To enaoe: rake Mow cet pete ee oe AS ae a OO OO I aaa LIBRARY. Chicago. ee ir y W/Z f w f/ ANS / AN ee : pa —= = bf 7 {\ SH ~— if ff\ i AN AIS "ZZ SS 3 LAS yn = Y ANEW “" NZINVZIS TIN Zi NON ASS iy ANS SiS iy Ai — == “ / 4) ~ — = ells i Z eh fh A = / IST TIS BNI =a eS NS SS S/7 5 WN ov, aK IN 5, a a ‘ / Ss es SAY WY \ f f S [Us [I WY ww \y eg ee / \ = SS a= = a / >} / = 1] , : SS S S \\ Hf | SR NSS Sie LS j ene If } SVJ \ TIN. J) ate | . = = — ae f — = — ———— = : TE; ~— = \ jf, ; / cA aS 4 1 Me \ y/ YE Hh AS ~. : VSS / = ‘ a hh / ji\ f ; f pus Af | Ne — > - = iw i ZS V7 \ a ag fe 2 S17 // iN f/f a ea y Lf Qe J / —S> . y 4 NGNINGNONGNON | NVZINGNZG, I IN TINGES NGS (' SING NGNUNG . ISIS OR ORS i) i eit ( i ho ye eyny h i hh iy Cee Archive frica Counci iW i ual ah Ay 1} a HOLA Vani Ne Wry yh ib THE TRANSACTIONS SOUTH AFRICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. \V A ar) Aer ae 1889—1890. 288 | CAPE TOWN: PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY BY MURRAY & Sr. LEGER. 1890. Thy ee ie ee Pie ee ea COUNCIL OF THE path Alyigun Philosophignl Socieiy FOR 1889—1890. L. Péringuey, F.Z.S., President. Hon. C. A. Smith, M.A., Treasurer. David Gill, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., General Secretary. J. H. Aiecine: Beck, M.D. H. Bolus, F.L.S. W.H. Finlay, M.A., F.R.A.S. Rev. G. H. R. Fisk, C.M.Z.S. F. Guthrie, LL.B. P. MacOwan, B.A., F.L.S.- R. Marloth: M.A., Ph.D. Re Trmen, HRS. F.L.S., F-Z.S. @7@. IN eee IN i SS. Minutes of Proceedings, 1889-90 Report of the Council, July 31, 1890 President’s Address, August 28, 1890 List of Members } Professor Seeley, E.RS.; Some ‘Scientific Results of a Mission to South Africa Professor Cleveland Abbe, M.A., The Modern Weather Bureau vst aa ah Mr. R. Marloth, Ph.D., M.A., Some Adaptations of South African Plants to the Climate M. E. Lefevre, Description of New Species of South African Eumolpide Mr. Selmar Schonland, Hon. M.A. Oxon., Ph.D., F.L.S., Notes on Cyphia Volubilis, Willd. BY tt MINUTES OF PROCEEDINGS. Ordinary Monthly Meeting. Wepnespay, AuGcust 28, 1889. Mr. L. Perineuery, F.L.S., PRESIDENT, IN THE CHAIR. Dr. Waterston and the Rev. R. R. Vyvyan were duly elected ~ordinary Members of the Society. The following donations were announced and the thanks of the _ Society voted to the donors : Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. XXII, Part IT. Proceedings of the Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh, 1887-88. Annual Report of the Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society, 1888-89. The Rev. G. H. R. Fisk exhibited a remarkable Ribbon Fish which had been picked up dead on the beach at Kalk Bay. Special Meeting. Monpay, SEPTEMBER 16, 1889. Professor H. G. Seeley, F.R.S.,-gave a most interesting account of -his tour through the Colony in search of fossils. Ordinary Monthly Meeting. WEDNESDAY, NOVEMBER 27, 1889. Mr. L. Prerinevery, F.L.S., PRESIDENT, IN THE CHAIR. The Rev. J. Hyndson and Mr. Advocate Juta were duly elected ordinary Members of the Society. The following donations were announced and the thanks of une Society voted to the donors : Litteratur der Landes und Volkskunde des Konigreichs Sachsen. Jahrbiicher der K. K. Central Anstalt fiir Meteorologie und Erdmagnetismus, 1887. | | viii Minutes of Proceedings. Victorian Year Book, 1887-88, Vol. III. Report of the Trustees of the Australian Museum, N.S.W., 1888. Bulletin de la Société Imperiale des Naturalistes de Moscou, 1339 Now le Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes, No. 226. Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes, Catalogue de la Bibliotheque. Dr. Gill, in the absence of Mr. Finlay, gave notice that at a Special Meeting to be held immediately before the next ordinary Monthly Meeting he would move: “That the Annual Subscription of Members residing more than twenty-five miles from Cape Town be reduced from £2 to £1. Mr. Melville Smith, Electrician to the Harbour Board, exhibited a Graphophone which he had recently received on loan from the inventors. Dr. Gill gave an interesting description of the instrument, and the Members then availed themselves of the opportunity of listening to the sound of music, &c., reproduced by it. The Rev. G. H. R. Fisk read several short communications upon Natural History and asked Members to do their best to place him in the way of obtaining specimens of the mole-rat for forwarding to the Zoological Society. He also read some notes upon Sea-snakes with especial regard to one particular,variety, the Pelamis Bieolor. Special Meeting. WEDNESDAY, JANUARY 8, 1890. Mr. L. Prerinevry, F.L.S., PRESIDENT, IN THE CHarr. Mr. F.C. Selous exhibited a map of Zambesia and gave a most interesting description of the country and its inhabitants. At the conclusion of the address, Mr. Justice Buchanan made some remarks to which Mr. Selous replied, and the Meeting closed with a hearty vote of thanks to Mr. Selous for his valuable address. Special Meeting. WEDNESDAY, JANUARY 29, 1890. Mr. L. Prerinevry, F.L.S., PResipent, IN THE CHAIR. It was resolved, on the motion of Mr. Finlay, that the following be substituted for the first sentence in Rule 6: “Ordinary Members residing within twenty-five miles of Cape Town shall pay £2 annually in advance. The annual subscription for Members residing beyond that limit shall be £1.” Minutes of Proceedings. Ix. Urdinary Monthly Meeting. WEDNESDAY, JANUARY 29, 1890. Mr. L. Perinaury, F.L.S., PRESIDENT, IN THE CHAIR. The undermentioned gentlemen were duly elected ordinary Members of the Society : 7 Dr. W. J. Donps, Mr. P. Ryan, Rev. C. ATKINSON, Mr. M. Tait, Jun., Mr. J. A. LizpMan, Mr. W. G. FairsrinGE, Mr. G. T. AMPHLETT, Mr. R. W. S. Gippy. The undermentioned Books were received and the thanks of the Society voted to the donots : Bulletins de Academie Royale des Sciences des Lettres et des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, 1888-1889. 2 volumes. Annuaire de |’Academie Royal des Sciences des Lettres et des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, 1889. Memoirs and Proceedings of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, 4th series, vols. I and II. Results of Meteorological Observations made in New South Wales during 1887. Results of Rain, River and Evaporation Observations made in New South Wales during 1888. Estudio de la Filosofia y Riqueza de la Lengua Mexicana por el Presb. Augustin de la Rosa. Annales del Ministerio de Fomento de la Republica Mexicana, Tome VIII. : : Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes, Nos. 229, 230. Transactions and Proceedings and Report of the Royal Society of South Australia, Vol. XI, 1887-88. : Contributions to Canadian Paleontology, Vol. I. Nouveaux Memoires de la Société Imperiale des Naturalistes de- Moscou, Tome XV, Livraison 6. Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria, Decade XVIII. The President exhibited a possible stone weapon of singular shape —hatchet shape—which had been found on the beach at Simon’s Bay. Professor Cleveland Abbé, of the United States Signal Service Weather Bureau, then delivered an address on ‘* The Modern Weather Service.” Ordinary Monthly Meeting. WEDNESDAY, FreBRuARY 26, 1890. Mr. L. Prerinevry, F.L.S., PRESIDENT, IN THE CHAIR. Dr. Schénland and Mr. H. W. Struben were duly elected ordinary Members of the Society. x Minutes of Proceedings. The undermentioned donation was announced and the thanks of the ‘Society voted to the donor : Contributions to the Micro-Paleontology of the Cambro-Silurian Rocks of Canada, Part II. Mr. Bolus exhibited some sketches of Orchids found in the Cape ‘Peninsula. Dr. Marloth then read his paper on “Some Adaptations of §.A. Plants to the Climate.” After a vote of thanks had been passed to Dr. Marloth for his paper. The President exhibited some long-horned Beetles which had been -devastating the orange trees of the Eastern Province. Ordinary Monthly Meeting. Wepnespay, Marcu 26, 1890. Mr. L. Perineuty, F.L.S., PRESIDENT, IN THE CHAIR. The following donations were announced and the thanks of the ‘Society voted to the donors : Proceedings of the Canadian Institute, Toronto, October, 1889. Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes, No. 232. Second Systematic Census of Australian Plants, Part I. The President exhibited some eggs of a tick (Ivodes Libreus) found dn the Eastern Province. In answer to a question by the Rev. G. H. R. Fisk, the President said he was of opinion that particular animals were affected by special ticks. In Madagascar there was one which specially affected fowls. Mr. Fisk further asked if there was any animal not subject to ticks, but none was known to anyone present. The President also exhibited some figures of Beetles which were to illustrate his work on S. A. Beetles. Mr. T. Stewart read a short note on an example of ‘ Denudation ‘and Weathering.” The thanks of the Society were voted to Mr. Stewart. Ordinary Monthly Meeting. WepneEspAy, May 28, 1890. Mr. R. Trimen, F.R.S., In THE CHAIR. Mr. C. Cochrane, Mr. W. T. Webb and Mr. G. ane were duly elected ordinary Members of the Society. The undermentioned donations were announced and the thanks of the Society voted to the donors: Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales. Vol. XXIII, Part I. Minutes of Proceedings. xl Catalogue of Scientific Books in the Library of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Part I. Report of the First Meeting of the Australian Association for the Advancement of Science. Mémoires de la Société Académique Indo-Chinoise de France. Vol. To 18i7-78: Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes, Nos. 233, 234. Bulletin de Ja Société Impériale des Naturalistes de Moscou, 1889, No. 3. Annual Report of the Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada. Vol. III, Parts 1, 2. Annual Report of the Canadian Institute, 1888-89. Prof. MacOwan exhibited a specimen of the Welwitschia Mirabilis from Walfish Bay. Mr. Trimen exhibited two female specimens of a saturniid moth, Heniocha Grimmia, recently presented to the South African Museum by Mr. W. Ellerton Fry. This species is of much interest, owing to the long period which has elapsed since its original delineation by Hiibner about the year 1820, until its re-discovery in 1889. Hibner simply noted the insect as a native of South Africa, and as far as Mr. Trimen was aware, no specimen of it had occurred in any collection made since Hiibner’s time. The specimens exhibited were taken at Cape Agulhas by the Lighthouse Keeper, Mr. T. Steel, who stated that they flew into the light-room one evening near the beginning of the year 1889. Mr. Trimen had seen Mr. Steel, who had promised to look out for other specimens of Grimmia, and hoped to secure the male insect. rrof. MacOwan read Dr. Schénland’s paper on Cyphia volubilis. Messrs. Trimen, MacOwan, Marloth, Atherstone and Mr. Justice Buchanan made some remarks upon the paper, and the meeting closed with a vote of thanks to Dr. Schonland. Ordinary Monthly Meeting. WEDNESDAY, JUNE 25, 1890. Mr. L. Prerineury, F.L.S., PRESIDENT, IN THE CHAIR. The Rev. A. A. Dorrell was balloted for and duly elected an ordinary Member of the Society. The undermentioned presents were announced and the thanks of the Society voted to the donors : Victorian Year Book, 1888-89, Vol. I. Boletin del Instituto Geografico, Argentino, Vol. X, Parts 10 Die: xii Minutes of Proceedings. Records of the Australian Museum, Sydney, Vol. I, No. 1. Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes, No. 235. Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes, Catalogue de la Bibliothéque. Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History, Vol. XII, Parts) 2,) 3: The /imerican Anthropologist, Vols. Il, Nos. 2, 3,4; Vol. III, INo. UE: - Annual Report of the Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota, 1887. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. XX VI. Nos. 129, 180. | Proceedings and Transactions of the Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science, Vol. VII, Part 3. Annual Report of the Canadian Institute, Toronto, 1887-88. Proceedings of the Canadian Institute, Toronto, Vol. VII, Parts 1 Smithsonian Report, 1886, Part 1. Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences, 2nd Series, Vols, Rants 1522. Proceedings of the Davenport Academy of Natural Sciences Vol.3V, Partial: Bulletin of the United States National Museum, Nos. 33—37. Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vols. X, XI. Bericht des Vereines fiir Naturkunde zu Kassel, XXXIV and XXXYV. Mr. R. Trimen, F.R.S., exhibited some South African specimens of the Death’s-Head Moth (Acherontia Atropos), of Africa and Europe, and remarked on the special adaptation of this species and its Asiatic congeners (one of which, 4. Satanas, Baird, was exhibited forthe purpose of comparison with A. Atropos) for gaining access to honey stored in the combs of the various species of honey as ‘“ Hive” Bees, of the genus Apis. He called attention particularly to the pro- boscis of Acherontia, which—unlike those of most of the family Sphingide—was short, broad, stiff and acutely pointed, so as to be exactly fitted for piercing the waxen cells of the bee’s honey-comb and pumping out their store of nectar. After reference to the evil reputation which this moth had, for at least two centuries, undeservedly borne, owing apparently to its great size, skull-like mark on’ the thorax, and shrill squeaking cry—Mr. Trimen gave instances of the dread with which it was regarded both by Europeans and the native Africans in the Colony, many of whom stoutly alleged that the ‘ Bee-Moth” (as they term it), could killa man with a single sting ! Minutes of Proceedings. xili It was a most interesting question how Acherontia, 4 creature without offensive weapons of any kind, can with impunity invade and plunder a hive guarded by such alert, active, pugnacious, well-armed insects as honey-bees. The accepted opinion hitherto had to all appearance been that the ery of tbe moth, from its resemblance to that emitted by the queen-bee under certain circumstances, exercised a restraining influence on the bees ; but the recent detailed observations in Madagascar, published by the Rev. C. P. Cory (Antananarivo Annual, &c., 1889, pp. 47, 48), seem to show that, as far as the Malagasy honey-bee (Apis unicolor) is concerned, the cry of the Death’s-Head, so far from deterring or subduing the owners of the hive, rather excited them to attack the assailant. Mr. Cory, indeed, concludes that the immunity of the moth consists partly in its bulk and strength, but mainly in the absolute inability of the bees’ stings to pierce its dense coat of woolly hair and tough smooth skin, as he has seen crowds of bees clustering on the insect and vainly endeavour- ing to sting it. Mr. Trimen inclined to think, that while the harder parts of the moth’s body might effectually resist the stings, the joints of the abdomen would not be impervious. However, this may be, the fact that Acherontia is by some means thoroughly protected from injury by the bees is well established. The dependence of the Death’s-Head on the Honey-Bee was also pointed out ; and in illustration of it, Mr. Trimen quoted a note by Mr. Melliss (S¢. Helena, p. 181), to the effect that the moth is said to have first appeared in St. Helena in 1635 and to have been after- wards very plentiful until 1854, when it disappeared almost simul- taneously with the Honey-Bee. In 1874, when Mr. Melliss wrote, the moth had just re-appeared, Honey-Bees having been_ re-introduced a few years previously. In regard to the singular cry emitted by the moth when irritated, or molested, Mr. Trimen stated that the mode of its production, so long a matter of dispute, was not yet certainly determined. Among the earlier observers, Réaumur had put it down to friction of the palpi with the proboscis ; Rosel to friction of thorax with abdomen ; Lorey to passage of air through the trachece at the base of the abdomen ; while Passerini placed the seat of the sound in a cavity of the head with contractile muscular walls. Recent authorities had differed much on the subject, and many different parts of the insect had been thought to be instrumental in producing the squeaking cry ; but there was room for further observation, and the hope was expressed that some members of the Society would be able to give their attention to the question. Mr. Trimen mentioned that his own experience rather militated against the view that the head contained the sound-producing apparatus, as he had found when holding the living moth by the sides of xiv Minutes of Proceedings. the thorax, with the wings erect and prevented from moving, the squeaking, which was continued under moderate pressure, ceased when pretty strong pressure of finger aud thumb was applied, notwith- standing the simultaneous application of irritation to the insect’s bead and unrolling its proboscis—a proceeding which, in the absence of strong pressure on the thorax, invariably led to loud squeaking. An observation which the speaker had not seen recorded was that Atropos- commonly, when persistently irritated, did not pretend death or endeavour to escape, but assumed a threatening attitude by throwing up its spiney forelegs, at the same time emitting its shrill ery ; aad this no doubt had something to do with the dread of the insect so. widely entertained. In evidence of the fact that Acherontia is sufficiently formidable or fear-inspiring to its enemies to be a “ protected” group, it was men- tioned that a direct and unmistakeable “mimicker” of it existed in Macrosila Solani, another large moth, belonging to the same family but to a different sub-family. Specimens of the latter insect were exhibited, showing that it more closely imitated A. Satanas than A. Atropos. Dr. Gill read some notes on recent improvements in Celestial Photo- graphy. His remarks were illustrated by transparencies from Celestial Photographs exhibited by means of the lantern. Annual General Meeting. WEDNESDAY, JuLY 30, 1890. Mr. L. Perincuey, F.L.S., PRESIDENT, IN THE CHAIR. The reports of the Secretary and Treasurer were read and adopted. The Members present proceeded to the election of a President and Council for the ensuing year, with the following result : President : L. Perineury, F.L.S. Council: J. H. M. Brcx, M.D. H. Botus, F.L.S. Rev. G. H. R. Fisk, C.M.Z.S. W. H. Finuay, M.A., F.R.A.S. Davin Git, LL.D., F.R.S. F. Guturiz, LL.B. R. Martoty, Pu.D., M.A. P. MacOwan, B.A., F.L.S., F.H.S. Hon. C. A. Smita, M.A. R. Trimen, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S. In consequence of there being so few Members present, the Presi- dent was requested to postpone the delivery of the Annual Address until a future occasion, and he consented to do so. The Meeting then terminated. REPORT OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY DuRING THE YEAR ENDING 31st JuLy, 1890. 1. Since the last Annual General Meeting seven Ordinary and two: Special Meetings have been held. The average attendance of Members has been fourteen, and of visitors six, making an average total of twenty. 2. At the Ordinary Meetings six papers have been read on the subjects Botany, Geography, Geology and Meteorology. Netes and communications on a variety of subjects have also been brought before the Society ; brief accounts of these will be found in the Notes of Proceedings. 7 3. A large number of presents of books has been received during the past year. A list of these will be published in the Proceedings of the Society. 