AGR1C. LIBRARY INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR TROPICAL AGRICULTURE (L'ASSOCIATION SCIENTIFIQUE INTERNATIONALE D'AGRONOMIE COLONIALE ET TROPICALE) Transactions of the Third International Congress of Tropical Agriculture HELD AT THK IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, LONDON, S.W. JUNE 23RD TO 30TH, 1914 Papers communicated to the Congress VOL. I Xonfcon JOHN BALE, SONS & DANIELSSON, LTD. OXFORD HOUSE 83-91, GREAT TITCHFIELD STREET, OXFORD STREET, W. 1915 AGR1C. LIBRARY PREFACE. THE volume of Proceedings of the Third International Congress of Tropical Agriculture (London : John Bale, Sons and Danielsson), which has been published separately, includes the President's Address, abstracts of the principal papers prepared by the authors, and full reports of the discussions which followed the reading of the papers submitted to the Congress. The present volume of Transactions contains the first in- stalment of the papers communicated to the Congress, the remainder of which will be published in a second volume. The difficulties of the present international situation, which arose a few weeks after the conclusion of the Congress in July, 1914, are chiefly responsible for the absence from these Transactions of a few papers communicated to the Congress. The papers contributed by the Portuguese Section of the International Association for Tropical Agriculture are not included, as they have been printed separately (Imprimerie " A Editora Limitada," Largo do Conde Barao, 50, Lisbonne), and distributed to members of the Congress. The papers from Portugal relating to the subjects included in the present volume, which have already been issued, are as follows: — " Rapport sur le Credit agricole dans les Colonies portugaises." Par Henrique Jose Monteiro de Men- donca, Jose Dionisio C. de Sousa e Faro, et Ernesto Jardim de Vilhena. " Contribution pour 1'Etude des Cotons des Colonies portugaises." Par le Professeur C. de Mello Geraldes. " Projet pour I'Etablissement d'une Methode ration- nelle pour la Determination de la Valeur commerciale des Textiles." Par le Professeur C. de Mello Geraldes. " Contribution pour 1'Etude des Plantations de Caoutchoutieres a Angola." Par le Professeur C. de Mello Geraldes. CONTENTS. PAGE PREFACE ... iii TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE. TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE. By Gerald C. Dudgeon, F.E.S i ON AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION AND ITS ADJUSTMENT TO THE NEEDS OF STUDENTS. By Francis Watts, C.M.G., D.Sc., F.I.C. ... 7 GLI STUDI DI AGRICOLTURA COLONIALE IN ITALIA E L'OPERA DELL' ISTITUTO AGRICOLO COLONIALE ITALIANO. Per il Dott. Gino Bartolommei-Gioli 21 THE NECESSITY OF ESTABLISHING A BRITISH AGRI- CULTURAL COLLEGE IN THE WESTERN HEMI- SPHERE. By Harold Hamel Smith 30 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN THE PUNJAB : A NOTE ON Six YEARS' EXPERIENCE IN TEACHING AGRI- CULTURAL SCIENCE IN NORTHERN INDIA. By J. H. Barnes, B.Sc., F.I.C., F.C.S 40 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN THE GOLD COAST. By W, H. Patterson 50 VI CONTENTS THE ORGANIZATION OF AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS IN RELATION TO RESEARCH. THE ORGANIZATION OF AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS IN RELATION TO RESEARCH WORK. By Bernard Coventry, C.I.E ••• 57 THE ORGANIZATION OF AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS IN RELATION TO RESEARCH WORK. By Gerald C. Dudgeon, F.E.S 63 ORGANIZZAZIONE DEI SERVIZI AGRARI IN TRIPOLI- TANIA. Per il Professore E. de Cillis 69 ORGANIZATION OF RESEARCH WORK FOR TROPICAL AGRICULTURE. By Dr. C. J. J. van Hall ... 74 SANITATION AND HYGIENE ON TROPICAL ESTATES. NOTES ON TROPICAL HYGIENE AND PLANTATION WORK AND THE ANTI-MALARIAL CAMPAIGN IN THE FEDERATED MALAY STATES. By C. L. Sansom, F.R.C.S.Ed., M.R.C.S.Eng., D.P.H. Dublin, and F. D. Evans, A.M.Inst.C.E. ... 83 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT BANKS AND CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES. AGRICULTURAL CREDIT BANKS AND CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES. By Sir James Douie, K. C.S.I. ... 95 THE WORKING OF CREDIT BANKS IN THE NETHER- LANDS EAST INDIES. By H. Carpentier Alting 109 CONTENTS Vll LEGISLATION AGAINST PLANT DISEASES AND PESTS. THE PHYTOPATHOLOGICAL CONVENTION OF ROME AND ITS RELATION TO TROPICAL AGRICULTURE. By A. G. L. Rogers ... 125 COTTON. THE WORK OF THE BRITISH COTTON GROWING ASSOCIATION. By J. Arthur Hutton 133 THE WORLD'S DEMAND FOR COTTON, AND INDIA'S SHARE IN MEETING IT. By Arno Schmidt ... 163 A NOTE ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF COTTON IN BRITISH INDIA. By G. A. Gammie, F.L.S. ... 181 THE INTRODUCTION OF AMERICAN COTTON INTO SIND PROVINCE, INDIA. By G. S. Henderson ... 216 PROBLEMS IN CONNECTION WITH COTTON CULTIVA- TION IN EGYPT. By Gerald C. Dudgeon, F.E.S. 222 COTTON CULTIVATION IN UGANDA. By Samuel Simp- son, B.Sc 234 COTTON POSSIBILITIES IN ITALIAN SOMALILAND AND JUBALAND (BRITISH EAST AFRICA). By Dr. R. Onor 240 LA COLTIVAZIONE DEL COTO'NE E L'ALLEVAMENTO DEL BESTIAME NELLA SOMALIA ITALIANA MERIDIONALE. Per il Dott. Giuseppe Scassellati-Sforzolini ... 246 ALCUNI ASPETTI DELLA COTONICOLTURA NELL'ERITERA. Per il Dott. Guido Mangano 265 V1I1 CONTENTS LA COLTIVAZIONE DEL COTONE NELLA COLONIA ERITREA. Per Gino Lavelli de Capitani ... 279 THE COTTON INDUSTRY OF THE NORTHERN PRO- VINCES OF NIGERIA. By P. H. Lamb 289 THE PRODUCTION OF FINE SEA ISLAND COTTON IN THE WEST INDIES, WITH PARTICULAR REFER- ENCE TO THE ST. VINCENT INDUSTRY. By W. N. Sands, F.L.S 298 THE COTTON INDUSTRY OF THE LEEWARD ISLANDS COLONY. By H. A. Tempany, B.Sc., F.I.C., F.C.S. ... 315 BOMWOLLBAU IN DEUTSCHEN KOLONIEN. Von Moritz Schanz 332 LA CULTURE EXPERIMENTALE DU COTON EGYPTIEN EN GRECE. Par C. Phoca Cosmetato 346 THE IMPROVEMENT OF COTTON BY SELECTION. By J. Stewart J. McCall, P.A.S.I., C.D.A.Glas. ... 351 COMMERCE AND SCIENCE IN COTTON GROWING. By J. W. McConnell ; .„ , ... 361 SUR LES OSCILLATIONS DES ATTRIBUTS HEREDI- TAIRES ET LA RESULTANTS DES EQUILIBRES CON- STATEES SUR LE COTON EGYPTIEN. Par Nicolas Parachimonas ... ... ... ... ... 370 FLOWER-BUD AND BOLL SHEDDING OF COTTON IN THE ILORIN PROVINCE, NIGERIA. By Thomas Thornton, A.R.C.S. 379 CONTENTS ix PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH THE NEW EGYPTIAN COTTON PEST, GELECHIA GOSSYPIELLA, SAUNDERS, THE PINK BOLL WORM. By L. H. Gough, Ph.D., F.E.S 385 THE BOLL WORM IN EGYPT. By Gerald C. Dudgeon, F.E.S.; with an appendix on Rhogas Kitcheneri, by L. H. Gough, Ph.D., F.E.S. ... 399 NOTE PRELIMINAIRE SUR LES SELS NUISIBLES ET LE COTONNIER EN EGYPTE. Par Victor M. Mosseri 435 NOTE PRELIMINAIRE SUR LES ENGRAIS CHIMIQUES DANS LA CULTURE DU COTONNIER EN EGYPTE. Par Victor M. Mosseri 469 THE COST OF LABOUR AS AFFECTING THE COTTON CROP (ESPECIALLY IN THE UNITED STATES). By Professor John A. Todd, B.L 493 FIBRES. FIBRE INDUSTRY OF BRITISH EAST AFRICA. By A. Wigglesworth 503 JUTE AND ITS SUBSTITUTES. By R. S. Finlow ... 518 THE FIBRE INDUSTRY IN MAURITIUS. By F. A. Stockdale, M.A., F.L.S. ... 546 THE PRESENT POSITION AND PROSPECTS OF FIBRE CULTIVATION IN THE GERMAN COLONIES. By Dr. W. F. Bruck 56° FIBRES OF THE NETHERLAND EAST INDIES. By the Department of Agriculture, Industry and Com- merce, Buitenzorg, Java 574 X CONTENTS RESULTI DI ACCLIMAZIONE BELLA AGAVE RIGIDA VAR. SISALANA IN SiciLiA. Per il Professore Calce- donio Tropea • •• 59° RUBBER. THE CULTIVATION OF HEVEA BRASILIENSIS IN UGANDA. By Samuel Simpson, B.Sc. ... ... 594 DISEASES OF HEVEA IN CEYLON. By T. Fetch, B.A., B.Sc ... 596 ON SOME ANIMAL PESTS OF THE HEVEA RUBBER TREE. By E. Ernest Green, F.E.S., F.Z.S. ... 608 TERMES GESTROI AS A PEST OF THE PARA RUBBER TREE. By H. C. Pratt 637 THE PRINCIPLES OF HEVEA TAPPING, AS DETERMINED BY EXPERIMENT. By T. Fetch, B.A., B.Sc. ... 641 THE PREPARATION OF PLANTATION PARA RUBBER. By B. J. Eaton, F.I.C., F.C.S 652 SPOTTINGS IN PLANTATION RUBBER DUE TO FUNGI. By A. Sharpies, A.R.C.S., D.I.C 679 CEARA RUBBER CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE IN SOUTHERN INDIA. By R. D. Anstead, M.A. ... 688 THE CULTIVATION OF MANIHOT GLAZIOVII IN UGANDA. By Samuel Simpson, B.Sc. ... ... 697 AUGMENTATION DU RENDEMENT DU FUNTUMIA ELASTICA AU CONGO BELGE PAR LA METHODS SPARANO. Par A. Gisseleire 699 CONTENTS XI THE METHODS OF TAPPING CULTIVATED CASTILLOA TREES, AND THE YIELD OF RUBBER THEREFROM. By Professor P. Carmody, F.I.C., F.C.S. ... 702 THE METHODS OF TAPPING CASTILLOA RUBBER TREES IN MEXICO, AND THE YlELD OF RUBBER WHICH THE TREES FURNISH. By Ashmore Russan ... 704 KAUTSCHUK-ANBAU IN DEN DEUTSCHEN KOLONIEN. Von Dr. Fritz Frank 713 NECESSITE POUR L'!NDUSTRIE DU CAOUTCHOUC DE LA DETERMINATION PRECISE AU LABORATOIRE DE LA VALEUR RESPECTIVE DES CAOUTCHOUCS. Par M. Lamy-Torrilhon ... 720 CONTRIBUTION A LA CONNAISSANCE DU MECANISME DE LA COAGULATION DE CERTAINS LATEX CAOUT- CHOUCIFERES. Par MM. F. Heim et R. Marquis 723 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE, TECHNICAL EDUCATION! IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE. By GERALD C. DUDGEON, F.E.S. Consulting Agriculturist, Ministry of Agriculture, Egypt; Vice-President, International Association for Tropical Agriculture. THE rapid extension of plantations in the British tropical dependencies, exploited by capital subscribed to a large extent in the Mother Country, has rendered com- petition in the markets for the products of such planta- tions so keen that the most skilled supervision of the latter is now demanded. Carefully reasoned and scientific principles require to be substituted for the crude rule-of- thumb methods which have amply served their purpose in the past, but which are quite inadequate for ensuring success in the future. Proprietors of tropical plantations from time to time seek for new candidates, to fill the subordinate posts of plantation assistants, who shall have acquired even an elementary knowledge of the subject with which they would have to deal; but instead, they are obliged to be satisfied with the engagement of young men who have obtained a diploma of agriculture at an English college or with those who have relinquished plantation work elsewhere. In the case of the former it often happens that after having been put to the trouble of training them the most promising among them are quickly appreciated by the owners of neighbouring plantations and they cannot be retained by their original trainers. In the case of the latter it is obvious that in many instances the result I m%? 2 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE must be unsatisfactory, discard's being chiefly made from weakness. Although the larger number of men trained in tropical agriculture are required for plantation work, the necessity for others similarly qualified for employment in Govern- ment Agricultural Departments is becoming more acute each year. The value which is attached to the establish- ment of a Government Department of Agriculture is entirely commensurate with the position of authority upon agricultural subjects which its officers are enabled to take up. In the United States the Government were suffi- ciently far-sighted to recognize that the welfare of the country largely depended upon the adoption by agricul- turists of the most perfected method of dealing with every agricultural problem. Agricultural colleges are found in every part of the country, and the instruction given them is of a practical as well as of a scientific nature, extending to sub-tropical, at least, as well as temperate zone requirements. Besides turning out a number of diplomaed graduates each year, the nation is in a position to select trained men with the highest attain- ments for employment in the Government Service. The United States Department of Agriculture is thereby in a position to give an authoritative reply to any inquiry respecting the treatment of crops, and is looked to to provide from time to time the best advice upon the subject. Owing to the fact that our only training colleges in agriculture for English youths are situated in a temperate climate and that the curriculum is narrowed to the local requirements of such a climate, it is rare to find a Govern- ment official in the British Colonies and Dependencies who can advise with regard to tropical plantation work, or who can do more than point to the errors, due to prejudice, committed by an ignorant native population. A few Departments have advanced sufficiently far to be able to give advice on questions of economic entomology, chemistry, or botanical science; but, although such is the case in India and Ceylon, I should be surprised to learn that there was any official in the employment of the Indian Government qualified to give advice to planters concern- TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 3 ing the cultivation or preparation for the market of even the most important exported plantation product, namely, tea. This should not be the case, but must remain so until a more advanced and applicable system of instruction is established whereby student's may become qualified in all branches of tropical plantation agriculture or be enabled to specialize in any. Until about eight or nine years ago, the posts provided in the Agricultural Service of the British East and West African Colonies and Protectorates were filled from Kew, apparently upon the vague supposition that, as a Kew gardener was associated with the growing of tropical plants under artificial conditions, he was qualified to advise upon tropical agriculture. More recently graduates from the Universities or students with diplomas from the British Agricultural Colleges were sent to study under the Agricultural Department in Ceylon under a scheme initiated by the Director of the Imperial Institute in London. The benefits which accrued from the practical demonstration given to those sent to Ceylon emphasized the urgency of the establishment of a superior college of tropical agriculture. The value of the British agricultural diploma must not be too lightly regarded; for, although it is based on studies conducted under temperate conditions, it must be remembered that these form an excellent basis for the student to work upon. The qualification for entry into a superior college of tropical agriculture in the tropics might include the possession of a diploma from Great Britain. The course in tropical agriculture must neces- sarily be of a more highly technical character than that required for the British diploma. It is practically impossible that a satisfactory course of training can be given except in the tropics themselves, and it therefore becomes necessary to determine the best centre or centres for the establishment of the colleges. The course in tropical agriculture should be so arranged that students may specialize in the study of plantation work adapted to the country in which they contemplate obtaining employment. It is also essential, as somewhat different conditions obtain, and special crops are cultivated 4 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE in each country, that, wherever the college be situated, undue attention should not be given to the local needs. It has been suggested that two colleges shall be founded, one in the West and the other in the East Indies; but, although the course of training would be similar in each, the relative value of each branch of instruction must vary in accordance with the requirements of the zones to which each college is intended to contribute trained men. The West Indian College should undertake the training for the whole of the West India Islands and British Guiana, for which there need hardly be any great diversity in the course; but the college having its centre in the East Indies would be obliged to deal with a much greater number of subjects. From the latter college students might be required to qualify in the special agricultural and plantation methods employed in India, Ceylon, Malay States, Borneo, East, Central, and West Africa, and the Sudan. It has been suggested that Ceylon offers the most suitable site for the Eastern College, and there are, indeed, many advantages in support of this selection. It is assumed that, as every British Colony or Protectorate would stand to gain by the establishment of a superior tropical agri- cultural college, contributions towards the foundation of the same would be made by each Colony, supplemented by one from the Imperial Government. Associations and mercantile firms having interests in plantations in the tropics would also be expected to contribute. In the event of Ceylon being chosen in these circumstances as the site of the college, special care would have to be taken not to allow the teaching of subjects specially adapted to the requirements of students in training for posts in Ceylon itself to be laid down in the curriculum so as to exclude or supersede those which might be necessary for India or Africa. In comparing the important plantation products from the countries which would be included in the Eastern College zone, it will be readily seen that there is consider- able variation : — CEYLON.— Tea, rubber, cinchona, coffee, cocoa, and copra. TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 5 MALAY STATES. — Rubber, tapioca. INDIA. — Tea, coffee, cinchona, cotton, sugar, indigo, tobacco, and jute. AFRICAN COLONIES. — Cotton, oil seeds, cocoa, coffee, rubber (of several kinds), kola. In connection with the college there should be a demon- stration plantation of a sufficiently large extent to enable a practical study being made of the habits and methods of cultivation employed with respect to all the above-named crops, but in order to obtain a diploma the student might only be required to qualify in tea, rubber, cocoa, and cotton, with another selected subject. The chemical, entomological, and botanical sides of all the products dealt with should be made a compulsory part of the training for the diploma course, and facilities should be given for students to specialize in any of these subjects. The preparation or manufacture of such of the products as require it should form part of the instruction, and the working of the necessary machines should be demon- strated. The different modes of cultivation or prepara- tion of the same product in different countries is a point of importance; the cultivation of tea, for example, varies considerably in Assam, Darjeeling, Punjab, and Ceylon. Accepting the fact that the majority of students in the tropical college would be candidates for posts upon rubber, tea, cotton, cocoa, or coffee plantations, where a large number of labourers are retained for the working of the estate, it is necessary to consider what subjects, in addition to those directly associated with the cultivation, scientific treatment, and preparation of these plantation products, are useful, if not essential, to obtain the best results. Among these, surveying, building construction, the erection of machinery, sanitary arrangement of labourers' dwellings, uses of simple medicines, first treatment of epidemics, and book-keeping are of import- ance. In the few agricultural schools in existence, as, for instance, those in South Africa, some of the sub-tropical plantation products are studied in the school course, and demonstration farms are employed to assist in the 0 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE instruction given. In India, also, students in agricultural chemistry and entomology are trained at Pusa. Never- theless, there is at present no systematic instruction in agriculture obtainable which is capable of producing scientifically trained men for employment upon the more important plantations of the tropics or for Government service in the tropical Colonies and Dependencies. ON AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION AND ITS ADJUSTMENT TO THE NEEDS OF STUDENTS. By FRANCIS WATTS, C.M.G., D.Sc., F.I.C. Commissioner of Agriculture for the West Indies. THE very varied aspects and the great range of subjects embraced by the designation " agricultural education " make it difficult to formulate clear views on the subject and tend to some confusion of ideas, nor are the difficulties lessened if consideration is given to the tropical aspects of agricultural education. In the latter case attention has to be given to a range of conditions, of crops, and of climates that may become bewildering. In much that has been said concerning agricultural education, want of precision has resulted from omission to consider carefully what class of pupil is to be trained under each particular scheme and what he is to be trained for; it may, therefore, be worth while to endeavour to obtain a clear idea of the status of certain pupils and their requirements. In what follows regard is mainly given to agriculture in its tropical aspects, and chiefly as exemplified in certain West Indian Colonies. Beginning with the most elementary grades, con- sideration may be given to the scholars in elementary schools. Both the critics and the well-wishers of this class are often unduly disposed to urge an extremely utilitarian method of training for these pupils, having in view, perhaps unconsciously, something in the nature of a technical school, and looking for results such as may be expected from technical training. Obviously, this seems unfair alike to teacher and scholar; all that can be expected at this stage is an elementary familiarity with the most striking facts of agricultural life in such phases as will be presented to these elementary scholars when they leave school. They may well be taught elementary facts about plant and animal life, about the manner in 8 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE which seeds germinate and plants grow, and the funda- mental relationships of plants to the soil and air. They may also be trained in certain simple operations, such as the sowing of seeds, the propagation of plants by cuttings, and perhaps such operations as budding and grafting, and these exercises may — and it is very desirable that they should — extend to simple operations conducted in a school garden, where the pupils may learn something concerning the handling of soil, the arrangements neces- sary for the cultivation of simple crops, probably principally of culinary vegetables, and of the various incidents requiring the attention of the cultivator in order to bring these crops to maturity, such matters as water- ing and the protection of the crop from insect pests, all of which, if judiciously handled by the teacher, afford rich stores of material of educational value, and enable, even in simple minds, an appreciation to be arrived at of the fundamental facts in the life of a peasant. More than this it does not seem necessary to look for or expect; indeed, if it is carefully looked at, it will be seen that it really embraces a wide range, having regard to the child mind, and, what is more, it admits of being- carried into effect in practically every agricultural district, and so demands no educational revolution or upheaval. This is, perhaps, as far as it is necessary to go in connection with the elementary school, and as far as is necessary in the case of the average child who is destined to become an agricultural labourer. Should it be desired to afford training of a somewhat more advanced and technical character, some institution other than the elementary school must be looked to. It must be remembered that the numbers who are to receive this more advanced training will be very much smaller than those attending the elementary schools, and that the pupils so trained will stand out above the ordinary agricultural labourer, and will look for minor positions of trust carrying higher rates of wages than those of agricultural labourers. A system of training in some institution where work is carried on for other than educational purposes seems best calculated to meet the requirements of this class. TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 9 The system may approximate to one of apprenticeship, though the use of this term, particularly in some of the West Indian Colonies, has connotations rendering it undesirable. In most Colonies there are botanic gardens and agricultural experiment stations where there is a con- siderable amount of routine work, much of which is capable of being done by agricultural pupils drafted from the elementary schools. The work carried on in these institutions necessarily has a close connection with the agriculture of the neighbourhood, so that pupils can be trained in work that has real association with the local agricultural industries, and they may be trained to acquire a fair perception of the needs of these industries. Their training may consist chiefly in carrying out routine opera- tions and in learning to perform these intelligently and dexterously. In order to minimize the danger of these pupils drifting down and being regarded merely as labourers, as well as to increase their usefulness, it is necessary that they receive a certain amount of theoretical instruction in addition to their acquiring manual dexterity in agricultural operations. This may be accomplished by giving an hour's class instruction daily, or perhaps preferably, by devoting one day a week to this form of instruction. The instruction so given should be calculated to afford an insight into the reasons underlying the operations of a practical character in which they are engaged. It is desirable that pupils of this class should receive a small monetary payment by way of subsistence allowance ; the amount must be regulated by local conditions, it should increase progressively, say, half yearly, and the acquirement of the increment should be contingent on diligent work and good behaviour. It is undesirable that these pupils should be boarded and fed at the institution where they are trained; they and their parents or guardians should make arrangements for their living under conditions having the approval of the authorities responsible for their training. These conditions will much more closely approximate to those in which the pupils find themselves on faking up wage- 10 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE earning work, while the acquiring of ability to look after their own affairs in the matter of food and clothing is training of considerable value, which is lost if the pupils are boarded and fed by the educational authority. Further valuable training, too, is acquired in that the pupils gain a knowledge of the manner of governing their conduct out of working hours, they find out how to obtain reason- able recreation, and acquire a sense of individual responsi- bility beyond what can be attained under a system of boarding together with its consequent rules and regula- tions. On leaving the institution where they have been trained in order to take up wage-earning employment the change in the manner of living is less violent, and the individual has useful experience to guide him. Such a course of training should suffice to produce the higher grades of labourers and the types of head men who find so large a place in tropical agriculture, men who can work with their hands or, in subordinate capacities, supervise the work of others. This perhaps suffices for the training of the scholars from elementary schools. It is now necessary to consider the facilities to be offered to those who go through the secondary schools. These cases present greater com- plexity, and in consequence require even more careful planning, combined with an effort to see clearly the position of each class of individual in the general economy. Experience makes it clear that it is the duty, and that it is within the capacity of secondary schools of the grammar school type situated in agricultural districts, to afford its pupils instruction in the general principles of the sciences fundamental to agriculture, such as elementary biology, chemistry, and physics, in addition to a good sound general education, which should include the general subjects that may be classed as English, elementary mathematics, one classic, and one modern language. This instruction in science is the least that can be done, and it should be insisted on by all who are responsible for educational schemes in agricultural districts. In some cases this will constitute all the special training a youth obtains; he simply drifts into wage-earning employment, TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE II and picks up his technical training as he goes along. What is to be done in the tropics to improve upon this is a matter presenting some difficulty. In some Colonies it is possible to afford much useful training by using the botanic and agricultural experi- ment stations as training ground for youths from the secondary schools, just as it is possible to use them for training pupils from the elementary schools. In some West Indian Colonies where this scheme is in operation the term "cadet" is employed to indicate the student from the secondary school, the term " agricultural pupil " being reserved for the boy from the elementary school; it will be found in practice that distinctions such as this have their value. During the first year of a cadet's training he should remain closely associated with the secondary school, and should continue to attend such science classes as may be considered most likely to be useful to him; the remainder of each working day should be occupied in connection with the practical work of the botanic and experiment stations. The situation of botanic and experiment stations near populous centres usually minimizes the difficulties attendant upon this divided course of work. For the first year of his training, at least, a cadet should be regarded as within the jurisdiction of the school for purposes of discipline. The kind of training a cadet may receive will depend upon the nature of the work of the botanic and agricul- tural experiment stations of any given district, and this in turn will be determined by the nature of the agriculture of the surrounding district. This has its advantages, for the cadet will thus find his work and training approxi- mating closely to the requirements of the district in which he is placed and in which he may probably have to seek employment; and, further, this amount of specialization permits of a cadet being able to spend some time in more than one institution, and so acquiring, if necessary, a wide range of agricultural experience. The chain of botanic and experiment stations established throughout the West Indies offers unusually good facilities for study and training, of which advantage is being taken. 12 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE The training of a cadet embraces the acquiring of some acquaintance with the manner in which the routine office work of the institution in which he is placed is conducted. He learns how correspondence is conducted and records are kept, and participates in this work. He acquires a knowledge of the various agricultural and horticultural operations carried on at the institution, and attains some skill in the practical carrying of them out; as his 'experi- ence increases he is placed in charge of minor operations, and gradually advances to the supervision of labourers and to responsibilities of a higher order; he also takes part in the experiments and investigations which are undertaken by the institution, and learns to appreciate their bearing on the agricultural problems of the district, at the same time learning the value of that accuracy and honesty of purpose which is vital to proper work of investigation. Such training is calculated to produce in the cadet that right attitude of mind which is the aim and end of train- ing, and which, when engrafted, results in the cadet having acquired such habits of thinking, reading, and observing that his education is life-long, and he becomes a progressive and useful member of the agricultural community. The nature of his training affords him opportunities for remaining closely in touch with the workers of the botanic and experiment stations and with the work and publications of these and kindred institutions, whereby a life-long form of education may, and does, result. The length of time a cadet should remain under train- ing is often determined by personal considerations, but if possible it should extend to two years, and in some cases, as explained below, opportunities for extending the training may usefully be given. It is desirable that the cadet should receive some small sum of money weekly; while this may be regarded rather as a subsistence allowance than wages, it has useful effects in more than one direction ; it is extremely useful in that it familiarizes the youth with the handling of small sums of money for his personal use, whereby he learns some- thing of the value and limitations of money, and it also adds to his self-respect, for there is no doubt that every TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 13 right-minded lad feels justifiable pride in his first earnings. Besides, the granting or withholding of small increments affords his tutors some tangible means of expressing approbation or disapproval as circumstances may demand. A very useful purpose may be served by arranging that the cadetship of any particular place may be regarded in the light of scholarships awarded by the secondary schools of the district. It is important to maintain the intimate association between the school and the cadetship, and to insist on the continuity of the training; a system of cadet scholarships tends to ensure this. The effort has been made in some institutions, with a certain degree of success, to afford opportunities for more extended practical training to some of the cadets by filling certain minor posts in the institution by means of cadets who are allowed to hold these posts for limited periods only, and who, at the expiration of the specified time, are required to vacate them in order to make room for others. Occasionally a vacancy may occur on the permanent staff to which a cadet may be promoted. The training of youths in local institutions like the botanic and agricultural experiment stations is of value to parents in that the expense of the training is likely to be quite moderate and within their means, as frequently the cadet can live with his parents or relatives; it is also of advantage to employers, for the work and progress of the cadets may be kept under observation, and promising youths may be chosen to fill vacancies that arise locally. In all of this there is little doubt as to the kind of youth to be trained or the nature of the work for which he is being trained. The cadet is taken to be a youth who has had a good grammar school or secondary school training, which includes some science subjects such as biology, chemistry, and physics, which subjects he con- tinues to study, if possible in his old classes, for a year or so during his cadetship; he is being trained in order that he may take up work on an estate or plantation in a position of minor responsibility, with the intention of rising to positions of increased responsibility, and ultimately of complete management or control as time and circumstances permit. It is to be observed that the systems of education so 14 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE far described are in successful operation in various West Indian Colonies; in some instances it may be suggested that the work is proceeding so unostentatiously and quietly that the authorities are hardly aware that they are in possession of fairly complete and, perhaps, moderately adequate systems of agricultural education, which would be of still more service to the Colonies if they received greater official recognition. It is abun- dantly clear to thoughtful minds that the quiet work of the Departments of Agriculture in the advocating, and in some cases providing, agricultural education in the West Indies has already had a far-reaching effect that will be felt for some time, and this perhaps to an extent not generally recognized. In order to make provision for those engaged in agriculture who have passed the school age and are engaged in practical, wage-earning work, the Imperial Department of Agriculture for the West Indies instituted in 1908 a series of reading courses and examinations in practical agriculture. The reading courses that are recommended cover the general ground of planting experience, and are calculated to maintain both a scientific and practical economic interest in the work of estates or plantations covering the wide range of tropical crops. Lectures and courses of instruction are frequently arranged by the officers of Agricultural Departments, in order to assist students who are following the reading courses and preparing for examination. The examinations are divided into three grades : Pre- liminary, intermediate, and final, with three classes in each grade. Except in the case of the preliminary, it is an essential condition for admission to examination that the candidate has been practically engaged in the form of agriculture for which he submits himself for examination ; mere book work or class instruction is held to be insufficient to qualify for admission.1 1 Interesting information in this connection may be obtained from the following references in the Agricultural News : Vol. viii, pp. 90, 341, 365, 381 ; vol. ix, pp. 375, 381 ; vol. x, pp. 29, 31, 45 ; vol. »i, pp. 13, 29, 45, 61, 365, 381, 3Q7, 401, 413; vol. xii, pp. 13, 29; vol. xiii, pp. 13, 29, 45, 61. TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 15 It may be briefly stated that the three grades of the Imperial Department of Agriculture examinations are made to correspond to the three grades in practical planting life. The preliminary examination is arranged to ensure in its successful candidates the amount of know- ledge that may be reasonably expected in a youth leaving a secondary school to undertake the first steps in an agricultural career. The intermediate implies such know- ledge, both in extent and kind, as may be reasonably expected of the young man who has had some practical experience in the more or less subordinate posts of over- seer or " book-keeper," as these employes are technically termed in the West Indies, implying a good all-round knowledge of the routine work of an estate. The final examination is planned on lines calculated to inquire into the knowledge and capacity of a man capable of being entrusted with the management of an estate, who is capable of looking at agricultural questions in a somewhat broad spirit extending beyond the acquaintance with matters of estate routine. A first-class final certificate is intended to indicate a good sound knowledge of estate routine and practice (which would be indicated by the possession of the intermediate certificate), coupled with a wide outlook on agricultural affairs with some ability to deal with the more difficult abstract problems of agricul- tural management, all acquired in connection with prac- tical (wage-earning) experience. The Imperial Department of Agriculture system has been independently followed, with some modifications by the local Agricultural Departments of some West Indian Colonies which hold examinations and issue their own certificates. The form of education just sketched may suffice for the needs of many who take up agriculture as their life's work. There remains, however, to be considered that higher form of training which may be given in an agricul- tural college. It is to be expected that the training to be given in an agricultural college will be of a more academic character than that outlined under the cadet system, but this is not without its dangers, so that it is desirable there should l6 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE be more rigorous and clear thinking as to the aims and ends of this training than appears commonly to exist. It is to be remembered that agriculture in its daily practice is an art rather than a science, though it makes liberal and increasing use of various sciences. There is, therefore, a danger in imagining that a knowledge of agriculture to suffice for earning a livelihood may be acquired by learning the sciences on which agriculture is based. A little thought will show that this is fallacious; this erroneous idea lies at the root of the objection of the working farmer or planter to the college trained youth, and it may be admitted that in not very remote times this objection was well founded, for agricultural colleges were, in many instances, deficient in the means of teaching the art of agriculture while equipped to teach its underlying sciences. Another point requires careful setting out, namely, that not all who attend agricultural colleges contemplate the full practice of agriculture — that is, the raising and selling of crops — as their means of livelihood; many students look to the following of limited lines of work as specialists, either as agricultural chemists, entomologists, plant pathologists, and so forth. It is clear that these need different training from those who are destined to become the actual practising farmers or planters; in the former case the knowledge of certain sciences is all- important, requiring to be coupled with a less perfect proficiency in the arts of agriculture; in the latter the art, or arts, of agriculture are all-important, the sciences merely accessory. In order that the agricultural college may adequately teach, even in a limited degree, the arts of agriculture, it is essential that the college shall be associated with something in the nature of a farm or experiment station where the actual agricultural operations of the district are carried on; unless these operations are conducted on a fairly large scale and, indeed, in almost any case, the knowledge to be gained will lack fulness and complete- ness, so that the student of an agricultural college will benefit by spending some time upon a farm or plantation, in addition to his work at the college. TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE I/ The advantages offered to the student of an agricultural college over those afforded to the cadet lie rather in the wider scope of general education than in advantages in learning the art of agriculture; they imply that the agricultural college student has larger resources in the way of time and money, which he can afford to spend in acquiring his training. On completing his training, it is conceivable that the agricultural student from the college may be less mature than the cadet; he will, however, have had a wider education, and may be expected to be able finally to advance to higher responsibilities than the cadet. In affording training for the agricultural specialist the agricultural college may be expected to achieve success, for the requirements of the specialist may, to a large extent, be taught in class-rooms and laboratories, aided by such surroundings in the way of trial plots or experi- mental stations as may be expected at a college. But even in this work it is essential to have access to agricul- tural matters in their broad practical aspects, for it will be necessary to study the practical bearing of the various scientific matters in which expert knowledge is acquired and to which it is to be applied. It is clear, then, that agricultural colleges, in order to be successful and to discharge their varied functions in the way of educating for subsequent broad training Ihe youths who are to become farmers and planters, and in order to afford adequate training for agricultural scientists, must be planned on very broad and generous lines. They must be sufficiently large to warrant the existence of competent and diversified staffs of teachers, each of whom is thoroughly equipped to deal with his special subject, and they must be in possession of, or associated with, a considerable area of land on which the staple agricultural industries of the country are carried on on a commercial scale. These points imply that there must be a comparatively large number of students in order to justify the expenditure in providing the equip- ment for their training, and there must also be assured a demand for the services of the varied classes of students turned out by the college. 2 1 8 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE Having these considerations in view, it is evident that it will be inexpedient to attempt to establish agricultural colleges in small communities or in places where com- munication is in any way restricted; such institutions must, for success, be placed in prominent centres of thought and agricultural effort. It would be of immense advantage if an agricultural college could be associated with an institution devoted to the work of agricultural research; indeed, agricultural research would be the vital stimulus of a healthy, active group of men charged with the duties of educating along- various lines the students already referred to. In planning an agricultural college, therefore, it will be of great service if the fundamental ideas can be so enlarged as to include both for the professional staff as well as for the advanced students the definitely considered duty of research. In the minds of many who seek the aid of scientific experts in agricultural subjects there exists, in a more or less pronounced degree, the idea that knowledge concerning most of the operations and requirements of the farm or plantation is fairly full and complete, and that a competent adviser should be able, with comparatively little effort, to give at short notice a satisfactory answer to most inquiries presented to him; it is little realized how scientific knowledge has grown in the last half century, and how in this growing knowledge wider vistas of the unknown and unexplored have come into view. Only those who are working and teaching along the lines of the forefront of agricultural knowledge fully recognize how much there is now that demands investigation and experiment for elucidation. An institute of agricultural research appears to such perhaps to be more of a necessity than an agricultural college, but it is also clear to them, and perhaps to the majority, that an institute of agricultural research would be the ideal organization on which to engraft agricultural teaching. A further useful association on the part of an agricul- tural college, particularly for purposes of teaching and training, is an intimate connection with a Department of Agriculture of the kind now to be found in many colonies. The work of a Department of Agriculture brings it into TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 19 intimate connection with the agriculture of a district in all that concerns general development and progress, as well as in connection with the work of combating and controlling pests and diseases. By the intimate associa- tion of an agricultural college with an Agricultural Department it will be possible for advanced students to be afforded opportunities of studying real practical problems, and of taking part in real live work connected with the subjects of their special study. With such an association it will be possible also on occasion to place particular pieces of work in the hands of advanced students, whereby under adequate guidance they may acquire and exercise responsibility and originality in an extended degree not readily obtainable in the narrower confines of the college. It is unnecessary here to attempt to do more than indicate in the briefest outline the equipment required in an agricultural college, which one may now think of as including or being based on an institute of agricultural research. Obviously, this must include an adequate professional staff capable of teaching and investigating in regard to chemistry, physics, botany, mycology, zoology, entomology, veterinary science, agriculture, and horti- culture, and also the work involved in the specific industries coming within the scope of the college, such as, for example, in connection with tropical agriculture, the cultivation and preparation of such products as sugar, cacao, tea, coffee, spices, rubber, starches, fibres, fruit, and a host of others. In conclusion, it may be stringently urged upon all those giving consideration to the providing of agricultural education that they carefully bear in mind the capabilities and needs of the many classes of students, ranging from the agricultural labourer to the scientific expert dealing with only a limited range of subjects, and that in putting forward any scheme of agricultural education they should both ask themselves and answer the questions : What is the aim and object of the training offered? What class of person is it designed for? And what kind of life-work (wage-earning work) is he to be expected to undertake when he has received the training proposed? 2O TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE Further, it is essential to distinguish between those who have in their life's work to regard agriculture as an art, as a thing to be done, and those who have to pay regard to the sciences underlying the agricultural arts, and, what is of great importance, to distinguish between those — the majority — who have to acquire familiarity with the arts of agriculture, but who have the opportunity and the desire to extend their education by learning much of the sciences on which these arts are based, without it being incumbent upon them to practise these sciences in their abstract form, and those who are destined to deal with the sciences fundamental to agriculture, but who have only an indirect concern in the agricultural arts themselves. To the former the sciences are accessory and in the nature of true education; to the latter they are fundamental and the ground of their life's work. Clear appreciation of this fundamental distinction will prevent the tendency to offer the budding farmer or planter fragments of science and to lead him to think that a knowledge of these constitutes his training. It will also lead to the practical farmer or planter's under- standing and appreciating the scope of the work of the scientific experts, whether chemist, mycologist, entomo- logist, or what not, and to his intelligently and appro- priately seeking their aid. It is worth noting, in conclusion, that advantage has been taken by several students for the purposes of post- graduate study of the facilities afforded by the Imperial Department of Agriculture for the West Indies working in association with various local governments and pro- prietors of factories and plantations. Five University graduates have received assistance in entomological studies. One student followed a two years' course of study in sugar production under the direction of the Imperial Commissioner of Agriculture in connection with a travelling scholarship awarded by the Government of India, and one graduate from Cambridge is following a course of study in practical agriculture. GLI STUDI DI AGRICOLTURA COLONIALE IN ITALIA E L'OPERA DELL'ISTITUTO AGRICOLO COLONIALE ITALIANO. Per il Dott. GINO BARTOLOMMEI-GIOLI. Direttore dell' Istituto Agricolo Coloniale Italiano. L'INTERESSAMENTO pubblico per le questioni agrarie coloniali, e piu specialmente dei tecnici e degli scienziati pei vasti e nuovi problemi deirAgricoltura Coloniale, di data assai recente in Italia onde e facile a chiunque segnalarne il risveglio e il successive promettente pro- gresso. I primi acquisti territoriali ajfricani misero in evidenza la nostra insufficiente preparazione ad affrontare 1'opera di messa in valore dei nuovi territori e persuasero alcuni studiosi della necessita di rivolgere le loro indagini a cosi nuovi problemi. Talche possiamo dire che ad ogni ulteriore accrescimento del nostro impero coloniale, tenne dietro una benaugurante fioritura di pregevoli contributi scientifici in questo ramo della moderna agricoltura. E' vero che 1'Italia, gia prima di possedere colonie proprie, aveva largamente contribuito con la sua gente a costituire su territori stranieri important! centri di colonizzazione rurale, ma e anche vero che la natura della nostra emigrazione, eminentemente proletaria, le difficolta che avrebbe dovuto superare chiunque si fosse dedicate a siffatti studi tecnici scientifici in paesi stranieri, e, quello che piu conta, molto distant! dal nostro, non valsero a decidere gli studiosi italiani a dedicarsi risoluta- mente alle questioni agrarie coloniali. E se oggi pure i problemi tecnici ed economici del colonizzamento agricolo, che ci si presentano fuori dei territori di diretto dominio, attraggono Tattenzione degli scienziati italiani, cio e dovuto principalmente al cresciuto ed ancora crescente interessamento offerto dalle questioni attimenti ai nostri possedimenti coloniali. Infatti i nostri studiosi di cose agrarie ricevettero i primi •efficaci incitamenti ad affrontare i problemi 22 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE colonial! quando, or non e molto, una piu esatta cognizione dei compiti da assolvere nelle nostre colonie territorial! allargo le basi della coscienza coloniale italiana. E poiche e compito di questa breve memoria di far conoscere quello che in Italia si e fatto negli ultimi anni per promuovere, indirizzare e disciplinare la coltura agraria coloniale, cosi tralasceremo di menzionare alcune istituzioni che contribuirono in varia misura ad orientare la nostra attivita scientifica verso le indagini coloniali, tanto piu che della loro opera sara reso conto in questo con- vegno internazionale. Parimente ci asterremo dal riferire sull'attivita sperimentale spiegata in Eritrea, Somalia e Tripolitania e sugli studi preliminari che ne determinarono Tindirizzo, la scarsita dello spazio imponendoci di re- stringere la nostra trattazione al solo Istituto metro- politano che, obbedendo alle necessita dimostratesi nella nostra azione coloniale nel campo agricolo, ha voluto e saputo in un tempo breve costituirsi quale unico centro della coltura agraria coloniale fra noi. Dandogli vita, i suoi promotori hanno voluto creare un nuovo centro della coltura italiana, scientificamente e tecnicamente inteso alia risoluzione dei piu important! problem! coloniali e cioe di tutti quell! che si prefiggono una piu precisa conoscenza della messa in valore dei territori extra- europei, ove 1'Italia ha o potra avere interessi politici ed economici. * ^ * * Fino dal 1904 si iniziarono gli studi e si presero i primi accord! per la fondazione di un Istituto Agricolo Coloniale Italiano che doveva proporsi gli scopi seguenti : di funzionare come centro di informazioni, di consulenza e di propaganda per quello che riguarda TAgricoltura, la Zootecnia e le risorse naturali delle colonie politiche ed etniche; di preparare personale tecnico, sia direttivo, sia subalterno, per le imprese agricole e zootecniche coloniali; d'integrare Topera dei servizi agrari sperimentali governa- tivi delle nostre colonie territoriali; di introdurre in Italia nuove pratiche agrarie e zootecniche, nonche piante ed animal! da allevamento da paesi extra-europei, e studiare colture o allevamenti gia introdotti e non abbastanza sperimentati, capaci di arricchire la nostra produzione. TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 23 agricola e zootecnica, ed infine di stabilire le relazioni con istituzioni stromiere per gli opportuni scambi di materiale e di notizie e per far figurare degnamente anche all'estero il nostro paese in questo campo di studi. Una parte di cosi vasto programma pote ricevere pratica attuazione nel 1906, e nel 1908 Tlstituto Agricolo Coloniale Italiano entro nella fase della sua piena attivita funzionale. Oggi 1'Istit.uto Agricolo Coloniale Italiano esplica tin crescente lavoro in ciascuno degli organi che lo costituiscono e cio merce il concorso finanziario di enti governativi e locali, con Tappoggio di varie istituzioni cittadine, valendosi del ricco materiale dimostrativo, didattico, scientifico, rac- colto nel suo museo di prodotti agrari, nella sua biblioteca, nei suoi laboratori, nelle serre, mediante un personale non da oggi soltanto preparato alle indagini coloniali, ma bensi allenato da lunghi studi e da un tirocinio fatto in paesi coloniali. A questo punto, innanzi di riferire circa Tattivita esplicata dall'Istituto, giova rilevare alcune fortunate circostanze che indubbiamente influirono sul suo for- tunato sviluppo. E fra queste la posizione geografica di Firenze, ma piu ancora le sue ricche e gloriose tradizioni scientifiche ed agricole, il fiorirvi gia di istituzioni che tanta affinita hanno con quella di cui parliamo. Infatti la collaborazione, che sino dai primi giorni le accordarono disinteressata ed intera alcune istituzioni locali, resero possibile all'Istituto di affermarsi solidamente, malgrado modesti contributi di una suppellettile scientifica che sarebbe stata scarsa, ove a sopperire a tale deficienza iniziale non avessero contribuito largamente gli istituti agrari e botanici, i musei, le biblioteche, i laboratori onde e ricca Firenze. E fra queste istituzioni benemerite deb- bono essere principalmente nominate : la R. Scuola di Pomologia, Frutticultura e Giardinaggio, il R. Istituto Botanico, la R. Stazione di Entomologia Agraria che tuttavia continuano a contribuire all'azione dell'Istituo nel campo pratico e scientifico. Ed ora alcune parole circa Tazione da esso svolta e che puo riconnettersi a tre funzioni principali : didattica, dt 24 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE propaganda e di consulenza, pure dipendendo da esse special! organi ed uffici. L'azione didattica si esplica mediante : (a) Una scuote teorico-pratica di agricoltura coloniale; (b) un Corso Superiore di Agricoltura Coloniale; (c) un Corso superiore di Medicina Veterinaria Tropicale. L'insegnamento del Corso teorico-pratico si svolge in due anni di cui il primo e preparatorio; al prime anno sono ammessi i licenziati delle Scuole Pratiche di Agricol- tura, menfre al secondo (complementare) sono ammessi, oltre i giovani che hanno frequentato con esito favorevole quello preparatorio, i licenziati delle Sezioni di Agrimen- sura, Agronomia e Agricoltura dei R. Istituti tecnici € i licenziati dai Corsi Superior! delle R. Scuole special! o da altri Istituti Italiani od esteri di carattere superiore. Le varie materie d'insegnamento sono le seguenti : — i° Corso. — Agronomia coloniale, Botanica generate, Scienze natural! applicate all' Agricoltura, Matematica applicata (con esercizi di topografia, estimo e contabilita), Meteorologia e Geografia coloniale, Lingua francese. 2° Corso. — Agricoltura comparata e coloniale, Geo- grafia botanica, Fitografia e Patologia delle piante colonial!, Tecnologia chimico agraria coloniale, Economia e Tecnica delle aziende agrarie coloniali, Geo- grafia economica, Legislazione e Storia delle Colonie, Zootecnia coloniale, Igiene coloniale, Entomologia agraria coloniale, Lingua francese, Lingue estere (Inglese, Spagnola, Araba, a scelta). Per accordi presi gli allievi compiono il loro tirocinio pratico nella vasta azienda orticola della R. Scuola di Orticoltura, Pomologia e Giardinaggio, nonche nelle ampie serre dell'Istituto. I Corsi teorici sono avvalorati da numerose esercita- zioni nel Museo, nel Laboratorio, nella Biblioteca ed integrate da un viaggio di studio eseguito mediante un Campo mobile e da gite d'istruzione. Una Stazion-e meteorologica serve ad addestrare gli allievi nelle determinazioni riflettenti la climatologia agraria. Inoltre, per completare il tirocinio pratico dei licenziati nel luogo stesso ove intendono di esercitare il loro ufiicio TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 25 di agenti agrari coloniali, accordi sono stati presi e si continuano a prendere con Istituzioni Agrarie Speri- mentali e private aziende delle nostre Colonie e di paesi di immigrazione per far loro acquistare la completa cono- scenza del nuovo ambiente agricolo sociale ed economico.1 II Corso Superiore di Agricoltura Coloniale, della durata di 2 a 4 mesi, e tenuto principalmente a laureati in Scienze Agrarie per diffondere. lo studio delle questioni agrarie coloniali fira quelli che, dal loro titolo di studi, sono gia designati a dirigere le sorti della produzione agricola nazionale ; ma puo essere utilnrente frequentato> anche da laureati in Ingegneria, in Scienze Naturali, in Farmacia, in Zooiatria e in Scienze Commerciali. Le materie svolte durante il primo corso di insegnamento sono le seguenti : — Geografia coloniale, Geografia botanica, Meteoro- logia agraria coloniale, Colture coloniali, Tecnologia coloniale, Zootecnia colo^niale, Economia agraria coloniale e Cenni di Ingegneria coloniale, Storia delle Colonie, Economia e Legislazione coloniale, Profilas.si delle malattie infettive coloniali deH'uomo e del bestiame. Durante lo svolgimento del Corso in quest'anno, e stato pure tenuto un ciclo di lezioni sull'Argentina agricola e una serie di conferenze da personalita coloniali italiane per illustrare le nostre colonie politiche e di popolamento.2 II Corso di Medicina Veterinaria Tropicale e tenuto ogni anno ai laureati in Zooiatria allo scopo di far cono- scere la Eziologia e la Patologia della maggior parte delle infezioni e per illustrare le malattie tropicali e sub- 1 II numero degli allievi iscritti fino al 6° anno dall'apertura del Corso Teorico-Pratico fu di g8 di cui 53 licenziati. A 22 di questi 1'Istituto ha procurato un decoroso collocamento fuori d'ltalia (Argentina, Australia, Brasile, Eritrea, Montenegro, Singapore, Somalia Italiana, Texas, Niassaland, Africa Orien- tale Tedesca, ecc.) gli altri adempiono o dovranno presto adem- piere agli obblighi di leva, o >hanno trovato impiego in Italia ; di alcuni e imminente il collocamento. 2 Si iscrissero al i° Corso di Insegnamento N° 36 laureati e uditori. Alia fine del Corso hanno conseguito il diploma, in seguito ad un esame collegiale, N° 22 laureati e I'attestato di frequenza N° 2 uditori. 26 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE tropicali degli animal! domestic! nei riguardi specialmente di una razionale profilassi. Le materie d'insegnamento del Corso sono le seguenti : Geografia coloniale, Zootecnia coloniale, Entomologia veterinaria coloniale, Patologia tropicale, Igiene veteri- naria tropicale, Esercitazioni pratiche di Batteriologia e di Clinica.3 * * * * Seconda per importanza e la funzione di propaganda esercitata dairistituto. A questa collaborano i suoi principali organi ed il personale tutto a seconda delle proprie competenze. Ma se il Museo, la Biblioteca, le raccolte di materials dimostrativo, insieme a speciali cicli di conferenze sopra determinati argomenti che interessano i problemi coloniali, valgono a risvegliare in coloro che frequentano 1'Istituto il gusto per cosi nuovo ordine di studi, ancora piu attiva e 1 'opera di divulgazione che 1'Istituto stesso svolge presso un piu grande pubblico a vantaggio delle question! agricole coloniali per mezzo di alcune sue speciali pubblicazioni. La Rivista " L'Agricoltura Coloniale " organo del- 1'Istituto e dei Servizi Agrari dell'Eritrea, della Somalia Italiana e della Tripolitania e entrata col 1914 nel suo VIII anno di vita; si pubblica in fascicoli mensili di 60 a 80 pagine riccamente illustrati e contiene monografie e memorie scientifiche, note pratiche «d articoli di pro- paganda, un abbondante notiziario, numerose note biblio- grafiche e gli atti dell'Istituto. La Rivista si vale di corrispondenti tecnici all'Estero e di collaboratori in Italia scelti fra le persone piu com- petent!. Mancando 1'Italia di una letteratura agraria coloniale, Tlstituto dirige la pubblicazione di due serie di opere, una sotto il titolo di " Biblioteca Agrarfa Coloniale " di cui sono gia usciti 10 volumi e due sono attualmente in Corso di stampa; Taltra intitolata " Relazioni e Mono- grafie Agrarie Coloniali " di cui sono stati pubblicati due 3 Durante 1'anno igi2 frequentarono il Corso N° 24 laureati e n-ell'anno igis n. 18. In seguito ad un esame collegiale otten- nero il diploma N° 42 laureati in Zooiatria. TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 2.J volumi. L'Istituto ha altresi iniziato la pubblicazione di brevi guide pratiche per 1'emigrante agricoltore. Ne cio basta, poiche da questa azione di propaganda si puo far dipendere un altro importante servizio esercitato con fortuna dall'Istituto. Vogliamo dire del Servizio Agrario sperimentale. Con esso 1'Istituto ha gia incominciato lo studio sperimentale di piante nuove o poco studiate nella nostra agricoltura, ha provveduto ad introdurre nuove razze di animali domestici in Italia ed a diffondere pratiche agrarie, che hanno avuto grande successo aU'Estero. Esempi di questa attivita sono specialmente le riccrche sperimentali di cotonicoltura nel mezzogiorno d'ltalia e nelle isole, eseguite per incarico del Ministero di Agricoltura, le prove colturali di numerosi foraggi propri dei paesi aridi, Timportazione di ovini karakul in Sardegna per migliorare le razze indigene, 1'aver contribuito all'introduzione di riproduttori zebu per prove di acclimatazione e di incrocio nel nostro paese, la pubblicazione di note critiche e mono- grafie descrittive sui piu noti metodi di " ar id o- col turn " e sugli studi che in materia vengono eseguiti nelle diverse regioni deir Africa, deH'America, dell'Australia, ecc. Connessa intimamente alia funzione di propaganda e quella di consulenza che costittiisce uno dei piu im- portanti servizi a cui abbia dato vita 1'Istituto. Essa si esplico attivamente fino da principio, personalmente e per corrispondenza, e si svolge in modo speciale con pareri, esami di progetti tecnici, provvista di materiale diversi per privati e per Enti governativi Italiani della metropoli, e delle colonie nostre e dell'estero (Governi delle Indie Inglesi e Olandesi, del British East Africa Protectorate, Deutsche Ost Afrika, Tunisia, Messico, Egitto, Francia, Spagna, ecc). II numero dei corrispondenti con cui 1'Istituto fu in relazione per consulenza tecnica, informa- zioni e commissioni e rilevantissimo. Sempre in ordine a questa funzione, e per sua iniziativa e il piu delle volte su richiesta di Enti governativi o di imprese private, 1'Istituto ha provveduto e partecipato con personale proprio o anche valendosi di tecnici e scienziati adatti allo 28 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE scopo, e da esso non dipendenti, all'organizzazione di important! missioni di studio compiute tanto nelle nostre Colonie quanto in quelle di altre nazioni.1 4 Fra le missioni di studio sono da annoverarsi le seguenti : — (1) La Missione del Dott. Guido Mangano nella Somalia Italiana, nel British East Africa, Deutsche Ost Afrika, e Zanzibar come addetto tecnico dell'On. Leopoldo Franchetti (Marzo- Luglio iQo8). (2) Missione di studio eseguita pure dal Dott. Guido Mangano nell'India, Ceylon, Penisola di Malacca, Giava, Eritrea, Egitto (Agosto igo8 — Marzo 1909). (3) Missione di studio del Dott. Guido Mangano nelle prin- cipali istituzioni agrarie coloniali della Francia, Belgio, Olanda, Germania (Giugno igio). (4) Viaggio di studio del Dott. Guido Mangano per visitare le Tripolitania e Cirenaica per incarico della Societa per lo Studio della Libia (Giugno 10.12). (5) Missione di studio del Dott. Dino Taruffi nelPAngola per incarico del Sindacato Italiano per Imprese nelPAfrica Occi- dentale (Agosto-Dicembre igi2). (6) Missione di studio dell'On. Prof. Carlo Pucci, Proff. Manetti e Pampanini nel Gebel Tripolino come tecnici della Missione Franchetti della Societa per lo Studio della Libia (Febbraio-Giugno igis). (7) Missione di studio dei Proff. G. Stefanini e G. Paoli per indagini geo-idrologiche e naturalistiche nella Somalia Meri- dionale per conto del Governo della Somalia Italiana (Aprile- Dicembre igi3). (8) Missione di studio del Dott. Guido Mangano in Eritrea per conto della Societa per la Coltivazione del Cotone (Ottobre igi3-Gennaio igi4). Tali Missioni oltre a contribuire all'allenamento del personale, giovano ad arricchire notevolmente la suppellettile scientifica dell'Istituto e le sue pubblicazioni. L'Istituto Agricolo Colo'niale Italiano ha dotato inoltre le seguenti missioni di istruzioni e di materiale scientifico per la raccolta di prodoitti e di notizie agrarie : Missione dei Dott. Scassellati e Mazzocchi nella Somalia Meridionale. Missione del Maggiore Tancredi al Lago Tsana. Missione del Cap. Citerni nell'Etiopia Meridionale. Missione della Societa Italiana per lo Studio della Libia in Tunisia e nella Tripolitania. Missione del Col. Miani nel Fezzan. Ha pure prestato assist- enza a numerosi viaggiatori ed esploratori che per ragioni di studio o di commercio, hanno compiuto viaggi nei paesi coloniali. TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 2Q La brevita dello spazio non ci consente di dare risalto ad altre secondarie attivita delFIstituto, e nemmeno ci permette un' adeguata descrizione degli organi da cui emanano queste diverse attivita. Ma pur volendo tacere di altre numerose iniziative prese dal nostro sodalizio in breve volgere di tempo, giova ricordare 1'aiuto che 1'Istituto presto alia Societa Italiana per lo Studio della Libia che sino dal suo nascere assiste con 1'opera e col consiglio del suo personale tecnico nella esecuzione di quella parte del suo programma di studio che rientra nella nostra funzione di consulenza. Parimente dobbiamo rammentare che la Direzione deiristituto nel 1910, essendo stata incaricata dal Mini- stero di Agricoltura, Industria e Commercio di rappre- sentare 1' Italia e di promuovere la partecipazione al Congresso di Agronomia Tropicale a Bruxelles, di- simpegno il compito assuntosi facendo figurare degna- mente gli studiosi italiani in quella riunione scientifica. Ne a questo punto e fuor di luogo il ricordare che in seguito a sua iniziativa 1'Istituto, aderendo alle reiterate insistenze deirAssociazione Scientifica Internazionale di Agronomia Coloniale, addivenne alia costituzione della Sessio-ne Italiana deirAssociazione stessa : ognuno com- prende con quale vantaggio per la stabilita e rintimita dei rapporti scientifici fra i nostri studiosi e quelli degli altri paesi coloniali. Ond' e per noi ragione di legittimo orgoglio e di intima soddisfazione poter oggi fare udire in seno alle solenni riunioni di questo Convegno Internazionale la voce dell'Italia recante il suo primo contribute in questo nuovo ordine di studi, al quale soltanto da pochi anni si e dedicata, col consueto fervore, € facendo concoscere nel contempo la parte avuta in questo risveglio dall'Istituto Agricolo Coloniale Italiano. E vogliamo sperare che da questa sommaria esposizione di notizie e di opere possa resultare come la nostra fondazione sia il centro di studi che si dimostra attualmente il piu adatto a promuovere gli studi agrari coloniali in Italia, e a dar loro un sempre crescente incremento; 1'Istituto nazionale insomma da cui neH'ultimo sessennio e sorta la maggiore copia di impulsi alia soluzione dei problemi coloniali. THE NECESSITY OF ESTABLISHING A BRITISH AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE IN THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE. By HAROLD HAMEL SMITH. Editor of ''Tropical Life." As some apology or explanation, perhaps, is due from me for introducing at this Congress what might, at first sight, appear to be purely a national question relating only to this country and its dependencies, I would urge that nothing to do with the tropics, and especially with the cultivation of crops within their area, can be regarded as purely a national matter. Such reasons as the facility with which pests are spread, rainfalls encouraged or adversely affected, the distribution of seeds and plants, and so on, render it absolutely necessary that everyone going to the tropics to plant, or even to trade in the produce, should be trained beforehand along right lines within the Torrid Zone, so as to be able either to check and put an end to trouble should it arise, or more im- portant still, to learn how to avoid causing it. In order, therefore, that those who wish to plant or trade within the Torrid Zone should receive that training which is necessary to enable them to do so with the greatest chances of success, I have chosen, as the subject of my paper, "The Necessity of Establishing a British Agri- cultural College in the Western Hemisphere." Before I go on to say one word in support, not so much of the claims of the West Indies for an Agricultural College as to show the absolute necessity of this country, if it means to enjoy that share to which it is entitled of the ever-increasing commerce of Latin-America, to estab- lish such a college in the Western Hemisphere, I want it to be clearly understood that I am not urging the claim TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 3! of the West Indies in competition with Ceylon, for such is, in no wise, my desire. On the contrary, if, pro tern., there is to be only one college, then I agree that Ceylon should have it; but what I do maintain is this — and 1 maintain it as emphatically as I can — that our welfare as a trading nation, as well as on account of our Imperial interests in the West, renders it quite as important — and perhaps more so — that we should establish a college in the Western Hemisphere, as it is that we should have one in the East. Estimates as to the cost of a college, as well as of the annual amount necessary for its upkeep, vary consider- ably. It has, however, been estimated by the President of this Congress, Professor Dunstan, that £50,000 would be sufficient to establish a college in Ceylon on a secure basis. To this, of course, as time goes on, other amounts could be added from private sources. If it is so in the East, it would certainly be so out West, where the cost should not exceed that which is necessary in the East; this being so, someone has to put down £100,000 sterling to establish the two colleges to commence with, and those who do so will get better value for their money than any shareholders receive in any three of the best paying rubber estates, although they have already got back their capital several times over. There is, of course, only one source from which such a sum can come, namely, the general public, who will benefit by the establishment of the two colleges in every possible way, both as regards the assurance of increased supplies of raw materials for their factories, as well as the large shipments of foodstuffs which we now draw weekly and daily from the tropics, and without which the bulk of the population in this country, and the rest of the world generally, would find it difficult — if not im- possible— to exist for more than a few months. The importance, therefore, of scientifically training tropical agricultural experts and planters is not confined to any one country, but is quite international in character. We must agree that the Government of this country will have to find the money, and in saying this we do not think, when the public who are behind the Government 32 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE realize the exact state of affairs, that they will grudge such a small amount. I say this, because in April last I noticed that Uganda was to have a loan of £3,000,000 sterling to increase its general efficiency, and from all accounts the money was badly needed, and will give an excellent return. Glad as I am, glad as everyone who knows Uganda and the possibilities of trade that surround it must be, that the Protectorate has received this amount, no one can compare the importance of Uganda as a trading and agricultural centre, with the Far East on the one hand, or of Latin-America on the other. If, therefore, the Government has seen its way to vote £3,000,000 sterling for Uganda, it certainly, if it knows its work and can realize the immense benefit these colleges will be to our trade and commerce generally, cannot hesitate to vote the £100,000 sterling to found two Agricultural Colleges and Institutes of Tropical Research, one in the East — say in Ceylon — and a second in the West — let us say in Trinidad. Before going on to discuss the class of student that I am hoping to see make use of these colleges — for I believe that there is some difference of opinion as to who will enter their doors — I would like to call your atten- tion to the enormous amount of British capital that is now invested in Latin- America. I am quoting the follow- ing figures from the South American Journal of January 7 last, and therefore can claim that they are well up to date. According to this authority, the total capital invested in the Spanish and Portuguese Republics amounted to £1,001,736,565 sterling, which you will agree is a very substantial sum.1 1 According to a statement in The South American Journal, January 7, 1914, the eighteen Republics of Latin-America occupy a total area of over 8,000,000 square miles, having, according to the latest estimates, 75,000,000 inhabitants, with a total trade of £560,000,000 per annum, of which that with Great Britain accounts for £125,000,000, whilst the amount of British capital invested in each country, together with the total (£1,001,000,000) is as follows : — TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 33 On the other hand, if you read the books that have appeared lately by reliable authorities on the immigration into Latin-America of all classes, you will have learnt, with regret, that at the chief commercial and social centres the number of British subjects tends to go back instead of going forward. I will only quote one instance. Mr. Reginald Enock, in his book on the " Republics of Central and South America," told us that out of the total immigration into Brazil during 1911 (134,000 souls) only 5,850 were British, and from the figures of 1912 and 1913, I should say, without being certain of the fact, that this difference was even more marked than it was shown to be in 1911. Mr. (now Viscount) Bryce also calls atten- tion to the scarcity of English-speaking people in Latin- America, for you may remember that in his book on " South America: Observations and Impressions," he quotes, on p. 510, the saying of Mr. Hiram Bingham, '" that the educated young German who is being sent out to capture South American commerce is a power to be reckoned with." Do you not think that this is a very serious matter? We are investing our hard-earned savings in another country which, if we are not careful, and if we do not increase by two- and threefold the number of our own countrymen to represent us (better still, were they twenty times the number that they are to-day), this very capital will militate against our own prosperity by generating trade which goes to other countries, who will benefit at our cost on account of their countrymen being so greatly in the majority to divert the trade to their countries. British capital invested in : — Argentina £357,74o,66i Guatemala . £10,445,220 Brazil 223,895,435 Salvador 2,224,700 Chile ... ... 63,938,237 Honduras 3,143,200 Uruguay 46,145,393 Nicaragua 1,239,100 Peru 25,658,20.8 Costa Rica 6,660,060 Bolivia 419,720 Panama — Venezuela 7,950,009 Cuba ... 44,444,618 Colombia 6,654,094 Shipping 15,362,230 Ecuador 2,780,974 Banks .. 18,514,537 Paraguay 2,995,730 Mexico 161,524,349 £1,001,736,565 34 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE Far better, if we are not going to send our young men to Latin- America, not to invest our money in it; at any rate, if it is not better for the shareholders, it will be better for us from a political point of view. I believe that in Sao Paulo (Brazil) alone there was a round million of Italians in 1912 or 1911, and there must be between 400,000 and 500,000 Germans distributed throughout Brazil generally. It has been contended that the bulk of these are only workmen; this, however, does not make any difference in the regret that I feel that there is not a proportion of English among them, for if you follow the careers of some of these men and take note of the producers of the immense quantities of maize, wheat, refrigerated meat, etc., that is leaving South America every year, you will find that many of those who went out as common labourers are now men of extreme wealth, and are dominating the production — if not the export — of these valuable shipments; and what other nations can do, I maintain that the Englishman can do in the same way. What the actual number of Englishmen are in that Republic I cannot say, but from all accounts the proportion is very small indeed, although out of our thousand millions invested in Latin-America, one-fourth, or 224 millions, are invested in Brazil alone. I believe that even in Argentina, which claims 358 millions of our money, the English population is almost at a standstill — at any rate, it is not increasing at the rate it should do--and I gather that throughout Latin-America you will find it is the same thing, only far worse, in countries outside of Brazil and the Argentine. In urging, therefore, that this country must have an agricultural college in the West Indies, I am not think- ing of these islands alone, but am urging this in order to induce young Englishmen to go out to Latin-America generally to look after and develop our interests there, and so divert the trade to this country instead of allow- ing it to be developed by other nations, who naturally will send the trade to their own countrymen, and not to us. There is another point in favour of a second college to be established in the West Indies, which, it must be TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 35 remembered, can be securely established for the sum of £50,000 to £100,000 sterling at the most, and it is that at such a centre a man could be easily and properly trained to go across to the West Coast of Africa to take up the imperial work of forestry and agricultural instruction that is shown to be so extremely necessary if the nations dependent on agriculture in the Black Con- tinent (and, after all, everybody is dependent directly or indirectly on agriculture and the products of the soil) are not to suffer a serious set-back for the following reason : — " There have long been complaints that South Africa is getting drier every year, and this has generally been ascribed to the destruction of trees." Such is the open- ing sentence to a short editorial note in the April number of the Colonial Journal. In the second edition of my book on the " Cultivation of Coco-nuts," I deliberately included a short section at the extreme end of the book on this very danger of deforestation to Africa, and, quoting the report of the Royal Commission on Indian Finance, I show that not only does the deforestation of Africa tend to adversely affect the agricultural interests of that country, but also of India, since we are told that by one of the most stupendous miracles of Nature — the source of the rainy season, that is — the monsoon in India is derived from the heart of Africa. I do so because, although South Africa does not include the West Coast, yet I feel that, since we have got the Sahara up in the North, and such a report has been sent in from the South, there is danger if precaution is not taken in time, that the centre, or equatorial portion of Africa, may become affected in the years to come and lose the great fertility that it now boasts of, by means of which it is putting out huge exports of cacao and oil palm products, of which both this country and the Continent of Europe stand in such need. Ignorance, therefore, through lack of training, may cause our officials in the Black Continent to be indifferent to the deforestation of Africa, or to prove unable even to check this drying up of the African Continent complained of, which, should it occur, must, from all we are told, first turn Africa into a veldt, 36 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE and then a desert, and bring ruin and famine not only to Africa, but to India as well.2 To establish a college in West Africa is, for many reasons, impossible; but, as already stated, since a good many men who have been trained in the West Indies, and especially in Trinidad, have done and are doing well in West Africa, it seems possible that Government irrigation and forestry officers and other experts that Africa will need could be well grounded in the Agricultural College and Institute of Tropical Research in the West Indies, and so do better work in Equatorial Africa than would be possible if they were trained in the East, where the native labour, as well as the climate and other conditions, are so different to the two Continental coast lines washed by the Atlantic. You will notice that in this paper I have not gone into 2 As regards this effect one portion of the globe may have upon another even when the temperature and climate is extremely different, I would call attention to what Sir Ernest Shackleton told us at the dinner given in his honour by the (London) Pilgrims Club, on April 24, when he pointed out that the ice season in the Antarctic affected the rainfall in Chile, Argentina, and, I would also suggest, along the entire coast of the Pacific side of South America, if it can be said to have any rainfall at all. " It has been found," he told those present, " that a dense ice season in the Weddel Sea meant heavy rains in Chile and the Argentine. It appeared that there was an open season in the Weddel Sea this year, with the result that the rains were not so heavy in the Argentine. If, therefore, they could get observations over a series of years in the South Polar regions, the farmers and stockbreeders of Argentina would be more or less able to regulate the water supplies and various other problems they had to contend with." Argentina and Chile, as Sir Ernest pointed out, did not belong to this country, but science (and, I would add, tropical agriculture) knows no country, and I wonder, since the Antarctic affects the rainfall in this manner in Argentina and Chile, whether it would not also affect the Australian rainfall, and hence the sheep farmers out there as well. I certainly attribute the more tempered heat and hence the greater salubrity of one side of some of the West Indian islands to their being open to the cooling winds coming up from the Antarctic, and if these islands are so affected then Australia as well as Argentina may be so. TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 37 details in favour of the West Indies, viz., their cheaper and quicker access, cheaper living without losing caste, great soil fertility, equal if not greater facilities to study all tropical crops on a commercial scale except tea, and even tea is met with in Jamaica. All I do claim for the West applies equally to the East, and it is this : If your embryo planter wishes to go planting in the West, then train him in the Western Hemisphere; and I am, as you have heard, most anxious to see a large number of young Britishers distribute themselves throughout Latin- America. But if he wishes to go East, then train him in the East, so that each will receive his tropical agricul- tural education amidst the same surroundings that he will have to encounter when he sets up for himself. Neither have I called in the aid of others to support my claim, but I do not do so as time is short, and also because I know that all of you, or nearly all of you who are present, have closely followed the agitation ever since Professor Dunstan first mooted the point in a prominent way at the late Mr. Ferguson's lecture at the Royal Colonial Institute in December, 1910; and I discussed his proposition at some length in Tropical Life in the now well-known leader which appeared in January, 1911, when I proposed that a Tropical Agricultural College should be established as a memorial to King Edward VII. All those who have followed the question as I have can tell you how the Times, Westminster Gazette, Nature, and other papers on this side have supported the claims of the tropics for agricultural colleges, and the West Indies in particular. In conclusion, I would add that if this Government, or, shall I say, any Government that rules this country and its dependencies, were as keen on wringing out the labour and empire-building capacity that is latent within us all (though some are very loth to make use of it) as they are of squeezing out our money for taxes, I reckon that the development of the resources of the tropics and sub-tropics would go ahead at a much more rapid rate than it is doing at present. Why not adopt the idea of conscription to compel everyone to do his (or her) share of the work of the country, so as to develop the resources 38 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE of the Empire by the united effort of all as well as for the benefit of all, either driving away the slackers or reforming their ways on a tramp-farm or labour colony? T say this because I think the bulk of those who at present work at half or quarter pressure only would be much more healthy, as they would be more useful if they worked at full pressure, and their help is certainly needed. Standing next to me at a meeting held at the Mansion House in support of the British Dominions Exhibition, to be held at the Crystal Palace next year, was' Mr. Will Crooks, the well-known Labour M.P., who, in the course of his speech, claimed, and rightly claimed, that the lower classes, because they are used to rough it, were often just the very ones who got on best when they went forth into the world to make their way; and once educated men with capital who have had the advantage of being trained at an agricultural college in the tropics are induced through this training to go thence to increase our supplies of foodstuffs and raw materials, then these others will follow, especially if slackers are discouraged, if not coerced at home, and every workman compelled to do a minimum share of his country's work, in the same way as these same men are so very keen just now to compel their employers to pay them all — good, bad, or indifferent — an equal minimum wage. One day perhaps our Government will find that it is their duty to round us all up once a year, as the ranchers do their cattle, take stock of all, asking each what they are doing, ascertain what they can do, and then see that it is done. This may sound autocratic, but it will be at least fair — far fairer than the world is to-day, when a minority of us work, and work hard, to pay the major portion of the taxes and help slackers have an easy time. Since the Government of to-day has found the money necessary to ensure the health of the workers in this country and to keep the aged from having to depend on charity, so also is it their duty — that is to say, the duty of ourselves — to spend an amount far less than i per cent, of the total of this year's Budget to ensure this country receiving those regular and increasing supplies of foodstuffs and raw material without which we cannot TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 39 continue to be one of the leading — if not the leading — countries in the world. If on a Budget of £200,000,000 we cannot squeeze out one-thousandth part to secure our enjoying the lead in the world's commerce, then I would maintain that we should be signally failing in our duty, both to the present generation and those who are to come hereafter. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN THE PUNJAB: A NOTE ON SIX YEARS' EXPERIENCE IN TEACHING AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE IN NORTHERN INDIA. By J. H. BARNES, B.Sc., F.I.C., F.C.S. Principal of the Punjab Agricultural College and Agricultural Chemist to the Punjab Government. IT was in the year 1901 that Lord Curzon, then Viceroy of India, inaugurated the policy of establishing a school of tropical agriculture for India, a school which was to be a university in the breadth of its work, since it was to study agricultural problems first hand, as well as to train the Indian students in the methods by which these studies could be carried out. The Agricultural Research Institute at Pusa was the direct outcome of this policy; and the budget surplus of the year 1905-06 placed at the disposal of the Government of India funds which enabled it to expand the original scheme of one school for all India into one college for each province. There had already been in existence in India schools or colleges where tuition in such subjects as agriculture, chemistry, and botany were given, as, for example, the Poona School of Science, the Sibpur College in Bengal, the Agricultural School at Cawnpore, and the Saidpur College in Madras. There were also one or two specialists in agriculture, one of whom, Mr. J. Mollison, C.S.I., was selected by Lord Curzon to fill the post of Inspector-General of Agriculture in the new department then about to be formed. I shall pass over the work of these schools with the remark — and here I quote Mr. Mollison's personal opinion — that the results were not satisfactory; they achieved nothing. The grants which were distributed by Lord Curzon's Government in 1905 placed two and a half lakhs1 in the 1 £16,667 sterling. TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 4! hands of the Government of the Punjab, a sum with which to commence operations, and the local Government added to this a further sum of one and a half lakhs,2 and began the formation of a Department of Agriculture which, in the first instance, consisted of a civilian director, with four European experts, two agriculturists, one of whom was to be the principal of the new college and the other a district officer, one chemist, and one botanist. The site chosen for the new college was situated on a piece of land near Lyallpur in the Lower Chenab Canal Colony, land which had been reserved from the early days of the opening of the colony to serve as a Govern- ment experimental farm. Building operations were com- menced in 1906, and two blocks of buildings, one consist- ing of laboratories, lecture rooms, offices, museums, library, etc., and the other of the laboratories and lecture rooms for the teaching of chemistry and physics. These buildings were completed in 1911, by which time a college workshop, and a small electric generating station and gas plant had been added. The total cost of the buildings was Rs. three lakhs, fifty-one thousand nine hundred and twenty-four,3 and the fitting and equipment and scientific apparatus, tools, machinery, etc., Rs. one lakh, eighty- five thousand four hundred and twenty-five4 more. In the equipment of the college provision was made by the Staff to carry out research work in the different sciences as well as the ordinary routine teaching. The college laboratories are roomy and well-aired; thus, for example, one of the botanical laboratories has a floor space of 51 by 31 ft. and a height of 26 ft., the whole of one side facing north being fitted with large windows, so that a microscope can be used at any point of the laboratory. One of the chemical laboratories has a floor space of 60 by 27 ft. and a height of 25 ft., and is fitted with every modern convenience, the details of all fittings having been worked out by the specialist in charge of each section. The college was opened to students in Sep- tember, 1909, and a course of instruction which had been 2 £10,000 sterling. 3 ^23,462 sterling. 4 £12,365. sterling. 42 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE laid down by the fourth Board of Agriculture at Pusa in 1908 in the form of a standard curriculum for provincial agricultural colleges in India was started. A consider- able amount of discussion had taken place on the subjects of the curriculum, the length of the course, and the entrance qualification of students. The curriculum itself was enforced by the Local Government, though the opinion of some of the members of the Staff was opposed to much of its detail. In the absence of any experience of Indian students and Indian conditions by these, how- ever, it may be said to have been perhaps the best that could be done at the time. It has shown the disadvan- tages of binding an educational institute to a rigid course of studies, and the results obtained at Lyallpur indicate the necessity of rendering a curriculum based on Western methods and translated to the Orient sufficiently mobile and elastic to adapt itself to its new environment without having at the same time to break through the iron bands of officialism. The general experience throughout the whole of these colleges in India can be said to have been similar, and has found expression in the Proceedings of the Meeting of the Board of Agriculture in 1913, held at Coimbatore, where the abandonment of this curriculum was advised, and the substitution for it of such courses as would be felt to meet the requirements of the students in the different provinces of India. It is with my experi- ence in the Punjab with Punjab students and teaching them the subject matter of this standard curriculum which I propose to deal in this paper, and to draw from this experience some generalizations which may serve as a guide to other teachers rinding themselves placed in a similar position. The course of studies laid down necesr- sitated on the part of the students a working acquaint- ance with the English language and some elementary knowledge of arithmetic, elementary mathematics, and the elements of general science (the latter being optional). These could only be obtained in students who had reached some recognized standard of general elementary education, and the standard adopted was that of the Entrance Examination (Matriculation) of the Punjab University. Doubts were expressed both by the members TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 43 of the teaching staff and senior and experienced civil officers (i) as to the suitability of this entrance standard for the course of instruction to be given; (2) as to the effect which the introduction of such a regulation as this would have in weeding out a class of Indian students considered desirable, and the automatic forcing into the college of an undesirable class. Both of these fears have been more or less justified, for in the first place the experience has shown that this entrance standard does not enable the college to recruit a student qualified to attend the lectures and laboratory courses embodied in the curriculum; and secondly, the students have almost without exception entered the college solely with the object of obtaining employment in one or other branches of the public service, and not from a desire to benefit the farming classes directly or indirectly. These students, instead of coming from a farming stock, are for the most part of the Khatri or shopkeeping class, which is, in Northern India, the class most interested in education, and the one which floods the University colleges and secures the bulk of the prizes offered in the different branches of Government service and civil employ, and in the learned professions. The curriculum recom- mended consists of practical and theoretical instruction in agriculture, agricultural chemistry, botany, veterinary science, entomology, physics, etc.5 The whole curriculum was from the first arranged on the lines of the best English or American agricultural colleges, the course containing as large a proportion of practical work as could be well included, and at the same time the student was given an up-to-date account of the subjects under study. The system of marking also aimed at minimizing the danger of cramming by allotting 40 per cent, of the whole marks obtainable in the diploma examination to work done during the three years' residence, and a 40 per cent, pass standard adopted. In this way a premium was placed on steady work, thus rendering it practically 5 The syllabus of the Punjab Agricultural College has been omitted. 44 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE impossible for a student of average ability to fail to obtain his diploma. In spite of the care taken to give as good a course as possible and encouraging steady work by the students, the system has failed in two respects. It has failed in the first instance in popularity with the people of the province, for the last session opened with one student only coming forward,6 and secondly, it has failed to produce as good a type of man as expected. I have carefully examined the causes which have led up to the fall in popularity, and I attribute it to two causes : - (1) The lack of employment on a remunerative scale for past students of the college. (2) The high standard of the course, for the generality of Indian students and the hardships entailed on them in keeping pace with it. The two are correlative. In the first place the public were notified that the diploma of Licentiate in Agriculture of the Punjab Agricultural College would be considered as equivalent to the B.A. or B.Sc. of the Punjab University in educational value in the selection of candidates for employment in the provincial civil services. This certainly stimulated recruitment, since the agricultural course was only three years in length, whereas the B.A. or B.Sc. course was one of four years. No encouragement has been given, however, to students of the agricultural college to enter the magis- terial and revenue services, as the authorities consider that the college should be primarily a training ground for agriculturists or specialists in agricultural science, and not for revenue officials. The Punjab is for the most part farmed by a class of peasant proprietors and men of small holdings. There are very few large estates in existence similar to those of the big zemindars of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh and of Bengal. Consequently, there is practically 6 The latest newspaper report, May 13, 1014, states that a similar position has arisen at the Agricultural College at Nagpur, in the Central Provinces. A similar condition has been reached in Bengal. TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 4^5 no demand for the services of past students as managers of estates, and, indeed, during the past five years I have not had more than a dozen inquiries for qualified men. and only one or two of them offered anything like a reasonable scale of pay, these latter offers coming from other parts of India. This in no way reflects on the students of the Punjab Agricultural College as compared with other agricultural colleges in India, for the Research Institute at Pusa, which has all India to choose from for its staff, has shown a preference for my men. The students themselves are mostly too poor to afford to farm their own lands after undergoing this expensive education. There consequently remains only 'employ- ment in the Provincial Agricultural Service, and in this their pay at present is on to-o low a scale to induce healthy competition. The employment in the Punjab Agricultural Service is at present limited to five or six recruits a year. The question of improving the prospects of these men is receiving the attention of Government, and I hope to secure a scale of pay commensurate with the time and money they have spent on their 'education and the salaries commanded by young Indians of similar educational attainments elsewhere. The second cause is undoubtedly an important one also, for the students entering the agricultural college possess such a poor knowledge of English and the sub- jects of primary educational importance as to be unable to assimilate the college lectures, at any rate for the first six months or so. This is emphasized by the ease with which students possessing a better education than that of the University entrance standard can get ahead of their fellow students. The difficulty which the students consequently experience tends to lower the popularity of the college. It cannot be said that the standard of tuition is too high if we take into consideration the class of men we are attempting to train — men, that is to say, who are to staff the departmental farms, to assist the expert agriculturists in their district work, and to act as advisers, demonstrators, and itinerant lecturers in the districts in promulgating the methods of agricultural improvement. The natural inferences to be drawn are that either we 46 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE must raise the entrance standard of the students or we must lengthen the course of instruction given, but in both of these cases we shall be met with the difficulty of being unable to offer sufficient employment afterwards to induce candidates to come forward. I have sum- marized the situation in a note which is published in the Proceedings of the Meeting of the Board of Agriculture in India, held at Coimbatore in December, 1913 (published by the Superintendent; Government Printing Press, Cal- cutta, price is. 9d.)- In this note I have shown that the cost of education in the Lyallpur College amounts to something like Rs. 8,000 per licentiate turned out (average of the last three years), and this figure takes into account only the annual recurring expenses of the institute after deducting a very liberal amount for the expenditure in time and money on the research laboratories. It is con- sequently a very expensive system of education, and at the same time is not yielding results proportionate to the cost. I am of opinion that the entire policy of agricul- tural education requires remodelling. In the first place, the results obtained in countries where farming is an important industry, and where large sums of money have been spent on its development, indicate that all attempts at improvement must be based on investi- gation— investigation of the causes of sterility, causes of diseases, the effect of climatic conditions, and the possi- bilities of improvement of land, stock, and plants. Such investigations demand a number of experimental stations for experiment and record and well-equipped scientific laboratories, where the necessary scientific inquiries can be carried out. I think we may attribute the high position held in scientific agriculture by the Department of Agriculture in the United States of America to the fact that this broad principle is being followed there, namely, that inquiry has preceded education and instruction. The second point is that experience throughout the world seems to show that technical education given in agricultural colleges to be effective should be of only one or both of the following two types : — (a) Elementary instruction in the form of short TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 47 farmers' classes suitable for the actual cultivators of the land, technical in character, and qualifying the students attending them to become better farmers. Such classes must of necessity be exceedingly simple, and in many cases will give empirical methods of improvement worked out on experimental stations and farms without going into the underlying scientific principle on which these improvements are based. They must in all cases be given on such farms or by men who have been trained there, for they rely for their success on a thorough acquaint- ance with the practical difficulties to be met and overcome. (b) A course of instruction embodying' the best methods of scientific investigation adopted in working out im- provements. Such a course is of the highest possible type, and can be given only by men who are engaged in such investigations and at an institute fully equipped for this class of work. Such an education as this places a higher value on the student who has passed through it as a technologist than as a mere educated man. Conse- quently, the students passing through such a course as this go on to apply in a direct manner the education they have received. Between these two limits agricultural education appears to result in the students afterwards taking to other and sedentary pursuits. The expense of scientific and technical education will not permit of this, and the system should aim at the waste being limited to the normal failures, which usually occur during the course. It is my opinion, therefore, that in opening an agricul- tural department in one of the colonies these principles should be followed, firstly, the establishment of experi- mental stations and laboratories necessary to collect the large amount of information which is essential to future progress. As these results begin to accumulate, the first course of instruction referred to above can be commenced with every prospect of it proving successful. For the first few years at least the higher course of instruction should be limited to the personal training obtainable under the experts and specialists in the laboratories attached to the experimental stations; and the colleges, when they are started, should be started in a conservative 48 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE spirit, and where possible attached to existing universities or existing science colleges. The present position of agricultural education in India indicates that we have started at the wrong end. We have attempted to put education first and inquiry second, and we have handi- capped the very limited expert staff by placing this heavy teaching burden on them. This is being done in a country where elementary education has only reached 5 per cent, of the entire population, and consequently there exists no* spontaneous demand for higher education in its highest sense. Until this difficulty has passed away, T consider that we shall achieve a higher efficiency with the staff at our disposal by concentrating the higher teaching in one institute, and using all other institutes as experimental stations and schools for giving instruc- tion of the first class. We are about to put this to the test in the Punjab by substituting for the present diploma course a two years' course of instruction, consisting almost entirely of outdoor farm work with lectures on farm subjects, a few popular science lectures, and some tuition in English and arithmetic. This course is being taken up with the approval of the Board of Agriculture in India. This two years' course will be followed by a further course of two years, in which higher instruction will be given, including agricultural chemistry and botany, and the various other subjects of the old diploma syllabus. Whether the second two years' course is given at Lyallpur or at a college central for several provinces will depend upon the number of students forthcoming. In addition to this class, there is already being given in the vernacular a course for .farmers which extends over six months, and consists entirely of outdoor instruction on the farm in the use of improved implements and the application of improved methods. We have also under contemplation a class for young officers in the Civil Service, in the Irrigation Department, and for assistants in the Provincial and Revenue and Educational services. All of these men during the course of their work have to deal with a farming population, and very often with questions relating to land and crops, and it is considered advisable that they should know something of the system TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 49 on which a department existing for the improvement of agriculture works. It will be seen, therefore, that as a result of the past six years' experience an entire change of policy in agricul- tural education is about to take place in the Punjab; how far this change will be productive of good it is yet early to say, but I am confident that it is a step in the right direction, and that the Indian student trained under these new conditions will prove himself to be a better man than his predecessor. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN THE GOLD COAST. By W. H. PATTERSON. Government Entomologist, Gold Coast. AGRICULTURAL education is at the present time entirely under the control of the Agricultural Department, and the scope of work embraces : — (1) The introduction, propagation, and distribution of plants and seeds of economic products. (2) Research work relative to yields of crops; plant pests and diseases, and means of controlling the same. (3) Instructional work, embracing training of pupils to become agricultural staff officers, itinerant instructors, schoolmasters to manage school gardens, and the local agricultural shows. If the work of the early coastal settlers be left out, educational measures may be stated to have been started in 1888, when His Excellency Sir W. Brandford Griffith, K.C.M.G., the then Governor, wrote: "It was mainly with a view of teaching the natives to cultivate economic plants in a systematic manner for purposes of export that I have contemplated for some time the establishment of an agricultural and botanical farm and garden where valuable plants could be raised and distributed in large numbers to the people in the neighbourhood in the first instance, and afterwards sent further into the country by pupils whom I contemplate taking from the schools when willing to give their attention to industrial pursuits. By their labour and agency, when sufficiently educated for the purpose, additional farms or gardens could be started, and by these means the people generally would become acquainted with the fact that other products than those indigenous to the country had been introduced into it were thriving, and would be remunerative, and thus observing the advantage to be gained by their pro- pagation would be disposed to cultivate them. . . ." TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 5! Arrangements were therefore made to start a station at Aburi in 1890 with one European curator and one native clerk, and the expansion is so great that to-day there are eleven European officers and twenty-seven native officers, clerks, and learners, with a cocoa industry, the output of which in 1913 reached 113,239,980 lb., valued at £2,489,218. There are five large stations and two small, or sub-stations, yet such is the growth of the cocoa industry alone that it is most difficult to cope with it adequately; consequently, sanitary conditions on many farms are disappointing and may lead to much future trouble, though it may appear that farmers are depending too much upon cocoa; yet Para rubber is being exten- sively planted, and coconuts may claim attention in the near future. Owing to the difficulty experienced in keeping pace with the cocoa industry, the staff has as yet not been sufficiently large to enable original research work to be carried out, but with the erection of an entomological laboratory and provision for the appointment of a mycologist, it is hoped results may be forthcoming in the near future. The cocoa industry owes its present position largely to the demonstration plots at the older stations, but it is aided to a large extent by European and native travelling instructors. Unfortunately, there are a number of difficulties in the way of obtaining the best results from such instruction, the chief of which being: (i) Lack of sufficient officers; (2) the difficulty of travelling; (3) inability to punish owners of neglected and dangerous farms; (4) shortage of labour to work farms, due to the lack of means of transport save by head loads. This instructional work has been assisted by the distribution of simply written pamphlets in English and the vernacular on the cultivation and preparation of the more important economic crops. One special feature should be men- tioned, viz., that demonstrations in pruning, cleaning, preparation of land and crops are given on the farms, at which the chiefs and their followers are expected to attend. The sad part of this work is the impossibility of closely following it up, and it is heavily discounted, as 52 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE the shortage of officers prevents the same district from being frequently visited. It is hoped this may be shortly overcome. Small model blocks were recently started. These have been placed in the charge of local men who had received some weeks' training in cocoa cultivation, and, provided it is found possible to give these plots frequent supervision, they should serve as demonstrations to the surrounding farms. To provide future officers, the native staff at the various stations is graded as follows: — Office Salary Learner £25 to £40, by £5 Garden Assistant £40 to £60, by £$ Second-class Overseer ... .. £60 to £So, by £$ First-class Overseer ^80 to ^100, by £S Native Travelling Instructor ... ^100 to £150, by £10 After the trial of various schemes to obtain suitable learners, it was found necessary to adopt this : That candidates should have passed Standard VI, have a good knowledge of English reading, writing, and arithmetic. Selected candidates are appointed on six months' probation; yet there are so many inducements for educated lads that good material is not readily obtainable. The training covers a period of three years, during which time the pupils are given free quarters. After one year's training they are frequently sent as interpreters with European officers on tour, from which they derive much benefit. The training is essentially practical, and but little time is given to the theoretical side, as these men are expected to be farm workers. Many garden labourers, after learning improved methods, eventually become cocoa farmers, and their knowledge is thus passed on to their neighbours. Classes in agriculture for school teachers were started in 1904, and may now be regarded as quite successful, for in 1910 sixty-seven received tuition, and the number of applicants is yearly increasing. The course is divided into two sections : the January and July courses, each occupying three weeks. The students attend at the stations daily for seven hours, and, in addition to a lecture of about one to one and a half hours' duration, they TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 53 perform all classes of agricultural practical work under the supervision of the Curator. Students other than school teachers may attend these classes — an advantage, as many eventually become farmers. The lectures cover the following ground, and provided the candidates have a good knowledge of English and are of fair intelligence, good should result in the future. CLASS I. JANUARY COURSE. Theoretical Work. Atmosphere. — Composition : oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid gas, water vapour; properties of each; necessity for the balance being evenly maintained; how this is effected in nature by breathing, transpiration, and decomposition of vegetable and animal matter. Air necessary to life, both animal and vegetable, and necessity for it to reach the roots of plants. Water: its com- position, indispensable to plant growth (containing plant foods in solution). Plant Growth, General. — Roots, various forms : tap roots, fibrous roots, tuberous roots, adventitious roots, aerial roots, root-hairs. Functions of roots : support, absorption of water and food materials, store up food, etc. Stem's, various forms : upright, woody and herba- ceous, climbing and creeping, underground, and modi- fications. Structure of Stems : Epidermis, cortex, vascular bundles, pith or hard wood in centre, and the medullary rays, the difference between stems of monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants, e.g., coconuts and cocoa, the method by which woody stems become thicker, the functions of stems with special reference to the cambium and vascular tissue (food and water channels), etc. Leaves : Structure, various forms and modifications adopted in nature to suit certain localities; relation to stem through vascular bundles. Stomata : Chlorophyll and protoplasm; functions — breathing and manufacture of plant food; transpiration. Flowers: Structure, sepals, petals, stamens, pistil, 54 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE ovary, ovules. Fertilization : how brought about, agencies, wind, insects, etc. Seeds: structure; seed coat; embryo; cotyledon; plumule and radicle; albuminous and ex-albuminous; methods of dispersal in nature, wind, water, animal. Structure of fruit, e.g., sandbox, etc.; wings. Conditions necessary for germination: air, moisture, and suitable temperature. Propagation of seeds : conditions necessary in nursery beds, sowing, etc. Weeds: Definition; injury caused by, to cultivated crops; rob the soil of moisture and available plant food by competing with them: overshading, etc.; importance of preventing multiplication of; methods of eradication. Soils. — Formation confined to disintegration of rocks, vegetable decomposition, and alluvial soils. Classification and physical properties : clay, sand, and humus, deep and shallow soils. Principal chemical constituents of: phos- phates, nitrates, potash, sodium, calcium, magnesium, iron, and silica. How soils are exhausted : repeated in- judicious cropping, weeds, sun's rays. Methods of improving the physical properties and chemical con- tents of soils : digging, draining, liming, mulching, manuring, etc. Practical Work. Use of various tools, especially digging fork, spade, hoes, rakes, rubber tapping implements, line and tape measures. Preparation of nursery seed beds, methods of sowing seeds, pricking out and potting seedlings. Propagation of various plants by cuttings, layering, budding, and grafting; watering, holing, and weeding; pruning and training trees. Conservation of moisture by surface tillage, and mulching and weeding estab- lished crops. Digging, lining, holing, and laying off of a plantation of cocoa; making drains; and general principles of method of forming a school garden. The pre- paration for the market of cocoa, coffee, ginger, copra, and such crops as may be ripe at the time of holding the class. Taught to recognize the more important economic plants and the chief ornamental plants. TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 55 CLASS II. JULY COURSE. Theoretical Work. Resume of the work done in Class I. Cropping (general) : Soils and climatic conditions most suitable for the various economic crops; thus, cocoa, deep, rich soil with sufficient rainfall; cotton, a light loamy soil and a long dry season; sisal hemp, poor soil, and a light rainfall. Scientific Rotation of Crops: Beneficial results of; soil not exhausted to the same extent; deep-rooted and shallow-rooted plants use a greater area of soil; soil does not get plant sick; importance of leguminous plants in a rotation. Cultivation of the more important crops, such as rubber, both Para and Funtumia; cocoa, different varieties; maize; ground nuts; cotton; sisal; Mauritius hemp; yams; cassava; method of preparing their products and estimated yields per acre and values per cwt. or ton. Catch Crops : Meaning and examples of. Green Manuring : Plants most suitable for. Useful ''bush" plants producing articles for export; oil palm; raphia palm; kola, etc. Insect Pests : Life-history, general ; stages of develop- ment; nature of destruction by; stage of development in which most destructive; simple methods of control; pre- cautions against; instances of known attack. Fungoid Diseases: Brief description; necessity for taking active steps to fight against; precautions to use to prevent them spreading determined by nature of attack, e.g., root disease, isolation; stem and branch disease, cutting off and burning; cocoa pod disease, burning; and other general measures to adopt. Fire the most effective and generally cheapest in the end ; spraying with fungicide more of the nature of a prevention than a cure. The value of school gardens properly managed. Practical Work. Resume of work in previous class, together with : — Digging and preparation of land. 56 TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE Sowing seeds and roots in the field at stake and in rows; rubber, cocoa, kola, coffee, cotton, jute, corn, ginger, etc. Planting out plants at measured distances, such as cocoa, rubber, tobacco, lemon grass. Tapping rubber trees. Preparation of rubber, lemon grass oil, cinnamon, annatto, fibres. Practical treatment of insect and fungoid diseases, such as " Sankonuabe " borers, caterpillars, etc. ; cocoa die-back, pod disease, root diseases, etc. ; collecting and burning all dead wood, diseased and empty cocoa pods. Preparation of kerosene emulsion, Bordeaux mixture, together with the use of sprayers and syringes. Students deriving the greatest apparent benefit from the above syllabus are those who have received tuition in Nature teaching at the Government Training Institution for Teachers. The text-book most suitable for the work has been found to be Watts's "Nature Teaching." The final source of educational teaching is by agricul- tural shows, which have proved very popular, but which it has not yet been found practicable to hold more than once annually. THE ORGANIZATION OF AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS IN RELATION TO RESEARCH. THE ORGANIZATION OF AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS IN RELATION TO RESEARCH WORK. By BERNARD COVENTRY, C.I.E. Agricultural Adviser to the Government of India and Director of the Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa, India. THE organization of agricultural research is a matter of the utmost importance, for on the proper ordination of the various units employed depends the success of the undertaking. It will be futile to engage the services of highly qualified and highly paid scientific experts unless their work is conducted on the basis of a carefully devised system of co-ordination. In the establishment of such a system, the guiding principle should be to grant to each •department of science the fullest scope and freedom compatible with due recognition of the governing authority, the limitations of its own sphere of work, and the possibilities of a carefully prepared budget. It should further be recognized that the business of carrying on the work in the various branches, such as agriculture proper, agricultural chemistry, economic botany, plant pathology, and the like is in each case a profession requiring a high education, unusual qualifications, and specialized training on the part of the persons employed. The expert officer of one branch is, therefore, not qualified to undertake the work in another. It must, therefore, be realized that the personal equation is an important factor in the scheme of organization, and that the Department stands or falls in the person of the 58 AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS AND RESEARCH scientific officer whom it engages. Not all who go through a course of scientific study at the Universities are fitted for research, and special care should, therefore, be taken in the selection of scientific officers. They should be appointed on probation for a time, which should not ordinarily exceed three years. At the end of this time, or before it, the services of an unsuitable pro- bationer should be rigorously dispensed with. If found suitable, he should be confirmed in his appointment. Thereafter, he should be left as much as possible to himself. The initiative in respect of a particular line of work and the method of approaching it should be almost entirely left to him, for individuality and tastes play such an important part that to attempt to bring about research by "order" would lead assuredly to undesirable con- sequences. The next point we may consider is that of collaboration. How are the various branches of a department for agricul- tural research to collaborate and yet maintain that freedom which is predicated as being essential ? Were we dealing with the research of a commercial or industrial undertaking, where the purpose was, for example, the improvement in the manufacture of certain definite products, the matter would be simple, for the scientific man would have to subordinate his views and his work to the exigencies of the particular business he was engaged in, and it is not unreasonable to expect that on account of the restrictions put upon him by his agreement and the promptings of common sense he would focus his endeavours on the common objective. In an agricultural department under the State the matter is not so simple. The common goal of raising the level of agricultural practice may be approached by many roads, and it is conceivable for lines of work to be taken up in the various branches of agricultural science without any reference to collaboration. There are two kinds of collaboration : one in which the contribution by one branch of science to another is mere assistance given in an ancillary capacity: as, for example, the economic botanist takes up the improvement of the wheat plant on Mendelian lines. It is certain that he will require, during the course AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS AND RESEARCH 59 of his investigations, to determine the nitrogen content of his wheats. For this purpose he will seek the aid of the chemist. This is but assistance on a minor or frac- tional factor, which would not exactly be called colla- boration. In another case the soil bacteriologist is working at various bacteria-producing plant foods and plant toxins. He requires the aid of the chemist to determine the nature of the plant foods and the nature of the action of the toxins on vegetable tissues. Here the work, both of the chemist and bacteriologist, is funda- mental, and nothing short of a collaboration of both officers is required. This is collaboration in its full sense. If we are to preserve the freedom of the indivi- dual, there are only two courses open by which true and amicable collaboration can be brought about. The word " amicable " is used advisedly, for without such a quality collaboration could scarcely deserve the name. One course is for combined work to take place under a private understanding; the other is by arrangement in conference or council of the heads of the scientific branches. The formation of such a council is of the greatest necessity for a scientific body attached to an Agricultural Department. While preserving the freedom of the individual, it throws open the road not only to collaboration of the most approved kind, but it can be used for an exchange of views and as an effective control of the work by the scientific officers themselves, and should, therefore, form an integral part of the general scheme. We may now proceed to give very briefly the various units required in a scheme of research. We will assume a Central Research Institute fully equipped with up-to- date laboratories and a farm of sufficient size, and with such quality and condition of soil as to render the results and operations on the farm normal. The divisions in the institute representing the various branches of agricultural science and practice would be somewhat as follows : A senior officer of the best qualifications should be appointed at the head, of each. (i) The Agricultural Division, dealing with the practice of agriculture proper, animal husbandry, agricultural engineering, and with economics. 