wmmHm its TRANSACTIONS OF THE mWwtwm WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS as • «i Jv IP VOL. XX. §p| NATURAE SPECIES RATIOGUE MADISON, WISCONSIN 1921 i The Fiftieth Anniversary volume of the Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters is issued under the editorial supervision of Charles E. Allen and the Secretary. Arthur Beatty, Secretary. TRANSACTIONS OF THE WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS VOL. XX. MADISON, WISCONSIN 1921 CONTENTS. Page Ordo Prophetarum. Karl Young . 1 Richard Wagner’s “Die Meistersinger von Niirnberg” and its Literary Precursors. Edwin C. Roedder . 83 The Passing of a Historic Highway. F. E. Williams . 131 / The Arsenical Solutionsj^No. 1. Liquor Potassii Arsenitis (Fowler’s Solution). H. A. Langenhan . 141 \/ ''The Development of the Frenulum of the Wax Moth* Gal¬ leria mellonella Linn. (With Plate I.). William S. Marshall . 199 / The American Water Mites of the Genus Neumania.l\ (With Plates II-IV.) Ruth Marshall . 205 \/ Syrphidae of Wisconsin.' (With Plates V-VI.) Charles L. Fluke . 215 v Some Experiments with the Larva of the Bee Moth,' Galleria mellonella L. Joy E. Andrews . 255 vThe Length of Life of the Larva of the Wax Moth, Galleria mellonella L., in its different Stadia. (With one Figure.) Ruth Chase . 263 v A Preliminary Study of the Digestive Secretions of Pickerel and Perch. Caroline Walker Munro . 269 The Organization of the Nuclei in the Root Tips of Podo¬ phyllum Peltatum.\\ (With Plate VII.) James Bert¬ ram Overton . 275 v The Phytoplankton of the Muskoka Region, Ontario, (Canada. (With Plates VIII-XIII.) Gilbert Morgan Smith. . 323 v Species of Lentinus in the Region of the Great Lakes. (With Plates NIV-XXVIII.) Edward T. Harper.. 365 y Cytological Studies of the Lower Basidiomycetes ’ I. Dacrymyces. (With Plate XXIX.) E. M. Gilbert (One Figure) . 387 Notes on Parasitic Fungi in Wisconsin, VII. (With Plates XXX-XXXII, and one Figure.) J. J. Davis . 389 Page Notes on Parasitic Fungi in Wisconsin, VIII. (With three Figures.) J. J. Davis. . . . 413 Experimental Work on the Relation of Soil Temperature to Disease in Plants. (With Plates XXXIII-XXXVII, and four Figures.) L. R. Jones . 433 Quantitative Studies of the Bottom Fauna in the Deeper Water of Lake Mendota. (With one Figure.) Chan- cey Juday . 461 A Survey of the Larger Aquatic Plants of Lake Mendota. (With one Figure). R. H. Denniston . 495 A Quantitative Study of the Larger Aquatic Plants of Lake Mendota. (With Plate XXXVIII.) H. W. Rickett 501 Notes on the Chemical Composition of Some of the Larger Aquatic Plants of Lake Mendota. I. Cladophora and Myriophyllum. Henry A. Schuette and Alice E. Hoffman . 529 A Second Report on Limnological Apparatus. (With Plates XXXIX-XL, and five Figures.) Edward A. Birge . 533 The Rotifers of Wisconsin. (With Plates XLI-LXI, and four Figures.) H. K. Harring and F. J. Myers . 553 Thure Kumlien (With Plates LXII-LXIV.) Publius V. Lawson . 663 Proceedings of the Academy, 1919 and 1920 . 687 Programme of the Exercises in Commemoration of the Fiftieth Anniversary of the Academy . 693 The Academy Medallion, 187CL1920 (With Plate LXV) Edward A. Birge . 711 List of Officers and Members . 717 Charter of the Academy . 751 Constitution of the Academy . 754 General Index of Volumes I-XX . 759 ORDO PROPHETARUM KARL YOUNG As has often been observed by recent writers on the subject,1 the liturgical plays of the Christmas season may be divided into the following groups: (1) a play of the shepherds (Officium Pas- torum), performed on Christmas Day;2 (2) a play of the Magi (Officium Stellce), for Epiphany;3 (3) a play representing the Slaughter of the Innocents (Or do Rachelis), for performance on Epiphany or on Innocents Day (December 28) ;4 * 6 and (4) a play of the prophets (Or do Prophet arum) , associated with Christmas Day, or with the octave of Christmas. In undertaking a special study of the Ordo Prophetarum 5 1 wish, in both introduction and conclusion, to pay homage to M. Marius Sepet, whose brilliant monograph Les Prophetes du Christ 6 not 1 See, for example, E. K. Chambers, The Mediaeval Stage , Vol. II, Oxford. 1903, pp. 41-56 ; or the present writer, Ordo Rachelis (University of Wisconsin Studies in Language and Literature , No. 4, Madison, 1919), p. 3. 2 The most extensive treatment of this play, so far as I know, is a study by the present writer entitled Officium Pastorum: A Study of the Dramatic De¬ velopments within the Liturgy of Christmas, in Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters, Vol. XVII, Part I (1912), pp. 299-396. 3 The most thorough study of this play is by H. Anz, Die lateinischen Magier- spiele, Leipzig, 1905. 4 This play has recently been treated by the present writer in a special study entitled Ordo Rachelis, mentioned above. 6 For general purposes, I use the designation found at the head of the version from Laon. See below, p. 40. 6 Sepet’s monograph appeared first in serial form in Bibliotheque de Vficole des Chartes (Vols. XXVIII, 1867, pp. 1-27, 211-264 ; XXIX, 1868, pp. 105-139, 261-293; XXXVIII, 1877, pp. 397-443), and then as a separate volume, Les Prophetes du Christ, Paris, 1878. I make my references throughout to the separate volume. E. Mart&ne (Tractatus de Antiqua Ecclesioe Disciplina, Lyons, 1706, pp. 78, 106-107) was familiar with the phenomenon of the Ordo Prophet¬ arum, but he presents no full text of it, and does not trace its origin. E. Du- M§ril (Les Origines Latines du TM&tre Moderne, Caen, 1849, p. 180), in editing the Limoges version of the Ordo Prophetarum, bases upon a passage in Durandus the following remark: “II [the Limoges version] avait aussi son origine dans 9 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters. only first disclosed the essential nature of this liturgical play, but also described the early stages of its genesis in general terms that may still be accepted. The discovery of new examples and new facts, however, has rendered Sepet’s demonstration noticeably in¬ complete, and calls for a fresh survey of the phenomena. Upon such a survey I now venture, calling attention to the fact that the present study differs from that of Sepet in several particulars. Whereas, in the first place, Sepet considered the prophet-play both in its relations to the liturgy and in its later developments in the vernaculars, I confine myself to the Ordo Prophetarum as a strictly liturgical play. Secondly I re-edit from the manuscripts all the dramatic texts known to me. Sepet presented none of these texts in extenso, and with one important version he was not acquainted.7 Finally, from manuscripts and printed books, I offer materials that are, I believe, brought into this consideration for the first time. Within its limited field, then, I hope that my study may be found relatively complete. I Among apocryphal works -of St. Augustine is found a sermon of substantial length entitled Contra Judceos , Paganos, e’t Arianos Sermo de Symbolo.* 1 Although the Augustinian authorship has been generally discredited in modern times,2 the attribution to the la liturgie catholique.” L. Petit de Julleville (Les. My sieves, Vol. I, Paris, 1880, pp. 35-45) bases his account of the prophet-play frankly upon Sepet. P. Weber ( G-eistliches Schauspiel und kirchliche Kunst, Stuttgart, 1894, pp. 41-48) surveys Sepet’s work with approval, and adds certain contributions of detail. W. Meyer ( Fragmenta Bur ana, Berlin, 1901, pp. 50-56) accepts Sepet’s demonstration of the origin of the Ordo Prophetarum and adds important suggestions ; but upon later parts of Sepet’s study he passes certain strictures, for which he is appro¬ priately rebuked by W. Creizenach ( Liter at urblatt fur germanische und roman- ische Philologie, Vol. XXIII, 1902, col. 203.) Chambers (Vol. II, pp. 52-55) pays explicit homage to Sepet, and follows him avowedly ; but he includes a consid¬ eration of the Laon play, which was unknown to the French savant, and adds significant observations upon details. The one or two minor contributions of Chasles (Les Prophetes du Christ, in La Vie et les Arts Liturgiques, 3e Annee, No. 25, January, 1917, pp. 121-134) are mentioned in appropriate places below. 7 1 refer to the version from Laon. See below pp. 39—49. 1 This sermon is found in the Benedictine edition of St. Augustine’s works, Sancti Aurelii Augustini . . . Opera, Vol. VIII, Paris, 1688, Appendix, col. 11-20. It is reprinted by Migne, Pat. Lat., Vol. XLII, col. 1117-1130. 2 The Benedictine editors (loc. cit., col. 11-12) cite the dictionis barbaries and the multa . . . delibata ex Augustino. See Weber, p. 41 ; Sepet, p. 8, note 2. Young — Or do Prophet arum. 3 great bishop persisted throughout the middle ages.3 The sermon was written manifestly during the period in which the Arian heresy throve; hence, before the year 600.4 Since, moreover, the author seems to have made use of a translation of the Old Testament older than the Yulgate, we may place the date of composition before the middle of the fifth century.5 Of the twenty-two chapters, or sections, into which the discourse is divided in the Benedictine edition, the first six are addressed to the Faithful by way of an exhortation to resist the devil and to cling to their Christian faith, to be worthy of their baptism, and to believe in the Trinity.6 In Sections seven to ten the preacher arraigns the heretics and brings before them the relation of the Son to the Father, and Christ’s birth from the Virgin.7 Section ten as¬ sails Herod for his cruel designs against Jesus, and passes into a denunciation of the Jews as a whole. Sections eleven to eighteen, addressed to the Jews, attempt primarily to convict them of error through utterances of their own prophets and of certain Gentiles. The preacher summons the prophets and Gentiles singly by name, and delivers their successive testimonies.8 Section nineteen inveighs once more against the Arians.9 The last three sections are an appeal to the Faithful to prepare for the eternal life.10 3 For example, in Ms. Vatic. Regin. 125, a version of the passage beginning Vos} inquam, convenio (fol. 74r-76v, written at Forcalquier in the thirteenth century) bears the following heading: Sermo beati Augustini Episcopi de Natale Domini. See also below, pp. 5, 18. 4 See Weber, p. 41. 5 See Meyer, p. 50. Chambers assumes (Vol. II, p. 52) that it was “probably written in the sixth century.” In regard to date and provenience the Benedictine editors (loc. cit., col. 11—12) write, “Iste quoque Sermo sub Arianorum dominatu habitus est, eo tempore quo haereticis illis disputantibus, & catholicos, alios pol- licitatione ac praemio, alios vi potentiaque deducere a fide nitentibus obsistere nullus audebat.” Hauck (as reported by Weber, p. 41) infers as follows: “Der Sermo gehort entweder nach Gallien unter die Westgotenherrschaft, Oder nach Afrika unter die Vandalenherrschaft.” 6 The headings of the first six sections, given by the Benedictines in side-votes, are as follows : Caput I, Christianse vigiliae ; Caput II, Diabolus qui sit ; Caput III, Renuntiare satanae, quid ; Caput IV, Relapsus a baptismo ; Caput V, Triadis Unitas ; Caput VI, Trinitas incomprehensibilis. These headings may be merely editorial. 7 The headings are as follows : Caput VII, Contra Arianos ; Caput VIII, ^Equalitas personarum ; Caput IX, Christi nativitas ; Caput X, Crudelitas Herodis. 8 The headings are these : Caput XI, Contra Judseos ; Caput XII, Ex Daniele ; Caput XIII, Testimonia ex Lege & Prophetis ; Caput XIV, Simeonis & Zacharies testimonium ; Caput XV, Ex libris Ethnicorum ; Caput XVI, De Sibyllinis vati- ciniis ; Caput XVII (no heading) ; Caput XVIII, Ex eventis. 9 Caput XIX, Contra Arianos. 10 Caput XX, Resurrectio ; Caput XXI, Differentia temporalis vitae & aeternse ,* Caput XXII, De via ad patriam. 4 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters . The outstanding rhetorical characteristic of the sermon is its lively dramatic quality.11 Aside from the part in which the proph¬ ets are summoned to confute the Jews, direct address is employed effectively. Section seven, for example, begins as follows :12 Die mihi, HaBretice, qui audes dicere quod minor sit Dei sapientia: die mihl, altitudo cseli quanta sit, latitudo terrae, profundum abyssi? Section ten ends with the following passage :13 Die, Herodes, si te Christus ideo offendit, quia ejus Magis annuntiantibus audisti regnum, quid te offenderunt bi qui tecum adversus Christum sentiebant principes Judaeorum, quorum filios interficiens ipsos magis atrocissima poena in suis filiis afflixisti? Nam Christum minime invenire potuisti. Sed quid tecum diutius agam? Ipsos, ipsos conveniam Judaeos, qui dum infantem Christum noluerunt agnoscere, filios suos cum illo compulsi sunt amittere: quos quidem occidit mortique propinavit Herodes vester amicus; sed his mortalitatem aeternamque vitam donavit Christus, quern vestrum etiam nunc dicitis inimicum. It appears, then, that at several points the sermon contains dra¬ matic elements and verges upon a dramatic presentation of its theme. II For our present purpose, however, we may dismiss considerations bearing upon the sermon as a whole and may center our attention upon the sections addressed to the Jews (Cap. xi-xviii). Almost the whole of this part is frequently found during the middle ages as a separate liturgical lectio for use in Matins of Christmas or of some other day of the Christmas season. This liturgical use is seen in the following text found in a lectionary of the twelfth century from Arles i* 1 11 On the literary qualities see Sepet, p. 9. 12 Benedictine edition, Vol. VIII, col. 14. 13 This passage serves as a transition to the part beginning Vos, inquam, con - venio, O Judcei, to be studied below. 1 Paris, Bibl. Nat., Ms. latin 1018, Lectionarium Arelatense ssec. xii, fol. 129r— 132v. This is the text printed by Sepet (pp. 3-8). My text differs from his only in a few details, all of which are recorded in my foot-notes. I have seen no cogent reason for collating the texts in Paris, Bibl. Nat., Ms. latin 16819 (Lectionarium Compendiense ssec. xi, fol. 12v-14r), Oxford, Bodleian Library, Ms. Canonici Liturg. 391 (Lectionarium ssec. xii, fol. llv-13v), and Rome, Bibl. Vatic., Ms. Vat. Regin. 125 (Lectionarium Porcalqueriense ssec. xiii, fol. 74r-76v), Young — Or do Prophet arum. 5 Sermo Beati Augwstini Episcopi de Natale DomiNi Lectio vi “Vos, inquam, conuenio, o Iudei, qui usqwe in hodiernum diem negatis Filium Dei. Nonne uox uesfra est ilia quando eum uidebatis miracula facientem atq ue temptantes dicebatis: Quousqwe animas nostras sus- pendis? Si tu es Xpisiws, die nobis palam. Ille autem uos ad cowsidera- tionem mittebat miraculorum, dicens: Opera que ego facio ipsa testi¬ monium perhibent de me; ut Xpisio testimonium dicerent now verba, s ecZ facta. Vos autem no n agnoscentes Saluatorem qwi operabatwr salutem in medio uesire terre, adicientes in malo aistis: Tu de te ipso testi¬ monium dicis; testimonium tuum now est uerum. Sed ad hec ille quid uobis respowderit, aduertere noluistis. Nowne scriptum est in lege uestra qwod duorwm hominum testimonium uerum sit? Preuaricatores legis, intendite legem. Testimonium queritis de XpisZo: in lege uestra scriptum est qwod duorwm hominum testimonium uerum sit. Procedant ex lege now tantum duo sect eciam plures testes Xpisti, et cowuincant auditores legis, now factores.* 2 Die, Ysaya,3 testimonium Xptsto. Ecce, inquit,4 uirgo in utero con- cipiet et pariet filium, et uocabitwr nomew eiws Hemanuhel, qwod est interpretatum : Nobiscum Dews.5 Accedat et alius testis.5 Die et tu, Iheremia,6 testimonium Xpisfo. Hie est, inqwit, Dews noster, et now estimabitur alius absqwe illo qui inuenit omnem uiam scientie et dedit earn Iacop puero suo et7 Israel dilecto suo. Post hec in terris uisus est, et cum hominibws cowuersatws est.8 Ecce duo testes idonei ex lege uestra ad quorwm testimonia non suwt compuncta corda uestra. Sect alii atqwe alii ex lege testes Xpisti introducantur, ut frontes durissime inimicorwm conterantwr.9 all of which are before me as I write. In my foot-notes I indicate the marginal entries and unusual rubrications in Mss. Vat. Regin. 125 and Canonici Liturg. 391. The headings of the texts are as follows: in Ms. 391, Sermo Beati Augustini Episcopi; in Ms. 125, Sermo Beati Augustini Episcopi de Natale Domini; in Ms. 16919, none. These three manuscripts are not mentioned by Sepet. The manu¬ scripts containing the sermo under discussion must be numerous. 2 Followed by a vertical line indicating separation or paragraph division (Ms. 1018). 3 Ysaya] In the right margin, opposite the line in which the name occurs, is written the rubric: Ysayas (Mss. 1018 and 391). All the marginal entries in Ms. 391 seem to me to be of the 15th century. In the left margin, a later hand has written: i prophetia (Ms. 125). 4 Ecce inquit . . . nobiscum Deus] Encircled by red lines, with marginal numeral: i (Ms. 125). 5 Followed by a paragraph sign (Ms. 1018). 6 Iheremia] Opposite this name in the margin: Iheremias (Ms. 1018); Ieremias (Ms. 391). 7 dedit earn Jacop puero suo et] Written in the margin by a later hand (Ms. 1018). 8 Hie est inquit . . . conuersatus est] encircled by red lines, with marginal numeral: ii (Ms. 125). 9 Followed by a paragraph sign (Ms. 1018). 6 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters. Veniat et ille Danihel10 sanctus, iuuenis quidem etate, senior uero scientia ac mawsuetudine, et conuincat omwes falsos testes et sic ut conuicit seniores impudicos, ita suo testimonio Xpisti conterat inimicos. Die, sancte Danihel, die de Xpisto qwod nosti. Cum uenerit, inquit, Sanctus Sanctorum, cessabit unetio.* 11 Quare, illo presente, cui insultantes dice- batis: Tu de te testimonium dicis, testimonium tuum no n est uerum; cessauit unetio uestral Nisi quia ipse est qwi venerat Sanctus Sanctorum. Si enim, sicw£ uos dicitis, now dum uenit, s ed expectatur ut ueniat Sanctus Sanctorum, demonstrate unctionem: si autem, quod uerum est, cessauit uestra, unetio, agnoscite uenisse Sanctum Sanctorum. Ipse est enim et lapis ille abscisus12 de monte sine manibws concidentium, id est Xpistus natus de uirgine sine manibws complectentium, qui tantum creuit ut mons magnus fleret, et impleret uniuersam faciem terre. De quo monte dicit propheia: Venite, ascendamws in montem Domini; et de quo Dauid dicit: Mons Dei, mons uber, ut quid suspicamini montes incaseatos, mowtem in quo placuit Deo habitare in ipso. Cum enim ipse Dominws Xpistus dis- cipwlos suos interrogaret quern dicerewt esse homines Filium hominis, responderunt: Alii Helyam, alii Iheremiam aut unum ex prophets; et ille, vt quid suspicamini montes incaseatos, montem in quo placuit Deo habitare in eo, hunc cognouit Petrus dlcens: Tu es Xpistus, Filius Dei. Agnouit montem et ascendit in montem; testimonium dixii ueritati, et dilectus est a ueritate. Super petram fundatus est Petrus, ut montem susciperet ilium amando quern ter negauerat timendo.13 Die et Moyses,14 legislator, dux popwli Israel, testimonium Xpisto. Prophetam, inquit, uobis suscitabit Deus de fratribws uesJris; omwis awima que now audierit prophetam ilium, exterminabitur de popwlo suo.15 Pro¬ phetam autem dictum Xpistum ipswm audi in Buangelio dicentem: Non est,16 inquit, propheta sine honore, nisi in patria sua.17 Accedat autem Dauid18 sawetws, testis fidelis, ex cuiws semine processit ipse cui lex et prophete testimonium dieuwt, dicat et ipse de Xpisto. Adorabunt, inquit, eum omwes reges terre, omwes gentes seruient illi.19 Cui seruiewt? die, cui seruient? Vis audire cui? Dixit Dominws Domino meo: Sede ad dexteram meam, donee ponam inimicos tuos scabel- hxm pedum tuorwm.20 Et expressiws atqwe nominatim: Quare, inquit, 10 Danihel] Opposite this name in the margin: Daniel (Ms. 391). 11 Cun uenerit . . . cessabit unetio] Encircled by red lines, with marginal numeral: iii (Ms. 125). 12 abscisus] abcisus (Sepet). 13 Followed by a paragraph sign (Ms. 1018). 14 Moyses] Opposite this name in the margin: Moyses (Ms. 391). 15 Prophetiam inquit . . . de populo suo] Encircled by red lines, with il¬ legible marginal numeral (Ms. 125). 16 Non est . . . patria sua] Encirled by red lines, without marginal numeral (Ms. 125). 17 Followed by a paragraph sign (Ms. 1018). 18 Dauid] opposite this name in the margin: Dauid (Ms. 391). 19 Adorabunt . . . seruient illi] Encircled by red lines, with marginal numeral: v (Ms. (125). 20 Dixit Dominus . . . pedum tuorum] Encircled by red lines, without marginal numeral (Ms. 125). Young— Or do Prophet arum. 7 tumultuate sunt gentes, et popwli meditati sunt inania? Astiteruwt reges terre et principes comienerunt in unum aduersus Dominwm et aduersws Xpistum. ei us.21 Accedat et alius testis. Die et tu, Abacuch22 prophefa, testimonium de Xpisto. Domine, inquit, audiui auditum tuum et timui; consideraui opera tua et expaui.23 Que opera Dei iste mirato expauit? Numqsud fabricam rnundi iste miratus expauit? Absi]t. S ed, audi, aliquid expauit. In medio, inquit, duum awimalium cognosceris. Opera tua, Deus, Uerbmw, caro factum est. In medio duum animalium cognosceris. Qui quousqwe descendisti, expauescere me fecisti; Uerbum, per quod facta sunt omnia, in presepe iacuisti. Agnouit bos possessorem suum et asinus presepe Domini sui. In medio duum ammalium cognosceris. Quid est in medio duum ammalium cognosceris? nisi aut in medio duorwm testamentor^m, aut in medio duorwm latronum, aut in medio Moysi24 et Helye cum eo in monte sermocinantium. Ambulauit, inquit, Uerbum et exiuit in campis. Verbum caro factum est et habitauit in nobis. Hoc et Iheremias ait: Post hec in terris uisus est, et cum hominibns conuersatus est.25 Ecce quemadmodum sibi conueniunt testes Ueritatis, ecce quemadmodum conuin- cunt filios falsitatis. SufRciunt uobis ista, o Iudei, an adhuc ad uesiram confusionem ex lege et ex gente uesfra alios introducemus testes ut illi testimonium perhibeant cui perdita mente insultantes dicebatis: Tu de te ipso testimonium dicis, testimonium26 tuum non est verum? Quod si uelim ex lege et ex prophetis omnia que de Xpisto dicta sunt colligere, facilius me tempns quam copia deseret.27 Verumptamen senem23 ilium ex gente uesira natum, s ed in errore uestro non relictum. Symeonem sanctum in medio introducam, qui meruit teneri decrepitus in hac luce quousqne uideret lucem. Quern quidem iam etas compellebat ire, s ed expectabat suscipere quern sciebat uenire; cum iste senex admonitns esset a Spiriiu sancto quod non an te moreretur quam videret Xpisfnm Dei natum, quern cognoscens perrexit ad templum. Vbi uero eum portari matris manibns uidit et diuinam in- fantiam pia senectus agnouit, tulit infantem in manibns suis. Ille qui¬ dem Xpis£nm 29 ferebat, s ed Xpistus senem regebat. Regebat qui portabatur ne ille ante promissum a corpore solueretnr. Quid tamen dixerit, quern tamen confessus fuerit aduertite inimici, non Xpisti, s ed 21 Followed by a paragraph sign (Ms. 1018). 22 Abacuch] Opposite this name in the margin: Abacuc (Ms. 391). 23 Domine . . . et expaui] Encircled by red lines, with marginal numeral: vi (Ms. 125). 24 Moysi] Moyse (Sepet). The last letter of this word is blurred in the manuscript. I print it as it appears to me. 25 Post hec . . . conuersatus est] Encircled by red lines, with marginal numeral: vii (Ms. 125). 26 dicis testimonium] Supplied in the right margin by a later hand (Ms. 1018). 27 Followed by a paragraph sign (Ms. 1018). 28 senem] Opposite this word in the margin: Symeon (Ms. 391). 29 Following Sepet, I supply the word infantem from the Benedictine edition of the entire sermon Contra Judceos, mentioned above. The word is not present in Mss. 1018, 125, 16819, and 391. 8 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters. ues£ri. Benedicts Dominion exclamauit senex ille et dixit: Nunc dimit- tis,30 Domine, seruum tuum in pace, quia uideruwt oc%li mei salutare tuum.31 Illi eciam parentes Ioh originalis peccofi obligates ab omni nexu peccaii liberum.8' Agnouit preco iudicem, agnouit ereatura creatorem, agnouit paranimphus sponsum. Nam et hec uox Ioh&nnis est: Qui habet sponsam sponsus est, amicus autem sponsi qui stat et audit eum gaudio gaudet propter uocem sponsi.39 30 Nunc dimittis . . • . salutare tuum] Encircled by red lines, with marginal numeral: vlii, written twice (Ms. 125). 31 Followed by a paragraph sign (Ms. 1018). 32 Zacharias et Elisabeth] Opposite these names in the margin : Zacharias, Helisabeth (Ms. 391). 83 Tu puer . . . uiam eius] Encircled by red lines, with marginal numeral : ix (Ms. 125). 34 Vnde mihi ... in utero meo] Encircled by red lines, with marginal numeral : x (Ms. 125). 35 Iohannes] Opposite this name in the margin: Iohannes (Ms. 391). 36 Quern me suspicamini . . . corrigiam calciamenti] Encircled by red lines, with marginal numeral: xi (Ms. 125). 87 Ecce inquit agnus . . . debeo baptizari] Encircled by red lines, with¬ out marginal numeral (Ms. 125). 38 liberum] obligatum (Sepet). 39 Followed by a paragraph sign (Ms. 1018). Young — Ordo Prophetarum. 9 Sufficiunt uobis ista, O Iudei, sufficiimt uubis tanti testes, tot testimonia ex lege uesfra et ex gente uesfra? An adhuc impudentia nimia audebitis dicere quod alterias gentis uel nationis homines Xpisto deberewt testi¬ monium perhibere? S ed si hoc dicitis, respondet quide?n ille uobis: Non sum missus nisi ad oues que perierunt dom us Israel. S ed, sic ut uos in Actibus aposfoloram increpat Paulus, uobis primum oportuerat an- nuntiare Uerbum Dei, sed quia repulistis ilhtd nec uos dignos uite eterne iudicastis: Ecce, inquit, cotiuertimzts nos ad gentes. Demonstremws eciam nos ex gentibas testimonium Xpisto fuisse prolatum, quoniam Ueritas no n tacuit clamando eciam per linguas inimicoram suorum. Nonne quando ille poeta40 facutidissimi&s inter sua carmina: lam nova progenies403 celo demittit^r alto,41 dicebat, Xpisto testimonium perhibebat? In dubium hoc ueniat nisi alios ex gentibws idoneos testes pluraqwe dicentes in medio introducam.42 Ilium, ilium43 regem qui uesiram superbiam captiuando perdomuit, Nabuchodonosor, regem scilicet Babilonis, no n pretermittam. Die, Na- buchodonosor, quid in fornace uidisti quando tres uiros iustos iniuste illuc miseras, die, die quid tibi fuerit reuelatum. Nonne, inquit, tres uiros misinms in fornace ligatos? Et aiunt ei: Vere, rex. Ecce, inquit, ego uideo quatuor uiros solutos deambulantes in medio ignis, et corruptio nulla est in eis, et aspectus quarti simiUs est Filio Dei.44 Alienigena, unde tibi hoc? Quis tibi annunciauit Filium Dei? Que lex? Quis pro- phefa tibi annuntiauit Filium Dei? Nondum quidem mundo nascitur et similitudo nascentis a te cognoscitur. Vnde tibi hoc? Quis tibi istwd annuntiauit nisi quia sic te diuinus ignis i ntus illuminauit ut cum illic apud te captiui tenerentur inimici Iudei, sic diceres testimonium Filio Dei? S ed quia in ore duorttm uel trium testium stat omne Uerbum, sic ut ipse Bominus uesiram contumaciam confutans: in lege, inquit, uesira scriptum est quod duorum hominum testimonium uerum sit; etiam ex gentibns45 tercius testis introducatur ut testimonium ueritatis ex onmi parte roboretur.46 Quid Sibilla47 uaticinando etiam de Xpisto clamauerit in medium pro- feramns ut ex uno lapide utrorztmqwe frontes percuciantur, Iudeornm scilicet ntque Paganornm SL+que suo gladio, sic ut Golias, Xpisti omwes per¬ cuciantur inimici. Audite quod dixerit: "poeta] Opposite this word in the margin: Virgilius (Ms. 391). 40a progenies] proienies (Ms. 1018). 41 lam noua . . . dimittitur alto] Encircled by red lines, without marginal numeral (Ms. 125). "Followed by a paragraph sign (Ms. 1018). "ilium] Opposite this word in the margin: Nabuchodonosor (Ms. 391). 44 Ecce inquit ego . . . Filio Dei] Encircled by red lines, with marginal numeral: xii (Ms. 125). 45 ex gentibus] exigentibus (Sepet). 46 Followed by a paragraph sign. 47 Sibilla] Opposite this word in the margin: Sibilla (Ms. 391). 10 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters. 4SJvdicii sign um: tellus sudore madescet; E celo rex adueniet per secla futurus, cilicet in carne presens ut iudicet orbem, Ynde Deum cement incredulus atq ue fidelis Celsum49 cum sanctis, euiB0 iam termino in ipso Sic anime cum carne aderunt quas iudicat ipse, Cum iacet incultus densis in uepribus orbis. Reicient simulacra uiri cunctam quoq ue gazam, Exuret terras ignis, pontumque polumque: Inquirens tetri portas effringet Auerni; Sanctorum sed enim cuncte lux libera carni, Tradentur sontes, eterna61 flamma cremabit. Occultos actus retegens, tunc quisque loquetur Secreta, atq ue Deus reserabit pectora luci..63 Tunc erit et luctus, stridebunt dentibus omnes. Eripitur solis iubar, et chorus interit astris, Soluetur celum lunaris splendor obibit, Deiciet colles, ualles extollet ab imo: Non erit in rebus hominum sublime uel altum. Turn equantur campis montes, et cerula ponti Omnia cessabunt, tellus confracta peribit: Sic pariter fontes torrentur fluminaq ue igni. Et tuba tunc sonitum tristem demittet ab alto Orbe, gemens facinus miserum, uariosque labores, Tarthareumque chaos monstrabit terra deicens Et coram hie domino reges sistentur ad unum: Decidet e celo ignisque et sulphuris amnis. Hec de Xpisti natiuitate, passione, et resurrectione atq ue secuudo ei us adueutu ita dicta sunt ut si quis in greco capita horum uersuum discer- nere uoluerit inueniet: Ihesus Xpisfus, Yos Theu, Soter; quod in latino ita interpretatur: Ihesus Xp istus, films Dei, Saluator; quod et in latinum translatis eisdem uersibus, apparet, pret er hoc quod grecarum litterarum proprietas nou adeo potuit obseruari. Credo iam uos, o inimici Iudei, tantis testibus ita53 obrutos confutatosque esse ipsa ueritate ut nichil ultra repugnare, nichil querere debeatis.64 In view of the importance of this lectio in the dramatic develop¬ ment under consideration, we must examine its content in detail. 48 The verses of the Sibyl (Judicii signum . . . sulphuris amnis) are fur¬ nished with musical notation in Ms. 1018, and the first two verses are thus furnished in Ms. 125. 49 Celsum] Selsum (Ms. 1018). 60 eui] cui (Sepet) ; eui (Ms. 125); euis (Ms. 391); aeui (Ms. 16819). 61 eterna] eternaque (Sepet). 62 luci] lucis (Ms. 1018). 63 ita] Omitted (Sepet). S4 Followed immediately by the rubric : Lectio Sancti Euangelii secundum Lucam (Ms. 1018). Young~Ordo Prophet arum. 11 But before we undertake this examination we may pause to observe certain variations of content in the extant versions, and certain facts concerning its position in the liturgy. In some churches the lectio was substantially abbreviated. Thus in a French breviary of the thirteenth century55 it appears as Lectio vi of Christmas, but is reduced by almost one-half in length. The lesson retains only the introduction, the prophecies of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Daniel, and the concluding prophecy of the Sibyl. The shortest form that I have observed is the following from a breviary of the fourteenth century from Saintes, used as the sixth lectio of Christmas Matins :56 Lee tio via Vos, inquam, conuenio, o Iudei, qui usqwe in hodiernum diem negastis Filium Dei. Nowne uestra uox est ilia quando eum uidebatis miracula facientem atqwe temptantes dicebatis: Quousqwe awimas nostras tollis? Si tu es Xpistuc, die nobis palam. Ille autem ad consideracionem miracu- lorwm uos mittebat dicews: Opera que ego facio ipsa testimonium peri- bent de me, ut Xpisfo testimonium dicerewt non uerba set facta. Vos astern now agnoscentes Saluatorem qui operabatur salutem in medio uestre terre, adiciewfes maledixistis: Tu de te ipso testimowium peribes; testimonium tuum now est uerum. Sed ad hec ille quod testimowium uobis responderit auertere noluistis: Nowne scriptum est in lege quia qwod duorwm hominum uerum sit? Preuaricatores legis, intewdite legem. Testimonium queritis de Xpisto. In lege uestra scrip¬ tum est quod duorwm hominum testimonium uerum sit. Preuaricatores legis intendite legem. Testimonium queritis de Xpisto: in lege uestra scriptum est quo duorwm hominum uerum sit.57 Procedant ex lege now tantum duo s ed eciam plures testes Xpisti cowuiw- cant auditores legis et now faefores. Die, Ysaya, testimonium de Xpisto. Ecce, inquit,58 uirgo in utero con- cipiet et pariet filium, et uocabitur nomew eius Hemanuel, qwod est inter- pretatum nobiscum Dews. 65 Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 1255, Breviarium Gallicanum ssec. xiii, fol 84r— 85r. Sepet (See p. 2, note 1) was familiar with this version. The exact provenience of this manuscript I have not been able to determine. In Catctlogus Codicum Manuscript orum Bibliothecae Regice, Vol III, Paris, 1744, p. 99, the content of this manuscript is described as follows: Breviarium ad usum monasterii cujusdam Gallicani, ordinis Sancti Benedicti. That this breviary is not for monastic use, however, seems to be shown by the presence of nine lectiones in Matins of Epiphany. 56 Paris, Bibl. Nat., Ms. lat. 16309, Breviarium Santonense saec. xiv, fol. 31r. This version is now published for the first time. The same manuscript con¬ tains (fol. 40v-41v) another excerpt from the pseudo-Augustinian sermo , used as the sixth lectio of Matins for the Circumcision. See below, note 77. 57 1 print the text as it stands in the manuscript, with its obvious repetition. “inquit] inquid (Ms.). 12 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. Accedat et alius testis. Die et tu, Iheremia, testimonium Xpisto. Hie est Deus noster, et non estimabitur alius absqne illo, qui inuenit omnem uiam sciencie, et dedit earn Iacob puero suo et Israel dilecto suo. Post hec in terris uisus est, et cum hominibns conuersatus est. Ecce duo59 testes ex lege uestra ex quornm testimonio non snnt com- puncta corda uestra.60 Since this version contains only the nsnal introduction and the first two prophecies (Isaiah and Jeremiah), one might surmise that other parts of the sermo supplied one or more of the succeeding lectiones of Matins at Saintes ;61 hut such is not the case. Somewhat different from the versions previously cited is the following Lectio ix for Christmas Matins in a breviary of the four¬ teenth century from Carcassonne :62 Lectio ix Inter pressuras atqne angustias presentis temporis in nostre seruitutis officia eogimur, Dilectissimi, non tacere cum pocius expediat flere magis quam aliquid dicere. Uerumptamen ne quid minus lucri arche dominice accedens dicatur nobis: Serue neqnam et piger tu erogares peccuniam meam et ego ueniens cum usuris exigerem.63 Procedant ex lege non tantum duo s ed etiam plures testes Xpisti et conuinean£ uos Iudeos auditores legis non autem facJores. Die, Ysaia, testimonium Xpisto. Ecce, inquit, uirgo concipiet et pariet filium et uocabitur nomen eius Emanuhel, qztod interpretatur : Nobiscum Dens. Accedat et alius testis. Die, Iberemias, testimonium de Xpisto. Hie est, inqnit, Deus nosier et non estimabiinr alius absqne illo qni inuenit omnem scienfiam et dedit earn Iacob puero suo et Israel dilecto suo. Quid enim Sibilla uaticinando de Xpisto clamauerit in medium profer- amus. Audite quid dixerit: 59 duo] duos (Ms.). 60 The sixth responsory follows immediately : Responsorium : Sancti et in- maculata uirginitas. 61 For excerpts from the sermo serving in a series of lectiones see the use of Sarum, cited below, note 74. 62 Paris, Bibl. Nat., ;Ms. lat. 1035, Breviarium Carcassonense ssec. xiv, fol. 3 Or— 31r. This text is now published for the first time. In the manuscript it is immediately preceded by the following henedictio: Initium et finis, Alius Marie uirginis eruat nos a peccatis et uitiis. 63 This introductory paragraph (Inter pressuras . . . exigerem) consists of the opening sentences of the complete Contra Judaeos, Paganos, et Arianos Sermo de Symbolo. See above, pp. 2 ff. Young — Or do Prophetarum. Versus Sibille Iudicii84 signum: tellus sudore madescet; E celo rex adueniet per secla futurus Scilicet in carne presens \it iudicet orbem. Post: Iudicii. Unde Deum cement incredulus atq ue fidelis Celsum cum sanctis, euis iam termino in ipso. Posi : Iudicii Sic anime cum carne aderunt, quas iudicat ipse Cum iacei incultus densis in uepribns orbis. Posi: Iudicii. Deicient simulacra uiri, cunctam quoqne gazam; Exure£ terras ignis, ponthumqne polumqne. Pos£: Iudicii. Inquirens tetri portas effringei Auerni; Sanctorum sed erit cuncte lux libera carni. Pos£: Iudicii. Tradentur sontes, eterna flamma cremabit. Occultos actus retegens tunc quisqne looretur. Post : Iudicii. Secreta atqne Dens reserabit pectora luci. Tunc erit et luctus, stridebunt dentibns omnes. Post: Iudicii. Eripitur solis iubar, et corpus interit astris; Soluetnr celum, lunaris splendor obibit. Post : Iudicii. Deicient colles, ualles extoilet ab ymo; Non erit in rebus hominum sublime uel altum. Post : Iudicii. Iam eqnuntur camp is montes, et cerula ponthi; Omnia cessabunt, tellus confracta peribit. Post: Iudicii. Hie pariter fontes torrentnr flamineq ue igni, Et tubarnm sonitum tristem dimittet ab alto. Pos* : Iudicii. Orbe gemens facinus miserum uariosqne labores Tartareumqne chaos monstrabit terra deiscens. Post : Iudicii. Et coram hie Domino reges sistentnr ad unum: Reddet e celo ignisqne et sulphuris amnis. Post: Iudicii signum. 13 64 Iudicii] Iuditii (Ms). 14 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. Lectio Nong^5 Hec de XpisZi natiuitate, passione, et resurrectione, atq ue secundo eius aduentu iam dicta, siunt ut, si quis in greco capita horum nersuum dis- cernere uoluerit, inuemet: Ihesits XpisZuc, Yos Theu, Sother; quod in latinum eisdem versibus apparet pret er quod litteranm grecarum proprietas no n adeo potuit obseruari. Credo uos, o inimici ludei, tantis testibws obrutos cowfutatosqwe ipsa ueritate uZ nichiZ ultra repugware, nichiZ querere debeatis. T.®8 The peculiarity of this version lies not so much in the elimination of the majority of the prophecies from the interior of the dis¬ course, as in the substitution for the usual introduction (Vos, inquam . . . verum sit ) of the opening words (Int &r press uras . . . usuris exigerem) of the Contra Judceos, Paganos, et Ari- anos Sermo de Symbolo ,67 But aside from these differences in content, the sermon Vos inquam shows variations also in liturgical position.68 We have al¬ ready observed its use as the sixth69 or ninth70 lectio in Matins of Christmas day. On the same day it sometimes served as the fifth71 or eighth72 lectio. But it is found in Matins of other days as well. It served as the fourth73 lectio, or as the fourth, fifth, and sixth 65 For the repetition of this rubric I have no explanation. 68 Followed immediately by the responsory Descendit de celis Deus. 67 See above, pp. 2 ff. 68 See Chambers, Vol. II, pp. 52, note 4; 53, note 2. 69 See also Bibl. Nat., Mss. latins 1234, Ordinarium Utinense ssec. xiv, fol. 2v ; 1273, Breviarium Andegavense ssec. xiv, fol. 37r ; 1279, Breviarium Monasterii Tutelensis ssec. xiv, fol. 27r; 752, Breviarium Arelatense ssec. xiv, fol. 70v— 71r ; 1028, Breviarium Senonense ssec. xiv, fol. 51r. See further U. Chevalier, Insti¬ tutions liturgiques de VCglise de Marseille ( Bibliotheque liturgique, XIV), Paris, 1910, p. 23. 70 See also Bibl. Nat., Ms. 1309, Breviarium Gerundense ssec. xv, fol. 31r-31v. , 71 That this was the use of Paris is shown by the following breviaries from churches of that place: Bibl. Nat., Ms. lat. 1025, ssec. xiv, fol. 126v, 128r— 128?; Bibl. Nat., Ms. lat. 746, ssec. xiv, fol. 30v-31r; Bibl. Nat., Ms. lat. 746 A., ssec. xiv, fol. 23v ; Bibl. Nat., Ms. lat. 1293, anni 1471, fol. 34r-34v; Bibl. Nat., Ms. lat. 1294, anni 1472, fol. 37r; Bibl. Mazarine, Ms. 342, ssec. xiv, fol. 109r; Bibl Mazarine, Ms. 345, ssec. xv, fol. 160v. See also Bibl. Nat., Ms. lat. 747, Lec- tionarium Parisiense ssec. xiii-xiv, fol. 9v-10r. A similar use at the Abbey of St. Victor is seen in Bibl. Mazarine, Ms. 347, ssec. xiv, fol. 89v-90r. See also Bibl. Nat., Ms. lat. 12035, ssec. xii, fol. 22v-23r, — a breviary of provenience un¬ known to me. 72 Vatican Ms. 7126, Breviarium Monasticum ssec. xiii, fol. 64r-64v. 73 Munich, Hofbibliothek, Cod. lat. 12635, Breviarium Ranshofenense ssec. xiii, p. 7. Young — Or do Prophet arum. 15 lectiones74 on the fourth Sunday of Advent; as the fourth lectio on Christmas eve;75 as all three lectiones in ferial Matins on any day of the week preceding Christmas ;76 and as the sixth lectio on the day of the Circumcision.77 I can cite no evidence of its use outside the season of Christmas. But with these variations in content and in liturgical position we are concerned only incidentally, for these matters have no im¬ portant bearing upon the dramatic development under considera¬ tion. Let us, then, return to an examination of the complete and normal form of the lectio as printed above from the lectionary of Arles (Ms. 1018). 78 The lectio opens with a direct arraignment of the Jews for their perverse disbelief in Christ’s Messiahship. Since the Jews stub¬ bornly demand evidence, the preacher grimly proposes to fetch testi¬ mony from their own law. He first summons Isaiah, bidding him testify concerning Christ. As if receiving a response directly from Isaiah in person, the preacher reports the prophet’s utterance. Similarly are summoned the prophets Jeremiah, Daniel, Moses, David, and Habbakuk. After each summons, the preacher reports the prophet’s utterance, and adds a few words of elucidation. With the taunt that he might readily extend this succession of prophets from the Old Testament, the preacher passes on to the premonitions regarding Christ in the New Testament, quoting ut¬ terances from Simeon, Zacharias, Elisabeth, and John. With a 74 Breviarium ad usum insignis Ecclesice Sarum, edited by F. Procter and C. Wordsworth, Cambridge, 1882, pp. cxxxv-cxliii. 76 See E. Mart§ne, Tractatus de Antiqua Ecclesice Disciplina, Lyons, 1706, p. 78. 76 At Laon. See U. Chevalier, Ordinaires de I’figlise cathedrale de Laon, Paris, 1897, pp. 33-43. 77 Bibl. Nat., Ms. lat. 16309, Breviarium Santonense saec. xiv, fol. 40v-41v. In this case the liturgical lectio contains only the following parts of the sermon Vos inquam: the opening sentences of the introduction, the prophecies of Virgil, Nebuchadnezzar, and the Sibyl, and the conclusion. The excerpt from the sermon Vos inquam found in the same manuscript (fol. 31r) for use as the sixth lectio on Christmas has been printed above. 78 From the present study I omit all investigation of the sources of the Latin lectio before us. The probability that the sermon Vos, inquam, convenio is in¬ fluenced *by Greek sermons of dramatic content is discussed in the able mono¬ graph of Giorgio La Piana, Le Rappresentazioni Sacre nella Letteratura Bizan- tina, Grottaferrata, 1912, pp. 283-302, 308-309. Once given the sermon Vos, inquam, convenio, the Western development of this composition into drama appears to me to be independent of Byzantine influence. The opposing opinion of La Piana in the case of the Ordo Prophetarum from Limoges, I consider below, pp. 86-37. 16 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. tart reminder to the Jews that the testimony already adduced should be ample, the preacher adds utterances from the Gentiles, Virgil79 and Nebuchadnezzar, and finally80 a prophetic passage in hexa¬ meters from the Erythraean Sibyl.81 After elucidating the Chris¬ tian acrostic of the Sibylline verses, the speaker darts at the hostile Jews a concluding shaft of scorn. Viewed as a literary production the lectio is particularly note¬ worthy for its energetic dramatic style. The direct denunciations of the Jews are presented in effective, though artificial, antitheses; and the verbal playfulness of some passages, however strained it may appear, contributes at least a certain vivacity.82 The monot¬ ony immanent in the formula of repeated summonses and responses is somewhat mitigated through variety in the elucidating narratives accompanying the responses. The circumstance that the prophets are not summoned in chronological order does not seriously impair the organization of the composition.83 79 For information concerning the famous line from Virgil, see J. B. Mayor, W. W. Fowler, and R. S. Conway, Virgil’s Messianic Eclogue , London, 1907. 80 It will be observed that the last seven witnesses ( Simeon, Zacharias, Eliza¬ beth, John, Virgil, Nebuchadnezzar, and Sibyl) are not summoned after the formula (Die, Ysaia; Die et tu, Iheremia ; Die, sancte Danihel ; etc.) employed for the six preceding. The actual presence of Simeon, Zacharias, and Elizabeth, John, Nebuchadnezzar, and the Sibyl may be understood as suggested in various utterances of the preacher, such as the following : Symeonem . . . intro - ducamj Illi etiam parentes Ioannis, Zacharias et Elisabeth, . . . dicant ; O fidelis testis ; In dubium hoc ueniat, nisi alios ex gentibus idoneos testes pluraque dicentes in medio introducam. I find in the text nothing that could possibly imply the actual presence of Virgil. 81 These prophetic verses. are quoted by St. Augustine in his Be Civitate Bei (Lib. xviii, cap. 23. See Migne, Pat. Ldt., Vol. XLI, col. 579—581). Their ap¬ pearance throughout the middle ages is frequent. See F. Neri, Le Tradizioni italiene della Sibilla, in Studi Medievali (ed. Novati and Renier), Vol. IV (1912-13), pp. 220-221; Notices et Extraits des Manuscrits de la Bibliotheque Nationale, Vol. XXXII, Part II, Paris, 1888, pp. 101-102 ; F. Kampers, Bie Sibylle von Tibur und Vergil, in Historisches Jahrbuch, Vol. XXIX (1908), pp. 3, 244; Chevalier, Repertorium Hymnologicum, No. 9876 ; La Piana, pp. 308-309. 82 See Sepet, p. 9. 83 See Petit de Julleville, Vol. I, p. 35. Young — Ordo Prophet arum. 17 III Still more important than the matter of dramatic style and content, however, is the question of dramatic delivery. There can be no doubt that the sermon before us, like many other mediaeval homilies, contains material suitable for dialogue and impersona¬ tion, and hence for drama. We may well ask, therefore, how far the homily in the form before us actually proceeded in the direc¬ tion of dramatic rendition. That the lectio as it stands was not delivered as a dialogue seems perfectly clear from the use of the word inquit in the responses.1 The use of this word seems to prove conclusively that the utter¬ ances of the persons summoned are delivered not by separate speakers, but by the lector himself.2 The most that can be assumed is that the lector altered his voice in such a way as to distinguish between summons and response.3 Although, then, the lectio in use at Arles could not have been re¬ cited as dialogue, there is no reason why there should not exist other versions in which the several prophecies were spoken by separate persons. Such a version is courageously conjectured by Sepet as follows : J’en conlus de plus qu’on a fini, a un moment donnd, par completer les flexions de voix en leur donnant pour organes des lecteurs differents, et qu’alors chaque ton, c’est-a-dire cliaque prophete, a eu son interprete, le dialogue demeurant cependant toujours enchassd dans le recit. Cette con¬ clusion repose sinon sur des preuves pdremptoires, au moins sur des in¬ ductions raisonnables. C’est une conjecture, mais c’est, je crois, une con¬ jecture vraisemblable.4 Although Sepet could find no text with which to support this conjecture, and although he constructed it upon feeble data,5 it has 1 For example: Ecce, inquit, uirgo, etc.; Hie est, inquit, Deus noster, etc. 2 Early in his argument Sepet seems to affirm the presence of dialogue in the lectio (“la reponse suivant immediatement la question et par consequent con- stituant un dialogue,” p. 9) ; but he subsequently corrects himself (“ce qui nous indique bien qu’il n’y avait pas de dialogue proprement dit,” p. 23). Chasles sees clearly (p. 123) that the presence of the word inquit precludes dialogue. 3 See Sepet, pp. 13, 23. The varying of a single lector’s (or cantor’s) voice in the rendering of the passiones of Holy Week is discussed at length in my article Observations on the Origin of the Mediaeval Passion-Play, in Publica¬ tions of the Modern Language Association, Vol. XXV (1910), pp. 309-333. 4 Sepet, p. 13. See also Sepet, pp. 42, 96-97. 6 Sepet bases (pp. 10, 13) his conjecture, in the first place, upon the analogy of the Passiones of Holy Week. He asserts (p. 10) that as early as the thir- 2 — S. A. Li. 18 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters. been welcomed by competent critics as conforming to general prob¬ ability.6 I am particularly glad, therefore, to present a version of the lectio that provides for Sepet ’s conjecture a genuine justifica¬ tion. In a service-book from the church of Salerno we find the following :7 In Nattvitatis Nocte post primam , Miss am legitur Sermo Sancti Augus- tini Episcqpi, more Salernitano. Vos (inquam) conuenio, O Iudsei, qui vsqwe in hodiernum diem negatis filinm Dei. Nonne vox vestra est ilia, quando eum videbatis miracula facientem, atq ue tentantes dicebatis: Quousqae animas nostras suspendis? Si tu es Christus, die nobis palam. Ille autem vos ad eonsiderationem miraculorum mittebat, dicens: Opera que ego facio, ipsa testimonium perhibent de me; vt Christo testimonium dicere^t, non verba, sed facta. Vos autem, non cognoscentes Saluatorem, adijeientes in main dixistis : Tu de te testimonium dicis; testimonium tuum non est verum. Sed ad hsec ille quid vobis respondent, aduertere noluistis. Nonne scriptum est (inquit) in lege vestra quod duorum hominum testimonium verum sit? Prseuaricatores legis intendite legem. Testimonium quaeritis de Christo; in lege vestra scriptum est quod duorum hominum < testi¬ monium > verum sit. Procedant de lege non tantum duo sed etiam plures testes Christi, & conuincant auditores legis, nec factores. Die & tu, Isaias propheta, testimonium Christo? teenth century the Passio was sung by three persons, to whom respectively were assigned the parts of Christ, the Jews, and the Narrator ; and he raises the question as to whether some such assignment of parts may not have been prac¬ ticed in the delivery of the lesson Vos, inquam, convenio . Such slight force as this analogy may be supposed to have virtually disappears before the evidence that this practice of distributing the roles of the Passio among three persons did not obtain before the fifteenth century. See my Observations on the Origin of the Mediaeval Passion-Play, already cited, p. 331. Another analogy cited by Sepet (pp. 11-12) is that of the Gradual of the Mass for Palm Sunday as rubricated in a certain manuscript of the twelfth century (Bibl. Nat., Ms. lat. 9486, fol. 9r). The several sentences of the Gradual are here distributed with somewhat unusual dramatic appropriateness between Duo cantores and Chorus, and this text as a whole, like the pseudo-Augustinian lectio, may be viewed as a mingling of monologue and dialogue. Although the analogy between this musical piece and the recited lectio is remote, it may be allowed to stand oy whatever strength it has. I regard it as negligible. Sepet perceives (p. 13) a further hint toward a distribution of the r61es of the lectio in the manuscript itself (Bibl. Nat., Ms. lat. 1018) : that is, in the paragraph-signs and in the entry of the names of two prophets at appropriate points in the margin (I have recorded these rubrications in my foot-notes to the text of the lectio above, along with the more thorough-going rubrications from Ms. Vatic. Regin. 125 and Ms. Canonici Liturg. 391). I cannot accept Sepet’s eager interpretation of these rubrications. Although they are undoubtedly significant as indicating divisions in the content of the lectio, they in no way prove that the several prophecies were assigned to separate speakers, 6 See Petit de Julleville, Vol. I, p. 35; Chambers, Vol. II, p. 53. 7 Officia Propria Festorum Salernitance Ecclesice, Naples, 1594, pp. 75—79. I print from the copy in the British Museum. Young — Or do Prophet arum. 19 Isaias: Ecce virgo concipiet & pariet filium, & vocabitur nomen eius Emanuel, quod est interpretatum: Nobiscum Deus. Lector: Accedat & alius testis. Die & tu, Hieremia, testimonium Christo? Ieremias : Hie est Deus noster, & no n sestimabitur alius absque eo qui inuenit omnem viam scientiae, & dedit earn Iacob puero suo & Israel dilecto suo. Post haec in terris visus est, & cum hominibus conuersatus est. Lector: Ecce duo testes idonei ex lege vestra, ex quorum testimonio non sunt compuncta corda vestra. Sed alij atqwe alij ex lege Christi testes intro- ducantur vt frontes durissimi inimicorum conterantur. Veniat & Daniel sanctus, iuuenis quidem aetate, senior vero scientia ac mansuetudine, conuincat omnes falsos testes, & sicut conuicit seniores impudicos, ita suo testimonio Christi conterat inimicos. Die sancte Daniel, die de Christo quod nosti? Daniel: Cum venerit Sanctus Sanctorum, cessabit vnetio vestra. Lector : Quare, illo praesente insultantes dicebatis: Tu de te ipso testimonium dicis, testimonium tuum non est verum, cessauit vnetio vestra nisi quia ipse est qui venerat Sanctus Sanctorum? Sed si, ut8 vos dicitis, non dum venit, sed expectatur, vt veniat Sanctus Sanctorum, demonstrate vnetionem. Si autem,. quod verum est, cessauit vnetio vestra, cognoscite venisse Sanctum Sanctorum. Accedat & alius testis. Die & tu, Moyses, legislator, dux populi Israel, testimonium Christo? Moyses : Prophetam vobis excitabit Deus de fratribus vestris; omnis anima quae non audierit prophetam ilium, exterminabitur de populo suo. Lector: Prophetam dictum Christum ipsum Christum audi in Euangelio dicentem: Non est propheta sine honore, nisi in patria sua. Accedat enim Dauid sanctus testis fidelis, ex cuius semine processit ipse cui lex & prophete testomonium dicunt; dicat & ipse de Christo. Die & tu, Dauid, propheta, testimonium Christo? Dauid: Adorabunt eum omnes reges terrae, omnes gentes seruient ei. Lector: Cui seruient? Die cui seruient. si, ut] sicut (Print). 20 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. Dauid: Vis audire cui? Lector: Volo. Dauid: Dixit Dominus Domino meo: Sede ad dexteram meam, donee ponam inimicos tuos scabellum pedum tuorum. Lector: Et espressius atq ue nominatim: Quare (Quare, inquit) tumultuatse sunt gentes, & populi meditati sunt inania? Astiterunt reges terrse, & principes conuenerunt in vnum aduersus Dominum & aduersus Christum eius. Accedat & alius testis. Die & tu Abachuc, propheta, testimonium Christo? Abachuc: Domine, audiui auditum tuum & timui, consideraui opera tua & expaui. In medio duorum animalium cognosceris. Opera tua, Dews, & verbum caro factum est. Lector : Ecce quemadmodum comieniunt testes veritatis; ecce quemadmodum comieniunt testes falsitatis. Sufficiuwt vobis ista, O Iudei? An adhuc ad vestram cowfusionem & ex lege & ex gente vestra alios introducemus testes, & illi testimonium praebeant cui perdita mewte insultantes dice- batis: Tu de te ipso testimonium perhibes; testimonium tuum non est verum? Accedat & alius testis. Benedicens Dominum Simeon, ex- clamauit senex ille et dixit. Die & tu, Simeon, propheta, testimonium Christo? Simeon: Nunc dimictis, Domine, seruum tuum secundum verbum tuum in pace, quia viderunt oculi mei salutare tuum. Lector: Ille etiam parentes Ioannis, Zaccharias & Elizabeth, iuuenes steriles & in senectute fecundi, dicant etiam ipsi testimonium Christo; dicawt de Christo quod sentiuwt & testem idoneum Christo nutriant. Aiunt enim suo paruulo nato. Die & tu, Zacharias, propheta, testimonium Christo? Zaccharias : Tu puer, propheta Altissimi vocaberis, prseibis enim ante faciem domini parare vias eius. Lector: Ipsique matri & virgini Elizabeth ait. Die & tu, Elizabeth, testi¬ monium Christo? Young — Or do Prophetarum. 21 Elizabet: Vnde hoc mihi vt veniat mater Domini mei ad me? Ecce enim vt facta est vox salutationis in auribus meis, exultauit in gaudio infans in vtero meo. Lector: Intelligens enim Ioa/mes Matrem Domini sui venisse ad suam matrem, inter ipsas angustias vteri adhuc positus motu salutauit, quern voce no?i poterat. Die & tu, Ioannes, testimonium Christo? Ioannes : Ecce Agnus Dei, ecce qui tollit peccata mundi. Lector: Et adiecit: Tu ad me venis baptizari; ego a te debeo baptizari. Agnouit seruus Dominum, cognouit vinculis originalis peccati obligatus omni nexu peccati liberum. Agnouit peccator iudicem, agnouit creatura creatorem, cognouit paranymphus sponsum. Nam & hsec vox Ioannis est: Qui habet sponsam, sponsus est. Nonhe quando ille facundissimus poeta inter sua carmina dicit. Die & tu, Virgili, testimonium Christo? Virgilius : lam noua progenies ccelo dimittitur alto. Lector: Dicebat Christo testimonium propheta? In dubium hoc veniat nisi alios ex gentibus idoneos testes pluraqwe dicentes in medium introducat. Ilium regem qui vestram superbiam captiuando perdomuit, Nebuch- donosor regem scilicet Babylonis, non prsetermittam. Die & tu Nabuch- donosor testimonium Christo? Nabuchdonosor : Nonne tres viros misimus in fornacem ligatos? Lector: Et aiunt ei. Famulus Regis: Vere, Rex. Nabuchdonosor: Ecce video quatUor viros solutos deambulantes in medio ignis, & cor¬ rupts nulla est in eis, & aspectus quarti similis est filio Dei. Lector: 0 alienigena, vnde tibi hoc? Quis tibi annunciauit filium Dei? Non- dum quidem mundo nascitur, & similitudo nascerctis a te cognoscitur. Quid Sibilla vaticinando etiam de Christo clamauerit, in medium profer- amus, vt ex uno latere vtrorumqwe frontes percutiantur, Iudse- orum scilicet atq ue Paganorum atqwe suo gladio, sicut Golias, ChristI omnes percutiantur inimici. Audite quid dixerit. Die & tu, Sybilla, testimonium Christo? 22 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. Sibilla Erytheaea: Ivdicii signum: tellus sudore madescet; E ccelo Rex adueniet, per ssecla futurus, Scilicet in carne9 presens vt iudicet Orbem. Vnde Deum cernewt incredulus atq ue fidelis Celsum cum sanctis seui iam termino in ipso. Sic animse cum carne aderunt, quas iudicet ipse Cum iacet incultus densis in vepribus Orbis. Deiiciewt simulacbra viri, cunctam quoqwe gazam. Exuret terras ignis, pontumq^e polumq^e; Inquirens tetri portas effringet Auerni. Sanctorum sed enim cunctae lux libera carni Tradetur. Sontes seterna flamma cremabit. Occultos actus retegens tunc quisq^e loquetur Secreta atqwe Deus reserabit pectora luci. Tunc erit & luctus, stridebunt dentibus omnes. Eripitur solis iubar, et chorus interit astris. Soluetur caelum, lunaris splendor obibit. Deiiciet colles, valles extoilet ab imo. Non erit in rebus hominum sublime vel altum. Iam aequantur campis montes et caerula powti. Omnia cessabunt, tellus confracta peribit. Sic pariter fontes torrentur, fluminaqzte igni; Et tuba tunc sonitum tristem demittet ab alto. Orbe gemews facinus miserum varTosqwe labores, Tartareumq^e chaos mowstrabit terra dehiscews, Et coram hie Domino reges sistewtur ad vnum. Decidet e ccelo ignis & sulphuris amnis. Lector: Haec de Christi Natiuitate, Passione, et Resurrectione, atq ue secundo eius Aduentu ita dicta sunt vt si quis in graeco capita eorum discere voluerit, inueniet: IISVS, CHRISTOS YOS THEV, SOTIR. Quod est in Latino: IESVS, CHRISTVS, FILIVS DEI SALVATOR. Quod & in Latinum translatis eisdem versibus apparet praeter quod Graecarum lit- erarum proprietas non adeo potuit obseruari. Tu.10 Although our information concerning the ceremonial connected with this liturgical piece is slight,* 11 we can infer the essentials from the text itself. The unusual liturgical position of the lectio is made clear in the introductory rubric: In Nativifatis Node post primam Missam. The reading occurs, then, at the conclusion of 9 carne] carnem (Print). 10 Followed immediately by the rubric : De officio Beati Matthaei in Feria Quinta. 11 1 am not acquainted with any ordinaria from Salerno. Young — Or do Prophet arum. 23 the first of the three Christmas Masses, and this first Mass is sung immediately after the Te Deum of Christmas Matins. This posi¬ tion may be shown schematically as follows :12 Lectio ix (the last lectio of Matins) Responsorium13 Te Deum Missa de Nocte (First Mass) Sermo Sancti Augustini Laudes Missa in Aurora (Second Mass) Prima Tertia Missa in Die (Third Mass) Clearly, then, the lectio is no longer connected with Matins,14 but is an independent liturgical piece for delivery more Salernitano. The mos Salernitanus for the delivery of the sermo in its new position is not difficult to discern. The Lector reads the introduc¬ tory address to the Jews, and then summons, in turn, the thirteen witnesses. That each testimony is read by a separate person repre¬ senting the appropriate witness, is shown by the rubrics giving the names of the speakers and by the absence of the word inquit in the testimonies.15 It will be observed that with the text of the sermo the Lector takes certain liberties : his own utterances are substantially reduced in length, and the summonses are given a new uniformity.16 But most noticeable is the expansion into dialogue of the roles of David and Nabuchadnezzar.17 The expansion of the latter’s dialogue in¬ cludes the introduction of an additional personage to speak the 12 See, for example, U. Chevalier, Ordinaires de Vfiglise cathedrale de Laon, Paris, 1897, pp. 47-48. 13 According to the mediaeval use, this last responsory of Christmas Matins was frequently followed by a reading of the genealogy of Christ (Liber Genera- tionis) from the Gospel of Matthew (i, 1—16). See Chevalier, Ordinaires de Vftglise cathedrale de Laon, p. 47 ; and the present writer, in Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters, Vol. XVII, Part I (1912), pp. 313, 385-386, 391. 14 The closing formula Tu <^autem, Domine, miserere nobis^> may, or may not, be a survival from the use of the sermo as a regular lectio in Matins. 15 The retention of inquit in connection with testimonies that are read by the Lector himself is illustrated in the Lector’s utterance immediately after the last speech of David. 16 Note, for example, Die & tu, Simeon and Die & tu, Ioannes. 17 This expansion of the role of Nebuchadnezzar anticipates the dramatic elaboration surrounding this personage in the more highly developed versions of the Ordo Prophetarum. See below, pp. 61-62, 65-66. 24 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. words of Famulus Regis. There is, of course, nothing to show that any of the personages named in the rubrics are, or are not, actually impersonated. From the laconic legitur of the introductory rubric one more naturally infers that there is no impersonation. It cannot he asserted positively that the text before us represents a chronological stage between the use of the sermo as an ordinary, undialogued lectio in Matins and the use of it unmistakable drama. Since the lectio of Salerno is known to us only in a printed version of the late sixteenth century, one might contend that it represents not a pre-dramatie stage of the development, but a later stage in which the influence of the dramatic Ordo Prophetarum merely lingers. To me, however, the very presence of a dialogued lectio in a printed service-book of the year 1594 seems to indicate a long tradition; and while awaiting further knowledge concerning the mediaeval usages of the church of Salerno, I shall regard the text before us as representing a stage between the normal liturgical lectio and the fully dramatized Ordo Prophetarum. IV However dramatic the version from Salerno may seem, it still retains the essential outline and language of the Augustinian lectio: the prophecies are still merely incidental in an expository address, — an address which has, to be sure, been reduced, but which still forms the backbone of the piece. We pass naturally, then, to a version from the monastery of St. Martial at Limoges, in which the prophecies are virtually free from enclosing exposition, are given a special literary form, and are set to music i1 1 Paris, Bibl. Nat., Ms. latin 1139, Troparium Martialense ssec. xii, fol. 55v-58r. The manuscript is described by L.-J.-N. Monmerque and P. Michel, Theatre frangais au Moyen Age, Paris, 1842, pp. 1-3, by E. de Coussemaker, Histoire de VHarmonie au Moyen Age, Paris, 1852, pp. 126-127, and by the same author in his Drames liturgiques du Moyen Age, Rennes, 1860, pp. 311-319. See also W. Meyer, Fragmenta Burana, Berlin, 1901, pp. 50-51. Since this manuscript contains the famous Sponsus, numerous notes upon it have been written by students of romantic dialects (See W. Foerster and E. Koschwitz, Altfran- zosiches Uehungshuch, Leipzig, 1902, col. 91-94). The text printed below has been previously edited numerous times. I collate the editions of E. DuMeril (Les Origines latines du Theatre moderne, Caen, 1849, pp. 179-187. — D. ), Mag- nin (Journal des Savants, 1846, pp. 88—93. — M. ), Coussemaker (Drames liturgiques du Moyen Age, pp. 16—20. — C. ), and Monmerqug and P. Michel (Theatre frangais au Moyen Age, pp. 6-9. — N.). Although Sepet does not edit the text as a whole, I collate the parts that he transcribes (pp. 15-21 passim) from the manuscript (S). I do not consider the text of T. Wright (Early Mys- Young — Or do Prophetarum. 25 :3 Omnes gentes Congaudentes Dent cantum leticie. Dens homo Fit de domo Dauid4 natus hodie.5 * O Iudei, Uerbum Dei Qui negatis hominem, Vestre legis Teste® regis Audite per ordinem.7 Et uos gentes Non eredentes Peperisse uirginem Vestre gentis Documentis Pellite caliginem. teries and Other Latin Poems of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries, London, 1838, pp. 60-62), derived from P. Michel (See Wright, p. xiv). I omit from consideration also the text of E. de Coussemaker in his Histoire de VHarmonie au Moyen Age, — a text dependent upon Magnin and DuM§ril (See Histoire, p. 133). A complete, but faulty, facsimile of the part of the manuscript with which we are concerned is found in Coussemaker’s Histoire, Plates xviii-xxiii. Contrary to the assumption of some persons, the Ordo Prophetarum from this manuscript is not found in Raynouard, Choix des Poesies originates des Trouba¬ dours, Vol. II, Paris, 1817, pp. 139-143. The text as printed below is imme¬ diately preceded in the manuscript by the closing rubric of the Sponsus : Modo accipiant eas demones et precipitentur in infernum, which is written in and above the last four centimeters of the third line from the bottom of fol. 55v. The first four words of the Ordo Prophetarum, — Omnes gentes congaudentes dent, — occupy the first two-thirds of the next line. The last four centimeters of this line are blank. This blank space appears to have been left for an in¬ troductory rubric that was never written. Except for one brief passage, indi¬ cated in my foot-notes, the entire text is furnished with musical notation. 2 1 supply this heading without reference to the several vernacular inventions of previous editors. 3.] (D. C. ) ; (M) ; omitted (N). I enter the conjecture cantor at appropriate places throughout the text merely for general intelligibility. Since the text is sung, the word is not inappropriate ; and its lack of explicitness accords with our ignorance of the precise facts. I myself should raise no objection to cantores or chorus . Du- Meril’s Praecentor and Magnin’s Dicat Sacerdos, however, seem to imply undue editorial certainty. 4 Dauid] Dauit (Ms. N. S.). 5 hodie] After this word D inserts the rubric: . ®Teste] teste - (D) ; Testem (M. C.) ; Teste (N). 7 ordinem] After this word D inserts the rubric: . 26 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. IsitaeL :3 Israel, uir lenis,9 inque De Xpisto 10 nosti firme. Responsum z* 11 Dux de Iuda non tolletur12 Donee adsit qui mitetur13 Salutare Del uerbum Expectabunt14 gentes mecum. Moynes . :15 Legislator, hue propinqwa Et de Xpisto prome digna. Responsum:16 Dabit Deus uobis uatem; Huic ut17 m ilii aurem date. Qui non audit hunc dicentem13 Expellitur19 sua gente. ISAIAS < Cantor > :20 Isayas, uerum qui scis, Ueritatem cur non dicis? Responsum:21 Est necesse Uirga22 Iesse 8 Israel ] (D) ; Israel (M) ; Israel (C. N. ). 9 lenis] D suggests fortis. 10] (D. C.) ; quae (M) ; quid (S) ; omitted (N). 11 Responsum] Israel (D). It will be observed that DuMeril ignores the rubric Responsum throughout, and consistently misplaces the names of the witnesses. 12 tolletur] tollitur (Ms. M. C. N.). 13 mitetur] notetur (D. C. N. ) ; vocetur (M. Magnin observes, however, that the Ms. may read notetur) ; mittetur (S). 14 Expectabunt] expectaunt (D). 15 Moyses < Cantor >] (D) ; Moyses (M) ; Moyses (C. N.). 16 Responsum] Moyses (D). 17 ut] et (M). 18dicentem] audientem (Ms. C. N.) ; audientem (D. S.). 19 Expellitur] expelletur (D. S. DuM6ril, however, records the Ms. reading expellitur) . 20 Isaias < Cantor >] (D) ; Isaias <^et dicat Sacerdos> (M) ; Isaias (C. N.). 21 Responsum] Isaias (D). 22 Uirga] Virga (M. N.) ; Virgam (C). Young — Ordo Propketarum. 27 De radice prouei23 Flos deinde Surge* inde Qui est spiritus Dei. Ieremias < Cantor > Hue accede, Ieremias; Die de Xpisto propbetias. Responsum:23 Sic est, Hie est Deus noster, Sine quo non erit alter. Daniel :2S Daniel, indica Uoce prophetica FaCta dominica. Responsum:™ Sanctus sanctorum ueniet, Et unctio deficie*. :28 Abacuc,29 regis celestis Nunc ostende quod 20 sis testis. Responsum :31 Et32 expectaui, Mox expaui Metu mirabilium Opus tuum Inter duum Corpus animalium. 23prouei] provehi (M) ; provei (N). 24 Ieremias ] (D) ; Jere- mias (M) ; Jeremias (C. N. ). ^Responsum] Jeremias (D). 26 Daniel ] <^Praecentor ad Danielem^> (D) ; Daniel (M) ; Daniel (C. N. ). 27 Responsum] Daniel (D) ; preceded by a superfluous scribal capital S (Ms). 28 < Abacuc Cantor >] <;Praecentor ad Habacuc> (D) ; (M) ; Abacuc (C) ; < Abacuc > (N). 29 Abacuc] abacuc (D). 30 quod] quid (M. N). 31 Responsum] Habacuc (D). 32 Et] D observes that this word is superfluous. 28 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters. David < Cantor > :33 Die tu, Dauid,34 de nepote Causas que35 sunt tibi note. R esponsumr*5 Vniuersus Grex conuersus Adorabat37 Dominurn, Cui futurum Seruiturum Omne genus hominum. Dixit Dominus Domino meo: Sede a38 dextris meis. Simeon < Cantor > :39 Nunc Symeon adueniat, Qui responsum acceperat Qui40 non abere£41 terminum Donee uidere* Dominum, 'Responsum :42 Nunc me dimittas, Domine, Finire uitam in pace; Quia mei modo cernunt ocwli Quern misisti Hunc mundum43 pro salute popwli.44 83 Dauid <;Cantor>] (D) ; <;Accedat> David <^et dicat Sacerdos> (M) ; David (C. N.). 34 Dauid] Dauit (Ms. N.). 35 que] qui (M). 36 Responsum] David (D). 37 Adorabat] adorabit (D. C. DuMeril and Coussemaker, however, record the Ms. reading adorabat) ; adorabat < adorabit ?> (S). 38 a] ad (Ms. N) ; a (D). 39 Simeon ] (D) ; Simeon <|et dicat Sacerdos> (M) ; Simeon (C. N.). 40 Qui] Quod (D. M. Magnin, however, records the Ms. reading as qui). 41 aberet] haberet (D. M. C.) ; aberet (N). ^Responsum] Simeon (D). 43 Hunc mundum] By printing these words in square brackets D appears to regard them as superfluous. 44 For the entire part of Simeon (Nunc Symeon . . . salute populi) the musical notation is omitted. Young— Or do Prophetarum. 29 Elis abet :45 Illud,46 Helisabet, in medium De Domino profer47 eloquium. R esponsum ;48 Quid est rei Qttod me mei Mater eri49 uisitat? Nam ex eo TJentre meo Letus infans palpitat. < Johannes Baptista Cantor> : 50 Die,51 Babtista, Uentris cista clausus Qua52 dedisti causa Xpisto plausus. Cui dedisti gaudium Profer53 et testimonium. R esponsum:5* Venit talis Sotularis85 Cuius non sum etiam Tam benignus Ut sim ausus™ iSoluere corrigiam. 46 Elisabet ] <]Praecentor ad Elisabeth > (D) ; Elisa¬ beth (M) ; Elisabeth (C. N.). 40 Illud] Illuc (M. Magnin, however, records the Ms. reading as Illud). 47 profer] profert (Ms. N.) ; profer (D). 48 Responsum] Elisabeth (D). 49 eri] heri (D. M. C.) ; Eri (S. N.). 50 Johannes Baptista Cantor^] (D) ; <[Accedat Johannes Baptista et dicat Sacerdos> (M) ; (C. N.). 51 Die] De (Ms. N‘.). 52 Qua] Quod (Ms. N.). 63 Profer] Profert (Ms. N.) ; profer (D). 54 Responsura] Johannes Baptista (D). 55 Sotularis] Solea nobis (M. Magnin, however, records the Ms. reading sotu¬ laris) ; salutaris (C). 50 ausus] dignus (D. DuMeril, however, records the Ms. reading ausus) ; ausus (S). 30 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. VlRGILI us 0T Vates, Maro,68 gentilium Da50 Xpisto testimonium. R esponsum:™ Ecce polo demissa solo noua progenies est. Nabucodo < no > SOR :61 Age, fare, os laguene,63 Que de Xpisto nosti uere.63 Nabucodonosor, prophetia,64 Auctorem omnium auctoriza. Responsum .,65 Cum reuisi Tres quo66 misi Uiros in incendium Vidi iustis Inconbustis Mixtum Dei filium, Viros tres in ignem misi Quartum cerno67 prolem Dei. Sibilla :68 Vera pande iam, Sibilla, Que de Xpisto precis69 signa. 67Uirgilius ] (D) ; Vir- gilius (M) ; Virgilius (C. N. ). 58 Maro] Moro (Ms. N. ). 59 Da] dea (Ms. N.). 60 Responsum] Virgilius (D). 61 Nabucodo < no >sor ] (D) ; Nabucodonosor <^et dicat Sacerdos> (M) ; Nabuchodonosor (C. N.). 63 os laguene] os laguene (D) ; os lagenae (M. Magnin, how¬ ever, records the Ms. reading laguene) ; os lagene (C). 63 uere] uere Responsum (Ms. N.) ; uere <; Alias > (M). Upon the scribal insertion of the rubric Responsum, Magnin comments plausibly as follows : “Codex : responsum. C’est une erreur du copiste. Ces deux vers ne peuvent etre qu’une variante du distique precedent qui aura paru trop grossier.” See Sepet, p. 33. 64 propheti< z> a] prophetia (M. N.) ; prophetiza (C). 