4. During the year eighteen ordinary Members have been elected,. and seven have resigned ; the Society has lost one Member by death, and the names of seven Members have been removed from the list for non-payment of subscriptions. The total number of ordinary Members. is seventy-nine. 5. Ata Meeting of the Council held on October 8rd, 1489, it was resolved that the papers read before the Society should be printed as soon as possible after they are read, that a sufficient number of extra copies be printed to be circulated amongst Members at once, and that a volume be published annually as soon as possible after the Annual Meeting, including the papers read during the past year, minutes of proceedings, President’s address, &c. ‘I'wo papers have been circu- lated in this way, a third is in the Press, and a fourth will follow as soon as the necessary arrangements can be made. Some of the papers read in the conclusion of 1887 and during 1888 still remain un- printed, their publication having been unavoidably delayed, but it is expected that they will soon appear. DAVID GILL, General Secretary. July 30, 1890. xvi ‘S1OqIPUY ‘AMOOL GNOWWVH “M ‘ASOU ‘ad “A NHOL ‘q01100 ouIes OY} puno; pure “puo”g oseszI0PT pur pereduroo “yunoosoy oAoqe og poururexe oAvy om yeyy AFTQI00 Aqaroy ‘Tomnsvoly, wo ‘ALINS AIAWOWOUAAV *O Il O 68P GS “LIE 0) tS Pe 6) CON MN IW Gles ! 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Prerineury, F.L.S., F.Z.S. PARASITIC BEES AND WASPS AND THEIR OWN PARASITES. Most Hymenoptera in the adult state live on vegetable substances. The true male has only one réle to accomplish, ¢.e., to fecundate. He leads apparently an easy life, sunning himself, flying from flower to flower, half intoxicated with sun and pollen; but let a female of his Own species appear on the scene ; the behaviour of the dandy changes immediately. Fights of a severe nature will ensue between him and his numerous rivals ; he is victorious at last ; he fulfils his functions, but as a rule does not long survive. On the female now rests the responsibility not only of laying the eggs but also of providing for the wants of the future larva, the small grub which will issue from the egg. She has lived hitherto in a secluded state, gorging herself pon the provisions stored for her by a mother, as careful as she herself will be, to ensure the nourishment of her progeny. She has quietly and unconsciously waited during a long period of somnolence for the attainment of her mature state. Now she must needs repeat the same cycle of existence her mother has led, and follow the same method which has insured her existence, parasites permitting. She will not herself be a parasite, but her larva will. That larva will live at the expense of a host selected by its mother, either from provisions prepared for another darva or even from the host itself. If the mother is an Iehnewmon, let us follow her. First her passport, so that she may be identified. Head short and rounded ; eyes globular, generally very bright, three ocellz on the head, waist long and tri-partite, on the sides four wings of gauze, more or less mottled, abdomen very slender at the base (wasp-waist in fact), elongated, and with an appendage at the tip consisting of two long setae covering an ovipositor. If you do not recognize her after this description it is because, as in all passports, descriptions vary ; just as noses are differentiated in length and breadth so are the ovipositors of the xviil President’s Address. [ Aug. 28, Ichneumons. But whereas noses, either long or short, do not imply a greater or lesser keenness of scent, we can from the length of the insect’s ovipositor judge what kind of prey she will select for her progeny. Let us choose this one with an ovipositor nearly two-thirds of an inch long and follow her. She is agile, supple, with legs made for running ; the antennae or feelers are constantly vibrating ; she walks by jerks, her wings are slightly moving and half expanded. What is she looking for ? why this continual vibration of the anterne, these half-expanded wings ? Is she listening toa sound audible only to herself ? The most skilful physiologist has not been able, as yet, to find a special auditory vesicle (with otoliths) in an insect, and yet that power exists. Can it be that the expanded wings act as an auricular drum, and the antennae as an olfactory organ ? It may be so, but we have to be very careful in building theories. While I am indulging in these con- jectures I have lost sight of the insect. Has she flown? Where is she? I look at the other side of the bough. ‘There she is ; but what is she doing ? She stands firmly fixed, her front legs apart, her head on the bark, her long pedunculated-abdomen raised high, and the ovipositor at a right angle with the body. What a curious position! Can it be that the insect is also affected by the stupendous heat of the sun, which sends large beads of perspiration coursing down my cheeks ? Now she changes her place, goes a few inches further, comes back, the vibration of the antennae ceases, the same position is again assumed, and, behold, the ovipositor disappears, with difficulty evidently ; the two blades of the sheath are open at the tip, little by little all is inserted ; with a brusque effort it is extracted again, and the Tchneumon, after brushing her antenne with her fore legs, is off :before I have time to bring my net in action. Where did she insert that long ovipositor ? J cannot find an aperture, and yet there must be one, My knife is soon at work on the half-rotten bough. I tear away with great caution, Alas! for the caution. My last cut brings to light a small gallery, and within a grub which my knife has badly damaged. Mutilated as it is, I very soon conclude that it is the /arva of a weevil. With the help of my magnifying glass I soon observe some slight puncture, most minute spots on some of the segments, and when I dissect it at home’ I find some eggs under the epidermis. I shall now by analogy reconstruct the sequel of the evolution of the parasitic egg, and of 'the weevil which my knife has so soon sent to limbo. The eggs are soon hatched, and the grub will begin either sucking or gnawing all the non-vital parts of the host, and, only when it feels that its time has come will it perforate the outer teguments and spin a cocoon, generally, but not always, adhering to the skin. It 1890. | President’s Address. xix happens, however, that the weevil larva has already reached an advanced stage. I: spins its cocoon also ; this cocoon is not made of fine silk, but of earth or agglutinised wood, and impervious to the feeble jaws of the Ichnewmon. Both host and parasite will in that case never emerge. But, if the Ichnewmon is able to tear itself away from its host, it will emerge on a fine day, wait a few moments to dry its teguments ; opening its gauze wings it flies, awkward, partly ‘unconscious, with an effort that sends it against the first obstacle it meets. It soon rights itself, however, and there it flies, heedless of anything else but to seek a mate or wait for one, which will not be long. I have just inspected a wine-farm. Seated on the stoep, my host the farmer calls my attention to the state of his oak-trees, the leaves of which are being devoured by a caterpillar. ‘Ido not care for the . damage done to the oak-tree,” quoth he, “but the rispers”—I am afraid he added an adjective—“ are attacking my guava-trees also.” Let us have a look ; and a look we have. ‘There in clusters are the caterpillars of Pachypessa Pythiocampa. “ But what are these little white appendages on the body? Are they the eggs ?” asks my farmer friend. ‘* Oh no! Each of these little bags, eacoons in fact, contain a little chrysalis of a four-winged fly. It was in its earlier stage a parasite of the caterpillar, and at or about the time when it will come out of its cocoon the caterpillar which is still alive will die.” “© So !”’ says my friend, looking rather incredulous. Yes, it is so, and the caterpillar is carefully removed ina glass tube. Four weeks afterwards the Zchneumon comes out ; it isa little fellow 10 mm. long. But why an ovipositor two-thirds the length of the body ? The eggs are to be laid under the skin; why such a length? JI build an hypothesis. Let us find out whether observations 7 site will vouch for its accuracy. Here I have before me several clusters of the cater- pillars. I espy an Ichneumon ; there she comes, alights upon the back of the caterpillar, and moves about a little, but with signs of awkwardness. Why? Because the future host is covered with long tufts of hooked hairs. Were the ovipositor too short the Ichneumon could not reach the skin. My hypothesis proves true. I have not seen the Hymenopteran insect actually laying the eggs, nor have I been able to detect the eggs under the skin of the host, but I saw her puncturing and the caterpillar proved by its sudden jerk that the puncture was felt. The action is repeated three times. These clusters of Pythiocampa caterpillars are capital subjects for observation. Here comes an Ichneumon. She makes her punctures and, certain that her progeny will find an abundant and suitable store of food, flies away, contented, I presume. I capture her before she has xx President's Address. [ Aug. 28,. gone far. There she lies dead in my killing-bottle, while I wonder whether I shall be able to classify her. I look at the caterpillar again, and there, busy puncturing, is another Ichneumon, only this one is’ longer at her work. The fourth puncture is followed by a state of semi-coma. I seize her by the wings and wait, not long ; on comes another, inflicts another puncture, followed by convulsive jerks from the caterpillar. It is time to turn homewards. I consign the cater- pillar to a glass tube. Has the ovipositor touched a nervous centre, a ganglion? Have the punctures been too numerous? Is the somnolence of the host caused by the weather? I cannot find out, but my caterpillar does not outlive its capture more than ten days The parasitic Ichneumon did not probably realise such a result for her progeny. But has she laid all her eggs within one host only ? It is doubtful. Then we have seen several eggs of parasites laid in by several parents ; but, if too many insects lay their eggs in one cater-- pillar, it follows that all the grubs cannot get enough sustenance from the host. I do not believe that the Ichnewmon is able to detect a puncture made a short time before she appears on the scene, in which case it is very probable that the host not affording sufficient nutriment to all the parasites, they will either perish before they can spin the cocoons or be a weak brood, more or less incapacitated from fulfilling their part in the economy of nature—a thing to be regretted, because of the immense services rendered to agriculture by these useful auxiliaries. Ichneumons vary much in size, some of them reaching a length of an inch anda half, irrespective of the ovipositor. Some, the Hybrizonites, are so small that they lay their eggs in the bodies of the Rose Aphides. The family Chalcididae is composed of an extremely large number of parasitic species more useful to us perhaps than the Ichneumonidae themselves. They are parasites of almost all kinds of insects ; even the Ichneumon are preyed upon by these diminutive flies. I remember trying to rear some caterpillars, the identity of which I was anxious to know. In due time the typical cocoons made their appearance on the back of some of my prisoners. The Lcehnewmon was rather long in emerging, one did appear at last. No more coming out, I opened the cocoons. Instead of IJchnewmons tenauting them I found some Chalcididae, some of them ready to emerge and with the remnants of the skin of the Jchneumon in the cell. The mother Chalecis had deposited her eggs in the cocoons. Some species of that family are even credited with the remarkable habit of laying their eggs in the eggs of other insects. The Chrysidide, or ruby-tailed flies, bear probably the most ’ sumptuous livery in the insect world. No gem can bear comparison with the brilliancy of their teguments. Always in motion, darting 1890, Presidents Address. OR with a velocity which baffles the eye of the observer, having the “appearance of aruby or an emerald fleeting in space, they are generally met with on flowers in summer days. Singularly enough, they always abandon the corolla of a flower when another Hymenopteron alights on it, Could it be that they are aware that they are held in abhorrence by other Hymenoptera on account of their evil reputation which is so justly deserved. Ido not think so. Intelligence in insects does not reach that point even among bees or wasps. ‘The brilliancy of its coat would betray the Chrysis anywhere. In truth, that coat of mail is extremely hard to perforate, and the ruby-tailed fly can at will roll itself into a ball. Be it as it may be, a Chrysis in possession of a flower abandons it the moment another Hymenopteron alights on it. Unable to build or dig, the Chrysis must deposit her egg or eggs in -the cells of solitary bees and wasps. The larva must have animal ‘food. It will not touch the honey carefully stored by the mother of its host. It will devour the host itself, little by little, of course, or _absorb the live provision intended for the young Sphex or Odynerus. We are not quite certain which is the real process of the two in cells containing stores of animal food. The result is the same. Hither _ starved or eaten, the host will never complete its evolution. I have before me my old wall close to the farmhouse. On one side _of the wall is a large cluster of tall fennel in blossom. On the rugged and dilapidated surface are a dozen Chrysidae, the long-pedunculated Pelopoeus, and two species of Odynerus unknown to me. The Chrysidae go about quickly, but without that jerking motion so peculiar to the Sphegidae and Ichneumonidae. They peer in every hole, go half-way in, enter bodily at times, and are rather long in coming out. Do these holes contain nests either partially finished or partially stored ? We shall know very soon. There comes a wasp, _an Odynerus, carrying something in its flight; this is the provender ~nothing less than the caterpillarof a noctuid moth. The place -is evidently inspected by the insect, which soars a little above ‘the entrance. There is nothing suspicious about ; the caterpillar and the insect disappear in the crevice; a short time after, the Odynerus -comes out and is off again. The entrance is not closed. A few minutes later on the wasp comes back carrying another caterpillar. It _ goes in again, remains longer than before, flies out afresh, and returns with a pellet of clay, with which it begins closing its hole. Alas! _ you have left your door open ; have you not seen the parasites lurking - about the entrance? The cuckoo has got into your nest during your -absence. You have striven hard tc accumulate food for the main- tenance of the grub which will issue from the egg which is the means -of propagating your species ; heap pellets of clay over pellets cf clay xxii President’s Address. [ Aug. 28,. and smooth them with your jaws so as to resemble the surface of the old wall; all these precautions are now in vain, instead of an Odynerus, a Chrysis, the metamorphosis of which is shorter, will issue - from it. I shall later on revert to that Odynerus. A Sphex, a Scolia, a Pompilus, or an Odynerus provides living insects for the sustenance of its progeny. The choice varies much : caterpillars, grasshoppers, flies or beetles, but spiders predominate. With these they store their nest or gallery, and the minute grub - issuing from the egg is able to devour the large piece provided for its use before reaching its pupal stage, which is never of very long ~ duration, the transformation from the pupa to the perfect state always . taking much more time than the first metamorphosis. That grub is very small, very fragile ; a single contortion of the - prey provided by the motherly instinct will reduce it to pulp; the powerful jaws of the Orthopteron, the Coleopteron, or the spider are - not less to be dreaded than the kick of legs bristling with spines. ~ Were it shaken off by the victim that is to be, its legless condition, its unprotected covering, militate against all possibility of crawling back to its prey, of fastening again its mandibles on the succulent morsel, . hence starvation and its correlative—extinction of the species. Why does the mother select for its future progeny such a redoubt- - able host ? Because before the cell is stored with a living prey that prey has been paralysed. I tuke a Sphex. Armed with powerful jaws, having legs eminently - adapted to fossorial purposes, and with an abdomen articulated on a long peduncle and provided with a powerful sting, this insect is really a formidable foe, one that is eminently adapted to tearing its prey and making mincemeat of it ; but, unlike some Vespidae, it feeds on the - pollen of flowers. Yet the whole of the energy it is capable of will be expended on providing for its progeny, in ensuring it such a store of food as will last until it is able to spin its own cocoon and undergo its metamorphosis. . One condition, however, is essential. ‘The food must be always fresh ; - if dried up or beginning to decompose, the grub will not touch it, will” rather die of starvation. It follows apparently that if the larva is to be fed on living organism, it must needs be supplied regulary, daily, nay hourly. But the Sphex does not proceed thus. It stores the cell, lays its egg, and closes the door—the same to be opened by its - progeny when it reaches the adult stage. Iam going to tell you now the process used for obtaining that result, and I consider it one of the most marvellous cases of adaptation. to a purpose displayed in the whole of the insect world. Tam in the Hex River Valley. Ihave captured several Harpactopus: 1890. ] President's Address. XX lif tyrannus as they come out of their burrows. One is alighting on a small mimosa-bush. She is not attracted by flowers, although the bush is in blossom. She goes straight to a small bough where several medium-sized caterpillars of a Bombycid are resting. She alights on the back of one and seizes it behind the head with her mandibles. _ The caterpillar objects evidently, raises the fore part of its long body ; the long pedunculated abdomen of the Sphew is curved under the poor creature. I stand underneath and have a very good view of it; the Sphex is evidently feeling her way with the last segment of her abdomen ; all at once there is a contraction of the peduncle, and I see the sting drawn out from the wound. ‘The process is repeated lower down this time, another segment is punctured. The abdomen is now hidden from view. I must turn to see what has become of the Sphex. There she is still on the back of her victim, whose struggles, however, have partially ceased, busy munching the back of its head. Four or five minutes have been sufficient for the completion of this drama. The caterpillar now can with difficulty adhere to the branch ; it is partly dragged and partly carried by its victor. After a long journey the nest is reached. The Sphex abandons the caterpillar and enters the den, re-issues, drags the caterpillar a little nearer, enters again, stays inside a little longer than the first time, and at last grasps her burden and enters with it. That Sphex has unawares given me a lesson on the anatomy of the nervous system of the caterpillar. If you iook at this diagram you will perceive that the nervous system consisis of two cords intersected by swellings (ganglia) from which spread ramifications. This is really analogous to the spinal _cord of the superior animals. The brain is represented by several pairs