6O AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS AND RESEARCH ' ^_- 1. Ti. .'.*-.'- .."•' *J-.vK'ji >••»''""'. (2) The Chemical Division, dealing with physical, chemical (organic and inorganic), and bio-chemical problems. (3) The Botanical Division, concerned chiefly with plant improvement. (4) The Bacteriological Division, dealing with soil and other agricultural bacteria. (5) The Division of Plant Pathology, fungoid and bacterial. (6) The Division of Entomology. (7) The Veterinary Division, which may include re- search and manufacturing laboratories for the production of sera. (8) Library, publications, illustrations. (9) Special crops and industries, for which separate officers should, when necessary, be appointed. In a tropical country these might include special investigations on sugar-cane, cotton, tea, rubber, etc. At the head of the whole should be appointed a director with a separate office, and this brings us to the con- sideration of the principles that should guide the selection of the occupant of such an important post. Views on this differ widely. At one extreme we have the view that the director of a scientific institute should himself be a scientific man, so that he can manage and control the work of those under him by the weight of his knowledge and personality. At the other, there are those who hold the opinion that he should not be by profession a scientific man, as he would be apt to be biased in the direction of his own branch to the detriment of the others. In the opinion of the writer, neither of the extreme views are a suitable guide. It is conceivable that the best man available may be a highly trained scientific man, but it is equally possible that he may not. He would not close the door in either case, but would base the principle of selection more on general qualities for organization and control, coupled with sympathy and general under- standing of the work and preparedness to sink his individuality. The opportunities for cheap and startling notoriety gained from the achievements of those under him are great to the director of an Agricultural Research AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS AND RESEARCH 6l Institute, and the occasions when a " splash in the pool " has been made to the detriment of good and solid results are not uncommon. The successful director will be one who, while exercising sufficient control and influence to get the various sections of an institute to work peacefully together, relieving them of as much correspondence, account and general administrative work as possible, will" at the same time obliterate himself in such a manner that every man under him will feel that he is the master of his own job. From the creation of the Central Research Institute as described naturally follows the necessity of an organiza- tion for expansion and the spread and demonstration of the results of research, for the distribution of seed of improved varieties of crops, and for further experiment in particular localities. The spheres of units for expan- sion and localized work would have to be defined. In India they are the provinces ; in England they would conveniently be the counties. At the head of each unit would be an administrative head or director, and the principles of co-ordination laid down for the organization of a Central Research Institute would apply equally to these units. But local problems and the demonstration of improved methods would be their chief concern, and the staff would have to be chosen to that end. The agricultural expert, as opposed to the strictly scientific man, would be chiefly in request, as it is only through him that the farmer and cultivator can be adequately reached. The appointment of other experts would have to be made according as local problems and local differences require research and experiment to be carried on away from the central body. The work of demonstration and distri- bution will require a subordinate staff sufficiently numer- ous to effectually push an improved method; and it is to be observed that this staff should be under the direct control of the professional man concerned with the work. The undertaking of demonstration work under the immediate control of the director, especially in tropical countries, is to be strongly deprecated, unless he himself is expert in the particular work with which he is dealing. 62 AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS AND RESEARCH In conclusion, it is to be regretted that time and space forbid the entry into the more minute details of organiza- tion, and that it has been necessary to confine these remarks mostly to the enunciation of general principles. These principles may be summarized as under: — (1) The creation of an institute, made up of divisions dealing with the various branches of agricultural science and practice, immediately controlled by a highly qualified expert officer in charge of each, the whole being under the general governing control of a director. (2) Fullest scope and freedom allowed for research work compatible with due recognition of the governing authority, and limited in each branch to its own sphere of work and financial possibilities. (3) Recognition of the personal equation as a ruling factor in the prosecution of research work, and the undesirability of undue interference, or of attempt to bring about research by " order." (4) Adequate means for co-operation between experts by private arrangement or through the medium of a council. (5) Control of the scientific work, as far as possible, by the scientific officers themselves in council. (6) The director to be selected more for general qualities for organization and control, understanding of the work, and readiness to sink his individuality. (7) Extension of the work by the erection of local stations for the purpose of demonstration and distribution and the working of local problems. (8) The appointment of an adequate subordinate staff for this purpose under the direct control of the pro- fessional man. THE ORGANIZATION OF AGRICULTURAL DEPART- MENTS IN RELATION TO RESEARCH WORK. By GERALD C. DUDGEON, F.E.S. Consulting Agriculturist, Ministry of Agriculture, Egypt; Vice-President, International Association for Tropical Agriculture. THE ever-changing demands of the markets of the world render necessary the frequent introduction of new or improved methods in agricultural practice; and, in order that the new enterprise shall succeed from its commencement, it becomes imperative that the course followed shall be one of precision and in accordance with scientific principles. The practical agriculturist must certainly continue for the present to be the most important participator in the production of crops, but he cannot have the leisure or sufficient opportunity for the examination and proper determination of the use of natural phenomena upon which the improvement of his practical work may often depend. The study of the laws of natural or chemical science which may be applied to ensure certain results, or the suggestion of the manner in which they can be adapted advantageously to agriculture, must be left to the specialist; the practical agriculturist finding sufficient occupation in the application of the suggestion to his land or crops. That modern agriculture owes its advancement largely to the labours of research chemists, entomologists, and botanists can scarcely be questioned. The functions of a Government Department of Agricul- ture entail the provision of advice, assistance, and protection to the cultivators in the country to enable them to compete successfully with those of other countries. Such a department itself should have no commercial interest in the products of the soil, but should 64 AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS AND RESEARCH be in a position to supply information on all agricultural questions without prejudice. In order to do this its efforts must be directed to the collection of information concerning agriculture in other countries, as well as to the conduct of scientific investi- gations locally. Research work is then eminently marked out for adoption by Government Departments, the proper working of the laboratories of which, in an agricultural country, are almost essential for the progress and welfare of the State. With regard to the manner in which research work is to be carried on, it becomes a rather more difficult matter with Government control than would be the case with private enterprise. The reason for this is that it is not generally recognized by the critics of a Government administration that much greater latitude should be allowed in research than in other Government work; immediate and tangible results are frequently looked for which cannot be reasonably demanded. For instance, it is extremely difficult, and sometimes even impossible, to lay down precisely the direction in which work will proceed, because, when making experiments, results are frequently obtained, almost at the commencement, which may necessitate a complete alteration of the original plan and distribution of expenses. It is easy to realize what effect such an alteration may exercise upon an adminis- tration in which, for the most part, the provisional arrangements, budgetary and otherwise, have been care- fully defined in advance for the whole year. In conjunction with the work to be performed in the laboratories themselves, it is necessary that experiment farms should be available. In a country where climatic or soil conditions vary, it may even be necessary to conduct several in different parts of the country. In very few instances, however, is it imperative that the areas of such farms should be of large size. In countries such as the United States and Egypt it does not appear difficult for Government to obtain land on a short lease (in the latter country for a single crop only if necessary) upon the simple guarantee of a slightly superior monetary return than the average one for a similar crop in the same locality. This AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS AND RESEARCH 6$ arrangement enables all experiments connected with manurial, watering, cultivation, or insecticide trials to be carried out in a number of different localities at a minimum cost. It seems advisable to take this oppor- tunity to digress slightly to refer to the distinction which should be emphasized between pure experiment farms and those intended for demonstration, as this point is frequently overlooked. In the case of the former, the object of which is usually to compare one system of operations with another in order to test superiority and to obtain knowledge for subsequent application, it is obvious that the results may be so different and the in- feriority of the specially treated parts may predominate so much over the controls that there may be a monetary loss from the area leased. Experiment farms should never, therefore, be regarded as revenue producing pro- jects. The contrary is the case in respect to demon- stration farms, where a complete knowledge is assumed by which improved results may be obtained, provided no unforeseen adverse conditions occur. Demonstration farms must, therefore, be considered as indications of a means of getting a greater return, and should show an increased profit over similar farms in the same vicinity which may be considered as the control areas. With regard to the staff and organization necessary for agricultural research in a Government Department, these are very largely dependent on the special requirements of the country. It can, however, be laid down that, in general, three scientific branches are necessary, the relative importance of each being dependent upon the local conditions and chief crops of the country. The minimum superior staff in each of these branches and an indication of their duties are shown below : — CHEMICAL SECTION. Chief Chemist : Conducting and reporting on manurial experiments; recommendations for the treatment of soils; control and disposal of the correspond- ence of the Section. Investigation of value of mineral resources as applied to agriculture; im- provement of soils. 5 66 AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS AND RESEARCH Assistant Chemist: Analyses of soils, insecticides, plants, cattle food, etc. Students should be attached to this Section under the Assistant Chemist. ENTOMOLOGICAL SECTION. Chief Entomologist: Direction of all experiments with applications of insecticides; fumigation of plantation trees; general campaigns against noxious insects, etc. Proposals for legislation and control of the importation of insect pests on plants and in seeds. Organization of industries and demonstrations with regard to useful insects, such as silkworms, 'bees, lac insects, etc. Assistant Entomologist: Examination of the life- histories of economic insects, systematic classi- fication, propagation of insect parasites, etc. Assistant Entomologist : Research in connection with insect diseases and methods of insect control. Students in entomology can be attached to the two assistant entomologists. BOTANICAL SECTION. Chief Botanist: Introduction of new plants and the improvement of existing ones. Correspondence and general direction of the whole section. Plant Breeder, Assistant Breeder, Superintendent of Experiment Farms : Mendelian selection. Investi- gation into the nature and improvement of economic plants. In Egypt plant breeding is of most importance in the Section, as the work of cotton improvement supersedes all others. In countries where extensive permanent plantations exist of tea, cocoa, coffee, rubber, etc., a plant breeder is also necessary. Students should be attached to this Section. Mycologist: Examination of fungoid diseases of plants; advice with regard to fungicides and co- operation with the Entomological Section in connection with the examination of plants and seeds coming from abroad. In order that each of the above sections should possess at least one officer whose whole time can, if necessary, be given up uninterruptedly to laboratory research and report, routine work should be distributed as far as possible among the students attached to the Section. For instance, in the Chemical Section ordinary analyses of AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS AND RESEARCH 67 soils, manures, etc., can be carried out by the advanced students. In the Entomological Section, in a similar manner, insect breeding, section cutting of insects for microscopic examination in connection with diseases and similar work can be done by the students of entomo- logy. The plant breeder's work, which largely consists of the examination of the economic value of the plants he has produced by hybridization and selection, and the collec- tion of detailed information regarding the behaviour of different strains, must be assisted in the field experiments by a practical agriculturist. It is a handicap to the efficiency of his own work if he is obliged to arrange the ordinary work of preparation of the soil and cultivation of the crop which is being experimented with under field conditions. It becomes necessary, therefore, that he should have a farm superintendent working in close co- operation with him, and in such a manner that the proper utilization of his suggestions, etc., may be ensured. Valuable results have doubtless been lost in the endeavour to employ the scientific investigator for the practical application of his theories. The students in the Botanical Section should conduct all the germination and other special tests and assist in the supervision of flower count- ing and other field operations. In every country it is important that the occupation of the research agriculturist should be dissociated as far as possible from purely administrative work, although, in order to ensure the best results and to comprehend the requirements of agriculture, the administrative head of the department should be acquainted with scientific agriculture in all its branches. In conjunction with scientific agricultural work, it is necessary that facilities for the publication of results and recommendations should be supplied. An agricultural journal is a necessity, and should not only act as a means of distributing knowledge, but should serve as a record of progress. It is unnecessary that such a publication should appear at fixed periods; in fact, it is better that it should not be designed to do so, as the limitation of time in the preparation of a contribution may detract from its completeness and consequent value. 68 AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS AND RESEARCH A reference library and well-fitted laboratories are two essentials for the proper equipment of a scientific agricul- tural department, and the compilation of a museum should result from the careful arrangement of the material collected and examined. In describing the organization of a scientific section, it will be clear that I have had in mind for the most part the requirements of the country in which I recently undertook the organization and formation of an agricul- tural department. It is only necessary to add that the model indicated is that which has been applied to Egypt, and that certain modifications would be found necessary in every country in accordance with the local conditions. In the main, however, it would probably be found adapt- able to many tropical or sub-tropical countries. ORGANIZZAZIONE DEI SERVIZI AGRARI IN TRIPOLITANIA. Per il Professore E. DE CILLIS. Direttore delVUfficio Agrario. SCOPPIATA la guerra tra la Turchia e 1' Italia, ed iniziata I'occupazione della Libia, mentre ancora duravano le operazioni guerresche, il Governo italiano inviava nella primavera del 1912 una missione di tre tecnici, allo scopo di procedere allo studio del paese dal punto di vista agrologico. Prima che si potessero adottare dei prov- vedimenti intesi a favorire I'agricoltura e la coloniz- zazione, era appunto necessario che fossero conosciute con la possibile maggiore esattezza le condizioni di una regione, che fra tutte quelle africane era stata meno esplorata e meno descritta. In seguito agli studi eseguiti dalla missione, una prima relazione veniva presentata al Ministero di agricoltura1 e pubblicata nello stesso anno. L'anno successive, pacificata la Tripolitania in grandis- sima parte, una seconda missione, formata da un numero molto maggiore di componenti, specialisti nelle varie discipline, fu inviata dal Governo italiano. Essa ebbe campo di visitare tutta la Tripolitania settentrionale, e cioe 1'intera regione costiera e la parte marginal^ del- Taltopiano. Anche essa presento una relazione in due volumi, che venne pubblicata lo stesso anno.2 Contemporaneamente la Societa per lo studio della Libia, costituitasi in Italia, inviava una Commissione propria, che si proponeva a preferenza lo studio agro- logico del Gebel, ed anche questa Commissione, compiuto 1 Ministero di agricoltura, industria e commercio. " Ricerche e studi agrologici sulla Libia." Vol. i°, La zona di Tripoli. Bergamo : Arti Grafiche. 1912. 2 Ministero delle Colonie. La Tripolitania settentrionale. Roma : G. Bertero. 1913. 70 AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS AND RESEARCH il suo lavoro, nelle primavera del 1914, pubblicava una relazione propria.3 In tal modo gli studi preliminari intorno alle condizioni dell'ambiente fisico, della tecnica e della economica- agraria della regione, ed a quelle sociali della popolazione possono dirsi completi. Ed e notevole il fatto che le tre relazioni s'integrano e si completano, giungendo a risultati comuni, per cui la Tripolitania, nella sua parte piu interessante, che e quella settentrionale, la piu adatta senza dubbio ad un progresso piu o meno rapido nel- ragricoltura e ad esser colonizzata da ekmenti italiani, puo dirsi oggi sufficientemente ed esattamente conosciuta. I risultati ai quali sono giunti i lavori delle tre missioni concordano nel riconoscere che la Tripolitania setten- trionale, in gran parte della sua superficie, puo essere utilizzata mediante Tincremento della coltura asciutta di essenze arboree (olivo, mandorlo, vite, carrubbo, fico d'india ed altre) ed erbacee (orzo, frumento); in minor parte, mediante la coltivazione irrigua delle piu svariate specie di piante dei paesi caldi; e quindi generalmente si presta ad una conveniente colonizzazione per parte di elementi italiani. Sulle basi di queste conclusioni, che abbiamo molto succintamente trascritte, e sulle proposte formulate dalle tre Commissioni, il Governo italiano ha recentemente istituito in Tripolitania4 un Ufficio agrario, al quale sono stati affidati Timpianto e la direzione di tutti i servizi inerenti all'agricoltura ed alia colonizzazione.5 II programme di organizzazione e di attivita, che sara svolto dairUfficio agrario, puo riassumersi nelle sue grandi linee, nel modo seguente : — L'Ufficio agrario verra distinto in due grandi Sezioni; una amministrativa ed una tecnica. La Sezione amminis- trativa e destinata ad eseguire lo studio statistico ed economico della Regione; a seguire lo svolgersi della colonizzazione; a proporre ed attuare tutti i provvedi- 3 " La Missione Franchetti in Tripolitania (II Gebel)." Firenze, Milano : Filli Treves. 1914. 4 Con R. Decreto del 2 Marzo, 1914, No. 169. 5 In Tripolitania esiste un Ufficio economico, istituito fin dal 1912, per i servizi inerenti all'industria ed al commercio. AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS AND RESEARCH 7 1 menti diretti all'incremento dell'agricoltura locale e della colonizzazione. La Sezione tecnica e essenzialmente scientifica e sperimentale, e si occupera della soluzione dei problemi d'indole colturale, dal doppio punto di vista tecnico ed economico. La Sezione amministrativa avra la sua sede in Tripoli, insieme agli altri uffici di Governo. I servizi posti alia sua dipendenza sono i seguenti : — i° Servizio di statis'tica ed informazioni agrarie. — Esso sara diretto ad accertare e seguire metodicamente il movimento economico-agrario della Regione, e svolgera la sua azione : (a) con la formazione di un catasto agrario, per mezzo del censimento dei poderi, delle piantagioni e del bestiame; (b) mediante la compilazione di rapporti periodici sullo andamento delle colture, sulle principal! faccende agrarie, sulle previsioni e sul compute finale dei raccolti, sul movimento migratorio del bestiame, sull'oscillazione dei prezzi delle derrate agrarie sopra i mercati locali, suite domande ed offerte di compra-vendita dei terreni e prezzi relativi, sui fitti e contratti agrari diversi, sulla esporta- zione ed importazione delle derrate agrarie, ed in generate su tutti i fenomeni economici degni di rilievo; (c) mediante inchieste speciali eseguite nelle varie plaghe e sopra determinati argomenti. 2° Servizio della colonizzazione. — Esso svolgera il suo compito : (a) mediante ricerche dirette sulla disponibilita e qualita dei terreni colonizzabili; (b) con la pubblicazione di guide e monografie illus- tranti determinate plaghe e determinati tipi di coltura; (c) mediante carteggio informative diretto, fra TUfficio e gli agricoltori italiani o altri enti; (d) mediante consulenza tecnica ed aiuti morali diversi; (e) mediante ricerche sullo sviluppo della colonizzazione libera. 3° Servizio delle concessioni. — Esso si occupera di sperimentare la concessione dei terreni demaniali, appli- cando tipi contrattuali diversi, sopra poderi diversi per estensione, per sistema di coltura e per amministrazione. 4° Servizio del Genio rurale. — Comprendera gli studi e 72 AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS AND RESEARCH la esecuzione di opere dirette ad utilizzare le risorse naturali del paese, specialmente dal lato idraulico, ed a mettere alcune plaghe adatte in condizioni di essere facil- mente colonizzate. 5° Servisio dcU'agricoltura, propriamente detto. — Si occupera dello studio e deirattuazione di tutti i provvedi- menti diretti a favorire ragricoltura indigena e coloniale; quindi saranno a tale scopo adottati tutti i mezzi acconci a questo fine, quali pubblicazioni, sussidi e premi; distri- buzione di semi e piante; prove pubbliche di macchine e delle principali pratiche di coltivazione; impianto di stazioni di profilassi e cura delle malattie delle piante e degli animali; ed infine 1'applicazione di provvedimenti d'indole legislativa, diretti ad impedire la retrogradazione del patrimonio fondiario del paese ed a stimolarne Tincremento. La Sezione tecnica avra la sua sede centrale all'Ex- Scuola di agricoltura turca, poco distante dalla citta di Tripoli (contrada Messri); sopra i vasti terreni demaniali die circondano il caseggiato, e che si presentano di natura diversa (steppa a tipo vario, dune mobili) potranno agevol- mente impiantarsi i campi e le aziende sperimentali, destinate allo sviluppo del programma di.ricerche tecniche ed economiche, proprio a questa Sezione. Altri campi ed aziende sperimentali saranno poi man mano impiantati nelle varie regioni, ed i primi impianti avranno luogo a Sabrata, a Zliten ed a Tarhuna. Questa Sezione comprendera i seguenti riparti : — i° Sperimentazione tecnica. — Essa comprendera : (a) Campi sperimentali per le coltivazioni aboree ed erbacee irrigue, e per i vari sistemi di elevazione d'acqua e d'irrigazione; (b) Campi sperimentali per le coltivazioni arboree e erbacee asciutte; (c) Campi sperimentali forestali, diretti specialmente allo studio dei frangiventi e della fissazione delle dune mobili ; (d) Stazione zootecnica, diretta allo studio del migliora- mento delle razze locali, mediante selezioni ed incroci, ed allo studio delle varie pratiche di allevamento, e special- mente deH'alimentazione. AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS AND RESEARCH 73 (e) Stazione di meccanica agraria, diretta allo studio delle macchine e del lavoro relative, specialmente dal punto di vista deH'applicazione dei principi del dry- farming. 2° Sperim'entazione economica. — Essa sara fatta me- diante Timpianto di varie aziende irrigue ed asciutte, ad economia e con sistemi contrattuali diversi, ed airamminis- trazione successiva di queste aziende con vari sistemi di conduzione. In tal modo saranno specialmente resi evidenti i rapporti fra i vari fattori della produzione ed i vari capitali investiti, la loro singola ed armonica funzione, gli effetti economic! e la retribuzione spettante a ciascuno di essi. 3° Selezioni ed acclimatazioni. — Comprendera lo studio delle razze delle piante coltivate in Tripolitania, allo scopo del loro miglioramento e 1'introduzione di specie e di razze coltivate in altri paesi del Nord-Africa e altrove, al fine di sottoporle ad un lavoro di acclimatazione, per provare 1'utilita economica della loro introduzione. 4° Servizio meteorologico-agrario. — Esso comprendera 6 oss-ervatori regionali e 16 stazioni termo-udometriche, sparse nei vari punti della Tripolitania, anche i piu interni (Sokna, Ghadames, Murzuk) ed un osservatorio centrale, che raccogliera tutte le osservazioni dai vari uffici e li co- ordinera ai fini di uno studio completo della climatologia del paese in rapporto all'agricoltura. La Sezione sperimentale sara in rapporto con le istitu- zioni scientifiche italiane, per quelle ricerche e per lo studio di quei problemi d'indole strettamente scientifica e che potranno agevolmente studiarsi in Italia. Nel suo primo periodo di attivita, il personale dello Ufficio comprendera: un direttore; due capi servizio>; un segretario ed un int'erprete-traduttore; quattro tecnici; quattro assistenti; quattro capi-coltivatori; oltre il per- sonale amministrativo, tecnico e di servizio inferiori, necessario al normale funzionamento dei vari servizi. Per lo svolgimento dei diversi rami di attivita dello Ufficio agrario, trovasi impostata nel bilancio coloniale, per 1'esercizio 1914-15, la somma di Lire 716,000. Essa sara naturalmente man mano accresciuta negli anni succes- sivi, a misura che Tattivita deHJUfficio andra accre'scendosi ed irradiandosi nelle varie plaghe della Regione. ORGANIZATION OF RESEARCH WORK FOR TROPICAL AGRICULTURE. By Dr. C. J. J. VAN HALL. Chief of the Division for Plant Diseases, Department of Agriculture, Java. THE importance of scientific research is increasing every year, and tropical countries which possess a well- organized staff of able scientists, devoting themselves to agricultural research work, are reaping important benefits. Until recently tropical agriculture was wholly based upon empirical rules; planters as well as small proprietors were using methods adopted from their predecessors and their fathers. It gradually became recognized, however, that scientific research was indispensable, and that it could render the same important services to tropical agriculture as it had done already to agriculture in temperate climates. The entomologist was called to the tropics to investigate the life-history of the noxious insects and to find out methods of combating them. The botanist was asked to investigate the plant diseases caused by fungi or bacteria, and to find remedies. The chemist was called in to give his help for manurial ex- periments, for the analysis of fat and oil-containing plants, and for investigating new methods of preparing various products to improve their quality. The agrono- mist had to begin his investigations on methods of plant- ing, tillage, and pruning, on new varieties and their practical value, on green manures, cover-crops, and shade trees. The introduction of new plants and varieties became an important field of investigation, and the great importance of plant-breeding, so long neglected in the tropics, was at length recognized. The geologist had to give his help for the classification of soils and for finding new methods for ascertaining their value. The bacterio- logist could no longer be dispensed with when a thorough investigation of the character of soils was wanted. On AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS AND RESEARCH 75 the whole there is at the present time hardly a single branch of science which is not essential to the improve- ment of tropical agriculture. On the other hand, every effort to improve agricultural methods must be sustained by scientific research, and at the present time almost every planter is convinced that he cannot improve his methods without scientific help. There is, however, less agreement among the scientific men themselves regarding the method of helping the planter and regarding their position towards the man of practice. Speaking generally, we may say that there are two parties. The one consists of men who, above all, are anxious to do real scientific research work; they understand that they must keep in touch with agriculture, because they are working on behalf of it, but their work is more in the laboratory and in the experiment garden than in the field. The other party comprises those who, above all, are anxious to do practical work and to get practical results; they are well convinced that they must follow scientific lines, but they find more to do in the field than in the laboratory or the experiment garden. It cannot be said that these two parties have always lived in peace together; often they have been at variance, and there have been more or less vehement discussions as to who was right and who was wrong; the one was sometimes called "very scientific but not practical/' and the other " unscientific and superficial." I think we must be convinced that there is no reason for such an antagonism. Just as well people might fight about the question : Who has done the better work, the man who has grown the wheat, or the other who has made food of it ? Indeed, the one cannot do without the other. And here we are coming to the point. With all research work done on behalf of agriculture it must be fully realized that we are concerned with applied science, and that there are two sides to this work : the research of the thing itself and the investigation of its application. They are equally important and scientific, and must be done with the same intelligence and the same application if success is to be assured. 76 AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS AND RESEARCH In organizing an Institute for agricultural research work, whether it be part of a Department of Agriculture, an Experiment Station, or any other Institute, the organizer will have to take care that opportunity is afforded for the development of both kinds of work, which we may call, for convenience sake, the laboratory work and the field work. Every branch of applied science has thus its two sides. In phytopathology the worker in the laboratory has to find out the cause of the plant diseases; he has to study the life of the fungus and its host-plant, its behaviour outside the host-plant in pure cultures, its resistance against different disinfectants and its other characters; he has to make inoculation experiments in the experi- ment garden on different plants, and to study the influence of different circumstances on the effect of the inoculation. The task of the worker in the field is to study the influence of external conditions, such as planting dis- tance, way of pruning, drainage, soil, etc., and the appearance and spread of the disease; he has to make experiments with different fungicides and to ascertain the best method of fighting the disease; he has to con- sider the cost of the different remedies and the gain obtained by their use; and he has to test in the field different varieties as to their powers of resistance against disease. In economic entomology the division of labour is about the same; the laboratory man cultivates the noxious insects and makes a very detailed study of their life in captivity; and he endeavours to import from other countries natural enemies of these insects. The man in the field studies the appearance of the insects in the field, the influence of different methods of cultivation, of crop- rotation, and the value and cost of the application of insecticides and other methods of combating the pest. In geology the worker in the field makes a "flying survey " of the soils, and notes the natural vegetation and the growth and yield of different crops; he takes samples of these soils and sends them to the laboratory, where the laboratory man makes a petrographic study of the samples and studies their physical and chemical characters. AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS AND RESEARCH *JJ Little need be said about the research work in the laboratory and the arrangement of the laboratories and the experiment gardens. It should be remembered, however, that the best work does not always issue from the best equipped laboratories; one with the most com- plete installations and the most refined apparatus takes more time from the scientist than a more simple one, and we must remember what splendid work is often done in primitive laboratories. It seems to me of greater importance to arrange things so that the laboratory man can do his research work undisturbed, without being called upon to perform other duties. Experimental work always takes much time, and good scientific research can only be effected when one can devote himself entirely to it. Therefore, let the laboratory man be troubled as little as possible with administrative work, with educa- tional work, or anything of this kind. Give him his experimental garden close to his laboratory, so that he can walk into it at any moment he chooses, to inspect his breeding plots, his insect house, or his infection experiments. Do not hurry him to get results too soon —research work done in a hurried way is always bad work — but give him an opportunity to go into the questions as thoroughly as he can to obtain results of fundamental importance. The scientist in the field, whether he be geologist, botanist, entomologist, or chemist, has to work in quite another way. He has to investigate the methods of cultivation and to improve them. His part of the work is to put into practice new methods and to investi- gate their practical value, the expenses, and yield obtained. It is an error to think that this can be done in an experiment garden ; the conditions here are different from those on a plantation or in the field of the small proprietor, and this fact makes it impossible to get In the experiment garden a clear and complete account of any new method, be it the application of a manure, a spraying method, a method of tilling, pruning, or crop rotation. There are only two ways by which conclusive results may be obtained : either the scientist himself must carry 78 AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS AND RESEARCH on the experiment on the fields of some large experiment plantation, or he must do it on a plantation in collabora- tion with the manager of the plantation (or on a field of a small labourer in collaboration with the owner). The last-mentioned method is to be preferred; it has two great advantages : — (1) In collaboration with a practical planter or native proprietor, the methods can be investigated thoroughly from a real practical point of view. (2) For the demonstration and propagation of a success- ful new method an experiment on a plantation or a field of a small proprietor is much more effective than one carried out in an experiment garden or an experiment plantation. A few examples may be given in support of this con- tention : — • Experiments to fight the witch-broom disease of cocoa in Surinam were started in 1904 and 1905 on three planta- tions in collaboration with the managers. The method applied consisted in removing the entire leaf-^bearing crown, followed by spraying — a rather drastic measure, about which most of the planters were very sceptical. After a few years experimenting, however, we knew not only that the method successfully eradicated the disease, but we knew also exactly what expenses for labour, tools, etc., it required, and the practical difficulties the planter had to be prepared to meet when he applied it himself. Further, the neighbours and other planters came to the plantation occasionally to follow the results, and when we were convinced of the success of the method it was unnecessary to begin a campaign for demonstrating, propagating, or advertising the method. This result could never have been obtained so quickly if the experi- ment had been carried out in an experiment garden. It is quite true that not every planter and not every small proprietor is fit for such a collaboration, and it is an important part of the task of the scientist in the field to select the right man. Breeding experiments with cocoa and coffee were com- menced two years ago by one of the private experiment stations in Java. The work was started on two cocoa AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS AND RESEARCH 79 estates and one coffee estate in collaboration with the managers. The botanist drew up a scheme, according to which some thirty trees were selected by the managers on each estate; these were kept under observation by the managers, who noted down particulars as to the appear- ance of diseases, yield, quality of produce, etc., in accord- ance with the scheme made. As a result of these obser- vations some of the trees have been eliminated, only the very superior ones being kept. The managers then carried out experiments to surround the selected trees by suitable cages to prevent pollination from neighbour- ing trees. This year (1914) seed will be collected, and the descendants of each tree will be grown in separate fields, so that the planters, together with the botanist, will be able to form an opinion as to the value of each strain of coffee and cocoa plants. Putting it into a few words : the scheme was made by the botanist, the work was done by the planters, and only occasionally was it necessary for the botanist to visit the plantation to see if the work was going on satisfactorily and to help in eliminating difficulties. Such experiments are not only valuable for obtaining improved races of coffee and cocoa, but at the same time the planters are educated to become plant breeders. The advantages of collaboration between the scientist and the practical man have also been proved in the efforts made in Java to improve the cultural methods of the small proprietors. At first the Government established several " demon- stration fields," on which the travelling instructor had different plots, made by his own workmen, to demonstrate new cultural methods or new crops to the Javanese small proprietors. The effect, however, was very poor. Whether the Javanese farmers inspected the demon- stration field or not they kept to their old methods. Therefore, another way was tried. The travelling in- structor now selects a few of the most intelligent and most forward of the small proprietors, and induces them to apply the new methods or to try the new crops on their fields. If it is a success they adopt the new method, and it is remarkable how quickly the neighbours follow their example. 80 AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS AND RESEARCH This general outline will serve to give an idea of the scheme of organization as regards the division of labour in the laboratory and the field, and of the character of these two phases of the work. There is, however, another matter not less important than the organization of a right division of labour, and that is to ensure a proper collaboration between the two workers. It need hardly be said that the man in the laboratory must be kept informed as to the results of the field ex- periments, and often his attention will be called to new objects for investigation. On the other hand, the worker in the field needs the results of the laboratory work in order to organize his experiments on a rational basis. Only by keeping in close touch with each other can they work along the right lines. Between the different branches of science also a good relationship is necessary. Very often the botanist will have to refer to the geologist, to the chemist, etc., for information and help. Such a collaboration will enable each man to acquire a knowledge of the lines of work of the department or station as a whole, and this know- ledge will be of importance to all the scientists. In a very interesting paper, Circular No. 117 of the Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture (Wash- ington, 1913), on " The Bureau of Plant Industry, its Function and Efficiency," Mr. Galloway, the Chief of the Bureau, makes this interesting statement: "The future success of the Department " [of Agriculture in the United States] " will depend in large measure on each man being made to feel a personal responsibility as to the details of his work and at the same time realize that he must lend his full support to matters of general policy which concern the division of which he is a member and the department as a whole." It has often been said that schemes are things not fit to be followed. I am convinced that the sentence quoted is just as applicable to the scheme I put forward here as to others. In organizing agricultural departments and experiment stations we have to reckon with local conditions, with AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS AND RESEARCH 8 1 the funds available, with the scientific men we can get for the work, and with many other conditions which often compel us to arrange things differently from the scheme I propose. It may be well at this point to mention the conditions obtaining in the Dutch East Indian Colonies. As regards the estates, several private experiment stations have been established, each being devoted to one or to a few special cultures, like tea, or coffee and rubber, etc. They are situated in the centre of the districts where the particular crops are grown. This makes them very suitable for experimental and demonstration work on the plantations. The staff of scientists, however, is not always large enough to do all the research work as completely as is desirable. On the other hand, the Department of Agriculture can hardly ever be made sufficiently large and extensive to do all the local experi- mental work in the field. Under the present Director of Agriculture arrangements have been made to ensure as far as possible a proper division of work, and there has been loyal co-operation in this respect, much of the research work being done by the staff of the Department, and much of the field work by the scientists of the stations. In order to keep in close touch with each other combined visits are made frequently to the plantations, and once a year all the scientists of the stations and of the Depart- ment meet for a few days to discuss the work and the way of collaborating. As regards the small labourers, each district has its own agricultural instructor; these instructors have all taken a course of study at the Agricultural High School in Holland, and have passed additional examinations in Buitenzorg. Their duty is to carry out the experiments in collaboration with the native small proprietor; the laboratory work or research work, in the strict jense of the word, is done by the botanists, entomologists, geologists, or chemists of the division to which the subject belongs, be it the investigation of a plant disease, a manurial experiment, or any other investiga- tion. Between the workers in the laboratory and the agricultural instructors frequent interviews are held, and 6 82 AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS AND RESEARCH combined visits to the fields are made to fix the work and ensure collaboration. In other countries different arrangements may have to be made. But whatever the adaptations to special con- ditions may be, it must always be the aim of the organizer to provide facilities for pure research work in the labora- tory and experiment garden, as well as for experimental work in the field. Opportunity must be made to enable the man carrying on research to work as freely as pos- sible, to go very thoroughly into the question, and to make his work as fundamental as possible; no hurrying whatever, simply to obtain practical results quickly, must be allowed. The experimenter in the field must go straight to his object, and for this purpose opportunity must be made for him to work in close collaboration with the planter or native farmer. By this means it will be possible to attain a practical success, and at the same time to demonstrate the new method. Our endeavours to improve agricultural methods in the tropics must always depend on the united efforts of these two scientists. SANITATION AND HYGIENE ON TROPICAL ESTATES. NOTES ON TROPICAL HYGIENE AND PLANTATION WORK AND THE ANTI-MALARIAL CAMPAIGN IN THE FEDERATED MALAY STATES. By C. L. SANSOM, F.R. C.S.Ed., M.R.C.S.Eng., D.P.H. Dublin. Principal Medical Officer, F.M.S. AND F. D. EVANS, A.M.Inst.C.E. Executive Engineer, Malaria Advisory Board, F.M.S. THE subject of the problems of tropical hygiene and preventive medicine which arise in plantation work is a large one; to deal with it comprehensively in a short contribution would be impossible, and all that is attempted now is a brief reference to a few of the most interesting and important facts, to experiences which may be of value, and to some general conclusions which have been arrived at in the Federated Malay States. In this country, as in many others, those who control plantations are realizing that good health is absolutely necessary, and that a robust labour force is the great factor in the management of an estate economically. We depend on immigrant labour, which for agricultural purposes is mainly recruited from Southern India. Estates have their reputation to maintain in India, and those places where much sickness prevails find it difficult and expensive to obtain labourers; hence even the engagement of workers is hampered by bad health. Estates with a good reputation not only recruit labour at less expense, but are able to secure more vigorous individuals who, of course, require less medical attention, do more work on each day, and work more days in each month; whereas the unhealthy estate pays 84 SANITATION AND HYGIENE ON TROPICAL ESTATES a higher recruiting rate, and generally obtains a less satisfactory type of individual, who does less work each day and works fewer days each month. At the same time, to get and keep him a higher rate of pay has frequently to be given : this is in addition to the expense of caring for a large percentage of sick persons. All the foregoing appears so very obvious that it would hardly seem necessary to mention it, yet many of those who are connected with agricultural undertakings are still apparently unconvinced that substantial and permanent prosperity is so very dependent upon good health, and that expenditure on the prevention of sickness is not only humanitarian, but highly productive, sound, and business-- like. Immigrant labour has been immensely valuable in this country, but the introduction of labourers to a tropical area but recently opened up has certain drawbacks, none of which are really insuperable. In the first place, the recruiting of Indian labourers from remote districts, where they have not been living under good hygienic conditions, increases the risk of introducing infectious diseases. Before April, 1911, many estates were put in quarantine every year because new arrivals brought serious illness themselves, or in their clothing. To combat this difficulty a system of detention for seven days on arrival was instituted; this period, added to the five or six days at least spent on board the steamer, has proved sufficient for the detection of anyone1 incubating illness and to prevent the spread of it amongst the labour forces on estates. The result of the system has been particularly gratifying; since its adoption (with one exception — a delayed in- cubation case of small-pox) no estate has been infected by new arrivals. When it is stated that over 100,000 persons arrived during the year 1913, and many of them proved to be infected, the advantage of the system needs no further comment. The method is as follows: On arrival of the ship the immigrants are taken to the deten- tion camp and separated into groups, vaccinated, and clothing and persons are disinfected. At the end' of a week, if found free from disease, they are distributed to the various estates who have recruited them. A further SANITATION AND HYGIENE ON TROPICAL ESTATES 85 advantage of the system is that the immigrant has a period of rest after the voyage, and is well fed for a week before commencing work, and as many of them only come because they are poor and possibly on the verge of destitution in India, the benefits of a rest and good food are considerable, and it has been found that all gain weight during their detention in the camp; thus they start work in better physical condition than if they were sent direct to the place of their employment. A Labour Code (No. 6 of 1912) is in force which provides for the pro- tection of the health of labourers. Protection measures on individual estates will now be discussed, and it is first necessary to mention the dangers a labour force in the tropics is confronted with. The most important are cholera, dysentery, ankylostomiasis, small-pox, and malaria. Cholera, dysentery, and anky- lostomiasis can be prevented by attention to water supply and sanitation. When water is obtained from a stream or spring this must be kept uncontaminated, and when obtained from a well, the well should be lined, covered, and fitted with a pump, care being taken that no seepage can find its way into it from the near neighbourhood. Open wells are dangerous : not only can various objection- able matter be thrown into them and dirty vessels be used for lifting water out, but coolies habitually dip their loin cloths into open wells, and this is obviously attended with evil consequences. Drinking water in the tropics is generally warm and particularly suited to the develop- ment of disease germs, and the greatest possible care of it will be well repaid. Daily efficient scavenging and the provision of adequate latrine accommodation near the barracks of a labour force will keep down the incidence of dysentery and prevent the spread of ankylostomiasis. If the manager in control of a plantation takes peculiar care of these two necessaries of life — drinking water and scavenging — he will go a long way towards keeping his labour force healthy and fit for work. Small-pox will be prevented by vaccination. Malaria is- undoubtedly one of the greatest scourges in the tropics. It is argued — and there is good reason for accepting the argument — that the movements of peoples 86 SANITATION AND HYGIENE ON TROPICAL ESTATES in a tropical area increase the virulence of malaria, and apparently people who are but slightly affected in one tropical country become seriously affected when moved to another. Again, it is recorded that increases of population in areas subject to malaria add very largely to the virulence and intensity of the disease. In the Malay States malaria has to be reckoned upon and dealt with by the planter, the haunts of the malaria-carrying mosquito must be obliterated if he is to keep his labour force efficient; in fact, in some cases, if he is to keep a labour force at all. The Federated Malay States Government has instituted a Malaria Advisory Board to investigate the best methods of preventing malaria and to show how these can be carried out, and the Executive Engineer attached to the Board will, in the latter part of this paper, describe and discuss the work done. Finally, attention is called to the Annual Reports of the Principal Medical Officer, Federated Malay States, for 1911 and 1912. It will be seen from these that the death-rate amongst estate labourers has fallen enor- mously. The figures for 1913 are 29 per 1,000, as against 60 per 1,000 in 1911. This reduced mortality is largely due to protection of water supplies, better housing, better sanitation, anti-malarial measures, and last, but not least, more individual attention to the labourer, and especially to his food. To argue that all a planter needs to do is to see that a labourer gets a little rice, and expect good health and good work as a consequence is foolish. Rice alone is not sufficient; even if enough rice is eaten to supply the amount of energy required for an ordinary day's work, the bulk of that amount is not and cannot be digested. Male labourers are not as a rule efficient cooks, and are often careless about their cooking; they are also addicted to the habit of cooking a supply for more than one day, so that what is kept over from the first day becomes sour and unwholesome. Attention to the food supply of a labour force is essential; this has been widely recognized here, and the good results of such attention are very obvious wherever it has been given. Sonie who are expert in the management of their labourers supply cooked rations without finding difficulties. This is the SANITATION AND HYGIENE ON TROPICAL ESTATES 8/ best way. Others see that proper meals are cooked and consumed. Whatever system is carried out it should be part of the manager's duty to attend to this, and in no case will it fail to benefit the labourer and increase the returns to the estate from the labour force. These few notes are hurriedly put together in the hope that our experiences may be useful to those engaged in plantation work in the tropics. Effort has been made to use the simplest language and avoid technical terms, and only a few of the most important points have been men- tioned; but if these few points are recognized and adequately dealt with by the planter, many costly evils can be definitely prevented. As mentioned earlier in this paper, malaria is one of the greatest scourges of the tropics, and it is particularly severe in the Malay States. With the growth of the planting industry and the consequent introduction of Tamil labour from Southern India, the effects of malaria became so marked as to call for special activity on the part of Government. Death-rates on some very malarious estates rose at times to as much as 500 and 600 per 1,000 per annum. Government insisted through the Health Department on many expensive sanitary reforms and general measures, and these, as stated, have been successful in reducing abnormally high death-rates, but have had less marked effect on malarial sickness. On the flat lands near the coast agricultural improve- ment of the land, coupled with the housing of coolies some distance from undrained jungle, as persistently advocated by Dr. Watson and others, had the desired result of practically abolishing malaria, but in the hill- lands these measures produced no results, and the reason for this will appear later. Towns situated in hill-land have also suffered severely, and from time to time various measures have been tried without much benefit. This was not in most cases due to the wrong advice of medical officers, but to the lack of thoroughness in carrying their advice to a logical conclusion, and a few years ago the attitude of authority was to view malaria as an unfor- tunate but unavoidable evil in hill-land. 88 SANITATION AND HYGIENE ON TROPICAL ESTATES Kuala Lurnpur, the capital of the Federated Malay States, suffered in common with all other similarly situated towns, and the death-rate from malaria for the five years 1907 to 1911 averaged 9*56 per 1,000 per annum. As a large number of officials live in the town, and these were continually attacked by malaria, their com- plaints were sufficient to cause Government to take action. The splendid results obtained from the anti-malarial campaign on the Isthmus of Panama showed that thorough work properly directed was capable of effecting the desired improvement. Kuala Lumpur has a population of about 50,000 inhabitants, there are some swamps situated along the banks of the rivers, but the principal breeding places of malaria-carrying mosquitoes were found to be in the ravines among the hills surrounding the town. Apart from these places the town was fairly well drained. In 1908 funds were provided to enable the Public Works Department to attempt thorough drainage as an anti- malarial measure in the ravines. The work proceeded in a desultory fashion until 1911 without success, and in that year Government, at the instance of the Principal Medical Officer, appointed a Malaria Advisory Board to control and direct measures to be taken against malaria throughout the Federated Malay States. In addition to various general decisions the Board decided, first, completely and thoroughly to drain a section of Kuala Lumpur, which was typical of malarious hill-land, and which could serve as an example. The work was rapidly carried out, and by the end of 1911 a large area of Kuala Lumpur had been thoroughly drained. The work was continued, and at the end of 1913 an area of about 3,100 acres, including almost the whole of the hill-land, had been drained. The swamps are now being dealt with, and by the end of the current year (1914) work on all these should at least be well in hand. Before discussing the results of the work it will be as well to understand what are the requirements of anti- malarial drainage. Malaria is carried by certain varieties of anopheiine mosquitoes. Mosquitoes will not breed in running water; hence if all water in any district flows with a fair velocity in channels free from obstruction, SANITATION AND HYGIENE ON TROPICAL ESTATES 89 mosquitoes cannot continue to exist in that district. Owing to careless wording in the writings of some authorities, an idea is prevalent that certain mosquitoes can breed in running water. To disabuse the mind of this incorrect notion, it is only necessary to remember that mosquito larvae are for two or three days at least quite helpless, or nearly so. Mosquitoes breed in the pools formed along streams and among the weeds and algae of their margins; and it is owing to the way pools are formed along hill-streams and ordinary earth drains in hill country owing to violent flooding during rains, that hill-land drained to a certain standard for agriculture yet remains a breeding ground for mosquitoes, and hence is often malarious. In addition, hill-land is full of springs which are constantly breaking out in fresh places. To drain hill-land thoroughly it was necessary to use agricultural pipe drains, although their use was attended by great difficulty, and, it may be remarked, that except in the case of work carried out under the Malaria Advisory Board, often resulted in much expense, and at least partial failure. A description of the work cannot be given here, but it is hoped that an exposition of the methods employed will shortly be available. It may be stated, however, that complete success has attended the work of the Board, and that the most precipitous country has been drained at a very moderate cost, and that thorough drainage can now be employed with confidence on any ground by those properly qualified to under- take it. The results of the work in Kuala Lumpur are most satisfactory, and demonstrate in a striking manner the advantage of anti-malarial drainage well carried out. Unfortunately, the returns are still effected by the con- tinued existence of four large swamps, known to breed anopheline mosquitoes, where filling work is in progress under the Public Works Department, and what malarial sickness remains in the town is largely due to these swamps. The table below gives the true death-rate and the malarial death-rate for each year since 1907: — 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 True death-rate per 1,000 ... 37-9 437 32-3 30-3 39-4 367 35-5 Malarial death-rate per 1,000 ... 9-7 107 77 9*8 9*9 5*8 4'2 90 SANITATION AND HYGIENE ON TROPICAL ESTATES Malaria does not, as a rule, prove fatal, except after many attacks, and the reduction in the malarial death- rate means an enormous reduction in malarial sickness. In a town situated as Kuala Lumpur the " true " death- rate will always be higher than the " real," as only one month's residence is needed for a person to be classed as a resident, and there will always be a significant death- rate from malaria while it exists on the borders of the town, but malaria can and will be practically eradicated from Kuala Lumpur. Further interesting figures are available in the health returns of the Police Depot, Kuala Lumpur, for the years 1910 to 1913 inclusive Sikh and Pathan police recruits are trained for a few months only at the depot, so that the population constantly changes, and conditions are, therefore, favourable to severe malaria. The following table gives the average monthly percentage of Indian recruits at the depot who were detained in hospital or given sick leave for malaria monthly : — 1910 1911 1912 1913 Average monthly percentage ... 35*8 ... 57^0 ... 27-3 ... 11*3 The protective works here were practically completed early in 1912, except for the continued existence of one of the swamps mentioned above, which still affects the health of the depot and the town in the neighbourhood. Very few places can show a sickness-rate to compare with that given for 1911 above, when on an average every Indian recruit was attacked by malaria seven times in the year. Owing to the great improvement in the health conditions all recruits suffering from malaria are now admitted to hospital. Formerly there were too many cases to allow of this being done. Amongst the Government Officers and their servants, who live in a completely drained area, few cases of malaria have occurred since the beginning of 1912, and none of these have been reported by the medical authori- ties as having been infected or reinfected in the area itself. Formerly these officers suffered severely. That the improvement in the malarious condition of Kuala Lumpur has been due to the works undertaken is SANITATION AND HYGIENE ON TROPICAL ESTATES QI proved by the persistence of malaria in the neighbour- hood of the swamps already referred to, and also on the limits of the drained area. Several new bungalows on the north-west of the original area were occupied early in 1913, and nearly all the occupants were attacked by malaria. Since the middle of the year, when drainage work in the neighbourhood (commenced in January) afforded definite protection, no new cases have occurred. Temporary quarters were built for 200 Tamil coolies on the western limit of the drained area early in 1913. The Tamil coolies, who had not had malaria for the previous year or two, were attacked so severely that they had to be removed back within the drained area, with immediate improvement. An attempt to house Chinese coolies in the quarters had similar results, and the quarters have been abandoned. Rubber estate coolies to the south of the drained area suffered from malaria, and the estate authorities have, during the past few months, carried out a thorough drainage scheme to protect them, with the assistance of the executive officers to the Board. The experience and the results obtained from the work in Kuala Lumpur are very convincing, and anti-malarial drainage on similar lines is to be applied to all the malarious towns in the Federated Malay States. The executive officers of the Malaria Advisory Board have also supervised anti-malarial drainage work on many other estates, and it may be mentioned that their services are available to private authorities without charge, upon request. In order to have definitely conclusive proof to offer to estate owners of the good and economy to be derived from anti-malarial drainage, the executive staff are now carrying out a demonstration scheme on a very malarious estate, where everything that ordinary sani- tation and medical practice can suggest, short of mosquito destruction and mechanical protection, has already been tried without success. Full particulars of the work on this estate and the health returns will be made public from time to time. Dr. C. A. Benfly remarked at Madras in 1912 that drainage and jungle clearing, in order to eradicate malaria effectively, must be accompanied by extension and 92 SANITATION AND HYGIENE ON TROPICAL ESTATES improvement in agriculture. By this he undoubtedly meant that such works were not likely to remain effective unless extension and improvement of agriculture formed part of the general scheme; in other words, that subsequent maintenance of anti-malarial works was of equal import- ance to their proper execution. Provision must be made for maintenance at the time when the works are pro- vided for. Whatever arguments are put forward for the good to be derived from any particular measures affecting health, they are not likely to be productive of action on the lines advocated, unless it can be shown conclusively that such measures will result in a sufficient return to those who undertake them. It is not anticipated that the fact that proper and thorough drainage will eradicate malaria will be disputed, as the point was proved many times even before the method by which the disease is transmitted was established. The object of this portion of the paper is to show that sufficient knowledge has been gained for a definite statement to be made as to the cost of eradicating malaria in the Federated Malay States, and hence in other similarly situated countries. The original cost of thoroughly draining hill-land in the Malay States, unless it possesses quite exceptional features, will not exceed $36 (£4 45.) per acre of gross area drained, and will generally be much less. (The rates of wages for labourers are: Tamils — 35 cents — about iod., and Chinese — about 65 cents — about is. 6d. per day.) Thorough drainage in hill towns will cost, as a rule, a little more than this, as many features have to be included which should really form part of ordinary town drainage, and more attention must be paid to appearance. The cost of maintenance may be accepted as about 10 per cent, of the first cost in the year following construction, and 5 per cent, in subsequent years; these are the maximum normal figures, but it must be remembered that undesir- able saving in expenditure on construction will most certainly lead to heavier charges for maintenance, and also that maintenance should commence on the day that construction ceases. It is at present considered necessary to drain all land SANITATION AND HYGIENE ON TROPICAL ESTATES 93 thoroughly within a distance of half a mile of a dense population, although a less distance will give adequate protection to a scattered population, and local circum- stances must be considered in this connection. From the rate per acre given above the approximate cost of an anti-malarial drainage scheme in any locality can easily be obtained by those having a full knowledge of local con- ditions. A close estimate of the cost of any particular works can only be prepared by an engineer who has had experience of the work required. One point needs special consideration in any scheme for thorough drainage as an anti-malarial measure, and that is, whether it is better to concentrate the population it is desired to protect or to protect it in a scattered condition. There can be no doubt that at least partial concentration is economical, and the cost, il any, of moving buildings on this account should be added to the cost of the drainage scheme to obtain the total cost. No difficulty can attach to concen- tration of population either in a town or on most agricul- tural estates, but further experience is needed before a pronouncement can be made in connection with areas under rice cultivation and other similar areas. Against the expenditure on thorough drainage has to be set the great improvement to health conditions which will undoubtedly follow, and in particular on estates, in which this Congress is interested, the greater working capacity of the labour force, the greater efficiency of the labour force consequent on better management resulting from more active supervision on the part of a healthy manager and assistants, reduction in recruiting ex- penses due to improved reputation, and reduction in medical administration charges. The greater working capacity and efficiency of the labour force following improved health conditions will usually be the most important, although there are many estates in the Malay States where the reduction in medical administration charges alone, if malaria were eliminated, would pay for a thorough drainage scheme in about three years, and these are by no means the worst cases. The differ- ence in cost of labour per unit of output from a well and a badly managed labour force can easily amount to 50 per 94 SANITATION AND HYGIENE ON TROPICAL ESTATES cent, or more, especially when the force works for day wages. On a malarious estate in Selangor, having a manager and six assistants, there have been occasions when only one has not been confined to his quarters with malaria. Efficient management is impossible under such conditions. In conclusion, it may be remarked that anti-malarial measures require to be carried out with a thoroughness which can only be appreciated by those connected with the work, and no anti-malarial measure is likely to succeed unless it is under the immediate supervision of a responsible and competent officer who is keenly interested in its success. Medical officers can effect little as regards thorough drainage without the co-operation of engineers, and it rests with them, therefore, not only to initiate action on this problem, but also to interest the engineers who will be connected with its solution. This can rarely be accomplished in any way other than by personal effort. It should be borne in mind also that failure in the demon- stration of measures calculated to improve health has a most serious effect on public opinion and the mind of authority, and it is on this account far better when endeavouring to carry out such an economical improve- ment as the eradication of malaria to make sure of it being thoroughly well done in one locality, when the rest can safely be left to public opinion and authority, rather than to risk the possibility of failure, by inadequate work in many localities. Reduction of malarial sickness follows good thorough drainage so quickly that there is no fear of the public neglecting to couple the cause with the improvement. AGRICULTURAL CREDIT BANKS AND CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES. AGRICULTURAL CREDIT BANKS AND CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES, By SIR JAMES DOUIE, K. C.S.I. Late Financial Commissioner in the Punjab. THE decade from 1840 to 1850 was a very noteworthy one in the history of co-operation. It saw the start of co-operative distribution in England and co-cperative credit in Germany, both of which have since grown to vast dimensions. History should assign very high places among the makers of modern Germany to Raiffeisen and Schulze, the authors of the two main types of co-operative credit societies. Indeed, their influence has spread far beyond the limits of the German Empire. I must assume in my hearers a general knowledge of the wonderful growth of co-operative credit in Europe. It is enough to note that there are now 17,000 banks of the Raiffeisen type, pure or modified, in Germany, four-fifths of which are united in an Imperial Federation, which also embraces about 8,000 other co-operative societies, 41 unions, and 77 central societies. A few years ago the membership of credit societies affiliated to this great federation amounted to 1,200,000 persons, and their working capital was £106,000,000, of which £102,000,000 consisted of deposits, while loans granted during the year amounted to 15^ millions, and payments on current accounts to 33^ millions. I cannot better describe the pure Raiffeisen type of bank than by setting out the constitution of the village banks affiliated to the Irish Agricultural Organization Society. (a) Limitation of area, so that all members may be acquainted with each other. 96 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT BANKS (b) Persons known to be sober, honest, and hard-work- ing eligible for membership. Poverty no bar. (c) No entrance fees or shares. (d) Members jointly and severally responsible for re- payment of all sums lent to or deposited in the bank. (e) Deposits bearing interest received from members and outsiders. (/) Loans made only to members and only for pro- ductive and economical purposes. (g) Period of loan sufficiently long to admit of its object being attained before repayment is demanded. (h) The borrower must produce two sureties. <* (/) No division of profits. They must be credited to a reserve fund. (&) Complete equality of members, the officials being elected at a general meeting. (/) No payments to officers, an exception being some- times made in the case of the Secretary. Raiffeisen was in favour of combining credit and trading functions in a single society, and this combination is often a feature of German rural banks. The Schulze Delitzsch type of bank is very different. Large areas are preferred. Shares, which nowadays are often pretty large, are held by the members, dividends are paid, and the percentage which may be allowed as the return to shareholders is not limited. Since the German law permitted limited liability the Schulze Delitzsch banks have mostly adopted it. Loans are, as a rule, granted for short periods. Service is not gratuitous. These banks, therefore, approach far more closely to the ordinary business bank, and there is always a risk of their becoming commercial undertakings pure and simple. They are not poor men's banks in the sense that Raiffeisen banks are. There is no reason why a farmer should not be a shareholder in a Schulze Delitzsch bank, and in Germany many farmers are. But the Raiffeisen bank meets far more fully the needs of the small peasant landholder, and to-day we may confine attention almost entirely to pure or modified examples of that type. Since 1889 shares have by law become a necessary feature of co-operative credit in Germany, but most Raffeisen banks AGRICULTURAL CREDIT BANKS 97 have kept their shares quite small and have clung to unlimited liability. Where limited liability has been adopted it bears a very different meaning from the term as used in England. It is deliberately arranged that shareholders shall only pay up a fraction, sometimes but a small fraction, of the nominal value of their shares, while their liability extends to the amount of such nominal value. Some of the Raiffeisen banks which followed the leadership of Herr Haas showed at one time a very undesirable tendency to rely on State aid. There is one feature of Raiffeisen banks on which their founder laid the greatest stress, and which figures pro- minently in the articles of the 4,000 banks included in the Raiffeisen Federation. It is declared that " the society rests upon a Christian and patriotic foundation," and among its objects is "the organization of means for the promotion of rural social welfare and love of home." It is this feature of Raiffeisenism which has specially appealed to the clergy, and one result has been the organization of a large number of successful rural banks in Italy which are really branches of the Roman Church organization, and whose members must be professed Catholics. Raiffeisen societies are run by popularly elected committees of management and boards of super- vision. The function of the latter is to scrutinize the executive work of the former and prevent imprudence or abuse. A further check has been provided by the group- ing of the rural banks in unions, with power to inspect and audit the accounts of all affiliated co-operative agricultural societies. For the purpose of financing rural banks central banks have been formed, the shares in which are held by agricultural co-operative societies. German rural banks as a whole have succeeded in attract- ing sufficient deposits to supply their wants in the way of loanable capital. One rural bank receives more *han it requires and another less. The former could lend direct to the latter, but it is far more convenient for both parties that its surplus should be deposited in a central bank, and thence distributed to the bank whose loans exceed its deposits. There is no time to speak of rural banks in other 7 98 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT BANKS European countries. In connection with the problem of indebtedness in India and tropical countries the case of Servia is, however, specially interesting. In that land of small peasant farmers usury was rampant, and its exactions so monstrous that the extreme step was taken of forbidding sales and mortgages without the consent of the authorities. At the close of 1908 Servia had over 800 village banks of the pure Raiffeisen type, liability being unlimited, and all profits being carried to the reserve fund. I shall have a word to say before I close of the uplifting effect of these village banks on the Servian peasantry. The lessons to be learned from European experience are that, where we are dealing with small peasant farmers the Raiffeisen type is the best. The absolutely essential points are limitation of area, the rigorous ex- clusion of unworthy members, the grant of loans only for productive or economical purposes and on the pro- duction of proper security, the enforcement of punctuality in repayment, and a thoroughly democratic organization. The question of shares or no shares, of limited or un- limited liability, of dividends or no dividends, are matters to be decided according to local circumstances. If there are dividends the maximum rate payable should be fixed, the figure should be moderate, and it should be a sine qua non that a considerable part of the annual profits should be carried to reserve. Where loans have to be taken by the bank it should establish a pretty wide margin between the rate it charges to members and the rate it pays. P-ersonal security is best. Securities consisting of mortgages are dangerous because realization may be difficult and the turnover tends to become too slow. Elee- mosynary loans of State money should be ruled out. Governments easily succumb to the temptation to bribe one class at the expense of another, and, whatever the result to the giver, the taker is not blessed. State loans, if given at all, should bear a rate of interest which pro- tects the general taxpayer from loss. Even so they are only justifiable as a temporary expedient. Their ten- dency is to make banks careless and to turn them aside from their real object of creating credit out of thrift. AGRICULTURAL CREDIT BANKS 99 The Government which finances rural banks will sooner or later claim an amount of control over them which will rob them of much of their power for good. The question whether a single society should be concerned with credit and with trade is one regarding which there is much difference of opinion. Except in the case of very small societies, I think the attempt to combine the two functions is inconvenient, if not dangerous. The problem which presents itself in Eastern and tropical countries is not identical with the European problem, because of the different character of the people at their present stage of development and the comparative absence of ordinary banking facilities. It is fortunate, therefore, that we have now eight years' experience of the successful working of rural banks in the different provinces of our Indian Empire, much of which is included in the tropics. It must also be remembered that in some of our tropical Crown Colonies East Indians are now an important element in the population. My own Indian experience was gathered from a long residence in the Punjab, and part of what I have to say has special reference to the state of things existing in that province. The Indian population is predominantly rural, being engaged either in tillage or in crafts ancillary to tillage. As a rule, land is cultivated in small parcels by peasant farmers, who are either tenants or owners. An ordinary holding in the Punjab, a land of small proprietors, is one of 6 or 7 acres. If the British Government did not create ownership in Northern India, it certainly made what was previously worth little a very valuable possession. It made titles secure by drawing up a complete record of rights, and it gave the landowner a substantial share in the profits of farming by limiting its demand for land revenue and assessing it for comparatively long terms. Finally, it established the pax Britannica. The result was a rapid extension of cultivation and a rise in the value of land, which to-day on the average sells in the Punjab at over a hundred times the land revenue. But the very success of the policy created a new problem. Ignorant peasants, hard-working but rarely thrifty, and on certain occasions, IOO AGRICULTURAL CREDIT BANKS e.g., at marriages, almost compulsorily extravagant, found they had become possessed of what was for their position in life large credit. They used it foolishly, and once a man was on the books of the local usurer he found himself on a slope, at the bottom of which was a slough of despond consisting of a practically irredeem- able mortgage of his holding. Fourteen years ago the Government took its courage in its hands and put severe restrictions on alienations of land to persons not belong- ing to agricultural tribes. For many years the Indian Government has offered loans for agricultural improvements at a rate of interest sufficient to secure itself against risk of loss. The usual rate is 6J per cent. Such State loans are known as takdvi. They are secured by the mortgage to Govern- ment of a sufficient part of the borrower's holdings. The periods allowed for recovery are ample. Large powers are taken to enforce repayment; but it is only in the rarest instances that resort to them is necessary, and takdvi is generally recovered with ease and regularity. The amount advanced in the Punjab in a recent year was £22,000. Contrast this with the sum of £414,000 lent to members by credit societies in 1912-13. The first Indian Act relating to Co-operative Credit Societies was passed in 1904. It was superseded in 1912 by an Act dealing with co-operative societies of all kinds having for their object " the promotion of the economical interests " of their members. It follows orthodox lines, but no attempt has been made to force into one mould societies spread over a vast territory inhabited by 300 millions of people of the most diverse creeds, characters, and social conditions. Here it is only necessary to notice one or two points affecting village agricultural credit societies. Societies are to consist of ten or more persons residing in the same town or village above the age of 18. The liability of the members is unlimited unless the Local Government otherwise directs. Loans may not be given on the security of movables without the sanction of the Registrar, and the Local Government is empowered to forbid or restrict loans secured by mortgages of real property: 25 per cent, of the profits must be credited to AGRICULTURAL CREDIT BANKS IOI reserve, and 10 per cent, may be devoted to charity. Government can prescribe a maximum rate of dividend on shares by rule. Societies, of course, can themselves provide for this in their by-laws. The most important thing to notice is the powers of audit, inspection, and control which the Government reserves. An annual audit must be made by the Registrar or under his orders. The audit must include an examination of overdue debts. The Registrar may carry out an inquiry into the state of any society of his own motion, and must do so on the demand of three-fourths of the members. If a creditor requests him to have the books inspected he must comply. If the result of the inquiry shows that it is necessary he can order the winding up of the society. I have only time to give you a few figures to illustrate the marvellous growth of agricultural co-operative credit in India in the eight years following the passing of the Act of 1904. In 1905-06 there were 283 banks with a membership of 28,629; in 1912-13, 12,324, with a member- ship of 573,536. The increase during the last year in the number of societies amounted to 50 per cent. The capital rose from £31,548 to £3,562,286. The distribution of the latter sum is interesting : — Per cent. Loans from other societies ... Loans (mostly deposits) from individuals . ..25 Deposits of members Share capital Reserve ... Loans from Government The loans made were in 1905-06, £22,696, and in 1912-13, £1,920,712. The most remarkable advance has been in the Punjab, where the energy of the peasants, and the fact that they own their own holdings, has supplied an excellent field for co-operation. In Burma an interesting- development is the starting of a number of insurance societies. The organization of the societies varies a good deal in different provinces. In Northern India the Bengal societies are nearest to the original Raiffeisen type. The Punjabi wanted shares and the prospect of future profit. The shares, valued at 10 rupees (or 135. 4d.) each, are **** # /l'fl V": ?*** •"* ^ 102 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT BANKS subscribed by instalments extending over ten years. In old banks, after ten years, members can withdraw fully paid-up shares, but they cannot withdraw their quota of the profit earned, which is allotted to them in fresh shares. No dividends are payable for ten years, and it will be necessary to fix a maximum that may be given thereafter if grave risk is to be avoided. In new societies the shares are not withdrawable, and it is to be hoped that the older societies will agree to modify their by-laws as regards this matter. It may be interest- ing to note the objects for which loans were granted in the Punjab in 1912-13: — Purchase of cattle ... Payment of old debts Payment of Government revenue Household expenses ... Fodder for cattle ... Marriage expenses Seed Redemption of mortgages Sinking of wells Other purposes Per cent. 26J 1 8 12 II 1O 7 5 i i The figures refer to number of loans granted. Nearly half the money advanced was for paying off old debts and redeeming mortgages. There are some signs in the Punjab that unpunctuality in repayment of loans by members may cause trouble. The Registrar has noted that " more care must be taken in admitting members and in making loans, and better security must be required." In the last resort it is always possible to order the winding up of a society that will not reform. Another danger, or rather, the same danger in another form, is the too ready renewal of loans or the grant of a new loan immediately after an old one has been nominally paid off. The village banks have been largely grouped in unions, and a number of central banks have also been formed. These societies are on the basis of limited liability. Most unions in India undertake not only the duty of promoting common action and providing .in- spection, but also that of financing the affiliated banks. The ordinary joint stock banks have begun to show their confidence in the co-operative central banks and unions and to supply them with funds when required. The most AGRICULTURAL CREDIT BANKS 1 03 usual rate of interest paid by central banks on deposits is 6 per cent., and the most usual rate charged on advances to village banks 9 per cent. The latter pay from 6 to 9 per cent, to depositors, and usually lend at 9§ and 12^ per cent. I ought to have said that shares in co-operative central banks in the Punjab are largely subscribed by private individuals. Fortunately, the Government has from the outset been chary in the matter of lending to societies. I have already noted how small a portion of the working capital is now represented by State money. In the Punjab it is less than i per cent. I think most people who know the East well will agree in thinking that as regards audit, inspection, and control, the attitude of the Government in India must for some years to come be very different from that which is befitting in Europe. I shall quote one or two remarks on this subject made by two Indian gentle- men at the yearly Conference of Registrars in 1912. Rai Bahadur Bishn Datta Shukul said: "If we ask our depositors and shareholders why they believe co-operative business to be sound, they invariably show that they attach tremendous importance to audit by the Registrar and his staff. ... I speak for the public of the Central Provinces when I say that the co-operative move- ment will fail altogether unless Government continues to supply a special audit staff." Rai Bahadur N. R. Kelker, who also belongs to the Central Provinces, said : Western theories and Western practice must be modi- fied to suit the requirements of the case. It will take years of hard, continuous, and patient labour, both on the part of officials and non-officials . . . before we can hope to see an organization independent of Govern- ment control and supervision. The possibilities of abuses and waste due to ignorance, if not to anything else, have to be avoided at any cost. ... If Government control is abruptly withdrawn at this stage . . . the movement as a whole will wither away. . . . Once the idea gets abroad that ' independence ' is contem- plated people will lose all confidence." Recent expo- sures of fraudulent marriage funds and joint stock banks in India have probably confirmed these two gentlemen IO4 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT BANKS in their views on this subject. In the Punjaub the controlling staff paid by Government consists of an English Registrar and Indian Assistant Registrar, seven inspectors and ten sub-inspectors; but unions and central banks pay for an additional inspecting staff, which also works under the orders of the Registrar. The enthusiasm displayed by some of the carefully chosen body of inspectors is most hopeful. They are not red- tape bureaucrats, but sometimes, on the contrary, deserve to be described as missionaries of co-operation. British Colonies and Dependencies are broadly divisible into countries in which people of European descent can do field work efficiently, and countries in which farm labour must be done by indigenous or imported coloured people. Tropical countries and a considerable area north and south of the tropics fall into the latter category. The difference is reflected in the form of administration. In the one class we have the self-governing Colonies, and in the other the Crown Colonies and our great Indian Dependency, where popular Government is impossible. So far as agricultural credit banks are concerned atten- tion may be confined to the coloured population, in- digenous or imported. It is unlikely that under present circumstances co-operative credit will appeal to farmers of European descent in our Colonies, or European land- owners, too often absentee, in the West Indies. Apart from the ordinary business sources of credit they will rely on State loans. The agricultural loans of Rhodesia, Australia, and New Zealand are identical in their nature with takdvi in India. In democratically governed coun- tries any system of State loans may lead to abuse, and this at least is essential, that they should be made at such a rate of interest as will safeguard the general taxpayer from loss. In this matter of agricultural co-operative credit in the tropics we have at present to think of three classes : - (a) East Indians. (b} Other Asiatics, as Cingalese, Malays, and Poly- nesians. (c) Persons of pure or mixed African descent. Experience in India itself leads us to conclude that the AGRICULTURAL CREDIT BANKS 1 05 first class, especially where it has the opportunity of acquiring land, is excellent material for co-operative credit. The East Indian comes from a country whose people are familiar with communal village life and the action of caste and trade guilds. It is worth while, therefore, to take a rapid survey of the position of East Indians in our Crown Colonies. Ceylon has about one million Indian immigrants and their descendants. The agricultural credit movement has already spread from India. It should be of use to the East Indians, and probably also to the native Cingalese. In the Malay States the native is not disposed for regular .field work, and there is a steady inflow of Indian labour. Here, too, there should be room for co-operative credit societies, at least among the immigrants. In Fiji the Indian element is growing rapidly, and is likely to become the pre- dominant one, for the unenergetic indigenous popula- tion is unfortunately dwindling. The natives of that fertile but thinly populated group of islands evince no desire for a strenuous life, and I fear we may leave them out of account. When the African slaves were freed, the first use they made of their liberty was to refuse regular work, and the planters had to look elsewhere. Mauritius began to import Indian labour eighty years ago. By 1907 the population had increased fourfold. It numbered 376,000, of whom 264,000 were of East Indian descent. The rest are mostly Creoles. The neighbouring French Colony of Reunion has also a considerable Indian popu- lation. Turning to the New World, British Guiana has a population of 300,000 (only three per square mile), of whom 133,000 are East Indians. The future prosperity of the Colony largely depends on this element. Dutch Guiana has also a considerable Indian population. Trinidad, with 800,000 cultivable acres, nearly half of which is Crown property, had twenty years ago 70,000 East Indians out of a total of 200,000. Creole labour is abundant in Jamaica, and there the East Indian element is smaller and much less essential, though still useful. British Honduras could profitably absorb much East Indian labour. I think we may say that wherever in our tropical possessions the East Indian has settled under fair IO6 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT BANKS conditions there is hope for the development of co- operative credit. Regarding persons of African descent, I do not speak with any first-hand knowledge. In their own continent I fancy Africans are usually accustomed to a communal frame of society and also prefer to work in gangs, each having its own leader: they, therefore, possess some of the requirements of co-operation. But at their present stage of development most of them must be hardly fitted for the working of self-governing societies such as we are accustomed to in Europe, and with modifications in India. Some of you may be interested in knowing how the Roman Catholic Church met the difficulty among the aborigines of the Chota Nagpur division in India. The information is to be found on p. 14 of the Report of the Fifth Annual Conference of Indian Registrars. Even in the West Indies people of African descent are obviously not as good material for co-operative credit as East Indians. They require a strong spur to make them regular workers : but they can respond to it, as in Barbados, where it is provided by pressure on the soil. Elsewhere it may be hoped that the example of the East Indians, and the chances now offered by the policy of land settlement, will give the needed stimulus. Of late years two closely connected questions of land settlement and co-operative agricultural credit have been much discussed in the West Indies. Fortunately, dis- cussion has now ripened into action. As regards both matters, St. Vincent has taken the lead among the islands. In 1911 it started its first agricultural credit society. Last year it passed an Ordinance for " regis- tration, encouragement, and assistance of agricultural credit societies under the ' Raiffeisen System.' ' The Raiffeisen model has been closely followed even in the prominence given to religion. Government, I think wisely, has reserved strong powers of inspection and control. Where the treasurer is not a minister of religion or a justice of the peace, he must be " some respectable and responsible person approved by the Governor." The latter can instruct a public auditor to investigate and report to him regarding the organization and adminis- AGRICULTURAL CREDIT BANKS IO/ tration of business, and he can at any time cancel the registration of a society. Arrangements have been made, and no doubt will in future be made, for a more sympathetic kind of inspection than that of an auditor. There were, some time ago, six societies in St. Vincent with 123 members, all probably small farmers. There is some difficulty in securing the rejection of unworthy candidates for membership, and for some time this will require careful watching. The Government lent the six societies £294 at 6 per cent., but I believe the adminis- trator has been able to arrange with a joint stock bank which will get rid of State subventions, a very temporary expedient. British Guiana and Trinidad, where the field of action may ultimately be vastly larger, is moving in the same direction. The British Guiana Committee, which reported in January, 1911, rejected unlimited liability, contemplated small local banks, not exclusively agricultural, taking advances from Government at 4 per cent., and making loans to their own members at 12 per cent. Four per cent, seems much too low a rate for the State to charge, and financial aid from Government should only be looked on as a temporary expedient. How long it is likely to be required a person unacquainted with local conditions cannot judge. I believe this report has recently been discussed in the local Legislature, but I have not seen -a report of the proceedings. Jamaica has a number of rural societies financed by the State, and not of the pure Raiffeisen type. While the State should limit its financial assistance, both in respect of time and amount, as far as possible, I suppose that it will have to assume at least as much share in the direction and control of the movement as we have found necessary in India. There is one point in this connection which is not really unimportant, and that is the avoidance of requiring needlessly elaborate accounts and returns. I look with dismay at the lengthy annual statement required in England from every little village bank, with its petty receipts and disbursements. A hard- worked, half-educated, and unpaid secretary sometimes gives up the task in despair. Educational work intended to teach the benefits of co-operation and the means IO8 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT BANKS whereby they can be secured is a thing on which State money and the time of Government officials may very properly be expended. I have in the main left you to infer from figures the economic benefits which co-operative credit societies have diffused. People do not make use of village banks to the extent they do in Germany or India, unless they meet a very real and very pressing need. And I have been silent regarding the moral benefits to which Raiffeisen attached equal importance. But, in conclusion, I may make one quotation from a Servian report, translated by Mr. Wolff, on p. 483 of his book on "People's Banks." " Peasants who used to spend their days in the public- house playing cards and boozing have thrown off that habit. . . . On one occasion a member of a village bank was seen playing cards and losing 4 francs. He was brought before the Committee and summarily ex- pelled. Other members who were suspected of indulging in play took warning, and are now rarely to be seen in the public-house. . . . The annual report of the village bank of Azagna says : ' Our Association has taught us to respect one another and to help one another, to enable each to live better and to work better. In a little time it has made us learn many useful things which our schools have failed to teach us.' ' 0 si sic omnes ! THE WORKING* OP CREDIT BANKS IN THE NETHERLAND EAST INDIES. By H. CARPENTIER ALTING, Batavia. THE object of the system of popular credit banks is to give the inhabitants, and more especially the native population, an opportunity to save money, and, in the form of loans against interest, to obtain material assist- ance for carrying on their trade and occupations, for the acquisition of estate, and for other useful purposes. It is in principle intended also for persons other than natives, and therefore generally supplements the work of the great European banks. The primary purpose of such banks is to furnish the population with the necessary means, at a reasonable rate of interest, for carrying on their business or vocation and for other material purposes, and to cause such means to be contributed as much as possible by the people them- selves. A natural outcome of the latter is that a regular and economical production of goods as well as then proper distribution and use are encouraged. Since 1904 the system of popular credit banks has been under the care of the Government. Previous to this, however, popular institutions already existed in certain places. These were generally of the nature of provident institutions, viz.: — (a) Loan and savings banks for natives (Government officials and private persons), such as the so-called " prijaji banks/' (b) Mutual burial and benefit funds. (c) Village barns for the mutual storage of selected rice seed (" loemboeng bibit "). (d) Village barns for the supply of rice (padi) to indigent persons, either on loan or free (" loemboeng miskin," or "loemboeng amal "). (e) Societies for defraying the 'cost of ritual feasts 110 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT BANKS given by the members, more especially marriages and cir- cumcisions (" sinoman " societies). On the island of Bali village banks are found which lend money to the villagers. The origin of these various institutions is uncertain; but it is known, however, that as far back as the begin- ning of the nineteenth century the Government took an interest in the storing of rice (padi) in the villages, with a view to assisting the necessitous and ensuring a supply of seed, whilst Dutch officials introduced, or at least encouraged, the idea of making monetary pro- visions, more especially for the benefit of native Govern- ment employees. The popular credit banks which have been organize^ since 1904 and systematically established on those already existing are closely connected with the system of govern- ment in native communities, regencies, or provinces, divisions and districts. They fall into three categories : — (i) The Village Rice Credit Banks. — These are known as r< loemboeng dessa " in Java, and " loemboeng negari " on the West Coast of Sumatra. They are institutions of the native community (in Java "dessa," on the West Coast of Sumatra " negari "), or of groups of native communities, and therefore of the village communities. The stock of rice (padi) is usually formed by the farmers from contributions in natura, which are returned later on out of the profits earned. Less frequently the original stock is obtained from joint planting by the dessa members on a portion of the communal land. Where the means of the population appear to be in- sufficient the Government advance money, free of interest, for the purchase of padi and materials for cultivation. The padi is lent out on condition of repayment in natura when the next crop comes in, with an additional 25 to 50 per cent, by way of interest. As soon as the debts due in respect of the loemboeng have been paid and a reserve fund has been formed, the interest is reduced as far as practicable according to the loss due to the desic- cation of the padi and the cost of administration. In law the loemboeng is regarded as a property and a trade of the native community, established at the expense of the farmers. AGRICULTURAL CREDIT BANKS III The necessary buildings are erected by the joint labour of the dessa people. The padi which has not been loaned is sold annually, and out of the proceeds the expenses of administration and the cost of repairs to the buildings are defrayed, the balance being paid into a reserve fund. The reserve funds of the loemboengs dessa are invested in current account at the local people's bank (divisional bank). The final result, therefore, is that the native community possesses a building free from debt, with a stock of padi as well as a reserve fund in cash. Loans are principally given to farmers at the time when field work is carried on. The management of the loemboeng is in the hands of a committee, which usually consists of three farmers and the chief of the village, who receive a share of the profits. The book-keeping is in charge of a competent person, who is in the service of, and paid by, a group or circle of neighbouring villages, and who visits the various loemboengs in turn according to a fixed table (once a week). The dessa loemboeng is generally found in those villages where the cultivation of padi is the principal means of subsistence. It prevents the padi crop passing too quickly out of the hands of the farmers into those of the purchasers, and thereby obviates a rapid fall in price during and shortly after the gathering of the crop, and a strong rise a few months later when the padi is in the buyers' hands. The price of the padi is, therefore, more uniform during the year, a circumstance which has a favourable influence on the feeding of the people and on their wages. The loemboeng further enables the farmer, without having to suffer want, to give better and more timely attention to the tilling of the soil. Where the land is owned by a large number of small proprietors there is less justification for the existence of the loemboeng. This is generally true also of those places where the local supply of padi is insufficient to provide the necessary food, necessitating its being im- ported, and where, therefore, the population has to adopt other means of support (commercial crops, industries, fisheries, etc.). The constant improvement in the means of intercourse, both inland and with foreign countries, 112 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT BANKS also diminishes the need of padi credit. The turnover of the loemboeng in Java has, in fact, reached its highest point; the money bank is gradually taking its place. The arrangements and management of the loemboeng are subject to regulations fixed by the community con- cerned and approved by the authorities. The loemboeng miskin and loemboeng bibit which still exist at some places are gradually diminishing in number. The dessa loemboengs, both district and divisional banks, have established a mutual fund for insurance against fire and other calamities. (2) The Village Money Credit Bank (village, dessa, negari, or marga bank). — This is a savings and credit bank for the benefit of the inhabitants of one or more hamlets, villages, or groups of villages. It has the same legal standing as the loemboeng dessa, and is governed and managed in the same manner. In Java the working capital is usually formed by means of a loan obtained from the divisional bank by employing the moneys of the loemboengs or those belonging to the native community. The borrowers, however, are obliged to pay, in addition to the capital sum and interest, a surplus which is booked as a deposit on their part. The interest charged is fairly high, 24 to 40 per cent, per annum, but as only small sums are lent (usually not more than 10 fl. (i florin = is. 8d.) to any one person) this interest is not oppressive. Repayment is made as a rule in weekly or monthly instalments, e.g., if 10 fl. be borrowed, n fl. must be repaid in eleven weeks; this includes i fl. for interest and deposit. This arrangement has the advantage that, as the bank builds up a capital of its own out of the profits, a smaller amount is booked as interest and a relatively larger amount as deposit. The deposits are occasionally returned in part, e.g., on fast days or on other important days. The high interest enables the bank soon to repay the capital taken up. In some places part of the deposits is retained and con- verted into shares of from i fl. to 5 fl. Only such persons are admitted as borrowers as shall be first accepted by those already affiliated. Their identity is established by means of finger prints. Although legally, AGRICULTURAL CREDIT BANKS 113 therefore, a communal institution, the dessa bank assumes more or less a co-operative character. Outside Java it is easier to make the people themselves contri- bute at once the initial capital, in the form of shares -of one or more guilders. As soon as the working capital amounts to a sufficient sum and a reserve has been formed the interest is reduced. The banks here referred to have a current account with the divisional or residency bank (see below) for the borrowing of working capital or for temporarily depositing surplus funds. The village banks, which so far have lent chiefly small sums of a few guilders per head, will gradually become the ordinary credit and savings banks of the small farmers, traders, and artisans. This is especially the case in a thickly populated island like Java, where the means of the great mass of the people are insignificant. type of bank has developed out of the mutual savings and credit bank of native Government employees (so-called (3) The Regency, Divisional, or District Bank. — This prijaji bank). The latter began by lending its surplus funds to farmers and artisans, but has gradually assumed the character of a general savings and credit institution, chiefly accessible to the individual natives and the village banks. The opportunity offered to invest money is also taken advantage of by non-natives and by the native communities. The area served by the bank often coin- cides with an Administrative Department, seldom with part thereof; in the outer Colonies, sometimes with a whole District, having a population of from a quarter to one million. Such a bank, which has often many branches, is under the management of an incorporated association of notables, official and non-official Europeans, and natives (Article 1653 °f tne Civil Code of the Nether- land East Indies). This association is of a purely philan- thropic character, and the members are not allowed to benefit financially. The institution is in some places called a regency, in others a divisional or district bank (generally popular bank). The administrators perform their duties gratuitously; nevertheless, the bank is managed on strictly commercial 8 114 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT BANKS principles, and is therefore not a charitable institution. It is intended to appoint gradually representatives of the depositors and creditors on the managing body, but at present Government officials and other prominent in- habitants predominate. The management is carried on by a responsible administrator (usually a European), assisted by European and native book-keepers, clerks, and other members of the staff. The Government assists the banks as long as is necessary with cash subsidies to defray the expenses of management; in 1913 such sub- sidies amounted to 127,000 fl. In the first few years after 1904 loans were also given by the Government to the banks out of the Government exchequer at the rate of 4 per cent, interest with a view to the formation or supplementing of the working capital; there was no obligation to pay the interest, but this had to be added to the reserve fund until such time as such additions should appear to be no longer required. Since January i, 1913, when the Central Fund (see below) commenced opera- tions, the Government has ceased to furnish working capital, except for supporting through the medium of the banks measures of an economic nature, involving special risk, and for which the Central Fund has no money at its disposal, such as the importation of foreign breeding cattle, the colonization of Javanese in the outer possessions, etc. The banks do not possess any capital of their own other than the reserves formed, with the exception of two, who have a small share capital. It is therefore their object to form a strong reserve fund as quickly as possible. The working capital consists of deposits made by individuals and by native communities and local societies, such deposits are principally : — (a) Deposits at from three to twelve months' notice of repayment at a rate of interest varying from 4 to 6 per cent, per annum; these deposits are chiefly made by Europeans. (b) Savings, which may be withdrawn on demand at a rate of interest varying from 3 to 4 per cent, per annum. (c) Compulsory deposits at a rate of interest of 6 per cent, per annum, i.e., money which borrowers bind them- AGRICULTURAL CREDIT BANKS 115 selves to deposit, and which are only returned in urgent cases or when borrowers completely sever their relations with the bank. (d) Moneys in current account from village credit banks, from native communities, and from public institu- tions at a rate tropical countries against the introduction of disease contemplates preventive measures at the frontier of the country of destination, while the scheme underlying the LEGISLATION AGAINST PLANT DISEASES AND PESTS 13! Rome Convention implies examination at the place of origin. This is a wide and important difference involving a question of principle, and unless the Governments of tropical countries can see their way to adopt this change it seems to be impossible for them to ratify the Convention. The advantages and disadvantages need, therefore, to be carefully considered. The latter are, of course, obvious. The large size of most tropical States, the difficulty of means of communication, the smallness of the white population in many instances, and the difficulty of secur- ing a strict compliance with the law among the native or coloured races make inspection difficult and evasion an easy matter. The number of pests, both those that are known and those that are not, increases the difficulty, while the rapidity with which an imported pest will spread and the obstacles in the way of overtaking it seem almost insuperable objections. At first sight, therefore, the arguments in favour of examination and treatment at the port of landing seem almost unanswerable. On further consideration, however, there seems much to be said for the opposite point of view. Fumigation at the port of landing may be a satisfactory means of preventing the introduction of disease, but it does not appear to be more efficacious than fumigation at the port of departure; and if the diseases against which the country wishes to be pro- tected are known, an examination of the consignment by a competent inspector is in most cases as good. All that is necessary, therefore, is that consignments that are exported should be examined and treated, if necessary, instead of those which are imported. Moreover, if the examination can take place at the premises where the plants were grown, there is not only a much better chance of detecting the disease, but the results are more satis- factory, since it is clearly better to search for and destroy disease in one's own country, where the discovery may lead to national benefit, than to expend one's energies in excluding the disease from elsewhere. Nearly all tropical countries — certainly all of moderate size and longer settle- ment— aim at the control of some plant diseases in home farms and plantations, and all that is necessary is the extension of this principle a little further. In theory it is 132 LEGISLATION AGAINST PLANT DISEASES AND PESTS probable everyone will agree, but will object that in practice it is impossible, because no country will trust the certificate of any other country. It will be objected that the examination will be perfunctory where it is not ignorant, and that diseases will be found on consignments officially declared to be free. The same fear, it must be admitted, was present among some of the delegates at the Rome Conference, but as it was most conspicuous in those countries whose system of inspection was the least satisfactory, there is some reason for thinking that the fear is bred of the knowledge of their own deficiencies. The proper remedy is for each country to perfect its own service, and it will then quickly be able not only to detect the faults of others, but to remedy them when they arise. The adoption of this principle in most European countries has proved a national advantage, since it has enabled the Government to secure for home consumers the same advantages which are obtained for foreign customers without additional cost, and has undoubtedly led to an improvement in the general cleanliness of nursery stock. In conclusion, therefore, it would appear that, though most tropical countries may have to modify their regula- tions drastically if they desire to adhere to the Conven- tion, it will not prove an exceptionally difficult task to do so; while the advantages which will result therefrom will be of great benefit to the home consumer, and will tend to promote international trade instead of hampering and restricting it, as do so many of the regulations in force at the present time. COTTON. THE WORK OF THE BRITISH COTTON GROWING ASSOCIATION, By J. ARTHUR HUTTON. Chairman of the Council of the British Cotton Growing Association. It would be quite impossible in a short paper to give a full account of the work carried on by the British Cotton Growing Association during the last twelve years, and, therefore, on this occasion I do not propose to go into any detail, but rather to give a general idea of our. successes and our failures. Naturally in all pioneering work one must make mistakes in learning the best methods of work- ing, but I can say with pride, that the Council have never been afraid of publishing their failures, for they have rightly regarded them as the means of ultimately attain- ing success. Before dealing with the work of the Association 1 propose to give you a short account of the formation of that body. In January, 1901, at the Annual Dinner of the Oldham Chamber of Commerce, Mr. Benjamin Crapper, one of the most active members of the Council and the Chairman of the East African Committee- of the Associa- tion, drew attention to the dangerous position of the Lan-. cashire cotton industry, owing to the fact that it was de- pendent on the United States for the bulk of its supplies of the raw material, and, therefore, that the industry was at the mercy of the vagaries of the weather in one particular part of the world I need not dwell on the sufferings which were subsequently caused when the mills had to be put on short time owing to the failure of the American crop, nor need I do more than draw attention to the ob- vious fact that the only way by which such calamities can be avoided in the future is by the establishment of cotton growing in all parts of the world. If the basis of supply is broadened, and if' cotton is grown in quantity in Africa and other countries as well as in India, Egypt, and the United States, one can regard the failure of the crop 134 COTTON in any particular part of the world with equanimity, for in all probability it would be balanced by more favourable climatic conditions elsewhere. The Oldham Chamber of Commerce promptly fol- lowed the matter up by appointing a Committee to inquire into the question. A considerable amount of correspond- ence took place with the Colonial Office, Governors, and other Colonial officials, and their report was published in November, 1901. The report may be summed up in one sentence. In the opinion of the Committee : " Suitable cotton for the Lancashire trade could be grown in various parts of the British Empire." This report was circulated amongst the other Cham- bers of Commerce, and on February i8th, 1902, a represen- tative meeting was held at the Manchester Chamber, when an influential committee was appointed. In the meantime the late Sir Alfred Jones, with his usual energy and zeal, had already commenced operations on his own account, and had sent out ten tons of American seed to West Africa in May, 1901. Acting as Chairman of the West African Committee of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce, I invited Sir Alfred Jones and some of the leading West African merchants, to dinner on May /th, 1902, at the Albion Hotel, Manchester, to meet representatives of the cotton trade, and at that dinner the British Cotton Growing Association was born. A general meeting of various Associations and other bodies interested was held at the Manchester Chamber on June 1 2th, 1902, when the Association was formally in- augurated with a guarantee fund of £50,000. Sir Alfred Jones was elected President, and Mr. J. E. Newton Chair- man and myself Vice-Chairman of the General Committee. Active operations were at once commenced, and several cotton experts were sent out to various parts of the Em- pire to inquire and report. It was very soon realised that the funds at the disposal of the Committee were quite in- adequate, and at a meeting held in November, 1903, it was decided to increase the Guarantee Fund to £100,000. By this time the Committee were able to realise how enormous was the work they had taken in hand, and also that for a considerable period a large amount of pioneering work would have to be undertaken, and that as this work could not be remunerative for some little time it would be diffi- cult to get ordinary capitalists to interest themselves in the work. It was not originally intended that the Association should attempt to do more than make inquiries and carry COTTON 135 on a small amount of experimental and missionary work, but it very soon became apparent that unless the Associa- tion undertook the entire supervision of the industry and the actual buying and ginning of the cotton, very little good could be done. In January, 1904, owing to the shortage in the supply of American cotton, the situation in Lancashire became so much more serious that it was decided to reconstitute the Association on a permanent basis, and to apply to His Majesty, the late King Edward, for a Royal Charter. On August 2/th the Charter was finally sealed, and the Asso- ciation was reconstituted with a capital of £500,000, of which £471,000 have been actually subscribed. Sir Alfred Jones was the first President of the Asso- ciation, and I must here record the very great debt of gratitude owed to his memory by all who are interested in the welfare of the British Empire. It is mainly due to his untiring energy and to his splendid generosity that the Association has been able to achieve its present position. As you are all aware, on the death of Sir Alfred Jones the Earl of Derby very kindly consented, on the unani- mous request of the Council, to accept the position of President of the Association, and we are all most grateful to him for the invaluable services he has rendered to the Association. In 1906, owing to ill-health, Mr. J. E. Newton had to retire from the position of Chairmanship of the Council, and I was appointed in his place. I must draw attention to the fact that the Association is absolutely representative in character. Its members con- sist of spinners and manufacturers, merchants and ship- pers, and representatives of all the various industries con- nected with the Lancashire cotton trade, and further than that, many of the Labour bodies are taking an active iff terest in the work, and some of their representatives are the most useful members we have on our Council. I should also draw attention to the fact that the capital has been subscribed mainly for the purpose of extending the growth of cotton and not for the earning of dividends, in fact it was stipulated in the prospectus that no dividends should be paid for a period of seven years. Before dealing with the actual work, I should like to draw attention to the great assistance which has been rendered to the Association by His Majesty's Government and by both political parties. The philanthropic character of the Association, and the beneficial nature of its work. 136 COTTON is fully recognised at the Colonial Office, and I might almost go so far as to say that the officials there look on the Association almost as a Department of their office. They realise as no one else does, that wherever we go, and wher- ever we are successful, we carry prosperity with us, though it frequently happens that the Association itself is the only body which derives no profit from its transactions. Thanks mainly to our efforts, many of the West Indian Islands which were in a serious financial position are to-day in a state of prosperity. Thanks largely also to our work, cotton is the leading article of export in Nyasaland and Uganda, and " grants-in-aid " from the Imperial Govern- ment to these Colonies have become a thing of the past. Also in Nigeria cotton provides a large portion of the revenue of the railway, and that Colony has benefited in many other directions, for it is manifest that every pound's worth of cotton exported has to be paid for by a pound's worth of imported goods, with consequent benefit to the revenue of the Colony. There is an old proverb : That the real benefactor of mankind is the man who makes two blades of corn grow where one grew before. Equally so the man who can get cotton grown where none grew before is conferring invaluable benefits both on the native who grows the cotton and on those who spin it into yarn and weave it into cloth, and also on the railway and ship- ping interests, and all the other allied industries and trades. There is a further point to which I must draw atten- tion, and that is the valuable and disinterested advice which the Association are able to give to the officials at the Colo- nial Office and also in our Colonies. During the twelve years we have been at work we have acquired valuable experience, and the officials know that when we offer any advice or urge any particular course of action, we have only one object in view, and that is the development of cotton growing in the British Empire. Knowing this, we naturally are most careful in any representations we put forward, and we never urge the Government to take any particular step, whether it be the building of a railway or the guaranteeing of a Colonial loan, unless we are con- vinced that what we urge is in the interests of the Empire. I say it with pride that we have never yet asked the Gov- ernment to take any particular step without meeting with success. I can only hope that the Association may be able to retain its present semi-philanthropic character, and obtain the necessary funds for it to continue its work on a permanent basis. If anything were to happen which COTTON 137 necessitated the winding-up or dissolution of the Associa- tion it would be a disaster for the Empire. The work of the Association may be divided into three periods : — 1 I ) Inquiry. (2) Experimental. (3) Development. The first and second periods are practically over, for there is no part of the Empire capable of producing cotton in any quantity which has not been fully inquired into by the Association, and in many cases experimental work has actually been carried on. We are now in the third and perhaps the most difficult stage, and that is development, for development means capital, and it is by no means easy for a semi-philanthropic body to raise capital. During the first two periods our inquiries and experi- ments were extended throughout the greater part of the British Empire, and the Council have now decided that as far as any large results are concerned the districts which offer the best prospects are : (1) India. (2) Uganda and Nyasaland. (3) West Africa. (4) The Anglo- Egyptian Sudan. (5) The West Indies. No doubt there are other parts of the Empire where cotton can be grown, but the Council have decided that their main energies must be concentrated on those countries, and therefore on the present occasion I only propose to deal with this portion of the work. INDIA. It is held by many, and with some justification, that India offers the best prospect of large and quick returns. In 1902-3 the Indian crop amounted to 3,855,000 bales, and had increased to 5,197,000 bales five years later. There was a falling back in the next two years, but in 1909- 10 the crop touched the record figure of 5,317,000 bales, only to fall back again to 4,078,000 bales in 1911-12. It will be seen at once that the fluctuations are very large, as I suppose must always be more or less the case with agricultural crops, which are naturally dependent on the vagaries of the weather. There is, however, one serious disadvantage connected with Indian cotton, and that is the fact that the bulk of it is far too short for anything 138 COTTON but the coarsest yarn, and not one Lancashire spinner in a hundred could make any use of Indian cotton. It is principally used on the Continent, and in Japan, and in India itself. At the same time it must not be forgotten that if there is an increase in the quantity of cotton produced in India it will to a certain extent reduce the demand for long- stapled cotton. It would, however, be dangerous to attach too much importance to this argument, for the world re- quires better and finer qualities every day, and conse- quently the demand for medium and long-stapled cotton is increasing correspondingly. The principal demand in Lan- cashire is for cotton from ^ inch to il/± inches in length, and there never was a period in recent years when there was so great an actual scarcity of cotton about il/% inches long. Most cotton is bought and sold on the basis of futures, or paper contracts, with a premium, or the opposite, according to the quality of the actual cotton. At the pre- sent moment spinners are having to pay 100 points on, or a premium of one penny per pound for cotton which a few years back could have been bought at a price of one- farthing per pound over contracts. It is evident, therefore, that the main efforts of the Association should be devoted to the production of cotton of longer staple than that grown in India. At the same time there is danger of growing cotton which is too long for the average spinner, and especially so when such cotton is not grown under the best conditions. When the staple exceeds i1/^ inches in length it can only be used by spin- ners who are spinning the finer counts, such as are usually spun from Egyptian cotton, and for this purpose cotton which is coarse and irregular in staple, or wasty or soft, or stained, is difficult to use, and is discarded by the spinner. In other words, unless long-stapled cotton is well grown it is almost unsaleable, and in addition the market for this class of cotton is to a certain extent a limited one. It would be easier to sell hundreds of thousands of bales of inch cotton than it would be to find a market for a few hundred bales of cotton il/± inches long. The Association felt that as far as India was con- cerned trie Government of India was the only body which could do any good, and one of the first steps they took was to send a deputation on February 2/th, 1904, to Mr. St. John Brodrick, who was then Secretary of State. They drew attention to the great importance of increasing the quantity of cotton, and special emphasis was drawn to the necessity of improving the quality. It was also pointed out COTTON 139 that if India could grow a superior type of cotton, the grower would be able to command a wider market and a better price for his produce. This was followed up on September 5th, 1904, by a despatch to the Viceroy, Lord Curzon. This despatch will be printed in full as an Appendix to this Paper. The principal steps recommen- ded by the Association were as follows : — I. — The establishment of Government seed farms, where experiments could be carried out with different varieties of seed, both indigenous and exotic, and where continual selection from the best varieties could be made from year to year, so as to ensure a supply of the best possible seed to the native cultivators. This is the most vital factor in successful cotton cultivation, and much of the prosperity in the United States is due to the continual efforts of the Agricultural Department, planters, seed suppliers, and others to obtain new and improved strains. Similar efforts in India with wheat have been most success- ful. 2. — To carry on at these farms experiments with fertilisers, and better methods of cultivation, with the view of giving the natives a practical object-lesson of the ad- vantage to themselves of an improvement on their present methods. These farms would also afford valuable train- ing grounds for native experts, who could afterwards act as advisers in other districts. 