65 Responsum] Nabuchodonosor (D). 66quo] quos (C) ; quo (N). 67 cerno] cerna (Ms. N. ). 68 Sibilla < Cantor >] (D) ; Sibylla (M) ; Sibilla (C. N.). 69Precis] Praescis (M. C.) ; precis (N). Young — Or do Propbetarum. 31 R esponsum :70 Iudicii71 signum: Tellus sudore madescet; E celo rex adueniet per secla futurus, Scilicet in carne presens ut iudicet orbem. :72 ludea incredula, Cur manes73 adbuc inuerecunda? IC INCOANT BeNEDICAMWS.74 A mere glance suggests that this dramatic Ordo Prophetarum is developed from the pseudo- Augustinian lectio. The two are identi- 70 Responsum] Sibylla (D). 71Iudicii] Iuditii (Ms. N. ). 72 ] (D) ; omitted (M. C. N.). 73 manes] manens (Ms. D. N. ) 74 ic incoant Benedicamus] omitted (D. C.) ; Incoant Benedicamus (M) ; Incohant benedicamus (N). Immediately after the rubric <^H^>ic incoant Benedicamus is found the following metrical composition (printed without sub¬ stantial difference by Sepet, p. 26) : Letabundi iubilemus, Accurate celebremus Xpisti natalicia Summa leticia ; Cum gratia Produxit, Gratanter mentibus Fidelibus Inluxit. Eructauit Pater Uerbum, Perdit hostis ius acerbum. Quod in nobis habuit, Quod diu latuit, Tunc patuit Arcanum. Qui contra gariunt Insaniunt In uanum. O re - digna predicari. Cui non ualent conparari Quantauis miracula. Ferit uirguncula Per secula Rectorem Conceptum edidit Nec perdidit Pudorem. Now follows the rubric Alium Benedicamus, and a fresh trope beginning: Prima mundi seducta sobole, printed by Sepet, p. 84. 32 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. cal in general subject, — the refutation of the Jews; and the similar¬ ity between the two lists of witnesses appears in the following :75 Lectio Ordo of Limoges Isaiah Israel Jeremiah Moses Daniel Isaiah Moses Jeremiah David Daniel Habakkuk Habakkuk Simeon David Zacharias Simeon Elizabeth Elizabeth John the Baptist John the Baptist Virgil Virgil Nebuchadnezzar Nebuchadnezzar Sibyl Sibyl The list of the Limoges version differs only slightly from that of the lectio. Israel has been added, and Zacharias has been dropped. These changes are not weighty, however, since Israel is mentioned in the original lectio,76 and Zacharias is sufficiently represented by his wife Elisabeth.77 Although neither list is thoroughly chrono¬ logical, the Limoges version shows certain improvements in this respect.78 The first six names are in approximately chronological order, with Israel appropriately at the head. David, as progenitor, appears appropriately enough after the first six witnesses and imme¬ diately before the contemporaries of Christ. The pagan witnesses are left in their original position, and in chronological disorder among themselves. The detailed resemblances between the testimonies in the lectio and those in the dramatic text of Limoges may be conveniently seen in the following comparison: 75 In each column I present the names in the order of their appearance in the text itself. 76 In the prophecy of Jeremiah. See above, p. 5. 77 See Sepet, p. 16. 78 The chronological disorder still remaining in the Limoges version is ob¬ served by Sepet, pp. 84-85. Young— Or do Prophet arum. 33 Lectio Isaiah Ecce virgo in utero concipiet et pariet filium, et vocabitur nomen ejus Hemanuhel, quod est interpre- tatum: Nobiscum Deus.79 Jeremiah Hie est Deus noster et non sesti- mabitur alius absque illo qui in- venit omnem viam scientise, et dedit earn Jacob puero suo et Israel di- lecto suo. Post hsec in terris visus est et cum hominibus conversatus est.81 Daniel Cum venerit Sanctus Sanctorum, cessabit unctio.82 Moses Prophetam vobis suscitabit Deus de fratribus vestris; omnis anima quas non audierit prophetam ilium exterminabitur de populo suo.83 Ordo of Limoges Isaiah Est necesse Virga Jesse De radice prove i Flos deinde Surget inde Qui est spiritus Dei.80 Jeremiah Sic est Hie est Deus noster Sine quo non erit alter. Daniel Sanctus sanctorum veniet, Et unctio deficiet. Moses Dabit Deus vobis vatem Huic ut mihi aurem date Qui non audit hunc dicentem Expellitur sua gente. 79 Ecce virgo concipiet, et pariet filium, et vocabitur nomen ejus Emmanuel (Isa. vii, 14). 80 Et egredietur virga de radice Jesse, et flos de radice ejus ascendet. Et requiescet super eum spiritus Domini (Isa. xi, 1-2). Cf. Isa. xi, 10 ; Rom. xv, 12-13 ; Num. xvii, 5-6. 81 Hie est Deus noster, et non sestimabitur alius adversus eum. Hie adinvenit omnem viam disciplinae, et tradidit illam Jacob, puero suo, et Israel, dilecto suo. Post hsec in terris visus est, et cum hominibus conversatus est. (Bar, iii, 36—38). 82 Septuaginta hebdomades abreviatse sunt super populum tuum et super urbem sanctam tuam, ut consummetur praevaricatio, et finem accipiat peccatum, et deleatur iniquitas, et adducatur justitia sempiterna, et impleatur visio, et pro- phetia, et ungatur sanctus sanctorum (Dan. ix, 24). 83 Prophetam de gente tua et de fratribus tuis sicut me, suscitabit tibi Dominus Deus tuus ; ipsum audies . . . Prophetam suscitabo eis de medio fratrum suorum similem tui, et ponam verba mea in ore ejus, loqueturque ad eos omnia quae praecepero illi. Qui autem verba ejus, quae loquetur in nomine meo, audire noluerit, ego ultor existam (Deut. xviii, 15, 18-19). 3— S. A. L. 34 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters. David Adorabunt eum omnes reges ter- rae; omnes gentes servient illi. Dixit Dominus Domino meo: Sede ad dexteram meam donee ponam inimicos tuos scabellum pedum tuorum.84 Habakkuk Domine, audivi auditum tuum et timui; consideravi opera tua et ex- pavi. In medio duum animalium cognosceris.85 Simeon Nunc dimittis, Domine, servum tuum in pace, quia viderunt oculi mei sa^utare tuum.86 David Universus Grex conversus Adorabat Dominum Cui futurum Serviturum Omne genus bominum. Dixit Dominus Domino meo: Sede a dextris meis. Habakkuk Et expectavi Mox expavi Metu mirabilium Opus tuum Inter duum Corpus animalium. Simeon Nunc me dimittas, Domine, Finire vitam in pace; Quia mei modo cernunt oculi Quern misisti Hunc mundum pro salute populi. Zacharias Zacharias Tu, puer, propheta Altissimi vo- caberis, preibis enim ante faciem (Wanting) Domini parare viam ejus.87 84 Reminiscentur et convertentur ad Dominum universi fines terrae ; et adorabunt in conspectu ejus universse familiae gentium ; quoniam Domini est regnum, et ipse dominabitur gentium et semen meum serviet ipsi (Ps. xxi, 28-29, 31); Dixit Dominus Domino meo: Sede a dextris meis, donee ponam inimico3 tuos scabellum pedum tuorum (Ps. cix, 1). Cf. Matt, xxii, 44. 85 Domine, audivi auditionem tuam, et timui. Domine, opus tuum, in medio annorum vivifica illud ; in medio annorum notum facies ; cum iratus fueris, misericordise recordaberis (Hab. iii, 2). 86 Nunc dimittis servum tuum, Domine, secundum verbum tuum in pace ; quia viderunt oculi mei salutare tuum, quod parasti ante faciem omnium populorum (Luc. ii, 29-31). 87 Et tu, puer, propheta Altissimi vocaberis ; praeibis enim ante faciem Domini parare vias ejus (Luc. i, 76). Young — Or do Prophet arum. 35 Elisabeth Unde mihi hoc ut veniat mater Domini mei ad me? Ecce enim ut facta est vox salutationis tuae in auribus meis, exultavit in gaudio in¬ fans in utero meo.88 Johannes Baptista Quern me suspicamini esse, non sum ego. Sed ecce venit post me cujus pedum non sum dignus solvere corrigiam calciamenti.89 Virgilius Jam nova progenies coelo demit- titur alto.90 Nebuchadnezzar Nonne tres viros misimus in for- nace ligatos? Ecce ego video qua- tuor viros solutos deambulantes in medio ignis et corruptio nulla est in eis, et aspectus quart! similis est Filio Dei.91 Sibilla Judicii signum: tellus sudore madescet; E coelo rex, etc. Elisabeth Quid est rei Quod me mei Mater eri visitat? Nam ex eo Yqntre meo Letus infans palpitat. Johannes Baptista Venit tails Sotularis Cuius non sum etiam Tam benignus Ut sim ausus Solvere corrigiam. 'Virgilius Ecce polo demissa solo nova pro¬ genies est. Nebuchadnezzar Cum revisi Tres quo misi Viros in incendium Vidi justis Incombustis Mixtum Dei filium. Viros tres in ignem misi Quartern cerno prolem Dei. Sibilla Judicii signum: tellus sudore madescet; E coelo, etc. 88 Et unde hoc mihi ut veniat mater Domini mei ad me? Ecce enim ut facta est vox salutationis tuae in auribus meis, exsultavit in gaudio infans in utero meo (Luc. i, 43-44). 89 Respondit Joannes dicens omnibus : Ego quidem aqua baptizo vos ; veniet autem fortior me, cujus non sum dignus solvere corrigiam calceamentorum ejus (Luc. iii, 16) ; Respondit eis Joannes dicens: Ego baptizo in aqua; medius autem vestrum stetit, quern vos nescitis. Ipse est, qui post me venturus est, qui ante me factus est ; cujus ego non sum dignus ut solvam ejus corrigiam calceamenti (Jo. i, 26-27 >. Cf. Marc, i, 7. "Iam nova progenies caelo demittitur alto (Virgil, Eel. iv, 6). 91 Tunc Nabuchodonosor rex obstupuit ; et surrexit propere, et ait optimatibus suis: Nonne tres viros misimus in medium ignis compeditos? Qui respondentes regi dixerunt : Vere, rex. Respondit et ait : Ecce ego video quatuor viros solutos, et ambulantes in medio ignis, et nihil corruptionis in eis est, et species quarti similis Fillio Dei (Dan. iii, 91-92). 36 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. Israel Israel Dux de Juda non tolletur Donee adsit qui mitetur (Wanting) Salutare Dei verbum Expectabunt gentes mecum.92 Aside from the presence of Israel in the Limoges version, and the absence of Zacharias, the most conspicuous divergence from the lectio is seen in the prophecy of Isaiah. For this prophecy the Limoges author offers a stanza clearly based upon a prophetic passage from the book of Isaiah unconnected with that quoted in the lectio.93 In general, however, the testimonies in the Limoges text may be characterized as versifications of the parallel utter¬ ances in the lectio.94: Particularly noticeable is the prophecy of Daniel in the two versions, in that the Limoges text manifestly de¬ rives from the lectio rather than from the Vulgate.95 If one wished to add further details to the demonstration one might cite such resemblances as the following, in the summonses:96 (1) Lectio: Die, et Moyses, legislator . . . Limoges: Legislator , hue propinqua . . . (2) Lectio: Symeonem sanctum in medio introducor . . . Cum iste senex admonitus esset a Spiritu Sancto quod non ante moreretur quam videret Christum Dei natum Limoges: Nunc Symeon adveniat Qui responsum acceperat Qui non haberet terminum Donee videret Dominum. Assuming, then, that the lineage of the Limoges version is es¬ tablished,97 we may examine it in detail as an example of the 92 Non auferetur sceptrum de Juda, et dux de femore ejus, donee veniat qui mittendus est ; et ipse erit expectatio gentium . . . Salutare tuum expectabo, Domine (Gen. xlix, 10, 18). 93 This stanza is found also in the cantio (or trope) Gloriosi et famosi, dis¬ cussed below, pp. 77-80. 94 See Sepet, pp. 16-21. 95 One should observe also that in the prophecy of David both the lectio and the Limoges version unite unconnected verses from separate Psalms. 9(5 Concerning these resemblances, and others, see Sepet, pp. 21-24. 97 La Piana (op. cit., pp. 302-308) undertakes to show that the Limoges ver¬ sion borrows somewhat from a Greek homily of Hesy chius of Jerusalem (printed by Migne, Patrologia Graeca, xciii, 1453-1460). That the Limoges author is chiefly indebted to the pseudo -Augustinian lectio rather than to the Greek homily is obvious, for example, from the fact that seven of the prophets common to the lectio and the Limoges text are wanting to the Greek homily. Young — Ordo Prophetarum . 37 dramatic Ordo Prophetarum. In the absence of adequate rubrics, we are left in considerable uncertainty as to the manner in which it was produced. We are at least sure that the piece was delivered as a dialogue, or as a succession of dialogues. This is clear both from the nature of the utterances themselves and from the use of the rubric responsum. One may reasonably suppose that the in¬ troductory exhortations and the summonses are all sung by the same cleric, or group of clerics, — we cannot be more specific.98 We may infer also that at each summons one of the prophets ap¬ peared in person and responded with his prophecy. Of impersona¬ tion, upon the part either of the summoner or of the prophets, we cannot be sure. The fact that the name of each prophet is written as a rubric immediately before the summons seems to indicate that a separate speaker appeared at this point, and it suggests that he impersonated the prophet concerned.99 As to the part of the church in which the performance occurred, and as to mise en scene , we have no knowledge. In the absence of more precise information we may accept some such conjectural description of the performance as the following from Magnin:100 Moreover the lectio and the Limoges version agree in differing from the Greek in the prophecy of Daniel. La Piana acknowledges these facts. The one sub¬ stantial suggestion of the Limoges author’s borrowing from the Greek is the summons and prophecy of Israel (Jacob), which is wanting in the Latin lectio, but which is found in the other two texts in the following forms : Ordo of Limoges Israel, vir lenis, inque De Xpisto nosti firme. Responsum : Dux de Iuda non tolletur Donee adsit qui mittetur Salutare Dei verbum Expectabunt gentes mecum. Hesychius II apdffTTjdL tw ’Ia/ccu/3 /cat rl Xeyei /jLera^i) t&v evXoyi&v Kar&fiaOe. Ovk etcXeixf/et apxwv tt- ’lovda, /cat riyovfievos £k tCov /xrjpcov avrov, ecus ov eX07f os diroKeiTai /cat avros TrposdoKia ktiv&v. (Migne, Pat. Or., xciii, 1460) This parallel may, or may not, show that for the prophecy of Israel the Limoges author resorted to Hesychius. If he borrowed at all, he borrowed little. 98 As I have said above (p. 25), DuMeril’s (and Coussemaker’s) con¬ jectured Praecentor and Magnin’s conjectured Sacerdos imply undue certainty upon the part of these editors. Petit de Julie ville (Les Mysteres, Vol. I, p. 36) adopts Magnin’s conjecture, and Chasles (p. 123), that of DuM§ril and Cousse- maker. The term Appellatores of the Laon version (See below, pp. 41-45) and' the words Chorus and Vocatores of the Rouen Festum Asinorum (See below, pp. 50-63) suggest that the introductory verses and the summonses of the- Limoges verses were not sung by a single person. 99 Sepet (p. 25) considers impersonation not improbable. 100 Journal des Savants, 1846, p. 88. A somewhat less venturesome conjecture- is advanced by Sepet, pp. 25-26. See also Sepet, pp. 40-41. Both Magnin and; Sepet acknowledge the conjectural nature of their descriptions. 38 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. D’abord, les trois premieres strophes, qui sont comme le prologue ou 1’exposition du mystere, devaient etre dites ou chantees par un eccldsi- astique elevd en dignite. Ensuite ce personnage appelait a haute voix chacun des acteurs du drame, lesquels s’avangaient et prenaient succes- sivement la parole. Ce principal interlocuteur etait, comme nous dirions pour un spectacle profane, le meneur ou le directeur du jeu. II se tenait probablement debout sur les degres de 1’ambon ou au milieu du jub£, entoure des musiciens. Les autres personnages, pretres ou moines, vetus du costume de leurs roles, etaient assis dans les stalles, attendant le moment de se lever et de venir au milieu du choeur psalmodier ou chanter leur verset. We are left in uncertainty also as to the day on which the Limoges Ordo was performed and as to its position in the liturgy. One might infer that the words natus hodie of the opening verses were sufficient for identifying the Ordo with Christmas day;101 but the same verses are found also in the Rouen Festum Asinorum , which was undeniably presented on the day of the Circumcision.102 As to the precise liturgical attachment of the Limoges Ordo our only possible shred of information is the rubric at the end : fc incoant Benedicamus. If this rubric is to be regarded as belong¬ ing to the preceding dramatic text, it must, of course, be inter¬ preted as meaning, “Here let them begin the Benedicamus.” Since the Benedicamus was sung at the end of each of the canonical “ horse ”, this interpretation, upheld by Sepet,103 would locate the dramatic performance at the end of one of these services. But the rubric may be interpreted also as meaning, “Here begin the Bene- dicamuses.” Since the rubric is followed by a series of metrical pieces evidently composed as tropes of the Benedicamus , this second interpretation, advanced by Magnin,104 is by no means inept. Be¬ tween the two interpretations I am unable to decide positively. It may fairly be said that the plain facts of the manuscript, in which tropes of the Benedicamus follow the rubric, give some support 101DuMeril (p. 180) chooses to assign the Limoges Ordo to the day before Christmas; Sepet (pp. 14-15) is unconditionally for Christmas day. 102 See below, pp. 66—68. 103 Sepet (pp. 25-26, 84) regards as part of the dramatic text not only the rubric under discussion but also some score or more of verses of text following it. Petit de Julleville (Vol. I, p. 36) appears to accept Sepet’s view, as, ac¬ cording to Monmerque and Michel (p. 1), does Lebeuf. Monmerque and Michel themselves do not (p. 3) regard the Benedicamus trope as part of the dramatic text. 104 Magnin (p. 92) prints the rubric Inchoant Benedicamus, and translates it as follows : “Ici commencent les Benedicamus.” Monmerque and Michel give (p. 9) precisely the same translation. Young— Ordo Prophet arum. 39 to the view of Magnin. On the other hand it may be said that a liturgical play may normally be expected to end with a rubric of some kind. For the present one may well withhold judgment.105 It is clear, in summary, that however uncertain we may be as to external matters of production and liturgical relationship, we must certainly recognize in the Limoges version a notable advance in the literary treatment of the Ordo Prophetarum. Most noteworthy are the elimination of the narrative and expository element of the lectio, and the versifying of both summonses and responses. In addition one must commend the force and aptness of the opening stanzas, seen here for the first time.106 V Although the advance shown by the Limoges version in literary form is marked, the approach of this production toward acted drama is, as we have seen, a matter of uncertainty, because of the absence of rubrics indicating impersonation. We may proceed, then, to a play of the thirteenth century from the Cathedral of Laon, in which impersonation and specific dramatic action are un¬ mistakable i1 105 Sepet (pp. 24-26, 84) undoubtedly exaggerates the significance of the rubric Hie incoant Benedicamus. He not only considers this rubric and the subsequent lines as organically related to the preceding dramatic text, but he also regards the dramatic text itself as a trope of the Benedicamus. As a matter of fact, we cannot be sure that the dramatic text is to be connected with the Benedicamus; and even if the dramatic text was performed imme¬ diately before the Benedicamus , only by exaggeration can it be called "un trope du Benedicamus” (p. 25). L». Gautier (Les Tropes, Paris, 1886, p. 2) has ably defined a trope as an extra-liturgical addition to a traditional liturgical piece, by way of preface, interpolation, or conclusion. By an exaggerated application of this definition every liturgical play may, of course, be regarded as a trope, since every such play must take a place before or after some liturgical element. But the exaggeration in calling Hilarius’ Daniel, for ex¬ ample, a trope of the Te Deum or of the Magnificat is obvious (See DuMeril, pp. 241-254). When a dramatic piece has sufficient complexity and complete¬ ness for maintaining itself as an independent production, one may safely cease regarding it as a trope of the liturgical element that happens to precede or follow it. 108 The opening stanzas ( Omnes gentes congaudentes . . . pellite cal- liginem) are found also as part of a longer composition Gloriosi et famosi to be considered below, pp. 41, 78. 1 Laon, BibliothSque de la Ville, Ms. 263, Troparium-Hymnarium Laudunense ssec. xiii, fol. 147v-149r. The manuscript is briefly described in Catalogue 40 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. ORDO PROPHETARUM YSAIAS, BARBATUS, DALMATICA INDUTUS, STOLA RUBEA per MEDIUm uerticis ANTE et RETRO DEPENDENTE.2 IHEREMIAS SIMILITer, ABSQtte STOLA. Daniel adolescens, ueste splendida indutus. MOYSES, CUM DALMATICA, BARBATUS, TABULAS LEGIS FERENS. Dauid, REGIO HABITU. AbACUC BARBATUS, CURUUS, GIBOSUS. Elisabeth, femineo habitu, pregnans. lOHANNES BAPTISTA, PILOSA UESTE et LONGIS CAPILLIS, BARBATUS, PALMAM TENENS. VlRGILIUS, CUM CORNU et C ALAMO, EDERA CORONATUS, SCRIPTORIUm TENENS. NABUGODONOSOR, REGIO HABITU, SUPerBO INCESSU. SlBILLA, UESTE FEMINEA, DECAPILLATA, EDERA CORONATA, INSANIENTI SIMIL- LIMA. SYMEON, BARBATUS, CAPA SERICA IN DUTUS, PALMAM TENENS. Balaam, super ASiNAm, curuus, barbatus, palmam tenens, calcaribrs IJRGENS. Gloriosi Et famosi Regis festum Celebrantes Gaudeamus. Cuius ortum, Uite portum, Nobis datum, Predicantes Habeamus. Ecce regem Nouam legem Dantem orbis Circuitu Predicamus. general des Manuscrits des Bibliotheques publiques des Departements, Vol. I, Paris, 1849, p. 155. The Ordo Prophetarum from this manuscript has been pre¬ viously published by U. Chevalier, Ordinaires de Vfiglise cathedrale de Laon ( Bibliotheque Liturgique, Vol. VI), Paris, 1897, pp. 385-389; and Chevalier’s text is reprinted by Chasles in La Vie et les Arts liturgiques , Jan., 1917, pp. 129- 134. My own edition of the text from the manuscript differs in no essential way from that of Chevalier. The opening- rubric Ordo Prophetarum is imme¬ diately preceded by the following unrelated incipit : De Sancto Nicholao : Con- gaudentes. For the text of the Ordo Prophetarum no music is provided. 2 dependente] dependens (Ms). Young— -Or do Prophet arum. 41 Duo Cantores: Oirmes gentes Congaudentes Dent cantus letitie; Deus homo Fit de domo Dauid, natus hodie. Ad Iudeos : O Iudei, Uerbum Dei Qui negastis hominem, Vestre3 legis Testes regis Audite per ordinem. Ad Paganos: Et uos gentes Non credentes Peperisse uirginem Vestre legis Documentis Pellite caliginem. Appellatoees : Isaias, uerum qui scis, Ueritatem cur non dicis? Isaias: Est necesse Uirgam Iesse De radice prouehi Flos deinde Surget inde Qui est filius Dei. Appellatoees : Iste cetus Psallat letus; Error uetus Condempnetwr. Omnis Chorus: Quod Iudea Perit rea Hec chorea Gratulatwr. Appellatoees : Hue accede, Iheremias; Die de Xpis£o prophetias. 3 Vestre] Veste (Ms), — with an r faintly inserted by a later hand. 42 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters. Hieremias : Sic est Duo: Hie est Deus noster. Iste cetus. iTErn chokws: Qwod Iudea. Duo: Daniel, indica Uoce prophetica Facta dominica Daniel: Sanctws sanctorum ueniet Et unctio deficiet.4 Duo: Iste cetus. Chords ; Qwod Iudea. Ap

Eixa£ ores : Die tu, Moyses, legislator, Moises : Quis sit Xvistuc et Saluator. Proplietam accipietis Tamquam me hunc audietis. Duo: Iste cetws. Chorus : Qwod Iudea. Ap

ELLa fores ; Die tu, Dauid, de nepote Dauid: Causas que sunt ti&i note. Vniuersus Rex conuersus Adorabit Dominum, Cui futurum Seruiturum Omne genus hominum. Duo: Iste cetus. Chorus : Qwod Iudea. AppEixafores : Abacuc, regis celestis Nunc ostende quod sis testis. 4 deficiet] defitiet (Ms. Chevalier). Young — Or do Prophet arum. 43 Abacuc: Opus tuum Inter duum Latus animalium Ut cognoui, Mox expaui Metu mirabilium. Duo: Iste cetus. Chorus : Quod Iudea. Ap

ell atores : Illud, Elisabeth, in medium De Domino profer eloquimn,. Elisabeth : Duo: Quid est rei Quod me mei Mater regis uisitat? Nam ex eo Uentre meo Letus infans palpitat. Iste cetus. Chorus: Quod Iudea. iTEm duo: Da, Baptista, Uentris cista Clausus, Quos dedisti Causa Xpisti Plausus. Cui dedisti gaudium Profer et testimonium. Jonannes: Uenit talis Sotularis Cuius non sum etiam Tam benignus Ut sim dignus Soluere corrigiam Duo: Iste cetus. Chords : Qttod Iudea. Duo: Maro, uates gentilium, Da Xpisfo testimonium. 44 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. Mako: Ecce polo dimissa sola noua progenies est. Duo: Chorus : Iste cetus. QttOd Iudea. APPEULA TORES REDUCUNT DANIELEM, et DICIWT AD REGEm .* Fuerum cum pueris, Nabugodonosor, Cum in igne uideris, Quid dixisti? Nabugodonosor : Tres in igne positi pueri Duo: Quarto gaudent comite liberi. Iste cetus. Chorus : Qttod Iudea. Ap

ELLa£ores : Tu, Sibilla, Sibilla : Uates ilia, Die aduentum iudicis, Die signum iudicii. Iudicii signum; Tellus sudore madescet. E celo rex adueniet per secla futurus. Scilicet in carne presens, ut iudicet orbem. Vnde Deum cement incredulus at q%e fidelis Celsum cum sanctis eui iam termino in ipso. Duo: Iste cetus. Chorus : Qwod Iudea. Appellators : Symeon, inter propbetas Symeon : Pande nobis quid expectas. Vite non spero terminum Donee uideam Dominwm. Duo: Iste cetus. Chorus:, Qttod Iudea. Symeon accipiens PuERum dicit: Tuum sub pacis tegmine Seruum dimittis, Domine. Young — Or do Prophet arum. 45 Ap

ELLGtfores : Die, Balaam, ex Iudaica Oriturum Dominion prosapia. Balaam : Exibit de Iacob rutilans noua stella Et confringet ducum agmina Regionis Moab maxima potentia. Hie UENIAT ANGeL^S CUM GLADIO. BALAAm TANGIT ASINAM, et ILLA Non PrOCEDENTE, DICIT IRATUS I Quid moraris, asina, Obstinata bestia? Iam seindent calcaria Costas et precordia. PUER SUB ASINA RESPONDED Angelas cum gladio, Quern adstare uideo, Probibet ne transeam; Timeo ne peream.5 Here, for the first time, impersonation is manifest. In suggestive details of costume and property the text leaves little to be desired. Daniel’s youthful appearance, Moses’ tables of the Law, Elizabeth’s pregnancy, John the Baptist’s hairy shirt and branch of palm, Virgil’s writing materials and crown of ivy, the Sibyl’s expression of mad inspiration, Balaam’s ass, — these are some of the details ex¬ plicitly provided for. The performance itself begins with the singing of the Gloriosi et famosi, presumably by the Prophetce themselves.6 Two cantors now deliver three stanzas, the second and third of which are ad¬ dressed specifically to the Jews an Gentiles respectively, calling upon them to prepare for enlightenment. Two7 special summoners ( Appellator es) now call forth the prophets, one by one, and after each prophecy deliver the stanza I site ccetus, to which the chorus re¬ sponds with the stanza Quod Judcea.8 The close kinship of the Laon play to the Limoges version and to the original lectio is obvious. Each of these three versions pre¬ sents thirteen witnesses, and twelve of these witnesses are common 5 Followed immediately by the rubric Or do Stelle, introducing a version of the Epiphany play. 6 This presumption finds justification in the usage recorded in the Einsiedeln fragment printed below, pp. 72-74. 7 Several of the later rubrics specify duo. 8 1 have not found these two stanzas apart from the prophet-plays of Eaon and Rouen. 46 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters. to all three : namely, Isaiah, J eremiah, Daniel, Moses, David, Habak- knk, Elisabeth, John the Baptist, Virgil, Nebuchadnezzar, Sibyl, and Simeon. Balaam is peculiar to the Laon version, as Israel and Zacharias are to the Limoges version and the lectio respectively. The similarity of the three versions is further apparent in the textual content of the prophecies. In eight of these prophecies9 the Limoges and Laon versions agree in presenting metrical ver¬ sions of the utterances provided by the lectio. In the utterance of Isaiah the Limoges and Laon versions agree as against the lectio. In the prophecies of Moses and Nebuchadnezzar the two dramatic versions differ from each other in expression, but both derive from the lectio. The utterance of Simeon in the Laon play is developed somewhat beyond what is found either in the Limoges text or in the lectio. In general arrangement the Laon play differs considerably from the two preceding versions. The non-chronological order in which the first six prophets appear reproduces what we have observed in the lectio. The presence of Simeon and Balaam at the end, after Sibyl, suggests that those two prophets were attached to the series in a relatively mechanical way. Possibly the copy from which the present text was made was in disorder. This impression is in¬ deed strengthened by the inconclusiveness with which the play ends.10 In considering the delivery of the prophecies from the dramatic point of view, our attention centers in three : those of Nebuchadnez¬ zar, Simeon, and Balaam. The first of these may be dismissed briefly, for although the rubric Appelatores reducent Danielem suggests special dramatic action of some sort, the nature of this action is not specified. The dramatic action accompanying the role of Simeon can be visualized somewhat more clearly. It ap¬ pears that Simeon barbatus is represented as standing in the temple in the presence of Joseph, Mary, and Jesus, and that after Simeon’s first utterance has been heralded by the cantores and choir, he takes the Child in his arms and speaks again, in the manner of a Nunc dimittis.* 11 9 Jeremiah, Daniel, David, Habakkuk, Elisabeth, John the Baptist, Virgil, and Sibyl. 10 Concerning the mechanical attachment of the part of Balaam to the end of the play see Chambers, Vol. II, pp. 54, 56-57 ; Chasles, p. 127, note 2. 11 See Luc. ii, 22-32. Young — Ordo Prophetarum. 47 The part of Balaam deserves special comment for its dramatic liveliness. Balaam makes his appearance mounted upon an ass.* 1 2 3 * * * * * * * * 12 After he has uttered his prophecy an angel appears in his path, so halting the progress of the animal that Balaam impatiently strikes her and demands the reason of the delay. In defense, the puer sub asina explains that an angel stands threateningly in the path ; and thus the play abruptly ends. The action of this little dramatic episode centering in Balaam is, of course, derived from the Biblical narrative (Num. xxi, 21-31) ; but the speeches show no dependence upon the Vulgate text. The speech of the Appellator es seems clearly to be adapted from the following passage in a well-known sequence of Epiphany : Quam Balaam ex Iudaica orituram dixerat prosapia;13 and the response of Balaam consists in a passage from another Epiphany sequence; Exibit ex Jacob rutilans, inquit , Stella , Quce confringet ducum agmina regionis Moab maxima po¬ tential The second speech of Balaam and the response of the asina seem to be original compositions for the purpose at hand.15 It is clear that the parts of Simeon and of Balaam stand apart from the rest of the performance as small dramatic units. In ac¬ tion and wise en scene they show an advance beyond the general uniformity of the elements examined hitherto. These two bits of composition seem to have been ambitiously added at the end. The question as to whether Balaam ’s ass is introduced through a comic 13 See the following rubric in the list of dramatis persona? : Balaam, super asinam, curvus, barbatus, palmam tenens, calcaribus urgens. 13 See the sequence Quem non prevalent, printed by J. Kehrein, Lateinische Sequenzen des Mittelatters, Mainz, 1873, pp. 41-42. See Meyer, p. 52. 14 See the sequence Epiphaniam Domini canamus , printed by Kehrein, pp. 40- 41. See Meyer, p. 52. 15 In connection with the dramatic development of the episode of Balaam and his ass, Sepet (p. 35) suggests three stages of the Ordo Prophetarum: (1) Le drame primitif, immediatement sorti du sermon, et d’oti Balaam est absent. ( 2 ) Le drame de seconde formation, oil Balaam apparait et se borne reciter sa prophetie. ( 3 ) Le drame de troisieme formation, oh la prophetie de Balaam est devenue un petit drame dans le grand. Sepet’s “drame primitif” is exemplified, presumably, in the ordo of Limoges, and his “drame de troisiSme formation,” in the Festum Asinorum of Bouen, to be considered below. In so far as Sepet’s own evidence is concerned, the “drame de seconde formation” must be considered a conjecture. Chasles now suggests (p. 127) that the Ordo of Laon, — unknown to Sepet,— exemplifies the drame de seconde formation.” I cannot accept Chasles’ suggestion, for the Balaam of the Laon Ordo does not “confine himself to the reciting of his prophecy.” The Balaam episode of Laon is not essentially different from that of Rouen. The Rouen episode is merely longer. 48 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. impulse, I do not undertake to answer. The evidence is not posi¬ tive.16 Since the text of the Laon play, like that from Limoges, provides no evidence as to its position in the liturgy, we may seek indirect evidence elsewhere. With the Laon text we may conveniently as¬ sociate the following description of the Ordo Prophetarum at Tours :17 Ordo Prophetarum Ad Matutinas cantant duo & duo versus Invitatorii & antiphonas similiter, & Hymnos sicut ad Vesperas. Antequam legatur prima Lectio accenditur primus circulus turris David, & duo corruptores cantant: Sal- vetur noster circulus. Post dicuntur versiculi & prosse resp. in medio chori in rota, & cantant responsoria duo et duo, cum Gloria in choro, ex- ceptis tertio, sexto, & nono, quos cantent juvenes in pulpito candelis ac- censis, & omnes a capite repetuntur. Dicto versiculo tertii Nocturni, ac¬ cenditur totum luminare, & veniunt Prophetse in capitulo revestiti, & post cantant insimul Lumen Patris, & clericus solus dicit In g audio; & post legitur septima Lectio. Post nonam Lectionem ducunt Prophetas de Capitulo ad portam Thesaurarii cantilenas cantando, et post in chorum, ubi dicunt cantori prophetias, et duo clericuli in pulpito cantando eos ap¬ pellant. Post dicitur nonum18 in pulpito. In Laudibus incipiunt antiphonas duo & duo . . . Ad ,Missam sunt in cappis sericis, & cantant juvenes duo & duo, & Epistolam in pulpito, & alia dicunt sicut in liibro reperies. Post prandium debent chores ducere in claustro in supelliciis donee Ecclesia aperiatur, & totum luminare accendatur. Quo facto, incipiunt Nonam & Vesperas; faciunt totum sicut ad primas,19 & dictis psalmis & antiphonis, ducunt ad portam Thesaurarii Prophetas sicut ad Matutinum & reducunt in chorum similiter, & habent clerici virgas plenas candelis ardentibus. Vocant eos clerici duo sicut ad Vesperas. Post dicitur Stirps Jesse, & cantant juvenes versum in pulpito cum Gloria , & post in choro repetitur, & hunt pneumse. Post dicitur Regens gubernansque, & hunt pneumse. Post levat se cantor super formam, cappam habens super humeros, & incipit antiphonam, & dicit ter Deposuit, baculum tenens, & si baculus capitur, Te Deum laudamus incipietur, & post versus p salmi Esurientes cum antiphona & oratione. Post vadunt ad pedes cantando r Videbant, & antiphonam Tu principatum, post de B. Mar¬ tino antiphonam Confessor Domini cum Magnificat & oratione; & redeundo Jubilemus sicut ad primas Vesperas. 16 Meyer (pp. 52-53) declares unhesitatingly for a comic intention. 17 E. Martene, Tractatus de Antiqua Ecclesice Disciplina , Lyons, 1706, pp. 106- 107. Mart&ne describes the manuscript as follows: “Turonensis S. Martini ecclesias Rituale vetus ante annos 400 scriptum. Ex ms. ejusdem ecclesise.” 18 1, e. nonum < responsorium > . 19 1, e. ad primas . Young— -Or do Prophet arum. 49 At Tours the Ordo took place in Matins of the Circumcision (Jan. 1), after the reading of the ninth lectio and before the sing¬ ing of the ninth responsory.20 The prophetce entered the choir dur¬ ing the singing of certain cantilence. The summonses to the indi¬ vidual prophetce were delivered by duo clerici in pulpito, and the several prophecies seem to have been addressed to a sort of presid¬ ing cantor. The repetition of the ordo at Vespers is mentioned, but not described in detail. Although the actual utterances of the participants are not known, the nature of the performance must have been similar that of the Laon play. We may safely infer that the prophetce were specifically impersonated, and that they spoke in the formal sequence already familiar to us. It may be that at Matins one or more of the preceding lectiones were supplied by the pseudo-Augustinian sermon, and that the prophetce were introduced after the final lectio by way of didactic illustration. But this is the merest conjecture. If, then, the Ordo Prophetarum at Tours resembles the Laon ver¬ sion in general procedure, one may reasonably conjecture a similar¬ ity in liturgical association. It may well be that the Laon Ordo Prophetarum , — and the Limoges version also, — is to be associated with the liturgy of the Circumcision. This conjecture, indeed, receives further support from the circumstances of the Ordo Prophetarum which we are to consider next. VI The two versions of the Ordo Propheta)rum already examined closely resemble the pseudo-Augustinian lectio in the number and names of the prophets presented. To the list of the lectio the Limoges version adds only Israel, and the Laon version, only Balaam. The possibilities in the way of addition are fully recog¬ nized only in such a play as the following, from the cathedral of Rouen d 20 See the liturgical arrangement outlined above, p. 23. XI base my text upon Rouen, Bibliotheque de la Ville, Ms. 384 (olirn Y. 110), Ordinarium Rothomagense ssec. xiv, fol. 33r-35r, with variants from ibid., Ms. 382 (olim Y. 108), Ordinarium Rothomagense ssec. xv, fol. 31v-33r, and from Paris, Bibl. Nat., Ms. lat. 1232, fol. 26r— 27r (manu saec. xvii). These are the only manuscript sources known to me. I know of no previous edition in which all three manuscripts are used. Sepet (p. 28) and Petit de Julleville (Les My stores, I, 37) erroneously report that we possess no extant manuscript sources at all. DuMeril mentions (p. 181, note) all three manuscripts as con- 4— S. A. L. 50 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. Nqta, Cantor: Si Festum AsiNORim fiat, processio2 ordinetur post Terciam; si non fiat Festum, tutic fiat procEssto ut prenotatur.3 Ordo PROCESsionis AsiNOR^m secunmiM RoTHOMAGensem Vsum.4 Tercia cantata, paratis ProPHeiis iu xta suum ordiwem, fornace in MEDIO NAUIS ECCLesIE LINTHEO et STUPIS CONSTITUTA, PROCESSIO MOUEAT DE CLAUSTRO, et DUO CuemCI DE iia SEDE IN CAPPIS PROCESSIONEm RECANT, HOS versus canentes:5 Gloriosi Et famosi < Regis festum Celebrantes Gaudeamus>. Chorus : Gloriosi . 'Versus: Cuius ortum . taining the Ordo Prophetarum, but he does not edit the text. Meyer speaks (p. 51) of the l;ext as found “in mehreren Handschriften des 14. und 15. Jahr- hunderts in Rouen.” A general bibliography of the manuscripts and prints bearing upon the liturgical plays of Rouen is given by the present writer in Modern Philology, Vol. VI (1908), pp. 224-227. There can be little doubt that Ms. 1232 is a copy of Ms. 384 ; and the copy seems to be surprisingly accurate (See my variants). If, as Gast§ supposes (p. 2), Ms. 382 is a copy of Ms. 384, the copyist departed freely from his model (See my variants, and Modern Philol¬ ogy, Vol. VI, pp. 224-225). Gaste provides (pp. 1-4) important notes on Mss. 384 and 382. None of the three manuscripts mentioned above provides music. The Rouen Ordo Prophetarum (“Festum Asinorum”) has been previously edited twice: (1) by Du Cange, Glossarium Medics et Infimce Latinitatis, Vol. Ill, Niort, 1884, pp. 460-461 (and in earlier editions of this work), from an unidentified “Ordinarius MS” of Rouen (See Modern Philology, Vol. VI, p. 226) ; and (2) by A. Gaste, Les Drames liturgiques de la Cathedrale de Rouen, Evreux, 1893, pp. 4-20 (Concerning earlier forms of Gaste’s monograph see Modern Philology, VI, 201), from Rouen Ms. 384, with some of the variants from Rouen Ms. 382. I collate Gaste’s text throughout (G), taking into account his “Er¬ rata et emendanda” (p. 81). 2 processio] processio et (Ms. 382). 3 prenotatur] nunc prenotatur (G). As to the reference in the words ut prenotatur see below, pp. 66—68. 4 Rothomagensem usum] usum Rothomagensem (Ms. 382). 5 hos versus canentes] cantantes hos versus (Ms. 382). Young — Or do Prophet arum. Chorus: Versus : Chorws : Gloriosi. Quem futurum . Gloriosi. Versus: Impior um Iudeorum . Chorus : Gloriosi Versus: Et gentiles . Chorus : Gloriosi. Versus: Sed Iudei . Chords : Gloriosi. Versus: Israeli6 Infideli7 . Chorus : Gloriosi. Israeli] Israel (G). Infideli] Infideles (Ms. 382). 52 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. Versus: Gentes unde.8 Tunc processio in medio ecclcsie stet. Et vi Iudei sint ibi PARATI, ET EX ALTerA PARTE SEX GENTILES, ET OMnes Gentes uocent ita Uocatores: Onmesi gentes ; Deus homo Fit9 . HlC UERTANT SE UOCATORES AD lUDEOS DICENTES : O Iudei Uerbum Dei . Versus:10 Vestre legis Testes* 11 . Iudei respondeant: Nos mandatum uobis. Vocatores ad Gentiles dicant: Et uos, gentes, Non credentes . Gentiles respondeant: Deum uerum Regem rerum.14 Vocatores prius Moysen,15 ita dicentes: Tu, Moyses, Legislator, . 8 unde] Iudae (Ms. 1232). I can make no suggestion for the completion of this stanza. The expansions suggested for various other initia, above and be¬ low, are made from the several versions of the Ordo Prophetarum printed in the present study. 9 Deus homo fit] Dominus homo sit (Mss. 384, 382, and 1232). 10 Versus] omitted (G). 11 testes] testem (G). Through a typographical error Gast6 gives the im¬ pression that the words Vestre legis testes are not in Ms. 384. 12 Versus] omitted from the restoration (G). 13 legis] gentis (G). 14 Deum uerum regem rerum] Deum regem verum (Ms. 382). 15 Moysen] omitted (Ms. 382). Young — Or do Prophet arum, 53 Tunc Moyses, tenews tabulas legis APerrAS, indutms alba et CAPPA, et CORNUTA FACIE, BARBATUS, TENENS UIRGAM IN manu, dicat: Vir post me veniet exortus. Hoc DICTO VOCATORES EUm DUCANT ULTRA FORNACEWl DICENTES : Iste cetus Psallat letus . Chorus : Quod Iudea . VOCATORES DICANT AD AMOS : Amos mentis. Tunc Amos, senex barbatus, spicam tenens, dicat: Ecce dies uenient.16 Vocatores : . Chorus : Qwod Iudea. Vocatores dicant Ysaye: Ysaias, verbum qui scis,17 ? Ysaias, barbatus, alba indutus, per MEDiAm18 frontem rubea STOLA10 DISTINCTWS,20 DICAT: Est necesse Uirga Yesse . Vocatores : Iste cetus. Chorus : Quod Iudea. Vocatores ad Aaron: Aaron, doce populum. 16 See Amos, viii, 11 : Ecce dies veniunt, dicit Dominus, et mittam famem in terram ; non famem panis, neque sitim aquae, sed audiendi verbum Domini. 17 scis] scit (Mss. 384, 382, and 1232, G). 18 mediam] medium (Ms. 382). 1 19 Stola] Stolla (Ms. 382). 20 distinctus] discrinitus (Mss. 384, 382, and 1232, G). 54 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. Aaron, ornatus pontificalibws indumentis et mitra,21 bar- BATUS, TENENS FLOREM DICAT *. Virga Iesse florida.22 Vocatores: Iste cetus. Chorus: Quod Iudea. Vocacio IfterEMiE*. Qui vocaris, Ifteremias,23 . I7ierEMiAS SAcerDOTALi ho-Situ ornatus et barbatus24 tenens ROTULUM DICAT: Sic est, Hie est, Dews noster; . VocATores: Iste cetus. Chorus : Qwod Iudea. VocAcio Danielis: Daniel, indica Uoce prophetica . Daniel, indutus uiridi tunica, iuuenilem uultum Ha&eNS, tenens spiCAm, dicat: Sanctus sanctorum ueniet, VocATores ; Iste cetus. Chorus: Quod Iudea. Vocacio Abacuc : 25 Abacuc,25 regis celestis . 21 mitra] mittra (Ms. 384). 22 See Num. xviii, 5-8 : Quern ex his elegero, germinabit virga ejus . . . fueruntque virgse duodecim absque virga Aaron . . . Sequenti die regressus invenit germinasse virgam Aaron in domo Levi ; et turgentibus gemmis eruperant (lores, qui, foliis dilatais, in amygdalas deformati sunt. 23 Iheremias] Omitted (Ms. 382). 24 ornatus et barbatus] indutus et ornatus barbatus (Ms. 382). 25 Abacuc] Abacuth (Ms. 382); Habacuc (Ms. 1232). Young— Or do Prophet arum. 55 AbACUC,25 SENEX CLAUDUS, DALMATICA INDUTUS,26 HafteNS IN PERAM RADICES, et LONGAS PALMAS HG&CNS UNDE GENTES percuciAT, comedews, dicat: Opus tuum Inter duum27 . Vocatores : Iste cetus. Chorus : Quod Iudea. Duo missi a rege Balac28 dicant: Balaam,29 veni et fac. Tunc Balaam,29 ornatus, seders super asinam, uabeNs cajl- CARIA RETINEAT LORA et CALCARIBWS PerCUCIAT ASINAM. ET QUIDAm IUUENIS HafteNS alas,30 tenens gladium, obstet ASINE. QuiDAm SUB ASINA DICAT: Cur me cum calcaribws miseram sic leditis? Hoc DICTO, ANGeLWS EI dicat : Desine regis Balac preceptum perficere. VocAcio Balaam:31 Balaam,31 esto uaticinans. Tunc Balaam31 respondeat: Exibit ex Jacob rutilans32 . VocATores :33 Iste cet us. Chorus : Quod Iudea. VocAcio Samuelis: Accede, Samuel. Samuel, religiose indutws, dicat : 34 In Israel faciet rex verbum.35 26 indutus] Omitted (Ms. 382). 27 Inter duum] in triduum (Ms. 382). The whole speech of Habakkuk Gaste prints as follows : Opus tuum inter duum corpus animalium. 28 Balac] ballat (Ms. 382). 29 Balaam] Ballaam (Ms. 382). 30 alas] alias (Ms. 382). 31 Balaam] Ballaam (Ms. 382). 32 rutilans] rutillans (Ms. 382). Gaste does not expand this initium. 33 Vocatores] Vocant (Ms. 382). 34 dicat] doceat (Ms. 382). 35 See 1 Reg. iii, 11 : Et dixit Dominus ad Samuelem : Ecce ego facio verbum in Israel, quod quicumque audierit, tinnient ambse aures ejus. 56 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. Vocat ores :36 Iste cetus. Chorus : Quod Iudea. VocACio Danin: Die tu, Dauid, de nepote Causas . Dauid, ornatus reg alibis oreamewtis, dicat : XJniuersus Grex cowuersus Adorabit Dominion, . Vocat ores : Iste cetus. Chords : Quod Iudea. Vocacio Osee37 Auffer,38 Osee,37 Plebi Hebree Cecitatem. Osee,37 barbatus, dicat: Deus nuweiauit de filio Dauid in presenti.39 Yocatores : 40 Iste cetus. Chorus : Quod Iudea. VocACio Iohelis:41 Iobel,42 leua uocem cum ceteris. lOHEL,42 DIuerSUM HUbeNS CULTUM, et BARBATUS DICAT I Effur-dam de spiriZu meo, dicit dominus.43 Vocatores : 44 Iste cetus. Chords : Quod Iudea. 36 Vocatores] Vocant (Ms. 382). 37 Osee] Ozee (Ms. 382). 38 Auffer] aufer (Ms. 382). 39 See Os. iii, 5 : Et post hsec revertentur fllii Israel, et quserent Dominum Deum suum, et David regem suum ; et pavebunt ad Dominum, et ad bonum ejus, in novissimo dierum. ^Vocatores] Vocant (Ms. 382). 41 Iohelis] Ioelis (Ms. 382). 42 Iohel] Ioel (Ms. 382). 43 See Joel ii, 28: Et erit post hsec: Effundam spiritum meum super omnem carnem ; et prophetabunt filii vestri et filise vestrae ; senes vestri somnia som- niabunt, et juvenes vestri visiones videbunt. 44 Vocatores] Vocant (Ms. 382). Young— Or do Prophet arum. 57 Vocacio Abdie: Fac, Abdia, preconia uenturi iSaluatoris. Abdias, DiuersuM Habeas cultum, barbatus, dicat: Et in monte Syon saluacio erit.45 YocATores:46 Iste cetus. Chorus : Quod Iudea. VocAcio Ione: De persona Xp£s£i, Iona,47 Que sunt in te mistica? IONAS, CALUUS, AEBA INDUTUS, DICAT: O Iudei, Huius rei Signum, genus fatuum.48 VocATores : Iste cetus. Chords: Qwod Iudea. Vocacio Michee: Effice, Michea, qwod credat plebs. Micheas, Diuersum cui/rum Ha&eNs, barbatus, dicat: Descendet Domimts Cui no n est terminus.49 VocATores ; Iste cetus. Chords : Qwod Iudea. VocAcio Naum:50 Naum,51 plebi Iudaice die. 45 See Abdias, 17 : Et in monte Sion erit salvatio, et erit sanctus ; et possidebit domus Jacob eos qui se possederant. ^Vocatores] Vocant (Ms. 382). 47 Iona] Omitted (Ms. 382). 48 See Matt, xii, 39-40: Qui respondens ait illis : Generatio mala et adultera signum quserit et signum non dabitur ei, nisi signum Jonae prophetae. Sicut enim fuit Jonas in ventre ceti tribus diebus et tribus noctibus, sic erit Filius hominis in corde terrae tribus diebus et tribus noctibus. 49 See Michceus i, 3 : Quia ecce Dominus, egredietur de loco suo ; et de¬ scendet, et cal cab it super excelsa terrae ; Mich, v, 2 : Et tu, Bethlehem Ephrata, parvulus es in millibus Juda ; ex te mihi egredietur qui sit dominator in Israel, et egressus ejus ab initio, a diebus aeternitatis ; Mich, v, 4 : Et convertentur, quia nunc magnificabitur usque ad terminos terrae. 50 Naum] Nain (Ms. 382) ; Nahum (Ms. 1232). 61 Naum] Omitted (Ms. 382); Nahum (Ms. 1232). 58 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. Nau m50 _senex RESjPONDeat: Super montes62 euucmgelizantis.63 Vocatoees: Iste cetus. Chorus: Quod Iudea. VocAcio Sophonie: Esto nobis, Sophonia. SOPHONIAS,54 BABBATUS, DICAT I In medio tui Syon55 rex regnabit.05 VocATores : Iste cetus. Choeus : Qwod Iudea. Vocacio Aggei: Audiamus os Aggei ut exponat. Aggeus, senilem57 uultum gebens, dicat: Veniet cunctis gentibws rex desideratissimus.68 VocATores ; Iste cetus. Chorus: Quod Iudea. VocAcio Zachaeie: Veni, Zacbaria,59 fili Barachie. ZACHARIAS, BARBATUS, DICATI En rex tuus uenit tibi60 iustus, filia Syon.61 VocATOres; Iste cetus. Chorus : Qwod Iudea. Vocacio Ezechielis: Profer nobis, Ezechiel, aduentttm. 52 montes] montem (G). 63 euuangelizantis] euuangelisantis (Ms. 382). See Nahum i, 15: Eqce super montes pedes evangelizantis, et annuntiantis pacem. 54 Sophonias] Sophonia (G). 53 Syon] Sion (Ms. 382). 56 See Sophon. iii, 14 : Lauda, filia Sion ; jubila, Israel ; lsetare, et exsulta in omni corde, filia Jerusalem. 57 senilem] senillem (Ms. 382). 58 See Agg: ii, 8 : Et movebo omnes gentes, et veniet desideratus cunctis gentibus ; et implebo domum istam gloria, dicit Dominus exercituum. 59 Zacharia] Zdcharie (G). 60 tibi] omitted (G). 61 See Zach. ix, 9 : Exsulta satis, filia Sion ; jubila, filia Jerusalem ; ecce rex tuus veniet tibi justus, et salvator ; ipse pauper, et ascendens super asinam et super pullum filium asinse. Young — Or do Prophet arum. 59 RespONSIO EIUSDEM I Per clausam ianuam rex intrabit solus.62 VocATores ; Iste cetus. Chorus: Qt^od ludea. VocAoio Malachie: Palam nobis refer, Malachia.63 RespoNSio EiwsDem : Scimus bee04 dieentem Deum.65 VocATores ; Iste cetus. Chorus : Quod ludea. VocAcio Zacharie patais S ancti IoHUfmis: Zacbaria, os aperi. Ipse, ornatus quasi Iudeus, dicat: Per uiscera dulcifflue66 Dei mi sericordie.61 Vocat ores : Iste cetus. Chorws: Qwod ludea. VocAoio Elyzabeth:68 Illud,69 Elyzabeth,68 in medium . In persoNA alba, quasi pregnans, dicat: Quid est rei Q%od me70 mei 62 See Ezech. xliv, 1—3 : Et convertit me ad viam portae sanctuarii exterioris, quae respiciebat ad orientem ; et erat clausa. Et dixit Dominus ad me : Porta haec clausa erit ; non aperietur, et vir non transibit per earn, quoniam Dominus, Deus Israel, ingressus est per earn ; eritque clausa principi. 63 nobis refer Malachia] refer nobis Mathia (Ms. 382). 64 hec] hoc (G). 65 See Malach. iii, 1 : Ecce ego m'itto angelum meum, et praeparabit viam ante faciem meam ; et statim veniet ad templum suum Dominator quern vos quaeritis, et angelus testamenti quern vos vultis. Ecce venit, dicit Dominus exercituum. 66 dulcifflue] dulciflue (Ms. 382) ; dulcifluae (Ms. 1232). 67 See Luc. i, 7 8 : Per viscera misericordiae Dei nostri, in quibus visitavit nos, oriens ex alto. It will be observed that the prophecy assigned to Zacharias in the Rouen version is not the same as that (Luc. i, 76) assigned to him in the pseudo-Augustinian lectio. See above, p. 8. 68 Elyzabeth] Helizabeth (Ms. 382) ; Elisabeth (Ms. 1232). 69 Illud] Illud et (Ms. 1232). 70 me] Omitted (Ms. 382). 60 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters. < Mater heri visitat?71 Nam ex eo Ventre meo Laetus infans palpitat>. VocATores : Iste cetns. Chords : Quod Iudea. VocAcio S ancti lonanms Bapt iste; Da, Baptista, Uentris72 cista Clausus. . Ipse, nudus pedes, tenens textuw, dicat: Venit talis Sotularis Cuius non sum . Vocatores: Iste cet us. Chords : Qwod Iudea. VocACio Symeonis : Quid dixisti, Symeon, cum in tua? Symeon, senex, respondeat: Dei nostri, Saluatoris, conspexerunt75 ocwli. Vocat ores: Iste cetus. Chorus: Qnod Iudea. VocAcio Uirgilii : Maro, Maro,7S uates gentilium, Da Xpisfo < testimonium >. 71 Mater heri visitat] Gaste prints these words as if they were present in Ms. 384. 72 Uentris] Ventrix (Ms. 382). 73 Quos] Quod (G). 74 etiam] Printed as if present in Ms. 384 (G). 75 conspexerunt] surrexerunt (Ms. 382). The entire speech of Simeon Gast§ prints as follows : Dei nostri salvatoris conspexerunt oculi Quern misisti (in hunc mundum) pro salute populi>. 76 Maro Maro] Mars Mars (Ms. 382) ; Maro (G). Young — Ordo Propketarum. 61 VlRGIUUS, IN IUUENILI Ha&ITU R6N6 ORNATWS, RESPOND eat: Ecce polo demissa solo . VocATores : Iste cetws. Chorws: Qwod Iudea. Interim Najbugodonosor,77 quasi Rex paratws, os- iCNDENS YMAGINEW, DUOBWS ArMATIS DICAT : Hue venite, uos Armati. Tunc Armati ostendant ymaginew prius78 dicentes: Regi gratum Famulatum. Interim ostendant79 ymaginem tribes Pueros dicentes: Huic sacro simulacro. Tunc Pueri ymaginem respuentes dicant: Deo soli Digno coli. Hoc audito Armati Pueros Regi ducant,80 dicentes : Quia ritum Stabilitum Non timetis? Tunc ostendantS1 Regi Pueros,82 dicentes: “Rex, tua saluentur. Tunc Rex iratus dicat: Ergo tales assumawtwr. Tunc Armati ducentes Pueros ad fornacem dicentes:83 Reos digne84 lam in igne. Tunc mittantur Pueri in fornace, et accendatur. At illi, Facti liberi, dicant: Benedictus es, Domine Dews, et cetera. Rex, hoc audiens, admirans dicat:85 En quid cantant86 illi tres? Armati87 dicant: Deum laudant.88 77 Nabugodonosor] Nabugodenosor (Ms. 382); Nabuchodonosor (Ms. 1232). 78 prius] pueris (Mss. 384 and 382, G). The reading prius (adopted from Ms. 1232) results in the avoiding of a repetition of the summons to the Pueri , — a repetition which may, or may not, be objectionable. See Gaste, p. 17, note. 79 ostendant] ostendat (Ms. 382). 80 regi ducant] ducant regi (G). 81 ostendant] respondeant (Ms. 382). 82 Regi Pueros] Pueros Regi (G). 83.83 omitted from Ms. 382. 84 Reos digne] Digne reos (Ms. 382). 85 dicat] hoc dicat (G). 85 cantant] cantent (Ms. 382). 87 tres Armati] Tunc Armati (Ms. 1232). 88 laudant] laudent (Ms. 382). 62 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. Tunc Uocatores dicant Regi: Puerum cum pueris, Nabugodonosor,89 ? Rex FORNACEm ostendens90 dicat: Tres in igne positi pueri89 < Quarto gaudent comite liberi>. Vocat ores :91 Iste cetus.99 Chords : Quod Iudea. Vocacio Sibille: Tu, Sibilla,93 Uates ilia,89 . Sibilla,94 coronata et muliebri hcj&itu ornata, dicat: Iudicii signum: Tellus sudore .95 VocATores :91 Iste cetus. Chorus : Qitod Iudea. Quo finito omms ProPHetE et Ministri in pulpito cantent98 hos versus: Ortum97 predestinacio Poruo Sabbaii spacio. Hoc finito Cantor incipiat ad introitum chori r esponsorium: Confirmatum est cor Uirgims.98 Prophete et iMinistri regentes cHORum secunouM. suum ordi- ?IEM INCIPIANT AD MlSSAM OFFidUM Puer natus" . 100 89 Gaste does not expand these initia. 90 fornacem ostendens] ostendens fornacem (Ms. 382). 91Vocatores] Vocant (Ms. 382). 92 cetus] Omitted (Ms. 382). 93 Vocacio Sibille Tu Sibilla] Vocatis Sibila En Sibila (Ms. 382). 94 Sibilla] Sibila (Ms. 382). 95 The entire speech of Sibilla Gaste prints as follows : Judicii signum : tellus sudore madescet . "cantent] cantant (Ms. 382). 97 Ortum] (H)ortum (G). 98 cor Uirginis] Omitted, (Ms. 382). "natus] natus est et cetera (Ms. 382) ; natus est (G). 100 Puer natus est nobis are the opening words of the Introit for the Mass of the Circumcision (Jan. 1), as well as for the third Mass of Christmas. Young — Or do Prophet arum. 63 Kyrie et GLoriA festiue.101 Onatio: Deus, qui nobis nati salua.102 Nulla MEMoria fiat.103 Epistona: Multipharie. Tees de secunvA sede r esponsum: Viderunt omwes fi.104 Tees de maioribws : Alleluia,. Versus: Multipharie. SvQueistia: Letabuwdus. EuaNGmwM: Postquam consummati sunt. Credo in vNum.105 Off ertorium: Tui sunt celi.106 Secreta: Presta, quesumus, Domine. Pref atio: Quia per incarnati.107 Sanctus et Agnus festiue.108 Com munio: Viderunt onmes. Postcom munio: Presta,, quesumus, Domine, ut q%od109 sal- uatom.110 The action of the Rouen Festum Asinorum runs, then, as follows : Immediately after Terce the procession of prophetce, led by two clerics, leaves the cloister and advances toward the nave, two clerics singing antiphonally with the choir the Gloriosi et famosi. In the middle of the church, — presumably at the junction of nave and transepts, — the procession makes a station between six Jews on one side and six Gentiles on the other. After exhorting both groups to rejoice in Christ’s birth (Omnes gentes), the Vocatores 111 address in turn the recalcitrant Jews (0 Judcei) and the unbeliev¬ ing Gentiles (Et vos, Gentes), receiving a response from each.112 101 Gaste’s text and the text in Ms. 1232 end here. Ms. 1232 adds the follow¬ ing note : Haec supra scripta deprompta fuerunt ex antiquo codice Rituali S. Rotom. Ecclesise in Festo Circumcisionis Domini. There can be little doubt that the manuscript referred to is Rouen Ms. 384. 102 nobis nati salua ] nobi nati (Ms. 382). 103 fiat] Omitted (Ms. 382). 104 responsum : Viderunt omnes fi] Graduale : Viderunt. Versus: Notum fecit (Ms. 382). 105 in vnum] Omitted (Ms. 382). 108 celi] Omitted (Ms. 382). 107 Quia per incarnati] Et communicantes, de Natiuitate (Ms. 382). 108 Sanctus et Agnus festiue] Omitted (Ms. 382). 109 quod] qui (Ms. 382). 110 Followed immediately by the rubric : Ad vi. 111 The number of Vocatores is uncertain. 112 I am unable to complete the initia of these responses. 64 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. The Vocatores now call upon Moses to testify concerning Christ, and after he has delivered his testimony, they conduct him to a position beyond the furnace that has been constructed in the middle of the nave. As they escort Moses to his new position they sing Is'te coetus, to which the choir responds Quod Judcea. Next in order Amos is appropriately summoned, utters his prophecy, and is con¬ ducted to a position beside Moses. Similarly are treated Isaiah, Aaron, Jeremiah, Daniel, Habakkuk, Balaam, Samuel, David, Hosea, Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Ezekiel, Malachi, Zacharias, Elizabeth, Saint John the Baptist, Simeon, Virgil, Nebuchadnezzar, and the Sibyl. After the Sibyl has been escorted to her place among the prophets, the whole company of prophets and ministers113 unite in singing in pulpito 114 the prose Hortum prmdestinatio . The procession now advances into the choir for Mass, the prophets and ministers beginning the Introit ( Officium ) and ruling the choir. The most obvious difference between the Rouen play and the versions previously considered is, of course, the notable increase in the number of the prophets.115 Against the thirteen personages summoned in the lectio, and in the Limoges and Laon versions, the Rouen text provides twenty-eight, in non-chronological order, in¬ cluding all of the major and minor prophets of the Vulgate. Of these twenty-eight, fourteen116 appear in none of the versions al¬ ready considered, whereas, excepting Israel,117 all the prophets of the shorter versions are present in the Rouen play. This increase in the number of prophets need occasion no surprise, for such an accretion is natural to any literary development, the names of the added personages lay ready to hand in the Vulgate, and the sermon- izer of the pseudo-Augustinian lectio himself suggests the process: Quod si velim ex lege et ex prophetis omnia quse de Christo dicta sunt colligere, facilius me tempus quam copia deseret.118 113 1 infer that these ministri are the persons who assist the prophetce in performing the play. 114 Pulpitum may mean the rood-loft over the choir-screen. See Gast§, pp. 19-20. 115 Sepet (pp. 29-83), having no knowledge of the Laon play, compares the text of Rouen only with that of Limoges. 118 Amos, Aaron, Samuel, Hosea, Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Ezekiel, and Malachi. 117 Israel is present only in the Limoges version. See above, pp. 26, 32. 118 See above, p. 7. Young — Or do Prophetarum. 65 Of the fourteen prophets that the Rouen version has in common with the shorter versions, some nine119 use utterances that we have already seen in both the Limoges and the Laon texts. The other five present special cases. Balaam, found only in Laon and Rouen, uses the same prophecies in the two versions. The Moses and Simeon of Rouen, — if we may judge from their brief initia, — de¬ liver speeches unlike those of Limoges and Laon in text, but like them in ultimate derivation from the lectio. Zacharias appears only in. the lectio and in the Rouen play, and in the two versions his utterances are not the same. The Rouen Nebuchadnezzar utters the prophecy that we have already seen in the Laon version. The peculiar dramatic interest of the Rouen play lies, however, not in such details as these, but in two special episodes, centering respectively in Balaam and Nebuchadnezzar.120 The dramatization of the story of Balaam is brief, but notably more comprehensive than what we have seen in the Laon play. Tn the spoken text of the Rouen play, to be sure, less attention is given to the asina; but on the other hand specific notice is taken of the relation of Balaam to King Balak. It is, indeed, two emis¬ saries of this king, rather than the official Vocato'res, who first sum¬ mon Balaam forth, and bid him come to Balak ’s court.121 Balaam now rides forth upon an ass, vigorously plying his spurs, until the person concealed under the animal cries out in protest (Cur me . . . leditis ?).122 Meanwhile a youth costumed as an angel, with wings and sword, stands in the path and commands Balaam to cease serving Balak.123 The official Vocatores now call upon Balaam for his prophecy, and he delivers the utterance that we have already observed in the Laon play.124 For vivifying the prophecy of Nebuchadnezzar a still more elaborate action is devised. The mise en scene consists in a furnace 119 Isaiah, Jeremiah, Daniel, Habakkuk, David, Elizabeth, John the Baptist, Virgil, and Sibyl. See Sepet, pp. 30-32. Sepet (pp. 29-38) makes a detailed comparison of the Limoges and Rouen versions, coming to the conclusion the Rouen text is based upon that of Limoges, or upon something similar. It should be remembered that Sepet did not know the Laon version. 120 See Sepet, pp. 33-36. 121 This summons, of which we have only the opening words (Balaam, veni et fac), probably included a command that Balaam curse the Israelites. See Num. xxii, 5-21. 122 Cur percutis me? (Num. xxii, 28). 123 See Num. xxii, 31-33. 124 For the source of the whole action see Num. xxii, 1-35. It will be ob¬ served that the dramatist does not use the Vulgate phraseology. 5 — S. A. L». 66 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. constructed of cloth and oakum in the middle of the nave,125 and in some sort of figure to serve as the golden idol of the Biblical ac¬ count.126 Pointing to the idol, Nebuchadnezzar begins the action, promptly by ordering two of his soldiers to command the Pueri (Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego) to fall down in worship.127 After they have spurned the idol, the three young men are con¬ ducted into the presence of Nebuchadnezzar. Hearing of their contumacy, the king angrily orders that they be cast into the fur¬ nace. After the order has been executed and the furnace lighted, the Pueri sing the Benedictus. Aroused by the sound of their voices, Nebuchadnezzar asks his soldiers what the young men are singing, and is told that they are praising God. The Vocatores now intrude into the action, asking the king what he said at this juncture. Nebuchadnezzar closes the dramatic episode by deliver¬ ing the testimony already known to us from the Laon version. As to the day on which the Rouen processus was performed scholars have not agreed. Du Cange,128 Sepet,129 and Chambers130 have assigned the performance to Christmas Day; Gaste131 asso¬ ciates it with the Vigil of Christmas (Dec. 24) ; and DuMeril132 and Chasles133 speak positively for the Feast of the Circumcision 125 Fornace in medio navis ecclesie lintheo et stupis constituta. See above, p. 50. 128 Ostendens ymaginemj ostendant ymaginem. 127 It may be that the Armati deliver the command to the Pueri twice (See above, p. 61). The general action of this whole dramatic episode is provided by Dan. iii, 13-92. Except in the Benedictus sung by the Pueri, however, the dramatist does not use the Vulgate phraseology. 128 Du Cange (G-lossarium medice et infimce Latinitatis, Vol. Ill, Niort, 1884, p. 460) introduces his text as follows: “Festum Asinorum, cujus Officium, quod die Christi Natalitio celebratur, ut et nomenclature rationem, accipe ex Ordi- nario Ecclesiae Rotomagensis Ms. : Nota, Cantor, si ...” I assume that a similar annotation occurs in the earlier editions of Du Cange, momentarily inaccessible to me. 129 Sepet (p. 42) writes as follows: Le texte nous indique positivement que la Procession de Vane faisait partie de l’office du jour de Noel. What textual evi¬ dence Sepet refers to I do not know. 130 Chambers (Vol. II, p. 55) assigns the Ordo to Christmas, rather than to the preceding day, because “the eeIntroit with which the text concludes is Puer natus est, which belongs to the Magna missa of the feast-day, and not to the eve.” Chambers overlooks the fact that Puer natus est is the Introit also of the Mass of January first. As Villetard has observed (op. cit. infra, p. 47, note), the entire liturgy of the Circumcision is essentially a compilation from other feasts, chiefly Christmas. 151 Gaste (p. 4) assigns the dramatic performance to “La veille de Noel” without reference to evidence of any kind. 132 See DuMeril, p. 181, note. DuM6ril cites no evidence. 133 Chasles writes (p. 126, note 3) as follows: “La procession des Prophgtes du Christ avait lieu le jour de la Circoncision. Jusqu’S, present on avait pens£, a la suite de M. Sepet et de M. Gaste, que cette procession se faisait le jour de Young — Or do Prophetarum. 67 (Jan. 1). There can be no doubt that this last date is the correct one, and that the other dates have been arrived at only through neglect of the plain facts of the manuscripts. In Rouen Ms. 384, for example, which is our chief source for the text of the Festum, Asinorum, the dramatic text is found in the very midst of the ordo for the service of January first,134 and is attached directly to the Mass for that day.135 This attachment is made clear by the rubrics preceding and following the Festum Asinorum itself. The intro¬ ductory rubric is as follows : Processio fiat ut in die Natiuitatis Domini excepto quod ad introitum chori dicatur responsorium: Confirmatum est. Nota Cantor: Si Festum Asinorum fiat, processio ordinetur post Ter- ciam; si non fiat Festum, tunc fiat processio ut prenotatur.136 From this rubric it is clear, in the first place, that the Festum Asinorum might or might not be performed in any particular year.137 If the Festum Asinorum were omitted, the usual liturgical processio occurred immediately after Terce and before Mass, the processio being identical with that of Christmas except that as the chant at the entrance to the choir (Ad introitum chori) the re- Noel. On s’appuyait principalement sur l’introit Puer natus est nobis entonnS par les prophetes. Cela ne prouve rien, puisque cet introit est aussi celui de la Circoncision . . . Enfin, nous avons trouve dans un ordinaire de Bayeux (Ms. 121, publie par U. Chevalier, Bib. liturg., t. VIII, p. 75) le r6pons : Con¬ firmatum est, a, la procession de la Circoncision. Or c’est justement ce meme repons qu’entonne le chantre quand les prophetes sont rentres au choeur. On le chante, d’ailleurs, encore aujourd’hui, au 2e nocturne des matines de la Circon¬ cision. Les faits semblent bien imposer notre conclusion.” 134 The Cursus and Mass for St. Sylvester (Dec. 31) are found on fol. 31v-32v, followed immediately by the Cursus and Mass for the Circumcision (Jan. 1) on fol. 32v-35v. The Festum Asinorum is found on fol. 33r— 35r. 135 The ordo for this Mass is printed above, pp. 62-63. This Mass can be identi¬ fied as that for Jan. 1 by comparison of its basic elements with the same ele¬ ments in the Mass of the Circumcision for the Feast of Fools at Sens (Villetard, op. cit. infra., pp. 109—117). Further evidence that the Rouen Festum Asinorum belongs on Jan. 1 is provided by the following note written at the end (fol. 27r) of the seventeenth-century copy of the dramatic text found in Bibliotheque Na- tionale Ms. lat. 1232 (see above p. 63) : “Hsec supra scripta deprompta fuerunt ex antiquo codice Rituali S. Rotom. Ecclesise, in Festo Circumcisionis Domini.” 138 Rouen Ms. 384 (Y. 110), fol. 33r. The second paragraph is printed at the beginning of the Festum Asinorum above, p. 50. 137 As to the reason for this option any person may, in the absence of facts, guess to his heart’s content. Sepet conjectures (pp. 38-40) that the giving of the performance may have been contingent upon the decorous conduct of the spectators during the performance of the previous year. Of this conjecture Chasles (p. 128) very justly observes, “Cette idee nous semble d§nu£e de tout fondement.” 68 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. sponsory Confirmatum est supplanted the antiphon Hodie Christies natus.138 In other words, when the Festum Asinorum was per¬ formed it merely supplanted the greater part of the normal pro - cessio, the responsory Confirmatum est being retained ad introitum chori ,139 From the liturgical point of view, therefore, the dramatic performance may be regarded as a sort of introduction to the Mass ; and it will be observed that at Mass the prophetce and their assistants begin the Introit and rule the choir.140 The name of this dramatic performance, its attachment to the liturgy of the Feast of Circumcision, and the presence of the asina, — all these circumstances combine to raise the question of the relation of the dramatic performance at Rouen to the ecclesiastical ludi , or revels, of the Christmas season, particularly to the famous Feast of Fools.141 This festival, variously known as festa asinaria, or as festum stultorum, fatuorum, follorum, subdiaconorum, or baculi, was usually celebrated on the Circumcision. The general nature of the observance may be conveniently seen in the famous manuscript inappropriately known as Missel des Fous, or Missel de l’ cine, containing words and music for the Circumcision, written, or compiled, by Pierre de Corbeil for use at Sens.142 This docu¬ ment is simply a choir-book containing troped, or embellished, forms of the musical propria for the complete Canonical Office and Mass of the Circumcision.143 The simple heading of the text as a whole is Circumcisio Domini . The text itself begins, under the rubric In januis ecclesie, with four lines of extra-liturgical verse, 138 In Rouen Ms. 384 (Y. 110) the Christmas processio is found (fol. 23v) as follows : Ad Processionem cantor incipiat responsorium : Descendit de celis. Prosa : Felix Maria. Versus : Tamquam sponsus. Prosa : Familiam custodi. Et exiuit. Prosa : Te laudant alme. Conditor. In statione responsorium : Verbum caro factum. Tres de maioribus in pulpito versum : In principio. Plenum gratie. Ad introitum chori antiphona : Hodie Xpistus natus. Sequatur Benedictio Archiepiscopi si presens fuerit. Hoc finito incipiatur Missa a can- tore cappato. 139 See above, pp. 50, 67. 140 See above, p. 62. 141 The most convenient and comprehensive account of the Feast of Fools is that by Chambers, Vol. I, pp. 274-335. The other ludi we need not, for our present purpose, consider. Chambers considers the whole matter in masterly fashion (Vol. I, pp. 274-371). 142 Ms. 46, of the thirteenth century, now kept in the municipal museum at Sens. From this manuscript the so-called “Office des Fons” has been most re¬ cently edited by H. Villetard, Office de Pierre de Corheil (Bibliotheque Musi- cologique, IV), Paris, 1907. 143 One may consult Villetard’s complete text, or the general descriptions given by him (pp. 39-51) and by Chambers (Vol. I, pp. 279-284). Young — Or do Prophet arum. 69 followed, under the rubric Conductus 144 ad tabulam, by the famous “Prose of the Ass,” beginning, Orientibus partibus Aduentauit asinus. Then follow the troped chants; for the complete Canonical Office and Mass. The rubrics accompanying the text are brief and apply, in gen¬ eral, strictly to the liturgical ceremonial. There is no suggestion of burlesque.145 At Beauvais and elsewhere, however, the cere¬ monial included acts of revelry such as a drinking bout and a censing with pudding and sausage.146 For our present purpose we may omit a survey of these revels as a whole, and need mention merely the fact that at Beauvais, during the singing of the “Prose of the Ass, ’ ’ an asinus was actually brought into the church.147 What, then, is the relation of the Laon Ordo Prophetarum and the Rouen Festum Asinorum to the Feast of Fools or similar eccle¬ siastical ludif For an answer, which I cannot improve, I adopt the able words of Chambers :148 144 “Conductus design e un morceau de musique ou plutOt de chant qu’on exe- cutait en marchant” (Villetard, p. 75). 145 Villetard (pp. 49-51, 73—82) considers and interprets the rubrics in detail. One’s attention falls questioningly upon the rubric Conductus ad ludos, which introduces the charming Noel (Natus est) just before the Te Deum of Matins; but Villetard (p. 50) interprets this rubric as referring to the departure of the congregation from the church “pour alle se reorder quelques instants.” The serious tone of the observance at Sens is observed by Chambers (Vol. II, p. 281) and by Villetard, the latter expressing himself (p. 51) as follows: “Rien, en effet, k relever, dans cette vaste composition, qui soit de nature k choquer le godt le plus exigeant. L’ouvrage, dans son ensemble, est incompatible avec l’idee du plus leger desordre.” Chambers reminds us (Vol. I, p. 288), however, that the more extravagant ceremonies would not be likely to be recorded in a formal service-book. 148 See Chambers, Vol. I, pp. 286-287. I know of no complete edition of the Circumcision office of Beauvais. Villetard (pp. 219-232) gives a complete analysis of its content, and Chambers (Vol. I, pp. 284-287) gives a general de¬ scription. Chambers (Vol. I, pp. 279-281, 287-288) points out the fact that the Circumcision office written for Sens by Pierre de Corbeil has undergone a reform from which the Beauvais office escaped. 