of ganglia massed together, and it is very probable that each of these ganglia corresponds to the number of primitive segments which, fused together, have formed the head. Now it may be said that each ganglion is adapted to each segment ; still some of them have special functions ; in fact, during the metamor- phosis some of them become partially absorbed, and their function is more localised. If by means of an extremely fine needle I puncture any of these ganglia, the segment becomes paralysed ; but if I touch the cerebral ganglion, death ensues forthwith. The Sphex has not punctured the brain, oh no ! but its stiletto has destroyed the 8rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th ganglia, which supply the nerves to the legs, the 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th and 12th which supply the nerves to the long abdomen, and it hasdone so ina masterly fashion. One might think that it would be much easier to puncture through the back instead of twisting the abdomen and insert the stiletto underneath. No, the Sphex is too good a physiologist to make such a grievous. mistake. She knows very well that the chain of ganglia lies on the XXiV President’s Address. [ Aug. 28, floor of the body, on the ventral surface, not the dorsal one, and that the insertion of its sting from above could only result in the puncture of the dorsal vessel or heart—hence death and decomposition—the very thing she guards against. However skilful the stiletto may be, the caterpillar has not yet quite given up ail hope of a struggle, the effect of the paralysing operation is not yet wholly obtained, and this is why the Sphex proceeds further by means of its powerful mandibles | to compress the cerebral ganglia. General paralysis is now obtained, the bulky prey can now be dragged to the cell with comparative ease, A feeble, very feeble, twitching denotes that the animal is still alive. The egg of the Sphex is deposited on the ventral surface and the grub will now be able to devour its prey at ease. Sphegidae do not always select caterpillars for storing their nests with. Cerceridae use beetles. Phylanthus attacks the honey-bee, a foe not to be despised ; Ammophila prefers caterpillars, but I have seen one carrying young crickets. The very large group of Pelopeus and Pompilus feed their larvae on spiders. But in each one of these insects the nervous system has undergone a change ; the ganglia are not disposed in the same manner, they are more or less distant, more or less concentrated. In the bee we have a large complicated brain, an oesophageal ganglion, two thoracic ganglia instead of three, and five or six abdominal ones. In the beetle they differ much in position, but may be said to have agglomerated in the thoracic region, with the exception of the cerebral one, of course ; in the spider, besides the brain, there is a single ganglionic mass in the thorax, none in the abdomen. But no matter where these ganglia are placed, the fossorial hymenoptera know where to insert their stings with due effect, and seldom fail. As I have already said, many Pompilidae select the spiders for their prey. The Arachnid knows very well that it is as well armed as its adversary, if not better. Its chelicerae are not only sharp and strong, and articulated by powerful muscles, but they are also pro- vided with a gland supplying a most virulent poison. The struggle between a Pompilus and an Arachnid when it is a Lycosa or a Mygale is a very serious affair. The tactic of the spider is to seize the Pompilus by the head and to pierce the cerebral ganglia with its chelicerae ; she does not require any nutriment for her progeny, what she wants is food for herself. The Pompilus again is very careful not to thrust her head in the den of rapine and murder; she knows very well that the enemy must be got outside her shelter. I have never been able to witness closely the modus operandi, but I believe it allows the spider to seize hold of its leg, and then by a jerk draws it out. ‘The spider may turn and face its foe now; it is too late, the Sphex is already on its back, with a firm hold of the cephalathoraz, 1890. ] President’s Address. XXV and the abdomen curving under the victim punctures the ganglionic mass. The deed is done. It is no longer an unarmed prey that the Pompilus has paralysed at leisure ; it is during a sharp struggle where the assailant has uot always the best of it that the fatal thrust must be given, and it is a ‘very common occurrence to see the Pompilus carrying a spider often considerably more bulky than herself, stop and insert her sting again in the ganglionic region. Has she felt a renewal of activity in the paralysed mass she is now dragging, which makes her fear for her own safety ? I should say it is so, because on four different occasions small Pompilid, caught immediately after the end of the fight and placed together with their victims in a glass tube, were found dead the following morning ; the spiders had recoyered from their lethargy, and being nocturnal had had their revenge ; never, however, were the Hymenoptera eaten. Pelopoeus spirifex is sometimes seen attacking spiders on their web. Doubtless she is well armed, and if she only succeeds in inserting her sting the spider lies at her mercy. But the Arachnid, beside her own weapons, is an expert at throwing her threads, and great has been the number of Pelopoeus I have seen, the corpses of which, sucked dry and lying entangled in a web, testify to the heroism of the maternal instinct. I think I have now substantiated what I told you a little while ago about the degree of adaptation to a purpose displayed by these solitary wasps, and yet they cannot be credited- with the same amount of intelligence in all their actions. If you meet a Pompilus, Sphex, or an Ammophila carrying her prey to the hole, you will generally see that she leaves it on the threshold, and enters her gallery. Remove the caterpillar or spider ‘a few inches from the entrance, she will drag it back to the opening, and will abandon it on the same place and go in ‘again for her subterranean inspection ; remove the spoils altogether, and you will often see the wasp, instead of flying away, setting to close and cement the aperture. I have often succeeded in repeating here that experiment of Fabre with Pelopeus spirifex, and Ammophila capensis, as well as with several species of Pompilus. The closing and cementing of the hole is done with too much care not to lead us to believe that the insect has come to the conclusion that its task is finished. JI have found by reopening the cells, either an insufficient quantity of caterpillars or spiders, or, oftener, no provender at all. As for the repeated entrance to the hole, after leaving the provender on the threshold, I thought at first that it was to enlarge the cell ‘according to the size of the victim which was going to be stored in it ; but, as I never saw the Sphex carrying out the excavated material, I am induced to suppose that it is in order to see if no intruder in the shape of a parasite has already taken possession. If my surmise is * XXVi President’s Address. [ Aug. 28, true the insect might very well have saved herself this trouble. The enemy is everywhere round her. Close by her galleries I see the Chrysidae ; the Anthrax and Bombylius, these elegant and conspicuous . flies with their thick coating of high-pile velvet are also numerous, and. these small Tuchynariu flies are not watching her for nothing. Let us sit at leisure before this sand-bank, where I have spent already so many hours. Two species of Bembex are very common here, and it is easy to observe them. There comes one ; without any hesitation she alights on a spot. where no aperture is visible. She carries a fly, a good-sized one. The fore-legs so well adapted for the removal of sand are at work ; the insect disappears ; the sand behind it falls again. At a short distance from the surface the ground is damper, and therefore firmer; here is the gallery, and near the bottom a legless grub surrounded by the débris of several varieties of flies. The provender is deposited close to the grub, and apparently time is precious, because, as soon as the fly is in its proper place, the- mother is off ; the fore-legs brush away the sand, which, falling again behind her, forms a screen in front of the entrance. Unlike the Hymenoptera, whose habits I have been explaining to you, the Bembex supplies her larva daily with food. She will come again when she thinks that the larder is empty, bringing with her another fly, and she serves out the ration according to the appetite of her offspring. There is now no necessity for the skilful use of the poisoned stiletto ; paralysis is no longer required. If the food has dried up before the /arva has consumed it, there will be another. insect brought to replace it. One can easily conceive the labour involved by this habit so dissimilar to that of other solitary bees and wasps, because: the Bembex bas more than one burrow to supply. A mother watching over her young, regulating the amount of food. destined to it ; there is indeed a highly-developed sense of intelligence. Yes to be sure; but . . . Here also we must point out deficiencies. In some galleries the grub is not alone. Here it lies, fat, yellow, gnawing away at its provender. But gnawing at the same morsel. there are also several other grubs, smaller, and much more active, Any doubt at their identity is soon set at rest ; they are, doubtless, grubs of a fly, dipterous larvae. But where do these parasites come from ? It is not easy for an insect unprovided with the powerful rakes. of a Bembex to penetrate the screen of sand. The mystery is soon explained ; and, like the Odynerus, like the Sphex, the Bembex gives us a proof of the possession of a very limited intelligence after all. Dotted on that sand-bank are a good many Tachynaria flies. They are squatting on the ground near the entrance to the galleries. The Bembex arrives carrying her fly. She must first effect an entrance, 1290. | President's Address. XXVi and the fly is fixed under the abdomen, although still held by the mandibles while the rakes are at work. Now is the time! As quick as lightning one Yachynaria, sometimes two, is on it. The deed is done. An egg has been deposited, glued, along the corpse ; from that egg will issue a grub, a messmate of the young Bembex, and the mother must needs increase the number and size of her supplies to feed her progeny and the parasites which she has been instrumental in bringing into her nest. Fabre has justly said that the Bembex is perfectly aware of the presence of the flies lurking about her nest. She shows it by a shriller sound than usual when she perceives the flies too near the eutrance.. I have also seen her darting away with her burden and coming back again ; poised in the air above her burrow, she takes another survey ; the flies are there still, they take good care not to move away ; they know, of course, that the mother must enter; she is aware that her progeny is perbaps waiting for its dinner ; are not the inner parasites also waiting ? | Now, here is an insect which preys on flies of different varieties, for the debris of the nest prove that clearly, and which has not the common intelligence to pounce upon the Yachynariae. She sees the parasites increasing daily in size and numbers, and it is solely by dint of heaping daily a larger quantity of food that she will keep them from attacking and devouring forsooth her young. The only explanation J can suggest is that she preys on flies only ; the grubs are repugnant to her. These Tachynariae are not parasites of the Bembecidae only. I have already told you of that Odynerus whose galleries were so often. visited by the Chrysidae. That unfortunate wasp is. perhaps more. than any other I know victimized by parasites. From that dilapidated wall where I first discovered it I got no less than nine kinds of these deceitful ruby-tailed flies. The YJ achynaria was there in plenty manceuvring in the same way ; a sudden dart and the fly is again on the wall, and looking most innocent. However quick the movement,. the egg has been glued on the body of the Noctwid caterpillar, and what with the visit of the Chrysidae, the eggs of Tachynariae, and the singular nymphal case I see protruding from a hole, the young Odynerus will have no easy time of it. It is the first time that I have seen this sheath. It is nothing else. than the nymph of a fly—either a Bombylius or an Anthrax. That old wall is indeed a great friend to me; often have I seen Anthrax (Exoprosopa) venosa alighting on it. Too much preoccupied with. the Chrysidae or the two Odynerus which tenant it, I had hardly taken notice of this elegant insect. I should have remembered that the European 4 punctata is a parasite of an Osmid, Heriades trun- XXVili President’s Address. [ Aug. 28, corum ; but this Osmid chooses generally as a residence a hollow twig, which it partitions with clay. I could hardly have suspected the Anthrax, when alighting on a ledge of the wall, to have also chosen the Odynerus larva for its progeny. Yet, there is no longer any doubt of it now. | There is the nymphal case projecting from one of the galleries, which, when explored, yields debris, which tell their own tale. But how. could such a feeble insect as an Anthrax choose to deposit her ege on that cemented surface, so hard that it is with difficulty that I can make a breach init. She is not provided with terminal auger ; she has no mandibles, only an haustellum, her feet are unprovided with bristles or fossorial implements of any kind. Thanks to the patience and keen power of observation of Fabre, we have now the key to that mystery, and larval dimorphism is now known to bridge the distance to hypermetamorphosis. Upon the rugged surface of the wall the Anthrax has deposited her ege@ ; that is all. From that egg will issue the singular creature you will perceive in this diagram. Itis only one millimetre in length. What its mother has not been able to do for it it must do for itself; it must fight its way through small chinks invisible to my eye. The mother has not chosen this place for it without good cause, and instinct warns it that there, at a greater or lesser distance, lies a fat grub or grubs. It has reached it at last, not without hard work ; it may now consider the tempting morsel as its own, but it has still to pierce the silky cocoon wherein the Odynerus larva is about to undergo its metamorphosis. When this is over the first change begins—larva No. 1 becomes larva No. 2, and she is now having her first meal. We see now a legless worm which sucks its victim dry without perforating the skin. When this is over, there comes the third metamorphosts—.e., the nymph. Now among all insects undergoing such a process there is always a cessation of movement during the nymphal stage ; life is apparently suspended, and, except for a few twitchings, the chrysalis is practicalty motionless. Not so with the Anthrax, however. The only easy time it has had has been in the secondary stage. In the primary one it has had to fight its way into the cell of its host. In the nymphal state it must manage to open for itself a way out of the cell, because the feeble fly, the full-grown insect, will never be able to perforate the walls. And this is why the head of the nymph is armed with pick and shovel, her segments with spines and bristles which she will use as a lever, and when the half of the body is out of the cell, when it is firmly anchored by the stiff -ciliae and the terminal segment, the thorax will split in a crucial form and through that rent the Anthrax emerges into the light of day. 1890. | President's Address. xxix It would take me too long to enumerate all the series of parasites and their habits, to tell you of the Scolia who, instead of carrying her capture to the nest, digs her way to the larva of Scarabeid, and after the usual paralysing process fixes her egg on the fat grub; of the Crabro, who makes use of hollow twigs for heaping in her supply of flies, of Mutilla, and of so many others ; but I must call your attention to the very singular insect shown in this diagram. It is one of the Strepsicera, a Stylops. It is a parasite which attacks at random any Hymenopteron. Ihavefound it on Apidae on Vespidae, on Pompilidae; it has been found also on Formicidae. But if I mention Stylops it is because that unfortunate Odynerus, I have so often spoken of, teems with them. The difference between the male and the female is very striking. He has very large protruding eyes and long postical wings ; she is an eyeless, legless sack. He leads the life of other insects ; she lives and dies where she has affixed herself. She is provided with a dorsal tube, from which her young will exude, because she is viviparous. The larva, provided with legs and two long caudal appendages, clings to the hairs of the bee, and is carried by its mother’s host into the nest. It bores its way into the grub, and then changes into a leg- less, maggot-like creature, which becomes a pupa into the hymenopteran pupa, and taking advantage of the then moist state of the ultimate transformation of the bee bores its way from the abdomen. If it is a female, she will stay there until she dies ; if it isa male it will leave the pupal skin and search the female. ‘These insects do not, however, devour the host, which completes its metamorphosis. What deduction must we now draw from the habits of these solitary Hymenoptera which form the subject of my address ? Must we consider them as endowed with superior intelligence ? Is their instinct limited ? We must not forget that the young has had no lesson from the mother. She has grown solitary ; the moment she has reached her adult state, she has repeated unconsciously the same acts that her mother had accomplished, unknown to her ; or, in the case of the male, what his father had done. All her powers of intelligence have been directed to ensuring the future life of her grub; but while admiring her intelligencs in many ee her doings, some of her actions reveal a very obtuse mind. The Ichneumon is unable to discern before she is going to puncture her victim if the place bas not been occupied before by another Ichneumon ; or if the larva of the Curculio has not reached such a state of growth, that her young runs the risk of being entombed in the cocoon of the host before it has completed its metamorphosis. Odynerus takes no notice of the ruby-tailed flies which are actually — 20.4 President's Address. [ Aug. 28, ‘going to decimate her progeny. They are conspicuous enough, these Chrysidae. But let us suppose that the very brilliancy of the livery is the cause of their not being detected ; can the same be said of the large, velvet-clad Anthrax? of the dingy-looking T'achynaria flies, which she evidently sees, since she displaces them in her movements ? Bembex does, undoubtedly, prove that she sees the same Tachynaria, and is aware of her presence. She, a destroyer of flies, never thinks of pouncing upon them, and yet she, alone among solitary bees and wasps, attends to the wants of her young until it reaches the pupal stage. She must therefore be credited with a higher intelligence truly, but still it is a very limited one after all. Quite equal to the zeal of these Hymenoptera and also to their intelligence are the zeal and intelligence of the dipterous flies, which, like T'achynariae, have acquired the power of laying their eggs at will, and, like Anthrax, have developed in the larva the means of reaching the prey. The whole intelligence of these insects has been directed in one groove, and in one groove only. Parasites lead a solitary life; they have not the advantage of the community. The parasitic life, which they have slowly been induced to assume, has strengthened, has increased their development in one direction only, viz.: “‘ Safe multiplication of the species.” This, intensified by heredity, has improved the means of obtaining that result ; but just as, if one limb alone is used at the expense of another, it increases abnormally, while the other decreases or remains stationary, in the same way the intelligence of parasitic Hymenoptera has been directed in a groove in which it has sunk deeper and deeper, so deep in fact, that it cannot rise to the comprehension of other ways, of other channels, of, perhaps, other ideas. 