3. — The establishment of a special Agricultural De- partment devoted solely to cotton, with a staff of experts with a scientific knowledge of the best modern methods pursued in the United States and Egypt. In addition to the Central Institution there should be an efficient staff in each Province, who should supervise and assist locally in all questions connected with selection of seed, better methods of cultivation, the use of fertilisers, and ginning and grading of cotton. 4. — The establishment of Agricultural Banks on simi- lar lines to those in existence in Egypt, so as to enable the native planter to obtain financial assistance on reason- able terms, and thus reap better profits than he does now. 5. — The carrying out of a thorough survey of the ex- isting varieties with a view to the selection of that most suited to each district and to its ultimate improvement. There is no doubt that much of the scientific work which has since been carried on by the Indian Government is a result of the representations made by the Association. 140 COTTON Acting in co-operation with the Government of India the Association voted the sum of £3,000, which, with a similar amount from the Government, was to be spent on certain experiments, which were carried out by Messrs. Shaw, Wallace, and Co., in endeavouring to establish per- ennial or tree cottons. I regret to say that these experi- ments were a failure, and it is rather remarkable that various experiments carried out in several colonies with Caravonica and other perennial types of cotton have been unsuccessful. In 1905 the Council voted a sum of £10,000 to be spent by the Government of India in experimental work. Of this amount the sum of £2,000 was actually spent, but afterwards, in view of the heavy demands on the Associa- tion in other Colonies, the Government agreed that the Association should be relieved of further liability in the matter. In 1911 representations were made to the Association that local buyers in India would not pay a suitable price for improved qualities of cotton, and that it was of very little use for the Department of Agriculutre to raise and distribute supplies of superior seed unless a higher price was paid for the better than for the ordinary cotton. The Association then offered to establish buying stations and to erect one or two ginning and baling factories, provided that the Indian Government would take half the risk, and would share either the profit or the loss as the case might be, and the Association would undertake that the native farmer should receive the highest possible price for his cotton. In conseque ice of representations from Bombay spinners and merchants, which were perhaps not altogether disinterested, the Indian Government were unable to accept the Association's offer, which would certainly have ensured that the native farmer was properly rewarded for his labour. Since then the Association have not taken any further practical steps in India, for they feel that the Government are now thoroughly alive to the great importance of the question, and fully realise that it is to the advantage of the natives to grow cotton, not only in increased quantity, but also of improved quality, so as to be able to command a larger market for their produce. From time to time the Association continue to render valuable assistance to the Government by reporting on samples of new types of cotton. Owing to their close connection with the Lan- cashire trade, both with spinners and brokers, they are in a particularly favourable position to judge as to the suita- COTTON 141 bility for the market of any new type of cotton. When all is said and done, the buyer has the last word in the matter, and it is most important that the farmer should grow the cotton which the spinner wants. WEST INDIES. In some ways the results obtained in the West Indies are the most satisfactory, for the West Indian Islands are producing a sufficient quantity of Sea Island cotton to fully meet the present demand. Unfortunately, owing to the existing style of ladies' dresses, the demand for lace has fallen off very much, and consequently the demand for the highest class of cotton has not increased during recent years. One can only hope that the present rather unbe- coming fashions may change, and that the demand for Sea Island cotton may increase, and that the Association will be able to advise the planters to increase the acreage under cotton. In connection with the work in the West Indies, there was one great advantage. The Imperial Department of Agriculture, which was then under the able management of Sir Daniel Morris, was a thoroughly equipped organisation, with an excellent staff of scientifically trained experts, such as existed in no other part of the Empire. As soon as the cotton proposition was placed before Sir Daniel Morris, he at once grasped the great possibilities of the question, and what was perhaps more important, he was able to take immediate steps to ensure that the plan- ters should receive supplies of seed of the highest possible quality. Mr. Lomas Oliver, who is a member of our Council, and who himself uses the best quality of Sea Island cotton, paid two visits to the West Indies, and I accompanied him on the second occasion. I cannot express too high praise for the excellent work which was being carried on by Sir Daniel Morris, who has been so ably succeeded by Dr. Watts. I could only wish that the authorities would realise the vital importance in agricultural countries of a fully equipped and trained agricultural de- partment. As a rule the organisation which looks after agriculture is generally the " Cinderella " of the Govern- ment Departments. No doubt the other Departments are of considerable importance, but a few years ago in many of our tropical Colonies there were no Agricultural De- partments of any sort whatever, and even to-day in the majority of cases they are not much to boast of. What 142 COTTON is most lamentable is that the Imperial Department of Agriculture is not to-day in the position it was a few years ago, and this is partly the fault of the West Indians them selves. Each island wants to have its own Department of Agriculture, and refuses to bear its share of the cost of the Central Department. It will be evident to anyone who takes a disinterested view of the matter, that a large central and important organisation can work more effectively and more economically, and will attract the highest class of men, who would hardly care to join a small local department. It is far better to have one or two well-paid men of high scientific standing than half-a-dozen men of second-rate ability. The Association have made several money grants to the West Indies, for the payment of experts, for the erec- tion of ginning machinery, and for financing crops, etc., and such help is still being given. The principal assist- ance they render is in marketing the cotton, and in advising the agricultural authorities as to the market values of the various types of cotton, and they do all in their power to ensure that the grower receives the highest possible price for his cotton. Sea Island is not everybody's cotton, and it is not always easy to find a quick market for it. The Association, however, recognise that if the industry is to continue it is most important that the planter should be paid a good price. In this connection I must draw atten- tion to the great gratitude we all owe to Mr. Charles Wolstenholme, of Liverpool, who has I know sacrificed much of his time and his business in his endeavours to help the planter. Thanks to the Imperial Department, and thanks to Mr. Wolstenholme, some of the best cotton in the world is to-day being grown in the West Indies. WEST AFRICA. In commencing operations in West Africa, the Associa- tion had two difficulties facing them, viz., the huge extent of the country, and lack of any properly equipped Agricultural Departments. Cotton as an article of export was non- existent, and there was no one to whom to apply for defi- nite information as to where cotton could or could not be grown, and it was impossible to say where good results might be expected. Everything had, as it were, to com- mence at the very beginning. The British Possessions in West Africa cover an area of about 450,000 square miles, and the population is about COTTON 143 20,000,000. This area of 450,000 square miles represents an extent of nearly 300,000,000 acres, or about three- quarters of the area of the cotton States of America. It is therefore evident that the extent of territory to be in- vestigated was enormous. As regards the question of Agricultural Departments, I must point out that owing to inexperience, and owing also to the fact that there was not a single official in West Africa who had any practical experience of cotton growing, the Association was obliged to spend large sums of money not only in proving where cotton could be grown, but also where it could not be grown. I do not think I can exagger- ate the importance of this point. Money spent in scientific investigation in tropical countries will ultimately save the waste of hundreds of thousands if not millions of pounds. This applies just as much to rubber, sugar, and other pro- ducts as it does to cotton. Time after time the Association made representations to this effect fo the authorities at the Colonial Office, and I am afraid even to-day the abso- lute necessity of having a properly equipped Agricultural Department in each of our Colonies is not fully realised. After continued representations, in 1904 the Government appointed Mr. Gerald C. Dudgeon as Superintendent of Agriculture for West Africa, but on his retirement the vacancy was not filled. I am glad to say that the position to-day is somewhat better than it was in 1902, when the Association first commenced operations. One great diffi- culty is that there is no proper system of training experts. Further, there is no organised system for collecting and collating information so that one colony can benefit by the experience of another. In order to meet this want the Association urged the Government to organise a central authority or Bureau for Tropical Agriculture. A small scientific committee was appointed, but I am not aware whether this Committee ever held a meeting. I have at any rate never seen any report of its proceedings. The Association on its part, as a first step, in 1903 engaged a number of practical planters from America, and these men were sent out to Gambia, Sierra Leone, the Gold Coast, Lagos, and Southern Nigeria. It was then found that cotton of fair quality was growing in the wild state, and that in various districts a considerable quantity was grown for local consumption. I will not weary you with the details of the work, but I must draw attention to one important fact, which we 144 COTTON very soon discovered. Owing to the climate the European cannot work in the open in West Africa, and he also has to return on leave at frequent intervals to recover his health. Our first term of service was twenty months in Africa and 4 months on leave, with full pay. We soon found this was too long, and the service was subsequently altered to 15 months in Africa with three months' leave, and in certain districts our employees remain 10 months in Africa with 2 months' leave. The cost of passages on the steamer to and from Africa is in consequence very heavy, and this coupled with comparatively large salaries renders it necessary to keep the number of white employ- ees as low as possible. For this reason it is extremely diffi- cult to work a large plantation in Tropical Africa economic- ally. Further, the native will do better work when farming for himself than when employed as a hireling. The Council therefore decided to devote their principal energies to establishing cotton growing as a native industry, and it is almost a truism to state that, generally speaking, cotton is a black-man's crop. In 1904 an agreement was entered into with the Gov- ernment that model farms should be established in various centres for carrying on experiments with different varieties of seed, etc., which should ultimately become seed farms for the distribution of seed. The cost of these farms was to be borne by the local Governments. The reason for this agreement was that we had discovered that cotton growing was not merely a question of shipping out so many hundred tons of American and Egyptian seed, and expecting that the natives would sow it and reap good crops. Judging from our experience, one requires at least three or four years' patient work before one can de- cide that any exotic seed will do well in any particular district. One might go further, and state that it by no means follows that a variety which does well in one district will do equally well in another part of the same Colony. The Association on their side undertook for a period of three years to purchase all seed-cotton offered at a minimum price of id. per lb., and to establish buying and ginning centres where required. They further undertook to provide experts who would travel round the country preaching the gospel of cotton growing. This agreement was subsequently modified, and it was arranged that the Association should take over the experi- mental work at the plantations, and that the Governments of Sierra Leone, Lagos, and Southern Nigeria should pay COTTON 145 the Association £6,500 per annum, and the Association undertook to spend £10,000 annually in each of the three Colonies on experimental work. • The result of the work on these experimental farms proved that, regarded as plantations from a commercial point of view, they would not pay. The results of the experiments were published in pamphlet form by the Association, and the main point which was proved was that after a certain number of years exotic cottons could be established so as to give satisfactory results, and some of the best crops were obtained from imported Upland American seed after it had been thoroughly established. At the same time let me point out that in the early stages of. the industry it is extremely dangerous to distribute broadcast large quantities of exotic seed which have not been established, and it is better to commence with local varieties. If the quality of these is unsatisfactory, they can subsequently be replaced by exotic cottons after the same have been thoroughly proved and established. It is difficult to say whether the methods of cultiva- tion practised by the natives can be improved upon. They are the result of long experience, and nothing but practical proof of other methods would justify one in persuading the natives to abandon the methods which many years' ex- perience has shown to give the best results. One thing is quite certain, and that is that the dis- tribution of seed should either be in the hands of the Government or under Government control, and the Asso- ciation have on frequent occasions made representations to the Colonial Office to this effect. As it was found to be unwise to distribute exotic seed the Association endeavoured to improve the local varieties by selection, and this was done in bulk in perhaps rather a rough and ready way at the ginneries. Samples of each lot of cotton were sent home, and instructions were sent out to reserve certain lots for sowing purposes, and either to destroy or ship home the seed from undesirable cotton. This may not be a very scientific method, but in Lagos the results have been most satisfactory. The Association have absolute control over the distribution of seed, and I should also add have to bear the cost of the same. In the early days there was great variation in quality — some of the cotton was worth one-farthing per Ib. more than Middling American, and some was difficult to sell at id. below contracts, a differ- ence of il/4.d. per Ib. To-day Lagos cotton is the most 10 146 COTTON regular and even in quality of any cotton produced in any part of the world, and the bulk of the crop is sold at prices ranging from 10 to 20 points on Middling American. This is entirely due to the work carried on by the Association, and it is no exaggeration to say that if they had absolute control of the industry in each colony it would be of immense advantage to the welfare of the district. The Association have to sell the cotton, and therefore are in a much better position to judge which type will give the best results. It was subsequently decided that each Colony should take over the experimental work, and I cannot say that the results have so far altogether justified the change. But it must not be forgotten that most of the men who took the work over had had little or no experience of cotton growing, and had to begin ab initio. While on this point I should like to say a few words on the present quality of West African cotton, and as to how it might be improved. Unfortunately, as a rule, West African cotton gives a very bad ginning return, and the proportion of lint is only about 27 per cent. In other words, it takes 3^ Ib. of unginned or seed cotton to give one pound of lint. If, therefore, the buying price is fixed at id. per Ib. for seed cotton, the first cost works out at 3^d. per Ib. of lint cotton, and when one has allowed for cost of buying, ginning, financing, freight, insurance, brokerage, and other charges, the cost in Liverpool will work out at about 6%d. per pound, which leaves very little margin for profit. If a variety which gave 33 per cent, of lint could be established, one could increase the buying price to i^d. per pound, or by 25 per cent., without in- creasing the cost delivered in Liverpool. It is therefore evident that a variety which gives a better percentage of lint is to be aimed at. West African cotton is also rather on the short side, and also of a rough and harsh character, and rather brown in colour, and other things being equal it would certainly be an advantage if a variety could be established rather whiter in colour and of a more silky nature. The one great advantage of West African cotton, and which gives it its value is the fact that it is exceedingly strong, and gives very little waste in spinning, and there- fore I would sooner stick to the present varieties rather than introduce a new cotton, which, though longer, whiter, and silkier, was of a soft and wasty character. If cotton is really strong the spinner will overlook many other faults, but when the market is well supplied, soft and weak cotton is almost unsaleable. COTTON 147 When the local Governments decided to take over the experimental farms a new agreement was entered into with the Home Government, and it was arranged that the Asso- ciation should receive a grant of £10,000 per annum from Imperial funds, for a period of three years, terminating on March 3 1st, 1913. This agreement was subsequently ex- tended for a further period of three years to March 3ist, 1916. This grant was given on condition that the Associa- tion should raise £150,000 additional capital, and the Association further undertook to establish and maintain seven pioneer ginning and buying stations as follows : — Gold Coast, at Labolabo and Tamale. Southern Nigeria, at Illushi. Northern Nigeria, at Lokoja, Zaria and Kano. Nyasaland, at Port Herald. The Association further undertook to provide seed for sowing free of charge in the above-mentioned Colonies, and also in Lagos. I should mention that the cost of this in Lagos alone in 1913 amounted to £1,700. The Associa- tion further undertook that their staff should give up a con- siderable portion of their time to missionary work. The Association are most grateful to His Majesty's Govern- ment for this valuable monetary assistance, without which they would have been compelled to curtail their work. There is, however, no doubt that the Government acted wisely in giving this help to the Association, for not only has the latter spent the whole of the grant on pioneering work, but has also spent a good deal of its own money as well. For example: In 1912 the cost of working the various branches in Africa amounted to £16,532, so that after deducting the Government grant, the Association were actually £6,532 out of pocket in actual cash alone, in addition to the time and labour devoted to the work. I should also point out that it is more than probable that the best possible value was obtained for the money spent, for it is an admitted fact that in the nature of things Gov- ernment Departments cannot work as economically, as efficiently, or as expeditiously as commercial men. One great advantage in West Africa was the fact that there were a large number of merchants established in the various Colonies, and the Association cannot thank them sufficiently for the valuable co-operation they have given. An agreement was entered into, and the merchants undertook to purchase all cotton offered to them on account of the Association, and in consequence each mer- chant's trading factory became a buying station for the 148 COTTON Association. The merchants receive a fair remuneration for their services, and the Association benefit by economies in the cost of a special staff for buying cotton. I should also mention the great advantage of having a thoroughly pood bank established in a Colony. Cotton must be oought with actual cash, and thanks to the Bank of British West Africa, the Association are able to obtain all the cash required even at outlying stations. The one great difficulty in West Africa, and indeed throughout Africa generally, is the difficulty of transport. African rivers, with the exception of perhaps the Nile and the Congo, are generally too low for transport at the time when cotton is coming forward, or else they are broken up by rapids. In Nyasaland I have known cases when 12 months have elapsed between the time the cotton has been gathered and when the proceeds could be realised in Liverpool. At this very moment 500 tons of seed cotton are lying at Yelwa on the river Niger, and it will be impossible to transport it before December, when the river rises. Even then it may not be practicable, for $here are several stretches where the river is broken up by rapids. There is no doubt that cotton growing in Africa can never be really successful until the country is opened up by railways, and this applies not only to cotton, but also to other products. In West Africa, speaking generally, along the coast line and for some distance inland, the rainfall is far too heavy for successful cotton cultivation, and the Association soon discovered that their efforts must be de- voted to the interior. Consequently in season and out of season they were continually urging the Government to make railways, and it is largely in consequence of their representations that the Lagos railway was extended from Ibadan to Jebba, and that the Baro-Kano railway was put in hand. Luckily, it seems almost impossible to put down a railway in Africa which does not pay, and even if a rail- way barely covered working expenses the indirect benefits would more than balance the cost of interest and sinking fund. In any case, it is a waste of labour and material to convey produce on men's heads. The time which is thus occupied in porterage would be better spent in growing cotton. » In this connection, I should draw attention to the great value of the conferences which are periodically held at the Colonial Office between the permanent officials and representatives of the Association, under the Presidency of COTTON 149 the Under-Secretary of State. We all owe a great debt of gratitude to the Duke of Marlborough, who inaugurated this wise and businesslike procedure. There is no doubt that meetings of this sort save an immense amount of time and misunderstanding, and it would be a good thing if those officials who are connected with cotton growing in Africa or elsewhere would occasionally visit us in Manchester. I can promise them that we would receive them with all hos- pitality, and I think both sides would benefit by an inter- change of ideas. It was only fitting that the first large saw-ginning factory to be erected in the British Empire should have been named after the Duke of Marlborough, and the Marl- borough Ginnery at Ibadan has turned out many thousands of bales since it was first erected in 1905. In this con- nection I should just point out that large ginneries are much more economical than small ones, and especially so as the cotton can at once be efficiently packed in a hydraulic baling press. It is a most dangerous thing to gin cotton in small ginneries and then to convey the lint in lightly- pressed bales to a central baling factory. We have suffered very much from stained and damaged cotton by this method of working, but once the cotton is efficiently baled, it will stand a good deal of exposure without damage. Probably in the early stages of the industry small gin- neries may be necessary, but one cannot have a powerful hydraulic press at each small ginning factory, and our ex- perience leads us to believe that it is better to incur the increased cost of conveying the cotton in the unginned state to a large central ginning factory. There is also the further point that the spinner does not like small bales, and in addition the charges for handling the same are higher in proportion. It is no exaggeration to say that cotton packed in large hydraulic pressed bales will nett at least one halfpenny per pound more than when loosely packed in small bales. The Association's present type of ginnery consists of two batteries of four gins each, with 70 saws in each gin. The cotton is automatically conveyed by pneumatic feed to the gins, and thence to the press, which will turn out eight bales of 400 Ib. of lint cotton per hour, or about 12,000 bales in the season. The weight of the bales is regulated by an electric attachment, so that each bale contains exactly 400 Ib. of lint, consequently when a spin- ner buys so many bales of cotton he knows exactly what amount of cotton he will receive. The bales measure 80 150 COTTON cubic feet to the ton weight, giving a density of 28 Ib. of cotton for each cubic foot. We adopted a standard of 400 Ib. as being more easily handled than bales of heavier weight, and the bales are much liked by spinners. I do not think the Association have now much to learn about ginning and baling cotton. The seed is conveyed to hoppers, where it is automati- cally weighed as it is sacked, and each sack contains the same weight. The motive power is usually obtained from two or three gas engines of 100 h.p. each of the vertical type with four cylinders each, which ensures a steady drive. The gas is made from cotton-seed, so that power is obtained at a mini- mum cost, for as a rule in out-of-the-way districts in the centre of Africa cotton-seed has little value and coal and oil are most expensive. Generally ample storage is provided at each ginnery, for there is no doubt that cotton improves by lying unginned for some little time after picking. Each large ginnery is also protected against fire by automatic sprinklers. I should also mention that the Association spare no expense in providing good quarters for their staff, and the bungalows are usually two storeys high, the living room being on the first floor, which is a great advantage in a tropical country. Amongst other experiments, the Association erected a small plant at Ibadan to extract the oil from the seed, but, judging from experience, unless there is a local market for the cake and the oil it is more economical to send the seed home and to sell it to the oil mills in this country. Before I leave West Africa, I must say a few words about the results obtained. We have spent a good deal of money, 'but we have acquired most valuable experience. Speaking generally, as far as rate of progress is concerned the results have been somewhat disappointing, and there is no doubt that affairs do not march as rapidly in West Africa as one could wish. Gambia was a failure, as the natives pre- ferred their old industry of growing ground-nuts. In Sierra Leone the rainfall was too heavy for cotton to be a success. In the Gold Coast the quality was excellent, but apparently cocoa was more suited to the climate. Work is still being carried on there and also in the Northern Territories, but the quantity of cotton produced is infinitesimal In most parts of the Eastern Province of Nigeria the rainfall is far too heavy for cotton, and had it not been for the excellent quality of the Ishan cotton — the best grown in British West COTTON 151 Africa — this centre would have been closed down. There may, however, be possibilities on the new railway between Port Harcourt and the Niger. In the Lagos Province the results have been most satisfactory, and last year's crop was over 13,000 bales. In Northern Nigeria a large quantity of cotton is grown, but owing to the demand for local consump- tion the ruling price is prohibitive. Sooner or later European cloths must displace the native manufactures, but in the meantime we can only hope that the Agricultural De- partment may be able to establish a variety for which the Association will be able to pay a higher price. West African cotton now commands a ready market in Liverpool, which is perhaps best shown by the fact that the Liverpool Cotton Association have established standards for West African cotton. The quality, thanks to the Association, is now so regular and reliable, and the cotton is so excellently ginned and baled, and the B.C.G.A. mark has acquired such a reputation for regularity and honesty, that the whole of each year's crop could be sold before it is even planted. The Association make a point of paying the highest possible price to the natives, and more often than not their cotton-buying account shows an actual loss. BRITISH EAST AFRICA. The results obtained in British East Africa have been disappointing. The Government commenced some experi- mental plantations, and the Association sent out a small gin- ning plant to Mombasa. It was later arranged that the Association should undertake the experimental work, and eventually this was handed over to the British East Africa Corporation when they were appointed the agents of the Association. The plantation worked by the Corporation was not a success and had to be abandoned, and I am sorry to say that several other companies have been equally unsuc- cessful. This is partly due to unfavourable climatic con- ditions, though it is quite possible that better results might be obtained by trying to establish cotton growing as a native industry. Some fair results have been obtained with native cultivation in the Kisumu district adjacent to Lake Victoria. The main interest to the Association in East Africa is the fact that Mombasa, or rather Kilindini, is the terminus of the Uganda Railway and the outlet for Uganda cotton. It has been suggested by several of our numerous critics that the Association does nothing for Uganda. So far from this being the case, I can assure them that at almost every con- 152 COTTON ference held at the Colonial Office the question of Uganda cotton has been brought forward "in one way or another, and I have no doubt that at times the officials have looked on the Association as an intolerable nuisance. For many years we continually urged the importance of a direct service of steamers to and from Kilindini, Port Sudan, and other ports in our East African possessions, and it is largely due to representations made by the Association that we now have a regular service of steamers from Eng- land to East Africa. The Union Castle Company deserve every credit for what they have done to meet this long-felt want One of the principal difficulties in establishing cotton growing in new fields is transport, and when the cultivation of cotton began to extend in Uganda there was a serious shortage of steamers on Lake Victoria and of trucks on the Uganda Railway. This has now been put right, and the Uganda Railway is now a paying concern, thanks mainly to the revenue derived from the carriage of cotton and seed and of the imported goods to pay for these. There is a fine harbour at Kilindini, but the wharfage accommodation is inadequate for the traffic, and the Asso- ciation have continually urged the Colonial Office to take this matter in hand. I am glad to say the officials are now fully alive to the importance of this question, and it is to be hoped that we may shortly see better arrangements established, and that ocean steamers will be able to go alongside and discharge and load their cargo without the wasteful expense and the delay of lighterage. UGANDA. The results obtained in Uganda are quite the largest and in some ways the most satisfactory of any new cotton field in the Empire. Unfortunately, owing to lack of suffi- cient capital,, the Association were unable to undertake any direct work, and had to confine their energies to representa- tions to the Colonial Office and communications with the Uganda Company. Later on, in 1906, when the British East Africa Corporation was formed, the Association took up shares in this company, and two of the Council joined the Board of Directors, and the Corporation were appointed the agents of the Association for East Africa and Uganda. Although this was perhaps the most satisfactory arrange- ment wHich could have been made, it cannot be regarded as an ideal one. Every commercial company must naturally COTTON 153 look principally to the earning and payment of dividends, and it is not to be expected that they should regard cotton growing entirely from the Association's point of view. Although the affairs of the Association must as far as possible be run on business lines, in order to avoid financial disaster, at the same time the Council consider — and rightly — that the establishment and extension of cotton growing must be paramount to the earning of dividends. In other words, the Association must and do take risks which ordinary commercial companies would have to refuse. In the early days large quantities of seed of various varieties were distributed indiscriminately, and in any ship- ment of Uganda cotton one could find cotton of every variety and nature mixed together, and in one single bale one would find cotton varying from ^ to \y^ inches in length. Representations have been frequently made by the Association that it was of the greatest importance that there should be a properly equipped Department of Agriculture, and that the distribution of seed for sowing must be under Government control. This is the most vital question in con- nection with cotton growing, for unless the seed issued to the natives is sound in quality and pure in strain everything else is thrown away. One may have- the most perfect climate and the most excellent soil in the world and the best methods of cultivation, but unless the seed sown is of good quality all these other advantages are wasted. One of the difficulties was to find trained experts to work in an Agricultural Department, and the Association have frequently urged the Government to establish a system of scholarships whereby young men who have had a good scientific training at home could subsequently obtain the necessary practical training in the various branches of tropical agriculture. Even to-day Uganda cotton is by no means satisfactory in quality, and one of the worst defects is the large amount of stained and weak cotton which not only seriously affects the selling price but also renders it more difficult of sale. Short-stapled cotton which is regular in length and quality will often fetch a higher price and be easier to sell than longer-stapled cotton which contains a considerable propor- tion of stained and short fibre. It is of the very greatest importance to the spinner to be able to depend on the regularity of any particular mark or brand of cotton which he may buy, and I am sorry to say that Uganda cotton varies as much as id. to 2d. per pound in value. As I pre- viously mentioned. Lagos cotton does not vary one-farthing 154 COTTON per pound between the best and the worst, and although the fibre and staple of Uganda is very much superior to Lagos cotton, a good deal of it has to be sold at a lower price. As regards the stained cotton, it is still a moot point as to what is the actual cause. It may be the result of climatic conditions, or it may be caused by careless picking, or by bad handling after it is picked. It is probable that all three causes contribute to the unsatisfactory result. I am glad to say that in 1912 and 1913 the cotton was decidedly better in quality, and as there happened to be a scarcity of this particular type of cotton it met with a ready sale. It is too soon yet to decide as to the quality of the present crop, but I should like to utter a word of warning as to the danger of introducing more new types of cotton. Uganda cotton of the old type at its best is very much liked by spinners and commands a ready sale and if the defects could be eliminated it has a great future before it, as America seems less and less able to produce this particular type of cotton running from it^th to i-ft-th inches in length. It is by no means an easy matter to get spinners to change their quality and to try new growths, and frequently this can only be done by accepting a lower price. Now that we have created a regular demand for Uganda cotton it would be dangerous to change the type, for it would completely upset the market, and all the work of creating a demand would have to be done over again. In any case I should strongly urge that one should proceed very slowly and tentatively in the matter. If the existing defects could be eliminated, one could not wish for better cotton than what I may term the 1912 to 1913 type of Uganda cotton. One subject which has given a good deal of trouble is that of Cotton Rules, regulating distribution of seed, culti- vation and marketing of cotton, etc Time after time the Association have drawn the attention of the Colonial Office to the necessity for regulations, not only in Uganda but also in other Colonies, for the control of the industry. Unfortu- nately the Cotton Rules first proposed for Uganda were quite impracticable, and would have been an unnecessary interference with legitimate commercial enterprise with no corresponding advantages. It was actually suggested that cotton should be classified into at least a dozen different grades, although there was not a single individual in the country capable of grading cotton into even four or five grades It was also proposed that all shippers should be compelled to use the same marks or brands, which would COTTON 155 have had the effect of placing those who really took trouble to keep their cotton clean on the same level as those who handled it carelessly. Mainly owing to representations from the Association, the Cotton Rules have been redrafted on a better basis. The first record of exports of cotton from Uganda was in 1904, when 54 bales were shipped. Since then the industry has advanced by leaps and bounds, as will be seen from the following statement showing the crop of each year in round figures: — 1906 50obales. 1907 2,000 „ 1908 4,000 1909 5,000 „ 1910 12,000 „ 1911 20,000 „ 1912 29,000 „ 1913 26,000 It is understood that the falling off in 1913 was due to some mistake about the issuing of seed, and that for some unexplained reason a large quantity of seed for sowing was distributed too late. So rapid an increase in a new industry naturally caused innumerable troubles, difficulties of transport, difficulties of finance, and so on. Further, there was a large amount of reckless competition, and the buying price was raised to such a point that many of the buying companies lost money. The Association did all in their power to promote a buying agreement, for they recognised that in the long run inflated prices would do no good to the industry. It is difficult for native farmers to understand the fluctuation of price in the markets of Europe, and they would certainly be discouraged when the price had to be brought down again to an economic basis. As regards financing, the Association gave all possible help by very large loans to the British East Africa Cor- poration and others, and they did all in their power to ensure quick sales and prompt cash returns for any cotton consigned to them. They also took up the question of transport very seriously at the Colonial Office, and the representations they made have been most effective. A railway has been constructed from Jinja on Lake Victoria to Namasagali on Lake Kioga, and there is now a better supply of rolling-stock on the Uganda Railway and more steamers and barges on both Lakes. The Government authorised a loan of £500,000 for the construction of roads and the 156 COTTON improvement of transport facilities generally, and more recently the Government have arranged to assist in the issue of a further loan of £3,000,000 for the provision of better transport facilities in our East African possessions. NYASALAND. Nyasaland is no exception to the general rule, that one of the greatest difficulties in establishing cotton growing in a new country is the absence of economical means of transport. In the early days cotton had to be conveyed, mostly in head loads, from Blantyre and elsewhere to the Shire River. Thence it was conveyed by barge down to the Zambesi and to Chinde. Frequently for many months together river transport was impossible. At Chinde it was transhipped into ocean-going barges and conveyed to Beira, where it was loaded on to the ocean steamers. It is surpris- ing that in face of these difficulties any cotton was grown at all. A railway was first constructed between Port Herald and Chiromo, and the extension to Blantyre was completed in 1909. Later on, thanks very largely to the efforts of Sir George Fiddes, arrangements were made for the extensor, of the railway from Port Herald down to the Zambesi, which would entirely eliminate the difficulties of low water in the Shire river. Towards the cost of this the Association and their friends raised £36,200 of the required capital, and the work is now rapidly being pushed on. Negotiations are also proceeding for the construction of a connecting railway from the Zambesi to Beira, and when this is completed it will be possible to load cotton on to trucks at Blantyre, which will convey it direct to the steamer at Beira, This railway will eventually become one of the main trunk lines in South- East Africa, and its extension to Lake Nyasa and North - Eastern Rhodesia is only a question of time. The Asso- ciation have never missed an opportunity of impressing on the Colonial Office the great importance of economic trans- port for the produce of Nyasaland. Like Uganda and other Colonies, there was no Agricul- tural Department in Nyasaland, but in consequence of representations from the Association an expert was appointed in 1904, and to-day Nyasaland has a small but efficient Agricultural Department which is doing excellent work. The quality of the ootton grown in Nyasaland is generally excellent in quality, and as there are two types of country, the Lowlands and the Highlands, so also are there COTTON 157 two types of cotton. Generally speaking, in the Highlands cotton of Upland American type has been most successful, and after several years of work the Nyasaland Upland type was definitely established in 1909. It is not very long in staple, but is very clean and silky, and Nyasaland seed has given very good results in other countries. It fetches as a rule from about id. to 2^d. over Middling American. In the Lowlands, cotton of the Egyptian type has given the best results, and Abassi better than Affifi. It is, however, possible that even more satisfactory results might be ob- tained with long-stapled American cotton of the Allen's or Griffin type. In the early days the Association had no branches of their own, but the African Lakes Corporation were appointed as their agents, and a very large amount of financial assistance has been given by us to a number of European planters to enable them to start cotton growing. The Association lost a good deal of money through these advances, but on the whole the results have been quite satisfactory from a cotton growing point of view. The establishment of an entirely new industry is a difficult matter, and especially so in a tropical country. In 1906 an attempt was made to establish cotton grow- ing as a native industry, and the Association made arrange- ments for the African Lakes Corporation to purchase all the cotton grown on their behalf. This industry did not pro- gress very rapidly at first, and in 1910, in consequence of representations from the Government, the Association decided to establish their own branches, without, however, interfering with the friendly relations which existed with their agents. A ginning factory and buying station was established at Port Herald, and a powerful hydraulic press was erected so as to help the planters in obtaining low raters of freight. Two other ginning and buying stations have since been established at Chiromo and Vua (on Lake Nyasa), and the Association have just purchased another ginning factory at Fort Johnston, which would otherwise have been closed owing to the company which owned it going into liquidation. The Association continue to give considerable financial assistance to the planters and others, though probably in the future the system of financing crops will be discontinued, and cash advances against actual cotton will take its place. Nyasaland is only a small country, and very large results cannot be expected, but it is satisfactory to be able to record that the crop increased from 192 bales in 1903 to 1,444 bales in 1906, and the 1912 crop amounted to 6,800 bales. 158 COTTON There are also considerable cotton possibilities in North-Eastern Rhodesia, which geographically is part of Nyasaland. The Association is working in co-operation with the North Charterland Exploration Company, and is giving considerable financial assistance to planters and others. Cotton cannot, however, ever become a big question in this country until better means of transport are provided. ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN. When the Association commenced operations there were no economic means of transport to the interior of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, but as soon as the Suakm-Berber Railway was completed in 1906 the Association offered to do what they could to assist, but they were informed that their help was not required, and no further steps were taken in the matter. In 1909 the Egyptian cotton crop was an absolute failure, and it became evident that one must look elsewhere for an addition to the supply of cotton of the Egyptian type, and the Association again began to make inquiries as to the possibilities of the Sudan. On October 1 3th, 1910, Sir William Mather gave an important address at the Manchester Town Hall on the cotton possibilities of the Sudan, and the Association then decided to take up 5,000 shares in the Sudan Plantations Syndicate, which was far and away the most important cotton growing firm in the Sudan. The Association appointed a representative to join the Board of Directors of the Syndicate, and subsequently took up a further 4,000 shares. The Sudan Government had commenced an important practical experiment at Tayiba to prove whether cotton could be grown on the Gezira Plain with irrigation between July and March, and they wisely handed over the manage- ment to the Syndicate. In view of the great importance of the question, and with the object of acquiring more definite information on the subject, the Council decided in 1911 to send out a deputation, and representatives of the Association visited the Sudan in January, 1912. The Deputation were most deeply impressed with the cotton possibilities of the Sudan, and they were particularly struck with the excellent quality of the cotton which was being grown there. Their report has been published in full, but the results of their investigations may be summarised as follows : — I. — TOKAR : Good possibilities of producing 10,000 to 20,000 bales of cotton of fair quality in the immediate future. COTTON 159 2. — KHARTOUM AND NORTH : Moderate pro- spects of producing 5,000 bales or more of high-class Egyptian cotton in the immediate future, with further possibilities of increase if an earlier maturing and more robust type of cotton can be established. 3. — GEZIRA : One of the finest cotton propo- sitions in the world. There seems to be no reason why in the next few years one should not raise annually 50,000 bales or more of really high-class Egyptian cotton, with the prospect of the production increasing to 250,000 bales within 10 or 15 years, and with further possibilities later on of a production of 1,000,000 bales or more. 4. — RAIN-GROWN COTTON : The prospects in the Sudan of producing very large quantities of cotton of American type are most encouraging and in some ways better than those in either Northern Nigeria or Uganda. There is land enough to grow millions ot bales, but the future must depend on sufficient popula- tion, efficient Government supervision, and the requisite commercial assistance for buying and ginning. 5. — GEDAREF AND KASSALA : There are con- siderable possibilities in these districts for both rain- grown and irrigated cotton. There is not the least doubt that the Tayiba experi- ment was an eminent success, and the Council therefore decided to press the Government to do all in their power to push on the development of the Gezira Plain with ail possible speed. The establishment of cotton growing is a slow business at the best, and many years must elapse before any new field can be expected to produce 100,000 bales annually even under the most favourable conditions. Con- sidering that Lancashire consumption is over 4,000,000 bales per annum, and considering also that the world's demands for cotton are growing rapidly every day, it is evident that the question is one of the greatest urgency. The Associa- tion were convinced that the Gezira Plain was the only new field where one might expect an appreciable quantity of high-class cotton in a reasonable time, and on January 23rd, 1913, a deputation from the Association waited on Mr. Asquith and urged that the Government should guarantee the interest on a loan of £3,000,000 to be raised by the Sudan Government for the construction of irrigation and other works in the Sudan, The Government soon after- wards introduced the necessary legislation in Parliament, and it is hoped that the loan will shortly be issued and 160 COTTON operations commenced with the least possible delay. We can at any rate congratulate ourselves on the fact that Lord Kitchener has taken up this important question with his well-known zeal and energy, and I think we can safely leave the matter in his hands. SUMMARY. I now propose to sum up as shortly as possible the results of our twelve years' work. We have spent £170,000 on experimental work, and although this may seem a large sum to devote to this, I think we can rightly claim that the results justify the expenditure. In the first place, we have aroused the interest of the whole Empire in the possibilities of cotton growing, and we have started a movement which will go on for ever. Further than that, during the last twelve years a really appreciable quantity of cotton has been grown in new fields where little or no cotton was grown before. In 1 903 the amount of cotton grown in new fields in the British Empire amounted to only 1,900 bales, valued at £29,000. It is estimated that in 1913 78,800 bales were produced, worth £1,170,100, and since we commenced operations in 1902 no less than 360,640 bales have been pro- duced, to the value of £5,195,100. We have also acquired most valuable experience, and we have got a staff and organisation fully capable of dealing with the work. While not losing sight of the object for which the Association was formed, everything is run on business lines as far as possible, for it is essential that we should be able to pay our way, as otherwise we should have to abandon the work. I think it will be generally admitted that it would be a misfortune for Lancashire, and indeed for the whole Empire, if the Asso- ciation had to suspend or even to curtail its operations in any way. In order to give you some idea of the magnitude of our business, I may mention that 47,466 bales, to the value of £661,227, passed through our hands in 1913, and at the present moment we have over £250,000 advanced against cotton. We do all we can to help planters and others by financing and superintending the sale of their cotton, and we make a point of obtaining the very best price possible. For these services we charge a small commission, which brings us in a substantial sum towards our standing ex- penses. We also supply machinery, plant, baling material, COTTON l6l seed, etc., on easy terms of repayment, and we are now con- ducting a large banking business in financing cotton, seed, machinery, etc. We also render valuable services to Agricultural De- partments and others in reporting on samples and advising as to their suitability for the market, and we are always willing to help anyone who requires definite information as to cotton or cotton growing. What perhaps will give the best idea of the magnitude of our business is the fact that we received and despatched no less than 62,113 letters in 1913, or an average of 207 per working day. We also hold a large number of shares in cotton grow- ing companies, and have our own representatives as Direc- tors to assist in the management ; and, including the com- panies in which we are interested or which have been formed with our assistance and our own capital of ^480,000, the total amount of capital raised for cotton growing under our auspices now amounts to £1,1 2 5,000. The work, how- ever, continues to grow rapidly, and the provision of large sums of additional capital is a most pressing question. I think therefore the Association can claim that they have more than justified their existence, for they have definitely proved that the British Empire can produce the cotton which Lancashire requires. The quantity is, of course, at present small in comparison with Lancashire's total consumption, but the rate of progress we have achieved is infinitely greater than was the case in the early days of cotton growing in the United States of America. A great statesman, in drawing attention to the future importance of our Colonies, impressed on his hearers the necessity of think- ing Imperially. I think the Association can claim with pride that they have done even more than this, for they have been acting Imperially, and have started one of the greatest Imperial movements of modern times, and one which must be for the ultimate welfare of the whole of the British Empire. Before I conclude, I should like to express on behalf of the Association the grateful thanks we owe to His Majesty's Government for the generous treatment and for the valuable assistance they have always given us, no matter which party was in power. The British Cotton Growing Association knows no politics. It is impossible to mention everyone by name, but I must take this opportunity of expressing OUT most grateful thanks both to Mr. Harcourt and to Lore! Emmott for the deep interest they have taken in the work I 1 1 62 COTTON and the invaluable help they have given us. Nor can I sufficiently express our gratitude to the other officials both at the Colonial Office and in the Colonies, for without the assistance and sympathy they have always so readily given our work would have been impossible. Finally, I should like to express our grateful thanks to Professor Dunstan and the staff of the Imperial Institute for most valuable advice and assistance on many occasions, and particularly to him as President of this Conference for affording us an oppor- tunity of laying before you this summary of our somewhat arduous labours during the last twelve years. [NOTE. — This paper is reprinted from plates supplied by the British Cotton Growing Association, and the appendix referred to on p. 139 has not been reproduced here.] THE WORLD'S DEMAND FOR COTTON, AND INDIA'S SHARE IN MEETING IT. By ARNO SCHMIDT. Secretary of the International Federation of Master Cotton Spinners' and Manufacturers' Associations. THE cotton industry of the world has, during the last ten years, been suffering from a scarcity of raw material. This scarcity has frequently been so pronounced that mills in all parts of the world have been obliged to curtail production at one time or other. At a meeting of the International Committee held early in June, 1914, in Paris, it was generally admitted by the representatives of fifteen countries that the cotton spinning industry all the world over had never been in such a depressed condition as at present, and it was stated by the members of the Com- mittee that many English and Continental spinning mills are curtailing their working hours. This slackness of trade is partly due to the Balkan War and the Chinese Revolution, but very largely also to the high price of American cotton, which rules the prices of all other cottons. The primary cause of short-time working undoubtedly arises from the fear that the world's yearly supply of cotton will not be sufficient to meet the yearly demand. During last season we were told that the American cotton crop would be about 13,500,000 bales, whilst it is recog- nized that 14,500,000 bales of American cotton are required annually. This probable scarcity caused an increase in the price of the raw material and of the finished article, and a falling-off in the demand for manu- factured goods. It must be remembered that by far th si Khateo cotton Akola 25 12 9 5° 4 Buri Khamgaon (Akola) 47 19 19 O Katilvilayati Akot (Akola)... 8 82 2 4 4 Balapur Jari Balapur (Akola) 5 89 3 0 3 Gaorani ... 10 40 10 40 o Jubbalpore ... Panagarh Jubbalpore Jubbalpore 0 o o o 29 18 71 82 o o Patan Jubbalpore 0 0 12 88 0 Deshi cotton Harda(Hosha igabad) o 4 62 34 o Bhopali Bhopal 0 5 63 32 0 Multai Jari ... Betul 5 70 15 5 5 Katilvilayati Chanda 22 35 7 7 29 Tinthidia ... Seoni 10 32 16 37 5 Sausar Chhindwara 23 40 16 7 Jari Yeotmal IS 70 2 10 o Katel Yeotmal 32 57 7 4 o Katilvilayati Yeotmal 22 57 9 12 o Hauri (Malkapur) Uharwar (Malkapur). Buldana Buldana 5» 17 g 3 o 6 3 0 o plants increased branching and productiveness has been exploded in the case of cottons in these Provinces. Manurial experiments have been carried out with a high degree of thoroughness, and the following facts appear to have been established. Of cattle dung, saltpetre, and poudrette for cotton and juar in rotation, poudrette proved to be the most valuable. The results of the application of fertilizers was that the effect these had in increasing the yield of cotton had not been commensurate with the cost of the manure, although in every case there had been an increase of crop due to its use. An application of cattle dung followed by top dress- ing of nitrate of soda and saltpetre has given distinctly promising results. By the adoption of dry-earth system of conserving the urine of cattle it is stated that a farmer can double his supply of manure. Madras. The Presidency of Madras resembles that of Bombay in having a diverse series of species of cottons. In the 208 COTTON northern parts we have an extension of the herbaceums from the Southern Mahratta Country. Mr. Mankad says that the ceded districts of Cudappah, Kurnool, and Anantpur are more or less divided into three distinct regions by the ranges of hills known as Erramalas and Nalamalas. West of the Erramalas are found herbaceum cottons known to the trade as Westerns. In the valley between the Erramalas and Nalamalas they are known under the trade name of Northerns. These are commer- cially superior to Westerns, the cotton having a slightly reddish tinge. On the east of Nalamalas is grown Yerra- patti, a variety of Gossypium indicum known under the trade name of Coconadas. Bellary, Anantpur, and a portion of Kurnool produce Westerns. Portions of Kurnool and Cudappah have Northerns. Portions of Cudappah and Guntur produce Yerrapatti. In the western and northern parts Yerrapatti is grown in lighter kinds of soils; the Coconada area grows mostly Yerra- patti in all kinds of soils. Northerns, on the whole, are considered superior and fetch the highest price. In some places in the Koilpupla taluka District, Kur- nool, and in the Bangampalli State one finds a naked- seeded herbaceum. The staple of this cotton is superior to that of Northerns, but its ginning percentage is only 23 to 25. The cultivators prefer this black seed for feeding their bullocks, as they consider that it contains more oil. In the south of the Madras Presidency the cultivation of cotton comes in from Tanjore; the varieties grown are Uppam (herbaceum) down to Madura; from Madura to Tinnevelly, in addition to Uppam, is grown Karanganni, which is a variety of Gossypium indicum. Imported Broach grows luxuriantly at Hagari with a high ginning percentage, but its long duration of growth is a drawback to its cultivation. Selection experiments with the local cotton Jowari- Hatti (Westerns) are in progress. In 1912 the valuation of the selections made at Hagari Station proved that most were equal to the best class of Westerns. The naked black-seed cotton was considered by Messrs. Tata. Sons and Co. to be the best of the indigenous types in COTTON 209 this tract, both in colour and length of fibre, but its ginning percentage is unfortunately low, being only 22*2. On the Nandyal Agricultural Station selection experi- ments are in progress with Northerns. By recent valuation these are taken to be 10 to 20 per cent, better than Kumpta, and 30 to 40 per cent, better than Westerns. Seed of selection No. 2 is being distributed. Culti- vators do not hesitate to pay 10 per cent, over the local price for the selected seed. On the Koilpatti Station experiments are in progress with types of Karanganni, which are uniform in ripening and give comparatively large returns and high ginning percentage. Strains from single plant selections are being grown on a field scale; the most promising which fulfil the desired conditions will be set aside for seed distribution. The Uppam variety, which ripens earlier and is hardier than Karanganni, will probably always appeal to the cultivators who appreciate these points. Out of seven- teen samples of selection Karanganni A type, six were valued at Rs. 25 higher than the price of fully good fair Tinnevelly; the rest of the samples were valued at Rs. 10 higher. Of eight samples of Karanganni C type, all were valued equal to average fully good fair Tinnevelly. Of eight samples of A/C of Karanganni type, all were valued equal to ordinary fully good fair Tinnevelly. From Trichinopoly to Tinnevelly, Cambodia has become a regular garden crop, replacing tobacco, chillies, ragi, and other garden crops. The cultivation of this seems to have spread considerably in the Nandyal Valley along the Tungbhadra Canal, and in the Coimbatore District also. The produce has unfortunately suffered from admixture of inferior Madras cottons. This has been detected by the trade, and has rendered Madras cotton unsaleable as a high-class cotton. The cultivation of Bourbon and Nadan varieties seems to be confined to the east of the Coimbatore District. The former is a survival of the crop introduced as early as 1817. The fields always consist of a mixture of the two varieties, and remain as they stand for three to four 210 COTTON years. Soil containing a higher percentage of lime is preferred for Bourbon, and it is in this kind of soil that the proportion of Bourbon predominates. The reason for the mixed cropping is probably the fact that Bourbon in its early stages requires the shelter of the Nadan, which is fast-growing. Neither gives any crop in the first year, and to get something in the way of return the cultivators grow with them bajri, tur, castor, etc. Bourbon ripens from November to January and Nadan from February to April, so that the produce of each could be kept separate if necessary. Tirrupur is a large commercial city, where this cotton is brought in every bazaar day, and bought by merchants at a price above that of local cotton. Some merchants have their petty agents stationed in different villages to bring this cotton, and it is these men who really do the sorting, i.e., separating samples where Bourbon pre- dominates from those in which Nadan predominates. The extension of pure Bourbon cotton in its own area as a dry crop does not seem practicable. Punjab. These Provinces are noteworthy in that, in addition to the predominance of various forms of neglectum, there are types of plants belonging to an annual form of arboreum known as Gossypium sanguineum, or Mooltan cotton. In the varieties of neglectum we have the usual variations in the leaf and colour of the flower, the yellow-flowered plants having a finer staple and a lower percentage of cotton to seed than those of the white- flowered types. In the sanguineums there are two types of flowers, a dark red and a pink. In addition to these, there are varieties which have the botanical character of indicum, but the cotton of neglectum. With the exception of Mooltan cotton all these varieties extend into the North-West Frontier Province, which, in addition, also possesses what seems to be a hairy form of obtusifolium. Finally, there are series of American cottons, all introduced, and these fall COTTON 211 into three varieties : Upland Georgian, New Orleans, Soft Peruvian. The first, on account of its hardiness and immunity from the attacks of pests, is accepted as being obviously the type which should be introduced under canal culti- vation. The second is less hardy in its nature and is more liable to the attack of insects, and its superiority to the first is s<5 slight that it is not worth the extra risk. The Soft Peruvian variety (annual form) is one of the finest cottons ever grown in India. In spite of its higher price, its lower out-turn brings it on a financial level with Upland. It would be a remunerative crop to any farmer willing to undertake the extra trouble it requires. Mr. Milne, the Economic Botanist, has discovered that the root-rot in cotton is caused by a nematode worm. The aim of the Department is to improve the crop generally by improved methods of tillage and the selection and production of pure varieties, both indigenous and American. With regard to the Colonies, the water requirement of the crop is an important factor. Water is scarce towards the end of the season, so a variety of cotton which ripens late is at a disadvantage. The chief American cotton maintained for distribution is known as 4 F. As irrigated tracts in the Punjab and Sind promise to be in future the chief sources from which cotton of the American type can be supplied, the experiments are engaging the interest and attention of the trade, and in this connection the following remarks of Messrs. Tata, Sons and Co. deserve careful consideration: "All the samples have one common characteristic of Dharwar Americans. As these cottons have been grown suc- cessfully for five years, the presumption is that the seeds have been thoroughly acclimatized, and the time has now arrived to make experiments on a large scale to see if it is a commercial success. If seeds are distributed to selected farmers and a good watch is kept on them to take care that they do not treat this cotton in the happy- go-lucky fashion they do the short-stapled indigenous cottons the result should be satisfactory, and the question 212 COTTON of British-grown long-stapled cotton will, to a certain extent, be solved." The Manager of the Empress Mills, Nagpur, has supplied the following results of the working of Lyallpur cotton, along with American, Bani, and Buri types. The count spun was 245 warp, and in all cases number of turns per inch was the same. Loss per cent, on cotton Tensi°n of in blow-rooms 24 s warp Ib. American F.G.M. Bowed ... 775 ... 57'44 Panderkora Bani ... ... 8-34 ... 60*33 Lyallpur ... ... ... lO'oS ... 52*20 Buri(C.P.) ... ... 10-37 ... 46-10 The prices at the time of purchase were very nearly the same in all cases. On this basis, but including the blow-room loss, the purchase prices per Ib. work out as below : — Annas per Ib. American ... ... ... ... ... 6*5 Panderkora Bani ... ... ... ... 6-53 Lyallpur ... ... ... ... 6-63 Buri (C P.) ... ... ... ... 6-65 United Provinces. The predominant cotton of this Province is composed of the usual mixture of neglectum, producing what is known in the trade as Bengals. Towards the eastern side of the Province a bushy cotton, the intermedium of Todaro, is grown in patches. It is found in the same way throughout the adjoining Provinces of Bihar and Orissa. The chief objection to its extensive cultivation is its long growing period. In addition to these, American Upland is also grown, but its chances cf further extension are at present problematical. A few of the forms of neglectum have been separated and tried on the field scale, and, as in other parts of Bengals' tract, the white-flowered cotton is rapidly ousting the others on account of its hardiness, high out-turn, and high ginning percentage. At present steps are being energetically taken to dis- tribute new and improved varieties of neglectum cottons into the tracts most suitable to them. Mr. Leake is attempting to evolve a hybrid which will in time take the place of these, and the possibilities of American annual COTTON 213 cottons, as they produce better staples, are being tested. In Bihar and Orissa, Bengal, and Burma, the cotton crop is of such minor importance that the attentions of the Departments are concentrated on rice, jute, etc., which are their staples. •' •'."' ; i Other Provinces. In Assam, the high yielding variety of the Garo Hills is being introduced into the other tracts. In Burma, a beginning is to be made in the study of its cotton improvement. Of the Native States, the Department of Agriculture, Baroda, is assisting in the work of the improvement of cotton in Guzerat and Kathiawar. In the Hyderabad State, which provides 15 per cent, of trie total crop in India, nothing appears to have been done. In the States of Central India, Rajputana, and Mysore, much is being done in the shape of an extension of the work in adjoining British India tracts. In conclusion, we have tried to make clear the fact that the object of the early experiments in the improvement of Indian cotton was directly to furnish a supply of a superior product to meet the needs of the English market. No thought was given to improve the crop for the use of the people of the country. The modern ideal is two- 'fold: firstly, to materially benefit the people of the country by improving the crop primarily grown for their own purposes; secondly, to introduce a better staple so as to avoid the necessity of importing foreign cottons and, in the event of a surplus, to compete with them in their own markets. The percentages of the ordinary area under cotton in India in each Province, together with the estimated out- turn for the three years ending 1913-14, are given in Appendix A. The usual percentage of loss that is found in the blow- room as regards the several descriptions of Indian cotton at present grown, kindly furnished by Messrs. Tata, Sons and Co., Bombay, appears in Appendix B. 214 COTTON < X 5 OH OU ON CO vr> M — N ON »G N «- « OOO CO tx _ >-. ro •<$• "% co « cT- « >- O «t^w O ON CO N CM CO N ; N oo oo N M • co Tj-r^oo N ' <-• VO 00 ""> ON vo" "£ cT i-~ en O •- »^>OO " -fr— rxi^N VO ON •* co Tl- 8O *o ON O N •• co N M O N CO ^ VOOO CON M m O oo TJ- OO CO CO «-• as s 1111 jog8 f^'oS o M \f) CO COVO OO vO •- ON CO t^ covO O CO <« CO « ON "100 OOOO •• COvp w ON« ON co CO N N N b b b b b b ^ « 11111=14 1 ll 1 *l 13 .S st1? ?. 8 co CO W ^3 _g •3 g g S S 911 gi •SIP if* COTTON 215 APPENDIX B. STATEMENT OF PERCENTAGE OF Loss FOUND IN THE BLOW-ROOM AS REGARDS THE SEVERAL DESCRIPTIONS OF INDIAN COTTON. Description Superfine Fine Fully good Good Remarks H.G. Bengal ..; 10 13 17 (Rajpu- tana cotton only) M.G. Bengal ... 8 IO 13 — M.G. Sind-Pun- 9 II 14 — jab M.G. Khandesh — 10 tO 1 1 14 17 to 18 M.G. Dhaman- 8 9 to 10 — — If hand-ginned gam and Pool- is mixed, loss will gam be 2 to 3 per cents more than fine clas. M.G. Nagpur and 7 8 to 9 — — Do. do. Kaptee M.G. Umravatee 9 10 to ii — — Do. do. M.G.Akola ... 9 10 to 13 — — Cotton in this district is generally watered before pressing, hence loss 2 per cent, higher M.G. Khamgan 10 II tO 12 — — M.G. Oomra ... 9 10 to ii 14 — M.G. Barsee ... — 13 to 14 17 to 18 M.G. Broach ... 8 9 to 10 13 — If Khandesh kapas is mixed while ginning, loss per cent, will be more M.G. Surat 8 9 12 — Kim -Sayan loses more M.G. Navsari ... 7 8 to 9 II — M.G. Bhownagar — 13 17 — (good stapled) H.G. Bhownagar — 15 19 tO 20 — M.G. Mathio ... — ii 14 to 15 — M.G. Dhollera... — 13 17 — H.G. Dhollera... — 15 19 tO 20 — Saw-ginned Dhar- — — — 10 tO 12 war M.G. Westerns... — — — 13 to 14 H.G. Westerns... — — — 17 to 18 M.G. Kumpta ... — — 14 to 16 More if mixed with hand-ginned THE INTRODUCTION OF AMERICAN COTTON INTO SIND PROVINCE, INDIA. By G. S. HENDERSON. Deputy Director of Agriculture, Sind. COTTON of a low class is cultivated in Sind, in Hydera- bad, Thar and Parkar, and Nawabshah districts. The area of Sind is about equal to that of Egypt, and although the area under cotton has increased considerably in the last few years, the total annual cultivation even now is only about 4,000,000 to 5,000,000 acres. The present out-turn is about 150,000 bales per year besides what is used locally in the villages. Before the North Western Railway was opened in Sind the amount of cotton exported from that district was practically nil. Cotton cultivation is generally spreading northwards along the left bank of the Indus and eastwards on the Eastern Nara. Cotton is a very profitable crop, and there is no reason why it should not be cultivated to a large extent in Upper Sind, on the non-rice lands. These latter are low-lying and have a large supply of flow water; rice lands are unsatisfactory as the excessive flooding necessary for the rice is not suitable for cotton. The comparative costs and returns of cotton and other staple crops from the Government farms at Mirpurkhas and Sukkur are given in the statement opposite. Sindhi cotton is short-stapled, coarse and strong, with a particularly good bright colour. In the market it ranks about the same as " Bengals." In the last few years the price has gone up considerably, and now runs to about Rs. 8.9 per maund of 81 lb., say 5^d. per Ib. of lint, as compared with 7'3od. per lb. for Middling American (the price in Liverpool, May, 1914). Sindhi cotton gins up to 33 per cent. The best cotton comes from Shah-jo- bhit, near Hala. COTTON 21? £ O as u OS os ro 00 ^ « oo te 2 2 d o ^ "5 q 8 M d g J3 u ^ 8 j- o Q- ^~ o\ to 0 ^ 05 OT p^ •4-* *" W £ « GJ "^ s 5- 6 8 to tn fl T3.C If .= W Q d £ vcT IS ^ OS !•* \T) ' Ox N j en *** a£ Q«P '^ . • * a " 9 l|;« ! N OT rt 5 £ £) "o . P4 (^ "° O rt P^ ^ PH 0 M •-I PH E S 03 g ro „ I U S *! ^ q 9 q • vo N oo' vo C 2 j| to \d to T^- £ & V & N 1 "o *7 «» •» o Cci ^ W £ £ * ^ E § o rj- c! c 9 W d £ 00 ^ °^ N « *? * <3 to •* d ^ vo ^ >O CO £ «n o5 w 05 p> Oi •^ "•" w w O " CO < — E c j in ^ O • ^ >^ • a 1H d VO OS *H 0 00 vd 06 oo' ^ g os -r 55 °° (^ eg M ^ <£ ° ! 1 1; j o PH 0 0 0 O "c o II .£ J II 2l8 COTTON Sindhi cotton cultivation is simple in the extreme. After irrigation seed is broadcasted on the surface and ploughed in. Thereafter the crop receives one or two hoeings and nothing further except irrigation from time to time till the crop is ready for picking. The improvement of Sindhi cotton could have been attempted in several ways : — (a) By producing a still coarser cotton with higher ginning out-turn. It is along these lines that some export firms wish to direct the work. (b) By producing a finer and longer-stapled cotton suitable for spinning higher counts and weaving finer materials. The problem was to find by experiment a cotton suitable to the country, but of a much higher grade. To grade up the indigenous cotton held out but little promise of success in comparison with the adoption of a superior variety from some other part of the world. Indian varieties of superior quality, such as Broach, were soon discarded as undesirable; Egyptian was then tried, and finally American. When the Agricultural Department was first established in Sind about ten years ago, it was thought by the then Deputy Director of Agriculture, Mr. Fletcher, that Egyptian cotton would thrive in Sind. It did well on all the Government farms and it was decided to get a large area cultivated in the district. Four thousand acres were cultivated in one season by zemindars on the Jamrao Canal, the out-turn probably averaging 5 to 8 maunds per acre. Some difficulty was experienced in disposing of the crop, as Egyptian cotton is not used by any of the mills in Bombay, and the amount produced was not sufficient to put the article on a commercial footing. The Mitafifi variety was of good quality and was favourably reported on by brokers in Egypt. Auction sales were established by Government at Mirpurkhas to dispose of the produce, but the price obtained was very uneven. Up to Rs. 14 per maund of 81 Ib. of seed-cotton was obtained on some occasions when the presence of buyers anxious to obtain a sample caused some competition. At other sales there was little or no demand. The ginning COTTON 219 was another difficulty, the local gins being adapted for the local cotton and not giving good results with the Egyptian. Further, the local ginneries were not at all anxious to handle this cotton, and buyers often found themselves in difficulties. The disadvantages connected with Egyptian cotton in Sind are : — (a) It needs more careful cultivation than the Sindhi, and requires to be grown on ridges. (b) It has a long growing period, and needs to be sown at the latest by the beginning of April, while the first picking is not generally ready till October. This entirely prevents its cultivation on the inundation canals. In fact, it is practically only on the Jamrao Canal, which is a perennial canal, that it can be grown at the present time. The results of the efforts to introduce Egyptian cotton into Sind are. however, very interesting and instructive. It has been proved that, given proper conditions, it will thrive well in the district, which is one of the few places outside Egypt where this class of cotton has been success- ful. In the future, when the country fills up and more intensive cultivation is adopted, it is possible that Egyptian cotton may be cultivated in Sind. Experiments with American cotton were begun several years ago. It was found to be promising, and among its advantages were : — • (a) Its quick growing period; it can be sown in June, and the first picking is available in the end of September. This is most important for Sind, as it enables it to' be cultivated on the common inundation canals. (b) It is a good yielder, and on average land will produce as much as Sindhi cotton per acre. (c) It seems to be hardy, and can be cultivated in the same manner as Sindhi cotton. (d) The marketing of the crop is much easier than in the case of Egyptian cotton. The writer paid a visit to the chief American cotton- growing centres, and selected the variety called " Triumph " as being most suitable for cultivation in Sind. It is a big-boiled variety, an early and good yielder, and is adapted for growth under irrigation. 220 COTTON As a result of repeated trials on the Government farms at Mirpurkhas and Sukkur, and on sub-stations at Jacoba- bad, Shikarpur, Nawabshah, and Tando Mahomedkhan, it was decided to commence its cultivation in the district on a large scale. Forty tons of Triumph seed were obtained from America, 10 tons being distributed, in the beginning of 1913, in Sukkur and Upper Sind Frontier, and 30 tons in the Jamrao area. The seed was dis- tributed in good time, and officers of the Department toured from village to village, interviewing all growers personally. A considerable amount of American cotton is used in Bombay mills, so it is much to the owner's advantage if they can buy a high grade of American cotton in India. A syndicate, consisting chiefly of Bombay millowners, was formed to buy, gin, bale, and dispose of the produce of the Triumph seed distributed by the Agricultural Depart- ment. The syndicate erected cotton gins at Mirpurkhas and Shikarpur, and the former is now in operation. It was not possible to fix a price per maund of kapas to be paid to the growers, as the amount of expenses for ginning, baling, and freight could not be calculated in the first season. The syndicate, however, arranged to pay on delivery of the seed-cotton at the ginnery one-half of the current price of Middling American cotton, as quoted in the Times of India, and the remainder of the price being paid to the growers after the cotton and cotton seed were sold. It is unfortunate that the season and inundation have been quite unsuitable for cotton in Upper Sind, and only 300 or 400 maunds of seed-cotton have been obtained. However, where the cotton has had a fair chance and conditions have been observed it has been successful. In Lower Sind most of the growers are satisfied, and the cotton came in satisfactorily to the gin. One large owner has indented for 300 maunds, i.e., sufficient to sow 1,200 acres, for the next season. The crop consisted of 511 bales. This was sold in Liverpool at an average price of id. per Ib. below that of Middling American. After deducting expenses the return to the growers was about Rs. 9 per maund of seed- COTTON 221 cotton, Sindhi seed-cotton being at the time at Rs. 6 per maund. Sufficient seed to sow 6,000 acres has been distributed in the districts. With the increased quantity of the produce and better ginning it is expected that the cotton will grade as Middling American. A seed farm of 200 acres has been acquired by the Department to prevent deterioration and mixing of the seed. The farm cotton will be under careful inspection, and the produce will be specially ginned on the farm. It is too soon to say if the cotton is established on a practical basis in Lower Sind or not. But it is un- doubtedly a fact that a high-grade American cotton can be grown in Sind under ordinary Sindhi cultivation and will give a good out-turn. Economic conditions may, however, prevent its permanent establishment. PROBLEMS IN CONNECTION WITH COTTON CULTIVATION IN EGYPT. By GERALD C. DUDGEON, F.E.S. Consulting Agriculturist to the Ministry of Agriculture, Egypt; Vice-President of the International Asso- ciation for Tropical Agriculture. THE unique position which has been attained by Egypt with respect to the cultivation of cotton is chiefly due to the remarkable equality of climatic conditions which prevails and the control which is capable of being exer- cised upon the water supply of the land. The area under cotton cultivation has increased fairly steadily during the past ten years, exhibiting the follow- ing proportions with respect to the cultivable lands of the country : — • Year Per cent. 1904 ... ... ... ... ... 26-7 1905 ... ... ... ... 28-9 1906 ... ... ... ... ... 28*0 1907 ... ... ... ... ... 29-6 1908 ... ... ... ... ... 30-8 1909 ... ... ... ... ... 297 1910 ... ... ... ... ... 307 1911 ... ... ... ... ... 32-5 1912 ... ... ... ... ... 32-5 1913 ••• ••• ••• ••• ••- 32-6 If Lower Egypt (including Gizeh) alone be taken into consideration, cotton will be found to represent 42*7 per cent, of the area in that part for 1913. Further expan- sion is checked for some time, owing to the fact that the drainage on certain lands is inefficient. Large tracts exist approximating some of the most productive cotton areas, on which it has been rendered necessary to intro- duce frequently a land-washing crop, such as rice, in order to get rid of the salt which rises to the surface in the subsoil water with the advent of the flood. Without the introduction of such cultivation, the surface soil in these areas speedily becomes impregnated with salt, to COTTON 223 the great injury of all subsequent crops. Rice is thus employed as a recurring reclamation crop, and must continue to be so used until the system of drainage is completely revised to obtain for these areas the same advantages as those which are found elsewhere. There are, in addition to the lands referred to, others in which no drainage exists at all, and which are per- manently without reclamation or crops. The greatest obstacle attached to the drainage of such lands as those mentioned is that the proprietors of certain portions are unwilling to combine with the remainder for their mutual benefit; those having lands approximating the main drains usually objecting to the drains of their more remotely placed neighbours emptying into their own drains or even passing through their lands. This state of affairs has been brought about by the incompleteness of the methods employed in the first instance for the establishment of a canal and drainage system. The fact that it is insufficient in any system of drainage to lay down the main channels without at the same time putting in the branch and subsidiary ones seems to have been overlooked, with the result of a deadlock. A remedy which suggests itself is that the Govern- ment should annually select blocks of convenient size, and in these construct all the necessary feeder drains, levying a tax upon the proprietors of the lands drained to cover the whole cost of the upkeep. By this means such a vast benefit would accrue to the present possessors of the land to be drained that it is certain that the majority would willingly agree to the adoption of such a scheme. An increase of the cotton and wheat-growing area and the decrease of that under rice would almost immediately ensue, and the economy in water due to this change would at once be apparent. It has been assumed that when the co-operative move- ment has more fully developed the societies themselves would undertake the work of improving and rendering fit for cotton cultivation the lands of their less fortunately placed members by giving them access to the main drains through the lands of their more fortunate neighbours, but, judging from the spirit shown by the people at this 15 224 COTTON moment, this seems an unlikely occurrence. Indeed, it is often found at the present time that the small proprietor is the victim of his neighbour who has large possessions, and who frequently uses the small man's land as a con- venient discharge area for his own drainage. The proper expansion of the cotton-growing area in Egypt is largely controlled by the conditions just men- tioned, but no improvement of the lands referred to can be carried out except it be undertaken on a large scale, as all portions of the area served by the same canal section and discharging into the same main drain must necessarily be interdependent. The reclamation of lands in the north of the Delta will produce new areas available for cotton cultivation after some years, but in the present condition of the Nile most of the reclamation projects must be temporarily abandoned. It should be mentioned in this connection that it cannot be anticipated that the cotton yield from these lands will attain the same average per feddan as that of the more favourably placed localities. Meanwhile, if an increase of area under cotton should occur in the near future, it must be interpreted as corre- sponding to a diminution of the cultivation of food grain, chiefly wheat. Such a diminution is of some importance to the country. Although wheat is not such a remunera- tive crop as cotton at the present price of the latter, the further increased frequency of cotton in the rotation would in some instances produce a diminished yield of lint, and it is more advantageous to the soil to retain it in a naturally fertile condition than to be compelled to resort to the application of artificial manures to procure a normal result. It is not generally realized to what extent Egypt is self-supporting in the matter of food supply. The accom- panying table which I have drawn up (p. 226) gives, I think, a clear indication of the economic situation, besides being an interesting demonstration of the richness of the country. For the purpo.se of making a comparative estimate of the country's consumption of food grain, the crops of each year (the earliest harvested of which are beans, wheat, and barley) must be assumed to become COTTON 225 available for consumption from June i. All the calcu- lations, therefore, with regard to imports and exports in the table are made to apply to the same period instead of that of the usual financial year. I have previously pointed out that 32 per cent, of the cultivable area is given up to the production of cotton, but it will be seen from the table that 95 per cent. of the grain used by the population for food is grown in the country. It will also be seen that the consumption approximates three and three-quarter million tons each year, but is slightly decreasing, in spite of the population being estimated to increase at the rate of 1*51 per cent, annually. The decrease in production may be accounted for to some extent by the increase in the area under cotton, but the decrease in consumption is more difficult to explain. It has been stated that in each year there is increased consumption of meat, but this is not borne out by the figures obtained for the numbers of animals slaughtered for food; there is, in fact, a slight decrease in the latter from 1910, in which year the maximum number were slaughtered. It would be inadvisable to further diminish the area under food grain in order to plant cotton. Although it is improbable that the gradual increase of the cotton area at the expense of that of grain has caused any general depreciation in the weight of the cotton yield per feddan, the limit of safety has probably now been reached in many places. The system of rotation of crops has undergone a con- siderable change in the country since the price of cotton has increased. Formerly it was a common practice to plant cotton once in a period of three years; but more recently a two-yearly rotation has been adopted, and is now very generally employed. In some instances this increased frequency of cotton upon the same piece of land has resulted in a diminution of yield, but in others there has been no such an effect. Again, in a few instances it has been found possible even to plant cotton for several years in succession without the employment of extraordinary methods of resuscitating the soil and 226 COTTON 1 >-i to ON to ••* ^ vo vo OO O 00 ON ^ O •«£ O^ Oj O^ «^ ON T 1 1 1 1 1 ' Ed •-• o; M" ~ co | ro v£ 1 ? vo CO c H- ON vO ON N vo M T^ cT 0 ON T}- Tj- rt- HI -^ •* *- rf O N HH ^~ co 1 1 1 1 S— OO ON vo vO Tf O vO 10 W ^^ vo TJ- co OO vo HH O co 10 H* t^ CO M 00 ON s? «^ ON vo" «-T i-T CO CO M e? N N §tr. C O ^ o ^ O ^" o ^ « N _ !•>. ON N T}- vO ON r-^ O j^ CO 2 CO CO ^ ^ ON OO rj- N 10 00 « -T rr 5 eT 00 vo « b fc § CO co CO o t-T C/3 8 >-i 10 vo M ON on ON ^f co ON OO Q N ? O 10 O 0 1 M VO ^ co VO OO ON g Ed H." oo" oo" ^T J" co CO M co i-T N r? § * P. o a; w o M 00 CO Q £ c o vo 00 M 10 co rJ- N fs. CO VO t-i O N TJ- O N 1-1 xo i-T i-T ' OO VO CO M 1O vO ON 10 — CO VO CO J* co b 0 2 0 8 OO N ON t^ t^ OO N 10 T»- OO ON CO 10 UO VO OO on O S cd ~ ^ vo" « ^ co N CO §- I D C/3 O « 10 2 O o> OO M u § O « OO ON OO N 00 ON 00 •* co N OO f*^ VO rj- N "o Tf « b Q ~ N Tj- OO N H-I 10 1 VO 10 CS «^ | CO CO CO O HH U | fN 10 ON t^ 10 O 1 M 1-4 CO HN i-> co N Tf 00 O vO oo • 0 0 £ Ed N 0 tC ~ ~ ^ 06" N rC ci c^ Q c - 2 o g vO c^ ~ r° 0 o O M N OO CO N 1 ON co O vo 10 - b 8 »- co co CO ^ c o " M 1 1 O | tn c O c 0 ' '•'.'.'.'.'. "rt W O a, a, G -rj O QL, •* !^. w *o •>-> g B '% s •g « « J^ ^ ~ I-.-H ^ U J^ dj C -*J — '5 -G "- 0 rt C ;5 g fe .§ J3 *" S H g 1 TD 1 o U "^ % a, a s a COTTON 227 without deterioration of the crop. The chief reason for the substitution of a two years' for a three years' rotation is that, in accordance with the rise in the price of cotton, the demand for land has risen, and the land itself has changed hands at an enhanced price. The new pur- chasers, rinding that the monetary return from a cotton crop so far exceeded that from any of the other crops which they could grow, planted cotton as frequently as possible. Tenants, who previously used to obtain leases of land for three years upon the old rotation system, are now offered two-year leases. This method is now general, except upon a few very large estates in the country, but the effect upon the yield caused by the alteration in the rotation has scarcely been felt. The soil, which for the most part consists of Nile silt, is im- poverished to a very small degree by the crop growing upon it. It is renovated to some extent also each year by the frequent application of Nile water carrying fertilizing matter in suspension even when not in flood. In this connection it has been frequently assumed that the thick flood water alone had a beneficial effect upon the soil as a fertilizer, but from analytical tests which have been made, it has been ascertained that there is just as much plant-feeding matter in the ordinary Nile water as is found in the " red water" of the flood. A deteri- oration of the quantity of cotton yielded per feddan, as well as of its quality, is predicted by some, and is attri- buted to the action of the Assuan reservoir and the canal system in holding up the silt; but it should be remembered that that which is deposited upon the canal bottoms is the heavier material, mainly disintegrated rock, and in any case any value it may possess is not lost, as it is applied to -the lands to a large extent when the cleaning of canals is in progress. Any temporary deterioration in the quality of cotton, which is a defect chiefly notice- able in the second and third pickings, is mainly due to the attacks of the Earias boll worm or to shortage of water. The more recently introduced pink boll worm (Gelechia gossypiella) is actually more destructive to seed than to lint, and is less likely to seriously affect the quality or yield from the cotton areas. 228 COTTON The effect of the low Nile in 1913 will probably make itself felt in some parts of Northern Egypt in 1914 and 1915. Owing to the deficient water supply summer rice cultivation is rendered impossible in the depressed and badly drained parts of the Delta, where such a crop is an almost imperative necessity to render the land sufficiently sweet to grow cotton. The result may cause a reduction of from one-half to one kantar in the cotton crop in 1915 from these localities, unless the situation is improved by the advent of a good flood in 1914 to enable the sowing of a flood crop of rice. It has been anticipated that the suppression of rice growing in 1914 will result in an increase of the area under cotton; but it seems scarcely likely that those lands which in the ordinary course require a land-washing* crop this year would be in a sufficiently good condition to produce a cotton crop. The stability of the economic position in Egypt and of Egyptian investments is often said to be depreciated by the fact that the country is given up to the cultivation of cotton as its sole exported crop, yet it is surely a sound procedure to cultivate to the utmost cotton which can command a price above that of the product grown in almost any other country, at least until such a time as a similarly good quality can be brought into serious com- petition with it. That there should be any increasing deterioration in the quality of the cotton produced in the future is highly improbable. In a century of cotton growing, during which no organized general effort has been made to preserve the quality, the latter has pre- served itself in a marked degree; much less, therefore, at the present time, when every opportunity is being taken to improve the fibre and the yield by the best known methods, should there be fear of increased or permanent deterioration. No other crop which has been tried in Egypt gives quite such a highly remunerative yield as cotton at present; but should the unexpected occur, and, through any unforeseen cause, should there be a great diminution of yield per feddan or serious fall in price, a moderate substitute might be found in wheat, rice, maize, sugar, COTTON 229 or oil seeds, all of which could be remuneratively grown for export. The productive power of the land is superior to that of any other tract of equal dimensions at present under cultivation, and there are fewer disturbing factors than in other countries, so that Egypt without cotton would occupy no mean position as a competitor in the markets of the world. So far I have chiefly referred to the question of the extension of the cotton area in relation to the diminution of the output of lint per feddan and the effect upon the food crops. Without entering into a detailed discussion of the many problems directly attached to cotton cultivation in this country, the conditions of which render such culti- vation widely different from that found elsewhere, it may be of interest to refer to two important factors which exercise an influence upon the quality. The first of these is the diversity of varieties of cotton cultivated at the present time in the comparatively small and congested area, and the second, the occurrence of insect pests and maladies during the plants' growth. In the search for new kinds of cotton which shall possess to a marked degree any of the desirable features from the supposed point of view of the spinner, many people in Egypt have, from time to time, preserved the seed produced by hybrids or natural varieties which have appeared in their fields. The progeny of by far the larger number of these have been disappointing, and have shown no constancy in the characters aimed at, but occasionally the contrary has been the case, and the foundation of a new strain has been established. In this manner such cottons as Ashmouni, Mitafifi, Abassi, Jannovitch, Nubari, Sakellaridis, Assili, Voltos, and many other well-known kinds have been produced, all of which have been isolated in the first instance, only to be brought together again as the demand for them has increased and their planted area has become extended; so it happens, at the present time, that most of the varieties named are being grown in close proximity to one another, and frequently even in adjoining fields. The fixed 230 COTTON characters of such varieties slowly break down by hybrid- ization, the varieties themselves becoming more and more impure each year. Even a greater assistance to their degradation is the difficulty of keeping the seed unmixed in the operation of ginning. The mixture of seed in the ginneries, as well as the hybridization of plants in the field, was of a small degree of importance ten years ago, when the number of varieties were fewer and the areas under cotton were rather less congested; but the subject has now assumed a very prominent position for consideration in connection with the preserva- tion of the quality of cotton, and the formation of the Department of Agriculture in Egypt occurred just in time to take this question up in a serious manner. The distribution of cotton seed by the Government and the propagation of approved pure strains of cotton, intended to be in continuous supply to the country, were the means adopted to counteract the deterioration which threatened to become widespread. The success which the first project has attained can be seen from the following figures of distribution: 1910-11, 8,600 bushels; 1911-12, 235,000 bushels; and 1912-13, 460,000 bushels. The dis- tribution for 1913-14 approximates 700,000 bushels. With regard to breeding pure cottons, the Ministry of Agriculture possesses several types which have been evolved by Mendelian methods in experimental farms by the late botanist to the Ministry, Mr. L. Balls, the seed from some of which are now being propagated with a view to distribution year by year upon an increasing scale. Uniformity of staple is certainly prejudiced so long as cultivators plant different varieties upon proximate areas, and ginneries are constructed more with a view to the mechanical separation of lint and seed than for the pre- vention of admixture of the varieties of the latter, but such adverse effects should be reduced to a minimum, and possibly even overcome altogether by the methods adopted at present by the Government to combat the evils. Inferiority of quality caused by the attacks of insect pests cannot be regarded as a permanent effect, although in a country such as Egypt, where the cultivated areas COTTON 231 are so isolated from those of other countries that counter- balancing influences can only be artificially introduced, and climatic conditions are almost invariable, insect pests thrive to the greatest extent after once becoming •estab- lished, and, in some cases by reason by their recurring attacks, have become quasi-permanent. In practice, therefore, we find that such a pest as the Earias boll worm, for instance, exercises a continuous influence on the quality of the later pickings of cotton, the severity of which varies each year, chiefly in accordance with the time of maturity of the crop. This same pest contributes more than any other to the loss in yield as well as in quality in the manner mentioned, and it frequently happens that in a late maturing year the estimation of the cotton crop is rendered difficult at the time of ripen- ing by the occurrence of a few days of cool or misty weather which favours the activity of the pest. Efforts to suppress the virulence of the Earias boll worm pest have been severely handicapped by the diffi- culties in the way of carrying out the administrative measures recommended. In order that the insects may be reduced to their minimum in quantity during the winter, it becomes necessary that all old bolls remaining on the dead cotton sticks should be destroyed by fire, as it is within these bolls that the Earias boll worm, as well as the Gelechia seed worm, undergo their period of hibernation to a great extent. The destruction of the food plants of the species, such as volunteer cotton, and the several species of Hibiscus growing in the country, in conjunction with the dried bolls themselves, is a necessity. The removal of the dried bolls from the dead cotton plants is a rather laborious process., and, as the dried plants themselves are the main source of fuel used in the country, the insistence on the destruction of these altogether is scarcely to be considered. Experiments have recently been made with the conversion of the dried cotton plants into charcoal, and this has met with some measure of success. Our experiments show that, although the weight of the fuel is decreased in the operation to about 25 per cent., the .calorific value of the charcoal is about two and a half times that of the wood, so that the loss 232 COTTON for culinary purposes is little more than a third in heat- ing power. The cost of conversion is of some considera- tion, but should be amply repaid by the diminution of boll worms in the following years' cotton. A modification of the existing law in connection with the measures for the prevention -of boll worm propaga- tion is under consideration by the Government, certain important alterations having been made with a view to meeting the situation caused by the advent of a new pest, the pink boll worm (Gelechia gossypielld). If the pro- posals made be adopted and the law be vigorously carried out, great benefit will accrue to the agriculturist in the country, and the quality of the cotton, especially with respect to the later pickings, will be much improved. The damage to the cotton crop effected by the Earias boll worm is far in excess of that of any other Egyptian cotton pest. An idea can be got of the probable rate of increase of this pest between January and September in any year by an 'examination of the following figures : — 2 (i pair) produce 200 eggs, of which 20 insects mature. 20 (10 pairs) produce 200 eggs per pair = 2,000, of which 1,000 mature. 1,000 (500 pairs) produce 200 eggs per pair = 100,000, of which 50,000 mature. 50,000 (25,000 pairs) produce 200 eggs per pair = 5,000,000, of which 2,500,000 mature. Hence from the one pair, allowing that only 10 per cent, survive in the first generation due to scarcity of food, and that 50 per cent, do so in each of the subsequent three generations, two and a half million boll worms will be produced to destroy the crop in September. This is an indication of what immense good would be effected by a vigorous campaign against this pest at the period when the vitality of the species is at a low ebb and the food supply can be most easily controlled. In this paper a selection has been made of three important problems relative to cotton cultivation in Egypt, the first having reference to the possibilities of extension of the planted area and the effect upon the remaining land, and the other two to the influences COTTON 233 opposing the maintenance of the standard quality of the product. All three are of great importance to the country, and continuously occupy the attention of the Egyptian Government, as well as of his Britannic Majesty's Agent and Consul-General, at whose instiga- tion so many important reforms have been introduced into the country. COTTON CULTIVATION IN UGANDA. By SAMUEL SIMPSON, B.Sc. Director of Agriculture, Uganda. THE Uganda Protectorate produces more cotton than any other country in Africa, with the exception of Egypt, and the cotton industry is the most important one in the Protectorate. The following statistics show that the industry is making steady progress : — LINT EXPORTED TO MARCH 31. Y Quantity. Value. Cwt. £ 1904-05 ... 180 ... 236 1905-06 . 860 ... 1,087 1906 — 07 1907—08 1908-09 1909— 10 1910- II 1911-12 1912— 13 1913-14 3.500 ... 11,413 14,322 ... 26,885 14,520 ... 4I»232 23,180 .. 60,445 49,454 ... 168,620 74,498 ... 236,759 93,575 ••• 254,359 99,924 ... 