147 See Chambers, Vol. I, pp. 286, 331; Villetard pp. 49, 232. Concerning the use of the ass in ecclesiastical ludi in general, see Chambers, Vol. II, pp. 330- 332. There is no proof that Pierre de Corbeil allowed an ass to appear in his ceremony ; but his use of the “Prose of the Ass” indicates that at one period or another the ass may have been used. 143 Chambers, Vol. II, pp. 56—57. The foot-notes are annotations of the present writer. 70 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. I think it must he taken for granted that the plays149 are the older in¬ stitution of the two. They seem all to have taken shape by the eleventh century,150 before there is any clear sign that the Kalends151 had made their way into the churches and become the Feast of Fools. The plays may even have been encouraged as a counter-attraction, for the congregation, to the Kalends outside. On the other hand, I do not hold, as some writers do, that the riotous Feasts of Asses were derived from the pious and instructive ceremony so called at Rouen.152 On the contrary, Balaam and his ass are an interpolation in the Prophetce both at Rouen and, more ob¬ viously, at Laon. Balaam, alone of the Laon performers, is not from the pseudo-Augustinian sermon.153 Is he not, therefore, to be regarded as a reaction of the Feast of Fools upon the Prophetce, 15i as an attempt to turn the established presence of the ass in the church to purposes of edi¬ fication, rather than of ribaldry? I think the explanation is the more plausible one. We may, then, with reasonable certainty account for the mis¬ nomer Festum Asinorum attached to the prophet-play in the Rouen manuscripts: The Feast of Fools contributed to the prophet -play the figure of the ass, and the conspicuous presence of the ass forced upon the prophet-play the alien name Festum Asinorum. The question remains as to whether the ass in the Rouen play, — and in the Laon play as well, — brought with it the comic associations of the Feast of Fools. In the absence of documentary evidence, one can only surmise that however solemn the intention of the writers of the prophet-plays may have been,155 the spectators must have 149 In this part of his statement Chambers is referring to the several liturgical plays of the Christmas season : OJficium Pastorum, Officium Stellas, and Ordo Prophetarum. See Chambers, Vol. II, pp. 41-55. iso ;por an application of this date to the Ordo Prophetarum see Chambers, Vol. II, p. 53, note 4. 151 The word Kalends here refers, of course, to the festivities of the folk at the beginning of the year. 152 Chambers notes that Gast§ (pp. 20-24) holds this view. See also Chambers, Vol. I, p. 332, note 1. Chasles (p. 126, note 3) seems not to discriminate at all between the Ordo Prophetarum and the Feast of Fools. 153 See above, p. 46. 154 Elsewhere (Vol. I, p. 332) Chambers presents this view more positively as follows : “It has been pointed out, and will, in the next volume, be pointed out again, that the ecclesiastical authorities attempted to sanctify the spirit of play at the Feast of Fools and similar festivities by diverting the energies of the revellers to ludi of the miracle-play order. In such ludi they found a place for the ass. He appears for instance as Balaam’s ass in the later versions from Laon and Rouen of the Prophetce, and at Rouen he gave to the whole of this performance the name of the festum or processio asinorum. 155 Sepet (p. 28) undertakes to assure us that the conduct of the ass itself was altogether decorous. Young — Ordo Prophet arum. 71 experienced, at least surreptitiously, some of the mirth openly pro¬ claimed in the festa asinaria .156 We have still to notice the special chants with which the dramatic performance of Rouen begins and ends. Like the Laon play, the version before us begins with a processional use of the Gloriosi et famosi. It will be observed, however, that the Rouen play dis¬ closes157 several stanzas that we have not seen hitherto. The ap¬ propriateness of this chant to the fundamental theme of the Ordo Prophetarum is so complete as to suggest that the Gloriosi et famosi was composed specifically for use in the dramatic procession of the Prophetce .15S Unfortunately a like appropriateness cannot be claimed for the prose II or turn prcedestinatio which the Prophetce et Ministri in pul - pito sing after the concluding prophecy of the Sibyl. The com¬ plete text of this prose will be examined below.159 Suffice it to say here that in content this composition is related, not to the Ordo Prophetarum , but to the theme of Easter. I can offer no plausible conjecture to account for its presence in the Rouen version before us.160 Glancing back over our survey, we observe that of the extant examples of the Ordo Prophetarum in its use as a strictly liturgical play, the Rouen version shows the most extended development. The importance of this development consists not so much in the mere addition of new prophets as in the use of mise en scene and dialogue for the roles of Balaam and Nebuchadnezzar. Whereas all the other prophetce are provided merely with a conventionally ade¬ quate impersonation, these two personages are the centers of dia¬ logues that approach the status of independent dramatic episodes. 158 As to whether the Feast of Fools was cultivated at Rouen itself, alongside the prophet-play, I have no information. Chambers (Vol. I, pp. 303-304) traces the presence of a Feast of Fools at Laon from “about 1280” on into the sixteenth century. 157 The Rouen text, here and elsewhere, provides only the initia. 158 For its use elsewhere, see below, pp. 72-80. 159 See pp. 75-77. 160 Nor can Sepet (p. 47) or Gaste (p. 20). I consider this matter in detail below, pp. 76-77. 72 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. VII I have reserved for separate consideration two texts which are directly related to versions examined above, but which raise special questions. The first of these texts is associated with Einsiedeln i* 1 AD PROPHETAS Prophete venientes admonent:2 3 4 Gloriosi Et famosl Regis festum Celebrantes Gaudeamus; Cuius ortum Uite portum Nobis datum Predicantes Habeamus. 1 Einsiedeln Ms. 366 (olim 179), Fragmenta liturgica ssec. xi-xii, pp. 53-54. The manuscript is described by P. G. Meier, Catalogus Codicum manu scriptorum qui in Bibliotheca Monasterii Einsidlensis O. S. B. servantur, Vol. I, Einsiedeln — Leipzig, 1899, pp. 331-332. The part of the manuscript containing liturgico- dramatic pieces (pp. 53-56) is more carefully described by W. Meyer, Frag¬ menta Burana, Berlin, 1901, pp. 51—52. I base my own text and observations upon the manuscript itself. The liturgico-dramatic pieces are found as follows : (1) p. 53 (beginning on the first line and ending on the next to the last line) : a fragment of the Officium Stellce. For bibliography see a note of the present writer in University of Wisconsin Studies in Language and Literature, No. 4, Madison, 1919, p. 7, note 19. In this note I neglected to mention the fact that this fragment is printed also by A. Schubiger, in Musikalische Spicilegien, Jahr- gang IV, Lieferung II, Berlin, 1876, pp. 44-46. (2) pp. 53 (last line) -5 4 (last line) : a fragment of the Or do Prophet arum , published by F. J. Mone, Schauspiele des Mittelalters, Vol. I, Karlsruhe, 1846, pp. 10-12, and by Schubiger, op. cit., pp. 46-47 ; and republished herewith, with collation of the texts of Mone and Schubiger. (3) p. 55 (first three lines) : a fragment (latter part) of the prose Hortum prcedestinatio, published by Mone, p. 12, and republished below, p. 74. (4) pp. 55 (line 3) -5 6 (line 5) : a version the Visitatio Sepulchri, headed by the rubric In Resurrectione ; published by Mone, pp. 12—13. See below, p. 74. Since there is obviously no continuity between the last words on p. 54 and the first words on p. 55 (See below, note 12) it is clear that one or more leaves have been lost between (2) and (3). The lost part must have contained a continuation of the Ordo Prophetarum and the beginning of the Hortum prce¬ destinatio. For further discussion of this lacuna in the manuscript see below, pp. 76—77, and Meyer, pp. 51—52. 2 Ad Prophetas. Prophete venientes admonent] Omitted (Mone). Young — Or do Prophet arum. 73 Chorus : Gloriosi Et famosi.3 ProPHETE : Ecce regem Nouam legem Dantem orbis Circuitu4 Predicamus. Chorus : Quern futurum Regnaturum Prophetico Ammonitu5 Nunciamus. Gloriosi Et famosi .6 Prophete: Sunt impleta Que propheta Quisqwe dixit De futuro Summo rege. Chords : Impiorum ludeorum Corda negant Regnaturum Sua lege. Gloriosi Et famosi .7 Prophete: Dilatata lam priuata Fit regali Potestate Plebs Iudea. Et gentiles Prius uiles Conuertuntur Maiestate Etherea. 3 Et famosi] etc. (Mone). 4 circuitu] circuitum (Schubiger; Mone, — who remarks, “Vor diesem Wort ist per zu verstehen.” ) . 5Ammonitu] ammonitum (Mone). 6 Et famosi] etc. (Mone). 7Etfamosi] etc. (Mone). 74 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts f and Letters. Chorus : Gloriosi Et famosi .8 Prophete: Deum uerum Regem regum Confitentes Per lauacrum Saluabuntur. Chords : Prophete: Sed Iudei Facti rei Condemnantes Sacrum regem Damnabuntur. Gloriosi.9 Floruisse Et dedisse Nouum fructum Dinoscitur Radix Iesse. Chorus : Israheli Infideli lam Maria Natus scitur 10 adesse.* 11 Gloriosi.12 8 Et famosi] etc. (Mone). 9 Gloriosi] Gloriosi etc. (Mone) ; Gloriosi et fa. (Schubiger). 10 1 adopt Mone’s conjecture. Schubiger supplies nunc. 11 adesse] For this word and the word Gloriosi following, the music is omitted. 12Thus ends p. 54 of the manuscript. At the top of p. 55 begins the following: centurio Florem Marie proprio Sepeliuit in tumulo. Flos autem die tercio Qui floret ab initio, Refloruit e tumulo Summo mane diluculo. In Resurrectione Angelus dicit : Quern queritis. Here follows a version of the Visitatio Sepulchri. Young— Or do Prophetarum. 75 This fragment is obviously the processional beginning of a ver¬ sion of the Ordo Prophetarum. Although we must regret the ab¬ sence of the prophecies themselves, we are fortunate in having a relatively complete form of the processional Gloriosi et famosi.13 From this text it appears that at Einsiedeln the Prophetce them¬ selves sang the stanzas of this cantio , a practice that was probably followed at Laon, but certainly not at Rouen. The most puzzling aspect of the text before us is the uncertainty as to the relation of the fragmentary Ordo Prophetarum to the fragment of the prose Hortum Prcedestinatio that follows it in the manuscript. A complete version of this prose may be seen in the following text:14 R esponsorium: Et ualde mane una sabbatorum ueniunt ad monu- mentum, orto iam sole, alleluya. Versus: Et respicientes uiderunt reuolutum lapidem ab hostio monumenti. Orto. Gloria Patri et Filio et Spiritui Sancto. : Et . Prosa ortum predestinatio Paruo sabbaifi spatio Prouiderat in proximo Ciuitatis proastio, 13 From this text we are able to complete one or two of the initia of the Rouen text. 14 Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. latin 2028, Breviarium Senonense ssec. xiv, fol. 12 Or. So far as I know this text is now published for the first time. It appears that texts of the Hortum prcedestinatio are relatively few. Chevalier, Repertorium Hymnologicum, No. 8045, mentions only one text, in a breviary of the year 1548. In the appendix to Analecta Bollandiana, Vol. XXXIII, Fasc. 1, Jan., 1914, Chevalier’s information is supplemented by the following note: “Ms. Douai, 170 (X. Is.), 72a. Rev. cath. Rouen, II, 868.” I have texts also from Paris, Bibliotheque Mazarine, Ms. 349, Breviarium Farsemonasterii ssec. xiii, fol. 82r— 82v, and Bibl. Mazarine, Ms. 346, Breviarium Sancti Maglorii ssec. xv in., fol. 103v. From an unidentified Sens manuscript, the Hortum Prce¬ destinatio and accompanying Visitatio Sepulchri are published in Melanges de la Societe des Bibliophiles , 1834, pp. 165—167, and this text is reprinted by Du- Meril, pp. 98-100. It will be observed that the text now published from Paris Ms. 1028 is from the use of Sens, and that, like the text reprinted by DuMeril, it presents the Hortum prcedestinatio as associated with the Visitatio Sepulchri of Easter. Although the Hortum prcedestinatio contains one or two rather awk¬ ward conceptions, I should not call it a “prose barbare”, as do the editors of Melanges (p. 166, note 1). 15 proastio] proactio (Ms.). This reading explains the unintelligible pro fascio of the Sens text reprinted by DuMeril, pp. 98-99. The reading proastio is found in Bibl. Mazarine Ms. 346, fol. 103v, and prophastio, in Bibl. Mazarine Ms. 349, fol. 82v. Proastium (“suburb”) may serve as the emendation desired by Meyer (P. 51). 76 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. ortura pomorum uario Non msignem edulio Quantum uirtutis spatio18 Coeqnalem Elisio. In hoc magnns decurio Ac nobilis centurio Florem Marie proprio Sepeliuit in tumulo. Flos autem die tercio, Qni floret ab initio, Refloruit e tumulo Summo mane dilucnlo. Orto . Post representationem Mariarnm17 sequltur: Te Deum laudamns.18 Here the prose Hortum prcedestinatio is used as a trope of the third responsory of Easter Matins, and is followed, according to the rubric, by a version of the dramatic Visit atio Sepulchri.1* It appears, then, that both through its content and through its tradi¬ tional associations the Hortum prcedestinatio belongs to the liturgy of Easter,20 and was commonly used as a trope, or appendage, of the third responsory of Easter Matins.21 It will be remembered, furthermore, that it is immediately after this third responsory that the dramatic Visit atio Sepulchri is commonly found. These facts ought to provide a sufficient basis for determining the relations of the fragmentary Hortum prcedestinatio in the Ein- siedeln manuscript. This fragment of a prose is, to be sure, pre¬ ceded, — after a lacuna of unknown length,22 — by the beginning of an Ordo Prophetarum; but the prose is immediately, and appropri- 18 spatio] precio (Mazarine Mss. 346 and 349), with obviously better sense. 17 The Representatio Mariarum is, of course, the well-known Visitatio Sepulchri traditionally performed immediately before the Te Deum of Easter Matins. 18 The rubric In Laudibus follows immediately. 19 The actual text of the Visitatio Sepulchri happens not to be given in this manuscript. The text referred to was probably similar to that reprinted by DuMeril, pp. 99-100. 20 Chevalier, Repertorium Hymnologicum, No. 8045, assigns it to Easter. 21 This prose is used as a trope of the third responsory of Easter Matins not only in the text printed above from Bibl. Nat. Ms. 1028, but also in my unpub¬ lished texts from Mazarine Mss. 346 and 349, mentioned above, note 14. 22 See above, note 1. Young — Or do Prophetarum. 77 ately, followed by a version of the Easter play, Visit atio Sepul - chri ,23 We ought, therefore, to feel assured that the Hortum prce- destinatio in the Einsiedeln text does not belong to the preceding Ordo Prophetarum , but is to be related to the succeeding Visitatio Sepul chri. But our assurance is not quite complete ; for although in thought the Hortum prcedestinatio is decisively alien to the Ordo Prophet- arum and to the Christmas season, the Rouen Festum Asinorum does actually conclude with the singing of this prose;24 and the Einsiedeln dramatist may have allowed a similar incongruity. It must be admitted, moreover, that in the Einsiedeln manuscript it¬ self there is nothing to disprove absolutely the inclusion of the prose in the preceding prophet-play, now largely lost. In the present state of our information, the precise dramatic relations of the fragmentary Hortum prcedestinatio in the Einsiedeln manu¬ script must be left undecided.25 The second text for special consideration is the following, of uncertain provenience :26 lx Epiphania Domini Lectio Isaiae prophetae: Surge, illuminare, Ierusalem, quia venit lumen tuum, et gloria Domini super te orta est. Gloriosi Et famosi Regis festum Celebrantes Gaudeamus ; Cuius ortum Vitae portum Nobis datum Praedicantes Aveamus. 23 See above, note 12. 24 See above, pp. 62, 71. 23 Since the Hortum prcedestinatio fragment is immediately followed (not in the margin, as Meyer says [p. 51], but as the ending of line 3) by the rubric In Resurrectione , and since the opening words (Quern queritis) are written in uncials, Meyer holds (p. 51) that the Hortum prcedestinatio fragment is effect¬ ually separated from the Visitatio Sepulchri, and has “Nichts mit dem Oster- spiel zu thun.” I myself do not regard the rubric and the uncials as decisive in effecting the separation. The general situation under discussion may be grasped from note 1 above. Even though the Hortum prcedestinatio fragment be regarded as effectually separated from the succeeding Visitatio, the associa¬ tion of the' fragment with the Ordo Prophetarum is a matter of uncertainty. 28 1 take this text from Analecta Hymnica Medii 2Evi, Vol. XLIX, Leipzig, 1906, pp. 182-183. Concerning his source, the editor, Clemens Blume, writes (p. 183) : “Cod. ms. saec. 14.— -Bannister, dem ich die Abschrift verdanke, konnte leider den Fundort und die Provenienz der Handschrift nicht mehr ermitteln.” 78 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. Quia, ecce, tenebrae operient terrain et caligo populos. Ecce, regem Novam legem Dantem orbis Circuitu Praedicamus. Quern futurum Regnaturum Prophetico Admonitu Nuntiamus. Super te autem orietur Dominus, et gloria eius in te videbitur. Sunt impleta Quae propheta Quisquis dixit De future Summo rege. Impiorum Iudaeorum Corda negant Regnaturo Sua lege. Et ambulabunt gentes in lumme tuo et reges in splendor e ortus tui. Dilatata Et gentiles lam privata Prius viles Fit regali Convertuntur Potestate Plebs ludaea. Leva in circuitu oculos tuos et vide . tibi. Deum verum Regem regum Confitentes Per lavacrum Salvabuntur. Maiestate Aetherea. omnes isti congregati sunt, venerunt Sed ludaei Facti rei Non fatentes Regem sacrum Damnabuntur. Filii tui de longe venient, et filiae tuae de latere surgent. Omnes gentes Congaudentes De cantu laetitiae, Quia homo Sit de domo Natus David hodie. Tunc videbis et afflues, et mirabitur et dilatabitur cor tuum, quando conversa fuerit ad te multitudo maris, fortitudo gentium venerit tibi. Isaias, die, de Christo quid prophetizas? Est necesse Flos deinde Virgam Iesse Surget inde De radice provehi; Qui est filius Dei. Inundatio camelorum operiet te, dromedarii Madian et Epha. 0 ludaei Verbum Dei Cur negastis hominem? Yestrae legis Vestri regis Audite nunc ordinem. Young — Ordo Prophetarum. 79 Omnes de Saba venient aurum et tus deferentes, et laudem Domino annuntiantes. Confunduntur Convertuntur iMaiestatis aethere. Omnes gentes Non credentes Peperisse virginem Since for our present purpose the interest of this liturgical piece is somewhat subsidiary, I deal with it only briefly. It is a troped form of the Epistle for the Mass of Epiphany: among the sentences of the Vulgate (Isa. lx, 1-6) are distributed metrical compositions in the nature of embellishments of the orthodox liturgical text.27 It will be observed that the trope begins with the Gloriosi et famosi, and consists of stanzas virtually every word of which we have al¬ ready encountered in one version or another of the Ordo Prophet- arum. That this trope is in some way related to the prophet-play is further apparent in the intrusive summons Isaias , die , de Christo quid prophetizas ? The question arises, then, as to whether this trope is one of the sources of the Ordo Prophetarum , or is itself under the influence of the dramatic tradition. That the latter relation is the valid one is suggested, in the first place, by the uniqueness and late date of the text before us. In order to influence the development of the Ordo Prophetarum it would have been necessary that this Epistle- trope be in existence and be well-known as early as the eleventh century, the date of the Limoges Ordo Prophetarum, for this dramatic text contains substantial passages that are identical with passages in the trope.28 That fact that the editors of Analecta Hymnica have discovered only one text of the trope, and that this text is relatively late (fourteenth century), seems to show that the trope can scarcely have had sufficient age or repute for serving as a source of the prophet-play of Limoges.29 Further indication that the trope is not a source of the prophet- 27 1 follow Blume in printing the liturgical Epistle itself in italics. 28 See above, pp. 25-31. In the trope are found also the following passages of the Limoges text : Omnes gentes . . . per ordinem ; Est necesse . . . est spiritus (filius) Dei; Et vos (Omnes) gentes . . . peperisse virginem. 29 The Beverend H. M. Bannister, who contributed the trope under considera¬ tion, was complete master of the trope manuscripts of Western Europe, as one may infer, for example, from his list of troparia in Analecta Hymnica , Vol. XL VII, pp. 22-25. 80 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters. play, but rather an emanation from it, appears from such a stanza as the following: O Iudaei, Verbum Dei, Cur negastis horninem? Whereas such an address to the Jews30 finds no special inspiration in the liturgical Epistle that is being embellished, it accords per¬ fectly with the tenor of the pseudo-Augustinian lectio and of the central motive of the Ordo Prophetarum. It would appear that such a passage originated not from the liturgical Epistle of Epiph¬ any but from the dramatic tradition. The text before us, then, may be regarded as an isolated liturgical piece in which certain stanzas from the Ordo Prophetarum have been used, with considerable appropriateness, as a trope of an Epistle.31 VIII In view of the detailed attention given above to the several ver¬ sions of the Ordo Prophetarum, our summary of the development of this liturgical play may be brief. There can be, in the first place, no doubt as to the origin of this dramatic phenomenon. A re-examination of the matter has im¬ paired none of the essentials of Sepet’s original demonstration.1 The Ordo Prophetarum certainly arises from that part of the pseudo-Augustinian sermon (Contra Judaeos, Paganos, et Arianos) which was widely used as a lectio for Matins during the Christmas season, this particular part addressing itself to the Jews and be- 30 See also the stanza beginning Sed Iudcei , and the stanza ending Plebs Iudcea. 31 1 can see no reason for reprinting here the Cantio de mulieribus beginning, Recedite, recedite, Ne mulieri credite ! Die tu, Adam, primus homo, etc. In form this satirical composition may possibly show the influence of the Ordo Prophetarum. A new version of the Cantio, with information concerning ver¬ sions previously published, is given by L. Suttina, Una Cantilena medievale contro le donne, in Studi Medievali (ed. F. Novati and R. Renier), Vol. II (1906-07), pp. 457-460. In the same volume (pp. 538-550), F. Novati, fetching an analogy from the Ordo Prophetarum, undertakes to show that the Cantio is “un dramma liturgico” for Ash Wednesday. I cannot accept the demon¬ stration. 1 See above, pp. 1-2. Young — Ordo Prophetarum. 81 ginning with the words Vos , inquam, convenio, O Judaei. The fresh documents brought forward in the present study merely ex¬ tend, elucidate, and confirm Sepet ’s conception of this liturgico- dramatic development. From the extant texts it appears that even as a procession of prophets confined within the bounds of the liturgy the Ordo Prophetarum attained a conspicuous development in the direction of genuine and independent drama. It must be admitted, to be sure, that in so far as the mere formula of the Ordo is concerned, this dramatic invention tends toward a mediocre regularity. The inevitable uniformity in the summoning of a succession of wit¬ nesses, and in the delivering of their testimonies, suggests monotony.2 But it is also clear that the liturgical dramatists ac¬ complished a good deal in the way of variety. The Laon and Rouen versions show great care in impersonation.3 The costumes are at once brilliant and discriminating, and details of personality are often penetratingly disclosed. More striking still is the provi¬ sion, for certain witnesses, of conspicuous properties or mise en scene. The action centering in the ass of Balaam and in the fur¬ nace of Nebuchadnezzar, in the Rouen Ordo, develops into dramatic episodes of independent interest; and since one of these episodes is found near the beginning, and the other near the end, of a long defile of prophets, the dramatist may have intended explicitly to enliven a solemn formula with moments of comic suggestion. Let it be understood, finally, that the present study does not undertake to survey the career or the influence of the Ordo Prophetarum beyond the confines of liturgical drama. Sepet pur¬ sues the matter much farther, and through demonstration and con¬ jecture, outlines a development of the Ordo through several later and more comprehensive stages. He conjectures, in the first place, a form of the dramatic procession in which new witnesses appear, and in which prophets besides Balaam and Nebuchadnezzar were the centers of dramatic expansion; and he holds that certain of these special episodes may have been more extended than anything that we have seen in the plays of Laon and Rouen.4 He then rea¬ sons that some of these special episodes detached themselves from 2 Upon this monotony of Meyer (p. 52) is particularly insistent. 3 It may be, of course, that the Limoges version also availed itself of im¬ personation, even though the rubrics of the extant text are silent. See above, p. 37. 4 See Sepet, pp. 48-147. 6— S. A. L. 82 Wiscdnsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. the procession, and persisted as independent plays.5 Finally Sepet assumes that these independent plays reunited in the form of Old Testament dramatic cycles, such as we find in several of the ver¬ naculars of Western Europe.6 As to the validity of these comprehensive conjectures and infer¬ ences scholars have disagreed,7 and it may be that the extant texts are insufficient for demonstrating with precision the part of the Or do Prophetarum in the forming of the vernacular cycles upon subjects from the Old Testament. In any case I mention the matter here not for the purpose of passing judgment, but rather in order to discriminate between the part of Sepet ’s study that is demonstrably correct and the part into which enters tenuous conjecture. However doubtful his more ambitious conjectures may be, his derivation of the dramatic Or do Prophetarum from the pseudo-Augustinian lectio is sound. Such additional evidences and such corrections of detail as may be advanced in the present study all combine in support of Sepet ?s important discovery. 5 See Sepet, pp. 49-80. 6 See Sepet, pp. 165-179. 7 See Meyer, pp. 53-56 ; W. Creizenach, in Literaturhlatt fur germanische und romanische Philologie, Vol. XXIII (1902), col. 203 ; H. Craig, The Origin of the Old Testament Cycles, in Modern Philology, Vol. X (1913), pp. 473—487 ; Adeline M. Jenney, A Further Word as to the Origin of the Old Testament Plays, in Modern Philology, Vol. XIII (1915), pp. 59-64. To ERNST VOSS On His Sixtieth Birthday October Thirteenth Nineteen Hundred and Twenty RICHARD WAGNER’S “DIE MEISTERSINGER VON NURNBERG” AND ITS LITERARY PRECURSORS EDWIN C. ROEDDER. The first performance of Richard Wagner’s musical comedy- drama Die Meistersinger von Numb erg took place in the Royal Opera House in Munich, June 21, 1868. As to its genesis we are accurately and fully informed by the author himself, in passages of his autobiographical writings as well as in his letters. Over a score of years had elapsed between the first performance — the most memorable one that any opera had ever had up to that time, as an artistic achievement equalled only by the presentation, in 1876, of T)er Ring des Nibelungen, and surpassed only by Par¬ sifal, in 1882 — and the first conception of the play which Wagner, then musical director of the Royal Opera at Dresden, jotted down, in 1845, during a stay at Marienbad in Bohemia, where he had gone for the recuperation of his health. In his posthumous auto¬ biography My Life 1 he says : “Owing to some comments I had read in Gervinus’s History of German Literature* 2 , both the Mastersingers of Nuremberg and Hans Sachs had acquired quite a vital charm for me. The very name of the Marker, and the part he takes in the Mastersinging, were particularly pleasing to me, and on one of my lonely walks, without knowing anything particular about Hans Sachs and his poetic contemporaries, I thought out a humorous scene in which the cobbler — as a popular artisan-poet — with the hammer on his last, gives the marker, who is forced to sing, a practical lesson, thereby taking revenge on him for his pedantic misdeeds. To me the force of the whole scene was concentrated in the two follow¬ ing points: on the one hand the marker, with his slate covered *1 quote from the anonymous English translation, New York, 1911, vol. I, page 366, taking the liberty of correcting some curious mistakes of the trans¬ lator. 2 The passages in question are collected in the appendix to this paper. 86 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. with chalk marks, and on the other Hans Sachs holding np the shoes covered with the marks from his hammer blows, each inti¬ mating to the other that his singing had been a failure. To this picture, by way of concluding the second act, I added a scene con¬ sisting of a narrow, crooked little street in Nuremberg, with the people all running about in great excitement, and ultimately en¬ gaging in a street brawl. Thus suddenly the whole of my Meister- singer comedy took shape so vividly before me that, inasmuch as it was a particularly cheerful subject, and not in the least likely to overexcite my nerves, I felt I must write it out in spite of the doctor’s orders.” In Wagner’s Mitteilung an meine Freunde 3, written six years later, in 1851, we learn that his intention to carry out this new plan was considerably strengthened by the advice of several well- wishers, who wanted him to compose some opera of the lighter kind, which would be likely to secure for his works admittance to all German stages and thereby win for him the outward success that he had so far missed and that was so necessary in his struggle for existence. At the same time he mentions here another aspect of the new plan : the Mastersinger drama was to be the humorous converse of the tragic contest of the Minnesingers at the Wart- burg, as treated in his Tannhduser, the score of which he had completed in the month of April, and the first performance of which took place on the 19th of October, 1845. Hans Sachs was to personify the last appearance of the artistically productive folk-spirit, and as such he was to be contrasted with the philistine mastersingers, to whose comical pedantry, bound up entirely in the rules of the “tablature,” Wagner expected to give a distinctly personal expression in the figure of the marker. The Marienbad sketch of the Meistersinger was jotted down July 16, 1845. 4 The Mitteilung an meine Freunde contains a synopsis of the plan from which the general reading public re¬ ceived its first knowledge of the subject. The final and defini¬ tive execution adheres quite closely to this first sketch, so far as the general outward course of the action is concerned, but presents vital departures in a number of points, especially in the charac¬ terization of Sachs and the youthful hero. The internal changes are indeed so incisive that Wagner, when toward the close of the 3 Gesammelte Schriften, 4, 284 ff. (References to second and subsequent edi¬ tions.) 4 It is printed in full in Sdmtliche Schriften , 11, 344ft. Boedder — “Die Meistersinger von Niirnberg 87 year 1861 he wrote out the present form of his work, could say that the original plan offered him little or nothing.5 To gain an insight into the growth of Wagner’s spiritual life as expressed in the play from its first inception to its completion, and at the same time to obtain a satisfactory answer to the ques¬ tion as to how much Wagner is indebted to his “ sources” for the plot, it will be necessary to give a fairly detailed synopsis of the Marienbad sketch.6 In this the characters are not yet named, excepting Hans Sachs, his apprentice David, and Magdalene, David’s elderly sweetheart, the kinswoman and companion of the unnamed daughter of the senior of the mastersingers ’ guild. The later Walter von Stolzing appears merely as a junger Mann, Beck- messer as the Merker, and Eva as the Preismadcken, For brev¬ ity’s sake we shall in the following insert the names used in the final version. Walter, a young knight, inspired by the reading of the Helden- buch and the old Minnesingers, an ardent lover of poetry, descends from his impoverished ancestral castle in Franconia, in order to learn the art of the mastersingers in Nuremberg. To join the guild, he presents himself at the house of its senior, Veit Pogner, the goldsmith, and here meets Pogner ’s daughter, with whom he quickly falls in love.7 Pogner has offered his daughter’s hand as a prize to the master who shall defeat his competitors in a sing¬ ing contest to be held in the near future. The deciding vote in the matter is to be left to the maiden herself. When at the meet¬ ing of the guild Walter presents himself for the master’s test, which he must pass in order to participate in the coming competi¬ tion, Hans Sachs, who happens to be the warden of the law for the time being, reads to him the rules of the guild, with a decided admixture of irony, and Walter is rather nervous and intimidated. Beckmesser, the all-important marker, — whose official business it is to keep tally of the mistakes and infractions against the narrow rules and laws of the mastersingers’ art, — himself aspires to the fair maiden’s hand and her father’s gold. He scents a rival, and naturally avails himself of this glorious chance to put him out of the way. So he interrupts Walter’s singing before he is half 5 Richard Wagner an MatMlde Wesendonk, p. 293. 6 For a full synopsis of the drama in its present form see Henry Edward Krehbiel, Studies in the Wagnerian Drama, New York, N. D. (1891), pages 72-77, or Henry T. Finck, Wagner and his Works. The Story of his Life with Critical Comments, vol. II, New York, 1893, pages 217-223. 7 So it is not, as in the final version, his acquaintance with Eva and his love for her that suggests to him the desire to become one of the mastersingers himself, but in first visiting Pogner’s house he has no ulterior purpose beyond his reception into the circle of the masters. 88 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. through, and declares the young knight’s efforts to have been an utter failure. Walter tries to defend himself, in his anguish begs for another chance, and finally cries out in the greatest despair, “Have mercy, masters!” and “ rushes away as though annihi¬ lated.” When in the second act Walter meets Eva again, he gives vent to this despondency and bitterness, and also to his disappointment in the mastersingers ’ ways. In his desperate state of mind he plans and attempts to abduct his lady-love, but Hans Sachs, who has taken a fancy to him, frustrates this bold scheme, with the best of intentions for the young couple. At the same time Sachs utilizes the opportunity to vex and get even with the marker. Beckmesser, intending to humiliate Sachs, has twitted him for not finishing a pair of shoes that he had ordered from him. Now when in the night prior to the great singing-contest the marker serenades the girl with the song with which on the next day he hopes to triumph over his rivals, Sachs, whose workshop is just opposite Pogner’s house, likewise starts a loud song, since, as he explains to the angry marker, he must sing in order to keep himself awake when working so late at night; and no one knows better than Beckmesser himself that the job must be done forthwith, for has he not just a few hours since reminded Master Sachs most forcibly that he is neglecting his duty as cobbler for the sake of his poetic attempts. At last he promises the unfortunate marker that he will stop singing, only the latter must permit him to indicate the mistakes that he detects in Beckmesser ’s song in his own way, as a shoemaker, by a hammer-stroke on the shoe over the last. Beck¬ messer sings, and Sachs uses his hammer very liberally. The critical taps on the lapstone thoroughly infuriate and confuse the marker, but all that he elicits from Sachs is the placid question whether he is done. “Not nearly!” the marker cries, and Sachs laughing holds up the shoes, the job having been finished merely by the hammer markings. Beckmesser now bellows forth the re¬ mainder of his song without a pause, and fails most woefully in the eyes of the female figure at the window. David has recognized the latter as his beloved Magdalene and rushes out to fall upon the singer, the noise calls out the other neighbors, and a battle royal is the result. During this brawl Hans Sachs thwarts the at¬ tempt of Walter to abduct Eva, and takes him into his house. On the next morning we listen to a long monolog of Sachs as he sits in the bright sunlight, leaning back in his armchair, sur¬ rounded with books, a large volume on his knees, on which he props up his arm while he muses on the state and condition of poetry: “Is the fair art really coming to an end? Is it possible that I, a shoemaker, should be the only one to breathe in the realm of the great German past?” He continues philosophizing on the decline of poetry, and sinks into a brooding mood, asking himself whether his trade could dishonor him, — no indeed, for does it not Roedder — “Die Meister singer von Numb erg .” 89 provide for him a better and more honorable livelihood than the singing guild? Walter, who now enters, reveals to Sachs his keen disappointment in his Nuremberg experiences: he had placed high hopes on the mastersingers, from the repugnant present in which he lived they were to lead him into a beautiful poetic life ; here he had expected to find remnants of the ancient Thuringian spirit, and now such disillusionment! He informs Sachs of the poetry he has written hitherto, under the influence of the Helden- buch and the great Wolfram, songs celebrating the great heroes and emperors, and he submits to the older man his latest minne- song, which makes Sachs exclaim, “You are a poet!” But, he adds, “you can no longer thrive as such.” For he himself feels keenly the pressure that weighs upon him: he was born to live in an unpoetic age. “With a melancholy humor he depicts to Wal¬ ter the epoch in which they live, the imminent extinction of the last mournful remnant of the old poetry, the mastersong! . . . Believe me, for a long, long time poetry will be forgotten. Peo¬ ple will fight with other weapons than songs: with reason, with philosophy, against stupidity and superstition ; aye, with the sword they will defend these new weapons : you, who cherish such fine, noble sentiments, are to join in such combat, and thus you can achieve more than through the use of a gift that no one nowa¬ days appreciates. Sometime perhaps, after centuries have elapsed and a new world has begun, they will turn back again and look upon that which they once had: then they may possibly chance upon Hans Sachs, and he will point the way farther back and lead them to Walter, Wolfram, and the hero lays.” And when the young knight asks him, “Advise me then, what am I to do?” Sachs answers cheerfully, “Return to your castle, study what Ul¬ rich von Hutten and he of Wittenberg have written, and if it be necessary defend what you have learned with the sword!” But Walter’s thoughts run in another direction: “Very well, master! But now I need a wife!” Beckmesser, disconsolate over his failure in the previous night, comes to Sachs, whom he holds responsible for his plight, and de¬ mands from him a new song for the competition. Sachs hands him Walter’s song, pretending not to know where it came from, and advising him to pay due attention to a suitable tune to sing it to. The conceited marker deems himself invincible on this score, and in the presence of the masters and the population of Nuremberg who are to pronounce judgment, he sings the poem to an utterly unsuited and disfiguring melody, so that he fails again, and this time decisively. In his rage he charges Sachs with fraud, in foisting on him a disgraceful poem. Sachs, however, asserts that the poem is very good indeed, only it must be set to suitable music. It is agreed that he who knows the right tune shall be de¬ clared victor. Walter naturally steps forward and with his sing¬ ing wins the bride, but disdains reception into the masters’ guild, 90 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. which is now offered to him. Sachs then begins to sing the praise of the mastersingers’ guild half ironically, half seriously, dwelling on its good features and the excellent things that have been pre¬ served and fostered by it. Thereby he assuages the mastersingers themselves and wins them over. He closes with the words: ‘E’en should the Holy Roman Empire perish, We’d still have holy German art to cherish.’ ” Fully sixteen years after the completion of the Marienbad draft, on October 3,0, 1861, Wagner wrote to his publisher Franz Schott informing him that he expected to resume an old plan for a comic opera : “The opera is entitled Die Meistersinger von Numb erg, and the poetical and jovial chief hero is Hans Sachs. The subject matter has in it very much that is genial and droll, and I am pleased to think that I have hit upon something unexpected and ingenious in this plan, which is entirely of my own invention.’ ’ And on November 20, he added: “When I surveyed this year, which was in every respect lost to me, I asked myself, what am I to do? All of a sudden my whimsical Mastersingers rose up before me, and at one blow I felt myself again master of my fate. Evidently my good star had formerly suggested to me this unique and even jolly subject, in order to help me with it at the most critical moment. ” From these remarks it is manifest that Wagner, at least at the time of the execution of his plan, regarded the subject as entirely his own. Neither do we have any statement from him at the time of its inception which would contradict his later assertion. And so Professor Golther seems fully justified in saying:8 ‘ ‘ So far as the Meistersinger is concerned, we can hardly speak of sources, so irrelevant and insignificant are the few external traits that emanate from literary sources. Werner and Welti have collected the few pertinent data in Kursehners Wagner jahr- buch, 1886. 9 As the historical coloring of the tenth century was employed in Lohengrin in a novel and independent manner, so Wagner introduced in the Meistersinger the cultural background 8 Richard Wagners dramatische Dichtungen im Verhaltnis zu ihren Quellen. Biihne und Welt, I, 2 (1898-99), p, 579. 0This book was not at my disposal. Boedder — “Die Meistersinger von Niirnberg.” 91 of the sixteenth century, especially from Wagcnseil’s well-known mastersinger book. 1 no In the Introduction to his edition of Wagner ’s works, p. 286, Golther says, “The original plan appears as a comic opera, which for the out¬ ward course of the action took a few things from Deinhardstein ’s drama Hans Sachs (1827) and from Lortzing-Reger ’s opera, but in the main was freely invented. ” * - . . ■ . , r Over against this minimizing of foreign influences, we "have in Miss Anna Maude Bowen’s Cornell dissertation (published at Munich in 1897) a scrupulous, almost meticulous attempt to gather every detail that Wagner might possibly have taken from others.* 11 Miss Bowen even deems it necessary to defend Wagner against a possible charge of plagiarism for his adoption of motives. Wag¬ ner himself tells us in his autobiographical writings as a rule quite freely and fully about the genesis of his poetic works — we learn from his pages, e.g., that Das Liebesverbot was based on Shakespeare’s Measure for Measure, and Die Feen on Gozzi’s La Donna Serpent e — and informs us concerning the poetic process of transforming the subject matter thus provided until it suits his purposes. As he does not mention the plays named above, and as he refers to his mastersinger comedy distinctly as an in¬ vention of his own, it is obvious that Golther and Miss Bowen con¬ nect very different ideas with the term sources. Curiously enough, Miss Bowen overlooked Goethe’s Poem Hans Sachsens poetische Sendung (1776), which, if anything, must be termed a source of Wagner’s work if we turn our attention to the characterization of Hans Sachs. That she should not have mentioned Gervinus ’s Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung is not to be wondered at, since at the time when the monograph was written Wagner’s autobiog¬ raphy Mein Leben had not yet appeared. Looking upon Wag¬ ner’s drama as a large stream the works that Miss Bowen cites 10 The reference is to Johann Christoph Wagenseil, Be Civitate Norimbergensi Commentatio, with its appendix Buch von der Meistersinger holdseligen Kunst Anfang, Fortubung , Nutzbarkeiten und Lehr-Satzen. Altorf 1697. 11 The subject was suggested to Miss Bowen by her erstwhile teacher, Pro¬ fessor Franz Muncker, who in his book Richard Wagner. Eine Skizze seines Lebens und Wirkens (2nd ed., Bamberg 1909) , p. 99f., enumerates the works quoted by Miss Bowen, without however attaching much importance to their influence. 92 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters . do not appear to ns as its headwaters, but as little rivulets which join it at some distance below and are carried along without for a moment changing its original course. Dropping the figurative speech we shall be content to speak of Wagner’s literary precur¬ sors rather than of his sources. The most important of these is Johann Ludwig Franz Dein- hardstein. Born in Vienna, June 21, 1794 — almost exactly three hundred years after Hans Sachs — Deinhardstein became professor of classical literature and aesthetics in the university of his native city in 1827, and in the same year wrote his Hans Sachs, Schau- spiel in vier Aufziigen.12 From 1832 to 1841 he was vice-director of the Vienna court theater; from 1841 to his death, July 12, 1859, dramatic censor in the same institution. His plays, col¬ lected in seven volumes, have gone to well-merited oblivion, and his stage versions of Shakespeare’s The Taming of the Shrew and Twelfth Night have now been superseded by the originals on prac¬ tically all German stages. The only connection Deinhardstein still has with the modern stage is through his Hans Sachs, and this but indirectly, as the source of Lortzing’s comic opera. In its day Deinhardstein ’s drama enjoyed an extraordinary success. The first performance took place at the Royal Court Theater of Berlin, February 13, 1828, preceded by a prolog which Goethe had written for the occasion (“Da stehf ich in der Fremde ganz allein”). How highly Goethe thought of Deinhardstein ’s work is evidenced by the following lines : “Und wie auch noch so lange getrennt ein Freund den andern wiedererkennt, hat auch ein Frommer neuerer Zeit sich an des Vorfahren Tugend erfreut, und hingeschrieben unit leichter Hand, als stiind ■ es farbig an der Wiand, und zwar mit Worten so verstdndig, als wurde Gemaltes wieder lebendig We no longer share Goethe’s high opinion of Deinhardstein ’s drama. It probably was subconsciously due to the fact that Dein¬ hardstein here paid tribute to a figure that had meant so much to the youthful Goethe. And it must be conceded that owing to its unprecedented run on the stage it resuscitated and popularized the 12 Conveniently accessible in Reclams Universal-Bibliothek, No. 3215. Boedder — “Die Meistersinger von Niirriberg.” 93 figure of Hans Sachs for the whole nation, just as Goethe’s Hans Sacks ’s Poetic Mission had aroused the interest of the poets of the Storm and Stress period, after the untutored artisan-poet had for two centuries been despised as a wretched rhymester. The rising curtain reveals to us Hans Sachs, a young man of twenty-three years, seated beneath a blooming tree in his garden, trying in vain to write a poem, more dreaming than composing. One of his fellow mastersingers comes to return to him his poem 4 'The Goddess’s Nine Gifts;” with very adverse comment, since Sachs has in it, as he thinks, grossly offended against the rules of poetry and also failed to show the modesty becoming so young a writer. A second mastersinger joins them and announces a meeting of the guild, at which new privileges granted by Emperor Maximilian are to be proclaimed. That these privileges are due mostly to Sachs’s writings, which have found favor with the em¬ peror, the two mastersingers, stung with jealousy, carefully con¬ ceal from their young colleague. Nor is Sachs envied by his brothers in Apollo alone: James the baker and Martin the grocer likewise find fault with him, unconsciously feeling his superiority: Jakob. Er ist fast jeglichem ein Dorn im Aug’, der Meister Superklug. Zweiter Meisters anger. • Er hat Talent, das ist wohl wahr — allein — Erster Meistersanger. Talent! — Talent! — Wir brauchen kein Talent, Tabulaturam soil er befolgen; die Aequivoca, die Relativa und die blinden Worte soil er vermeiden, keine Milben brauchen, glatt singen soli er, das begehren wir , nicht aber dabei zucken, wie er’s tut , das macht den Dichter und nicht das Talent. Talent kann jeder haben, aber nicht das rechte Ohr und jene Sorgsamkeit, so uns die Fehler klug vermeiden lassen, und die sprech ’ ich ihm ab; er ist noch nicht gesetzt genug, ihm macht die Phantasei zu vielen Schaden noch. Jakob (der erstaunt zugehort hat, zu Martin). Das ist ein Mann von anderm Schrote als der Meister Sachs; wenn man den reden hort, da lernt man was. I have quoted in full what I regard as the best passage in the whole play. 0 si sic omnia! But unfortunately the spectator is supposed to believe in the greatness of Deinhardstein’s hero more 94 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. on the basis of the judgment of others, especially the rancorous aspersions of his jealous associates, than on the basis of any posi¬ tive achievements of his own. This is the snag that any frail craft sailing on the perilous waters of the Kiinstlerdrama is so apt to strike, and which Wagner so skilfully avoided — in the Mei- stersinger we are not merely invited but actually forced to believe in the greatness of both Hans Sachs and Walter von Stolzing, be¬ cause we receive in both cases irrefragable proof of it, instead of having to infer it by antithesis from Beckmesser ’s malicious sneers. The scene changes, and the author takes us to a garden in front of the house of Master Steffen, a rich goldsmith, the father of Sachs’s lady-love, Kunigunde, who returns her lover’s affection but is very anxious that he should give up his lowly calling, since her purse-proud father would never consent to the marriage of his only child with a cobbler. Sachs however takes a manly stand and is not willing to humor her; on the contrary, he makes up his mind to sue now openly for the girl’s hand. No sooner has Sachs left than Steffen enters and announces to his daughter that he has brought her a birthday gift, the Augsburg councillor Eoban Runge, to whom he has promised his daughter in marriage. Eoban, to set him off against Hans Sachs, is depicted as an intolerable coxcomb and coward, and when Sachs shortly afterwards reappears on the scene, a quarrel ensues in which Sachs easily shows himself the superior of Kunigunde ’s unwelcome suitor. The second act takes us to the square in front of Hans Sachs’s house. We learn that at the meeting of the mastersingers ’ guild he has been so mercilessly ridiculed on account of his latest poem that he has left the assembly pale and trembling. He complains of his humiliation in a monolog. In this mood he meets his rival Eoban for the second time. Eoban has torn his shoe on the sharp cobble-stones of the Nuremberg pavement, and seeing the shoe¬ maker’s sign, demands that the hole be mended forthwith. Learn¬ ing that his fellow suitor is a shoemaker, he hurries away to Kuni¬ gunde, to convey to her the supposed bit of news. Before he ar¬ rives, Kunigunde has almost coaxed her father into consenting to her marriage with Sachs, provided that he can approve of her lover’s calling, when Eoban rushes in, out of breath, to impart his information. In her confusion she promises to wed the Augsburg councillor if what he has stated be correct, hoping of course that under the pressure of circumstances Sachs will now be willing to give up his trade, which, being a wealthy man, he need not pursue anyway. But Sachs, who comes to ask openly for Kunigunde ’s hand, is now more determined than ever to remain true to his work, and Kunigunde, exasperated beyond patience, bids him leave her for good. Boedder — “Die Meistersinger von Niimberg.” 95 Grieved and sad, Sachs has left Nuremberg in quest of a new home elsewhere. In a large forest at some distance from his un¬ grateful native city, he meets a distinguished-looking stranger in hunter’s garb, who is none other than the Emperor Maximilian, traveling incognito, on his way to Nuremberg. The stranger wants Sachs to show him the way, and on learning his guide’s name is overjoyed, since he values him very highly as a poet, and the same opinion he says is held by the monarch himself. The latter would certainly be pleased to meet him, and if Sachs ever should have a special request would do his best to comply with it. Thoroughly appeased, Sachs returns to Nuremberg with his new friend, whom he imagines to be a powerful count and high dignitary of the court. Again the scene changes, and once more we are in Master Stef¬ fen’s garden. Eoban, decked out for the approaching wedding, gets scant encouragement from the disconsolate Kunigunde, who cannot forgive herself for her treatment of Sachs. He hopes to compel her to accept him as her husband, and when a number of citizens bring the announcement that Steffen has been elected burgomaster of the city, Eoban is the first to convey this precious piece of news to his prospective father-in-law, with the intimation that he was chiefly instrumental in bringing about this decision. Steffen promises Eoban that Kunigunde shall wed him on this very day, and as he is about to force her to consent, Sachs, who with the emperor’s retinue has just passed by outside, leaps over the wall to protect the girl and threatens to invoke the law against the father and would-be bridegroom. Steffen, who himself now repre¬ sents the majesty of the law, commands him to leave the premises instantly. Kunigunde, awakening from a swoon, entreats Sachs to forgive her and plights her troth to him anew. With the definite promise that he will protect her, Sachs hurries away, confident of success. In the emperor’s ante-room, in Act Four, Sachs craves an im¬ mediate interview with the supposed count, and is directed to re¬ pair to the city hall square within an hour. Here, in the next and final scene, the burghers are assembling for the festive installation of the new mayor, and we learn that the council has decreed Sachs’s banishment for having broken the peace in entering Steffen’s gar¬ den. Sachs is informed by Kunigunde of the impending edict, and decides to leave the city at once. Kunigunde is resolved to accompany him, though Sachs tries to dissuade her, and as she clings to him, Steffen with the councillors and citizens steps forth from the city hall and proclaims the decree against Sachs, on which Eoban comments with malicious jeers. The emperor appears in the nick of time. After eliciting Steffen’s legal opinion on a ficti¬ tious case in which a jewel was withheld from the man to whom it rightfully belonged, he discloses his identity, and declares Kuni¬ gunde to be the jewel and Sachs the rightful owner according to the burgomaster’s judicial wisdom. Steffen urges his debt of grati- 96 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. tude to Eoban and the latter’s supposed assistance in clothing him with his new dignity, but is quickly disillusioned, and as the Augs¬ burg councillor steals away, Kunigunde crowns Sachs with a laurel wreath, and the whole assembly burst out in cheers for the emperor. From Deinhardstein’s own prolog to his play, we are led to con¬ clude that Hans Sachs is not the real hero of the drama, or that at least he shares this distinction with Emperor Max : “Und so empfehlen deutsche Verse wir; die schildern, wie ein grosser deutscher Fiirst mit Macht und Weisheit GiLte auch vereint, und eines deutschen Dichters Eigenheit dem heissgelieMen deutschen Vaterlande .” The characterization of Hans Sachs is the weakest part of the play. The reader finds it difficult to conceive how the interest of the spec¬ tator in the hyper sentimental young man can possibly be sus¬ tained.13 About half a dozen times the stage directions prescribe that his words and ways should be gutmutig • There is nothing about Master Steffen to commend him to our sympathy, and Eoban has no redeeming features whatever, not even as a comic figure. The synopsis will have sufficed to show how much the play leaves to be desired structurally. When Philipp Reger (1804-1857) in 1839 wrote the book for Lortzing’s opera Hans Sachs, jointly with his friends Philipp Jakob Diiringer (1809-1870) and Gustav Albert Lortzing (1801-1851), basing his text on Deinhardstein’s drama, almost all of the numer¬ ous changes he made were improvements on the original.14 Rene Doumic says, “On ne ref ait pas une piece, on en fait une autre,” and, naturally, either a better or a poorer one. To preface what we have to say with what will be our final verdict, Lortzing-Reger ’s opera ( Diiringer ’s share does not amount to very much) would to this day enjoy well merited popularity had not Wagner ’s Meister- singeir crowded it off the stage by its superior qualities. After see¬ ing Shakespeare’s masterpieces, only an antiquarian would desire 13 And yet the audiences at the time of the first appearance of the play seem to have taken a great fancy to this character. In Hamburg the actor imper¬ sonating him received from the shoemakers’ guild a diploma promising to him, his children, and his children’s children, free shoes for their lifetimes. 14 The text with a very illuminative introduction by G. R. Kruse, can be had as No. 4488 of Reclams Universal-Bibliothek. Boedder — “Die Meistersinger von NurnbergK” 97 to witness a performance of the plays of his predecessors, no mat¬ ter how good they might be in themselves. The first scene takes place in Sachs’s shop. The journeymen are busy working; Gorg, the apprentice, has fallen asleep over his job and is unceremoniously, by a blow with the stirrup, awakened by the others, who flout his pretensions to proficiency in poetry, his master’s art. When the hour to stop work for the day has come, Gorg, remaining behind alone, detects a manuscript of his master’s, a poem written for the occasion of his sweetheart’s birthday, which Gorg purloins, in order to read it to his beloved Kordula, the cou¬ sin of Sachs’s lady-love Kunigunde, daughter of Master Steffen, the goldsmith. An unknown visitor, Emperor Maximilian, enters to pay his respects to Sachs, whose poetry, he tells him, the monarch and the whole court appreciate very highly. Sachs, who has en¬ tered from the garden, can at first scarcely believe such good news, which indemnifies him for many hours of grief in his unapprecia¬ tive native city. He is now in the right mood to compose his prize poem for the competition that is to take place on the next day. Then, as he is about to leave for Master Steffen’s house, Eoban Hesse15, an Augsburg councillor and also a mastersinger, demands his professional services in repairing a hole in his shoe. While Gorg attends to the job, with many facetious remarks at the stranger’s expense, Sachs learns from the latter’s words his real purpose in coming to Nuremberg : Master Steffen has promised him the hand of his daughter, and Sachs’s happiness seems short-lived. Kunigunde, whom we meet in the next scene in her father’s gar¬ den, is very much distressed at Eoban ’s wooing, but the energetic Kordula encourages her, and Sachs, who with Gorg appears for his visit, is confident of his success in next day’s competition, which he thinks will win over Kunigunde ’s father. But the haughty Master Steffen, unfortunately, is just now apprised of his election as burgomaster, and Eoban is quick to enter complaint against the shoemaker, from whose own mouth he has heard of his love for Kunigunde. In the contest Sachs sings16 the praise of 15 Helius Eobanus Hesse — or Hessus, since according to the custom of the scholars of his time he Latinized his name — was a noted German humanist (1488-1540), who wrote Latin poetry of marvelous elegance of form and since 1526 held the chair of poetics in the newly founded Nuremberg univer¬ sity. To his contemporaries he was best known through his Bohemian habits and his stupendous feats in drinking. His portrait, preserved in a sixteenth century woodcut, shows him as a handsome middle-aged man of serious mien. Being a writer of Latin verses, he naturally would have laughed at the idea of ever joining the mastersingers. 16 Or rather speaks, except the last line, which is sung. This is one of the inexplicable oddities of the opera, and proves that the authors knew very little about the rules of mastersong. To the mastersingers the tune was everything, and the text was of very subordinate consideration. Cf. Gervinus, in the Appendix. 7— S. A. Li. 98 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters. Ver Liebe Gluck, das Vaterland, and the assembled people are unanimous for according to him the prize, but Steffen decides in favor of Eoban, who recites an incredibly silly mastersong on Ab¬ salom’s rebellion against David. The jealous mastersingers side with Steffen, and the latter publicly announces his daughter’s be¬ trothal to Eoban. During a public festival on a meadow outside the city walls, Gorg reads to Kordula the poem which he has filched from his master as his own, then loses the manuscript, which falls into the hands of some crossbowmen of the emperor, and they pocket it with the intention of handing it to Max, whose fondness for poetry is universally known. Hans Sachs, deeply grieved by his humiliation at the contest in the morning, has made up his mind to leave Nuremberg, and comes to the festival only in order to bid farewell to Kunigunde. Like her prototype in Deinhard- stein’s play, she tries to coax Sachs into giving up his trade, but is not so insistent and more than willing to ask his forgiveness when she notices how she has hurt his feelings. As they embrace, Steffen and Eoban step out of the burgomaster’s tent, and Steffen after a brief conference with the councillors pronounces the decree of banishment for Sachs. Sachs leaves, accompanied by the faith¬ ful Gorg, who is resolved to share his master’s exile. Steffen soon repents of the council’s action: Emperor Maximilian, who has just arrived in the city, wishes to meet the author of the verses that his soldier has handed him — Sachs’s poem which Gorg had appropri¬ ated for his own use. With Maximilian, Sachs has returned to Nuremberg, and during a clandestine visit at Steffen’s house over¬ hears an agreement between Steffen and Eoban according to which Eoban is to pose as the author. In the last scene at the great ban¬ quet hall the emperor demands that Eoban prove his authorship, and his attempt fails dismally. Sachs naturally recites his poem by heart and is publicly acknowledged as the author. After this recognition by the sovereign, the authorities of the city are of course only too glad to receive Sachs back into their fold, Kuni¬ gunde is solemnly betrothed to Sachs, and the curtain drops amid jubilant cheers for the monarch. The few external features that Wagner’s work shows in com¬ mon with Reger and Lortzing’s adaptation of Deinhardstein’s drama may be briefly summarized as follows: A young and en¬ thusiastic poet fails before the guild of the older men, as a result of their incapacity and unwillingness to understand and appre¬ ciate his superiority. A poem composed by the hero is stolen by a rival, and the latter is put to shame when asked to recite it. Gorg, Hans Sachs’s apprentice in the earlier opera, is a votary at the shrine of the Muses, as is David in the Meister singer. Gorg and Kordula are the forebears of David and Magdalene, excepting Boedder — “Die Meistersinger von Nurriberg.” 99 that in the latter ease the girl is about a dozen, or perhaps a score, of years older than her swain.17 Eoban’s song of Absalom is as silly as Beckmesser’s serenade. That is all. That there should be choruses of journeymen, and cobbler songs, is almost imperative in a musical work dealing with Hans Sachs. The invention of the festival on the meadow in Lortzing’s opera and the blooming tree in Hans Sachs’s garden in Deinhardstein’s play would not require an exuberant poetic imagination and need not be accounted for on the basis of “influence.” Both features are in Wagner’s play much more organically connected with the action than in either of the other two works. Of internal relationship between Reger-Lortzing’s work on one hand and Wagner’s on the other I am not able to detect any pro¬ nounced traces. Granting, for argument’s sake, that the poetic idea of Wagner’s comedy is present in embryo in the earlier play, it will be generally conceded that it has been very badly stunted, if not shriveled and wizened in its growth. If, at the time of the publication of Wagner’s text and the first performances of the opera, any distinct similarity with Lortzing’s work had been felt, Wagner’s numerous enemies, who attacked the Meistersinger as viciously as his earlier creations, would most certainly have pointed it out, to disparage the composer. But there is to my knowledge not a trace of this in all the acrimonious criticism of the sixties, which today strikes us as so irresistibly amusing. If we point out similarities in Lortzing’s and Wagner’s works, it is but fair to call attention to a radical difference. In the ear¬ lier opera, as in Deinhardstein’s drama, the emperor plays a very significant part and toward the end overshadows the hero completely. In fact, Emperor Max is a sort of deus ex machina, without whose intervention in favor of the poet the latter’s fate would remain very dubious. Neither does in Deinhardstein’s and Reger-Lortzing ’s plays the principal figure fight for the recogni¬ tion of a new principle in poetry: here he is only, or is supposed to be, the superior of his colleagues and thereby becomes the ob¬ ject of their open and secret hostilities. In Wagner’s play the victory at the end is not bestowed as a present from above; it is 17 1 do not see the necessity of assuming that I^unigunde and Kordula have been patterned after Agathe and Aennchen in Weber’s Freischiitz. They may have been ; but cousins of about the same age and different temper and out¬ look on life do not appear to be so exceeding scarce in the pages of literature. 100 Wisconsin Academy of Science s, Arts, and Letters. the natural and organic result of a battle royal that Walter von Stolzing and, directly and indirectly with him, Hans Sachs have been fighting. There is here no monarch, the weight of whose personal opinion could have borne down with it the resistance of the opponents. Indeed, it is characteristic that in Wagner’s Nu¬ remberg, the free imperial city, the emperor’s name should not once be mentioned. May we not in this fact see an indication of the democratic sentiments that filled Wagner’s soul in the years prior to the Revolution of 1848, and that subsequently led to his political activity in the interest of this movement as well as to his flight from Germany and his long exile ? And is it not worthy of recognition that Wagner in the final execution of the Meister- singer did not introduce any features that might have detracted from the glory of his Nurembergers’ civic pride and love of free¬ dom, although his intimate friendship with King Ludwig II. of Bavaria might very easily have suggested such to him ? A word will have to suffice concerning Wagner’s indebtedness to E. T. A. Hoffmann’s narrative Meister Martin der Kiifner und seine Gesellen,t to which Miss Bowen assigns the distinction of having furnished the chief motive of the plot of the Meister singer, viz., that Master Martin’s daughter Rosa is offered as a prize for a masterwork (not, it must be noted, for a poetic or musical mas¬ terpiece), only on condition that she herself consent (1. c., p. 54) : “ There can be no doubt that Wagner drew his principal motive thus from this very tale.” While Hoffmann’s influence on Wag¬ ner must be admitted — Hoffmann’s Kampf der Sanger was one of the works that inspired the Tannhduser — the motive in ques¬ tion here is so often used in the literature of the first half of the last century that it seems indeed presuming to try to locate its first appearance precisely. The frequency with which it occurs is no doubt sufficiently accounted for by the fact that in the early decades of the nineteenth century the paterna potestas disposing of a daughter ’s hand was already greatly on the wane in Germany. The other references to mastersinging in Hoffmann’s tale may possibly have kindled the youthful Wagner’s interest in this fea¬ ture of the German past, but it is just as likely that in his very intensive studies of German antiquities he had become acquainted with it. There remain three more works that must be mentioned in this connection. One of these was unearthed from the archives of j Roedder — “Die Meistersinger von Nurnberg.” 101 the Royal Opera at Dresden by Kurt Mey18 and bears the title Hans Sachs. Im vorgeriickten Alter. Romantisch-komisches Sing- spiel in zwei Akten. Musik von Adalbert Gyrowetz (1763—1850). It seems that the opera was performed, or a performance contemp¬ lated, in 1834. The writer of the book is not named. The text is very romantic indeed, but could not have offered Wagner any suggestions. We need not enter here into its contents. The only feature that should be recorded is the character of the hero, who is depicted as a mature and experienced man, a roguish poet full of humor, a citizen proud of his work, modest and yet superior to all the rest. This I quote on the authority of Mey, and I have to take it on the same authority that Wagner’s conception of the character is infinitely deeper and his portrayal much more poetic. It is questionable whether Wagner ever knew of the ex¬ istence of Gyrowetz’ opera. His position as musical director of the Dresden opera may have given him a chance to become ac¬ quainted with it. It is however extremely unlikely that he ever read it. We should be willing, even if there were documentary proof of this fact, to accept in full Wagner’s word that Die Mei¬ stersinger is his own invention.19 A scene which in its broad humor and in its combination of comic elements may be regarded as the archetype of the scene of Beckmesser’s serenade and the attendant circumstances is found in August von Kotzebue’s Die deutschen Kleinstadter (1802). 20 It is found in Act IY, scenes 3-5. While the lovelorn Sperling is singing before the window of his chosen one, Sabine herself is in the company of Herr Olmers, to whom she has plighted her troth, and Sabine’s aunt, Frau Staar, is singing her evening hymn, in¬ terrupted by, and in turn disturbing, Sperling’s musical efforts. To make confusion worse confounded, the nightwatchman appears on the scene with his call and blowing his oxhorn, and Sabine and Olmers are forced to hide behind a lamp post until the danger is past. All the elements entering into the delightful scene in front of Pogner’s house while Beckmesser sings his prize song, disturbed 18 Cf. his Der Meistergesang in G-eschichte und Kunst. Leipzig- o. J. (See- mann) . 19 In this connection it is interesting to learn that Wagner at one time con¬ templated treating Hans Sachs’s second marriage — provided that a note of Professor Golther’s in Biihne und Welt , I, 2, 579, is correct. I am unable to verify it. 20 My attention was called to this by two of my colleagues independently, Miss A. B. Ernst and Professor A. R. Hohlfeld. 