29th July, 1890. LIST OF ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE pont - Alyican Philosophioul Society, cia 1890. Pen Abercromby, A., M.D. *Marloth, R., Ph.D. Amphlett, G. HI *MacOwan, Prof. B.A., HES: F.H.S. Anderson, T. J. Mair, A. Andrew, D. C. Marchand, Rev. B. P., B.A. Andrews, J. Marquard, L. Arderne, H. M. Maskew, B. Atherstone, Hon. W. G., M.D.. M.L.C. Merriman, Hon. J. X., M.L.A. Atkinson, Rev. C. T. Michell, L. *Beck, J. H. M., M.D. Moodie, Hon. G. P. Biden, A. Murphy, W. J. Bodkin, A. A., M.A. *Péringuey, L.,M.Ent. Soc. Lond.,F.Z.S. Boettger, G. President. *Bolus, H., F.LS. Ponder, 8. N. Buchanan, E. J , Hon. Justice Robinson, Miss L. A. Cochrane, C. Rose, J. E. B. De Villiers, Sir J. H., K.C.M.G., OJ. Ryan, P. Dodds, W. J., M.B. St. Leger, F. Y., B.A. Dorrell, Rev. A. A. Saunders, J. Eaton, C. R. Sauer, Hon. J. W., M.L.A. Ebden, Hon. A., M.L.C. Sauer, H. B. Fairbridge, C. A. Sawerthal, H. _ Fairbridge, W. G. Southey, Hon. R., 0.M.G. Faure, Rev. D. P. Schonland, 8., Ph.D.,. M.A. *Fisk, Rev. G. H. B., C.M.Z.S. Silberbauer, C. F. *Finlay, W. H., M.A., F.R.A.S., Silberbauer, J. C. Foot, Rev. H. M., LL.B. *Smith, Hon. C. Abercrombie, M.A., Faller, T. E., M.L.A. Treasurer Giddy, R. W.S., B.A. Stegmann, Rev. G. W. *Gill, David, LL.D., F.R.S., F.RB.AS., Stewart, T., F.G.S., M. Min. Soc. General Secretary.| Struben, H. W. Grier, W. M., M. Inst. C.H. Tait, M. M. *Guthrie, F. LL.B. Tait, M., Junr. Herman, C. L., M.B. | Tooke, W. H. Howard, R.N., M.R.C.S., Eng. Drill, G. \ Hvadeon! Rev. J. i peincey R., F.B.S., F. L.S., F.Z.S. Innes, Hon. J. R., Q.C., M.L. Ne Vyvyan, mae ie R. Juta, H. H., B.A., Warton, Major T. G., F.G.S. Tesi F. S., M. ‘A. Waterston, Miss J., M.D. Giebetar J. a Webb, W. T. Tiphitsot, Ven. iichidencan| B.D. Wiener, L., M.L.A. Lindley, J. B., M.A., LL.B. Woods, C. R. Those marked * are the present Memhers of the Council. a ae aah be ath elt Bevan He: ; Mes wry a a ke a Abel vaste roe Bs arate cated fared re THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, SOME SCIENTIFIC RESULTS OF A MISSION TO SOUTH AFRICA, By Proressor SEELEY, F.R.S. [LECTURE DELIVERED SEPTEMBER 16TH, 1889. ] Your country of South Africa has been heaved up from the sea by a great compressing force, coming from the south, in consequence of which all the older rocks come to the surface of the country towards the southern shores. These older rocks, owing to the intense pressure to which they have been subjected, have become folded, and heated by conversion of the mechanical pressure into heat ; so that the water, which they originally contained, has slowly, during the long past ages, dissolved a very large part, if not the whole, of the substance of the rocks, in consequence of which these rocks have crystallised and acquired a new texture, totally different from that which they originally possessed, when laid down as sediments at the bottom of an ocean. In my survey of the country I have necessarily omitted the most ancient and most altered rocks, which lie upon the extreme south of the Colony, and my object has been to study the region which we know as the Great Karoo, and accordingly my attention was directed in the first place to the range of mountains which lie to the south of them, and which we know as the Great Zwartberg Range. These rocks I traversed, under the guidance of Mr. Thomas Bain, who made the Zwartberg Pass road, and having gone along the northern side of the mountains and observed the strongly-inclined condition of the top and of the strata, I passed along the southern side of the mountains, and came up in the Oudtshoorn district, by Schoeman’s Poort, through Meiring’s Poort, which carries the Oli-. fant’s River to the southward, and there I saw the wonderful structure of this range, and admired the rocks, folded in complex folds, turned up on end, and pomting upward and downward, again and again, due south, in three grand schemes of contortion ; so that as the range spreads out, it consists of a comparatively moderate. thickness of rock, repeated over and over again, owing to the manner. 2 Professor Seeley.— Some Scientific [Sept. 16, in which the rocks have been crushed together laterally by this intense power coming from the south. And when IJ had passed through this range (where I found the ancient limestones completely cry- stallised, limestones which themselves have been worn into pebbles and laid down as sure deposits, cemented into marble, which pebbles had acquired crystalline structure,) then upon these marbles I found altered rocks, ancient clays greatly altered, now converted into the condition of cleaved slates by the pressure, and upon this sandstone, rested and changed into quartzite, stones formed of pebbles in the same way, rolled down ancient shores, which pebbles were themselves bound together by a cement, formed in consequence of the intense heat, due to the process of compression. I then turned towards the rocks in the Prince Albert region, to those newer rocks which rest upon the Zwartberg, and which form the base.of the series which we know as the Karoo rocks. Now what those lower beds may be which intervene between Prince Albert and Zwartberg, I will not mow stop to discuss, but I will say that just to the south of Prince Albert you come upon a marvellous rock which has amazed every one who has examined it, and defied the skill in interpretation of every one who has brought the powers of the microscope to bear upon it, and that rock we know as the Ecca conglomerate, which was sometimes called hy your earlier geologists, (especially by Mr. Andrew Bain, that wonderful genius to whom we owe the first interpretation of the geological structure of Africa), the trap con- glomerate, and presents the aspect of a trap on the one hand, and -a conglomerate on the other. But when we come to consider what ‘variance there is in these terms, that a trap means a lava flow forced ‘out from a volcanic centre flowing over the surface of a country, ‘and that a conglomerate means a rock rolled into the form of pebbles ‘by the action of the breakers on shore, which boulders have sub- sequently been united by some kind of cement, you will see that the old name of “ trap conglomerate ”’ implies such a contradiction that in the interests of science we lay it one side, fully recognising the dis- crimination which recognised its true character, and we adopt the name ‘ Eeca conglomerate’’ instead. Now by this term Eeca con- -glomerate, which I believe we owe to Mr. Dunn, we mean a rock in which you find rounded boulders and angular fragments of all kinds of rock, for the most part crystalline, and very frequently perfectly altered from their original condition, and embedded in a cement which resembles different forms of volcanic ash (ash such as that which was thrown out in the wonderful eruption of Krakatoa), which apparently fell upon a shore where pebbles and boulders were brought down in great quantity, and which have become cemented into a rock, which now, after the long lapse of ages, presents the aspect of a trap, 1889. | Results of a Mission to South Africa. 3 of a voleanic lava flow, owing to the manner in which its parts have been cemented together, so as to resemble a basalt. That Ecca conglomerate ranges through the Colony ; I have seen it here in the western part, I have seen it in the eastern part at Graham’s Town, and it forms the base upon which the series of rocks rest which we know as the Karoo basin. Having determined this base for our investigations, we proceeded northward, always, I may say, under the friendly guidance of Mr. ‘Thomas Bain, who, knowing the country so well, saved me many and many an hour of what might have been fruitless wandering by ‘so freely placing at my disposal the knowledge which he had gained in a life-time of work in the public service, and this journey northward — brought us ever upon newer and newer layers of rock, which were ‘not ina horizontal position, but they too had felt the effects of the great southern compression which had thrown the slightly-inclined deposits into undulation, so that I may say that south of the railway, which we struck at Prince Albert Station, between Prince Albert ‘town and Prince Albert road, there are at least six great undulations of the rock, that is to say six bends downward, or synclinal folds, and ‘the corresponding upward or anti-clinal folds, so that the folds succeeded each other ina manner that you may deseribe as parallel, ‘the troughs and the saddles running east and west through the country in the whole of this area south of Prince Albert road. We found no fossils, but I am told that in the extreme east of this area, in ‘the neighbourhood of East London, Mr. McKay has been fortunate enough to find some bones, which I have not yet had an opportunity of studying, in some of the lower beds which have hitherto proved unfossiliferous in the west. This isa matter that-may be of some importance eventually, because all the lower part of the series has ‘hitherto been regarded as forming a distinct group of rocks, separated, -under a distinct name, but in so far as I can see from the structure of ‘the beds themselves, or from their relation with each other, there is no character whatever by means of which the lower division, which ‘has sometimes been called Kimberley shales, can bs separated from ‘the group known as the Karoo rocks. But as you leave the line of railway towards the east of Mr. Luttig’s farm and Jan Willems- fontein, you pass bones, and these are the bones of large animals, ‘sometimes to be seen in the roadway, which have been rolled down by the wagon wheels passing over the roads, and indicating animals fashioned in the main on the type of the common European Sala- mander, with comparatively long bodies, large rounded heads, moderate length of limb, but which vary in length and attain to something like 10 or 12 feet. These animals have been secured, I may say, almost entirely by the energy and peculiar skill in that kind 4 Professor Seeley.—Some Scientific ~ [Sept. 16,. of work of Mr. Thomas Bain, and his collections have been sent partly to the British Museum, where they remained unworked an& unnoticed for a period of 10 years till, on the retirement of Sir~ Richard Owen from his connection with the museum, I felt myself at. ‘liberty to turn attention to a branch of study which he had made peculiarly his own by the great contributions to knowledge which he had elaborated in relation to South African geology, and then I learnt the wonderful natures of the animals among which Mr. Bain’s collections had been made. I have here some diagrams which may serve to give you an indication of the form of some of these animals but the diagram will give no conception of the size. This figure, in the transactions of the Royal Society of London, represents the upper- and under sides of an animal which Sir Richard Owen had named the- Pareiasaurus bombidens. It is, you will observe, known by its skull and vertebral column, the vertebre being incomplete from the- beginning of the neck to some distance down the tail ; there are also- parts of the bones connected with the shoulder’s girdle, but very imperfectly preserved, so that we knew a little, but not much, of the- apparatus by means of which the anterior limbs were supported ;. then there are slight indications of the ribs, and further on an indication of those bones of the hip girdle by means of which the hind limb was supported. Well, that figure is about one quarter the natural size, so that this animal, in the condition in which it is preserved, is- something like 11 feet in length. We were very anxious to obtain: better knowledge on this, as on the other kinds of fossil life,. and as we travelled to the northward of Prince Albert-road Station, and entered the region of the Karoo rocks by the neighbourhood of Tamboer and the country which extends northward, to the Nieuveldt range, we found these saurians very widely distributed. The Dutch farmers, ever on the alert for natural history phenomona, had anticipated my coming, and at the first indication that we were likely to visit a certain spot, every specimen that could be in any way of interest to us was obtained, so that our labours were very much lightened. However, we were somewhat anxious on the score of this collection of specimens. For what has been done hitherto has been this: whenever a bone has been found, such as a skull, the skull has been taken away, and as the skull has been disconnected from the rest of the body, the consequence was that we found that there were about fifty skulls in the British Museum, and no indications of the bodies to which the skulls belonged, and so we were desirous of coming across the animal with which the skull might be connected,. and we went on very well, owing to the friendly co-operation of a ‘gentleman of Tamboer, Mr. John Marais, whose labours in the cause- of science will, I.am sure, receive full recognition hereafter. We had -1889.] Results of a Mission to'South Africa. 5 the good fortune, owing to his help, of coming upon one of these animals complete, in the skeleton, just as it had been complete in the ‘flesh, left upon the surface of the country, lying embedded in the rock ‘and only needing to be taken out and carried away. This carrying away was perhaps a little more difficult than we in Cape Town had imagined. We were in the open veldt, where there is no possibility of getting assistance, where you have to hunt along the mountain side until you come to the bones of which you are in search; thee are very few facilities for bringing away the specimens in the best possible condition, but owing to the aid which was never wanting and never grudged in the least, we were able to gather up the fragments, which filled several large cases, and a procession of mule wagons bore -.away what I trust will some day be one of the most prized ornaments -of the British Museum in London. Why were we so anxious to carry away these? JI will tell you. It was because the animals present in the external form of the skull all the characters of the frog tribe, all the characters of that low grade of amphibian life which we place below the reptile, display in the configuration of its shoulder girdle and of its hip girdle the characters of a higher mammalian type. We knew, as I say, nothing whatever of its limbs, --and were anxious to contribute this element of knowledge in order to --gee whether there was that connection which seemed to be probable » between the amphibian and the mammal, to see whether there had been a development of the higher mammal from the lower amphibian, without passing through the intervening grades of reptile and bird, sand the result was that when the matrix was cleared away—and I. ‘may tell you it was no easy matter, for the rock was very hard—as the matrix was cleared away and the bones laid bare, and I secured them, I found to my amazement that although the proportions of the ibones and the fore-limbs were extremely heavy, heavier perhaps than in any other known mammals, yet the forms of the bones were entirely smammalian. Let me say exactly what this means; there is, in the hinder and the lower end of the upper part of the arm, in what we ~call the humerus, a great cavity, into which a projecting bone of the -elbow fits, which in England is popularly known as the funnybone, but which is correctly known as . the olecranon process of the elbow which - works into the cavity. Now no reptile shows that process, yet we - found not only was that process developed in this animal of the Karoo _ fully, but as fully so as we find it in any mammal. It was fashioned exactly upon the mammalian plan. There was another point of great value and interest,.which is this: in reptiles the ulna is usually the stouter bone of the lower arm, and the radius is the smaller bone -of the fore-arm, whereas in mammals the reverse proportions obtain, .cand the radius is the strong bone and the ulna the more slender, so i Professor Seeley.— Some Scientific [Sept. 16,. that when I saw the radius was the stronger bone, I felt I could have - interpreted the limb, if it had been brought to me whole and separate from the skeleton, as probably a mammalian limb. The time went on, and the sun rose higher ; we cleared away the hind limb, and I then had the pleasure of laying bare what was hitherto unknown ;—the bones of the ankle joints. Now there is absolutely nothing in the skeleton of an animal which is more instructive of the higher types of © life than the condition of the ankle joints, In the reptiles, the ankle joints are for the most part two series of small bones, ranged in ~ parallel series, in rows. When you come to birds, the structures are modified in consequence of the wonderful mode of progression of the bird, by hopping, in consequence of. which a large amount of labour is done by the hind limbs, which result in a concentration of ossification as a result of which you find that the upper ankle bone is blended with the end of the drumstick, and the other with the metatarsal bones, so that there appear to be at first sight in the birds no ankle bones at all, but when you come to the mammal you find a much nearer approach to the reptile. The lower row consists of a series of small ossifications, while the upper rows usually consist of two or three bones. Now when I laid bare these bones to draw their contours, I found they presented ~ forms which were of this kind :—here came the lower end of tke bone, . which forms the outer bone of the leg, which we term the fibula and here came downward the bone which forms the inner bone of the leg, © which we call the ¢2bca, and to my surprise there was a single great bone extending downward in this way, which passed underneath the lower end of the ¢2bza, and which corresponded to the heel bone and pulling bone of the ankle, that is, corresponded to the osealcis ard astragalus blended together. Now this is a perfectly new type of — ankle formation, and as the excavation went on, we found there were other bones indicating a lower row in this manner, and these came on the metatarsal bone, the bones of the phalanges succeeding, and we found that the feet terminated in great curved claws, so that although I only represent to you one digit, because there was only one undisturbed, owing to the action of the weather, yet from this we were able to make out the structure of the foot and prove that these animals were not only capable of swimming in the sea, but possessed that modification of limb which adapted them to move upon land. I should weary you if I went into detail as to the history of this particular animal, and I have only gone into the story of some of the points we have made as to the structure of the animal, because it serves as a type of those wonderful problems connected with the history of life upon the earth, with which your country teems. It contains riches on every side for the naturalist who will take the treasures as they lie near to the surface of the country ; and I will venture to say 1889. | Results of a Mission to South Africa. 