317,689 All the cotton is not ginned in the country at present, as in the year 1913-14 the actual exports of ginned cotton were 85,216 cwt. valued at £272,367, whilst 44,126 cwt. of unginned or seed-cotton valued at £45,322 were exported to British East Africa to be ginned and baled there. Some thousands of tons of cotton seed are also exported annually. In the early days various kinds of cottons were grown, sold, ginned, and baled indiscriminately mixed together, so that complaints on the home markets were very frequent, whilst the shortage of storage accommodation and bad methods of handling were responsible for a large amount of stained and dirty cotton being exported which was extremely difficult to sell. Numerous experiments were carried out with various varieties of cotton which resulted in long-stapled Upland American varieties being ultimately selected as best COTTON 235 suited to form the basis of Uganda cotton, and all other cottons have been discarded. Work is still going on in acclimatizing and grading up a suitable cotton, with highly gratifying results. Better methods of handling are being gradually intro- duced, more storage accommodation provided, and cotton ginneries erected in the heart of the producing districts. It is hoped by these means, aided by improved transport facilities, to lessen very considerably the quantity of stained and dirty cotton shipped from Uganda. Work on one of the Government plantations is almost entirely given up to the improvement of Uganda cotton by selection, and the seed thus produced is sown in restricted areas until ultimately sufficient is obtained for the whole of the country's seed distribution. The seed supply is entirely in the hands of the Government, and each season's sowing is done with the highest quality of seed obtainable, and which has been grown only in a specially selected area. Cotton growing is purely a native industry and the large exports are due entirely to the thousands of small cultivators throughout the country. The yield varies greatly according to the district and the season. In parts of the Buganda Province a yield of 300 Ib. to 400 Ib. of seed-cotton per acre is common, although in the Bulemezi County the yield is higher, whilst in the Eastern Province 600 Ib. of seed-cotton per acre is a moderate estimate in an average season. Large numbers of native instructors are at work throughout the Protectorate teaching the peasants how to cultivate and handle this crop, and it is hoped by this means to eliminate many of the complaints incidental to the starting of a new industry. All the cotton seed is distributed free of charge to the growers, and now the quantity exceeds 300 tons per annum, the distribution of which entails a large amount of labour and organization. Uganda cotton is of good quality and sells regularly at from 50 to 150 points on Middling American. Legislation has been passed with a view to improving and maintaining a higher standard in Uganda cotton 236 COTTON production, dealing with the distribution of seed, uproot- ing of plants, hand cotton gins, licences and permits to purchase raw cotton, markets, inspection of raw cotton and ginning factories, etc. A copy of the rules in force is given below : — (As published in the Uganda Official Gazette of July 31, 1913, page 311.) THE UGANDA COTTON ORDINANCE, 1908, AND THE UGANDA COTTON (AMENDMENT) ORDINANCE, 1910. RULES. THE UGANDA COTTON RULES, 1913. I. These Rules may be cited as " The Uganda Cotton Rules, 1913." II. Cotton seed (for sowing purposes) shall be distri- buted by the Government at such times and places and by such persons as the Governor shall prescribe. III. No person shall grow cotton from seed which has been obtained from any other source than the Govern- ment. IV. All cotton plants shall be uprooted and destroyed after the first season's crop has been picked therefrom, and on no account shall they be allowed to remain for a second season, or for more than one year in the ground. V. The Director of Agriculture may from time to time fix by notification in the Official Gazette a date prior to which all the previous season's cotton plants shall be uprooted and destroyed in any district and all such plants shall be uprooted and destroyed prior to such date. VI. No person owning or possessing a hand cotton gin shall use or permit the same to 'be used unless and until it is registered at the Office of the Department of Agriculture. Every hand cotton gin in actual use shall be registered annually during the month of October. VII. All cotton seed obtained from hand cotton gins shall forthwith be destroyed by the person so obtaining it or by any person into whose possession or ownership such seed shall come. Provided always that it shah* not be necessary to destroy COTTON 237 such seed pending its being supplied to the Government, or exported or being treated in some manner which will prevent it being used as seed for growing purposes. The burden of proof that such seed is to be so supplied, exported or treated shall be upon the person owning or possessing such seed. VIII. The Director of Agriculture, or such other person or persons as may be authorized by him in that behalf, may grant licences for the purchase of raw cotton within the Protectorate, and no person shall purchase raw cotton within the Protectorate except under such a licence or under a permit granted by the holder of such a licence as hereinafter specified. IX. Such licence and permit shall be in the forms set out in the schedule hereto or to the like effect. X. It shall be lawful for the holder of a licence to grant and issue permits for the purchase of raw cotton to his agents or other persons employed by him. Provided always that the names of all persons to whom the holder of a licence proposes to issue permits shall be submitted previously to the District Commissioner within whose district the holder of a permit intends to purchase raw cotton, and no such permits shall be issued unless and until the approval of the District Commissioner in writing has been received. XI. In case any holder of a licence shall be convicted of a breach of the Uganda Cotton Ordinance, 1908, it shall be lawful for the Director of Agriculture to suspend or cancel such licence. In such case all permits issued under such licence shall become void, but the holder of a licence thus suspended or cancelled shall have the right of appeal to the Governor. XII. No fee shall be payable in respect of any licence to be issued under these rules ; but the holder of a licence shall pay in respect of every permit issued by him a fee of one rupee to the District Commissioner at the time approval for the issue of such permit is obtained. XIII. The Governor may by notification in the Official Gazette fix places in any part of the Protectorate for the purchase and sale of raw cotton and it shall not be lawful for any person to buy or sell raw cotton within such part except at such places. XIV. The Governor may by notification in the Official Gazette fix certain areas within which the purchase and sale of raw cotton shall be unlawful except subject to such conditions as may be prescribed in such notification. XV. All raw cotton and every ginning factory may be inspected at any reasonable time by an officer of the Department of Agriculture. 238 COTTON XVI. Any breach or attempted breach or non-observ- ance of any of the above rules shall be punishable by imprisonment of either description for a term not exceed- ing one month or by a fine not exceeding one thousand rupees or by both, and any cotton, cotton seed or hand cotton gin in respect of which any such breach attempted breach or non-observance has been committed may be confiscated or otherwise dealt with, with or without compensation. XVII. The Uganda Cotton Ordinance Rules, 1909, and The Uganda Cotton Ordinance Rules (No. 2), 1909, are hereby repealed. (Signed) F. J. JACKSON, Governor. Entebbe, July 17, 1913. SCHEDULE. Form of Licence (in English only). UGANDA PROTECTORATE. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Licence to Purchase Raw Cotton. Issued under the Uganda Cotton Rules, 1013. is hereby licensed to purchase Raw Cotton within the Uganda Protectorate during the year 19 and, with the approval of a District Commissioner, to grant permits for the purchase of Raw Cotton to his agents or other persons employed by him not exceeding a total number of permits. Director of Agriculture. Kampala, Uganda, COTTON 239 Form of Permit (in English and Luganda). UGANDA PROTECTORATE. Permit to Purchase Raw Cotton. Station No A permit to purchase Raw Cotton within the District is hereby granted to of under Licence No for the year 191 Holder of Licence. Fee : R. i. Approved : District Commissioner. COTTON POSSIBILITIES IN ITALIAN SOMALILAND AND JUBALAND (BRITISH EAST AFRICA). By Dr. R. ONOR. Director of Agriculture, Italian Somaliland. THE production of long-stapled cotton of Egyptian type is almost a privilege of Egypt, and the attempts to grow it elsewhere do not seem to have attained note- worthy practical results. The strong position of Egypt in the cotton market is founded on the quality of the product more than on the quantity. The British West Indies and America grow the best long-stapled cotton, " Sea Island," but its production is limited, and a great increase in the future »is not to be expected. As far as length of staple is concerned, American cultivators by careful selection obtained very good results with Upland long staple, but it does not seem probable that this type will interfere with the com- mercial position of Egyptian cotton. It is therefore of some interest to know the possi- bilities of growing Egyptian cotton in a country almost practically unknown, viz., Italian Somaliland and the land bordering the Juba river, both on the British East Africa side and on the Italian side. It is not incorrect to say that if all plants have special climatic requirements, Egyptian cotton asks for very peculiar ones. Perhaps no other annual cultivated plant needs for its full development so much heat. Therefore even in hot countries the cycle of vegetation of such a plant is likely to be a very long one. Egyptian cotton wants hot weather during the early growing period to induce a rapid development of the plant, while a high temperature must prevail for some months to bring about full production. It happens sometimes in Egypt that a low temperature in autumn prevents the ripening of the last pickings, and the crop is therefore much reduced. COTTON 241 Another very important condition is the distribution of water in relation to the various growing periods of the plant. Too much water during the early stages of growth — as is the case when rains are very abundant and continuous — produces an excessive vegetative growth, injurious to the crop, whilst rain during the opening of the bolls considerably deteriorates the quality of the fibre. An unfavourable distribution of the rainfall is also responsible for other serious damages. Cotton is a plant susceptible to the attacks of many insect pests. And as it must occupy the land for a great length of time during hot weather insect pests can easily produce many generations, and reach such large numbers as to diminish enormously the quantity and quality of the product. The chief determining factor of the spread of para- sites is humidity accompanied by high temperatures. In tropical countries frequent rains are to be considered much more dangerous than useful to the cotton cultivator. For all plants, but especially for Egyptian cotton, we may say that a particularly rigid rule should be followed in the supply of the water, and — unless under favourable climatic conditions, with a rainfall naturally distributed in accordance with the requirements of the cotton plant — that can be attained only in arid regions and by irrigation. The country we intend to refer to — Italian Somaliland and Jubaland — is likely to be well suited to cotton cultivation. The climate is uniform. The average tem- perature throughout the year varies between 73° F. in the night and 88° F. in the day. There are two rainy seasons, the first in April-May, and another in October-November, but the average yearly rainfall (from 12 to 25 in.) cannot be relied on, being very uncertain and only exceptionally sufficient for the full and normal development of the cotton plant. It is then necessary to provide irrigation. Two rivers exist in the country, the Uebi-Scebeli, flowing in its lowest portion parallel to the coast of Italian Somaliland at an average distance of ten miles 24 2 COTTON from it, and the Juba river, forming the boundary between Italian Somaliland and British East Africa. The Juba viver, which is supposed to have a discharge of about 6oc cubic metres per second during high-water period, has >a principal flood in October-November. In this season it is possible to obtain water directly for irriga- tion purposes in some places, or to pump it at a small height of lift. From the end of April until October it is necessary to get water by pumping it. The Uebi-Scebeli river has two periods of flood, the first one from the last days of April until June, and another from the beginning of September until December. For about five months in the year it is possible to get irrigation water directly. The Uebi-Scebeli during flood has a discharge of about 60 cubic metres per second, which is reduced to about one-half during July and August. From December to April the discharge of both rivers falls until it becomes of no importance. The dry season is very advantageous for cotton culti- vation. It affords good conditions to the full ripening of bolls, without danger of the fibre being injured by rains, interrupts the propagation of the parasites, allows a very long picking period, leaving time for the eradica- tion and burning of plants infested with insect pests and their eggs and for a good preparation of soil under the best conditions. The deep, flat, alluvial soils of the country — most of which are of a clayey nature — are very good, and compare favourably with the best Egyptian soil. The average percentage of the essential plant foods are as follows : — Nitrogen ... ... ... ••• o'io Potash ... ••• ... 0-80—1-50 Phosphoric acid ... ... ... 0*10 Organic matter ... ... ... 1000 Italian Somaliland and Jubaland are almost new coun- tries. Only three years ago a few European farms were started on the English and Italian sides of the Juba river, and some thousand bales of good cotton have already been shipped to Europe. COTTON 243 The agricultural season can be considered as beginning about the end of April, since at this time rivers begin flooding and enable direct irrigation or easy pumping of water to be carried on. About that time also abundant rain falls which allows the sowing of cotton without irrigation. By sowing in May, and under a normal vegetation of the plant, Egyptian cotton shows the first opening bolls after 140 days, so that picking begins in October and can be profitably continued until February. During October-November some showers may come disturbing picking, but heavy rains rarely occur, and in any case the sun and wind rapidly dry the bolls, so that the damage complained of in other countries through wetting of the bolls is avoided. The deep clay soil retains water for a long while, and under these circumstances it is advisable to give only a few heavy irrigations, followed by careful tillage to keep the soil soft and permeable. In clay soils, and especially in hot countries, where the high capillary power and cracking and shrinking on drying are extreme, it is very important to keep a fine surface tilth, and the error commonly met with in tem- perate countries, that lack of tillage may be compensated by giving more irrigation water than usual, must be avoided. The culture system to be followed may be regarded as a combination of dry farming and Irrigation. In fact, light irrigations cannot penetrate deeply in the soil so long as high temperature and strong winds cause great evaporation, and since the water in some seasons, especially on the Uebi-Scebeli, deposits a good deal of fine silt, and also on account of the necessity of tillage, as mentioned, it would be necessary to provide hoeing after each watering, the net result being an increase in the cultivation expenses. Therefore what may be correct in temperate countries, viz., moderate quantity of water frequently supplied, is likely to be changed, and under the conditions stated it is better to give heavy waterings at comparatively long" periods, and to avoid loss of moisture by careful tillage. 244 COTTON On the basis of these principles, if Egyptian cotton is sown in May after a good rain, which ordinarily occurs, or after a heavy irrigation, about forty days must elapse before another watering is given, so that the plants can root well and deeply. About a month afterwards another heavy irrigation must be given, which is usually regarded as sufficient to permit the plant to come to maturity. One more watering may be profitable in September before the ripening of the bolls, but this is not always advisable, because, if the plant does not show real need of water, irrigation may induce a late luxuriant vegeta- tive growth and shedding of bolls, as well as encouraging the spread of insect pests and retarding the ripening of the crop. It is advisable, however, to apply water after the first picking, as by this means the plant is encouraged to produce a vigorous vegetative growth and picking may be continued during the dry season until the end of February, when it is necessary to root out and burn the plants to check the development of parasites. Experiments made by the Italian Government have shown that the common varieties of Egyptian cotton such as Afifi, Abassi, Sakellaridis, and Jannovitch, attain a very considerable size, so that a distance of 3 ft. or more between the rows and 2^ ft. between the plants in the row is not excessive. Under favourable conditions, that is to say with suffi- cient application of water, and when insect pests are not encouraged to spread by small showers during June and July, more than 600 Ib. of lint per acre have been obtained. The cotton produced by farmers on the Juba river attains a length of about ij in. and more, and has been classed with good Egyptian qualities. Of course, in a tropical country like that we are speaking about, one encounters most of the problems commonly met with in such regions. The country is quite suitable for white people, since ordinary tropical diseases do not exist there, and the climate is very good and not at all hot, owing to the monsoons blowing almost all the year. But cattle cannot be employed on account of the presence near the rivers of the tsetse-fly. It is therefore COTTON 245 necessary to have recourse to some mechanical implement for field work, but motor traction and motor culture have made such progress that among the various kinds offered by manufacturers one can generally find the machinery suitable for every requirement. The labour problem also is one met with now in most colonies, and in the country we have spoken of it is neither easier nor harder than in many other regions. In view of the endeavours to find new lands suitable for the production of cotton of the Egyptian type, it will not have been without interest to have called attention to Italian Somaliland and Jubaland as countries worthy of the hopes based upon them. LA COLTIVAZIONE DEL COTONE E L'ALLEVAMENTO DEL BESTIAME NELLA SOMALIA ITALIANA MERIDIONALE. Per il Dott. GIUSEPPE SCASSELLATI-SFORZOLINI. Dell' Istituto Agricolo Coloniale Italiano. 10 COLTIVAZIONE DEL COTONE IN SOMALIA. L'AMBIENTE NATURALE SOMALO PER LA COLTIVAZIONE DEL COTONE. LE condizioni naturali che la nostra Colonia deH'Oceano Indiano presenta nelle sue immense vallate alluvionali del Giuba e dell'Uebi Scebeli, sono ottime per una estesa coltivazione di cotone, sia che si considerino i terreni ed 11 clima della regione, sia che si pensi alia possibility tecnica di rendere facilmente irrigabili grandi estensioni di terreno. Terreni. I terreni della Somalia1 sono nella enorme maggioranza ricchissimi, sia fisicamente che chimicamente. Essi pre- sentano scarsissimo scheletro : sono< argillosi, compatti, di colore prevalente avana scuro e spesso scurissimo, per la ricchezza di humus, sono paragonabili ai " ton " egiziani, compatti, spessi, neri, profondi 506 metri, ottimi per il cotone. Esistono, nelle zone relativamente lontane dai fiumi, terre meno argillose, contenenti discreta quantita di sabbia, meno compatte e humifere, di colore rossastro. Sono esse riferibili ai " lehm," che pure abbondano in Egitto. I terreni somali sono sempre forniti delle sostanze indispensabili alia vita delle piante. 1 Mi riferisco sempre ai terreni agrari delle vallate alluvionali ed ai campioni di essi, prelevati a circa m. 0*20 dalla superficie del suolo. CO IT ON 247 Risultati medi2 delVanalisi chimica di circa go campioni di terre somale delle vallate alluvionali (riferiti a 100 gr. di terra fina}. I Quantita media | Quantita massima Quantita minima i° Sostanza organica 2° Acqua a 110° 3° Ossido di calcio 4° Anidride fosforica 5° Ossido di potassio 6° Azoto totale 8-820 1 5 -902 7-012 9-704 7-613 13-962 0-12? 0-588 0-960 I-970 0-134 0-336 1-400 0-627 0'985 0*036 0-039 0-033 Risultati medii delV analisi chimiche di circa go cam-pioni di terre somale delle vallate alluvionali (riferiti ad un ettaro e ad uno strata di m. 0.15). Peso di un litro di terra somala ... ... Kg. 1^380 Peso di uno strato di terra somala di m. 0-15 dell'estensione di un ettaro .. ... Tonn. 2,070*000 I °) Sostanza organica ... ... ... 182*574 2°) Acqua a 1 10° ... ... ... I45'I48 3°) Ossido di calcio ... ... ... 157 '589 4°) Anidride fosforica ... ... ... 2-546 5°) Ossido di potassio ... ... ... 19-872 6°) Azoto totale ... ... ... 2-773 Alimenti miner ali} eke un raccolto di cotone netto di 400 Kg. 'per ettaro, sottrarrebbe in media dal terreno (per mezzo delle sue diverse parti, supponendo che queste ne vengano com- pletamente asportate). Peso secco Azoto Acido fosforico Potassa Calce Magnesia Cotone (fibra) ... 400 1-36 0*40 I-84 0*76 0-32 Semi 872 27-28 1 1 -08 IO-2O 2 '2O 4*80 Capsule Foglie 540 768 13-72 24-64 5-20 9-12 9-76 I3-84 2-76 34-08 2-16 6-68 Steli 876 12-80 12-36 8-48 3-68 Radici 332 3'°4 I-72 4-24 2'12 1-36 Totale Kg. 3,788 82-84 32-68 52-24 50-40 19-00 DalT esame comparativo delle due ultime tabelle resulta evidente la grande richessa delle terre somale (soprasuolo) e la possi- bilita di coltivare ripetutamente il cotone anche sensa con- cimazioni. 2 Parte del campioni furono prelevati dalPA.e fatti analizzare dal Dr. Umberto Misuri e dal Dr. Augusto Gaiter. Altri campioni furono raccolti dal Dr. Macaluso ed analizzati dal Dr. W. Rossi (Agricoltura Coloniale, Anno III, N° 2, 1999). Altri terreni poi furono raccolti dal Dr. G. Mangano (Agricol- tura Coloniale,, Anno III, N° 6, 1909). 248 COTTON Anche in Somalia, come in Egitto ed altrove, notevole e la quantita di sali solubili esistenti nel terreno.: questi non ostacolano la coltura del cotone, anzi una piccola quantita di sale, secondo il Foaden, deve influire favore- volmente sulla resistenza e sul colore della fibra. Clima. Certi elementi del clima possono rassomigliarsi a quelli dell'Egitto e degli altri paesi cotonieri, mentre altri elementi diversificano notevolmente, non risultando pero mai sfavorevoli alia coltura del cotone. Tabella delle temperature della Valle della Somalia del Nilo dell 'America del Nord Mesi Stati del Stati Stati 1 media minima massima media Nord (medie) del centre (medie) del Sud (medie) Gennaio ... 26-6 21'5 3I-6 _ _ _ _ Febbraio ... 26-9 32-0 — — — — Marzo 28-0 22'9 32'4 Aprile 22-9 32-1 20'01 16-1 I7'3 20-9 Maggio ... ; 26'6 22-0 31-1 26-50 20-7 21-6 24-1 Giugno Luglio 24-6 2I-I 29-9 28-9 28-99 29-88 24-8 26-4 25-S 27-2 27-4 28-5 Agosto Settembre 24-6 25-4 20T 20'9 29-1 29-8 29 '43 25-84 25-2 21-8 26-4 23-6 27-8 257 Ottobre . . . 26-1 21-8 30*6 23-01 16-8 18-4 21-3 Novembre... 26-4 21'9 30-9 18-51 9-8 13-1 16-3 Dicembre ... 26-4 22" I Annuale ... 26-3 21-6 307 — — — — 3 Le cifre della tabella, per cio che riguarda la Somalia, rappresentano le medie delle temperature registrate negli anni igio, 191 1, 1912, in 6 stazioni meteorologiche, situate, tre sulla costa : Giumbo, Brava, Mogadiscio, e tre nell' interno : Balad, Afgoi e Bardera. I dati climatic! riguardanti la Somalia, elaborati da dalPA., sono stati desunti dal lavoro del Prof. F. Eredia : " Sul clima della Somalia Italiana Meridionale." I dati metereologici riguardanti 1'Egitto ed il Nord-America, sono stati desunti dal lavoro del Prof. A. Zimmermann : " Anleitung fur die Baumwollkultur in den Deutschen Kolonien, Berlin, TQTO." COTTON 249 I ^ •S, i PPppyOppONOOiO O 250 COTTON II clima e caldo in tutto 1'anno ; limitata e la variazione di temperatura nei vari mesi e pur lieve e la differenza fra le temperature massime e minime sia diurne che mensili inconfronto aquella di altre regioni tropicali. L'anda- mento della temperatura in Somalia risulta favorevolissimo alia coltura del cotone. In Somalia normalmente piove poco : piove molto di piu che in Egitto, molto meno che nel maggior numero degli Stati cotonieri del Nord America (se si eccettua la regione del Rio Grande). Nelle regioni interne della nostra Colonia si registrano maggiori precipitazioni che nelle regioni costiere. Preci-pitazioni annue (in mm.} in alcune regioni dell' Africa Orientate Inglese e Tedesca. Africa Orientale Inglese (medie di sei anni d'osservazioni) Stazione di Kisimayo Malindi Mombasa Regione costiera Mazeras Nairobi Naiwasha V Regione dell' interno Port Florence ) Africa Orientale Tedesca Stazione di Tanga ,, ,, Daressalam Lindi r Regione costiera 432 1235 1467 1525 910 943 1223 14(0 1 140 £00 Differenze molto forti esistono, come si vede, fra le precipitazioni somale e quelle delle vicine colonie inglese e tedesca, ove in generate piove molto di piu. In queste regioni pero non prospera generalmente la coltivazione del cotone. L'umidita relativa dell'aria e, in Somalia, molto piu elevata che in Egitto e cio determina, per la nostra Colonia, una condizione di favore nei riguardi del cotone. I venti dominant! sono i monsoni, che spirano tutto Tanno dall'Oceano Indiano, con direzione di Sud-Ovest (monsone piu violento) da aprile a ottobre, e di Nord-Est (monsone meno violento) da ottobre ad aprile. La COTTON 251 violenza dei venti va diminuendo quando dalle regioni costiere si precede verso quelle dell' interne, dove sono pure attenuati i danni che il vento puo arrecare alle colti- vazioni di cotone. Tabella dell'umidita relativa. Somalia Mesi Brava Giumbo Mogadiscio Egitto Gennaio 74 80 91 41 Febbraio 73 81 80 34 Marzo 70 79 82 34 Aprile 72 79 86 30 Maggio 77 83 85 25 Giugno 74 81 87 32 Luglio 75 82 89 33 Agosto 70 82 87 44 Settembre 73 82 89 44 Ottobre 73 82 90 46 Novembre 72 82 90 53 Dicembre 73 Si 99 53 Annuale... 73 81 87 39 Regime dei Fiumi. II Giuba e in massima piena a novembre : il livello delle acque aumenta ai primi di ottobre e diminuisce verso la meta di dicembre. Fa seguito la massima magra in gennaio e febbraio, quindi la piccola piena di aprile, dopo la quale, fmo a settembre, le acque si mantengono sempre basse. Analogo e il regime deirUebi Scebeli : soltanto che per questo fiume la piena di aprile si prolunga per tutto maggio ed assume una importanza maggiore di quella che ha per il Giuba. Le acque dei fiumi, straripando, trasportano sospesa una notevole quantita di limo fertilizzante, che potra aumentare continuamente le ricchezze di quelle terre. 252 COTTON Analisi di un cam-pione di limo dello Scebeli jrelevato durante la -plena del maggio 191 i.4 Limo dello Scebeli Limo del Nilo Scheletro ... ... ... ... 20 Terra fina (sotto mm. i) .., ... ... 980 Umidita ... .. ... ... 68*20 Sostanza organica (perdita a fuoco) ... ... 140 88*20 Calcare ... ... ... ... • 2'5 30*07 Anidride fosforica totale ... ... ... 2 2*50 Ossido di potassa solubile in HC1 al 25% ... 6-50 5-30 Azoto ... ... ... ... ... 0-90 1-40 Levigazione con mm. O'2 di velocita per secondo. 750 250 Sabbia greggia Argilla ... Grindigeni della Somalia dividono 1'anno in periodi, come segue : — Tabella con i -periodi delVanno somalo. Denominazione Mesi Tempera- Pioggie Venti Regime indigena del periodo tura dei fiumi i°) Gilal Dicembre Gennaio Febbraio Molto caldo Secco Monsone diS-O (molto violento) Periodo di grande magra JYLcirzo Cambia- Periodo Aprile Maggio Caldo Grandi pioggie mento del monsone della piccola piena 3P) Haret o Hagai Giugno Luglio Agosto Fresco Pioggie scarse Monsone diN-E (meno violento) Periodo della piccola magra 4°) Der V Settembre Ottobre Novembre Caldo Piccole pioggie Gambia- mento del Periodo della grande monsone piena QUALCHE NOTIZ1A SUGLI ESPERIMENTI DI COTONE ESEGUITI FlNO AD ORA IN SOMALIA. Primo fra tutti fu il Carpanetti nel 1906 a seminare cotone nella piana di Torda (Yubaland Italiano). Egli esperimento con vero successo cotoni egiziani (Abassi ed Afifi) ed americani (a lunga fibra) su circa 7 ettari di superficie. Le varieta Abassi ed Afifi fornirono prodotti ottimi per qualita e quantita, e cosi accadde delle varieta americane. 4 Assumo quest! risultati dal rapporto del Dott. Onor, posto in appendice della Relazione sulla Somalia Italiana, presentata dal Gov. Sen. G. De Martino al Ministro delle Colonie, igi2. COTTON 253 Nel 1907 il Carpanetti stesso ripete a Bieya e a Bulo Boda (Yubaland Italiano) i suoi esperimenti di cotone, ma ebbe le colture danneggiate dalla insistente siccita. Nel 1908 si iniziarono a Bieya ed a Elvalda ed in seguito a Margherita (tutte localita dello Yubaland Italiano) e ad Avai (sullo Scebeli) vaste coltivazioni di cotone per opera di concessionari italiani. Si ottennero sempre risultati ottimi dal punto di vista della qualita e quantita del prodotto, anche quando il tornaconto non arrise al coltivatore inesperto. Presto si cesso di coltivare cotone ad Elvalda e ad Avai, mentre tuttora prosperano le colture di Margherita e di Bieya. In tutte queste localita si adoperarono cotoni egiziani (Abassi, Ann, Janovitch, Sakellaridis) ed Americani upland. Si semino normalmente in maggio e giugno e si raccolse a novembre-dicembre. II cotone ebbe le acque di pioggia e quelle di parecchie irrigazioni. Si ottennero in media circa Kg. 1,000 di prodotto lordo per Ettaro, che fornirono circa Kg. 350 di ottima fibra.5 #• •* •* Molestarono le colture di cotone parecchie avversita nemiche, quasi tutte prodotte da animali. Risultarono molto dannosi : — 5 Ecco alcuni giudizi di talune fra le piu important! Ditte cotoniere su alcuni campioni di Abassi, spediti nel 1910 dal Dott. Lanzoni da Bdeya (Yubaland Italiano) : L'On. Silvio Crespi scriveva : " II cotone e veramente magnifico, pari alle piu belle qualita di prodotti egizdani ed anzi supeiiore per lucentezza." La Ditta Gussoni di Milano : "E difficile stabilire il prezzo di una cosi bella qualita, adatta per speciali lavori come velluti." La Ditta Somaini di Lomazzo : " E roba che in nessuna parte del mondo si produce migliore." Le Industrie Tessili Napoletane : " fe con vivo pdacere che Vi dichiariamo che abbiamo trovato il Vostro cotone del Benadir veramente splendido per tiglio, seta e colore, e tale da sostenere vantaggiosamente il confronto coi migliori cotoni di produzione egiziana." La Ditta S. C. Woolley Eso di Cairo : " Qualita magnifica, specialmente per il colore e lucentezza, consiglia la vendita a Liverpool per far conoscere questa splendida qualita di cotone." L'Association cotonndere di Parigi : " Qualita Abassi = fully good middling — creaurg brillant, resa regolare e nervosa, valore frs. 115 per 50 ks." L'Ing. Fedele Bonghi di Legnano : " La fibra e d'otrimo aspetto e raggiunge uria lungh. mass, di 36 mm." 254 COTTON i° II verme rosso delle capsule (Gelechia gossypiella). 2° Le cicale verdi del cotone (kranselkrankheit o malattia del raggrinzamento delle foglie). Risultarono poco dannosi : — i° II verme del cotone degli americani (Heliothis armiger o peltigerf). Fu notato dal Dott. Onor nel giugno del 1911 nei campi di cotone di Bieya, ma il parassita non produsse i gravi danni, che produce altrove. 2° La cimice rossa del cotone (parecchie specie di Disdercus). 3° La piccola cimice scura del cotone (Oxicarenus hyalinipennis ?). * * •* Nello Yubaland inglese, tralasciando di parlare degli esperimenti del Sig. E. Brand, si iniziarono nel 1911 le prime prove di cotone. Appunto in quell'anno il Sig. Agiropolo coltivo ad Halwalood 15 acri a cotone, ottenendo ottimo prodotto. Ad Alessandra, dirimpetto alia nostra Gelib sul Giuba, il vice commissario inglese Sig. Filleul essegui nel 1911 un esperimento su di un acre di terreno, seminando varieta Abassi nel mese di maggio. In questo mese ed in quello di giugno caddero circa 375 mm. di pioggia. Nei quattro mesi seguenti irrigo quattro volte 1'appez- zamento. Esegui la raccolta in novembre, ottenendo oltre 896 Kg. di ottimo prodotto (circa 300 Kg. di fibra). •* •* * Sempre nel 1911 il Dott. Onor, per conto del Governo della Somalia Italiana, esegui a Kaitoi (sullo Scebeli, vicino a Merca) dei saggi colturali delle principali piante che possono interessare quella regione. Si sperimentarono fra 1'altro le seguenti varieta : — 6 i° Cotone indigene. — Produce fibra scarsa e corta : ha pero una grande resistenza alia siccita € mahittie e potra in seguito ibridarsi con varieta piu pregiate. 2° Varieta egiziane (Afifi, Sakellaridis, Abassi). — Si seminarono in fine maggio e primi giugno, adottando le distanze di 0*90 x o'6o e di 1*20 x o'70. Si posero per ogni buca da sei a otto semi, lasciando poi due piantine 6 Vedi Rapporto del Dott. Onor s.c. COTTON 255 per linea. Le prime capsule cominciarono a schiudersi ai primi di ottobre. II ciclo vegetative del cotone egiziano dalla semina al primo raccolto duro circa 140 giorni. Da circa 5,800 mq. di superficie ad Afifi si otten- nero 459 Kg. di fibra, il che corrisponde al rendimento elevato (non ottenibile certo in media nella grande coltura) di 790 Kg. per ettaro. 3° Cotoni Upland. — Si seminarono le seguenti varieta: Ely's Triumph, Allen's Long Staple, Thoroughbred Toole, Farmer's Friend, Toole's Ounce Boll, Cleveland Big Boll, Green Seeds, King, Cook, Mebane, nei primi di settembre e cominciarono a dar prodotto circa 120 giorni dopo. La semina, fatta in minuscoli campetti, ando poco bene. 4° Cotone Caravonica (varieta lana e seta). — Si sa soltanto che i pochi semi attecchiti diedero piante gigantesche, molto assalite dai parassiti animali. Molti altri dati e risultati ci offre nel suo rapporto il Dott. Onor, riguardanti questi esperimenti di Kaitoi, che ebbero, a parer mio, due peccati di origine : — i° Furono eseguiti su appezzamenti di terreno troppo piccoli, spesso addirittura minuscoli. 2° Ebbero troppo vicino 1'Uebi Scebeli, che pote influenzare 1'andamento normale delle colture. I campetti di Kaitoi furono subito abbandonati, giacche il Governo Coloniale decise nel 1912 di creare a Genale (sempre sullo Scebeli) una grande azienda agraria speri- mentale, della quale si attendono i primi risultati. Riassumendo, tutti gli esperimenti e colture di cotone fin qui eseguiti in Somalia hanno sopratutto dimostrato la possibilita tecnica di coltivare ottimo cotone, sia delle varieta egiziane, che di quelle americane upland. Restera a vedere quali elementi concorreranno a rendere possibile anche economicamcnte la coltura di questa pianta in Somalia. QUALCHE CONSIDERAZIONE TECNICA SULLA COLTURA DEL COTONE IN SOMALIA. Scclta delle Localita Adattc e delle Varieta. In Somalia prosperano tanto i cotoni egiziani (Abassi, Afifi, Sakellaridis, Janovitch, etc.) ed americani sea island 17 256 COTTON tutti a lunga fibra, irrigui, tardivi, esigenti, che i cotoni upland a fibra piu o meno lunga, rustic!, seccagni, precoci. L'imbarazzo stara quindi nella scelta', fra tante varieta, di quella o quelle, che meglio prospereranno in deter- minate condizioni di terrene, di clima e di tempo. i° Coltiveremo con vantaggio i cotoni egiziani e sea island, ogni qual volta avremo a disposizione, per un periodo lungo di tempo, notevole quantita d'acqua per Tirrigazione. Potremo avere 1'acqua o mediante solle- vamento meccanico dai fiumi (specialmente adatto nella regione dello Scebeli, ove la prevalenza da superare e piccola) o meglio con sbarramenti o dighe nel letto dei fiumi stessi, onde farla, come in Egitto, defmire dalle sponde ed incanalarla anche per grandi distanze. 2° In molte zone dello Scebeli ed in limitate anche del Giuba, si potra, senza sbarramenti o sollevamento meccanico, irrigare i terreni durante i brevi periodi delle piene dei fiumi. Le acque, straripando dalle sponde sopraelevate sui terreni contermini, potranno irrigare naturalmente, ma per breve tempo, estese zone a cotone. Si coltiveranno, in questi casi, tipi upland long staple, che pur essendo abbastanza precoci e rustici, forniscono prodotti pregiati ed abbondanti (var. Allen's long staple, Griffin's long staple, Mattaw's long staple, etc.). 3° La Somalia presenta molte zone paludose, che prima o poi dovremo bonificare. In tutte queste plaghe ferti- lissime, che seguiteranno a mantenersi relativamente umide anche dopo il prosciugamento, prospereranno di certo gli upland a lunga o corta fibra e forse gli stessi cotoni egiziani, senza bisogno deH'irrigazione. Adattis- sima per terreni umidi e ricchi di humus e la varieta upland chiamata triumph (del tipo stormproos). 4° Nelle regioni costiere della Somalia pioye molto meno che in quelle interne, ove spesso cadono oltre 750 mm. di pioggia all'anno. In queste ultime zone potremo colti- vare cotone seccagno delle varieta upland short staple, resistentissime alia siccita, come la Hawkin's extra pro- lific, la thoroughbred Russell, etc., o precocissime come la King's early improved, la Simpkin's early prolific, la green seed, &c. Quindi, riassumendo, coltiveremo : cotoni egiziani e COTTON 257 sea island nelle zone irrigabili artificialmente per lungo periodo dell'anno; cotoni upland long staple nei terreni irrigabili naturalmente durante i brevi periodi delle piene dei fiumi; cotoni upland short staple in coltura seccagna nelle zone umide e nelle regioni deirinterno dove piove abbastanza. In tesi generale poi, k localita piu propizie al cotone saranno quelk un po' lontane dalla costa (alta Goscia e media valle dello Scebeli) ove piove di piu, minor danno produce la violenza dei venti, piccola e la prevalenza da vincere per sollevare Tacqua dai fiumi, migliore e la qualita delle terre, piu facile la loro sistemazione onde renderle irrigabili. Epoca delta Semina. In Somalia, benche ci sia una grande uniformita di clima durante 1'anno, sara conveniente iniziare le colture in uno dei periodi di pioggia, che segnano come un risvegli'O nella vita vegetativa della regione, assopita dalla siccita del gilal e dell'haret. i° Le varieta egiziane e le sea island si semineranno in gu, usufruendo dell'acqua delle grandi pioggie e poi di quella derivata artificialmente dai fiumi. Queste varieta tardive si cerchera seminarle prima che la stagione lo rendera possibile, affinche le piccole pioggie del der non danneggino molto il prodotto mature. 2° I cotoni upland potranno seminarsi in gu o in der, secondo dei casi. (a) Semineremo in der gli upland long or short staple in tutte quelle zone irrigabili naturalmente dalle acque dei fiumi nei brevi periodi delle piene, o in tutti quei terren! bonificati di recente e quindi umidi per infiltrazioni sotter- ranee, piu abbondanti in questo periodo delle piene dei fiumi. (b) Semineremo in gu gli upland short staple preco- cissimi, che dovranno vegetare usufruendo della sola acqua di pioggia. Irrigasioni. Per i cotoni egiziani credo sufficient : una irrigaziooe (o Tacqua di pioggia) durante la semina, ed un'altra (o al massimo due) irrigazione circa 45 giorni dor»o, Tinizio 258 COTTON della fioritura. Una eccessiva quantita d'acqua produce al cotone un eccessivo sviluppo erbaceo, una grande caduta di capsule, un forte deterioramento della fibra; si prolunga il ciclo vegetativo della pianta, col rischio di avere il prodotto danneggiato dalle pioggie di der, e dai parassiti, che con la molta umidita facilmente si ripro- ducono. Eseguendo un buon lavoro preparatorio del terreno, e, successivamente, frequenti sarchiature, si salvaguardera il cotone dai danni della siccita. I terreni della Somalia sono anche abbastanza compatti da trattenere I'umidita, che sara ceduta poco per volta al cotone. Ad Elvalda (Yubaland Italiano) in una localita poco lontana dai fiume ed in terreno profondamente lavorato, fu eseguito il seguente esperimento : — II 24 novembre 1911 furano seminati circa mq. 500 di terreno, meta ad Abassi e meta ad Afifi. II 12 marzo 1912, il cotone, che si era mantenuto in ottime condizioni di vegetazione, era in completa matura- zione, di modo che, dopo soli 108 giorni dalla semina si poterono raccogliere 35 Kg. di ottima fibra. In questo periodo di tempo non cadde un mm. di pioggia, ed il Giuba si mantenne sempre in magra. Nessun lavoro fu eseguito al terreno dopo la semina, nessuna cura fu prodigata al cotone. Credo poter spiegare il buono stato vegetativo del cotone, che non riceve pioggia o irrigazione, per il lavoro profondo fatto al terreno ; e la grande precocita di matura- zione per la scarsa quantita d'acqua che si trovo a di- sposizione della coltura. I cotoni upland seminati durante le piene dei fiumi, potranno ricevere una irrigazione all'atto della semina ed un'altra, se sara possibile, circa 40 giorni dopo. Epoca della Raccolta. La raccolta dei cotoni egiziani avverra in der e. pptra forse il prodotto essere un po'danneggiato dalle piccole pioggie di novembre. Si cerchera quindi, per quanto sara possibile, di anticipare ed affrettare la raccolta. I cotoni upland seminati in gu si raccoglieranno in hagai, COTTON 259 quelli seminati in der saranno maturi in gilal, senza temere per questi i danni delle pioggie. Coltura Annuale o Poliennale del Cotone. Anche i cotoni erbacei, in Somalia, possono assumere la fisonomia di pianta perenne, come i cotoni Caravonica. E' conveniente quindi mantenere il cotone in coltura annuale, o poliennale? Tanto per Tuna coltura, quanto per 1'altra, esistono vantaggi e svantaggi, non ancora esaurientemente ponderati. Con la coltura poliennale si risparmiano tutti i lavori preparatori del terreno, di sistemazione della superficie per Tirrigazione e di semina; il cotone poi, approfondendo molto le radici, riuscirebbe meno sensibile ai danni della siccita prolungata. II prodotto della coltura poliennale sembra pero che vada rapidamente deperendo dopo il primo o secondo raccolto; di piu la pianta del cotone si trova costante- mente donneggiata dai parassiti animali, che hanno agio di moltiplicarsi rapidamente, trovando pasto abbondante e clima favorevole. Poco dopo aver potato fin quasi al colletto la pianta, che ha dato il prodotto, ed aver bruciato le ramaglie secche, nuovi rami spuntano e si apprestano a fiorificare, e fruttificare, e nuove generazioni di insetti assalgono vittoriosamente piante e prodotti. Attendiamo che esperienze condotte su vasta scala possano presto fornire nuovi elementi di giudizio per questo importante problema. CONSIDERAZIONI SU ALCUNE CONDIZIONI DELL'AMBIENTE ECONOMICO-AGRARIO SFAVOREVOLI ALLA COLTURA DEL COTONE IN SOMALIA. Mano d' Opera. E inutile farsi delle illusioni : in Somalia manca attual- mente la mano d'opera necessaria per coltivare estese zone a cotone. 200 COTTON Giacche le poco numerose popolazioni liberte, che sono dedite all'agricoltura, per il loro attaccamento alle sciambe, non potranno offrirci che scarsa mano d'opera di salariati : per essi converranno del contratti a com- partecipazione, come si usa in Eritrea ed altrove. Le popolazioni di vera razza somala, piu numerose delle precedenti, sono dedite alia pastorizia ed in questi ultimi anni soltanto hanno fornito ai coltivatori italiani un po'del loro lavoro, saltuario pero e poco efficiente. Anche potendo utilizzare nel miglior modo possibile e liberti e somali, la deficienza lamentata permane in tutta la sua gravita presente, non futura, giacche in una qualsiasi localita della Colonia oggi sarebbe quasi impos- sibile trovare la mano d'opera necessaria a coltivare appena 5,000 Ea. a cotone. Ne possibile e dirigere per ora al Benadir parte della nostra emigrazione, perche anche ammesso che i nostri lavoratori della terra possano laggiu acclimatarsi, non riuscirebbero a trovare quella forte remunerazione, che ottengono invece nelle Americhe e nella stessa Europa. Ed il Governo Coloniale, quindi, oltreche occuparsi di estesi •esperimenti colturali in aziende di Stato, che i farmers somali non reclamano d'urgenza, e di tentativi di colonizzazione bianca, dovra, per altre vie, cercare la risoluzione di questo urgentissimo problema, se ha a cuore che s'inizi Tutilizzazione agraria della Somalia, con una estesa coltivazione di cotone. Perche gli industriali e capitalisti italiani, che cominciano ad interessarsi di nuovo del Benadir, naturalmente ricchissimo, pretendono a ragione siano rimosse dal Governo le difficolta piu gravi deirambiente economico, contro cui s'infrangerebbero tutti i loro sforzi e la loro buona volonta. Si e scritto da molti di far venire o dalla Cina o da1- Tlndia o dairArabia o dall'Abissinia la mano d'opera mancante. Studi diligentemente il Governo queste ed altre proposte e venga a qualche pratico risultato. Forse coirimpiego su vasta scala delle macchine agricole, non escluse in seguito quelle che da tempo si sperimentano in America per la raccolta della fibra del cotone, si potra attenuare un po'la gravita del problema. COTTON 26l Problema Idraulico. Lo accennero soltanto fugacemente. Le zone paludose o naturalmente irrigabili dalle piene dei fiumi non sono invero molto estese in Somalia, dove invece predominano le plaghe, che solo artificialmente possono ricevere 1'acqua dai fiumi. II sollevamento meccanico con pompe centrifughe o altro, applicabile per limitate irrigazioni, si rende impos- sibile sia dal lato tecnico che da quello economico, per coltivazioni molto estese di cotone : per queste puo con- venire solo lo sbarramentO' dei fiumi, per ottenere un elevato livello delle acque, che permetta di potere avere 1'acqua a basso prezzo, anche a grandi distanze. Lo Scebeli, specialmente nel suo basso corso, non si prestera ad irrigare zone molto estese a causa della sua piccola portata in certe stagioni dell'anno. Solo il Giuba, per la sua ricchezza di acque, potra con opportuni barrages, irrigare facilmente le pianure f eraci della Goscia (Yubaland Italiano). Poiche il talweg del corso del Giuba segna la linea di confine fra la Somalia nostra e la Colonia Inglese dell'Africa Orientale, qual- unque lavoro sia per farsi soil fiume, dovra eseguirsi d'accordo fra le due Potenze rivierasche. Ad una intesa Italo-Inglese devono appunto mirare gli sforzi del Governo, per eseguire sul Giuba tutti quei lavori necessari alia risoluzione del problema idraulico della Regione. 7 Trasporti ed i Mezzi di Comuriicazione Interno. I trasporti di ingenti quantita di merce non possono compiersi in Somalia altro che con cammelli. Ci si puo fare un'idea della gravita di questo problema, pensando ad un produttore di cotone che abbia da trasportare per 100 Km. ad es: parecchie migliaia di balle di fibra. I camions automobili, che fanno ora servizio in qualche localita della Colonia, non potranno essere adibiti con tornaconto al trasporto di notevoli quantita di cotone. Per pochi mesi deiranno funziona sul Giuba un servizio irregolare di piccoli piroscafi fluviali, italiani ed inglesi, che lo risalgono fino a Bardera. Questi steamers pero scaricano a Giumbo (o Gobwen) la merce, che dovra per 262 COTTON giungere al porto inglese di Kisimayo, essere inviata o per via di terra a schiena di cammello (sono oltre 15 Km. di difficilissimo cammino su terreno dunoso e roccioso) o per via d'acqua, passando per la foce del Giuba. Puo risalire detta foce tino speciale steamer, soltanto 405 volte alFanno, nei periodi delle piene del fiume e di altissima marea. I trasporti in Somalia sono dunque difficilissimi e costosi ed a cio il Governo dovra provvedere. Per le esigenze dei futuri coltivatori di cotone, occor- rera che dal portodi Brava (quando questo sara creato) partano due tronchi ferroviari : uno per il paese di Margherita (nella Goscia), per raccogliere tutti i prodotti dello Yubaland, ed uno correndo vicino allo Scebeli per il paese di Balad, ove dovrebbero affluire, per via fluviale possibilmente, tutti i prodotti della ricca regione del Medio Scebeli. Riassumendo quindi : la coltura del cotone che prospera in Somalia per le sue condizioni propizie di clima e di terreno, non potra trovare la remunerazione che le com- pete, fino a che il Governo Coloniale non avra almeno cominciato a risolvere la deficienza della mano d'opera, il problema idraulico e quello dei trasporti. 11° ALLEVAMENTO DEL BESTIAME IN SOMALIA.7 Nell'attesa che la grande impresa cotoniera si compia e mandi la fibra alle Industrie nostre soggette al mono- polio Nord-Americano, il capitale trovera utile impiego in Somalia iniziando, con estesi allevamenti di bestiame bovino ed ovino, la produzione industriale della carne. Per iniziare Tutilizzazione zootecnica della Somalia, presento il programma da me ideato, nella sua massima semplicita : migliorare la pastorizia indigena, avviandola 7 Consultisi il Volume, di recente pubblicazione, dello stesso Autore, ove detto argomento e ampliamente trattato : " L'Im$resa zootecnica nella Somalia Italiana M ericiionale " edito a cura del Governo della Somalia Italiana, con Prefazione del Conte Eugenio Faina, Senatore del Regno, Roma, F. Hi Bocca Editor!, 10.13. Lire 5. COTTON 263 verso la produzione, anziche del latte (che e ora la funzione economica piu importante) degli animali da carne, che attualmente scarseggiano negli allevamenti somali; impiantare un certo numero di grand! aziende europee d'allevamento, per ottenere quella forte di- sponibilita di bestiame da macello, che renda possibile il funzionamento dell'industria impiantatasi in Somalia, incaricata della manipolazione, trasporto e smercio della carne stessa, congelata o refrigerata, per i nostri mercati o per quelli egiziani. Al Benadir, su circa 30,000 Kmq. di superficie, nel 1910, sembra esistessero : — 764 mila bovini. 305 ,, camelli. 216 ,, ovini. La pastorizia e certamente la maggiore ricchezza naturale della regione, la cui popolazione somala di pastori trae appunto dal bestiame e il nutrimento ed i talleri necessari ai suoi limitati bisogni. II bestiame bovino specialmente, benche allevato con metodi primitivi, trova nella ricchezza dei pascoli il nutrimento per pro- sperare e per fornire latte abbondante e carne saporosa. Per il miglioramento di queste razze indigene di bovini, non credo per ora indispensabile 1'introduzione, su vasta scala, di riproduttori di razze perfezionate, i quali, neces- sitando di condizioni d'ambiente, che non puo offrire ora la Colonia, non darebbero risultati soddisfacenti. Per la creazione di aziende di allevamento utilizzeremo della Somalia tutte le localita, che, per non essere suscet- tibili d'irrigazione, non potranno coltivarsi a cotone o ad altre piante; quindi tutte le immense praterie e boscaglie un po'lontane dai fiumi, ove potra Tallevatore trovare nel sottosuolo con facilita Tacqua necessaria per Tabbeverata. Le malattie del bestiame piu gravi : la peste bovina e le tripanosomiasi, potranno essere vittoriosamente com- battute : la prima praticando agli animali vaccinazioni antipestose, le seconde facendo evitare al bestiame le zone paludose, infette da tse-tse, che sono in Somalia poco estese e ben caratterizzate. II terreno sara inoltre dato in concessione per un lungo 264 COTTON periodo di tempo, gli animali riproduttori, con cui iniziare I'allevamento, potranno acquistarsi con poca spesa dagli indigeni, ed il bestiame somalo, abituato a prosperare pur nelle ingrate condizioni d'ambiente, potra, con la selezione accurata e con un allevamento razionale, offrire una migliore utilizzazione delle sue funzioni economiche. L'allevatore non trovera in Somalia alcuna grave difficolta deirambiente economico-agrario, perche, mentre scarsa laggiu e la mano d'opera dei coltivatori, facile e ricca e quella dei pastori ed atta ai servizi zootecnici; non esisteranno per lui ne un problema idraulico, ne una questione dei trasporti neirinterno della regione. Si doyranno impiantare al Benadir aziende zootecniche di grande ampiezza e di tipo pastorale estensivo : 8 Talle- vatore sfruttera le risorse agrarie spontanee dell'azienda a vantaggio degli animali, che in questa vivono in alle- vamento sempre brado, ne ci fara bisogno per ora di coltivare foraggi d'alto valore nutritive, che le zone destinate ora al pascolo non potrebbero neppure produrre. Poi, quando le condizioni zootecniche della regione saranno migliorate, anche Tordinamento dell'azienda si differenziera verso un sistema piu intensive, come appunto e accaduto nelle regioni di grande allevamento, in Argen- tina ed in Australia. Ma anche per questa utilizzazione zootecnica occorrono programmi precisi, uomini capaci e di buona volonta, capitali sufficient aH'impresa. II Governo Coloniale dovra in tutti i modi aiutare queste prime iniziative private, dovra sostituire il vigente regolamento per le concession! di pascolo con provvedimenti legislativi che tutelino meglio i diritti del concessionario, dovra facilitare la scelta del terreno e Tacquisto delle fattrici bovine ed ovine ai coloni, e metterli in grado di difendere il bestiame allevato dairinfierire delle epidemic. Con queste garanzie, in pochi anni il capitale trovera lagg'iu certa e forte remunerazione e la Somalia i primi successi dell'iniziativa italiana. 8 Veda dettagliate considerazioni in merito, nella pubblicazione c.s.. dello stesso Autore, pagg. 165-171. ALCUNI ASPETTI BELLA COTONICOLTURA NELL'EBITREA. Per il Dott. GUIDO MANGANO. LA coltura del cotone sara presto tra le piu important! colture della Colonia Eritrea, ma fino ad oggi non ha potuto molto diffondersi. Gli indigeni la praticano saltua- riamente e sempre su estensioni molto limitate -e da qualche tempo, per gli alti prezzi della dura, I'hanno quasi abbandonata, pronti del resto a riprenderla non appena cessi la crisi attuale del cereale. Oltre che dagli indigeni la cotonicoltura e esercitata da una Societa italiana in aziende situate in varie parti della Colonia, Societa che provvede anche all'acquisto, allo sgranaggio e all'espor- tazione della produzione indigena e alia quale TEritrea deve in gran parte il suo movimento cotoniero. Nell'Eritrea la possibilita di coltivare il cotone e quasi dappertutto strettamente connessa, oltreche con il regime delle pioggie, le quali sono ovunque piu o meno scarse, anche con la disponibilita di acque di irrigazione. E poiche queste derivano dalle pioggie cadute impetuosa- mente in tin bacino che, per un complesso di ragioni che qui non e il caso di ricordare, non puo trattenerle, ma deve lasciarle scorrere altrettanto rapidamente a valle, e poiche il periodo di pioggie e breve, raramente superante 1 75 giorni, cosi le acque disponibili per la irrigazione si presentano in quantita notevoli, ma improvvise e impetuo- se e durante un periodo di tempo identico a quello delle pioggie che tali piene determinano. L'unica forma di irri- gazione possibile e dunque oggi quella per inondamento, e tale si manterra fino a quando, con opere grandiose, non si saranno creati dei bacini di raccolta dai quali derivare le acque nelle epoche e nelle quantita determinate dalle esigenze della coltura. 266 COTTON In alcune regioni della colonia pero, e precisamente la dove il rilievo del terreno e tale da escludere la possibilita di inondamento, e tuttavia possibile la cotonicoltura e per la meno esigua precipitazione di pioggia e per la speciale natura dei terreni. Possiamo cosi distinguere, dal punto di vista, essenziale per la coltura, della disponibilita di acqua di pioggia e di irrigazione, vari ambienti colturali, offrenti ciascuno una speciale forma di cotonicoltura. Astraendo dalla quantita di pioggia che cade annualmente e che per tutte le regioni e considerata assai scarsa, e non tenendo conto che dell'epoca in cui questa pioggia cade e di quella in cui 1'acqua scorre nei fiumi, parmi si possano distinguere almeno tre diversi ambienti colturali e, di conseguenza, tre diversi tipi di cotonicoltura. Vi sono infatti in Eritrea, sempre nelle regioni del basso- piano, delle zone a pioggie estive e a piene estive, delle altre zone a pioggie invernali e a piene estive ed invernali e infine delle zone a pioggie estive, ma non offrenti alcuna possibilita di irrigazione. Le zone a pioggie e a piene estive sono quelle del bassopiano e del mezzopiano occidentale. La coltura dovendo farsi sulle terre inon- date, non potra iniziarsi che dopo I'ultima piena, se il fiume non e idraulicamente sistemato, o dopo quel tale numero di piene che si ritiene sufficiente a dotare il terreno della quantita di acqua necessaria alia coltura, qualora il fiume sia regolato da opere che consentono di deviare le piene dal terreno coltivato. E poiche si ritiene, in genere, che il terreno debba essere molte volte inondato per immagaz- zinare sufficiente umidita, anche in questo secondo caso Tinizio della coltura coincidera quasi con il termine della stagione delle pioggie. Da questo momento, cioe dal suo inizio, la coltura non avra altro beneficio d'acqua fino alia stagione delle nebbie, fino cioe a dicembre-gennaio, nella quale epoca questa forma di precipitazione atmo- sferica sara di qualche ausilio allo coltura, troppo lieve pero per produrre degli effetti sensibili. Risulta percio evidentissimo che anche in terreni bene inondati e di natura tale do conservare a lungo Tumidita immagaz- zinata, e trattati secondo le buone regole indicate per la conservazione deH'umidita stessa, dopo un certo numero di COTTON 267 mesi di quasi assoluta aridita la coltura venga a trovarsi in condizioni disparate. Necessita quindi in tale ambiente di coltivare una varieta a ciclo breve, oltreche poco esigente in fatto di umidita, il cui periodo di fioritura si svolga del tutto prima che il terreno perda la sua freschezza. La zona che abbiamo indicata per seconda, a pioggie invernali e a piene estive e invernali, e quella del basso- piano orientale i cui fiumi portano acqua non soltanto durante la stagione delle pioggie locali, che sono invernali, ma durante quella delle pioggie dell'altopiano, che sono estive. Si comprende facilmente come, caeteris paribus, questa seconda zona offra, in confronto della prima, condizioni assai piu favorevoli alia coltura, consentendo due succes- sive coltivazioni, di cui la prima di una pianta a ciclo vege- tativo assai breve, o la coltura di una varieta di cotone a lungo ciclo ed esigente in fatto di umidita, ma a prodotto assai piu ricco che non le varieta adatte alle condizioni riferibili al caso precedente. La terza zona, quella in cui le colture possono usufruire delle sole pioggie, presenta per cio stesso condizioni assai meno favorevoli che le precedent!. Comprende la vasta regione del mezzopiano sud occidentale della Colonia e quelle parti del bassopiano verso il Gasc e Setit che non sono irrigabili. In questa zona due sono i tipi di coltura adottabili : uno che si avvicina, per la caratteristica princi- pale che deve avere la varieta coltivata, a quella che e propria della prima zona, cioe coltura di varieta molto precoce avente termine quando il terreno ha esaurito la propria riserva di umidita, 1'altro riducente la coltivazione da annua a perenne, per una durata di anni variabile, generalmente due o tre, allo scopo di avere al secondo anno piante pronte ad utilizzare le acque di pioggia e quindi capaci di fiorire e fruttificare abbondantemente finche il terreno e in buone condizioni di frescura. In tali condizioni di ambiente le due caratteristiche che deve possedere sopra ogni altra la varieta da coltivarsi, sono la precocita e la resistenza alia siccita. Chiarita questa importante questione tecnica relativa alia forma da darsi alia cotonicoltura nelle varie regioni della Colonia, devesi considerare un'altra egualmente vitale e 268 COTTON strettamente connessa alia prima, cioe la scelta della varieta da coltivarsi in ciascuna delle zone indicate : scelta che deve tenere conto, oltreche delle condizioni naturali del luogo anche di quelle relative all'amibiente economico in cui la coltura deve svolgersi e alle esigenze del mercato. Attualmente la varieta piu diffusamente coltivata in Colonia, indifferentemente nelle tre zone di cui s'e parlato, puo considerarsi una varieta locale, perche gia da vari anni introdotta in Colonia e necessariamente modificatasi dalla sua forma originana. E' la varieta americana Allen's long staple, del gruppo Upland long staple, 1'origine del quale non e perfettamente determinabile essendo esso il risultato di selezioni e di ibridazioni, in cui oerto ebbe parte rilevante il Gossypium hirsutum e, secondaria, un'altra specie, probabilmente il G. barbadense. L'Allen l.s.e, tra i cotoni Upland piu diffusi per lunghezza di fibra e per altre buone caratteristiche di questa, per la sua resi- stenza alle intemperie e per la sua discreta produttivita. Ha pero, nei luoghi d'origine, il difetto di essere tardivo, bene inteso rispetto ad altri Upland, di avere non poche esigenze rispetto alia qualita e alia freschezza del terreno e di dare un basso rendimento allo sgranaggio. Infatti il rapporto fibra-cotone intero e 27 : 100. In Eritrea questa varieta importata dal T-exas si e non poco modificata, come era logico attendersi, per lo sforzo notevole che la pianta ha dovuto sopportare nell'adattarsi al nuovo ambiente tanto diverso da quello originario. Fortunatamente pero, nel complesso, le variazioni non sono state peggiorative, come invece spesso avviene, in quanto che mantenendosi le doti di produttivita e di qualita della fibra, si pote constatare un aumento della resa allo sgranaggio. Devesi pero notare che questo aumento si ebbe soltanto nelle zone del i° e del 2° tipo, a terre inondate, mentre in quelle del 3° tipo si dove lamen- tare non soltanto che il rapporto fibra-cotone intero si e mantenuto inalterato, cioe basso, ma la qualita della fibra e peggiorata per diminuita lunghezza e finezza. Oltre a questa varieta, che in seguito alle modificazioni subite, merito di essere considerata come nuova e prese il nome di Carcabat, sono state e sono coltivate in Eritrea, ma su estensioni assai minori, altre varieta. COTTON 269 Prima ancora che fosse introdbtta 1'attuale varieta Car- cabat, vennero esperimentate colture di cotoni egiziani, particolarmente delle varieta Mitafifi e Abassi. Oggi esse sono quasi del tutto scomparse dal territorio della Colonia, mentre oltre confine, nel Sudan, e la varieta Mitafifi quella piu estesamente coltivata. II loro abbandono fu quasi del tutto giustificato in quanto che gli esperimenti che ad esse si riferiscono furono per la massima parte eseguiti in quella zona del i° tipo che, come ho gia spiegato, richiede una varieta precoce e poco esigente in fatto di umidita. Da tempo antico poi sono coltivate in Eritrea, dagli indigeni, delle varieta locali, non ben determinate, di cui la piu diffusa e la varieta chiamata dagli indigeni areb, a seme non completamente vestito, a fibra corta (22 mm. circa) con basso rendimento allo sgranaggio (28 : 100) ma abbastanza fine e lucente. Infine, a scopo sperimentale, sono state coltivate recentemente in Eritrea altre varieta di cotone : alcune indiane, altre americane di tipo Upland. Di queste, oggetto di maggiore attenzione e stata la varieta King, o, per meglio dire, una delle molte varieta King, un Upland a corta fibra molto precoce, che nel suo paese d'origine e resistente alia siccita, molto produt- tiva ed a elevato rendimento allo sgranaggio. Non e stato possibile conoscere i resultati veri delle prove colturali fatte dall'Ufficio Agrario dell'Eritrea parti- colarmente nel Serae e neH'Acchele Cusai, ma e certo che anche questa varieta americana avra subito delle rapide modificazioni, che ritengo sarebbe molto istruttivo esami- nare attentamente. Cio premesso, vediamo quali delle varieta oggi coltivate meritino di essere mantenute e quali possano essere intro- dotte con notevole probabilita di successo. Nella prima zona, richiedente una varieta precoce e abbastanza resistente alia scarsezza di umidita, dobbiamo evidentemente escludere : i° Le varieta egiziane piu pregiate a lunga fibra, quali TAbassi, il Mitafifi, lo Janovitch, il Sekellaridis, TAssili, ecc., perche tardive e non resistenti affatto in un ambiente non ricco di umidita. 2° Le varieta egiziane meno pregiate, anche se 2JO COTTON sufficentemente adatte aH'ambiente, perche a prodotto scarso e scadente. 3° Quelle varieta americane die essendo precoci e resistenti alia siccita, in grado maggiore che non sia richiesto airambiente della prima zona, danno un prodotto di qualita scadente. 4° La varieta indiane, italiane ed eritree per il motivo indicate al capo precedente. 5° Tutte le varieta cosiddette arboree, le quali non danno prodotto apprezzabile nell'anno di semina. Stabilita a priori r-esclusione di queste varieta non resta che a scegliere tra quelle che ad una discreta precocita e resistenza ad ambiente non ricco di umidita uniscano una elevata produttivita e una pregiata qualita di fibra : Carat- teristiche queste possedute in grado abbastanza elevato dai cotoni americani Upland long staple e facilmente accrescibili mediante i procedimenti selettivi di cui parlero piu avanti. E' da considerarsi quindi felicissima per questa zona, la scelta fatta dalla " Societa per la Coltivazione del Cotone in Eritrea " della varieta sopra descritta e che oggi va sotto il nome di Carcabat, non perche questa varieta sia capace di dare oggi, in un ambiente come quello della ia zona, il massimo risultato desiderabile, ma perche essa costituisce a mio parere il miglior punto di partenza per la creazione della varieta ottima per questo ambiente. Nella seconda zona, che presenta di fronte alia prima il notevolissimo vantaggio di due stagioni di piene, con una stagione di pioggie coincidente con la seconda stagione di piene, esclusa la possibilita di fare due successive colture di cotone (come invece possono farsi di una pianta a ciclo vegetative piu breve che non quello del cotone anche piu precoce) devesi coltivare una varieta che utilizzi nel modo piu completo tutta la non indifferente quantita d'acqua che le pioggie e una buona sistemazione idraulica possono fornire alle coltivazioni. Debbono pero escludersi : i° Tutte le varieta a breve ciclo vegetativo la cui maturazione verrebbe a coincidere con le pioggie e le seconde piene; 2° tutte le varieta a lungo ciclo, ma a prodotto eccessivamente scarso e scadente; 3° tutte le COTTON 271 varieta cosiddette arboree che non danno prodotto abbon- dante nell'anno di semina. Fatta questa eliminazione e facile convincersi che la varieta adatta deve ricercarsi fra quelle egiziane a lungo ciclo, a fibra pregiata e a produzione abbastanza elevata. Evidentemente devesi ricercare in questa varieta un certo grado di relativa rusticita, data la non perfetta regolarita degli inondamenti e delle pioggie e dato il frequente spirare di venti forti. Credo quindi che la varieta riunente in se tutte queste qualita sia la varieta Mitafifi, la sola che in condizioni di ambiente analoghe, per es. nel distretto cotonifero Sudanese di Tocar, sia da tempo colti- vata con successo. Naturalmente anche in questo caso vale 1'osservazione fatta precedentemente, che cioe la varieta Mitafifi non puo oggi dirsi la varieta ideale per 1'ambiente della seconda zona, bensi la varieta dalla quale meglio si possa partire neH'opera di creazione di una varieta locale ottima. Per la terza zona occorre una varieta molto piu precoce e rustica che non quelle prescelte per la prima e la seconda zona : devesi cioe ricercare fra quelle varieta che, producendo fibra non del tutto scadente, siano a ciclo brevissimo e molto resistenti ad ambiente asciutto. L'esame quindi deve essere limitato alle varieta locali, a quelle americane precoci e a quelle indiane, escludendo non soltanto le varieta egiziane, ma anche quelle ameri- cane a fibra lunga. Una indicazione precisa di questa incompatibility almeno inizialmente, tra le condizioni di ambiente e le esigenze delle varieta a lunga fibra, la si e avuta nelle coltivazioni di questo 3° tipo fatte sul Case e oltre confine, le quali presentano una sensibilissima riduzione nella lunghezza della fibra ottenuta in confronto di quella del prodotto avutosi dallo stesso seme nelle colture del i° e del 2° tipo. lo ritengo che forse taluna delle varieta locali, oggi ben poco ancora conosciute, potrebbe essere utilmente migliorata fino a raggiungere un tipo soddisfacente. Ma mancandomi le basi per formulare un tale giudizio, considero che tale possibilita non vi sia e si debba quindi, come nelle altre due zone, procedere all'mtroduzione di varieta esotica. Non ho molta fiducia sulle varieta 18 274 COTTON derivante da una larga ed apprezzata cotonicoltura, il mantenimento dell'unicita del tipo nei diversi distretti cotoniferi e nelle diverse forme di coltura, tanto che 1'autorita non si perita di limitare la liberta dei privati imponendo loro di escludere dalle proprie colture tutte le varieta che non siano quella determinata dal Governo. II sistema non e applicato dovunque, per motivi che non serve qui di esaminare, ne sempre con giusti criteri, ma se ne riconosce tutta I'importanza e tutto il valore. Tutto cio nei riguardi dell'industria consumatrice e del buon apprezzamento della materia prima sui mercati di vendita. Ma vi sono altri vantaggi neirunicita del tipo e questi riguardano piu direttamente la produzione. Ho detto che qualsiasi cotone, particolarmente quando introdotto in un paese nuovo, varia in maniera molto spiccata e che tali variazioni si prestano ad un'azione miglioratrice efficacissima da parte del coltivatore. Al tempo stesso pero queste variazioni possono avvenire in senso peggiorativo, appena quando 1'assistenza del colti- vatore venga a farsi meno attiva e si presentino prossime e frequenti le cause di variazione non volute dal colti- vatore stesso. E' evidente che queste cause di non desiderata varia- zione, le quali hanno per di piu il dannosissimo effetto di rendere inomogenee anche le singole partite dei singoli produttori, consistono nella promiscua coltura di varieta differenti o di una stessa varieta con sistemi colturali diversi. E cio non soltanto per i pericoli di ibridazione naturale, piu difficile a verificarsi di quanto generalmente si creda, ma per la facilita con cui o nei campo, o nei magazzino o nello stabilimento di sgranaggio, possono avvenire mescolanze di semi che danno poi luogo a coltivazioni eterogenee nelle quali difficile e povera di risultati si esercitera 1'opera miglioratrice del coltivatore. Inoltre, quando in una regione non si ottenga che un dato tipo di prodotto, Tindustria dello sgranaggio e resa piu semplice e piu razionale : non piu la necessita di impianti differenti con macchine sgranatrici adatte a ciascuno dei tipi sottoposti a lavorazione, ne 1'adattamento dannoso di un solo tipo di macchine alle differenti esigenze dei vari tipi di cotone lavorato. COTTON 275 Infine la maggior semplicita e la maggiore efficacia dell'opera sperimentale, di assistenza, e di consulenza esercitata dal Governo o dagli enti privati interessati al miglioramento della produzione. Taluno potrebbe obiettare che, anche ammessi come indiscutibili i vantaggi deirunicita di tipo, e considerata come imposta dall'ambiente 1'adozione di una determinata forma colturale, non e prudente limitare la coltura ad una sola varieta, onde non escludere la possibilita che piu lunghe esperienze indichino altra varieta come migliore di quella oggi prescelta. Mi pare- giustificato rispondere che gli elementi di cui oggi disponiamo sono tali da renderci sicuri quasi sempre della giusta scelta di una data varieta come suscettibile dei piu notevoli miglioramenti sotto la mano abile del selettore. E anche ammesso che il punto da cui oggi si parte non sia esattamente il migliore, assai difficilmente converra in avvenire, dopo ottenuti dei perfezionamenti sensibili, il ritornare da capo e riprendere fin dall'inizio tutto il complesso lavoro di miglioramento. Nei casi invece nei quali la varieta migliore e oggi troppo difficilmente determinabile, come per noi nei caso delle terza zona eritrea, allora e giuoco forza rimandare la scelta a quando l'esperimentazione avra detto la sua autorevole parola. Concludendo su questo argomento diro che io ritengo vitale per la cotonicoltura eritrea che i tre distretti cotoni- feri in cui la colonia va divisa debbano complessivamente dar luogo a non piu di tre tipi di prodotto, ai quali riescira tanto piu agevole il conquistare stabilmente un buon mercato, quanto piu costanti nei tempo essi saranno. Necessario quindi che 1'opera dei privati e piu ancor? quella del Governo siano intese ad ottenere nei piu breve tempo questo risultato. II mezzo, o per meglio dire i mezzi, mi sembrano facil- mente indicabili e non difficilmente applicabili. i° II primo e piu essenziale e Tesclusione assoluta da ciascuna zona di varieta diversa da quella prescelta. 2° Che un identico criterio guidi il miglio-ramentO' delle varieta, e, perche cio sia possibile, che la selezione, unico mezzo atto allo scopo, sia eseguita non dai singoli colti- vatori ma da un solo ente, possibilmente di governo, il 274 COTTON derivante da una larga ed apprezzata cotonicoltura, il mantenimento dell'unicita del tipo nei diversi distretti cotoniferi e nelle diverse forme di coltura, tanto che 1'autorita non si perita di limitare la liberta dei privati imponendo loro di escludere dalle proprie colture tutte le varieta che non siano quella determinata dal Governo. II sistema non e applicato dovunque, per motivi che non serve qui di esaminare, ne sempre con giusti criteri, ma se ne riconosce tutta I'importanza e tutto il valore. Tutto cio nei riguardi dell'industria consumatrice e del buon apprezzamento della materia prima sui mercati di vendita. Ma vi sono altri vantaggi nell'unicita del tipo e questi riguardano piu direttamente la produzione. Ho detto che qualsiasi cotone, particolarmente quando introdotto in un paese nuovo, varia in maniera molto spiccata e che tali variazioni si prestano ad un'azione miglioratrice efficacissima da parte del coltivatore. Al tempo stesso pero queste variazioni possono avvenire in senso peggiorativo, appena quando 1'assistenza del colti- vatore venga a farsi meno attiva e si presentino prossime e frequenti le cause di variazione non volute dal colti- vatore stesso. E' evidente che queste cause di non desiderata varia- zione, le quali hanno per di piu il dannosissimo effetto di rendere inomogenee anche le singole partite dei singoli produttori, consistono nella promiscua coltura di varieta differenti o di una stessa varieta con sistemi colturali diversi. E cio non soltanto per i pericoli di ibridazione naturale, piu difficile a verificarsi di quanto generalmente si creda, ma per la facilita con cui o nei campo, o nei magazzino o nello stabilimento di sgranaggio, possono avvenire mescolanze di semi che danno poi luogo a coltivazioni eterogenee nelle quali difficile e povera di risultati si esercitera T opera miglioratrice del coltivatore. Inoltre, quando in una regione non si ottenga che un dato tipo di prodotto, Tindustria dello sgranaggio e resa piu semplice e piu razionale : non piu la necessita di impianti differenti con macchine sgranatrici adatte a ciascuno dei tipi sottoposti a lavorazione, ne 1'adattamento dannoso di un solo tipo di macchine alle differenti esigenze dei vari tipi di cotone lavorato. COTTON 275 Infine la maggior semplicita e la maggiore efficacia dell'opera sperimentale, di assistenza, e di consulenza esercitata dal Governo o dagli enti privati interessati al miglioramento della produzione. Taluno potrebbe obiettare che, anche ammessi come indiscutibili i vantaggi deH'unicita di tipo, e considerata come imposta dall'ambiente Tadozione di una determinata forma colturale, non e prudente limitare la coltura ad una sola varieta, onde non escludere la possibilita che piu lunghe esperienze indichino altra varieta come migliore di quella oggi prescelta. Mi pare- giustificato rispondere che gli elementi di cui oggi disponiamo sono tali da renderci sicuri quasi sempre della giusta scelta di una data varieta come suscettibile dei piu notevoli miglioramenti sotto la mano abile del selettore. E anche ammesso che il punto da cui oggi si parte non sia esattamente il migliore, assai difficilmente converra in avvenire, dopo ottenuti dei perfezionamenti sensibili, il ritornare da capo e riprendere fin dall'inizio tutto il complesso lavoro di miglioramento. Nei casi invece nei quali la varieta migliore e oggi troppo difficilmente determinabile, come per noi nei caso delle terza zona eritrea, allora e giuoco forza rimandare la scelta a quando resperimentazione avra detto la sua autorevole parola. Concludendo su questo argomento diro che io ritengo vitale per la cotonicoltura eritrea che i tre distretti cotoni- feri in cui la colonia va divisa debbano complessivamente dar luogo a non piu di tre tipi di prodofto, ai quali riescira tanto piu agevole il conquistare stabilmente un buon mercato, quanto piu costanti nei tempo essi saranno. Necessario quindi che 1'opera dei privati e piu ancorz quella del Governo siano intese ad ottenere nei piu breve tempo questo risultato. II mezzo, o per meglio dire i mezzi, mi sembrano facil- mente indicabili e non difficilmente applicabili. i° II primo e piu essenziale e 1'esclusione assoluta da ciascuna zona di varieta diversa da quella prescelta. 2° Che un identico criterio guidi il miglioramento' delle varieta, e, perche cio sia possibile, che la selezione, unico mezzo atto allo scopo, sia eseguita non dai singoli colti- vatori ma da un solo ente, possibilmente di governo, il 2/6 COTTON qnale fornisca ai coltivatori il seme selezionato occorrente per le loro colture, seme proveniente da una o piu stazioni apposite, nelle quali con unicita di intenti si vadano gradualmente ad ottenere e a fissare i caratteri che si desiderano e che la varieta e suscettibile di assumere. Non e luogo qui che io indichi come dovrebbe organiz- zarsi tale importantissimo servizio di fornitura di seme selezionato, in modo da renderlo agile e perfettamente corrispondente allo scopo. 3° Poiche malgrado i provvedimenti di cui al no i e 2, non sarebbe possibile avere in modo assoluto Tunicita del tipo in tutte le partite del prodotto ottenuto o per difettosa coltura, o per effetto di malattie o per non accurata raccolta o per non buona conservazione o per male eseguita separazione della fibra dal seme o per un qual- siasi altro motive, parmi che a rendere impossibile che non accorti o non scrupolosi acquirenti mescolassero alle migliori le partite piu scadenti, si dovrebbe istituire un servizio di classificazione delle partite, come si e ritenuto di dover fare nel Sudan Anglo Egiziano, classificazione che attribuisce a ciascuna balla di cotone una determinata classe, la quale viene indicata sulla balla stessa con un ben evidente contrassegno. Questa classificazione do- vrebbe farsi prima sui mercati locali del cotone intero, onde evitare che diverse qualita veugano mescolate all'atto dello sgranaggio, e poi all'uscita delle balle di espofta- zione dallo stabilimento di sgranaggio e di pressatura. Neppure di questa organizzazione e qui il caso di rattare con dettaglio : basti 1'avervi accennato e 1'aver jetto che essa e assai meno complessa di quello che a prima vista potrebbe sembrare e tale da garantire valida- mente non solo gli interessi della Colonia ma quelli del commercio e dell'mdustria cotoniera. Una quarta questione deve essere ora toccata, quella del posto che il cotone deve occupare nell'attivita delle singole aziende. Se cioe nelle zone a cotonicoltura il cotone debba o possa essere la sola pianta coltivata o debba invece essere avvicendata con altre colture e con quali. E' evidente che le diverse condizioni ambientali offerte dalle tre zone da noi distinte, portano anche a questo riguardo a tre differenti casi. COTTON 277 Nella prima zona io non credo che I'avvicendamento colturale sia una necessita tecnica visto che le alluvioni dei fiunii depositano annualmente sul terreno una notevole quantita di limo che non e costituito di sola argilla, ma e ricco di sostanze di varia natura certo sufficient! a re- integrare quello che con la coltura annualmente perde il terreno che da identiche alluvioni e stato originate; e atteso che sono da considerarsi praticamente sufficient! ad allontanare il pericolo che gli agenti di malattie del cotone si propaghino da un anno all'altro, i mezzi adottati o che dovranno adottarsi severamente per la difesa e la lotta contro le malattie stesse. II far partecipare il cotone ad un avvicendamento con altre colture sara probabilmente necessario, ma in tal caso sara certo voluto da esigenzi di ordine economico che sarebbe troppo lungo indicare. Neppure nella seconda zona 1'avvicendamento sara imposto da ragioni tecniche, ma solo da considerazioni d'ordine economico. Anche qui i terreni sono abbon- dantemente arricchiti periodicamente dal limo portato dalle acque di piena e anche qui vengono a mancare le forti ragioni per cui il ripetersi di una coltura e di solito irrazionale. Ma economicamente e senza dubbio svantaggioso il sistema che instaura e mantiene un regime di monocoltura e quindi anche in questa seconda zona dovra applicarsi un qualche avvicendamento colturale : nel determinare il quale, se si sara favoriti dal fatto che in questa zona la doppia stagione di piene rende un po' piu larga la scelta delle piante che possono venir coltivate, si dovra anche ricordare che la varieta di cotone e in questo caso a lungo ciclo e tiene qumdi occupato il terreno un tempo maggiore che non la varieta coltivata nella prima zona, e tale ad ogni modo da escludere la possibility di praticare colture inter- medie fra due successive di cotone. Credo quindi che la rotazione da prescegliersi, avendo a propria base la coltura del cotone, debba far posto ad altre colture annuali (non perenni, tranne che nei terreni non irrigui essendo rirri- gazione fatta per inondamento) a breve o a lungo ciclo, che consentano non soltanto la produzione di generi necessari sul posto o di facile mercato, ma offrano ai 278 COTTON coltivatori occupazione il piu possibile costante. Non e qui il caso di dilungarsi su tale sogetto, basti solo notare che il doppio periodo di piene puo consentire nello stesso anno due successive colture di piante a breve ciclo, quali la dura, il bultuc, il sesamo, 1'arachide e che anche in questa zona, come gia nella prima, un grande ausilio potra aversi, ad esempio, dalla coltura del Cajanus indicus, leguminosa che ha gia dimostrato il suo completo adatta- mento alle condizioni del luogo e che e utilissima come fornitrice di foraggio e di materia da sovescio. Nella zona a sole pioggie, che p>r>esenta evidentemente tina non piccola varieta di terreni e che forse, dopo un piu attento studio delle sue diverse parti, non potra piu essere considerata come un tutto solo, il fatto d'essere la coltura del cotone mantenuta piu di un anno sul terreno rende Tavvicendamento ben diverse da quelli adottabili nella prima e nella seconda zona. Poiche in questa terza zona saranno coltivati in prevalenza terreni piu o meno compatti, come piu suscettibili di conservarsi, per qualche mese dopo le pioggie, in istato di sufficiente freschezza, io ritengo che ad es. la coltura dell'arachide, che per la prima e la seconda zona e indicabile per i terreni piu sciolti, non possa trovar posto, e che invece il sesamo, oltre i cereali ed altre piante gia usualmente, se non diffusamente, coltivate dagli indigeni del mezzopiano e •del bassopiano sud occidentale, se intercalate di tempo in tempo con un riposo o aiutate da una qualche forma di concimazione, potranno dar luogo a una rotazione, se non teoricamente del tutto razionale, certo praticamente assai conveniente. LA COLTIVAZIONE DEL COTONE NELLA COLONIA ERITREA. Per GINO LAVELH DE CAPITANI. PER avere un concetto di quanto si e fatto nella Colonia Eritrea in rapporto alia coltura cotonaria, e necessario analizzare 1'opera della " Societa per la Coltivazione del Cotone nella Colonia Eritrea " e cio pel fatto che a questa Societa, se non ufficialmente, certo in linea di fatto fu attribuito il compito di uno studio pratico di detta coltura, e per avere un concetto riassuntivo di questo lavoro che fu iniziato dieci anni or sono, crediamo opportune svolgere i seguenti argomenti : — • (1) Risultanze tecniche e finanziarie dei primi tre anni di esperienze. (2) Impianto industriale per lo sgranagio del cotone; lavorazione del seme ed industrie sussidiarie che si dimo- strarono necessarie pel regolare andamento del lavoro. (3) Risultanze tecniche e finanziarie dei successivi setti anni di coltura cotonaria. (4) Programma per ottenere un intensive sviluppo della coltura cotonaria e cio coll'intervento diretto dell'Ente Governo. Dobbiamo alia genialita del Governatore Ferdinando Martini, attuale Ministro delle Colonie, 1'iniziativa di studi intorno alia coltura del cotone. Si ottennero allora dati dimostratisi all'atto pratico incerti, ma ebbero rimmenso pregio di richiamare sull'iniziativa 1'attenzione degli industrial! Italiani che decisero di fare un serio tentative. Questa e Torigine della " Societa per la Coltivazione del Cotone nella Colonia Eritrea." II compito della Societa fu quanto mai arduo. Gli studi iniziali fatti dal Governo. che pur formarono la base 280 COTTON del programma d'azione sociale, come gia osservammo, si addimostrarono subito insufficient! e 1'impresa si trovo fin dall'inizio a lottare con grandi difficolta, quali la scelta dei terreni, 1'adattamento della mano d'opera, allora dedicata solo alia pastorizia, la ricerca della qualita di cot one piu idonea in confronto al terreno ed al clima, lo studio del quesito industriale, 1'impianto di tutta un organizzazione regolare in un'ambiente per natura diffidente, con insufficient! mezzi di trasporto, senza strade, senza il piu elementare comfort della vita materiale per chi doveva dedicare tutta la propria energia creando dal nulla, lottando contro le febbri malariche ed un clima torrido. II primo anno in Agordat furono iniziati gli esperimenti colle qualita di seme Abassi e Mitafifi, si lotto contro 1'invasione delle cavallette respingendole con molteplici fuochi accesi e grandi clamori du uomini, contro 1'irruenza dei fiumi e dei torrenti che obbligarono alia risemina; si lotto contro la siccita che sopragiunta in alcune localita dopo il periodo delle pioggie, arresto la vegetazione intisichendo verdeggianti campi di cotone che promet- tevano abbondante raccolto. Questa lotta costo grave sacrificio ma si ottennero i primi 400 quintali di cotone che, mandate a sgranare in Egitto viene trovato di buona qualita come fibra e rendimento. Si ebbe di conseguenza la prima conferma dell'adattabilita del suolo coloniale alia coltura cotonaria; si constato che a preferenza si deve appoggiarsi su qualita di cotone sempre a lunga fibra, ma con ciclo vegetative tale che si svolga tra il cadere delle pioggie ed il periodo di tempo in cui il terreno mantiene 1'umidita a pioggie finite. Questa e la prima tappa di una marcia faticosa. Oltre a cio, viene studiato attentamente 1'ambiente, facendosi un criterio esatto della situazione, cioe, Timpossibilita di svolgere sull'inizio una coltivazione estensiva diretta, mancando un piano razionale di bonifica il quale potesse rendere atte alia coltura cotonaria estese zone di terreno, e mancando altresi mano d'opera atta allo scopo. II quesito della mano d'opera richiese speciale studio. La popolazione Eritrea e un'amalgama di varie razze con religioni e costumi diversi. Essa e composta di Abissini. COTTON 28l Bileni, Beni-Amer, Baria, Basa. II primo contatto con elementi cosi diversi non fu senza difficolta e cio per la naturale diffidenza dell'indigeno verso il bianco, ma il tasso della paga, una lira la giornata, fu buona leva per una popolazione che raramente vedeva la moneta nei suoi scambi fatti nel maggior dei casi col baratto di merci. Vinta la prima ripugnanza e trascinata questa gente al lavoro, si trovo di poter disporre di una popolazione intelligente e volonterosa, e con questo buon affidamento viene iniziato il secondo anno di lavoro. Le qualita di cotone coltivate il primo anno, come abbiamo v*isto, lasciarono dei seri dubbi riguardo allo loro adattabilita aH'ambiente, ma d'altra parte portare un cambiamento radicale alia qualita era partito arrischiato, Fu scartato, e vero 1'Abassi, pianta troppo delicata e dal ciclo lunghissimo si rimase pero fedeli al Mitafifi che aveva dato risultati piu incorraggianti e su questo si basa la semina del secondo anno. Sempre pero fermi nel concetto di trovare una qualita che corrispondesse al- 1'esigenze del terreno e del clima, viene sottoposto a mezzo dell'Ambasciata di Washington, all'Ufficio Agrario degli Stati Uniti, il quesito onde avere una valida guida nel risolvere il difficile problema e Questo Ufficio indica una nuova qualita, prevedendo in modo precise i buoni risultati ottenibili. Ammirevole percezione che fu poi sanzionata dai fatti, e per la quale si deve avere speciale gratitudine per quell'Istituto. In seguito a cio venne adattato questo seme, sempre pero su piccolissima esten- zione di terreno. Durante il secondo esercizio, la cerchia delle indagini viene allargata allo scopo di cercare nuove zone atte alia coltura cotonaria. Si inizia pure la coltivazione del cotone fatta direttamente dall'indigeno sotto la sor- veglianza della Societa e mediante anticipi in seme e denaro, coH'impegno da parte della Societa di acquistare il prodotto ottenuto alle condizioni stabilite dal Governo Coloniale. II terzo anno fu davvero confortante : la nuova qualita che aveva, dato buoni risultati nella precedente stagione applicata su maggiore scala, da un raccolto considerevole in rapporto aU'estenzione di terreno coltivato, circa 282 COTTON 1,100 quintali, e fa quindi triplicare la media unitaria del raccolto; mentre il Mitafifi presenta le solite carat- teristiche, pianta fiorente, promessa di raccolto straordi- nario, ma ad un dato momento tutto rinsecchisce. Al- 1'indigeno pero non si arrischia a dare subito questa nuova qualita, che poteva presentare delle sorprese, e se il native porto 1,700 quintali in luogo do 300 del primo anno, lo si deve all'aumentata superficie coltivata. Riassumendo, nei primi tre anni si sono ottenuti non indifferenti risultati tecnici, quali; dimostrazione pratica che varie zone delia Colonia Eritrea, sono atte alia coltura cotonaria; la specificazione della qualita di seme piu con- facente, la bonta industriale del prodotto ottenuto e Tinizio della coltura fatta a mezzo degli indigeni. Dal lato finanziario la Societa ha dovuto sopportare una perdita che si aggiro intorno alle L. 150,000 ma certamente questa non puo essere considerata eccessiva, in confronto del grave problema che si andava studiando e fu questa considerazione che spinse a continuare lo studio sempre con maggior intensita ed energia. 2°. II progressive svilupparsi della produzione cotonaria, ha imposto la sistemazione industriale dell'Azienda coloniale, ed al primo piccolissimo impianto di sgranaggio fu sostituito un'impianto complete in tutte le sue parti e cio fu dal terzo al quarto esercizio. La massima difficolta superata fu quella del trasporto avendo dovuto per circa 200 km. portare il pesantissimo macchinario per regioni senza strade ed a forti dislivelli. Si e pure dovuto trovare sul luogo materiale costruttivo, fabbricando direttamente calce e mattoni ed utilizzando come legname di costruzione quello proveniente dalla palma Dum fino allora non ritenuto idoneo a questo scopo. Perche 1'impianto industriale potesse regolarmente marciare si e dovuto dedicare circa un anno per 1'avvia- mento e questo tempo non deve essere considerate eccessivo se si tengono presenti le molteplici difficolta superate. COTTON 283 L'impianto consiste in una caldaia a vapore della potenza HP 120 con motore di eguale potenza che aziona una centrale elettrica la quale a sua volta distribuisce la forza a tutti i vari riparti. Un fabbricato assai vasto e adibito a sala di sgranaggio con Roller Gins, pressatura e confezione balle cotone. II seme, che a mezzo di varie coclee vien portato in una specie di piccolo silos, messo in vagoncini, vien portato in un speciale locale adibito per uso Oleificio. Qui il seme, prima viene passato alia Saw Gin per togliere il Linters, poscia passa al decorticatore che divide la parte oleosa del seme, dalla buccia; un crivello ne fa la selezione e la buccia viene utilizzata come combustibile, mentre che il seme va nei cilindri e quane ridotto in farina, passa per un riscaldatore, quindi al former ed alia pressa. II pannello per ora non ha ancora speciali appli- cazioni e nella massima parte si usa come combustibile; 1'olio passa alia sezione di depurazione dove per mezzo di vassche, filtri e presse viene depurate e messo in con- dizioni di essere venduto come Summer Oil. La lavorazione del seme fu trovata necessaria perche causa le forti spese di trasporto, si era neirimpossibilita di venderlo sul mercato europeo, mentre che il mercato locale non poteva smaltire che la piccola parte utilizzata come seme. L'olio prodotto fu bene accolto in Colonia ed oggi si e costituita sul mercato una specie di marca assai riputata. Per facilitare il grave quesito della mano d'opera, si e dovuto provvedere ad un impianto di macinazione della farina e cio nei vari centri dove la coltura e maggior- mente sviluppata; cosi fu messo un mulino a due macine in Agordat ed a Massaua ed una macina in Carcabat. Lo studio del combustibile ha pure trascinato al- 1'organizzazione di un'altra industria. Non potendo calcolare sul carbone che, data la distanza, assumeva un valore favoloso e non disponendo di boschi sufficiente- mente vasti che fornissero combustibili senza procedere alia distruzione dei boschi stessi severamente vietata dal Governo, si usufrui come combustibile il frutto della palma Dum, ma questa trovo subito utile applicazione nell'industria dei bottoni e non volendo distruggere un 284 COTTON valore considerevole, fu attivato il commercio di queste noci sgusciate ed anche ridotte in fette e fu utilizzato come combustile lo scarto del nocciolo dum che assieme alia buccia di seme e parte di pannello non ancora utiliz- zato, formano il combustibile necessario pel regolare funzionamento della forza motrice necessaria agli impianti sociali. Nei vari impianti sopra enumerati, furono immobiliz- zate circa L. 600,000 ed essi nel loro insieme, costituiscono un impianto coloniale tipico. Fu certamente speciale benemerenza della Societa quella d'aver potuto formare una manualanza industrial perfettamente indigena, cosicche negli opifici sociali, all'infuoridei capi officina che sono bianchi, tutto il rimanente personale e indigeno ed esso accudisce alle piu delicate mansioni necessarie per il perfetto funzionamento del macchinario. Sarebbe troppo lungo analizzare partitamente tutto lo svolgersi del lavoro fatto dalla Societa dal terzo al decimo anno, ci limiteremo ad accennare i punti di maggior interesse. Avuta la sicurezza riguardo la bonta del seme impiegato e 1'adattabilita del terrene alia coltura cotonaria, emerse la necessita di abbandonare il carattere sperimentale, per dedicarsi allo sviluppo di quelle zone che furono trovate idonee e qui si e presentato in tutta la sua importanza il grave problema della sistemazione idraulica in modo che le acque dei fiumi potessero venire trattenute sul terreno nella quantita necessaria per garantire 1'andamento regolare della coltura dalla semina, al raccolto. L'esperienza aveva dimostrato che se per piccoli appez- zamenti 1'utilizzazione degli allagamenti non presentava speciale difficolta, quando si e dovuto aumentare la super- ficie da porsi a coltura e conseguentemente il terreno fu preparato, pulito da ogni genere di vegetazione, le acque non trattenute da nessun ostacolo a poco a poco si formarono un letto scorrente al dissotto del livello normale, lasciando nella piu assoluta siccita i terreni circostanti. Da qui emerse la necessita di una razionale COTTON 285 sistemazione idraulica e quindi lo studio della portata del fitimi e conseguente resistenza degli sbarramenti. Questo studio fu il piu gravoso e cui la Societa dovette sottostare e cio a causa di molteplici lavori idraulici dovuti fare per stabilire 1'esatta portata delle piene e la resistenza degli sbarramenti, opera piu di Governo che di Societa privata. II risultato di questi studi fu sotto- posto aU'esame del Governo Coloniale spingendolo ad assumersi la sistemazione definitiva delle varie zone della Societa dimostrate atte alia coltura cotonaria. Lo sviluppo della coltura cotonaria e piu che mai legata alle sistemazioni idrauliche, perche Tindigeno a malin- cuore dedica, ad una coltivazione per lui nuova, i terreni naturalmente allagati, che per abitudine e necessita vengono riservati alia coltivazione della dura e del Bultuc e cambiandone la destinazione si diminuisce la produzione e si aumenta il costo dei generi di prima necessita; se a questa tendenza si aggiungono alcune annate sfvavorevoli per siccita o cavallette, si capisce come si sia venuto tormando presso 1'indigeno uno stato d'animo tale che gli fa considerare il dedicarsi alia coltura cotonaria cosa per lui dannosa ed oppone una sorda ostilita allo sviluppo di questa coltura. Da cio la necessita da parte del Governo di bonificare terreni nuovi per fronteggiare 1'impressionante diminuzione della coltura cotonaria riscontrato nei due ultimi anni e preparare la base di un forte sviluppo successive. La Societa in seguito a ponderato studio e venuta introducendo nei rapporti suoi cogli indigeni un contratto di lavoro a colonia basato sul principle di dare all'indigeno la terra bonificata, garantir gli un determinate numero di giornate di lavoro a prezzo stabilito in modo che con queste provento 1'indigeno possa far fronte alia spesa per la farina fornita dalla Societa e per lui necessaria pel sostentamento della famiglia. La Societa fornisce pure gratuitamente 1'acqua, garantisce 1'acquisto del raccolto a condizioni precedente- mente stabilite d'accordo col Governo; per contro la Societa, quale compenso per 1'organizzazione del lavoro, percepisce dall'indigeno un quarto del raccolto. Questo sistema applicato gia da due anni, ha dato 286 COTTON buoni risultati, permettendo all'indigeno di procurarsi un equo guadagno quando circostanze special! climateriche non decimino o distruggano il raccolto; per contro la Societa elimina ogni rischio colturale o per lo meno nel caso piu disgraziato limita la perdita airammontare della farina anticipata durante 1'anno e nel caso favorevole, potendo disporre del quarto del raccolto, e in condizione di far fronte alle spese di organizzazione ed anche assi- curarsi un discrete utile. Questo tenace lavoro di esperienze e di indagini richiese alia Societa sette anni di indefessa applicazione e se le risultanze finanziarie furono per lei veramente onerose, essa pero ha portato il problema della coltura cotonaria al punto di poter essere convenientemente sviluppato dal Governo della Colonia Eritrea senza ecces- sivi rischi e con vantaggio della Colonia stessa. In una relazione particolareggiata la Societa espose al Governo i risultati ottenuti e prospetto un programma di lavoro da svolgersi, ed il Ministero delle Colonie assieme al Governo dell'Eritrea, accettando le conclusioni proposte dalla Societa, merce 1'autorevole interessamente di S.E. II Governatore Marchese Salvage Raggi, hanno formu- late un programma che in parte fu gia approvato dal Parlamento ed in parte lo sara tra breve. I provvedimenti necessari per lo sviluppo della coltura cotonaria si riassumono come segue : — Progressiva sistemazione idraulica delle zone dimostrate atte alia coltura cotonaria. Sistemazione dei trasporti fra Agordat e Massaua- Sistemazione del porto di Massaua e delle linee di navi- g'azione perche Tinoltro della merce sia sollecito e poco costoso. Per 1'effettuazione dei lavori idraulici il Governo Coloniale ha stabilito una cifra annuale di circa mezzo milione per un periodo di dieci anni e con questa somma intrapprende la bonifica successiva delle zone dalla Societa segnate come atte alia coltura, dedicando a ciascuna di esse a seconda del caso 200 e 300 mila lire ottenendo cosi dei centri di 2,000/3,000 ea. ciascuno. COTTON 287 Fu preferito il sistema di piccple bonifiche in consider- azione della difficolta di grossi concentramenti di mano d'opera cercando cosi di destinare ogni bonifica alle singole tribu, del luogo perche possano con maggior facilita dedicarsi alle coltura. Mentre che se si dovessero fare delle sistemazioni di molte migliaia di ettari, ben difficilmente nel momento presente si potrebbe concen- trare sufficiente mano d'opera, perche questa si sposta difficilmente dalla zona ove essa abitualmente vive. II Governo fara pagare un canone che corrispondera all interesse del denaro impiegato, piu una percentuale per la manutenzione e rammortizzo e questa base si puo ritenere equa quando il Governo garantisca che il terreno sia allagato sufficentemente per portare a buon fine il raccolto. II primo esperimento di questo genere fu fatto lungo il litorale della colonia valendosi delle torbide del fiume Falcat. Un'altro centre di coltura bonificato sara Car- cabat dove si svolsero gli esperimenti idraulici fatti dalla Societa. Se questo programma sara messo in esecuzione in modo continuativo e razionale, ben presto la coltura cotonaria della Colonia potra dare un confortante risultato riguardo ai quantitativi ; e la Colonia Eritrea potra degnamente figurare nella lotta che tutti gli Stati Europei sostengono per svincolarsi dal mercato Americano. Per le sistemazione dei trasporti, il Governo ha disposto in modo che la ferrovia sia prolungata fino al centre cotonario e questo programma per esser posto in effetto, necessita di qualche anno di lavoro e cio perche il primo tratto ferroviario si svolge in regioni montagnose che non permettono il sollecito proseguire del lavoro. II giorno che da Agordat si potranno inviare al mare le varie merci a mezzo di ferrovia, potremo dire di avere superato una delle maggiori difficolta, perche i trasporti, come oggi sono effettuati, rappresentano una sensibile spesa e sopratutto hanno il carattere di eccezziole lentezza che rende assai lunga la smobilizzazione dei capitali. Mentre oggi dal- 1'acquisto del cotone alia vendita, possiamo considerare un periodo di almeno tre mesi, colla ferrovia noi ridur- remo questo periodo di tempo ad un terzo e ognuno si TO 288 COTTON puo immaginare con quale vantaggio. La sistemazione del porto di Massaua permettera 1'imbarco diretto da vagone a vapore, costituendo cio una sensibilissima economia in confronto al sistema oggi usato. Riassumendo : La Societa, in died anni di lavoro ha potuto dare la prova dell'adattabilita delle terre Eritrea alia coltura cotonaria, ha studiato e trovato il seme adatto al terreno, il sistema di coltura, ha segnato la via da seguirsi nei rapporti tra industriale e coltivatore indigeno, infine ha ottenuto che il Gbverno dedicasse i capitali necessari perche la coltura possa avere quello sviluppo che ognuno desidera e di cui la Colonia e suscettibile. I sacrifici dalla Societa sopportati per raggiungere lo scopo prefisso, furono sensibilissimi se esaminati in confronto al capitale di cui disponeva, ma puo con orgoglio ritenere di aver fatto opera veramente meritoria ed ora spetta al Governo ed ai cotonieri Italiani di dare impulse a questa iniziativa, perche con sforzo collettivo si raggiunga quel tanto desiderate sviluppo della coltura cotonaria, che possa portare un sensibile aiuto alia industria Europea che vuof svincolarsi daU'egemonia Americana. THE COTTON INDUSTRY OF THE NORTHERN PROVINCES OF NIGERIA. By P. H. LAMB. Director of Agriculture, Northern Provinces, Nigeria. COTTON has been widely grown in the Northern Provinces of Nigeria from time immemorial. When the earliest European travellers first visited the country they found the Hausas dressed in cotton clothes of their own making. Not only was cotton cultivation general, but spinning and weaving were then, as now, most important occupations of the people. Indigo was grown as a field crop, and dye pits were to be found k every village of any size. All this is still going on, in spite oi the advent of the white man and the opening up of markets where cotton goods are offered for sale. The native in many cases still prefers his hard-wearing home spun to the more showy and cheaper, but less durable, Lancashire cloth. As, however, the manufacturer comes to study more closely the requirements of the people, this state of things will doubtless gradually alter. The fact that cotton cultivation had been established for so long in Nigeria may lead many people to suppose that the conditions there must be admirably suited to cotton production on a large scale, and it has resulted in most extravagant statements being made to the effect that Nigeria could in the course of a few years supply the whole of Lancashire's requirements. Those re sponsible for such ideas, however, apparently entirely lost sight of the fact that the conditions necessary to enable the native to grow cotton in sufficient quantities to supply his own requirements were very different from those which would enable him to compete in the world's markets. All that the Nigerian native wanted was to clothe himself and his family according to the custom of his 290 COTTON tribe. He did not stop to consider whether the yield of his crop was large or small, or whether the staple was long or short, as compared with that of other countries. But when we come to consider the possibilities of Nigeria as a producer of cotton for the world's markets the aspect of things is entirely altered. The only way by which the native can be induced to produce a crop for export is to create in him the desire for money. He will then strive to gratify that desire by the easiest method possible. In other words, he will do the work, or grow the crop, that will yield him the best return for his labour. That is the crucial test, and it is by this test that cotton must ultimately rise or fall in Nigeria. When viewed in this light, questions as to what is the yield per acre, what is the length and quality of the staple, and what is the ginning percentage, become all-important, for they determine what return the pro- ducer will get for his labour. It is the answer to this question which determines what shall be the leading crop or crops in every country, and it naturally results in a definite geographical distribution of the commercial products of the world into those countries best adapted for the production of each. The rapid opening up of Nigeria to trade is resulting not only in a demand for cotton, but for ground nuts, cereals, and raw products of every description. There are in consequence many ways open to the native by which he may earn money, and the question as to whether cotton cultivation will be among the chief of them is just now being weighed in the balance. At present the tendency is to plant ground nuts in prefer- ence to cotton. The popularity of this valuable crop may be gauged by the fact that the export of ground nuts (mainly decorticated) has increased nearly tenfold in a single year. There is no doubt that the Northern Provinces of Nigeria as a whole are admirably adapted for the production of this oil seed, and that unless cotton cultivation can be made much more profitable than it is at present it will receive but scant attention. The British Cotton Growing Association have for some years past spared no trouble or expense to develop the COTTON 291 cotton-producing potentialities of the Northern Provinces of Nigeria. An account of the cotton industry of that country would therefore be incomplete without mention of the work which they have done and the results so far obtained. A uniform price of id. per Ib. has been offered to the natives for all seed-cotton. Ginneries have been erected on the main transport routes for dealing with the crop, the lint being made up by means of hydraulic presses into 400 Ib. bales, in which form it is shipped to Liverpool. Furthermore, large quantities of seed have been distributed annually through the Chiefs to th^ peasantry free of charge, so that nobody who desired to grow cotton should be prevented from doing so by lack of seed. At present three power ginneries are maintained by the Association. One of these has been working since 1906 at Lokoja — the confluence of the Niger and Benue rivers — and last year shipped 339 bales. The other two plants are situated at Zaria and Ibi respectively, and were started in 1912. Their joint output for last year (1913) was 1,506 bales. It will thus be seen that hitherto the output of cotton from the Northern Provinces has been quite small. It has, moreover, been derived purely from unimproved cottons of local origin. A brief survey will now be given of these indigenous cottons, and of the steps which have been taken by the Agricultural Department during the past year to improve the prospects of cotton cultivation. The principal species in cultivation at the present time are the following : — • Gossypium peruvianum, two varieties. ,, punctatum. ,, obtusifolium var. africana. ,, arboreum var. sanguine a. By far the most widely cultivated is Gossypium peru- vianum, which develops into a strong-growing woody plant. The bolls are small, and the crop seldom seems to yield under native cultivation more than 250 Ib. of seed-cotton per acre, but generally not as much. The length of staple is generally less than an inch. 2Q2 COTTON The variety grown around Zaria is characterized by a dark red stem, this coloration extending to the leaf veins and in a lesser degree to the leaves themselves, reminding one forcibly of the American Upland variety, " Willet's red-leaf." The lint is cream-tinted, being in this respect like the Mitafifi of Egypt. The local variety of Gossy- pium peruvianum found in the locality of Ilorin has much the same habit of growth, but does not possess the peculiar coloration noted above; its lint, moreover, is not so deeply tinted, while its ginning percentage is only about 28, as against that of the Zaria variety, which works out on the average at 33. Gossypium punctatum, which is regarded as being the wild form of Gossypium hirsutum, is found in general cultivation around Kano. Last year, on a trial plot of five acres, it yielded 268 Ib. per acre, but as it gave only 25'37 Per cent, of lint on ginning, it cannot be regarded as a profitable kind of cotton for the ginner to buy. The staple is about f in. long. Gossypium obtusifolium var. africana is grown as a perennial in the north, where the rainfall is too small and unreliable to support a more prolific variety. Its yield is small, the ginning percentage low, and the staple very short. These features render it quite unsuitable for export. Gossypium arboreum var. sanguined has nowhere been observed as a field crop, but a few plants may often 'be seen around compounds. It is used by the natives for the preparation of a medicine. Always grown as a perennial, it comes to maturity very slowly, and its yield appears to be very small, though the lint is long, strong, and silky. Further particulars as to the botanical characteristics of the above species may be found in Watt's book on " The Wild and Cultivated Cotton Plants of the World." Early in 1913 the recently formed Department of Agriculture decided to open experimental farms in two of the most promising centres for cotton cultivation, with the object of studying the native indigenous cotton of each district, and of testing its qualities against those of well-known and improved exotic varieties. The sites COTTON 293 chosen for this work were situated in the Zaria and Ilorin Provinces respectively, the former representing the more arid conditions of the north, whereas the latter is situated some 200 miles further south, where the rainfall is heavier and the atmosphere more humid. A parallel series of variety tests was carried out at each of these places. The following table gives their respective rain- falls for 1913: — January February March April May June July August September October November December Total ZARIA. ILORIN. MthaeSfIrm°n At Headquarters. On the farm. Inches Inches Inches Nil — Nil 0-03 Nil 075 0-14 £g ...No available records i -55 7-28 4'V 4-86 10-13 10-96 ... 13-87 7-10 8-57 ... 11-30 o'95 2-65 ... 4-83 Nil Nil Nil - ... Nil 27-90 43-82 The exotic varieties chosen for trial were Allen's Improved (Uganda seed), Nyasaland Upland (the acclima- tized cotton of Nyasaland), and Durango (one of the latest improved American types). Ten acres of each of the imported varieties were grown at each farm, as well as five acres of the native local variety. The idea of having such large plots was to eliminate as far as possible field errors due to variations of soil, and at the same time to secure for propagation the following year appre- ciable quantities of any variety which should give promising results. The Zaria farm was manured by the usual native method of kraaling cattle on the land at night. The amount of manure applied in this way was estimated at three tons per acre. No manure was applied to the Ilorin farm, as the land had not been cultivated for some years, and, moreover, no manure was available. Two sowings took place — in June and July respectively — in order to minimize as far as possible risks occasioned by the weather. 294 COTTON The following table gives the comparative results : — ZARIA ILOKIN Variety Average yield of Average yield of seed- cotton per acre Ginning percent- age Selling price of seed- cotton Gross return per acre seed-cotton per acre On large On i -acre plots plots lb. £ s. a. lb. lb. Allen 391 29-83 ijd, 2 8 II 63 61 Nyasaland 277 31-10 i|d. in 9 54 101 Durango ... 237 3I-08 ifd. I 8 2 55 69 Zaria ^ | Native - "Gwundi" 1 Ilorin f 284 30*97 rid. i 6 8 63 121 "Ishan" J It will be noticed that the yield at Zaria is greatly in excess of that at Ilorin, and this, in spite of the fact that, owing to scarcity of rain in the earlier part of the season, it was found impossible to cultivate the soil at Zaria more than 4 in. deep, whereas that at Ilorin was thoroughly prepared to a depth of 8 in. Nor can the difference be accounted for by irregularity of stand or stunted growth, since in both these respects the Ilorin farm compared very favourably with that at Zaria.. The cause of the almost complete failure of the Ilorin crop was boll-shedding. The same trouble was encoun- tered, but to a less extent, at Zaria. Boll-shedding is, of course, a well-known phenomenon in every cotton-grow- ing country, but on so wholesale a scale as occurred in the Ilorin Province last year it is absolutely disastrous. Excessive humidity or drought, and more especially marked alternations of these conditions, are its recognized causes. The last-named seems to have been mainly responsible at Zaria, where the rain often falls in very intermittent storms. At Ilorin, however, Mr. Thornton — who, before he joined the Department, had been engaged in cotton growing for some years in the West Indies — attributes this abnormal boll-shedding mainly to excess of rainfall and cloudy weather during the flower- ing season, when the plant requires copious sunshine with occasional gentle showers. COTTON 295 Referring to this subject, he says : " During the wet season there was a continual heavy shedding of buds and bolls, and the shedding of these increased after a day or days of greater humidity. Shedding decreased when the dry weather set in, and again increased shortly after- wards, but later decreased again after the plants had had a chance to accommodate themselves to the changed conditions. " During the months of August and September, and early in October, when the buds were forming and flower- ing was taking place, the atmosphere was very damp and the sky almost continually cloudy." Continuing, he says: " It might be suggested that it would be advisable to plant cotton at a time such that the formation of buds and flowers would take place after such unfavourable months were past. " But then it must be remembered that directly after this wet period conditions change entirely round, and a drought sets in just as severe as it has previously been damp. And, as the soil is very porous, with little power of retaining moisture, there would be very little chance of the plants developing any size whatever to carry a crop. It is true that August this year was a very wet month, whereas it is usually a very dry one. This doubt- less would affect the plants more than in a normal year, so that one cannot draw positive conclusions from one year's work." In addition to the injury 4ue to climatic causes, an immense amount of harm was done on the Ilorin farm by boll worm. It was proved that 200 per cent, of the bolls were wholly or partially destroyed by this insect. The worm most largely responsible for the damage was identified by the Imperial Bureau of Entomology as Earias cupreozriridis, and it was stated that this insect had not previously been reported as attacking the cotton boll. Efforts are being made by the Department to make the annual uprooting and burning of cotton plants com- pulsory in order to keep this and other insect pests in check. In a territory of such enormous size, however, where cotton has been cultivated by careless methods for generations, it is extremely difficult to enforce such 296 COTTON a measure without legislation. Though such legislation would undoubtedly in the long run be in the interests of cotton cultivation, it is feared by some that it might for the time being cause a set-back in certain districts. The natives of Ilorin seldom cultivate cotton by itself, but generally in conjunction with yams, the cotton being considered as of quite secondary importance. Our results in Ilorin this year certainly tend to 'justify this practice, as the yields so far observed are not large enough to warrant the amount of labour involved in treating it as a main crop. At Zaria the results were much more positive, and though the yields are not large when compared with those of other countries, they must be regarded as a satisfactory beginning. The best acre of cotton on the farm yielded 627 Ib. of seed-cotton. This plot was well manured, and was planted with Allen's Improved seed from Uganda. It was not part of the variety test. Durango turned out to be the poorest of the exotic varieties, not only in yield, but also in strength of lint. It was chiefly remarkable for the immense size of its bolls. The Allen's Improved and Nyasaland were both very satisfactory in the earlier pickings, but the later pick- ings were in every case weak. This weakness is almost certainly due to the fact that during the harmattan — a noxious wind which blows from the desert during the dry season — the plant dries up before it has time thoroughly to mature the bolls which set after the rains are finished, and consequently, though such bolls ultimately open, their lint consists in reality of dried immature fibres. The smallness of the yield of Nyasa- land Upland as compared with Allen's Improved — 277 Ib. against 391 Ib. — may largely be accounted for by the irregular germination of the Nyasaland seed, which resulted in an uneven stand of plants. It is anticipated that with locally grown seed this apparent shortcoming will disappear in the next crop. Several natives have already agreed to grow these two varieties in 1914 from seed raised on the Zaria farm in 1913, and we hope by this means to get 750 acres of long-staple cotton under cultivation this year. It is proposed to have the whole COTTON 297 of the work carried out under native overseers, in order to minimize any possibility of this choice seed becoming mixed with native varieties. The whole of the resulting crop will be purchased at an enhanced price, warranted by the superior quality of the staple. The seed will thus become available for redistribution. Should these im- proved varieties continue to give satisfactory returns (which becomes increasingly likely as they become acclimatized the more perfectly to their new environment) their popularity will soon become so well established that they will ultimately replace the indigenous species. All that can be expected of a Government cotton-seed farm is to introduce and test improved varieties. The subsequent propagation of the selected variety must always be done with the co-operation of a group of cultivators, the area cultivated extending annually from the centre as the supply of seed becomes available in larger quantities. This system has been proved again and again, not only in America, but more recently in India, Egypt, Uganda, and Nyasaland. While thus endeavouring to improve the quality of the cotton of Nigeria as well as the yield per acre, the import- ance of reducing the cost of production by more up-to- date methods of cultivation is not being lost sight of. At present practically the whole of the arable land of Nigeria is turned over by hand; but on the Zaria farm last year a start was made in the use of implements by employing cultivators drawn by cattle to work the land under cotton. It is intended during the coming season greatly to extend this work, and if possible to induce natives to cultivate their own land by similar means, thus enabling them to employ their time to greater advantage than hitherto. By this means alone the agricultural wealth of the community is capable of enormous expansion. THE PRODUCTION OP FINE SEA ISLAND COTTON IN THE WEST INDIES, WITH PARTICULAR REFER- ENCE TO THE ST. VINCENT INDUSTRY. By W. N. SANDS, F.L.S. Agricultural Superintendent, St. Vincent. AT least 130 years ago a fine cotton, presumably Sea Island, was grown in the West Indies, but according to Sir George Watt, in his book, " The Wild and Cultivated Cotton Plants of the World," p. 270, ''There is little or no evidence in support of the belief that Sea Island cotton is indigenous to Barbados, nor in fact to any of the West Indian Islands," and he further states " that it is highly probable that the modern stock is a hybrid," Again on p. 272 he writes: "Although it is known that much intimacy existed between the early West Indian and American colonists, still the first direct mention of the conveyance of cotton seed from these islands to the main- land occurs in the year 1785. I have been told (though I have not been able to confirm the statement) that there is an older record regarding Charleston, in which mention is made of cotton being sent from the West Indies to America in 1714. It is recorded of 1785, however, that what appears to have been Sea Island cotton was first produced in Georgia from seed obtained from the Bahamas. In 1789 we next read of cotton seed, possibly Sea Island, having been sent from Jamaica to Georgia, but there seems to be some confusion, since it is at the same time spoken of as ' Pernambuco cotton.' This much, however, appears fairly certain — namely, that the cotton first exported from the United States went from Virginia and North Carolina, and was accordingly not likely to be anything but ' Levant ' cotton — it certainly could not have been Sea Island — so that it is perhaps safe to infer that the United States of America obtained their stock of the Sea Island plant very possibly through th*» COTTON 299 West Indies, and that, too, so late as the middle of the eighteenth century. " There would seem no doubt, however, that South America and the Antilles were growing a superior cotton closely akin to, if not identical with, much of the so-called Sea Island cotton of to-day, long anterior to its intro- duction into the United States." At p. 278, loc. cit., it is mentioned that many writers say that when the plant was first introduced into America it was a perennial, and that, through the accident of a mild winter and the selection of early maturing pods, combined with more advantageous methods of cultivation, a stock had been gradually matured with an annual habit directly adapted to the climatic conditions of a limited tract of country in the United States, and that this new and very special stock embraces all the finest grades and the most valuable cottons of the world, and is in fact true Sea Island. The botanical name by which it is now known is Gossypium barbadense var. maritima, Watt. The cultivation of long-stapled cotton in the British West Indies was never completely abandoned; it was revived during the American Civil War of 1861-65, but has been confined since then to a small production in the Grenadines of a coarse perennial type known as " Marie Galante." The best variety of this cotton still has staple of from 30 mm. to 35 mm. in length, although no special selection work has been done with it. The revival of fine Sea Island cotton cultivation, how- ever, dates from the year 1901, when small experimental plantings were made in St. Kitts, Antigua, Montserrat, and St. Lucia from seed obtained from the United States. In the two following years interest in this cotton rapidly increased in several of the smaller islands, and as the outlook appeared favourable, Sir Daniel Morris, then Imperial Commissioner of Agriculture for the West Indies, and Mr. J. R. Bovell, Superintendent of Agricul- ture, Barbados, paid a special visit to the Sea Island cotton districts of South Carolina and Georgia in September and October, 1903. The valuable first-hand information which these gentlemen obtained was of the 300 COTTON greatest assistance to West Indian planters, for it enabled them to commence, without delay, the cultivation of the crop along the best lines. Besides, during his visit Sir Daniel Morris secured a large supply of seed of the best " Rivers " type produced on the seaboard of South Carolina. This type was first planted in 1904, and to-day is still largely grown. Other fine types were obtained from seed supplied by the British Cotton Growing Asso- ciation and others, and these also have proved most valuable. In the year 1905 the American growers of the finest types of Sea Island cotton, fearing West Indian com- petition, combined to prohibit the exportation of seed. It was at first feared that this action might make it difficult to maintain the quality of the cotton grown in the West Indies, but it was soon seen that with careful selection the quality could be readily maintained and in many instances improved, with the result that to-day the finest and strongest cotton in the world is produced in certain of these islands. This, then, is a brief historical review of the fine Sea Island cotton industry of the West Indies. The average annual output of British West Indian Sea Island cotton for the past three years is 2,352,755 lb., equal to 5,882 bales of 400 lb. each. Last season, 1912-13, the quantity and value of the exports from each island were as follows: — Weight Estimated value lb. £ St. Vincent ... . 