102 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. by Hans Sachs’s Schusterlied, and Walter and Eva are hiding behind the bushes in Pogner’s garden, are here found together. Wagner certainly was acquainted with Kotzebue’s play, which was a great stage favorite when he was young, and the make-up of the scene in question must have made its way into his comedy unconsciously. The last work that we have to consider is Ferdinand Raimund ’s drama Die gefesselte Phantasie. Raimund (1790-1836) is known to German literature as the master of the Vienna magic- and fairy- play in the early decades of the last century. His <( Phantasy En¬ chained” was written in 1826 and represents his first attempt at a serious drama that tries to attain its effects without resorting to parody and travesty. It was not performed before 1828, January 28, a couple of weeks before the first performance of Deinhard- stein’s Hans Sachs.21 Phantasy, the goddess to whom all poets owe their inspiration, is captured by two direful sorceresses, the sisters Vipria and Arro- gantia, at a time when her assistance to her protegees is most urg¬ ently needed; for Hermione, the youthful queen of the island of Flora, has promised her hand and heart to the successful competi¬ tor in a poetic contest, confident that her beloved Amphio will be the victor. This Amphio is a young prince, the son of the king of Athunt, but in true fairy tale fashion has hitherto concealed his identity and nevertheless won Hermione ’s love, tending her fa¬ vorite flock as a shepherd and writing enamored verses in praise of his mistress. The contest is to take place in the evening of the day on which the play opens. When the two magic sisters learn that it is Phantasy on whom the poets depend for their inspiration, they waylay her and then secure a most repugnant Vienna ale¬ house harpist by the name of Nachtigall, whom they plan to make the husband of Hermione, on the terms proposed and sworn to by the young queen when she announced the contest. Nachtigall is introduced to the enchained goddess, and tries first by fair words and finally by brute force to get her to dictate to him the neces- 21 1 believe that Raimund knew Deinhardstein’s drama when he wrote his play. There seems to be an allusion to Hans Sachs in Act I, scene 2, where Distichon, the court poet, says : Wir haben keinen Schnee, als wenn uns Zephyr weisse Bliiten streut ; darum begeistert uns der ewige Blumenduft und weihet uns zu Priestern des Apoll, so dass der Schuster selbst mit einer Hand nur seinen Stiefel schafft, in der andern halt er hoch die goldne Leier: “Sein kiihner Geist ist mit Apoll verwandt, 1st seine Leier gleich mit Schustergaim bespannt.>> The quotation marks here, which are Raimund’s own, seem significant. In another place Distichon says, “Ich werfe sie mit Knittelreimen tot.” The doggerel verse is characteristic of Hans Sachs’s tales and farces. Boedder — “Die Meistersinger von Nurnberg.” 103 sary lines for the prize poem. From the misunderstood sentences that Phantasy in her distress utters he manufactures the veriest nonsense, and finally runs away in despair, determined to sing a popular street ballad and merely to substitute the queen’s name for the heroine’s. The poets of the whole island are in the worst possible plight — not one of them succeeds in finding a single rhyme, and Hermione is horrified to see that even her beloved Amphio has turned as stupid as all the rest. The fateful hour arrives— Nachtigall is the only candidate to enter the lists, and Vipria and Arrogantia, disguised as the priests of Apollo, declare that Her¬ mione must wed him if nobody produces a better poem, even though all those assembled are incensed and furious at Nachti¬ gall ’s song. All seems lost when Phantasy, in the supreme moment freed by Jupiter, appears on the scene and inspires Amphio to sing Hermione ’s praise in a long poem at the close of which he reveals his identity. Apollo appears in person to plunge the two sorceresses into the deepest depths of Orcus, and Amphio and Hermione are married, and, let us hope, live happily ever after. It is to be regretted that Raimund’s poetic power did not suffice to do justice to this idea, which would have been worthy of Shakes¬ peare’s pen. He lacked markedly what Coleridge calls ‘'the shaping spirit of imagination.” Die gefesselte Phantasie is one of his weakest plays, and appears on the modern stage only at long intervals. Even Schubert’s music does not sustain it on the boards.22 In the author’s own time this evidently was different: 22 The following extract from Eugen Kilian, Felix Mottl. Karlsruher Erin- nerungen (in Siiddeutsche Monatshefte, 1911—12, I, 488—496 ; reprinted in Aus der Praxis der modernen Dramaturgie. Der Dramaturgischen Blatter zweite Reihe. Miinchen 1914, pp. 294-302), gives a good idea of the possibilities con¬ tained in Raimund’s play when properly staged : “Mottl was especially de¬ lighted with conducting the musical rehearsals of Raimund’s magic-play Die gefesselte Phantasie, with Franz Schubert’s music arranged for this purpose. This new musical adaptation of the old Vienna magic-play, the arrangement of the music of Schubert’s long forgotten Magic Haw for Raimund’s work, and its further embellishment with Schubert tunes and dances, was an ex¬ ceedingly felicitous and in its way ingenious idea of Mottl’s. This superb score deserves first rank among all his works belonging under this head. My co-operation with Mottl in the rehearsals of this play belongs among the most beautiful reminiscences from the time of my Karlsruhe activity. Mottl set his whole heart on, and watched over, this creation, on which the double star of Raimund and Schubert beamed, with a truly touching tender¬ ness. The whole kindliness and warmheartedness of Old Vienna, the naive and yet graceful, exquisitely humorous ingenuity of Raimund’s play was a true heart’s delight to Mottl, the Viennese. It was blood of his blood, flesh of his flesh that here he laid on the altar of art with patriotic pride. As he was conducting the rehearsals at the piano, he would enjoy again and again the charm and frolicsome humor of these Old Vienna figures, and could laugh till he cried when Fritz Herz as Nachtigall in his duo with Phantasy chained to the writing desk — one of the most superb gems of all humorous literature ! 104 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. he took the play along on his tours and appeared as Nachtigall in Munich, Hamburg, and Berlin, with distinct success (1832). Wag¬ ner may have made the acquaintance of Die gefesselte Phantasie while he was musical director at Madgeburg. Indeed he may have had to direct a performance of it in this capacity. Again, he may have witnessed a performance of the play during his prolonged stay in Vienna in 1861-1862. It is at present impossible to verify any such surmises. Wagner had a high opinion of Raimund’s poetic genius. In his essay on Das Wiener Hofoperntheater (1863 ; Gesammelte Schriften vii, 295ff.), he says:23 “What Vienna quite of itself can do for even Art, on the path of a purely speculative, an un-subventioned commerce with an imaginative, gay and genial public, is proved by two of the most original and delightful products in all the realm of public art : the Magic-dramas of Baymund and the Waltzes of Strauss. If you don ’t wish for higher things, then be content with this : indeed its intrinsic worth is nothing to be made light of. ’ ’ And again, in TJeber Schauspieler und Sanger (written in the early seventies, Gesammelte Schriften, 9, 186) : “Out of the Viennese popular farce, with its types still dis¬ tinctly akin to the Kasperl and Hanswurst of old, we see Ray- mund’s magic dramas rise up to the realm of a truly ingenious theatrical poetry.” Rudolf Fiirst in the introduction to his edition of Ferdinand Raimund’s works (Goldene Klassiker-Bibliothek) , page LXV, says: “The possiblity that the scene of the singing contest, the tri¬ umphant lover Amphio, and the caviling critic Distiehon24, in conjunction with NachtigalFs attempts to piece together a prize song from misunderstood fragments, may have influenced the poet of Die Meister singer von Numb erg, can hardly be set lightly aside.” • — unfolded his magnificent, heartfelt humor. And when Fritz Plank, the ever memorable, as the Vienna tapster in the capital alehouse scene of the first act set his heavy, stout limbs in droll motion to the catching tunes of Schu¬ bert’s German Dances, then rapturous contentment gleamed in the eyes of Mottl the artist : that was home, those were images and visions whose radi¬ ance derived from the native soil of Mozart and Grillparzer !” 23 Translation by William Ashton Ellis, Richard Wagner’s Prose Works, vol. Ill (London, 1907), page 386. 24 “Das Gedicht ist voller Fehler.” Which it is, indeed. Amphio’s prize song is the weakest part of the play. 105 Eoedder — “Die Meistersinger von Nurnberg.” In its guarded form this statement is more of an hypothesis than of a thesis. There might be something in it provided that it can be shown that Wagner knew Raimund’s play before he pen¬ ned the Marienbad sketch. For all the features mentioned occur also, as we have seen, in Lortzing’s opera. What if Wagner had consciously utilized the work of his pre¬ decessors? I hope to have shown that he did not. But if Mo- liere, charged with literary piracy, had really said, “Je prends mon bien oil je le trouve” — a repartee invented by one of his de¬ tractors — he would have done so with a perfect right. In all art it matters little what materials the artist uses, or where he gets them. It does matter what he makes of them. And Die Meistersinger von Numb erg is one of the few truly great come¬ dies of all literature. With this assertion we are not paying Wagner’s work tribute above its meed. The year 1918 witnessed the semi-centenial of its first performance. Half a century is time enough for both fulsome panegyrics and unfair personal criticism against the poet’s individuality to give way to soberminded judgment, and half a century has rendered its verdict. No other work of Wagner’s is so narrowly circumscribed as re¬ gards time and place, and yet scarcely another is more universal in its human appeal. “As a picture of medieval life,” says Finck, 1. c., page 224, “it is as realistic, accurate, and delightful as the best of Scott’s novels.” It is a wonderfully correct por¬ trait of sixteenth century life in the free imperial city of Nurem¬ berg in its most flourishing state, with its industrious citizens, its proud trade and craft guilds, its pedantic but worthy and honor¬ able mastersingers, and the towering figure of its Hans Sachs. In this respect it is the most distinctly German work of the com¬ poser, and it is noteworthy that he wrote the text during his stay in Paris in 1861-62. In Wollen wir Jioffenf (1879; Gesammelte Werke, x, 119 f.) he says: “In my execution and presentation of the Meistersinger, which at first I hoped to bring out in Nuremberg itself, I was guided by the intention of offering to the German public a picture of its own true nature which heretofore had been presented to it only very unsatisfactorily, and I , cherished the fond hope of winning serious recognition from the heart of the nobler and superior ele¬ ments of the German middle classes. An excellent performance in the Munich Royal Court Opera House met with the warmest 106 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. reception ; but curiously enough it was some French guests present on that occasion that with great animation recognized the popular element of my work and welcomed it as such.” Its broad human appeal may best be judged, aside from its en¬ thusiastic reception all over the globe, if in our minds we transfer the battles that are fought in the Meister singer to other phases of human activity, substituting for the mastersingers any other set of more or less self-centered artists, or professional men, or in¬ deed men from any walk of life, in any country, at any time. The comic elements will remain the same: there are the jealousies and rivalries of the individuals making up the class among them¬ selves, the overt or covert animosities against the daring innova¬ tors that chafe against the narrow fetters of tradition, the con¬ certed fight against outsiders, the unconfessed but ever present opposition of old age against the rising generation, and the event¬ ual triumph of youth. And there is the everlasting and irresist¬ ible comedy element, la lutte pour la femme, here aggravated by the fact that the rivals are not only representatives of the younger and the older generations, not only the impersonations of romanticism and philistinism respectively, a dashing young knight and a pompous old scribe, but additional zest is lent to their fight because they are the representatives of young and old in art. And these elements are treated with a humor “essentially German and Wagnerian — a combination of play¬ fulness, exuberant animal spirits, practical jokes, puns, burlesque, and withal an undercurrent of amiability, seriousness, passion, and even sadness, as in all great humorous literature. Every form of humor is represented, the lowest as well as the highest; from the horse-play accompanying the riot scene, the pun on Vogelgesang’s name, and the broad burlesque of Beckmesser’s serenade, to the more subtle persiflage of Kothner’s address, the merry mockery of the apprentices, the quaint spectacle of the watchman, the chivalrous bluster of the knight, the rollicking cobbler songs, and the subtle satire of Sachs. In this variety of humor, from the lowest to the highest, Wagner resembles Shakespeare.”25 The chief charm of Wagner’s comedy-drama, however, lies not in such comic incidents, no matter how delightful they may be in themselves, but in the delineation of the characters. This is what gives the play imperishable value. 25 Finck, l.c., page 225. Roedder — “Die Meistersinger von Numberg.” 107 A word will have to suffice for Eva, this truly winsome and be¬ witching lineal descendant of our general mother in paradise, and first cousin to Julia Capulet in her frankness and outspokenness in love as well as her astounding daring in taking her fate in her own hands, irrespective of the desire of her beloved father. She is especially engaging in the manner in which she tries to draw out her father and her old friend Hans Sachs concerning Walter von Stolzing’s success in the singing test in St. Catherine’s Church, in her playfully disguised apprehension that Sachs might enter the fateful singing contest on St. John’s Day, in her pouting when she misunderstands Sachs’s subtle irony as he refers to the other mastersingers ’ feeling of inferiority towards Walter, and in her complaint about all the trouble she has with the men folk when Walter is about to rush upon Beckmesser in front of Pogner’s house. She becomes a pathetic figure in the moment when the realization of Sachs’s true feelings for her and his suppressed grief overwhelms her, and yet how engagingly natural is her re¬ turn to the sun of her happiness in Walter’s presence immediately thereafter. Eva is altogether one of the most fascinating youth¬ ful figures in all operatic literature. On Magdalene, her confidante, David’s sweetheart, and on David we need not dwell. Wagner avoided the pitfall of making these two characters mere repetitions of types, and provided them with sufficient individuality to impress them on the spectator’s memory as beings of flesh and blood. The mastersingers as a class are excellently described by Kreh- biel, 1. c., p. 92f., where he sets forth the two melodies that char¬ acterize them throughout the comedy: 4 ‘Note that as the mastersingers belonged to the solid burghers of old Nuremberg — a little vain, as was to be expected in the up¬ holders of an institution of great antiquity and glorious traditions ; staid, dignified, and complacent, as became the free citizens of a free imperial city, whose stout walls sheltered the best in art and science that Germany could boast — so these two melodies are strong, simple tunes; sequences of the intervals of the simple dia¬ tonic scale ; strongly and simply harmonized ; square-cut in rhythm ; firm and dignified, if a trifle pompous, in their stride.” \ The musical characterization of the mastersingers alone would suffice to convince any one that in the figure of Beckmesser Wag¬ ner did not mean to put on his feet the typical mastersinger, even if we forgot for a moment that Hans Sachs is a mastersinger as 108 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. well as Beckmesser. The latter simply is the personification of mastersong carried to its last consequences, and as such he stands out in the prelude to the work. In him Wagner chastises all that is foolish in the mastersinger’s ways, with a smile, for all great comedy ridendo castigat mores. For the subject of this chastise¬ ment Wagner 1 ‘ chooses only things which are temporary aberrations from the good. What is strong and pure and wholesome in the art of the mastersingers he permits to pass through his satirical fires un¬ scathed. Classicism in its original sense, as the conservator of that which is highest and best in art, he leaves unharmed. ' ' (Kreh- biel, p. 96). Beckmesser is, then, the arch exponent of the rule-of-thumb pe¬ dantry and formalism; the worshipper of the ossified common¬ place ; a stubborn believer in the necessity of the unchanging main¬ tenance of a status which the progress of time has long since ren¬ dered untenable ; such an upholder of tradition that he would re¬ gard the best possible innovation as worthless in comparison to the imitation of inferior models, provided that these be old; an example of Robert Burns's statement, which is more emphatic than is consistent with our latter day notions of good breeding, that “a man may be an excellent judge of poetry by square and rule, and after all be a d — — blockhead "-—except that Beckmesser has ceased to be an excellent judge. But while he is pavilioned in the glittering pride of his supposed accomplishments as a mastersinger, he is by no means unaware of his lack of personal attractiveness to the fair sex, and so he endeavors to assure himself of the sup¬ port of Eva's father, and does not approve of the stipulation that Eva herself may reject the successful competitor in the singing contest if he is not to her liking. As a further consequence, he strives to remove his rival Walter von Stolzing by declaring him versungen at the test ; and as his follies advance in geometrical pro¬ gression, he at last becomes a thief and steals what at the time he regards as the song with which Hans Sachs would enter the lists on St. John's Day. Many critics, sincere admirers of Wagner's art among them, have taken exception to this character delineation. Thus Krehbiel says, 1. e., page 80 : “Beckmesser ought not to have been made the blundering idiot and foolish knave that he appears to be in the stage versions, but at the worst a shortsighted, narrowminded, and perhaps malicious Boedder — “Die Meistersinger von Nurnberg.” 109 pedant. As he stands in the stage representations Beckmesser is an ill-natured and wicked buffoon, a caricature of a peculiarly gross kind, and only an infinitesimally tiny corrective idea lies in the fact that a manly young knight who loves a pretty young wo¬ man should have saved her from falling into such a rival’s hands by marrying her himself. He would have had the vote of the public on his side if he had sung like a crow and Beckmesser like Anacreon. ’ ’ This last statement, in order to clear one objection out of the way, seems to me begging the question. First, the public had no vote in the matter, Hans Sachs’s motion at the meeting in St. Catherine ’s having been voted down ; and secondly, it was a mat¬ ter of outsinging the competitors and not of personal attractive¬ ness and similar advantages. But to revert to the charge, let us quote Erich von Schrenck:26 “In Beckmesser there is so much grotesque exaggeration that sober criticism should not be content with mere praise. One need only think of the mutilated prize song, with which Beckmesser al¬ most ranges himself among the lunatics. It is not easy to see how critics can pass over such matters as though everything were here as it should be. ’ ’ On the other hand Finck, p. 228, has this to say : “Another amusing actual feature in this comedy is that some of the critics who feel more or less guilty of having once been Beckmessers, still are a little sore on the subject and mercilessly abuse actors who are intelligent enough to treat this part in a real burlesque spirit. But Wagner shows by his whole treatment of this role — the blackboard scene, the tuning and twanging of the lute, the grotesque serenade, the antics (musical and mimic) in Sachs’s room after the fight, and especially the laughable parody of the prize song on the little stand on the meadow, that he in¬ tended this character to be essentially a burlesque, and not the doleful, dignified duffer the critics referred to would have it. Wag¬ ner even rewrote the mock prize song and made it more extrava¬ gant than before. Beckmesser is naturally a silly fellow, and in this case his pedantry, arrogance, and incompetence are aggravated in such a manner by blinding jealousy that he cannot help mak¬ ing a fool of himself. If he did not make a fool of himself, why should the people laugh at him loudly, and the Masters exclaim: “What does this mean? Can he be crazy?” — A note to this page adds: “Of course, the self -burlesque must be unconscious on 26 Richard Wagner als DicTiter, Munchen 1913, p. 167. 110 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences Arts , and Letters. Beckmesser’s part. Wagner wrote to a tenor in 1872: ‘Be seri¬ ous throughout . . . Great pettiness and much gall. Take as a model any captious critic. ’ ’ ’ Wagner’s mention of the “captious critic” brings up a matter on which the dust of controversy has not yet settled, namely, the amount of autobiographical material that is, or is supposed to be, contained in his Meister singer. “A word of caution,” says Krehbiel, p. 79f., “should be uttered against the autobiographic stamp which some extremists have wanted to impress upon it. The comedy is not rendered more in¬ teresting or its satire more admirable by thinking of Walter as the prototype of Wagner himself, of Beckmesser as Wagner’s op¬ ponents, and of Hans Sachs as King Ludwig, embodying in him¬ self, furthermore, the symbol of enlightened public opinion, which neither despises rules nor is willing to be ridden by them. Such an exposition of its symbolism lies near enough in its broad lines, but there is danger in carrying it through all the details of the plot. When it is too far pushed, critics will ask in the future, as they have asked in the past,' how this can be accepted as the satirical motive of the comedy when the hero who triumphs over the supposed evil principle in the drama does so, not to advance the virtue which stands in opposition to that evil principle, but simply to win a bride — a purpose that is purely selfish, however amiable and commendable it may be. Walter does, indeed, dis¬ cover himself as the champion of spontaneous, vital art, and the antagonist of the pedantry represented by the mastersingers ; but this is not until after he has learned that he can only win the young lady by himself becoming a member of the guild, and de¬ feating all comers at the tournament of song. Knowing none of the rules, he boldly relies on the potency of the inspiration begot¬ ten by his love, and does his best under the circumstances ; that he ultimately succeeds he owes to the help of Sachs, and the fact that his rival defeats himself by resorting to foul means.” The very fact that the naive spectator all over the world can appreciate and enjoy Wagner’s Meistersinger without knowing how much of the poet ’s own experience is contained therein, should give us pause when we search for autobiographical material in this play. This criterion furnishes the best of evidence that we are dealing with a genuine work of art, one in which the gold has been cleansed in the furnace of creative inspiration of all the dross of individual experience which had clung to it. To be sure, Wag¬ ner’s works, like Goethe’s, and like all great works of art, are ‘ 1 fragments of a great confession, ’ ’ but the exact knowledge of the Roedder — “Die Meistersinger von Niirnberg.,f 111 individual experiences that the artist had to undergo is not indis¬ pensable for the enjoyment of his creation; indeed, it may even prove an obstacle. On the other hand it must be granted that it may also augment its charm. Now the last named feature is exactly what may be claimed for Die Meistersinger. Of course, it would be narrowminded to state in cut and dried fashion that Wagner identifies himself with Wal¬ ter, and the like. Wagner is identical with Walter, but he is also identical with Hans Sachs, in both cases to a certain extent. We know from his letters that in the delineation of Pogner, especially m the musical part of this character, he meant to do homage to his friend Otto Wesendonk, Mathilde’s husband. We know that for some time he had intended to call the present Beckmesser by the name of his bitterest critic, Hanslick — his name appears as Hans Lick and as Hanslich in some of the drafts preceding the final ver¬ sion. On sober second thought he abandoned such purely personal allusions, certainly not to the detriment of the finished work. The figure of Beckmesser stands for the whole chorus of hostile critics that greeted the appearance of every new work of Wagner’s with a volley of vituperation. In writing out the final version he may very well have had in mind the fate of his Tannhauser in Paris. It may not be amiss to hear on this point the drastic words of El¬ bert Hubbard :27 “Mr. Henry I. Frick has compiled a list of over one hundred names of musical critics who placed themselves on record in opposi¬ tion to Richard Wagner and his music. Only such men as proved themselves past masters and adepts in abuse are given a place in this Academy of Immortals. No writer, musician or artist who ever lived brought down on his head an equal amount of contumely and disparagement as Richard Wagner. Turner, Millet and Rodin have been let off lightly compared with the fate that was Wagner’s ; and even the shrill outcry that was raised in Boston at sight of MacMonnies’ Bacchante was a passing zephyr to the storm that broke over the head of Wagner in Paris when after one hundred and sixteen rehearsals Tannhauser was produced. The derisive laughter, catcalls, shouts, hisses and uproar that greeted the play were only the shadow of the criticisms that filled the daily press, done by writers who mistook their own anserine limitations for inanity on the part of the composer. They scorned the melody they could not appreciate, like men who deny the sounds they can¬ not hear, or those who might revile the colors they could not dis- 27 Richard Wagner, in Little Journeys to the Homes of Great Musicians ; vol. VIII, No. 1 (January, 1901). 112 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. tinguish. And worse than all this, the aristocratic hoodlums re¬ fused to allow any one else to enjoy, and would not tolerate the thought that that which to them was 4 jumbling discord, seven times confounded’ might be a succession of harmonies to one whose per¬ ceptions were more fully developed.” Some of the criticisms that Beckmesser and a few of the other masters hurl at Walter’s trial song sound as though Wagner had taken them bodily from the paragraphs of the daily press dealing with his works. But, it should be noted, there is, thanks to his humor, not a trace of bitterness in Wagner’s treatment of these matters, he has risen superior to it all. The comedy character of the play demanded imperatively the introduction of a figure of the type of Beckmesser. Wagner had to show where mastersong, as the representative of formalism in art, in its ultimate consequences would lead. And if we grant the poet’s right of using his personal experiences, Beckmesser had to resort to theft in order to show what would become of Wagner’s art in the hands of those that were called but not elect. A cer¬ tain, if you will a large, amount of caricature and overdrawing is present in this figure, but in Wagner’s case it would hardly be appropriate to call this a concession to public taste — a good per¬ formance (the crucial test of every dramatic work) should also in the case of Beckmesser not leave an unpleasant taste in one’s mouth. One question which so far has not been raised by the commentators is this, how does a man like Beckmesser attain to the office of marker in the mastersingers ’ guild? It seems incon¬ ceivable, with such men as Hans Sachs, Pogner, and Nachtigall in the society. Here, if anywhere, we have an unconscious concession to comedy, which in motivation does not appear to make such rigo¬ rous demands as tragedy. Why did Wagner choose the name of Beckmesser for this charac¬ ter? It is that of an historical figure, a mastersinger of Nurem¬ berg and contemporary of Hans Sachs, an honorable man who in his life had done nothing to be held up to derision. Is it the sound of the name which in itself strikes the ear as funny, reminding as it does of the fussy bleating of a goat ? The etymological meaning certainly has nothing to do with it. Walter von Stolzing! There is music in the very name. And indeed he seems a direct descendant of Walter von der Yogel- weide, the greatest lyrical genius of the German Middle Ages. For he is a poet, not merely a rhymester, but one who has something Roedder-—“ Die Meistersinger von Nurriberg.” 113 new to say, thoughts that breathe, and is possessed of the gift to say it beautifully, in words that burn. Even though his poetry has about it something dreamlike, visionary, hazy, there is ‘ ‘ clearer promise of refulgent day”, and Hans Sachs, who in clearness and strength of vision and in luminous clarity of diction is Walter’s superior, willingly yields homage to the genius of the younger man. And if Beckmesser and his like are afflicted with arteriosclerosis, Walter’s blood courses through his veins with leaps and bounds, and it will take some time yet before it will flow in the even, warm pulse-beat of Hans Sachs. In his make-up the elements of caution and expediency are noticeably lacking — to this extent he is the image of his creator— -and the sense of humor is entirely absent, in which respect he differs widely from Wagner as well as Hans Sachs. He presents a wonderfully impressive picture when “in shape and gesture proudly eminent”, seeing his attempt at winning the master’s title fruitless, he still continues to sing, hurling de¬ fiance at the masters’ code of rules, and yielding homage only to the eternal laws of poetry — as he feels them. There is here a marked contrast between the “young man” of the Marienbad sketch and the Walter von Stolzing of the final version; and from the former’s “Have mercy, masters!” to the latter’s “Nicht Mei- ster, nein! Will ohne Meister selig sein!” seems indeed a far cry. True, even in the original draft he finally disdains the distinction conferred on him, but here it looks more like the petulant vexa¬ tion and self-sufficiency of the youth who exults in his victory over old age, and not as the expression of a deep conviction. In refus¬ ing the masters’ badge in the final form, however, Walter is con¬ sistent, for he has from the beginning regarded his singing before the masters in St. Catherine’s as merely instrumental in winning the hand of Eva. It cannot be denied that the impression he cre¬ ates even in the final version by his blunt refusal is not pleasant to the spectator, and is felt as indicating a lack of tact, which only Hans Sachs’s grand speech “Veracktet mir die Meister nicht und ekrt mir ikre Kunst” succeeds in effacing. Even Walter’s noble discontent with his Nuremberg experiences and his burning feel¬ ing that “all is dross that is not Helena” should not permit his passionate unrestraint to leap forth. For he forgets entirely that what won him Eva’s hand and Nuremberg’s approval after all was a mastersong, composed with the kindly assistance of his friend Hans Sachs— even though he has enriched and ennobled the form — and that he did not offer new wine in new vessels, but that it 8— S. A. L. 114 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters . sparkled in the old.28 Still the final effect after Hans Sachs’s ad¬ dress is one of perfect harmony, and we feel that now Walter has indeed bowed to the older poet’s matnrer insight and judgment, and is not simply submitting to the wish of Sachs that he refrain from hurting the feelings of his elders. There is a beautiful sym¬ bolism of enduring value in the final scene, when Walter accepts the mastersingers ’ chain and Eva places Walter’s crown on Sachs’s head, and the orchestra bursts forth in magnificent strains glorify¬ ing the union of the new art and the old. The old art willingly and happily passes on its laurel to the new, and the new is willing and happy to recognize what there is of intrinsic worth in the old — just as Goethe and Schiller in Rietschel’s monument instinctively grasp the same wreath. Hans Sachs’s great speech at the close of the play, in which the influence of Gervinus’s vigorous portrait can be distinctly traced, is, as we have seen, contained also in the first draft of Die Meister- singer. But one who is familiar only with the final version can¬ not help being surprised by the passage quoted above, “Thereby he assuages the mastersingers, and wins them over.” For in the play as we have it today, Sachs’s leadership in the guild as well as among the population of Nuremberg at large admits of no doubt. Not so, however, the Hans Sachs of the Marienbad sketch. A man who can advise an ardent lover of poetry like the young knight there depicted to give up writing verses altogether, cannot feel so sure of his ground as to become the recognized leader of his master- singer associates. The sketch says, 4 ‘ They have their scruples about him and doubt whether he means honorably by the guild. . . . His conduct at times seems dubious to the masters.” Eva warns Walter against him, “Do not trust him, he is a false man! . . . Father has often told me.” This trait must appear passing strange to any one who calls to mind even a few of the outward signs of the charming relation between the aged master and fair Eva, such as their playful chat in the second act (entirely lacking If we wish to allow for the autobiographical element in this, the interpre¬ tation would be easy enough. Wagner says to his opponents, “Gentlemen, the moment I make up my mind, I am master of the form you worship, and I can handle it even better than you !” Was not the quintet in the first part of the third act born of this spirit? Some interpreters call it a concesssion to the old operatic form. No doubt Wagner here deviates from his musical theory. But the beauty of this quintet, which has rightly been said to dwarf any simi¬ lar effort in all musical literature, is likely to reconcile even an extreme theorist with this departure from the composer’s principles. Roedder — -“Die Meistersinger von Nurnberg.” 115 in the original sketch), and the girl’s exclamation, “Ach, der hat mich lieb!” In view of the fact that the outward events in both the first and final versions are virtually the same, Wagner’s statement that for the final execution of the play the original draft offered little or nothing would seem extraordinary. It becomes clear as soon as we realize that in the final version Hans Sachs, heretofore merely an ornament — even though owing to his historical character and his intellectual caliber he rose considerably above his surroundings — is now the vitalizing center of the whole play, and that everything hinges on his love for Eva and his renunciation.29 The action is now placed within his soul and finds expression in tones rather than words. Only once, in the quintet of Act III, does Sachs softly say to himself : “For dem Einde lieblich hehr mocht’ ich gem wohl singen; doch des Herzens suss ’ Beschwer gait es zu bezwingen. ’s war ein schoner Abendtraum: dran zu deuten wag ’ ich haum” For a long time he has loved Eva, and on St. John’s day, his birthday, in the singing contest at the public festival, his heart’s fondest wish is to be consummated : no longer young in years, but buoyant in the undying youth of genius, he would outsing his com¬ petitors and carry off the fair prize. And everybody else has ex¬ pected this outcome: Eva herself, who up to this time has loved the master with the fondness of a child ; her father ; David the ap¬ prentice; David’s friends; and the malicious Beckmesser. Now Walter von Stolzing appears, and all is changed at once. Eva has fallen in love with him at first sight: “Doch nun hat’s mich ge- wdhlt zu nie gekannter Quad: und werd ’ ich heut ’ vermahlt, so war’s ohn ’ alle Wahl! Das war ein Musseny war ein Zwang.” But long before he finds out from Eva herself that she loves the young knight, Sachs with quick intuition sees how matters stand: Walter’s request to be received into the mastersinger ’s society, by all the others treated as a surprising incident, opens his eyes, and 29 Cf. on this point especially Houston Stewart Chamberlain, Richard Wag¬ ner. Translated from the German by G. Ainslee Hight and revised by the author. London and Philadelphia, 1900, page 281ff. Also the fine essay by Julius Burghold, Wagners Meistersinger: Erlebnis und Dichtung } in Ludwig Frankensteins Richard Wagner-Jahrbuch, I, 41f£. 116 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters. his resolve to leave the field to him is taken at once. To be sure, his sly joke at Beckmesser’s expense, “Nickt dock, Herr Merher! Aus jungrem Wachs als ich und Ihr muss der Freier sein, soil Evchen ihm den Preis verleihn,” would seem to indicate that he harbors no desire to enter the lists; still it is here nothing more than a well-meant advice to Beckmesser not to make himself ridicu¬ lous by competing. But soon after, while Sachs continues “to show to the world a serene and energetic face, ’ ’ a plaintive motive from the orchestra reveals to us his real feelings ; it is repeated in Act II, during his chat with Eva, at the words liJa Kind! eine Freiung machte mir Not,” (the word Freiung being here taken in a double sense), and soon after this in the third stanza of the merry cobbler song a similar strain strikes our ears and hearts, and Eva exclaims, “ Mich schmerzt das Lied, ich weiss nickt wie!” These strong undercurrents are most pronounced in the prelude and the first scene of the third act, picturing the last struggle in the aged man’s soul, until in the “lofty mirth which heals our pains” he achieves the triumph over his passion and “calmed and appeased reaches the serenity of a mild and blissful resignation.” This last quotation, from his Entwiirfe, Gedanken, Fragmente, may be applied to Wagner’s own state of mind at the time when he finished the drama. It is the culmination of one of the deepest experiences in the poet’s own life, his love for Mathilde Wesen- donk, his victory over himself, and his renunciation. “Now only am I fully resigned,” he writes to Mathilde, as he is working on the final draft, and “Look out for your heart when you meet Hans Sachs! you will surely fall in love with him.” By giving it im¬ mortal expression in a creation of his genius, Wagner the artist has risen above the painful experience of Wagner the man. Now he has made himself truly a master — master of his art, and master of himself, and the fact that from this time on Wagner loved to call and sign himself der Meister gains a deepened significance. Just as the historic Hans Sachs is one of the most interesting and impressive figures of sixteenth century Germany, the Hans Sachs of Wagner has become one of the most sympathetic charac¬ ters of the highest type of comedy, and it is difficult indeed not to fall in love with him. What endears him to us is his truly God-given humor — not simply an intellectual gift, to be defined as the sense of proportion, but a quality of the heart that recognizes* the ordained place for everything in the universe and is willing to content itself with its place in the eternal scheme of things. Roedder — “Die Meistersinger von Nurnberg.” 117 Its undercurrent of sadness makes it all the more lovable — indeed this is the token of all true humor: “ There’s not a string at¬ tuned to mirth but has its chord in melancholy” sighs Thomas Hood, and “ Chords that vibrate sweetest pleasure thrill the deep¬ est notes of woe” moans Robert Burns. Such glorious humor is not the chief trait of the earlier Hans Sachs, the one of the Marienbad sketch. He is far from conquer¬ ing the world; his humor is a rather pessimistic irony which at best toys with, and generally scorns and derides, the world. The changes in Hans Sachs’s philosophy of life incorporated in the second version may easily enough be explained on general grounds. When Wagner wrote the Marienbad sketch he had not yet reached the prime of life. When he finished the play he was almost fifty years old. His Lohengrin, the colossal Der Ring des Nihelungen, his Tristan und Isolde ,, as well as most of the theoretical writings, had in the meantime been completed. The happy period at Dres¬ den had been followed abruptly by his ten years’ exile in Switzer¬ land. New years of migration had succeeeded the latter. They had brought numerous handicaps to his development and creative¬ ness. He had gone through the most serious domestic and finan¬ cial distress, and suffered the bitterest disappointments, such as the open hostility of most of the contemporary critics to his work. But all these factors combined could not make him lose faith in his mission, and he felt now as sure of his ground and his place in the history of art as Schiller did when to clarify his views he wrote his treatise TJeber naive und sentiment alische Dichtung. The victory that Walter von Stolzing with his art wins in the Marienbad draft is at best half a victory — with Hans Sachs as there depicted the game is scarce worth the candle. Considering the superior greatness of Hans Sachs in the final execution, both as a poet and as a man, Walter’s victory is complete. Nor is its force lessened by the fact that in some respects Hans Sachs is decidedly the younger man’s superior even as a poet. Such he is, as Erich von Schrenck points out, 1. c., page 169ff., in the measure in which the naive artist — he who is one with nature — is superior to the sentimental one who seeks nature: “Sachs’s poetic pictures are delineated with bold, firm strokes* Walter is ever in danger of becoming verbose, sometimes even diffuse. Sachs shines in sunny clarity, Walter has something vague and romantic about him. . . . For Walter the poetry of dreams and the prose of actual life are much farther apart than 118 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters. for Sachs. Sachs looks upon all life as poetic, Walter flees from prosaic reality into the world of poetry. For Sachs everything, no matter how trite and trivial it may seem, becomes an object of poetic musing, Walter seeks his ‘poetic’ themes. Therefore Sachs is more versatile than Walter. Sachs takes joy in all things, he abandons himself to them. Walter selects, and always connects with his subject matter a relation to his own soul. Sachs is an objective poet with a subjective element, Walter is purely subjec¬ tive. . . . Sachs regards the hostile powers with the eyes of the wise man: he laughs at them and outwits them; Walter looks upon them with the eyes of a knight who places himself in posture for battle. Therefore Sachs’s poetry, like its creator, is humor¬ ous; Walter’s, pathetic ... Of course, both types of poets have their justification, their significance. This is beautifully shown in Sachs’s conduct. For he, who certainly is the greater, willingly bows before the young man who possesses one side of art that he, the mature poet, lacks. The sweetness of dream poetry, the perfume of romanticism have so captured Sachs’s susceptible poetic soul that the fiery ‘poet-hero’ appears to him as the true, heaven-gifted poet. His own workaday poetry seems to him irrele¬ vant in comparison . . . However, both types are needed : the sunny poetry of daylight with its clear features and sharp con¬ tours, with its irradiation and transfiguration of sober reality, as well as the vague moonlight poetry with its diffuse lines and myste¬ rious figures — naive and sentimental poetry. ’ ’ Naturally Wagner did not intend to exemplify in his work Schiller’s famous distinction— this is a by-product of the composer’s creation, and as such interesting in the extreme. Neither did he attempt a portrait of the historical Hans Sachs ; at the time of the origin of the first sketch he expressed in no uncertain terms his disapproval of the biographical Goethe and Schiller dramas that were popular in the forties and fifties. Wagner simply desired to place among the circle of the mastersingers an eminent, real poet, such as the historic Hans Sachs was. It is worth while to observe that while the earlier Hans Sachs reminds us more of the Hans Sachs of the thirties and forties as Gervinus portrays him— for, as we have seen, Wagner designates Gervinus as one of his sources — the Hans Sachs as we have him today resembles more closely the Hans Sachs of the fifties in the same treatise. It may well be left to the reader to trace out the corresponding features in the passages quoted in the Appendix. When his general character was thus altered, Wagner quite naturally dropped the allusion to the Refor¬ mation in the first draft. Such an allusion seemed a matter of course in a drama the scene of which was laid in sixteenth century Roedder — ‘‘Die Meistersinger von Niirriberg.” 119 Germany, but as it stands, the result of this great movement ap¬ pears destructive rather than constructive — the Reformation is not treated as one of the great fructifying epochs of the race but as subversive of the last remnants of poetry and artistic endeavor.30 By infusing into Hans Sachs’s veins drops of his own blood, Wagner has endowed his hero with a broader human appeal than the genial cobbler-poet of the sixteenth century could ever have for our own time. His innermost life, as we have seen, is too deep for words — a linguistic expression of the depth of his love, the in¬ tensity of his grief, and the greatness of his self-conquest would have destroyed the glorious virility of this character. But twin- born with the words, the expression of the masculine conceptual thought of the poet, is music, in which the feminine lyrism of the emotion finds its voice. It constitutes the lasting triumph of Wag¬ ner’s genius that in his dramas we have “ music not written for the text nor text written for the music, but music and text created at the same time, the melody mirroring forth the soul of the words.” One need not himself be a poet, full of limitless feeling struggling with the limited utterance of words, to fathom that a new art has here been given birth, fulfilling the age-long yearning of sage and poet. To the word-tone-poet the lines of Oliver Wendell Holmes ‘ ‘ The flowering moments of our mind lose half their petals in our speech” do not apply. Music imparts to these our flower¬ ing moments immortal beauty of color and imperishable fragrance. 30 The praise of practical political activity in connection with the reference to the Reformation, so alien to Wagner’s ways of thinking in his later years, Julius Burghold, l.c., attributes to the interest and sympathy with which the coming Revolution of 1848 was even then filling Wagner’s soul. It seems to me more likely that Gervinus had at least a large share in it — all the more so since, as Golther points out, l.c., page 297, this praise of practical political life is really a superfluous departure even in the original version, as is evi¬ dent from the young knight’s answer to Hans Sachs’s admonitions, “Very well, master ! But now I need a wife.” Together with the allusion to tne Reformation, all the extraneous elements of the original scholarly apparatus were excised, i. e., the references to the Heldenbuch , to Wolfram and his Par- zival, to the Nibelungenlied with Siegfried and Kriemhild, of whom Walter was to sing before the masters in St. Catherine’s. Only the reference to Wal¬ ter von der Vogelweide remained — naturally enough, for the mastersingers counted him as one of the founders of their art, and Walter’s baptismal name, for the earlier Konrad, was given him with a definite purpose. 120 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters. APPENDIX Extracts from G. G. Gervinus, Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung , 2. Band, 4. Auflage, Leipzig 1853.# Chapter VI. Decline of Knightly Poetry and Transition to Popular Poetry. 10. Mastersong. (Page 245.) But it may be wrong to look at these songs at all from the viewpoint of poetry. For historical purposes it suffices to have shown that their poetic texts mark the uttermost decline of the old lyric poetry. These songs were not meant for publicity, let alone immortality, they remained consequently unprinted in their obscurity, and history had better let them rest there. Even in the case of minnesong we disdained a too searching analysis, and here the analytic method would be still less proper. A more accurate characterization of mastersong would incontestably be the task of the historian of music, if indeed its music were preserved. The mastersingers, in the period when they had established real singing schools, let themselves be heard only as singers. With them, as well as with the French and Dutch rhetoricians, the high¬ est achievement was the invention of a new tune; in their tunes, however, melody was the essential thing. Little depended on the text ; it was permissible to render the same text in different tunes ; only in melody were they inventive; and this must not encroach on the tunes of other mastersingers to the extent of four syllables, but melody and fioriture were to be entirely original. And so in the examination of such new tunes great emphasis was laid on the musical rendition. . . . If it was found that the melody did not encroach on any other tune to the extent of four syllables, it was registered, its parent had it christened and invited sponsors to the ceremony. (Page 246). We deemed the relation of minnesong to the moral status of the people far more significant than its aesthetic side, and we do this also in the case of the mastersong. There we had * Sincere thanks are due to Professor B. Q. Morgan for generous help in the preparation of this translation as well as for the revision of the entire manu¬ script. Boedder — “Die Meistersinger von Niirriberg.” 121 found that the soulful minnesong exercised wonderful power in helping to check the brutality and violence of the knights. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries all the lower classes were in a state of ferment ; a rush and race for gain, distinction and author¬ ity seized even the lowly, and . . . mutual jealousy, hostility, and persecution between the various ranks of society and the vari¬ ous crafts disfigured the middle classes of the time. Considering all the intensity of professional jealousy and the downright char¬ acter of this sort of people, what a solidity and soundness of nature must we presuppose to account for the fact that men united and segregated themselves in the collective guild of the singers, threw a common bond about the citizens, and educated them to a touching devotion to a purpose that was not infected by any selfishness, that kept aloof from baseness and vulgarity, and could only found friendship and mutual confidence. Even though the great ma¬ jority of artisans and craftsmen after their day’s work would re¬ pair to the ale-house, it was all the more, at a time when the physi¬ cal vices were so monstrously rampant, wholesome that at least a number of stalwart masters applied their hours and days of rest from labor to something worthier, in taking down the old art of the courts into their circle and essaying to arouse and keep alive an interest in it ; for had not Hans Sachs so popularized the gra¬ cious art that around him there were two hundred and fifty mas¬ ters in Nuremberg? These would sit down after the hard work of the day and compose their songs, think out new tunes and prac¬ tice the old ones, copy everything in big books, and take joy in pre¬ serving for posterity what with love and gratitude they had in¬ herited from their predecessors. The dignity of the life and the unselfishness of these masters compensates us for their labored art. Heretofore poetry had begged for bread at the courts and even in its most flourishing period had not cast off the parasitic note to¬ ward Maecenases and patrons, but mastersong is the foundation of our modern independent poetry in this respect also, that it taught people how in the heartfelt practice of a fine pursuit, even with indifferent success, there is a felicity that needs no further reward. With what self-denial did the good masters devote themselves with¬ out any compensation to instructing their apprentices and pupils in the difficult tunes, depriving themselves of rest and sleep in order to have leisure to recruit and educate new votaries to their art, since the day was filled with their professional labors. And with what love did the pupil then look up to his master ! 122 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. (Page 251). The mastersinger tablatures do to be sure repre¬ sent most defective poesy, the weakness of which as compared with ancient classical poetry was at once recognized, and the reason why the mastersingers affected so much secrecy as to their rules was that they suspected that every one versed in the new poetry and music who inquired about their rules did so only to ridicule them, and because the new learned versifiers really did view the master- singers’ art as far beneath them. Chapter VII. Reception of Popular Poetry. 7. Hans Sachs. (Page 409). Hans Sachs (of Nuremberg, 1494-1576) was the first one to feel vaguely that all poetry had sunk to a low level in which it could not possibly persist. As of everything truly na¬ tional that we possess in medieval poetry, so also of this man, as a purely German phenomenon, we must say : we must appreciate him historically to establish his merit and determine his worth accordingly. He occupies as it were a middle ground between the old and the new art, and his works both point to older creations of the nation and also lay the foundation for later ones yet to come ; he embraces the poetic past of the people, and treats in many ways all the forms and subjects that had become popular since the rise of middle-class poetry; he seizes on all the actualities of his time, and participates in the whole course of its religio-politieal poetry; then he is the first one to withdraw from this, removes poetry from its trend toward actual life and devotes himself to the dramatic form, which since his time has remained the chief form of all modern poetry. He draws all history and the full ex¬ tent of all knowledge and action into poetry, tears down the bound¬ aries of nationality, and thus gives warning of what was to be henceforth the most characteristic feature of German literature. He is in a certain sense a reformer of poetry as Luther is of re¬ ligion, as Hutten in politics; more fortunate than Hutten, less fortunate than Luther, of far more unconscious talent than both of them, like them indefatigably at work, little recognized in his true value, indeed for a long time reviled as the representative of mastersong, from which he strove to break away, for which he composed only in private, in which he esteemed only morally what from the viewpoint of poetry he considered unworthy of printing. Only in recent times did Goethe, uncovering the poetic germs in his forms and language, bring him again to notice and recognition, Boedder — “Die Meistersinger von Number g.” 123 so that one may now name the venerable old master as one of the chief figures of the epoch of the Reformation, so prolific in great minds and characters. (Page 411). As much as the lack of knowledge of human na¬ ture had impaired medieval court poetry, just as much did exces¬ sive association with men of a low class injure the middle class poets. As much as the lack of important domestic affairs had left the poetry of chivalry impoverished and lifeless, just as much did the momentous domestic events of the epoch of the Reformation blight contemporary poetry. The vortex of these events had un¬ balanced so many, the coarse tone of the progressive party of the period had marred the language and everything most needful to poetry. Hans Sachs’s life falls in the middle of this cultural period, is involved in the fortunate and unfortunate phases of the new doctrine, and his early youth coincides with the first move¬ ments. If like so many others he had let himself be carried along, it would not be cause for wonder, considering his zeal and his talent; if after winning his first applause he had joined in the general chorus, he might plead the example of such great men! What a deep nature does it indicate that this man could with such minute and penetrating versatility follow the aspects of his times and his nation, and fathom and depict, praise and blame them, without faltering in his sobermindedness, without sinking down from the height from which he viewed things. The entire range of contemporary life, the vast movement of his time are unfolded for us in the countless writings of the honest cobbler, animate and eloquent, but not passionate; vivid and penetrating, but without unrest, effortless and undesigning. He takes us into the plebeian crowds, but one sees at once that he is one of those finer natures who had forsworn the vulgar mob in the interest of social refine¬ ment. He shows to us the whole world in its whirling motion and haste, imperturbed himself from his quiet cell in which nothing escapes him, nothing leaves him indifferent, but also nothing robs him of his equanimity. He examines the empire’s manifold de¬ fects, but he does not wish to reform them. Only one sees that he is the inhabitant of a city which then enjoyed an enviable pros¬ perity of public and domestic finances, as well as of culture ; whose good fortune has been lauded by every poet since Rosenblut’s time, described by every writer from Aeneas Sylvius on, whose constitu¬ tion was the envy of every enlightened person, which not only gave 124 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. birth to, and held fast, great talents, but knew how to attract for¬ eign talents, something that scarcely any republic has been capable of at one and the same time; which was prominent in commerce and industry, in mechanics and inventions, the center and citadel of mastersong; which through more than a hundred years, from Rosenblut and Folz down to Hans Sachs, remained the cradle of the German drama; and which sheltered in its walls the greatest men in all branches, Regiomontanus, Celtes, Yischer, Diirer, Pirk- heimer, Hans Sachs ; which showed such a fecundity in artists and scholars that no other German city, and indeed not many German states, can display such a line of artists and scholars, which is sur¬ passed in part only by the great Italian republics. In this refuge, full of incitement and without excitement, it was easier for him to observe, easy to rise above and master what he had observed; he surveyed from a distance and did not get confused by prox¬ imity. (Page 413). As his poetic share in the pamphlet (Eyn wunder- liche W eyssagwpig von dem babstumb, 1527) was very harmless, so also his further writings for Protestantism were indeed forceful and definite, but always moderate and calm and entirely devoid of all excesses in form and content. . . . He combatted the coarse tone of life and art, not by imitating this rudeness, like Murner, but by trying to elevate his language and presentation, and to keep above common reality. How he did this shows what an innate poetic talent was his. And that attracted Goethe so much to him (who himself knew how diffi¬ cult it is to remain superior to irruptive epochal events), to see with what playful ease the honorable master treated the world and life, how securely and placidly he roamed about, how the really creative power of the poet wrought in him, not passion (414) and personal interest and excitement; how his poetry is not a stupid copy of life, but a free reproduction of it. It is true, we can in his case speak only of a rough draft, not of perfect execution; only of vigor and expressiveness, and of the great humorous power of his language, which under Goethe ’s finishing touches ingratiated itself so much with us, while in his own case the monotony and heedlessness with which he throws off his rhymes annoys and de¬ ters us. It is true again that there is in his works a good deal of idle chatter, of awkwardness in treatment, of unconcerned seizing upon the first theme that offers, and later of soulless versified Roedder—“Die Meistersinger von Nilrnberg 125 scribbling from mere force of habit. However, one may be chari¬ tably inclined even toward such artless versifying, where it is meant for an artless type of people, unpretentious and amusing, if only in its inner core it is entirely sound, serene, conciliating, and en¬ couraging. ... It is admirable to remain truly human in great events of public life with so much interest and wholehearted¬ ness; more admirable than his attempt to make a completely van¬ ished poetry to bloom afresh and produce new seed for further plantings. It was a time when so many unbidden meddled with things that did not concern them, when so many lost or misjudged their place in life. But how Hans Sachs, after the Muses had in his twentieth year called him to his poetic work, quickened him with their gifts, inspired him to praise virtue and to relieve sad¬ ness, and he, chained to his modest trade, had at first followed their call with less inclination, how from that time on, even when the loud applause of Germany was already honoring him, he kept to his limits in the same even temper, with modesty and self-knowl¬ edge, and (415) ever remained the artisan-poet and the poet-arti¬ san, how in his life he kept up the same tone that his poems evince, — all that is easier to observe than to comprehend. He might have argued with Hutten which one of them knew human nature bet¬ ter, watched conditions in Germany more keenly, felt more ardently for the fate of his fatherland and its culture and improvement, but yet his poems on the conditions of the times in comparison to Hutten ’s form a perfect contrast of placidity to nervous agitation, of self-restraint to bold self-confidence, of moderation to portentous passion, and, so far as poetic treatment is concerned, of superior mastery of the subject to being mastered by the subject. . . . He did not suffer himself to be carried away by the coarse tone in the writings of his times; in the greatest passion and indignation he does not use invectives such as Luther and even the rulers of the period did; his style is vigorous and rich almost beside that of any other contemporary; it is innocent, animated, and lumi¬ nous beside Murner’s, much more poetic, plastic, impressive, and noble than Hutten ’s; full of health and pure humor in compari¬ son to Fisehart’s, and next to Luther’s his language is by far the most remarkable of the century; it is a treasure-house for every future humorist and satirist. (Page 416). In the youthful products of his muse he con¬ centrates entirely on the question of chaste love, which usually 126 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters. brings to every moral man Ms first battle with life. He shows himself as a man with plain middle-class sentiments, and praises conjugal love above the adventurous Mnd, as every rightminded man of his time considers it his duty to do. At an early period (1517), in his Venus’s Retinue, he manifests how little he would be skilled to interpret love and its nature in any other fashion. Early and late, in his youthful poem on Chastity Exiled (in which the stringent commands that he imposes on himself do honor to his fine character), as well as in the theme of Tristan, which he treats late in life, he gives the admonition to reserve love for matri¬ mony; and the sanctity of this union is also in his serious and comic works the constant pivot about which his moralizing poetry almost prefers to circle. In musing meditatively with himself, or when his private genius listens at the window-shutters, in looking into the heart of family life, or in escorting Ulysses to the abodes of Calypso and Circe, he makes it an occasion to praise wedded life, to scourge the common infidelity, to ridicule and curse the evil domestic life in cities and villages. (Page 417). As early as 1523 he wrote his Wittenberg Night¬ ingale, and saluted the new doctrine with so much determination that nothing but a glance at this poem is needed to recognize his attitude toward the Reformation and at the same time to see how Luther’s teaching struck and roused long dormant thoughts of the honorable middle classes of Germany, how the upright intellect of this class, with the guiding testament in hand, now secured for it¬ self light in all directions, how the honest citizens hailed the day with the singing nightingale, how they let themselves be called back by it from devious wanderings, from desert and darkness whither the crafty lion had lured them, how they withstood all the yelping of his aiding fiends. (Page 418). The attentive study of religious conditions in Ger¬ many led Hans Sachs of itself to the German Empire and its state, especially at the time of the Smalkaldic War. Hence in the fifth decade of his life the master’s poetry is particularly occupied with it. He scourges what Hutten and with him every unselfish man of the period scourged, but he does it in his own peculiar manner. He remains true to the conviction, which Hutten abandoned, that public spirit and concord alone would be Germany’s salvation. . . . (421) Most of those allegorical and other poems that with a satiric whip persecute the aberrations of the time as vices, while Boedder — “Die Meister singer von Niimberg.” 127 later, more mild and forbearing, lie but laughs at them, arise in this sturdy period, during which he was also more active in public life (fourth and fifth decades). The felicitous and unfaltering observation of the world and ol men, which was natural to our master’s genius, found plentiful food in the tendency of the sages of antiquity to consider man’s inner nature; and their judicious moderation fortified him in the placid calmness with which he views unconfused the antlike medley of human beings, and confronts the people with the mirror of his truthful paintings; their contempla¬ tive wisdom fostered his plastic sense. . . . (422) From ancient history he emphasized for his contemporaries that which in school we present in the same way to the minds of children, and in the most direct manner he conducted the purest water of the spring he had found even into the lowest classes of people. What two or three centuries had already done would have been wholly lost if at this time of the first printed books, when the common people were really eager to learn and read, a man who had mastered the tone of the common folk had not taken the whole mass of what Thomasin, the Renner, and all the didactic poems and collections of moral examples had long been spreading broadcast, and modern¬ ized it in a new language and suitable diction. Let us never fail to give Hans Sachs credit for this service. He became a humanist teacher of the common people, as the scholars became teachers of the young. He was the first to popularize the ancients from their purely moral side in our country, just as in recent times Wieland introduced his Cicero, Lucian, and Horace from the side of the philosopher of life and man of the world. From his sixth decade on another taste begins to predominate in Hans Sachs’s poetry. He centers his attention more on rhymed tales and carnival farces, he loves to attach the didactic to exam¬ ples, the ethical character of his poems becomes more plastic, his German style of painting becomes more Dutch, his allegory is ex¬ changed for the fable, direct references to the present become rarer, and he takes us from public into private life. He then sees the classes and ranks of men less in their relation to their civic and social obligations than to human nature and the rational world in general ; he pictures the droll doings of men more humorously, and laughs at them instead of scourging them as heretofore. His im¬ pressively severe teaching rather disappears beside his goodhu- mored description, his censure becomes ironic delineation; his po¬ etry, which formerly was more bent on enjoining virtue, is now 128 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. more directed toward the alleviation of sadness; the severity of manhood wears off giving way to the benignity of old age. At all times of his life the master wrote rhymed stories and tales, from the fifties on, however, they become both more frequent and better. The whole monotony and mechanical fertility of his (423) produc¬ tion shows itself in this species, but it is at the same time his high¬ est triumph. He had inherited this type of instructive tale, seri¬ ous or comic, from older periods, whose novelettes, folk tales, and farces he modernized in countless numbers and multiplied by new ones, but he also left them to posterity. No older story teller is his peer in moral earnestness, few later ones in skill of treatment and genuine humor. . . . The animation and accuracy of de¬ scription, the motley throng of subjects, and the uniform precision and reliability of his brush impart an uncommon charm to these pieces, and it was these qualities that attracted our Goethe, who in Hans Sachs’s Poetic Mission erected the most reverent monument to the old master. The figures move and stir before our eyes, and if Hans Sachs praises the painter because he can so place every¬ thing before our eyes that one could not narrate it more clearly, he himself narrates and describes everything so that one could not paint it more plainly. The most playful and frolicsome humor tints the pictures of the magic chest that he throws open to us, . . . (424) and all this is to be compared only with the bur¬ lesques of Dutch painting. . . . Everything that characterizes the good German middle class, craftsmanship, self-respecting trade- unionism, common sense, honesty (425) and integrity, pious sim¬ plicity, a sound moral core, and practical insight into life, speaks amiably from every tone and every line of these pieces, poor as many of them are in content and stale jests. In the last decades of Hans Sachs’s poetry, a distinct change takes place. He himself complains repeatedly of the decline of art in general. Formerly, he says, it flourished, all nooks and corners were full of scholars, there were ingenious craftsmen and artists enough and books in abundance, now the arts are common and despised, few devotees remain, looked at ascance as visionaries; the world is madly bent on lust and gold, the Muses are leaving the country. His eulogy of good morals had brought him envy and hatred; often he meant to stop writing, also because at last his reason told him that his poetic power was on the wane. But yet he means courageously to make the most of his talent; after forty- four years of poetic activity he will not now desist from preaching Roedder — “Die Meistersinger von Nurriberg.” 129 virtue and relieving sadness, and no defamer shall disturb him in his sacred calling. . . . (426) The present furnished no more themes for poetic treatment ; folk poetry, and the occasional poem ran out of material, in addition the writers were weary of the coarse tone, withdrew from the realities of life and sought after another, nobler element for poetry. Before ancient art or its Italian and Spanish imitations found reception, one pointed back once more to the old romantic period and reproduced it in old and new forms. A foolish idea. One might now, like Puschmann, gather in prose form the rules of the art of yore, but it was no longer to be kept alive; the Heldenbuch theorized on giants and dwarfs, heroes and men. . . . (427) Nevertheless it remains remarkable enough that Hans Sachs, just as in his treatment he had always striven away from the vulgar and decadent manner of his contemporaries, aspired toward the end of his life in the choice of his subjects after something nobler, although in the absolutely ig¬ noble treatment of these heroic themes he showed how little the period was suited to a revival of these things. 