7 that wonderful as are the remains of extinct animals which the old world has yielded in its northern regions, and wonderful as are those amazing collections which Prof. Marsh, by the expenditure of a princely fortune, has gathered together from North America, your country, within comparatively afew miles of Cape Town, is capable of yielding to any naturalist, with a moderate and judicious expen- diture of money, treasures in a complete form of the extinct natural history of the country, which are not to be surpassed by any speci- mens in the world. But I must now leave the Saurians, and pass on to some of the other discoveries which we made. On we went towards the north ; we passed through the Nieuwveldt range, passed that. wonderful example called the Oude Kloof, and there saw what to me was perfectly new—a range of mountains which were nothing more than a gigantic range of hills—for you are aware that we are accus- tomed to define a mountain, or a range of mountains, as being a mass of rock which has been heaved up from the surface by eompressing force, so that the structure of a mountain range always shows more or less of this plan :—rocks, originally horizontal, have been thrown together so as to be condensed anu hardened,—but in the case of the hills we found that although the contour of the hills might closely approximate to that of the mountains, they consisted of masses of rock, which have not been materially disturbed from their original horizontal position ; they have never been folded, so as to leave the more durable beds in a compressed position. We thus say that the mountain has resulted from a process of compression and upheaval, whereas a hill is due to denudation. We saw this range seventy miles off ; saw it stretching clearly on the horizon along. the Zwartberg presenting its flat, table-topped hills almost level, with jagged peaks, which bounded the horizon. I found, on coming upon it, that there had been no compression, no thrusting of the rocks at all, but that everyone of the layers which spread over the country we had been traversing was disturbed in comparison with the horizontal position of the beds of rock in the Nieuwveldt range, and this was marked ; the range which was perfectly unbroken, having been riddled and pierced and crossed with spider’s web-like interlacings of voleanic rock. The rocks are very little disturbed by the upheavals to which they have been subjected, and there is not the crumpling of the rock to which we are accustomed in Europe. The result is that wherever a dyke is between two superimposed masses of sandstone or shale, it has resulted that in the long space of time in which this land has been moulded from the original state, so that the tidal waters came to wear the rock down, all the area which had been pierced by the old lava streams became durable, set up ina mass of jagged heads, the pieces 8 Professor Seeley. Some Scientific [ Sept. 16, arising straightest where the lava spread most continuously ; and this is the history of the mode of formation of the range. Clearly an amount of wear has been carried on by the action of rain, &ec., which has worn the softer clay, so as to leave the harder layers of sandstone jagged and standing out in masses on the slopes of the inclined plane. Well, as we went up this range, we recognised different zones in the Karoo rocks, as we went from the lower beds to the higher, and when I tell you that at the time of my leaving England, no one there had the faintest conception of there being any such divisions, no one knew whether any fossil which had been sent to England came from the lower or the upper beds of the Karoo, or whether it were possible to determine if there were lower or upper beds, you will see we were on the track of investigations which presented the possibilities of some great results, and we found as we passed upwards that the kind of life changed. We left these saurians, such as the pareiasaurians behind ; saurians which pre- sented the semi-circular form of head, with the comparatively short tail, though not quite so short as that of the lizard, but which do not differ essentially from the type of the lower mammals at all, in proportion as we see in the ornithorhynchus, (which represents the lowest type of mammals laying eggs and suckling its young) with which we are acquainted. The upper beds of the rocks which we examined now began to yield to us saurians of a somewhat different nature ; the limbs were longer, the head somewhat different in form, and furnished with marvellous tusks, whilst the body was somewhat more arehed in its contour ; the hind limbs were better adapted for walking on land, the tail apparently shorter than had been the case before, and these animals possessed tusks which at first sight resemblec the tusks of the dog tribe—the type which came to be known as the dicynodon family, or the family of animals with the dog-like teeth. Now these occurred in the zone of rock which goes immediately above that which yields the large type of pareiasaurus. Going up higher still, we lose these large animals, for many of them were large, some with skulls almost rivalling the size of our largest terrestrial mammalia, and which pointed to another group of animals altogether, in which you will recognise a different type of teeth, as seen in the example before you. Here you see dicynodons in which are a single pair of tusks, lying at the side of the jaw, without any teeth in front or behind, but here you will observe that there are the tusks still, and in addition there are teeth, incisors, and teeth which correspond to our grinders, or molars. These are at the back of the jaw. Well, these showed the character of the rocks, and defined them, and the most important discovery we made perhaps, or at all events one of the most important, was that there is a succession of these types through 1889. | Results of a Mission to South Africa. 9 tthe whole of the Karoo rocks, up to the zone in which the coal is found, so that if a geological survey of your country should be ever made—and I may say that I can conceive of nothing more desirable an the interests of the population generally than such a survey—it ‘would be possible to examine these rocks taoroughly and economically by means of the fossils to which I have referred. And see the importance of this. When we were onthe flank of the Zwartberg, just at the base of the Karoo series, there were in the neighbourhood -of Prince Albert some thin indications of coal beds, which were at the ‘time in process of examination ; well, if those coal beds occur in the lowest zone of the country, in which we find vertebrate fossils at all, there is therefore the possibility of that seam at Prince Albert following on the line of country, and elsewhere proving more valuable, more useful, more capable of ministering to the wants of mankind, than is the case at Prince Albert. Now these newer coal beds present this -character ; they are in the position in which the coal grew ; we were -able to establish this in a very remarkable way. At one spot in the -neighbourhood of Cyphergat we entered what had been once an open working, and there found the trees standing in the position in which ‘they grew, with their roots still in the position in which those roots - were extended through the life of the tree, the trunk of the tree being “broken off. And this leaves a fact of extraordinary character, which I have never seen in any tree, either alive or fossil ; its roots presented when they were examined this detail an internal case which was divided by nodes in this way internal surface, and ribbed longitudinally, so -as to present almost the character of the calamites, which is associated with coal throughout the greater part of the world ; externally was -a covering which was thickened over the nodes, so that the external roots presented not a constriction, but a thickening in the position in which these odes were situated ; and the character may perhaps, when I get into the land of scientific books once more, enable me to find out ‘the nature of this tree, and throw some light upon it, as itis associated with coal in the other parts of the world. This was no isolated - condition, for immediately beneath were the fragments of another tree :so situated as to show that the tree had grown and had become ‘broken off and accumulations of sand had set in over the country, the country had increased in range, and-then a new forest had :grown on top of the old one. The importance of this lies in the fact that your coal has hitherto been regarded as being, to a large -extent at least, drift coal, which from its position has been swept ‘along by moving water, and if so, your coal would be of accidental -oceurrence, not to be relied upon ; but if your coal has been under such ‘conditions as that in which I found it, under the same condition as ‘that in other parts of the world ; that is, if your forest tree has lived, 10 Professor Seeley.—Some Scientific [Sept. 16, and then fallen so as to dam back the water which led to the growth of those water-loving plants which eventually became what we call. bitumenised, then the growth of that matter gives you coal, which must be spread as far as that forest growth is to be found. Hence I have no hesitation in saying, and this is a scientific fact of some importance, we found about the coal on the horizon of which these: fossil trees occur, enormous ferns beautifully preserved, as fresh as- those we had just seen, with the details of structure perfect when first laid bare, but rapidly dissolving away when exposed to the warm temperature of a room, and we found that, in specimens brought to us from the Indwe locality they were united into a compact mass by a siliceous cement. When I tell you that in the neighbourhood of Colesberg we found forest trees mineralised with silica so that frequently there were many trees lying parallel to each other, all converted into this substance, and when I further say that the record which the farmers gave was that at afew feet beneath these trees they came across a black substance, which burnt—they had no name for it—it cannot be denied that there is a relation between. the occurrence of these trees here reserved in sandstone, and’ those trees which I have referred to in the Colesberg country, which are converted into silica. That connection establishes this fact, that over the country you will find spread a layer of coal, and near that coal vegetable matter, which did not last sufficiently long to permit of its growth to form another layer of coal,. of stronger coal, on a higher level, but the occurrence of these silicates, by their obvious character upon the surface of the country, point to the coal which grows beneath, and when we went northward,;- after having made this travel through this country up to Fraserburg, we extended our course eastward, and set to find as far as we could the northern limits of the rocks which contain the coal. We found: we had never anything to rely upon when we got away from the region which yielded our bones, and so, stopping at Aliwal North, one of the most northern points of the Colony, which borders upon the Free State, we had the good fortune to come upon one of Nature’s born naturalists,—a gentleman who has devoted his life to the study of living and fossilised reptiles, Mr. Alfred Brown—who showed us the specimens he had collected during some twenty years and took us to the locality from which they were obtained, and these reptiles proved to be several examples of those theriodont reptiles which we could only compare to the mammalia, and I have very little doubt some of them would prove to be true mammals. They possessed teeth, with all the elaborate modification of formation which we find only in the higher- ~ warm-blooded animals which suckle their young, but there were a. number of others which I feel sure are reptiles allied to the dyca» ry + 1889. | Results of a Mission to Svuth Africa. saurus. I have here something to represent at least one of these mammalian characters, and although these are new and I can there- fore give youno name for them, they served afterwards to aid us very materially in our investigations ; because, as we got on and had the pleasure of seeing specimens collected by Dr. Kannemeyer, (who has been a liberal contributor to the Cape Town Museum,) we found tha the too was upon the zone in which these mammal-like reptiles occur, and then, when we went further south still to Queen’s Town, there we found exactly the same forms as those which occur at Aliwal. We were told they came from Lady Frere, and accordingly the horses were put in, and away we went to Lady Frere, because we were told that these things occurred just below the Indwe coal-field. Now this is a point which would suggest that coal should be looked for in the country between Queen’s Town and the Orange River, and it meant that if by this means we had come upon the beds of the Indwe coal, we may very well look for the northern extension of that coal, for the beds of coal in which we found these mammal-like animals—and here I say that if science is able to furnish a grammar so to speak by means of fossils in this way, it only needs the organis- ation of these laws to prevent the waste of money by fruitless search for the treasures w.ich the earth contains, and obtain at the least possible cost the wealth with which the earth teems, to those who seek those precious results. Now having sought thus for the history of the gradations of life as they were distributed, and found that inseeking the history of life we came upon matters of practical importance in the way of coal, it became desirable to gather up, some-- what more fully than we had done hitherto, the story of the structure of the animals which had came to our hands; and when we took the - skulls of these wonderful animals which Dr. Kannemeyer had collected and we found subsequently that he had presented to the Albany Museum at Graham’s Town, we found also that, reptiles though they may be, they had lost all the distinctive characteristics in the skull of the reptilian, with one or two possible exceptions that we could not. examine into, and had acquired in other cases the character of the skull of the mammalia. Even in the form of a crocodile’s skull were those typical characters of the mammalian skull seen, which dis-- tinguish it from other types by the way in which the lower jawbone is united to the wall of the brain case by the sguumosal bone. We know that in between the sguamosal bone and the lower jaw there is a large bone called the. guadrate bone, occupying an intervening — position. In birds you find there is a bone of this kind, which fits into a cavity at the side of the skull, behind the eye, which acts perfectly freely, and which gives attachment to the lower jaw. In the reptile. 42 Professor Sceley.— Some Scientific [Sept. 16, there is exactly the same bone, and you call it, as I have said, the -quadraie bone, and when you come to these fossils of South Africa, the theriodonts which lie immediately beneath your coal, you can see no ~quadrate bone at all, because the sguwamosal bone, with which it - articulates, grows down, hides it, and obliterates it. Now if you will examine the mode of articulation in the mammal you will find there is nothing whatever between the lower jaw and the sgwamosal hone, and itis precisely the same in the fossil animals, though of totally different ~structure of skull and mode of union of the lower jaw with the skull, two distinct types of the mammal kingdom being here represented. ~The one, the theriodont, has teeth like the dog, and the other, which has two long teeth, we term the anomodontia, and these two orders of -animals are the orders which furnish the bulk of the fossil life which found spread over the Karoo rocks. Now I have spoken thus far upon the bones, and a few -of the problems connected with them, but there are yet higher beds of rocks that I have not had the opportunity of examining‘ those which contain reptiles, extending far into the northern part of the Colony and into the Free State; such, for example, vas the example in Cape Town Museum, which shows a small animal of the same family as these reptiles, but very much more on the plan of those which occur in the ¢riassic rocks of Germany and the secondary rocks generally of Europe, and although it hada tusk, I have been able by impressing a substance in which the mould reproduced the form of the bones so that the configuration of the skeleton can easily be made out ; frequently we have been obliged to adopt this method “because the bones of the animals have been dissolved, but the tusk _yields the evidence of the structure of the animal. Now when we turn from these most interesting matters concerning the history and evolution of life and the distribution of coal through the country, we have by no means exhausted those matters of interest which come ~ under our notice. One of the problems which we imposed upon -ourselves at starting was to examine upon such occurrences of gold -which came in our way, and I may mention, as the papers have already done so, that we visited Cradock, and also Barkly. Iam not going to tell you exactly what we found, because the details of the examination belong to the Government, but the scientific facts we found are the property of science, and the general principles of the occurrence of gold I may allude to, because it opens a new chapter, so far as I am aware, in the history of science. We went to Cradock -and examined a number of workings, some in the immediate neigh- bourhood, and some ata greater distance, and we found that in some -cases people were working intrusive sheets of lava, under the im- pression that they had got the gold reefs, and in other places they were 1889. | Results of a Mission to South Africa. 13 working a kind of rock quite different to the masses of prehnite in the country which occur in the curious V-shaped troughs, spread over the surface of the land. Well, these things were so extraordinary that they called for very careful examination, and we found that spread over the surface of the land in that district you have volcanic rock, and this volcanic rock has yielded on its decomposition, as a volcanic rock does, a mineral or minerals which consist essentially of decomposed felspar. All volcanic rocks are thus decomposed, and re-crystaliised in combination with a certain amount of water. Wherever the rock is. porous, this mineral has entered, with the result that you have a network and nests of occurrences of the mineral, spread through the voleanic rock. Now we are not able to give you the estimate of the quantity of this prehnite, but I may say it is a result of the decay and decomposition of the felspars in the volcanic rock spread over the. country. Ido not mean toimply that it isa type of the existing surface of the country, but what I would wish you to realise is this, that in the sea water you have at the present day sea weeds, which sea weeds separate from the sea water a grcat many mineral salts ; as. those sea weeds decay, the mineral salts are deposited on the bottom, and you may be aware of the extraordinary fact that a ship sailing through the ocean collects upon its copper bottom a deposit of gold,. which is obtained from the ocean. Well, these salts, which are separated in the sea, come to be embedded in the rock, and when, in process of time, these rocks are compressed a great depth beneath the- surface, and are raised in temperature by the compression; and « \se- quently burst away upwards through the fissures produced b. ‘he foldings, which become dykes, they are poured out as lava sheets, the lava contains the sediments from which they were formed. When, subsequently again, the land which contained these varied mineral salts comes to undergo decay and decomposition, under the effects. of the atmosphere, so that enormous thicknesses of rock are. cleared away, and nothing but heavy insoluble substance is left at the surface, it results that while many other things are washed away, the gold, if it were originally contained in the rock, is left behind. Although I am not able to tell you the probable quantity of the gold at Cradock, I may say that the gold is there, but not in the prehnite in sufficient quantity to make Cradock a rival to the Transvaal just at present. When we went into the neighbourhood of Barkly, we found something new, most interesting to us, in relation to gold ; we brought away specimens to analyse, and the analyses will eventually be placed before you, but I may now mention this, that while a great many of the layers of quartz which are commonly called reefs, which are- deposits of quartz, were found to contain gold in combinaticn with iron pyrites, most extraordinary circumstances were associated with some of 14 Professor Seeley.