443,878 ... ... 35,141 St. Kitts ... . 374,594 ... ... 23,645 Barbados ... ... . 424,392 ... ... 23,223 Montserrat ... ... . 292,182 ... ... 18,478 Antigua ... ... . 249,433 ••• ••• 15.676 Nevis . 166,477 ... ... 10,513 Anguilla ... . 112,138 ... ... 7, 009 Jamaica ... ... . 59, 606 ... 3,571 Virgin Islands ... .. 3'>775 ••• ... 2,°95 Total ••• ». 2,154,475 .. ... £139,351 It will be seen that the chief British islands exporting Sea Island cotton are St. Vincent, St. Kitts, Barbados, and Montserrat. It might be mentioned here that this COTTON 3O1 cotton is also cultivated to some extent in the foreign West Indian Islands. St. Vincent, besides being the premier cotton-gro wing- island, produces the most valuable cotton, but is closely followed by St. Kitts, where some exceptionally fine cotton is grown under somewhat similar conditions of soil and climate as those of St. Vincent. It is proposed in this paper to refer more particularly to the St. Vincent industry for the following reasons : (fl) The British Cotton Growing Association now strongly advise growers to cultivate for fineness of lint in view of the fact that certain Egyptian and American cottons are successfully competing with some of the Sea Island cotton produced in the West Indies, but not with that of St. Vincent; (b) the methods adopted in the production of cotton in the Colony and the measures taken for the protection of the industry have been under closer Govern- mental control than in any other island; and (c) the highest degree of success has been attained in the pro- duction of fine cotton. In other islands a great deal of most valuable work has been done by the Agricultural Departments and planters under conditions often very unfavourable, and the results so far achieved bear striking testimony to the care and attention devoted to the crop, so that it must not be inferred from what has been stated above that it is only in St. Vincent that the industry is carried on to advantage and along the most approved lines. The Island of St. Vincent is eighteen miles in length, with a greatest breadth of eleven miles, and a total estimated area of 150 square miles. A central backbone of mountains extends throughout its entire length with a large number of radiating valleys. The lands all slope from the mountains to the sea, and the drainage is good. Cotton can only be successfully grown on the lands at a fairly low elevation near the coast. The soil is of volcanic origin throughout, and may be classed as a dark, sandy loam. The subsoil is usually a compact tuff. In St. Kitts the soils are also volcanic sandy loams; whilst those of the other Sea Island cotton growing islands are, as a rule, heavier in character, and range from loams to clay. 302 COTTON The rainfall of the cotton growing districts of St. Vincent is ample and often excessive, so that at all times the crop is a " gamble in rain." The average total rainfall of the growing season — June to November — of the past three years in districts where cotton is extensively cultivated was as follows : — TVyr «*i Botanic Agr. Exp. Cane Peters Petit Cumber- Ratho Month Station Station Grove Hope Bordel land Mill June 10-60 9'IO 8-80 9'88 8-58 8'57 5-88 July 9'44 8-85 10-22 10-09 9'56 8-90 6-03 August 12-70 10-69 12-48 II'OI 10-50 10-75 8*30 September . 14-41 I2-7I 11*47 9-68 9-60 8-32 9-08 October 14-32 12-80 i3'55 II'OO 8-26 10-27 977 November . 12-16 11*19 I3'i7 8-57 7'47 8'93 9-I3 Total inches 73-63 65-34 69-69 60-83 53'97 5574 4879 If the totals be taken and an average struck, it is found that the mean monthly rainfall — June to November inclusive — ranges from 12*27 to 8' 13 in. The rainfall of the other cotton-growing islands is much smaller than this. Owing to the light soil and moist tropical climate the St. Vincent planter can produce a lint which, as mentioned above, commands the highest prices in the market, and enables him to obtain a remunerative return for his labour over an average of years. The area planted each season in the Colony amounts to about 4,500 acres. Mention has already been made of the introduction of the " Rivers " and other fine types of seed from South Carolina, and it is from these that the successful local industry has been built up. Great care was necessary at the outset to ensure that only seed from the best grown fields of plants true to type was planted, and in the earlier years all this seed was selected, tested, and sterilized with corrosive sublimate (i in 1,000) by the Agricultural Depart- ment before being sent out. This seed work is still carried on at the Government Central Cotton Ginnery and by planters, and only seed thus selected and dealt with is sown. The procedure adopted in preparing seed is as follows : — The seed from special crop lots is first of all tested, and only that giving a germination of not less than 85 per cent, is retained. It is then de-linted to facilitate the COTTON 303 work of selection, and spread out on tables covered with white cloth. Women who are specially trained in the work select the type showing" the characters desired; that is, a heavy, sound black seed with a green tuft of fuzz at one or both ends. Seed that does not come up to this standard is rejected. The selected seed, as a rule, repre- sents from 60 to 75 per cent, of the whole. This may be termed the mechanical side of the seed work, but the scientific side is not lost sight of, and several planters besides the Agricultural Department carry on each season plant selection in nurseries so as to maintain and improve the quality of the lint and the yield of the crop. The methods of selection are based on desirable field characters of the plant, ginning yield of seed-cotton, and the length, fineness, strength, and lustre of the lint. Other work performed on a consider- able scale by the Agricultural Department is the selection of plants showing resistance to certain bacterial and fungoid diseases. To give a recent example of the value of this particular line of work, a planter in a wet district sowed last season 64 acres with seed of cotton with which no selection work had been done, and 2 acres with seed from plants selected as showing resistance to disease. From the 64 acres he obtained 8J bales, or 3,060 Ib. of lint, and from the 2 acres i bale, or 360 Ib. of lint, or an average yield, under similar conditions, of 48 and 180 Ib. per acre respectively. The price realized for the lint from the 64 acres was at the rate of 2od. per Ib., and that from the 2 acres 22jd. per Ib. Arrangements are made with planters to grow special plots of cotton from s€ed obtained from selected plants at the Experiment Station, and at the present time it is possible to supply from the progeny of these specially selected plants all the seed necessary to meet the require- ments of small growers, who, it might be mentioned, grow on an average about one-fourth of the island's output. The work of maintaining the quality and yield of cotton has been greatly facilitated by the enacting of certain legislative measures. Under the Ordinance for the pre- vention of the introduction of pests and diseases, power 20 304 COTTON is given the agricultural authority to destroy, fumigate, or sterilize all seed-cotton or cotton seed brought into the Colony, and the provisions of this valuable Ordinance have been and are strictly enforced. Under the ''Agri- cultural Products Protection " Ordinance all sales of seed-cotton of a less amount than 100 Ib. in weight at any one time have to be made to the Government Ginnery, but lots up to 4,000 Ib. in weight can be purchased. The primary object of this action was to prevent cotton stealing, but as the Government wisely purchases the cotton on a co-operative or profit-sharing basis, there are few sales to licensed dealers. There is now only one licensed dealer in the Colony, and the licence is held by a responsible firm, who in their own interest take care of the seed — the result is that the seed supply for planting is under close supervision. A third most valuable and important Ordinance is that which provides for the destruction of the old cotton stalks at the end of each season in order to prevent the carrying over from one season to another of certain pests and diseases. As the provisions of this measure cover all kinds of cotton, it has been possible to destroy all the perennial " native " varieties, and so reduce to a minimum the danger of cross-fertilization of the Sea Island variety with un- desirable kinds. It is worth recording here that visitors to the island interested in tropical agriculture are often particularly struck with the uniformity of the cotton plants in the field and the absence of " rogues "—that is, plants not true to type. Under the Ordinance above named all kinds of cotton plants have to be pulled up and burnt by April 30 in each year, and in the Northern Grenadines a month earlier. Should an occupier of land neglect to destroy effectually all the cotton plants planted or growing upon land in his occupation by the stated time, the Cotton Inspector or other officer specially appointed can enter upon the land with the necessary labourers, perform the work, and recover the cost in the Small Debts Court; and further, the offender may be fined a sum not exceeding £10, or in default be im- prisoned for any time not exceeding one month. Sea Island cotton must, therefore, be grown as an COTTON 305 annual crop in St. Vincent, but in all the other islands, except Barbados, it is cultivated as such, and it is probable that in this latter island also this practice will have to be followed if the industry is to survive, unless, of course, the leaf-blister mite (Eriophyes gossypii), which now occurs there, can be controlled, or a variety resistant to it raised. The methods of preparing the land for planting vary in the different islands. The flat system is practised in Anguilla and very dry places generally; the ridge and the cross-hole systems are adopted in St. Kitts, Barbados, and Antigua; the ridge in St. Vincent and other places. Each has its advantages under the soil and climatic conditions peculiar to each place or district. The cross-hole system of St. Kitts allows of the land being easily planted in sugar-cane before the end of the cotton crop, cotton in this case being largely grown as an intermediate crop with cane. The ridge system is largely adopted in most of the islands, and is the only one practised in St. Vincent. This may be briefly described as follows : As soon as the rains come in and the land can be worked it is weeded, the grass, trash, manure, and green dressing material, if available, ranged off, and the land forked or ploughed. This latter opera- tion is not always carried out, but when performed it ensures better cultivation. Ridges are then thrown up with the plough, fork, or hoe, and the manure and other materials completely covered. In cases where cotton follows cotton, the weedings and manure are ranged in the furrows and covered over by splitting asunder the old banks. These ridges are, as a rule, formed 5 ft. apart, but on poor land they are put closer together. A subsoil plough is sometimes run through the field previous to ridging to ensure deeper tillage. Only small quantities of chemical manures are used, and experiments made so far have not clearly demonstrated the value of these on well-worked lands; there are, however, indications that the time is approaching when they may be needed to augment the limited supply of pen and other organic manures. Cotton seed meal is a manure to which 306 COTTON increased attention is being given in view of the local supplies available. At the commencement of the season the grower often finds it difficult to decide which class of cotton he shall plant — that is, whether it would pay him better to grow one of the best " superfine " types or one of the " ordinary" fine types. There is a very limited demand for the specially fine staples, and it is understood that the ready sale or otherwise of these is largely influenced by the prevailing fashions in ladies' wearing apparel. It is estimated that only about 500 bales of these special marks are required by European spinners, and these are chiefly supplied by St. Vincent and St. Kitts. West Indian planters have, however, been recently advised to grow the finest cotton possible and to cultivate for fine- ness, so that it would appear that the demand for the highest grades of West Indian cotton is increasing, but it may also be due to the fact that the growers of the best kinds of Sea Island in South Carolina are turning their attention to staples of lower grade. The " ordinary fine " will pay better to grow if the difference in price between it and " superfine " does not exceed 2-Jd. per lb., because it gives a smaller amount of trouble to pick and handle and the ginning yield is much better. From a picker's point of view alone there is a wide margin in its favour, for it has larger bolls, and only from 140 to 160 of these have to be picked to give a pound of seed- cotton, as against 180 to 200 of the best " superfine " types. The seed is sown by hand when the land is in a moist condition. With seed of tested viability three or four are planted on the ridges in holes from 20 to 24 in. apart according to the fertility of the land. If the seed- lings are not seen after a week of good weather has elapsed the holes are resown. As soon as the seedlings are 4 to 5 in. high they are thinned out to two; a final thinning to one plant in a hole is done three or four weeks later. The time of planting depends almost entirely on weather conditions. In most of the islands planting is started in May — that is, if the rains have come in by that time — but in certain of COTTON 307 the northern islands it is sometimes as late as August or September before seed can be sown. In St. Kitts, where cotton is grown as a catch-crop on cane lands, the seed is sown in April, or as soon as possible after this date. June is the favoured month in St. Vincent, but sowings are made from May to the beginning of August. A prominent member of the Fine Cotton Spinners' Association remarked, when on a visit to St. Vincent, " that the grower of fine Sea Island cotton led a dog's life " : and this truthfully describes the cotton grower's lot from the time he sows the seed until the cotton is picked, for spells of dry weather in the growing season may prevent and arrest the germination of the seed, cause excessive shedding of bolls, and wet periods may also cause shedding; the spread of destructive bacterial and fungoid diseases of leaf and boll make weeding im- practicable. Insect pests and other troubles may appear suddenly and cause extensive damage; in fact, the planter can never be sure of his crop until he has it under lock and key. By October the bolls commence to open, and picking is started and continued until February or March. In those islands where the crop is cultivated as an annual one most of the cotton is picked between October and the end of February, and is obtained in average seasons chiefly from the secondary branches. This cotton is known as first pickings. Later or second pickings, as they are called, are obtained from the basal laterals and tertiary branches. The quality of this cotton, however, is not quite as good, as a rule, as that obtained from the first pickings; still, in selecting plants for seed particular attention is given to plants showing this special branching habit, because in unfavourable seasons it often happens that the planter has to rely on his second pickings to avoid a monetary loss on his crop. The average yield of lint per acre in St. Vincent for the past eight years was 136 Ib. The highest average yield in any one season was 175 Ib., and the lowest 96 Ib. In other islands also there have been similar variations according to season. For the 1912-13 crop the following yields were reported: — 308 COTTON Nevis ... ... 60 Ib. of lint per acre. St. Vincent ... 98 Anguilla ... 125 ,, ,, St. Kitts ... 150 In most of the islands there are a few estates where yields of 200 Ib. of lint per acre and over are annually obtained, but the general average is much smaller than this, and 150 Ib. per acre is considered a fair return in a normal season. The seed-cotton as brought in from the field is roughly sorted by the picker into two grades, white and stained. It is then sun-dried, and in St. Vincent this operation is nearly always necessary. In no other island in the West Indies have so elaborate measures to be taken to get rid of the excess of moisture usually present in the freshly picked seed-cotton. On some estates a car system is worked, on others drying arrangements closely following the sliding roof and sliding tray principles of cacao " boucans " are used, while the small man has to resort to trays that can be lifted by hand or readily covered with sail-cloth or tarpaulin. On large estates special buildings have had to be erected in which to store and handle the seed-cotton. After being dried the seed-cotton is bulked in bags or in large heaps for some weeks before it is taken out to be finally cleaned and graded for the ginnery. This practice of bulking improves the character of the lint. After bulking the seed-cotton is graded. Four grades are usually made and are known as first white, second white, first stained, and second stained. The first grade white contains nearly all the cotton from the first pickings, and the second grade white the bulk of the later pickings. The first grade stained contains some white cotton and some discoloured, and the second grade stained all dis- coloured. The approximate sale prices of the different grades of " ordinary fine " St. Vincent, with the highest at 22d. per Ib., would be second white i8d. to 2od., first stained lod. to is., and second stained 8d. to gd. per Ib. The " stains " represent, as a rule, from 10 to 20 per cent, of the total weight of lint. The quantity of stained cotton COTTON 309 is largely influenced by the weather experienced during the ripening season; if dry the percentage is low, if wet it is high. A certain amount of stained cotton may also result from the attacks on the bolls by cotton stainers (Dysdercus sp.). The grading is done on flat 'basket trays, or benches, the seed-cotton being carefully handled throughout to avoid injury to the lint. The efficient ginning of West Indian Sea Island cotton is due primarily to a special visit to the islands in 1904 of an expert ginner from the Sea Islands, at the instance of Sir Daniel Morris, to instruct local ginnery officers in the best methods of ginning and baling, and the central- ization of most of the work in large ginneries under skilled control. A great deal depends on good ginning, and unless the Macarthy gin is kept in perfect working order the fine and long lint is very liable to be cut or otherwise damaged and its value lowered considerably. At the same time unless the seed-cotton is carefully dried and prepared beforehand the work cannot be satisfactorily performed. The ordinary West Indian Sea Island seed-cotton of the " Rivers " type yields about 26 per cent, of lint, and the extra fine type 22 per cent. In the former case, therefore, 1,538 Ib. of seed-cotton have to be ginned to obtain a bale of 400 Ib. net, and in the latter 1,818 Ib. There is a considerable amount of variation in the shape, weight, and size of the bales made in different places. In St. Vincent the lint is all pressed by means of a simple plunger press, worked by hand, in long cylin- drical packages 7 by 2.\ ft., each containing 360 Ib. net. The question has often been asked why this practice is continued when much closer compression could be obtained by using hydraulic or steam presses, and freight saved? The answer to this is that buyers consider the package as best suited to the fine local staple, and advise growers to continue to use it. In other islands square or oblong bales are made weighing anything from 200 to 500 Ib. according to the style of press used. The purchase of seed-cotton from small growers is an important feature of the work of the Government 31O COTTON ginneries of St. Vincent and the Virgin Islands and the privately owned ginneries of the other islands. In most cases the seed-cotton is bought outright, but in others a share of the profits made, if any, is returned to the small grower. It may be of interest to give a brief description of the St. Vincent system of purchase on profit-sharing basis, because it is the largest and most successful scheme of its kind in operation in the islands. The seed-cotton brought for sale is first of all graded on the lines mentioned above, and a payment made on account according to a fixed scale of prices which, during the past season, was for first grade 6£ cents per lb., second grade 5 cents, third grade 3 cents, and fourth grade 2 cents. At the end of the season, aft-er the lint and seed have been sold, and the purchase, ginnery, and shipping charges have been deducted, a bonus equal to three- quarters of the net profit made is distributed. This is calculated on a percentage basis on the amount paid for seed-cotton and not on the weight of seed-cotton sold. Last season a bonus of 30 per cent, was paid, or 6s. for every £i worth of seed-cotton. As 6J cents per lb. were paid on account for first grade cotton, this meant that the grower received altogether about 8 cents per lb. From small beginnings in 1909-10 season the annual purchases now amount to over half a million pounds of seed-cotton each season, but include in respect of about one-third of this total " Marie Galante " cotton grown in the Grenadines. The advantages of the system are many, and its in- auguration by the Government has had a very beneficial influence on the industry as carried on by the small man. In order to describe the many pests and diseases to which Sea Island cotton is subject another paper cf considerable length would have to be written. It is only possible to refer briefly to certain of the most important of them here. In all the islands except St. Vincent the cotton worm (Alabama argillacea) is a very troublesome pest, and does a considerable amount of damage each year. Strict watch has to be kept for it throughout the growing season, and Paris green or London purple promptly applied at the COTTON 311 commencement of an attack to avoid loss of crop through the defoliation of the plants and the destruction of the young bolls. The situation in St. Vincent is a novel one, for only two attacks of the " worm," each over a very limited area of the island, have been recorded during the past eleven years, and these, it was thought, were due to two large invasions of moths from the Grenadines, as only fields in the Southern part of .the island suffered. The progeny of these moths, however, were so numerous in the district that they could not be dealt with effectively by the planters' friend, the " Jack Spaniard " (Polistcs annularis), and other natural enemies with which the Colony is so well provided. The control of the " worm " by natural enemies is one of the most interesting features connected with the local industry. The leaf-blister mite (Eriophyes gossypii) is found throughout the West Indies, and is not considered a dangerous pest if the old cotton stalks are thoroughly destroyed by fire at the end of each season and some time in advance of the planting of the following crop. The exceptional situation which has arisen in Barbados in connection with this mite has already been mentioned (P. 3<>5). In Antigua and Montserrat, but more particularly in the former island, a minute flower-bud maggot (Contarinia gossypii) has caused a considerable amount of damage in certain seasons. Early planting appears to offer a means of controlling the maggot; but in Antigua, owing to the low rainfall there, this is not always a feasible practice. A great deal more might be said of the numerous beetles, bugs, "worms," and scale insects which take their toll of cotton each season, but the most notorious have been mentioned. In regard to bacterial and fungoid diseases, perhaps the most generally prevalent disease is that caused by "angular spot" (Bacterium malvacearum); but in common with other diseases, such as " anthracnose " (Glomerella gossypii), boll rot, and mildew, the degree of infection is largely influenced by weather conditions, and in a wet season, or rather, a season when the rainfall 312 COTTON is badly distributed, attacks are more severe in character than in a favourable season. In St. Vincent, owing to the high rainfall, more damage is done by " angular spot " and " anthracnose " than in any other island. The line of work that gives most promise of success in minimizing the loss sustained annually by these diseases is the breeding of plants resistant to them. A consider- able amount of progress has already been made along this line. There is no doubt that the Sea Island cotton plant, as grown at the present time, is very susceptible to climatic changes and to the attacks of pests and diseases, and it should be mentioned that efforts are also being made to raise hardier types by hybridization as well as by selection. There are to be found in most of the islands certain " native " perennial cottons which are, as a rule, much more robust than the Sea Island, but which produce inferior lint. Crosses between these and Sea Island are being largely made, and it is hoped that the work will meet with the success it deserves, and enable hybrids to be fixed giving satisfactory yields of fine lint in places where the Sea Island cotton industry is still in a very un- certain condition, and especially in those islands where a remunerative rotation crop with sugar-cane is so much to be desired. The crop lots of the very fine staples produced in St. Vincent sell at special prices. These during the past few seasons have ranged from 2s. to 2s. Qd. per Ib. The best lots of cotton of other growths have realized from is. 6d. to is. i id. The prices obtained for the produce of other islands, with the exception of St. Kitts, have always been lower than those named under similar market conditions. The finest St. Vincent and St. Kitts staples, besides being exceptionally strong, fine, lustrous, and uniform, have a length of 2 in. and over. The length of " ordinary fine " West Indian ranges from if to 2 in. Fine Egyptian cotton and some of the American grown Sea Island, as stated before, compete with the lower grades of West Indian Sea Island, and on this account the latter are difficult to sell to-day at a paying price. It should be mentioned that recently one of the finest crop lots of COTTON 313 St. Vincent cotton has been spun into a yarn of 400 " count/' which gives a length of 190 miles to the pound. The usual spinning "counts" of West Indian cotton, however, range from i6o's to 400*5. The chief fabrics in which the yarn is employed are : — Fancy millinery laces, Lisle gloves, Tulles, Shirt labels, Aeroplane sails, Embroidery cottons, Cotton cambrics, Typewriter ribbons, Handkerchiefs, Union cloth for umbrellas, Lawn and other muslins, Fine hosiery. This paper may be fittingly concluded with an extract from the presidential address of Dr. Francis Watts, the Imperial Commissioner of Agriculture, delivered at the West Indian Agricultural Conference, held in Trinidad in 1912 : — "As is usually the case with any new industry, the cotton industry in its revival has passed through many vicissitudes. In some Colonies its reintroduction has not been attended with the full measure of success that was looked for, but in many places its progress and expansion have exceeded the most sanguine expectations, so that to-day cotton growing forms the staple industry of St. Vincent, Montserrat, Nevis, Anguilla, and the Virgin Islands, and is a prominent feature in the agriculture of Barbados and St. Kitts. Considerable interest in cotton growing is taken in Tobago, while in Antigua, where it has met with peculiar difficulties, the industry shows signs of reviving. In Carriacou and Grenada interest in this crop is increasing.1 " The reintroduction of cotton affords a striking instance of the value of associated action extending beyond the confines of any one small Colony. It is safe to say that, without the almost simultaneous introduction of cotton growing into a number of islands possessing most diverse conditions, without the interchange of information, coupled with the study of cotton pests, 1 Increased interest in Sea Island cotton is now being taken in Jamaica also. 314 COTTON diseases and difficulties, rendered possible by such an organization as the Imperial Department of Agriculture, and without the readily available help as regards all that concerned markets and their requirements, focussed and rapidly applied by the British Cotton Growing Associa- tion, both of which organizations were closely in touch with all that was going on, efforts would have failed in the individual islands from the circumstance of their isola- tion, and no cotton industry would have come into existence : the pioneers would have been beaten in detail, but were saved by being united." THE COTTON INDUSTRY OF THE LEEWAED ISLANDS COLONY. By H. A. TEMPANY, B.Sc., F.I.C., F.C.S. Superintendent- of Agriculture, Leeward Islands. IN the present paper an account is given of the develop- ment of the cultivation of Sea Island cotton in the Leeward Islands Colony of the British West Indies, and the position occupied by the industry at the present time. For the successful growth of the crop a set of highly specialized conditions are essential in the direction of soil, climate, and environment; these, the natural features of the majority of the small islands comprising the group are specially adapted to meet, and at the present time rather more than half of the total export of fine cotton from the British West Indies comes from the Leeward Islands. The Colony lies between latitudes 15° and 19° North and longitudes 61° to 65° West. Its total area is approxi- mately 675 square miles. For administrative purposes it is divided into five Presidencies, namely, Antigua (including the islands of Antigua, Barbuda, and Redonda), St. Kitts- Nevis (including the islands of St. Kitts, Nevis, and Anguilla), Dominica, Montserrat, and the Virgin Islands (the latter comprising a very numerous collection of small islands). Sea Island cotton is at present cultivated in every Presidency except Dominica. In the early days of the history of the Colony it is possible that cotton was cultivated to some small extent, but it was soon replaced by sugar. At the time of the American Civil War the cultivation of cotton assumed important proportions in the Colony, but with the cessa- tion of hostilities the industry rapidly declined, the process being hastened, according to popular account, by the ravages of insect pests. In these earlier days the variety of cotton grown was of the short staple type, and the ruined remains of old saw gins, which may still be found COTTON at certain places, attest the great, though short-lived, importance to which cotton cultivation attained in the middle years of the nineteenth century. The rise of the existing industry dates from 1902, in which year commercial trial plantings of Sea Island cotton were made in St. Kitts and Montserrat; these were rapidly followed by similar ventures in other islands in the following year; prior to that small scale experiments had demonstrated that in the cultivation of the Sea Island variety lay the greatest hope of the attainment of success- ful results. From that time the industry has developed steadily, and although, as is inevitable, checks and difficulties have been encountered from time to time, these have, for the most part, been successfully surmounted; at the present time the industry must be regarded as having attained a position of considerable stability, while the proceeds derived from it constitute an important fraction of the wealth of the Colony. In assisting to bring about the development of the industry to the present level, the fostering care bestowed thereon by the local Government and by the British Cotton Growing Association has played a part of the first importance; had this not been forthcoming there is no doubt that the industry would not have developed so rapidly. At the same time the planting community have taken full advantage of the opportunities offered, and, as a result of this cordial co-operation, the present position has been built up. The assistance alluded to has taken the form of grants and loans in aid of the purchase and erection of machinery for handling the crop, of advances of money on easy terms to prospective cultivators, of the supply of skilled advice and assistance on matters pertaining to the treat- ment and handling of the crop, and of the provision of ready means of marketing the produce. From the inception of the industry practically the entire crop has been marketed through the British Cotton Growing Association, while a considerable proportion of the stores and materials required in preparing the staple for market is still procured through that institution. COTTON 317 Soils and Climate. The soils on which cotton is grown comprise a large variety of types : in St. Kitts, Nevis, Montserrat, the Virgin Islands, and the southern district of Antigua they consist of sands, sandy loams, and loams of volcanic origin ; in the northern district of Antigua, Anguilla, and Barbuda, the soils are calcareous, being derived from limestone rocks of varying age. On the whole it may be said that moderately light volcanic soils are best suited to cotton cultivation, although good returns are frequently obtained on calcareous soils and on non-calcareous soils of heavier texture. The rainfall in the different districts in which cotton is grown ranges from 30 to 70 in. per annum, and in some places even more; where the rainfall is high, how- ever, cotton can only be successfully grown where soil conditions are such as to favour free drainage. Conditions under which the Crop is grown. Sea Island cotton is cultivated both as an estates' crop and also by small peasant proprietors. In Antigua it is grown on estates both as a main crop and as a rotation crop with sugar-cane on sugar estates, while there is a small peasant cotton growing industry. In St. Kitts the crop is chiefly cultivated as an inter- mediate between two crops of sugar-cane, while it is also grown to some extent as a main crop ; in this island there is no peasant cotton growing industry. In Nevis it is grown both as a main crop and also as a rotation crop on sugar estates; while there is a very important peasant industry. In Anguilla the cotton industry is almost entirely in the hands of the peasants. In Montserrat the crop is extensively grown on estates and constitutes the staple crop of the island, while there is also an important peasant industry. In the Virgin Islands the industry is exclusively conducted by peasant growers. Area under Cultivation. Owing to the fact that an appreciable proportion of the crop is grown by peasants on small holdings scattered COTTON throughout remote districts it is not possible to give an exact figure for the total area under cultivation. At an approximate estimate the average total area cultivated amounts to between 8,000 and 10,000 acres each year. The area fluctuates to some extent from year to year with variations in the market price of the staple, while it will also depend in any one year to some extent on the weather conditions which have prevailed during the preceding season; the crop is especially susceptible to influence by unsuitable weather conditions, and unfavour- able seasons invariably result in decreased yields, the effect of which is seen in a decrease in the area planted in the year immediately following. The industry appears to have established itself at the present level, and it does not seem likely that any very great increase beyond the area stated above is in imme- diate prospect. Crops and Yields. The following tabular statement shows the exports of cotton in pounds of lint from each island and from the whole Colony for each year since the inception of the industry : — • EXPORTS OF SEA ISLAND COTTON (LINT) FROM THE LEEWARD ISLANDS COLONY. Antigua, y Year including St. Kilts Nevis Anguilla Montserrat jgj^jj. Total aiib? a Ih. lh. Ib. Ib. Ib. Ib. 1902-03 ... 22,88o 27,6OO 50,480 1903-04 ... 27,85} 24,197 28,449 1,661 70,000 152,160 1904-05 ... 54,289 78,219 144,721 31,452 70,723 4,ioo 383,477 1905-06 ... 99,948 120,379 120,168 80,650 98,262 6,975 526,382 1906-07 ...189,318 180,917 96,402 61,666 164,430 10,177 702,910 1907-08 ... 182,180 233,006 211,431 107,989 360,000 32,520 1,127,126 1908-09 ... 45,310 207,146 104,160 49,320 238,959 52,528 697,423 1909-10 ... 59,960 231,441 129,063 43,400 202,542 23,139 690,154 1910-11 ... 96,992 329,322 343,395 148,595 402,666 50,337 1,371,307 1911-12 ... 80,910 332,16$ 165,329 97,142 346,568 51,677 1,073,794 1912-13 ... 172,023 374,594 166,477 112,138 292,182 31,775 1,149,189 A study of these results will show the rapid manner in which the industry has developed, and also the fact that there appears reason to believe that within the past few years it has settled down to a fairly steady level of pro- duction. If an average value of is. 6d. per Ib. for lint is COTTON 319 assumed, the value of the industry during- the past three years has ranged between £75,000 and £100,000 per annum, while the total exports for the whole period of eleven years considerably exceed £5,000,000 in value. These figures do not include values for cotton seed, which during the past three years at a moderate estimate have been equal to an additional £7,000 to £9,000 per annum. It will be further seen that according to the estimate of the total acreage given the yield per acre has averaged from 100 Ib. to 150 Ib. of lint during the past three years. Seed Supply. Sea Island cotton is the most highly specialized variety at present cultivated on an extended scale. Its essential features consist in relatively great length of staple combined with the property known as fineness; for the production of a thoroughly marketable article certain other qualities must also be associated with those already mentioned, namely, regularity in the length of the fibre, adequate strength, freedom from weak and immature fibre, and a high degree of lustrousness. For the maintenance of these qualities great care is essential in the selection of a suitable seed supply for planting purposes. At the outset of the industry this was secured through the instrumentality of the Imperial Department of Agri- culture for the West Indies, whereby a supply of specially selected seed was procured in 1904 from the Sea Islands of Carolina; this has formed the starting point from which practically all the strains of seed at present cultivated have been derived; had this step not been taken there is little doubt that the development of the industry would in some degree have been retarded. During the earlier years of the industry the supply of selected seed for planting purposes remained under the direction of the Imperial Department of Agriculture, and for this purpose certain marks of cotton which had been favourably reported on were each year reserved for planting. With the growth of the industry the actual supply of seed has gradually passed to a large extent into the hands 21 320 COTTON of ginneries, but the advice and assistance of the Agricul- tural Department continue to be freely sought and given in relation to the selection and preparation of suitable strains for planting. Investigation has shown that the seed of the Sea Island variety normally possesses a tuft of green fuzz on one or both ends, but that in every crop a certain proportion of seed is produced which is devoid of this tuft (the amount usually ranges from 5 to 20 per cent, of the total). It has further been found that seed lacking this tuft tends to produce lint of inferior quality; consequently, in pre- paring seed for planting all those seeds which do not possess the tuft in question are removed, together with all immature and aborted seeds. The feature above alluded to, of producing two types of seed, would appear to be an indication that the Sea Island cotton may be of mixed origin in the first instance. The susceptibility of Sea Island cotton to influence by plant selection is very marked, both in regard to the habit of the plant itself and also in relation to the quality of the lint; for the maintenance and improvement of quality in this respect unremitting labour is necessary. With the duty of carrying on this work the Agricultural Depart- ments in the various islands have charged themselves, and it is gratifying to be able to record that in every Presidency and almost every island in which cotton is grown systematic selections are carried out each year by the Agricultural Department, either at the Government Experiment Stations or on estates in co-operation with local growers; the actual work of field selection and the examination of the lint is in all cases performed by officers of the Department. The selected strains of seed thus originated become available in subsequent years for plant- ing on an extended scale, and in Antigua, St. Kitts, and Montserrat strains of cotton originated in this way are at the present time widely planted. Experience has demonstrated that as the result of local climatic and soil conditions each island has shown a tendency to produce a type of lint which is characteristic of the locality in which it is produced. That this feature is the result of local conditions and not the outcome of COTTON 321 selection is shown by the fact that the differences in question became noticeable when the seed supply for all the islands was obtained from the same source; such marked susceptibility to influence by environment em- phasizes the necessity of raising strains of cotton suit- able to the conditions under which they are to be grown, and the realization of this point has underlain depart- mental policy in relation to the industry for a number of years past. Cultivation. For the successful growth of the crop careful and thorough cultivation is essential. The tilth of the soil must be maintained, weeding operations scrupulously attended to, and a generally high state of efficiency prevail. The standard of agriculture in relation to the crop which is maintained throughout the Colony is undoubtedly high. At the present time cultural operations are performed almost entirely by hand, with the exception of the prepara- tion of the land, in which cattle ploughs are employed to a considerable extent. No doubt mule-drawn implements could be, and in some few cases are, successfully employed in weeding operations, though even here they require to be supplemented to some extent by hand labour. At the present time the labour supply available is adequate for the existing industry in the majority of districts, though it is doubtful whether it would allow any further extensions of great magnitude to be made except at the expense of other industries. Planting. The actual time of planting depends in a measure on the advent of seasonable weather. In the early stages of growth fairly moist conditions are essential for the successful establishment of the plants. Once the crop is thoroughly established, however, it is able to withstand moderate spells of drought with a fair degree of efficiency, while moderately dry weather is necessary during the ripening of the crop and while picking is in progress; excessive moisture during the latter period is apt to lead 322 COTTON to loss owing to boll-dropping resulting from excessive accumulations of water around the root systems of the plants and from bacterial and fungoid diseases. As a general rule experience has shown that early planting is likely to give the best results, and in St. Kitts, Nevis, and Montserrat the usual months for plant- ing are April and May. In places such as Antigua, Anguilla, Barbuda, and the Virgin Islands, where the rainfall is smaller and more variable in distribution, later planting is practised; as a general rule July may be regarded as the most favourable month for planting under these conditions, but unfavourable weather may cause the operation to be postponed to an even later date. Later planting than July, however, possesses the dis- advantage that the crop matures during the months of December and January, at which time the relatively low night temperatures frequently experienced may lead to injury to the crop and result in serious loss. Manuring. It cannot be said that any very definite policy in regard to the manuring of cotton has as yet been arrived at. A very extensive series of manurial experiments with the crop has been conducted at the Experiment Station in St. Kitts during the past ten years, in the course of which the same manures have been applied to the same plots year after year; similar trials have also been made for less extended periods in Antigua and Montserrat. The experiments in question have shown that the crop is by no means exhausting, and that on lands in fair tilth a series of crops can be grown for a number of years without manure, and not evince any marked falling off of yield in consequence. This is especially the case on light lands, under which conditions it has been shown that the plants develop a remarkably large root system. It is not implied, however, that manurial treatment is never requisite. When a crop of cotton is grown as a rotation or intermediate crop between two crops of cane no serious consequences may be anticipated from with- holding manure from the cotton crop if the cane lands themselves are maintained in adequate condition; indeed, COTTON 323 too high a degree of fertility appears inimical, since it tends to develop vegetative vigour at the expense of the reproductive organs. When, however, cotton is grown as a main crop some form of manurial treatment eventually must be adopted. In Montserrat the practice of green manuring for cotton has attained a certain degree of popularity, and up to the present appears well calculated to maintain fertility, although it may in subsequent years require to be supplemented with other manurial dressings. Pests and Diseases. The crop is peculiarly liable to attack by a number of pests and diseases, the majority of which are, however, readily capable of control by the timely application of the proper measures. Among the insect pests the following may be men- tioned:— The Cotton Worm (Alabama argillacea). — This pest is capable of complete control by dusting with a mixture of Paris green and lime, and although at the outset of the industry some trouble was experienced in connec- tion with the attacks of the insect its control is now thoroughly well understood. In all islands where peasant cotton is grown facilities now exist for the procuring of this insecticide by peasant growers on easy terms; with the exception of Anguilla, this is in every case accom- plished through the agency of the Agricultural Depar - ment, a stock of Paris green being maintained by the Government especially for the purpose. Leaf-blister Mite (Eriophies gos'sypii). — This is a pest of more serious importance; it has, however, been shown that by the employment of proper measures it also is capable of control, the most essential feature being the destruction of all old cotton bushes after the crop has been reaped; if this is neglected the old plants serve to harbour the pest and act as centres of infection to the young crop; this process requires to be combined with the hand-picking and destruction of all infected leaves which appear in the early stages of the growth of the crop; dusting with a mixture of sulphur and lime COTTON also has some value in assisting to check the spread of the disease. Cotton Stainers (Dysdercus andreae and D. Delauneyi). —This pest also has caused a certain amount of trouble from time to time, but has been found to be capable of control by means of suitable traps baited with seed-cotton or cotton seed; the destruction of old cotton is also of importance in checking the spread of this pest. At the present time measures are under consideration with a view to providing legislation for the purpose of enforcing the destruction of all old cotton bushes after the crop has been reaped. Flower-bud Maggot (Contarinia gossypii). — This has proved a pest of very serious importance in Antigua and at one time threatened the existence of the industry in that island; it has also been recorded in Montserrat, Barbuda, and the Danish island of St. Croix; the disease is due to the larva of a very small Cecidomyid fly, which attacks the young unopened flower buds and causes their death. No actual remedy has as yet been discovered for the pest, but it has been shown that the disease is appar- ently seasonal in its incidence and that it is favoured by the relatively low temperature and high humidity characteristic of the months of December and January; in consequence, a palliative has been found to exist in the planting of the crop at such a time as will ensure the development of the flower buds before the incidence of the dangerous season. Fungoid and Bacterial Diseases. — Fungoid and bac- terial diseases have not on the whole proved of very great importance in relation to the industry, although losses have from time to time occurred from these causes. Their incidence is usually contingent on the occurrence of exceptionally moist seasonal conditions. Chief among them may be cited angular leaf spot and black arm, anthracnose, and a bacterial disease which causes the discoloration and subsequent shedding of partially matured bolls. No remedial processes have as yet become generally adopted for these diseases, although various measures have been proposed for the purpose. COTTON 325 In certain districts in which the soils are inclined to be heavy in texture losses not infrequently occur as the result of insufficient drainage, as it is not always realized that cotton is a crop liable to suffer from the slightest excess of soil moisture, and requires greater attention in relation to drainage than does sugar-cane. Conditions governing the Industry in the different Islands. In the following section the conditions under which the industry is conducted in the different Presidencies is briefly considered; the actual exports of cotton in each case are shown in the table on p. 318. Antigua. — In this island the industry has experienced more vicissitudes than anywhere else in the Colony. In the earlier years progress was steady and the area under cultivation rapidly increased until, in 1907, the total area under the crop amounted to 2,500 acres; in this and the following year, however, the ravages of the flower- bud maggot pest made themselves severely felt, and resulted in a very small yield of lint per acre being obtained; in consequence the area cultivated became very greatly reduced until, in 1909, the area planted with the crop only amounted to 253 acres. Since that time much more satisfactory results have been experienced', and the industry has steadily recovered till, during the past season, some 1,200 acres have been under cultivation with the crop. Cotton is cultivated both on the light volcanic soils of the southern and western area and in the limestone district of the north and east, the former being, on the whole, best suited to cotton growing. The heavy clay soils of the central plain are not so well adapted to the requirements of the crop, although a certain amount of cotton is grown thereon. The staple is cultivated both as a main crop and as a rotation crop with sugar. In this latter connection it is of importance as affording a means of resting land from cane, thereby lessening the effect of root disease (Maras- mius sacchari), which is at the present time a source of considerable loss in the sugar industry. 326 COTTON During the years 1905 to 1908 a considerable amount of peasant-grown cotton was produced; in the years following this the peasant industry dwindled to nothing, but has latterly revived again to some extent; the bulk of the cotton grown in this way is purchased locally by licensed buyers, the traffic being regulated by an Ordi- nance designed to prevent larceny, which requires the registration of both buyers and sellers and the keeping of books recording transactions which must at all times be open to inspection by the police. There is one ginnery in the island, the equipment of which comprises six Macarthy single action roller gins, a hydraulic baling press, and a seed disintegrator, the plant being driven by a Ho>rnsby-Ackroyd oil engine; it is owned and worked by a local company. The under- taking was originated in 1903 by the local Government, and was worked for three years under the Agricultural Department; it was transferred to the present company in 1906. Barbuda. — This island lies about 25 miles north of Antigua and has an area of 62 square miles; it is worked as a Government estate under the charge of a manager and assistant manager. The undertaking at present combines the growing of cotton and other crops with the raising of stock. From 100 to 150 acres of cotton are cultivated each year; on the whole the undertaking has proved uniformly successful and satisfactory returns have been experienced. There is a ginnery in the island, the property of the Government, which contains two gins, a baling press, and a 4-h.p. oil engine. Till recently the quality of the cotton grown in this island has borne the reputation of being somewhat coarse, but during the past two years systematic selection trials have been under- taken by the management in conjunction with the Agri- cultural Department, with a view to improving the quality of the cotton ; it is hoped that the fruits of this work will shortly be seen in a marked improvement in the quality of the staple. The effect of the industry on the prosperity of the island has been very marked; prior to the inauguration of the existing undertaking the island was in an exceed- COTTON 327 ingly poverty-stricken condition, the mode of life of the inhabitants was extremely low, and annual grants in aid of the Dependency from Antigua funds were always necessary. With the advent of cotton growing conditions have materially improved, employment has been provided for the population of about 800 souls which the island possesses, and there is a substantial balance to the credit of the enterprise. St. Kitts. — St. Kitts lies about 60 miles to the west of Antigua and has an area of 68 square miles. The industry has established itself very firmly in the island, while the quality of the cotton grown has attained a high reputation. The greater part of the crop is planted intermediately between two crops of cane; after the first picking has been reaped the trees are pulled up and either burned or buried, and the land planted with cane. This system enables the cultivation to be carried on very cheaply and has given excellent results; a certain amount of cotton is also grown as a main crop. The soils of the island as a whole are particularly adapted to cotton growing; in the south-western area the conditions are almost ideally suited to the crop, in the north-eastern district the heavier rainfall renders the crop more uncertain. On the whole cotton growing may be said to have attained a more uniform degree of success in St. Kitts than in any other island in the West Indies, and has greatly added to the prosperity of the community. At the present time from 1,500 to 2,000 acres are planted each year. There is a large ginnery at Spooner's, on the wind- ward coast, the property of Messrs. Sendall and Wade, the equipment of which includes plant for crushing- cotton seed and extracting the oil therefrom; the bulk of the crop of the island is handled at this institution. There is also a smaller privately owned ginnery on the leeward side of the island. No peasant-grown cotton is produced in St. Kitts. Nevis. — Nevis lies south of St. Kitts and is separated from it by a channel a mile wide at its narrowest point; the total area of the island is 50 square miles. COTTON In Nevis cotton is cultivated as a main crop and, if possible, is kept for a second picking. The crop is grown both on estates and by peasant cultivators, the latter occupying very nearly one-half of the total area under cotton. Owing to the heavier character of the soil and the rather more uncertain seasons experienced, the returns have been more variable than in the sister island of St. Kitts; but, taken over a period of years, the returns have been satisfactory and the cultivation of the crop has added greatly to the prosperity of the island. At the present time cotton cultivation has to a very large extent taken the place of sugar-cane, and may be regarded as the staple industry of the island; the area at present cultivated under the crop ranges annually between 1,000 and 2,000 acres. There is a large ginnery in Charlestown — the capital of the island — which is worked by a London firm, while there are also a number of smaller ginneries at different points. The important class of peasant growers are well looked after by the Agricultural Department, their plots being regularly visited by the Agricultural Instructor, and advice and assistance given when required. Arrange- ments are made each year for supplying small growers with selected seed of good quality at cost price, while facilities are also afforded for the obtaining of Paris green for the control of cotton caterpillars. The produce of the peasant cultivators is largely dis- posed of by local sale, the traffic being regulated by an Ordinance similar to that which is in operation in Antigua. Anguilla. — In this small island, the area of which is 35 square miles, the growing of Sea Island cotton has also played a very important part. With the exception of that which is produced by one large grower, Mr. C. Rey, the cotton is entirely grown on small holdings by peasants. The conditions are often rendered unfavour- able on account of drought and the wind-swept state of the island; in consequence the average return per acre is lower than in St. Kitts and Nevis. The total area planted each year ranges between 600 and 1,200 acres. COTTON 329 Mr. C. Rey, who owns a large ginnery, has done much to foster the growth of the industry, and it is to his efforts that the present position is largely due. Loans are annually granted to him by the local Government and the British Cotton Growing Association which enable him to make advances to small cultivators while the crop is being grown, and almost the entire output of the island is marketed through him. The effect of the industry has been most marked in affording a measure of prosperity to this small island, where formerly the conditions were of extreme poverty. Montserrat. — Montserrat lies 27 miles south-west of Antigua and has a total area of 32 \ square miles. The cotton industry is of prime importance in the island and occupies the position of staple crop. The total area cultivated ranges from 2,000 to 2,500 acres. The industry has assumed an assured position and the acreage under the crop on estates does not vary much from year to year; the fluctuations which have occurred in the total area planted during recent years have been very largely due to the varying interest shown by the peasant pro- prietary. The soils of the lower coast lands of the island are on the whole very well adapted to cotton growing, but on the higher lands in the central region of the island soil and climatic conditions tend to render the crop more uncertain. There are several privately owned ginneries in the island, the majority of which, in addition to handling the crops of estates, also purchase the produce of peasant growers. Here, as in other Presidencies, trading in cotton is regulated by a local Ordinance. The effect of the introduction of cotton growing has been most beneficial, and has served to place the island in a sound financial position; prior to the inception of the industry the condition of the island was one of considerable depression. Generally the outlook for the industry is promising; as a result of satisfactory returns considerable increases have taken place in the area planted with the crop by peasants. Large tracts of land have been reintroduced 33° COTTON into cultivation which for many years previously have been in bush, and regular employment has been found for a considerable section of the labouring community. The Virgin Islands. — This Presidency consists of a very numerous group of small islands lying about 200 miles north-west of Antigua; the largest members of the group are Tortola, Virgin Gorda, Anegada, and Jost van Dyck's; the total area of the Presidency is about 30 square miles. There are no properties worked on estate lines and the land is very largely in the hands of the peasants. Formerly the conditions of the islands wrere of extreme poverty, but the reintroduction of cotton cultivation has served materially to improve the condition of affairs. The crop is entirely produced by peasant cultivators on small holdings, which are often situated in remote and isolated situations. The industry has been developed through the enter- prise of the Government by means of the Agricultural Department. Each year a supply of selected seed of good strain is provided for planting purposes and supplied to intending growers at low rates. A ginnery, containing two gins, a baling press, and an oil engine, has been erected by the Government, and the seed-cotton produced is there purchased from growers at prices based on the current market values for lint, the produce being subsequently exported and sold. Guidance and advice on the treatment of the crop are afforded by frequent visits of the agricultural officers to the holdings of peasant cultivators, while facilities are also given for the control of pests and diseases. As in other places where peasant cotton growing is carried on, the industry has been largely built up as the result of efforts on the part of the Agricultural Depart- ment, including the provision of a ready means of marketing the staple once it has been produced. The effect is seen in the greatly ameliorated conditions under which the inhabitants of these islands now exist and the improved financial outlook of the Presidency. Conclusion. The foregoing pages present a fairly comprehensive outline of the conditions under which Sea Island cotton COTTON 331 is produced in the Leeward Islands Colony, and indicate the important economic results which have followed the introduction of the industry. Both on estates and among peasant growers its effects have been far-reaching, and it is worthy of remark that these results have been attained in a comparatively short space of time. The permanence of the industry now appears to be mainly contingent on two factors, namely: (i) The con- tinuation of satisfactory market conditions; and (2) the non-appearance of any wholesale destructive agency in the shape of disease which may jeopardize the existence of the industry. Given a continuation of existing conditions, there is no reason why the industry should not be regarded as firmly established. At all points a considerable store of knowledge has now been accumulated by growers as to the best methods to be adopted in producing the crop; but, in the case of a highly specialized product such as this, there is still room for a certain degree of increased appreciation on the part of growers of the exact requirements of spinners, and it may perhaps be added on the part of spinners of more detailed knowledge of the conditions under which the crop is grown. There does not appear to be any real reason, if these two factors are correctly apprehended, why the require- ments of spinners should not be met with even greater exactitude than at present, but the essential feature must not be lost sight of that each island will always tend to produce its own type of lint, and that it is by reselection of acclimatized strains that improvement is most likely to be effected, rather than by importation of fresh strains from outside sources. The general history of the industry is of interest and also serves to indicate the steps which are most likely to lead to success in fostering the development of other industries under similar conditions. BAUMWOLLBAU IN DEUTSCHEN KOLONIEN. Von MORITZ SCHANZ. Chemnitz. DIE Entwicklung der Exportkultur von Baumwolle in den drei deutschafrikanischen Kolonien, Togo, Kamerun und Ostafrika, hat seit dem Jahre 1910 stetige Fortschritte gemacht und zwar erfolgt die gemeinniitzige Forderung dieser wichtigen Bestrebungen nach wie vor durch das Zusammenarbeiten der Regierungsorgane und des Kolonial-Wirtschaftlichen Komitees, laut dem am 14. Marz 1910 abgeschlossenen Uebereinkommen, das sich durchaus bewahrt hat. In T o g o hat man, da Kronland dort nicht vorhanden, das Land vielmehr iiberwiegend im Besitz der Einge- borenen ist, auch die Baumwollkultur von vornherein als K 1 e i n-oder Volkskultur, nicht als Plantagenkultur unter Leitung europaischer Besitzer geplant und der Erfolg hat die Richtigkeit dieses Vorgehens bewiesen. In ziemlich stetiger Zunahme stieg die Ernte von 40 Ballen a 250 kg. im Jahre 1901 auf 2,200 Ballen im Jahre 1912, im Werte von 514,000 Mark. Die Zahl der in den verschiedenen Teilen der Kolonie arbeitenden Entker- nungsanstalten betragt 12. Ungiinstig beeinflusst werden die Ernteertrage durch den Umstand, dass die Wieder- schlage nicht immer geniigend sind. Dagegen zeigen die in Togo auftretenden Baumwoll-Krankheiten und Schadlinge bislang keinen ernsten Charakter. Der von den Eingeborenen iiberwiegend in Misch , nicht Reinkultur und noch mit recht ungeniigenden Kulturmethoden betriebebe Baumwollbau beschrankt sich, soweit der Export in Frage kommt, im Wesent- lichen auf Siid- und Mittel-Togo, wo man mit Ausnahme des Kustengiirtels heute nur noch die hier langst vor- handene und okklimatisierte " Togo Sea Island " anbaut, die einer guten amerikanischen " middling " entspricht und deren Faser nach einem wohl hauptsachlich durch COTTON 333 Mischung verschiedener Sorten entstandenen Quali- tatsriickgang in den Jahren 1908/10 jetzt in Lange, Starke und Glanz wieder zufriedenstellend ist, seitdem die Regierung Zucht und Verteilung reiner Saat systema- tisch und mit Erfolg durchgefiihrt hat. Fur das in Bezug auf Ausfuhr weniger gunstig gestellte Nord-Togo wird eine geeignete Baumwollsorte noch gesucht. Das Kolonial-Wirtschaftliche Komitee besitzt seit 1908 nicht mehr einen standigen Vertreter in Togo, leistet aber nach wie vor die Garantie eines Minimalpreises und stellt Pramiengelder zur Verfiigung zur Verteilung an Eingeborene fur besondere Leistungen im Baumwollbau. Die Preisgarantie in Togo belauft sich zur Zeit auf 30 Pfennige fiir \ kg. entkernter Baumwolle loko Eisen- bahnstation, an welcher Ginanlagen im Betrieb. Dem Gouverneur von Togo stehen vier landwirtschaft- liche Sachverstandige und funf Bezirkslandwirte zur Verfiigung, die ihr besonderes Interesse dem Baum- wollbau zuwenden und die letzteren wirken im gleichen Sinne auch als Wanderlehrer unter den Eingeborenen. Die vom Kolonial-Wirtschaftlichen Komitee ubernom- menene Versuchsanstalt Nuatscha wurde 1912 seitens der Regierung unter Beibehaltung des Lehrbetriebs fur Eingeborene zur Landeskulturanstalt ausgehaut und ergab 1912/13 in ihrem feldmassigen Anbau von Baum- wolle einen Durchschnittsertrag von 484 kg. Samenbaum- wolle auf den Hektar. Daneben unterhalt die Regierung auch noch drei besondere Baumwollstationen in den Bezirken Atakpame, Misahohe und Sokode. Um die Massnahmen zur Hebung der Baumwollkultur wirksam zu gestalten, hat sich die Notwendigkeit einer am 9. Januar 1914 erlassenen Baumwollordnung betreffs Handel und Aufbereitung von Baumwolle herausgestellt. Demnach darf Baumwollsaat an Farbige nur von der zustandigen Verwaltung abgegeben werden. Aufkaufer werden zum Baumwoll-Aufkauf nur mit einen Erlaub- nisschein zugelassen, der von der Bezirksleitung fur die Dauer eines Jahres kostenlos ausgestellt wird. Die zu Aussaatzwecken bestimmte Baumwollsaat ist in Sacken mit Herkunftsbezeichnung trocken zu lagern; Unbefugte diirfen keinen Zutritt zu den Lagerraumen erhalten. 334 COTTON Im Interesse der Ziichtung friihreifer Sorten wird neuerdings im ganzen Schutzgebeit grundsatzlich die Saat der ersten Pflucke zitr Verteilung und Aussaat benutzt. Der Baumwoll-Export Togos ist noch steigerungsfahig, scheint aber kaum je eine besondere Ausdehnung erlangen zu konnen und die friiher gehegten weitgehenden Erwart- ungen waren jedenfalls zu hoch gespannt. Recht aussichtsreich liegen dagegen die Vorbeding- ungen fiir weite Teile von K a m e r u n , sobald erst einmal das Innere durch Eisenbahnen erschlossen sein wird. Das Waldland und namentlich die Kiiste diirften wegen der teilweisen phanomenal hohen Niederschlage und zu kurzer Trocken- zeit allerdings fur Baumwollbau ganz ungeeignet sein; um so besser aber eignen sich dafiir die im Hinterland gelegenen Graslandereien. Baumwolle ist wildwachsend in ganz Adamaua und im Tsadsee-Gebiet verbreitet und wird siidlich vom Tsadsee, ebenso wie im Alluvial-Gebiet des Benue noch heute von den Eingeborenen vorlaufig iiur fur ihren eigenen Bedarf, in mehrjahriger Kultur und in grossem Umfang angepflanzt. Es steht hier erne dichte und intelligente Ackerbau treibende Bevolkerung zur Verfiigung und zwar diirften sich fiir €ine Baumwoll- Exportkultur in erster Linie die Heidenstamme, weniger die Mohamedaner eignen. Schwierigkeiten bietet aber verlaufig noch der Ab- transport, da zunachst nur der ungeniigende Wasserweg auf dem Niger-" Benue " in Frage kommt. Die schon friiher in Aussicht genommenen amtlichen Schritte zur Klarung der Baumwollfrage in Kamerun begannen 1911 mit der Entsendung eines Sachver- standigen nach dem Bezirk Bamum, wo Baumwolle als Kulturpflanze der Eingeborenen vorkommt, friiher feld- massig angebaut worden sein soil, dann aber bei Vordringen billiger europaischer Gewebe vernachlassigt wurde. Die Aussichten fiir Baumwollbau, wobei als Wirtschaftsform zunachst nur die Forderung der bereits von altersher bestehenden Eingeborenen-Kultur in Frage kommen kann, sind aber noch heute durchaus giinstig und die Regierung richtete 1912 in vorsorglicher Weise speziell zur Hebung des Baumwollanbaus zwei land- COTTON 335 wirtschaftliche Versuchsstatioen in Bamum und Garua ein. Denselben liegt ob, zunachst die geeignetsten Baumwollsorten herauszufinden und zu ziichten, die Eingeborenen zur Baumwoll-Exportkultur zu erziehen ud weisse und farbige Wanderlahrer heranzubilden, damit die Ausdehnung der Kultur auf gesunder Grund- lage erfolgen kann, sobald verbesserte Transportmoglich- keiten sie lohnend machen. Nachdem die Transportfrage mehr geklart s (5) Length of fibre, strength of fibre, and clinging qualities. Mr. Cobb rather curiously omits fine- ness. Cotton yarns vary in value according to their cleanliness, which is affected by the amount and kind of waste. They also vary in value according to their fine- ness, their strength, and their regularity. These qualities of fineness, strength, and regularity in yarns depend primarily on the cotton. Cotton, therefore, is valuable to a spinner in proportion as it gives him these qualities in his yarns. Nowl I imagine that these qualities in yarns come from length and strength and fineness of fibre, and from some other qualities which Mr. Cobb calls clinging qualities. The well-known convolutions no doubt affect this clinging, and probably also some characteristics of the nature of flexibility of skin not easy to ascertain or define. A spinner sometimes speaks of them? as oiliness. I think that no one knows what are the exact relations between these characteristics in the fibre and the qualities we desire for our yarns. There is, I am sure, room for research work on this point. There is also urgent neces- sity for corresponding research work by cotton-growing scientists as to the means by which they are to produce those qualities in cotton which the textile laboratory finds to give the required results in yarn. Now I pass from the spinner's requirements to a matter which concerns both him and the grower, and that is, that cotton should be cheap. The American orator proclaims " Cotton is king." True, but it is a limited monarchy. To remain king, cotton must be popular, cotton must be cheap. Cheapness does not mean want of proper profit for the grower. It does mean that all the resources of science must be employed to produce large crops per acre. Suitable cultivation must be given, suitable manures must be employed; but, a'bove all, it rests with the plant breeder to evolve a cotton plant whose purpose in life is to make cotton, and not wood or cotton seed. The plant must also be energetic and ripen its fibre quickly, so that men and not the insects can get it. There is no necessary 366 COTION conflict in cotton between quality and quantity. The Sakellaridis cotton in Egypt, the Cambodia in India, have proved that it is possible at the same time to make cotton more valuable to a spinner and at the same time more prolific, and therefore less expensive, to the grower. Here, then, is another objective for the cotton-growing scientist. I suppose — though I do not actually know — that in each country some obscure laws of climate and soil eventually prescribe what cottons can be grown prolifically. It is for the individual planter and for the Agricultural Department of each Government to ascer- tain within these limits what kind of cotton will give the greatest monetary return. This is roughly the product of the two factors, quantity of lint production multiplied by price obtainable. The relative price obtainable for any cotton as compared with others which might be grown is necessarily variable. It varies partly as the world's needs alter. It varies still more as the quantity produced increases or decreases. Sakellaridis has spoilt its price by its own productivity. But it will still be grown in Egypt because it pays the grower even at the lower price. And in a few years, if its excellence is pre- served, it will regain its price, because the spinners who once use it can never go back to a poorer cotton. I suggest here, as a broad rule for every country and for every plantation, that it is bad business to grow cotton of small value per pound instead of higher-priced cotton, unless the cheaper cotton is so prolific that its extra quantity makes up for its lower price. We can now1 define to some extent the questions to be answered by any paternal Government which desires its subjects to produce cotton. Some of the questions are : Can cotton be grown regularly one year after another? This depends on soil and climate. Is there labour avail- able for growing and picking? What kinds of cotton can be grown, and therefore what price can be expected in the market ? What will be the cost of carriage and merchanting ? And, therefore, will the price that remains for the grower give him a reasonable return when multi- plied by the quantity he can grow? Will it pay him as well as other crops possible to be grown ? COTTON 367 For more advanced communities the questions which arise are easy to state but exceedingly difficult to answer. Two questions cover the whole field; they are: How can the cottons grown be so improved as to be worth more money? and, How can they be made more prolific so that the results of growing them will be better for the grower ? The answers to both questions lie in the sphere of thought which I have attempted to indicate. But there is one quality more, not named by Mr. Cobb, and yet I think the most important of all to growers and to spinners. I refer to uniformity. In all the qualities a spinner wants in cotton, viz., fineness, strength, length, adhesiveness, colour, and freedom from waste, in each and every case uniformity is essential if the quality is to 'be worth money. To be partly fine is to be coarse; to be partly strong is to be weak; to be irregular in length or colour or anything else is to be so far poorer and less valuable. Also irregularity in plant habit is a certain bar to a big production. Now I believe that this virtue of uniformity, this sine qua non, without which no goodness is good, I believe that this is now, for the first time in the history of cotton, within reach of attainment. Uniformity can only be hoped for from plants which will breed pure. A pure plant may conceivably fail in uniformity, but without purity uni- formity is inconceivable. Now it is well known to all students of cotton growing that the work of Mr. Lawrence Balls in Egypt, and of others elsewhere, has shown that it is possible to cultivate cotton on a com- mercial scale from pure parents. There is a good deal of evidence that purity in itself gives value to cotton. The best practical cotton growers of my acquaintance attach the first importance to purity, even where they have not hit on Mr. Balls's system of securing it. The experiments of the Americans with Egyptian seed in Arizona bear a curious testimony to this principle. So long as they used imported seed the results were poor. But by selection or by accident they struck on an indi- genous offshoot from the original Mitafifi. Some of the cotton from this is as much superior to the best 24 368 COTTON Sakellaridis as that is superior to anything else in Egypt. They were not working on Mr. Balls's system, and in practice the commercial crop from this cotton is too mixed to be of any great value. But the testimony to the value of purity lies in- the description of his experiments given by Mr. Kearney. Year after year he comments on the prepotency of his new cotton, and on its resistance to hybridization. It is evident that Nature was here making one of her rare efforts to produce a pure cotton, and that, so far as she succeeded, she was producing some- thing exceptionally good. But the most striking evidence of the value of purity is to be found in the mill tests of Mr. Balls's own cottons. Four samples of pure strains were selected for examina- tion. The finger test of Alexandrian valuers found one to be good, the others indifferent. I may admit that the judgment of practical spinners was not entirely at variance with this, but the mill test was very different. Of the four samples, one represented an attempt to develop a substitute for Sea Island cotton. In the first instance it was unfortunately not tested on this basis in the mill. No exact report can be given, but the cotton was reported to be neppy and wasty, but strong. I have subsequently had a small sample put through a mill which spins only Fine Sea Island cottons. The experimental cotton proves to be very wasty, i.e., to have a large excess of imperfect fibres; but when spun into yarn so fine as i88's, it is about 9 per cent, stronger than the standard of the mill, and is about equal in appearance. The other three samples were tested against Nubari classified as " Good/' This showed a loss of 18 per cent, of waste and gave a strength of 10*00 Ib. One sample, which I will call A, showed 16*8 per cent, waste, and strength 12*50 Ib. This I understand to be from Assili parentage and to be extraordinarily prolific. B showed 17*5 per cent, waste and strength 14*00 Ib. This is the cotton that was approved in Alexandria. C showed 15*7 per cent, waste and strength 16*30 Ib. Considering that the comparison was made against Nubari cotton classing " Good," which is far above the average of Egyptian cotton, it must be admitted that these are COTTON 369 remarkable results. The waste in each case is less and the strength much greater. It is unfortunate that the bulk of the cotton grown from these four strains was sold off before the results of our experimental tests were known. Thus there has been no opportunity of qualify- ing or confirming the tests on a large scale, but I may say that I have had a second test made with small samples in another mill, and again all three samples were stronger than Good Nubari; and again sample C} in which uni- formity was the most noticeable characteristic, came out the strongest of the lot. In conclusion I make two suggestions. In the first place, I suggest that arrangements ought to made either at the Imperial Institute or in Manchester, perhaps preferably in Manchester, so that small quantities of cotton can be practically tested under conditions resembling those of an ordinary mill. In experienced hands a trustworthy test can be made with a pound weight of cotton or even less. If some such practical testing were regularly available it would greatly assist the scientific breeders and laboratory workers in cotton- growing countries, because they would not only be able to send small samples to be submitted to the test, but they would also be enabled to 'bring their laboratory experiments on single bolls and single fibres into closer relation with mill practice than is now possible. Secondly, I commend to all who are practically engaged in cotton breeding or cotton growing that purity should be their principal objective. Hitherto the whole character of the plant has been a chance entanglement of qualities, and improvement a nearly insoluble problem. When pure strains become generally available the processes of improvement in quality or in quantity, or of gradual modification in any desired direction, will become possible, and growers and spinners will both be benefited. SUE LES OSCILLATIONS DBS ATTRIBUTS HERifol- TAIRES ET LA RESULTANTE DES EQUILIBRES, CONSTATJSES SUR LE COTON EGYPTIEN. Par NICOLAS PARACHIMONAS. CONTRAIREMENT aux cotons amcricains ou asiatiques qui montrent tine certaine stabilite, les cotons egyptiens presentent des tendances irresistibles vers la variabilite. Les experiences m'ont demontre que les graines issues du meme ou des memes generateurs donnent des individus differant les uns des autres, tant au point de vue botanique qu'au point de vue industrial. Les causes en sont multiples : les conditions du milieu, telles que le climat, la nature du sol, le systeme de culture, les agents physiques et chimiques; et, en general, les proportions des energies radioactifs influencent certainement 1'essor de la plante et tendent a la sortir de son orbite normale. Cependant ces conditions semblent avoir une action lente et il leur faut longtemps pour manifester leurs effets. A elle seule, Faction de ces facteurs ne peut pas ex- pliquer la variabilite intense a laquelle nous assistons, a moins qu'on n'admette en meme temps que la source des differentiations interesse les tendances de Teconomie intime du cotonnier egyptien qui subit les consequences de sa sensibilite aux effets les plus subtils des influences des lois qui nous sont actuellement voilees. Quoique voilees, ces lois revelent, par leurs mani- festations, le mecanisme intime des tendances et par la deduction on atteint une association d'idees qui peut, dans une certaine mesure, expliquer les phenomenes qui se produisent journellement. L'agriculture egyptienne est fortement interessee de ces revelations qui sont d'une grande portee pratique; et si dans le cours des speculations elles nous conduisent parfois dans le domaine de 1'abstraction, elles ne COTTON 371 manquent pas de nous accorder le benefice des concep- tions pratiques que 1'observation et 1'experience finissent par eriger en regies, regies qui sont autanf d'articles du grand code de Tinconnu qui, helas, nous entoure et nous penetre. Si Ton veut remonter a Torigine de la plante qui nous occupe, on doit se placer au moment ou s'operent les merveilleux effets des affinites mys^.erieuses qui donnent naissance au germe, a 1'embryon, qui contient dans son sein tout un monde; se placer au moment ou se fo Minutes Carbon bisulphide, 30 0 25 100 70 45 6l I c.c. to litre space. pumped as gas 30 o 20 IOO 80 205 28 through cotton 30 0 31 100 49 67 42 seed container 30 I 35 97 49 42 54 I '5 c.c. to litre space. 30 0 34 IOO 36 61 37 6 c.c. to litre space. i Hydrocyanic acid The gas was developed from — gas, pumped 30 I ii 92-5 81 8 9i ( i grm. sodium cyanide. through cotton 30 4 26 87 (good 1 I c.c. sulphuric acid. seed container 60 O 28 IOO seed) (2 c.c. water. 30 13 20 60 34 81 29 (2 grm. sodium cyanide. 60 0 28 IOO 57 So 53 2 c.c. sulphuric acid. 60 o 29 IOO 4 c.c. water. [5 grm. sodium cyanide. 30 0 15 IOO 35 55 48 •1 5 c.c. sulphuric acid. (10 c.c. water. 30 60 o 0 12 10 IOO IOO 34 28 35 41 48 40 [10 grm. sodium cyanide. •1 10 c.c. sulphuric acid. (20 c.c. water. Sulphur dioxide gas, pumped through cotton seed con- tainer 30 60 6 2 12 19 66 90 87 74 49 63 63 54 The gas was developed from — (5 grm. sodium sulphite. 5 c.c. sulphuric acid. IO c.c. water. 30 60 2 O 2S 18 92 IOO 83 89 72 49 S3 64 (IO grm. sodium sulphite. 10 c.c. sulphuric acid. 20 c.c. water. Hours Strength of solution used — Cyllin, seed soaked 24 3 13 81 39 55 42 4,000. in solution 24 0 12 IOO 37 47 44 2,000. 24 o 50 loo 123 126 49 1,000. 24 o 16 IOO 1 08 151 42 1,000. 24 o 9 loo 33 48 40 1,000. 24 0 7 IOO 36 50 4i 500. Controls 32 18 36 54 50 53 These controls were made from 5 20 20 56 52 52 the same seed as was used in 16 28 '1 48 18 40 *35 38 '54 4i 46 all the experiments, except the first one recorded for 24 6 20 "3 187 37 hydrocyanic acid gas. 6 3 33 133 129 50 4 6 40 19 175 10 36 19 34'5 127 *55 42 43 10 19 104 187 36 THE BOLL WORM IN EGYPT. By GERALD C. DUDGEON, F.E.S. Consulting Agriculturist to the Ministry of Agriculture in Egypt; Vice-President of the International Asso- ciation for Tropical Agriculture. PREVIOUS to 1911 the name boll worm was used in Egypt exclusively in application to one species (Earias insulana, Boisd.), but in the year named a new pest appeared which resembled the other in its depredations upon cotton bolls, and to which the name " pink boll worm " has been applied to distinguish it. Owing to the points of difference between the two species being somewhat marked it is necessary to refer to each separately, and the present paper therefore deals only with the common boll worm (E. insulana, Boisd.); it is proposed to give an account of the pink boll worm (Gelechia gossypiella, Saund.) in a subsequent paper. In a special article which was contributed by me to the British Section of the International Association for Tropical Agriculture, and which was published in The Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. x (1912), under the title of "The Cotton Worm in Egypt," I dealt with the history of the inception of cotton cultivation in Egypt and the gradual increase of production. There was no record of the appearance of any cotton pest in Egypt until after cotton had been established in the country for forty years; but about that time closer attention seems to have been given to the reasons for the shortage of crops in some seasons which had hitherto been placed to the account of water scarcity only. As a result of this the Earias cotton boll worm was discovered, an insect which had previously been known to exist in India, from which country it may have been introduced, and from where it is abundantly evident the pink boll worm came recently. The insect commonly referred to as the boll worm, 26 40O COTTON " ver de la capsule" or " dud el luz," in Egypt is identical with one of the species which is destructive to cotton in India, and is the larva or caterpillar of a night flying moth. It has received its common name from the habit it possesses of boring into and consuming the contents of cotton bolls or seed capsules. Although the injury effected is somewhat similar to that caused by the American boll worm (Chloridea obsoleta, Fabr = Heliothis armigera, auctorum), the Egyptian and Indian insect referred to here enters the boll completely, and lives within it for a considerable time, whereas the American insect lives for the most part outside. The remedial treatments, therefore, to be applied to the two species are dissimilar. In appearance the two insects are quite different through all their stages. It may be mentioned that the American boll worm occurs also in Egypt, but is rare, and has never established itself as a serious menace to crops. The zoological position of the Egyptian boll worm is in the family Noctuidae, sub-family Acontianae; and the genus E arias to which it belongs is included as an aberrant one, for which reason it has been referred by various authors to the families Tortricidae and Arctiadae in accordance with the presence of certain characters peculiar to those families. From the form of the cocoon it would appear to be allied to some insects included in the Noctuid sub-family of Sarrothripinae and the Arctiad sub-family Nolianae. Considerable confusion has been caused by the separation, by Boisduval himself, of the Egyptian insect under the name of Eriophaga gossypiana from his species Tortrlv insulana and Earias siliquana from Madagascar, but later authorities are agreed regarding the identity of all as one species under the oldest specific name of insulana in Hubner's genus Earias, which was described in 1818, and of which E. fabia, Stoll., is the type. The following synonymy is taken from that appearing in Sir George Hampson's catalogue of the Lcpldoptera phalsense, with a few additional references from local" publications : — • COTTON 4OI Earias insulana. Tortrix insulana, Boisd., Faun. Madag., p. 121, pi. 16, f- 9 (i833)- Earias smaragdinana, Zell., K. Vet.-Akad. Handl p. 79 (1852). Earias siliquana, Herr-Schaff, Schmett. Eur. ii, p. 448, Nyct ff. 1-3 (1853). Earias frondosana, Wlk., Cat. Lep. Het. B.M., xxvii, 204 (1863). Earias frondosana, Butler, ///. Het. B.M. vi, p. 14, pi. 105, f. i (1886). Acontia xanthophila, Wlk., Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool., vii, p. 50 (1863). Earias simillima, Wlk., Cat. Lep. Het. B.M., xxxv, p. 1775 (1866). Earias simillima, Kirby, Cat. Lep. Het., p. 282 (1892). Earias Morion, Rmbr., Cat. Lep. S. And. ii, pi. 15. fig. 6 (1866). Earias gossypii, Frauenf., Verh. sool.-bot. Ges Wien, xvii, p. 791 (1867). Earias anthophilana, Snell., Tijd. v. Ent., xxii, p. 96, pi. 8, fig. i (1879). Earias anthophilana, Kirby, Cat. Lep. Het., p. 282 (1892). Earias tristrigosa, Butl., Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., p. 614 (1881). Earias tristrigosa, Kirby, Cat. Lep. Het., p. 282 (1892), Eriophaga gossypiana, Boisd., Memoir sur I'insectc ravageur des plantes de colon en Egypte, Rapport de la Commission du Gouvern. (1872). Eriophaga gossypiana, Ismalum, Bull. Com. Agric. Cairo, i, p. 27, Ann. B (1884). Earias insulana, Cotes and Swinhoe, Cat. Moths Ind. (1887). Earias insulana, Kirby, Cat. Lep. Het., p. 281 (1892), Earias insulana, Hampson, Moths Ind., ii, p. 133 Earias insulana, Staud., Cat. Lep. Pal., p. 362 (1901). Earias insulana, Willcocks, Year-book, Khediv. Agric. ., Cairo, p. 57 (1905). 402 COTTON Earias insulana, Hampson, Cat. Lep. Phalsense, vol. xi, p. 502 (1912). Earias dorsivitta, Staud., Iris, x, p. 165 (1897). Earias ochreimargo, Warren, Seitz I, iii, p. 296 (1913). Earias semifascia, Warren, Seitz I, iii, p. 296 (1913). A contribution by Mr. F. C. Willcocks to the Year- book of the Khedivial Agricultural Society, for 1905, pp. 57-91, comprises a complete account of the life-history of the .insect, and description of all the stages. The following account of the three incomplete stages is quoted from the above in extenso. THE EGG. The egg is approximately 0*5 mm. in diameter; the height is almost equal to the diameter. When first laid it varies in colour from a pale turquoise blue to bluish- green; later the green tint generally becomes dominant, a brownish ring tinged with green appears around the upper third of the egg, and an area of the same colour in the centre. The egg is more or less globular in form, and is surmounted by a prominent crown; viewed from above the outline is circular. The shape is variable according to the conditions under which the egg has been laid. If deposited on a hairy surface, such as a bamiah fruit (Hibiscus esculentus), the base is usually much rounded, and consequently the spherical shape is well marked; but when the egg is laid on a smooth, unyielding surface, or if pressure is brought into use in order to fix it in some crack or irregularity on the surface of the object on which oviposition is taking place, the basal part is more flattened, and the globular form is thus lost. In general appearance the egg is not unlike a miniature poppy head, except, of course, for the more complicated structure and sculpturing on the shell. The surface is marked with numerous vertical and very slightly zigzag ribs, which stand out very prominently from the sides. These ribs can be classified into two sets of long and medium length respectively. COTTON 403 The long ribs project at the top and curve away from the surface, and thus form the points of the large crown which surmounts the upper portion of the egg. The second series or shorter longitudinal ridges, which alter- nate with the long ones, stop at the base of the crown, and do not project outwards so as to form points. Within the large crown, and at a very slightly higher elevation, there is a much smaller one which surrounds the micropyle. The points of the latter are slender, upright, and generally bifid at the apex; they appear to be formed by ribs, which proceed in a slight upward curve from the points of the large crown; the single ridges, which spring from two of the outer teeth, converge and form a point in the micropylar crown. However, the points com- prising the latter are not half the number which form the primary crown, because some of the ribs which spring from the teeth of the larger crown run in between those which make up the micropylar crown. The secondary crown surrounds a small area, more or less flat, in the centre of which is the micropyle. This space is sculptured with several delicate converging ridges, which form a somewhat rosette-shaped pattern. The vertical ribs are joined by a series of small concave transverse striae, which are alternately opposite each other, the enclosed areas being markedly concave. The sculpturing becomes obsolete at the base. The whole shell reflects light very strongly, which gives the egg the appearance of being made of blown glass. Opposition on Cotton. — The eggs are laid on various parts of the cotton plant, but, as far as Mr. Willcocks's observations go at present, the bolls, terminal buds, and perhaps also the squares, appear to be the favourite positions for oviposition. They may also be found on the large flower buds, and occasionally on the petioles and in the axils of the leaves, or on the leaves themselves. As a rule each female lays a single egg on a boll, but sometimes she lays two, or possibly more. However, as several females oviposit on the same capsule, it is by no means unusual to find quite a number of hatched and unhatched eggs in different stages; this is more common 404 COTTON towards the end of the season. The favourite situation on the boll, for the deposition of the egg or eggs, is in one of the grooves near the apex. They are also deposited on the sides of the fruit and on various parts of the involucre. In the case of squares they are laid on the involucre, frequently on the teeth. When vegetative buds are chosen the eggs are placed on the small leaves. Opposition on other Plants. — In the case of tehl (Hibiscus cannabinus) and bamiah (H. esculentus), the eggs are laid on the fruits and flower buds. The writer has sometimes found as many as twenty eggs and egg- shells on a single small fruit of the latter plant. On the garden hibiscus (H. rosa-sinensis) the females oviposit on the flower buds and in the axils of the leaves. Time of Oviposition. — Egg-laying takes place during the night. Probably the females commence to oviposit at dusk between intervals of feeding, as they are very- active on the wing at this time. The moths have never been noticed flying about during the daytime, except, of course, when they have been disturbed from their day retreats; they will then only fly a short distance and quickly settle again. Number of Eggs laid and Length of Egg-laying Period. — It has not been possible to obtain sufficient data on this subject to make any definite statement as to the total, or average number of eggs, which a female of this species is capable of producing. A female which was kept under observation in the laboratory in September, and supplied with food in the form of cane-sugar syrup, laid on five consecutive nights a total of 233 eggs. On the first night 96 were deposited on the food plants and various parts of the cage; on the second 58, on the third 49, on the fourth 19, and on the fifth and last night only ii were laid. In this instance the egg-laying period only lasted five nights, but in the case of some females which were bred and kept under observation in December, 1904, it was very much further extended, although the total number of eggs laid in each case was considerably less than the above female gave rise to. This may be accounted for prej sSSa J13JO j^ £• §• 5 ? s 2 EGGS LAID ON CONSECUTIVE NIGHTS I o * I JT 0 I •2 o * £ 0 0 ^ HH o 10 0 o 2" ro 0 J? O o N O o g 0 * o 0 0 0 M 0 0 o CO CO 0 0 0 r* o O « 2 VO o 0 0 0 ^ 0 0 0 o * o 0 ro CO fO 0 N O 0* N CO 0 N 0 H 1 0 0 0 December, 1904 ^ o O "•> o o ~ o o 0 !? o O Tf vO CO ~ 0 M o £ M IH O o "8 JJ* VO CO * HH 10 1 I ° I 3 •-" O N O t^ e? *^ co O O O « 0 o o o « s ir» 0 « « in 8 N vo 0 CO vo sr 00 0 0 co ^ OO O O O ^ 00 £ O ••H O M fO "2 OO 2" 2 o M 10 \O * w o O t^ J N O N t^ t^ 1-1 ro v£> 0) N 00 ON CO f-H 1— 1 M HH CO VO Tj- CO E ct « w co 2 O 1 1 1 1 O> w 10 N 00 °^ "* ^- JJ? ^ 1 - 1 % a i i i paip 3JUUI3J C g B C 8 C »*, c ^i, A Q ^ paDuauiiuoo SuiAuj-SSg ir^ r>» oo oo oo co I' 11 Jjj S3IBUI9JJO -0N | Hi W CO ^f XO VO 406 COTTON to some extent by the much lower temperature con- ditions. These females were supplied with sugar-syrup for food. The table on p. 405 shows the egg-laying record and life of each female. These figures are not of very great value, as they only deal with a limited number of individuals, and have not been duplicated or carried out under more normal surroundings. However, they show that the females will breed and oviposit at a temperature ranging from 50° to 60° F., also that under certain con- ditions the egg-laying period may extend in a somewhat irregular fashion over a considerable number of days, and that the life of a female may last well over a month. How these results would compare with what actually takes place in the field it is not yet possible to say. The fact that larvae in all stages of growth, eggs, pupae, and adults, may be found in the same field and at the same time throughout the summer months tends to show that possibly the egg-laying period may last some little time. Incubation Period and Hatching of the Egg. — During the summer months the egg stage lasts from three to four days, but in late autumn and winter it will be extended to eleven or twelve days. A short time before hatching the egg becomes dark in colour owing to the head of the larva showing through the shell. When ready to emerge from the egg the young boll worm bites vigorously at the shell until it makes a hole through it, generally at the base of the primary crown. The hole is gradually enlarged until it permits of the easy passage of the head. This having been accom- plished, the larva crawls out free of the shell. The process of eating a passage through the shell is not con- tinuous, rests being taken at intervals; the young cater- pillar appears to find it hard work to bite through the main vertical ribs. The period occupied from the time the boll worm first commences to bite at the shell until it finally escapes varies in length; sometimes it only takes about twenty minutes, at others it may be pro- longed to fifty minutes. The empty egg-shell is dull transparent white, and COTTON 407 generally keeps its shape; the crown and upper part may or may not be left attached to the lower portion. The newly hatched boll worm does not appear in any case to devour the shell which it has just vacated. LARVA OR WORM STAGE. The Young Larva. — When first hatched the young boll worm is about 1*4 mm. in length and of a pale yellowish colour, with a conspicuous bluish-green or bluish dorsal line, which disappears after a short time. The head is black or very dark brown, shiny, and furnished with a number of long, fine, and pale-coloured hairs. Thoracic shield brown. The body is provided with numerous fine pale hairs, which are of considerable length, especially on the anal segments. After it has escaped from the egg the boll worm wanders about for a short time, and finally proceeds to bore into a boll, square or terminal bud. Description of Mature Boll Worm (Plate II, Figs. 3 and 4). — The mature larva or boll worm is about 15 mm. or slightly more in length ; the anterior part of the body is rather thick-set, but it tapers towards the anal end. The " hunched-up " appearance is most marked when the boll worm is at rest. The general colouring varies from reddish-brown (often with a purplish tinge), with pale brownish-yellow and orange markings, to pale bluish- green and dull olivaceous-green, with similar adornments. The body is furnished with numerous fleshy spikes, which give the larva a very characteristic appearance. The head is highly polished, black or very deep brown, shaded with a paler tint of the same colour; there is a prominent median transverse yellowish band, which gradually merges into brown at the edges. Antennae pale. Inverted V-shaped mark, fine and dark. The head is provided with a small number of short, fine, and pale hairs. The thoracic shield is shiny, yellowish in colour, with a median transverse, shallow, but broad groove, coloured darlc brown; posterior edge of shield also of the same colour. The shield is cut longitudinally by a pale line, narrow anteriorly, broadening out posteriorly; along the 408 COTTON edges there are several small black punctures, also similar markings on the posterior margin of the shield. The latter is furnished with four pairs of long yellowish hairs, shaded at the base, which arise from small darkish brown tubercles arranged as follows: four bordering the anterior margin, one placed each side, immediately behind the median transverse groove near the lateral margin, and one each side of the median longitudinal pale line, near the posterior edge of the shield. On each of the second, third, and fourth segments there are two pairs of prominent fleshy spikes — two median and two lateral. On the second and third segments the median pair situated each side of the dorsal line are the largest, and dark in colour; the lateral ones are pale and slightly shorter. Both pairs on the fourth segments are pale. These fleshy spikes are piliferous, bearing large numbers of short fine hairs, which are dark on the dark- coloured spikes, and pale on the others. From the apex of each spike there springs a very long pale hair. The base of each of these piliferous prominences is surrounded by a patch of bright orange colour. On the second, third and fourth segments, between the median spikes and immediately each side of the dorsal line, there is a small brownish tubercle, from which arises a short fine hair, dark at the base, pale at the tip. There is also a similar tubercle between the median and lateral spikes, which is surrounded by a blackish area. There are several short hairs near the base of the lateral spikes on .segments three and four. On each of the segments from five to ten there are two median and two lateral piliferous fleshy spikes, but they are less conspicuous than those on the anterior part of the body. Each is surrounded at the base by an orange- coloured area, which is more marked in the case of the lateral than of the median spikes; around the latter it is frequently obscure or absent, especially posteriorly. The spikes themselves on this part of the body are sometimes pale orange in colour. On the fifth and sixth segments there are four prominent blackish or dark brown spots; on the posterior edge of these there is a small tubercle COTTON 409 Avhich bears a short tapering hair, dark at the base, paler towards the tip. On the seventh segment the median spots are, as a rule, obscure; the lateral ones prominent, but not nearly so clearly defined as on segments five and six. On the eighth segment all four are conspicuous; on the ninth and tenth the lateral spots are fairly well marked, the median pair pale and obscure in comparison. The tubercles are present in each case. On segment eleven there are three pairs of fleshy prominences — median, lateral, and sub-lateral; they are more rounded conical in shape, and the covering hairs are less numerous and more spike-like. The apical hairs are long, stout, and dark at the base, finer and pale at the tip. Anterior to the median pair of prominences, and each side of the dorsal line, there are two brownish tubercles which bear a short hair. On segment twelve there are six fleshy prominences, and in this case the two tubercles are repre- sented by similar but smaller structures. The anal shield on the thirteenth segment is dark brown or blackish, with sinuous margin. Around the latter are placed rounded conical prominences, covered with short spike-like hairs, and bearing at the apex a long, rather stout, and dark-coloured hair. On the central area of the shield there are a pair of similar but smaller prominences. Below the anal shield there are two stout projecting fleshy spikes, which are covered with numerous stiff hairs, and furnished at the apex with a long hair. The spiracles, which are oval, black, ringed with black, are situated in a line with and anterior to the lateral row of fleshy spikes, with the exception of the spiracle on the fourth segment, which is below. There is a sub- spiracular line of hairs, except on the second and third segments. Below these, and almost ventral, there is another line of hairs which, on segments one to three, arise from two tubercles, large and small, placed side by side; on the fourth and fifth segments these are repre- sented by a fairly conspicuous fleshy spike. Posteriorly they are very much less prominent. The first three segments of the body are, as a rule, pale, frequently pale bluish-green. Laterally the 4IO COTTON abdominal segments are dark reddish-brown, sometimes having a distinct purplish tinge. On the fifth, sixth, and eighth segments this dark colour extends over from each side and meets in the central line of the body. The dorsal area on the seventh and ninth to twelfth is pale yellowish- white, shaded with pale brownish-yellow. The ventral surface is a pale and rather dull bluish-green or dull olive- green. Some larvae are almost entirely of the former colour. Others are more of a pale olive-green, but in all cases the dorsal area on segments seven and nine to twelve is paler. The dorsal line is slightly darker and fairly well marked. The thoracic legs are pale, shaded with dark brown and smoky black, armed with strong pale brown claws. Abdominal feet and claspers same colour as venter, furnished with crescent-shaped series of pale brown hooks. The whole surface of the skin is covered with very minute hairs. Length of Larval Life. — During the summer months the larval stage lasts about a fortnight, but in the autumn and winter months, when the temperatures are lower, growth takes place at a much slower rate, and this period is very considerably prolonged. PUPA STAGE. Situation and Formation of the Cocoon on Cotton. — When mature the boll worm leaves the boll on which it has been feeding and spins a boat-shaped cocoon, either between the side of the capsule and the involucre, or between two of the involucral bracts, or in any convenient fold of the latter. The cocoon is not necessarily made on the boll which the larva has vacated on reaching full growth, as it is not uncommon to find one on a boll which has not been attacked. The boll worm in many cases evidently wanders about the plant before finally settling on a spot in which to pass the pupal stage. Very often, on account of the drying up and contraction of the involucre, the cocoon becomes loosened, and may be finally dislodged altogether and fall to the ground owing to the disturbance of the cotton plants by wind. COTTON 411 Occasionally the cocoons are attached to the stem or a dead leaf, and sometimes the boll worm crawls down the stem of the cotton plant, and attaches its cocoon to the latter just below the ground level. Mr. Fletcher1 states that tffey also enter the cracks in the soil to pupate, and that they spin their cocoons on the under side of the leaves and weeds growing amongst the cotton. So far Mr. Willcocks has not been able to find them in this position. What proportion of the larvae pupate in these last-named situations is not known, but it will probably be found that the majority pupate on the plants. One would expect this to be the case from the nature of the cocoon. Situation of the Cocoon on other Plants*. — In the case of tehl (Hibiscus cannabinus), the cocoons are spun between the seed capsules and the stem, or between two contiguous fruits, and occasionally on the involucral bracts. On the garden hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis) they may be found on the stem in such places as the fork of a branch, or under a piece of loose bark, etc. Description of the Cocoon (Plate I, Fig. 18).— The cocoon is somewhat boat-shaped, but it varies slightly in form, according to the position in which it has been made. The end at which the head of the pupa is situated is blunt, and consists of two lips, which are tightly drawn together with silken strands ; they can, however, be forced apart easily by a slight squeeze between the finger and thumb, and also by the moth itself when it is ready to emerge. These lips turn outwards slightly and form a ridge, which projects at the apex into a small silken process; this is more marked in some specimens than in others. The silk of which the cocoon is made is very closely woven and felt-like in texture; in colour it varies from white and dirty cream to pale and dark brown. There are, however, two coats of silk, which can be easily separated, and it is only the outer one which is dark- coloured; the inner is pale, often white, with a pearly lustre. 1 " Notes on some Egyptian Insect Pests," p. 65, Bombay, 1905. 412 COTTON The dark brown type is very difficult to see when spun\ on the dried-up involucre of a cotton boll, and more especially when on the tehl plant, as it almost exactly matches its surroundings. Description of the Pupa (Plate I, Fig. 17). — Length 9 mm. to 1 1 '5 mm. Head, wing, and leg cases light yellowish-brown. Thorax dull blackish, with a purplish tinge at the sides; in some specimens the general colour of this part of the body is distinctly dull purple, as it is also on the empty pupa case. There is a distinct median carina on the thorax, the surface of which is much roughened, the rugosities being in the form of an irregular reticulate pattern. On the first four segments of the abdomen the dorsal, surface is of a dull purplish colour, median segments, paler, shading to yellowish-brown at the sides. Tip of the abdomen dark and bluntly rounded. Dorsal surface roughened. Ventral surface pale yellow, sometimes, suffused with a greenish tinge. On each side of the fifth abdominal segment posterior to the spiracle there are; a number of small brown points which stand out pro- minently from the sides. These are arranged in a more or less linear area, which is widest in the middle. On each side of the last segment of the abdomen, and placed vertically, there are generally three well-marked tooth-like projections, the one nearest the dorsum being the most prominent, and a series of sharp-edged ridges below them. Both the teeth and the ridges appear to be variable in number and distinctness, but in any case the tooth-like projection nearest the dorsum is present and conspicuous. Length of the Pupal Stage. — During the summer months the pupal stage lasts from ten days to a fortnight. In the late autumn and winter months it is very consider- ably prolonged. Larvae which pupate at the end of December or in January may remain in this stage for two months or slightly more. Some boll worms which pupated in the laboratory in January, 1904, gave rise to the adults early in March after a quiescent period varying from thirty-five to fifty-two days. THE BOLL WORM IN EGYPT. PLATE I. 17 H. KNIGHT, Pinxit. FORMS OF EARIAS INSULANA, BOISD. 1 — 3. var. semifascia, Warren. 15, 16. E. insulana, Boisd. 7, 8. var. anthophilana, Snell. 17. Pupa. 14. var. ochreimargo, Warren. 18. Cocoon. Other figures represent intermediate forms. COTTON 41$ PERFECT STAGE. The moth (Plate I, figs. 1-16) has the head, thorax,. and fore wings, bright pea-green, chrome-yellow, or brownish, the latter crossed by three more or less. distinct dark lines, each angled acutely above the middle. The hind wings are semi-transparent white, with pale fuscous margins and apex. The abdomen above is silvery-grey, and the under surface white. The fore- wings frequently have patches of purplish or brown near, the middle. During summer and early autumn the green, forms are in greater numbers, and in the latter part of the year these are comparatively rare, being replaced by the yellow and brownish forms. The patched form seems to occur at the transitory period between the green and yellow forms. This suggests that a seasonal dimorphism exists, which is usually an indication that a protective colouring is necessary for the insect's preservation. In. this case the green insects would be inconspicuous when settled on the green foliage, and the brown and yellow similarly so when upon withered leaves, etc. The various forms are described and figured by Mr. Storey, Assistant Entomologist to the Ministry of Agriculture, in vol. iii, part ii, of the Agricultural Journal of Egypt. This illustration is reproduced as. Plate I with this paper. The perfect insect measures about 22 mm. in expanse, and the body is about 9 mm. in length. It is curious to note that it has been frequently found m desert places far removed from cultivation. Mr. Willcocks mentions that Mr. Graves, of Cairo, found specimens near Moses' Well (opposite Suez) and in Wadi Hof, Helwan, about four miles from cultivation. The species is common in Kharga Oasis in the Western desert, having probably been introduced with cotton or bamiah. Habits. — With regard to these, Mr. Willcocks says : " During the daytime the moths frequently shelter between the involucre and the boll, and they may often be found at rest on a leaf exposed to the full glare of: the sun. 414 COTTON " Sometimes they may be taken in coitu in the latter situation. Rough grass and weedy growths near the cotton fields also form day retreats for the adults. When at rest the wings are tightly folded into the sides of the body with one fore wing slightly overlapping the other, so that the insect appears more or less wedge-shaped. When they settle to feed the wings are held in a ' tecti- form ' position over the abdomen. " As soon as it becomes dark the boll worm moths may .be seen on the wing, their object being to feed and ovi- posit. They fly with a rather slow and wavering flight. " Certain flowers appear to have a strong attraction for them. During the last week in November, 1905, great numbers of the moths were observed flitting about a bed of chrysanthemums, from the disc flowers of whicii they were busily engaged in sucking out the nectar. During the day they concealed themselves amongst the petals, as many as four or five being present on a single flower-head." The species has been recorded from the following localities : — Europe. — Southern Spain, Sicily, Crete. Africa. — Throughout North, East, and South, and recorded from Northern Nigeria in the West, Canaries, Madagascar, and Mauritius. Asia. — Syria, Baluchistan, India, Burma, and Siam. Australasia . — Queensland . The food of the larvae appears to be limited to plants belonging to the Order Malvaceae, among which it has only been found upon the following' species in Egypt : Cotton (Gossypium spp.), bamiah (Hibiscus esculentus), tehl (H. cannabinus}, and garden hibiscus (H . rosa- sinensis and H. mutabilis). A distinct preference is shown for cotton in Egypt, although in India bamiah seems to be more attractive, and for this reason has been used as a trap in that country. It is the opinion of several entomologists and other careful observers in Egypt that more damage is usually done to the cotton crop by the boll worm than by the cotton worm, notwithstanding that the latter is so much more conspicuous in the fields. COTTON 415 First Records of £. insulana in Egyptian. Cotton Fields. In spite of the fact that the presence of boll worms in a cotton field is much less conspicuous to the casual observer than that of cotton worms, the former were recorded as attacking cotton several years previous to the latter. The credit of having first drawn attention to the pest belongs to Joannovitch Bey, who studied the habits of the insect from 1865 to 1872, and published a record of his observations in a paper under the title of " Description de 1'insecte ravageur du coton en Egypte " (Bulletin de Vlnstitut Egypt., 1873). In 1871 a Commission was formed, to which Joan- novitch Bey presented a report. The insect was sent for identification to Boisduval, who described it as a new species, which he placed in the genus Eriophaga, and named Eriophaga, gossypiana.2 Boisduval pointed out in his description that the species was distinct from his Tortrix immlana,3 but later authorities do not agree that this is the case, and the last specific name takes pre- cedence, and has been adopted throughout scientific literature dealing with the insect. Important though the boll worm is for consideration in respect to cotton in Egypt, very little was written concerning it during the subsequent thirty years, the contribution by Innes Bey in 1884 (Bulletin du Comite Agric., No. i, 1884), a report by Mr. Williamson Wallace, presented to the Commission of 1895 (which does not appear to have been included in the general report of the Commission), and a communication by M. Dechevalerie (Bulletin de Vlnstitut Egypt., May, 1898), comprising nearly the whole literature with reference to it produced during that period in Egypt. In 1905 Mr. F. C. Willcocks contributed a very complete description, including all that was known up to that time concerning the boll worm, and from this work I have already given extracts.4 In 1906 2 See Bull, du Comite Agric., No. i, Avril, 1884, Ann. B., p. 29, le Caire. 3 Boisduval. — Faun. Madag.j p. 121, pi. 16, fig. 9, 1833. 4 Willcocks, F. C.— Year-book of the Khediv. Agric. Soc. for 1905, PP. 57-Qi. 27 COTTON an article based upon the writer's report to the Secretary of State for the Colonies of Great Britain appeared in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, which dealt with the insects which attack cotton in Egypt,5 and a reference was again made in an account prepared by the writer upon insect and other cotton pests and the methods suggested for their destruction, which appeared in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute in the following year.6 An article upon the subject of the methods employed in Egypt and elsewhere to check the ravages of the cotton boll worm appeared in the Agricultural Journal of Egypt in 1911. 7 Commission of 1910. Tn the report of the Cotton Commission, which was issued in 1910, reference was chiefly made to the cotton worm among the pests which infest cotton, but a few references occur which show that it was recognized that the boll worm was responsible for considerable damage. On p. 5 of the report we find: " La production coton- niere totale de TEgypte n'a pas augmente dans la meme proportion que la superficie plantee, et en 1909 plus particulierement, il y a eu une chute brusque dans le rendement moyen au feddan. Si Ton etudie la situation particuliere a la Haute Egypte, on constate qu'a part 1'annee 1905 ou les chenilles de la capsule commirent d'enormes degats le rendement au feddan n'y a pas suivi une marche descendante. L'annee 1909 marque cependant une chute accentuee." The Commission recommended two methods to be employed against the boll worm attacks, one of which was the production of an early maturing variety of cotton, and the other the promulgation of a decree making the destruction of all malvaceous plants neces- sary by the end of December. The Commission also considered the application of the system of moth trap, 5 "Insects which attack Cotton ID Egypt" (Dudgeon), Bull. Im$. InsL, vol. iv, igo6, pp. 48-50. 