9— S. A. L. g THE PASSING OF AN HISTORIC WATERWAY BY P. E. WILLIAMS. The early development of any country depends primarily upon the avenues of entrance to its interior. The opening of the in¬ terior of the United States was largely balked by the eastern moun¬ tains, which served to divert the entrance to northern routes. It was natural that waterways should be sought, because of the greater ease of travel in the canoe than on foot. With the practically continuous water route of the St. Lawrence, Ottawa and the Great Lakes, at their disposal, explorers soon found their way into Wis¬ consin. As early as 1634, Nicolet, following the north shore of Lakes Huron and Michigan to Green Bay, thence the Lower Fox, Lake Winnebago, and the Upper Fox reached a point in the vicinity of Berlin, Wisconsin.1 In 1655 Badisson and Groseilliers2 crossed from Lake Michigan to the Mississippi River following the Fox- Wisconsin waterway which was for many years one of the most used highways in the northwest. Probably some of the coureurs de hois and voyageurs had earlier passed this way as we know it was a path much used by the Indians. It soon became a regular route for the French fur traders and Green Bay became one of the most noted fur depots of the northwest. Along it came the great mot¬ ley procession of adventurers, explorers, priests, traders, trappers, and soldiers who paddled their canoes and rowed or poled their batteaux or, in later years, their Durham boats. “Throughout 127 years of French control, down through the 25 year period of English control, and on to the days of the American railroad in the ’60’s, this nature-made highway of travel between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi was a link in a great continental waterway — a part of a Pathway of Empire.”* 1 Thwaites, Reuben Gold, Wisconsin, The Americanization of a French Settle¬ ment, New York 1908, pp. 20-32. a Ibid, p. 40. s Whitbeck, Ray Hughes, The Geography of the Fox-Winnebago Valley, BulL XLII, Wis. Geol. & Nat. Hist. Survey, Madison, 1915. p. 27. 131 132 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters . With the knowledge of the success attained by the completion of the Erie Canal in 1825 came an agitation for the construction of canals in several parts of the country, especially in those states which touch the Great Lakes. The introduction and improvement of the steamboats was a further incentive to waterway improvement as many of the streams used by the pioneer were too shallow or re¬ quired portages, both disadvantages in their use for profitable steamboating. Such a highway was the Fox-Wisconsin. In 1829, just four years after the completion of the Erie canal, an agitation was begun for the improvement of the Fox-Wisconsin highway in order that steamboats might be used.4 This agitation came not only from the merchants and the usual boomers of real estate in the small towns along the way, from the farmers and boatmen, but also from representatives in Congress who took an active part in bringing the proposed improvement to the attention of the govern¬ ment and the public. Great was the optimism in regard to the ad¬ vantages to be gained by those along the highway and to the whole northwest. Cities situated along this water course were sure to in¬ crease rapidly in size and become the most important in the state. Along this valley would move the pioneers to the region farther west. In their wake would follow supplies and implements, and in return would go the furs, the lead of southwestern Wisconsin, and the products of the constantly increasing number of farms. Since the Fox-Wisconsin route had been the one most travelled between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River in the early ex¬ plorations, in the fur trade, and subsequent communication, it was but natural to believe that it would be the one most easily converted into a waterway for boats of deeper draught and heavier cargo. There was a great difference of opinion as to the navigability of this waterway, depending probably on the season of the year in which the several trips were made and consequent differences in volume of water. All accounts agree in a general way as regards the conditions on the Fox River, and when later surveys were made the engineers agreed as to the manner of improvement and quite closely as to the estimated cost. The Wisconsin, on the other hand, had so many changes in volume, channels, and general behavior that even able surveyors and engineers arrived at different con¬ clusions. Marquette says in his journal that “It is very broad, with a sandy bottom, forming many shallows, which render navi- Whitbeck, p. 29. Williams — The Passing of An Historic Waterway. 133 gation very difficult.”* 5 Another writer says “that the general depth of the river is, at the ordinary height of the water, from four to five feet, but the sand-bars often extend entirely across the river and have not more than eight or ten inches of water; the sands, however, are quick and oppose but little resistance.”6 The other extreme, high water stage, is shown by the fact that in 1828 the fifth regiment of U. S. Infantry came in barges from St. Louis up the Mississippi and Wisconsin Rivers and down the Fox to Fort Howard without unloading.7 As time went on and the success of other canals became apparent, the agitation for improvement increased. The government early inaugurated a movement to improve the Fox River for navigation purposes. In 1836 the war department had A. J. Center make a survey from Fort Howard, at Green Bay, to Tail Point, a distance of six miles.8 In 1837 a hurried survey was made of a consider able portion of the river.9 In 1838 the improvement of the route was recommended by the Secretary of War for the purpose of facil¬ itating troop and munition transportation.10 In 1839 a preliminary survey of the Fox River was made by Captain Cram under the di¬ rection of the Secretary of War.11 In 1846, Morgan L. Martin, territorial delegate from Green Bay, introduced a bill in Congress for the improvement of the Fox and Wisconsin rivers. This bill which was favored by President Polk, passed in that year, and con¬ tained a provision that a large amount of public land in the Terri¬ tory of Wisconsin be granted by Congress and the funds from the sale of this land to be used for the purpose of making a water way navigable from the mouth of the Wisconsin River to Green Bay, as soon as Wisconsin became a state.12 Land equal to one-half of three sections in width on each side of the Fox River and of the lakes through which it passes was to be sold, the proceeds to pay for the 6 Thwaites, Reuben Gold, Down Historic Waterways , 2nd edition Chicago 1907, p. 239, quoting from Marquette’s Journal. 6 Warren, Major G. K., Report on the Transportation Route along the Wis¬ consin and Fox Rivers , Executive Document. No. 28, 44th Cong., 1st session. Government Printing Office, 1876. 7 Durrie, Daniel S., Early Outposts of Wisconsin, Green Bay for ZOO years ; 1639-1839. A paper read before the Wisconsin Historical Society, 1872, p. 10. 8 Warren, p. 25. 9 Ibid, p. 25. 10 Art Publishing Co. (no author) The Valley of the Lower Fox: Historical, Descriptive, Picturesque , 1887. 11 Ibid. 12 McLenegan, Annie Susan, Pioneer Life in the Fox River Valley, Proc. Wis. Hist. Soc. 1905, p. 279. 134 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. improvement. The work was to begin within three years after Wis¬ consin’s admission as a state and was to be completed within twenty years. An act of the Wisconsin legislature in 1848 provided that 5/6 of the sales should go to improve the Fox River and 1/6 of the sales to improve the Wiseonsin.lsThis act shows how little and how carelessly the facts about the Wisconsin River had been con¬ sidered. The legislature evidently believed that the Wisconsin River with slight improvement, could easily be made navigable. In 1849, or about twenty years after the agitation began, the state com¬ menced work upon the improvement. By 1850 the lock at De Pere rapids was completed. The canal connecting the Fox and Wis¬ consin Rivers was dug and a little dredging of shallower portions of the river was accomplished.14 Land sales were much slower than had been anticipated, money ran out, interest was accruing on the first debt, and work was nearly stopped. An issue of state bonds was proposed but this was held unconstitutional by the state legis¬ lature. So after spending over $400,000, the state resolved to sur¬ render the whole improvement, the remainder of the public lands unsold, and the hydraulic privileges to a private company. With a number of provisions regarding toll and free use by the United States, the whole project was turned over to the “Fox and Wis¬ consin Improvement Company.’’15 In 1855 Congress passed an act giving to the state an additional two sections of land making in all five sections per mile for the whole length of the Fox River and of the lakes through which it runs, a distance of about 216 miles.16 By 1856 the Lower Fox could be traversed by vessels draw¬ ing three feet of water and the Upper Fox by boats of slightly less draught,17 Much rejoicing was caused by the arrival at Green Bay of the Aquila, a small steamer that had come from Pittsburgh down the Ohio and up the Mississippi and Wisconsin rivers and down the Fox. A public celebration was held and many believed that the long dreamed of waterway which would be used as one of the na¬ tion’s most important highways had come into its own.18 In 1856 the Wisconsin legislature passed another act providing that the capacity of the Lower Fox be increased to a draught of 4 feet ; the 13 Warren, p. 27. 14 Whitbeck, p. 80. 15 Whitbeck, p. 80. 16 Warren, p. 39. 17 Whitbeck, p. 31. 18 McLenegan, p. 285. Williams — The Passing of An Historic Waterway. 135 Upper Fox to 3 y2 feet; and providing for locks 160 feet long, by 35 feet wide. The work was begun and carried on vigorously by the company until the panic of 1857. From this time on the com¬ pany encountered many difficulties and in the summer of 1866, be¬ cause it had failed to fully perform its agreement with the state, the trustees sold the improvements, lands, and franchises at public sale. The purchasing company was the “ Green Bay and Missis¬ sippi Canal Company.”19 A short time before this the national government took a renewed interest in the waterway and during the third session of the 37th Congress a resolution was passed that a “committee on naval affairs be appointed to inquire into and report upon the practicability and the probable cost and time required to improve the Wisconsin and Fox Rivers, so as to give an uninterrupted navigation from the Mississippi River to Lake Michigan for vessels of war 200 feet in length, 34 feet beam, and drawing not less than 6 feet of water. ’ J2° The committee which reported in 1863 estimated the cost at $2,387,000 and suggested that the Lower Fox be improved to a 12 foot draught with the further suggestion that Lake Winnebago might become a naval station provided this could be done under the “treaty of 1817.” The full committee decided against the naval station proposal, however, and closed the report with the following: “The true ground as the committee think, upon which to place the propriety of yielding assistance to this Wisconsin enterprise, is its great natural importance in making cheaper and easier the intercourse between the grain-regions of the Northwest and the manufacturing and commercial states of the East. The expenditure of twenty millions in the completion of this work and that of Illinois with a corresponding enlargement of the means of conveyance in the East, would be many times repaid in the increased general prosperity which would result from it. Whenever some systematic and well- matured plan shall be laid before Congress, which shall compass this result, it is to be hoped that it may be adopted.”21 In 1870 the waterway was taken over by the United States Gov¬ ernment, but it did not take over the land grants or water power franchises of the Green Bay and Mississippi Canal Company. This company is still in existence and maintains the right of control over 19 Warren, p. 47. ^Warren, p. 46. 21 Ibid, p. 47. 136 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters. all the surplus water beyond the needs for navigation purposes.22 Agitation continued for years in the attempt to induce Congress to complete the work already begun. The governors of four states called a convention which was held at Prairie du Chien in 1868. The delegates sent a memorial to Congress declaring that the ‘ ‘ immedi¬ ate opening of said channel is demanded by the interests of the people of the entire country ; the work is one of national import¬ ance, required as a channel of commerce, as a ligament to bind to¬ gether the states, in securing national unity and as a defense in case of war.”23 Between 1866 and 1875 a most thorough investi¬ gation of the problem was made by Major G. K. Warren for the government. His report, issued in 1876, is very full and con-, elusive. It contains a short outline of recommendations, made be¬ fore, and the work accomplished up to that time, as well as the results of his own work and his conclusions. Major Warren spent much of his time in a detailed study of the Wisconsin River for he realized that the work previously done was more superficial here than along the Fox River. It is true that other engineers working either for the state, the two private companies, or for the govern¬ ment had made preliminary or reconnaisance surveys. Commis¬ sioners Croswell and Richardson as well as Mr. J enne believed that the Wisconsin River would be improved by the construction of wing-dams located so as to contract the shallow portions of the chan¬ nel. Seven of these dams had been built in 1852, but most of them soon disappeared, — “A fate which attends all wing-dams not con¬ stantly cared for.”24 It was also proposed to keep boats running at points where bars tended to form and thus keep the sand moving. Earlier authorities believed that all that was necessary to keep a three foot channel was to remove the snags and overhanging trees.25 The chief reason for these differences of opinion was the inaccurate data of slope and current available to the early engineers. Major Warren concluded that the use of the Wisconsin, especially for a six foot channel as desired, was impossible because of the constant for¬ mation of sand bars. There are two particularly important require¬ ments for a rectified river. It must be narrow enough to give a required depth at low water, and broad enough to carry off the excess water in times of floods. Furthermore, such arrangements 22 Whitbeck, p. 32. 23 Whitbeck, p. 33. 24 Warren, pp. 32, 34. 25 Ibid, p. 30. Williams — The Passing of An Historic Waterway. 137 must be made as to insure the return of the main stream to the nar¬ row channel.26 Inasmuch as the Wisconsin was broad and shallow at low water, and as the wing-dams designed to narrow it were either quickly buried or destroyed, Major Warren advocated the building of a canal along the Wisconsin River, using the river itself for short distances. This would necessitate locking in and out of the river. He estimated the cost of the improvement of the Wis¬ consin alone at $4,000,000 and an additional $50,000 yearly for maintenance.27 This large initial cost in conjunction with the de¬ crease in the use of canals in general caused the improvement of the Wisconsin River to be shelved. The government, however, did en¬ large and improve the locks on the Fox river, and now maintains navigation about 8 months of the year without toll charge. Up to this time about $4,000,000 has been expended on the waterway of which only $590,000 has been spent on the Wisconsin River. The average yearly cost of operation and care has been about $56,000, and since 1902 the yearly expense for operation has, with few exceptions, exceeded this average. After the opening of the canal, the major part of the traffic was on the Lower Fox from Green Bay to and on Lake Winnebago. Few records are found of boats of any size having made the con¬ tinuous passage from Green Bay to the Mississippi River. Men¬ tion has been made of the small steamer Aquila which made the trip in 1856 at high water. In the early 50 ’s, there were regular steamer routes for short distances along the Fox and six steamers were running between Green Bay and Kaukauna, one from Fond du Lac to Oshkosh and then up the Fox and Wolf Rivers to New Lon¬ don. During the sixties and the seventies, the decades in which the waterway was of most importance, steamboat building was ac¬ tive on the Fox and Wolf rivers. Over 60 boats were built between 1844 and the present time, about 50 of which were constructed be¬ fore 1880. With the exception of coal barges and pleasure boats however the Fox River is of little use at this time. In recent years there have been approximately 800,000 tons of coal carried annu¬ ally, principally on the Lower Fox and Lake Winnebago.28 No regular lines of steamboats now run on the Lower Fox but two or three small steamers or power boats make more or less regular 2« Warren, p. 92. 27 Ibid, pp. 106, 114. 28 Whitbeck, p. 35. 138 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters. trips on the Upper Fox and Wolf Rivers. The number of lockages has increased since 1900 but this is due for the most part to pleasure boats, especially small gasoline launches. Although the Fox River has not measured up to anticipations as a highway for steamboats, it was important in opening up that part of the state more rapidly than the surrounding regions. The water power developed at the dams, which were necessary for locks, has been of great advantage in building up there a concentrated group of industrial cities not equaled anywhere else in Wisconsin except along the shores of Lake Michigan. However many of the plants in this section, and four of the most modern, are now using steam power only. Steamboat navigation on the Wisconsin has always been almost negligible. In the 50 ’s following the improvement of the: Fox River, two steamers were partially successful in the attempt to make regu¬ lar trips to carry lead from Galena to Fort Winnebago (near Port¬ age).29 In 1859 a steamer made regular trips on the Wisconsin River between Sauk City and Portage.30 Many are the records of failures in the attempt to navigate the Wisconsin except at high water stages. In 1868 the Wisconsin, a side wheeler drawing only two feet, made the attempt and met with little difficulty in the Upper Fox but found it almost impossible to get down the Wiscon¬ sin at all. Later that same year a dredge boat tried to get up the Wisconsin from the Mississippi but was unable to get into the Wis¬ consin. The boat drew 32 inches but only 24 inches of water could be found on the bars of the Wisconsin for six miles up from its mouth. In 1869 some work was done on the river between Portage and Sauk City and two small side wheeled steamers were enabled to make trips but with difficulty.31 In 1887 the bridge tender at Helena on the Wisconsin River said that it had been four years since he had swung the draw for a river craft. He told of an at¬ tempt of a small steamboat to make the passage on what was then considered a good stage of water from Portage to Lone Rock. She had been two weeks making the 21 miles from Arena to Lone Rock and finally was abandoned on a sand bar.32 These are but a few of the many attempts that might be cited. In 1916 I asked the superintendent of the power plant at Prairie du Sac how many times he had opened the gates of the dam during the year. He 29 Whitbeck, p. 32. 80 Warren, p. 42. 31 Ibid, p. 59. 82 Thwaites, Down Historic Waterways, p. 262. Williams - — The Passing of An Historic Waterway. 139 answered: “Three; twice for small launches from Sauk whose occupants were going up into the lake to hunt for ducks and once for two new houseboats that were made in Oshkosh for use on the Mississippi River.”33 Although the causes for the decline of this water way are many, a few may be mentioned: 1. The shallow depth of most of the channel. This applies to the Upper Fox and Wisconsin Rivers. 2. The crookedness of the Upper Fox. The devious, winding, obscure course of this part of the river discouraged and perplexed even the early canoeist. 3. The closing of the waterway by ice from three to five months each year. This required the development of some other means of transportation which could he used the whole year unless there is a very great advantage in water transportation during the summer months. 4. The direction or trend of the waterway is against it for present day commerce. It extends northeast — southwest while the principal trend of trade for all territory north and west of Chicago is northwest — southeast. During the present difficulties of railway transportation it has been proposed that a line of barges be estab¬ lished on the Fox River. This has met with but small encourage¬ ment, largely because of the reason just given. 5. The slowness of the waterway — its use for passengers especi¬ ally was possible only before other means of transportation were developed. 6. The extremely poor natural facilities of the Wisconsin River for navigation. This has been touched upon several times in this article but deserves emphasis. Few writers point out the detri¬ mental effects which the Wisconsin River had on the attempt at Fox-Wisconsin improvement. True, there have been other influ¬ ences that have been more potent in taking away the trade of this highway, but if the Wisconsin River had been navigable in the ’50 ’s and ’60 ’s when the agitation and interest were highest, a traffic would have been established which would have continued for some time in spite of outside competition. It is a long step from one of the most perfect natural canoe routes to an even passable steamboat channel. 7. The chief cause of decline was the competition of other means of transportation, to a small extent roads, but principally rail- 33 Greene, Kenneth, Personal Communication. 140 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. roads. In the early ?50’s stage lines and other plank roads were developed connecting tl principal places and diverted considerable of the river passenger traffic.34 In 1857, the Milwaukee and Prairie du Chien Railroad, crossing the Wisconsin River three times, was completed to the Mississippi River. In 1862 the Chicago and North Western Railroad reached Green Bay,35 so before the wa¬ terway had reached its highest stage of improvement, powerful competitors entered the field and drew the trade into new channels before the route had been fully tried out. The railroads were able to accomplish this in spite of the fact that for the greater part of the route, or from Spring Green to Oshkosh, no railway parallels the waterway. In 1887, R. G. Thwaites made an excursion through the waterway and has painted a vivid word picture of fallen grandeur and prosperity. He says, 4 ‘The canal, like the most of the Fox-Wisconsin improvement, is fast relapsing into a costly relic. The timbered sides are shaky and worm-eaten, and several moss covered barges and a stranded old ruin of a steamboat turned out to grass tell a sad story of official abandonment.”36 Today the dream of a commercial waterway is past, but the scheme has added a very pretty pleasure route to the beauties of the state. There can be no doubt that this project, though a failure in itself, was of great advantage to the state, in that it attracted attention to the importance of the region. The route did serve as an avenue of early access to the settlers and the agitation and partial improvement hastened the coming of statehood. To the villages and cities along the route, the failure of the Fox-Wisconsin to become a great commercial highway was a bitter disappointment, but the results of such delusions must inevitably be shared by all those whose hopes for commercial greatness are tied to a small inland waterway. 34 Warren, p. 40. 35 Whitbeck, p. 32. 36 Thwaites, Down Historic Waterways, p. 144. THE ARSENICAL SOLUTIONS No. 1. Liquor Potassii Arsenitis (Fowler’s Solution) H. A. LAN GENH AN. INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT The history of arsenic therapy is of considerable interest in the evolution of the materia pharmaceutica. Natural compounds of arsenic, such as realgar and auripigment were used during anti¬ quity,1 but primarily for external purposes. Because of the change which they produced in the color of copper, arsenical compounds have played an important role during the alchemistic period of chemical history.2 As a result, new derivatives of arsenic were discovered,3 some of which at least were destined to play a role in the battles between the iatrochemists and the representatives of the old or Galenical School of Medicine.4 A larger increase to the number of arsenic compounds, however, did not come until the close of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth cen- 1 For a concise statement of the knowledge of the ancients, see Kopp, Geschichte der Chemie, vol. 4, p. 89. Berendes, Des Pedanios Dioskurides Arzneimittellehre, p. 531 (Chap. 120 : Arsenikon ; and Chap. 121: Sandaracha.) Pliny, Natural History (Bohn’s Classical Library, vol. 6, p. 104 (Orpiment) and p. 220 (Sandarach and Arrhenicum). Scribonius Largus (Felix Rinne, Das Receptbuch des Scribonius Largus, vol. 5 of R. Robert, Historische Studien aus dem Pharmakologischen Institute der k. Universitat Dorpat, p. 79 ( Auripigmentum) and p. 84 (Sandaraca.) For a more detailed account see, “Historical Notes on Arsenic and its prin¬ cipal combinations: by G. F. Babcock, New Remedies, vol. 12, (1883) pp. 98, 131 and 170. 2 Comp. E. v. Meyer, History of Chemistry (3rd ed.) p. 58: “On account of this behaviour, the pseudo-Geber calls arsenic Medicina Venerem dealbans”. See also Kopp, Geschichte der Chemie, vol. 4, p. 94. 3 The arsenicum album (As2 03) of the alchemists; the arsenicum fixum of Paracelsus (arsenic acid or its potassium salt). Kopp, Geschichte der Chemie, vol. 4, p. 95. 4 Meyer, History of Chemistry (2d ed.) p. 94. 141 142 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. tury.5 Still later followed the organic derivatives of arsenic that formed the basis of the classical researches by Bunsen.6 7 Com¬ paratively few of these have found application in medicine, one of the latest being the much discussed specific “606” or salvarsam.1 If the chemotherapy of arsenic includes but few of its com¬ pounds, pharmacopoeial preparations of the derivatives of this ele¬ ment are even less numerous. Those of the U. S. P. and N. F. are but seven in number and can be grouped as follows : 1. ) Solutions of arsenous acid and its salts: 1. ) Liquor Acidi Arsenosi, U. S. P. 2. ) Liquor Potassii Arsenitis , U. S. P. 2. ) Solutions of arsenates: 3. ) Liquor Sodii Arsenatis , U. S. P. 4. ) Liquor Sodii Arsenatis, Pearson, N. F. 5. ) Liquor Arsenicalis, Clemen’s, N. F. 3. ) Solutions of arsenic trihalides (or rather “double salts”) : 6. ) Liquor Arseni et Hydrargyri lodidi, U. S. P. 7. ) Liquor Auri et Arseni Bromidi, N. F. I. Solutions of Arsenous Acid and Its Salts. The socalled “arsenious acid” of the older chemists, our arsenous acid anhydride, or arsenic trioxide, is but sparingly soluble in wa¬ ter, yet sufficiently soluble to form solutions with a 1 p. c. As203 content. Nevertheless such a solution is not official in any of the latest editions of the pharmacopoeias.8 9 Neither does the simple solution appear to be prescribed at present by physicians, although arsenic trioxide is frequently prescribed in solid form as pill,® °Kopp Geschichte der Chemie, 4, p. 96. 6 The reprint of these has been edited by A. v. Baeyer in Ostwald’s Klassiker der exakten Wissenschaften. vol. 27. 7 This epoch making discovery is discussed by Schweizer “Ehrlich’s Chemo¬ therapy— a new science” in Science, vol. 32, p. 809. (Dec. 9, 1910.) 8 In the French Codex of 1884 a Solute Arsenical ou Mineral (Boudin), one- tenth as strong as the corresponding U. S. P. arsenical solution, was official, but has been dropped in the latest edition. See also Dorvault, L’Offfcine, 15th edition (1910), p. 1289, which also gives a formula for a Solute Arsenical (Is- nard), which is only one-tenth of the strength of Boudin’s solution. 9 Arsenic trioxide enters the Pilulae Ferri, Quininae, Strychninae et Arseni fortiores of the National Formulary 4th revision ; also Pilulae F. Q. S. et As. mites , N. F. IV with less arsenic trioxide. The French Codex of 1866 and 1884, but not the latest edition, contains. Granules d’ Acide Arsenieux ; also Pilules Arsenicales (Pilules Asiatiques) ; see also, L’Officine 15th edition (1910), p. 1061; Binz, Lectures on Pharmacology, vol. 2, (1897), p. 88, translation by Latham. Langenhan — Tine Arsenical Solutions. 143 powder,10 or tablet. The slow solubility of arsenic trioxide in wa¬ ter may be accelerated either by hydrochoric acid or by potassium carbonate. The question may well arise, are these adjuncts mere pharmaceutical conveniences or do the resulting reaction mixtures differ sufficiently chemically to make the products different thera¬ peutic agents'? If essentially alike as therapeutic agents, another pharmaceutical question may be asked, viz., are the two solutions required in medical practice to avoid chemical incompatibilities when prescribed with other substances? The first question is an¬ swered in the negative by modern pharmacologists.* 11 The socalled neutral solution being unstable,12 the acid and alkaline solutions afford pharmaceutical advantages only. Both are official so that incompatibilities may be avoided by using either the one or the other.13 In a general way, the chemistry of these two solutions has cer¬ tain aspects in common, hence may be considered together if for no other reasons than to avoid unnecessary repetition. The reac¬ tions involved may be reviewed from the following points of view : A. ) The hydration of arsenic trioxide. B. ) The action of an alkali, such as potassium hydroxide or potassium carbonate, on the hydration products. C. ) The action of hydrogen chloride on the hydration products. A. Hydration of arsenic trioxide. When arsenic trioxide, arsenous acid anhydride, is dissolved in water, its hydration to metarsenous and other arsenous acids may be assumed. This hydration finds a ready expression in the fol¬ lowing structural formulas of these compounds :14 As^° \ II O + OH AS\\ O — - — Arsenous acid anhydride. 10 In the French Codex of 1866 there was official a Poudre d’ Acide Arsenieux. 11 See letters by Bernard Fantus, A. S. Loevenhart, and Torald Sollmann. “See letter by Dr. Withering, in Fowler’s Report, p. 124. m See letters by Dr. Fantus and Dr. Sollmann. 14 'Similar formulas are used by A. Stavenhagen in his article on “Beitraege zur Kentniss der Arsenite”. Joum. pr. Chem. (1895) 159, p, 1. As— OH As— OH Metarsenous acid. 144 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters. H As + OH \()H Metarsenous acid /OH As— OH \OH Ortho-arsenous acid. For a better understanding of the chemical possibilities of prod¬ ucts obtained upon the evaporation of the solution of the arsenites, the following condensation products of ortho-arsenous acid with itself may be referred to. /OH As— OH \OH — h2o /OH As-OH \()H Ortho-arsenous acid w? r /OH As— OH ^O As— OH \OH Di-arsenous acid (tetra basic) Still another dehydration reaction may be indicated by the fol¬ lowing formulas : HO OH As O -HsO HO — As OH OH As As OH O Uiarsenous acid (dibasic) A trioxide of arsenic resulting upon complete dehydration of this dibasic diarsenous acid which, however, is different structur¬ ally, hence in its properties, from the compound with which we started out, readily follows: O .As\ OH ' OH 'As^' O H20 O As > 42 The English pharmacopoeias are not the only offenders in this direction. Koscoe and Schorlemmer, in their “Treatise on Chem¬ istry”, vol. II, p. 1246 (1911) still use arsenious acid and arsenites. Our own Pharmacopoeias, after having clung to arsenious acid (Latin, Acidum Arseniosum) from 1820 to 1880 inclusive, in 1890 changed its spelling to Arsenous acid (Latin, Acidum Arsenosum), only to be changed in the subsequent editions to Arsenic Trioxide (Latin, Arseni Trioxidum) . 41 “This appelation is certainly very objectionable, as it conveys an erroneous idea of the preparation, even admitting that the term arsenic may be used to designate the white oxide : it should have been Liquor Arsenialis Potassae or Liquor alcalinus Oxidi Arsenici ”, A. T. Thomson, The London Dispensatory, 4th edition, 1826. 42 The single exception observed thus far is found in the Norwegian Pharma¬ copoeia of 1913: Liquor Arseniitis Kalici. Langenhan — The Arsenical Solutions. 153 Pharmacopoeial. Text. In as much as Fowler’s solution was made official in the first edition of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, was included in both the New York and Philadelphia editions of 1830, and has remained official up to the present time, there are eleven written texts to be considered. Moreover, the 1820 edition and both of the 1830 editions contain the text in both Latin and Eng¬ lish. The detailed comments on the text, whether based on the study of the literature of the subject or on laboratory experiments or observations, are recorded in connection with those parts of the text to which they have reference. A better idea of this part may be had by a mere glance at the list of text subjects commented upon: 1. ) Titles and Synonyms. 2. ) Definition. 3. ) Preservation. 4. ) Arsenic trioxide as an ingredient. 5. ) The form in which it is used. 6. ) Potassium carbonate or bicarbonate as an ingredient. 7. ) Ratio of ingredients. 8. ) Water. 9. ) Amount of water to effect solution. 10. ) Solution of arsenic trioxide. 11. ) Alcohol and compound tincture of lavender. 12. ) Volume of finished product. 13. ) Appearance of finished product. 14. ) Qualitative tests. 15. ) Assay. 16. ) Dose. Note. For convenient reference, the numbers representing the sub¬ jects commented upon are incorporated in the text proper. 154 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters. LIQUOR POTASSAE ARSENIATIS1 U. S. P. 1820 Ingredients. R. Acidi arseniosi,4 in pulverem snbtilem redacti;5 Potassae subcarbonatis,6 utri- usque grana sexaginta qua- tuor.7 Aquae distillatae8 oetantem unum.9 Arsenical Ingredients. Take of Arsenious acid,4 in fine powder ;5 Subcarbonate of potass,6 each sixty-four grains.7 Distilled water,8 one pint.9 Directions. In vase vitreo concoque donee acidum arseniosum omne resolva- tor.10 Liquorem frigefaetum in mensuram octariam infunde ; et adde Alcoholis fluidr'aehmas quatuor,11 Et aquae distillatae quantum suffecerit ad mensuram complen- dam.12 Solution1 Directions. , Boil them together in a glass vessel until the arsenic is entirely dissolved.10 When the solution is cold, pour it into a pint measure, and add thereto Alcohol,11 four fluidrachms, and so much distilled water, as shall fill up the measure.12 LIQUOR ARSENICALIS1 U. S. P. 1830 N. Y. Ingredients. R. Acidi arsenici4 in pulverem subtilem redacti,5 Potassae subcarbonatis,6 utri- usque grana sexaginta qua¬ tuor,7 Aquae distillatae8 oetantem unum,9 Alcoholis fluidrachmas qua¬ tuor j11 Directions. In case vitreo concoque donee acidum arseniosum omne resolva- tur.10 Liquorem frigefaetum in men¬ suram octariam infunde; et adde alcohol, et aquae distillatae quant¬ um suffecerit ad mensuram comp- lendam. Langenkan — The Arsenical Solutions. 155 Arsenical Solution Solution of Arsenite of Potass. Fowler’s Solution1 Ingredients. Take of Arsenious acid,4 in fine powder,5 Subcarbonate of potass,6 each sixty-four grains,7 Distilled water8 one pint,9 Alcohol, four fluidrachms,11 Directions. Boil them together in a glass vessel, until the arsenic is entirely dissolved.10. When the solution is cold, pour it into a pint measure, and add to it the alcohol and so much distilled water, as shall fill up the measure.12 LIQUOR POTASSAE ARSENITIS1 U. S. P. 1830 Phila. Ingredients. R. Acidi arseniosi4 in pulverem subtilissimum triti,5 Potassae Carbonatis Puris- simi,6 singulorum, grana sexaginta quatuor;7 Aquae Destillatae8 quantum satis sit; Spiritus Lavandulae Compo- siti fluidrachmas quatuor.11 Directions. Acidum Arseniosum et Potassae Carbonatem cum Aquae Destil¬ latae octario9 coque, in vase vitreo. donee Acidum omnino liquetur.10 Liquori frigefacto ad j ice Spiri¬ tual Lavandulae, et postea Aquae Destillatae quantum satis sit ut mensuram octarii accurate im- pleat.12 Solution of Arsenite of Potassa1 Ingredients. Take of Arsenious Acid,4 in very fine powder,5 Purest Carbonate of Potassa, each,6 sixty-four grains,7 Distilled Water a sufficient quantity ; Compound Spirit of Lavender four fluidrachms.11 Directions. Boil the Arsenious Acid and Carbonate of Potassa with a pint9 of Distilled Water, till the Acid is entirely dissolved.10 To the solu¬ tion, when cold, add the Spirit of Lavender, and afterwards suffi¬ cient Distilled Water to make it fill up exactly the measure of a pint.12 156 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters . LIQUOR POTASSAE ARSENITIS U. S. P. 1840 Solution of Arsenite of Potassa1 Ingredients. Take of Arsenious Acid,4 in small fragments,5 Pure Carbonate of Potassa, each,6 sixty-four grains;7 Distilled Water8 a sufficient quantity ; Compound Spirit of Lavender half a fluidounce.11 Directions. Boil the Arsenious Acid and Carbonate of Potassa with twelve fluidounces9 of Distilled Water, in a glass vessel, until the Acid is en¬ tirely dissolved.10 To the solution, when cold, add the Spirit of Lav¬ ender, and afterwards sufficient Distilled Water to make it fill exactly the measure of a pint.12 LIQUOR POTASSAE ARSENITIS U. S. P. 1850 Solution of Arsenite of Potassa1 Ingredients. Take of Arsenious Acid,4 in small fragments,5 Pure Carbonate of Potassa,6 each, sixty-four grains ;7 Distilled Water8 a sufficient quantity ; Compound Spirit of Lavender half a fluidounce.11 Directions. Boil the Arsenious Acid and Carbonate of Potassa, in a glass vessel, with twelve fluidounces of Distilled Water, till the Acid is entirely dissolved.10 To the solu¬ tion, when cold, add the Spirit of Lavender, and afterwards suf¬ ficient Distilled Water to make it fill exactly the measure of a pint.12 LIQUOR POTASSAE ARSENITIS U, S. P. 1860 Solution of Arsenite of Potassa1 Ingredients. Take of Arsenious Acid,4 in small pieces,5 Bicarbonate of Potassa,6 each, sixty-four grains;7 Compound Spirit of Lavender half a fluidounce;11 Distilled Water8 a sufficient quantity. Directions. Boil the Arsenious Acid and Bi¬ carbonate of Potassa, in a glass vessel, with twelve fluidounces9 of Distilled Water till the Acid is entirely dissolved.10 To the solu¬ tion, when cold, add the Com¬ pound Spirit of Lavender, and afterwards sufficient Distilled Wa¬ ter to make it measure a pint.12 Lang enhan— -The Arsenical Solutions. 157 LIQUOR POTASSII ARSENITIS U. S. P. 1870 Solution of Arsenite of Potassium1 Ingredients. Take of Arsenions Acid,4 in small pieces,5 Bicarbonate of Potassium,6 each, sixty-four grains;7 Compound Spirit of Lavender half a fluidounce ;lx Distilled Water8 a sufficient quantity. Directions. Boil the Arsenious Acid and Bi¬ carbonate of Potassium, in a glass vessel, with half a fluidounce9 of Distilled Water, until the Acid is entirely dissolved,10 and add twelve fluidounces of Distilled Water. Then add the Compound Spirit of Lavender, and afterwards enough Distilled Water to make it meas¬ ure a pint.12 LIQUOR POTASSII ARSENITIS U. S. P. 1880 Solution of Arsenite of Potassium [Fowler’s Solution.]1 Arsenious Acid,4 in small pieces,5 one part 7 . . . 1 Bicarbonate of Potassium,6 one part 7 . . . . 1 Compound Tincture of Lavender,11 three parts . . 3 Distilled Water* a sufficient quantity, To make one hundred parts 12 . 100 Boil the Arsenious Acid and Bicarbonate of Potassium in a glass vessel with ten (10) parts 9 of Distilled Water, until the Acid is completely dissovled.10 Then add the Compound Tincture of Lavender, and enough Distilled Water to make the product weigh one hundred (100) parts. Lastly, set the mixture aside for eight days and then filter through paper.3 If 24.7 Cm. of the Solution are boiled with 2 Gm. of bicarbonate of sodium, the liquid, when cold, diluted with 100 C.c. of water, and some gelatinized starch added, should require from 48.5 to 50 C.c. of the vol¬ umetric solution of iodine, before the blue color ceases to disappear on stirring (corresponding to 1 per cent, of arsenious acid of the required purity).15 158 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. LIQUOR POTASSI ARSENITIS U. S. P. 1890 Solution of Potassium Arsenite [Fowler’s Solution.]1 Arsenous Acid,4 in fine powder,5 ten grammes 7 . 10 Gm. Potassium Bicarbonate,6 twenty grammes T . 20 Gm. Compound Tincture of Lavender,11 thirty cubic centimeters - 30 Cc. Distilled Water,8 a sufficient quantity. To make one thousand cubic centimeters12..- . 1000 Cc. Boil the Arsenous Acid and Potassium1 Bicarbonate with one hundred (100) cubic centimeters9 of Distilled Water, until solu¬ tion has been effected.10 Then add enough Distilled Water to make the solution, when cold, measure nine hundred and seventy (970) cubic pentimeters, and, lastly, add the Compound Tincture of Lav¬ ender. Filter through paper. If 24.7 Cc. of the Solution be boiled for a few minutes with 2 Gm. of sodium bicarbonate, and the liquor, when cold, diluted with water to 100 Cc., and mixed with a little starch T.S., it should require from 49.4 to 50 Cc. of decinormal iodine V.S. to produce the blue tint of iodide of starch (corresponding to 1 Gm. of arsenous acid in 100 Cc. of the Solution).15 LIQUOR POTASSII ARSENITIS U. S. P. 1900 Solution of Potassium Arsenite1 An aqueous solution, which should contain Potassium Arsenite corresponding in amount to 1 percent, of arsenic trioxide.2 Arsenic Trioxide,4 in fine powder,5 ten grammes'1 . 10 Gm. Potassium Bicarbonate,6 twenty grammes 7 . . . 20 Gm. Compound Tincture of Lavender,11 thirty grammes....- . 30 Gm. Distilled Water,8 a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand grammes 12 . 1000 Gm. Boil the Arsenic Trioxide and Potassium Bicarbonate, in a tared dish, with one hundred grammes9 of Distilled Water, until solution has been effected.10 Then add enough Distilled Water to make the solution weigh nine hundred and seventy grammes, and, lastly, add the Compound Tincture of Lavender. Filter through paper. If 24.6 Gm. of Solution of Potassium Arsenite be diluted with water to 100 Cc., the mixture very slightly acidified with diluted hydrochloric acid, and then made alkaline with 2 Gm. of sodium bicarbonate, it should re¬ quire not less than 50 Cc. of tenth-normal iodine V.S. to produce a perma¬ nent yellow tint (corresponding to 1 Gm. of arsenic trioxide in 100 Gm. of the Solution.)15 Average dose. — 0.2 Cc. (3 minims).16 Langenhan — The Arsenical Solutions. 159 LIQUOR POTASSII ARSENITIS U. S. P. 1910 Solution of Potassium Arsenite Jjiq. Pot. Arsen.— -Fowler’s Solution Liquor arsenicalis Fowleri P.I. An aqueous solution containing potassium arsenite, correspond¬ ing in amount to not less than 0.975 per cent, nor more than 1.025 per cent, of As203 (197. 92). 2 Preserve the Solution in amber-col¬ ored bottles.3 Arsenic Trioxide,4 in fine powder,5 ten grammes 7 . . 10 Gm. Potassium Bicarbonate,6 twenty grammes T . _.... 20 Gm. Compound Tincture of Lavender,11 thirty grammes . _.. 30 Gm. Distilled Water,8 a sufficient quantity ,9 To make one thousand grammes 12 . 1000 Gm. Boil the arsenic trioxide and potassium bicarbonate in a tared flask with one hundred grammes of distilled water, until solution has been effected,10 and then add enough distilled water to make the solution weigh nine hundred and seventy grammes; then add the compound tincture of lavender and filter through paper. Solution of Potassium Arsenite is a clear or faintly opalescent liquid with a pink color and a slight odor of lavender.13 It is alkaline to litmus.14 Acidulate strongly 10 mils of the Solution with hydrochloric acid and add an equal volume of hydrogen sulphide T.S.; a yellow precipitate is produced which dissolves in ammonium carbonate T,S.14 Acidulate 4 mils of Solution of Potassium Arsenite with diluted nitric acid, add 1 mil of silver nitrate T.S. and superimpose a layer of ammonia water upon this liquid; no red or reddish-brown color is observed at the line of contact (arsenate) . 14 Assay — Dilute about 20 mils of Solution of Fotassium Arsenite, accur¬ ately weighed, with 75 mils of distilled water, acidify the mixture very slightly with diluted hydrochloric acid, then dissolve in the solution 2 Gm. of sodium bicarbonate and titrate the resulting liquid with tenth-normal iodine V.S., starch T.S. being used as indicator. It shows not less than 0:975 per cent, nor more than 1.025 per cent, of As203.15 Each mil of tenth-normal iodine V.S. used corresponds to 0.004948 Gm. of As^Og. Each gramme of Solution of Potassium Arsenite corresponds to not less than 1.97 nor more than 2.07 mils of tenth-normal iodine V.S.15 Average dose— Metric, 0.2 mil — Apothecaries, 3 minims.16 160 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. Comments on U. S. P. Text 1. ) Titles and Synonyms. See Names and Synonyms. 2. ) Definition. A definition is not given previous to 1900. The modification in the definition for 1910 was necessitated by the Pure Food and Drugs Act of 1906 which demanded reasonable limits rather than an absolutely fixed standard. 3. ) Preservation. The 1910 revision is the only one that directs that the solution be kept in amber colored bottles to protect it against light. Fowler ’s Solution upon standing deposits a flocculent precipi¬ tate. This precipitate has apparently introduced a problem for comments and criticisms as to the cause, the composition and the ways and means of eliminating this objectionable factor. Unfor¬ tunately much of the work contributed on this topic is merely theo¬ retical and not the result of experimental labor, at least no data of an experimental type are given in the majority of papers pub¬ lished. The causes for this precipitate as given, may be considered un¬ der three groupings : 1st. The action of certain organisms in the water, resulting in an algaceous growth. 2nd. The action of the alkali on the glass container. 3rd. The action of the alkali on one or more of the ingredients of the alcoholic tincture or spirit used. Those supporting the first theory are: J. Mueller43 who sug¬ gests the addition of 0.4 p. c. of borax, as a preservative ; Perschne44 who suggests the use of glycerin for the same purpose ; Kollo45 and Benysek46 who claim that the alcohol present acts as a preserva¬ tive;47 while Feuer48 consideres its preservative action negligible; and Dannenberg49 who speaks of the precipitate as an algaceous growth. Brautigam50 apparently disagrees with the above, in his claim that the precipitate is not an algaceous growth but results from the action of the alkali on the glass container. This is sup¬ ported in part by Neinhaus51 who calls attention also, to the U. S. P. 43 Am. Jour. Pharm., 51, p. 249; from Pharm. Ztg. (1879.) 44 Am. Journ. Pharm., 55, p. 456; from Pharm. Ztschr. f. Russland (1887.) 46 Pharm. Post. 29, p. 233 (1896.) 48 Pharm. Post., p. 157 (1896.), see also ibid. 32, p. 49. 47 Presumably the preservative action of the alcohol tends to prevent the growth of organisms that result in the formation of a flocculent mass. 48 Pharm. Post., 25, p. 381 (1895.) 49 Pharm. Centralh., 22, p. 319 (1881.) 50 Pharm. Centralh., 33, p. 324 (1892.) 61 Pharm. Ztg., 37, p. 331 (1892.) Langenhan — The Arsenical Solutions. 161 of 1880 which directed that the solution be filtered after standing eight days, to remove the precipitate formed. The editor of the Chemiker Zeitung52 calls attention to a previous custom of neutral¬ izing the excess alkali with acetic acid53 to prevent this same reac¬ tion. Evidently in a parallel line of thought Garraud54 suggests using a standard alkali55 to avoid excess alkalinity in the finished product. Seemingly most writers support the third theory, viz. the action of the alkali on the ingredient or ingredients of the alcoholic tinc¬ ture or spirit used. M. Goeldner56 suggests the use of phenol- phthalein as coloring agent in place of such a pigment as that of red saunders of the compound tincture of lavender, evidently as¬ suming that the alkali and the pigment from the red saunders cause the precipitate. J. Luettke57 attributes the “ dirty color” appearing in the P. G. solution to the action of the alkali and com¬ pound spirit of melissa58 and suggests avoiding this by neutraliz¬ ing the solution. Nienhaus51 claims that the alkali and aromatic tinctures and even distilled spirits used in the various pharma¬ copoeias are the main causes of the precipitate. He -substitutes melissa water for the alcoholic distillate in the P. G. solution, and does not obtain a precipitate. The substitution of compound spirit of melissa by melissa water is also recommended by Pascal59 and Menhaus,60 while Mueller60a suggests using the simple spirit of melissa. An unsigned article61 states that the precipitate is due to the action of the excess alkali on the red saunders. The “ query” editor of the Druggists Circular 62 suggests all of the already men- 62 Chem. Zt g., 16, p. 174 (1892.) 53 To what extent the solution is neutralized is not made clear. As the alka¬ linity of the solution is supposed to be, in part, due to the hydrolysis of the formed arsenite (see qualitative tests No. 13) a complete change to potassium acetate might take place if sufficient acid were added, before the solution would respond to a “neutral test.” 64 Pharm. Ztg., 39, p. 753; from Bull. Soc. Pharm. de Bordeux (1894.) 65 Here again the alkalinity due to any potassium arsenite present has been overlooked, apparently, or it. has been assumed that the alkalinity is negligible. KBer. d. Pharm. Gesellch., 2, p. 127 (1892.), see also p. 302. 57 Pharm. Centralh., 559 (1890.) 68 Compound Spirit of Melissa P. G. is prepared by macerating a mixture of melissa leaves, lemon peel, nutmeg, cinnamon and cassia buds with hydro¬ alcohol and subsequently distilling until a definite amount of distillate has been obtained. This spirit apparently contains only volatile matter as compared with the Compound Tincture of Lavender U. S. P. which is prepared by macera¬ tion and filtration. 69 Pharm. Ztg., 50, p. 1009 (1905.), from Bull. Commercial. 60 Nat. Drug., 21, p. 22 (1893.) 6°a Ber. d. pharm. Ges., 2, p. 302 (1892). 81 Proc. A. Ph. A., 46, p. 694 (1896.) from Merck’s Report 82 Drug. Cir., 52, p. 223 (1908.) 11— S. A. L. 162 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. tioned reasons and adds the possible insoluble impurities in the ar¬ senic trioxide used. The impurities in the arsenic trioxide used are also emphasized by Glueeksman.63 Chumaceiro64 refers to the “International Formula”65 for preparing a clear permanent solu¬ tion. This evidently eliminates the alkalinity. Moreover this formula directs that spirit of lavender be used in place of the tinc¬ ture. However the finished product in this case is not a solution of an arsenite,65 The strength of Fowler ’s Solution is based on the arsenic trioxide content. That a gradual oxidation of the trivalent arsenic to the pentavalent arsenic takes place is generally accepted. The cause of this oxidation however, has called forth some considerable in¬ vestigation and comment. Apparently all investigators agree that the introduction of atmospheric oxygen, in various ways, is the direct cause, but the conditions which accelerate or retard such oxidation seem to offer a source of disagreement. G. Kassner66 attributes the oxidation to the introduction of atmospheric oxygen, but does not mention any conditions influencing the rate. C. Feuer67 claims that the oxidation due to atmospheric oxygen is slight within a half year’s time, and that the alkalinity of the solu¬ tion accelerates this change. Fosenthaler68 merely points out that oxidation of arsenous acid takes place. Lyons69 claims that under like conditions the greatest amount of oxidation takes place in an alkaline solution, the least in an acid solution, while in a solution containing the (HC03) radicle the rate of oxidation lies between the two. In a later publication Lyons70 claims that no oxidation takes place in an acid solution. L. A. Brown71 suggests keeping the solution in small well filled and closed containers to prevent 63 Pharm. Post., 29, p. 353 (1896.) 64 Ibid. 52, p. 323 (1908.) 65 According to the “International Formula” as given in this article, “spirit of lavender (colorless distillate)” is used in place of the Compound Tincture of Lavender U. S. P. Also some diluted hydrochloric acid is added, 3.5 grams (13.67 p. c.) to 1 gram of potassium carbonate. This represents 0.458 grams HC1, which requires 1.72 grams of potassium carbonate for neutralization. As only 1 gram of potassium carbonate is used evidently the finished product is an acid solution. «8 Pharm. Ztg., 34, p. 419 (1889.) « Pharm. Post., 28, p. 381 (1895.) 68 Pharm. Centralh., 47, p. 850 (1906.) «9Proc. A. Ph. A., 56, p. 901 (1908.) 70 Proc. A. Ph. A., 57, p. 904 (1909.) 71 Ky. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 150, p. 153 (1910.) Langenhan — The Arsenical Solutions. 163 oxidation. A. N. Cook72 attributes the oxidation to the atmospheric oxygen which is introduced every time the container is opened to remove some of the liquid. E’we and Vanderkleed73 state that, 4 ‘ One sample of liquor potassium arsenite U. S. P. suffered an oxi¬ dation of 1.9 p. c. of its As203 as arsenite to arsenate in two years and three months. Another sample had 1.8 p. c. of As203 as ar¬ senite oxidized to arsenate in one year and five months”. Engel- hardt and Winters,74 after determining the amounts of arsenate and arsenite respectively during a period of 14 months conclude that only a slight amount of oxidation takes place in the solution. 4. ) Arsenic Trioxide as an Ingredient. The original formula of Fowler calls for arsenicum album or “ white arsenic”, in which manner the arsenic trioxide was distinguished from the yellow and red sulphides. The London Pharmacopoeia of 1808 calls for Ar- senici oxidum sublimatum. The U. S. P. of 1820 adopted the desig¬ nation arsenious acid in accordance with the new antiphlogistic- nomenclature. For other changes, see Names and Synonyms. 5. ) The Form in Which it is Used. Fowler directs the “ white arsenic” to be used “in pulverum subtilissimum triti, i. e. “tritu¬ rated to a very fine powder”. The U. S. P. of 1820 directs that the “arsenious acid” be used in form of a “fine powder”; the Philadelphia edition of 1830 directs a “very fine powder”. “Small fragments” are suggested by the New York edition of 1830, also by the editions of 1840, 1850, 1860 and 1870. From 1880 on a “fine powder” is again directed. The explanation for this is found in the following statement made by the editors of the U. S. Dispensatory, 13th ed. (1872), p. 1267: “In making this preparation, care should be taken that the arseni¬ ous acid is pure. This object is best secured by using the acid in small pieces instead of in powder. Sulphate of lime is a common impurity in the powdered acid, and if present will remain undis¬ solved, and cause the solution to be weaker than it should be”. Although the U. S. P. of 1870 directs a qualitative test (com¬ plete volatilization) to be made, that would bar such an impurity as sulphate of lime, the U. S. P. of 1880 is the first to direct the assay of “arsenious acid”. It is, no doubt, due to this difference in the requirements of the 1880 edition and its precursors from 72 Rep. So. Dak. P. & D. Com., 1912, p. 75 (1912.) 73 Proc. Pa. Ph. Assn., 37, p. 277 '(1914.) 74 Jour. A. Ph. A., 6, p. 134 (1917.) 164 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. 1840 on that the “fine powder” is again directed to be used in 1880. 6. ) Potassium Bica/rbonate or Carbonate as an Ingredient. Fowler calls it Sal alkalinum fixum vegetabilis or “salt of fixed vegetable alkali” to differentiate it from the fixed mineral alkali or sodium carbonate and the volatile alkali or ammonium carbon¬ ate. The designation of the U. S. P. 1820 is in accordance with the antiphlogistic nomenclature. The alkali used to facilitate the solution of the “arsenious acid” varies. According to the U. S. P. 1820 and the New York edition of 1830 it is Potassae subcaxbonas or “Subcarbonate of potass.”, which according to the 1820 edition is the “Impure subcarbonate of potass.” or “Pearl ash”. The Philadelphia edition of 1830 designates that “Purest Carbonate of Potassa” or Potassae Carbonas Purissimup be used, which is to be prepared from potassium bitartrate by ignition and lixiviation. (p. 172, not that in the Materia Medica list p. 20.) The editions of 1840, 1850 and 1860 direct that a “pure” carbonate be used. Ac¬ cording to the 1840 edition this is prepared from the bitartrate, according to the 1850 and 1860 editions, by heating the bicarbonate. From 1870 the bicarbonate is directed to be used in the formula. Upon heating, as directed, the pure bicarbonate is changed to the pure carbonate. 7. ) Ratio of Ingredients. Not only the ratio, but the exact quan¬ tities, viz. 64 grains of both the acid and alkaline ingredients, are the same in all editions of the U. S. P. up to 1870 inclusive, as they are in the original formula of Fowler. This would seem quite rational but for two considerations, viz. : 1. The purity of the potassium carbonate originally employed, no doubt, varied greatly. (For details of this see No. 6.) 2. In the 1870 edition, bicarbonate of potassium was substituted for carbonate, but the amounts (64 grains of each) remained the same. Hence the ratio of acid (anhydride) to alkali (carbonate or bi¬ carbonate) fluctuated greatly in the several revisions from 1820 to 1870 inclusive. Although the U. S. P. 1880 is a relatively modern treatise, as compared with its immediate precursors, the ratio was not changed in 1880, but the change was made in 1890, so that since that date the alkalinity of Fowler’s Solution was once more what it may be supposed to have been originally, provided, how¬ ever, that the “alkaline vegetable salt” of Fowler’s formula was Langenhan — The Arsenical Solutions. 165 pure potassium salt, which, in all probability it was not. In as much as it is impossible to establish the purity of the potassium carbonate used in the original formula, it would be vain to attempt to duplicate, in this respect, the original formula. It might be argued that the “white arsenic” of Fowler’s days was not as pure as the present pharmacopoeial product is supposed to be, and that the impurities in both ingredients compensated each other. However, it is scarcely to be assumed that the “white arsenic” or arsenic trioxide was ever as impure as the potassium carbonate made from wood ashes, unless it was wilfully adulter¬ ated. (For table of ratios see Number 12.) 8. ) Water . According to his original formula, Fowler de¬ manded “distilled well water”. This is probably the reason why distilled water has always been demanded by the U. S. P.75 A per¬ manently hard water might be considered as interfering with the desired alkalinity of the finished product.76 9. ) Amount of Water Used to Effect Solution. According to Fowler’s original formula only “a half pound” of water, neces¬ sary for the finished preparation, was used to effect the solution. The London Pharmacopoeia of 1809, also the U. S. P. of 1820 di¬ rected “one pint” to be used, the loss resulting from evaporation to be made up. So did both editions of 1830. The edition of 1840 reduced the amount to “twelve fluid-ounces”, as did the editions of 1850, 1860 and 1870. In the 1880 edition, the amount was re¬ duced much more, namely to one- tenth of the volume of the finished product. Practically the same ratio obtained in the editions of 1890, 1900 and 1910. The London Pharmacopoeia throughout made no reduction. However, the first British Pharmacopoeia in 1864 reduced the amount, prescribing 10 ounces to be used, like¬ wise the edition of 1885. The 1898 edition directed either 10 ounces or 500 cc., depending upon whether the metric formula or the apothecaries formula was used as both were given in this edi¬ tion. The 1914 edition prescribes 500 cc. In all B. P. formulas the amount of water directed to be used to effect solution is equal to one-half of the volume of the finished product. 75 The several editions of the London and British pharmacopoeias, also the recent editions of all other pharmacopoeias consulted demand distilled water. 76 Such a water, which, however, no pharmacist would think of using, is the public spring water of Sheboygan, Wis. It contains per liter 0.2394 Mg. equiv. 1.358 K^COg, and 1.0832 Ca. equiv. 3.448 K^COg, or a total of 4.806 K2C03. Hence of the 13.804 KgCOg = 20.000 KHC03 used, about 9.000 K2C03 remain for the solution of the 10 gm. As2Os and the desired surplus alkalinity. 166 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters . It has been commonly assumed that the original amount of water used was reduced for the purpose of accelerating the reaction be¬ tween the acid and the alkali carbonate and thus increasing the rate of solution. Thus E. Martin77 modified the U. S. P. process by dissolving 64 grains each of arsenic trioxide and potassium bi¬ carbonate in two or three drams of water with the aid of heat. When solution was effected he added the remainder of the water. This procedure he claimed decreased the time ordinarily required to make Fowler’s solution. Gr. Hamel78 placed the arsenic trioxide and potassium carbonate, (3 grams each) in a test tube moistened the mixture with a few drops of water and applied heat until a liquid mass resulted. This he then diluted with a few mils of water and heated until solution took place, after which more water was added, up to the required volume. P. Maysse79 modified the ‘ ‘ Codex ’ ’ method by heating one gram each of arsenic trioxide and potassium carbonate with five drops of water, in a test tube, until the solution took place and then diluting up to 100 cc. In order to test the correctness of this explanation, experiments on the rate of solution in varying concentrations were performed. A.) One gram of arsenic trioxide and two grams of postassium bicarbonate (the ratio of As203 and KHC03 used in the U. S. P.), were mixed with 25 mils, 50 mils, 100 mils, and 200 mils respec¬ tively, of boiling water, and the time required to obtain a clear solution noted. The effervescence, caused by the decomposition of the bicarbonate, had a tendency to carry the arsenic trioxide up the sides of the container, hence to interfere with the action of the solvent, even though a stirrer was used and vigorously at that. To eliminate this objectionable feature the following modification was adopted. The potassium bicarbonate was dissolved in water, (20 gm. in sufficient water to make 100 mils.) and the solution boiled until no more carbon dioxide was apparently given off. This required about 30 minutes. An aliquot portion of this solution, representing the amount of potassium acid carbonate desired, was diluted with water up to a definite volume and the mixture heated to boiling. The required weight of arsenic trioxide was introduced into a test tube of suitable capacity, the boiling solution of the potassium salt poured on to this and the tube immediately im- 77 Am. Jour. Pharm., 44, p. 202 (1872.) 78 Pharm. Ztg., 61, p. 402 (1906.) 79 Bull, des sc. pharmacol. 13, p. 106 (1906); through Digest of Comments, 1906. Langenhan — The Arsenical Solutions. 167 mersed into a bath of boiling water. The mixture was constantly agitated and the time required to obtain a clear solution was re¬ corded. Three separate determinations were made for each dilu¬ tion. The results are recorded in the following table: Table I. 1 Gm. As203 to 2 Gm. KHC 03 Volume (mils) 25 50 100 Time (minutes) 1,2,2 2,3,3 2,3,3 A glance at the table reveals the fact that the differences for the several dilutions are no greater than those obtained from the same dilution, hence fall within the limits of experimental error. B.) In the next series an attempt was made to secure more satisfactory results by increasing the amounts of the chemical agents acting upon each other. Ten grams of arsenic trioxide and the equivalent 20 grams of potassium bicarbonate (as carbonate) with varying amounts of water were used. In this series one ex¬ periment only was performed with each volume of water. The results are herewith tabulated. Table II. 10 Gm. As203 to 20 Gm. KHC 03 Volume (mils) 25 50 100 200 300 400 1000 Time (minutes) 3 4 3 5 3 4 3.5 Again the results tend to disprove the assumption that, with proper conditions, the rate of solution is hastened to any appre¬ ciable extent by greater concentration. C.) A third series was made in an attempt to note the effect of the effervescence (mentioned in the preliminary experiments), when larger quantities of reagents were used. Ten grams of ar¬ senic trioxide and 20 grams of potassium bicarbonate were mixed with 25 mils, 50 mils and 100 mils of boiling water, and the time of solution determined as before. The results are again tabulated. 168 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. Table III. 10 Gm. As203 to 20 Gm. KHC 03 Volume (mils) 25 50 100 Time (minutes) 4 6.5 5 The slight increase in time is, no doubt, due principally to the removal of the arsenic trioxide from the solution by the escaping carbon dioxide. D.) In a fourth series of tests ten grams of arsenic trioxide and 11.2 grams of potassium hydroxide, the equivalent of 20 grams of potassium acid carbonate, the latter dissolved in 25 mils, 50 mils and 100 mils respectively, of boiling water, were mixed, and the time required for solution noted as above. In each case the time was not more than one minute. Apparently the arsenic trioxide dissolved as fast as it came in contact with the solvent quite ir¬ respectively of the degree of concentration of the alkaline solvent. 10.) Solution of Arsenic Trioxide. For the chemistry of the solution see Hydration of Arsenic trioxide. The formula for potassium arsenite given in the U. S. P. IX is KAs02, potassium metarsenite. Whether it is assumed that the salt exists as the metarsenite in the official solution is not made clear. Apparently writers differ as to the composition of the arsenite in the solution. L. Bullock80 speaks of the “chemically indefinite liquor arsenicalis, ” M. H. Buignet81 suggests that only part of the arsenous acid is combined with the alkali, the remainder being in simple solution. H. K. B amber8 2 concludes that a reac¬ tion takes place between potassium carbonate and arsenous acid in preparing the solution, basing his conclusions on the fact that carbon dioxide was given off during the process. This drew forth a number of comments by Redwood, Garrod, Attfield and others as to its correctness, the main criticism being that the concentrations of Bamber’s experiments were not comparable to the pharma¬ copoeia! conditions. A. F. Haselden83 refers to the controversy relating to the correctness of the title “arsenite of potash” or 80 Pharm. Jour., 10, p. 357 (1850.) 81 Jour, de Pharm. et de Chim., 59, p. 439 (1856.) 82 Pharm. Jour., 17, p. 481 (1858.) 83 Pharm. Jour., 16, p. 541 (1857.) Lange.nhan — The Arsenical Solutions. 169 “ Liquor Arsenicalis. ’ ’ 0. Olberg84 offers a formula for the solu¬ tion in which he substitutes potassium hydroxide for the potassium bicarbonate. In this solution he claims that the arsenite exists as the di-potassium-mono-hydrogen-ortho-arsenite, K2HAs03. After determining the amount of potassium arsenite formed when 5 grams each of arsenous acid and potassium carbonate were heated in the presence of water, for varying intervals, C. Lonnes85 con¬ cludes that the title “ Liquor Kali Arsenicosi” is a misnomer, and that “Liquor arsenicalis” is more correct. L. H. Bernegau86 states that the metarsenite is formed when arsenic trioxide and po¬ tassium bicarbonate are heated gently in the presence of water, (presumably as in the U. S. P. process), but that the dry salt has the formula, (according to Schmidt), of KAs02, HAs02 + H20. L. H. Bernegau87 also reports that the dry salt always contains some uncombined potassium carbonate. Stocker88 in his discussion on the P. Gr. solution points out that the amount of potassium carbonate prescribed is insufficient to saturate all of the arsenic trioxide. J. Zieghr89 disagrees with Stocker on this point as does Schenk.90 The Comment or zum D. A.-B. V .91 states that the alkalinity of Fowler’s solution is due in part to the excess of potas¬ sium carbonate present. This would also tend to agree with Zieghr towards invalidating Stocker’s claim. In an attempt to determine whether a reaction takes place, towards the formation of an arsenite in Fowler’s solution, the fol¬ lowing experiments were performed. I.) The solutions resulting from the rate of solution experiments were reserved for further observations. Twenty-four hours after their preparation a deposit of crystals was noticed in the solution representing the greatest concentration. These crystals were sep¬ arated from the mother liquor by means of a force filter and freed from adhering liquid as much as possible by pressing between bibulous paper. Both crystals and mother liquor were assayed for 84 The Apothecary, 2, p. 1 (1892.) 85 Pharm. Ztg., 39, p. 90 (1894.) 88 Am. Jour. Phar., 79, p. 553 (1907.) 87 Proc. Pa. Ph. Ass’n., 33, p. 145 (1910.) 88 Apoth. Ztg., 26, p. 335 (1911.) 89 Apoth. Ztg., 26, p. 40 (1911.) 80 Apoth. Ztg., 26, p. 379 (1911.) 91 Kommentar zum Deutchen Arzneibuch, 5 Ausgabe, 1910, p. 64 by O. Ansel- mino and Ernst Gilg. 170 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. potassium acid carbonate and arsenic trioxide, using N/l acid and N/10 iodine respectively. The following results were obtained: — Wt. Crystals 7.6 gm. 67. p. c. KHC03 4.5 p. c. As203 Liquid 24.0 gm. 39.4 p. c. K2C 03 35.5 p. C. As2Q3 II.) The experiment was repeated using 200 grams of potassium acid carbonate dissolved in 250 mils of water, and boiled for about thirty minutes. While boiling, this solution was added to 100 grams of arsenic trioxide contained in a flask and the whole im¬ mersed in a bath of boiling water until a clear solution resulted. The solution was allowed to stand over night when the crystals were collected and assayed as before. A duplicate experiment was made. The following results were obtained: — Crystals Liquid Total Crystals Liquid Total 81. gm. 96. p. c. KHC03 1.7 p. c. As203 359. gm. j 3.6 p. c. KHC 03 l 22.1 p. c. K2C03 20. p. c. As203 440. gm. 100. gm. 96.09 p. c. KHC03 2.13 p. c. As203 oofi j 2.0 p. c. KHC03 26.6 p. c. As808 330. gm. | 23a £ c KjCOj* 430. gm. III.) The results obtained so far lead to a desire for more in¬ formation and the experiment was repeated on a still larger scale. In this case four times the original quantities were used. Instead of allowing the solution to stand over night it was cooled and the crystals formed at definite temperatures were removed and exam¬ ined. The first crop of crystals was collected at 30° C., the second crop at 20° C. Then the solution was placed out doors and al¬ lowed to stand over night. The next morning the liquid in the flask registered — 10° C. A separation between the crystals and the liquid was effected as quickly as possible. At room temperature the separated crystals were apparently decomposing hence were placed in a funnel and allowed to stand twenty-four hours. By that time the crystals had lost approximately one-half of their bulk with the formation of a liquid. Each lot of crystals, likewise the Langenhan — The Arsenical Solutions. 171 liquid resulting from the decomposition of the last lot was assayed. The following results were obtained: — 105 gm. 96.09 p. c. KHC 03 1,73 p. c. Ass03 65 gm. 94.09 p. c. KHC O 3 1 .24 p. c. AssO 3 . 96.09 p. c. KHCO3 0.07 p. c. As203 j 2.00 p. c. KHCO3 12.3 p. c. As203 . I 15.2 p. c. KsC03 After the removal of the crystals at — 10° C. the mother liquor was again placed out doors. Twenty-four hours later a second lot of crystals was removed, the temperature of the liquid being the same. These like the former decomposed at room temperature. The assay results are as follows: — — 10°C Crystals 97.09 p. c. KHC03 1.62 p. c. As203 IV.) One gram of arsenic trioxide may be expected to react with 1.01, 2.02 and 3.04 grams respectively of potassium acid carbonate to form arsenites. The ratio of arsenic trioxide to potassium bicarbonate in the experiments I,, II, and III, was 1 to 2. Accord¬ ing to this there would be an excess of bicarbonate in the first com¬ bination, and this excess might be represented by the crystals that had been obtained. Hence the equivalent amount of pure92 potas¬ sium carbonate was substituted for the bicarbonate and the experi¬ ment repeated on the quarter kilo basis. The solution was allowed to stand over night, the crystals removed and assayed in the usual manner. The following results were obtained : — Crystals 35.0 gm. 96.09 p. c. KHC 03 1.5 p. c. As203 Liquid 430.6 gm. 28.00 p. c. K2C03 22.5 p, c. As20 3 Total 465.00 gm. The mother liqour after standing in an open beaker for several days deposited a second lot of crystals93 which assayed : — Crystals 10 gm. 89.1 p. c. KHC 03 2.9 p. c. As203 92 Pure potassium bicarbonate was heated over a Bunsen flame to a constant weight. The resulting residue assayed 99.8 p. c. K2C03. 