—Some Scientific [ Sept. 6, the intrusive sheets of lava, in which, in some instances, substantial traces of gold were found, and this led us to the thought of whether it would not be a matter of the greatest importance to survey the whole of the sheets throughout the country, so as to ascertain which -are really valuable, and capable of mineral wealth, and which are worth marking off so as to be avoided. Now our studies of gold led us to travel over a great deal -of country which was badly in want of water. I am sorry to -say that not only was the land impoverished for want of water, -as very much of the land we traversed frequently had had no rain upon its surface for something like a year, and when after this long period rain came, trequently periods approximately from threequar- “ters of a year or more would pass without rain again, yet Icould not but reflect that there were two or three things to be borne in mind in relation to the geological structure of the country. In the obser- vations which we had made much might be properly utilised by means of a geological survey of the country, which would be of greatest value. For example, wherever rocks are folded in the manner in which we found them to be folded in anticlinal and synclinal folds -over the whole of the land every basin of this sort necessarily absorbs the rain which falls upon the edges of the rock ; water, then, is stored beneath the surface, and yet there is none at all upon the surface of the land itself. The rocks beneath the surface are as full of water as they can hold, and while the cattle on the farms are dying for want of water while the land is parched up so, yet there is water in abundance beneath the surface. This is pretty well-known to every geologist -all over the world, and I may mention that the Government of Victoria, in Australia, have for a long time past made maps, in which ‘they have marked down every well which was known in the Colony, for Victoria has a climate not altogether unlike your own, as the -evaporation is greatly in excess of the rainfall, and the water under the ground has to be utilized, and so borings are made. The structure of the country makes it desirable to undertake such work, and when such a survey of this country is made, then every farmer will readily appreciate the position in which the structure of the country enables him to relieve his pressing necessities by tapping these springs. There is another source of water supply which Mr. Bain fully appreciated by observing the conditions of irrigation, which I may say he was ever alive to as we journeyed over the country, and that is the fact of these intrusive sheets of rock which you may see all all over the country, acting as a natural dam, a subterrannean dam, so that if you haveall the rocks possessing this common feature of contour, horizontally, if you have an intrusive sheet of lava making its course to ‘the east, it is perfectly clear that all the rains which fall upon these rocks 1889. | Results of a Mission to South Africa. 15 are obstructed by the sheet of lava, so that it is unable to flow down this inclined plane and all that is necessary is to find a suitable spot where this natural dam can be utilised with the view of yielding a permanent water supply for a large area of country, and without doubt it is of the highest importance that these dykes, when they hold back water, should be used in a proper and practical manner. If ‘this be done, a water supply is assured for the benefit of the country. Now there is one other matter in the way of regulation of water supply which strikes me as important, and it is this, that I have observed in England the extraordinary fact that in the early morning in winter, soon after the frozen dew drops from the trees fall upon the ground you find accumulated beneath the tree a mass of ‘material like hail, which is a measure of the quantity of moisture which the tree condensed from the air on the previous evening, and I have observed that when theair has been saturated with moisture, that the tree condenses so much that the water drains away from the tree ina continuous rill. If a tree then condenses moisture in this way, the moisture necessarily helps to saturate the rock beneath, and I take it as a fact beyond all question, after looking over various parts of the Colony, that so far as I am aware, without restriction, everywhere the farmer allows his trees to be barked, with the result that tke trees die and the whole of the moisture to the land which the trees have been in the habit of drawing, is ended from that moment. The trees no longer ‘possesses leaves which had caused the condensation of rain. The farmer is prepared to sell his trees as a matter of business, and is prepared to sell as many as seventy trees for the price of a single ssheep, the consequence being that if you take it, at this rate, in ten ‘years 700 trees have gone, and ithe moisture has gone with them. Well, the land has been destroyed in this way by the ruthless, thoughtless cutting down of trees, and unless some law to the contrary be enforced, many parts of the country will be converted into the ruinous condition in which you find it round about Colesberg, where I was told the country was formerly clothed with the wild olive, and there were so many trees you could not see a bare rock at any time, whilst now all is barren, Wherever trees are planted water will -accumulate, and once this fact is fully recognised my belief is that the public spirit of the people of the Colony wou!d enforce the planting of trees as a condition of universal prosperity. Now these are the subjects upon which I have been engaged; bones, coal, gold, and water supply, these were the four great ideas in which the observations I have made seemed to gather into a focus. JI came out seeking nothing but bones, I am now quite enthusiastic with regard to the condition and welfare of your country, and I am so far enthusiastic, that I venture to say, if this country is to prosper 16 Professor Seeley.—Some Scientific Results, etc. in the way in which I should like to see it prosper, for it is really a beautiful country, a glorious country, as anyone who has seen so much of itas I have will fully recognise, if it is to prosper inthe way in- which I believe every inhabitant of it desires it to prosper, it can only be by the more full and universal utilisation of science in the service - of man, and one of those lessons which science seems to me especially to enforce is that we have now found a means of marking down upon charts, which would become readily intelligible, a few cardinal facts of” the geological structure of the country, and these charts will mark the area over which profitable industries may be carried on, and will in the long run, be a large saving of labour and money, and lead to the initiation of new industries which depend upon the minerals which obviously lie close at hand, as consequence of the distribution of gold,_ coal and water (applause.) THE MODERN WEATHER BUREAU. By Pror. CLEVELAND ABBE, M.A. [READ WEDNESDAY, JANUARY 29TH, 1890. | “Tuis broad title may imply that Iam to give a comparative study of the various weather bureaus of the world ; but I shall to-night only have time to give some account of the Signal Service at Washington. It will be very gratifying to me if anything I may say or do shall -contribute toward the founding of a similar organisation for the prediction of wind and weather in the South African States. The study of the weather and the efforts to predict its changes are matters of most ancient and universal custom. History shows that the world has passed through several stages of weather science in its progress from barbaric ignorance to our present beginnings of a ‘rational scientific meteorology. At the present stage of this science we wholly disclaim any belief in the special influence of the stars, planets or moon. We do not believe that plants or animals can ‘furnish indications of the future weather. We have given up en- deavouring to discover recurring cycles of storms and weather. We attach no especial importance to electricity or sun spots as a means of prediction. The modern meteorologist defines climatology as the study _of averages in their relation to animal and vegetable life ; but restricts meteorology to the study of the motions and phenomena of the atmospheric air and its moisture ; this is therefore a study of the -dynamics of gases and vapours ; it requires the solution of a series of -complex problems in fluid motion and thermo-dynamics. The forces that govern the atmosphere are numerous; the principal ones that I have been accustomed to consider in my daily predictions are as follows : (1) the sun’s heat; (2) the radiation from the earth, the -air and the clouds; (8) the moisture in the air ; (4) the evaporation -from the land and water surfaces ; (5) the differences of density of jhot and cold, or of dry and moist air ; (6) the horizontal flow of air -on a spherical earth whose diurnal revolution causes the well-known deflection to the right in the Northern Hemisphere, but to the left in -the Southern, whence the equatorial and the polar depressions ; (7) the influence of continents and mountains and especially of plateaux in causing upward deflections and consequent -cooling and cloud with ‘rain; (8) the cooling of ascending expanding air up to the level of cloud formations, and the influence of condensing vapour on the subsequent history of the cloud ; (9) the less important influence of the variations of gravity with altitude and with latitude ; (10) the variations in insolation due to the diurnal and annual changes in the position. of the sun with reference to the zenith; (11) the less important conduction of heat from below the surface of the ground ; Cc 18 Professor Cleveland Abbé, M.A. [Jan. 29, but the very important convection of heat up to the surface of the. lakes and oceans ; (12) the consumption of heat in the evaporation of” water and snow. The preceding may not be a complete list of the items to be. considered, but suffices to show the complexity of the problems that- confront the student of our atmosphere; doubtless most weather- predicters attempt to avoid the laborious working out of atmospheric- laws by simply utilizing our general knowledge of atmospheric changes, especially since we have now had ten or twenty years of tudy of the weather maps and of the areas of high and low barometer ; but the foundations for a true deductive and philosophical treatment of these problems have already been laid. The motion of a storm centre is a more complex problem and presents more mathe-- matical difficulties than the motion of the moon does to the astronomer, it is in fact only capable of being handled by a mixture of analytic. and graphic methods, since no algebraic formula can represent the- irregular resistances of the earth surface so simply as can be done by graphic methods, and the same may be said of our thermo-dynamic problems for which graphic methods have also been specially devised.. The last decade has seen important additions to the ranks of those who. are studying the atmospheric problems. Iwill stop only to mention the memoirs of Sir William Thomson on the stable flow of fluids, of Helmholtz on discontinuous movements in the atmosphere, of Ober-. beck on the general currents and on the whirlwind movements ;. memoirs by Hertz and Berold on the thermo-dynamics of the atmos-. phere ; by Poincaré on the atmospheric tides due to the moon; and: even from Japan comes an elaborate paper on atmospheric motions by- Diro Kitao, President of the College of Agriculture in the University of Tokio, in which he has elaborated such views as I suppose must have been communicated by Helmholtz or Kirchoff, in their lectures to. their students. But these most recent contributions must not make. us forget the work done by the fathers of the new deductive. meteorology, and as such we must hold in high esteem two American, citizens, James P. Espy and Wm. Ferrel. Espy is frequently quoted. as the author of the centripetal theory of storms as opposed to Redfield’s circular theory, but the fact is that both of these students, were fully aware that in nature the winds blow neither directly towards nor circularly around a storm centre. It was only in the heat of a personal discussion that each was led for a moment to charac-. terise his idea of storm winds as centripetal and centrifugal respec-. tively ; meaning thereby simply that this was the most prominent feature in his mind. -Espy’s special claim to our gratitude is his clear. appreciation of the thermal processes going on in the clouds. He was, always in search of the reasons why, and it was a grat step forward. 1890. ] The Modern Weather Bureau. 19 when about 1833 he announced the latent heat evolved in the condensation of vapour into cloud and rain is the sustaining power of the storm. We owe to Espy the practical introduction in 1830 of the whirled Psychrometer, a table for use with it for obtaining dew points, the determination of approximate rate of cooling of ascending air, the correct explanation of the diurnal period in the velocity of the wind and a series of daily weather maps for the United States based onan hundred stations for over 15 years (with occasional gaps) ; a selection from these maps is published in his reports, and the whole work led him toa long series of generalizations as to the movements of storms over the United States. In this latter work he was the pioneer of the world, and to the present day no one man has, so far as I know, accomplished any greater work in meteorology. I wish I could stop to tell you more about him, for he was personally one of the most interesting figures in the annals of science. His ancestors were Huguenots who had fled to Northern Ireland and thence emigrated to Laneaster County, Pennsylvania, where their descendants held distinguished positions in public and private life; he was himself thoroughly educated in the languages and law ; he received his title “‘ professor” from being at the head of well-known academies ; first in Cumberland, Maryland, afterwards in Philadelphia. Very early in life his attention was drawn to the study of storms, and from 1817 to. 1857 he observed, studied, wrote, and lectured everywhere on this subject. Being so far in advance of his time it was natural that the ‘community should seize upon and exaggerate some features of the views maintained by him ; but his soubriquet, “ The Storm King,”’ correctly. pictures the impression he made upon all his hearers. His - enthusiasm was intense and led him to talk, write, and lecture upon his views whenever occasion offered, hoping thereby the sooner to convince his fellow-citizens that storms and weather can be predicted. In 1847 Prof. Joseph Henry, in his first report as Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, publicly came to the support of Espy, with whom he had for ten years had frequent intercourse in Philadelphia and Princeton. In 1849 Henry obtained from the Electro-Magnetic Companies the privilege of receiving at Washington daily weather telegrams free of expense, the same to be used for the purpose of studying storms and of demonstrating to the members of Congress that the weather can be predicted from day to day. This gratuitous assistance was rendered by the telegraph companies all the more readily because it was well recognised that the electro-magnetic telegraph, as it then existed, would not have been possible but for the discoveries in electric science made just previously by Prof. Henry, in his laboratory in Princeton, and which had been utilized by Morse and his assistants. Henry’s interests in meteorology now came to be c2 20 Professor Cleveland Abbé, M.A. [ Jan. 29, a prominent feature in his activity, and his lectures on the subject, which have been lately published by the Smithsonian show him to have been far in advance of most writers at that time. From 1851 to 1860 Prof. Henry maintained at Washington a daily weather map based on his morning telegrams, and he continuously used this chart as an argument for the establishment by Congress of a National Weather Service. His contract with the telegraph companies only allowed him to use his gratuitous telegrams for this and for scientific purposes, otherwise he would doubtless have made public the predictions which were frequently made at the Smithsonian for the use of Congress. ‘You must recall that in America the telegraph belongs to a private business corporation, and the latter was not willing to transmit telegrams for the general public benefit unless in some way the public should pay for it. Prof. Henry’s object was humanitarian, 7.e., to so familiarize Congress with the possibility and advantages of the system as to induce that body to establish and support a proper system for the public welfare. But our Congress generally follows rather than precedes the expressed will of the people and it delayed action until popular opinion should seem to demand it. Henry’s weather map was interrupted during our “ War for the Union” and when in 1868 I took charge of the Astronomical Obser- vatory in Cincinnati I resolved to revise the work in some such way as to make it useful both to the community at large and to science. I hhad already paid much attention to the study of atmospheric refrac- tions, and in order to perfect our knowledge, I saw that we ‘must not only understand the motions of the atmosphere but must surround the Observatory by a system of weather stations, and have the data for drawing daily maps showing the positions of the storms with reference to the astronomical observer. With the consent of the trustees of the Observatory, I presented my plans to the Chamber -of Commerce in that city, many of whose members had long been accustomed to utilize weather telegrams in their daily business. The response of this important body of business men was immediate and ‘favourable, so that on the Ist of September, 1869, I began publishing for the use of the Chamber of Commerce “THE WrEATHER BULLETIN OF THE CINCINNATI OBSERVATORY.” This bulletin gave full statistics of the condition of the atmosphere at mumerous stations from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic States, and from the Gulf of Mexico to Canada ; its observations were at 8 a.m. ‘Cincinnati time, and it was published at noon dailv. At the bottom of the sheet was a prediction, which I called ‘ Probabilities,” for the next twenty-four hours. Although the nickname “Old Prob” subse- quently followed me to Washington, yet by courtesy it has come to be mow generally given to the Chief Signal Officer, ex-officio. 