6 " Insects and other Cotton Pests and the Methods suggested for their Destruction" (Dudgeon), Bull. Im$. Inst., vol. v, 1907, p. 145- 7 Dudgeon, G. C. — Agric. Journ. of Egypt, vol. i, 191 1, pp. 40-43- COTTON 4 17 introduced by Messrs Andres and Maire, for the capture of the boll worm and cotton worm moths, and a large amount of work with these appliances was subsequently undertaken by Mr. F. C. Willcocks, with the result that they proved to exercise an insufficient deterrent effect upon the propagation of the insects. Cotton Worm and Boll Worm Commission in 1912. In 1912 a Commission was formed at the instigation of Lord Kitchener to make a complete study of the cotton pests, and the Sub-Committee appointed by the Commis- sion is still engaged in the investigation. In the mean- time another pest has appeared which has placed the common boll worm rather in the background, and which has given evidence of causing a diminution in the numbers of the original insect by the substitution of itself in its place. The efforts which are now being made to destroy this new pest, the pink boll worm or seed worm, can almost all be made applicable to the Earias boll worm also, and the modification of the boll worm decree rendering it compulsory to pick off and burn all bolls after the last cotton picking is designed to be effective against both pests equally. Estimation of Damage done by the Common Boll Worms. — It has always been a matter of great difficulty to estimate the damage done to the cotton crop by the larva of Earias insulana. It is, in fact, only possible to give a comparative estimate of the effect each year, but, as the degree of destruction is almost wholly dependent upon whether the crop is an early or late one, it is nearly safe to predict that damage will be great when the crop is late and slight when it is early. The reason for the above is that the generations of boll worm multiply rapidly throughout the year, being at their minimum in the winter or early spring, when the food plants, cotton and hibiscus (bamiah and tehl) are most scarce, and increasing in each generation as these plants again become plentiful, until, in the month of October, the greatest quantity of food is available and the largest number of boll worms are able to find sustenance. COTTON It is often supposed' by the agricultural population that the prevalence of fogs and cold weather increase the numbers of boll worm. This is only indirectly the case, as we find that the fogs and mists retard the maturity of bolls and thereby assist the development of boll worms, in addition, to which a condition of subdued light is pro- duced, which is favourable to the awakening of activity in the feeding larvae; bright sunlight being a strong adverse condition. Effect produced by an Attack. — The effect of an attack of Earias boll worm upon the cotton plants is evidenced in several ways. In the earlier generations, when no boll flowers or buds are present on the cotton plant, the young worm attacks the terminal shoots of the plant, each worm tunnelling into the succulent shoot near the top and eating a passage down the centre of the stem until it reaches the harder and more woody parts, when it leaves the stem to attack a fresh shoot. A terminal shoot which has been attacked in the manner described withers and soon changes to a dark colour, and if cut off at a point a little below the withered portion the living boll worm may be found within the stem. As soon as the buds appear upon the plants the worms attack them in preference to the shoots, and the presence of a boll worm in a bud is manifested by what is termed " flaring " in the United States, where a similar result is produced by the boll weevil, an insect, fortunately for the present confined to the Southern cotton states in America. The appearance of a flared bud differs from that of a healthy one in that, in the flared one, the involucres or leaf-like coverings of the bud open widely, exposing the bud, which in a normal case would be hidden by them. In some cases the flared bud falls to the ground, its vitality being injured by the growing connec- tion with the stem becoming interrupted or atrophied. Although the bud has been destroyed in this way the boll worm rarely suffers by the fall, leaving the fallen bud to attack a fresh one. Boll worms are frequently found in the flowers, feeding upon the pollen and reproductive organs, thereby render- ing the flowers themselves sterile. When attacking a boll the minute larva lives for the COTTON 419 first few days after its emergence from the egg in the outer shell of the boll, producing a small circular hole which it enlarges as it proceeds into the boll itself. When a boll worm has entered a boll it protects itself from disturbance by other insects or parasites by dis- charging a quantity of more or less moist excreta which effectually prevents the entry of any other insect by the passage which has been made by the larva. The boll worm may confine its attack to one cell only in, a boll, or it may destroy all three cells, or even more than one boll. If a medium-sized boll be attacked it frequently dies and dries up without becoming detached from the plant, but in such a case the plant itself has ceased growing*, otherwise the boll would most probably fall to the ground. When the bolls die and remain attached to the plant they become a reddish-brown in colour, and are known to the native cultivators as " nabroon." Large bolls when pierced at a period of semi-maturity open prematurely, and by the exposure of their moist, incompletely developed lint render themselves liable to the attacks of saprophytic fungi, which completely destroy the value of the lint by covering it with black spores. Prolongation of Metamorphoses in Winter. — As the autumn advances and the weather becomes colder the larval stage of the boll worm is prolonged, and after all the valuable cotton has been picked the cotton plants are pulled up and stored for fuel. During this storing period boll worms remain inside the drying bolls attached to the plants, feeding* upon the seeds until, by reason of the contraction due to the drying up of the contents, the worms, if immature, die, or if fully mature emerge in the usual way to pupate. For this latter change they secrete themselves in the dried and shrivelled involucres and leaves or upon the stems and form a smooth cocoon of brownish or buff-coloured silk in which to undergo the change into the pupa state, during which time they require no further nourishment. In this stage they remain until the warmer weather causes them to be transformed into moths, when they emerge, either to remain dormant for a further period, or to fly off to deposit eggs on the food plants of their coming genera- 42O COTTON tion, such food consisting of the shoots emanating from cotton, bamiah, or tehl, which have been left in the ground. Upon these the females lay isolated eggs in the most protected positions possible, and the larvae emerge, after a further dormant egg period, to carry on a precarious existence upon the limited food supply available. Probable Vitality of Generations. — During the earliest brood it is probable that only 10 per cent, of the eggs laid produce moths for the next generation, but it may safely be reckoned that 50 per cent, of each of the subsequent ones survive. From experiments which have been made by Mr. Willcocks, and which have been previously quoted, the average number of eggs laid by a female moth in December and January is determined as 140, and the time occupied by a female for the complete oviposition at this season varies from eight to forty-four days. On the other hand, a female kept under observation by Mr. Willcocks in September continued laying for five nights only, but deposited 233 eggs. In order, therefore, to give some idea of the rate of propagation of the Earias boll worm throughout the year, the following calculation is considered a fair one. Assuming that the females in the first generation lay 140 eggs each and in the following generation 200 eggs, an estimate of the production in the fifth generation (October) from one pair of moths, the female of which laid in January, can be arrived at as follows : — i pair produces 140 eggs, of which 10 per cent. = 14 produce moths. 7 pairs (14 moths) produce 200 eggs each == 1,400, of which 50 per cent. = 700 produce moths. 350 pairs (700 moths) produce 200 eggs each = 70,000, of which 50 per cent. = 35,000 produce moths. 17,500 pairs (35,000 moths) produce 200 eggs each = 3,500,000, of which 50 per cent. = 1,750,000 produce moths. One female moth which laid in January would there- fore be responsible for the production in October of 3,500,000 boll worms, of which, at a very moderate estimate, 1,750,000 would survive to become mature. COTTON 421 Some conception of the damage resulting from the preservation of each pair of boll worm moths in the early months of the year can be obtained from this. General Disregard of the Importance of the Boll Worm, Scientific entomologists and those who have made a study of the insect pests on cotton are convinced that the cotton worm is of minor importance in comparison with the boll worm; yet, although proposals have been constantly invited by the Cotton Worm and Boll Worm Commission for remedial measures against this pest, few suggestions have been received and none have proved of any practical value. All the investigations in connection with this pest have been made by the Scientific Staff of the Ministry of Agriculture and the members of the Sub-Committee of the Commission, and nearly every satisfactory proposal for remedial measures has emanated from the Ministry or the Commission itself. Some Influences on the Activity of Boll Wowns and Methods of Control Indicated. In connection with many lepidopterous insects it has been found that the greatest activity is shown in their attacks upon plants at times when the latter are not exposed to bright sunlight. Very many lepidopterous larvae will not feed except in positions where they are protected from the direct rays of the sun, therefore in most cases the depredations are done at night, in cloudy weather, or in positions where the greatest amount of shade is obtainable. Although demonstration of the utility of the defoliation of the cotton plants as a bene- ficial measure for boll worm attacks has not been made, the success which is said to attend this operation in connection with the boll weevil in the United States of America is some assurance that a similar result might be expected in the case of the Egyptian boll worm. Defolia- tion is effected in Texas by attacks of a cotton worm, Aletla argillacea, the advent of which is welcomed in the boll weevil districts, though this defoliating cotton worm is destroyed in other localities. The effect of the defolia- tion is not only to kill the boll weevil larvae in the affected 422 COTTON bolls by exposure to the sun's heat, but to accelerate maturity of the bolls themselves. In Egypt the experi- ment of defoliation has yet to be made, and could be done by hand without injury to the plants. A member of the Commission drew, attention to the fact that, as it was stated that the terminal shoots of cotton plants were attacked by boll worms before the buds and bolls were produced, an addition might be made to the existing law to compel the picking of infested shoots at the time when the people were employed in the fields for the collection and destruction of the eggs of cotton worm (Prodenia litura, Fabr.). To add such clauses to a law which is promulgated to deal with the ravages of cotton worm only would but create a con- fusion, but a clause was inserted in the instructions given to cotton worm inspectors to draw attention to the fact that the wilted and withered terminal shoots on cotton plants would be found to contain 'boll worms and to direct that these should be picked and destroyed together with the leaves which contained cotton worms or the egg masses. When buds have been attacked by the pest and have become detached from the plant due to the suppression of their vital connection with the stem which bore them, the boll worm usually leaves the fallen bud to search for a fresh one. During this time the larva exposes itself to the greatest peril, being a ready prey to carni- vorous beetles (Carabidas) and to the intestine infesting larvae of the Ichneumonidae and Braconidae, the adults of which hover about cotton plants and patrol leaves, buds and bolls in search of the boll worms, in whose bodies they deposit their eggs. A short account of these para- sites is given in another part of this paper. Some of the Braconidae, among which the most im- portant one found in India destructive to the Earias boll worm is Rhogas Lefroyi, Dudgeon and Gough, were introduced into Egypt in 1912 by the Egyptian Govern- ment. Great difficulty was experienced in transporting the parasite mentioned from Bengal to Egypt in a living condition, and just when success had been attained in this direction the value of the introduction was depreciated by the discovery of a nearly allied indigenous Braconid, COTTON 423 named Rhogas Kitchcneri, Dudgeon and Cough, in the province of Beni Souef, in Upper Egypt. This little parasite has been found commonly in the first locality and shows signs of spreading. The experiment, which was conducted in India by Professor Maxwell Lefroy, in pro- pagating the Rhogas parasite and introducing it into the fields infected with boll worm showed that the diminution in the percentage of attacked bolls was very large, but the difficulties of propagation on a large scale in the laboratory were so great that this scheme as a remedial measure seemed well-nigh impracticable. The transfer- ence of infected larvae or the parasite pupae to new localities to enable colonies of the parasite to establish themselves naturally promises to be of greater efficacy in Egypt. Operations in this direction are being under- taken by the Entomological Section of the Ministry of Agriculture. The Rhogas or other Braconid parasites which may attack the Earias boll worm can only do so when the larva is feeding in the flowers, or when it has freshly commenced to perforate a boll, or when it is leaving one boll to reach another, or to pupate. During these short periods of exposure if the parasitic Braconid does not discover the larva the latter is apparently secure from its attack, as after having entered the bud or boll the entrance is quickly stopped by the excrement voided by the feeding larva. In India, where Earias insulana and E. fabia are both found attacking cotton, other Braconids occur infesting their larvae, but it appears that none are furnished with sufficiently long ovipositors to penetrate deeply into the bore-hole made by the Earias nor have any means of reaching the larva in the boll. In conse- quence their attacks must be made in a similar manner to those of the Rhogas here referred to. Having taken into consideration the fact that the Earias boll worm feeds upon a very limited number of plants, all belonging to the natural order Malvaceae, of which cotton, bamiah and tehl are almost the only widespread and plentiful examples in the country, Mr. Willcocks recommended in i()o68 that certain preventive 8 Year-book of the Khediv. Agri. Soc. for 1005, p. 87. 424 COTTON measures should be introduced. Mr. Willcocks main- tained that tehl and bamiah should always be pulled up by the roots, never cut, as the latter would only induce new growth from the roots, which would yield a suffi- ciency of food for the next generation of boll worms. Cotton wood, he urged, should not be allowed to remain in the field until January, March, and April, as this was certain to provide a material help to the boll worm. When the cotton wood was cleared he recommended that it should be used for fuel as quickly as possible, in order to destroy the boll worm pupae which might be upon it. Legislation regarding Cotton Boll Worm. The outcome of Mr. Willcocks 's recommendation was the promulgation of a law (No. 27 of 1909) which was originally designed with the chief object of the elimina- tion of all growth of bamiah, tehl, and cotton for a definite period, but which, as it was finally passed, per- mitted the continuous cultivation of ratoon cotton (okr) in some districts, and was found almost unworkable in connection with the rest of the cotton area, owing to the fact that cotton plants were permitted to be cut instead o-f being pulled up, and were frequently found growing as strong plants when the succeeding crop, berseem or wheat, was cut in the next spring. After much representation of the evils attached to the cultivation of okr or ratoon cotton this cultivation was regulated by law at the instance of the Department of Agriculture (No. 19 of 1912). It was made compulsory by this new law to uproot or cut below the surface of the soil all plants of cotton, bamiah, or tehl in such a manner that they could not sprout again. This obligation with respect to the greater part of Egypt was executable before December 15 of each year, and a few districts only in the north were permitted to extend the period until January 15. The cultivation of okr or ratoon cotton was only permitted in certain districts if a Ministerial Arrete was published to this effect before March I in the year preceding. There was a great improvement occasioned by the enactment of this law. The cultivation of ratoon cotton COTTON 425 ceased and most of the cotton plants were pulled up previous to the date mentioned. Cultivators in Upper Egypt still continued to cut their cotton after having sown berseem (clover) in the standing crop, and volunteer cotton was frequently found in the late spring in conse- quence. Insufficient attention also was paid to the destruction of bamiah and tehl. Nevertheless a beneficial effect was apparent in almost every instance where a comparison was made between the bolls attacked by Earias in 1912 and those from the same localities in 1913 (see Appendix I). It is true that in some cases more bolls were attacked by boll worms than before, but upon examination it was found that the depredator was not Earias, but the new pest, the pink boll worm. In consequence of the rather sudden appearance of the pink boll worm in Egypt, a proposition was made early in May, 1913, by myself, in my capacity as Member- Reporter of the Cotton Worm and Boll Worm Commis- sion, to the said Commission that a clause might be inserted in the existing Boll Worm Law No. 19 (1912) to the effect that it should be made compulsory to detach and destroy all bolls upon cotton plants immediately after the last picking of cotton. This measure would be equally efficacious for the destruction of hibernating Earias boll worms as for the other species. The Commission having at its meeting of May 8 favourably entertained the above proposition, submitted the same to the Government, with the recommendation that the proposed necessary steps be taken for the eradi- cation of the pests. In a subsequent letter, dated July 3, to the Govern- ment the Commission expressed a wish that it be made compulsory for cultivators to detach immediately after the last picking all the bolls remaining on the cotton plants before the removal of the plants ordered by Law No. 19 (1912). Further, the Commission was of the opinion that the destruction of the worms in the bolls detached in the above way could be done by their submission to the heat of ovens. This system would have the double advantage COTTON of killing the worms without entirely damaging the cotton which villagers might still be able to obtain from the bolls in question. With reference to the above, a letter, dated August 9, 1913> was received from the Council of Ministers to the effect that the Council having considered the above propo- sition found it was opportune to take into serious con- sideration the wish expressed by the Cotton Worm and Boll Worm Commission. Unfortunately, at that time it was not possible to get any legislation passed owing to the delay in the forma- tion of the new Legislation Assembly, to whom it was necessary that all laws should be submitted for discussion. Some action, however, was deemed necessary, as the depredations by both species of boll worms were severe, and if no steps to ameliorate the condition were -under- taken the result might mean a still further loss in the following season. The proposals for a law were submitted by the Ministry of Agriculture to the legal advisers of the Government, but owing to the change in the constitution of the country the law was not passe.d in time for any com- pulsory action being adopted in the winter of 1913. Urgent steps were, however, taken to get the measures recommended in the law, to be carried out administra- tively pending the passing of the law itself. To this end the Ministry of the Interior issued instructions in the winter of 1913 to the Governors of Provinces that the cultivators should be induced by administrative measures to pick off and destroy by fire all bolls left on cotton plants after the final picking of the crop. Great difficulty was experienced in this work, as without the aid of the law the provincial authorities were severely handicapped. In a few districts a large number of bolls were picked and destroyed, but in others practically none. The law of which the draft follows was passed and put into force in 1914. The political situation interfered somewhat with the strict observance of the articles at as early a date as was desirable, but eventually stringent action was taken which should be followed by good results. The law is as follows : — COTTON 427 LOI No. 4 DE 1914. Loi modifiant la Loi No. 19 de 1912 portant les Mesures a prendre pour la Destruction du Ver de la Capsule. Nous, Khedive d'Egypte, Vu la loi No. 19 de 1912 portant les mesures a prendre pour la destruction du ver de la capsule du coton; Sur la proposition de Notre Ministre de 1'Agriculture et Pavis conforme de Notre Conseil des Min.istres; L'Assemblee Legislative entendue ; Vu les deliberations de PAssemblee Generale de la Cour d'Appel Mixte en date des 12 et 17 juin 1914, prises en con- formite du Decret du 31 Janvier 1889; Decretons : ARTICLE i. II est ajoute a Particle premier de la loi sus-visee un troisieme alinea ainsi congu : — Chaque annee, apres la recolte, toutes les capsules encore adherentes a ces plants devront etre enlevees et brulees. Cette operation devra etre executee, au moins quinze jours, avant les dates respectivement fixees ci-dessus pour chaque pro- vince, pour Parrachage ou la coupe des racines des plants et dans tous les cas avant qu'il ne soit precede a cet arrachage ou cette coupe. ARTICLE 2. II est ajoute a Particle 3 de la loi sus-visee un second alinea ainsi concu : — En cas de contravention au troisieme alinea de Particle premier, les plants seront toujours saisis et brules, qu'ils aient etc ou non arraches ou coupes. ARTICLE 3. Nos Ministres de PInterieur, de la Justice et de PAgriculture sont charges, chacun en ce qui le concerne, de Pexecution de la presente loi qui entrera en vigueur a partir de la recolte de 1914. Fait au Caire, le 20 juin 1914. Pour le Khedive : (Signe) H. RUCHDI. Par le Khedive : Le President du Conseil des Ministres, Ministre de PInterieur. (Signe) H. RUCHDI. Le Ministre de la Justice. (Signe) SARWAT. Le Ministre de PAgriculture. (Signe) I. COTTON Suggestions were made by the Chief Inspector of the Ministry of Agriculture, Mr. A. T. McKillop, that cotton sticks might be economically made into charcoal, and demonstrations were given of the method of conversion.9 It was maintained that if this were adopted it would over- come the difficulties in connection with the operation of picking of bolls, to be made compulsory by the law mentioned above, and would not completely destroy the cotton sticks, which are the chief form of fuel in a large part of the country. The loss in volume caused by the conversion of cotton wood into charcoal is compensated to some extent by the increased calorific value of the charcoal. The main advantage, however, would be that the boll worms remaining in the dead cotton plants as well as in the cotton bolls would be effectively destroyed. The neglect of the cultivators to make use of this sug- gestion made it imperative to carry through the law mentioned above. Among the many measures proposed for the destruc- tion of insect pests the experiments conducted in the Entomological Section of the Ministry of Agriculture under the direction of Dr. Lewis Gough call for special mention. Dr. Gough, as member to the Commission, submitted a note to the Committee pointing out that with relation to all the cotton pests the action of various insect maladies was under examination. Experiments have since been made with most of the diseases known to be fatal to insects, and with reference to the common boll worm it has been found that it is among those susceptible to attacks of the protozoan disease (Micros poridium polyedricum, Bolle), as well as the other diseases of silk worms. The Microsporidium disease, known also as " grasserie," is common among silk worms, and was introduced into Egypt in 1912, in which year a spon- taneous outbreak occurred among cotton worms (Pro- denia litura, Fabr.), which were very numerous in that year. The rapidity with which this disease spread throughout the country and the subsequent effect on the appearance 9 McKillop. — Agric. Journ. of Egypt, 1913, vol. iii, part 2, p. 27. THE BOLL WORM IN EGYPT. PLATE II. f Mrl^"ii|l^ 1. Rhogas Kitcheneri, Dudgeon and Go ugh. c? x 18. 2. Wings of R. Kitcheneri showing rieura- tion. x 30. 3. Larva of Earias insulana, Boisd. (lateral view), x 8. 4. Larva of E. insulana, Boisd. (dorsal view), x 8. COTTON 429 of these insects in 1913 and 1914 is now of almost general knowledge in Egypt. The disease was found to be easily transmitted to Earias by removing them from the bolls and bringing them in contact with it, but from the larva's method of feeding inside the living bolls it was difficult to produce a general outbreak among boll worms. The same applies also to other contagious insect diseases as applied to the boll worm; the isolated interior feeding habits of the larva having been found up to the present the insuperable hindrance to infective control. Natural Enemies destructive to Earias Boll Worm. Reference has been made elsewhere to the insects which have been found attacking the Earias boll worm. Mr. Willcocks,10 in 1906, referred to ants having been found eating holes through the cocoons of the boll worm and devouring the pupae, but it was doubtful whether these accounted for very large numbers of boll worms, as the fields did not abound in ant colonies. A small lepidopterous larva was also found by Mr. Willcocks attacking and devouring the pupae; the species was, however, not determined. (There is some evidence to show that this may be an insect known as Cryptoblabes gnidiclla, Mill, whose carnivorous habits have not been previously noted.) A hymenopterous parasite belonging to the family Braconidse was also found by the same observer. This was not common, and the perfect insects when emerged were found to belong to the species which was afterwards described under the name of Rhogas Kitcheneri, Dudgeon and Gough (Plate II, figs, i and 2). Two specimens of another hymenopterous parasite were found inside the pupae of boll worms. They were said to resemble one of the stages of a Chalcid, but it is possible they may have belonged to Pimpla roborator, Nees (see p. 431). In the summer of 1912 the Government deputed the Entomologist of the Department of Agriculture to visit 10 Willcocks.— Year-book of the Khediv. Agric. Soc. for 1905, P. 85. 43° COTTON India to investigate the methods of suppressing the Earias boll worm in that country, and on the return of this officer a number of larvae infected with Rhogas Lefroyi, Dudgeon and Gough, were introduced. The introduction of these was, however, rendered unnecessary owing to the discovery a little later of an already acclimatized nearly allied insect, which has been described under the name of Rhogas Kitcheneri.11 The first recorded specimens of R. Kitcheneri were bred in October, 1912, in the laboratories of the then Department of Agriculture, from common boll worms from Beni Souef. The species has since been recorded from Menufia and Kharga Oasis. Further investigations will probably show that it occurs through- out the greater part, if not the whole of Egypt. How- ever, although it was abundant in consignments of boll worms received from Beni Souef and Kharga Oasis, it does not seem to be generally common in the Delta. Although the act of oviposition has not been actually observed in this species, the eggs are probably laid in the boll worms when they are entering or leaving a boll, or when they are near the entrances of their tunnels. As the ovipositor is only 5 mm. long, Rhogas cannot lay its eggs in larvae which have made their way well into the bolls, as can Pimpla roborator, the commonest para- site of the pink boll worm, which has a much longer ovipositor. One egg only is laid in each boll worm. The young larva lives inside the host, feeding at first only on the less vital tissues, such as the fat bodies. So skilfully does it avoid the vital organs that it is not until the Rhogas larva) is full grown and has left its host that the latter dies. After leaving the host the larva pupates in a small ovoid silken; cocoon, which is generally found beside the remains of the dead boll worm. Nothing is known of the number of generations of Rhogas that take place in the course of a year, but it is probable that the life-history closely approximates to that of the host, as all the specimens that have been bred 11 Dudgeon and Gough. — Bull. Ent. Soc. Egypt _, 1912, pp. 140-141. COTTON 431 appeared at the same time as boll worm moths from the same consignment of bolls. From boll worms from Kharga Oasis perfect insects of Rhogas have emerged in July and in November, and from those from other localities during October, November, and December. Rhogas Kitcheneri has also been bred in the labora- tories of the Ministry of Agriculture from the Kharga Oasis date worm, Ephestia cautella, Walk. This is, how- ever, the only other known host of Rhogas in Egypt. Pediculoides ventricosus, Newp., a minute mite, ecto- parasitic on the pink boll worm, on a variety of other Lepidopterous larvae, and even on man, has been found by Mr. Willcocks feeding on common boll worms in his laboratory. He has not, however, found it on this host in the field. In addition to the above there are three Hymenopterous insects which are parasitic on the pink boll worm which may in the future attack the common boll worm also, though they have not been found doing so up to the present. These are Pimpla rob orator, Fabr. (family Ichneumonidae), Limnerium interruption, Holmgr. (family Ichneumonidae), and Chelonella sulcata, Nees (family Braconidae). The first of these, Pimpla roborator, is exceedingly abundant on the pink boll worm, and is known, to feed on a large variety of boring larvae. It is highly probable that it may also feed on the common boll worm. The other two species are much less common than the last, though they were far from rare during the autumn of 1913. It is at present early to give any further opinion as to the probabilities, or other- wise, of their parasitizing the common boll worm. Investigations with regard to the possibilities of multi- plying the parasites upon the Earias boll worm are occupying the attention of the Entomological Section of the Ministry of Agriculture, the application of insecticides being impracticable in connection with an interior feeding- larva of this description, and reliance having to be almost entirely placed upon the mechanical methods provided for by law. The latter up to the present promise the greatest efficacy. 28 432 COTTON fa ON »-3 O M ri u Decrease percentage in 1913 Mcoooi-iHivooopotx os 7 T 7 7" T 7 i T 7 ' 7 rtj ±i PH Hoi i-fci i-iO'OOJNi-iCOON 1 CO 1 Number attacked oo OOOu">NTl->-iroOi'">| t^ Hfl 111 OOONOOOOO 00 *JT> Q O OO O O O *O O | ^* Observation date r^cx)i-i^xoioooo ^ HH N hi M M CS 1 ** * « O^^J jj 5j*4J 4J 4j"o) CT1* ^H O ^O CO CO CO CO CO CO ^" V N co •rfcot^i-icoON! Tf C» ^MCOt-iMClMl Number attack'ed oo "•> r^^t^i-icooo Ct NMCOwNwOOl 1 Number of bolls examined N vO i-iOOt^OOco co 2 VOvo_ON_, ^1 cT rf 4> 6-3 « S II > a, a.a-cua.a.cua.i qj <1> Carbonate de ,, ... ... ... 78*0 lOO'O 444 COTTON Le platrage dans ce cas est eminemment utile. Les pro- prietaires de cette terre se plaignaient avant 1'application du platre, de la tres grande compacite du sol et de sa faible productivite. Pour y cultiver du coton, on etait oblige de recourir a de nombreux artifices d'arrosages et de fagons culturales. Malgre cela on y obtenait difficile- ment 3 ou 4 kantars par feddan. Le platre, en ameublis- sant cette terre, a porte son rendement a 6 kantars. Ceci demontre que le cotonnier est ties sensible aux conditions d'aeration et d'ameublissement du sol.13 Le carbonate alcalin aux faibles doses precitees est surtout nuisible par son action sur la terre qu'il rend plus ou moins compacte et impermeable. Un bel exemple de rinfluence du carbonate de sodium sur la vegetation nous est offert par les analyses suivantes relatives a trois terres de la plaine de Kom-Ombo formant partie d'une meme parcelle, ayant au point de vue physique la meme constitution et ou 1'analyse chimique decele a peu pres les memes quantites d'elements fertilisants. (Voir Tableau V.) TABLEAU V. EFFETS DU CARBONATE DE SODIUM SUR LES RENDEMENTS COTONNIERS. Terres alcalines de la Plaine de Kom-Ombo. Elements solubles pour cent terre seche Terre donnant deo a i kantar de coton au feddan No. i Terre donnant 3 kantars de coton au feddan No. 2 Terre donnant 5 kantars de coton au feddan No. 3 Chlorure de sodium Carbonate ,, Bicarbonate ,, Acide sulfurique... Calcium Magnesium 0-275 0-085 0-246 traces indosables »» » > O'2OO 0-045 o'ii7 traces indosables t> » » » CVI25 traces 0-152 traces indosables >» »» >« n La terre No. i, qui ne donne que de o a i kantar de coton au feddan, contient, comme on le voit, 0*085 pour cent de carbonate et 0*246 pour cent de bicarbonate de 13 Ceci confirme les resultats obtenus par Kearney en Amerique : " Egyptian Cotton as affected by Soil Variations," Circular 112, Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1013. COTTON 445 sodium, soft environ deux fois plus de carbonate que la terre No. 2 produisant 3 kantars. La terre No. 3, d'un rendement de 5 kantars au feddan, ne contient que des traces de carbonate et 0*152 pour cent de bicarbonate. Le dose de carbonate et bicarbonate dans ces terres de nature argileuse, quoique a un moindre degre que la terre de Cheblanga, explique les ecarts observes dans leurs rendements. II n'y a presque pas, en effet, de sulfates nuisibles et les teneurs en chlorures ne justifient point ces differences. Je citerai encore, comme autre exemple, deux terres de la region de Nag Hamadi, Haute-Egypte, situees cote a cote, Tune tres fertile, 1'autre difficile a travailler et de faible rendement. L'analyse physique et le dosage des matieres fertili- santes ne montrent presque pas de differences sensibles entre les deux terres, sauf que la mauvaise terre est plus argileuse (80 pour cent d'argile). A 1'examen des sels solubles on a trouve de o*on a 0*031 pour cent de carbonate de sodium et de 0*098 a 0*131 pour cent de bicarbonate dans la mauvaise terre, alors que dans la bonne terre il n'y avait que des traces de carbonates et 0*092 pour cent de bicarbonate de sodium. Dans les deux cas le total soluble ne s'elevait guere au dela de 0*14 a 0*2 pour cent. Le platrage a tres heureusement modifie la mauvaise terre.14 Le cas de ces dernieres terres nous montre, une fois de plus, combien il est parfois utile de ne pas se borner a la seule determination en bloc des sels solubles. On peut deduire de 1'ensemble des exemples cites que le carbonate de sodium est d'autant plus nuisible aux rendements du cotonnier que la terre est plus argileuse; qu'il suffit quelquefois d'une quantite inferieure a 0*025 pour cent de ce sel pour affecter defavorablement les dits rendements; qu'en tout cas une dose d'environ 0*05 pour cent parait nefaste, a moins qu'il s'agisse de terres plus ou moins sablonneuses; qu'enfin il est toujours utile de se renseigner sur la teneur du sol en bicarbonate et de 14 Voir Mosseri, V. — Bull. Institut Egy^tien,, tome v, 1911, P- 71- 446 COTTON prendre les mesures necessaires pour en empecher la transformation en carbonate. Ces differentes conclusions tirees de Tetude de la Haute-Egypte et du Sud du Delta se confirment par les analyses suivantes relatives a une terre de Talbant-Kaissar (Gharbia) faisant partie du centre cotonnier le plus fertile et le plus repute de la Basse- Egypte. Cette terre donne a peine 3 kantars au feddan, alors que le rendement des terres avoisinantes depasse 5 et 6 kantars. (Voir Tableau VI.) TABLEAU VI. TERRES ALCALINES DU CENTRE DU DELTA. Talbant-Kaissar (Gharbia}. Elements solubles pour cent terre seche Hod Talbant 30 cm. 30 a 60 cm. Jons : Acide sulfurique (SO4) 0-033 traces Chlore(Cl) O-O29 0-031 Acide nitrique (NOS") 0*005 0-002 ,, carbonique (COS) ,, bicarbonique (HCO3) 0-024 0*146 0-030 0-158 Calcium (Ca) 0-007 0-007 Magnesium (Mg) O'OII 0-003 Sodium (Na) 0-080 0-089 Combinaiso'ns conventionnelles ; Sulfate de calcium 0-024 tracts ,, magnesium O'O2O — Chlorure de calcium — 0-019 ,, magnesium 0*028 0-012 ,, sodium 0-013 0-016 Nitrate de sodium f.a rhonate 0-007 0-OJ2 0-003 O-O53 Bicarbonate Total soluble 0-201 0*335 0-217 0-320 Pour cent du residu sec : Sulfate de calcium 7-2 traces ,, magnesium 5'9 -1- Chlorure de calcium 5 '9 ,, magnesium 8*3 3'« ,, sodium 3'9 5-o Nitrate de sodium 2'I I'O Carbonate ,, 12-7 16-6 Bicarbonate ,, 59 '9 677 lOO'O lOO'O Voila ce que jjai cru interessant de noter en ce qui concerne Taction des sels nuisibles sur le cotonnier dans le Centre et le Sud de la Basse-Egypte. COTTON 447 De ce que le cotonnier vegete dans le Nord du Delta sur des terres dont le sous-sol contient des quantites elevees de sels nuisibles, on en conclut d'ordinaire que cette plante manifeste a leur egard une grande resistance. D'aucuns admettent que dans le Nord du Delta une dose de i a 1*5 pour cent15 de chlorure de sodium dans le sol est non seulement inoffensive, mais plutot favorable a la vegetation et au rendement de cette malvacee. D'apres eux, le sel, en empechant les tiges et les feuilles de prendre un trop grand developpement haterait la maturite ; ce qui est tres important dans ces parties septentrionales c^u les conditions climateriques obligent a semer plus tard et a recolter plus tot que dans le Centre et le Sud du Delta. De plus, le sel ameliorerait la longueur, la resist- ance et la couleur des fibres. Cependant, deja en 1902, Means et Kearney16 n'avaient trouve dans les 60 premiers centimetres de profondeur de quelques champs de cotonniers d'Aboukir pres d'Alex- andrie que o'6o pour cent de sels solubles dans les parties ou les plantes etaient parfaitement saines, 1*8 pour cent dans celles ou Ton rencontrait de distance en distance quelques pieds plus ou moins resistants, et enfin 2 pour cent et au dela dans les endroits ou les plantes n'avaient pu vegeter. Etant donnee rimportance qui s'attache a la question, surtout dans la mise en valeur des " Bararis " ou terres salees incultes du Nord du Delta, j'ai resolu d'entre- prendre une serie de recherches en vue de determiner dans la region septentrionale de la Basse-Egypte Faction des sels nuisibles sur la vegetation et le rendement du cotonnier. A cet effet j'ai choisi, en 1907, a Manchieh Kafr el Garaida, pres Belcas (Gharbia), cinq champs, dont trois etaient cultives en Mitafifi; les deux autres en Jannovitch et Abassi. Ces champs sont designes ci-apres par les lettres C, D, E; A et B respectivement. 15 Bull. 42, Office of Experiment Stations, U.S. Department of Agriculture, i8g7, p. n. 16 " Crops used in the Reclamation of Alkali Lands in Egypt," Year-book of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1902, p. 586. 29 448 COTTON Dans chaque champ on a choisi des parcelles corre- spondant aux quatre types de vegetation suivants : — (a) Plants non developpes. (b) Plants peu developpes. (c) Plants moyennement developpes. (d) Plants bien developpes. Ces quatre types sont representes sur les tableaux (VII a X) par les lettres a, b, c, d, respectivement. Sur chaque parcelle on a preleve 4 echantillons repre- sentant : le premier, la terre de la crete des " mastabas " ou billons, sur une epaisseur de 2 ou 3 centimetres seule- ment; le second, la terre de la couche exploitee par les racines, couche dont 1'epaisseur, mesuree d'apres la longueur du pivot des plantes, varie de 10 a 40 centi- metres, suivant les types de vegetation precites, la troisieme, la terre situee au-dessous des pivots sur une epaisseur de 30 centimetres; le quatrieme enfin, la terre de la tranche des 30 centimetres so-us-jacents. A cette profondeur on a presque toujours rencontre les eaux souterraines dont on a egalement preleve des echantillons. Ces eaux ont ete trouvees salees. Elles contenaient suivant les parcelles de 2 a 12 pour cent de sels dont 0*5 a 10 pour cent environ de chlorures. Tons les echantillons ont ete pris en aout, entre deux arrosages, Longueur du pivot Hauteur des tiges Profondeur a laquelle on r encontre les eaux sou- terraines Rendement s appr oxim. au feddan en kantars Type non om. 07 a om. 10 om. 15 aom. 18 om. 57 a om. 60 Type peu developp6 om. 15 aom. 19 om. 34 aom. 37 om. 57 aom. 62 o a i om. 20 a 001.30 i 001.30 a 001.40 001.54 aom. 65 < 001.753101.25 om. 60 aom. 65 I a2 om. 60 a om. 70 COTTON 449 ce qui est avantageux pour le but a atteindre. Le tableau ci-dessus donne en moyenne les renseignements relatifs aux quatre types de vegetation choisis. Le rendement des types bien developpes correspond a environ: — 3 kantars au feddan pour les parcelles A, B, C. 4 ,, ,, la parcelle D. 5 M »> »> E- Les tableaux VII a X resument les details des differentes determinations qui out ete faites. Sauf pour les terres cultivees en Abassi et Jannovitch qui out ete analysees sommairement et dont les analyses ne sont pas donnees ici, pour les autres on a determine pour chacune, directe- ment, tous les elements portes aux tableaux, a Texception du sodium qui a ete calcule par difference. Pour cela les ions basiques Ca et Mg ont ete combines aux ions acides dans 1'ordre suivant : SO4, Cl, CO3, HCO3, NO3. L'exces des ions acides a ete combine ensuite au sodium. On a prefere pour des raisons deja donnees ailleurs,17 recourir a cette determination indirecte et laisser de cote le dosage du potassium.18 Je ne discuterai que les resultats des parcelles, C, D, E, dont les terres ont ete ainsi analysees. Les analyses Siommaires des deux parcelles A et B corroborent, du reste, ces resultats. Ces divers dosages mettent en evidence plusieurs points interessants. Je me bornerai ici a signaler les prin- cipaux. Dans les regions septentrionales du Delta comme 17 Voir Mosseri, V. — " Nouveau systeme de drainage et de dessalement des terres," Montpellier, 1912, p. 18. 18 Les differences que 1'on constate dans toutes les analyses entre la somme des sels obtenue d'apres les groupements con- ventionnels et celle que donne le residu sec, provient de la transfoTmation des bicarbonates en carbonates pendant 1'evapora- tion et la dessication. D'autre part, le residu sec comprend de la silice, des traces de fer et d'alumine des matieres organiques, etc. TABLEAU VII. — TABLEAU RECAPITULATE Parcelles Types de v£g£ta- tion SULFATES CHLOKURES Nitrate de sodium NaNO3 Bicar- bonate de sodium NaHC03 Total soluble pour cent terre sech CaS04 MgS04 Na2S04 CaCl2 MRC12 NaCl Crete des billons c D E a a a 0-306 1734 0-886 0-190 0*270 0-091 0-888 I '2 1 1 I*7IO 0-850 2*892 4*967 0*030 OT35 0*001 OT43 0*051 0-096 1*610 6*293 8-548 Moyennes: 0-975 0-230 0-091 o*88b 1-460 2*903 0*055 0*096 5-483! C D E b b b 0-163 0-238 0*693 0*143 0*040 — 0-546 0-059 0-095 0-938 1-163 0*608 2*569 0*066 traces 0-0015 0-174 0-085 0-079 1*768 1-066 4*826 Moyennes: 0-364 0*091 0*546 0*364 1*446 0-033 O"ii2 2*553 C D E c c c 0*136 0-108 0*136 O'lIO 0*105 0-105 0-290 0-029 0-038 — — 0-780 0*500 0-146 0-030 traces 0-143 0-096 0-143 1-489 0-838 0-568 Moyennes: 0*126 O'io6 0*119 0*475 0-030 0*127 0*965 C D E d 0*646 d indose d 0-190 0*475 0-170 O'lOO 0*139 indose indose indose 0-091 0-770 0-880 0793 0-067 indose 0-009 0-095 0-096 0-096 2-192 1-400 1-279 Moyennes: 0*418 0-248 0*139 0-091 0*814 0-038 0-095 r623 C D E a a a 0*054 0*127 0*221 0-065 Zc 0*057 me des r 0*091 0-086 icines O'lIO 0-277 0-361 0-675 1*248 traces o-2o6 0*008 0-085 0-079 Q'74.1 1-096 1-911 Moyennes: 0-134 0-065 0*057 0*088 0*193 0-761 0*008 0*123 I>25° C D E b b b 0-08 1 0-272 0*163 0-004 0*160 0-215 0-103 0-087 — 0-047 0-255 0450 1-170 traces traces 0-22,9 0-067 O'HI 0*626 1-052 1746 Moyennes: 0*172 0-126 0*095 0*047 "0-625 0*139 1-141 C D E c c c traces 0*068 0-081 traces 0*130 0*051 0*109 0-189 — 0*028 0-130 0-420 0-294 traces 0-159 O'HI 0-143 0390 0-918 0-599 Moyennes : 0-074 0*090 0-149 — 0*028 0-281 — 0-137 0*635 C d 0*190 0-130 0-032 _ _ 0*110 traces 0-095 0-557 D d 0*163 0-065 0-049 — - — 0*093 traces OTII 0-481 E d 0*034 _ _ 0*060 0*067 _ _ O'HI 0-272 Moyennes: 0-129 0*097 0-040 0-060 0-067 o-ioi 0*105 0*436 ES PARCELLES C, D, E. ^arcelles Types de ve"gdta- tion SULFATES CHLORURES Nitrate de sodium NaN03 Bicar- bonate de sodium NaHC03 Total soluble pour cent terre seche CaS04 MgS04 Na2SO4 CaCl2 MgCl2 NaCl o metre a 30 centimetres au-dessous du pivot. C a 0-108 0-065 i'54i — — 0-530 traces 0-159 2-40 D a 0-578 0-365 o-358 — — I-I20 — 0*067 2-48 E a 0-272 0-316 0-107 I'I2O ~ 0-079 1-89 Moyennes : 0-319 0-248 0-949 0*107 0-923 — o'loi 2*25 C b 0-272 0*345 0-683 1-030 traces 0-159 2-49 D b 0^170 0-160 0-060 — — I'2OO t i aces 0-085 I>67 E b 0-299 0-365 0-350 ~ _ 0-890 0-143 2-°47 Moyennes : 0*247 0*290 0*364 — i -040 0-129 2-069 C c 0-190 0*170 0*739 _ _ 0-I30 traces O'HI 1-340 D c 0-163 O'I2O 0-483 — — 0-390 — o-iii 1-357 E c 0*128 0*03 O-IO3 0-I7I O'OOO O'HI 0-543 Moyennes: 0*160 0-190 o-6n 0*03 0*103 0*230 o'ooo o*m •080 C d 0-340 0*215 0-647 0-290 traces 0-095 I-587 D d 0*884 0*340 0-819 — — ,. 0-290 O'OOO 0-096 2*429 E d 0*136 0-030 — — 0-059 0-207 — OTII 0-543 Moyennes: 0-453 0*195 °'733 °"°59 0*262 0*100 1*519 30 centimetres & 60 centimetres au-dessous du pivot. C D E a a 0-380 0-088 0-141 0-225 0*090 0-023 0*108 0-350 O*6 }O 1*300 0*996 t'aces 0-159 0-067 O'lII 1-394 1*568 1-712 Moyennes: 0*203 OII57 0*023 0*108 0-350 0-975 — 0-II2 1-558 I C D E b b b 1-802 0-170 0-141 0*600 0*050 1*076 0-018 0*160 0*134 0*810 1-745 1-069 traces O'OOO o-iii 0-067 O'lOI 4-399 2-194 1-463 Moyennes: 0*704 0*325 1*076 0*018 0-147 1-208 O'ooo 0*093 2-685 C c 1-39* 0-430 1-009 _ 0-190 O'OOO 0-079 3-102 D c 0-054 o-3 95 — 0-320 trace* O'lII 0-880 E c 0-08 1 0-085 0-230 0-444 O'OOO 0-070 0-910 Moyennes : 0*509 0-257 0*619 — 0318 o-ooo 0-085 1*630 C d I -088 0*150 I-348 _ 0-500 0*000 0095 3-181 D d 0-082 0*3 60 indose indose 0*460 O'OOO 0-138 1-040 E d indose indose indose indose indose 0*290 traces 0079 0-870 Moyennes: 0-585 0*150 1*348 — 0-416 O'ooo 0-104 i '697 TABLEAU VIII.— PARCELLE C. MANCHIA PLANTES NON DKVELOPPEES FEU DEVELOPPEES a b \ c d a b I C d o a 30 30 a 60 o a 30 3ok6o Crete des billons Zone des racines cm. au-des- sous du pivot cm. au-des- sous du pivot Crete des billons Zone des racines cm. au-des- sousdu pivot cm. au-des- sousdu pivot Pour cent de ttrre seche : Ions : Acide sulfurique (SO4) 0'43° 0-I30 0-450 I-I70 0-230 0-060 0-930 2-480 Chlore (Cl) O'52O O'2IO 0-320 0-380 0-750 0-I90 O-62O 0-490 Acide nitrique (NO,) 0-022 traces traces traces 0*048 traces- traces traces Ac. bicarbonique (HCO3) 0-104 0*150 ' 0-116 O'll6 OT27 0-174 0-116 0-081 Calcium (Ca) 0-090 o-o 1 6 0-032 0*112 0-048 0-024 0-080 0-530 Magnesium (Mg) ... 0-038 0-013 ! 0*013 0-043 0-043 0-013 0^069 O'I20 Sodium (Na) 0-406 0-224 0-752 0-293 0-522 0-165 0-674 0-698 Cotnbinaisons conventionnelles : Sulfate de calcium ... 0*306 0-054 0*108 0-380 0-163 o 081 0-272 1-802 ,, magnesium 0-190 0-065 0-065 0-225 0-143 0-004 0-345 0-600 ,, sodium ... 0-091 0-057 1-541 — — — 0-683 1-076 Chlorure de calcium — — — — — — — ,, magnesium — — — — 0-059 0047 — — ,, sodium 0-850 0-361 0-530 0630 1-163 0-255 1-030 O'SlO Nitrate de sodium ... 0-030 traces traces 1 traces 0-066 tiaccs traces traces Bicarbonate „ 0-143 0*206 0*159 0-159 0-174 0-239 0-159 O'lII Total des sels solubles 1-610 0-743 2-403 i '394 I-768 0-626 2-489 4'399 Pour cent du residu sec : Sulfate de calcium ... 19-00 7-26 4'49 27-26 9-22 12-95 10-92 40-96 ,, magnesium 11-82 875 2-70 16*14 8-09 0-65 13-86 13*64 ,, sodium ... 5-65 7-67 64-15 — — — 27-44 24-46 Chlorure de calcium — — — — — — — — ,, magnesium — — — — 3'32 7-50 — — ,, sodium 5279 48-58 22-05 45-20 6579 40-72 4I-39 18-42 1-86 — — — 373 — — — Bicarbonate de sodium 8-88 27-74 6-61 11-40 9-85 38-18 6-39 2-52 100-0 lOO'O too o lOO'O lOO'O I OO'O lOO'O lOO'O Calcaire (CaCO3) (Calcimetre) 0-98 I -I I 0-57 0-88 1*19 1-19 1-30 i-i; M BOURY SUD, PRES BELCAS (GHARBIA). MOYENNEMENT DEVEI.OPPEES BlEN DEVELOPPEES a b c d a b c d ;rete des billons Zone des racines o a 30 cm. au-dessous du pivot 30 a 60 cm. au-dessous du pivot Crgte des billons Zone des racines o a 30 cm. au-dessous du pivot 30 a 60 cm. au-dessous du pivot 0*380 0*074 0770 2*010 0*930 0-260 0-850 I *800 0*470 0080 0*o8o O'HO 0*460 0*065 0*I70 0-310 O*O22 traces le'geres traces 0000 0*049 iegeres traces legeres traces O'OOO 0*104 0*116 0081 0-058 o 069 0-069 0-069 0-069 0*040 traces 0-056 O-4IO 0-190 0*056 O'lOO 0*320 0*022 traces 0*034 0-086 0095 0-026 0-043 0-030 Q'451 0*128 0-319 0-428 0-399 0*08 1 0-355 0*652 0*136 traces 0-190 1-394 0*646 0*190 0*340 i -088 0*110 traces 0*170 0*430 0-475 0*130 0*215 0*150 0*290 0*109 0*739 1*009 0*139 0*032 0*647 I-348 0*780 0*130 0*130 0*I90 0-710 O*IIO 0*290 0-500 0-030 traces legeres traces O-QOO 0-067 legeres traces legeres traces o-ooo 0*143 0*159 O'lII 0-079 I °'°95 0-095 0*095 0-095 1*489 0*398 1*340 3-102 2-I32 0-557 1-587 3'i8i 9-13 traces 14*18 44*92 29-47 34-12 21*43 34*20 7-38 traces 12-68 13-86 2I-67 23-34 I3-54 4*71 19*47 27'39 55-16 32-56 6*34 574 40*78 42*38 52-38 32-65 9-70 6*12 35^3 19-75 18-27 15*72 2*01 — — — 3-05 — — — 9^3 39-96 8*28 2-54 4-34 17*05 5*98 2-99 [OO'O ICO'O 100 -0 100*0 100*0 100*0 I OO'O 100-0 0*78 I*O2 1-02 1-23 0-39 0*61 1-14 1*02 TABLEAU IX.— PARCELLE D. MANCHIA PLANTES NON DEVEI.OPPEES PEU DEVELOPPEES a b c d a b c d 3° 30 a 60 ok 30 3ok6o Crete des billons Zone des racines cm. au-des- sousdu cm. au-des- sous du Crgte des billons Zone des racines cm. au-des- sousdu cm. au-des- sousdu pivot pivot pivot pivot Pour cent de terre seche : Ions : Acide sulfurique (SO4 1-440 0-090 0-950 0*150 0*200 0-390 0*290 0-160 Chlore(Cl) 2-660 0-550 0-670 0*780 0*440 0*270 O*72O 1*180 Oxide nitrique (NO8) 0-099 0*006 O'OOO O'OOO traces traces traces o-ooo Ac. bicarbonique (HCO3) 0-037 0-062 0049 0-049 o 062 0*049 o 062 0-049 Calcium (Ca) 0-5IO 0*070 0*170 0-026 0-070 o 080 0-050 0-050 Magnesium (Mg) 0-360 0-028 0-065 o 018 0-032 0032 0-032 0-051 Sodium (Na) I-l87 0*290 0-584 0-545 0-262 0-231 0523 0704 Combinaisons conventionnelles : Sulfate de calcium ... 1-734 0-127 0-578 0*088 0*238 0*272 0*170 0-170 ,, magnesium 0*270 — 0-365 0*090 0*040 o 160 0*160 0*050 , , sodium ... — — 0-358 0*023 — 0-103 0*062 — Chlorure de calcium — 0-091 — — — — — - ,, magnesium 1*211 O'lIO — — 0*095 — — o 162 ,, sodium.., 2-892 0*675 I*I2O 1*300 0*608 0-450 1*200 1-745 Nitrate de sodium 0-135 0*008 — — traces traces traces 0*000 Bicarbonate de sodium 0-05I 0*085 o-oS7 0*067 0085 0*067 0*085 0-067 Total des sels solubles 6-293 1*096 2*488 1-568 I -066 1-052 1*677 2-194 Pour cent du residu sec : Sulfate de calcium ... 27-55 11-59 23-23 5*61 22-32 25-85 10-10 7-75 ,, magnesium 4-29 — 14*66 5-74 3-75 15-21 9-54 2*27 ,, sodium ... — — 14-38 1-46 — 9'79 3-69 — Chlorure de calcium — 8*30 — — — — — - ,, magnesium I9-25 10-04 — — 8-90 — — 7-38 ,, sodium... 45^6 61-59 45-04 82 92 57-06 42-78 71-60 79-55 2-14 073 1 — — — — — Bicarbonate de sodium 0-81 7-75 2-69 4-27 7-97 6*37 5-07 3-05 100-0 100*0 100*0 100*0 100*0 100*0 lOO'O lOO'O Calcaire (CaCO3) (Calcimetre) 0-64 i-35 0-53 0*64 0*88 0*86 0*66 ro6 o. 3 CHARKIA, PRES BELCAS (GHARBIA). MOYENNEMENT DEVELOPPEES BlEN DEVELOPPEES a Crete des billons b Zone des racines c o a 30 cm. au-dessous du pivot d 30 a 60 cm. au-dessous du pivot a Crete des billons b Zone des racines c o a 30 cm. au-dessous du pivot d 30 a 60 cm. au-dessous du pivot o 180 0-280 O'6lO 0-300 0-I70 0-200 I '45° 0-330 0-300 O-26O 0*240 0-180 0-530 0-056 0-170 0-270 traces traces 0*000 o-ooo traces traces O'OOO O-OOO 0-070 0081 0*08 1 0-08 1 0*070 0-08 1 0*070 0-105 0-032 0-020 0*048 0-016 non dose 0*048 O*26o 0-025 O'O2I 0-026 0-042 non dose 0-034 0*013 0-068 non dose* o-,35 0-251 0*336 — — 0-083 0-411 — O'lOS 0-068 0*163 0-054 _ 0*163 0-884 0-082 0-105 0-130 0*210 lo- 0-170 0*065 0-340 — 0-029 0-189 0-483 0-354* 0*049 0-819 — 0*500 0-420 0-390 0-320 0-880 0-093 0*290 0*640 traces traces O'OOO O'OOO traces traces 0*000 0*000 0-096 O'HI O'HI O'lII 0-096 O'HI 0*096 0*318 0-838 0-918 1-357 0*880 1-400 0*481 2-429 1*040 12-88 7-47 I2'OI _ _ 33-88 36-39 12-53 14-16 I5H7 — — 13-51 13-99 — 3-d6 20-58 35-59 I — 10-18 33-74 — 59-68 45-70 28*75 — — I9-35 11-93 — H'45 12-09 8*18 — — 23-08 3-95 — lOO'O lOO'O lOO'O 100 -0 lOO'O 0-45 0-70 2-09 0-53 1-14 0-61 0-78 I*OO * Somme du sulfate de sodium et du sulphate de calcium. TABLEAU X.— PARCELLE E. MANCHIA PLANTES NON DEVELOPPEES FEU DEVELOPPEES a Crete des billons b Zone des racines C o a 30 cm. au-des- sous du pivot d 30 a 60 cm. au-des- sous du pivot a Crete des billons b Zone des racines C o a 30 cm. au-des- sous du pivot d 30 a 60 cm. au-des- sous du pivot Pour cent de terre seche : Ions : Acide sulfurique (SO4) 0-626 OT56 0-445 O'lOO 0-490 0-346 0-740 O'lOO Chlore (Cl) 4-860 1-020 0-760 0-940 2'6lO 0-710 0-540 0-760 Acide nitrique (NO3) O'OOI 1 traces traces traces O'OOII traces i traces traces Ac. bicarbonique (HCO3) ... 0-070 0*058 0*058 0*081 0-058 0-081 j 0-104 0-074 Calcium (Ca) 0-580 0*096 0-080 0-080 0-400 0-048 0-088 0-048 Magnesium (Mg) ... 0-432 0-070 0-090 0*090 0-237 0-043 0-073 0-034 Sodium (Na) 1-9794 0-511 0-461 0-421 I -0304 0-518 0-502 0-447 Combinaisons conventionnelles : Sulfate de calcium 0-886 O'22I 0-272 0-141 0-693 0-163 0-299 0-141 ,, magnesium — — 0*316 — — 0*215 0-365 — ,, sodium — — — — — 0-087 0-350 — Chlorure de calcium 0-888 0-086 — 0-108 0-546 — — 0-018 ,, magnesium ,, sodium 1-710 4-967 0-277 1-248 0*107 I"I2O o-356 0-996 0-938 2-569 1-170 0-890 0-134 1-069 Nitrate de sodium... 0-0015 traces traces traces 0-0015 traces traces traces Bicarbonate de sodium Total des sels solubles... 0-096 0-079 0-079 O'lII 0-079 O'lII 0-143 O'lOI 8-5485 1*911 1-894 1-712 4-8265 I-746 2-047 1-463 Pour cent du residu sec : Sulfate de calcium 10-36 11-63 H'S^ 8-23 14-35 9'33 14-61 9-67 ,, magnesium — — 16-68 — — 12-31 I7-83 — ,, sodium — — — — — 4-98 17-09 — Chlorure de calcium 10-37 4 '50 — 6-31 11-31 — — 1-23 ,, magnesium 2O 'OO 14-49 5-65 20-79 19-43 — — 9-16 ,, sodium 58-I3 65-25 59-I4 58-18 53-25 67-02 43*49 73-04 O'O2 — — — 0*03 — — — Bicarbonate de sodium I-I2 4*13 lOO'O 4-17 6-49 I OO'O 1-63 6-36 I OO'O 6-98 6-90 100 -o lOO'O lOO'O lOO'O lOO'O Calcaire (CaCO3) (calcimetre) 0-74 I'O2| 0-98 I'll 0-90 I -02 1-68 0-70 [0. 2. BAHARIA, PRES BELCAS (GHARBIA). MOYENNEMBNT DEVELOPPEKS BlEN DEVELOPPEES a. I, c d a. b c d Crete des billons Zone des racines o a 30 cm. au-dessous du 3o-a 60 cm. au-dessous Crete des billons Zone des racines o a 30 cm. au-dessous du 30 a 60 cm. au-dessous du pivot du pivot pivot pivot 0*206 O'lOO 0-091 0*28l 0-214 0*024 0*120 0*240 O'OQO O'2OO O'2OO O'27O °'55° 0*088 0-I70 0-175 traces traces O'OOO O'OOO 0-0071 traces o-ooo traces 0*104 0-104 0-08 1 0-058 0-070 0*08 1 0-08 1 0-058 0-040 0*024 0^048 0*024 0*056 0*032 0*040 0-008 0'02I 0-017 O-O26 0*017 0-043 0-017 * 0-021 non dose 0-107 0'I54 0-097 0-260 0-3396 0*030 O'lII — 0-136 0-08 1 0-128 O*o8l 0-190 0-034 0*I36 0*105 0-053 — 0-085 O'lOO — 0*030 0-038 — — 0*230 — — — — — 0-030 — — 0*060 — — 0-028 0-103 — 0-091 0*067 0-059 0'146 0-294 0-I7I 0-444 0-793 — 0-207 traces traces o-ooo O'OOO 0-0097 traces — 0-143 0-143 O'HI 0-070 0-096 O'lII O'lII 0-568 Q'599 0-543 0-910 1-2797 0-272 0-543 23*94 I3-52 23-57 8-90 14-84 12-50 25-04 18-48 8-84 — 9-33 7*81 — 5-52 6-69 — — 25-27 — — — — — 5-52 — — 22-05 — — 4-67 18-96 — 7*11 24-63 10-86 25-70 49-10 31-49 48-81 61-99 — 38-I4 — — o-oo O'OO o*75 — — 25-19 23-87 20-46 7-69 7-50 40-82 20*44 lOO'O lOO'O 100*0 zoo -o 100*0 100*0 lOO'O 0-70 1-40 1*25 O'I2 0-94 1*31 i-35 0*33 458 COTTON ailleurs, le cotonnier est sensible aux effets des sels quand ceux-ci depassent une certaine quantite. Les rendements sont, toutes choses egales d'ailleurs et dans certaines limites, inversement proportionnels a la dose de sels nuisibles que renferme la terre. II s'agit seulement de ne considerer que la couche reellement en contact avec les racines. On trouve ainsi que ce sont les terres qui ne renferment guere plus de 0*30 pour cent de sels nuisibles qui donnent les meilleurs rendements. La terre adherente aux racines des cotonniers de la parcelle E (Ed), qui donne 4 a 5 kantars au feddan ne contenait que 0^272 pour cent de sels solubles sur lesquels il y avait 0*034 pour cent de sulfate de calcium, dont j'ai deja rappele Taction bienfaisante. Cette action est encore beaucoup plus manifeste dans le cas des terres Cd et Dd. Dans I'ensemble, la dose totale des sels solubles pour les terres qui produisent de 3 a 5 kantars ne depasse guere 0*43 dont O'i3 de sulfate de calcium et 0*30 de sels nuisibles. Des que cette dose depasse 0*5 ou 0*6 pour cent les rendements baissent et a i pour cent ils devien- nent pratiquement mils. Ce dernier point est mis en evidence, aussi bien par 1'analyse de la couche de terre adherente aux racines des plantes dans les types de vegetation (a), (b), (c), (d), que par Texamen de la couche qui vient immediatement apres. II faut noter cependant que dans cette investigation les sels nuisibles consistaient en sulfate de magnesium et de sodium, en chlorures de calcium, magnesium et sodium et enfin en bicarbonate de ce dernier metal. Les solutions salines du sol presentent ici tin caractere qui differe de celui qu'elles revetent dans le Sud et le Centre du Delta, en ce qui concerne la nature et la proportion des differents sels qui les constituent. Les parcelles etudiees ne contenaient pas de carbonate de sodium. La terre de la parcelle E nous fournit une bonne occasion pour etudier Faction individuelle des chlorures en presence d'une faible quantite de sulfate de calcium et en presence d'une dose normale de bicarbonate de sodium. On voit que, lorsque la dose de chlorures passe de 0*13 a 0*32 pour cent, le rendement de 4 a 5 kantars tombe a i ou 2 environ. II semblerait, toutefois, COTTON 459 d'apres ces chiffres et ceux que j'ai obtenus depuis, que les cotonniers supportent une dose legerement plus elevee de .chlorures et de sels nuisibles en general, dans le Nord que dans le Centre et le Sud du Delta. Cela est du, sans doute, au fait que pour une meme dose de sels, les solutions qui circulent au sein des terres sont, en general, pour differentes raisons, plus diluees dans le Nord que dans le Centre et contiennent ordinaire- ment et proportionnellement plus de sulfate de calcium. Ce dernier point se confirme si Ton considere la terre adherente aux racines et que Ton compare Centre eux les chiffres relatifs a la parcelle Cc, sans sulfate de calcium, avec les chiffres des parcelles DC et EC, contenant ce sulfate. Le cotonnier, a en juger par ces dosages et par plusieurs autres egalement, semble supporter d'assez grandes quan- tites de sulfate de sodium. Les bicarbonates varient peu entre les differentes terres des divers types de vegetation. Us sont plus abondants dans la couche exploitee par les racines que sur la crete des billons ou se sont accumules les sels solubles. Pour la region du Nord du Delta, en 1'absence du carbonate de sodium, les chlorures et sulfates de magne sium et de sodium sont en realite ceux dont il faut le plus tenir compte, et ces recherches montrent que pour apprecier le degre de leur toxicite il importe de prendre en consideration leurs proportions respectives ainsi que la presence ou 1'absence du sulfate de calcium. Or, comme on peut le voir, ces proportions sont tres variables, et differentes pour les diverses terres. La somme des sels solubles peut ainsi varier dans de grandes limites. Dans les experiences qui nous occupent, le carbonate de sodium etait absent. Je Tai trouve par contre dans plusieurs autres localites, principalement dans la Behera.19 Je n'ai pas a revenir ici sur ce que j'ai dit a son sujet. J'ajouterai simplement qu'en raison de la nature plus argileuse des terres du Nord (Bararis), le carbonate 19 Voir Mosseri. — " Les Terrains alcalins en Egypte," Bull. Institut Egyptien_, tome v, IQII. COTTON peut y produire les memes effets nuisibles a doses bien moindres. Un autre fait interessant se degage de ces analyses. C'est Tascension des sels a la surface des billons au profit de la zone exploitee par les racines. Les chlorures forment plus de la moitie des sels ainsi accumules. Par suite de cette accumulation, il est difficile de fixer par des chinres les limites de salure compatibles avec tel ou tel rendement dans ces regions des Bararis (terres salees du Nord). Ces limites varient suivant la nature des sels qui constituent le total soluble et aussi et surtout suivant les conditions cultu rales, climateriques, agro- logiques et autres qui determinent la dilution et 1'ascen- sion precitees. Cette ascension justifie les pratiques et artifices adoptes par les cultivateurs des regions plus ou moins salees de la partie septentrionale de TEgypte. Ici, en effet, les billons sont peu eleves et les raies d'arrosage evasees. J'ai montre que dans ce cas, 1'imbibition est moins pro- fonde et d'une portee laterale plus grande, ce qui empeche la capillarite de puiser les sels dans les profondeurs du sous-sol et facilite raccumulation des sels du sol a la surface des billons ou mastabah. Les graines sont semees au bas du versant Sud des billons, presque dans les raies. On seme plus dru. La duree du premier assoiffement ou tddtiche y est de 40 a 45 jours au lieu de 30 a 35 comme dans le Centre et le Sud du Delta. Cela toujours pour que la terre ou s'enfonce la jeune racine puisse envoyer son exces de sels sur la crete des billons. Les arrosages y sont pratiques non pas en rapport avec les besoins reels des plantes, mais en vue de diluer con- stamment les solutions salines qui circulent autour des racines, etc. II etait interessant de montrer que ces pratiques cul- turales se justifient scientifiquement, ce qui ne signifie point qu'elles soient parfaites. La vraie solution, en effet, est de dessaler la terre sur une profondeur con- venable, afin de la mettre en etat d'etre semee de bonne lieure et cultivee suivant les methodes les plus rationnelles. Dans cette premiere investigation, la vegetation et les COTTON 461 rendements du cotonnier ont ete, jusqu'a un certain point, proportionnels a 1'epaisseur de la tranche dessalee, pouvant etre utilisee par les racines. Cette epaisseur n'a pu etre inferieure a 50 ou 60 centimetres sans affecter de- favorablement les resultats culturaux. Des recherches ulterieures m'ont montre que cette tranche, compatible avec un developpement normal du cotonnier, a en realite tine epaisseur qui est le resultat combine de plusieurs facteurs, tels que la nature des terres, leur salure, celle des eaux souterraines, les conditions climateriques, la preparation du sol, les fac^ons de culture, les arrosages, les caracteres individuels, etc. On comprend, des 1-ors, que cette epaisseur ne saurait etre la meme partout. La connaissance exacte de sa valeur minimum pourtant est indispensable pour decider du niveau auquel il con- vient de maintenir le plan d'eau dans des drains et fixer les conditions generates du drainage. Des experiences multiples restent encore a faire pour determiner cette epaisseur suivant les localites. Toutefois, les recherches de M. Audebeau Bey,20 celles de M. Ferrar21 et les etudes de M. Balls22 ont fait voir qu'en general pour le Centre et le Sud du Delta, ainsi que pour la province de Ghiza, une epaisseur minimum de terre seche d'environ 2m. est indispensable a un bon rendement cotonnier. Contrairement a ce qui se passe dans les regions du Nord du Delta, les eaux du sous-sol dans le Sud et dans une partie du Centre, contribuent, dans une certaine mesure, aux besoins .du cotonnier en eau pendant la periode d'etiage. J'ai parle de cette source d'alimentation dans une etude recente, a laquelle je renvoie.23 Mes experiences dans les regions du Nord du Delta, a sous-sol plus ou moins sale, experiences que confirment 20 Rapport a 1'Administ. des Domaines de PEtat, 1909-1912. 21 " The Effect of Water on the Cultivation of Cotton," Survey Pa-per No. 24, 1912. 22 " The Cotton Plant in Egypt," 1912. 23 " L'Utilisation du Reservoir souterrain," Bull. Institut Egyptien_, Avril, 1914; et Bull, de VUnion des Agriculteurs d'Egy-pte, 1914, p. 7Q. 462 COTTON du reste les observations culturales, montrent qu'il suffit ordinairement dans ces regions que le plan d'eau soit maintenu a une profondeur de im. 25 a im. 50 pour satisfaire amplement au developpement normal du coton- nier.24 J'ai signale d'autre part qu'on peut obtenir dans ces regions septentrionales du Delta jusqu'a cinq et six kantars de coton au feddan, avec un plan d'eau maintenu a 70 ou 80 centimetres, au-dessous du sol, a la condition que ce plan ne subisse point de fluctuations appreciables et subites durant la culture cotonniere.25 Cependant, a cause des sels nuisibles du sous-sol et si Ton ne veut point revenir tous les deux ans a la culture du riz que la remontee des sels rendrait obligatoire, il est indispensable de maintenir le plan des eaux souter- raines a im. 25 ou im. 50 de profondeur. II ne parait pas utile d'abaisser davantage ce niveau, afin de ne point favoriser le developpement a bo is et retarder la maturite des capsules. D'ailleurs le systeme radiculaire du coton- nier sous 1'influence des conditions de temperature du Nord du Delta, s'accomode parfaitement d'une moindre profondeur. Les fluctuations de la nappe souterraine sont en realite plus interessantes que son niveau absolu, loTsque celui-ci reste dans les limites precitees. En effet, si dans leurs fluctuations les eaux souterraines parvien- nent a atteindre les racines des plantes, elles amenent I'asphyxie de la partie envahie, et chez le cotonnier elles provoquent une chute anormale des capsules accompagnee d'une diminution de la resistance des fibres. Dans le region des Bararis, les fluctuations sont provoquees principalement par les arrosages.26 Comme on le voit, la question des sels est intimement liee a celle du drainage et des eaux souterraines et Ton ne peut point envisager Tune sans prendre Tautre en consideration. Des recherches analogues a celles de 1907 ont ete eten- dues en 1909 a toute la region de Kafr el Garaida, pres Belcas (Gharbia), comprise entre le canal Bishma et le 24 " Le Drainage en Egypte," loc. cit. 25 Cairo Scientific Journal., vol. iii, p. 507. 26 Mosseri, V. — " Le Drainage en Egypte," loc. cit. COTTON 463 drain Banaouan. Quatre localites ont ete observees : (i) Garaida haute, tres bonne terre, cote + 3m., a rende- ment normal de 6 kantars au feddan, a eaux souterraines fluctuant entre im.5o et im. (2) Garaida basse, bonne terre, cote + 2*50 a rendement habitue! de 4 a 4^ kantars et ou les eaux souterraines se trouvaient a une profondeur variable entre im. et 0111.83. (3) Manchia (Hod el Zeraia), assez bonne terre situee a la cote + i'8o, don- nant d'ordinaire 3 a 4 kantars et ou les eaux souterraines se maintennant entre om.58 et om.6o de la surface. (4) Manchia (No. 3 Baharia), mauvaise terre cote + 1*20 ne produisant que I a 2 kantars; eaux souterraines a 0111.87 et 0111.90. Des plantes des quatre qualites de terres ont ete, apres la deuxieme cueillette, extraites du sol avec leurs racines, en prenant des precautions speciales a cet effet. La teneur en sels de ces quatre terres de differente pro- ductivite, confirme les donnees precedemment obtenues. (Voir Tableau XI.) D'autres determinations faites sur des terres de differentes regions ont toujours donne les memes resultats. Je me dispense de les relater ici, car elles ne diront rien de plus que les chiffres deja enonces. Des essais poursuivis depuis 1911 en vue de determiner le degre de resistance que peuvent opposer les varietes de cotonniers cultivees en Egypte, aux effets des sels, n'ont pas encore conduit a des resultats precis. Cepen- dant le Sakellaridis parait etre la variete la mieux adaptee aux terres plus ou moins salees du Nord du Delta et aux conditions climateriques de cette region si Ton en juge par ces essais ainsi que par les resultats pratiques obtenus en grande culture. Neanmoins des recherches supple- mentaires sont encore necessaires avant de se prononcer definitivement sur ce point et sur le degre de tolerance de chacune des autres varietes. Enfin, dans une autre serie d'etudes, j'ai essaye de preciser de quelle fa^on se traduit sur la vegetation du cotonnier et sur ses produits, Taction des sels nuisibles a doses moyennes. Pour cela on a choisi a Manchia Kafr el Garaida (Gharbia) trois parcelles soumises aux 30 464 COTTON O •a e 1 u 0 O O *3 O» * .O ro w C ON vo ro i 8 *n /rt O O C O O O M IS* 8) m" u m c • tog £ £? ^ S ^ ? « a *o o P r 45 P P g h^ c /rt o o c o o -S o * 0 g £ 1 o O •* "± ON O O ^ OO rO "P P -S P P P o vo P -:= § /rt o o c o b b « rt-* Rj Pi E o o N •£ a\ o o CJN -t- C ON M CO 1 s M O O C O O O b 0 ^ E" ^ ^ c s I"* U 8^ ti « o o ^ s- § ^ ^ ^ • • v3 g, c; c c •— **• D E 0 O j* £ « CXD w o -a c *rt b b c b b is b 0 E ^ v^ v(y O O ^ "*""" vO O O o V o n^ *^J S ^^ 'O "^ 00 g KS C • v^3 * G c 0 0 G 0 o C b J2 3 o G C c o j> • E C/2 (/) t/» o 0 0 ^- -^ vO 0 0 o i> ^ v§ Q 0) ^H ^ t c v § 6 b u b o o c c G b II -« ^ o ii u CO — 4> 592 gr. 2,507 gr. 1,823 gr. colte (sur 75 poquets) Poids de coton-graine par cap- 2 gr. 27 2 gr. 05 I gr. 46 sule de le cueillette Poids de coton-graine par cap- 2 gr. 19 2 gr. 09 2 gr. 02 sule de 26 cueillette Poids-moyen de coton-graine par 2 gr. 25 2 gr. 06 i gr. 79 capsule Rendement a 1'egrenage de la 34-43 pour cent 35 '40 pour cent 34*01 pour cent le cueillette en pour cent de coton Rendement a 1'egrenage de la 2e 34 '08 34'36 ,, 34*o8 cueillette en pour cent de coton Pourcentage de la le cueillette du 73'5° 7370 ,> 34 '0 total recolte Lint-index (le cueillette) 5-96 5'65 5'48 Qualite marchande (classification) Fully good fair Fully good fair Fair Prix 18 a 18$ talaris 18 a i8£ talaris 16 talaris par kantar par kantar par kantar La qualite marchande a passe du fully good fair pour les cotons des bonnes terres au fair pour celui des terres plus salees. Les prix out etc de i8J et 16 talaris par kantar pour les deux cas respectivement : soit une difference de 2 talaris et J en faveur des terres dessalees. Ces donnees ont ete du reste confirmees par des experi- ences ulterieures. COTTON 467 CONCLUSIONS. Si des doses minimes de sels et specialement de chlorure de sodium peuvent exercer une action favorable, ces doses, des qu'elles depassent une certaine limite, nuisent incontestablement a la quantite et a la qualite des produits. Ces limites varient suivant de nombreux facteurs que j'ai essaye de preciser. Cette action nuisible se manifests aussi bien dans le Sud que dans le Nord de 1'Egypte. Seulement dans les regions septentrionales, un climat plus frais, une plus grande humidite du sol, une nappe souterraine salee a niveau plus elevee, un systeme radiculaire plus tragant, des pratiques et artifices culturaux appropries, etc., font que les plantes se contentent d'une couche dessalee de moindre epaisseur. Si dans le Sud et le Centre, la tranche utile, seche et dessalee, necessaire au developpement normal du coton- nier, ne saurait etre inferieure a 2m., dans le nord (Bararis) il n'est pas necessaire d'abaisser a plus de im.25 a im. 50 le plan des eaux souterraines. C'est la quantite de sels contenus dans cette tranche dont on doit tenir compte. On ne peut neanmoins juger de leur influence que si Ton connait exactement leur nature et la propor- tion de chacun d'eux. J'ai montre combien le cotonnier etait sensible a Taction du carbonate de sodium, ou alcali noir, meme a do>ses tres minimes, d'autant plus minimes que les terres sont plus argileuses. Les apparitions fugitives de ce carbonate, sur lesquelles j'ai insiste dans un autre travail, sont a craindre au cours de la vegetation et il est necessaire de veiller sur les conditions qui peuvent les determiner. En general et surtout en terres plus ou moins calcaires, on en est averti par une dose trop elevee de bicarbonate. Apres le carbonate alcalin, les chlorures constituent, avec le sulfate de magnesium, les sels les plus nuisibles. Viennent enfin le sulfate et le bicarbonate de sodium. J'ai releve les doses limites compatibles avec des rende- ments normaux. Ces doses sont notablement inferieures a celles qu'on admet d'ordinaire. 468 COTTON J'ai montre ensuite de quelle maniere les sels exercent leur action nuisible sur le rendement et sur la qualite des produits. Toutes les recherches ont etc effectuees sur des cultures en pleins champs ne s'ecartant pas des conditions nor- males. Elles ont ete multipliees de faqon a eliminer autant que possible Tinfluenee des facteurs etrangers. Ces investigations n'ont pas seulement un interet speculatif : elles sont tres precieuses dans un pays comme 1'Egypte, ou la question des sels est intimement liee a celle de la fertilite du sol. Les resultats obtenus ex- pliquent certaines anomalies observees quelquefois dans les experiences de fumure. Dans beaucoup de cas, ils rendent compte de la difference de productivite que 1'on constate entre deux terres parfois contigues, en apparence semblables. Les donnees qui se degagent de ces recherches trouvent leur application directe dans la mise en valeur des Bararis, ou terres salees incultes du Nord du Delta. Or, dans ces quinze dernieres annees, la superficie annuellement cultivee en coton a passe de 1,000,000 de feddans environ a plus de 1,300,000 dans la Basse- Egypte, et de 88,000 a 380,000 dans la Haute-Egypte. Dans cette derniere region, Taugmentation est speciale- ment due a la conversion des bassins de la Moyenne- Egypte. Dans la Basse-Egypte elle est le resultat, en partie, de la*substitution de Tassolement biennal a rassole- ment triennal, et, en partie de la mise en valeur des terres incultes, particulierement des Bararis. On estime qu^il y a environ 1,000,000 de feddans de ces Bararis en voie d'amelioration et 1,200,000 encore en friche. Avec la conversion des bassins restants dans la Haute-Egypte et la mise en culture des Bararis, on pourra augmenter de plus de 50 pour cent la superficie actuellement consacree au coton dans ce pays. Mais tandis que les terres de la Haute-Egypte ne pourront produire que du coton Ash- mouni, qui devra soutenir la concurrence avec la canne a sucre, les Bararis seront susceptibles de donner les varietes les plus fines parmi celles qui font la renommee du coton egyptien. NOTE PRELIMINAIBE SUR LES ENGRAIS CHIMIQUES DANS LA CULTURE DU COTONNIER EN EGYPTE. Par VICTOR M. MOSSERI. Membre de Vlnstitut Egyptien, Vice-President dc V Union des Agriculteurs d'Egyptc. DEPUIS quelques annees, des conditions economiques nouvelles, imposent a Tagriculture egyptienne 1'obligation d'accroitre de plus en plus les rendements tout en abaissant les prix de revient. De la, sont nees des pratiques relativement recentes,, parmi lesquelles la fumure intensive du sol. Pour se procurer les matieres fertilisantes que son cheptel vivant ne suffit plus a lui foiirnir, le cultivateur a du s'adresser aux engrais, et plus specialement aux engrais chimiques, qui, a peine connus il y a tine dizaine d'annees, sont aujourd'hui 1'objet d'un commerce important. En 1913 1'Egypte en a consomme les quantites suivantes : — Tonnes Nitrate de soude .. . ... ... 56,922 Superphosphate Cyanamide de chaux Sulfate d'ammoniaque Sulfate de potasse Autres engrais ... 12,704 969 562 255 240 Total ... 71,652 Malgre les essais qui ont etc faits dans ce pays en vue- d'etudier la fumure rationnelle des plantes qui y sont cultivees, il faut avouer qu'en dehors de quelques cas-peu nombreux du reste — la question n'a pas beaucoup avancee. En ce qui concerne le cotonnier, on n'a pas encore abouti jusqu'ici a des conclusions generales et precises. D'apres les experiences que je pourauis depuis 1903, en diverses localites, il faudrait attribuer cet insucces a un defaut de continuite dans les recherche s. 47° COTTON II est rare aussi que Ton prenne les precautions neces- saires pour eviter 1'action des facteurs etrangers, dont Tinfluence est souvent plus considerable que celle des engrais employes. II est difficile, en effet, d'obtenir pour les differentes parcelles d'un champ d'experiences des conditions identiques en ce qui concerne Thomogeneite des terres, les arrosages, les attaques des parasites animaux ou vegetaux, la repartition des sels solubles, le drainage, les oscillations des eaux souterraines, les cultures et fumures anterieures, le voisinage de plantations arbustives, la preparation du sol et les fac^ons culturales, les re- ensemencements, la proximite d'un drain, d'un canal, d'une rigole en charge, etc. Dans la fumure du cotonnier, le probleme se complique aussi du fait que tout en cherchant a augmenter le rende- ment, il est essentiel de respecter la qualite des fibres, qualite que Ton devrait plutot chercher a ameliorer. Pour toutes ces raisons, j'ai, depuis 1912, introduit dans mes essais les methodes adoptees ailleurs en vue de reduire le plus possible les erreurs experimentales. A cet effet, je me suis inspire des travaux de Wood et Stratton1 «t de ceux de Mercer et Hall.2 Je me propose d'exposer ici les resultats obtenus par cette voie en 1912 et 1913 a Bata (Menoufia), et en 1913 a Kafr-Soliman (Gharbia). J'envisagerai plus particulierement les effets des engrais chimiques. Les parcelles choisies dans les localites pre- citees representent le type des bonnes terres que Ton rencontre dans le sud (Bata) et dans le centre du Delta (Kafr-Soliman), comme 1'indiquent Tanalyse chimique et physique des terres de ces parcelles, ainsi que le dosage des sels solubles qu'elles contiennent. (Voir Tableaux I et II.) A Bata, comme a Kafr-Soliman, les eaux souterraines se trouvaient a plus de 2 metres au-dessous de la surface du sol; il n'y avait pas lieu des lors d'en tenir compte. Pour eviter des repetitions, voici quels ont ete les 1 Journal of Agricultural Science, vol. iii, igio, p. 417. 2 Ibid.j vol. iv, ign, p. 106. 5.?§J? JUSS 000 ^-000 oo O f"^ *^t" ON o J b b 2 b ~ « b N LO Tj- N O VO 8 \ t>>. r-.. N 10 OOOOO N O O M 00 f^GQ Tj- rg 3-2"^S o I o OOOO w _, o IN ^2^ °^ 8 £H °~ jfg-g,;, .0*. O M N Th d O\ M ro M PO o 0 b b 2 b b 1-1 « N ^- C\ >^> O O N vO 8 ro a /rt GON<5r-% OQvooo %a o r r-oooo «s b b j- b b b b '-< Th -4- N OO M vO 10 O PO rj- COOO ON O OO O >O p 8 0 % « /rt N^^^ ^^J^^- R2o N & o b b 2 b b b b « rot^vOO^ 8 PH ft gj8rr a«w O vO vO IN vO 0 o OOOO ^00«« -^ Tt O vO O 00 1-1 N 10 8 SJS1? ts-2§§^ OO rf rj- M M ro ONVO C'J OO o vg OOOO <« O«->OM 1 10 O vO O vO *-> N «o 8 N 0 "B vS R b b b b 6 b b b fo •OCX) £j. O t>» o 8 E O S "S^ o S b b « b b b b N 1 OO 01 OO ^J"CO O\X> ro M vO ro rj- o 8 * M ^-vg 2 J^ ^^^.,2 aa««. o a OOOO OO'-i-' ^S-S10?, 8 0 % V sg>8« «,a*:r 0< »o *O vO O o 1 a b b £ b b b b « N C\-i O vO ro 10 8 » O *^ v 10 O -^-vo OO 00 O O O N o 0 b b 8 b b b « N 10 O vO O t^ 1-4 M IO 8 .... .... Elements solubles pour cent terre seche B g-«| k- 5 Q 5BSS ^ 2|| sees PSUUW AAAA a : : : a oHllo TABLEAU I (SUITE). BAT A Elements solubles pour cent terre seche o a 30 30 a 60 60 a 90 Residu sec 0-22 o* ro O'lO Chlorure de sodium... O*o6 o "04 o '04 Carbonate de sodium 0*00 O'OO O'OO Bicarbonate de sodium 0*16 0-16 0*14 Analyse mecanique (Kopecky). > 2 mm. ... — — — > I mm. ... > \ mm. ... > | mm. ... I'OO 1-16 3-52 0-94 1*44 2-04 0*94 0-82 2-24 dros sable ... Sable moyen Sable fin ... Soluble ... 5-68 14-98 24-52 O'22 4-42 8-96 20-10 O'lO 4-00 7-60 20-40 o-io Argile et limon fin ... 54*60 66*42 67-90 100*00 lOO'OO 100*00 TABLEAU II. Analyse ciinnique. Perte au feu Insoluble et silice Fer (Fe2 O:t) ... Alumine (A12O3) Manganese (MnO2) Chaux (CaO) Magnesie (MgO) Potasse (K.,O) Soude (Na,O) Acide phosphorique Acide sulfurique (SO3^ ... Acide carbonique (CO») Azote Assimilable. Silice (SiO2) ... Potasse (K2O) Acide phosphorique (P2O5) Analyse mecanique (Schloesing). /•Elements grossiers (Calcaire ... Sable J Siliceux grossier 1 Non calcaire et non siliceux ... Terre (Debris organiques ... BAT A 5-66 61-48 9*26 16-74 O'2I 3*20 0-90 0-36 0-25 008 O*9O 0-095 0-03I o 025 fin Argile Humus Nop calcaire et non siliceux 0*000 9*000 106-000 0*000 2-000 30*000 473*000 0*000 352*000 28*000 KAFR- SOLIMAN 5^4 62-03 9'06 15 '93 0-17 3 "40 1-92 0-68 0-38 0-31 0-07 075 0-073 0*021 0-024 0*000 5*000 106*000 3-000 I -000 32-000 553-000 66'ooo 228-000 6"ooo 1,000-000 1, 000*000 COTTON 473 TABLEAU II (SUITE). Analyse tnecaniqiie (Beam}. BATA KAFR- SOLIMAN oa 30 30 a 60 60 a 90 o a 30 cm. Sable grossier > £ mm. Sable fin et limon > tamis No. 100... Limon fin > tamis No. 100 Argile ... Sels solubles 2-28 37-I4 17-00 43-36 O'22 2-54 29-46 2CT2O 47-70 O'lO 2-30 31-12 16-40 50-08 O'lO 1*12 48-80 16*72 32-32 I'O4 lOO'OO lOO'OO lOO'OO lOO'OO engrais employes dans tous ces essais et leurs doses respectives en kilos par feddan : — Sulfate d'ammoniaque ... Nitrate de soude Scories Thomas Sulfate de potasse Fumier de ferme (engrais baladi) Superphosphate 16/18 ... Cyanamide de chaux loo kilos au fed. zoo ,, 200 „ zoo „ 16 m.c. 200 kilos loo , A part le nitrate de soude qui a ete applique en poquet au pied des plantes au moment de 1'eclaircissage, tous les autres engrais ont ete enfouis au dernier labour de pre- paration. Les engrais ont ete employes aux doses precitees suivant des formulas indiques aux tableaux ci-annexes, ou chacune porte tou jours le meme numero. En 1912, comme en 1913, chaque engrais a ete repete quatre fois, sauf les temoins qui Tont ete huit fois. On avait choisi 8 parcelles separees, dont 4 a Bata et les 4 autres a Kafr-Soliman. Chacune des parcelles avait ete divisee en douze lots de J de feddan a Bata et de rV a Kafr-Soliman. On s'etait assure de Thomogeneite du sol au point de vue de la texture, des sels, etc., par des sondages pousses jusqu'a 90 cm. de profondeur. (Voir Analyses, Tableaux I et II.) Malgre ces precautions il y eut entre les diverses parcelles de legeres differences qu'on n'avait pu soup- gonner. Ce qui m'a conduit pour les essais de 1914 a repeter stir le meme champ cinq fois la meme formule avec repartition en chicane. La distribution des engrais a ete faite aussi uniforme- ment que possible. Les parcelles ont rec,u les memes 474 COTTON traitements; elles avaient porte les memes cultures, avaient ete fumees de la meme maniere et travaillees par les memes cultivateurs. Les billions ont ete traces avec un ecartement de om.So d'axe en axe. Les semis ont ete faits autant que possible en quinconce (ce qui est difficile a obtenir) et a une distance de om.5o entre les poquets. On s'est attache a avoir partout le meme nombre de pieds. Cependant on eprouve d'assez grandes difficultes a observer cette derniere mesure, parce que le nombre de manquants differe souvent sensiblement entre les differents lots. II arrive que Ton soit oblige de reensemencer plus d'une fois. Or il est acquis que les plantes issues de reensemencements tardifs, produisent peu ou pas de coton. J'ai essaye, cette annee, le repiquage au lieu du reensemencement. Les resultats n'en sont pas encore connus. L'intensite des ravages du Prodenia litura, Fabr., a ete appreciee en comptant le nombre des feuilles infestees. En 1912 et en 1913, ces ravages ont, du reste, ete insig- nifiants. L'intensite des attaques des " Earias " et des " Gelechia " a ete jugee d'apres le nombre des capsules piquees. Pour les Gelechia en particulier, on a compte dans les differents lots de coton, le nombre de graines simples et doubles contenant des larves, ainsi que le nombre de graines vides. Sur quelques lignes enfin, on a releve pour chaque formule la marche de la floraison et de la formation des capsules. L'etude de Pinfluence des engrais sur ces phenomenes fera Tobjet de'un travail ulterieur. Cela dit, examinons les resultats obtenus. Pour etre bref, j'ai resume dans une serie de 10 tableaux toutes les donnees en y ajoutant tous les details necessaires. i° Action des engrais sur les rendements. (Volr Tableux III aV.) De Texamen des tableaux III a V, il appert qu'a Bata les engrais chimiques appliques au cotonnier sont suscep- tibles de produire des excedents de rendement appre- ciables. Ces excedents sont dus surtout a Tapport de COTTON 475 •M OO ON t>« ON toOO r^vO VO VO f^VO vo i-t «o III in oo oo III OO 00 ON f>» l^ TJ- t>. ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON vO txvo v£°r^vOtC vo w m 1000 O . TJ-VO HI ON OO.t^ ^rf-^-Cv) Mrrc^p^-c«iMN rj-M poo 1000 j^oo ooob b bob bb M ' b bbbb bbbbb|b|b~ bb « | « N ~ « « 1 1 + t OOOOOOOOOO OO OOO OOOO CO to r< OO f-» ON TJ-00 •-i o f ^to ^Tj-om >-> r^oo ^~ vb t^ I^ vO vO ON vO tovO l>«vo vo vO ££ «l i Ss OOOOOOOOOO OO O 00 1-1 o (vJ rr>X> r^ N OO xo O >-" O r>» ON O 00 • Tj-00 ro to OOOOOOOOOO OO n m." « ~ _M TJ- to to bbbbbbbbbb bb VO O rf w lOO ^f I TJ" »-H V.O Q\ T^" *-OvO lO'^OiO rJ- ONV ON ONVO vO to to OOO OOOO oo o m t^ t^ m m O vo p vp oo 1000 rf m V rj- ^- ^- Vt- •So. £ v J : :Sg I : : :3 | : « fr ». ••£• 5 • •• «5 • t| 3 4- °^^^ °- ^§+ ?•? -^ ^*z •g + ajS-S'g •g28-Sa5 + I^IelsJ o&^s^^e-^ 8 8 ^ * g «S ^ ^S'S^^^T^rt i.i5p+l| Is -fsfsf 5^*s-g+^ -s^-^+^ + « •» S tf •$ « £*3 «uS^rto;.J2Dx r^ V<1> i-t ^QJ ••-« Cs — C •— VQJ C\ -^ C «i-t «-f -^' ZW ^HO ZWZw t^CO ON O •-* 476 COTTON TABLEAU III (SUITE). Annee ign. ire 2me e ire 2me 3 me Excedent cueil- cueil- cueil- Nature des engrais cueil- cueil- cueil- Total i ou lette lette lette lette lette lette 1 deficit pour pour pour cent cent cent i. Nitrate en deux fois 2-41 2-65 0-49 5'55 + 0'6l 43 48 9 2. Nitrate en une fois 2-31 2 '49 0-36 5-16 + O'22 45 48 7 3. Temoin (sans engrais) ... 2-86 1-89 0-36 — 56 37 7 4. Temoin (sans engrais) ... 2-15 2-41 °'47 5*°3 — 43 48 9 5. Nitrate + superphosphate 2-07 4 '95 4-croi 42 50 8 6. Superphosphate (avant) 2'12 1 '97 °'49 4-58 — 0*36 4(5 43 ii 7. Superphosphate (apres) 2-42 i '99 °'39 4-80 -0-14 50 42 8 8. Temoin (ians engrais) ... 2-62 179 0-28 4-69 " 56 38 6 1'element azote dont I'utilite par cette localite se confirme du reste par des essais anterieurs poursuivis depitis 1903. L'azote sous forme d'azote nitrique directement assimilable applique en poquet, de bonne heure, en une ou en deux fois (voir resultats 1911) parait etre le plus efficace. Cependant cette efficacite varie dans d'assez larges limites, suivant les annees (comparer entre elles les annees 1911, 1912 et 1913). Les engrais phosphates, employes seuls, soit sous forme de scories (1913), soit sous forme de super (1912), ont donne des resultants plutot negatifs. Associes au nitrate ils donnent de bons resultats. Bien que 1'excedent obtenu ne compense pas toujours les frais occasionnes par 1'application des engrais phosphates, il semble neanmoins que ces derniers exercent une certaine action favorable en ce que, associes aux engrais azotes, ils corrigent leur tendance a retarder quelque peu la maturite, surtout dans le nord, comme nous allons le dire. Le super parait etre plus favorable sous ce rapport que les scories, toutefois ces deux engrais n'ont pas ete essayes concurrement et dans la meme annee et Ton ne peut des lors se prononcer definitivement a leur egard. La potasse seule n'a produit aucune augmentation de rendement. Associee au nitrate, elle n'a pas eu d'effet utile en 1913; tandis qu'en 1912, elle a augmente sensible- ment la recolte. Le fumier de ferme, applique directement au coton, a produit de mauvais effets en 1913; tandis qu'en 1912 la COTTON 477 g « Q M s! -.•»•/"« M m N « K, - « « Jl Els b N vo VO OO oo 3 O it vo t^x M vO - « * N 00 oo 00 « .«§ 11 oo oo oo oo oo OO 00 oo oo 00 00 oo s3 rt S 1^ *x m VO o £ 5 ~ Si co <~O N ^O M 1 ^ 1 ^ vo •0 c< u 2"°$= O O O O O 0 0 0 o O & '-3 fig g| 3" 3 S S S> vo " 3 ^ rn 8rc 1 "g^o O O O O O 1 b i b o 0 o . 2 s g § + + f 1 1 + + 1 •s rf 00 rj- -i -i 00 0 ON 5*3 0 M 'M M O O -" « o M M O o V L^ vO *O ^O o Tf OO TJ- ON vo f/^ vo fO ^" ""^ f^ •-> . r^ to •^ M'S 3 vo vo vo Tf vo rl- vo vo vo vo ir* * • : ";3 1 .2 g : 8. i : __^ : ^ : 1 4> 1 c* -a s 'rt 'S + S § s 2 •; 1 b/5 y. C t/j i i g "g W 'C P S _}- OJ 5 •5 s H •2- + " 2o + •3 S5 *2 > & & '-J> U 1 1 1 H a) i I s g C 55 1 1-1 N ro TT i VO vO t^ 00 ON o » !! COTTON TABLEAU V. CUEILLETTES COMPAREES A CELLES DES TEMOINS. Resultats moyens ex-primes en kantars de 315 rotolis au feddan. Annee 1913. BATA KAFR-SOLIMAN (MENOUFIA) (GHARBIA) ^Nature des engrais ire sme ire zme cueillette cueillette cueillette cueillette i. Sulfate d'ammoniaque ... 2. Nitrate de soude + 0-22 + 070 + 0-05 + 0-23 + 0-23 + 0-59 — O'2O + 0'08 3. Scories + sulfate de potasse — 0-40 — O'O4 + 0'6l -f 0'12 4. Cyanamide de chaux ... + 0-27 + O'I5 -0'29 + 0'I2 5. Scories Thomas — 0*19 -0-13 -O'lO -0-23 6. Temoin (sans engrais) ... — — 7. Sulfate de poiasse — 0*40 — O'C>7 +°'34 + 0-16 8. Temoin (sans engrais) ... — — — — 9. Nitrate de soude + scories + 079 — O'O3 +0-52 -0-12 10. Complet : nitrate + sulfate de + 0-03 +0-52 + O*II potasse + scories ii. Nitrate -+- sulfate de potasse ... -f O'lO + O'O2 +0-27 + 0-19 12. Engrais baladi (fumier) -0-19 -O'lO -075 -fO'OI recolte en a beaucoup profile . En general son action est assez favorable. Les resultats obtenus a Kafr-Soliman montrent que dans cette localite les engrais chimiques de meme que le fumier de ferme appliques directement au cotonnier exercent sur le rendement une influence peu sensible. Les resultats sont de meme ordre que ceux de Bata, quant au nitrate. Us en different en ce qui regarde Faction de la cyanamide, des scories seules ou associees au sulfate de potasse, et enfin de ce dernier engrais. Toutefois 1'engrais complet n'a pas donne ici de bons resultats. En 1913, le fumier de ferme ou engrais baladi, a Kafr- Soliman comme a Bata, s'est montre inferieur aux engrais chimiques. II semble des lors que 1'annee 1913 lui a ete defavorable. Dans les deux localites, c'est surtout la premiere cueillette, dans le cas de deux cueillettes; la premiere et la deuxieme dans le cas de trois cueillettes, qui semblent influencees par les engrais; la derniere cueillete semble COTTON 479 dependre d'autres facteurs (climat, etc). Cependant, une premiere cueillette abondante n'est pas necessairement suivie d'une deuxieme peu elevee; il y a tendance meme a ce que Tinverse ait lieu. Je n'insisterai pas davantage sur les resultats de ces deux premieres annees, quant aux rendements culturaux. 2° Action des engrais sur la maturite. Ce point merite notre attention. II est important, en effet, de ne rien negliger des facteurs qui peuvent hater la maturite, surtout dans le nord de 1'egypte (a cause des brouillards, insectes, etc.). Nos essais de Bata et de Kafr-Soliman accusent peu de relation entre les engrais et la maturite de la recolte. Toutefois, en suivant les dates d'apparition des capsules et en comptant dans les differents carres, celles qui restent sur les plantes apres la derniere cueillette sans jamais s'ouvrir, on s'apergoit de la legere tendance qu'ont les engrais azotes meme dans ces regions a retarder quelque peu la maturite. Des experiences poursuivies depuis 1908 aux environs de Belcas ont fait mieux ressortir cette tendance. Aussir 1'excedent qu'on y obtient par Temploi du nitrate varie considerablement suivant les conditions climateriques de Tarriere-saison. A cet egard, Temploi des engrais phosphates associes aux engrais azotes est avantageux dans ces parties ou la duree de la vegetation est relativement courte. Le super serait plus efficace que les scories. Dans le sud et le centre (Bata et Kafr-Soliman) cette heureuse influence des engrais phosphates n'apparait pas bien nettement, et les resultats obtenus en 1911, 1912 et 1913 mettent en evidence Tintervention dans la maturite d'autres agents plus puissants que les engrais. 3° Action des engrais sur le rendement a I'egrenage et le Lint-index. (Voir Tableau VI.) On peut dire que tous les engrais qui produisent un excedent de recolte diminuent ce rendement, et que cette ^ 14 *< £! i 2 CO rS P S 1 ^ -N fj] CO o, T W -*2 £ I 3 to tr> to to lO COO OOON-^-Tj-T^-MH-iT^NN r^ r^ r4 y^j^-^vpvovp N c^to ^jg to to io to to to to to to to to to ir^if. vO OO •— i Tt*vO \ N I vO >^ 'MH O « w w ' " w MH ^to r<->i-'NT*-ro oo w <0 00 ^ 0 vp 00 Tt rr> N roTj-ror-JfO N -- Tj- rr LO vO « ^ ss'S u £ O 00 N -ojdjnajag | w sajjaDJ^d sap B[ ap sap 30 0 N vb rn fi NO p p NO V «* ° sap auuaAop\[ : o : v o- g. « g 'S eule annee d'obser- vation. 5° Action des cngrals sur les qualites des fibres. J'ai voulu profiter des experiences de 1912 et 1913, pour etudier cette tres importante question. Une tentative de ce genre avait ete faite en 1902; mais 1'examen n'avait porte que sur un nombre d'echantillons trop restreint.5 Cinquante six lots de coton provenant des diverses parcelles, ont ete envoyes a I'lmperial Institute de Londres, aux fins d'analyse et devaluation commerciale. Les resultats ont ete condenses dans les tableaux ci- annexes. C'est la premiere fois, a ma connaissance, que Ton a apporte dans un examen de ce genre, un aussi haut degre de garantie et de precision. Les cotons examines pro- viennent tous, de la ire cueillette. (a) Couleur et brillant (v.oir Tableau IX). — Tous les cotons possedaient en commun un leger defaut d'homo- geneite dans la couleur, sans qu'on puisse assigner a Tun d'entre eux une inferiorite manifeste a cet egard. D'un autre cote, Tintensite de la coloration pour chaque 5 Henry Yves. — Journal & Agriculture -pratique des Pays chattds, igo2. 3 ^ £ 3 „ I I I C § C I '3>S : J> M S^QJ •~ * I "H c I 1 1 HJ £ J£ 3 *3 'I! I « C C d> v I i ""i •- *•* ** js ' ' i « i 2 I I 1 . . ..'||8S I s I vi> r?) »- v c •" c ^ c g 2 g.3 ^ .« S -"c S •'c .o - js ^^ t, j~* ^o r^ ^ "^ ^Q -2 S B = S •B S J 'S S pg wcwC«uOrtO^----t->'< 3^ O >>0V|U 3v-, ON O po Nitrat Balad M W flt . V« U4 « ^;« O O 1 ssis-- 1S '2-S.^II * ill .« -tf Ou COTTON variete consideree a part, a etc, a peu de chose pres, la meme pour tous les lots. Les variations ont ete a peine sensibles et tantot a 1'avantage, tantot en defaveur de la meme formule. Le diametre, du moms pour le Jannovitch, le Nubari et 1'Assili, n'augmente pas avec 1'intensite de la coloration, ainsi que 1'avait signale M. Yves Henry pour 1'Abassi. Au point de vue du brillant, les cotons de meme variete mais de diverses formules, ne se distinguent presque pas les uns des autres. Si, en effet, la cyanamide de chaux parait avoir a Bata une certaine tendance a attenuer le brillant, on ne lui retrouve pas ce defaut a Kafr-Soliman, ou il s'agit pour- tant d'un coton plus delicat : le Jannovitch, (b) Maturite (voir Tableau X). — De tous les etats de la fibre la maturite est celui qui influe le plus sur ses qualites et particulierement sur sa resistance. Les lots dont les fibres etaient les plus resistantes con- tenaient le moins de coton mort ou non encore arrive a maturite. Cette maturite doit etre sans doute consider- ablement influencee par des conditions climateriques ou autres, puisque nous voyons que la meme formule appliquee dans la meme localite produit suivant les annees des resultats differents. Des conditions locales doivent egalement intervenir. Toutefois la maturite parait avoir ete favorisee par 1'emploi des engrais azotes associes aux engrais phosphates avec ou sans potasse. (c) Resistance (voir Tableau X). — On constate tin leger defaut d'homogeneite qui varie plus suivant les parcelles que suivant les engrais. Aucun de ces derniers ne semble exercer sur rhomogeneite de resistance une action visible- ment defavorable. Les fibres des Nos. 9 (scories + nitrate) et 10 (complet) sont les plus resistantes parmi les Nubari de Bata. A Kafr-Soliman, la formule n (nitrate + sulfate de potasse) a ete superieure aux autres. D'une maniere generale et nonobstant 1'influence mani- feste du sol, des arrosages, etc., on pent dire que les engrais ameliorent plutot la resistance des fibres et que c'est 1'engrais complet qui est le meilleur. (d) Longueur des fibres (voir Tableaux XI et XII). — a S co -S S Si 5 i« W M S O1 >» I a> v ^ S U U V ^«2 S „ . «« ill 15. Ill 1*11 6|§ | * * <^ >> III I I ^ I CJ 3J i 1 1 1 M ^lusu O O N O O O "JJ <1> aj ^ Sow '^wj^r< t«tn ;>itni« •^3 Q Q CO g •g 1 Vi i '"§ ^ o ^ £ •S W ^ C/3 10 U <^ O «-5 ^ g S g s bfl g « c Sppppppppp y> p ill y u-> ^ in m invo ^ co "-O m rr II p yn p m O jn CO CO V rf V CO OOOO^nOOOO OO OOOO O m Q\ O^ O O^ ON ** 0\OO O O OQ 1 T llT M 7 U Ml OOOOmOOOO *nO OO OO 00 ON ONOO Ml IN i O m O ininin ^•• V |pPinpppp^p £** , , I | ^^^g, 2>° W "* 1 ooooooooo no O O «n O O O imetre en i OOONONONOOOONON ONOO | 1 ^ 7 " 7 ^ 1 M TON ON ON ON ON 1 1 I 1 0 y>0 0 0 0 3 £p pmpOOiniop inp pop o *^ *-^ *-^ o o o ^o OOmOOO«nOO *n O »n Q O O o OOOO "i*n ON O 00 00 O ONOO ON ON 00 OO 00 ONOO 7 i 7 i i i ii M OOOOOOOm O OO *n O O ONOO ^^ ° °N 00 00 01^ ^^io mi § riur>r^r^r^i^r^u-)oovQ vo oo i I I "^ \O vo vO ^O >O t^ C Koobbbobob ob 1 •' -12 b b b b b b i I^VQ OO OO 1^.00 *O OO t^ *O 00 *~~* s» f^r^r*°° r^r* 2 T 7 1 7 7 7 7 i 7- 7 '! i i N OS w j-i O « « O M OO ^ i ^-ii^ ii M c I-H .5 V 1 rt 1000 t^OO t^ O 1^00 vO vO ON 2" | | wboooowbbb bb ' ' ON 1 _ oo invo in in «n 1 i b b b b b b 8. OO OC l'-^. t^>*OO f^*vO vO OO vO ^C CTN ^ i fc/. M^i 1 1 || ?~> O O GM-* t~* ONOO N O ON | | ^ 1 M 1 ^ _) t-ll-H_o>-'OOO>-' I-H O ^ 0 M « « « - i^oovo^^^^^o mm ONVO^ vC'O r^^oooo int^ I tjbbbbobbbb bo bob bb bbbb bo w *O oo r>>.\o jc oo t^ t^o \o in i^oo oo r^ o t^^o oo t^ oo r^ 1 ON O «N N VO OS d « N aouajajuip v\ ap N N ajqTjqoad jnaaag ) M N N •red -x "d QMMMO>-IMMO •3-n-n-TTTTi-Ti-^f Auuad ap CXDI/I vo N o cr^oo ON IN II 00 00 OO OOOO VO 3O SO fO ro to MNMMI-ll^rfNM i-iM MMh-i N>-< OO 000000000 00 000 00 0 »OOO 00 O O O OO N 80000800 OO OO N 00 O O mmerci de pen ivref OONOONOOMNNOO OON i-iroi-iNi-cro'OTiM MCO OOOOOOOOO OO 00 "^OO 10 u-jvo aouaaajjip v\ ap ajqijqojd OOOOOO vntnio LTJIO oooooo oooo ioQOQ OO C^NN MM M N I-H NM O^OOO OO OOO 00 000 00 QM^M MM ooooo'ooo oo ap ooo'i/i ua auuaAoj\[ C xo CO co ONVO co co Tt- COOO CO 00 CO vO vb vO vb vO VO N 10 p O CO I >» C^ C» vOO Diametre des fibres en 100,000 d'inch 00 OxvQ MOOOOvOM O \O vD vO t^vo t^t^vO t^ t^ »g. I « ^OOO t^VO ^-OO iO30 r^ t^» O* -^J Tf-vO ^ '-O ^ "5 M OO ON t^ t^i vovovovovovovovovo vOvO % vO vO vO vOvO O ^^ *° ^° ^ . ^ , ff) O <*5 O I II M •< ^> U rrj U II ON „ I M L, „ M ua inanSiioq M OO VO VO VO \O COOjO >H OO^ 10 ro io io io lovb ro t^ co rf CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO M M IO MM 00 coo O O O cocovO COO o Tt- nq ^5 i^P ^ r des fibre nches T^COrj-Tj-rJ-^r^-TiO COCO "0 T}- rl- - _ 0. f 5S-|i 1=1111 «+i-a+-s M N co vov «\ M 49° COTTON On sait que rhomogeneite de longueur n'est pas indepen- dante des autres qualites de la fibre. En general les lots examines etaient assez homogenes. Je tire cette conclusion des observations qui accom- pagnent 1'expertise plutot que des chiffres qui mesurent 1'ecart existant entre la longueur maximum et la longueur minimum des fibres. Cette maniere de faire conduit on le sait, a des appreciations erronees.6 A Bata (1913) les formules 2 (nitrate), 9 (nitrate + scories), n (nitrate et sulfate de potasse), et a un moindre degre la formule 12 (baladi) montrent une tendance a diminuer la longueur des fibres; tandis que la formule 10 (complet) semble devoir raugmenter. Cependant 1'etude de Terreur probable de la difference ne donne pas une grande certitude a cet egard. Ces donnees se confirment pleinement par les experi- ence's de Kafr-Soliman (1913). Pour la meme annee, les memes formules ont exerce une influence semblable sur la longueur des fibres dans les deux regions. vSi nous comparons entre eux pour une meme localite (Bata) les resultats de deux annees differentes (1913 et 1912), nous constatons toujours la tendance des formules 2 (nitrate) et 12 (baladi) a produire des fibres de moindre longueur. (e) Diametre (voir Tableaux XI et XII). — L'influence des engrais sur le diametre n'est pas tres nette. La valeur des erreurs probables est assez considerable pour nous imposer une certaine reserve. On admet d'ordinaire que la resistance croit avec le diametre de la fibre. Mes experiences indiquent que la finesse n'exclut pas la resist- ance. Elles montrent aussi qu'une augmentation dans la longueur ne correspond pas toujours a une diminution dans le diametre. Et inversement qu'une diminution dans la longueur n'implique pas une augmentation dans le diametre. En effet, les engrais azotes employes seuls n'ont pas altere la finesse de la fibre. (/) Evaluation commercial (voir Tableau XI.) — C'est sans doute le point qui interesse le plus le pro- 6 M. Yves Henry, loc. cit. COTTON 49t ducteur et il est bon de faire observer tout de suite qu'il est la resultante non seulement de 1'action des engrais, mais d'une foule d'autres facteurs. Les fumures n'y interviennent d'ailleurs que dans une faible mesure, ainsi que le demontre surabondamment revaluation com- merciale. Examinons, en effet, les prix accordes a chaque lot, en les etudiant pour chaque parcelle, tant a Bata qu'a Kafr- Soliman. On est frappe tout d'abord par le fait que tous les cotons de la premiere parcelle de Bata ont ete estimes au meme prix, quelle que soit la fumure. Dans les deux autres parcelles de la meme localite, les prix varient non seulement d'une formule a 1'autre, mais aussi d'une parcelle a Tautre pour la meme formule. Les prix respectifs des differents lots de la parcelle No. 2 sont plus eleves que ceux des lots de la parcelle 3. En moyenne tous les lots ont ete cotes au meme prix a i ou 2 piastres pres, par kantar, difference insignificante. A Kafr-Soliman, et bien qu'il s'agisse du Jannovitch, nous observons les memes faits qu'a Bata, et le prix moyen est encore ici plus uniforme. On ne saurait trop insister sur 1'importance des chiffres de cette evaluation commerciale; ils mettent fin, en effet, a des croyances gratuites suivant lesquelles quantite et qualite sont impossibles a realiser a la fois dans la culture cotonniere. Au contraire, ces engrais judicieusement employes pourraient ameliorer les qualites de la fibre, et je n'en veux pour preuve que les remarques suivantes qui accom- pagnent le rapport d'expertise de 1'Imperial Institute. Au sujet des Nubari, les experts font remarquer que les lots de la premiere parcelle " sont de qualite tres satis- faisante, et de meme valeur commerciale "; pour ceux de la parcelle 2 " qu'ils sont de bonne qualite, specialement les Nos. 2, 6, 7, 9 et 12"; enfin pour les Nubari de la troiseme parcelle, "qu'ils sont de bonne qualite, legere- inent inferieurs a 1'ensemble des lots des 2 parcelles precedentes; les cotons Nos. 2, 3 et 7 sont les meilleurs, tandis que les Nos. 6 et 10 contiennent la plus grande proportion de fibres faibles et irregulieres." 492 COTTON En ce qui concerne le Jannovitch de Kafr-Soliman, les memes experts les ont trouves tous de " tres bonne qualite ; ceux de la premiere parcelle legerement superieurs aux autres, le tout presentant les memes defauts que les Nubari de Bata, a savoir une legere irregularite dans la longueur et la resistance." Enfin les experts declarent les Assili de Bata (1912) " d'excellent qualite dans rensemble; les Nos. 9 et n etant legerement superieurs aux autres au point de vue de la resistance." Et Ton pent conclure que les engrais chimiques judicieusement employes exercent sur les qualites des fibres tin effet favorable, tout en augmentant le rendement cultural. THE COST OF LABOUR AS AFFECTING THE COTTON CROP (ESPECIALLY IN THE UNITED STATES). By JOHN A. TODD, B.L. Professor of Economics, University College, Nottingham. THE problem of the increase of the world's cotton supply has been very much before the trade and the Government for the last fifteen years. A great deal of time and money have been spent in efforts to increase the supply by discovering" and developing new areas suitable for cotton growing, and also by improving the conditions in existing areas. The time seems opportune, therefore, for a survey of the general conditions which have emerged, and the future possibilities which they indicate. The writer's point of view is naturally that of the economist, and the line of inquiry which it is proposed to follow in this paper may be indicated thus : Every country has among its own peculiar conditions at least one limiting factor which is the chief thing to be considered in estimat- ing the possibilities of its future. To pick out and com- pare these limiting factors should be of interest, and may throw some light on the broad tendencies of the future development of the world's cotton supply. Thus in Egypt the limiting factor has all along been the water supply available for irrigation. There has always been a neck-and-neck race between the maximum water supply and the area under cultivation. Again and again new irrigation facilities have been provided which seemed capable of meeting maximum requirements for some time ahead, but in an incredibly short time the fellah has again been crying out for more water. In the most recent case, the raising of the Assuan Dam, a single year has been enough, owing to an abnormally low and late Nile flood, to produce renewed water shortage in spite of the increased supply. It seems probable that .this will always be the case. 494 COTTON In the Sudan the problem at first sight appears similar, but there are other difficulties which may become serious as the area under cotton increases. The labour supply was utterly depleted by the wars with the Khalifa, and in spite of the phenomenal rate of increase of Oriental countries, it is still very short. Wages are at present rather below the level of Egypt, which may be taken roughly at a shilling a day for ordinary agricultural labour; but it is easy to imagine what might be the effect of a too rapid extension of cotton cultivation in the Gezira leading to a scarcity in the labour supply. I am indebted to Mr. Lawrence Balls for a characteristic fact, namely, that the marriage dowry in certain districts has risen steadily from the sumptuary limit of £2 which was fixed by the Khalifa, until amounts as high' as £50 have been recently demanded. A general rise in the standard of living, which this seems to indicate, might very well be followed by a rise of wages, which would seriously hamper the development of cotton growing. In West and East Africa, including Nigeria, Uganda, British East Africa, and Nyasaland, the labour situation is very different. Cotton is cultivated almost entirely by native smallholders who are more or less independent; but if the value of their labour be judged by comparison with the rates paid for other work, such as in the ginning factories, it is very low. In Uganda, for example, the labourers in the ginneries are paid about 2d. to 3d. per day, and it is probable that in none of these areas does the average day's wage rise so high as the Egyptian figure of is. a day. In all these countries the chief difficulty is transport. The grower has to carry his crop on his head to the nearest market, from which it may find its way by road or river to railhead. After a long journey it at last reaches the seaport, from which it has still a long sea journey to Liverpool. The result is that for cotton which sells in Liverpool at 7d. to lod. per Ib. the grower receives probably not more than 4d. to 7d. In Nigeria, for example, the British Cotton Growing Association fixed buying price was raised not long ago to ijd. per Ib. of seed-cotton. As the ginning out-turn is only about 27 per cent, this means about 4d. per Ib. of lint. COTTON 495 In India, again, wages are very low, and the chief difficulty is to secure the adoption of methods of cultiva- tion and varieties of cotton which would increase the yield above the present beggarly average of about 100 Ib. of cotton (lint) per acre. In China and Japan the con- ditions are probably similar to those of India. In Asiatic Russia, where cotton is grown entirely under irrigation, the limiting' factor is again the water supply as in Egypt, though in certain districts where the old native type of cotton is largely or entirely grown we find a parallel to the Indian conditions. In Bokhara, a Russian tributary State, a curious state of affairs exists, under which the method of collecting the land revenue controls the situa- tion. The land tax is assessed on the value of the crop, which cannot be removed from the field until it has been inspected and valued by the revenue officer. To avoid the damage which would result from the inevitable delay, cultivation is confined to the native type of cotton, the boll of which does not open when ripe, but has to be plucked bodily and opened afterwards by artificial means. In South America, Brazil and Peru are fairly important cotton-produciing countries. Regarding the former, the- writer has little definite information. It seems to offer great possibilities for cotton growing, but the cost of living is very high and labour very poorly paid, resulting in low efficiency and high mortality. The chief hindrance to the extension of the crop seems to be lack of enterprise and the entire absence of modern methods of cultivation. In Peru, cotton is grown entirely under irrigation and the limiting factor is the lack of capital for the develop- ment of irrigation facilities. Labour is comparatively costly, wages being stated in a report, dated 1911, as 2s. 6d. per day. Coming now to the United States Cotton Belt, which still supplies about two-thirds of the world's cotton crop, we find a set of conditions entirely different from those in any other country in the world. The Civil War, so far as it really turned on the question of slavery, was fought on the issue that cotton is essentially a " cheap-labour crop/' and that its cultivation without the supply of cheap labour 32 49° COTTON which the slave system provided would be unprofitable, if not impossible. Of all the evils which the defenders of the South prophesied from the freeing of the slaves probably none has been so strikingly fulfilled as this. Negro labour under conditions of freedom has certainly not increased in efficiency; but its cost has gone up to a degree which even the gloomiest prophets could hardly have anticipated. A few figures will bring out the startling rise in the labour cost of the crop. The exact rates, of course, vary a good deal in different districts, but the following were obtained from an absolutely reliable source in Texas; and although the labour diffi- culty there is notoriously more acute than in the older parts of the Belt, the difference is only one of degree and is probably not sufficient to invalidate the argument. In any case, Texas already provides nearly one-third of the total American crop. Most of the work of the cotton crop is done by day wages or piecework rates; but where men are employed as permanent hands the wage was stated at about $20 per month, or an average of $i per working day, for they take Saturday off as well as Sunday. Day wages are anything from $i a day upwards, but in the picking season the work is done on piece rates. These range in Texas from 60 cents per 100 Ib. of seed-cotton at the beginning of the season, when there is plenty of cotton on the plants and picking is easy, up to $i per 100 Ib. at the end of the season, when the cotton is scarce and more difficult to pick. A good picker can-do 300 to 400 Ib. per day; 800 Ib. in a day is recorded at a competition, but that was with assistance to carry away and weigh the cotton. Even at these prices labour is not easily obtained. In 1913 there was a special scarcity of labour in Texas owing to the Mexican War, which prevented the usual supply of transitory labour from across the border, with the result that in the first week of the picking season the pickers struck for 70 cents, and had to get it. In ordinary seasons the average cost of picking throughout the season is said to be about 85 cents. As the out-turn of lint from seed-cotton is about one-third, this means that the actual cost of picking the cotton alone is about 2\ cents per Ib. of lint. Considering that the average COTTON 49/ vralue of the cotton, taking into account the large pro- portion of lower grade cotton, probably did not exceed 10 or 12 cents per lb., even with the high prices pre- vailing in 1913; this means that the labour cost of picking- alone is from one-fourth to one-fifth of the value of the cotton. The total labour cost of the crop, as will be seen from the statement on p. 502, worked out at about $9*78 per acre. Estimating the crop at 200 lb. of lint per acre at 12 cents per lb., and taking into account the value of the seed, which at that time was not more than $20 per ton, the proportion of the labour cost of the crop to its total gross value ($28) is just under 35 per cent. Two other illustrations may be given of the serious handicap imposed upon cotton growing in America by the cost of labour. Since the advent of boll weevil to the Mississippi Valley, where the best types of long staple cotton were grown, the Government experts of the Bureau of Plant Industry have devoted themselves to the selection or breeding of varieties which combine length of staple with good yield- and early maturity; the latter is essential if the cotton is to evade the worst ravages of boll weevil by maturing at least a fair pro- portion of the crop before the weevil appears in its full strength in August and September. One type in particular, known as Durango, seemed to be specially suitable, but was found to possess a drawback which militated greatly against its general adoption, namely, a peculiar ingrowing habit of the lint in the boll which rendered picking slower and more difficult. This was enough to make the negroes practically refuse to pick the cotton, except at prohibitive rates, and the result is that the experts have been practically compelled to con- tinue the work of selection until they can find some other variety which will combine the advantages of the Durango with the open growing character of the ordinary Upland cotton. In other words, America must select its cotton to please the negro. Again, during the last few years great hopes have been entertained of the development of entirely new cotton- growing areas much farther west than the existing Belt, and practical success has already been achieved in two COTTON large areas, namely, the Salt River Valley in Arizona and the Imperial Valley in California. There, under irrigation, superior varieties both of long staple Upland and Egyptian have been produced which offered great possibilities; but the cost of picking, especially in the case of the Egyptian, was so high as to be practically prohibitive. The following quotation is from a Govern- ment report recently published: "The cost of picking Egyptian cotton was no less variable than the cost of production. On the irrigated land of the south-west the cotton plants grow very large with many branches. When loaded with a heavy cotton crop the plants bend over and become so entangled that it is difficult to get through the field. Where the acreages were small for each family no cash outlay for picking was needed. In the Imperial Valley, where labour was scarce and there was a lively demand for pickers in adjacent fields of short staple cotton, it was sometimes found necessary to pay from 3 to 3^ cents per Ib. for picking. In the Salt River Valley, on the other hand, the labour supply was adequate and the bulk of the crop was picked for 2 cents per Ib. These prices, of course, refer to the seed- cotton." Taking the average ginning out-turn as one- third, this means that the cost of picking in these cases was from 6 to loj cents per Ib. of lint. It only remains to add that the cotton fetched approximately 21 cents per Ib., so that in some cases the cost of picking was actually one-half of the value of the lint. Compare with this the cost of picking Egyptian cotton in Egypt, which is quoted in a recent report as P.T. 75 ($3-75) per acre yielding 5 kantars (say 500 Ib.) of lint cotton, equivalent to a cost of f cent per Ib. of lint, against 6 to ic-J cents in California. Had labour been the only extravagant item in the cost of production of cotton in America the situation might have been tolerable, but all the other items seem to be rising, too. Farm implements, horses and mules, and supplies of all kinds, including food both for man and beast, have gone up in price to a very serious extent. Thus, reverting to the Texas case, all the other charges except labour, i.e., interest on and depreciation of capital, in the form of implements, plant, draught animals (but COTTON 499 not the land itself), the cost of feeding stuffs, seed, ginning, and baling" charges and supervision amounted to $11.34, or fully 40 per cent, of the gross value of the crop, leaving a balance of barely 25 per cent, to cover the landlord's rent. As a matter of fact, the rent in this case was exactly one-fourth of the crop under a crop- sharing agreement. This tenure is very common, and the landlord's share is rarely less than one-fourth. The result is that under these conditions it takes 12 cents per Ib. to remunerate the grower fairly. The situation gives some cause for anxiety, for it must be remembered that while the average yield over the whole of the America Cotton Belt is only about 200 Ib. per acre, there are many small farmers whose yield is even less. The low yield is partly due to lack of labour; thorough ploughing and preparation of the ground are almost impossible, and the loss due to boll weevil might be considerably mitigated by picking up and burning the affected " squares," for example, if labour were obtain- able at a reasonable cost. Again, while the basis price of Middling American cotton has in recent years touched very high figures, there has been an increasing proportion of low grade cotton. This, too, is largely due to the insufficient labour supply. During the picking season the American Cotton Belt is subject at times to very heavy rains, which damage the open cotton not only directly by the effect of the damp on the lint, but also indirectly by splashing mud up from the ground into the open bolls. This results in tinged or stained cotton, and the extent of the damage is due to the fact that there is not sufficient labour available to pick the cotton quickly when the weather is favourable. To those accustomed as the writer was to Egyptian conditions, it will be something of a shock to hear of ripe cotton being left hanging on the plants all through the winter, exposed to frost and rain. The writer heard of cotton being picked in March of the following year. Even if a satisfactory mechanical picker were available — and, unfortunately, none of the types yet placed on the market can be regarded as satisfactory — it would not entirely meet the difficulty, which is most serious in the case of the small grower. They, of course, could not 5OO COTTON afford the necessary capital outlay, even if it would pay to invest so much capital on a small holding. As a matter of fact, most of the smallholders are only able to make ends meet at all under present conditions, because they are able to have the greater part of the farm work done by themselves or their families. If they were compelled to pay market rates for all the labour the crop requires they would soon be faced with bankruptcy. Last year, for example, the planter from whom the figures above quoted were obtained had a yield of only about one-third of a bale per acre, and, in spite of the high level of prices, a considerable portion of his crop, owing to its bad condition, fetched only 6 cents per Ib. Under such con- ditions the life of the planter is simply economic slavery; he is only making a living out of his family. The idea which is very prevalent in this country, that, at present prices, cotton growing must be a very profitable business, is about as far from the truth as it could be, so far as America, or at least Texas, is concerned. Making every possible allowance for the traditional grumbling propensity of the farmer these facts present a situation which calls for serious consideration. It means that under present conditions there must be a large proportion of the small growers who are working below the margin of profitable cultivation. This may be all very well for the negro planter, with his large family of small children, whose cost of subsistence is very low, and may be covered by the equivalent of one man's wage; but it will not do for the smaller white planters of, say, 50 to 150 acres, who now form a considerable proportion of the cotton growers in Texas, and who under better conditions might have been the hope of the cotton-grow- ing industry. Something must be done if these men are to remain in the trade or others tempted to join them. It must be remembered that Texas and Oklahoma alone account for 75 per cent, of the net increase of area of the last ten years, and it is to them we must look chiefly for further extension. Unfortunately, it is easier to point out the remedy than to secure its enforcement. There is no immediate prospect of any solution of the labour difficulty, for the supply of additional labour by immigration is swallowed COTTON 501 up as fast as it comes. The difficulty can only be met by increasing- the value of the crop, by raising the average yield, and improving the quality. The only alternative is a higher price, or at least the maintenance of a level of prices which we at present regard as excessive. The time is rapidly approaching, if it has not already arrived, when less than half a bale an acre of 10 or even 12 cent cotton will no longer pay the bulk of the planters. That such an improvement, both in average yield and quality, is already possible is fortunately beyond doubt. New types of cotton which give a heavier yield of better staple cotton are now being placed on the market in considerable numbers; but much remains to be done in the way of improving the local conditions under which the crop is marketed in the districts, so as to secure to the enterprising farmer the full market value of superior cotton. This question and the closely allied problem of better baling methods in America are too big to be handled here; but the writer was convinced that the only thing which will lead to serious attempts being made to tackle these questions is the awakening of the spinners to the fact that something must be done, and that they ought to take a hand in the doing of it. What is wanted is closer relations between the producers and the con- sumers. The geographical distance between them has produced a state of mutual ignorance of each other's conditions and requirements, which is not good for either section of the trade. If nothing is done it seems almost certain that the extension of the American crop will be seriously retarded. The writer does not wish to be unduly pessimistic, but it is well to remember that there are countries in the world where cotton could be grown to advantage but for the fact that labour is lacking. In the Argentine, for example, cotton growing might have been established on a large scale ere this but for the fact that labour is scarce and dear. Let America take warning if she would escape serious injury to her cotton crop. One cannot help wondering whether the future may not see a great re- distribution in the chief cotton-growing areas in the world. The most striking development during the past thirty years has been the extension of cotton growing 50-' COTTON under irrigation, in Egypt, in India, and even in America, in the new regions of Arizona and California. May it not be that the next development will be a return to the supremacy of those countries where the uncertainty of the climate is mitigated by irrigation; and an unlimited supply of cheap labour is available to take full advantage of the ideal conditions thus secured ? Cotton has always been a ''cheap-labour crop," a "black man's crop." The negro labour supply in the United States is now insufficient and no longer cheap. It is doubtful whether the crop will pay for white labour. Is it safe to reject as absurd the idea that the day may come when it will no longer pay to grow cotton in the United States of the kind which at present forms a large proportion of the American crop, and that the future of the " bread and cheese " cotton supply of the world lies, say, in India? ESTIMATED COST OF PRODUCTION OF COTTON IN TEXAS IN 1913. Farm of 100 acres, held under crop-sharing lease, landlord taking one- fourth of cotton lint and seed. Yield taken as 200 Ib. lint and 400 Ib. seed per acre. Tenant's Capital. — Horse, mules, harness, imple- ments, wagons and miscellaneous plant $1,478.55. Interest thereon at 10 per cent, and depreciation at 12^ per cent. ... ... ... ... $332.67 Seed.— 75 bushel*, at $2... ... ... ... 150.00 Labour. — Two hands (or six months, at $20 each ... $240.00 Chopping cotton twice ... ... ... 150.00 Picking 40 bales, at average 85 cents per 100 Ib. of seed-cotton ... ... ... ... 510.00 Weighing cotton, at 75 cents per bale ... ... 30.00 Hauling cotton to ginnery, 24 days at $2 ... 