93 In this lot the crystals were much larger and more of a cubical form. When powdered before assaying, a very moist powder resulted. 30° crystals 20° crystals — 10° crystals liquid 172 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. The presence of the potassium bicarbonate crystals would seem to indicate that a reaction had taken place between the arsenic tri¬ oxide and the potassium carbonate, and that the liberated carbon dioxide combined r ifh some of the carbonate to form the bi¬ carbonate. V.) One hundred and twelve grams of potassium hydroxide, the equivalent of 200 grams of potassium bicarbonate, were dissolved in 100 mils of water and to the boiling solution 100 grams of arsenic trioxide were added. Then the mixture was immersed in a bath of boiling water until a clear solution resulted. After stand¬ ing several days a solid mass94 separated out. This was assayed with the following results: — Weight 105.0, gm. 36.0 p. c. KOH 43 p. c. Asa03 The mother liquor was allowed to stand at room temperature in an open dish and several portions of a similar mass were collected at various intervals. These were assayed with the following results : — Second mass 36.5 p. c, KOH 43.0 p. c. As20 3. Third mass 19.6 p. e. KOH 21.67 p. c. As203 Fourth mass 19.07 p. c. KOH 19.9 p. c. As203 VI.) Fowler’s solution is alkaline to litmus95 due to the hy¬ drolysis of the potassium arsenite.96 In order to ascertain the alkalinity of the finished product three solutions were prepared of different composition. The first was prepared by dissolving 10 grams of arsenic trioxide and 20 grams of potassium bicarbonate in sufficient water to make 1000 grams; the second, 10 grams of potassium bicarbonate in 1000 grams of solution and the third by substituting an equivalent amount of potassium hydroxide for the bicarbonate of the first solution. These solutions were assayed for As203 and KHC03 with the following results: — 94 The mass could not be removed from the beaker without breaking the dish so it was dissolved in water. Upon adding the water to this mass a lowering of temperature was noticed while solution was taking place, differing decidedly from the action of potassium hydroxide. 05 United States Pharmacopoeia. 99 Kommentar zum Deutschen Arzneibuch , 5. Ausgabe 1910. Langenhan — The Arsenical Solutions. 173 No. 1 1.01 p. c. Asa03 2.0 p. c. KHCOs No. 2 1.01 p. c. As303 1.0 p. c. KHCOs No. 3 1.09 p. c. As203 1.9 p. c. KHCOs (computed) As the results obtained agree with the amounts used, within the limit of error,97 one of two conclusions may be offered : viz. that no reaction takes place between the two compounds; or that the hy¬ drolysis goes on during the titration until all of the arsenite is de¬ composed into acid and hydroxide. VII.) The results obtained from the assay of Fowler’s solution lead to the examination of some potassium arsenite of the market. A sample of Merck’s pure potassium arsenite was assayed with the following results : — Found Computed for K AsOa + R.6As03 As203 65. p. c. equiv. 49. p. c. As. 72.75 p. c. 55. p. c. As. KOH 45. p. c. eqniv. 31. p. c. K. 20.58 p. c. 14.3 p. c. K. HsO . 6.62 p. c. According to Merck’s Report this salt has the composition KAs02 + H3As03. Structurally it may be represented by : — /OH As —OH / As \OH VOK VIII.) For a better understanding of the analytical data, the details of the method employed may be desirable : — Ten grams of crystals or liquid were dissolved in water to make 100 mils. The alkalinity of these solutions, in ten mil titrations, was determined, first with phenolphthalein, and secondly with methyl orange. From the number of mils of N/l acid required with each indicator the amounts of K2C03 and KHCOs were com- 97 Ten mils instead of ten grams were assayed. Hence the results are not exactly on a percentage basis. 174 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. puted. To the titrated portions some sodium bicarbonate was added and the amount of As203 determined by titrating with N/10 iodine, using starch T. S. as an indicator. The computations were based on the following reactions : — I. K8C03 4- HOH = KOH + KHC03 ) >- Phenolphthalein. II. 2 KOH + H2S04 = K8S04 + HaO ) III. 2 KHCO3 + H8S04 = K3S04 -f 2 H20 + 2 C02 Methyl orange. Titrating with phenolphthalein as an indicator gives one half of the carbonate. Then adding methyl orange, the remaining half of the carbonate (as bicarbonate) and any bicarbonate originally present is determined. Hence the quantity of acid consumed by the original bicarbonate is represented by the total used with methyl orange as the indicator (after neutrality has been reached with phenolphthalein), minus that used with the first indicator. The following table reveals the computed percentage of the sev¬ eral components of possible arsenites. As. . K. . H. 0. . Total. /OH As— OH > KH3As205 55.10 14.37 1.11 29.40 99.98 As— OH NOK 272.044 As= 0 > KHAs204 59.01 15.39 0.39 25.19 99.98 As— OH \OK 254.028 /OH As— OH ^0 As— OK K2Ha As20 5 48.34 25.21 0.65 25.78 99.98. 310.136 \OK Langenhan — -The Arsenical Solutions. 175 A$- OH OK O -OK .OK K3HAs205 43.05 348.228 /OK As— OK > As — OK \OK K4 As2 O 5 386.32 38.80 /OH KH2AsO As— OH - - 5. Antennae entirely reddish or yellowish . . . . . Antennae dark, at least first two joints blackish . 6. Abdomen oval, larger yellowish species, with distinct yellowish cross-bands, femora mostly yellowish . laetus Abdomen more slender, with nearly parallel sides; darker species, cross-bands more whitish . 7. Hind coxae of male with a long, stout process below; only a slight indication of this spur in female; abdominal cross¬ bands of female attain lateral margin . chrysostomus Hind coxae without such protuberance . 8. Third and fourth segments of male mostly black-shining, spots small or indistinct; cross-bands on third segment of female do not attain lateral margin (if so only slightly), hind femora of female with long black spots . bilinearis Third and fourth segments of both sexes with interrupted lunate cross-bands which distinctly attain side margins; hind femora of female largely yellow . lunulatus 9. Face jutting forward into a sharp cone, first and second joints of antennae black, third yellowish red. . . . conostomus Face not jutting forward into a sharp cone, only moderately produced . . . . . 10. Abdomen velvet-like black, each segment with a triangular black-shining spot in the middle, and a hoary spot on each side . porcus Fluke — Syrphidae of Wisconsin. 243 Abdomen with definite yellowish or whitish cross-bands...... 11 11. Hind coxae of male with a stout process below; grey thoracic : stripes of female narrower than intervening black ones.. . chrysostomus Hind coxae without such process; grey thoracic stripes of fe¬ male broader than the black lines. ............ .distinctus 101. H. latifrons Loew. Walworth, Milwaukee, Washington, Door, Winnebago, Manitowoc, and Dane Counties. Early spring to late fall. Figures 69, 70. 102. H. similis Macq. Dane, Manitowoc, Vilas, Milwaukee, Door, and Washington Counties. Figure 71. 103. H. obsciDrus Loew. Vilas and Dunn Counties. One male and two females. July to September. Figure 72. This species has been recorded from Colorado and Wy¬ oming. Loew’s description is rather short, but the speci¬ mens agree in almost every detail. The specimen from Wyoming noted by Moodie “ agrees with the description save there is no brown ring on the hind tibiae, the abdo¬ men is more shining and some of the cross-bands are not interrupted”. Notes on the Wisconsin specimens are as follows : Male : Antennae dark reddish, almost blackish on up¬ per side of the third joint. Face with a black-shining stripe, without pollen, extending from oral margin to an¬ tennae, going around the base of the antennae and ex¬ tending quickly to a point in the front, otherwise the face covered with yellowish pollen and pile; vertex opaque black with black pile. Cheeks shining black and con¬ nected by a narrow margin with the facial stripe. Front a trifle wider than that of similis. Thorax opaque black with yellowish pile and four yellow pollinose stripes; the median ones are subinterrupted about midway by a cup- like laterad depression, the stripes then nearly fade out but suddenly broaden before reaching the scutellum, which is translucent yellow. Abdomen opaque black (slightly shining on the posterior margins of the segments) with three distinctly interrupted yellow crossbands; first seg¬ ment opaque black, lateral margins yellow; second seg¬ ment with large yellow spots separated by about one half their own width, reaching the lateral margins and joining the yellow of the first segment; spots on third segment a trifle smaller, touching the fore margins of the segment hut reaching the lateral margins by the anterior corners 244 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters. only, the black separating the spots being broader an¬ teriorly and posteriorly than midway. The band on the fifth segment smaller and not quite reaching the lateral margins, distinctly interrupted; hypopygium yellow; there is a small posterior, median, elongated, slightly red¬ dish spot on the second segment. Pile on scutellum black on disk, yellow and longer on the margin ; that of abdomen yellow or black according to ground color. Legs black with the following parts yellowish or reddish: extreme base and pre-apical spot of hind femora, base and a me¬ dian ring on the hind tibiae ; tips of the four anterior fe¬ mora, base of front tibiae, middle tibiae, and first two joints of mid-tarsi. Pile underneath the hind tarsi dis¬ tinctly ferruginous. Sixth vein only slightly sinuate. Female : Similar with the following exceptions : Front with black of vertex connecting with the shining spot at base of antennae; facial stripe scarcely reaching base of antennae. Abdominal spots a trifle smaller, fifth segment with spots similar to those on the fourth, no posterior spot on second segment. In one female the first segment is entirely black. 104. H. bruesi Graenicher. Vilas County. One female. Figure 73. Described in Bull. Wis. Nat. Hist. Soc. 8: 40. 1910. 105. H . laetus Loew. Dane, Milwaukee, Washington, Fond du Lac, Eau Claire, Pierce, and Douglas Counties. Common June to September. 106. H. chrysostomus Wied. Dane, Milwaukee, and Washington Counties. Late June to early September. Figures 74, 75. The male is easily told by the spur on the hind coxae, the female has only a slight indication of this spur but it is evident enough to distinguish the species after a little practice. Female is easily separated from the female of bilinearis by the pollinose bands on the third and fourth segments which reach the side margins. The legs of chrysostomus — female — are darker and the abdomen is slightly constricted about the middle of the second seg¬ ment, making the species easily distinguishable from the same sex of lunulatus. In fact, the constriction of the abdomen is characteristic of this species and separates it from other members of this genus occurring in Wisconsin. 107. H. bilinearis Will. Milwaukee and Dane Counties. Figures 76, 77. Caught only in May or June. Fluke — Syrphidae of Wisconsin. 245 Female: Length 10:5 mm. Antennae yellowish, slightly obscure above, face covered with yellow pollen and pile, no median stripe, pile absent on median ridge ; slightly concave below antennae and then convex to oral margin which is slightly produced, lower part of face shining black ; front black with greyish pollen below, pile black. Four broad silvery pollinose stripes on the thorax expanding so as to meet before reaching the scutellum, the lateral intermediate black stripes narrower than the me¬ dian ones. Scutellum yellow-translucent, pile yellowish or whitish. First segment of abdomen entirely silverly pollinose, second segment opaque black, shining poster¬ iorly, with a median, interrupted pollinose cross-band which expands laterally to reach the fore margin of the segment. Third and fourth segments mostly shining with whitish pollinose bands interrupted (only slightly on the fourth) and not reaching the side margins, fifth entirely white-pollinose. Fourth segment with a posterior reddish cross-band, third has posterior angles also reddish. Legs yellowish with the following dark markings: inner and outer sides of all femora with irregular spots, more pro¬ nounced on hind femora; inner side of hind tibiae; pos¬ terior tarsi and last two joints of middle tarsi. Wings hyaline. 108. H. lunulatus Meigen. Numerous specimens of this interest¬ ing species taken in Jefferson and Dane Counties. Early spring only. Figures 78, 79. 109. H. conostomus Will. Dane and Milwaukee Counties. A very common species in June and September. Figure 80. 110. H. porous Walker. One specimen from Douglas County, July, 1909. Mallota Meigen Eyes pilose; more or less of the base of the abdomen with yellow • • • . . . . . posticata Eyes bare; wholly black pilose . cimMciformis 111. M. cimbiciformis Fallen. Manitowoc, Vilas, Milwaukee, Dane, and Washington Counties. May to July. 112. M. posticata Fabr. Specimens from Dane, Milwaukee, Vilas, and Washington Counties. Triodonta Williston 113. T. curvipes Loew. Three specimens in the Milwaukee Public Museum taken in Milwaukee County. 246 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters . Teuchocnemis Osten Sacken 114. T. lit ur at us Loew. Milwaukee and Dane Counties. May. Scarce. Syritta St. Fargeau and Serville 115. S. pipiens Linn. Cosmopolitan, early spring to late fall. Figure 81. Xylota Meigen 1. Legs wholly black; hind femora much thickened . Legs not wholly black . 2. Abdomen chiefly red; the second segment with a basal black triangle; wings nearly hyaline . pigra Wholly black; wings black . chalybea 3. Front and middle legs and a large part of hind femora yellow; large species . curvipes Front legs in large part black . 4. Abdomen long, slender, with two yellow spots on second seg¬ ment in male, absent in female . angustiventris Abdomen not unusually slender . 5. Abdomen with two pairs of yellowish spots . Abdomen wholly black . 6. Arista wholly black . . . obscura Arista luteous at the base . anthreas 7. Hind femora much thickened; smaller species . fraudulosa Hind femora moderately thickened . 8. Spots on second and third segments of the abdomen distinctly separated by a broad black line . ejuncida Line separating the abdominal spots nearly obsolete. subfasciata 2 3 4 5 7 6 8 116. X. angustiventris Loew. Milwaukee and Dane Counties. May to late summer. Figure 82. Common in woods. 117. X. anthreas Walker. One female from Douglas County. 118. X. chalybea Wied. Milwaukee and Dane Counties. 119. X. curvipes Loew. One male from Vilas County. 120. X. ejuncida Say. Numerous specimens from Manitowoc, Vilas, Milwaukee, Marathon, Douglas, Burnett, Polk, Door, St. Croix, Washington, Waushara, and Dane Coun¬ ties. Late summer. 121. X. fraudulosa Loew. St. Croix, Pierce, Dane, Milwaukee, Washington, and Douglas Counties. 122. X. obscura Loew. One specimen, Sheboygan County. 123. X. pigra Fabr. One female, July, 1912, from Vilas County. 124. X. subfasciata Loew. One male, August 2, 1918, from Dane County. Figure 83. Fluke — Syrphidae of Wisconsin . 247 Male: Antennae slightly reddish beneath the base of the third joint. Face and frontal triangle black with white pollen. Thorax and scutellum shining bronze. First segment of abdomen mostly shining black; second and third segments mostly yellow, base of second with an opaque black cross-band with a triangular projection into the yellow portion, continued as a light brown median line to the narrow brownish posterior band; third segment with no anterior dark band but with an indistinct brown posterior band covering about one third of the segment; there is also a slight indication of a median dark line; fourth and fifth segments shining black. Femora black except at extreme tips; tibiae and first three joints of tarsi light yellow in front legs; tibiae and first two joints of middle legs light brownish; hind tibiae and tarsi mostly dark. A dense patch of short white hair on hind coxae, less on the other coxae ; distinct black small spines at tip of middle tibiae. “ Coxal” spur quite prominent, tibial spur rounded. Squamae and halteres light yellow. Brachypalpus Macquart 125. B. frontosus Loew. Two males from Dane County. May. Crioprora Osten Sacken 126. O. cyanogaster Loew. One specimen, Milwaukee County. Criorhina Meigen 'Face produced downwards and forwards; males dichoptic; ground color black, thickly pilose . . . sub-genus (Criorhina) Face produced downwards, convex below, males holoptic, ground color with yellow markings, moderately pilose . . . . subgenus Cynorhina Face produced downwards, convex below; eyes dichoptic, moder¬ ately pilose, in large part yellow . sub-genus Somula Cynorhina Williston Face with a median black stripe; second segment of the abdomen on the sides, continued more narrowly on the third, yellow. . . . . badia Face yellow, without a black median stripe; abdomen black, except a large part of the fourth and the whole of the fifth segments, which are bright orange yellow . . . . analis 248 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. 127. C. analis Macq. Dane and Milwaukee Counties. Rare. 128. C. ~badia Walker. Milwaukee County. 129. Somula decora Macq. Several specimens from Milwaukee and Dane Counties. Figure 84. Milesia Latreille 130. M. virginiensis Drury. Milwaukee County only. Spilomyia Meigen 1. Second joint of antennae much longer than the first; second segment of the abdomen with a broad, arcuate yellow band, the third and fourth with a slender median inter¬ rupted one . . . . quadrifasciata Second joint of the antennae not much longer than the first; abdomen not so marked . . . 2 2. Abdomen yellow; first segment, except the lateral angles, black, each of the following segments with two narrow black bands, the one on the anterior margin entire, the others interrupted . hamifera Abdomen black with yellow cross-bands . 3 3. First and second abdominal segments wholly black, third with a posterior cross-band, fourth with two, the anterior one interrupted; abdomen broadly oval . fusca First segment with a yellow side spot, the following each with two cross-bands . longicornis S. fusca Loew. Specimens from Milwaukee, Ozaukee, Bur¬ nett, Washington, and Vilas Counties. Late summer. Figure 85. S. hamifera Loew. One specimen, Milwaukee County. S. longicornis Loew. Milwaukee, Washington, Dane, and Manitowoc Counties. Late summer and early fall. S. quadrifasciata Say. Taken in Milwaukee, Washington, Dane, and Dunn Counties. August and September. Fig¬ ure 86. I have specimens varying from 12 mm. to 16 and 17 mm. in length. Temnostoma St. Fargeau and Serville Abdomen with three or four pollinose cross-bands of nearly equal width . . . bombylans Abdomen broadly oval, with more than four cross-bands, of unequal width; all, or at least the front, femora broadly black, .aequalis 131. 132. 133. 134. Fluke — Syrphidae of Wisconsin. 249 135. T. aequalis Loew. Specimens taken in Milwaukee, Manito¬ woc, Douglas, and Sheboygan Counties. 136. T. bombylans Fabr. Milwaukee, Washington, Douglas, and Manitowoc Counties. Sphiximorpha Bondani 137. S. dbhreviata Loew. Only a few specimens taken in Dane, Milwaukee, and Washington Counties. Brief Bibliography The following publications are given mainly to indicate those that have been of the most help in the preparation of this paper. Aldrich, J. M. 1905. A catalogue of North American Diptera. Smithsonian Miscell. Coll. no. 1444. Barth, G. P. 1907. The occurrence of the Syrphid fly Condidea lata Coq. in Wisconsin. Bull. Wis. Nat. Hist. Soc. 5: 161. Coquillett, D. W. 1900. Diptera of the Harriman Alaska Exposition. Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci. 11: 389-464. - . 1904. Notes on the Syrphid fly Pipiza radicum Walsh and Riley. Proc. Entom. Soc. Wash. 6: 200. — . 1907. New genera and species of Diptera. Canad. Entom. 39: 75. Forbes, S. A. 1905. Corn feeding Syrphus fly. Rept. Entom. Ill., 23: 162-163. Graenicher, S. 1900. Syrphidae of Milwaukee County. Bull. Wis. Nat. Hist. Soc., July, 167-177. ; - . 1910. A preliminary list of the flies of Wisconsin belonging to the Families Bombyliidae, Syrphidae, and Conopidae. Bull. Wis. Nat. Hist. Soc. 8: 3 2-43. Lists 92 species. - - . 1910. Some rare Diptera. Canad. Entom. 42: 28-29. Hunter, W. D. 1896. A contribution to the knowledge of North American Syrphidae. I. Canad. Entom. 28: 87-101. - . 1896. A summary of the genus Chilosia Meigen in North America, with descriptions of new species. Canad. Entom. 28: 227-233. — — . 1897. A contribution to the knowledge of North American Syrphidae. II. Canad. Entom. 29: 121-144. Jones, P. R. 1907. Notes on some little known North American Syrphidae. Entom. News 18: 238—241. - . 1907. A preliminary list of Nebraska Syrphidae with descrip¬ tions of new species. Jour. N. Y. Entom. Soc. 15: 87-100. Johnson, C. W. 1907. Some North American Syrphidae. Psyche 14: 75-80. 250 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. - . 1910. Some additions to Dipteran fauna of New England. Psyche 17: 229-231. — — . 1916. On the Criorhinja< intersistens Walker and an allied spe¬ cies. Entom. News 24: 293-5. - . 1916. Some New England Syrphidae. Psyche 23: 75. Metcalf, C. la. 1913. Syrphidae of Ohio. Ohio Biol. Surv. J: no. 1. - . 1916. Syrphidae of Maine. Maine Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 253. - . 1917. Syrphidae of Maine. Maine Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull 263. Moodie, R. L. 1905. A new Milesia from Arizona with notes on some Wyoming Syrphidae. Entom. News 16: 138-143. Osbnm, R. C. 1910. Studies on Syrphidae. I. Syrphus arcuatus Fall, and a related new species. Jour. N. Y. Entom. Soc. 18: 55. - . 1915. Studies on Syrphidae. IV. Species of Eristalis new to America with notes on others. Jour. N. Y. Entom. Soc. 23: 139— 145. Robertson, C. 1901. Some new Diptera. Canad. Entom. 33: 284. Verrall, G. H. 19 01. British flies. Vol. VIII. London. Indispens¬ able in a thorough study of the family. Walton, W. R. 1911. Notes on Pennsylvanian Diptera, with two new species of Syrphidae. Entom. News 22: 318—320. Williston, S. W. 188 6. .Synopsis of the North American Syrphidae. U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 31. This work is the basis of all North American studies of Syrphidae. I am always using it; most of the keys in this paper are based on those of Williston’s. - . 1908. Manual of North American Diptera, 3rd edition. Syr¬ phidae on pages 246—260. I have quoted almost verbatim from this work for the table of genera given above. TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. XX PLATE V FLUKE— SYRPHIDAE Fluke — Syrphidae of Wisconsin. 251 Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. .6. Fig. 7. Fig. 8. Fig. 9. Fig. 10. Fig. 11. Fig. 12. Fig. 13. Fig. 14. Fig. 15. Fig. 16. Fig. 17. Fig. 18. Fig. 19. Fig. 20. Fig. j21. Fig. 22. Fig. 23. Fig. 24. Fig. 25. Fig. 26. Fig. 27. Fig. 28. Fig. 29. Fig. 30. Fig. 31. Fig. 32. Fig. 33. Fig. 34. Fig. 35. Fig. 36. 'Fig. 37. Fig. 38. Fig. 39. Fig. 40. Fig. 41. Fig. 42. Fig. 43. Fig. 44. EXPLANATION OF PLATES PLATE V Microdon tristis : Scutellum (redrawn after Metcalf). M. tristis: antenna (redrawn after Metcalf). M. globosus: antenna (after Williston). Chrysotoxum pubescens : head of female. Chrysogaster nigripes: antenna. G. nitida: wing. G. nitida : antenna. G. pictipennis : wing. G. pictipeinnis : head of female. C. pulchella: wing. G. pulchella: head of female. Pipiza calcar ata: hind leg, a. “coxal process.” P. salax? : head of male. P. radicum ; antenna. P. pisticoides: antenna. Paragus bicolor: wing. P. bicolor: antenna. P. tibialis : antenna. P. tibialis: wing. Ghilosia prima: face of male. G , cyanescens : face of male. Baccha lemur: side of face of male. B. fascipennis Wied.: abdomen of female. Pyrophaena granditarsis : abdomen of female. P. granditarsis : front tibia and tarsi of male. P. rosarum var. : abdomen of male. Platychirus immarginatus : front leg of male. P. peltatus: front leg of male. P. perpallidus: front leg of male. P. quadratus: middle leg of male. P. scambus: front leg of male. P. species?: front leg of male. P. species?: middle leg of male. Melanostoma obscurum: face of male. M. angpistatum: abdomen of female. M. mellinum: abdomen of female. Syrphus fisherii: 1st and second segments of abdomen of female. S. fisherii: 1st and second segments of abdomen of male. 5. sp. no. 1: profile of face of male. 6. arcuatus : wing. S. perplexus : wing. $. sp. no. 2 : abdomen of male. S. nitens: antenna. S. knabi : antenna. 252 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters. fig. 45. Fig. 46. Fig. 47. Fig. 48. Fig. 49. Fig. 50. iFig. 51. Fig. 52. Fig. 53. Fig. 54. Fig. 55. Fig. 56. Fig. 57. Fig. 58. Fig. 59. Fig. .60. Fig. 61. Fig. 62. Fig. 63. Fig. 64. Fig. 65. Fig. 66. Fig. 67. Fig. 68. Fig. 69. Fig. 70. Fig. 71. FIG. 72. Fig. 73. Fig. 74. Fig. 75. Fig. 76. Fig. 77. Fig. 78. Fig. 79. Fig. 80. Fig. 81. Fig. 82. Fig. 83. Fig. 84. Fig. 85. Fig. 86. PLATE VI Syrphus xanthostomus : abdomen of female. Xantho gramma aenea: antenna of female. X. imarginata: antenna of female. X. fragila n. sp.: profile of male. X. fragila: abdomen of female. Mesogramma geminata: hind leg of male. M. geminata: hind leg of female M. geminata: wing of male. M. marginata : wing of female. M. marginata: hind leg of male. M. marginata: hind leg of female. Sphaerophoria cylindrica: profile of head and thorax of male. S. scripta: tip of abdomen of male from side. Rhyngia nasica: head of female. Brachyopa notata: head of female. Volucella evecta: antenna. Eristalis tenax: antenna. E. meigenii: middle tibia and tarsus. E. meigenii : wing. E. arhustorum: abdomen of male, showing yellow areas (white portion) opaque bands (solid black) and shining portions (stippled area). E. art)ustorum: female. E. arbustorum: middle tibia and tarsus. E. flavipes: antenna. Tropidia quadrata: antenna. Helophilus latifrons: antenna. H. latifrons: head of male from above. H. similis: head of male from above. H. ot)seurus: head of male. H. hruesi: head of female. H. chrysostomus : hind leg of male. H. chrysostomus: abdomen of female. H. Mlinearis: abdomen of male. H. bilinearis: abdomen of female. H. lunulatus: head of male. H. lunulatus: abdomen of male. H. conostomus : head of male. Syritta pipiens : hind leg. Xylota angustiventris : face of female. X. suhfasciata: abdomen of male. Somula decora: face of male. Spilomyia fusca: antenna. S. quadrifasciata : antenna. TRANS. WIS. ACAD,, VOL. XX PLATE VI FLUKE— -SYRPHIDJ3 Fluke — Syrphidae of Wisconsin. 253 APPENDIX 138: Microdon fuscipennis. Macq. Three specimens from Door County; August, 1919 and August, 1920. CMlosia comosa Loew. I am mistaken in the identification of this specimen; it should be C. prima Hunter. 139: Syrphus venustus Meigen. Two females caught in the woods along Lake Michigan shore line in Door County. June 20, 1921. 140: Helophilus distinctus Williston. Washington and Milwaukee Coun¬ ties. 141: Xylota vecors O. S. June 17, 1921, Door County. 142: Temnostoma alternans Loew. Two specimens, male and female, Manitowoc County. SOME EXPERIMENTS WITH THE LARVA OF THE BEE- MOTH, GALLERIA MELLONELLA L Joy E. Andrews The following is an account of some experiments with the wax- worm, or bee-moth. The effects of different degrees of tempera¬ ture on the length of the larval life, of light on both larvae and imago, and of different kinds of food on the larvae were tried. These experiments were carried out in the zoological laboratory of the University of Wisconsin. As a basis for the work, an account of the moth by F. B. Pad- dock of the Texas Experiment Station1 was used. The life his¬ tory of the moth as given by him was made use of, but the habits of the moths observed differed somewhat from those noted by Paddock. He says that “moths emerge entirely at night”, name¬ ly, during the early part of the evening; but in my work it was found that while this is usually true, yet emergence does occur during the day. Cases of emergence have been noted both in the morning and in the afternoon. Consequently a difference was found in the mating of the moths, which Paddock says takes place at night. Since mating occurs soon after emergence, I have ob¬ served moths to mate in the daytime as well as at night. These differences may have resulted from the artificial conditions under which fhe moths were reared. The constant-temperature rooms in which the larvae were kept were heated by electric lights, with the result that the rooms were light at all times, although the jars containing the moths were shielded from the direct light by pieces of paper. Another point of difference was in the shape of the egg. Pad- dock says that the eggs are elliptical, but I have found them to be also spherical and pear-shaped. The shape of the eggs seemed to depend largely upon the place where they were laid: they 1 Paddock, F. B. The life history and control of the bee-moth or wax-worm. Investigations Pertaining to Texas Bee-Keeping. 1913. 255 256 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters. might be crowded into crevices, in the comb or in boards, and flattened on one, two, or three sides. The eggs of one female might show all these variations. Effect of Temperature In trying the effect of temperature on the length of the life history of G. mellonella L., four different temperatures were used: namely, room temperature (24°C.), 29°C., 37°C., and 45°C. Boom temperature. Eggs laid from September 23 to September 28, 1918, hatched about October 23, and the larvae were placed in glass finger bowls and small homeopathic vials containing brood wax. The dishes were left in the laboratory, where the tempera¬ ture was about 24° C. The larvae grew very slowly and were rather inactive during the winter months. On February 13, 1917, they averaged 6.5 mm. in length; on June 4, 1917, the average length was 10 mm., or about one-third the mature length. As a result of their slow growth, only part of a generation, the egg stage, could be used in comparing their life history with that of the larvae kept at higher temperatures. In the experiment not less than 20 larvae were used. From September 23, 1916, to June 4, 1917, only part of a life cycle was completed, the egg stage and part of the larval life. 29° C. A temperature of 29 °C. was maintained in a constant- temperature compartment by using a 16 candle power carbon elec¬ tric light globe.2 On March 10, 1917, half-grown larvae were placed in several large crystallizing dishes in which was a brood comb for food ; these dishes were placed in the constant temperature compart¬ ment. A large evaporating dish filled with water was placed in the compartment to keep the atmosphere moist. The larvae grew rapidly and were very active. Soon after pupation occurred, moths of average size hatched, first males and then females. Mat¬ ing took place, and from the eggs laid, larvae hatched. The aver¬ age life of the moths was five days for females, seven days for males. From this point on, the moths went through their life cycle rapidly; from March 10 to May 29, 1917, when the last ob¬ servation was made, there had been three generations. The num¬ ber of larvae and moths in each generation was very large, being not less than five hundred. 2 The temperatures of 29°, 37°, and 45° C. were obtained in the three com¬ partments respectively by experimenting with electric light globes of different powers until those continuously giving the desired temperature were procured. Andrews — Experiments with Larva of the Bee Moth. 257 37° C. In a second const ant-temperature compartment the tem¬ perature of 37° was obtained by using a 40- watt and a 60- watt Mazda light. Newly hatched larvae were put in tall glass jars containing brood comb and placed in this constant temperature compartment on October 28, 1916. They seemed to be normal and throve well. Pupation took place, the moths emerged, mating occurred, and eggs were laid. About fifty per cent, of the eggs did not hatch, but seemed dried up by the heat; the rest hatched into normal larvae. The length of life of the moths was about four days for females and six days for males. The females sometimes emerged before the males, a condition which was never found to obtain among the moths kept at 29 °C. From the time when the larvae were put in the incubator until May 29, 1917, the life cycle had been completed five times. At no time during the experiment were there less than two hundred and fifty larvae in our dishes. At each instance of egg-laying under this temperature, the same difficulty of the eggs not hatching was found. The heat did not seem to affect the young larvae after they had hatched. 45° G. In the third constant-temperature compartment the de¬ gree of temperature desired was produced by using two Mazda globes of 60 watts each, and one of 40 watts. On March 10, 1917, nearly mature larvae were put in glass jars containing brood comb, and the latter were placed in this compartment. A dish of water was also put in the incubator. At the end of forty- eight hours, the larvae appeared healthy and were spinning co¬ coons. A day later they seemed to be dying, and ninety-six hours after they were first put in, the larvae were all dead. About twenty-five were used for the experiment. It did not seem neces¬ sary to repeat it, because if the older larvae, which are hardier than moths, young larvae, or eggs, could not withstand a tempe¬ rature of 45°C., the other forms surely could not. Table 1 gives the result of the experiments. 17— S. A. L. 258 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. Table 1. — The Effect of Temperature on the Length of Life History of G. mellonella L. (In each case only the average number of days is given.) Facts Considered Constant Temperature Room Tem¬ perature (24°C.) 29°C. 37°C. Length of Egg Stage . 25 days . 5 days . 7.33+ days 35.33+ days 8,6 days 2.5 days 53.76+ days Length of Larval Life . . . 36 days . Length of Pupal Life . . 5.66+ days .. . 1.66+ days ... 42.33+ days.. Time from Emergences of Moths to Oviposi- tion. . . Total . * Larvae at room temperature hatched October 19 to 23, 1916, had not com¬ pleted their larval life on June 2, 1917. The effect of heat on the color of the moths was not especially marked, and there was considerable variation between individual moths in the same generation, but other things being equal (such as amount of moisture and food), the moths kept at 37° tended to be darker in color than those kept at 29 °C. The latter were more often of a light tan color, while the former were dark gray tinged with brown. Effect of Light The larvae of Galleria mellonella respond differently to light stimuli at different stages in their development. When they are newly hatched, they seem to be neither positively nor negatively phototropic. For experimentation with these young larvae a 40- watt Mazda electric light bulb was used. When the rays of the bulb were directed upon the larvae which had been kept in the dark, they continued their wandering, making no effort to seek the dark. If they did happen to run out of the circle of light, they did not turn back into it. Sunlight also was found neither to repel nor to attract them. It is probable, however, that they are irritated by light, because they seem to move faster and in a more aimless fashion when exposed to light rays. The larvae remain thus unresponsive to light stimuli until they are 2 to 5 mm. in length, when they become negatively photo¬ tropic. On being put under a 40-watt Mazda globe they at once Andrews — Experiments with Larva of the Bee Moth. 259 crawled from the light and tried to find a dark hiding place. This was true in the case of stimuli of varying intensities, although they are less sensitive to weaker stimuli. From the time they were 5 mm. long the larvae were found to be affected more and more by light rays. When taken out of the comb, placed on the table, and the light of a 40-watt Mazda globe turned on them, the older larvae invariably crawled into some dark crevice. Sunlight affected them in the same manner. When comb containing lar¬ vae was put in the sunlight or under the 40-watt globe, the lar¬ vae which were on top scurried through their tunnels to the bot¬ tom of the comb. Light stimuli, both artificial and sunlight, did not affect the pupae at all. They always responded, however, to mechanical stimuli, such as jarring or the touch of a dissecting needle, by moving their abdomens. Newly emerged moths were not found to be very sensitive to light, but those several days old, especially females which were ovipositing, responded to light and would fly up from their nest¬ ing places in the dishes on being put into sunlight or into the light from an electric globe. Sunlight seemed to disturb them more than artificial light. Feeding Experiments Problems in the feeding of Galleria mellonella were undertaken ; bee-bread, dead moths, dead bees, and larvae being used for food as well as brood comb. PoUen. Since it has been held that the larvae of Galleria mel¬ lonella eat beeswax for the pollen it contains and derive no nour¬ ishment from the wax itself, the question was raised as to whether the larvae would mature on bee-bread alone. In most of the brood-comb used, a great many of the cells were partly filled with tightly packed bee-bread, the lumps of which were removed from the cells, and placed in Petri dishes with sev¬ eral larvae a day or two old; the dishes were placed in the incu¬ bator at 37 °C. All these larvae died. Then the effect of mash¬ ing up the bee-bread was tried, and other young larvae were put in the dish with the same result as before. Finally it was dis¬ covered that part of the bee-bread was stale ; after that it was cut into slices and only the freshest portion was used. Upon the bee- bread prepared in this manner, three larvae out of the hundred and one used in the experiment were raised. They acted nor- 260 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters. mally, built tunnels of pieces of bee-bread and their silk, and grew rapidly. The average length of the life history from the newly hatched larva to the moth was thirty-nine days. Two of the moths were males and one a female. Dead Bees. A similar experiment with dead bees was tried, but none of the young larvae lived. Both whole and crushed bees were placed in the dish, and in spite of the abundance of food, all the larvae died. Larvae ,. If larvae were kept in a crowded condition, it was noticed that the nearly mature larvae would eat pupae in the cocoons, as soon as pupation had taken place. It was once noted that when a larva which had been accidentally injured was put back into the dish it was immediately eaten by the others. Hence the idea arose of ascertaining whether larvae were so cannibal¬ istic that they could be raised on animal food alone. Seventeen larvae, ranging in size from 10 to 13 mm., were placed in a Stender dish, and a lacerated larva was placed in the same dish. The dish was then placed in the constant-tempera¬ ture room at 37 °C. In a short time the larvae began to eat the in¬ jured one, which, however attempted to defend itself. They finally consumed all of the larva except the head and the brown chitinous part of the first thoracic segment. Then the larvae wandered aimlessly about the dish and after two or three hours were raven¬ ously hungry. At the end of twenty-four hours the larvae were observed again, and only fourteen were left. The heads of the devoured larvae were lying with the refuse in the bottom of the dish. Two days later twelve larvae remained, the following day but ten. At the end of six days only two larvae were to be found; one of these was dead, while the other was in a small co¬ coon made of excrement, the heads and half-eaten bodies of lar¬ vae, and silk. The larva did not pupate but seemed to dry up in the act of transforming into a pupa. At another time thirty-six larvae were equally divided between two Stender dishes and the latter were placed in the constant- temperature room. The following day no decrease in number was noticed in either dish, but the larvae were very restless and showed a tendency to bite each other. A day later only etight re¬ mained in one dish and eleven in the other. After four days more there were two larvae in one dish and one in the other. These spun cocoons and pupated, but the pupae dried up and did not hatch. Andrews — Experiments with Larva of the Bee Moth. 261 Another attempt was made to raise larvae on animal food. Six¬ teen larvae, most of them 6 mm. long but a few 12 mm. in length, were placed in a Stender dish which was put in the constant- temperature compartment at 37° C. At the end of nine days it was found that two of the largest larvae were left, one of these was dead, and the other had pupated. Six days later a moth emerged from the cocoon; it was a male, rather small and very light in color. This male was functional, mating with an un¬ fertilized female taken from another lot of moths. Dead Moths. One day in cleaning out a dish which contained larvae about one fourth grown, several dead moths were found having young larvae in them apparently living on the dead tissues of the moths. The bodies of over one half of the other moths ex¬ amined were mere shells, all the interior portion having been eaten out. To ascertain whether larvae could be raised on this food alone, twelve young larvae, two or three days old, were placed in a Petri dish with a dozen dead moths, and the dish placed in the incubator at 37° C. All these larvae died within forty-eight hours. The experiment was tried again, using fifteen larvae and the same dish and moths, with the same result. Finally ten larvae were placed in the dish with fresh moths; of these three larvae lived: and seemed to thrive. They did not grow to be very large and at the end of thirty days spun cocoons and pupated, being then about J4 or % of an inch long. Unfortunately the moths did not hatch; hence it was not known whether larvae fed on dead moths would produce sexually mature moths or not. The experiment has been tried a number of times since, but the larvae always died within 48 hours.3 Zoological Laboratories, University of Wisconsin 3 Professor W. S. Marshall tells me that he has allowed a number of moths to remain in a dish until they were all dead. An examination of these dead moths showed that egg's had been laid upon the body of many of them and generally concealed between the wings and the body. THE LENGTH OF LIFE OF THE LARVA OF THE WAX MOTH, GALLERIA MELLONELLA L, IN ITS DIFFERENT STADIA Ruth W. Chase The work carried on with the wax moth, Galleria mellonella, was done entirely in the zoological laboratory of the University of Wisconsin, beginning with the first of October, 1916, and con¬ tinuing into the following May. The regular food used for the larvae was the brood-comb; some of it dry and pollen-filled, and some of it moist with honey. An excess of honey in the comb caused the death of several larvae, but on the other hand, young larvae did not thrive in too dry a comb ; so a mixture was neces¬ sary. Great difficulties were experienced in keeping the young larvae alive when separated for experimentation from their nor¬ mal habitat, either because their tender skins could not endure handling, or because the food was too coarse for them at this age, or because some conditions of their surroundings were unfavor¬ able. Therefore, many different plans had to be tried, for suc¬ cessful separation in the early stages was the chief factor in the study of the life history. The length of the larval, pupal, and adult life being known through Paddock’s work1, the object was to obtain knowledge of ecdyses and, under these conditions, of the length of each stadium. Laboratory conditions were not suited to the life of the moth. Experiment showed that temperatures of 20° to 22° C. in winter did not result in normal life histories. The young larvae, while feeding, grew but little, remaining extremely small for months, and the time taken for the eggs to hatch was longer than that given by Paddock; thus a change of conditions was found neces¬ sary. In December moths were therefore put into a constant- temperature compartment at 35° C. (93° F.), which for at least 1 Paddock, P. B. Life history and control of the wax moth or bee moth. Texas Agr. Exp. Sta., Bull. 155. 1913. 263 264 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. an hour a day, and often longer, by opening tbe door, was cooled to a considerably lower temperature. The length of the lives of the moths was at once greatly shortened, and they came more nearly to what Paddock considered normal growth and develop¬ ment. In this compartment the air was kept moist with stand¬ ing water, and the heat was regulated by a thermostat. Artificial conditions of darkness were in part supplied by paper coverings about the closed dishes in which the larvae were kept. Food experiments were also made. At first in the work in the laboratory, before temperature regulation was resorted to, bits of dry comb were used. The larvae were, however, usually con¬ cealed by boring into it out of sight, and digging them out was often fatal. Pieces of wax pressed hard and thin were used in¬ stead, but seemed to offer too great resistance to larval attacks. Finally, for the second and successful attempt to raise the lar¬ vae in the constant temperature compartment, the wax of the comb was chopped up, mixed with bee bread, soft dead moths, and honey, and kneaded into a small loaf, which was allowed to dry out a little and from which thin slices were cut to supply the larvae with food. This proved the most successful method. When about half grown, they were put on a diet of brood comb which they then had no difficulty in eating. It was noticeable that the newly hatched larvae, when allowed to remain together, first se¬ lected for food the dead bodies of the moths, later feeding on the comb. Many schemes for housing • the larvae were tried and found ineffective. The most satisfactory quarters in which one to six of them could live together proved to be thick glass slides with a deep hollow center which could be closed with cover slips held in place by a thin film of vaseline. The larvae kept in this way were easily accessible and could be placed for observation under the binocular microscope. The problem of marking larvae without killing them was the most difficult of all. While, after careful watching, it seems cer¬ tain that the larvae do not ordinarily eat their exuvia, which were found at all stages of development after ecdyses, yet these could not be relied on to show each molt. It was necessary to mark the larvae with a substance which would dry quickly and not easily rub off, with a brush which would not injure them. The most successful brush was a bird’s feather cut to a fine point, though single hairs were first tried. India ink was easily rubbed Num¬ ber Date of Hatching First Ecdysis 1 Mar. 3 Mar. 9 2 Mar. 5 Mar. 11 3 Mar. 30 Apr. 4 4 Mar. 31 Apr. 4 5 Mar. 30 Apr. 3 6 Mar 3 Apr. 3 7 Mar. 31 Apr. 4 8 Mar. 31 Apr. 4 9 Mar. 31 Apr. 4 10 Apr. 4 Apr. 8 11 Apr. 3 Apr. 7 12 Apr. 3 Apr. 7 13 Apr. 3 Apr. 7 14 Apr. 3 Apr. 7 15 Apr. 4 Apr. 8 16 Apr. 4 Apr. 7 17 Apr. 4 Apr. 7 18 Apr. 4 Apr. 8 Table 1. Life histories at 35° C. Num¬ ber Date of Hatching First Eedysis Second Eedysis Third Eedysis Fourth Eedysis Fifth Eedysis Sixth Eedysis Seven th Eedysis Eighth Eedysis Ninth Eedysis Tenth Eedysis Sex Total No. of days 1 Mar. 3 Mar. 9 Mar. 11 Mar. 15 Mar. 18 Mar. 20 Mar. 23 Mar. 25 Mar. 28 Pupated Apr. 4 Emerged Apr. 11 Male 39 2 Mar. 6 Mar. 11 Mar. 16 Mar. 20 Mar. 23 Mar. 24 Mar. 27 Mar. 29 Apr. 1 Pupated Apr. 6 Emerged Apr. 15 Male 41 3 Mar. 30 Apr. 4 Apr. 8 Apr. 12 Apr. 14 Apr. 15 Apr. 18 Apr. 21 Apr. 25 Pupated May 5 Emerged May 12 Male 43 4 Mar. 31 Apr. 4 Apr. 8 Apr. 13 Apr. 15 Apr. 17 Apr. 26 May 1 May 5 Pupated May 17 Emerged May 24 Female 64 5 Mar. 30 Apr. 3 Apr. 8 Apr. 10 Apr. 12 Apr. 14 Apr. 18 Pupated Apr. 25 Emerged May 4 Female 35 6 Mar 3 Apr. 3 Apr. 6 Apr. 8 Apr. 11 Apr. 13 Apr. 15 Apr. 18 Apr. 22 Pupated Apr. 27 Emerged May 5 Male 36 7 Mar. 31 Apr. 4 Apr. 6 Apr. 8 Apr. 10 Apr. 12 Apr. 14 Apr. 18 Pupated Apr. 25 Emerged May 2 Male 32 8 Mar. 31 Apr. 4 Apr. 6 Apr. 8 Apr. 10 Apr. 12 Apr. 15 Apr. 9 Pupateed Apr. 29 Emerged May 6 Male 36 9 Mar. 31 Apr. 4 Apr. 10 Apr. 12 Apr. 14 Apr. 15 Apr. 19 Pupated Apr. 26 Emerged May 5 Male 35 10 Apr. 4 Apr. 8 Apr. 12 Apr. 14 Apr. 17 Apr. 18 Apr. 20 Apr. 24 Apr. 28 Pupated May 6 Emerged May 13 Male 39 11 Apr. 3 Apr. 7 Apr. 12 Apr. 14 Apr. 16 Apr. 18 Apr. 21 Apr. 24 Pupated May 2 Emerged May 9 Female 36 12 Apr. 3 Apr. 7 Apr. 8 Apr. 12 Apr. 14 Apr. 15 Apr. 19 Apr. 22 Pupated Apr. 29 Emerged May 6 Male 33 13 Apr. 3 Apr. 7 Apr. 8 Apr. 12 Apr. 14 Apr. 15 Apr. 19 Apr. 22 Pupated Apr. 30 Emerged May 6 Female 33 14 Apr. 3 Apr. 7 Apr. 10 Apr. 13 Apr. 15 Apr. 17 Apr. 19 Apr. 22 Apr. 25 Pupated May 4 Emerged May 12 Female 39 15 Apr. 4 Apr. 8 Apr. 12 Apr. 14 Apr. 17 Apr. 20 Apr. 22 Apr. 25 Pupated May 4 Emerged May 11 Male 37 16 Apr. 4 Apr. 7 Apr. 8 Apr. 10 Apr. 12 Apr. 15 Apr. 17 Apr. 20 Apr. 24 Pupated Apr. 30 Emerged May 6 Male 32 17 Apr. 4 Apr. 7 Apr. 8 Apr. 11 Apr. 13 Apr. 15 Apr. 17 Apr. 20 Apr_22 Pupated Apr. 30 Emerged May 8 Female 34 18 Apr. 4 Apr. 8 Apr. 11 Apr. 13 Apr. 15 Apr. 17 Apr. 21 Apr. 24 Pupated May 1 Emerged May 7 Male 33 Chase— Length of Life of the Larva of the Wax Moth. 265 from partly grown larvae, and oil paint and colored balsam did not dry quickly enough. Finally two satisfactory solutions were found: the one, a wood-alcohol solution of shellac colored with gentian violet, safranin, methyl green, or other aniline dye; the other, a water solution of gum arabic colored with the same dyes. The earliest larvae successfully to complete their life history were marked with the first solution. On the smallest larvae, the gen¬ tian violet, turning to a maroon color when used, was found most satisfactory, but for the older and darker larvae a bright safranin was more conspicuous. Experimentation with a spray or vaporizer, which would obviate the necessity of so much hand¬ ling of the larvae, was then tried. In this gum arabic was used. After some practicing, it was found easy to mark the tiny newly hatched larvae, transferring them with a soft camel’s hair brush from their receptacles to a cover slip, spray them, and put them into a slide. This method was used only for the first instar, the rest having to be marked by brush, and it had about the same percentage of success as the other. It was found that eggs in masses gave a larger percentage of larvae than if placed singly, and they were therefore allowed to remain in masses and the larvae were separated. The most suc¬ cessful method of rearing them was to put two to six in the same compartment. In the last experiments three or four individuals from one brood of larvae were marked with different colors and put together in a slide. The survivors, when old enough, were then separated. From about a hundred marked in the last of February, four lived to complete their life histories as shown in table 1. A later attempt with the spray on another group was a complete failure. The last trial was made with about fifty lar¬ vae, using slides which had been used before and were not cleaned out, and then putting from one to six larvae, all marked alike with vaporizer or brush, into one slide. This was the most suc¬ cessful. The larvae after the first ecdysis had, of course, to be separated, and this resulted in some irregularities. Tables 1 and 2 show in tabulated form the results of all the life-history experi¬ ments. Table 1 contains the records of the larval ecdyses. The ma¬ jority of the life histories show either eight or nine ecdyses, al¬ though two, as far as could be discovered, had only seven. The number of ecdyses and the length of larval and pupal life seem to bear no relation to the sex of the moth, for both sexes were 266 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. represented in the long and in the short periods. A second table was made, using the life histories in table 1 and material from a number of incomplete records, to show the length of stadia in days, and from it were plotted curves showing the variation in stadia. It will be noticed that in the average life the first stadium is nearly four days long. From this the stadia gradually decrease in length until the sixth is reached. Then an increase in sta¬ dium duration begins and goes rapidly on until the last stadium, which is always much the longest of any, because of the time taken for cocoon spinning. The moths emerge in about seven days from the date of pupation. in R c> 4— > I .2 3 + 5 6 7 8 ? Ttu^nteT Of Ecdyses Fig. 1. Curves showing variations in stadia of larval life. _ Curve of larval life with eight ecdyses. . Curve of larval life with nine ecdyses. - Curve giving combination of both. Table 2. Giving in days the maximum, minimum, and average length of each period of larval and pupal life. PERIODS First Stadium ] Second tadium Third Stadium Fourth Stadium Fifth Stadium Sixth Stadium Seventh Stadium Eighth Stadium Ninth Stadium Pupation Total Number of Days Max. Min. Ave. Max. Min. Ave. Max. Min. Ave. Max. Min. Ave. Max. Min. Ave. Max. Min. Ave. Max. Min. Ave. Max. Min. Ave. Max. Min. Ave. Max. Min. Ave. Max. Min. Ave. Larval Life With Eight Ecdyses Number of Days in Each Peroid 4 3 3.87 6 1 2.57 4 2 2.57 3 3 2.1 3 1 19 5 3.6 4 3 3.3 10 7.8 7 6 6.7 43 32 35.0 Number of Larvae Used 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 11 11 11 7 7 7 11 11 11 Larval Life With Nine Ecdyses Number of Days in Each Period 6 3 4.33 S 1 2.9 5 1 2.9 3 1 2.3 4 1 2.2 3 2 2.6 4 2 3 4 2 3.36 10 5 7.7 9 6 7.3 43 32 37.87 Number of Larvae Used 3 9 3 11 11 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 ii 1 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 9 9 9 8 8 8 Combination of Two Pre¬ ceding Records Number of Days in Each Period 6 1 3.9 6 1 3 6 1 2.7 3 1 2.24 4 1 1.96 5 2 2.95 4 2 3.14 4 2 3.36 9 5 7.2 43 32 36.05 Number Larvae Used 29 29 29 25 25 25 24 24 24 26 25 25 25 25 25 23 23 23 21 21 21 11 11 11 22 22 22 20 20 20 j Chase — Length of Life of the Larva of the Wax Moth . 267 The larvae when they hatch are very small, under two milli¬ meters in length, colorless, and extremely active. They run about rapidly, using only the true legs and not allowing the rest of the body to touch the surface on which they move. When disturbed, they can run backward nearly as readily as forward. As soon as they are hatched, they spin a silken thread by which they drop from one part of the comb to another. After the first ecdysis, a change takes place in their appearance and movements. They can still run rapidly, but are in the comb eating and tunneling and in less danger. They are longer in proportion to their width than before, and are beginning to use the prolegs as well as the true legs in crawling. From this period on in succeeding ecdyses, the larvae continue to change slowly. The body grows somewhat gray in color and the chitin of head and tarsus becomes browner, though immediately after each ecdysis the body is colorless. At the time of the third or fourth ecdysis, fine hairs become visible forming a protection for the body, the motion is slower, and the dorsal body surface curves slightly upward, making the shape of the mature larva differ from that of the first instars which are flattened dorsoventrally. At the beginning of the last stadium, whether eighth or ninth, the larva becomes very dark, almost black in color. This condition continues for three or four days, and then the larva becomes normally gray, remaining so until pupa¬ tion. This color change at one definite period in the life has not yet been explained. The larva just before pupation is between two and three centimeters in length and nearly round in cross section. It wanders about until a suitable place is found, usually outside the comb, and there spins its cocoon, taking from one to three days to complete it. The cocoon of white silk with bits of wax and excreta fastened to it, when finished, has at one end a partial opening of two, three, or four Y-shaped flaps fastened to¬ gether with a few silk threads to make escape easy for the emerging imago. The opening is probably cut by the larva after spinning rather than spun in such form originally. Zoological Laboratories, University of Wisconsin A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF THE DIGESTIVE SECRE¬ TIONS OF PICKEREL AND PERCH CAROLINE WALKER MUNRO Apparently very little experimental work on the digestive secre¬ tions of fish has been done up to this time. That the stomach of a fish contains some other acid than hydrochloric (Stewart, 1905), and that the secretion of definite enzymes is not limited to fixed regions of the alimentary canal as in the mammals (Bridge, 1910), is known, but what the composition of the enzymes is, or what foods the secretions of the different regions of the alimen¬ tary canal are adapted to digest, are questions that have appar¬ ently had little attention. The purpose of this paper is to state the results of a few experiments performed with extracts of the digestive juices of perch and pickerel, in an attempt to determine which enzymes are adapted to digesting specific classes of foods. The experiments were performed in accordance with suggestions contained in Stewart’s (1905) Manual of Physiology, which out¬ lines methods of determining the digestive action of mammalian enzymes, and a comparison was made of the relative strength of prepared solutions of panereatin and pepsin with that of fish enzymes. A number of preliminary experiments were carried out on the digestive secretions of perch. After this two series of parallel experiments were made on the enzymes obtained from pickerel and perch, as compared with commercial solutions of the corresponding mammalian enzymes. Pickerel1 The extracts of the enzymes were obtained from a pickerel weighing 10.3 pounds, which was found to contain a partially digested perch about 6 inches long in its stomach. The mucous membranee of the stomach was stripped off, triturated in a mor- 1 Esox lucius Linnaeus. 269 270 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters. tar with clean sand, and placed in a test tube with sufficient gly¬ cerine to cover it. Similar glycerine extracts of the intestine and the pancreas were made, and the test tubes were allowed to stand for two days in order that the glycerine might extract the en¬ zymes. Peptic Digestion Three test tubes were set up, containing, respectively: (1) 1 gram egg albumen, and 20 drops of glycerine extract of the stomach; (2) 1 gram egg albumen and 20 drops of solution of commercial pepsin; (3) 1 gram egg albumen. The three tubes were filled with 10 cc. of a 2% solution of hydrochloric acid and placed in a bath at a temperature of 35 to 40° C. for one hour. In test tube (1) the albumen swelled up into large flakes which soon disappeared, and a practically clear solution was obtained at the end of the hour; in tube (2) the flakes of egg albumen dis¬ appeared less rapidly, and in tube (3) they disappeared still more slowly. The contents of the test tubes were then filtered and neu¬ tralized with sodium hydroxide. In tubes (1) and (2) a heavy flocculent precipitation was formed upon addition of the base ; in tube (3) no such precipitate was formed. This precipitate prob¬ ably consisted of acid-albumens. An excess of sodium hydroxide was then added to the contents of each test tube, and then a drop of very dilute copper sulphate. A faint rose reaction in tubes (1) and (2) showed the presence of proteoses and peptoses, whereas the absence of such a reaction in tube (3) showed the absence of these products of digestion. The reaction of the contents of the stomach of a large pickerel on litmus paper was tested and found to be decidedly acid. Eight drops of a 20% solution of sodium hydroxide were required to neutralize it. Pancreatic and Intestinal Digestion With proteins. Four test tubes were set up, containing, res¬ pectively: (1) 0.5 gram egg albumen and 20 drops glycerine ex¬ tract of intestine; (2) 0.5 gram egg albumen and 20 drops gly¬ cerine extract of pancreas; (3) 0.5 gram egg albumen and 20 drops of commercial pancreatin solution; (4) 0.5 gram egg al¬ bumen. Ten cc. of 1% solution of sodium carbonate were then placed in each tube and the tubes were placed in water at a temperature of 35-40° C. for one half hour, at the end of which time the egg albumen had gone into solution completely in all the Munro—Dig estiva Secretions of Pickerel and Perch. 271 tubes. A test with copper sulphate showed by the rose reaction that in the tubes containing pancreatin and gycerine extract of the intestine proteoses and peptoses were present, whereas in the other two tubes there was no evidence of their presence. With cane sugar. Four test tubes were set up, containing, respectively: (1) 2 cc. cane sugar solution and 30 drops of glycerine extract of the intestine; (2) 2 cc. cane sugar solution and 30 drops of glycerine extract of the pancreas; (3) 2 cc. cane sugar solution and 30 drops of commercial pancreatin solution ; (4) 2 cc. cane sugar solution. Ten cc. of a 1% solution of sodium carbonate were then placed in each tube and the tubes were placed in a bath at a temperature of 30° C. for one hour. At the end of this time the contents of each tube were treated with 4 cc. of Fehling’s solution. The latter was soon completely reduced by the contents of the tube in which commercial pancreatin had been placed, whereas no reaction was obtained in the other three tubes although they were allowed to stand for several days. This showed that the cane sugar had been inverted to dextrose by the action of the commercial pancreatin solution only. Bile. The action of the bile in emulsifying oils was tested, and it was found that one drop of the bile of the pickerel was suffic¬ ient to form a thick emulsion with 10 drops of olive oil. Pergh2 Similar experiments to those described for the pickerel were performed with glycerine extracts of the enzymes of the perch. Since, however, no structure which can be definitely identified as a pancreas had been found in the perch (Pratt, 1905), it was possible to run these experiments with only two extracts, those of the stomach and the intestine. The combined secretions of two fishes were used on account of the small size of each fish. Peptic Digestion Three test tubes were set up, containing, respectively: (1) 23 drops glycerine extract of stomach and 0.2 gram egg albumen; (2) 23 drops commercial pepsin solution and 0.2 gram egg al¬ bumen; (3) 0.2 gram egg albumen. All were filled with a 2% solution of hydrochloric acid and placed in a bath at a tempera¬ ture of 28° C. for 40 minutes. The contents of the tube contain- 2 Perea flavescens Mitchill. 272 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters. ing commercial pepsin digested the fastest, that of the tube in which no enzyme had been placed the slowest. The test with di¬ lute copper sulphate in an alkaline solution showed the presence of proteoses and peptoses in tubes (1) and (2) but not in tube (3). The contents of the stomach of the perch, while distinctly acid to litums, was so small in quantity that it would require frac¬ tions of drops in order to titrate for the acidity. Such an ex¬ periment was not performed. Intestinal Digestion With proteins. Three test tubes were filled, respectively with (1) 0.2 gram egg albumen and 20 drops of glycerine extract of the intestine; (2) 0.2 gram egg albumen and 20 drops commercial pancreatin solution; (3) 0.2 gram egg albumen. All three were filled with a 1% solution of sodium carbonate, and placed in a bath of 40° C. for 35 minutes. The commercial pancreatin di¬ gested the fastest and the contents of the tube in which no enzyme was placed, the slowest. The test with dilute copper sulphate showed the presence of proteoses and peptoses in tubes (1) and (2) but not in tube (3). With cane sugar. Three test tubes were set up, containing, respectively: (1) 10 drops intestine extract and 2 cc. cane sugar solution; (2) 10 drops commercial pancreatin solution and 2 cc. cane sugar solution; (3) 2 cc. cane sugar solution. These were half filled with a 1% solution of sodium carbonate, and placed in a bath at 35° C. for 45 minutes; 2 cc. of Fehling’s solution were then added to each, and all were allowed to stand for twen¬ ty-four hours. At the end of that time the Fehling’s solution was completely reduced in the test tube containing commercial pancreatin, showing that the cane sugar had been inverted. A slight inversion had taken place in the tube containing glycerine extract of the intestine, and none at all in the test tube in which no enzyme had been placed. Bile. The bile of the perch was very active in emulsifying oils, one drop forming a thick emulsion with 20 drops of olive oil. Discussion and Conclusions The pickerel, whose diet in the adult stage consists almost wholly of fish (Pearse, 1915), apparently has no enzyme adapted to the inverting of sugars, an essential function of the digestive Munro — Digestive Secretions of Pickerel and Perch. 273 juices of animals living on vegetable matter. The perch, on the other hand, which is a versatile feeder (Pearse, 1915), is pro¬ vided with an enzyme which to a small extent inverts sugars. The enzymes of the pickerel, however, are highly adapted to the thor¬ ough digestion of proteins, as evidenced by the fact that the ex¬ tracts of the stomach and intestine of the pickerel acted more rapidly than a comparable enzyme from mammalian digestive glands. It appears, moreover, that the perch, in which a pancreas is lacking, is provided with active enzymes in the intestine which perform the functions ordinarily performed by the pancreas in forms possessing that gland. The pancreas of the pickerel does not appear from these experiments to be active in digestion, since no action was obtained from the use of an extract of it. It may be concluded, therefore, that the digestive secretions of the fish studied are correlated with their food habits, and that the lack of a digestive gland (the pancreas) found in higher verte¬ brates, or the non-functional state of that gland if present, are compensated for by activity on the part of other digestive glands present. Zoological Laboratories, University of Wisconsin Bibliography Bridge, T. W. 1910. Fishes. Cambridge Natural History 7: 141- 537. London. Howell, W. H. 1912. A textbook of physiology. 1018 pp. Phila¬ delphia and London. Pearse, A. S. 1915. The food of the shore fishes of certain Wiscon¬ sin lakes. !U. S. Bureau Fisheries, Bull. 25: 249-290. Wash¬ ington. Pratt, H. S. 1905. A course in vertebrate zoology. 299 pp. Bos¬ ton. Stewart, G. N. 1905. Manual of physiology with practical exercises. 911 pp. London. 18— S. A. L. \ THE ORGANIZATION OF THE NUCLEI IN THE ROOT TIPS OF PODOPHYLLUM PELTATUM JAMES BERTRAM OVERTON Introduction Although the nuclear divisions of somatic cells have been fre¬ quently studied and the somatic chromosomes during certain stages of division have received a great deal of attention, a thorough study of their structure and behavior during rest has until re¬ cently been largely neglected. Thus far the structure and rela¬ tion of the chromosomes during rest has been determined in com¬ paratively few forms. A number of valuable papers have ap¬ peared on this phase of the subject, notably those of van Wisse- lingh (’99), Gregoire (’03, ’06, ’08, ’12) and his students, Haecker (’04, ’07), Sijpkens (’04), Strasburger (’05), Bonnevie (’08), Nemec ’99, ’10), Digby (’10, ’19), Fraser and Snell (’ll), Lun- degard (’10a, b, ’12 b, c.), von Schustow (’13), Sharp (’13, ’20a), and others, so that a general interest in the subject has greatly increased The opinions held by some cytologists, especially those of the English school, that in both diploid and haploid nuclei a separa¬ tion of the chromosomes into two equivalent portions on the spindle is already foreshadowed by their fission in the preceding telo¬ phase, as well as the interpretation of Dehorne (’ll) and others that the chromosomes are in all stages of division associated in pairs, each chromosome having the value of a longitudinally split chromosome, have increased interest in the subject of somatic mitosis. The observations described in the following paper are the out¬ come of several years of investigation and thought upon the structure and organization of the nuclei in the root tips of Po¬ dophyllum pelt at um , the result of which have already been briefly 275 276 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters. reported (Overton, ’096, ’ll). In order to be certain that the figures and conclusions drawn from them are correct, the prepar¬ ations from which the drawings were made and many other slides have been many times re-examined during the last ten or twelve years, especially in the light of the interpretations above referred to. In the present account the aim will be to give a careful de¬ scription of the somatic chromosomes during the reconstruction stages, to follow in detail their structure and arrangement in the resting nucleus, and to determine how they are again reformed preparatory to division. Materials and Methods The material was collected in early Spring before the roots had attained great length by removing entire plants from the humus in which they grew. The soil was carefully removed, and the root tips were severed and dropped at once in the various fixing fluids. In order to compare the effects of different fixing fluids upon the nuclear and cytoplasmic structures, a large number of fixatives were used, chiefly Flemming’s chromic-acetic mixtures in various strengths and modifications, Carnoy’s alcohol-acetic and alcohol-acetic-chloroform mixtures, Hermann’s platinic chloride- acetic-osmie mixture, Merkel’s chromic-platinic chloride mixture, Juel’s zinc chloride-acetic-alcohol mixture, Guignard’s chromic- iron chloride-acetic mixture, Kaiser’s sublimate-acetic mixture, picric-acid, mixtures, Worcester’s formalin-sublimate-acetic mix¬ ture, Gilson’s sublimate-nitric-acetic mixture, and Zenker’s subli¬ mate-potassium bichromate-acetic mixture, with Tellyesniczky’s modification. Fairly good results were obtained with Flemming’s stronger osmic fluid. As this is the mixture most generally used for cytological work in botany, I have compared its fixation very carefully with that obtained by the other fluids and find that it apparently often causes artifacts, which will be discussed in the description of my observations. Merkel’s fluid gave by far the best results, preserving the nuclei and cytoplasmic structures equally well, and preparations fixed in this fluid were found to be far superior to all others. The results described in this paper are, therefore, based mainly upon preparations fixed in this fluid. Comparisons were always made, however, with osmic fixation, which apparently shrinks the nuclear structures and may thus easily lead to misinterpretation. Throughout this paper Merkel’s fixation is considered the normal one. Overton — On the Boot Tips of Podophyllum Peltatum. 