1890. | The Modern Weather Bureau. 21 In the weekly bulletin of the French Association for the Advance- ment of Science, you will find a letter of mine written at this time to Leverrier offering him a daily synopsis of American weather for use in European predictions. A project that has since been realized, although of course we have not yet learned how to make the best use of American weather synopses in the predictions of European storms. While my work in Cincinnati was in the first months of its infancy, it was everywhere well spoken of by an appreciative public press as a step in the right direction. My correspondent in Milwaukce,. Prof, J.A. Lapham, not content with sending me his daily weather telegram, determined to, if possible, secure predictions for the benefit of the commerce of Lake Michigan. I had myself some months earlier presented the same subject to the Board of Trade in Chicago and also to the daily newspapers in New York, and the better success of Prof. Lapham’s efforts was largely due to the counsel of his friend, Gen. H. E. Paine, the member of Congress from Milwaukee, who, as he himself has told me, advised that the memorial prepared by Lapham for use in the West, should instead be addressed directly to Congress; he also suggested that the “ National Board of Trade,” as representing all the business interests of the country, should be asked to support the project of a National Weather Bureau for the benefit of commerce and agriculture The next meeting of this Board occurred at Richmond, Virginia, in November 1869, and on that occasion the delegates from Cincinnati united in the support of the resolutions favouring a national system that were introduced by the delegates from Milwaukee. In December, Gen. Paine submitted to our Congress, at Washington, the memorial prepared by Prof. Lapham and a “ Bill” that proposed: the establish- ment of a National Weather Service to be conducted by a high scientific authority. Immediately that this step became public, the Secretary of War authorized the Chief Signal Officer of the Army to present his views on the subject of storm and weather signals, the outcome of which was the passage on February 4, 1870, of a “Joint Resolution,” authorizing the Secretary of War “to organize a system of telegrams and reports for the benefit of commerce and agriculture.” On this comprehensive base, the Secretary authorized Gen. Myer to build up a great meteorological system, which his successors, Generals Hazen and Greely, have developed and modified until at present it constitutes a near approach to the ideal Weather Bureau, and as such invites our attention to-night. The original organization of the Signal Office is due to Gen. A. J. Myer, and it was conceived by him before 1860, but during our four years of war received its greatest development. Established as a separate corps of the army, the signalmen and officers were required 22 Professor Cleveland Abbé, M.A. | Jan. 29, to be expert in all manner of signalling, in cypher writing and de- eyphering, and in building and manipulating all forms of telegraphs. It was a very perfect organization for gathering information from all parts of the country for the use of the Commander-in-Chief. And now Gen. Myer proposed in times of peace to devote its energies to this new work of charting and predicting the weather. Every officer was at once ordered to study meteorology. Circulars were issued inviting the co-operation of scientific institutions. I recall sending him the instructions, forms, cypher-code and other material used at Cin- einnati. By the use of this cypher all needed data for amy one station could be telegraphed in five or ten short words with small chance of any troublesome telegraphic error. New Signal Service observers were especially enlisted for the weather service, and devoted their whole time to the various kinds of work that it was soon found necessary for the service to engage in. The problem as it presented itself to Gen. Myer embraced at least three main features : (1) Observa- tion and telegraphy for the formation of a weather chart at Washington, the chart to be finished within two orthree hours after the observations were taken simultaneously throughout the country. (2) The prepara- tion of prediction and ordering of storm signals. (38) The forcing of these predictions to the attention of every one interested as quickly as possible. This last, which might seem at first the most difficult, was easily arranged through the co-operation of the various Press Associations and railroad and telegraph companies. In addition to the weather the important river floods in the Ohio, Missouri and Mississippi were observed and predicted. In 1874 the scope of the Signal Service organization was greatly enlarged by the addition of the observers who had hitherto reported to the Smithsonian; these are known as the voluntary observers. About the same time also we began to receive the monthly reports of the military observers that had hitherto reported to the Surgeon-General of the Army. By means of all this new data the monthly weather review, that I had started for Gen. Myer in January 1873, and that had hitherto dealt principally with the phenomena of storms, was enlarged so as to cover the general clima- tology of the States. My own connection with the office began in January 1870, and was as J then supposed only temporary ; in a short interview with Gen. Myer, he stated that having organized the observers and the telegraphy he now wished me to cometo Washington and organize the system of probabilities and storm warnings. My first work was to chart the observations, draw in the isobars and write out the predictions for the day. These predictions began to be published by the office about the middle of February 1871 ; they owe their success largely to the fact that I was not required to predict for public use every feature of wind and weather and temperature, but only such 1890. ] The Modern Weather Bureau. ox ‘decided changes as I could foresee as highly probable ; subsequently ‘the rule was established that every feature must be predicted, and it was under this arrangement that about 85 per cent. of verifications was considered as attained. In May 1871 I compiled for the service ‘a little pamphlet entitled “‘ How to use Weather Maps.” This served ‘to show that the predictions were in no sense empiric ; but were ‘based on deductive processes of reasoning, that utilized the laws that ‘had been established up to that time by such men as Espy, Ferrel and Wm. Thomson. A few months’ experience gave me an opportunity ‘to show Gen. Myer that the proper study of the storms on the coast required the charting of additional observations from vessels at sea. Accordingly during our first year he issued a circular asking that simul- taneous observations be made on all vessels at 12°43 Greenwich time ; in September 1873 he secured from the Meteorological Congress at Vienna a vote to the effect that simultaneous obpervations throughout the whole Northern Hemisphere were desirable. T’his vote he construed as an endorsement of the requests independently made by him to every nation of the world asking for the interchange of simultaneous -observations. In 1874, such simultaneous observations began to be made by our -American Navy, and now this widespread international request was ‘very generally acceded to, so that in 1875 I had the pleasure of -organizing and editing the first issues of the “ Bulletins of Simultancous International Meteorological Observations made at 7.55 a.m. Washington time.” To this was subsequently added the corresponding daily chart for the Northern Hemisphere. Sucha chart as this constitutes the true and only sufficient basis for the study of the movements of the -atmosphere. The only serious defect of the S.S. charts of the Northern Hemisphere resulted from the fact that very few systems of ‘observation except that of the United States pay sufficient attention to the appearances and movements of the clouds, although every one recognises the fact that the clouds have a controlling influence in all -our phenomena, Both lower and upper clouds were observed with the greatest pains by myself at Cincinnati and by many of my observers ; -such observations began to be telegraphed to Washington and inserted on the manuscript tri-daily Signal Service Charts toward the close of 1871, ‘when a cipher code similar to that used at Cincinnati was adopted ‘by the Signal Office. It must be apparent to any one that the study of the clouds down to the very horizon gives one a comprehensive -knowledge of the atmospheric conditions an hundred miles away. We ‘often speak of the temperature and the wind as being very local ‘phenomena but of the barometric pressure as a more general pheno- menon. What shall we say, then, of the clouds which, as carefully observed by one man, will enable him to say whether the air currents 24 Professor Cleveland Abbé, M.A. [Jan. 29, are ascending, descending or horizontal, or whether the distant clouds are moving parallel to those near by, or whether all are moving in curved lines around distant areas of high or low pressure? Iam at present engaged in a close study of cloud movements on the Atlantic Ocean, and can safely state that without a single exception the clouds have revealed to me the presence of distant storms and the proper steering course to avoid them, and the same may be said of the minor’ changes in the direction of the wind. Your “ Yable Mountain” has afforded me many beautiful illustrations of motions in the atmosphere, such as I knew must take place, but had never before seen exemplified ; your mountains in the interior, with their accompanying great cumulus: - clouds and their overflowing cirrus-tops, have given invaluable data as to the general circulation of air on the coast of Africa. I cannot too earnestly urge upon you the observation of the growth and decay and movements of the clouds. But to return to the Signal Service. The most important step of progress taken by General Myer’s successor, General Hazen, was I think the recognition of the fact that by introducing civilian scientists- into the organization there would come a more rapid assimilation of the- nerves and best thoughts current in scientific periodicals. He therefore engaged the services of Ferrel, who had long been employed in our- ‘““ Coast and Geodetic Survey”? and of Mendenhall, who is now the Superintendent of that survey. Among the younger men he secured Messrs. Upton, Hazen, Waldo, Curtis, Marvin, and Russell, all of whom have reflected credit on the service. To General Hazen we owe the: carrying out of a plan that for many years had been near my own heart,. namely, the organization of State weather services for the study of local details. Such independent services were not in accord with General’ Myer’s policy, but their advantages were seen by General Hazen.. After the preliminary steps were taken this branch of the service was entrusted to the senior military assistant Lieutenant Dunwoody, with whom some thirty local State Weather Services are now in corres- pondence ; those have been the means of stimulating the study of meteor- ology and of rendering the Signal Service better appreciated. In 1881,. when the work of the Interrational Polar Commission needed a little stimulus, Gen. Hazen announced that the Signal Service could main-- tain two Arctic stations—an announcement that we had reason to- think decided the wavering European Governments. One of these stations was that for which General Greely had been making prepara-- tions, whose work and energy have justly claimed the admiration of all. On the death of General Hazen the President appointed General Greely as his successor. He had long been familiar with every form of Signal Service work, and the volumes published by him fully‘ attest his ability to do an enormous amount of work under most. trying, ”~? 1890. | The Modern Weuther Bureau. 25° circumstances. Under his hands the Signal Service is entering upon a new career; it has become even more decidedly a mixed military and civil organization, thereby responding to the evident desire of the people and of Congress. He has also succeeded in accomplishing a considerable reduction in the annual expenses of the office. Counting upon our long experience in the study of weather maps made up three times a day, namely, for 7 a.m., 3 p.m., and 11 p.m., he has made the experiment of diminishing the number of reports and maps, and our predictions are now based on two complete maps per day, namely, for: 8 a.m. and 3 p.m. But the history of the Signal Service will perhaps not interest you so much as an account of the preparation of the weather maps and predictions. I have exhibited upon the wall a series of the large 7 a.m. weather maps as published every day at 11 a.m., and which maps can be consulted here at any time in the archives of your Meteorological Commission. A series of such maps is a rarity even in the United States, and I hope the duplicate copies received by your Commission will stimulate some one in Cape Town to study American weather, at least as faithfully as Americans would be glad to study Cape Town weather. Our observers have their stations located in the large cities near the telegraph offices, and frequently on the tops of our’ highest buildings, so that some of them are from 100 to 150 feet above the ground. The morning observations that you see on these charts were made simultaneously at Greenwich noon, which corre-- sponds to 7 a.m. by the clocks used throughout our Atlantic States, and to 4°00 a.m. by the clocks used throughout the Pacific States, for you must know that in October, 1884, our innumerable railroads lifted from us the great burden and bugbear of “ Msran Locay Time,’” and gave to each section of the country a simple system of Standard Meridians at the successive whole hours of longitude west of Green- wich, to the great advantage of the public and the railroads. This is also a great boon to terrestial physics, since now whenever any one reports to us an observation of a meteor, an earthquake, an aurora, or a tornado, we easily find what standard time he used and the probable relation of his own to other observations. It was the hopeless im-- possibility of properly co-ordinating the observations of our voluntary observers that led me, while studying the aurora of 1874, to propose this simple system and subsequently to write the report published in the ‘* Transactions of the American Meteorological Society ” which report in the hands of the general superintendent of our railroad time service (Mr. H. A. Allen) enabled him to hopefully and successfully renew his efforts to bring about this great reform in our domestic clocks. At present the mean time of the 75th Meridian is that used in all Signal Service work and is the official standard of the Government at - 26 Professor Cleveland Abbé, M.A. [Jan. 29, Washington. In old Anglo-American law, however, the apparent ‘noon and sunrise and sunset are still legal. The simultaneous observations that arein the hands of our observers throughout the country by 10 min. after 7:00 are corrected, reduced and enciphered (five cipher words generally convey the whole message), -and are personally carried to the adjacent telegraph office, unless, as most frequently happens, there is a special telegraph line between the two offices. The lines of wire passing through successive distant stations towards the central station at Washington are for a few minutes entirely at the disposal of the Signal office, and lead into a special room in our building, where some half-dozen operators are seated ; in a few minutes (rarely more than five) all the messages have been received from stations along any one line of wire, and in from twenty to thirty minutes all may be received from the whole country, including those from Canada. The total number of stations thus heard from is usually about 150; they spread over a region of 1,800 miles north and south, by 38,000 east and west. Copies of these despatches go simultaneously to other cities where maps and predic- tions are also made, but we will confine our attention to Washington. Adjoining our telegraph room is the room for charting and predicting ; here one may see at a central desk the so-called “ translator ” to whom telegrams are brought as soon as received. He, having our cipher code committed to memory, immediately reads aloud Metcorological items. Around the room are desks for the clerks who do the charting and for a type-setter, as also for a clerk who compiles a tabular bulletin -of reports ; all listen to the translator and immediately write or chart such of the items as they individually need. Thus one charts the barometric departures and their changes ; another the temperature departures and changes ; another the clouds and their motion, the dew point and the maximum or minimum temperature ; but the principal 'map is considered to be that which shows the wind and weather. rainfall, temperature and reduced barometer. On this latter map the “predicting officer” or “ Young Prob” draws the isobars and isotherms, then makes a tracing of them and sends that to the litho- -graphic printer who is in the printing-room on the ground floor immediately beneath. Simultaneously the type-setter sends to the _lithographer a copy in transfer ink off the columns of figures you may see dn the lower right-hand portions of these morning maps. And at the same time the clerk sends a copy of the bulletin of full reports. Now the predicter without much hesitation dictates the synopsis and probabilities that you see printed in the lower left-hand portion of these maps. His dictation is not written down but is set up in type by the type-setter as fast as he cares to talk. Anda priot of this is made in transfer ink and sent down to the printing room. 1890. ] The Modern Weather Bureau. D7 In this latter room the lithographer has already prepared a supply of the blank base map. He has also a solid metallic form, of the size of this ‘map, in which are cut slots for the insertion of square type or dies. He puts in each slot the type that represents the wind and weather as you see them here printed, and prints one copy of these symbols in “transfer ink.” He then transfers this ‘symbol-print”’ to a large lithographic stone and also transfers to the same stone the isobars the isotherms, and the left and the right hand corner tables. All this work -is being carried on simultaneously by several and he is ready to print ‘the special morning map all that you see here in red on the green base map, in about 20 minutes after he receives the data from the prediction room. ‘The schedule of time was formerly about as follows for these 7 a.m. maps: observation at 7 a.m., telegraphy 8 1o 8.20, prediction finished at 9.80, map printing begun at 10 a.m. For the 8 a.m. observation now employed the time is shortened and the printing begins about 9.380. You will understand that this same routine is again gone through from 4 to 7 p.m., and again from 10 p.m. to 1 am., and it has so gone on without a single