48.00 Ginning and Baling. — Weighing at ginnery, at 10 cents per hale ... Ginning, baling, and wrapping, at $3 per bale ... Stock Feed. — 450 bushels corn, at 50 cents ,., 365 bales hay, at 50 cent? Supervision, estimating the wages of a manager for i, ooo acres at $100 per month Value of Crop — 40 bales cotton at, say, 12 cents per Ib. 40,000 Ib. seed, at $20 per ton Less one-fointh share to landlord 4.00 120.00 225.00 182.50 $2,400.00 400.00 $2,800.00 700.00 978.00 124.00 407.50 120.00 $2,112.17 $2,IOO.OO FIBRES. FIBRE INDUSTRY OF BRITISH EAST AFRICA. By A. WlGGLESWORTH. LAST summer I visited British East Africa in order to investigate the fibre industries in that country, and an account of my observations may interest the Congress. British East Africa is one of the newest of British possessions; its administration by the Colonial Office dates from 1895. It covers an estimated area of 185,000 square miles, more than twice that of Great Britain. It has a white population of 4,000 to 5,000, mostly residing in the Nairobi district, and a native population estimated at 3,000,000. The Protectorate stretches from latitude 4° South to above the Equator, and but for the fact that the land rises steeply from the ocean to a plateau at an altitude averaging 3,000 to 4,000 ft., the country would be of little interest to Europeans. The scenery is varied and very beautiful, with an exceptional wealth of plant and animal life. Favoured as the country is by great varieties of climate, that of the uplands is not unlike an English summer, with comparatively small variation in temperature. There is a double rainy season, first March to June, then the small rains during November to December, making a total annual average of about 50 in. This double rainfall has an important influence on the growth of fibre. The rich volcanic soil has been rendered still more fertile by the deposit throughout many generations of forest humus. First, let us take sansevieria. The discovery in the Voi district of vast areas of Sansevieria Ehrenbergii led 504 FIBRES to the first fibre industry in British East Africa. Pioneers found the natives splitting the stems into thongs of exceptional tensile strength, with which they bound together the framework of their grass huts, proving the utility of the fibre. The Government granted concessions to cut the leaf, and three factories were erected to decorticate the fibre for the European market. A yellowish fibre is produced about 2.\ to 4 ft. long, of good appearance, but somewhat brittle and lacking in strength. The plant is found growing in thick clumps from a spreading, stout root; half-a-dozen or so stems spring from this, grouped fan-shaped, like iris leaves. The leaf reaches an average height of 4 to 5 ft., but excep- tional plants are occasionally seen 14 ft. high. The cutting is laborious, as the plant grows under low, thorny scrub, which must be cut with it. The native labourers have to go farther and farther afield, since the root generally perishes when the leaf is cut. In one plantation the cutting was taking place ten miles away from the factory, a line of rails and a locomotive having been imported to transport the leaf; in another a mono- rail is in use. Though isansevieria probably contains 15 per cent, of fibre, the machinery can only extract about 3 to 4 per cent. The factories are built open-ended with a suction gas plant for motive power, the fuel consisting of charcoal made on the spot from local wood. A powerful crusher prepares the leaf for the decorticator, and it has been found that the Corona machine, made by Messrs. Krupp, gives the best results, producing, when worked at full speed for eight to nine hours, about 2\ to 3 tons of clean, dry fibre. This entails the transport of 80 to. 100 tons of leaf per day. When decorticated the fibre is spread in lines in the sunlight, and after a few hours' exposure is packed for export in bales of about 2 cwt. No washing is done. Enormous deposits of waste, containing a large per- centage of fibre, accumulate round the factory, and are a source of expense to remove. As this material contains much fibre rich in cellulose, it should make a valuable FIBRES 5O5 by-product for the manufacture of paper or celluloid. An enterprising pioneer erected a laboratory at Mason- galeni to investigate the properties of this waste with a view to its utilization, but the problem remains un- solved, and is a fruitful field of research. It was thought that land from which the sansevieria had been cut should be suitable for sisal. It seems, however, that the two plants grow under different con- ditions. Sansevieria does not thrive in the open. It prefers low scrub, under which it is sheltered from the sun. Sisal, on the contrary, must have sun, and will not grow well where there is shade. It does not appear to thrive on the poor land from v/hich sansevieria has been cleared. The future of sansevieria may, therefore, be considered rather doubtful, and planters are justified in turning their attention to sisal for cultivation on the rich, volcanic soil of the uplands, where there are vast tracts awaiting cultivation. It is an axiom that sisal flourishes best where the original bush has been thickest and has cost the most to clear. Sansevieria can do with little rain, as it stores much moisture in its thick, succulent leaf and has few pores (stomata) through which moisture escapes; but sisal almost ceases growing, and loses its glaucous appearance (the sign of health), after a few months' drought. Sansevieria can be sold when Manila and sisal are scarce and dear, but brittleness discounts its value for manufacture into ropes and binder twine, and it is neglected and unremunerative when the standard fibres are plentiful and cheap. It costs more to produce sanse- vieria than sisal, while its selling price is 20 per cent. less. I have observed that when subjected to the action of air and moisture (a natural dew retting) sansevieria becomes fine, white, glossy and more spinnable, and I consider it possible that some process may in future be evolved which will greatly enhance the value of the fibre and increase its uses. And now as to sisal. The following list of agave fibres of commerce is given by Mr. Lyster H. Dewey, Botanist in Charge of Fibre Investigations, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.: — 506 FIBRES Fibres Plants Botanical names Region of production Henequen Mexican sisal Henequen Sacci Agave fourcroydes Lem .... Agave elongata Jacob! Yucatan Campeche Yucatan sisal Weis sisal Agave rigida Hemsley Chiapas Sisal hemp Agave rigida longlfolia Sinaloa Engelm. Tamaulipas Agave rigida elongata Cuba Baker Bahamas Sisal Sisal ... - ... A^ave sisalana Perrine ,., G.E.Africa Bahama sisal Yaxci Agave rigida sisalana B.E.Africa East African Green sisal Engelm. lava sisal New Guinea India Hawaii Fiji Cantala Cantala Agave Cantala Roxb. Philippines Manila maguey Maguey Agave aniericana Blanco Java Bombay aloe Ananas sabrang Furcraea Cantala Haw. India Kuntala Mezcal maguey Mezcal maguey Agave Sinaloa Mazatlan hemp Mezcal de Sina- Tepic loa Mezcal azul Tequila Tequila azul ... Agave tequilana Weber ... Jalisco Tequila maguey Magueyon Magueyon Agave Chiapas Zapupe Fuerta Zapupe de Tepet- Agave Lespinassei T re- Vera Cruz zintla lease There are about 300 varieties, and three of these supply the bulk of the fibre known to the world as sisal, viz. : Agave rigida elongata, Baker, known in Mexico as henequen, which produces about three-quarters of the world's supply of sisal. Agave sisalana, Perrine. — This is the variety introduced into East Africa, and it was decided at the Surabaya Conference of 1912, and has been urged by Mr. M. M. Saleeby, that the name sisal should be confined to the product of this plant. Agave Cantala, Roxb. — Cultivated in Java, producing a finer fibre than either of the two other plants. This it was proposed to name in commerce Cantala fibre. Sansevieria has been a stepping-stone to sisal in East Africa. Sisal is superior to it in every respect. It is a hard, strong, whitish fibre extracted from the leaf of an agave. This plant was first discovered by Cortez in Mexico. He found the Aztecs and the Maya employing the agave for many purposes. They used the succulent FIBRES SOJ young leaves for a vegetable soup, extracted the fibre from the mature leaf to be made into garments and for cordage purposes. From another variety they made a refreshing beer, still in use in Mexico, under the name " pulque," and they also extracted a herbal medicine. Plantlets of Agave sisalana, Perrine, were with difficulty obtained in Mexico, and were introduced into Florida by Dr. Perrine in 1839, thence taken to the Bahamas in 1843 by Dr. Nesbit, and from there to the Hawaian Islands in 1893. Dr. Hindorf imported 1,000 bulbils from Florida into German East Africa this same year. From there sisal was brought into British East Africa fourteen years later. The first plantation (in British East Africa) was started in November, 1907, at Punda Milea, forty-five miles from Nairobi, by Mr. C. B. Hausberg, backed by Messrs. Swift, Rutherfoord and Co. Bulbils were obtained from German East Africa, and were planted in nurseries while the ground was being prepared for them by top ploughing with a single furrow plough drawn by fourteen oxen. This team could plough half an acre in one day of eight hours. The second plough- ing was done with a three-furrow disc plough with six- teen oxen, which turned over about two acres a day. The ground was planned out with chains, and planted 8 by 8 ft. to allow cultivation between the plants. This gives about 650 plants per acre, compared with 900 to i, 800 plants in German East Africa, and the production of fibre is as great from the smaller number of plants. The leaves in the upland district are heavier than at the coast. It is found that eleven to twenty leaves, accord- ing to size, give I Ib. of fibre, while at the coast it takes sixteen to thirty-five leaves to produce the same weight of fibre. By October, 1911, over 800 acres were planted out, and the machinery was installed and started. The plant consisted of a suction gas engine and accessories for motive power, a New Corona decorticator, a primitive home-made beater in place of brushing machinery, and a Bijoli press for baling. The growth of the plants has been so rapid that in many cases almost the whole of the leaves, about 180 in 508 FIBRES number, were available for cutting before the machinery was quite ready. The planter's skill consists in having mature leaves in sufficient number to keep the machinery steadily working, and in preserving a correct balance between leaf production and machine capacity. No plantation could be found in better condition, the land being a model of cleanliness. One sees stretches of dark green, undulating landscape, clothed with a superb crop of well-grown, closely planted agave intersected with paths. The factory is well placed in a hollow near the centre. It is striking to see the even growth, the plants being tall enough on the average to conceal a man on foot. The use of oxen is decidedly advantageous, facilitating the cultivation of the land. Catch crops can be grown, such as Rose coco beans planted between the rows the first and second year, and four crops can be harvested, thus materially reducing the cost of the sisal. The leaf is ready after two and a half to three years' growth, and continues to grow for a further two to three years, making the cycle five to six years, and producing in all 140 to 200 leaves. One hundred leaves may be cut at a time, but generally twenty to eighty are sufficient. These are tied into bundles, and are transported on a trolley line to the factory. The process of decorticating sisal is simple, and in- volves the crushing of the leaf while it is automatically gripped near its centre. Modern machinery enables the cleaning process to be done in one operation. After passing through this machine the fibre is taken to a washing tank, where it is thoroughly rinsed in water for forty-five minutes1 before being carried to the drying 1 By some it is deemed necessary to leave the fibre in water not more than three or four minutes, so as to keep it white and prevent loss of strength. Abundant water supply is most impor- tant. In Java the Cantala fibre is subjected after decortication to a process of retting (fermenting in water) for three or four days, and while this improves the colour, it depreciates the strength nearly 50 per cent., and cannot be recommended either for this or for sisal. Further, in Java a system of purifying the washing water by chemicals has been ad-opted. A fine white fibre (the whitest known) is obtained, but it is questionable if the expense justifies the result. FIBRES 509 field. It is important that the water be frequently changed if the white fibre is to be obtained, colour being of value. After washing the fibre is carried to the drying ground, where a few hours' exposure in the hot sunshine suffices in good weather. If left after being thoroughly dried the fibre will tend to turn yellowish in colour. If packed before being bone dry, it appears to deteriorate in transit through discoloration. When well dried the fibre is taken to the brushing machine, after which the product is tied with a wisp of fibre into heads of about 5 Ib. each, say 4 in. diameter, to facilitate handling in the rope and twine factory. A new brushing machine, the invention of Mr. Dwen, of Messrs. Swift, Rutherfoord and Co., constructed by Shirtliff • Bros., of Hampton Hill, has made a step in advance, saving wastage and labour. It is constructed with an automatic grip on similar lines to that in use on the decorticator. The standardizing of qualities in the factories into the following grades : — Prime long, ,, medium length, Good long, ,, medium length, Tow, is favoured by consumers, and is likely to become universal in British East Africa. It obviates disputes, and saves the expense of arbitration where deliveries of fibre are ungraded. After grading the fibre is neatly packed in bales of 2 cwt. each, the contents being 80 to 90 cubic ft. to the ton weight. A stout cord made from the sisal itself is strong enough for baling purposes. Hoop-iron is not recommended, as it cuts the fibre if the hydraulic pressure be excessive. It is essential that the fibre be tightly pressed, seeing that freight adds considerably to the cost. Freight from East Africa to U.S.A. is much higher than that from Mexico to New York, and it is important that those who are interested in the development of East Africa should encourage the shipping companies to give every possible 510 FIBRES facility in the way of cheap freights, so that the new industry may not be hampered. The tendency is to keep freights far too high, and this must be remedied. Mr. A. C. MacDonald, the able Director of Agriculture for British East Africa, has investigated the production of sisal in Punda Milea, and finds that a total weight of three tons per acre is produced during the life of a plant which averages four and a half to five years and occasionally six years. His experiment has been verified and even bettered by subsequent practice. In this district it is by no means an easy task to eradicate the sisal " bol " or stump before replanting or preparing the land for another crop. In German East Africa this rots away of itself within a year. At the coast in British East Africa a vigorous jerk will remove the stump, but in the uplands, nourished by the rich soil, the stump is formidable, and can only be extracted by pulling out with four to six oxen yoked to a short rope which is hitched round the root, a second rope at the same time being slipped round another plant, so that the strain on the oxen may be steady and the work be ex- peditiously done. Mr. A. C. MacDonald experimented with dry arsenite of soda, which kills the stump and facilitates its removal. The ground wants a thorough cleaning, and it is con- sidered prudent to leave it fallow a year, or to take a couple of bean crops before replanting. In German East Africa three consecutive crops have been grown, the second and third yielding rather poorer fibre than the first. To what degree soil is exhausted by sisal has yet to be proved. Elaborate experiments in fertilizing were carried out at Amani (German East Africa), where it was ascertained that sisal did not benefit by any kind of fertilizer. In 1908 a plantation was started by Messrs. Mildmay and Wavell at Nyali on the mainland, opposite the island of Mombasa. It comprises a long strip of coast land of coral formation, more suitable for sisal than for any other crop. The labour of clearing was considerable. No ploughing could be done, so the ground had to be FIBRES 511 prepared by the native " Jembie " (hoe), the presence of the tsetse-fly preventing the use of draught animals. The bulbils were procured from India and locally, and were planted out by Swahili and Kikuyu natives. The average rainfall here is 50 to 60 in. and it is fairly regular, depending' on the monsoon winds. The sisal is planted out on prepared land immediately after the rains. Originally bulbils were chosen, but now suckers are preferred, and are planted out directly with- out passing through a nursery. Further, sisal suckers are preferred at the coast because they are true to the parent type, and if selected from the best plants repro- duce a pure type; whereas bulbils, through crossing, contain more than one strain and are liable to greater variation. The spacing is closer than in Punda Milea, up to 1,400 plants per acre. It is found that plants grow best in exposed positions, better on hilltops than in valleys, and that they thrive best where they have most room, consequently wider planting is now being ad- vocated, some coast planters adopting 8 by 8 ft., or about 650 plants per acre. At the coast sisal may be inter- planted one year before it poles, so that the crop matures a year earlier. Care is taken to keep the land as clean as possible during the first year until the plant can fend for itself. After this little harm can happen to sisal. Owing to the nature of the ground the cost of clearing is considerable, amounting to £3 to £5 per acre. Once cleared, it can be kept clean with an outlay of about 203. per annum. After three years' rapid growth the leaves are 3 to 4^ ft. long and are fit for use. One man, working by contract, can cut and remove the terminal spine from 1,200 to 1,500 leaves per day. A really good cutter can prepare 3,000. The leaves thereafter are carefully selected as to length before tying into bundles of 40 to 50 Ib. each. Paths intersect the estate, dividing it into lo-acre lots, with roads at intervals wide enough for a trolley line to convey the leaf to the factory. The leaf contains so small a percentage of fibre that 60 to 70 tons must be handled to produce 2 to 2j tons of dry fibre each day. To effect 33 512 FIBRES economy of labour locomotives are now being used to facilitate traction and save labour, which is as scarce in East Africa as elsewhere. The plant grows best where there are pockets of broken coral soil, and an occasional leaf may measure 63 in. On flat coral rock the plants are stunted with matted roots, which spread outwards, joining the roots of plants in the next row. Small patches of ground occur here and there where sisal will not grow. This causes irregularity, and entails in this district the selection of the leaf into various lengths before decorticating. As many as 180 leaves have been cut from one plant; others have poled after only 130 were taken, while the average number in practice may be reckoned at 140 to 150 leaves. When mature the pole or seed bearer shoots up with incredible rapidity to a height of 15 to 20 ft., and produces up to 3,000 bulbils. After cutting the leaves are transported to the factory. A New Corona has been erected, the brushing is done by converted raspadors, and the baling in a hydraulic press made by Rollings and Guest. The sisal is graded as at Punda Milea; the fibre is perhaps rather finer, the colour and quality are excellent, and the produce finds a ready market at the price ruling for German East African sisal. An area of 1,200 acres has been planted, and 700 to 800 are at the cutting stage. The machinery was started in January, 1913, and two other sets are being fitted up. In many estates it is found advisable to allot to the native a fixed task, and on its completion he may return home or may continue working at the same rate of pay. Work starts in some at sunrise, and continues without intermission until four in the afternoon. A good worker may complete certain tasks by two or even at noon, after which his time is his own. Wages at the coast are higher than at the uplands, averaging 12 to 14 rupees (i6s. to i8s. 8d.) per month, against 6 to 8 rupees (8s. to TOS. 8d.). At Nyali a feature is made of good housing for the natives, and stone huts have been built. In other estates the native erects his own grass hut in the traditional way. These two estates are typical of others in British East FIBRES 513 Africa. The industry has taken a firm root. Planting proceeds apace, and it should not be many years before British East Africa catches up German East Africa, which has had fourteen years' start, and whose best estates are highly profitable and yield large returns. In other tropical countries they deem it inadvisable to cultivate sisal over 1,500 ft. altitude, but British East African planters have proved that an excellent crop can be obtained at 5,000 ft., and are now going farther afield, planting sisal- at Naivasha at about 7,000 to 8,000 ft. altitude. It is too early to ascertain the result. Almost close to the Equator, just above Lake Victoria Nyanza, a successful plantation is using raspadors, this being the first machine adapted for the cleaning of sisal, the invention of a Franciscan monk, and still in use in Mexico. The fibre from this district is rather longer and of good colour, though at times a slight defect is visible, due to the pitting of the leaves from the storms which occur in that district. Mention should be made of a plantation at the coast north of Mombasa, where a decorticator constructed by Messrs. Robey and Co., Ltd., is at work. It is still to be proved whether the coast plantations or those in the uplands will be more profitable. It has been shown that the conditions are quite different. The rich upland soil can produce any crop, and the land will therefore rise in value. This may cause the cultivation of sisal to be eventually confined to the cheaper coral lands of the coast, or, as in German East Africa, to the medium soils. The weeding of the coral coast land entails more labour and expense than in areas where the soil can be cultivated by draught animals and mechanical tools, such as the Planet Junior cultivator now in use in the upland district, and a valuable accessory in view of the scarcity of labour. It is doubtful if any great harm is done after the first year by neglecting to keep the land quite clean. The vitality of the agave being greater than that of the weeds enables it to hold its own and thrive, in spite of its enemies. Naturally work has to be adjusted according to the available labour supply, and in many plantations in German East Africa no great stress is laid on cleaning 514 FIBRES the sisal after it has entered its second year. My visit there took place after the heavy rains, when the weeds had the greatest hold, and it was anticipated that several months would elapse before the plantations could be weeded. The cost of cleaning is very variable. Where cultivation can be done by machinery, as in the High- lands, the cost may be as low as IDS. to 2os. per annum, but at the coast it is greater, and in some parts of German East Africa land can only be kept clean at a charge of 505. per acre per annum. Both in British and German East Africa only Agave sisilana has been planted, and neither the Mexican variety nor the Cantala. Though producing a fibre analogous in appearance to Mexican sisal (henequen or Agave rigida elongata), A. sisalana is botanically an entirely different plant, as can be judged from the shape of the petal of the flower, and the fact that the leaves of the henequen have spikes along the edge as well as at the end. The African plant commences to mature in two and a half to three years, and its cycle is five to six years, whereas the Mexican plant matures after seven to eight years, and is said to attain the age of 20 to 25 years. It grows more slowly and produces about twenty-five leaves each year, as against fifty to eighty leaves of African sisal. An acre in Mexico turns out 1,000 to 1,500 Ib. per annum of clean fibre, whilst a ton has been gathered in one year in the uplands of British East Africa. Further, whereas the soil and climate of Africa enable the plant to produce three tons of fibre in a cycle of five to six years, in Mexico it takes ten to twelve years to obtain this same quantity of fibre. Mexico has the benefit in so far as the plantations do not require renewal so often, against which expenses in Africa are lower. The practice in Mexico is shrouded in mystery and wants investigating, but it is certain that the conditions in East Africa are more favourable, and can therefore produce sisal at a lower cost than Yucatan or Campeche. Sisal cannot be profit- ably cultivated in patches, since less efficient machinery is available to cope with a small production. It is there- fore inadvisable for a man of limited means to engage in its cultivation. It has been suggested that a group of settlers plant each, say, 100 acres, and combine to instal FIBRES 515 an up-to-date plant at the centre of their plantations worked on a co-operative system. In practice it may be difficult to work out this scheme. A good modern machine, such as the New Corona, produces from two to two and a half tons of cleaned fibre in a day of six to ten hours. To keep it going, say 200 days in the year with 60 to 70 tons of leaf per day, five to six hundred acres must be cut out in a year in German East Africa. In the uplands of British East Africa 300 to 400 acres will supply the annual consumption of a Corona machine, and it is sufficient to plant 900 to 1,000 acres. An area of 1,500 acres may be reserved for each machine, one-third of this to lie fallow. In German East Africa it is reckoned that £20,000 capital is necessary to bring the plantation to bearing point, supply the necessary machinery, and leave a margin for working capital. A smaller sum should suffice in the British East African uplands, where labour is cheaper and the land worked with a smaller expenditure of labour. It is evident that where machinery and oxen can be used for cultivation, and therefore little need be expended for clearing, the cost of producing sisal is below that where the ground must be tilled by hand, either for lack of animals or because of the nature of the soil. In com- pensation, barren, rocky land can be obtained at a lower cost. Methods vary in different sisal-producing countries. A study of the practice in Mexico and Java reveals the advantages enjoyed by planters in East Africa, and con- tributes to the conclusion that, provided an adequate labour supply be ensured, the industry must become the most important of East Africa because of its unrivalled conditions, viz. : — (1) Unequalled climate, (2) Fertility of soil, (3) Cheap native labour, (4) Low-priced land, contributing to a low initial cost, compared with the average price of the last ten years, £33 per ton. ffi •?: 5 § W 8 2 fCo*' rfrf 1 t * p 5 uS 1 ! 11 ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 m "rt 3 00 «•<•> o O O to 1 1 i „• n" « « 4 o~ 1-1 vO ON 00 OO « to G EXPORTS Eastern J"o P^ V to o to ^ TJ- OO ^O ro N vO TJ- ! Ill °°. t i-T ro ro *-" 2 | C It » 1 t t | <2 f R S | 1 > - H Is ^ O O *"* *^O oo N O to tx. EXPORTS FROM RN BENGAL i i 0 £ rupees M to OO OO v£J O II 1 i!) ao t^ o" ^ f>f 1 1 ON ro OO ro OO oo i-O « C?N ON oo" T? N N N M M <4 FOREIGN EASTE * j 4 PC \A !l oo M-J oo oo o vo ro ro -^- >-i to N II i i— N rn M to to - OOtoNvOrjO*-''-'>-'ON Kg ..^ w w zlB o 5 K o 1 8 * Nt^Q ONt^.Tj-^rj-0 r^ C4 ^- O to t^ to ro t^>. O ^^ C^ ON to v^T rt* OO^ to *^ vO vO - CONSUMPTION c I "* rupees OOt^ton rj-i-. wtOTj- MOOO O ONOOVO t«. •<*• •^•tooo^^^t^OO^rON ro fOOO TJ-«-H MOO t^ro ON to to O O N OJ vO ON O ^ - ^* *C W Ov >•* t^T? t^r^.oo OO «oO c» >-* s z; S .£ Bales of | Nf^VQ i-" MvOtooO ONO OO ONM rotot^vO toO M QL 3^ £! ^ ©""o 0"° 7 7 OOOOOOOO*™*^1^ ^ O^ ^ ^ ^ ^ O^* ^ O^ ON 534 FIBRES shows very clearly the progress which has been made by Indian mills in the last ten years in the matter of the consumption of jute. Table V shows how the jute crop is brought into Calcutta, and Diagram No. 2 shows the position still more DIAGRAM II.— JUTE IMPORTED INTO CALCUTTA BY RAIL, ROAD AND LACS OF BALES 42 -40 38 36 34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 (O 8 6 4 2 1902 1903 1905 1906 I9O7 I9O8 I9O9 I9IO 1911 SEASONS clearly. It would appear that almost the whole of the increased produce of jute in the last ten years has been brought to Calcutta by train, and that the respective amounts brought in by other methods of transport have remained substantially constant. FIBRES 535 pg gg > Q 7 W S o^ g 6.2 S 00 CO -i OO $ g O i a- 1 10 VO vO 00 JAMER 1 1 ^h >- ON OO If $ i CO vo" oo o «M oo" oo" CO to oo oo" M 4 CO M CO CO H to £ Quantity Maunds 10 fO to CO 8 to o VO HH o to i VO VO 5 019,002 VO VO vo" £ 0s* t^** oo M oo to 1 VO 10 to VO CO r^ 10 E^ M OO I 2 I 1 VO ON CO M N Tj- 00 oo co 8; 1 oo ro CO VO vO CO VO O 0? h § VO ^f 00 * vo CO N N N CO Quantity Maunds 5 10 vO O o" M" CO •-« co co S VO ON oo oo" to oo 4,267,550 TT ON to ON CM 00 00 CO vo vO *i Q i) § 4) 1 1 3 00 Tt- CO w VO ON i-T vo O to to vo" o' 1 vo" 00 MS OO 1 M to VO ON oo 00 g vO^ M vo co o" to O vo" 00 ON CO Quantity Maunds T^- M ro O T? CO to O O co Ofi oo" 'q OO VO 00 8 vo ON vO ro CO 00 co ON VO a 00 co ON t^. VO CN oo | to CO M M 00 oo 00 01 *>. oo CO 1 a. 3 CO 0 r^ to £ ON ON ON CO ON 0 CO CN VO t>. (S 8 O CO Jj O ***• vO vo £ ON OO M 2" to oo oo oo oo M . ** oo N 0 O M M co co 00 00 to vO 8 to 00 i c C 3 rt N OO VO t^ M M OO OJ VO o 0 ? S 1 5 s vO O1 S CN CO Tf vo VO vO 8 vO •. *- — — ^ — • ** — \ "-. -•*• s s ^ D i H U H H M 3 U U 1 H M 1901 I9C2 1503 /904- 1905 /SOS ISO7 1908 1909 I9IO 1911 1912 1913 /9/4- circumstances are more difficult for jute than in Bengal, and it is hardly likely that, as things are at present, jute cultivation would be taken up on any large scale outside Bengal, Bihar, and Assam. (3) In these circumstances the question of jute sub- stitutes is one of considerable interest. There would be no object, of course, in introducing such a substitute 35 544 FIBRES into Bengal, which is the home of jute. There are, however, two fibre plants to be met with in cultivation in nearly every part of India. Of these, Hibiscus canna- binus produces a fibre which is very similar in many respects to jute, although, naturally enough, it is not looked upon with favour in Calcutta. It is, nevertheless, especially certain varieties of it, a stronger, and probably a more durable fibre than jute, and for this reason alone, if for no other, its cultivation is worthy of encourage- ment. It is produced on a considerable scale in Madras, where there is a fluctuating area of between 50,000 and 80,000 acres in the East Coast districts. A gunny mill, whose annual consumption is said to be about 25,000 bales, has existed for many years at Bimlipatam, and it was proposed to erect another one at Ellore, in the Kistna district. It is worth noting, too, that some spinners in this country who are in the habit of using Bimlipatam jute also speak well of it. H. cannabinus is cultivated throughout Bombay, and especially in Bihar and the United Provinces, so that a comparatively small per- centage increase over such a large area would have a very considerable effect on the aggregate supply of fibres of the jute class. The different races of H. cannabinus have been investi- gated, and the seed of those producing the best fibre has been selected for multiplication, so that the Agricultural Department is now practically ready to supply pure seed of the best kinds in large quantities to the cultivator. It is important to observe that, apart from gunnies and cloth manufactured in Bimlipatam, there is a considerable export from India of hibiscus fibre under the names of Bimlipatam jute, Deccan hemp, etc., to London, where it is a recognized item in the market, and where it is bought for purposes for which jute would otherwise be required. The buyer of jute is thus relieved of a corre- sponding amount of competition. Any prolonged short- age in the supply of true jute i;s fairly certain to cause a considerable development in the cultivation of H. cannabinus. We thus see that each of the three methods of FIBRES 545 increasing the supply of jute is capable of contributing its quota of help. Progress along new lines must neces- sarily be slow at the outset, but, taking all circumstances into consideration, every sign points to the fact that India will be able to supply the world with jute or similar fibres for a long time to come. For the statistics contained in this paper I am glad to acknowledge my indebtedness to the late Mr. Noel- Paton, Director-General of Commercial Intelligence in India. THE FIBRE INDUSTRY IN MAURITIUS. By F. A. STOCKDALE, M.A., F.L.S. Director of Agriculture, Mauritius, THE fibre industry is, after sugar, the most important agricultural industry of the Colony of Mauritius. The fibre is obtained almost entirely from forms of Furcrxa gigantea, which are now to be found growing in prac- tically all districts of the island. These plants were doubtless introduced into the island from the New World as ornamental plants, but the date of introduction is uncertain. They thrive exceptionally well, and spread rapidly by means of the numerous bulbils that are produced on the flower stems after flowering. Some exceptionally fine specimens of Furcraea plants are to be met with on the island. These are usually to be found on fertile lands at altitudes varying from 300 to 1,000 ft. On the upper, wetter, but cooler plateaux the plants do not generally attain such a fine development as at the lower altitudes, where the temperature is warmer. On the coastal regions, where rainfall is scanty, growth is often slow. Fibre plants in Mauritius are locally called " aloes," and two varieties occur, viz., the " Creole Aloe " (Purer sea gigantea var. Will erne tiana), and the " Aloe Malgache '* (Purer sea gigantea}. The Creole aloes contain a larger percentage of fibre, and grow more rapidly than the aloes Malgache. In the higher altitudes the plants grow more slowly than in the warmer districts around the coast, and it is mainly in the coastal districts that exploitation of fibre takes place. The aloe Malgache grows much better than the Creole aloe at the higher altitudes, and those factories FIBRES 547 which obtain leaves from the higher lands often work quantities of the leaves of the former variety. Both varieties will grow on all the soils of the Colony, but the principal factors that appear to be necessary for satis- factory development are a uniformly high temperature combined with an adequate supply of water. If the tem- perature is low growth is slow, and if rainfall is scanty growth is stunted. The Mauritius soils are comparatively fertile. They are characterized by a high percentage of iron salts with but little carbonate of lime. They may sometimes contain only small quantities of available potash and phosphates. Soils carrying aloes are generally in wild growth, and therefore do not as a rule show a marked shortage of available elements. The low percentage of calcium carbonate is often noticeable in soils of high fertility under intense culture, and it is conjectured that basic salts of iron may act as bases for biological action. Experiments" to test this possibility are in operation. The aloe Malgache, or F. gigantea, possesses a short woody trunk, which is crowned by 40 to 50 oblanceolate, rigidly coriaceous, subcarnose leaves. These leaves on vigorous plants are 4 to 7 ft. long, usually spineless, and of a bright bluish-green hue. From the plant a scape of 20 to 30 ft. in length arises, and forms in its upper half a loose panicle with greenish- white flowers about 2 in. broad. The ovary is cylin- drical, the stamens are short, and the filaments strumose in the middle. The Creole aloe, or F. gigantea var. Willemetiana is a Mauritian form of gigantea. It differs from the type form by possessing more spines along the lower portions of the leaf edges, by having a terminal spike to the leaf, and by possessing a well-defined constricted leaf base. The leaves are usually less pulpy than those of F. gigantea, and on the average shorter in length. The colour of the leaves of the Creole aloe is a yellowish- green. It is estimated that there are approximately 20,000 arpents (i arpent = 1*043 acre) under "aloes" in the 54^ FIBRES Colony. These are practically all self-sown, but it is estimated that some 1,500 arpents have been planted with the Creole variety. Plantations. Plantations of aloes date back about ten years. Small trials were at first made with Creole aloes, and as these gave fairly satisfactory results further plantations were undertaken. During- 1905-10 plantings of sisal hemp (Agave rigida var. sisalana) were made for comparison with plantations of Creole aloes. It is estimated that at the present time there are 60 to 75 arpents planted with sisal in the Colony, These plantations of sisal have grown satisfactorily, but in many cases growth has been irregular. They also require greater attention in the early stages than do plantations of Creole aloes. Sisal fibre prepared in the Colony has been found to be of good quality, and the small quantities placed on the European markets have commanded satis- factory prices. On some estates areas of Creole aloes are planted yearly, so that young plantations are coming into bearing regularly. This policy has been found to be a wise one, and better results are being obtained than when wild growth is solely depended upon for supplies. Opinions differ as to whether plantings should be made with or without shade. Plantings made under the shade of filao trees (Casuarina equiseti folia) have been very satis- factory, while many plantations are allowed to become sooner or later overgrown with wild acacia (Leucsena glauca). Leaves grown under shade are not of such a thick and tough texture as leaves grown in full sunlight, and it is thought that they can be more easily dealt with in the factories. Casuarina is also of value as fuel, and acacia seeds are collected annually for cattle food. For planting, bulbils which have fallen and rooted satisfactorily, or fair-sized suckers removed from their " mother " plants, are employed. Plants which have leaves 12 to 18 in. in length (i.e., are about eighteen months old) are generally preferred, as they appear to stand transplanting well, and come to maturity quicker FIBRES 549 than smaller plants. There is a slight preference for suckers over bulbil plants, as it is thought that they transplant more satisfactorily. Aloes planted with eighteen-month suckers are first reaped between the third and fourth years after planting. The following details taken from the Annual Report of the Chamber of Agriculture for 1912 are of interest. The then President (Mr. E. Carcenac) writes: "In large areas of the Black River district, for example, where the culture of sugar-cane, impossible without irrigation, is limited, the exploitation of aloes offers great possibilities." After discussing probable costs of plantations, he states : — " (i) Plants possessing leaves at least 18 in. long should be put in at the end of the dry season. " (2) The plants should be put out quincunx at 4^ ft. apart. An arpent would, therefore, hold about 2,500 plants. " (3) The year after planting a light cleaning should be made in order to destroy plants and weeds providing too heavy a shade. " (4) The leaves may be cut between the fourth and fifth years after planting, and a subsequent cutting after two wet seasons. " Each plant will give at each cutting a minimum of 30 leaves, or 75,000 leaves per arpent. This should represent at least I ton of dry fibre, and as cuttings would be made every two years, an average of J ton of dry fibre per arpent could be reckoned on for each period of twelve months." Cutting. The cutting of leaves is usually carried out by task work. The cutters are paid on the average at the rate of lod. per 100 packets. The weight of the individual packets is not taken, but it is generally estimated that one packet of leaves contains from 10 to 15 leaves and produces i kilogram of green fibre. Actual weighings have been made at several factories with the following results : — 550 . FIBRES Number of leaves per packet : 8 to 18. Average, 12*6. Weight per packet: 6'i to 8*4 kilos. Average 7*8 kilos. Green fibre produced per packet: 0^89 to i'2 kilo. Average, 0*98 kilo. Dry fibre produced per packet: 0*16 to O'i8 kilo. Average, 0*175 kilo. The leaves vary greatly in size, and no attempt is made to grade leaves either in regard to maturity or to size. At the time of cutting the central shoot and three to five unfolded leaves are left, but instances occur where all leaves are cut with the exception of the central shoot. The wild aloes are usually so close together and over- grown with acacia and shrubby weeds that it is not possible only to cut mature leaves such as could be practised on clean plantations. The packets of leaves are transported to the roads of the estates and placed in heaps. They are then transported by ox-cart to the factory. Re-cutting of aloes takes place usually two years after the previous cutting, though sometimes the intervening period is shorter. As a rule, however, two wet seasons occur between one cutting and the next. The number of leaves taken off at each cutting varies greatly with the district and with the age of the plants. Yield oj Fibre. From figures collected at various factories in the Colony, it appears that an average of 65,000 leaves of Creole aloes will produce I ton of dry fibre. This gives an average fibre recovery of nearly 2*3 per cent, on the weight of the leaves. It is difficult, however, to give definite figures, as the fibre content varies considerably with the district and with the season of the year. In the higher altitudes the moisture content of the leaves is higher and the percentage of fibre lower than in the lower altitudes, and in the wet season the moisture content of leaves is considerably higher than in the dry season. Actual tests made at three factories in the FIBRES 551 Black River district in the dry season of 1913 gave the following results : — • Factory i. Percentage of dry fibre = 2*64 » 2- » » = 2'53 3- >> ,, =2-38 Careful laboratory tests made by Mr. Boname (then Director of the Station Agronomique of Mauritius) in 1902 gave the following figures : — TABLE I. Aloes Malgache Creole aloes from 1,000 ft. from 600 ft. Weight of leaves, kilos. ... ... ... 65 . . 47 green fibre obtained, kilos. ... 4'95o dry ,, ,, ... 0-930 Dry fibre, percentage of green fibre ... i8'8 Green fibre, percentage of leaves ... ... 7-61 Dry fibre, ,, ,, ... ... 1-43 TABLE II. 4-900 i -170 23-9 10-42 2-49 Weight of leaves, kilos. ... ... ... 57-5 .. 27-5 ,, green fibre obtained, kilos. ... 4-700 .. 2-870 „ dry ,, ,, ... 0-955 •• °'6°2 Dry fibre, percentage of green fibre ... 20-3 .. 21 -o Green fibre, percentage of leaves ... ... 8*2 .. 10-4 Dry fibre, ,, ,, ... ... i'66 .. 2-19 Aloes Malgache Creole aloes Creole aloes from 1,000 ft. from 1,000 ft. from6coft. 1375 I '650 0-365 22'I 12-0 2-65 From Table II the difference between the percentage of dry fibre in leaves from altitudes of 1,000 ft. and of 600 ft. is clearly shown. On the littoral, yields of 2*3 to 2*5 per cent, of dry fibre have been obtained in some factories, while individual yields from selected leaves have exceeded 2*5 per cent, in dry seasons. In the Colony it is customary to express the yield of dry fibre obtained as a percentage on the weight of wet fibre; yields varying between 16 and 18 per cent, are generally obtained. This form of calculation has arisen from the fact that labourers at the hand machines are paid on the quantity of green fibre produced per day. The weight of the leaves coming into the factory is not known, but the weights of green fibre obtained by the different employes are carefully checked. The weights of dry fibre are known when baled, and therefore an 552 FIBRES estimate of the value of work being done can readily be obtained by calculating the percentage of dry fibre on the weight of the wet fibre. Factories. The fibre factories are small ones, their output ranging from 50 to 100 tons of dry fibre per annum, with an average annual output of about 55 tons. In 1913 there were forty-two factories in operation. Of these twenty- five were situated in the Black River district. The fibre is scraped by machines locally known as grattes, which are capable of producing on the average vo ton of dry fibre per diem. They are similar in opera- tion to the raspadors of Mexico, and are fed by hand. They differ from raspadors in that they contain a greater number of scutching blades, and are generally worked at a greater speed. They are manufactured in machine shops in the Colony, and cost from £14 to £18 each. They are worked in series, and driven by steam or suction gas engines or by water-power. Water-power is naturally the cheapest form of power, and on some properties there are two or three small factories at different levels, in order that the supply of water may be utilized more than once. Steam-power is relatively costly, but was utilized up to 1912 in those factories where water-power was not available. In that year steam-engines com- menced to be replaced by suction gas plants, and con- siderable economies in fuel have resulted. The suction gas engines are small ones, with a brake horse-power ranging from 19 to 40. They have been installed up to the present with charcoal producers, but plants to take ordinary wood refuse have been indented for installation within the next few months. The average consumption of charcoal in the types of engines introduced into the Colony varies, mainly according to the grade of charcoal used, from 0*8 to I Ib. of charcoal per h.p. per hour. The feeding of the grattes by hand is a costly and laborious process, and efforts have been made to instal automatic feeding machines. Such a machine (McGregor's patent) has been improved by a local firm of engineers FIBRES 553 and installed in five factories. This machine consists essentially of an inclined feeding table extending to the mouth of the gratte. Leaves are placed on this inclined table, gripped in the jaws of the feeder, and fed into the gratte automatically. The green fibre is then pulled back and taken out of the jaws as they open. The basal portion of each leaf is left unscraped, and has to be cut off and discarded. For small plants where labour is difficult to obtain this machine can be advantageously employed. It requires to have close supervision, or otherwise cutting of fibre and loss of leaves may result. The loss of the basal stumps of the leaves is also con- siderable unless the feeder is satisfactorily adjusted. During 1913 two of these machines worked throughout the year and are reported to have given general satis- faction. Three other factories which had installed them did not work with them, however, as the proprietors were of opinion that the loss of fibre was greater than when hand power is employed, and that the dry fibre was not of such a high quality. The Government have taken in hand the matter of machinery for fibre production, and are installing in the Black River district a New Corona Automatic Decorti- cating Machine with a view to ascertaining whether reductions in the cost of production can be effected. Manufacture. The leaves are brought to the factories by tramways or by ox-carts. They are delivered to the factories in packets each containing from eight to eighteen leaves. These packets are then checked and placed in heaps, from which they are transported as required to the " gratteurs." Two gratteurs work at each gratte, and a table is installed for each gratteur. The leaves are placed on these tables, and are fed by the gratteurs into the machines two or three at a time. One half of the leaf is scraped and then withdrawn. The leaf is then turned and the other half fed into the machine. The green fibre, as scraped, is placed on rails which are placed alongside, and from there it is taken and tied into small 554 FIBRES bundles. The gratteurs are paid at the rate of 60 to 80 cents per 100 kilograms of green fibre. They work from four to six hours per day, and produce on the average 200 to 250 kilograms of green fibre per man. Two shifts per day work at each gratte when labour is available. The green fibre, after having been tied in small bundles, is weighed and taken by women to the washing basins. It is thoroughly washed in clean water, and afterwards placed in a basin containing a soap solution, made by dissolving common soap in water at the rate of 5 to 10 kilograms of soap per 1,000 kilograms of green fi'bre. The green fibre is allowed to soak in this solution for thirty-six to forty-eight hours. The soap solution helps to disintegrate the particles of pulp attached to the fibre, and also helps to give a white colour to the fibre. The fibre is removed from this solution and washed in clean water. Afterwards it is taken and suspended on wooden rails in the open air for bleaching and drying in the sun. The colour of the dry fibre depends largely on the weather conditions prevailing at the time of bleach- ing and drying. If the weather is sunny a white product results, but if it is overcast and damp a yellowish-brown fibre is often obtained. From the driers the fibre is taken to the brushing machines, where the tow and attached particles of pulp are removed. Stained parts of the fibre are cut out, and it is then baled in sacking in bales of 200 to 250 kilo- grams each with hand baling presses. The fibre is graded according to the colour into " prime," " good," and " fair " grades. These bales are then marked and sent to Port Louis. The fibre is purchased by a local firm at current rates and exported by them to London. Cost of Production. In the Annual Report of the President of the Chamber of Agriculture for 1911 it is stated that the cost of pro- duction per ton of dry fibre approximated £11 155. where water is employed, and £14 where steam is used. The FIBRES 555 Royal Commissioners in 1908 obtained figures varying from £10 to £15 per ton. The cost of production has been carefully inquired into during the past year. The figures vary in the different localities. If leaves are available near the factories the cost of transport is reduced, and if tramway systems exist the transport cost is less than where ox- carts have to be employed. The average cost of pro- duction per ton of dry fibre might be itemized as follows : — • Factory with water-power Factory with suction gas-power Factory with steam-power 5 5 d. 0 o £ s- * to 2 O d. £ 2 O I ft. d. £ s. d. £ 2 5 5 d. o o £ ~* . to 2 5 5 P O 10 2 O O Cutiing ... 2 Transport of I leaves to factory Feeding leaves to 080 080 080 gratteurs Decorticating ... 2 13 4 2 13 4 2 13 4 Skins for gloves 060 060 060 of gratteurs Removal of residue 040 040 040 Fuel, oil and atten- 100 200 400 dance Transport of green 030 030 030 fibre to basins Soap ... ... o 13 4 o 13 4 o 13 4 Washing ... 030 030 030 Drying ... ...080 080 080 Brushing ...080 080 080 Baling ... ...080 080 080 Transport to Port o 7 otoi ooo 7 otoi ooo 7 oto Louis Miscellaneous ...084 084 084 d. Total ... ...n o 01012 8 o 12 o 01013 8 o 14 o o to 15 8 o Every effort is being made to reduce the cost of pro- duction. The fuel item is heavy where steam is employed, and this is being met by the installation of suction gas plants. Gratteurs are at times difficult to procure, and therefore a small automatic feeding machine is being constantly inquired for. Exports. The exports of fibre from Mauritius show a slight upward tendency. The largest amount exported during 556 FIBRES the past fifteen years in any one year was 3,105*3 metric tons in 1900. The export last year (1913) amounted to 2,912*7 metric tons. The average yearly export for the five-year period 1899-1903 was 2,052*3 'metric tons; for the period 1904-08, 2,1 13*1 metric tons; and for 1909-13, 2, 238' i metric tons. The exports during the past five years have been more regular than during former periods. There are reasons to suppose, however, that after the activity of 1913 (resulting in the export of nearly 700 tons above the average for the last five-year period), coupled with the fact that flowering took place very freely throughout the whole Colony after the somewhat ex- tended dry period, August to December, 1913, there may be recorded in the exports for the next year or so a reduction of output. The value of the fibre crop in Mauritius averaged during the 1899-1903 period £44,884 yearly; during the 1904-08 period it was £47,192; and in 1909-13 the yearly average value was £43,843. The local price for fibre has ruled more steady during the past five years, but has been lower than the average price of the previous ten years; it has approximated to £20 per metric ton. The charges for freight, etc., to London may be estimated at £6 8s. per ton. The quantity and value of the exports during the past fifteen years are shown in the following table : — Year Quantity. Metric tons 1899 2,249-8 1900 3,105-3 1901 1,243-0 1902 2,144-6 1903 i,5T87 1904 1,920-1 1905 i,673'9 1906 1,949-9 1907 2,879-7 1908 2,141-9 1909 1,878-6 1910 2,021-2 1911 2,129-3 1912 2,249-0 1913 2,9I2-7 2052-3 -2113-] 2238-1 Value in Mauritius £ 39,245 65,003 22,896 •44,844 60,525 36,749 41,835 37,637 49,173 •47,192 65,760 4i,557 35,38o 41,833 40,033 43,843 45,465 56,905 Average 2134-4 FIBRES 557 The fluctuations are more clearly shown in graph form, thus : — DIAGRAM I. — EXPORTS OF FIBRE. 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 I9IH 1913 558 FIBRES The fluctuations in the local value per metric ton of fibre are shown in the following diagram : — DIAGRAM II.— LOCAL VALUE PER METRIC TON OF FIBRE. 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 The fibre is chiefly purchased locally, and then shipped to the United Kingdom on the purchasing firm's account. The local price is based upon the value of fibre on the London market and upon the quality as judged by the purchaser's valuers. Mauritius fibre is not made use of to any great extent in the United Kingdom, but is reshipped mainly to Germany. During the past two years, however, there has been a demand for Furcrsea fibre in the United States of America, and a large proportion of the exports from Mauritius has found its way to that country. Capital and Possibilities for Extension. The industry is worked on very little capital, and there- fore it does not increase as fast as might be expected, FIBRES 559 considering the suitability of soil and climate. There are in the Colony large areas of land which are well suited for plantations of fibre. The greater portion of the Black River district might produce fibre without undue competition with sugar-cane, and it is in this district and in Pamplemousses that extension might be looked for. Regular plantations are now being made on a small scale, but the industry is well worth the close attention of capitalists. With wider plantings centralization of factory working would be possible, and if sufficient fibre were available to keep an up-to-date factory in full working, there appears to be no reason why the return on capital invested should be less than in other countries where fibre is being exploited to a considerable extent. The cost of erecting an up-to-date factory is estimated at £3,000 to £3,500, and the cost of planting and bringing the crop into bearing, including cost of supervision, might be estimated at £10 per acre for areas up to 100 acres. With but little cultivation of fibre being carried on it is difficult to give estimates based upon actual costs, but with economical management the above figures should not be exceeded. Fibre production might become an important industry in the Colony. It can progress side by side with the sugar industry, and is capable of considerable extension. For economical working, large areas should be cultivated and automatic machinery employed. Grading of fibre according to length, colour, and strength should receive close attention, in order to establish for Mauritius fibre a reputation in the world's fibre markets, as the system of grading by colour, as at present carried out, appears to leave much to be desired. If the experiments of the Government with automatic machinery are successful, the basis for centralized factory working will have been established, and plantings around such factories may be looked for. THE PRESENT POSITION AND PROSPECTS OF FIBRE CULTIVATION IN THE GERMAN COLONIES. By DR. W. F. BRUCK. Professor of Tropical Agriculture, University of Giessen, Germany. THE most important German Colony from the point of view of fibre cultivation is German East Africa, where cotton and sisal hemp are grown, and where formerly sansevieria fibre and Mauritius hemp were produced. The last-mentioned fibres, however, have practically ceased to be exported. In Togo cotton is of some importance; in addition, sisal has of late years been cultivated there, the amount produced being, however, only twenty tons. Sisal is also grown in New Guinea. Isolated experi- ments with fibre plants have been begun in other Colonies, but they do not require mention in connection with the world's commerce. Mr. Schanz having under- taken to read the paper on cotton growing before this. Congress, I may limit my remarks to fibre cultivation. Germany is greatly interested in the cultivation of hemp-producing plants in her own Colonies. According to the official statistics for 1913, the German Empire imported from foreign countries fibre materials as. follows : — Quantity. Value. Tons Million marks Flax, raw and cleaned ... 71,204*3 .. 60 '9 Flax tow ... ... 22,388-5 Hemp ... ... ... 45,698-1 Hemp tow... ... ... I5»998'5 Ramie and ramie waste ... 2,396-4 Jute and jute tow ... ... 162,077-6 Manila hemp tow ... ... 3.993'i Sisal hemp ... ... 3,609-3 Kapok ... ... ... 3.334:2 Other fibres and waste ... 22,448-9 15-0 76-2 4-8 9-8 Totals ... 353,148-9 218 -o FIBRES 5°I Whilst the first four mentioned materials are mainly produced in Europe the others are all of tropical origin. SISAL HEMP. The production of fibres in the German Colonies has been most successful in German East Africa, where Agave sisaiana, Perrine, from whose long, succulent leaves (over 2 m. in length) sisal hemp is obtained, is the only fibre plant of commercial importance. The attempt to stimulate the culture of agavae in German East Africa was begun in 1893, when, on the advice of Dr. Hindorf, seeding material from Florida was first secured for the Deutsch-Ostafrikanische Gesellschaft. The development of its production has been very rapid. In the last nine years the export of sisal hemp from German East Africa has been : — Quantity. Value. Tons Marks 1905 ... ... ... 1,397 ... 1,071,296 1906 . . ... ... 1,854 ... 1,368,169 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 2,830 ... 2,161,685 3,897 5,284 7,228 11,213 1912 ... ... 17,079 1913 ••• ••• ••• 20,835 2,865,633 2,333^025 3,011,625 4,532,249 7,359,86i 10,711,591 In the beginning of the year 1908, 14,204 hectares were planted with agavse, 4,376 of which were ready for harvest; in the beginning of the year 1913 the cultivated area had increased to 24,751 hectares, of which 14,359 hectares were paying. The greater part of Germany's demand for sisal is already supplied by East Africa. Whilst formerly Yucatan sisal hemp almost alone was at the disposal of German industries, this fibre has now quite lost its field in Germany, whereas East African hemp is in increasing demand. According to the unanimous view of experts, the sisal hemp grown in German East Africa is so ex- cellent as to surpass the sisal fibre of other countries. Indeed, the best quality of East African sisal is almost equal to the much more expensive Manila hemp in many respects, and in some points it is even better. This fact 562 FIBRES has been particularly established for binder twines. In addition, our Colonial hemp is also suitable for the manu- facture of different kinds of ropes. The German Imperial Navy also employs a considerable amount of cordage made from this East African material. For this reason Germany is greatly interested in growing such fibre material for its own needs. The interest, however, does not go any further, since sisal is so small an article that if the production increases prices would rapidly fall. It is doubtful whether under such conditions it would pay to grow sisal. Distribution and Description of the Plant. The sisal grown in German East Africa (Agave sisalana, Perrine), sometimes called " green sisal," is identical with " Henequen verde " (Spanish name) and " Yaxci Maya " (Indian name), s-yn. Agave rigida sisalana. The plant is a native of Central America, and probably also of Yucatan. The fibre is used in small quantities by the natives of Central America, but does .lot enter into consideration for purposes of exportation. The plant has been introduced into Florida, where it has spread to some extent without being cultivated. As a trade article it is grown in the Bahamas, the Turks and Caicos Islands, in the Sandwich Islands, and here and there in British India and Indo-China. As regards its geographical occurrence, it is more widely distributed than any other fibre-producing agave. The propagation of the sisal plant takes place either by means of suckers growing underground, or by so- called " bulbils," i.e., adventitious shoots arising from the top of the flowering stem, where they develop into young plants. After having attained a size of 12 to 15 cm. the bulbils fall off, and may then be at once employed for seeding purposes in suitable beds. On the whole, however, we nowadays prefer to employ the underground suckers for the purposes of propagation. After two or three years these suckers throw up young- leaves, which obtain their nourishment partly from the mother plant, and partly through a separate system of roots which surround the plant in a radius not exceeding FIBRES 563 i metre. The daughter plant rarely develops a separate stem. The leaves are dark green or bluish-green, their length is about 1*75 m., their width near the central part 8 to 14 cm., and their thickness in the narrowest portion near the base of the leaf 2 to 4 cm. Marginal spikes are only found occasionally; when present, they are slightly bent and point downwards, their length being 25 to 28 mm. The flower-bearing stem attains a length of 4 to 8 m., and carries slender branches pointing up- wards. The flowers are about 6 cm. long. Immediately beneath them arise the bulbils which have been mentioned previously. Nothing is so far known concerning the development of seeds. Cultivation. If it is intended to use bulbils for cultivation these are first reared in nurseries; if, on the other hand, suckers are to be employed, they are usually planted out in the field at once. Care should be taken to plant suckers of approximately the same size. It would be a mistake, e.g., to plant a sucker whose main stem is 30 cm. long next to another one 50 cm. in length. Such differences in size render harvesting difficult; besides, the hemp obtained is irregular and the quality of the product suffers. Large suckers yield mature leaves earlier, thus reducing the time required for the harvest. Before the beginning of cultivation the area is parcelled out, the shrubs are burned down, and the ground is care- fully measured and marked out. The plants are then planted out, no further preparation or digging of special holes being required. Considerable differences may be observed with regard to the planting distances employed. Should inter-cultivation of other plants between the agavse be intended — a point which will receive further consideration subsequently — the distance should, of course, be comparatively great, say, 2*5 by 2'5 m. Other distances employed are 2'5 by 1*25, 2*25 by 1*25, or 2 by 2m. As the normal planting distance we may regard 2*5 by i '25 m. It is inadvisable to make the intervals too short, e.g., 2 by i m., or less. With sucker planta- tions it is usually difficult to avoid some degree of irregu- 564 FIBRES larity, and in this respect there is a distinct advantage in cultivating bulbils that have been reared in nurseries. When cultivation is first started the plants are usually obtained from a considerable distance. The cost of carriage may in such cases be reduced by the use of bulbils, which are first placed in nurseries, and there develop into young plants. But when the cultivation has progressed so far as to have suckers available — usually in the course of the second year — the planter will, of course, use these for planting purposes after having previously sorted them according to their size, especially where a sufficient stock of light railway rails is available. At a later stage of cultivation, when both bulbils and suckers have developed, the question of transport alone will decide which material had best be used for growing, viz., suckers where there are enough rails, otherwise bulbils reared in nurseries. During the first two* years care must be taken to prevent grass from growing in the plantation, and par- ticularly overgrowing the agavse, otherwise in damp weather the plants will show signs of rot and become infected with fungi. Later, when the plants have grown so tall that there is no danger of their being overgrown by grasses, such scrupulous care to keep them free from weeds is unnecessary. During the dry season it is even advisable to leave the grass untouched because of the shade it affords. A very important question is whether one should inter- cultivate other plants among the agavae. During the last few years experience with regard to this question has been gained in German East Africa. At first cotton was used for this purpose, owing to the cotton prices and the state of the German cotton market at that time. On the whole, however, it should be noted that a good cotton soil and a good sisal soil are incompatible. Good results have, it is true, been calculated for cotton inter-cultivation in certain sisal plantations; but this was only possible because the cost of weeding was debited entirely or to a great part to the cultivation of the agavse, inasmuch as weeding would have been required, even if no inter- cultivation had been practised. In countries where the FIBRES 565 rainy and the dry season cannot be accurately determined beforehand it is not expedient to inter-cultivate cotton. Where, however, the climate is suitable for cotton grow- ing, as in the south of the Protectorate, the inter- cultivation of cotton will pay well in the earlier stages of agave growing, especially in newly started plantations. For, whilst the agavse are developing, the produce of cotton culture will be sufficient to cover a considerable part of the expenses. Various kinds of beans have also occasionally been used for inter-cultivation, but never to any extent. In some cases the result was not satisfactory, climbing beans, which twine around the young plants, proving especially injurious. Great importance attaches to the methodical renewal of the plantation. The following calculation may serve as a typical instance : — A stock of 1,000,000 plants requires a total area of 2,000 hectares1 when worked in regular rotation, and if the planting distance be 2*5 by 1*25 m., i.e., about 3,200 agavse to the hectare. For every million plants it is necessary to plant out one-third, viz., 340,000 young plants, every year, this number representing a surface of no to 120 hectares. Thus, 1,000,000 agavse requires 325 hectares of soil. The second million of agavse, which must in time replace the first, requires a further area of 325 hectares, thus giving a total of 650 hectares. When the first lot of agavae filling a space of about no hectares has run its course (i.e., between the sixth and seventh years, when the flower-bearing stem develops), a fresh space of no hectares must be planted. In this way cultivation is worked in regular rotation over the whole area of 1,836 hectares. Thus, after the first lot has been harvested at the end of the seventh year, and the ground has subsequently lain fallow for a sufficient number of years (seven years under normal conditions, but this time varies according to special requirements), it again becomes ready for cultivation. 1 This figure allows for roads, factories, building extensions, etc. 566 FIBRES If less efficient methods of cultivation are employed, e.g., " wild cultivation," which will be described later on, replanting is carried out on totally different lines. Harvesting, As to the time of ripening of the leaves no definite statements can be made, since it depends upon various circumstances. Differences are seen between cultures derived from bulbils and those grown from suckers. Furthermore, the growth of the plants, and therefore the term of their harvest, is greatly influenced by the quality of the soil. In fact, it will be well to mention especially that the quality of the soil exerts a greater influence than climatic conditions. For example, one may note that after several months' drought the plants may do quite well and produce particularly firm leaves, an observation which recalls the intensive growth of our indigenous plants after their winter's rest. The right time for cutting the leaves will be discussed subsequently. At present it will suffice to mention a sign of the ripeness of the leaves; in young leaves the tips are purplish-brown and glossy, but when the leaf matures it has a silver-grey hue. In German East Africa cultivation is at present carried out chiefly in two ways. One is that of " methodical cultivation," already dealt with, the other is that of " wild cultivation." If the soil is not too rich and does not contain too much humus it is considered typically suitable for sisal culture in most tropical countries. Under such " normal " conditions the first leaves can usually be cut three years after planting. One may then continue harvesting the leaves for about five to seven years. In general, a sisal plant produces about 200 leaves suitable for fibre production during its entire life- time. Normally, therefore, one whole period of sisal cultivation lasts for about ten years. With regard to the influence of the soil on the ripening of the leaves one should distinguish (i) very rich virgin soils, (2) medium soils with a certain amount of nutritive material and humus, and (3) poor soil, e.g., rocky or chalky soil near the sea coast. The medium soils we FIBRES 567 would regard as the most suitable, and it is for them that the figures stated previously for the time of harvest and period of life are normal. In richer soils the first harvest- ing of the leaves must be begun far earlier — this has proved to be particularly the case in the plantations of Usambara. In that district the suckers produce fully developed mature leaves as early as a year and a half after planting out. On such soils, however, the plant may have completed its term of existence within three years. On poor soils, on the other hand, the agavse do not produce mature leaves until four or five years after having been transplanted as suckers; but there the life- time of the plants is, as a rule, correspondingly longer. As regards the results of cultivation on these different kinds of soil, the medium and poor soils on the whole yield a better quality and a greater amount of fibre. But the first-mentioned soils contain so much nutritive material that at the end of the first period of cultivation a new period of plantation can begin immediately without any intermediate process of manuring being required. After the second term of planting' this soil has become so exhausted as to approximate the medium soil which we consider as the best suitable. The general rule for a methodically worked plantation must always be that each plant yields about 200 fibre- producing leaves, and that 3^ to 4 per cent, of the entire leaves consists of the fibre material. It is a matter of comparative indifference whether this result is attained sooner or later, according to the quality of the soil. In plantations which are worked in a really methodical manner, a far-sighted manager is always able to put a definite quantity of fibre on the market from any kind of soil. In " rational cultivation " the root suckers, of which often a large number grow around each individual plant, are regularly removed, -whilst in "wild culture" the suckers are allowed to develop freely. An advantage of the latter method of culture is that a sufficient amount of leaves is always available without the labour and expense required for fresh planting. In certain planta- tions of German East Africa this method of cultivation has occasionally proved fairly satisfactory, particularly 568 FIBRES in districts which have been worked inefficiently for many years previously. The old manager having been dis- charged, it becomes the chief aim of his successor to earn a dividend for the shareholders. As a rule he will not rind sufficient mature leaves to feed the decorticating machines, and naturally it is his first object to obtain a sufficient amount of material rapidly— this end is attained with greater speed and certainty by " wild cultivation." On the other hand, this method of cultivation has serious drawbacks. Such plantations are not easily kept free from weeds, and it is very difficult to gain access to them. The harvestable leaves are unequal, and so is the resulting fibre material. Besides, in such plantations the leaves are far more frequently infected with fungi and bacterial diseases than in well-kept plantations. The weeds often grow over 6 ft. high in such fields, affording cover to countless enemies of the plants. Thus we must bear in mind that in such cases dangerous antagonists of the agavae may find their way into the plantation, and may spread epidemically under conditions favouring their development. A further menace to this method of plantation is that under wild cultivation the sisal plant more easily succumbs to the fate of almost all cultivated plants, viz., that it begins to degenerate. This has already occurred to some extent with the species grown in Java. It should, therefore, be noted that by " rational cultivation" — i.e., by taking proper regard of accurate planting distances and of regular weeding of the field — better results must be obtained in the long run than by the last described method of " wild cultivation." Above all, the quality produced will be more uniform. According to the development of the leaves, the agavse are usually allowed to grow for two and a half or, more commonly, three years, before the first cutting is begun. The first harvest of leaves as a rule produces a very irregular material, thus necessitating preliminary sorting of the leaves. From each plant one can obtain at the earliest term of harvest forty to forty-five leaves; at the proper term up to sixty leaves. In the following year, and as a rule also in the third year, the number of harvestable leaves may rise to seventy. Generally FIBRES 569 speaking, the number of leaves produced by a sisal plant during its whole lifetime is between 170 and 200 leaves. As soon as the flower-bearing stem becomes visible it should at once be cut down, unless bulbils are desired, since otherwise the leaves surrounding the stem will not yield proper fibre. The old rule was only to cut those leaves which formed an angle of 45° with the ground. This has proved a mistake, especially in the richer class of soils. In such cases, if the leaves forming an angle of more than 45° with the horizontal are not cut, the result would be that the flower-bearing stem would shoot up too soon, and thus the life of the plant would be shortened. After the whole sisal culture has been completely harvested it is advisable to let the ground lie fallow for several years. Exhaustion of the soil can also be avoided by cultivating leguminous plants which enrich the nitrate content of the soil. The Extraction of Fibre from the Leaves. Fibre extracting is performed by various machines, which are worked either by hand or mechanically. The method by which the flesh is removed from the leaves in such machines is that a rotary drum set with beater ledges presses the leaf against a hard edge, thus beating out the flesh whilst the fibres are gripped above. The leaves are inserted by hand in the so-called " raspadores," and automatically in the larger machines, e.g., the " New Corona." In the raspadores each leaf is inserted separately into the machine with its tip foremost, half of the leaf being thus freed from flesh; it is then removed and its other end inserted into the machine. In the "New Corona" one side of the leaf is gripped by the machine and carried sideways towards a drum, which removes the flesh from the other side; then the part freed from flesh is gripped and carried towards a second drum, which removes the flesh from the remainder. The general principle is the 'same in all the different systems of extracting machines ; the difference being that in some the leaves are transported by chains consisting of links of bronze (Finigan machine), or by spiked wheels of 57O FIBRES bronze (Mola machine), in others by hempen ropes (New Corona machine). With the large machines, the work performed is, oi course, far greater than with the raspadores or " double raspadores/' which derive their name from the fact of two raspadores being fixed on one driving shaft. The raspadore principle has the draw- back that some of the flesh remains in the central part of the leaf, and this must afterwards be removed. On the other hand, the raspadore apparatus is far cheaper, and would appear to yield a better quality of hemp and less waste; it is also, of course, much simpler to work. Besides, it will always be possible to set up more than one of these cheap machines, and there is thus no danger that in case of a breakdown or other accident the whole factory and work of harvesting would come to a stand- still; whereas this possibility must not be lost sight of with the larger machines, of which only the greatest plantations can afford more than one. It can be stated as a general rule that the amount produced by a double raspadore is almost half a ton daily, for which 5 to 7 h.p. are required. The large machine most commonly used in the Colony is the " New Corona," constructed by the Krupp-Gruson Works of Magde- burg. It is built in two types, which are stated by the makers to require 40 and 30 h.p., and to yield 2 and i{? tons of fibre daily respectively. It is hardly advisable to give any detailed figures as to the capacity and working expenses of the various systems of machines. The several factories at present in exist- ence show so many differences that it is hardly possible to make any general statement as to the cost of con- struction and working of sisal plantations. Further information will be found in a paper by Hupfeld in the Tropenflanzer (1910, pp. 532-539) and in the annual state- ments of the larger sisal plantation companies of the Colony, whilst a detailed account of the cultivation and its commercial aspects is given in a paper published by myself2 last year. - Bruck, W. F.— " Die Sisalkultur in Deutschostafrika," Arbeiten der Dentschen Landwirtschafts-Gesellschaft, IQI3> Heft 244. FIBRES 571 The results of sisal cultivation in other German Colonies have not been particularly important as yet. In Togo sisal hemp is produced by the Kpeme plantation, where, in 1913, 263 hectares were cultivated, of which 68 hectares were producing. This plantation exported 10,492 kilograms of fibre in 1911 and 17,571 kilograms in 1912. In New Guinea, experiments carried out with sisal hemp have given the following results, as shown by the export figures : — Quantity. Value. Kilograms Marks 1909 ... ... ... 3,242 ... 1,945 1910 ... ... ... 13,782 ... 8,269 1911 ... ... ... 7,686 ... 3,843 1912 ... ... ... 21,342 ... 10,540 In 1913 the surface cultivated was 78 hectares contain- ing over a quarter of a million plants. In comparison with the export of German East Africa, the quantities exported by Togo and New Guinea are not particularly important as yet. But it should be con- sidered that in these Colonies cultivation is only just beginning. On the whole, we may say that we have been fortunate with this branch of cultivation in our Colony of German East Africa. But nothing definite can as yet be stated with regard to the future of sisal. During the last few years there has been a great demand for fibre material owing to the enormous grain harvests in North America, which required large quantities of binder twine; thus prices were influenced favourably. But it is by no means certain that such fortunate circumstances will recur in the future. If fibre cultivation should increase in other Colonies over- production might easily occur, and prices would then rapidly fall. Under such conditions it is doubtful whether sisal cultivation would continue to pay. Wherever new plantations are started they must always be begun as experiments, for one can never tell before- hand whether the conditions of soil and climate will prove suitable for cultivation. In addition, it is necessary to have an adequate supply of workers. A further factor 57^ FIBRES requiring to be considered in all calculations is that the plantation must first pass through a period of preparation lasting at least five years. If expensive large machinery is to be laid down profitably, a large area is required for planting sisal. The cost of such plantations is therefore a very heavy item. KAPOK. Some years ago the cultivation of kapok trees (Ceiba pentandra, syn. Eriodendron anfractuosum) was also begun in the German Colonies. The silky hairs of the internal membrane of the capsules have the advan- tage of being very light and buoyant. In this respect kapok surpasses both pith and cork. Extensive use has therefore been made of kapok within recent years in the manufacture of swimming- and life-belts. The chief importance of kapok attaches, however, to its being an excellent substitute for the animal materials hitherto employed for stuffing cushions, mattresses, and other articles of upholstery. The first lot of kapok was exported from East Africa in 1909, its amount being 18,137 kilograms. The con- sideration which has been accorded to kapok of late years has led to a further extension of its cultivation, which is at present increasing rapidly. The exports were as follows : — Quantity. Value. Kilograms Marks 1909 ... ... ... 18,137 ... 9,080 1910 ... ... ... 12,205 ... 13.043 1911 ... ... ... 28,637 ... 23,014 1912 ... ... 53,072 ... 62,601 The area cultivated has increased from 694 hectares in the beginning of 1911 to 2,632 hectares in the beginning of 1913; of this surface, 641 hectares were ready to yield a harvest. In Togo the cultivation of kapok has also been begun recently. A comparatively small quantity was first ex- ported in 1911, the figures being: — Quantity. Value. Kilograms Marks 1911 ... ... ... 5,060 ... 6,271 1912 ... ... ... 7,062 ... 7,142 FIBRES 573 Lately Cameroon has also exported a small quantity of vegetable fibre material, the exact nature of which is not, however, published in the official commercial statistics, viz. : — • Quantity. Value. Kilograms Marks 1911 ... ... ... 156 ... 85 1912 ... ... ... 798 ... 316 Perhaps it will prove possible to grow kapok there also, more especially since the decrease in rubber production affords sufficient opportunity for the beginning of other branches of cultivation. FIBRES OF THE NETHERLAND EAST INDIES. By THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE, Buitenzorg, Java. Introduction. THE Netherland East Indies, like all other tropical countries, are rich in fibres of different sorts and qualities. The greater part of these fibres are of only local importance, and the only kinds which are adapted to export are kapok, rattan, agave, Manila hemp, and cotton; the fibre of the coconut palm, that of the arenga palm (gemoetoe), and the widoeri (a vegetable silk obtained from wild plants of Calotropis giganted] are of little importance as articles of export. Of the fibres exported, kapok, Manila hemp, and cotton are obtained from plantations. The fibres of the agave are obtained from plants growing wild and also from plantations, while the rattan is a product only collected from the forests. The cultivation of fibre plants in the Netherland East Indies, except that of cotton, which has been exported to Europe since the beginning of the nineteenth century, is comparatively of recent date. Kapok was exported for the first time in 1860, while the cultivation of agave fibre and that of Manila hemp dates from the beginning of this century. The cultivation of cotton, which is carried on only by the natives, is gradually increasing, especially in the islands beyond Java and Madura. The importance of the fibre trade of the Netherland East Indies is shown by the following figures of exports (in tons) in recent years : — RATTAN. 1909 1910 1911 1912 From Java and Madura ... ... 515 422 774 441 From the other islands of the Archi- 32,296 43,768 54,717 44,041 pelago Total ... ... 32,811 44,190 55,491 44,482 FIBRES 575 KAPOK. 1909 1910 From Java and Madura ... ... 7,965 8,377 From the other islands of the Archi- 586 809 pelago 1911 9,906 569 1912 10,295 1,160 Total ... ... 8,551 9,186 10,475 n>455 COTTON (UNCLEANED). 1909 *9,10 1911 IQI2 From Java and Madura ... ... 698 969 1,072 3,686 From the other islands of the Archi- 6,652 7,041 5,374 6,318 pelago Total 7,380 8,010 6,446 10,004 COTTON (GINNED). 1909 From Java and Madura ... ... 345 From the other islands of the Archi- 65 pelago Total 410 1910 56 118 174 IQIl 201 231 432 1912 609 523 OTHER FIBRES (EXCEPT RATTAN CANES). From Java and Madura From the other islands of ihe Archi- pelago Total 1909 835 8 1910 1,817 54 3.784 149 1912 7,335 64 843 1,871 3,933 7,399 The export of rattan canes, which come entirely from the islands of the Archipelago adjacent to Java and Madura, during the same period showed a value of (in dollars) : — • 1909 71,247 1910 50,032 7911 56,826 1912 60,582 KAPOK. Distribution and Cultivation in the Motherland East Indies. — The kapok tree, belonging to the family of the Bombacacese, is to be found throughout the Netherland East Indies, but principally in Java, which is responsible for about seven-eighths of the total export of kapok from the whole Archipelago. Java kapok, which is superior to the product from elsewhere, is obtained from the fruits of Ceiba pen- tandra, L. (Eriodendron anfractuosum, DC.). Kapok 37 5/6 FIBRES of inferior quality from British India, Cochin-China, and Ceylon, is obtained from the fruits of Bombax mala- baricum and other species of Bombax. In recent years the Government of German East Africa has spared no trouble to encourage the cultivation of kapok in that Colony in order that a product may be obtained, both as regards quantity and quality, to compete with the Java product in the world's market. The kapok tree requires very little care, and thrives well when planted in any soil; climate also does not affect it to any large extent. For increasing or renewing the cultivation of kapok, the common method of propagating is by setting out cuttings from the older trees. With its straight trunk and a few long horizontal branches almost devoid of sprigs, and its scanty foliage, the kapok tree has a peculiar and impressive appearance. The kapok tree is to be found in Java, not only on lands belonging to the natives, but everywhere along fields and roads, while some estates under European management are interested in its cultivation. The area planted with kapok trees on January i, 1911, amounted to : — In Java and Madura ... ... ... 68, 129 acres In the other islands of the Archipelago ... 4,419 ,, Total ... ... ... ... 72,548acies Of this total, an area of 52,661 acres in Java and Madura is under cultivation carried on by the natives, and in the other islands of the Archipelago an area of 4,293 acres. Preparation. — The principal work of the kapok pre- paration is the removing of the seeds, which is done either by hand or mechanically by beating the kapok so that the seeds are freed and can be removed. These seeds form a by-product, and are used by oil manufacturers in Europe. The kapok, after being separated from the seed, is pressed. On the plantations under European supervision much attention is paid to the pressing, but in the establish- ments managed by Chinese the pressing is often very carelessly done. FIBRES 577 The kapok is packed in gunny bags or matting, after which the bales intended for shipment to Australia — which are of a net weight of 72 to 80 Ib. and measure 16 cubic ft. — and the bales for shipment to Europe and America — which are of a weight of 90 Ib. and measure 12 cubic ft. — are bound by iron bands or sometimes by rattan. Bales which are not properly pressed are often tied two together, in order to reduce the quantity of kapok protruding at the sides and ends of the bales. Trade. — It is only during the last fifteen years that the kapok trade of the Netherland East Indies has become of such great importance, although, as mentioned above, kapok was first exported to the Amsterdam market in 1860. The kapok trade in Java is mainly in the hands of European exporters in the principal ports. Kapok is also sold and shipped directly to foreign purchasers by the European planters, but this represents a very small percentage of the total exports, and is not more than 20 per cent, of the total output. The chief markets for Java kapok are the Netherlands and Australia, although direct shipments are now made to America, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain, and have increased considerably during the last few years, while formerly these countries were supplied by the Amsterdam market. The consumption of kapok in England, Russia, Sweden, and Norway is still comparatively small, but is regularly increasing. The principal countries to which kapok from the Netherland East Indies has been exported for the past three years were (in tons of 1,000 kilo- grams) : - FROM JAVA AND MADURA. Countries of destination 1910 I9II 1912 Netherlands ... 2,848 2,282 3,136 Netherlands f/t 5'5 I,IO3 1,090 France 227 209 216 United States of Americ 1,798 2,O5O 2,044 Singapore 346 457 386 Australia 2,006 2,480 1,605 Australia f/t ... 333 8? New Zealand ,.. 321 472 536 Other countries 3i6 - 520 1,201 Total • 8,377 9,906 10,295 FIBRES During 1913 a total quantity of 9,019 tons was ex- ported from Java and Madura. FROM THE OTHER ISLANDS OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. Countries of destination 1910 Netherlands ... . 360 Netherlands f/t 84 Penang ... . 64 Singapore ... . 292 Other countries . 9 Total 809 1911 569 1912 822 43 90 174 i, 160 Uses. — Kapok can be used for many purposes, and, when more generally known, it no doubt will have a good future. As a stuffing material for cushions, mattresses, etc., kapok seems to be gradually taking the place of the more expensive horsehair. It is specially valuable for such purposes, as it does not absorb dampness quickly, but remains fresh, and does not form a compact substance which causes discomfort in use. It is very elastic, and maintains its elasticity for a long time, owing to which comparatively small quantities are found sufficient for stuffing cushions, mattresses, etc. Compared with quantities of other materials required for stuffing mattresses, the following figures speak for themselves. A single mattress of 3 by 6J ft. requires: — • Java kapok Horsehair Seaweed Crin vegetal Wood shavings Alpine grass Straw 17-6 to 19-8 26*4 28*6 3.VO 26-4 33-0 2 5 '4 28-6 28-6 38-0 28-6 82-0 It might be mentioned that when horsehair, crin vegetal, etc., is used, the stuffing is frequently enclosed in a thin layer of kapok or wadding to give the mattress the necessary softness. Properties. — Kapok absorbs very little moisture, owing to which fact a mattress stuffed with this material, when it once becomes damp, is soon dried, while the covering stands less chance of rotting away. Moreover, dry FIBRES 579 sterilization of kapok is possible without the product losing any of its properties. It is not surprising, therefore, that the use of kapok as a stuffing material for Army mattresses is rapidly increasing.' Trials, conducted by the German military officials, resulted in a decision that henceforth no other material but kapok should be used for this purpose. Kapok has also been found a very useful and important article for stuffing lifebelts and other appliances designed to support heavy weights in water. Java kapok, having great buoyancy, can carry twenty to thirty times its own weight in water, while British India kapok can carry ten to fifteen times its own weight, and cork only six times its own weight. Java kapok does not lose its buoyancy even after having been submerged for some days and then dried. After thirty days' submersion kapok loses only 10 per cent, of this property. A lifebelt filled with 2 Ib. of kapok can carry a weight of 50 Ib. in water. The above-mentioned properties are found in much higher degree in Java kapok than in products of other growth. Kapok is at present also used for spinning purposes. Some years ago a German concern decided to spin this fibre into yarns of various thicknesses. These yarns are used for carpets, clothes, etc. Kapok is also used in the manufacture of felt hats and in gun-cotton factories. RATTAN. Distribution in the Netherland East Indies. — Rattan is a more or less slender stem of various species of palms belonging to different genera, of which the principal is Calamus, sometimes subdivided into Calamus and D&monorops. Rattan is to be found throughout tropical and sub- tropical Asia, mostly in the islands of the East Indian Archipelago, viz., Celebes, Borneo and Sumatra, and, in much smaller quantities, in Java. Rattan in its natural state grows against trees, and is gathered by the natives from the forests. There is no proper cultivation of rattan in the Netherland East Indies, it being a product of the forests and growing wild. FIBRES Preparation. — The rattan is gathered by cutting the stem about i metre from the ground, the remaining part of the plant throwing out new shoots. After cutting, the rattan is bleached for some days (at the most for three days), and is then washed and dried. Good specimens are dried in the sun, and inferior qualities over fire, which, however, very often causes a brown colour. After the drying the gravel on the rattan is removed by sharp pieces of wood, knives, pieces of glass, sand, or a piece of metallic netting. Trade. — Rattan is an export article of great importance for the Netherland East Indies. The trade in this product with foreign countries is entirely in the hands of Europeans and Chinese. A cheaper quality of rattan is sent to Java by the Arabs and natives. The rattan suitable for binding and for basket work, and the better qualities of other kinds, which are thicker, as well as rattan canes, are exported entirely to Europe and America, where the demand depends on the ultimate destination. Inferior kinds of rattan from East Borneo are exported in rather large quantities to Hong Kong. At the Singapore market, where large quantities of rattan from the Netherland East Indies are sold, the demand for the Borneo product is not so great. The exports of rattan from the Netherland East Indies for the years 1910, 1911, and 1912 (in tons) are shown in the following table: — Countries of destination Nether!; nds ... United Kingdom Germany Hamburg f/t ... United States of America Penang Singapore Other countries Total 1910 IQTI 1912 2,180 • 3.373 3,696 2,373 3,014 2,827 6,764 9,101 7,279 3>727 4,988 4-907 ca 381 428 69 1,098 1,499 *>396 22,572 . 27,431 21,727 5,095 5,657 2,581 44,190 55,491 44,482 The following table shows the value in dollars of the shipments of rattan canes to the various countries of destination : — • FIBRES Countries of destination Netherlands ... Netherlands f/t United Kingdom France Germany Singapore Other countries Total 1910 7,683 1911 6,351 1912 6,422 1,013 5.432 3,550 978 2,018 • 2,884 3,069 57 889 1,544 3,646 :.' 2,774 . 35,723 39,31° 43,888 22 12 165 50,032 56,826 60,582 Uses. — Rattan of inferior quality is often used in Java as a material for binding purposes and basket work. The natives of the Netherland East Indies twist the rattan into different articles for daily use, especially furniture. The Netherland East Indies is an important consumer of its own product. In sugar mills and in other branches of industry, where strong material for binding is required, great quantities of rattan are used, which are specially imported to Java from Borneo. The dark-coloured kind of rattan is used by the natives for the manufacture of rigging, and in coal-mines and fisheries as basket material. In Europe and America also the rattan is much in demand, where it is used in the furniture industry and for the manufacture of trunks and basket work. AGAVE FIBRES. Distribution in the Netherland East Indies. — A great many different species of agave and fibre-producing plants of the same order are found in the Netherland East Indies growing wild, and. the natives have for many years known the valuable properties of the fibres of the leaves of these plants, which are prepared by them in the most primitive way. Cultivation by Europeans*. — The fibre obtained by the natives is mostly short, insufficiently cleaned, and coloured. Owing to these circumstances this product would never have become an export article of much importance had not the European planters in the Nether- land East Indies taken an interest in its cultivation. This took place at the beginning of this century, and the number of agave plantations rapidly increased when in the years 1903 to 1905 the prices were extraordinarily high. But after the last-mentioned year 58 J FIBRES the price declined and remained unchanged, and for that reason the planters did not make the anticipated profits, and the cultivation progressed only slowly. At the beginning of 1911 there were in Java some thirty- seven European plantations with 15,309 acres under agave cultivation, and some 681 acres of this plant cultivated by the natives in the Netherland East Indies. Agave Cantala and Agave rigida var. sisalana. — Two species of agave are principally planted, between which there is a rather great difference, namely, Agave Cantala and Agave rigida var. sisalana. Agave Cantala, which seems to be a native of Java, and which grows luxuriantly, yields a fibre showing very important differences compared with those of the true sisal hemp, the fibre of Agave rigida var. sisalana. The Cantala fibre is much thinner, more brilliant white, and more flexible than the sisal fibre, and owing to these properties it is suitable for spinning purposes for which the coarser sisal hemp is less suitable. Owing to this the foreign markets pay more for the carefully prepared Java Cantala fibre than for the sisal fibre. Cultivation and Preparation. — Of the cultivation of these agaves only very little can be said as they require little care, and grow well on soils less suitable for other cultivated plants. The yield of leaves and the percentage of fibre are in this country almost equal to that of other countries, such as Yucatan ard German East Africa, while in Java diseases and pests up to the present have only appeared sporadically, and are only very exceptionally observed in the plantations. The preparation of the fibre by the natives is done, as already mentioned, in a very primitive way, namely, by drawing the agave leaves, which usually are beaten soft with a stone or a piece of wood, through a simple scraping apparatus. However, the fibre obtained in this way is usually short, and the colour as well as the clean- ing often leaves much to be desired. The fibre prepared by the natives is principally used locally, only small quantities being exported. On the plantations under European supervision, which are prin- cipally situated in Central Java and Kediri, the prepara- FIBRES 583 tion of the fibre is done in a less primitive way, . and fibre-extracting machines are in general use. The fibre obtained by using these machines is some- times brushed after having been dried, and is then sorted according to colour, depending on the requirements of the various markets. On some plantations where, during certain periods of- the year, the drying in the air proceeds too slowly, the fibre as soon as it leaves the machine is submerged in tanks filled with water. In these tanks the fibre is subjected to a kind of retting process, by which the sub- stances which cause discoloration during slowly drying- are rendered harmless. Packing. — The Java fibre is packed in bales of 50 to 100 kilograms, which are bound by iron hoops. The iron hoops are very often substituted by bamboo, as the iron is apt to corrode and the quality of the fibre consequently suffer. Waste. — The waste from the preparation, consisting of broken fibres, etc., is a material suitable for stuffing- cushions of carriages and a valuable material for the manufacture of stronger kinds of paper. It is partly sold locally and partly exported to Europe. Uses. — As is generally known sisal hemp is of much importance as a material for rope manufacture, and in this respect a competititor of the other kinds of rope fibres, such as Manila hemp, New Zealand flax, Mauritius hemp, etc. The finer kinds of agave fibres are suitable for the manufacture of fabrics which have to answer high requirements of strength, and the Java Cantala has, on account of its cleanness, whiteness, high brilliancy, fine- ness, and flexibility, a brilliant future as a raw material ftfr the weaving industry. The real sisal hemp is not sufficiently useful for spin- ning and the subsequent manufacture of fabrics. Exports. — The export of agave fibres from the Netherland East Indies has only during recent years grown in importance, as the result of the fact that the larger estates which were laid out since 1904 gradually reached the producing stage. 584 FIBRES The export of this article during 1913 amounted to more than 8,700 tons, against about 6,000 tons in 1912, and about 2,000 tons in 1911. The following table shows the various countries of destination in 1912 and 1913: — 1912. 1913. Tons Tons Netherlands and Netherlands f/t .. 1,086 ... 1,249 Germany United Kingdom ... France ... Other European countries United States of America Other countries 98 ... 262 1 88) 275 |l ••• 484 i.3J 4,375 - 6,557 96 ... 196 Total ... 6,131 8,748 The principal ports of export are Sourabaya and Samarang, from which the export amounted to : — 1912. . 1913- Ton s Tons Sourabaya ... ... ... 5,882 ... 8,188 Samarang ... ... ... 249 ... 253 MANILA HEMP. Introduction. — Manila hemp is obtained from the leaf- sheaths of the king of banana plants, Musa textilis, Nees, which seems to be a native of the Philippines and the Sangir Islands of the Netherland East Indian Archipelago. This species is being gradually planted in other parts of the Netherland East Indies, especially in Java, with a view to the preparation of the fibre. Cultivation. — On high elevations the plants take longer to reach maturity or development, but the fibre obtained from such plants is stronger than from plants grown at lower elevations. This is evidently on account of the slower development of the plant. To thrive well Manila hemp requires the rainfall to be equally distributed throughout the year. A long period of drought as well as a low temperature will stunt the plant. Manila hemp is sometimes grown as a catch-crop on rubber estates. Estates cultivating this fibre plant entirely showed an FIBRES 585 area of 957 acres at the beginning of the year 1911, of which 669 acres were in Java and Madura, and 288 acres in the other islands of the Archipelago. Preparation. — The fibre is obtained from the leaf- sheaths of which the trunk is composed. The trunk is first cut down, and then the sheaths are one after the other peeled and the fibre is extracted by hand, or, on larger plantations, by machinery. The fibre which is prepared by hand is, however, in every respect superior to that which is obtained mechani- cally, although the yield by the former method is smaller. As the existing mechanical preparation requires rather much manual labour, the Manila hemp planters in Java are eagerly looking out for a better constructed machine, but up to the present their efforts have not met with success. During recent years trials have been made with a new so-called automatic fibre-extracting machine, which seems very promising, but it still remains to be seen whether it will turn out satisfactory in the end. The sooner the drying process ends the smaller becomes the ever threatening danger of discoloration of the fibre, owing to which the value of the product can decrease considerably. The drying is done by hanging the fibre in the sun on a bamboo and turning it from time to time. Sometimes the fibre before being dried is washed once more. The dried fibre is often brushed — a method which causes considerable waste, and therefore it is not often done — and then it is sorted according to length and colour. Packing. — The fibres are pressed and packed in bales of about 100 kilograms. During the packing, folding and twisting of the fibre must be avoided as much as possible. For the packing, matting or gunny bags are used. The bales are bound by hoops and are then ready for ship- ment. Exports. — The export of Manila hemp from Java is still small, owing to the comparatively low prices which were realized during the years 1907 to 1912, and the planters, therefore, have not seen any inducement to extend their cultivation. 586 FIBRES The export from Java and Madura to the under- mentioned countries in 1912 and 1913 amounted to (in tons of 1,000 kilograms): — • 1912 1913 Netherlands ... ... ... 143 ... 209 United Kingdom ... ... ... 10 Germany ... ... ... ... 13 Total ... ... ... 166 209 The export from the islands of the Archipelago adjacent to Java and Madura in 1912 and 1913 amounted to the following quantities which were shipped to the undermentioned countries : — • 1912. 1913- Tons Tons Netherlands ... ... .... 62} Japan ... ... ... ... if Total ... 63 51 COTTON. Distribution in the Netherland East Indies. — The cotton plant grows best in the regions between 36° North and 36° South Latitude. Some varieties are also indigenous to the Netherland East Indies, especially those in Palem- bang, in Sumatra, and in Demak and Kediri, in Java. Cultivation. — The cultivation of cotton in the Nether- land East Indies is up to the present carried on entirely by the natives as a catch-crop. At first the product was only used for making clothes, which domestic industry, however, suffered very much from the import of wo\en goods of cheap manufacture, although to a certain extent it is still in existence. The cotton cultivation carried on by European planters has, up to the present, not proved profitable, and European capital is concerned almost entirely with the purchasing of the raw product and the trade in it, and in some cases the supplying of seed and the cleaning of the product. As an additional cultivation cotton has shown a certain vitality, which justifies the best hopes for the future, since the Government of the Netherland East Indies has given undeniable proofs that it is willing to look well after FIBRES 587 the interests of the cotton planters and to promote this cultivation. Although the quantity of cotton which is yearly exported is not small, the indigenous varieties have but Mttle importance for the spinning industry. The fineness kaves much to be desired and the staple is not long enough. As a consequence, when the Government of the Netherland East Indies resolved about the middle of the last century to support and to encourage cotton culti- vation, in the first place in Palembang, this assistance was limited to the supplying of seeds of superior qualities imported from elsewhere. The indigenous varieties were considered to be so inferior that even the possibility of improving them by selection, so that the product should become of more importance to the world's trade, was considered non-existent. The attempts of the Government to import exotic varieties of cotton which are considered to be superior were supported financially by some private companies, one of which was the Netherlands Trading Society. These attempts, however, had not the desired success, and, although the Government had no reason to abandon them, it rather preferred to pay more attention than hitherto to an improved quality by means of selection, and there is no doubt that lately this has proved to be the better course. The attempts to import superior exotic cotton varieties by means of seeds from elsewhere, such as Sea Island and Upland cotton, were in the meanwhile continued in the eastern part of the Archipelago (in the island of Lombok), and up to the present have been successful, a favourable expert opinion having been expressed in Europe on the cotton grown in the said district. Cultivation and Crop. — The principal cotton-producing region in the Netherland East Indies is Palembang, in Sumatra. As soon as the rice crop is over the natives sow cotton in the fields. The sowing is done by means of a peculiarly shaped stick, by which holes of about 2 cm. depth are made. In each of these holes three to five seeds are laid. Much care is paid to the plantation for some weeks 588 FIBRES after the sowing, and the soil is kept well weeded until the plants are flowering and thriving well and until they are strong enough to withstand the weeds. The picking is done either by removing the raw cotton from the pod after it has broken open — holding the boll with the left hand and then exercising a strong pull — or by picking all the pods and removing the husks. The first-mentioned method is preferable. At the beginning of 1911 the area under cotton culti- vation was as follows: — Acres In Java and Madura ... ... ... ... 3,/O2 In the islands of the Archipelago adjacent to Java and Madura ... ... ... ... ... 18,222 Total ... ... ... 21,924 Trade. — A very small part of this product is cleaned by the natives in order to obtain seeds for planting purposes. The raw uncleaned product is bought by travelling Chinese and Arabs, and forwarded to the ports of shipment. These petty buyers sell the cotton to merchants in the ports of shipment, among whom there are some export firms. These firms have machines for removing the seeds before shipping* the cotton. The cleaned cotton is exported principally to Europe, where the labour expenses are too high to make the ginning of the raw product profitable; and, moreover, the cost of transportation of raw cotton would be prohibitive. The export of ginned cotton from Palembang during 1905 and during the years 1909-1912 amounted (in tons) to: — Countries of destination 1905 1909 IQIO 1911 1912 Netherlands ...... i 8 Geimany ... ... 54 99 207 482 Singapore ... ... 44 10 18 17 22 Japan ... ... 7 n Total ... 44 64 118 231 523 During the first ten months of 1913, 326 tons were exported. The uncleaned cotton is exported principally to Singapore, where a small part is cleaned in an up-to-date FIBRES 589 ginnery. The ginned product is exported from there to Switzerland for the spinning mills. Most of the uncleaned Palembang cotton imported into Singapore is immediately shipped to Japan. The cleaned product is used partly as a material for stuffing winter kimonos. Uncleaned cotton is also exported from Ampenan and Pabean, in addition to Palembang, and the following quantities (in tons) were exported during 1905 and during 1909-1912. Ports of shipment 1905 T9°9 1910 1911 1912 Palembang ... ... 4,082 5^825 6,089 4>5'° 5>5°2 Ampermn ... ... 140 831 904 657 686 Pabean ... ... 247 26 48 107 130 Total ... 4,469 6,682 7,041 5,374 6,318 The export of uncleaned cotton from Palembang and Ampenan during the year 1913 amounted to 8,380 tons. The shipments were destined for the following countries : — Coynes of destination ft* «% |9£ •£'; %£ Singapore ... ... 4,469 5,942 6,136 4,790 5,472 Japan ... ... 693 904 584 846 United Kingdom ... I Germany ... ... 47 Total ... ... 4,469 6,682 7,041 5,374 6,318 From Palembang 7,903 tons of raw cotton were ex- ported in 1913, against 5,502 tons in 1912; and 375 tons of cleaned cotton, against 523 tons in 1912. Some years ago a modern ginnery was established in Palembang, but in proportion to the quantities of raw cotton which were still exported in 1913, this industry proved to be of little importance. RISULTATI DI ACCLIMAZIONE BELLA AGAVE RIGIDA VAR. SISALANA IN SICILIA. Per il Professore CALCEDONIO TROPEA. A SPERIMENTARE 1'acclimazione della Sisalana in Sicilia, fui indotto da quattro considerazioni : — i° La mancanza di colture adatte a scopi industrial!, in un'Isola che, tanto affine per clima, terreni, e, talvolta per condizioni sociali, alle colonie dell'Africa setten- trionale, si presta certamente a molte coltivazioni di carattere tropicale. 2° La esistenza in Sicilia di estese piantagioni di Agave americana, e la sua acquisita rusticita in terre sassose ed aridissime. 3° La esistenza di notevoli superfici di terreni atti alia coltivazione dell'Agave americana e quindi, con molta probability, anche dell' Agave rigida var. sisalana. 4° La maggiore resa economica della Sisalana, in con- fronto alia specie locale. Queste considerazioni mi fecero concludere sttlla possi- bilita di introdurre in Sicilia la Sisalana, e di sostituirla all' Agave americana. In tal modo mi e parso1 di fare il vantaggio dell'agricoltore, dandogli modo di utilizzare terreni aridi e sassosi, oggi britlli perche inetti alle comuni coltivazioni; il vantaggio deirindustriale, col fornirgli una materia tessile molto ricercata e che attualmente egli importa dall'Estero; il vantaggio della Scienza, perche, accertata la acclimazione della Sisalana in Sicilia, viene ancora una volta dimostrata come quest'Isola possa essere considerata dal punto di vista agronomico, come un vero lembo di Africa, dove la civilta ha gia cominciato ad imprimere i primi solchi del Progresso. Cio quanto alia utilita immediata di tale acclimazione. Dappoiche, se la coltura riuscira ad estendersi, come prevedo, non e lontano il giorno nel quale potranno sorgere tutte le industrie secondarie del Sisal, e special- FIBRES 591 mente quelle inerenti alia estrazione di alcool, di pasta da carte, ecc. derivanti dai residui della sfibratura. Tralascio, per brevita necessaria all'indole di questa comunicazione, le dettagliate notizie sugli esperimenti fatti, e rimando per esse a quanto ebbi gia a scrivere nel passato.1 Mi limito quindi a riferire su quelle conclusioni ultime, cui esse mi ban condotto, e che a me sembra abbiano non solo interesse per la Sicilia, ma costituiscono dati per indurre sul possibile tornaconto di una coltivazione di Sisal nel Nord-Africa. I periodi piu opportuni ad iniziare la piantagione coin- cidono coi mesi di marzo o di novembre, ossia prima o dopo il periodo delle piogge. I rigetti sono da preferisi ai bulbilli, perche fioriscono piu tardi, e danno piante meglio formate, di piu rapido accrescimento e con fibre piu lunghe. La lunghezza delle foglie, durante i primi tre anni, non raggiunge il metro, eppero solo dopo questo periodo e possibile iniziare il taglio delle foglie per utilizzare le loro fibre. Dal quarto anno in poi ogni pianta produce annual- mente circa 35 foglie, mai meno di 30, la cui lunghezza varia fra m. 1*20 e 1*40. Occorrono circa 72 foglie per estrarre un chilo di fibre, in modo che, distanziando le piante di due metri una daH'altra si ha per ogni Ea. almeno una tonnellata di fibre della lunghezza media di m. i'2o. Campionato il prodotto alia locale Societa Tele Olone Canapacci, questa ebbe a stimarlo al prezzo medio di ottanta lire il quintale; donde il reddito lordo per Ea. sarebbe di lire 800, dalle quali detraendo il valore del terreno, rammortamento dell spese di impianto, e del fitto del terreno nei primi tre anni di passivita, le spese di raccolta, di trasporto al raspatoio, rammortamento del raspatoio, le spese di sfibratura, lavaggio, asciuga- 1 Tropea, C. — " Istruzioni su la coltura e 1'industria della Agave rig.ida var. sisalana," in Boll, del R. Giardino Coloniale di Palermo, nuova serie, vol. i, pag. 3g a 81. 