277 Sections were cut from three to eight microns thick, and the preparations were stained with Flemming’s triple combination or by either Heidenhain’s or Benda’s haematoxylin methods. Care¬ ful comparisons were always made between preparations stained by the various methods. Observations I shall describe the structure of the chromosomes during mi¬ tosis in the root tips of Podophyllum peltatum L. beginning with the equatorial plate stage, and follow the changes which occur during the reconstruction of the daughter nuclei, and also the structure and organization of the resting nucleus in so far as I have been able to determine and interpret the phenomena. Metaphases and Anaphases Figure 1 shows a section of an equatorial plate in lateral view in which five entire chromosomes are present and a portion of a sixth, whose remaining part has been cut away. In general the chromosomes lie in a plane nearly perpendicular to the long axis of the spindle. It can be seen that in some cases a bundle of fibers is attached at about the middle of each chromosome while in other cases the attachment is at or nearer one end. Although the chromosomes lie usually with one end in or near the equato¬ rial plane, their free ends may often assume various other posi¬ tions with reference to the axis of the spindle. Examining the chromosomes shown in figure 1 more in detail one can see that they are not homogeneous in structure, as they have been de¬ scribed and figured by most observers. In each chromosome may be seen lighter and darker portions. In the chromosomes in the center of this figure a double row of bodies is distinctly visible, making this chromosome appear longitudinally split. There ap¬ pear to be two stainable substances present in these chromosomes, a less stainable supporting homogeneous trama in which granular portions are imbedded. The trama appears between the indi¬ vidual granules and between the two rows of granulas as a less deeply stained streak. The darkly staining bodies in each row lie opposite each other. "With the triple combination the bodies stain bluish red or purple like chromatin, while the substratum stains an orange red like linin. These chromatic bodies are not 278 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters. homogeneous in structure but consist of numerous smaller granu¬ les. The linin on the other hand shows scarcely if any granular structure. Although it is evident that the chromosomes of the equatorial plate are double structures, the halves always lie close together and are never separated in the way as has been described for the chromosomes of certain other plants. In no case have I observed a transverse segmentation of the chromosomes at this or any other stage. As mentioned above, the spindle fibers may be attached at the middle or at or near one end. In the case the attachment is near one end, each half as it is drawn toward the pole assumes the form of a J as is shown in figure 2 and in the chromosome at the right of figure 3. When the attachment is at one end, more or less straight rods pass to each pole. This condition is evident from the anaphasic chromosome in the center of figure 3. Sometimes the attachment of fibers is about the middle of the chromosomes, in which case Y-shaped figures result. This condition is repre¬ sented at the left in figure 3. As the anaphasic chromosomes are passing to the poles, they are quite separate from one another and do not mingle very closely until the poles are reached and then not so closely as described by some authors. It is noteworthy that the anaphasic chromosomes, being in the forms of Y’s, J’s, or I’s, are easily distinguishable from one another. I have ob¬ served that there is a tendency for the different forms habitually to pass in pairs toward the poles. In figure 5 three pairs of chromosomes may be seen at one pole, two Y-shaped chromosomes at the left, two more or less straight rod-shaped ones at the right and two J-shaped ones in the center. Chromosomes, occurring in pairs on the spindle, have been re¬ ported by Strasburger, (’05, ’075, ’08, ’ll), and more recently by Muller (’09, T2) and Gates (’12). That chromosomes occur in pairs in resting somatic nuclei is also apparent in many plants containing prochromosomes, as I have previously reported (Over- ton, ’05, ’09a). Lundegard (’10c) denies the existence of such a pairing in Allium and Yicia. Sharp (’13) fails to find such pairing in Yicia, and von Schustow (T3) denies its existence in Allium. That the metaphasic and anaphasic chromosomes are not homo¬ geneous, but consist of two stainable substances, is evident from figures 2 and 3. During the passage of the chromosomes from the Overton — On the Root Tips of Podophyllum Peltatum. 279 equatorial plate to the poles, numerous more or less irregular masses and transparent spots appear (fig. 2). This appearance is probably due to the absorption of liquid material and its col¬ lection in droplets and masses of irregular shape. These droplets may anastomose, giving the appearance shown in these figures. This condition gradually increases until conspicuous anastomos¬ ing vacuoles appear irregularly distributed in each chromosome, (figs. 2, 3, 5, 6, 7). I have, however, never found a line of vac¬ uoles arranged regularly along the chromosome axis, such as has been described by Gregoire and Wygaerts (’03), Gregoire (’06), and more recently by other observers. At their very earliest ap¬ pearance some of these vacuoles seem to anastomose, as is shown in figures 2 and 3. In the late metaphasic and early anaphasic chromosomes the more deeply staining substance or chromatin oc¬ curs in granules connected by finer threads, which stain less densely and take up the orange in the triple combination like linin. From these observations it might appear as though in each chromosome the achromatic substance was being dissolved or digested or removed by some means, leaving behind a granular chromatic substance and a reticulate achromatic portion or linin. However, I am inclined to believe that the appearance of vacuoles is due to the absorption of liquid substance from without, prob¬ ably by osmotic action similar to that described by Lawson ( ’03, ’ll, ’12). I am also inclined to look upon the chromosomes as osmotic systems, the less dense achromatic substance becoming vacuolated and thus separating the denser granular chromatic material, which it supports. In figure 3 the chromosomes are represented as they appear when stained with the triple stain. A less stainable reddish purple substratum is distinctly visible, in which appears a more densely staining irregular, granular, reticulate substance. By careful study of such preparations one can see by focusing that alveoli or bubbles of sap-like material also occur in the substratum and that they often anastomose. The structure of these chromosomes apparently very strongly supports the view that they are to be regarded as a colony of granules or discrete particles imbedded in a substratum. From the staining reactions the substratum appears to be linin of a rather homogeneous or gelatinous consistency. The chromatic bodies, which are present in the chromosomes of the equatorial plate, and which are divided or separated as the chromosomes are divided, are also granular in structure. Undoubtedly these larger 280 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. granules or chromomeres are composite in structure, being com¬ posed of still smaller elements. By means of the progressive al- veolation of the ground substance or linin of the chromosomes, in which the granules are imbedded, these granules are separated. Part of the linin may be dissolved or removed in this process, while the remainder becomes reticulate by the anastomosing of vacuoles. The chromatic granules of the chromosomes become simply spread out or distributed by this process and are supported by the linin reticulum. That the anaphasic chromosomes are granular reticu¬ late structures is shown by figures 3. The progressive alveolation always occurs internally. I have never observed a chromosome showing any appearance of erosion. Although I have been able to stain the chromosomes so that one may see through them, and even study their internal structure and organization, I have not been able to discover in Podophyllum any such internal structural changes as have been described by Miss Bonnevie (’08) for Ascaris and Allium. She reports a cen¬ tral longitudinal axis in each chromosome, which divides longi¬ tudinally as the chromosome halves are separated. She regards this central axial portion as being composed of newly formed ach¬ romatic substance. I have considered this point carefully, and in some instances have found a central more darkly staining streak but always in preparations which I regard as poorly fixed. The same may be said concerning the massing of the chromatin in a peripheral cylinder. When the chromosomes are not well fixed, as I find in some preparations fixed in sublimate solutions, a denser peripheral sheath may sometimes be differentiated, but I can place no importance upon this appearance. Under no circumstances have I been able to make out any quadripartite arrangement of granules as described by Miss Merriman (’04) for Allium. Lun- degard ( ’10a, ?12c) considers the axial vacuolation of the an¬ aphasic chromosomes of Allium and Vicia as a true split, while Nemec ( ’10) places no such interpretation on the central vacuola¬ tion of the anaphasic chromosomes of Allium. Although Sakamura ( ’14) finds an anaphasic central vacuolation of the chromosomes of Vicia, he does not regard it as a longitudinal splitting of these chromosomes. I have been unable to find any evidence of a longitudinal split¬ ting of the chromosomes during the anaphases as described by Granier and Boule (’ll) in the root tips of Endymion nutans. I cannot agree with the conclusions of Dehorne (’ll), based on his Overton — On the Boot Tips of Podophyllum Peltatum. 281 studies of Salamandra and Allium that the anaphasic chromo¬ somes of Podophyllum consist of two lots of secondarily split chromosomes. Dehorne’s conception has been criticized by Gre- goire ( ’12). Sharp (’13) explains in detail how the various appearances above described may be brought about by the decolorizing of sec¬ tions, but holds that in Yicia no evidence is found for the real vacuolation of the chromosomes during anaphase. Telophases Gregoire ( ’06) reports that the daughter chromosomes of Allium become massed into a “tassement polaire”, which is quite dense and from which the extremities of the chromosomes emerge. As before mentioned, I have never found in normally fixed prepara¬ tions the chromosomes so densely massed at the poles of the spindle as has been described for some other forms. Figure 4 represents a cell, fixed in Flemming’s strong solution, which much resembles the condition described by Gregoire and which corresponds to his figure 1 for Allium cepa. In the cell represented by figure 4 the chromosomes are densely crowded. That the cell is much shrunken is evidenced by the vacuolar condition of the cytoplasm and by the large space between the plasma membrane and the cell wall, which is not here represented. The normal condition of the cytoplasm is better shown in figures 1, 8, 11, 20, and 25. In figures 5, 6, and 7, which are drawn from thin sections, the telophasic chromo¬ somes can be seen to be entirely separated from one another ex¬ cept laterally at certain points, their apparent connection being due perhaps to their increased size. I have been unable to observe the lateral anastomoses between the telophasic chromosomes at this stage, either in the form of pseudopodia as described by Boveri (’04), and similarly by Gates (’12), Lundegard (’12 b), and von Schustow (’13), or as portions formed by adhesion of the telophasic chromosomes as held by Gregoire and his students. Beer (’13) finds that in the preme- iotic divisions of Equisetum the substance of the telophasic chro¬ mosomes becomes distributed along numerous fine branches and anastomosic connections which develop between them. He finds no internal vacuolation of the chromosomes. In my opinion the polar tassement , in which the chromosomes are closely massed, is due entirely to the action of the fixing fluids. 282 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. In preparations fixed in Merkel's fluid I have never observed this massing of the chromosomes at the poles (see figs. 5, 6, 7). In these figures no anastomoses are present. I have constantly ob¬ served the massing of the telophase chromosomes (fig. 4) and the anastomoses in preparations fixed in Flemming’s osmic mixtures. In figures 22 and 22 a, which are drawn from preparations fixed in osmic mixtures, these structures are very distinct. Figure 22a; represents an enlarged portion of the two chromosomes to the left in the upper nucleus of figure 22. Figure 23 represents two daughter cells also fixed in Flemming’s osmic mixture. Anasto¬ moses are also present. Figure 23 a is an enlarged drawing of a portion of the upper nucleus of figure 23. The relationship of the parts is carefully represented. In this figure the outlines of two chromosomes are distinctly visible but cross anastomoses also ap¬ pear, which, from the appearance of the preparation when com¬ pared with Merkel preparations, are doubtless artifacts. These figures represent the identical stage drawn by Gregoire and Wy- gaerts (see their figs. 3 and 4). Their preparations were fixed in Hermann’s fluid which may account for this appearance. I have also observed similar structures in preparations fixed in this fluid. In figure 8 drawn from material fixed in Merkel’s fluid, which represents a more normal condition than figures 22 and 23, no anastomoses are present between the adjacent chromosomes except at their polar ends. This is better shown in the lower nucleus of this figure. In this nucleus the chromosomes lie in the newly forming nuclear vacuole perfectly distinct from one another. In figures 6 and 7 similar conditions are shown less clearly. The above mentioned authors describe the anastomoses as characteristic in form, chromatic in nature and content, being under stress with a thin portion in the middle and a cone-shaped portion where they join the chromosomes. This is in my opinion apparently the case, but I regard them as unnatural lateral portions due entirely to the sticking together of the colloidal or gelatinous chromosomes, which are brought into close contact by the fixing fluids and which again become separated. The separation may perhaps be due to the formation and increasing amount of nuclear sap. I cannot admit that these anastomoses in Podophyllum take any important part in the formation of the nuclear reticulum. The alveolation and reticulation, which is beginning to take place in the anaphasic chromosomes in the manner above described, continues in the telo- phasic chromosomes. The chromatic and achromatic portions be- Overton— On the Boot Tips of Podophyllum Peltatum. 283 come still more distinct. The vacuoles increase in size, number, and distinctness (figs. 6, 7). Gregoire (’06) describes the con¬ ditions at this period thus: “On voit le corps de chaque chromosome creuse de nombreuses cavites, petites et de formes tres variables, contenant un liquide non miscible a la substance chromosomique, non miscible non plus & l’enchyleme proto- plasmique et qui constitituera plus tard l’enchyleme nucleaire”. With this statement my observations, so far as they go, are in accord. By means of this alveolar-reticulate process the chro¬ matic granules, imbedded in the linin, as I have described above, become more widely separated. The formation of vacuoles and their inosculation produces a spongy structure with threads and plates in the linin substance, having denser and less dense por¬ tions, in which the chromatin remains suspended. This process continues until a truly reticulate condition arises with the chro¬ matin mainly at the junctures of the threads. In figure 7 an¬ astomosing vacuoles may be seen as well as unreticulated portions, which appear in the form of granules, platelets, and threads of different forms and sizes, so that the substance of each chromo¬ some, as Gregoire states, soon appears “en membranules, en lamelles, en filaments, de sorte que la vraie struc¬ ture de chaque chromosome est plutot celle d’une band spongieuse,\ but this process finally gives rise to the linin reticulum, in which are imbedded the chromatic granules. Beginning on the left of fig¬ ure 7, this process may be followed by successively observing the chromosomes to the right of this figure. The portion of the chromosome on the right is nearly entirely distributed. I do not find any marked tendency for the vacuoles at this stage to be ar¬ ranged along the chromosome axis, as claimed by Gregoire and others, although this condition may sometimes occur as shown in figure 6. I do not find a central undistributed axis, as seen by Haecker (’04) in Siredon. The vacuoles are distributed irregu¬ larly as a rule, and the entire chromosome finally becomes reticu¬ late. Gregoire (’06) states that the alveolation of the chromosomes is most distinct during the telophases, which is true of Podophyllum, but I think that in Podophyllum the process begins much earlier, even during the metaphases. The compactness of the chromo¬ somes often causes the stain to cover up entirely any traces of 284 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. alveolation in the earlier stages. Gregoire (’06) has criticized Miss Merriman ’s ( ’04) interpretations, which do not need further discussion at this point. Suffice it to say that I have not found the quadripartite granules described by her for Allium in the telophasic chromosomes of Podophyllum, nor do I find any indi¬ cation of a longitudinal splitting of these chromosomes at this time or at any earlier stage on the spindle as has been claimed by some observers. As pointed out by Sharp (’13), the fact that vacuoles may occur in almost every conceivable position in these chromosomes is of great importance as it bears upon the question of the splitting of the chromosomes, which is held by many to occur during the telophases. Lundegard (’09) observed a median vacuolation of the chromo¬ somes of Trollius, which he did not at that time describe as a longitudinal split, but in 1910 he often observed in Vicia and Al¬ lium what he regards as a true longitudinal split in the telophasic chromosomes, both in fixed and in living material. He failed to observe the spiral structure described by Bonnevie, but describes the chromosomes as fragmenting and joining to form karyosomes. More recently Lundegard (’12c) emphasizes the double nature of the telophasic chromosomes. Nemec (’10) states that the telo¬ phasic chromosomes of Allium undergo a vacuolation without a true splitting. Fraser and Snell (’ll) believe that they have found that the telophasic chromosomes of Vicia undergo a true longitudinal splitting by means of median vacuolation. The chromosomes are described as being connected by anastomoses, and these authors believe that, as the nucleus enlarges, the two halves of the telophasic chromosomes are drawn apart along the line of vacuoles. Digby (’19) holds that in all of the arches- porial divisions in Osmunda the chromosomes undergo a longi¬ tudinal splitting in varying degree during the early telophases, which split in agreement with Fraser and Snell is held to persist throughout the resting stages until it is completed on the spindle of the following division. In my studies on Podophyllum I have been unable to observe any of the above described phenomena, which in any way re¬ semble in the slightest degree a telophasic longitudinal splitting of the chromosomes. Thus far in the consideration of the chromo¬ somes of Podophyllum I have been able to identify each chromo¬ some, which persists as an autonomous element although under¬ going a series of internal changes. Some authors maintain that Overton— On the Boot Tips of Podophyllum Peltatum. 285 the daughter chromosomes unite end to end to form a daughter spirem. Such a spirem has not been found by Gregoire or by any of his co-workers, and has not been observed by Lagerberg (’09) in Adoxa. In all the plants which possess prochromosomes, as first described by Rosenberg (04) and since by several other in¬ vestigators, the absence of a continuous chromatic spirem has been noted. In agreement with most recent work on other forms, and as has been emphasized by Sharp (’13), I have been unable to find a continuous spirem formed from the daughter chromo¬ somes of Podophyllum. Although during the reconstruction stages of Podophyllum I have sometimes observed appearances of a dispirem (figure 23), I have never been convinced of its uni¬ versal existence in this plant, and am inclined to the view held by Gregoire that it does not obtain either in this plant or in Allium. If there is anything comparable to a dispirem, it certainly is not completely and continuously chromatic in character. In figures 5, 6, and 7 there seems to be no tendency for the chromosomes to unite endwise into a spirem. Each chromosome is undergoing the internal modifications above described. In figure 8, in the nucleus of the lower cell, each chromosome is still free and not united with any of its associates. In the lower cell of figure 8 each chromosome may be seen to be surrounded by a definite membrane much as has been described for karyomeres or chromosome vacuoles in certain animal cells. The cytoplasm in many places may also be seen to extend in be¬ tween these alveolated structures. By a constant progressive al- veolation and reticulation of these chromosomes they come to lie closer and closer together, so that the cytoplasm is shoved aside and the chromosomes touch each other in places. This is evident in the upper nucleus in figure 8. If the chromosomes first touch at the polar ends, peculiar lobe-shaped structures arise giving a lobed appearance to the nuclei, as shown in figure 8 and also in figure 12. Gregoire (’06) in his figure 3 has represented a simi¬ larly lobed nucleus in Allium, and I have also often observed like conditions in the same plant. Gregoire, however, shows these lobes as distinctly anastomosed. Although the lobes in the upper nu¬ cleus in figure 8 appear in contact at the polar ends, I do not believe that they are anastomosed or that they unite in any way except by the inosculation of the vacuoles. This view is further supported by a study of such nuclei as are shown in figures 11 and 12. These are resting nuclei in the interphase stage, in which 286 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters. some individual alveolated and reticulated chromosomes are still visible as distinct independent entities. In figure 12 the lobed condition of the nucleus is still apparent, although this nucleus is in an entirely resting condition, as is shown by the cell itself. The nuclear membrane may perhaps be only the limiting portion of these alveolated chromosomes where they abut upon the cyto¬ plasm. Somewhat analogous formation of a nuclear membrane occurs in some animals as described by Vejdovsky (’07), Reuter (’09), and others. However, the vacuoles may interosculate with each other and may perhaps communicate with the surrounding cytoplasmic substance through the sap, although I have never seen anything to indicate the existence of such a communication. That a chromosome as it becomes reticulated may have its own nucleolus is shown in figure 8. I have often counted several such nucleoli in like position in the different chromosomes. As indi¬ cated, several nucleoli lie scattered in the nuclear reticulum (see- figs. 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 16, 17, 19, 24, 25). As seen from these figures, the form and size of the nucleoles may vary, but they are usually spherical and often vacuolate. No extranuclear nucleoli were observed in the cytoplasm, as reported for certain Liliaceae and also for Adoxa by Lagerberg (’09). In Podophyllum there appears to be no direct connection between the nucleoli and the chromosomes, such as reported by Wager ( ’04) for Phaseolus and by Strasburger (’07a) for Marsilia, and which has also been de¬ scribed for certain animals. The origin of the nucleoli I have not been able to determine. They apparently arise de novo dur¬ ing the early telophases, without any morphological connection with the chromosomes. According to Mano (’04), in Phaseolus and Solanum the nucleoli appear independently of the chromatin. Fraser and Snell (’ll) hold that they appear as a droplet or several droplets usually in some relation to the chromosomes; Sharp (’13) finds the nucleoles appearing early among the loosely packed chromosomes, and suggests that there may be an indirect physiological connection between the nucleoli and the chromo¬ somes. I am inclined to the view of Strasburger (’95, ’00) that they are reserve materials which are used up in the kinoplasmie formations of the cell rather than that they are stores of chroma¬ tin, which may again be distributed upon the linin as Strasburger more recently holds. This view, however, is supported by no di¬ rect evidence in Podophyllum. Overton — On the Boot Tips of Podophyllum Peltatum. 287 Interphase As Sharp (’13) points out, we are indebted to Lundegard ( ’125) for this term, which is applied to the period in the nuclear history between two successive intervals of division in tissues composed of rapidly dividing cells. I am in agreement with these two workers that the transformation of the telophasic chromosomes does not in general proceed as far in such nuclei as in older tis¬ sues, in which the divisions proceed more slowly. Figures 11 and 12 represent stages in which many nuclei are found to pass the interphase. I have been unable in the root tips of Podophyllum to find nuclei with a more uniform reticulum than is shown in figures 9 and 10. In this stage one or two nucleoli are present, as shown in figure 9. Eeticulation may proceed further in older portions of the root, as is noted by Sharp ( ’13) . Although larger chromatic masses may be present, I have been unable to distinguish any distinct caryotin clumps or karyosomes as described by Lun¬ degard (’10 a, ’12 b) for Vicia, and have never found these karyo¬ somes split as described by him. The Early prophases The resting nucleus, as I have described it, consists of elemen¬ tary reticula, which in Podophyllum may often be recognized as distinctly independent alveolar-reticulate bands or areas, while in other cases these areas are not distinguishable (compare figs. 9 and 11) . During the prophases a reconstruction or condensation oc¬ curs to form the chromosomes of division. During the very early prophases the first evidence of a preparation for division is notice¬ able in a somewhat greater affinity of these bands for stains, the reticulum becoming more dense and chromatic in appearance es¬ pecially along the bands. Each band or chromosome becomes more distinct, resembling those of the reconstruction stages (fig. 12) , The vacuoles become fewer and the chromatic portions larger and closer together. The process continues until the con¬ densing alveolar-reticulate portions become quite distinct, with clear areas between, as shown in figure 13. The chromosomes thus condensing appear as rather definite bands, each band represent¬ ing a chromosome of the telophase. As pointed out above, the resting reticulum may be a rather uniform network (fig. 9), or the chromosomes may appear less 288 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters. distributed as shown in figures 11 and 12. Sharp (’13) points out that in certain resting nuclei of Vicia heavier bands repre¬ sent the reticulate chromosomes of the telophase joined together by fine anastomoses as a continuous net. My results in general agree with those of Sharp, but I am of the opinion that, even when the chromosomes become indistinguishable as such in the resting reticulum, they again condense during the prophases. Sharp does not represent the stages shown in my figures 11 and 12, which I regard as very early prophase stages that should come before the prophase stage in Sharp’s figures 1 and 2, which latter figures I regard as representing a rather advanced prophase stage, and not a true resting condition. These bands formed from the resting reticulum are at first broad and very reticulate. In figure 13 two such bands may be seen on the right of the nucleus. This represents about the same stage as Gregoire (’06) figures for Allium, and I have often seen similar figures in that plant. This author holds that the reti¬ culum is transformed into a series of alveolar-reticulate or spongy bands, united by lateral anastomoses. I can agree with this in¬ terpretation, except that I do not find the lateral anastomoses abundant in normally fixed preparations. As the chromosomes do not anastomose during the reconstruction stages of the nuclei, no laterial anastomoses appear, except in material improperly fixed. In figures 24 and 25, which are drawn from preparations fixed in Flemming’s fluid, such anastomoses are present, but I do not regard this as a normal appearance. As Gregoire says, the reticulum is thus resolved into a series of bands more or less parallel, each of which possesses the same structure as the nuclear reticulum. “C’est comme si, dans ce reseau, on avait fait passer au rateau. Image seulement, car se qui s’est reellement produit, c’est une. concentration.” Sharp ( ’13, ’206) also represents the chromosome bands as connected by lateral anastomoses, and points out that the inter¬ pretation placed upon the resting nucleus does not correspond with that of Fraser and Snell ( ’ll) and of Lundegard ( ’09, ’10 a, ’12c). It may also be added that Digby ( ’19) agrees with the opinion of Fraser and Snell that the resting reticulum con¬ sists of faint granules in which the individual chromosomes are indistinguishable. Such preparations as that shown in figure 13 are the only evidence that I can find that the chromosomes, which Overton— On the Boot Tips of Podophyllum Peltatum . 289 I have described as paired at the telophase, may again reform in pairs during the prophases, but I regard this as rather strong evidence. I can find no evidence from my studies to support the hypothesis of Fraser and Snell (’ll) and of Digby (’19) that each prophasic chromosome is formed of two units derived from a single chromosome and that the units of each pair are separated during the subsequent division. Sharp (’13, 20b) holds that the first indication of prophasic changes is the breaking down of the lateral anastomoses between the heavier portions of the reticulum, so that each chromosome stands out as an irregular reticulate, alveolar band, and points out that such bands may probably be visible all through the period of rest. With these statements my results accord, except, as above stated, that I do not find evidence for lateral anastomoses in all cases and that even during the period of comparative rest their absence may be evident (fig. 11). The succeeding events of chromosome condensation as found in Podophyllum harmonize very well with those described by Sharp (’13) for Yicia. I find exactly the stages represented by Sharp’s figures 3 to 17, except that, as stated above, I am of the opinion that there exist both chromatin and linin, while Sharp states that Vicia furnishes no good evidence for the existence of more than one substance in the chromatic structures. Mottier (’07) in his studies on the reduc¬ tion division in Podophyllum speaks of the nuclear reticulum as being made up of both linin and chromatin. In examining figures 11 and 12, the reticulum of the bands can be seen to be made up of irregular granules imbedded in the linin substratum. Bridges of linin appear to connect the granules of a band together very regularly. On closer examination and study, however, the structure will be seen to be very similar to that shown in figures 9 and 10, only more condensed. As the prophases proceed, the linin connections between any two or more granules appear coarser and more chromatic in content. This condition is especially observable in the two bands favorably placed for study near the periphery on the right of the nucleus shown in figure 13. These bands appear to be made up of irregular granular chromatic platelets connected by linin strands. The alveoli appear fewer and may open freely into neighboring al¬ veoli or into the nuclear sap. Out of these granular platelets by some method, which I have not been able to make out to my en¬ tire satisfaction, and out of the linin connections a long, thin, 19— S. A. L. 290 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters . much coiled and twisted thread is finally evolved (figs. 13, 14, 15, 17). Sharp ( ’13) holds that the chromatic material condenses along a very irregular region around the open spaces and cavities. It appears from a most careful study of my preparations that the granules, which are present in the prophasic reticulate bands, be¬ come condensed along certain strands or lamellae to form ir¬ regular platelets. These platelets are placed more or less, at right angles to the long axis of the bands. On examining figure 13 again in detail, such condensations may be seen with many of the collections or irregular platelets more or less at right angles to the length of each band. This is especially observable at the bottom of the figure. Linin threads or lamellae may still be seen connecting them in various places. The chromatin granules collect on the periphery of the alveoli of the bands in such a manner as to form a more or less zigzag arrangement across the bands. This would also account for the arrangement of the platelets. By the dissolution or withdrawal of the free linin portions, the platelets would thus be arranged in a zigzag spiral-like line or thread. This final arrangement is indicated in figure 14. In figure 15 the spiral arrangement of the individual bands is very distinct. In the upper part of the nucleus transformation has not so far progressed, the bands being still quite reticulate. Figure 16 represents a nucleus in which most of the bands have been cut transversely. Irregular chro¬ matin platelets are quite distinct at various places in the nucleus. Figure 17 represents a nucleus in which all the bands have been transformed into threads. The whole thread in its entire length is long, slender, spirally coiled, and much eonvulated in the nuclear cavity. From my observations I am convinced that there are breaks in this thread and that no continuous spirem is formed. Sharp (T3) describes similar zigzag bands in the prophases of Yicia, points out that most authors have omitted these stages from their accounts, and holds that these stages are of the greatest importance in interpreting the splitting of the chromosomes. Sharp (’205) also describes like stages for Tradescantia. Such stages are exceedingly abundant in Podophyllum and are omitted by Fraser and Snell (’ll), and as Sharp points out, are not de¬ scribed by Digby (’19) for Osmunda. Lundegard (’09, ’10a, ’12a, 5, e), also fails to describe such zigzag threads for Yicia. Although I have searched carefully and have followed in detail the formation of these zigzag bands, I have never found any evi- Overton — On the Root Tips of Podophyllum Peltatum. 291 denee that they arise or that they are formed in lateral pairs closely associated. In every case I am convinced that they are formed from a single chromatic band as above described, and as Sharp (’13) maintains for Vicia. In my opinion the zigzag stage of the prophase in Podophyllum always precedes the formation of the thicker coiled spirem, which is apparently the conclusion of Sharp (’13) regarding Yicia. Most authors place the spirally coiled spirem in the same place in the series as I have done for Podophyllum. In examining Strasburger’s (’82) early figures of corresponding prophase stages of the endosperm nuclei of Fritillaria imperalis (his fig. 72, PI. II ) , I find that he evidently saw the same sort of spirem, which he places immediately after the resting stage of the nucleus. He also showed a similar stage for Salamandra (see his fig. 182, PI. III) , and Flemming (’82) also figured and described a somewhat similar spirem for Salamandra (his fig. 31, PI. Ilia). He said: “Die Anordnung des Fadenknauls zeigt in den Anfangsformen noch vielfach scharfere winklige Knickungen, wie solche an den Balkchen des ruhenden Kernnetzwerks die Regel sind. Je weiter aber der Process bedeiht, desto mebr gleichen sich diese Knickungen zu welligen Biegungen aus, die schliesslich durchweg vorkommen.” The thin homogenous threads of the zigzag or coiled spirem split longitudinally, as shown in figures 17 and 18. As pointed out by Sharp (’13) for Yicia, not all portions of the thread split at the same time, and all stages intermediate between vacuolation and a complete split may be seen. Strasburger (’05, ’075, ’ll) holds that the splitting of the spirem is brought about by the division of chromatic units or chromomeres, a view supported by Allen ( ’05) and others. Mul¬ ler ( ’12) holds that the achromatic material between the chromo¬ meres first splits, and that the splitting of the chromosomes then follows. Sharp (’13) finds no evidence for the support of either view from his studies on Yicia. Sakamura ( ’14) finds no evidence of chromomeres in Vicia cracca. In my former studies (Overton (’05, ’09a) on reduction divi¬ sions in certain dicotyledonous plants, I was unable to find the regular arrangement of chromomeres above referred to. This was especially the case in the heterotypic division of Podophyllum. Mottier (’07), however, figures chromomeres in the heterotypic divisions of this plant. In the present studies on the somatic 292 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters. divisions of this plant I have also found difficulty in destinguish- ing chromatic bodies in the early spirem, which I could interpret as chromomeres (see figs. 13, 14, 15, 17), although such collec¬ tions are undoubtedly present in later stages, especially after the spirem is split. Perhaps these bodies are present in such young stages as are represented in figure 17, but they may be obscured by the uniformity of the staining quality at this stage. Even in the very early split spirems no chromomeres are visible, as ap¬ pears from figure 19. Certain irregularly placed portions of this spirem stain more densely, but there are no definite chromomeres distinguishable. In figure 18, however, representing a nucleus in which the spirem is completely split, a double row of chromatic granules or chromomeres is apparently differentially stained as distinct from the linin supporting strand. In such figures and in the succeeding stages these granules, which stain distinct from the linin, even in the chromosomes of the equatorial plate, are always distinguishable. Whether or not they are always opposite each other, and whether or not during the splitting of the spirem each chromomere divides to form two, I have not been able to de¬ termine. To all appearances this is the case. I am led to this conclusion from the number and arrangement of the chromomeres in the two parts of the split spirem and especially from their po¬ sition in the chromosomes as they appear in division stages (see figs. 18, 20, 21). The Later Prophases In the stages immediately following the longitudinal splitting of the chromosomes, and while they are still long and much coiled in the nuclear cavity, a thickening of the threads occurs as shown in figures 18 and 19. At this stage the longitudinal split of the threads is very evident, and my interpretation of the split agrees with that of Muller (’12), namely, that the portions of the thread between the chromomeres splits first and that this splitting is fol¬ lowed by, or brings about, a splitting of the chromomeres. Numer¬ ous such examples as are shown in figure 18 support this view, rather than that of Strasburger (’07&, ’ll) that the splitting of the thread is initiated by the division of the chromomeres. In agreement with the description of Sharp (’13) for Vicia, I find that the longitudinally split threads or chromosomes have a gen¬ eral longitudinal orientation in the nucleus, making them easily Overton — On the Boot Tips of Podophyllum Peltatum. 293 studied, as shown in figure 19. Although the longitudinal halves lie very close together, the split is distinct throughout the length of each chromosome. I agree with Sharp (’13) that the appear¬ ance of free ends of the threads in thick sections may be taken to indicate that no continuous spirem is formed. I do not find the fine lateral anastomoses described by Sharp (‘13) for Vicia and by him ( ’20b) for Tradescantia at this stage, except in cases which I do not regard as normal. The chromosomes continue to shorten and thicken and assume various shapes and positions in the nuclear cavity as shown in figure 20. In general the chromosomes lie about the periphery of the nucleus as shown in this figure, but as they are compara¬ tively long, portions often extend into the center of the cavity. The longitudinal split in each chromosome at this period is distinct, each chromosome shows a double row of chromatic granules or chromomeres. As the chromosomes shorten and thicken still more, these chromomeres become still more distinct (fig. 21), which distinction is maintained in the chromosomes of the equa¬ torial plate as shown in figure 1. Even though the achromatic por¬ tions of the chromosomes may unite more or less closely, it is evident that the chromomeres remain distinct. Sharp (T3) be¬ lieves that although the halves of the chromosomes of Yicia may lie very close together they do not fuse. My results in the main support this view. It is evident from the two chromosomes ly¬ ing in the upper part of the nucleus shown in figure 20 that the homologous chromosomes exist in pairs. I have not studied the formation of the spindle in detail. The phenomena observed in Podophyllum appear to be similar to those described for spindle formation in somatic divisions. That the formation of the spindle is preceded by the appearance of nuclear caps as described by Densmore ( ’08 ) for Smilacina and by Sharp (’13) for Vicia,, is evident from figure 20. I have ob¬ served a rapid contraction of the nucleus at this stage, as pointed out for Smilacina and other plants by Lawson ( ’ll) and by Sharp (’13) for Vicia. I agree with Sharp (’13) that the fact that the fibres are differentiated in two opposite regions before the nucleus begins to contract does not support Lawson’s view of the origin of the spindle. 294 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. General Considerations As described above, the telophasic chromosomes of Podophyllum become transformed into reticulate bands by progressive internal alveolation. These bands are held to represent the individual chromosomes, which again condense during the prophases into irregularly coiled zigzag threads. These threads thicken and un¬ dergo a longitudinal split, which split persists until the daughter chromosomes are separated at metaphase. As pointed out, I find no evidence from my studies on this plant to support the view that the telophasic chromosomes undergo a median vacuolation to bring about a longitudinal split as held by von Schustow, (’IB), I am also unable to accept the view held by Dehorne (’ll), Granier and Boule (’ll), and Lundegard (’12a, c ) that a longi¬ tudinal splitting occurs in the chromosomes during the anaphases, and cannot agree with Lundegard, who maintains that the ana- phasic split is quite as evident and distinct as in the prophases, and who holds with Fraser and Snell ( Tl) and with Miss Digby (’10, 19) that each chromosome appears from the resting reti¬ culum already double. I agree with the interpretation of Gre- goire and especially with that of Sharp (’13) that the duality of the individual chromosomes is the result of the longitudinal splitting of the prophasic threads, which are evolved by progres¬ sive condensation from the reticulate chromosomes of the resting nucleus. My view as to the method of the vacuolation of the chromosomes also accords in general with that of Lawson (’03, ’ll, ’12). Sharp (T3) points out that the telophasic alveolation of the chromosomes is too irregular to permit of its being regarded as a longitudinal splitting. The telophasic figures of Fraser and Snell (’ll) and of Lundegard (’12 a, c), have been criticized by Sharp as lacking details of alveolation. Lundegard (’15) points out that von Schustow ’s ( T3) results support his views as to the duality of the caryotin and further calls attention to the fact that Sharp ( T3) fails to take into account that Lundegard is the only one who has studied the arrangement of the caryotin in the living cell and maintains that fixed material does not represent the facts. The chromosome halves are always superposed at the point of insertion, as emphasized by Gregoire (’12), and as stated by Lun- Overton — On the Root Tips of Podophyllum Peltatum. 295 degard (’12), Sharp (’13), and von Schustow (’13) for certain other plants. In Podophyllum the points of insertion of the various chromosomes lie in a single plane, as has been pointed out by von Schustow (’13) for Allium, by Sharp (’13) for Yicia, and by Lundegard ( ’12c) for other forms. Sakamura ( ’15) states that in Vida fab a the chromosomes do not lie in an equatorial plane. In Podophyllum the spindle fibers may be attached at any point to the chromosomes, this attachment resulting in var¬ iously formed figures as the halves of the chromosomes are pulled apart ; this has been described by other authors and especially by Lundegard (’125, c), Sharp (’13) von Schustow (’13), and others. This condition seems to be the most common one in plants. In certain plants and animals the chromosomes have been de¬ scribed as segmenting transversely. In Vida fab a such pheno¬ mena have been mentioned by Lundegard (’125, T4), Fraser and Snell (’ll), and Sharp (’13), and have been fully described by Sakamura (’15), who holds that it is the usual occurrence in this plant. Such a transverse segmentation of the chromosomes of Podophyllum has not been observed by me. Lundegard ( ’12c) states that on account of the changes which the different fixing agents and stains cause it is difficult to de¬ termine the exact condition or constitution of the chromosomes. He holds that the chromosomes of Allium do not contain chromo- meres and describes the chromosomes in the living condition as being cylindrical with smooth surfaces which become roughened or wringled during fixation, a condition held by him to be an artifact. This wrinkled condition may account, according to Lundegard, for the conception of chromomeres, and he further states that on destaining the stain is retained longer in the thicker portions of the chromosomes. Strasburger and others have held that the splitting of the chro¬ mosomes is initiated by the splitting of discrete units or chromo¬ meres arranged serially along the chromosomes, which conception has been denied by Gregoire and his students. Bonnevie (’08) and Stomps (’10, ’ll) find no chromomeres in Allium and Spina- cia. Muller (’12) described definite chromomeres in Najas, but holds that the linin thread splits first, which splitting is followed by a splitting of the chromomeres. Sharp (’13, 205) fails to find evidence of chromomeres in Vida faba and Tradescantia and be¬ lieves that their appearance is brought about by a removal of 296 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences } Arts , and Letters. stains from denser portions of the chromosomes, a view some¬ what similar to that of Lundegard. Sharp holds that in the meta¬ phase the chromosomes show little differentiation, while Saka- mnra (’14) finds chromomeres in Vida cracca. That the prophasic and anaphasic chromosomes of Podophyllum are not homogeneous but consist apparently of two stainable sub¬ stances has been stated above. I have expressed the opinion that these two substances are linin and chromatin and that the chro¬ matin apparently exists in these chromosomes as distinct mor¬ phological units or chromomeres arranged in regular rows op¬ posite each other in the metaphasic chromosomes and are present in a single row in the anaphasic chromosomes, which fact I have considered as fairly good evidence that the appearance of chro¬ momeres is not due to fixation as held by Lundegard ( ’12c) . On decolorizing such chromosomes I do not find such irregularly ar¬ ranged spots and masses as described by Sharp (’13) for Yicia. Although I do not wish to make a positive assertion that chromo¬ meres are present in these chromosomes, nor that their appear¬ ance may not be due to fixation, I am inclined to the view of Strasburger (’07b, ’ll) that there exist in the chromosomes defi¬ nite morphological units the halves of which are separated during the separation of the daughter chromosomes. In my former work on the reduction divisions in Podophyllum I failed to find evidence of chromomeres, but Mottier (’07) figures such bodies and describes the nuclear reticulum as being made up of both chromatin and linin. Muller (’12) finds both chromatin and linin bodies in Najas before the chromosomes split, and, as stated, holds that the splitting is initiated in the linin intervals, the chromomeres dividing later. Alhough Sharp (T3) holds there is no trustworthy evidence to support the view that chromatic morphological units exist in Vicia, he recognizes the 11 highly sug¬ gestive nature of the arrangement of the chromatin in a thin thread and its accurate separation into two equal parts”. During the anaphases several authors have described a longi¬ tudinal splitting of the chromosomes. Gregoire (’12) discusses fully the metaphasic and anaphasic phenomena, especially in the light of Dehorne’s (’ll) interpretation, and maintains that De¬ home’s scheme is contrary to the generally observed facts as Gre¬ goire describes them. Sakamura ( T4) holds that in Vicia cracca neither during the metaphases nor anaphases is there any evi¬ dence of tetrads as held by Miss Merriman (’04), nor evidence Overton — On the Root Tips of Podophyllum Peltatum. 297 of the longitudinal split of the next division. Yon Sclrus tow (IS) has never observed a true longitudinal splitting of the ana- phasic chromosomes in Vicia fab a as described by Dehome, nor does von Schustrow find evidence to support Miss Merriman’s view. Lundegard (’12c) states that the anaphasic longitudinal splitting is quite as distinct as in the prophases, but von Schus- tow interprets Lundegard ’s figures as telophasic ones. I agree with Lundegard that his objection to using fixed material alone as a basis of interpretation is a valid one. I have also compared fixed material with that in the living condition not only in Podo¬ phyllum but in many other plants, and am convinced that in many cases the fixed material presents the same configuration of the nuclear structures as is seen in the living material. I can find no evidence from a study of either living or properly fixed ma¬ terial that the telophasic chromosomes undergo a regular median vacuolation such as would cause them to be longitudinally split. I hope in the future to be able to present evidence from living material on this point. Sharp (’13) holds that the telophasic median vacuolation in Vicia is only apparent and does not really divide the chromosomes, which observations the results of Saka- mura ( ’14) on Vicia cracca as well as my own on Podophyllum support, and I cannot agree with von Schustow (’13) that the telophasic figures of Lundegard (’10a, ’12c), Dehorne (’ll), Gregoire (’06), Muller (’09), Fraser and Snell (’ll), and his own should be interpreted as indicating a splitting of these chro¬ mosomes. The interpretation of Bonnevie (’08) that the cross sections of the anaphasic chromosomes at first show a tetrad structure which later becomes circular, the chromatic material being denser at the periphery while the center is solid but less dense, is the reverse of that described by von Schustow (’13), who observes a darker cylindrical region and a lighter vacuolated inner region in the chromosomes of Allium. In later anaphases von Schustow de¬ scribes the outer cylindrical region as becoming polygonal in cross section with the chromatin on the periphery of the chromosomes. Lundegard (’10a, ’12c), holds that the axis of the anaphasic chromosomes is vacuolate and regards this vacuolation as bringing about a true longitudinal splitting. Nemec (TO) also observed what he regards as a true anaphasic vacuolation, often axial, but does not describe an anaphasic splitting of the chromosomes. Fraser and Snell (’ll) and Miss Digby (T9) find no vacuolation 298 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters. until telophase is reached. Sharp (’13), although finding an ir¬ regular anaphasic differentiation, holds that it does not represent a true vacuolation as seen in the telophases. Gregoire and Wy- gaerts (’03) show that vacuolation is evident as early as the meta¬ phase. There seems to be no evidence to support the view of anaphasic splitting as described by Granier and Boule (’ll). The structure of the telophasic chromosomes as described by Bonnevie (’08), due to a disappearance of the achromatic sub¬ stance of these chromosomes and the inner appearance of a fine spiral thread, finds no support in my observations on Podophyllum and is discussed by von Schustow (’13) who holds that the con¬ traction of the chromosomes at this stage is so marked as not to permit of a study of their internal organization, although he maintains that in cross section the chromosomes are polygonal as in the anaphases, which latter view also my results do not sup¬ port. Sharp (T3) holds that the figures of Bonnevie (’08-T1) and of Dehorne (’ll) are apparently schematizations of the oc¬ casional spiral aspect of the alveolar bands. As already stated, I find no evidence from my studies on Podo¬ phyllum to support the view held by Fraser and Snell (’12) and Miss Digby (TO, T4, T9), and supported in principle by Lunde- gard (’12c) and von Schustow (T3), that the anaphasic or telo¬ phasic split described by them in somatic nuclei persists during the reconstruction stages, the period of rest, and the prophases, until the component halves are separated at metaphase. I agree with Sharp’s (’20 a) criticism of Miss Digby ’s statement that workers on mitosis are in general agreement that the constitution of the chromosomes is one of duality which persists throughout the cycles of dissolution and reconstruction. I can find no evidence in Podophyllum that the early prophasic reticulum possesses any such duality or that it passes directly into the double spirem. In certain cells, especially those fixed in Flemming’s fluids, as shown in figures 22 to 25, aspects are presented which might be interpreted as indicating a persistent duality of the chromosome elements. Although there is such an apparent duality, I can not place any significance on such appearances, for reasons stated in the description of my observations. During the polar tassement and at the time when the nuclear vacuole begins to appear, Gregoire and Wygaerts (’03) believe that anastomoses are formed between the chromosomes of the telophase. The exact origin and nature of these anastomoses they Overton— On the Boot Tips of Podophyllum Peltatum. 299 are unable to explain. They hold that they are the natural con¬ sequence of the close association and arrangement of the chromo¬ somes of the telophase at the poles. Lagerberg (’09), who finds no true alveolar structure of the chromosomes of Adoxa until after the nuclear membrane is formed, describes anastomoses between the undistributed chromosomes. Nemec (’10) holds, in common with Bonnevie ( ’08 ) , that there are lateral anastomoses between the chromosomes but that these anastomoses are not entirely due to the sticking together of the chromosomes of the telophase. Ac¬ cording to de Vries’ interpretation of Stomps’ (’10) results, and as later described by Stomps (’ll) himself, the lateral anastomoses are only appearances due to the presence of walls of numerous small swelling vacuoles, which lie between the chromosomes of the telophase. Digby (’10) holds that the lateral anastomoses are present in all stages of nuclear division, even during the period of rest. The absence of a true polar tassement and a consequent absence of anastomoses has been described by Vejdovsky (’07) for the chromosomes of certain animals. As described by Reuter (09), the chromosomes of Pediculopsis graminum, which pass to the poles of the spindle as distinct achromatic karyomeres, show no traces of lateral anastomoses. Von Schustow (’13) holds that no cross anastomoses exist during the telophases in Allium and that these anastomoses arise later by an active dislocation of the chromatic substance, not, as Gregoire (’06) and Sharp (’13) hold, by the marginal portions of the telophasic chromosomes, which are at first always in contact, adhering to one another as the chromo¬ somes separate. Von Schustow ’s view as to the origin of the anas¬ tomoses is somewhat similar to that of Boveri (’04), who holds that the anastomoses are put out like pseudopodia from the chro¬ mosomes, a similar view being also held by Gates ( ’12) and Lun- degard (’12c), while Strasburger (’05), Dehorne (’ll), and Muller (’12) all believe that the anastomoses may arise by both methods. Bonnevie (’08) describes the chromosomes of the telo¬ phases in Allium, which at first lie close together at the poles, as separating so that anastomoses are formed between the chromatic spirals. Stomps (’10, ’ll), studying the mechanism of division, finds the chromosomes of Spinacia at first closely massed at the poles, but soon separating by the swelling of numerous small vacuoles which lie between them. The walls of the vacuoles, as De Vries (’10) describes them, may be seen in the “shape of fine lines of linin, giving the image of threads stretching from one 300 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. chromosome to another”. Fraser and Snell (’ll) describe the telophasic chromosomes of Yicia as becoming attached laterally to one another. Beer (’12, ’13) holds that the chromosomes of Crepis and Eq' isetum at the poles are joined by fine cross anas¬ tomoses. Sakamura (’14) holds that lateral anastomoses of the telophasic chromosomes of Yicia play no part in their transfor¬ mation into a reticulum. As stated, in my opinion the polar tassement, in which the chromosomes are closely massed, is due entirely to fixation, as is the appearance of cross anastomoses. I have been unable to ob¬ serve in Podophyllum lateral anastomoses between telophasic chromosomes, either in the form of pseudopodia or as marginal adhesions, in material which I regard as well fixed. In this re¬ spect my observations on Podophyllum agree with those of von Schustow (’13) on Allium. I have already emphasized the fact that I have found very few stages in the study of Podophyllum which might lead to the interpretation that the chromosomes of the telophase undergo a longitudinal splitting by means of median vacuolation or other¬ wise. When the telophasic stages, which apparently show such splitting, are studied more in detail, as has been done by Sharp (’13) in Yicia and as I have done for Podophyllum (illustrated in figs. 22 and 22a), it will be seen that the appearance of such a longitudinal split is only apparent and not real. As pointed out by Lundegard ( ’12c) , and as held by von Schustow (’13) and Sharp (’13), certain nuclei, especially those of the meristematic region, do not proceed as far in their telo¬ phasic transformations as do others. My results upon Podophyl¬ lum agree with these observations that the nuclei of the meriste¬ matic region show less chromatic distribution than those in older regions of the root tip. The interpretation of nuclear transfor¬ mation as described by Gregoire has been confirmed in more or less detail by Kowalski (’04), Berghs (’04- ’05), Mano (’04), Lee (T2), De Smet (’13), and Sharp (T3, 205) and is supported in principle by Haecker (’04), the Schreiners (’06), Lagerberg (’09), Yamanouchi (’10), Nichols (TO), Stomps (TO, ’ll), Lundegard (’10a, ’12c), Nemec (TO), Miss Digby (TO, T9), Fraser and Snell (’ll), von Schustow (T3), Sakamura (T4), and others. The investigations of Mano (’04) on the root tips of Solanum tuberosum and Phaseolus vulgaris , the nuclei of which have short Overton— -On the Root Tips of Podophyllum Peltatum. 301 chromosomes, are of especial interest. In these plants the chro¬ mosomes undergo only a partial or incomplete vacuolation, the portions not being used to form the anastomoses remainning as rather large distinct chromatic masses. These masses undergo very little change, their substance appearing to be more concen¬ trated and the anastomoses between them less distinct than in the forms studied by Gregoire. During the prophases the anas¬ tomoses slowly disappear and the thicker masses enter into the definite chromosomes. Haecker (’04) observed in the epidermal cells of Siredon lar¬ vae that the chromosomes of the telophases become alveolized from without inward, so that he was able to distinguish a peripheral “ grosswabigen Alveolenmantel” and an axillary <(gehornelt er- scheinenden Chromatinstrang” which later becomes further al¬ veolate. The transformation of the chromosomes by means of a grad¬ ual alveolation into alveolar-reticulate bands or elementary reti¬ cula, as described by Gregoire (’06) and others, has already been discussed. Sharp (’13) holds that the true alveolation of the telophasic chromosomes begins about the time they begin to sep¬ arate from one another, while von Schustow (’13) thinks that the vacuolation occurs much later. Sharp describes not only a median and irregular internal, but also a peripheral, vacuolation, the in¬ ternal vacuoles occurring in almost every conceivable position, and states that some of the internal vacuoles may rupture and break the surface of the chromosomes, so that each chromosome finally becomes a ragged chromatic band joined to its neighboring bands by fine anastomoses. Sharp noted that in the process vacuoles may finally be so placed as to give the chromatic regions of the chromosomes a spiral aspect, while in other cases the vacuolation may be more or less along the median line, which may lead to the erroneous interpretation of a longitudinal split, as held by cer¬ tain authors whose work has already been mentioned. The phe¬ nomena of telophasic transformation as described above is also supported by the observations of Muller (’12) on Najas and by Sakamura (’14) on Vida cracca. Lundegard (’10&) finds that in no case can he trace a direct transformation of the chromosomes of the telophases to those of the prophases in Allium and Yicia. In Allium parts of the vac¬ uolated chromosomes may persist as clumps, threads, or masses, a condition not found in all resting nuclei. Stomps (’10, ’ll) 302 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters. describes in Spinacia the compact structure of the chromosomes as being changed into a reticular one by means of numerous small vacuoles, which slowly increase in size, thereby distending the surrounding material, so that each chromosome is transformed into the nuclear reticulum, which is a complex (< res eau de reseaux ” as described by Gregoire. Nemec (’99) describes a peripheral and internal vacuolation of the telophasic chromosomes of Allium and the presence of an axial row of vacuoles and small alveoli within the chromosomes, the chromatic substance becoming re¬ solved into numerous fine granules, which spread out along the anastomoses of the linin reticulum. In a later work Nemec ( ’10) supports Gregoire ’s view of the telophasic transformation, ob¬ serving in many telophasic chromosomes the same vacuolated ap¬ pearance, often showing a distinct axial row, or one large vacuole running throughout the length of the chromosomes. Nemec notes certain nodal points during the distribution of the chromosomes, located at their periphery, and states that if we are to accept Bon- nevie’s (’08) idea of spiral differentiation we must admit the presence of several peripheral spiral bands. Nemec maintains that these nodes or knots are not independent elements, but that they are located where several lamellae or threads of chromatic substance meet. Not only may the densely colored portions of the differentiating and distributing chromosomes appear as spi¬ rals, but Nemec thinks they may show as rings, rods, etc., which may account also for Miss Merriman’s (’04) conception of te¬ trads. Miss Digby (’10) in contrast to Gregoire ’s observations, finds no “such diagrammatic vacuolation of all the chromosomes” in Galtonia, but observes that vacuolation may be seen in certain regions and not in others. By transverse segmentation the chro¬ mosomes first break up into certain definite portions of various sizes, which remain connected as they become distributed into a more or less beaded reticulum. In her later work on Crepis and Osmunda, Miss Digby (’14, ’19) supports in principle the view stated above. The phenomena of the telophasic transformation as described by Muller (’12) for Najas agree essentially with the descriptions of Gregoire. Lawson ( ’03, ’ll, ’12) first studied the vacuolation of chromo¬ somes in Passiflora and Equisetum, but describes a like condition for those of certain other plants; this process he thinks is a Overton — On the Boot Tips of Podophyllum Peltatum. 303 constant normal phenomenon in the organization of daughter nuclei. He would regard the vacuoles or lacunae, which are pres¬ ent within the chromosomes, as being due to osmotic phenomena. The liquid in the vacuoles enters the chromosomes by osmosis, and by means of this endosomosing sap the lacunae are formed. In Allium Lawson observes an accumulation of the karyolymph within the chromosomes, appearing as minute lacunae, which in¬ crease in size and flow together, the chromosomes thus appearing vacuolated. As this karyolymph increases in amount the chromo¬ somes become finely divided, the chromatin finally appearing as a delicate reticulum suspended in the large vacuole of nuclear sap. According to this view, each chromosome has an enveloping plasmic membrane, and each chromosome, therefore, is an os¬ motic system, there being as many osmotic systems as there are chromosomes. Lawson’s view as to the origin of the chromosome membrane has been discussed by Farmer (’12). In Podophyllum I find the metaphasic and anaphasic chromo¬ somes apparently consisting of two distinctly stainable substances, which I regard as fairly good evidence that both linin and chro¬ matin are present. During the passage of the chromosomes to the poles numerous more or less irregular, transparent spots ap¬ pear, which I have suggested as probably due to absorption of liquid material that collects in droplets or masses often irregular in shape, the irregularities being due perhaps to the anastomosing of neighboring vacuoles. As stated, I look upon the chromosomes as osmotic systems as described by Lawson (’03, ’ll, ’12), except that I do not agree with him as to the origin of the chromosome membranes. Each chromosome absorbs liquid material from with¬ out, thus by a process of progressive vacuolation of the achro¬ matic portion of the chromosomes separating the denser chro¬ matic material which the chromatin supports. The chromatic granules thus become distributed in the linin reticulum by this process. I have never observed any indication of such an erosion of the chromosomes from without as has been described by some authors. The formation of vacuoles in the chromosomes thus pro¬ duces a spongy granular structure with numerous lacunae, finally giving rise to the elementary reticulate bands found in the rest¬ ing nucleus. I have described a peculiar lobed condition of the daughter nuclei. Gregoire (’06) figures a like condition for Allium but 304 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. represents the lobes as distinctly anasomosed. I do not find these chromosome lobes always anastomosed and believe that the anas¬ tomosing is due largely to fixation. These chromosome lobes in Podophyllum suggest that each chromosome becomes distributed independently, each having its own osmotic membrane, and that perhaps the nuclear membrane may be only the limiting portion of the alveolated chromosomes. A somewhat analogous formation of the nuclear membrane is described by Vejdovsky (’07) for certain animals. He believes that the membranes of the kary- omeres go to form the nuclear membrane, which is therefore, nuclear in origin. It appears from my description that possibly the nuclear membrane may be in some way closely associated with, or related to, the outer limiting layer of the chromosomes. Sharp (’13), in common with most authors, would look upon the nuclear membrane as being formed by the reaction between the cytoplasm and the chromosomes, the membrane being formed by the outer boundaries of small vacuoles between the two. Sharp, therefore, would regard the nuclear membrane as cytolasmic. My observations on Podophyllum do not entirely support this view. That alveolar-reticulate chromosomes much resemble karyomeres, especially those described for some animals, is apparent. Kary¬ omeres are regarded by many as distributed chromosomes, their origin being traceable to the chromosomes of the spindle. As they are described by Reuter (’09), who has observed them to divide mitotically in Pediculopsis graminum, each karyomere maintains a complete individuality and continuity within its own membrane throughout all the stages of division, even persisting during the resting period. Richards (’07), who describes chro¬ mosome vesicles in Fundulus, and who holds that these vesicles persist and still maintain their unity of structure during rest, reviews the recent literature. Nemec (’10) holds that the kary¬ omeres described by Vejdovsky (’07), Bonnevie (’08- ’ll), and others are formed by the vacuolation of the substance of the chro¬ mosomes; the karyomeres lie near each other and later fuse to form one large nucleus. Nemec believes it is quite possible to hinder or to retard this fusion by external conditions. In chlo- ralized roots of Visum sativum or in those treated with benzol vapor, Nemec observed an irregular diffuse distribution of the chromosomes in the cytoplasm, each chromosome forming a small nucleus. A wound stimulus also causes the chromosomes to be unequally distributed in the cell space and each chromosome may Overton— On the Root Tips of Podophyllum Peltatum. 305 form a small nucleus. That chromosomes may regularly be un¬ equally distributed and form small nuclei is found by Juel (’97) and Schurhoff (T3) in the pollen mother cells of Hemerocallis fvlvu, and I have observed a like condition in the pollen mother cells of Paeonia mutan. Typical karyomere formation in somatic cells of plants, as Nemec (’10) pointed out, had been observed up to that time only by Gregoire ( ’03), during the second division of the pollen mother cells of Trillium cernuum. In this plant several nuclei arise each of which is either mono- or polychromosomatic, but Gregoire holds that normally sooner or later the single nucleus results from a confluence of the chromosome vesicles. Nemec (’10) describes similar chromosome vesicles in Chara fragilis , in which the chromo¬ somes do not closely mass after metakinesis, as is usually the case. Nemec states that in small cells a single nucleus is constructed from all the chromosomes, but in large cells several individual nuclei are formed which soon after reconstruction fuse to form a single nucleus. Sehiirhoff (T3) also reports that the karyomeres of Hemerocallis fuse to form one nucleus. Lundegard (’12a) would regard the formation of karyomeres as a special and not a usual phenomenon in nuclear division, connected with the fact that the chromosomes are in some cases not closely associated, which fact Lundegard holds may explain the tendency of the young daugh¬ ter nuclei of Allium to show alveolated lobes, formed from the separated ends of the daughter chromosomes which have become surrounded by a membrane. As described above, I have observed a constant though not a universal lobing of the daughter nuclei similar to that described and figured for Allium by Gregoire (’06) and by Lundegard (’12c). I am of the opinion that these karyomeres are formed, as Lundegard suggests, by the rather widely separated chromo¬ somes becoming alveolated. Instead of the chromosomes becom¬ ing surrounded by a membrane as held by Lawson (’ll, ’12), I believe that the membrane about each chromosome is always pres¬ ent and that the karyomeres never fuse in the sense that they an¬ astomose, as held by Gregoire (’03), Nemec (TO), and Lunde¬ gard ( T2c) even at their polar ends, but that the only connec¬ tion between the chromosomes is by the inosculation of neighbor¬ ing vacuoles of two adjacent chromosomes. This view finds sup¬ port in the fact that in Podophyllum the chromosome bands are 20— -S. A. L. 306 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. distinctly visible in many cases in the resting nucleus. The fact that in this plant a chromosome may have its own nueleole seems to support the persistence of karyomere-like structures in the resting reticulum although the membranes of the karyomeres may be broken down by the inosculation of neighboring vacuoles. Sharp ( ’13) points out that in certain resting nuclei of Yieia heavier bands are present which represent reticulate chromosomes, but he observed them joined by fine anastomoses to form a con¬ tinuous net. It appears to me that these fine anastomoses repre¬ sent only the boundaries of inosculating vacuoles of the chromo¬ some bands. Lundegard ( '12 c) fails to find in Allium any definite orienta¬ tion of the chromosome bands; Sharp ( ’13) holds that the reticu¬ late bands of Yieia represent the chromosomes of the telophases, and figures such bands as more or less polarized and visible dur¬ ing rest; Fraser and Snell ('ll) and Lundegard ('09, '10a, '12c) state that the chromosomes of Vicia become indistinguishable during rest. Sakamura ('14) figures the chromosome bands of the telophases in Vicia cracca, as they become alveolated to form the resting nucleus, as remaining more or less polarized and states that these alveolated chromosomes are distinct during rest. Digby ('10), Fraser and Snell ('ll), Beer (’12) and others have also described a polarity in the arrangement of the chromosomes. Mul¬ ler (’12) states that in rapidly growing merismatic regions of Najas, often the telophasic structures are carried over into the next succeeding prophase. Additional evidence of the persistence of the chromosomes during rest has been brought out by the ob¬ servations of Gregoire and his students, and the work of other ob¬ servers tends to show that the loss of chromosome identity dur¬ ing the reticulated condition is only apparent. The study of the formation of a finely divided reticulum in the telophases and its behavior in the prophases has led in many cases to the identifica¬ tion of the reticulated chromosomes during rest. Many authors have recently come to the conclusion that a con¬ tinuous chromatic spirem does not exist either at prophase or at telophase. Strasburger ('05) was unable to find such a spirem in the somatic cells of Funkia and Galtonia. Gregoire and Wy- gaerts (’03) do not figure a long, thin spirem in Trillium. Gre¬ goire (’06) figures a long slender spirem in Allium but holds that it is not continuously chromatic. Gregoire and his students are of the opinion that a continuously chromatic spirem does not ex- Overtorir—On the Root Tips of Podophyllum Peltatum. 