intermission for holidays or Sundays, or a single failure since January 1871, so far as maps and predictions are concerned, and since June 1871 -so far as printed maps are concerned. In answer to a question from Dr. Gill I would say that the clerks rotate in their duties, but that the same predicter must be on hand for -at least a month, when he may be relieved by another. It has been ‘found quite impracticable to have different men do the morn- ‘ing and night predictions, one person must take the entire responsibility for the time being. He lives as it were in continuous contemplation of the weather ; he comes to the study of each new weather map with a vivid remembrance of the conditions shown on the preceding _map ; the eight or twelve hour intervals do not allow him to forget any- thing, as might be the case with twenty-four hour intervals. He ‘comes to the new maps expecting to find certain changes, and if any of these have not occurred then these are the features that demand especial attention and study. The Signal predicting officers were formerly never known to the public by name, but of late years their names have been published in the Monthly Weather Review in connection with a statement of the percentages of verification. . I take pleasure in adding that Captain Robert Craig and Captain H. H. Dunwoody, who in 1872 began to alternate with meas predicters, are still engaged in the Signal -Office, in that or cognate work. Captain Dunwoody is regarded as our ‘best predicter at present. But the printing of our weather maps is merely the official record of our work and does not suffice to make our predictions practically useful to the people ; it is this latter result that is a most vital feature in the 28 Professor Cleveland Abbé, M.A. [ Jan. 29, organization of the office. Long before the maps can reach the people our predictions have been sent by telegraph to every part of the: Union ; they have been printed by enterprising newspapers, they have- been bulletined at public places, such as telegraph and railroad. ' offices and Chambers of Commerce ; by means of signals, usually flags,. the approach of storms, rain, blizzards, local and northern, have been announced ; finally, the early morning railroad trains have displayed on the sides of the luggage vans signals embodying the midnight predictions, so that any farmer watching the train as it flies by in the gray dawn is put in possession of as much knowledge of the coming, weather changes as we can send him from Washington. All this organized effort to observe, concentrate, predict, and dissem-- inate useful information about the weather employs the whole time of some 500 or 600 Government employés, and enlists the voluntary co-operation of thousands more. The expense or rather the outlay on the part of the people is not merely the one or two hundred thousand’ pounds sterling that is appropriated by Congress, but the vastly larger- sum total of all that is done by the many friends of the service, and we think there is no shadow of doubt but that every fair-minded citizen concedes that it pays him to heed the weather predictions. We have,. of course, many cases where spasmodic attention to them disappoints the farmer, the shipper, the railroad superintendent, the sea captain or others ; but opposed to these few is an innumerable majority who uphold our work and testify in the most convincing figures that health,. property, and business enterprises prosper in proportion as they study,. understand and heed the predictions. It is perfectly plausible that. this should be their conclusion, for I calculate that without our reports, one can in the United States predict the weather for the coming day for his own locality correctly about 65 times out of 100, but with the: predictions certainly 85 times; we have therefore helped him 20 per cent. towards a perfect fore-knowledge, and on the average of the year he should be 20 per cent. better off in all his affairs. Sucha gain fully justifies the expense of the signal service, and in general this percentage represents the ratio by which science enables civilised races to annually forge ahead of those nations that neglect the advantages that know- ledge offers to mankind. It does not pay to be left behind in the race of progress. I cannot close without showing you these daily maps of the weather in South Africa. I was about to prepare some such maps in order to illustrate to you the weather and clouds that I have been observing here during the last week, and was wishing for maps to illustrate your winter weather, when to my delight I made the acquaintance of one of the most per- sistent students of meteorology that is anywhere to be found, your 1890. | The Modern Weather Bureau. 29 -fellow-citizen, Mr. A. G. Howard. It has been a high privilege to me to enjoy the study of the instructive series of maps compiled by | Mr. Howard for the five years past. I show you now the volumes that he has kindly lent me, and can assure you I hope to have these published in America as an important contribution to meteorology, and one by which we in the northern hemisphere may profit almost as ~much as yourselves. Mr. Howard has rightly appreciated the recent -advances in meteorology, and in this special series of twenty large maps he has located the position of the oval. or wedge shaped area of low pressure towards which blew the heavy winds that formed your severe .storm of July 22nd, 1889. On this final chart I have drawn what -seems to me likely to have been the course of the centre of this low -area. Mr. Howard has prudently avoided locating any such hypo- thetical centre, but I myself should not hesitate to say that the winds ean be properly described as coursing toward and around a long oval -depression. We have in the States observed many such long ovals, sometimes like troughs, but which eventually close up to nearly circular storm centres. I may here caution you against a very common error, namely, that ‘low barometer makes the wind. The fact is just the reverse and the true process is as follows : When air becomes buoyant and rises, there may ‘be a slight barometric depression, but this is usually so slight as to be entirely unmeasurable. Air is so mobile that an imperceptible linear gradient sets it in motion, but once in motion the rotation of the earth -causes it to deflect a little, and immediately there is set up a vortex ‘motion ; now in all such vortex motions centrifugal force causes tke flowing air to press outward and there is a corresponding diminution -of elastic air pressure as we go towards the centre—in a storm of -small dimensions it is the rate of this diminution that the barometer measures and that we call the gradient while in larger storms the rotation of the earth introduces a further cause for the fall of the “barometer—such for instance as we see in the equatorial belt of low pressure and in the arctic and antarctic areas of low barometer. ’Thus in general the observed low pressures and the high pressure are ~the results of thé movements of the air, while those movements are themselves the results of barometric gradients that are almost in- -appreciable and have never yet been observed by meteorologists. A single experiment will illustrate my meaning. Let the water ina basin become very still and then carefully open a small hole at the -centre. So long as the water flows in straight lines towards, down and out of the aperture, you will see no appreciable dimple at the centre of its upper surface, but so soon as the slightest whirling begins, the dimple appears and very soon becomes a -funnel-shaped hole down to the bottom. This funnel is directly due to 30 Professor Cleveland Abbé, M.A. the rotation of the water, not to its flow through the hole. Just so,. a storm whirl occurs beneath a cloudy region where the buoyant clouds: are ascending, and the colder air is flowing inwards, around and upwards.. Within such a whirl the barometer measures the local pressure of the elastic gas and not simply the weight of the air above it. The rectilinear and the vortex motions, or the direct, the sinuous and’ the spiral motions of fluids, offer most important but difficult problems to the meteorologist and mathematician. When the air is moving very slowly it can easily keep on in straight lines or very gentle curves, but: so mobile is it that when moving rapidly, nothing can prevent its: twisting into innumerable vortices, as shewn in the clouds and the dustwhirls. But I was speaking of Mr. Howard, and his storm of last July. I. find that the flow of dry air from the continent into this storm area has deflected the whirl away from the dry area just as it does everywhere in the northern hemisphere. Thus on the east coasts of North America and of Asia the whirls are pushed from the dry land towards the south: and east ; on the west coast of Europe they are pushed from the dry land towards the north and west, that is to say, these are the deflec- tions from the normal or average. It is equally proper to say that the- storm centre advances or grows towards the region where the maximum: rain and snow occurs, 2.¢., towards the supply of rising moist air. Apparently the north-west wind along your west coast was overlaid last: July by a dry north-east, and the latter had little moisture wherewith to feed this whirl of last July, so it deflects to the south passed east of Agulhas, and then moved north-eastward. But you need stations further north, and possibly I have not fully appreciated all the forces at work in this storm, so that Mr. Howard’ may yet prove to have the more correct view. All that I would insist on- to-night is, that storms and weather can be satisfactorily predicted twenty-four hours in advance by the proper use of the telegraph, that such predictions or even vaguer ones are far better than to have none: at all, and that through Mr. Howard’s knowledge you can in South Africa have as good a weather service as you are willing to pay for. CLEVELAND ABBE. SOME ADAPTIONS OF SOUTH AFRICAN PLANTS TO THE CLIMATE. By R. Mariotn, Pu. D., M.A. [READ WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 26TH, 1890.] Every living thing must be fitted to its environments or else it will cease to exist. This truth is so obvious with regard to animals that it hardly needs illustration. The fish is adapted to its life in the water as the bird to the air, and many peculiarities or special adaptions in the organisation of certain animals are regarded with interest even by the general public. Few people, on the other hand, are aware that the vegetable kingdom illustrates the same law in no smaller degree, and that it does so is not surprising to us. While the animal is free to move about and to seek its shelter, the plant, which is also a living thing, . has to endure the extremes of the climate on the spot where fate has placed it, and no life, whether animal or vegetable, is possible without water. It is not only the principal constituent of the sap of plants, and hence indispensable to all juicy parts, but during the growth of ~ plants it is also necessary for the production of organic substance. - The greatest part of the result of assimilation, whether it be finally turned into cellulose, starch or sugar, consists of carbohydrates, com- - pounds whieh in respect of their percentage composition are carbon plus water, the former derived from the air, the latter from the ground. - In regions with permanently moist soil or sub-soil, the plants require no special adaptions to secure the necessary amount of water. In. localities, however, where the supply is irregular, only ‘such vegetation can exist as is capable of surviving the drought. The means of” resistance against the danger of dying by thirst are manifold, and it has been one of the greatest charms of my travels in South Africa to- study the vegetation with regard to this question. ‘There is a large number of plants which have adopted the method: of the badger ; they produce their leaves, grow and accumulate organic - substaace during the rainy season and retire into the ground when it is. over. Some of them also flower at the same time, thus accomplishing - their yearly life. Others, concentrating at ‘the period of rain all their - energy on the formation of material, leave the display of their beauty for some later time when everything around them is dry and dead, To the former class belong most of our Gladioli, lovely Irideae, . Amaryllidese, Liliaceae, Oxalides and Orchids, which turn our- so-called winter into a most beautiful spring—at least to the visitor from northern EKurope—and these are principally the plants which have gained for the Cape the designation of “ the paradise of flowers.” ~ nel R. Marloth, Ph.D., M.A.—Some Adaptions [| Feb. 26, The number of representatives of the second class is somewhat _smaller, but among them are some especially noteworthy. The _Amaryllis Belladonna, several species of Haemanthus and Bruns- vigia are most remarkable for the size of their flowers or inflorescences as well as of their bulbs. ‘They are usually called early flowerers, because it is thought that their blossoms, which appear towards the .end of summer, belong to the leaves produced during the following winter, while it actually is the second stage of the plant’s life, just as the European Colchicum autumnale (meadow’s saffron) blossoms in - October and November, hiding the fertilized ovary deep in the ground during the winter, and developing the fruit only in the following spring. This explains why it is useless to dig out a flowering Amaryllis bulb for the purpose of sending it to Europe with the expectation that it should blossom again during the summer. It has nad no time to form its vegetative organs and to store up the material necessary for the production of the flower. Several handsome orchids, which are in blossom just now, belong to this group, namely the blue Disa graminifolia and the bright scarlet Disa ferruginea, both bear- ing their flowers on a reed-like stem, the leaves having died at the beginning of the summer. ( There are a good many more very interesting questions connected with these bulbous plants ; for instance, the various arrangements by means of which the bulbs and tubers are protected against the pressure of tbe hard ground, contracting during the dry season. This point, however, must now be left undiscussed, as it is necessary to pass over to that part of the vegetation which does not disappear at the end of - the rainy season. Leaving aside the annuals which die off altogether and spring up - again from seeds as soon as rain has fallen, we have to mention those . shrubby plants which meet the difficulty by tactics similar to those of the bulbs. They put forth their leaves only during the season which guarantees them a satisfactory supply of water, shedding them after- wards and passing the rest of the year in a dormant state. The _eelebrated Testudinaria Elephantipes is a plant of this description , whose wooden trunk resembles an immense tuber from which the thin trailing twigs spring only during the rainy season. Then there are . several shrubby Pelargoniums and their nearest ally, the Sarcocaulon (the candlebush), which during the dry time of the year show only bare sticks, but when the rain happens to fall, it puts forth leaves and bears hendsome flowers. The Cape Peninsula does not possess many . such plants ; very naturally they are more frequently found in the dryer parts of the colony, like the Karoo, Namaqualand, &c. One shrub of this group is also largely used here for hedges, namely, a /yciwm, the . so-called Wolf’s doorn. I remember full well the impression these 1890. ] of South African Plants to the Climate, 38 _ shrubs made upon me on my arrival here. It was the middle of summer, they were then bare, utterly devoid of leaves or fruit, and to all appearance quite dead ; but, a few months later, they presented a very different appearance with their green leaves and red berries, This was the first observation which demonstrated to me the fact that, at least in this part of South Africa, the season of rest for the veget= ation is not the winter, but the summer. Thus far those plants have been discussed which avoid the hardships of the dry season by a judicious retreat ; let us now turn to those which face the enemy bravely. Before doing so, however, allow me to remind you of a few facts connected with the physiology of plants. The organs that absorb the water are the roots. Thence it passes into the stem, branches and leaves. The leaves and other green parts of plants are the organs which assimilate, that is to say, which prepare organic substance from the carbonic acid of the air, the water and other materials taken up by the roots. They inhale the carbonic acid and exhale the oxygen through the stomata, the so-called breathing pores. This latter name is not well chosen, and I think that itis partlv responsible for the popular idea, according to which the leaves are considered as the lungs of the plant, while they are in reality its stomach and organs of digestion. Quite independent of assimilationis respiration. The breathing process goes on continually not only in the leaves, but throughout the whole plant. During the exchange of gases liberated by these processes some water also necessarily evaporates. Little or nothing of this vapour can be lost during its passage through the stem, but during the necessary ventilation through the proper outlets, the stomata, the water vapour also escapes ; besides this, if not prevented by special means, there is also the evaporation of water through the epidermis of the leaves.. Hence it is necessary for the leaf to regulate its rate of evaporation according to the supply and to reduce it toa minimum during the dry season. Plants not exposed to very trying conditions are enabled to do this ‘by the automatically-acting mechanism of the stomata, for these little slits close when the tissue of the leaf loses too much water, and open again when the supply is sufficient. With plants, however, of dry localities, or plants which have to last through periods of drought, other and more efficient means to check the loss of water or to secure a sufficient supply are necessary. _ The variety of arrangements for this purpose is very great. In the following description they are arranged in seven groups. I need hardly add that the formation of these groups is quite arbitrary and simply a matter of convenience. D 3 84 R. Marloth, Ph.D., M.A.—Some Adaptions _[Feb, 26, 1. The evaporating surface is considerably reduced, either by transferring the function of the leaves to green stems or by developing only leaves of small size or narrow forms. The former case is represented by the genus Stapelia, several species of Euphorbia and the imported Opuntia (prickly pear) ; the latter by the heaths with their needle-shaped leaves: In fact, South Africa is exceedingly rich in plants of this group. The order Bruniaceae and the genus Phylica, which, with the exception of a few members of the latter genus, are peculiar to this country, have such leaves, and there are a great many composites and others which resemble them e.g, ; Metalasia, Stoebe, Helichrysum, Passerina. 2. The surface of the leaves is impregnated with substances impermeable to water, so that the loss can occur only through the stomata. For this purpose either cork, wax or silica is used. By the word cork in this instance is meant the suberine, which changes the ordinary cellulose of the outer wall of the epidermis cells into the special layer called cuticula. This cuticula is often very thick e.g.; the