteris, 74.
Nickel Iron and Cobalt, Relations between Magnet-

ism and Twist in, 485.

O

Odontoblasts. On the Relation of Nerves to, by
W. G. Arrcutson Ropertson, M.D., 321.
Odontopteris, 77.

785

Oligocheta, Genus of, belonging to the Limicoline
Section. By Frank E. Bepparp, F.R.S.E., 1.

Oligocheta, Two New Genera of Aquatic. By
Frank E. Bepparp, M.A., F.Z.8., 273.

Omonp (R. T.) and Rank (Ancvs).
Winds of Ben Nevis, 537.

On the

iP

Partial Differential Equations.
(Professor G.).

Pecopteris, 78.

Pecten Shells. Analysis of, 483.

Pelodrilus violaceus. A New Genus of Aquatic
Oligocheta. By Frank E. Brpparp, M.A.
F.Z.S., 292.

Pericosmus, Maltese Fossil, 613.

Phreodrilus subterraneus. A New Genus of Aquatic
Oligocheta. By Frank E. Brepparp, M.A.,
F.Z.8., 273.

Pinnularia, 70.

Prarr (Dr Gustave). On the Transformation of
Laplace’s Coefficients, 19.

Prenaster, Maltese Fossil, 619.

See CHRYSTAL

R

Rankin (Ancus) and Omonp (R. T.).
Winds of Ben Nevis, 537.

Rhabdocarpus, 95.

Rhacophyllum, 81.

Ridun (Loch), Configuration of, 648.

Ropertson (W. G. Arrcuison), M.D. On the Re.
lation of Nerves to Odontoblasts, and on the
Growth of Dentine, 321.

Rosa (Dr). On Moniligaster, 15.

On the

8

Sarsella, Maltese Fossil, 624,

Schizaster, Maltese Fossil, 616.

Scutellide, Maltese Fossil, 597, 628.

Sebacic Acid. Synthesis of, 220.

Sigillaria, 83.

Solar Spectrum of Medium and Low Altitudes.
Region between Wave-Lengths 6024 and 4861
A.U. 1887-89. By Lupwic Bucxzr, Ph.D.,
99.

Spatangide, Maltese Fossil, 610, 629.

Spatangus, Maltese Fossil, 623.

Sphenophyllece, 71.

Sphenopteris, 73.

786

Staffordshire Coal Fields, Fossil Flora of.
Rosert Kripston, 63.

Stigmaria, 94.

Strivan (Loch), Configuration of, 648.

Strophanthus hispidus : its Natural History, Chemis-
try and Pharmacology. By Professor THomas
R. Fraser, M.D., F.R.SS. Lond. and Edin.,
343. Part Il.—Pharmacology. A. General
Action, 343. 8B. Action on Cerebro-Spinal
Nervous System, 361. C. Action on Skeletal
Muscles, 379. D. Action on Heart and
Blood-vessels, 388. #. Action on Lymph
Hearts, 453. #. Action on Respiration, 454.
Explanation of Plates VIII.-XXIIL., 455.

Studeria, Maltese Fossil, 603.

Suberic Acid, Synthesis of, 219.

Superposition. Professor Ketuanp’s Problem on
Superposition. By Rosert Bropre, 307.

By

iE

Tart (Professor P. G.), On Impact, 225. Description
of the Apparatus, 230. Theory of the Experi-
ments, 231. Measurements of the Tracings,
234. Conclusions from the Experiments, 238.

—— On the Foundations of the Kinetic Theory of
Gases. Part IV., 257. The Isothermal Equa-

INDEX.

tions of Van der Waats and Cuausius, 260.
The Virial Equation for attracting Spherical
Particles, 263. Relation between Kinetic
Energy and Temperature, 266. The Equation
of Isothermals, 268. Comparison with Experi-
ment, 269.

Teeth, Lower Canine, in Cats, 329.

—— of Young Rabbits fed on Madder, 331.

THotion (M.), Observations on the Solar Spectrum.
Region from A to 6. See Becker (Lupwie),
135.

Triletes, XIX., XX., XXI., 93, 94,

Vv .
Van DER Waats, Isothermal Equation of, 260.

Virial Equation for attracting Spherical Particles,
263.

WwW

Waker (James), M.D., and Brown (Professor
ALEXANDER Crum). Electrolytic Synthesis of
Debasic Acids. Part I, 211. See Brown
(Professor ALEXANDER Crum).

Winds of Ben Nevis. By R. T. Omonp and Ancus
Rankin, 537.

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