38 592 FIBRES mento, imballaggio, spese che complessivamente non possono superare le lire 650, resta un utik netto per Ea. di lire 150. E' necessario inoltre considerare che, adattandosi il Sisal a terreni di solito abbandonati, ne dovendo subire confronti con altre piantagioni, esistenti, il suo torna- conto, che a prima vista potrebbe sembrare molto modesto, riesce invece assai considerevole e tale da invogliare Fagricoltore ad iniziare la piantagione. E' bene notare inoltre che i dati di ammortamento del raspatoio sono calcolati per una piantagione di solo 4 Ea., limitando il suo lavoro a solo 40 giorni dell'anno; che il numero delle foglie e preventivato al minimo assoluto, che non e calcolato Futile dei prodotti secondari, che e esagerata la spesa di raccolto, lavaggio, asciugamento e imballaggio; che la resa di un chilo ogni 72 foglie e calcolata per le foglie piu corte, mentre le piu lunghe hanno dato perfino un chilo di fibre ogni 44 foglie, e infine che il prezzo delle fibre fu stimato su campione non perfettamente curato. E' naturale quindi che la colti- vazione del Sisal debba effettivamente dare un reddito maggiore di quello da me calcolato, accrescendosi sempre piu il valore di questa piantagione. La qualita delle fibre, determinata dal suo prezzo, con- clude inoltre sulla necessita di sostituire le attuali pianta- gioni di Agave americana, con la Sisalana, eppero tende vieppiu al introdurre in Sicilia questa piantaed a con- sigliarne estese coltivazioni. Risoluta la quistione deH'acclimazione, sarebbe tutt'ora impossibile la coltura del Sisal se non fossero state costruite piccole sfibratrici, facilmente trasportabili e di costo molto modesto. E' noto di fatto come la Sicilia, per quanto abbia estesi terreni adatti alia Sisalana, questi raramente appartengono ad unico proprietario, ovvero si trovano molto distanti uno dall'altro, per cui molto difficilmente potrebbero dar lavoro ad una grande sfibratrice, ne, del resto, la mano d'opera per una sfibratura a mano, lascerebbe alcun margine airagricoltore, assorbendo essa sola il valore del prodotto. FIBRES 593 Esistono attualmente macchine azionate da motore a petrolic di 3 h.p. capaci di sfibrare nelle died ore circa 4,000 foglie, poco voluminose e abbastanza leggere (un carro con due muli potrebbe facilmente trasportarla sui singoli luoghi di produzione) il cui costo, incluso il motore, non supera le 4,000 lire, eppero addate anche per piccole coltivazioni, come quelle che singolarmente potrebbero sorgere in Sicilia. Nella pubblicazione che in principio do citato sono esposti dettagliatamente i dati relativi a questa industria e, anche per essa, rimando a quanto ebbi gia a scrivere sul proposito. Nulla si oppone quindi alia introduzione e diffusione dell' Agave sisalana in Sicilia, ed io mio auguro che, in conseguenza dei risultati esposti, frutto di vari anni di esperimenti, possa dal Congresso di Londra partire un voto per la istituzione di campi dimostrativi di Sisal in Sicilia, voto che il nostro Governo non potrebbe certo trascurare. RUBBER. THE CULTIVATION OF HEVEA BRASILIENSIS IN UGANDA. By SAMUEL SIMPSON, B.Sc. Director of Agriculture, Uganda. HEVEA is by far the most popular of all the rubbers amongst the planters in this country, and it has been mainly planted along with coffee as a catch-crop. The area under Hevea only is comparatively small, but as the mixed crops of rubber and coffee attain the age of 6 or 7 years the coffee is gradually cut out, so as to leave the whole of the area entirely free for the growth and development of the rubber trees. Para rubber grows well in height, but slowly in thick- ness, for two or three years, when it thickens fairly rapidly, and at 5 years old a girth measurement of 16 in. 3 ft. from the ground is common, and such trees can be lightly tapped. In the Botanical Gardens, Entebbe, are to be found the oldest Para trees in the country, and here tapping- results have proved fairly satisfactory. Tapping was commenced on November 14, 1908, when the only 7-year-old tree was tapped along with one at 4 years old. Tapping was continued for a period of fifty-nine days, and 47 and 4-3 oz. of dry rubber were obtained from the trees respectively. It was then estimated that i Ib. of dry rubber per tree could be con- fidently expected from Hevea in Uganda. Further experiments were made on trees 4 years old which were tapped forty-four times over a period of ninety days, and the yield averaged 4^ oz. of dry rubber per tree, whilst in a later experiment the same trees gave RUBBER 595 5^ oz. of dry rubber per tree in a period of sixty days' tapping. In the same Gardens during 1912, 164 trees were tapped forty-one times, and the average yield per tree of dry rubber was 13 oz. The trees wrere presumably 8 years old, and the methods of tapping were various and entirely experimental. The trees were then rested for nine months, and on January i, 1913, tapping was re-started on 310 trees, which up to March 31, 1913, had been tapped seventy-one times. The yield of dry rubber per tree averaged 13! oz. Two of the trees yielded over i Ib. of dry rubber each during January, but fell off considerably afterwards. Tapping experiments on a commercial scale were carried out last year on the Kivuvu Estate, when on an average 1,800 trees were tapped monthly for four months. The average yield per tree for that period was 5' 13 oz. of dry rubber. The trees were 5 years old, and the method of tapping was one basal V cut. During a recent visit to this estate it was noticed that the young Para trees showed no ill-effects from the tapping' and were increasing in girth rapidly. From figures supplied by Mr. Brown, the manager, it was evident that the cost of production of dry rubber on this estate was under is. per Ib. Some natives .have small plantations of Para, and the various missions cultivated 122 acres. On March 31, 1913, European planters had 214 acres under Para only, and 2,603 acres of Para interplanted with coffee, whilst, in addition, 171 acres had been interplanted with cocoa. During last year the acreage under Hevea has under- gone great extension, as the supply of local seed is now ample for the country's requirements. The export of cultivated rubber is still in its infancy, as during 1912-13 only 4,474 Ib. were exported, and the greater part of this was obtained from rubbers other than Hevea brasiliensis. DISEASES OF HEVEA IN CEYLON. By T. FETCH, B.A., B.Sc. Government Botanist and Mycologist, Ceylon. WHEN it is realized that more than thirty years have elapsed since Hevea brasiliensis first began to be planted on estates in Ceylon, it will be evident that our premier rubber tree has now successfully withstood a fairly prolonged exposure to the parasitic fungi of its new habitat. During that period it has acquired compara- tively few diseases, and the majority of those have not proved serious. The total number of recorded diseases of Hevea has remained stationary for the last six years. It is not the intention of the present paper to give a summary of the known diseases of Hevea. That has previously been done on several occasions, and, in the case of most of the diseases there is nothing to add to what has already been published. The following account will be confined to those diseases which are of practical importance in Ceylon at the present time — a limitation which excludes all leaf diseases and practically all root diseases, with the possible exception of brown root disease. While Fomes lignosus (the Fomes semitostus of pre- vious Hevea literature) occurs chiefly in association with jungle stumps in young clearings, brown root disease may appear at any stage and, apparently, independently of any dead wood. It is, however, much less destructive than F. lignosus, and as a rule is confined in each case to a single tree. But, judged by the number of cases, it is now the commonest root disease in Ceylon. Roots attacked by brown root disease are characterized by an encrusting mass of earth, sand, and small stones bound together by fine brown mycelium. In most cases the outer layers of mycelium ultimately turn black, so RUBBER 597 that the encrusting mass appears black instead of brown. On cutting into the diseased root it is usually found to be traversed by black or brown plates, and in the case of tea the decayed wood may exhibit a honeycomb structure. The fungus to which this disease is attributed, Hymeno- chsetc noxia, was originally discovered in Samoa on bread- fruit trees. Subsequently it was found on coffee in Java by Zimmermann. In 1905 it was first recorded as parasitic on Hevea in Ceylon, and since then it has been found to attack, in the same country, cocoa, tea, dadap (Erythrina), Castilloa elastica, Caravonica cotton, camphor, Cinna- momum Cassia, Erythro.ry Ion Coca, Bran felsia americana, Gremllea robusta, Codiceum variegatum, Ceara rubber, etc. Brick has recorded it again from Samoa, where it is known to attack cocoa. Castilloa, bread-fruit, and Albizzia stipulata, as well as jungle trees; and specimens have been received from the Gold Coast on Funtumia. As will be evident from the foregoing list, the fungus is practically omnivorous. Yet the actual damage in each case is usually strictly limited. Its growth in Ceylon is very slow, and if the plant first attacked is removed as soon as the disease is discovered, no further deaths occur in that spot. Bancroft records the same slow growth in Malaya. But it would appear from the records to spread more rapidly in Samoa. Instances of its slow progress when allowed to run unchecked have been noted in the case of both tea and rubber; in one instance three Hevea trees in a line were killed in four years. The fungus apparently spreads from one plant to the next only if the roots are in contact, but even this does not generally occur unless the dead plants are allowed to remain for a fairly long time. An exception to this is general in the case of Grevilleas in tea plantations, where the Grevilleas are first attacked; in such cases a number of tea bushes may be killed before the Grevillea dies. Anstead has recorded an experiment in which a diseased root was buried in contact with the roots of a healthy tree, with the result that the latter was infected and died. The experiment of replanting a tree of the same species in the place where one had just died from brown root 59^ RUBBER disease was tried at Peradeniya about four years ago. The "supply" is still healthy. It would appear that replanting can be carried out immediately, provided that all dead wood has been removed. The disease has been found to originate on jungle stumps in one instance in tea. In another case it was common on Hevea, planted among cocoa, where the intermediate rows of cocoa had been cut out to make room for the Hevea. It may, indeed, be said that a large proportion of the cases of brown root disease on Hevea in Ceylon are on old cocoa land. On new clearings in Ceylon it has not been found possible to trace the disease to jungle stumps. Bancroft, however, states that in Malaya each case of infection has been referable to the presence of a jungle stump. But in the majority of its occurrences in Ceylon, other than on Hevea, brown root disease has killed plants in old-established cultivations where no jungle stumps existed. This is notably the case in tea and Grevillea. In such cases only an infection by means of spores appears possible. Here we are met by a difficulty. As a rule Hymenochsete noxia does not produce spores, or, indeed, a fructification. When the fungus has grown up the tap- root and reached the surface of the soil, where it should begin to form its fructification, it usually ceases altogether to grow in that direction. In several cases in Hevea, tea, and cocoa, stumps of diseased plants have been left undisturbed in the hope that they would develop the fructification, but all have ultimately succumbed to white ants without doing so, though some have persisted for four years. Sometimes the fungus does ascend farther up the stem, forming a brown velvety coat, but as a rule this is present only in small patches. If the root is dug up, planted in a pot, and kept under favourable conditions for the development of the fungus no greater success results. Experience in Malaya would appear to agree with this. Bancroft states that the fungus does not apparently fruit in abundance in that country; he had only been able to find a single fruit on camphor, and that a badly developed specimen. Recent investigations into brown root disease on RUBBER 599 Grevillea and tea have furnished suggestions which may explain this spread of the disease to fresh centres in the apparent absence of any fructification and spores, but these have not yet been completed. Of the stem diseases, " pink disease " and " dieback " are of minor importance in Ceylon. The former is apparently exceedingly common in Java, where it has been fully investigated by Zimmermann, Zehntner, and Rant. Pink disease is caused by Cofticium salmonicolor, B. and Br. (Corticium javanicum, Zimm.). The fungus is widely distributed through the Eastern tropics, but the damage caused by it varies considerably. In Java, Dr. Rant has enumerated 141 species of wild and cultivated plants which are known to be attacked by it; but on the mainland, in the Federated Malay States, it appears to be scarcely known. In Ceylon and India the conditions are reversed, for it has caused much loss in South India, but very little in Ceylon. It occurs on various plants in Ceylon up to an elevation of 5,000 ft., but only sporadic- ally. To the list of hosts given by Rant, Ceylon can add camphor and Poly alt hia longi folia. In Hevea the disease usually attacks the main stem at or immediately below a fork. The bark dies and splits away from the wood, sometimes all round the stem, sometimes over a limited patch. In the former case the tree is ringed and the crown dies; in the latter the dead bark scales off and an open wound is left. The difference is probably due to weather conditions. The fungus makes its appearance on the diseased bark in three forms. In one form minute pink cushions are produced in small cracks in the bark; this form has been described as a different fungus (Necator decretus, Mass.). In the early stages of this form the minute cracks resemble large lenticels, and this, before the pink cushions appear, has been styled the " measles " stage. In a second form the hyphse of the fungus extend over the surface of the bark in long, silky strands which may coalesce and form a thin shining plate of fungus tissue. The third form is the fully developed fructification, a thin pink sheet overlying the bark, and ultimately . splitting 6OO RUBBER into small fragments by lines more or less at right angles to each other. In Ceylon pink disease usually makes its appearance towa'rds the close of the rains of either monsoon. As a rule, treatment is confined to pruning down the tree below the diseased part. In South India, spraying the forks of the trees with Bordeaux mixture has been found to prevent attack. The term " dieback " might equally well be applied to some cases of pink disease, since in the latter the whole of the crown above the diseased part of the stem may die. The name has, however, become associated with a different disease, in which the whorls of branches die in succession from the top downwards, owing to the growth of a fungus down the main stem. The chief agent in dieback — that is, the fungus which kills the main stem — is Botryodiplodia theobromse. It occurs throughout the tropics, but is especially common in cocoa-growing countries. As usual, it has received a number of names, among which may be noted Lasio- diplodia theobromx, Lasiodiplodia nigra, Diplodia cacaoicola, Diplodia rapax, Botryodiplodia elastic^. Though numerous diseases have been attributed to this fungus, it is, in general, a saprophyte. It develops in abundance on plucked cocoa pods, felled Hevea stems, stems of Ficus, etc., though these may have been quite healthy when living. It is only necessary to gather cocoa pods or to fell a sound Hevea stem and to leave it to dry, either under cover or exposed to rain, to obtain this fungus. In about a week the material will be covered with masses of spores in the form of a black powder. If the material is somewhat dry the spores may be white at first, turning black subsequently. Botryodiplodia theobromse can, however, function as a wound parasite, and in that capacity it may attack Hevea and cocoa. In the case of Hevea, once it has obtained entrance to the stem it travels rapidly downwards, and may kill the tree completely within four or six weeks. The wood of the stem is blackened by the hyphae of the fungus, the cambium is converted into a brown slimy layer, and the bark splits away from the wood and dries up. RUBBER 6OI As to the circumstances in which the fungus is able to enter the stem there is some difference of opinion. Bancroft, as a result of his experiments, concludes that it is simply a wound parasite, i.e., that it can enter through any wound, or, at least, one which exposes the wood. His experience in Malaya differs from that in Ceylon, in that dieback has been found to begin there from the stubs of pruned branches. In Ceylon that has not yet been observed, though pruning has on many estates been carried out on an extensive scale. And attempts to infect healthy Hevea saplings, i or 2 years old, with the spores of Botryodiplodia have failed. The most remarkable fact, however, which tells against the theory that the fungus is a simple wound parasite is that it has not yet been found to attack the tapped surface, even though the wood has been exposed by bad tapping. It is noteworthy that Botryodiplodia theobromse follows soon after the attack of another fungus in many cases, and it is because of that faculty that so many diseases have been attributed to it. It develops rapidly on Hevea pods, or Hevea cortex, previously attacked by Phyto- phthora Faberi, and it similarly follows pod disease and canker of cocoa. Observations in Ceylon would seem to indicate that, in general, Botryodiplodia follows a previous fungus attack, and that in tKe case of dieback of Hevea it obtains an entrance through dead green shoots. The green shoots of Hevea frequently die, and this effect may be produced by several agencies. Wind, over- tapping, shade, or excessive rainfall account for it in some cases, while it may be brought about also by a definite fungus attack, as by Gloeosporium alborubrum, Phyllosticta ramicola, or the canker fungus, Phyto- phthora Faberi, following an attack of pod disease. So long as the green shoots only are concerned this effect is negligible, but it may be followed by an attack of Botryodiplodia theobromse, which kills the tree. Observa- tions in Ceylon would appear to show that when the Botryodiplodia attacks the tree the green shoots have been previously killed by Gloeosporium. The abundant development of Botryodiplodia on felled Hevea stems provides a reason for burning all Hevea 6O2 RUBBER debris when thinning out. It should, however, be stated that, though the disease is extremely rapid in its action when it does occur, it has not proved so dangerous as was at first anticipated. The idea that an exudation of latex from the upper parts of the stem is a symptom of this disease has been discarded. Bancroft has discovered, on material attacked by Botryodlplodia theobromse, an ascigerous fungus, Thy- ridaria tarda, which he considers is the higher stage of the former. The disease is, therefore, frequently referred to under the latter name. The most serious disease of Hevea known at the present time is canker, not only because it may kill the tree, but because, even when the attack is slight and the tree recovers, the result of the treatment may be such that the tree cannot be tapped again for several years. As in the case of cocoa, the term " canker " which has been applied to this disease is misleading, since in most cases no canker, i.e., no open wound, is produced. If the tree is killed outright the bark remains quite smooth and unbroken. This disease was first recorded in Ceylon in 1903. Since then it has been found in South India, Burma, and Java. As it is identical with cocoa canker, it will no doubt ultimately be found to occur in all cocoa-growing coun- tries. According to the present records it has not been detected in Malaya, but several of the accounts of Hevea disease in that country suggest that it occurs there, but has not been recognized as such. The fungus which causes the disease (Phytophthora Faberi, Maubl.) has been found to attack every part of the tree except the leaves. It is responsible for the differences obtained under different conditions of dilution and with different coagulants. I propose to discuss this subject entirely from the practical point of view, and thus to deal with only the principal coagulants which have been or are at present in use. RUBBER 657 Acetic Acid. — Probably on over 99 per cent, of estates acetic acid is the coagulant employed in the preparation of Para rubber; its use may be described as a logical outcome of the Amazonian smoking process, since the fumes from the dry distillation or slow combustion of woody material are comparatively rich in this acid. The proportions used, however, on different estates, especially in the preparation of crepe rubber, are very variable, and are no doubt one cause of the variability in the rubber obtained. The writer and other investigators have found that the minimum quantity of pure acetic acid necessary to coagulate an average latex containing about 30 per cent, of dry rubber is 0*1 c.c. per 100 c.c. of latex, or I part per 1,000 of latex; this quantity is recommended as the most suitable to use for coagulation. In the case of a latex containing about ij Ib. of dry rubber per gallon, a 5 per cent, solution of acetic acid in the proportion of 3 fluid oz. of the diluted acid per gallon of latex is recommended for coagulation purposes,' both in the preparation of crepe and sheet rubber, which is an excess on the safe side. Large quantities have been found to produce a rubber of inferior qualities, although a considerable excess may be used compared with mineral acids, such as sulphuric and hydrochloric acid, without producing such deleterious effects. The abuse and not the proper use of acetic acid is to be condemned. Mineral Acids. — Of the mineral acids, sulphuric and hydrochloric acids may be used, and are more powerful coagulants than acetic acid. Excessive quantities of mineral acids are very deleterious. Nitric acid is not to be recommended on account of its oxidizing action. Sulphurous acid in the form of liquid sulphur dioxide compressed in cylinders may also be used, and, as would be expected, produces a fine pale rubber due to the inhibition or destruction of the oxidizing enzymes normally present in Hevea latex. Sulphuric acid is used on one estate in the Federated Malay States in the writer's knowledge for the coagulation of latex, the rubber from which is subse- 658 RUBBER quently creped. If used in minimum quantity, the mineral acids, especially sulphuric acid, produce a rubber not inferior to that coagulated by means of acetic acid. The chief advantage of sulphuric acid is its cheap- ness, while its disadvantages are its dangerous and corrosive action and the liability to damage the rubber if the coagulation is not properly controlled. Other Coagulants. — A number of salts have been found to act as coagulants, but the quantities required are comparatively large, the rubber does not appear to be superior, and the cost of the coagulant is greater. Hydrofluoric acid (also sold in dilute solution under the title " Purub " for coagulation) acts as a coagulant, and produces a pale rubber due to inhibition of natural oxidation. This acid is, however, expensive and not convenient to handle, and the pale colour desired in raw rubber for specific purposes may now be obtained by other methods. Various combinations of salts, etc., have been patented as coagulants and boomed at certain periods, but these have died a natural death. Formic acid deserves special mention, as, provided the present method of coagulation of Hevea latex by means of acid continues, it appears ppobable that formic acid may replace acetic acid. As a coagulant it is more powerful, i.e., smaller quantities per unit volume of latex may be used, and the resultant rubber is apparently not inferior to that prepared by means of acetic acid. It has been stated that formic acid can now be prepared at about half the cost of acetic acid, owing to the discovery of new methods and sources of manufacture. At the present time, in the Federated Malay States, it costs slightly more than acetic acid, and I am informed by the firm which first imported this acid that the freight is high, as the shipping companies consider it is a dangerous chemical, hence the higher price charged in this country. It also corrodes the corks of the carboys in which it is contained, and thus the strength of the acid is liable to diminish on storage, especially in the tropics. One estate manager in the Federated Malay States prepares an excellent pale crepe by using formic acid as a coagulant. RUBBER 659 Sheet, Crepe, and other Forms of Rubber. In the Federated Malay States almost all the first quality latex is converted into either sheet or crepe, the former being almost invariably smoked. The method of coagulation in both cases is essentially the same, since, in the preparation of sheet, if care be taken, the acetic acid coagulant can be added to the latex in bulk, i.e., in quantities of 40 to 50 gallons of latex, and the latter can then be poured into the separate rectangular pans or into larger rectangular vessels divided up by means of movable partitions before coagulation commences. This saves considerable time, and tends to produce a more uniform rubber than the method of adding the coagulant to each separate pan. In preparing sheet, it is necessary to skim the surface of the latex lightly after adding the coagulant and before coagulation commences, in order to remove the. froth or air bubbles which are invariably produced by agitating or stirring an emulsion; if this is not done, when the coagulum is subsequently machined, the surface side of the rubber will be covered with films and " pock " marks due to the bursting of these bubbles. The scum thus removed may be added to the cup washings, etc., which are converted into No. 2 crepe. In coagulating latex for the preparation of crepe, quantities of 40 to 50 gallons may be treated in bulk in a similar way, and the lump of rubber formed subse- quently cut up with a knife for convenience in handling while passing through the macerating machines. Co- agulation is complete within an hour or two when the minimum amount of coagulant is used. If excess of coagulant is used, as is often. done in preparing crepe rubber, coagulation is almost immediate, but the rubber is likely to be inferior. In the preparation of sheet rubber an excess of acid cannot be used, other- wise it is impossible to obtain sheets free from defects. Machining and Machinery. The next treatment undergone by the coagulum is the machining. In small factories on small estates, or when 660 RUBBER an estate is only just coming into bearing, the rolling is carried out on hand machines. In the case of the lower grades, e.g., tree scrap, and especially bark shavings, hand machines are not sufficiently powerful, as such rubber and debris 'require considerable maceration and washing. When possible in such cases low grade material is treated on a neighbouring estate till mechanical power is available in the factory concerned. Before machining No. i sheet or crepe rubber from first quality latex, the coagulum should be allowed to stand from four to six hours after the coagulant is added to the latex. As a general rule it is left overnight and machined the following morning, the lower grades being treated during the afternoon. On some estates, especially before the use of sodium bisulphite became general, crepe rubber was prepared from the freshly coagulated rubber by macerating and washing about half an hour, or even less, after coagula- tion, in order to avoid the darkening due to natufal oxidation caused by oxidizing enzymes present in the latex, which proceeds slowly after the latex is collected. Sheet Rubber. — In the preparation of sheet rubber only two machines are necessary, a plain even-speed roller machine in which most of the moisture is pressed from the rubber, and a diamond or a spirally grooved crepeing machine to mark the plain sheet. Care has to be taken while marking the sheets that the rollers of the crepeing machines are not too close together, otherwise macera- tion of the rubber takes place. To those who may not be acquainted with the principle of marking sheet, it may be stated that the sole idea of this ribbing of sheets is to enable the sheets to be more easily separated from each other when removed from the packing cases, as they are not so liable to stick together as in the case of plain sheet. Crepe Rubber. — In the preparation of crepe rubber one machine only could be used, namely, a machine with spirally or diamond cut rollers running at uneven speeds; crepe, however, which is only machined between 'such rollers is very uneven in thickness, i.e., very corrugated, and dries very unevenly, being thus more subject to spot diseases caused by bacteria and fungi. For this reason RUBBER 66 1 crepe rubber is subsequently passed once or twice between the smooth even-speed rollers of a sheeting machine. In a large factory, however, it is preferable to have a battery of crepe machines so that the gauge of each is fixed; the fresh coagulum can then be passed a definite number of times through each machine, so that all the rubber gets uniform treatment. Worm Rubber. — This kind of rubber is now rarely shipped; it usually consists of thick crepe cut into worms by circular knives on a special cutting machine, and subsequently dried in hot-air chambers, such as the " Chula " or " Colombo " driers, or in vacuum chambers. Block Rubber. — Block rubber consists of crepe rubber, previously cut into worms, artificially dried either in vacuum or hot-air driers, and then blocked under high pressure, say three or four tons per square inch, for several minutes. It is a very convenient form for shipping, and much space and time is saved in its preparation, but we have yet to prove that the rapid method of drying is not deleterious. In any case block rubber is not likely to be superior to ordinary crepe. Lower Grades. — Till comparatively recently all the lower grades were washed and macerated in an ordinary crepeing machine; this is laborious, and, in the case of bark shavings which are previously soaked for a day or two in water to soften the wood, much of the fine particles of wood, etc., is actually incorporated with the rubber. During the last two years machines in which the rollers revolve under water have been introduced for the preliminary treatment of this material; in these machines the fine particles of wood float on the water and are carried off through wire gauze, and the heavier debris, sand, etc., escapes below. The best and original type of machine of this kind is the Werner-Pfleiderer Universal Washer, of which there are now several smaller local modifications. The chief drawback of this machine is its size and weight and the large amount of power required; it not only produces a much cleaner rubber from bark shavings, but is more rapid, and requires less attention, The rubber from this machine is subsequently creped in an ordinary crepeing" machine. Defects in Machinery. — All the machines on estates are 662 RUBBER adaptations of the washing machines used in the large factories in Europe for washing crude rubbers, but are usually smaller; the chief defects are faulty lubrication methods, whereby oil may come into contact with the rubber, absence of movable guides on rollers, whereby crepe of any desired width could easily be made, and open worm gearing in the front of the machines, which has to be oiled, and with which the rubber may easily come into contact. Machines appear to have been constructed recently with overhead gearing to adjust the back rollers instead of the front, the latter being fixed; this should be a considerable improvement. The receiving trays beneath the rollers should also be narrower than the rollers, otherwise oil from the bearings is liable to drop into them. Copper rollers should be avoided, since, if soluble copper salts are formed, by allowing them to 'corrode, the rubber will be seriously and permanently spoilt. Drying of Rubber. Three methods of drying rubber, apart from smoke- curing, are in general use in the Federated Malay States : (i) Normal air drying; (2) hot-air drying; (3) vacuum drying. Methods of drying which involve the condensation of the moisture present in the atmosphere of a drying room by refrigeration processes have not so far been adopted. Normal Air Drying. — At the present time the natural air drying of rubber in the case of thin crepe appears to be generally quite satisfactory, and only occupies from four or five to about ten days, depending on the thick- ness and even finish of the rubber. The best estate drying rooms consist of a two-story building in which the No. I crepe is hung on racks in the upper story; the ceiling of the bottom story, which constitutes the floor of the top story, is constructed of open broties or strips of wood, at any rate under the racks in the top story, leaving only sufficient passage room between each set of racks; venti- lation is improved by means of a jack-roof or ventilating shafts. The drying sheds are usually built of corrugated iron, and, unless they have a high roof, the latter should RUBBER 663 have a wooden ceiling beneath the iron. Usually the bottom floor is used as a packing room, and frequently the lower grade crepes are suspended from the open boards of the ceiling of this bottom story. In no case should a drying room be immediately over the washing factory, and preferably not running along the length of the factory in the case of a one-story combined factory and drying shed, unless the floor of the former is so constructed that no water can possibly drain towards the drying room, since such drying rooms would be continually damp, and spot diseases due to the growth of fungi and bacteria would be prevalent. A drying room should be preferably quite a distinct building; no sunlight should be allowed to come into direct contact with the rubber, otherwise tackiness occurs, so that all windows should be protected with red or yellow cloth, which allows the passage of air, but shuts out the direct rays of the sun. In my opinion, drying rooms and smoke-rooms should be divided into compartments, since the introduction of wet rubber into a room containing partially dried rubber retards the drying of the latter considerably. Hot-air Drying. — Three systems are in use in the Federated Malay States : (a) Chambers, such as the Chula and Colombo driers, in which the hot fumes of combustion of ordinary wood or other fuel are passed through pipes leading through the chambers in which the rubber is hung or spread on racks; (b) large steam pipes through which steam at ordinary pressure is passed, and over which the air passes before reaching the rubber; (c) narrow steam coils through which steam under pres- sure of about 60 Ib. per square inch is passed, the air entering below the pipes and being heated by them before passing through the rubber. In each case an exhaust fan or a forcing fan is used to circulate the air more rapidly. The two latter processes are at present in use by the Department of Agriculture, Federated Malay States. Vacuum Drying. — At present this process is only used on one or two estates in Malaya, one being an estate on which vacuum-dried crepe is subsequently blocked. The chief drawback to the use of vacuum driers or 664 RUBBER hot-air driers is that the temperature must be carefully regulated, especially towards the end of the drying", to avoid tackiness. With vacuum-dried crepe it is usual to pass the rubber again through the washing rollers after drying; only surface moisture is then taken up by the rubber, which can be quickly dried in an ordinary drying room. The chief advantages of artificial methods of drying are rapidity in drying, economy in space, and absence of " spot " diseases. No satisfactory vulcanizing experiments appear to have been carried out so far to test the value or otherwise of any of these processes, but experiments will be carried out shortly at the Department of Agriculture, Federated Malay States. Before passing from this subject another process offers interesting possibilities, namely, drying in the presence of carbon dioxide. This may be carried out in an ordinary two-story building similar to the smoke-houses in common use, charcoal fires, instead of the usual fuel, being used in the fire-boxes. The atmosphere of carbonic gas inhibits the slow natural oxidation which continues during the drying of the rubber and prevents the growth of the usual chromogenic organisms, which are aerobic. It might be stated here that these statements refer to the drying of crepe rubber, since no unsmoked sheet is now made on the larger estates; there is, however, no difference in method, the only difference being in the distance between the racks which hold the rubber. Smoke Curing of Rubber. Smoke curing of plantation rubber probably had its origin as an imitation of the Amazonian smoke-curing process, and the recent vulcanizing tests carried out by Messrs. Beadle and Stevens on behalf of the Rubber Growers' Association appear to have proved definitely that the smoking of plantation sheet or other forms of rubber does undoubtedly in some way improve the physical properties of the rubber to a marked extent. Whether the results obtained depend on one or more of RUBBER 665 the constituents of the fumes from the fuel, to the elevated temperature in the presence of an atmosphere deficient in oxygen or rich in carbon dioxide, or to the preservative action of the fumes, due to some particular constituent of the smoke, on the protein material in the rubber, remains to be investigated. The form of rubber smoked now is almost entirely sheet; the demand for smoked crepe has ceased, due possibly to the fact that lower grades of rubber could, by being smoked, be made to resemble closely first-grade crepe, the various defects being obscured by the dark colour of the smoked product. The best type of smoke- house is the two-story building, resembling the Kent hop kiln or drier; the sheets of rubber are hung on racks in the top story and the fuel burnt in a hole in the ground of the bottom floor, or preferably in shallow fire-boxes on wheels. A wire-gauze box should be placed over these fire-boxes to retain dust and sparks, or wire gauze may be placed in the openings below the rubber racks. A maximum and minimum thermometer should be kept in the top story as a check on the temperature; if the tem- perature rises above 120° F. during the day smoking should only be carried out between 4 p.m. and 9 a.m. Sheet of average thickness (about J in.) is completely dried in from ten to fourteen days, but smoking may be carried beyond this period and, according to tests carried out by the chemists of the Rubber Growers' Association, appears to improve the quality of the rubber. Fairly dry jungle wood or wood mixed with coconut husks provides a suitable fuel; if the latter alone is used the rubber has the appearance often attributed to " over- smoking," as the fumes are rich in tarry and creosotic substances. Other Processes of Preparation. I propose in this section to deal briefly with four of the principal processes which have been tried on a more or less commercial scale and which appear to be pro- mising in several ways. These processes are all imita- tions of the Amazonian smoke-curing process and are as follows: (i) Berry's process; (2) Wickham's process; 666 RUBBER (3) Byrne's process; (4) coagulation of latex in shallow trays in a smoke-house, devised by the writer and since by others. The Derry Process. — This process was originated by Mr. Derry, late Curator in the Botanic Gardens, Singa- pore, and was first worked successfully by Mr. Barrow- cliff, First Assistant Agricultural Chemist, Department of Agriculture, Federated Malay States, on behalf of a Committee appointed by the Government to investigate the process. The principle of the process depends on the coagulation of thin films of latex on a revolving belt. The present apparatus consists of two belts, each 40 ft. long, which are worked by hand and made to revolve in a long smoke chamber. The smoke is generated in an outside furnace and passes into a large pipe on the floor of the building, thence into a smoke-box and through perforated pipes placed immediately under the belts and extending nearly the whole length of the belts. The belts are passed over rollers at each end, with gearing and mechanism to tighten and raise them, and are slightly inclined to the horizontal. Latex is placed in shallow trays on tables which can be raised and lowered by means of a screw; the tables are raised so that the latex in the trays just touches the belts by capillary action and a very thin film is thus taken up. The tables are placed under the rollers, i.e., at the lowest end of the belt just outside the smoke-room, as it would be difficult to operate inside the room. When properly working, one revolution of the belt through the smoke chamber is sufficient for each film of latex, so that the latex can be continuously taken up by the belts. Two very essential factors, on which the success of the process depends, are dry fuel and con- centrated latex containing over 25 per cent, of dry rubber; with the present apparatus a strong breeze is found to be disadvantageous. The rubber is allowed to remain on the belt overnight, stripped off the following morning and rolled together; if necessary it can be allowed to hang for a further period in the smoke-house, but it is not known whether this improves the quality further. The maximum output per belt is about 15 Ib. for a period of six hours. The process can probably be RUBBER 667 improved in several respects, and experiments will be carried out shortly to test the increased efficiency by: (i) Enclosing the greater part of the belts in long boxes with hinged doors; (2) use of an exhaust or forced draught fan; (3) graduation of the holes in the perforated smoke-pipe, since with large holes of the same size the smoke escapes through the first few and only acts on a short portion of the belt; a fan would also improve the apparatus in this respect. On a large scale some forty or fifty belts could be run by means of a small engine running at low speed and geared very low. Wickham's Process. — Wickham's process, advocated for several years by the inventor and recently taken up by a company for working on a commercial scale, is very similar to Derry's in principle, except that the latex is spread over the interior surface of a hollow drum into which smoke from a furnace is passed. In both the Derry and Wickham processes, unless some means is adopted to prevent natural coagulation, such as the addition of formalin to the latex, a considerable amount of naturally coagulated lump is formed unless a sufficient number of belts is available to treat each day's yield of latex in two or three hours. The Byrne Process. — The Byrne process, which has been boomed considerably during the last year, and is being adopted recently on a number of estates in Malaya, differs from the preceding two in that it is not a process for coagulating latex direct (N.B. — It could be adopted for this purpose, vide next process), but a more rapid and possibly constant method of smoking rubber coagu- lated by acetic acid or other coagulants in the ordinary way. The rubber in the form of crepe or sheet is hung on racks in a single-story smoke chamber, the walls and roof of which are covered with " malthoid " or similar material. The process consists in dropping at equal or any desired rates two fluids, known as Amazonian No. I and No. 2, on to a hot plate, which forms the bottom of an oven in the machine constructed and sold on behalf of the inventor; the plate is heated by means of a blast kerosene oil lamp, charged from a reservoir attached to the machine. The two liquids, which consist essentially 668 RUBBER of crude tarry and creosotic substances and pyroligneous acid respectively, are vapourized by dropping on the heated plate, and the vapours produced are led through a pipe into the smoke chamber. The period of treatment is only two to four hours, after which the rubber may be hung for twenty-four hours and shipped without further drying, or it may be hung to dry in an ordinary drying house before dispatch. When this machine was first introduced it was used for the smoking of crepe rubber, but the demand for this having ceased, and the fact that the process was not taken up to any extent, due probably to the royalty charged by the inventor or the syndicate holding the patents, has caused the adoption of different ideas, the most important of which is the smoking of " slab " rubber. Latex is coagulated by the ordinary method used in preparing sheets in rectangular troughs or trays; the thick, soft slab of rubber is then lightly hand-rolled and is placed immediately in the curing shed, lying flat on the shelves or racks, smoked for two and a half to three hours by means of the fumes from the Byrne machine, turned over and smoked the following day for a similar period, and then allowed to dry without further treatment. The idea is a step in the right direc- tion; but, except for rapidity, it is probable that slab similarly treated in an ordinary smoke-house would pro- duce a rubber possessing equally good physical properties. A Byrne machine has been lent to the Department of Agriculture, Federated Malay States, by the Syndicate, and experiments in several directions will be carried out shortly, such as the utilization of the fumes for curing latex on belts in the Derry process, and the coagulation and curing of latex in shallow trays in the curing shed. The racks in the curing house are being erected on wheels and placed on rails so that they can be removed easily from the curing house for loading and unloading. Smoke Coagulation of Latex (Author's Process). — Experiments were first carried out in 1911 with the idea of coagulating latex in thin layers in shallow trays in an ordinary smoke-house, but were only carried to a very preliminary stage at that time, as it was considered desir- able to wait till samples could be vulcanized and tested RUBBER 669 by the Department. Towards the end of last year and early during the present year (1914) the experiments were carried a step further and a number of shallow trays utilized for the purpose in a " Jackson " smoking cabinet., which is essentially a small smoke-house with walls and roof of galvanized iron, with a small furnace below in which compressed coconut fibre, especially treated by the inventor, is burnt. The fumes are very rich in creo- sotic vapours and cause a very rapid smoked appearance in ordinary sheet and crepe rubber. It was found possible to coagulate layers representing a pint of pure latex in trays 24 in. by 9 in. in twenty-four hours or less. These trays should be constructed not more than I in. deep and placed in tiers with about J in. space between each tier and J to i in. space between each tray in any one tier, in order to give sufficient space for the smoke to pass. If the space thus left is insufficient for a good draught an exhaust fan could be employed. Pure latex containing 25 to 30 per cent, of dry rubber, or, say, 2*5 to 3 Ib. per gallon, should be used, as there is less water to evaporate and coagulation takes place more readily. The capacity of chamber required can easily be calculated for any daily yield of latex. Thus the actual cubic content required per pint of latex on the above assumption would be 480 cub. in. with trays I in. deep, allowing I in. space between each tier of trays and I in. between each tray, or, say, 2.\ cub. ft. per gallon of latex, i.e., a chamber 5 ft. square and 9 ft. to the eaves would be sufficient for 100 gals., or, say, 300 Ib. of dry rubber per day. A number of small cabinets would probably be preferable to one large chamber. It may be found possible to coagulate a deeper layer of latex than is represented by a gallon of latex spread over an< area of 12 sq. ft., in which case a large volume of latex could be treated at the same time in a chamber of the above size. Each layer of latex in a tray is smoked for twenty-four hours or less, and the following day a similar layer is added, the addition being continued till the trays are full, which takes from one to two weeks, according to the depth of tray used. 670 RUBBER The rubber is then removed from the trays and may be pressed into blocks; as in the case of Fine Hard Para, it contains from 10 to 20 per cent, of moisture, and the inner layers are white till exposed subsequently to the atmosphere. The exact depth of tray which is most convenient has still to be ascertained; the shallower the tray, within limits, the greater is the quantity of latex which can be treated on any one day, since more trays can be used in a smoke chamber. The chief drawback to the process is the number of trays required; economy, however, can be effected by using comparatively large trays. The advantages of the process are : (a) The fact that the rubber need be handled only once in a week or fortnight when removed from the trays; and (b) the rubber will probably be very uniform throughout, since, unlike rubber made from the latex on any one day, which may vary from day to day, the daily variations will be corrected in a slab or sheet which is formed from latex obtained daily over a period of, say, seven to fourteen days. The uniformity appears to the author to be the most important point in connection with the process, and probably explains the greater uniformity in Fine Hard Para, each ball of which is prepared from latex collected over a prolonged period. Since these experiments were commenced by the author a patent has been applied for in Malaya by another experi- menter who has evidently been working on similar lines. It is not possible at present to say definitely whether the process will work satisfactorily on a large scale, as, in the author's experiments, only about twelve trays were used in the smoke cabinet employed. Experiments on a larger scale will be conducted shortly and the samples vulcanized and tested. Defects in Raw Rubber and their Remedy. The principal defects to which objection is taken by buyers are the following: (i) Tackiness; (2) spots due to fungi and bacteria; (3) oil marks; (4) holes in crepe; (5) yellow patches in pale crepe; (6) over-smoking; (7) dark colour in unsmoked rubber; (8) rust marks. RUBBER 671 Tackiness. — As far as our present knowledge goes, tackiness is due to one of three causes : (a) Action of certain salts, e.g., salts of copper and iron; (b) sunlight, which may be due to the heat effect, or to the light effect due to the actinic rays; (c) direct heat. Salts of copper are known to be very deleterious in their action on both raw and vulcanized rubber; the action is an oxidation process, and the rubber increases in weight, softens, and eventually becomes brittle. On this account copper or copper-covered rollers, such as are often found on hand machines, should be avoided, as, unless kept scrupulously clean, " verdigris " forms and may be incorporated with the rubber. Oil containing brass from old or overheated bearings may constitute a similar source of danger, but not a very probable one. Tropical sunlight causes tackiness in rubber, as experi- ments by the author have proved, but whether this was due to the actinic rays or to the heating effect was not definitely proved : this point will be tested later, also the action of sunlight and heat in the presence of inert gases, such as carbon dioxide and hydrogen. That tackiness may be caused by heat alone can easily be shown, and it has been known to occur in rubber hung near a boiler in an estate factory. Vacuum-dried rubber and rubber dried in hot-air chambers at about 130° F. exhibit tacky surfaces, and the deleterious effect produced by these methods of drying are invariably caused by the excessive heat. Spot Disease. — Spot diseases have been proved by a number of investigators to be due to micro-organisms, fungoid or bacterial in nature, and are of sufficient in- terest and importance to merit separate treatment, but in a paper of this nature they can only be discussed somewhat briefly. The cause of such spots are air- borne spores of the micro-organisms which gain entrance into the latex in the cups in the field, or may be deposited on the wet, freshly machined rubber in the factory or drying room. Any process which tends to retard the drying of the rubber is conducive to the development of the spores, several of which are chromogenic fungi and bacteria, causing yellow, black (blue in transmitted light), 43 672 RUBBER orange, or red spots. The use of sodium bisulphite in the preparation of rubber, which by chemical action is partly converted into the hygroscopic magnesium salt in the latex, and the preparation of blanket or thick crepe, which dries slowly, almost invariably result in the development of these spots, and were probably the cause of the somewhat widespread epidemic during 1911 in the Federated Malay States. Spot diseases, as would be expected, are very prevalent in unsmoked sheet and in rough crepe on the thick ridges made by the diamond or spirally cut rollers of the crepeing machines, which do not dry as quickly as the thinner portions, hence the advantage of " finishing " crepe on smooth, even-speed rollers. Under ordinary circumstances, if no develop- ment of the " spots " occurs during1 the first day or two after the rubber is hung in the drying room, the rubber is safe from further attack. The spores, however, may still be present and, as these may be very resistant to desiccation, further development can take place if the rubber is allowed to become moist again. Three very interesting cases in which such subsequent development has occurred have come to the author's notice. In the first two instances samples of rubber which had been sent to Europe from estates were returned to the managers and sent subsequently to the Agricultural Department for report in connection with orange spots on the specimens; the managers of the estates in ques- tion stated definitely that the rubber, when packed and shipped, was perfectly dry and showed no trace of such spots. On microscopical examination the spotted por- tions of the rubber were found to contain numerous spores from which short hyphae had developed, further development appearing to have been arrested. It could only be surmised that the cases of rubber had subse- quently come into contact with water, probably accidental contact with sea water. This idea was amply confirmed in connection with a case recently examined by the author. The rubber in question was received from an estate for dispatch to the London Rubber Exhibition and examined by the Director of Agriculture and myself among other cases before dispatch. The case was RUBBER 673 returned shortly afterwards by the shipping agents, as it had fallen from the"' lighter " at the Federated Malay States port in course of removal from the jetty to the ship. Although the sample showed no trace of spot disease when first inspected and was perfectly dry, after reopening it was, as would be expected, very moist, with the characteristic translucent appearance of rubber which had never been properly dried; and, secondly, a " pink " spot disease had developed to a marked extent throughout the sample. It was exceedingly improbable that the spores had gained entrance subsequently, since the development had occurred on rubber in the centre of the case as well as on the outer pieces of rubber, and was evidently due to the subsequent growth of resistant spores originally present in the rubber which developed on account of the suitable moisture conditions now pre- sent; the salts in the sea water naturally assisted in keeping the sample moist. In the third case, to which a similar accident had befallen, the rubber was becoming- very heated owing to fermentation (N.B. — The rubber consisted of lower grades, bark, scrap, etc., containing a comparatively large percentage of extraneous matter) set up probably by micro-organisms or their enzymes, on account of suitable moisture conditions. As would be expected, these micro-organisms develop readily in freshly machined rubber which is rolled together, since the moisture escapes more slowly then when the rubber is hung or placed immediately on racks. Mr. Sharpies, Assistant Mycologist in the Department of Agriculture, Federated Malay States, has found the addition of formalin to the latex to be of great value in reducing the development of these fungi and bacteria; the formalin is retained in sufficient quantity in the machined rubber, even in crepe which is subjected to much washing, either by adsorption or combination possibly with the protein constituents. Drying in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide may also be recommended, and may be carried out, as suggested before, by burning charcoal fires in the drying room, since most, if not all, of these organisms are aerobic, i.e., unable to live in an atmosphere deprived of, or deficient in, oxygen. In the case of sheet, smoking 6/4 RUBBER has the desired effect. The impression is held by some planters and others that micro-organisms do not develop on smoked rubber unless the latter has not been smoked sufficiently; the idea is, however, quite erroneous, since common mildews readily develop on smoked sheet if the latter is kept subsequently in a damp place or wrapped in certain paper, i.e., newspaper or common brown paper. Darkening due to Oxidation. — Numerous experiments by various investigators have proved beyond doubt that the more or less rapid darkening which takes place in Hevea latex, and more markedly in other latices, such as that of Castilloa, on standing and in the rubber after coagulation, both before and after washing, is due to oxidation caused by an enzyme which may be classified as an oxidase, and which is a normal constituent of the latex. The darkening occurs to a marked extent on the surface of the latex or coagulum, due to contact with atmospheric oxygen. Some coagula after standing over- night in the serum have quite a mauve-grey surface. The oxidizable substances in the latex on which the enzyme acts are probably phenolic in character and may be in combination with the proteins. I have shown, by the addition of certain phenols, such as ordinary phenol (carbolic acid) and hydroquinone, to the fresh latex as it exudes from the cuts on the tree, that excessive darken- ing is caused by an increase of such substances in the latex or in the sap from the cut tissues with which the exuding latex comes into contact; the exact cause of such increase at particular periods is unknown. The older remedies for inhibiting the oxidation in the preparation of pale crepe were : (a) Immersion of the freshly machined and washed rubber for a short period in nearly boiling water; this destroys the enzyme and prevents further darkening during the drying stage; (b) coagulation of the latex with an excess of acid, pro- ducing rapid coagulation, and immediate maceration and washing of the coagulum; (c) steaming the latex; (of) in the case of sheet, covering the coagulum in the coagu- lating pans, shortly after coagulation is complete, with boards and weights, so that the coagulum is forced beneath the surface of the serum or residual liquid. RUBBER 675 Drying in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide may also be adopted to arrest the further oxidation which takes place during the drying of the rubber. The present practically universal method adopted in Malaya is the use of sodium bisulphite. This is added to the latex and thoroughly mixed with it immediately before the addition of the acid coagulant. The use of sodium bisulphite powder or very strong solutions not properly mixed with the latex will cause streakiness or yellow and white patches. The proportion of sodium bisulphite required varies somewhat with the latex, since some latices, especially from older trees, oxidize rather rapidly and to a greater extent. The amount usually found sufficient is TJo oz. per gallon of latex, or, say, 2 oz. of a 5 per cent, solution per gallon. The chief disadvantage of this chemical is that it retards the drying of the rubber, due probably to the formation of the hygroscopic magnesium salt formed by interaction with the magnesium salts present normally in latex; this retardation is not of great import- ance in the case of thin crepe. Sodium bisulphite in smaller quantities is valuable in preventing the rough surface on sheet due to oxidation films and thus improves the appearance of smoked sheet; the sheet takes longer to darken, and thus the appearance of "over-smoking" is also avoided by using small quantifies of this salt in the preparation of smoked sheet. According to vul- canizing experiments and tests carried out by the chemists of the Rubber Growers' Association there is no dele- terious action on the rubber in using this salt. Oil Marks. — Oil marks are not an uncommon fault, especially in crepe rubber, the oil being taken up from the sides of the rollers or from the trays beneath; this may be due to careless lubrication of bearings on the part of the operator, or excess of oil on the bearings, which drops into the trays beneath, which are usually made too wide, extending not only the width of the rollers, but also partly under the bearings. An excellent method, by which only the central portion of the rollers form the working part, is to have movable guides placed over the top, which fit over the rollers, such as are found on 676 RUBBER calendering machines in the large factories in Europe. Crepe of any desired width can then be made. Holes in Crepe. — The presence of holes in crepe, which apparently reduces its market value solely on account of the fact that the rubber is bought on appearance, is really due to not finishing the rubber on smooth rollers; the rubber should be folded on itself so that the holes are closed up during the final finishing process. Yellow Patches in Pale Crepe. — In the pale crepe now made by the addition of sodium bisulphite, the mottled yellow and wjiite appearance is usually due to adding the solid substance or a concentrated solution which is not properly mixed with the latex, or possibly through the addition of the bisulphite salt after the coagulating acid, so that proper admixture becomes impossible. Over-smoking. — The appearance attributed by buyers to " over-smoking " may be caused by prolonged smoking after the rubber is dry, a process which has been recom- mended by the chemists of the Rubber Growers' Associa- tion as improving the quality of the rubber, or it may foe due to the use of a fuel, the fumes from which are rich in tarry products, such as coconut husks; in the latter case a mixed fuel should be used. Packing of Rubber. Although it is difficult to give any satisfactory advice on the subject of packing, it is undoubtedly a fact that even the best of the present cases, such as the Venesta case, is unsatisfactory for the higher grade plantation rubbers, which ought not to require rewashing in the home factory. The unpacking recently of a large number of samples of rubber contained in a number of different cases, received from estates for the London Rubber Exhibition, has demonstrated the fact that even with the greatest care a considerable amount of sawdust, fine splinters, and debris becomes incorporated with the rubber, which must in many instances necessitate the rewashing and maceration of rubber which had been packed in a perfectly clean condition on the estate. This RUBBER 677 not only entails more expense, but is likely to still further deteriorate the rubber on account of the extra milling it must undergo. A parchment or waterproof paper, which will not adhere to the rubber during its transport, is required for the purpose, Concluding Remarks. Although this paper has touched briefly on the various methods which should be adopted in the coagulation of the latex and the preparation of the rubber from the Para rubber tree, it does not pretend in any way to be the final word on this interesting problem, nor has it been possible to discuss in it any theory which may form the basis of the differences between the " ne plus ultra " product of the industry, viz., Fine Hard Para, and the various grades of plantation Para rubber. Although a considerable amount of work remains to be done, the next few years should enable us to ascertain the cause of any inferiority in the plantation product, and to remedy such cause, at any rate, in the output of our highest quality material. There must, and always will be, different grades and qualities, but the object of the planter and his advisers must be to see that each grade is purchased on its real merits and not on account of some fancy on the part of the buyer. This will be also to the real advantage of the manufacturer, especially the smaller firms which may be unable to afford the upkeep of a research laboratory and one or more research chemists, although the former should form an integral part of any factory dealing with a complex industry, such as the vulcanization of raw rubber, and would be certain, if properly conducted, to far more than pay for its initial cost and upkeep, in enabling the manufacturer to avoid the losses which must occur through the spoiling of large batches of material on account of differences in the raw material which necessitate different treatment during the processes of mixing and curing. Unfortunately, it has been impossible to include in this paper the results of any vulcanization tests carried out at the Department of Agriculture in the Federated Malay States, since these 678 RUBBER are not sufficiently advanced. No satisfactory tests on raw rubber which have so far been accepted are of any use in enabling authoritative statements to be made as to the value of different methods of coagulation and curing; nor is the market value, which at one period fancies crepe and at another smoked sheet, any criterion, since these values depend possibly on supply and demand for different grades for specific purposes and the fancy of the buver. SPOTTINGS IN PLANTATION RUBBER DUE TO FUNGI. By A. SHARPLES, A.R.C.S., D.I.C. Assistant Mycologist, Department of Agriculture, Federated Malay States. SPOTTINGS or discolorations in plantation rubber have been attributed to many causes since the beginning of the plantation industry. It was obvious from the first that micro-organisms were the cause of certain types of spots, and various suggestions were made as to the causal organisms. Ridley suggested that Protococcus mvalis, an alga responsible for "red snow" in Europe, might be the cause of the red spots. Brooks later reported from Sarawak that he obtained Bacillus pro- digiosus from crimson spots on crepe rubber. The moulds, which develop so readily on the surface of badly dried rubber, were recognized from the first, but were not considered responsible for any of the internal growths. About the year 1910 the spottings became epidemic in character in Malaya. Even last year (1913) spotted rubber was very commonly met with. The epidemic character of the outbreak necessitated closer investigation, in order to determine the true cause and the methods of prevention. Bancroft first demonstrated the mycelium of fungi in spots taken from infected samples. Later he performed inoculation experiments in two cases, proving that the spottings could be reproduced artificially by inoculating latex with spores obtained from pure cultures. Further isolation experiments conducted by Bancroft led him to suggest three other fungi as causes of spottings, but no inoculation experiments were performed with these three fungi. The following work was carried out in order to gain fuller information regarding the cause and methods of prevention. 68O RUBBER The method of procedure may be summarized as follows : — • (1) To determine the presence of fungi in the spotted rubber by means of a microscopical examination. (2) To isolate the fungi from the rubber under micro- scopical control and to obtain pure cultures. (3) To inoculate, artificially, known amounts of latex with spores developed in pure culture in order to repro- duce the spots artificially in the laboratory. (4) To isolate the fungi from the artificially produced spots. The following investigation shows that the latex is naturally inoculated in the field. Therefore, care must be taken in deducing conclusions from artificial inocula- tions, for it is almost impossible conveniently to prepare a sterile latex. In this connection it is obvious that supplementary observations will be most valuable, especially those demonstrating characteristic features of the fungi in situ in the rubber. Too much reliance, how- ever, cannot be placed upon the characters of the fungi in pure culture, for they vary to a large extent according to cultural conditions. The defects of plantation rubber due to the action of fungi may be distinguished as of two kinds : - (a) Spottings, where the discoloured area is usually small. (b) Flushes, where there is a broad, diffused patch of coloured rubber. Spottings are best observed in crepe rubber, whilst flushes are more common in light-coloured sheet rubber. Four specimens were selected for investigation; in each case the life-history of the causal fungus was followed in pure culture. (i) Yellow Flush in Sheet Rubber. This flush appeared in sheet rubber which had been coagulated with sodium bisulphite. A fungus, Peni- cillium maculans (nov. sp.), was isolated from the discoloured rubber, and inoculation experiments carried out with spores obtained from pure cultures proved this RUBBER 68 1 fungus to be the cause of the discoloration. Rubber samples prepared from artificially inoculated latex coagulated with a mixture of 5 per cent, acetic acid and sodium bisulphite developed the typical yellow colour three days after coagulation, whilst controls prepared at the same time were quite clean. (2) Violet Flush in Sheet Rubber. This flush was present in the sample of sheet rubber showing the yellow flush described above, and was investigated because Bancroft suggested Bacillus vio- laceus as the probable cause. A preliminary examination showed hyphse running through the discoloured area. This flush did not appear to be a common one, and even when present was never prominent. Isolation experiments resulted in a species of Fusarium being obtained in pure culture, and artificial inoculations proved this fungus to be the cause of the violet discoloration. The investigation of this fungus brought forward a point of some importance. During one series of inoculation experiments with this fungus the artificially inoculated latex was allowed to stand overnight in covered dishes. The following day, on examination, several violet patches covered with a dense growth of white mycelium had developed over the surface of the coagulum. One of these patches was cut out and examined, when the violet colour was found to be due to a layer of typical violet Fusarium spores which had developed over the surface. Thus the typical violet spores were in process of formation eighteen to twenty- four hours after inoculation, when undiluted latex was used as a growing medium. In pure culture, however, the typical violet spores do not appear till a considerable time has elapsed. In damp chambers kept under observation for three weeks this type of spore was never formed, and in slant cultures ten days passed before the violet spores appeared. During this intervening period the spores produced were ab- stricted as single cells, which never developed into the typical Fusarium spores. Thus, comparing the life-cycle 682 RUBBER when grown in latex and in pure culture, there is a distinct type of spore interpolated in the life-history when the fungus is grow^n under favourable conditions. When growing in latex the life-cycle is shortened by the cutting out of the first stage seen in pure culture. Any shorten- ing of the life-cycle may be taken as indicating relatively poor conditions of growth. Therefore, undiluted latex must be considered as a comparatively unsuitable medium for the growth of fungi. (3) Black Spots in Thin Crepe Rubber. A yeast-like form of fungus was isolated from the spots, and inoculation experiments proved this fungus to be the cause. The fungus was named Chromosporium crustaceum (nov. sp.). Comparisons of the mycelium seen in situ and in pure culture showed the two to be identical, this observation, therefore, supporting the inoculation experiments. (4) Blue-black Spotting in Crepe. From this spot a green mould-like fungus, Trichoderma koningi (Oudem.), Oudemans et Koning, was isolated. Inoculation experiments indicated that this fungus was the cause of this spotting, but later observations made this conclusion appear doubtful. The spot is very common in this laboratory, and in later experiments always appeared first upon samples of rubber dried slowly, prepared from latex which had not been inoculated artificially. Thus the spots developing in the inoculated samples may have been due to spores already present in the latex, although the controls in these experiments were quite clean. Further observations were made upon opaque spots developing in unsmoked sheet rubber coagulated with acetic acid. These spots appear very common and suggest bacterial colonies growing in the rubber. How- ever, hyphae can easily be demonstrated in the spots. There appeared to be some connection between these spots and Eurotium candidum, Speg., which always RUBBER 683 develops on badly dried rubber. No success was obtained by artificial inoculation experiments. Isolation experiments were conducted in connection with several other spots, usually resulting in Penicillium or Eurotium spp. being obtained in pure culture. Though no further inoculation experiments were performed the writer concluded that the majority of species of fungi causing spots in plantation rubber fall in these two genera. This is not greatly in evidence in the work described above. The work of O. T. 'Faulkner, B.A., Mycologist to the Rubber Growers' Association, how- ever, proves the validity of the above conclusion. During the course of this work Faulkner published two private and confidential reports, entitled " Spot Diseases in Pale Crepe." To that author I am indebted for the following information: "Five species of fungi were used success- fully in artificial inoculations; three were species of Penicillium; of the remaining two, one was a species of Eurotium and the other Trichoderma koningi (Oudem.)." Bancroft has also proved by artificial inoculation that Monascus heterosporus, Schrceter, was the cause of a red spot in rubber. The writer has seen the fruit bodies of this fungus in situ as described by Bancroft, so con- firming the original observation. Also, Bancroft proved that Bacillus prodigiosus can produce a discoloration in rubber. Thus, of the species of fungi shown to be concerned with spottings, the large majority fall in the two genera Penicillium and Aspergillus (Eurotium). There are a large number of species included in these two genera which form a large proportion of those important economically, being useful in the arts and manufactures because of the changes which are brought about as a result of the specific enzymes they are capable of pro- ducing. The yeast family is also well known in this respect, and the yeast-like form of Chromosporium crustaceum is significant. Therefore, the fact that specific enzymes might play a part in the economy of this problem may be anticipated, and although time would not allow any work to be performed upon this point, the assump- tion of the presence of specific enzymes produced by these 684 RUBBER fungi aids greatly in the attempt to account for many of the points elucidated during the investigation. Preventive Measures. The fact that spottings and discolorations can be reproduced artificially by adding spores to the latex indicates that inoculation naturally takes place during the period elapsing between the tapping of the tree and the coagulation .of the latex. Later experiments show the difficulty of external inoculation after preparation. Thus the direct method of prevention appears to lie in the sterilization of the latex. Formalin in the proportion of i part in 800 parts of latex is very useful in preventing the appearance of the spots. Experiments carried out on estates, however, show that when formalin is used to sterilize latex there is nearly always a very small pro- portion of rubber which still develops spots. Probably the formalin does not kill the spores, but merely inhibits their development, so that the rubber is almost dry before enough mycelium is produced to show visible spots. With thin pale crepe rubber, in which the spottings prove most troublesome, there ought to be no difficulty in drying the rubber so quickly that, with the addition of the small amount of formalin indicated to the latex, spots are prevented from developing. Sodium bisulphite also is useful, when added to latex in the right proportions, in preventing spottings in thin pale crepe rubber. Care must be exercised, for if larger quantities than necessary are added, especially when acetic acid is used in coagulating the latex, the chances of the fungi developing are considerably improved, owing to the slower drying of the rubber. The spotting of thin crepe rubber on one estate was completely eradicated by adding to 50 gallons of latex 5 oz. of sodium bisulphite in 5 pints of water. The rubber at the same time was worked as thin as possible. External Inoculation in relation to Spotting. The question as to whether spottings can arise through spores germinating on the surface of the rubber after RUBBER 685 preparation need not trouble the estate manager whose drying shed is ordinarily effective. Under extraordinary conditions of retardation of drying it is possible for spores to germinate upon the surface, the mycelium ultimately growing into the rubber and causing characteristic spots. But it is unnecessary to isolate spotted rubber from factories in order to prevent the spots spreading from the infected to the clean sheets. However, if the drying shed becomes congested so that the spotted rubber is in contact with the clean, the former ought to be removed to facilitate the drying of the remainder. Dilution oj Latex in relation to Spotting. Planters assert that there is a great increase of spotted rubber during rainy weather. Experiments were con- ducted to test this view. Rubber samples prepared from latex diluted with varying amounts of tap-water and dis- tilled water always showed a greater tendency to produce spots than samples prepared from undiluted latex. This is not surprising when the facts are taken into considera- tion. Evidence has been brought forward to show that undiluted latex is an unfavourable growing medium for fungi. If latex is a good medium the tapping of the tree provides the opportunity required by many fungi to enter the tissues and to cause diseases. If such is the case there would be far more trouble with Diplodia cacaoicola, the common " die-back " on Hevea brasilien- sis, than there is at present. Not only this fungus, but many other " wound parasites " would find their way into the tissues of the tree. Latex diluted with water, however, is probably a much better growing medium. Addition of water to latex means : (i) Closer approxima- tion to a neutral solution; (2) changes and solution of some of the protein materials; (3) quicker development of acidity which up to certain limits increases the chances of germination of the spores. All these factors favour the development of the spores and give the fungi a much better chance of development. 686 RUBBER Final Considerations. Thus there is no room for doubt as to the causes of spottings and discolorations in plantation rubber. Common saprophytic fungi are the -chief causes; how- ever, the number of these fungi causing spots is com- paratively small. The factor limiting the number of such fungi capable of growing in rubber is probably the absence of a specific enzyme which is capable of rendering the food materials in latex more readily available. The proteins in rubber probably form the food material upon which the fungi live; therefore, in view of the fact that rubber appears to be an unfavourable medium for the development of these organisms, the possession of proteo- clastic enzymes would be of the greatest service in enabling them to open up food reserves not otherwise available. The fact that most of the species of fungi causing spots belong to the genera Pemcillium or Asper- gillus is strong evidence for this view. The action of sodium bisulphite as a preventive is probably due to its powers of inhibiting enzyme action. Thus there is much support for the view that the production of enzymes of a specific character by the spot-causing fungi play an important role in this problem. The latest work of Fol and Sohngen is interesting in this respect. These investigators, working in Europe, cultivated two species of Actinomyces capable of growing in rubber and investigated their action on the caoutchouc. Viscosity tests with infected rubber showed a decrease when compared with clean, but not sufficient to make any statement as to the inferiority of infected rubber. Attempts to isolate an enzyme failed, though it was noticed in one case that one of the organisms was capable of causing a solution of the caoutchouc. This work, however, has little bearing upon the problem as it appears in the tropics. The species of bacteria with which Fol and Sohngen conducted their experiments were cultivated from ditch and canal water, and only after several days' incubation did they appear on the caout- chouc. To cause spottings under normal conditions in the rubber factories in the tropics the organisms must RUBBER 687 germinate quickly and grow vigorously, for thin crepe rubber is usually dried in twelve days at the outside, and in most cases much quicker than this. Quick germina- tion and vigorous growth are the two essentials in a spot-producing organism, for the period during which moisture can be obtained for growth is very limited. As regards the quality of spotted rubber, Morgan says that vulcanization experiments prove that it is not inferior to clean rubber. But loss of money and much worry is the lot of the estate manager troubled with spotting, for the presence of spots in the best grades decreases the value so that the rubber is placed in a lower grade and forward contracts can only be met with difficulty. Attention to the methods of prevention indicated here, and to general cleanliness in preparation, will make light the difficulty caused by spottings. LITERATURE CONSULTED. BANCROFT, C. K. — " The Spotting of Plantation Para Rubber" (Preliminary Account of Investigations on the Cause of Spotting), Bulletin No. 16, De-pi, of Agric., F.M.S. BANCROFT, C. K. — " Notes on Investigations of Plant Diseases in the Federated Malay States during ign," Agricultural Bulletin, Federated Malay States, vol. i, No. 2, pp. 30-34. BANCROFT, C. K. — " Occurrence and Nature of Spots on Sheet and Crepe," Agricultural Bulletin of the Straits and F.M.S., vol. x, October, IQII, p. 319. FOL, J. G., and SOHNGEN, N. L. — " Die Zersetzung des Kauts- chuk durch Mikroben," Centralblatt fur Bacteriologie, Parasiten- kunde und Infectionskrankheiten. MORGAN, SIDNEY. — " The Preparation of Plantation Para Rubber" (London, 1913). SHARPLES, A. — " Spotting of Prepared Plantation Rubber," Bulletin No. 19, Deft, of Agric., F.M.S. WEHMER, Dr. Prof. CARL.—" The Genus Penicillinm," Lafar's "Technical Mycology." WHITBY, G. S.— " Ueber einige Vorlaufige Beobachtungen beziiglich der Ursach'en natiirlicher Veranderungen im Latex von Hevea brasiliensis," Sonderabdruck aus der Zeitschrift fur Chemie und Industrie der Kolloide, Heft 2, Band xii. 44 CEARA RUBBER CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE IN SOUTHERN INDIA. By R. D. ANSTEAD, M.A. Planting Expert, Agricultural Department, Madras, and Scientific Officer to the United Planters' Association of Southern India. THE Ceara rubber tree (Manihot Glaziovii) grows like a weed all over the East, but until recently it could not be made to give a large enough yield to be much taken up, though it will grow at higher elevations and under drier conditions than the more popular Hevea rubber. It grows well from 800 to 5,000 ft. altitude, and requires about 50 in. of rain, and it delights in four or five months of dry, hot weather. It is intolerant of heavy wind, but grows very rapidly, making shoots of 18 ft. or more from seed in a single year. In Southern India this variety of rubber is chiefly cultivated in Goorg, the Mysore State, and the Shevaroy Hills, in the Madras Presidency, on a plantation scale. It was first introduced into Mysore about 1880 as a shdde tree for coffee, but it proved unsuitable for this purpose, and was soon cut out. Since then, until comparatively recent years, Ceara has been regarded with a good deal of undeserved contempt as a profitable source of rubber, due to the fact that, owing to wrong methods of mani- pulation, large numbers of the trees died when they were subjected to tapping. This difficulty has now been over- come, and since 1904 Ceara rubber has been extensively planted, and there now exist some 12,000 acres of it in Coorg, 3,000 acres in Mysore, and 2,000 acres in the Shevaroy Hills. Most of the experimental work with this variety of rubber with which I have been associated during the last five years has been done in Coorg on the estates of RUBBER 689 Messrs. Matheson and Co., with the valuable co-opera- tion of the managers. Though it grows very easily, Ceara rubber, like other crops, responds to good soil and good cultivation. When first planted in 1904 these points were often neglected, and the trees were often put into the poorest of soils and then left to take care of themselves and struggle with a jungle of grass and weeds, and to this the original failures were largely due. If it is to prove a commercial success it is most important to give the trees a thorough and careful cultivation from the start, and either to keep the clearings clean weeded, or, better still, under a care- fully controlled system of leguminous green dressing cover crops, "so as to ensure 80 or 90 per cent, of the permanent trees reaching a tappable size at the same time. The evenness of a clearing is a most important factor in rubber cultivation, because when the tapping stage is reached the majority of the trees in an even clearing can be tapped, making the tasks more easy to arrange for the tappers, and generally facilitating the field arrange- ments and reducing the cost of production. So impor- tant is this factor that it is, in my opinion, better for a clearing to be a year behind in growth but even, than for it to make a rapid but uneven growth; and it would probably prove economical to examine clearings annually after they are eighteen months old, and to fork round and manure all backward trees with the idea of making them catch up their better-grown neighbours, and thus produce an even clearing before manuring the clearing as a whole. It has been customary in Southern India to plant the trees closely at first and afterwards to thin them out. This reduces the cost of weeding, and tends to produce clean, straight stems and high branching. It is probably better, however, to plant the trees at the beginning 15 by 15 ft., and at the end of the third year to take out all those which have been retarded or overshaded by their neighbours. In any case the thinning out must be done systematic- ally, and the plan adopted is, at the end of the third year 690 RUBBER to remove all the small, badly grown trees and those which have been broken by wind or damaged by animals or disease. In the following years the smallest trees are again removed, and, after tapping has commenced, all the poor latex yielders, until the requisite number of trees per acre is arrived at, usually 150 to 200. All the trees removed are pulled out by the roots with a jack and burned. This method of thinning finally leaves the permanent trees irregularly spaced, but that does not matter. If a regular system of thinning is adopted by removing every other tree, or every other row, it is bound to happen that some good trees are removed and poor ones left, and no method of selection can be used. Many of the trees can be tapped when they are 3 to 4 years old, but we have come to the conclusion in Coorg that it is not advisable to start tapping on young trees, and we wait until they are 5 or 6 years old and the bark is fairly thick. As would be expected, the older and more mature the tree the better the yield, and the higher the quality of the rubber obtained. Some of the oldest trees give as much as 2 and 3 Ib. of rubber per annum. In the early days of Ceara rubber great difficulty was experienced with the extraction of latex from the trees. When tapped in the same way as Hevea rubber the bark rotted, and so many of the trees died that the industry proved unprofitable. This difficulty was overcome by using a tapping system in which a separate cut was made at each tapping occasion — a system introduced with success by Mr. Westland in Ceylon in 1909. This system was experimented with and elaborated on estates in Coorg during 1910, and it has proved there the best method of handling young trees. The system finally adopted after numerous experiments is first to strip the outer bark, which is tough and leathery, off that section of the tree which is to be tapped, usually one-third of the circumference, and then to cut a shallow vertical channel down the centre of this area to act as a conducting channel for the latex to the collect- ing cup at the base of the tree. Having made this channel, a number of sloping cuts are made with either a Pask V knife, or a knife like that of a farrier, in either RUBBER 691 case kept very sharp, on the familiar herring-bone system, arranging them in such a manner that they enter the vertical channel alternately on each side. It is important that no two cuts should meet the central channel at the same point so as to form a V with the apex in the central perpendicular channel. As a rule six of these cuts are made, three on each side of the central channel and making an angle of about 22^° with it, the cuts on each side being a foot apart. At the next tapping these cuts are left alone, and in young trees no attempt is made to widen them, but six new cuts are made half-way between the original ones. If paring is attempted it usually meets with failure, as the bark in young trees is so soft that it tears and strips under the knife, and a bad wound is made which refuses to heal, and the death of the tree may result owing to rot and boring insects. On each occasion of tapping, usually in Coorg at intervals of two to four days, six fresh cuts are put in half-way between the old ones, and the spacing can be easily arranged so that it takes at least two years to use up all the bark on the area tapped. When this is done another third section of the tree is stripped of its outer bark and tapped in the same way, so that a four-year bark renewal is obtained. It is of the .utmost importance that the tapping cuts should be made in such a way that the cambium is not wounded, and when this is done the narrow cuts heal up with remarkable rapidity and ease, leaving a clean fresh surface, which can be tapped again. It is of special importance to avoid wounding the cambium in the case of older trees ; it is our experience in Southern India that in young trees even bad wounds and cuts made right down to the wood heal up with remarkable rapidity, especially if treated with some antiseptic material, such as coal tar, Jodelite, or lime and sulphur, but that such wounds when made on old trees do not heal readily, and the soft wood inside is apt to decay and result in the death of the trees before the bark can heal over the wound. Another tapping system which has been used a great deal in Hawaii has been experimented with in Southern 692 RUBBER India, and adopted on some of the estates in Coorg in preference to the above. This is the vertical system, in which all the cuts are made vertically down the tree over the tapped area. This system has the advantage of giving a much longer cut, and in some cases it produces an increased yield. The cuts heal rapidly and well if care is taken not to wound the cambium. No figures are available for a strict comparison between the two methods, to which no objection can be raised owing to the variability of yield of individual trees; but in Coorg one large block of Ceara has been tapped on the vertical system, and another near by has been tapped over the same period of time on the herring-bone system, and the results show that there is probably little to choose between the two methods, and, as far as young trees are concerned, it would appear that the choice between the two methods depends largely upon the personal taste of the manager and the ease with which the particular class of labour employed can be taught to use either method. When we come to deal with old trees — 8 years or more — the bark has become sufficiently thick and firm to enable paring to be done, and they can be tapped in a similar way to that adopted for Hevea, the half herring- bone system being usually used with three or four cuts. Here again the vertical system can be, and is, employed, the vertical cuts being easily pared. By the adoption of these methods, and taking great care not to wound the cambium and to dress at once such wounds if made accidentally, it has been found quite easy to tap large areas of Ceara successfully without loss of trees and to make this industry a paying one. A few " pricking " methods of tapping have been ex- perimented with, but they were not attended with success under our conditions, and the systems described above, or slight variations of them, have been finally adopted after a large number of experiments, as most suited to our conditions of labour and climate. Some tapping on renewed bark has been done with excellent results. Whatever system of tapping is employed, the outer bark, which is rough and leathery, must be first removed from the tapping area, and it should be removed from RUBBER 693 this area only, and not from the whole of the tree, a few days before tapping is begun so as to leave the inner bark smooth and clean and firm. It is also best to tap in the evening or the very early morning. As the sun gets on to the trees and the tem- perature rises the latex quickly coagulates in the cuts, and the period of flow and consequent yield is reduced. Again, it is found inadvisable to continue tapping when the trees begin their annual leaf fall or while the leaves are down. Not only is the flow of latex very much reduced during this period, but harm appears to be done to the trees if the latex is drawn from them at this time. Trees tapped during the resting period have a tendency to be later in regaining their full foliage, and the foliage itself is smaller, while bark renewal is decidedly retarded. During spells of dry, hot weather the flow of latex is apt to become much restricted, and in some districts drip tins containing i per cent, ammonia have been used to prevent the rapid coagulation of the latex in the cuts and protract the time of flow. This has met with a certain amount of success, but the length of the tapping season is largely controlled by the climatic conditions, and unless the trees can be tapped for at least four months in the year without the use of ammonia or similar aids, the cultivation would appear to be doubtfully profitable. As compared with Hevea rubber, the yield even under the best of conditions is small, but more trees can be grown to the acre, and the trees can be brought into bearing sooner. The following are examples of the kind of yield obtained in Mysore from a few trees in the experimental stage with alternate day tapping over a period of three months: — Number of trees tapped 10 5 5 2 I When we come to results obtained on an estate scale over large areas we get rather similar figures. For Yield of dry Average girth at 3 ft. Total yield Trees rubber per acre during a three Age of from the of dry per months' tapping trees, ground, rubber, acre season years inches Ib. Ib. 3* ... 13 •• • 4* 200 90 5 17 5 2OO 200 7 ... 26 .. 9 200 ... 360 10 ... 32 .. • 4* 2OO ... 437 15 ... 43 •• 4 200 ... 800 ^94 RUBBER instance, in the Shevaroy Hills during 1912 an average of 5,400 three-year-old trees tapped five times at weekly intervals gave a total yield of 142 J Ib. of dry rubber, and during a three months' tapping season an average of 5,000 such trees gave a total yield of 3,280 Ib. of dry rubber, or a yield of about 130 Ib. per acre. In Coorg 19,260 six-year-old trees, tapped on an average of forty times each, gave 7,486^ Ib. of dry rubber, or a little over f Ib. per tree. This represented 170 acres with about 115 tappable trees per acre, but another 40 per cent, per acre have yet to arrive at the tapping stage. The method of preparation of rubber from the latex is extremely simple. The usual coagulant is acetic acid. As a result of experiments conducted in Coorg, however, it would appear that if a coagulant is used at all, a 6 per cent, solution of formic acid at a temperature of 80° F. gives the best results, producing a rubber which when dry is very elastic and strong. The system adopted now, however, is not to use any acid or chemical coagulant at all, but to simply allow the latex to coagulate slowly in hot water in a dark room. After coagulation it is rolled and thoroughly washed to remove resins, this rolling and washing being done by machinery. It is then dried in hot air in a dark room, and finally made into sheet or crepe, as the case may be, in the ordinary way. Some smoked sheet has been prepared and high prices obtained for it, but methods of smoking are at present in an experimental stage. Ceara rubber contains more resin than Hevea, and it is difficult to remove all of this by washing and rolling without detracting from the physical qualities of the rubber; but as the trees get older this defect will probably largely disappear. In quality, the rubber when made into biscuit or sheet is quite equal to the best plantation Para, and it commands almost as good a price. There is much diversity in the yield of trees produced under similar conditions and even growing side by side, and with the object of eliminating this variable factor as far as possible, and at the same time increasing the yield RUBBER 695 per acre, selection methods are now being adopted in new clearings. By tapping and testing individual trees over large areas, a few which give a very high yield of latex and rubber are selected, and these are broken up into cuttings from which new clearings are planted. The tree grows readily from cuttings if care is taken in plant- ing them. Several clearings have now been established in this way, and it is intended to select the best trees in these and plant further areas with cuttings from them, and it is hoped that in this way the yield per acre may be materially increased in the future. At the same time the possibility of seed selection and the breeding of hybrids with increased latex content has not been lost sight of. Manurial experiments are in their infancy, and Ceara has not been treated seriously over a long enough period as yet for any reliable figures to have been obtained. In 1909 Mr. Wilcox, the Special Agent in charge of the Hawaii Experiment Station, published an account of some experiments he had conducted which showed that nitrate of soda had a decided tendency to increase the flow of latex. We repeated his experiments on a small scale with nitrate of soda in 1911, and on a larger scale with nitrate of soda and nitrate of potash in 1912, with the result that Mr. Wilcox' s results were confirmed. Nitrate of soda applied just before tapping begins un- doubtedly does increase the latex flow and rubber yield of trees which do not normally yield well, while nitrate of potash apparently still further increases this flow. Over areas which normally yield well, however, no improvements could be obtained from the application of these salts. The experiment is still being continued, and perhaps it is too early as yet to say more about the results obtained. The diseases of Ceara in Southern India are few and comparatively trivial. The most important is a root disease due probably to the fungus Hymvnochsete noxia, which also attacks Hevea rubber, coffee, tea, and a number of other plants in India. This disease is con- trolled by removing as many jungle stumps as possible from the clearings and ridding the soil of decaying wood on which the fungus can live, and by means of which it 696 RUBBER is transmitted through the soil to the living roots. It is for this reason that when thinning' operations are in progress all the trees removed are dug out with as many roots as possible. Trees attacked by the disease are dug out as soon as they are noticed, and the soil round them is thoroughly treated writh lime. As a result of the work done on this product during the last five years in South India, the following tentative conclusions have been arrived at : — (a) That Ceara rubber can be successfully grown and tapped at elevations and under climatic conditions which render the cultivation of Hevea rubber unprofitable. (b) That the best planting distance is originally 15 ft. by 15 ft., and subsequent thinning should be done by removing all weak and overshaded trees independently of their position in the rows. (c) That it is advisable to wait until the trees are 5 to 6 years old before beginning to tap them. (d) That the best method of coagulation is with hot water in a dark room; and (e) That given care and good cultivation Ceara rubber will pay. During* the last twelve months, with the price of rubber phenomenally low, a profit of lojd. per Ib. was made. It is not recommended to grow Ceara rubber in prefer- ence to Hevea in districts and at low elevations suited to the latter; but in the hill districts, at elevations of 800 to 5,000 ft., with a rainfall of 50 to 80 in., where Hevea will not grow at a profit, there is every reason to believe that Ceara will prove a valuable asset, especially in conjunction with another crop, such as coffee. THE CULTIVATION OF MANIHOT GLAZIOVII IN UGANDA. By SAMUEL SIMPSON, B.Sc. Director of Agriculture, Uganda. FOR more than a dozen years Ceara rubber has been cultivated in Uganda, where it grows exceedingly well, and was being generally planted up to a short time ago. The growth is rapid, the average girth being from 19 to .20 in., and the trees thus ready for tapping, when 3 years old. On the Government Plantation, Kampala, experimental tapping was carried out last year. The trees, which were 3 years old, were arranged in groups containing twenty each, the average girth of the trees in the various groups varying between 15 and 20 in. The system of tapping was the half herring-bone, paring, and pricking. The following results were obtained : — Number of trees Number of times Total yield of dry in group tapped rubber in ounces 20 10 6 20 20 20 2O 12 13 ...... 7* 14 ... 10 90 ... ... - 45 These figures show that to get 2j oz. of dry rubber per tree no fewer than 90 tappings had to be made, and also that the yield obtained from the trees was in prac- tically direct proportion to the number of tappings. In July, 1913, eighty trees were taken and tapped on alternate days — forty each day — and the latex allowed to coagulate naturally. The trees had an average girth of 1978 in., and the average yield of dry rubber per tree was o'43 oz. after nine tappings. In August, 1913, forty-tree trees, having an average girth of 19 in., gave a total yield of 19J oz. of dry rubber in eleven tappings, or 0*45 oz. per tree. •698 RUBBER During October, November, and December, 1913, forty- two trees, with an average girth of 21 J in., were tapped fifty-seven times and gave a total yield of 85 oz. of dry rubber, or an average of 2 oz. per tree. The above results compare very unfavourably with some already published obtained in the Botanical Gardens, Entebbe; but I understand the Entebbe trees died owing to the severe handling. The Kampala trees are in a thriving condition, and no ill-effects due to the tapping are evident. With the product at a normal price Ceara rubber just pays a native cultivator at these low yields, but for European planters, with the ever-increasing cost of land and labour, there is nothing left after payment of the essential outgoings, and paying results cannot be looked for unless means are evolved for obtaining more rubber per tree with much less labour. Ceara rubber is being looked upon on many estates as an excellent training ground for native labour to ensure trained rubber tappers when the Hevea is ready to be dealt with. Native cultivators have a fair acreage under Ceara because it is very easy to cultivate, whilst the various missions have over 200 acres under this rubber. European planters have just over 1,000 acres under Ceara, but the tendency is for the area to shrink gradually and more profitable crops to replace it entirely. Trials have been made with the allied Manihots (M. dichotoma, M. Piauhyensis, and M. heptaphylla), but these are less satisfactory as regards growth than M. Glaziowi. The trees are so brittle that they suffer severely from every windstorm. No tapping has yet been done, but I see no reason to hope for any better results in tapping than have been obtained from M . Glasiovn. AUGMENTATION DU RENDEMENT DU FUNTUMIA ELASTICA AU CONGO BELGE PAR LA METHODS SPARANO. Par A. GISSELEIRE. Ancien Inspecteur forestier au Congo beige; Attache au Ministere des Colonies a Bruxelles. LA saignee du Funtumia elastica, comme d'ailleurs celle de tous les arbres a caoutchouc, a donne naissance a une grande varietes de systemes, dont la plupart ont ete abandonnes. A i'heure actuelie, il est cependant encore difficile de dire avec certitude quel est la meilleure maniere de saigner le Funtumia. Les indigenes abataient les arbres et les incisaient sur toutes les parties capables de donner du latex; apres, ce fut le tour a la saignee a coups de machettes sur les arbres conserves, c'etait deja un progres, mais le resultat final de ces deux methodes primitives fut, indubitable- ment, la disparition d'une enorme quantite des plus beaux arbres de la foret. Des etudes suivies ont ete entreprises par divers specialistes, afin de determiner si le Funtumia pouvait etre traite de la meme maniere que VHevea brasiliensis. Les resultats furent negatifs parce que la disposition des vaisseaux laticiferes differe essentiellement dans ces deux especes. Le systeme de ravivage pratique sur le Funtumia conduit inevitablement a la mort des arbres. II fallait done trouver autre chose et les essais furent diriges dans la voie des incisions pen profondes. L'ex- perience a demontre que dans le cas ou celles-ci sont legeres, la cicatrisation se fait rapidement. On saigne done en arete de poisson (simple ou double) en V ou, en spirale, enfin, on a egalement recommande le systeme de saignee par incisions verticales paralleles sur la plus grande partie du tronc. Ici encore, du moment, que les. 7OO RUBBER incisions sont peu profondes, la cicatrisation se fait bien, mais si c'est le cas contraire, les levres des plaies ne se referment pas, au contraire, elles s'ecartent 1'une de 1'autre et finissent par former, sur le tronc de veritables sillons, qui rendent 1'exploitation ulterieure fort difficile. Ce systeme a Tavantage d'etre d'une execution rapide et facile, mais il faut un n ombre considerable de godets pour recueillir le latex. II en est d'ailleurs de meme pour la saignee en spirales. Le systeme preconise par M. le Dr. Christy, qui consiste a tracer sur le tronc, au moyen d'un inciseur special, des incisions tres peu profondes destinees unique- ment a conduire le latex dans les godets. Ceci marque une serieuse avance sur tous les autres systemes. La coulee du latex est provoquee, en passant au fond de ces premieres incisions, avec une roulette dentee. Ces petites blessures, tout en occasionnant peu de dommage au cambium, suffisent amplement pour assurer une bonne saignee. La cicatrisation de ces plaies est rapide. Tout en considerant cette methode comme presentant des avantages reels, elle peut cependant etre amelioree, en ce sens, que la saignee qui est pratiquee en un seul jour, peut etre repartie sur une semaine et que par suite, il y a moins de risques de rompre 1'equilibre dans la croissance de 1'arbre. Cette experience vient d'etre appliquee au Congo par M. Sparano, un des agronomes du district des Bangala. C'est le systeme en arete double qui a ete applique, sur des arbres de 0*55 m. de circonference. Les grands arbres ont ete saignes sur hauteur de 5 metres. L'arete n'embrasse que la moitie du tronc. L'autre moitie est reservee pour la deuxieme saignee, qui est faite apres un repos de six mois. L'arete a ete faite de la maniere suivante : les incisions de gauche se trouvent a 6 centimetres au dessus des incisions correspondantes de droite et la distance observee entre elles est de 0*24 cent. La saignee est commencee par le bas de 1'arbre. Le premier jour on trace 2 incisions, une a droite et une a gauche; le 2e jour repos; le 3-6 il est pratique 3 incisions, le 46 jour repos, le 5e 4 nouvelles incisions, le 6e jour repos, le 7e 5 RUBBER 7OI incisions, le 8e repos et le ge jour on fait de 6 a 8 incisions. Les resultats obtenus par ce systeme sont tres encour- ageants et le rendement est superieur a celui obtenu par j53 3257 Verschiedenes .. — ~ Der Ertrag, welcher in den verschiedenen Schutz- g-ebieten aus den Kautschttkbaumen gewonnen wird, ist verschieden. Er ist aber fur die einzelnen Baumarten doch ziemlich normal. Am ungungstigsten in der Ertragsfahigkeit ist noch immer der Manihotbaum Ost- afrikas und es ist nicht ganz sicher, ob nicht bei der ersten Saateinfuhr eine etwas ungiinstige Sorte zufallig zum Anbau gekommen ist, da in anderen kolonialen Landern giinstigere Ertrage erzielt werden. Besonders wird von giinstigen Ertragen aus hollandischen Besitz- ungen, aus Ceylon und von den franzosischen Anpflanz- ungen in Brasilien berichtet. Ueber die Kautschukpreise zu sprechen, erscheint hier nicht angangig. Sie sind geniigend bekannt und 718 RUBBER geniigend deprimierend fur die derzeitige Lage. Dass sie aber immerhin, wenigstens in einer Anzahl von Fallen, Nutzen lassen, ist bereits oben gesagt. Eine andere Frage, welche aber an dieser Stelle behandelt werden muss, ist die der Anbauart und es muss mit aller Entschiedenheit wieder und wieder betont werden, dass ein zu enges Pflanzen nicht nur fur die Baumentwicklung ungiinstig ist, sondern auch eben bei der geringeren Stammentwickelung ungiinstigere Ertrage naturgemass geben muss, Die Anschauungen, als ob eine enge Pflanzweite bei grosser Baumzahl reichere Ertrage g'ibt, ist nur fiir die allerersten Jahre vielleicht zutreffend, fur spater ist sie in jedem Falls ein Trug- schluss. Nur der gut entwickelte Stamm mit gutem Blattdach gibt dauernd guten und relativ reichen Ertrag. Im Kreuzverband 5 zu 5 m. gepflanzt sollte eine Pflanz- W'cise sein, die nicht unterschritten werden soil. Es ist in vielen Fallen sogar giinstiger, noch weiter zu pflanzen. Ein unbedingtes Erfordernis ist es weiter, die Pflanzung gut rein zu halten. Eine Zwischenkultur ist nur mit Vorsicht zu geniessen, und hat oftmals nicht viel positiven Erfolg ergeben. Hier mag nochmal auf den Wert der Diingung deswegen zuruckgegriffen werden, w-eil zweifellos solche Diingungen, welche den Stickstoffgehalt im Latex ver- mehren, von Bedeutung fiir das endgiiltig erhaltene Produkt sein mussen, und, wenn nach dieser Richtung hin Erfolge noch nicht zuverlassig vorliegen, so mag dies zum Teil mit darauf zuruckzufuhren sein, weil es bis vor kurzem nicht recht gelingen wollte, die Stick- stoffsubstanzen aus der Milch in zuverlassiger Form mit abzuscheiden. Neuerdings scheint es, als ob nach dieser Richtung hin sich doch ein Wandel schaffen lasst. Es gibt schon jetzt Verfahren zur Kautschukabschiedung aus der Milch, durch welche die stickstoffhaltigen Eiweiss- Substanzen in ziemlich unzersetzlicher Form beim Kaut- schuk erhalten bleiben ; es mag nur beilaufig auf das nicht nur teoretisch, sondern auch technisch zu dieser Frage wichtige Colloseus-Verfahren hingedeutet werden. Nach all dem vorher Dargestellten bleibt nur noch iibrig, auf die Frage der bebauungsfahigen Flache, welche RUBBER 719 in den Schutzgebieten zur Verfiigung steht und auf die Anzahl der arbeitsfahigen Bevolkerung hinzuweisen, da ganz besonders die Arbeiterfrage von ausschlaggebender Bedeutung fur die Tropenwirtschaft ist. Die Gesamt- flache-der Schutzgebiete umfasst ca. 3 Millionen Quad- ratkilometer, die Anzahl der in den Farmbetrieben insgesamt beschaftigten Arbeiter betragt run 111,000. Die Lohnverhaltnisse sind nicht nur in den einzelnen Schutzgebieten untereinander, sondern leider auch, be- sonders in dem ostafrikanischen Schutzgebiet schon in benachbarten Gebieten sehr verschieden. Leider ist bei diesem Referat nicht der Raum, .auf all diese wichtigen Einzelheiten einzugehen. Es mag nur noch betont werden, dass noch viel Land zur Verfugung steht, und dass es nicht angangig ist, fiir ein Kolonialamt, sich allzu stark auf eine Kulturat zu werfen. Hierfiir ist gerade der Kautschuk-Plantagenbau eines der markantesten Beispiele. Es gibt noch manches Andere, was sich ausser dem bisher schon bevorzugten Kolonial-Produkten, wie Fett- produkten, Kautschuk, Kakao, Baumwolle, Faser- material, Kaffee, Tabak und Tee anbauen lasst und es wird die Arbeit der nachsten Jahre sein, hier fiir die einzelnen Landgebiete die richtige Auswahl zu treffen und die richtige Zusammensetzung des plantagen- massigen Betriebes fiir die einzelnen Bezirke fest- zustellen. In mancher Beziehung wiirde sich Deutsch- land wohl noch, besonders auch durch Futter und Nah- rungsmittel-Anbau in den eigenen Kolonien von den Erzeugnissen fremder Kolonien unabhangig machea konnen. Wir unsererseits sind gern bereit, in all diesen Fragen weiter mit zu arbeiten und hoffen, dass es dem festen Zusammenarbeiten der Kolonialregierung und der Pflanzer und Pflanzungs-Unternehmer gemeinschaftlich mit den deutschen Technikern gelingt, dieses erstrebens- werte Ziel der rationellen Ausnutzung der Schutzgebiete nicht nur im Interesse der bodenstandigen Bevolkerung, sondern auch der ganzen deutschen Wirtschaftslage zu erreichen. POUR I/INDUSTRIE DU CAOUTCHOUC DE LA DETERMINATION PRECISE AU LABORATOIRE DE LA VALEUR RESPECTIVE DES CAOUTCHOUCS. Par M. LAMY-TORRILHON. President de la Chambrc Syndicate dcs Fabricants de Caoutchouc. DANS la pratique courante des affaires du commerce et de 1'industrie du caoutchouc, voici comment les choses se passent generalement, pour la vente par 1'intermediaire, et 1'achat par le fabricant, d'un lot quelconque de caout- chouc. Rarement pour cette operation, l'acheteur est en relation directe avec le producteur de matiere premiere; 1'intermediaire est une necessite qui s'impose, sa presence est toute naturelle. Ou bien le fabricant cherche directement a se procurer la gomme brute dont il prevoit le besoin a courte echeance, chez son fournisseur habituel, ou bien il est sollicite par des courtiers ou par des intermediaires qui viennent le trouver avec une serie d'echantillons de lots de differentes sortes et de provenances diverses. Que 1'affaire se traite verbalement ou par correspondance, la situation est a peu pres la meme pour le fabricant, qui se trouve en presence d'un echantillon de la matiere dont il va se rendre acquereur. Un gros point d'interrogation se dresse a ce moment pour lui : va-t-il faire une bonne ou une mauvaise affaire? La question est la. Plusieurs coefficients entrent en jeu, qui vont influer sur la decision qu'il va prendre : besoin immediat ou a terme, cours du jour, qualite de marchandise, etc. Chaque fabricant a sa maniere, a lui propre, d'acheter, qui est la meme au fond, puisqu'il s'agit d'apprecier la valeur industrielle du caout- chouc qu'on lui propose, et de voir si on lui en donne suffisamment pour son argent. Ce n'est pas une petite affaire, comme on le voit, que d'acheter cette matiere premiere, et combien il est difficile d'exprimer les raisons qui vont influer sur la decision a prendre. L'acheteur RUBBER 721 regarde, palpe, tourne et retourne dans ses mains 1'echan- tillon, souvent tres petit, qu'on lui a soumis; il le sent, en prend un petit morceau entre ses doigts, lui fait subir des essais repetes de traction; il le roule, voit s'il est poisseux on en passe de le devenir; il essaie de se faire un jugement rapide par tous les moyens dont il dispose, moyens qui sont, il faut bien ravouer, on ne peut plus rudimentaires et limites. Lorsqu'une sorte de caout- chouc se presente, deja connue du manufacturier pour avoir ete employee par lui, ses hesitations sont evidem- ment diminuees dans une notable proportion, et, 1'ex- perience aidant, 1'affaire est vite traitee. Car il faut, la plupart du temps, que 1'affaire soit enlevee, 1'option n'etant accordee, aussi bien pour le vendeur que pour I'acheteur, que pour un delai tres court; c'est done une question de minutes, la reponse doit etre donnee immediatement par telegramme et confirmee de meme, sous peine de voir 1'affaire manquee. L'achat fait, 1'affaire en regie de part et d'autre, le fabricant se demande toujours s'il a, fait une bonne ou une mauvaise affaire. Quand le saura-t-il? Quand sera- t-il definitivement fixe sur ce point? C'est bien simple: il saura reellement qu'il a fait une bonne ou une mauvaise affaire lorsqu'il aura employe sa marchandise, qu'il 1'aura vulcanisee et livree a son client, transformee en articles les plus divers. Et s'il n'a pas pris la precaution de con- server un echantillon de sa fabrication, il rie saura a quoi s'en tenir que si le client a a se plaindre de la fourniture faite, ce qui peut avoir lieu seulement quelques mois apres la livraison. II faut dire que le producteur du caoutchouc se trouve, lui, dans une situation bien plus vague et imprecise, au point de vue de la qualite de son produit, que celle du fabricant de caoutchouc; car s'il n'a pas, lui producteur, a sa disposition, une usine en miniature, un laboratoire dans lequel il puisse essayer sa marchandise a la vulcanisa- tion, il ne saura jamais rien, il ne pourra jamais se rendre compte si ses precedes de coagulation produisent de la bonne ou de la mauvaise matiere premiere. II ne pourra que continuer ses errements, sans savoir s'ils sont bons ou mauvais. 46* 722 RUBBER Ah! si le producteur et 1'acheteur pouvaient se com- muniquer directement leurs impressions, un grand pas serait fait evidemment, dans le sens de 1'amelioration des precedes de coagulation et de la qualite du produit. Malheureusement, il ne pent en etre ainsi, a cause de la distance qui les separe, et aussi pour une multitude de raisons qu'il est impossible d'expliquer ici. II est done bien prouve par ce qui precede que, pas plus le producteur de gomme elastique, que 1'acheteur de ce produit, ne connait generalement, d'une fac,on certaine, la valeur precise, la qualite exacte de la marchandise sur laquelle s'opere la transaction. Et cependant cette situation, intolerable lorsqu'on y reflechit un peu, que subissent producteur et employeur, ne peut durer indefiniment ; il faut bien qu'a un moment donne tout cela cesse. Nous avons preconise un moyen d'arriver a ce resultat, qui nous semble devoir satisfaire aux deux interets opposes, et connexes cependant, du producteur et du fabricant qui desirent : le premier, etre renseigne sur la qualite de la marchandise qu'il offre, afin de pouvoir etablir son prix de vente et maintenir le cas echeant ses preventions; le second, etre fixe sur la valeur industrielle du produit qu'il achete. Ce mioyen, suivant nous, consisterait dans I'etablisse- ment d'une marque pour chacune des sortes et prove- nances de matieres premieres, marque dont 1'authenticite pourrait etre appuyee par une analyse cm bordereau d'essais, provenant d'un laboratoire autorise, specialise dans 1'etude du caoutchouc, qui confirmerait les qualites et la valeur de la marchandise vendue sous la marque en question. II parait bien qu'en adoptant cette maniere de proceder, on pourrait determiner les qualites d'un produit qui pre- senterait, pour le fabricant qui achete, toutes les garanties requises et correspondant au prix paye par lui. Le producteur, de son cote, on le comprend facilement, en retirerait le plus grand profit, sans qu'il soit utile d'insister davantage sur ce sujet. CONTRIBUTION A LA CONNAISSANCE DU MECANISME DE LA COAGULATION DE CERTAINS LATEX CAOUTCHOUCIFERES. Par MM. F. HEIM et R. MARQUIS. IL est de la plus grande importance, au double point de vue theorique et pratique, de connaitre le mecanisme de la coagulation de latex caoutchouciferes. De cette connaissance depend ('amelioration ration- nelle des precedes de coagulation, partant la valeur commerciale des gommes. Nos connaissances sur ce sujet restent singulierement incompletes; un tres petit nombre de latex ont ete etudies a ce point de vue, et les theories emises pour 1'explication du phenomene manquent, nous aliens le voir, tout au moins de generalite. Nous avons mis a profit 1'envoi de latex de Landolphia owariensis et de Funtumia elastica, pour poursuivre 1'etude du mecanisme de leur coagulation. Le latex des plantes caoutchouciferes est tine emulsion formee de fins globules, en suspension stable dans un liquide aqueux, serum; ces globules contiennent la substance meme du caoutchouc. Sous rinfluence de certains agents physiques ou chimiques, les latex caoutchouciferes mettent en liberte le caoutchouc qu'ils contiennent, sous forme d'un caillot elastique qui, en sechant, se retracte et laisse echapper le serum qu'il retenait; tel est, en gros, le phenomene de la coagulation; en aucun cas, le caillot une fois forme ne peut etre remis en suspension dans le liquide meme. II importe d'ailleurs, et c'est ce qu'ont neglige la plupart des experimentateurs, de ne pas confondre ce phenomene de la coagulation proprement dite avec le phenomene tres distinct de la precipitation du latex en fins granules isoles, qui se deposent facilement, mais peuvent etre remis en suspension par agitation. RUBBER Ce phenomene physique, commun aux diverses emulsions, a rec,u divers noms; le plus generalement adopte est celui de floculation; nous 1'adoptons. II est essentiel de distinguer la floculation des latex caoutchouciferes et leur coagulation proprement dite. (i) Floculation. La floculation d'un latex caoutchoucifere consiste en ce fait que les globules, primitivement en suspension dans le serum, se rassemblent et se precipitent, sans se souder les uns aux autres, chaque globule conservant son individuality propre. La floculation est tin phenomene reversible, en ce sens que la cause provocatrice venant a disparaitre, les globules se remeftent en emulsion et le latex reprend son aspect primitif. Pour expliquer le phenomene de la coagulation, tel que nous 1'avons defini plus haul, on a, dans ces dernieres annees (V. Henri), envisage le latex comme une emulsion de signe negatif, c'est-a-dire dont les globules posse- deraient une charge electrique negative. L'introduction dans le latex qui les tient en suspension d'ions positifs provo^uerait la coagulation. L'addition au latex d'un acide correspondant a 1'intro- duction d'ions positifs, ceux-ci neutraliseraient la charge electrique des globules, d'ou coagulation; au contraire, 1'introduction d'alcali dans tin latex reviendrait a 1'intro- duction d'ions negatifs OH; 1'emulsion deviendrait indefiniment stable, la coagulation impossible tant que persisterait 1'alcalinite. Cette theorie electrique de la coagulation a ete formulee a la suite d'experiences stir le latex d'Hevea; nous n'avons pu, pour nofre part, faute de latex d'Hevea, faire porter nos essais stir ce latex; nous nous sommes adresses aux latex de deux especes d'apocynacees : Landolphia owariensis et Funtumta elastlca. Pour ces deux latex — et nos conclusions ne peuvent pour 1'instant s'etendre qu'a eux seuls — la theorie electrique s'applique au phenomene de la floculation, a ce phenomene seul, et non au phenomene de la coagula- RUBBER 725 tion sensu stricto; c'est ainsi qu'on peut produire la floculation du latex en determinant la formation d'un precipite mineral au sein du latex par Introduction d'electrolytes (lesquels, d'une maniere generale, deter- minent la floculation des emulsions). Le latex, additionne d'acide mineraux, c'est-a-dire d'ions positifs, en proportions diverses et a concentrations variees, flocule, mais ne forme pas de caillot, ne subit done pas la coagulation; 1'acide acetique et trichloracetique provoquent floculation d'abord, coagulation ensuite; ce sont les deux seuls acides qui se conduisent ainsi. Nous verrons plus loin pourquoi les autres acides determinent la floculation seule. La floculation suit les lois generales applicables a toute emulsion negative. La coagulation vraie n'est pas necessairement precedee de floculation; dans certaines conditions, par exemple par addition d'alcool, la coagulation est instantanee par formation brusque du caillot. La theorie electrique de la coagulation ne permet pas d'expliquer que ce phenomene se produise par Faction de substances, telle 1'acetone, qui ne sont pas des electro- lytes. (2) Coagulation. La coagulation proprement dite est un phenomene essentiellement distinct de la floculation. II consiste en la soudure des globules en un caillot unique, elastique, de caoutchouc. Contrairement a la floculation, la coagu- lation est un phenomene essentiellement irreversible. Pour expliquer le phenomene de la coagulation propre- ment dite, plusieurs theories ont ete emises : — Celle de Weber invoque, comme cause determinante, la precipitation de matieres albuminoides presentes dans le latex. Cette theorie, adoptee par nombre d'auteurs, est certainement inexacte en ce qui concerne les latex d'apocynacees, vises dans cette note. Les latex, en effet, ne coagulent pas par addition des substances qui precipitent habituellement les albumines; telles que le tannin et Taldehyde formique; Taddition 726 RUBBER d'aldehyde formique ne determine que la floculation et au bout d'un temps assez long. Transforme-t-on, en solution hyperalcaline, les albu- minoides en alcali-albumines, precipite-t-on celles-ci par ralcool, les latex ci-vises fournissent encore un coagulum de caoutchouc; la coagulation n'est done pas sous la dependance de la precipitation des albumines. Les substances qui coagulent a froid ces latex sont les alcools methylique et ethylique, 1'acetone, les acides acetique et trichloracetique. II est remarquable que ces substances soient toutes des dissolvants des resines. On est des lors conduit a se demander si ce n'est pas a cette settle propriete que ces substances doivent leur pouvoir coagulant. Notons tout d'abord que leur action n'est pas due a des proprietes fonctionnelles, pttisque d'autres alcools tels que le glycol et la glycerine (polyvalents), d'autres acides tels que 1'acide lactique (oxyacide), 1'acide pyruvique (acide cetoniqtte), ne coagulent nullement le Fatex. Mais ces corps ne sont pas des dissolvants des resines. Si la settle dissolution des resines est la cause de la formation dtt coagulum, celtti-ci doit etre evidemment provoque pas des servants qtti, insolubles dans Teau, ne pourront en attcune fa^on modifier la composition du latex et dont le seul role sera limite a la dissolution de la resine. C'est ce que 1'experience confirme. Le latex de Funtumia elastica est, en effet, coagule instantanement a froid par agitation avec 1'alcool 'amyliqtte, 1'aniline (corps, il est vrai, legerement solubles dans 1'eatt; mais dont la solution aqueuse est sans action sttr le latex), 1'alcool phenylethyliqtte, 1'acetophenone, 1'aldehyde benzo'iqtte, la qttinoleine. Ces corps, et on pourrait sans 'doute en trouver bien d'autres, appartien- nent comme on le voit a des fonctions chimiqttes diverses, leurs caracteres commttns sont : d'etre insolubles dans 1'eau, de ne point attaquer le caoutchouc et de dissoudre les resines. II est d'ailleurs facile de se convaincre que cette dissolution a effectivement eu lieu; il suffit de distiller dans le vide a basse temperature 1'alcool amyliqtte ayant agi comme coagulant, pour obtenir un residu de resines. On pent attssi, si on a employe la quinoleine, RUBBER 727 dissoudre celle-ci dans un acide dilue, les resines restent insolubles; c'est meme la un moyen commode de do>ser la resine directement dans le latex. Ainsi done I'enlevement des resines provoque la forma- tion du caillot. Tout se passe, en somme, comme si le caoutchouc (ou le carbure inconnu qui lui donne nais- sance, soit par polymerisation spontanee, soit par un autre mecanisme inconnu) etait compose de petits globules entoures d'une mince pellicule de resine (pellicule vtte au microscope par Weber et qu'il avait suppose etre de la matiere albuminoide). Cette pellicule disparue, les globules de caoutchouc arrivent au contact, se soudent et forment le caillot. On comprend alors comment agissent 1'alcool, Tacetone, 1'acide acetique, quand on les ajoute au latex. On remarquera d'abord que ces corps n'agissent qu'a tine certaine concentration. Nous avons verifie, en intro- duisant de petites quantites de latex dans des volumes relativement considerables d'alcool, a des degres divers de concentration, que la coagulation ne commence que lorsque Talcool est a 45° C. Dans ces conditions, et par suite de 1'attraction bien connue exercee par le corps soluble stir le solvant, la pellicule de resine dissout une certaine quantite d'alcool (ou d'acetone ou d'acide acetique), elle devient alors permeable a 1'eau qui, entrant par osmose dans le globule, fait eclater la pellicule et libere le caoutchouc. II semble done qu'on puisse adopter a titre provisoire et comme guide poitr les recherches futures la theorie suivante . Les globules du latex sont constitues comme suit : Une masse centrale de substance-mere du caoutchouc, entouree d'une pellicule peripherique extremement mince de resine. Cette pellicule de resine isole les unes des autres les masses centrales des diverses globules et empeche leur soudure. Vient-elle a etre detruite, les masses se re- unissent et se soudent en un caillot de caoutchouc. La destruction de cette pellicule peut avoir lieu : i° Par action de la chaleur, qui la fait fondre ou eclater par dilatation de la masse centrale (coagulation par la chaleur). 728 RUBBER 2° Par action d'un dissolvant, qni la dissout on qui, 1'impregnant, permet au serum de la penetrer per osmose, ce qui provoque son eclatement (coagulation par 1'alcool, Tacetone, 1'acide, acetique, etc.). 3° Par une action mecanique qui la brise (coagulation par barattage). On trouve ici 1'explication d'un pheno- mene que Tun de nous a observe anterieurement avec feu Henriet que les globules flocules coagulent au bout d'un certain temps (ce qui n'est d'ailleurs pas un cas constant) ou par compression de la masse entre les doigts. Dans ce dernier cas la pellicule peripherique se trouve brisee. Dans le cas de la coagulation spontanee on pent penser que la pellicule etant probablement sinon liquide, du moins semi-fluide ou assez molle, la pression mutuelle des globules par simple action de la pesanteur suffit au bout d'un certain temps pour rompre la pellicule et provoquer la coagulation. 4° Un seul cas de coagulation, celui par enfumage a la mode du Para, reste en dehors de cette theorie, a moins que la chaleur seule n'entre en cause, ce qui nous ramenerait au premier cas. L'etude experimentale de coagulation par enfumage tranchera la question. JOHN BALE, SONS & DANIEI.SSON, Ltd. 83-91, Great Titchfield Street, W,