307 ist in somatic or germ nuclei. Although I ( ’04, ’05, ’09a) found an apparently continuously chromatic spirem in the germ nuclei of Podophyllum, Campanula, Helleborus, and Richardia, I was unable to find one in Calycanthus and Thalictrum. I (’09a) have already suggested that in plants like Allium, etc., in which there is an apparently continuous chromatic spirem, there prob¬ ably exist individual segments or chromosomes very closely united without any very extensive linin intervals. Evidence against a continuous chromatic spirem at any stage is abundant, as is shown by that presented, especially by Lundegard (’10a, ’12c), Stout (’12), von Schustow (’13), and others. As stated, I do not find evidence of a continuous spirem in the root tips of Podophyllum which, contrary to the statement made in my preliminary reports (Overton, ’09&, ’ll), in which it was stated that, while the spirem is not continuously chromatic, the chromosomes appear to be con¬ nected by visible linin intervals into a definite spirem. That the serial arrangement and association of chromosomes has a signifi¬ cant bearing on the problems as to the general organization of the nucleus has been pointed out by Stout (’12) and Sharp (’13). In my former studies on the organization of the nuclei of cer¬ tain plants (Overton, ,05, ’09a), and in common with Rosenberg ( ’04) and several more recent authors, I have presented consider¬ able evidence to show that the chromosomes persist as individual structures in both somatic and germ cells of plants. In certain plants I have shown that in the somatic nuclei the chromosomes are represented by certain definite bodies, the prochromosomes, arranged in parallel pairs with apparent double linin intervals, and have also suggested that these heterogeneous spirems prob¬ ably remain distinct throughout the life history of the sporophyte. I have also pointed out that in such plants possessing a hetero¬ geneous spirem during the first meiotic division, each of the two parts composing each diakinetic chromosome represents a somatic chromosome. Each univalent portion of each bivalent diakinetic chromosome undergoes a longitudinal fission, forming apparent tetrads. That in certain plants the chromosomes in resting stages and in very early prophases do not form a complete reticulum, but can be observed as unit masses at all stages of nuclear develop¬ ment, is evidence supporting the doctrine of the individuality of the chromosomes. The presence of prochromosomes or similar bodies, as first reported by Rosenberg ( ’04) for Capsella, Zostera, 308 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. and Calendula, and by Overton (’05, ’09a, ’ll) for several plants, has been observed by several other investigators.1 The doctrine that the chromosomes are permanent and that the parental elements remain separate throughout the life cycle of the organism was first suggested by Haecker. The fact that chromosomes of different sizes in certain plants are associated in pairs, as decribed by Strasburger (’05) for Funkia and Galtonia, has been substantiated by the subsequent observations of several authors on other plants. The nucleus is, therefore, not only double in the sense that it contains two sets of parental chromosomes, but these chromosomes are arranged in homologous pairs. It seems apparent, therefore, that the duality of somatic nuclei is due to the association of the homologous chromosomes in pairs, each element of which splits during the prophases, as above de¬ scribed, rather than that the duality is due to the splitting of the telophasic chromosomes as held by Fraser and Snell (’ll), Lun¬ degard (’12a, c), Miss Digby (TO, T9), von Schustow (T3), and others. I agree with Sharp (T3) that it is not necessary but rather unsafe to rely upon the principle of telophasic splitting as a premise for the conclusion that the approximation of thin threads in the early heterotypic prophase represents the reassoci¬ ation of the halves of a single split chromosome, as is done by the authors cited. The arrangement of entire chromosomes in pairs and the presence of tetrads in diakinesis, as I have described them during meiotic divisions of certain plants, argue against the necessity of such an assumption. Lundegard (’10a, b, ’12c, T5) has emphasized what he believes to be a dual tendency of the caryotin during all stages of nuclear activity, which tendency is expressed morphologically, according to Lundegard by the appearance of double earyosomes or double caryotin threads. Although Lundegard holds that morphological duality is the same in both somatic and generative prophases, he maintains that the duality signifies a qualitative difference in the heterotypic prophases, and says: “Es geht jetzt hervor, dass die heterotypische Doppelfaden aus einem Paarungsvorgang hervorgegangen sein mussen, denn eine qualitative Spaltung ware hochst unwahrscheinlich”. According to this view the halves of the heterotypic chromo¬ somes are qualitatively different, while in the somatic divisions the 1 See lists given by Stout (’12), Digby (’14), and De Smet (’14). Overton— On the Root Tips of Podophyllum Peltatum. 309 chromosome halves are quantitatively and qualitatively alike. Al¬ though von Schustow ( ’13) agrees with Lundegard as to the pres¬ ence of chromatic strands of double origin in somatic prophases, he maintains that a like duality in the heterotypic prophases offers no proof for the theory of a parallel conjugation during matura¬ tion. Regarding the methods of reduction of chromosomes, Lunde¬ gard agrees with many others that the doubleness of the spirem in the early heterotypic prophases, unlike that of the somatic prophases, is due to a lateral conjugation of chromosomes. Sykes (?08) interpreted the double structures, which she observed in early somatic and heterotypic prophases, as a pairing of entire chromosomes, and I, in common with others who have found pro¬ chromosomes, have furnished evidence for such a view. Even those adherents of the parallel conjugation theory who have not been able to follow the entire history of the chromosomes admit that the lateral conjugation of threads in the early heterotypic prophases represents the conjugation of entire chromosomes to form the bivalents which are later separated during the first mei- otic division. According to the interpretation of Digby (’19), in the hetero¬ typic prophase a distinct parallelism arises just as in somatic telophasic chromosomes and not by a conjugation of chromosomes. Following Farmer’s view of meiosis, she holds that bivalents are formed by a conjugation end to end of segments of this double spirem, these segments separating in the first division and the original split functioning in the second division, so that the homoeotypic division is regarded as a continuation of the last pre- meiotic division. Sharp (’20a), in a review of Miss Digby ’s results on Osmunda, points out that her view has certain advantages. “It allows one interpretation to be placed upon the double spirem in both somatic and heterotypic prophases, irrespective of the exact time at which the split originates, and it also helps to explain the sudden appear¬ ance of the split for the second maturation mitosis in the anaphase of the first.” Sharp further says that this question must, however, be settled by direct evidence and that its solution obviously depends upon the exact manner in which the telophasic transformation of the chromosomes and their derivation from the reticulum in the pro- 310 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters. phases are accomplished. Sharp points out that his investigations on the somatic cells of Yicia show not only that the telophasic alveolation of the chromosomes is too irregular to permit of its being looked upon as a splitting, but also that the reticulate con¬ dition of the somatic prophases, instead of developing directly into the definite split, gives rise to simple thin threads in which a new split occurs. Sharp ( ’20b) in his work on Tradescontia virginiana comes to a like conclusion. Although I agree with Sharp that the interpretation of Miss Digby has certain advantages, it appears to me that the best so¬ lution of the problem is to be found not so much by determining the exact manner of telophasic transformation and the derivation of the chromosomes from the prophasic reticulum, as by the fact that the chromosomes remain distinct throughout all stages of the heterotypic and homoeotypic divisions, and that in certain cases their complete history both during rest and division can be followed. As mentioned, I have found that in the root tips of Calycanthus the prochromosomes in the resting nuclei are associ¬ ated in pairs and are quite as large as the ordinary somatic chro¬ mosomes and have the same shape. In these root tips I have also found the definite chromosomes of division associated in pairs just as Strasburger ( ’05) has described them for Funkia and Galtonia and as they have since been described by several other workers for other forms. I have already pointed out that in the vegetative cells of Podophyllum the chromosomes are arranged in pairs. The only indication of their doubleness in the early pro¬ phases in this plant is due undoubtedly as in other cases to the associated chromosomes being in pairs. Of course, as both Sharp and I have definitely shown, each chromosome undergoes an ulti¬ mate longitudinal split in the later prophases. Although Vicia and Podophyllum are favorable subjects for study of chromosome vac- uolation and of the prophasic evolution and splitting of the definite chromosomes, they are not as well adapted to solve certain phases of the problem as are plants with shorter, less definitely reticulated chromosomes. In such forms as Funkia, in which Strasburger (’05) found the chromosomes of different sizes in pairs not only during division but also during the prophases, it should be pos¬ sible to find a satisfactory solution of the problem, especially in plants in which not only the pairing is evident but the reticula¬ tion during rest is small. Overton — On the Boot Tips of Podophyllum Peltatum. 311 Blackman (’98), Chamberlain (’99), and especially Miss Fer¬ guson (’04) have shown that in Pinus the parental elements re¬ main distinct during fertilization, observing that during the first division of the fertilized egg the parental chromatin elements form two separate spirems. The independent formation of maternal and paternal chromosomes has also been described in Tsuga by Murrill (’00), in Juniperus by Noren (’07), and in Abies by Hutchinson (‘15), the later of whom describes the maternal and paternal chromosomes as being formed independently as in most conifers, but becoming paired side by side and twisting about each other. The number of paired chromosomes is haploid, each pair of which, Hutchinson holds, segments transversely to form the diploid number. Chamberlain (’16) finds a similar pairing of the chromosomes in Stangeria at fertilization. In the angio- sperms few detailed accounts of the behavior of the chromosomes during fertilization and the first division of the egg are at hand, except that of Sax (’18) on Fritillaria and Triticum in which he holds that there is no indication that the chromosomes of the male and female gametes are in separate groups, or that they pair in the first division of the zygote. It is apparent that the pairing of the chromosomes may take place at the time of fertilization, as Hutchinson and Chamberlain have described, or later as indi¬ cated by the results of Blackman, Chamberlain, and Ferguson on Pinus and by those of other workers on other conifers. From my own studies upon the vegetative nuclei of plants showing pro¬ chromosomes I believe that the parental elements remain distinct, but I am convinneed that there is no permanent spatial separation of the parental chromosomes as described for the first division of the egg of Pinus. Miss Nothnagel (’18) reports for Lilium mar- tag on and Trillium grandi folium the presence in the fertilized egg of two distinct and separate spirems arising from the parental chromatin elements, and two separate and distinct groups of chro¬ mosomes, which she regards as evidence that the chromosomes maintain their individuality from one generation to the next. Miss Weniger (’18) also finds that in Lilium there is no fusion of the parental chromatic elements in the fertilized egg and that each parental spirem segments into the chromosomes which come together in pairs, in the manner described by Hutchinson, on the equatorial plate. I am further convinced from my studies on plants showing prochromosomes as well as from my present 312 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. studies on Podophyllum that the doubleness of the early pro- phasic somatic nuclear chromatic elements is due to the lateral association of the parental elements rather than to a splitting of the telophasic chromosomes. As I have stated in my previous work (Overton, ’09a), the nucleus is not only double in the sense that it contains two sets of parental chromosomes, but these chromosomes are so placed that there may be an interaction between homologous parallel pairs, and the association of homologous chromosomes probably occurs during fertilization or shortly thereafter, although the actual in¬ terchange or mutual influencing of parental parts occurs during synapsis or related stages. It may further be added that the se¬ rial paired arrangement of homologous parental elements in so¬ matic cells suggests the probability of mutual interaction and in¬ fluence throughout the life history of the sporophyte. From my present studies on Podophyllum and from a detailed study of the literature I can find nothing to cause a change of view. Since the above was written an important note by de Litardiere (’21) has appeared, dealing with the structure and behavior of the chromosomes in the root tips of Podophyllum peltatum. Cer¬ tain results as stated in this note do not agree with my (’09 b) in¬ terpretation. In my preliminary report it was stated that the alveolation of the chromosomes occurs during the passage of the anaphasic chromosomes toward the poles and that there was evi¬ dence that there were two substances in the chromosomes, the chromatic granules being separated by a progressive vacuolation of a linin ground substance. De Litardiere holds that the alveo¬ lation begins as early as the anaphasic dissociation, alveoli being visible in only slightly stained sections. As stated in the present paper, I have observed the beginnings of vacuolation as early as the metaphase. I still maintain that the chromosomes are com¬ posed of two substances, as previously stated. De Litardiere de¬ scribes an axial row of vacuoles in each chromosome separated from each other by thin partitions. As a general prenomenon, I have never observed the appearance of such an axial arrangement of vacuoles. One can often find individual chromosomes with such a row of granules, but it is not the usual appearance in what I regard as well fixed material. I have found the alveoli scattered at all times so that the alveolar-reticulate bands have a spongy appearance, as described in Gregoire. At the poles and during the telophase stages, de Litardiere de- Overton — On the Root Tips of Podophyllum Peltatum. 313 scribes the alveoli as increasing in number and dimensions and as becoming distributed irregularly in the chromosomes, much as I have described them. He also maintains that nothing leads to the conclusion that there is a longitudinal splitting of the chromo¬ somes by a process of alveolation. There is, therefore, no ana- phasic or telophasic splitting of the chromosomes, as held by some authors. De Litardiere describes the walls of the alveoli of the anaphasic and telophasic chromosomes as of unequal thickness with certain thin and thick spots, which might be interpreted as granules, but he denies the existence of granules massed in a linin substratum. These statements are not in accord with my observations that in Podophyllum evidence exists that the chromosomes are made up of two substances, linin and chromatin, and that the latter often appears in the form of granules. I see no reason to change my view in the light of de Litardiere ’s description. De Litardiere describes anastomoses between the chromosomes while at the poles, which he believes are formed as pseudopod-like projections from neighboring chromosomes, much as described by Boveri. He holds that these anastomoses are not stretched ad¬ hesions formed at a time the chromosomes are in contact. These results are at variance with my observations, as I have never ob¬ served anastomoses formed by any method at any stage in well fixed material. In my preliminary report on Podophyllum (Overton, ’09&), I stated that the telophasic chromosomes appear united into a con¬ tinuous spirem, but in the present paper I have shown that no con¬ tinuous spirem is ever present at any time in this plant. De Litardiere finds no telophasic spirem. De Litardiere also finds the extremities of some of the chromo¬ somes terminating at or on the nuclear membrane, much as I have described, often forming marked projections, a fact which I have cited as indicating the individual character of the chromosomes in this plant. The appearance of zigzag bands is also described in interphasic nuclei. His suggestion that, by observing cross sections of chromosome bands, I have been led to conclude that the chromosomes are formed by a condensation process is not well taken. My conception of the condensation process is fully dis¬ cussed in the main body of this paper. Although Mottier and I have found sixteen diploid chromo¬ somes in Podophyllum peltatum , de Litardiere finds only twelve 314 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. and suggests that there may be several races of this species differ¬ ing in the number of chromosomes. Resume 1. The resting nucleus does not in general contain a continuous reticulum. Elementary alveolar-reticulate bands which represent the chromosomes can be distinguished, often forming lobes in the nucleus. 2. No karyosomes or prochromosomes are present in the rest¬ ing nucleus. 3. During prophases the alveolar-reticulate chromosomes con¬ dense to form zigzag threads which later thicken and shorten. 4. These thin threads split longitudinally, probably by means of axial vacuolation, the split persisting until the chromosomes are separated at metaphase. 5. No continuous spirem is present at any time. 6. Evidence exists that the chromosomes consist of two sub¬ stances, linin and chromatin, the latter often appearing in the form of definite chromomeres. 7. The chromosomes are arranged on the spindle with their halves superposed. Spindle fibers may be attached at any point to the chromosomes. 8. The chromosomes show a tendency to be arranged in homol¬ ogous pairs on the spindle. A similar arrangement can not al¬ ways be seen during rest, but strong evidence is often found of such pairing during the prophases. 9. There is no massing at the poles of the telophasic chromo¬ somes, each chromosome remaining separated from its neighbors. 10. The telophasic chromosomes are not normally connected by cross anastomoses. 11. Each chromosome undergoes an irregular alveolation, the beginnings of which become slightly evident as early as the meta¬ phases, but the alveolation continues to increase through the ana¬ phases and telophases until each chromosome by complete vacuo¬ lation forms an alveolar-reticulate structure of the resting reti¬ culum. 12. Each chromosome for a time is apparently surrounded by its own membrane, thus resembling a karyomere. The chromo¬ some membrane apparently enters into the formation of the nu¬ clear membrane. During rest the chromosome membrane is broken Overton — On the Boot Tips of Podophyllum Peltatum. 315 down between adjacent chromosomes by the interosculation of neighboring vacuoles. 13. The anaphasic and telophasic vacuolation of the chromo¬ somes has no direct relation to the longitudinal splitting of the chromosomes, this splitting being entirely prophasic. 14. Evidence exists that the chromosomes are individualized structures persisting as such in different forms throughout all stages of division and rest. 15. The heterotypic division separates whole chromosomes which have previously been laterally paired (see Overton, ’05). 16. No evidence was found to support either Merriman’s or Bonnevie’s theory of chromosome structure. 17. The results do not support the interpretation of Fraser and Snell, Lundegard, Digby, and others as to the duality of nuclear structures. Literature Cited Allen, C. E. (’05): Nuclear division in the pollen mother-cells of Lilium canadense. Annals of Bot. 19: 189-258. 1905. Beer, R. (’12, ’13): Studies in spore development. II. On the structure and division of the nuclei in the Compositae. Annals of Bot. 26: 705-726. 1912. III. The premeiotic and meiotic nuclear divisions of Equisetum arvense. Idem. 27: 643-659. 1913. Berghs, J. (’04-’05): La formation des chromosomes hetdrotypiques dans la sporogendse vdgetale. I. 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Gaz. 27: 268-280. 1899. - - • (’16): Stangeria paradoxa, Idem. 61:353-372. 1916. 316 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. Dehome, A. (’ll): Recherches sur la division de la cellule. I. Le duplicisme constant du chromosome somatique chez Salamandra maculosa Laur. et chez Allium cepa L. Arch. Zellforsch. 6: 613- 639. 1911. Densmore, R. D. (’08): The origin, structure and function of the polar caps in Smilacina amplexicaulis, Nutt. Univ. Cal. Pub. Bot. 3: 303-330. ,1908. De Smet, E. (’14): Chromosomes, prochromosomes, et nucleole dans quelques Dicotyldes. Cellule 29: 335-377. 1914. De Vries, H. (’10): A new principle in the mechanism of nuclear division. Science n. ser. 32: 182-183. 1910. Digby, D. (’10): The somatic, premeiotic, and meiotic nuclear di¬ visions of Galtonia candicans. Annals of Bot. 24: 727-757. 1910. - . ’14): A critical study of the cytology of Crepis virens. Arch. Zellforsch. 12: 97-146. 1914. - . (’19): On the archesporial and meiotic phases of Osmunda. 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(’03): La reconstitution du noyau et la formation des chromosomes dans les cin&ses somatiques. Cellule 21: 1-76. 1903. Gregoire, V. (’06): La structure de l’element chromosomique au repos et en division dans les cellules vegdtales. Cellule 23: 311- 353. 1906. - . (’08): Les fondements cytologiques des theories courantes sur l’hdreditd mendelienne. Ann. Soc. Roy. Zool. et Malacol. Belg. 42: 267-320. 1908. - . (’12): Les phdnomenes de la metaphase et de l’anaphase dans la caryocinese somatique. Ann. Soc. Sci. Bruxelles 36: 1- 36. 1912. Haecker, V. (’04): Bastardirung und Geschlechtszellenbildung. Zool. Jahrb. Supp. 7: 161-256. 1904. Overton — On the Boot Tips of Podophyllum Peltatum. 317 - - . (’07): Die Chromosornen als angenommene Vererbungs- trager. Ergebn. u. Fortschr. Zool. 1: 1-136. 1907. Hutchinson, A. H. (’15): Fertilization in Abies balsamea. Bot. Gaz. 60: 457-472. 1915. Juel, O. 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(’21): Remarque au sujet de quelques processus chromosomiques dans les noyaux du Podophyllum peltatum L. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 172: 1066-1068. 1921. Lundegard, H. (’10a): XJeber Kernsteilung in den Wurzelspitzen von Allium cepa und Vicia faba. Svensk Bot. Tidskr. 4: 174-196. 1910. — . (’10b): Ein Beitrag zur Kritik zweier Verebungshypothesen. Ueber Protplasmastrukturen in den Wurzelmeristemzellen von Vicia faba. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 48: 285-378. 1910. * - . (’12a): Die Kernteilung bei hdheren Organismen nach Un- tersuchungen an lebendem Material. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 51: 236- 282. 1912. - . (’12b): Chromosornen, Nucleolen und die Veranderungen im Protoplasma bei der Karyokinese. Cohn’s Beitr. Biol. Pflanz. 11: 373-542. 1912. - - . (12c): Das Caryotin im Ruhekern und sein Verhalten bei der Bildung und Auflosung der Chromosornen. Arch. Zellforsch. 9: 205-330. 1912. - . (’13): Die Morphologie des Kerns und der Teilungsvorgange bei hdheren Organismen. Arkl. Bot. 12, no. 8: 1-41. 1913. - . (’14): Zur Mechanik der Kernteilung. Svensk Bot. Tidskr. 8: 161-180. 1914. - . (’15). Zur Kenntnis der heterotypischen Kernteilung. Arch. Zellforsch. 13: 145-157. 1915. Mano, T. M. (’04): Nucleole et chromosomes dans le merist&me radiculaire de Solarium tuberosum et Phaseolus vulgaris . Cellule 22: 57-78. 1904. 318 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. Mer riman, M. Ii. (’04): Vegetative cell division in Allium. Bot* Gaz. 37: 178-207. 1904. Mottier, D. M. (’07): The development of the heterotypic chromo¬ somes in pollen mother-cells. Annals of Bot. 21: 309-347. 1907. Muller, C. (’09): Ueber karyokinetische Bilder in den Wurzel- spitzen von Yucca. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 47: 99-117. 1909. — - . (’12 ): Kernstudien an Pflanzen. I. und II. Arch. Zellforsch. 8: 1-51. 1912. Murrill, W. A. (’00): The development of the archegonium and fertilization in the hemlock spruce (Tsuga candensis, CarrJ An¬ nals of Bot. 14: 583-607. 1900. Nemee, B. (’99): Ueber die karyokinetische Kerntheilung in der Wurzelspitze von Allium cepa. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 33: 313-336. 1899. - . (’10): Das Problem der Befruchtungsvorgange und andere zytologische Fragen. pp. 532, Berlin. 1910. Nichols, G. E. (’10): A morphological study of Juniperus communis var. depresse. Beih. Bot. Centralb. 25: 202-241. 1910. Noren, C. O. (’07): Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des Juniperus communis. Uppsala Univ. Arssk. Matem. Naturvet. 1907, no. 1. Pp. 64. Nothnagel, M. (’18): Fecundation and formation of the primary endosperm nucleus in certain Liliaceae. Bot. Gaz. 66: 143-160. 1918. Overton, J. B. (’05). fiber Reduktionsteilung in den Pollenmut- terzellen einiger Dikotylen. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 42: 121-153. 1905. - . (’09a): On the organization of the nuclei in the pollen mother-cells of certain plants. Annals of Bot. 23: 19-61. 1909. - . ( ’0 9 & ) : The organization and reconstruction of the nuclei in the root-tips of Podophyllum peltatumB Proc. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci. 1909, 678, 679. - •. (’ll): On the organization and reconstruction of the nucleus in the root-tips of Podophyllum peltatum. Science n. ser. 33: 193, 194. 1911. Reuter, E. (’09): Merokinesis, ein neuer Kernteilungsmodus. Acta Soc. Sci. Fennicae 37, No. 7: 1-52. 1909. Richards, A. (’17): The history of the chromosomal vesicles in Fundulus and the theory of genetic continuity of chromosomes. Biol. Bull. 32: 249-290. 1917. Rosenberg, O. (’04): fiber die Individualist der Chromosomen im Pflanzenreich. Flora 93: 251-259. 1904 Sakamura, T. (’14): Studien fiber die Kernteilung bei Vicia cracca. Bot. Mag. Tokyo 28: 131-147. 1914. — — . (’15): Ueber die Einschnfirung der Chromosomen bei Vicia faba Li . Bot. Mag. Tokyo 29: 288-300. 1915. Overton — On the Boot Tips of Podophyllum Peltatum. 319 Sax, K. (’18): The behavior of the chromosomes in fertilization. Genetics 3: 309-327. 1918. Schreiner, A. and Schreiner, K. EL (’06): Neue Studien fiber die Chromatinreifung der Geschlechtszellen. I. Die Reifung der mannlichen Geschlechtszellen von Tomopteris onisciformis , Esch- scholtz. Arch. Biol. 22: 1-69. 1906. Schurhoff, P. Nl (’13): Karyomerenbildung in den Pollenkornen von Hemerocallis fulva. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 52: 405-409. 1913. von Schustow, Jj. (’13): fiber Kernteilungen in der Wurzelspitze von Allium cepa. Arch. Zellforsch. 11: 340-388. 1913. Sharp, Ij. W. (’13): Somatic chromosomes in Vicia. Cellule 29: 297-331. 1913. - . (’20a): Mitosis in Osmunda. Bot. Gaz. 69: 88-91. 1920. — — . (’20b): Somatic chromosomes in Tradescantia. Am. Jour. Bot. 8: 305-317. 1920. Trav. Bot. Neer. 1: 160-218. 1904. Stomps, T. J. (’10): Kerndelling en synapsis bij Spinacia oleracea Li. Pp. 162 Diss. Amsterdam, 1910. - . (’ll): Kernteilung und Synapsis bei Spinacia cleracea L. Biol. Centralb. 31: 257-309. 1911. Stout, A. B. (’12): The individuality of the chromosomes and their serial arrangement in Carex aquatilis. Arch. Zellforsch. 9: 114- 140. 1912. Strasburger, E. (’82): Ueber den Teilungsvorgang der Zellkerne und das Verhaltniss der Kerntheilung zur Zelltheilung. Arch. Mikrosk. Anat. 21: 476-590. 1882. - . (’95): Karyokinetische Probleme. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 28: 151-204. 1895. - . (’00): Ueber Reduktionstheilung, Spindelbildung, Centro- somen and Cilienbildner im Pflanzenreich. Rist. Beitr. 6. 66. 224. Jena, 1900. - . (’05): Typische und allotypische Kernteilung. Ergebnisse und Erorterungen. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 42: 1-71. 1905. - . (’07a): Apogamie bei Marsilia. Flora 97: 123-191. 1907. (’07b): fiber die Individualitat der Chromosomen und die Propfhybriden-Frage. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 44: 482-555. 1907. - . (’08): Chromosomenzahlen, Plasmastrukturen, Vererbungs- trager und Roduktionsteilung. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 45: 479-570. 1908. ■ — (’ll): Kernteilungsbilder bei der Erbse. Flora 102:1-23. 1911. Sykes, M. G. (’08): Nuclear division in Funkia. Arch. Zellforsch. 1: 380-398. 1908. Vejdovsky, F. (’07): Neue Untersuchungen fiber die Reifung und Befruchtung. K. Bohm. Ges. Wiss. Prag. Separatabdr. pp. 1- 103. 1907. 320 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. Wager, H. (’04): The nucleolus and nuclear division in the root- apex of Phaseolus. Annals of Bot. 18: 29-55. 1904. Weniger, W. (’18): Fertilization in Lilium. Bot. Gaz. 66:259- 268. 1918. van Wisselingh, C. (’99): Ueber das Kerngerust. Bot. Zeit. 57: 155-176. 1899. Yamanouchi, S. (’10): Chromosomes in Osmunda. Bot. Gaz. 49: 1-12. 1910. Description of Figures in Plate VII Podophyllum peltaum Fig. 1. Equatorial plate stage, showing five entire chromosomes and por¬ tion of a sixth. Zenker’s fluid. Heidenhain’s iron-alum- haematoxylin stain. Fig. 2. Metaphasic chromosome, showing internal chromatic and achro¬ matic differentiation. Vacuolation already begun. Merkel’s fluid. Triple stain. Fig. 3. Anaphasic chromosomes, showing different chromosome forms resulting from place of attachment of spindle fibers. Inter¬ nal vacuolation also shown. Merkel's fluid. Triple stain. Fig. 4. Cell showing telophasic chromosomes densely crowded at poles. Cell much shrunken. Cytoplasm appears poorly fixed. Flemming’s strong solution. Triple stain. Fig. 5. Telophasic chromosomes rather widely separated from one another. No cross anastomoses present. Chromosomes shown tend to be arranged in pairs. Merkel’s fluid. Iron-alum- haematoxylin stain. Fig. 6. Telophasic chromosomes, showing lack of cross anastomoses and irregular internal vacuolation. Merkel’s fluid. Triple stain. Fig. 7. Telophasic chromosomes, showing lack of cross anastomoses and still further internal vacuolation. Anastomosing vacuoles and unreticulate portions are shown. Merkel’s fluid. Triple stain. Fig. 8. Two daughter cells, showing nuclei in process of reconstruction. Chromosomes undergoing internal vacuolation. In the upper nucleus chromosomes are free from adjacent ones at polar ends but form lobes at the free ends. In the lower nucleus some chromosomes can be seen entirely free from one another, but their substance is rather widely distributed. Absence of cross anastomoses. Merkel’s fluid. Triple stain. OVERTON.— OR TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. XX. OVERTON. — ORGANIZATION OF NUCLEI. Overton — On the Boot Tips of Podophyllum Peltatum. 321 Fig. 9. Two daughter cells, showing what appears to be complete distribu¬ tion of the substance of the chromosomes into a resting reti¬ culum. No evidence of chromosome individuality, absence of prochromosomes, and no karyomeres. Flemming’s strong solution. Triple stain. Fig. 10. Enlarged portion of the upper nucleus shown in figure 0. In this nuclear reticulum the linin portions are stained orange and the enclosed chromatic substance violet with the triple combination. Fig. 11. Portion of a cell showing prohpasic nucleus with reticulate chro¬ mosomes distinct in the foreground. Merkel’s fluid. Triple stain. Fig. 12. Portion of a cell showing prophasic nucleaus with elementary reticulate chromosomes or bands, one such band forming a lobe on the left of the figure. Merkel’s fluid. Triple stain. Fig. 13. Later prophasic stage, showing distinct, reticulate, condensing chromosomes or bands on right of figure. Merkel’s fluid. Triple stain. Fig. 14. Portion of nucleus in prophase stage, showing condensation of portions of chromosomes and spiral aspect of the thread at the right of figure. Merkel’s fluid. Triple stain. Fig. 15. Portion of a prophasic nucleus, showing condensation of the chromosomes and evolution of spiral threads. Zenker’s fluid. Triple stain. Fig. 16. Prophasic stage of nucleus showing chromosome bands cut trans¬ versely and irregular arrangement of chromatic platelets of each band. Merkel's fluid. Iron-alum-haematoxylin stain. Fig. 17. Prophasic Stage showing simple zigzag arrangement of threads with indication of longitudinal split. Zenker’s fluid. Triple stain. Fig. 18. Portion of zigzag thread showing longitudinal split. Merkel’s fluid. Iron-alum-haematoxylin stain. Fig. 19. Later prophasic stage showing disappearance of zigzag arrange¬ ment of thread and its complete longitudinal fission. Chro¬ mosomes show polar orientation in nuclear cavity. Zenker’s fluid. Triple stain. Fig. 20. Cell showing longitudinally split chromosomes in nuclear cavity. Chromomeres evident in each half of split chromosomes. Polar caps in cytoplasm. Zenker’s fluid. Iron-alum-haemat¬ oxylin stain. 21— S. A. L. 322 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. Fig. 21. Two late prophasic longitudinally split chromosomes, showing halves closely pressed together. Chromosome pair evident at right of figure. Merkel’s fluid. Triple stain. Fig. 22. Late telophase stage. Inuclear vacuole forming. Yacuolation of chromosomes distinct in each, showing the appearance of longitudinal split and cross anastomoses. Flemming’s strong fluid. Triple stain. Fig. 22 a. Detail of the two left-hand chromosomes of the upper nucleus in figure 22. No central line of vacuoles appears in the left- hand chromosome, although the vacuolation of the right- hand chromosome might be so interpreted. Fig. 23. Cell showing reconstruction stages of the two daughter nuclei and apparent parallel arrangement of dispirem threads, but in reality showing stage in alveolation of chromosomes into irregular bands. Flemming’s strong fluid. Triple stain. Fig. 23a. Detail portion of the upper nucleus of figure 23 to show that the parallel aspect is only apparent. Figure 23 & represents a similar condition. Figs. 24, 25. Prohpasic nuclei showing conditions which might be inter¬ preted as a parallelism of threads but in reality represent¬ ing stages in condensation of chromosomes comparable to that shown in figure 15. Flemming’s strong fluid. Triple stain. Fig. 25a. Detail of portion of nucleus shown in figure 25. Apparent parall¬ elism of chromatic portions of condensing chromosomes shown. THE PHYTOPLANKTON OF THE MUSKOKA REGION, ONTARIO, CANADA1 Gilbert Morgan Smith This report on a reconnaissance survey of the August and Sep¬ tember phytoplankton in the lakes of the Muskoka region in southern Ontario represents an extension to another region of the type of survey which I have been carrying on in the State of Wisconsin for the past few seasons. The Muskoka region was chosen because lakes are abundant and because of the geological nature of the district. The expectation, on the basis of the Wests’ theory of geological correlation, that the region would prove rich in desmids was fully realized, and many lakes were found with a rich desmid flora. The general nature of the plankton flora is much the same as that of other lakes in areas of old igneous rocks: namely, small bulk of plankton, scarcity of Myxophyceae, and few species of Protococcales. In general, the same organisms are found in On¬ tario as in Wisconsin, but the relative abundance is not the same. Thus, for example, Pediastrum Boryanum, Kirchneriella obesa, and Coelastrum microporum are widely distributed in Wisconsin but poorly represented in the plankton of Ontario. Conversely, Pediastrum araneosum, Dimorpho coccus lunatus , and Dactylococ- copsis rhaphidioides are much more abundant in Ontario. The most striking feature of the desmid portion of the plankton in Ontario is the frequent occurrence of Staurastrum limneticum var, burmense, an alga that has been recorded from but a single lake in Wisconsin. A comparison of the desmid floras of the two regions will not be made at the present time since the account of the Wisconsin region has not, as yet, been completed. 1 These investigations were made possible by grants for traveling expenses from the Research Fund of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and from the Research Fund of the University of Wisconsin. 323 324 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters. Table 1. Showing the location and size of lakes from which plankton collections were made. The first column refers to the sheet of the Canadian Geographical Survey on which the lake is mapped, P. S. referring to the Parry Sound sheet and T. to the Toronto sheet. Sheet Lake Couuty Township Lot Conces¬ sion Length (Miles) Breadth (Miles) T. Basil Muskoka Wood 26-27 IX .65 .20 P.S. Big Dudley 1 Muskoka Medora 16 D .45 .15 P.S.-T. Black (1) Muskoka Wood 19-21 VI-VII .80 .25 P.S. Black (2) Muskoka Ridout 27-28 XIII .35 .25 T. Brush Muskoka Wood 8 X .20 .15 T. Burned Rock Muskoka Wood 10-11 IX-X .70 .25 P.S. Butterfly Muskoka Medora 16-21 II-III .65 .34 T. Clear (1) Muskoka Wood 1.45 .65 P.S. Clear (2) Muskoka Ridout 28-31 XI-XII .85 .45 T. Cornell Muskoka Muskoka 16-17 I .80 .25 P.S. Corner Muskoka Ridout 15-16 X-XI 25 .20 T. Echo Muskoka Wood 2.15 irr. T. Gull (1) Muskoka 2.50 .30 T. Gull (2) Muskoka Wood 15-17 VIII-IX irr. irr. P.S. Hamer Parry Sd. Humphrey 32-33 VII-VIII .65 .35 P.S. Harbon Muskoka Medora 16-17 III .35 .30 P.S. Henshaw Muskoka Medora 26-28 II .70 .35 P.S. Joseph Humphrey 12.20 irr. Medora P.S. Lake of Bays Muskoka Franklin 12.50 irr. McLean P.S. Leech Muskoka Wood 35-36 VII P.S. Little Dudley Muskoka Medora 13 D .25 .12 P.S.-T. Long (1) Muskoka Wood 1.65 .45 P.S. Long (2) Muskoka Rideout 12-13 XIV .45 .25 T. Loon Muskoka Muskoka 28-35 IV-V 2.20 .30 P.S. Marion Muskoka Medora 27 IV .25 .15 P.S. McGowan or Mine Parry Sd. Foley 146-147 B .60 .15 P.S. Mill Parry Sd. McDougall 2.40 1.70 P.S. Mud Muskoka Ridout 27 XII .15 .10 T. Muldrew Muskoka Wood 5.20 .80 Muskoka T.-P.S. Muskoka Muskoka 14.00 irr. T. Nelson Muskoka Wood 15-16 VIII .35 .12 T. Nine Mile Muskoka Wood 6.20 .30 P.S. Otter Parry Sd. Foley 5.20 irr. P.S. Pennsylvania Muskoka Wood 40-41 VII-VIII .45 .30 T. Pine Muskoka Wood 4.50 .50 Muskoka P.S. Portage Parry Sd. Humphrey 1.15 .40 P.S. Rosseau Muskoka Medora 10.50 irr. Watt P.S. Round (1) Muskoka Wood 36 VII .40 .30 P.S. Round (2) Muskoka Ridout 10 XIV .35 .20 P.S. Rowley Parry Sd. Foley 17-20 VII-X 1.70 .irr P.S. St. Mary Muskoka Ridout 1.80 1.10 T. Silver (1) Muskoka Muskoka 10-14 I&XII 1.00 .60 Morrison P.S. Silver (2) Parry Sd. Humphrey 34-35 VII-VIII 1.10 .60 P.S. Strange Parry Sd. Foley 26-27 A&XI 1.05 irr. 145-146 P.S. Thompson Muskoka Medora 27 III .40 .15 P.S. Vernon Muskoka Sisted 5.20 1.70 Chaffey T. White Muskoka Muskoka 16-17 II .50 .30 Smith — Phytoplankton of the Muskoka Region. 325 The method of presentation of the data is the same as is em¬ ployed in the account of the Wisconsin phytoplankton2, and the same symbols are used to denote the frequency of occurrence of the different species. Citation of the original publication of the species has been omitted, however, in all cases where it has been given in connection with Wisconsin algae. Citation of descrip¬ tions of the Desmidiaceae is likewise omitted since the ground is amply covered by Nordstedt’s Index Desmidiacearum. The lakes from which plankton samples were collected are shown in table 1. Class MYXOPHYCEAE Order Coccogoneales CHROOCOCCUS Nageli 1849 Chroococcus dispersus var. minor G. M. Smith Gull (2) (rr). Chroococcus limneticus Lemm. Basil (rr). Big Dudley (rrr), Black (2) (sss), Butterfly (r). Clear (1) (rrr), Clear (2) (r), Corner (rrr), Hamer (rr), Harbon (rrr), Henshaw (s), Joseph (s), (Lake of Bays (r), -Little Dudley (rrr), Long (1) (r), Long (2) (r), McGowan (ss), Marion (rr), Muldrew (r), Muskoka (rr), Otter (sss), Portage (rr), Rosseau (rr), Rowley (r), St. Mary (r), Silver (1) (r), Silver (2) (r), Vernon (r). Chroococcus turgidus (Ktz.) Nag. Clear (ss),Gull (1) (rrr), Mill (rrr), Vernon (rrr). MERISMOPEDIA Meyen 1839 Merismopedia elegans A. Br. Basil (rr), Big Dudley (rrr), Clear (2) (rrr), Gull (1) (rrr), Marion (rrr), Mill (rrr), Strange (rrr). Merismopedia glauca (Ehr.) Nag. Silver (1) (rrr). Merismopedia tenuissima Lemm. Butterfly (rrr), Black (1) (sss), Gull (2) (rrr), Henshaw (s), Muskoka (rrr), Nine Mile (rrr), Rowley (sss), Vernon (ss). 2 Smith, G. M., Phytoplankton of the inland lakes of Wisconsin Part I. Wis. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 57, 1920. 326 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. COELOSPHAERIUM Nageli 1849 COELOSPHAERIUM KUETZINGIANUM Nag. Basil (rr), Big Dudley (rr), Black (1) (rrr), Burned Rock (rrr), Butter¬ fly (r), Henshaw (r), Joseph (rrr), Little Dudley (rrr), Long (1) (r), Long (2) (rrr), McGowan (rr). Mill (rr), Muldrew (rr), Muskoka (rr), Nelson (rrr), Otter (r), Round (2) (rr), Rowley (r), St. Mary (sss), Sil¬ ver (1) (rrr), Silver (2) (r), Vernon (rrr). Coelosphaerium Naegelianum Unger Basil (rrr). Big Dudley (rrr), Black (1) (rrr), Black (2) (rrr), Brush (s), Burned Rock (rr), Butterfly (rrr), Clear (1) (rr), Clear (2) (rr), Echo (rr), Gull (1) (sss), Gull (2) (sss), Harbon (rrr), Henshaw (sss), Joseph (rrr), Little Dudley (rrr), Long (1) (rr), Long (2) (rr), Marion (sss), Mill (r), Muldrew (rr), Muskoka (r), Nelson (r), Nine Mile (rrr). Pine (rrr), Portage (rrr), Rowley (r), Rosseau (r), St. Mary (rr), Silver (1) (r), Silver (2) (rrr), Strange (rr) , Thompson (rr), Vernon (r). GOMPHOSPHAERIA Kiitzing 1836 Gomphosphaeria lacustris Chodat. Basil (rr), Harbon (rr), Henshaw (r), Lake of Bays (r), Long (1) (rr). Long (2) (rr),Mill (rr), Muskoka (rr), Rosseau (r), St. Mary (r), Strange (rrr), Vernon (rr). Gomphosphaeria aponina Ktz. Long (1) (rrr). MICROCYSTIS Kiitzing 1833 Microcystis aeruginosa Ktz. Henshaw (ss). var. major (Wittr.) G. M. Smith Harbon (rr). Microcystis flos- aquae (Wittr.) Kirchner Big Dudley (rrr), Black (1) (rrr), Brush (rr), Butterfly (rrr), Clear (2) (rrr), Echo (rrr), Gull (2) (rrr), Lake of Bays (ss), Little Dudley (rrr). Loon (rrr), Marion (ss), Mill (rrr) , Muskoka (rrr), Rosseau (rr). Round (2) (r), Thompson (rrr), Vernon (r). APHANOCAPSA Nageli 1849 Aphanocapsa elachista var. conferta W. & G. S. West Basil (r), Clear (2) (ss), Round (2) (sss), Rowley (sss), Thompson (ss). Smith — Phytoplankton of the Muskoka Region. 327 var. planctonica G. M. Smith Black (1) (rr), Black (2) (cc), Burned Rock (rr), Butterfly (r), Gull (1) (ss), Lake of Bays (ss), Leech (rr), Long (2) (ss), Muskoka (ss), Marion (rrr), Strange (rrr), Vernon (sss). Aphanocapsa Grevillei (Hass.) Kab. Pine (rr), Otter (rrr). APHANOTHECE Nageli 1849 Aphanothece clathrata W. & G. S. West Vernon (rrr). Aphanothece stagnina (Spreng.) A. Br. Leech (rrr). GLOEOTHECE Nageli 1849 Gloeothece linearis Nag. Cells 13.5-20 fx long; 3. 5-4.5 [x broad. Long (1) (rrr). DACTYLOCOCCOPSIS Hansgirg 1888 Dactylococcopsis rhaphidioides Hansg. Cells 2. 5-3. 5 /x broad; 7.5-21 fx long. Basil (r), Clear (1) (rr), Clear (2) (rr), Hamer (cc) , Lake of Bays (rr), Long (1) (rr), Muldrew (rrr), Muskoka (rrr), Nelson (rrr), Rowley (rrr), St. Mary (rrr), Silver (2) (rrr), Vernon (rrr). This seems to be a widely distributed alga in the Muskoka region. The organism resembles Rhabdoderma linear e Schmidle & Lau- terb. in general appearance, but differs in the cell ends being at¬ tenuated to a rounded point instead of having cylindrical cells that are not attenuated. The two daughter cells resulting from the division of any cell remain unchanged for some time so that the two poles of a cell are different, as in Elaktothrix gelatinosa Wille. The gelatinous envelope of the individual cells was evident in many colonies, but in others it was completely confluent with the colonial envelope. The distribution of the cells within the co¬ lonial envelope is not regular, although a majority of the ^ells have their long axes parallel. Dactylococcopsis acicularis Lemm. Clear (2) (rrr). 328 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. Order Hormogoneales TRICHODESMIUM Ehrenberg 1830. Trichodesmium lactjstre Klebahn. Harbon (rrr), Loon (rrr). ANABAENA Bory 1822 Anabaena limnetica G. M. Smith Pine (rrr). Anabaena Bornetiana Collins Vegetative cells 1R-13 y broad; heterocysts 10-13.75 fx broad: spores 12.5-16.5 y, broad, 46-111 fx long. Black (1) (r), Butterfly (r), Gull (1) (rrr), Gull (2) (rrr), Long (1) (rr), Loon (rr), Nelson (rr), Rowley (rr). The spores of this species are always adjacent to and in the great majority of cases on both sides of the heterocysts. The dimensions given above are slightly different from those of Collins. Anabaena spiroides Klebahn Cells 7. 5-8. 5 fx broad; heterocysts 7.5-8.75 [x broad; spores 10 [x broad, 27-37.5 jx long. Clear (2) (rrr), Lake of Bays (rr). Anabaena Lemmermanni P. Richter Black (2) (r), Burned Rock (rrr), Harbon (sss), Joseph ( rrr ), Lake of Bays (r), Long (2) (rrr), Portage (rr). Anabaena flos-aquae (Lyng.) Ralfs Basil (rr), Big Dudley (rr), Black (1) (rr), Butterfly (r), Clear (1) (aa), Henshaw (rr),Long (1) (rr), Marion (rr),Pine (rr),Rosseau (rrr), Round (2) (rr), Rowley (rr), St. Mary (rr), Strange (rrr), Thompson (rr). APHANIZOMENON Morren 1838 Aphanizomenon flos-aqae (L.) Ralfs Gull (1) (rrr), Lake of Bays (rr), Marion (rrr), Mill (rr), Rosseau (rrr), St. Mary (rrr), Thompson (rrr). Smith — Phytoplankton of the Muskoka Region, 329 GLOEOTRICHIA J. G. Agardh 1842 Gloeotrichia echinulata (Eng. Bot.) P. Richter Clear (2) (r). A form of this species was noted from Long Lake with ovoid hetereocysts and longer and narrower spores. Heterocysts 8.75-10 y broad, 11.5-13 /* long; spores 7.5-8.75 //. broad, 41-60 //. long. Class PHAEOPHYCEAE Order Chromulinales CHRYSOSPHAERELLA Lauterborn 1896 Chrysosphaerella longispina Lauterborn Burned Rock (s), Butterfly (s), Gull (1) (c), Echo (rrr), Hamer (r), Harbon (s), Henshaw (rr), Joseph (aa), Leech (r), Long (1) (rr), Long (2) (r). Loon (sss), Muskoka (cc), Otter (ss), Pine (s), Portage (cc), Rosseau (cc), Round (1) (rrr), Round (2) (ccc), Rowle'y (s), Silver (1) (s), Strange (ss), Vernon (r). Order Isochrysidales SYNURA Ehrenberg 1838 Synura dvella Ehr. Basil (s), Black (1) (rr), Brush (rr), Burned Rock (r), Butterfly (r), Cornell (s), Echo (ccc), Gull (2) (a), Harbon (sss), Henshaw (s), Joseph (sss), Lake of Bays (r), Leech (sss), Long (1) (r). Loon (ss), Little Dud¬ ley (ss), McGowan (cc), Marion (sss), Mill (ccc), Muskoka (cc), Nelson (s), Nine Mile (cc), Otter (r), Pennsylvania (rr), Pine (sss). Round (1) (rr), Rosseau (ss), Rowley (ss), Silver (1) (sss), Strange (c), Vernon (r), White (r). Order Ochromonadales UROGLENOPSIS Lemmermann 1899 Uroglenopsis Americana (Calk.) Lemm. Gull (1) (rrr), Henshaw (rrr), Joseph (r), Leech (rr), Loon (rr), Marion (rr), Mill (rrr), Muskoka (r), Otter (rr), Rowley (rrr). Strange (r). 330 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. DINOBRYON Ehrenberg 1835 Dinobryon bavaricum Imhof Gull (1) (rr), Leech (ss), Strange (r). Dinobryon stipitatum Stein Musk oka (ss). Dinobryon setularia Ehr. (Burned Rock (sss), Henshaw (aaa), Leech (ss), Marion (ss), Mus- koka (sss), Strange (r). Dinobryon divergens Imhof Rowley (r), Strange (r). Order Phaeocapsales PHAEOCOCCUS Borzi 1892 Phaeococcus planctonicus var. ovalis var. nov. Pl. VIII, fig. 20. Cells ovoid to ellipsoid, scattered in small groups throughout the gelatinous envelope. Chloroplasts two, laminate, with smooth edges. Breadth cells 5-6 u, length 8-9 u. Leech (ss). Class HETEROKONTEAE CHLOROBOTRYS Bohlin 1901 Chlorobotrys limneticus G. M. Smith Black (1) (r), Long (1) (rrr), Nine Mile (rrr), Vernon (rr). BOTRYOCOCCUS Kutzing 1849 Botryococcus Braunii Ktz. Big Dudley (rr), Black (1) (rr), Black (2) (rrr), Butterfly (rrr), Gull (1) (rr), , Hamer (r), Harbon (rr), Henshaw (rrr), Lake of Bays (rrr), Leech (rr), Little Dudley (r), Long (2) (rr), Marion (rr), Nelson (rrr), Pennsylvania (rrr), Round (2) (rrr), Silver (2 (rr), Thompson (rrr), Vernon (rrr). Botryococcus protuberans var. minor G. M. Smith Brush (rr), Loon (rrr), Muldrew (rrr), Rosseau (rrr), Rowley (rr), St. Mary (rr), Vernon (r). Smith — Phytoplankton of the Muskoka Region . 331 OPHIOCYTIUM Nageli 1849 Ophiocytium capitatum Wolle Big Dudley (rr), Black (1) (rr), Harbon (rr), Marion (rrr), Mill (rrr), Otter (rr), Thompson (rrr), Vernon (rrr). var. longispinum (Mobius) Lemm. Brush (rrr), Burned Rock (rrr), Loon (rrr), Nine Mile (rr). Class CHLOROPHYCEAE Order Volvocales GONIUM Muller 1773 Gonium pectorale Muller Clear (2) (rrr), Long (2) (rrr). PANDORINA Bory 1824 Pandorina morum Bory St. Mary (rrr). EUDORINA Ehrenberg 1832 Eudorina elegans Ehrenberg Brush (rrr), Burned Rock (rr), Butterfly (rr), Echo (rrr), Gull (rrr), Harbon (rrr), Henshaw (rrr), Lake of Bays (rrr), Long (2) (rrr), Mill (rrr), Mud (r), Muldrew (rrr), Nelson (rrr). Nine Mile (rrr), Otter (rr), Pennsylvania (rr), Pine (rrr), Strange (r), Vernon (rrr). VOLVOX L. 1758 Volvox aureus Ehrenberg Mud (rrr). Order Protococcales Family PALMELLACEAE GLOEOCYSTIS Nageli 1849 Gloeocystis gigas (Ktz.) Lag. Clear (2) (rr), Silver (2) (rrr). 332 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters. SPHAEROCYSTIS Chodat 1897 Sphaerocystis Schroeteri Chodat Big Dudley (rr), Black (1) (rr), Black (2) (ss), Brush (r), Burned Rock (rr), Butterfly (rr), Cornell (rr), Corner (r), Hamer (rr), Hen- shaw (r), Joseph (rr), Bake of Bays (sss), Leech (rrr), Long (2) (r), Loon (rr), McGowan (r), Marion (ss), Mill (r), Mud (rr), Muldrew (rr), Muskoka (rr), Nelson (rr), Nine Mile (rr), Otter (rrr), Pennsylvania (rr), Rosseau (r), Rowley (r), St. Mary (sss), Strange (rrr), Vernon (r), White (r). GLOEOCYSTOPSIS G. M. Smith 1916 Gloeocystopsis limneticus G. M. Smith Black (1) (rrr), Butterfly (rrr). Otter (rrr), Silver (2) (rr), Vernon (rr). ASTEROCOCCUS ScherfM 1908 Asterococcus limneticus G. M. Smith Black (1) (r), Harbon (rr), Long (1) (rrr), McGowan (r), Muldrew (rr), Muskoka (rrr), Otter (sss), Rowley (rr), Silver (1) (rrr). Family DICTYOSPHAERIACEAE DICTYOSPHAERIUM Nageli 1849 Dictyosphaerium Ehrenbergianum Nag. Gull (1) (rrr), Pine (rrr). Dictyosphaerium pulchellum Wood Big Dudley (rrr), Black (1) (r), Brush (s), Burned Rock (r). But¬ terfly (rr), Cornell (r), Clear (1) (rr), Clear (2) (rr), Echo (rrr), Hamer (rrr), Harbon (rrr), Henshaw (rrr), Lake of Bays (rrr), Leech (rrr), Little Dudley (rr), Long (2) (rrr), Loon (rrr), McGowan (rrr), Mud (rrr), Muldrew (rrr), Muskoka (rrr), Nelson (rr), Nine Mile (rr), Pennsylvania (rr), Rosseau (rrr), Rowley (rrr), St. Mary (rr), Silver (1) (rr), Vernon (rrr), White (r). DIMORPHOCOCCUS A. Braun 1855 Dimorphococcus lunatus A. Br. Basil (r), Big Dudley (rrr), Black (1) (rrr), Burned Rock (rr), But¬ terfly (rrr), Gull (1) (sss), Leech (rrr), Long (1) (rrr), Loon (rr), Marion (rrr), Nelson (rr), Pine (rrr), Silver (1) (r). Smith— Phytoplankton of the Muskoka Region . 333 WE ST ELLA de Wildeman 1897 Westell a botryoides (W. West) de Wild. Butterfly (rrr), Mud (rrr), Muskoka (rrr), Portage (rrr), Round (1) (rrr), Vernon (rr). Family AUTOSPORACEAE OOCYSTIS Nageli 1845 Oocystis Borgei Snow Butterfly (rrr), Otter (r), Rowley (ss). Oocystis parya W. & G. S. West Black (1) (rrr), Leech (rrr). Oocystis lacustris Chodat Loon (rrr). TETRAEDRON Kiitzing 1845 Tetraedron trigonum (Nag.) Hansg. Black (1) (rr), Burned Rock (rrr), Butterfly (rr), Cornell (rrr), Harbon (rr), Marion (rrr), Otter (rr), Pennsylvania (rrr), Pine (rrr), Rowley (rrr), Silver (1), (rrr), White (rrr). var. gracile (Reinsch) de Toni Butterfly (rrr). Tetraedron minimum (A. Br.) Hansg. Black (1) (rrr), Butterfly (rrr), Clear (2) (rrr), Harbon (rrr). Tetraedron qnadrilobatmn sp. nov. PL VIII, figs. 14-18. Cells small, flattened, four-cornered, generally with all four corners in the same plane, sometimes with halves of cell cruciate. Sides of cells deeply emarginate and giving the cells a cruciform appearance. Angles broadly rounded, smooth, without spines. Side view of flattened cells broadly ellipsoid. Chloroplast single, parietal, without a pyrenoid. Diameter of cells 7.5-17 thickness of cells 4-6 /a. Clear (2) (rrr). Corner (rrr), Lake of Bays (rrr), Vernon (rr). This species is about the size of the familiar T. minimum (A. Br.) Hansg., but the sides are more deeply emarginate and the 334 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters . corners broadly rounded. In the emargination of the sides and in the rounded cell angles it resembles T. trilobatum, but I feel that it should not be considered a variety of this species since T. trilobatum is always triangular. Tetraedron regulare Ktz. Pine (rrr). var. torsum (Turner) Brunnth. Black (1) (rrr), Burned Rock (r), Butterfly (r), Cornell (rr), Harbon (sss), Loon (rrr), Pennsylvania (rrr), Silver (1) (rrr). Tetraedron victorieae var. major G. M. Smith Butterfly (rrr). Black (1) (rrr). Tetraedron caudatum (Corda) Hansg. Burned Rock (rrr), Clear (2) (rrr). Tetraedron gracile (Reinsch) Hansg. PI. VIII, figs. 12-13. Butterfly (r), Gull (1) (rrr), Harbon (rrr), Pine (rrr). The branching of the processes in certain of the cells collected from Harbon and Butterfly lakes was greatly reduced, but this reduction in the branching does not seem sufficiently constant to warrant varietal recognition. Tetraedron limneticum Borge. Butterfly (rr), Clear (1) (rrr), Harbon (rr), Long (1) (rrr). Tetraedron spiniferum sp. nov. PL VIII, figs. 9-11. Cells of medium size, tetragonal or pentagonal, flattened or py¬ ramidal. Processes at angles slightly attenuated, once or twice branched. Each process ending in two or three (generally two) long, slender, divergent spines that are either straight, slightly incurved or recurved. Diameter of cells 45-52 /x; length of spines 7.5-11 p. Burned Rock (r). The cell shape and branching of the processes is quite similar to that of T. limneticum , but the terminal spines are quite differ¬ ent. These spines are true spines and not similar to the setae found in Polyedriopsis . Smith— Phytoplankton of the Muskoka Region. 335 Tetraedron planctonicum G. M. Smith .Black (1) (rrr), Butterfly (rrr), Cornell (rr), Cull (1) (rr), Otter (rr), Pine (rr), Silver (1) (rrr), Silver (2) (rrr). Tetbaedron enorme (Balls) Hansg. Cornell (rrr), Rowley (rrr), St. Mary (rrr). MICRACTINIUM Fresenius 1858 Micractinium pusillum Fresen. Round (1) (rrr). LAGERHEIMIA Chodat 1895 Lagerheimia subsalsa Lemm. Yernon (rrr). SELENASTRUM Reinsch 1867 Selenastrum gragile Reinsch Black (1) (rr), Brush (rrr), Cornell (rrr), Pine (rrr), Vernon (rrr), White (rrr). Selenastrum Bibraianijm Reinsch Butterfly (rrr). ANKISTRODESMUS Corda 1838 Ankistrodesmus Falcatus (Corda) Ralls Big Dudley (sss), Black (1) (rr), Cornell (rrr), Long (2) (rrr), Nine Mile (rrr), Thompson (rr). var. mirabilis (W. & G. S. West) G. S. West Butterfly (rrr), Silver (1) (rrr), Thompson (rrr). Ankistrodesmus convolutus Corda Almanach de Carlsbad 1838: 199. pi. 2. fig. 19. 1838. Black (1) (sss). The chloroplast ol the cells was frequently interrupted and with¬ out pyrenoids. 336 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters . Ankistrodesmus spiralis var. fasciculatus var. nov. PL VIII, fi g. 19. Cells curved or sigmoid, twisted around one another, united in colonies of 50-200 cells with the median portion of the cells ap¬ posed and the apices free. Cells 3.75-5 y broad, 55-70 /x long. Colonies 75-180 fx in diameter. Lake of Bays (rrr). Little Dudley (rr), Rosseau (rrr), Silver (1) (rrr), Vernon (rrr). The variety is distinguished by the large number of cells in the colony, the cells being twisted around one another to form a dense mass. The typical A. spiralis as I have found it has but four or eight cells in the colony while in this variety the number of cells is always large. CLOSTERXOPSIS Lemmermann 1898 Closteriopsis longissimum var. tenuissimum var. nov. PL VIII, fig. a. Cells much narrower, arcuate or lunate. Cells 2-3 jul broad, 175-210J p long. Harbon (rrr). This variety is much narrower than the variety tropicum or the typical C. longissimum . The cells are much longer than An¬ kistrodesmus falcatus var. mirabilis , while the central row of py- renoids at once excludes the alga from Ankistrodesmus . The alga looks even more like a small Closterium species, but cannot be considered a Closterium since there is but a single chloroplast in the cell. SCHROEDERIA Lemmermann 1898 Schroederia setigera (Schrjoder) Lemm. Marion (ss). Schroederia Judayi GL M. Smith Big Dudley (ss), Black (1) (rr), Brush (rr), Corner (rr), Harbon (rrr). Smith — Phytoplankton of the Muskoka Region. 337 QUADRIGULA Printz 1915 Quadrigula Pfitzeri (Schrpder) G. M. Smith. Basil (rr), Big Dudley (sss), Black (1) (rrr), Black (2) (rr), Brush (rr), Burned Rock (rr), Butterfly (sss), Cornell (rrr), Corner (rr), Gull (1) (rr), Henshaw (rrr), Lake of Bays (rr), Little Dudley (rrr), Long (2) (rr), Marion (rrr), Mill (rr), Muldrew (rrr), Muskoka (rr), Nine Mile (rrr), Otter (rrr), Round (2) (rr), Rowley (rrr), Silver (1) (rrr), St. Mary (r), Thompson (rrr), Vernon (r), White (rr). ELAKTOTHRIX Wille 1898 Elaktothrix gelatinosa Wille Black (1) (rrr), Clear (1) (rrr), Hamer (rrr), Leech (rr), Long (1) (rrr), Mill (rr) , Muskoka (rrr), Otter (rr), Strange (rr), Vernon (rrr). KIRCHNERIELLA Sehmidle 1893 Kirchneriella lunaris (Kirchner) Mobius Basil (r), Big Dudley (rrr), Brush (rrr), Burned Rock (rrr), Butterfly (r), Echo (rrr), Gull (1) (rrr), Gull (2) (rrr), Hamer (rr), Harbon (rrr), Henshaw (rr), Leech (rrr), Long (1) (rrr), Long (2) (rrr), Loon (rr), Mill (r), Muldrew (rrr), Muskoka (rr), Nine Mile (rrr), Otter (r), Pine (rrr), Rowley (rr), St. Mary (rr), Silver (1) (rr), Thompson (rrr), Vernon (ss). var. irregularis G. M. Smith Silver (1) (rrr). Kirchneriella obesa (W. West) Sehmidle Basil (rrr), Black (1) (rrr), Brush (rrr), Vernon (rrr). Kirchneriella arcuata sp. nov. PI. VIII, figs. 1-3. Cells with apices somewhat attenuated to a rounded apex, ar¬ cuate, lying some distance from one another within the homo¬ geneous gelatinous colonial envelope. Colonies generally four- celled, rarely with more than sixteen cells. Cellular arrangement within the colony indefinite. Chloroplast on convex side of cells, without a pyrenoid, hyaline spot on concave side of cell conspic¬ uous. Cells 2.S-5.3 p broad, 8-17.5 p long. Big Dudley (s), Muskoka (rrr). Silver (1) (rrr). The species is distinguished by the cell shape and the shape of the chloroplast as well as by the small number and arrange¬ ment of the cells within the colonial envelope. 22— S. A. L. 338 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. Kirchneriella contorta (Schmidle) Bohlin Black (1) (rrr) , Butterfly (rr), Corner (rrr), Marion (rrr), Otter (rrr) , Silver (2) (rrr), Thompson (rr), Vernon (rrr). Kirchneriella elongata G. M. Smith Harbon (rrr), Muldrew (rrr), Nine Mile (rrr). CRUCIGENIA Morren 1830 Crucigenia rectangularis (Nag.) Gay Big Dudley (rrr), Lake of Bays (rrr), Long (1) (rrr), Muldrew (rrr). Nine Mile (rrr),iRound (2) (rrr), Rowley (rrr), Vernon (rr). Crucigenia truncata G. M. Smith Butterfly (rr), Vernon (r). Crucigenia apiculata (Lemm.) Schmidle Big Dudley (rr), Black (1) (rrr), Harbon (rrr). Crucigenia quadrata Morren Black (1) (rr), Butterfly (r), Harbon (rrr), Marion (rrr), Muldrew (rrr), Nine Mile (rrr), Rowley (rrr), St. Mary (rrr), Vernon (rr). Crucigenia Tetrapedia (Kirchner) W. & G. S. West Big Dudley (rrr), Black (1) (rrr), Burned Rock (rrr), Vernon (rr). SCENEDElSMUS Meyen 1829 SCENEDESMUS OBLIQUUS (Turp.) Ktz. Black (1) (rrr), Long (1) (rrr), Mud (rrr). SCENEDESMUS DIMORPHUS (Turp.) Ktz. Vernon (rrr). Scenedesmus INCRASSATULUS var. mononae G. M. Smith PL VIII. figs 4-7. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts, & Lett. 183: 440. PI. 29, figs. 81-83. 1916. Cells 3.75-6 p broad, 12.5-16 p long (without apiculations). Colonies 12.5-26 p broad, 17.5-26 p long. Butterfly (r). Smith — Phytoplankton of the Muskoka Region. 339 The cells of this variety as found in Butterfly Lake were slightly longer than those from Lake. Monona in Wisconsin. A few cases of eight-celled colonies with the two-ranked arrangement shown in figure 4 were observed. SCENEDESMUS BIJUGA (Turp.) Lag. St. Mary (rrr), Vernon (rr). Scenedesmus ARCUATUS Lemm. Burned Rock (rrr), Butterfly (r), Vernon (rrr). var. platydisca G. M. Smith Butterfly (rrr). Gull (1) (rrr), Harbon (rrr), St. Mary (rrr), Vernon (rrr). Scenedesmus armatus (Chodat) Gr. M. Smith Butterfly (rr), Harbor (rrr), Pine (rrr). var. major G. M. Smith Burned Rock (rrr). Scenedesmus brasiliensis Bohlin Basil (rrr), Big Dudley (rrr), Black (1) (rrr). Clear (2) (rrr), Cor¬ nell (rrr), Little Dudley (rr), Loon (rrr), Mud (rrr), Portage (rrr), Silver (1) (rrr), Vernon (rrr), White (rrr). Scenedesmus hystrix Lag. Black (1) (rrr), Nine Mile (rrr). Scenedesmus denticulatus Lag. Big Dudley (rr), Black (1) (rrr), Cornell (rrr), Marion (rrr), Pine (rrr), Round (1) (rrr), Vernon (rrr), White (rrr). Scenedesmus abundans var. longicauda G. M. Smith Big Dudley (rrr), Clear (2) (rrr). Scenedesmus quadricauda (Turp.) Breb. Big Dudley (rr), Clear (2) (rrr), Harbon (rrr), Rowley (rrr), Silver (1) (rrr). var. quadrispina (Chodat) G. M. Smith Burned Rock (rrr). var. longispina (Chodat) G. M. Smith Black (1) (rrr), Brush (rrr), Butterfly (rrr), Harbon (rrr). 340 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters . var. Westii G. M. Smith Butterfly (rr), Clear (2) (rrr), Little Dudley (rrr), Otter (rrr). The spines of the specimens from Clear Lake were somewhat longer than those of this variety from other stations and reached a length of 22.5 /x. var. maximum W. & G. S. West Harbon (rrr), Marion (rrr), iStrange (rrr). COELASTRUM Nageli 1849 COELASTRUM MICROPORUM Nag. iBlack (1) (rrr), Brush (r), Burned Rock (rrr), Butterfly (rrr), Harbon (rrr), Joseph (rrr), Rosseau (rrr), Silver (2) (rrr), St. Mary (rrr), Vernon (rrr). Coelastrum CAMBRicuM Archer Basil (rr), Big Dudley (rr), Black (1) (r), Brush (rrr), Butterfly (rrr), Cornell (rr), Echo (rrr), Gull (1) (rrr), Harbon (rrr), Leech (rrr), Little Dudley (rr), Loon (rrr), Marion (rr), Nine Mile (rr), Otter (rrr), Round (1) (rrr), Round (2) (rrr), Silver (1) (rrr), Thomp¬ son (rrr), Vernon (r), White (r). var. intermedium (Bohlin) G. S. West Jour. Linn. Soc. Bot. 88: 137. 197. Coelastrum pulciirum var. intermedium Bohlin, iBih. Kgl. Svenska Vet- Ak. Handl. 28, Afd. 3, No. 7; 85. PI. 2, figs. 16, 71. 1897. Butterfly (rrr). Coelastrum Morus W. & G. S. West Jour. Bot. 84; 381. PI. 361. fig. Jf. 1896; Trans. Roy Soc. Edinb. 41: 607. PI. 6, fig. 12. 1905. Diameter of cells 10-12 /x. Diameter of colonies 35-38 /x. Silver (2) (rrr). The record for this species is based upon two colonies. The dimensions given above are smaller than the Wests give, and the presumption is that the colonies observed in Silver Lake were immature. SORASTRUM Kiitzing 1845 SORASTRUM SPINULOSUM Nag. Basil (rrr), Harbon (rrr). Smith — Phytoplankton of the Muskoka Region . 341 Sorastrum americanum (Bohlin) Schmidle Butterfly (rrr), Clear (2) (rrr), Harbon (rrr). Family HYDRODICTYACEAE PEDIASTRUM Meyen 1829 Pediastrum integrum Nag. Marion (rrr). Pediastrum araneosum Racib. Bu-rned Rock (rrr), Clear (2) (rrr), Cornell (rrr), Cull (1) (rrr), Hen- shaw (rrr), Lake of Bays (rrr), Little Dudley (r), Long (1) (rr), Long (2), (rrr), Marion (rrr), Muskoka (rrr), Nine Mile (rr), Pennsylvania (rrr), Rowley (rrr), St. Mary (rrr), Silver (1) (rrr), Strange (rrr), Vernon (rrr), White (rrr). Pediastrum Boryanum (Turp.) Menegh. Big Dudley (rrr), Butterfly (rrr), Gull (1) (rrr), Joseph (rrr), Long (2) (rrr), Mill (rrr), Nine Mile (rrr), Silver (1) (rrr). var. longicorne Racib. Clear (2) (rrr). Pediastrum duplex Meyen Gull (1) (rrr), Long (1) (rrr), Pine (rrr), Muskoka (rrr), St. Mary (rrr), Silver (1) (rr). var. clathratum (A. Br.) Lag. Big Dudley (rr), Black (1) (r), Brush (sss), Burned Rock (r), Loon (rr), Mill (rr), Rowley (rr), Vernon (rrr). var. reticulatum Lag. Cornell (rr),Echo, (rrr), Gull (2) (rrr), Pine (rrr), White (rrr). var. gracillimum W. & G. S. West Butterfly (r), Harbon (r). var. cohaerens Bohlin Butterfly (rrr), Cornell (rrr), Harbon (rr), Vernon (rrr). Pediastrum tetras (Ehr.) Ralfs Big Dudley (rrr), Black (1) (rrr), Brush (rrr), Cornell (rrr), Harbon (rrr), Joseph (rrr), Leech (rrr), Long (1) (rrr), Marion (rrr), Round (2) (rrr), Rowley (rrr), St. Mary (rrr), Silver (1) (rrr), White (rr).. Vernon (rrr). 342 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. Family PLANOSPORACEAE CHARACIUM A. Braun 1849 Characium stipitatum (Bachm.) Wille Basil (rrr), Black (1) (rr), Brush (sss), Butterfly (rrr), Echo (rrr), Gull (1) (rr), Gull (2) (rr), Marion (r), Muldrew (rr), Nelson (r). Nine Mile (rr), Rosseau (rrr), Silver (1) (r), Thompson (rrr), Vernon (rr). Characium curvatum G. M. Smith Big Dudley (rrr), iBlack (1) (rr), Lake of Bays (rrr), Muskoka (rrr), Rowley (rr), Silver (1) (rr), Vernon (rr). Family DESMIDIACEAE GONATOZYGON DeBary 1856 Gonatozygon aculeatum Hastings Brush (rr). NETRIUM Nageli 1849 Netrium digitus Itzighs. & Roth. Pennsylvania (rrr). PENIUM Brebisson 1844 Penium margaritaceum (Ehr.) Breb. Gull (2) (rrr). CLOSTERIUM Nitzsch 1817 Closterium costatum Corda Long (1) (rrr). Closterium Ehrenbergii Menegh. Leech (rrr). Closterium angustatum Ktz. Brush (rr). Closterium rostratum Ehr. Marion (rrr). Smith — Phytoplankton of the Muskoka Region. 343 PLEUROTAENIUM Nageli 1849 Pleurotaenium Subcoronulatum var. detum W. & G. S. West Mill (rrr), Nelson (rrr), Nine Mile (rrr), Round (1) (rrr) . Pleurotaenium maximum (Reinsch) Lundell McGowan (rrr). Pleurotaenium Ehrenbergii (Breb.) DeBary Cornell (rrr). TRIPLOCERAS Bailey 1851 Triploceras gracile Bailey Leech (rrr), Long (1) (rrr), Nelson (rrr). EUASTRUM Ehrenberg 1832 Euastrtjm didelta (Turp.) Ralfs Brush (rrr). Euastrum pulchellum Breb. Silver (1) (rrr). Euastrum verrucosum var. alatum Wolle Mud (rrr). var. reductum Nords. Gull (1) (rrr). MICRASTERIAS C. A. Agardh 1827 Micrasterias pinnatifida (Ktz.) Ralfs Otter (rrr). Micrasterias laticeps Nords. Black (1) (rrr), Brush (rr), Pennsylvania (rr), Strange (rrr). Micrasterias muricata (Bailey) Ralfs Leech (rrr). Long (1) (rrr). Micrasterias denticulata var. angulosa (Hantzsch) W. & G. S. West Little Dudley (rrr), Long (2) (rrr). Micrasterias apiculata var. fimbriata (Ralfs) Nords. Burned Rock (rrr), Clear (2) (rrr), Little Dudley (rrr). 344 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. var. apiculata forma spinosa (Bisset) W. & G. S. West Brush (rrr), Long (1) (rrr), Pennsylvania (rrr). Ml CR AS TERI AS sol (Ehr.) Ktz. Big Dudley (rrr), Burned Rock (rrr), Otter (rrr), Rowley (rrr). var. ornata (Nords.) W. & G. S. West Corner (rrr), Otter (rrr). var. ornata forma elegantior G. S. West Echo (rrr), Muskoka (rrr). Micrasterias radi at a Hassall Clear (2) (rrr). Little Dudley (rrr). var. simplex (Wolle) comb. nov. PL IX, figs. 1-5. Micrasterias furcata var. simplex Wolle. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club. 12: 128. PI. 51, figs. 6, 7. 1885. Big Dudley (rr), Black (1) (r), Brush (rrr), Hamer (rr), Long (1) (rr), Nelson (rrr), Otter (rrr), Round (2) (rr), White (rrr). The great variation in the subdivision of the lateral lobes of this species is well known to all students of the group. Johnson has studied these variations (Bot. Gaz. 19: 58-60, PI. 6 , figs. 7-13 1894) and reached the conclusion that it is impossible to recognize any of the varieties which have been based upon this reduction in the number of lateral lobes. The Wests in their Monograph of the British Desmidiacaeae (2: 114—115) arrive at the same con¬ clusion. In the collections that I have made from Ontario lakes the re¬ duction in the branching of the lateral processes to a simple bifur¬ cation is the predominant type. Although there are variations from this in that some of the semicells approach the typical M. radiata. I feel that the variety with the reduced number of lateral branches is sufficiently distinct to warrant recognition and that Wolle was justified in establishing the variety simplex. var. gracillima var. nov. IX, figs. 6-11. Semicells with a single lateral process that is deeply incised to form two divergent branchlets. Unbranched portion of lateral lobes much narrower than in var. simplex and with sides sub- Smith — Phytoplankton of the Muskoka Region. 345 parallel. Length of polar lobe nearly twice the greatest breadth of lateral lobes. Polar lobe narrower, with parallel sides. Length 135-165 /x ; breadth 130-150 /x ; breadth basal portion po¬ lar lobe 15-20 /x; greatest breadth lateral processes 13-15 /x; breadth isthmus 15 /x. Butterfly (rrr), Burned Rock (rrr), Gull (1), (c), Muldrew (r), Pine (rrr) , Silver (1) (s). This variety is remarkably constant in character, and all indi¬ viduals noted had but the single subdivision of the lateral lobe. It is much more delicate than the variety simplex , the margin of the lateral lobes never showing the marked convexity found in that variety. The polar lobe is also much more prominent and narrower than in the typical form. Micrasterias Mahabuleshwarensis forma dichotoma forma nova. PL IX, figs. 12-14; PL X, fig. 1. Differing from the typical form in the development of rudi¬ mentary accessory processes on the inner side of the incision of the lateral lobes. Length 150-165 /x; breadth 150-160 /x; breadth polar lobe 20-25 /x ; breadth isthmus 20-31 /x. Black (1) (rrr). Brush (rrr), Nelson (rrr), Nine Mile (rrr), White (r). The secondary lobelets on the lateral lobes of this form are quite irregular and are not normally found on all eight lateral branches of a cell but only on some of them. They may be re¬ duced to a small mammillate spine, but are always present in one form or another. This form possesses a great resemblance to M. americana (Ehr.) Ralfs, but is placed with M. Mahabulesh¬ warensis because both sides of the lateral lobes are denticulate and the polar lobe has the shape of M. Mahabuleshwarensis with long apical processes. Micrasterias foliacea Bailey Gull (1) (rrr), Rowley (rrr). COSMARIUM Corda 1834 Cosmarium contractum var. papillatum forma minor forma nova. PL X, figs. 2-5. Length 30-32.5 n; breadth (without papillae) 23-25 /x; papillae 1.25 /x long; breadth isthmus 6.25-7.5 y; thickness 15-17.5 /x. Thompson (aa). 346 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. Cosmarium quadrum Lundell Brush (rrr). Cosmarium ornatum Ralfs Black (1) (rrr). XANTHIDIUM Ehrenberg 1834 Xanathidium armatum var. ceryicorne W. & G. S. West. Leech (rrr), Long (1; (irr). Xanthidium tetracentrotum var. hexagonum var. nov. Pl. X, figs. 6-8. Apex of semieells hexagonal, without spines, basal angles of semicells with one or two long, outwardly divergent spines. Cen¬ tral area of semicells smooth, slightly thickened but without orna¬ mentation. Length 35-40 /x; breadth (without spines) 37.5-40 u, (with spines) 65-70 g.; thickness 22 /x ; breadth isthmus 10-12 /i. Portage (rr). The hexagonal upper half of the semicell is quite unlike that of any other known variety of this species. The variety is also char¬ acterized by longer spines and by a central area without ornamen¬ tation. Xanthidium subhastiferum var. Toweri (Cushman) comb. nov. PI. X, figs. 9-13. Xanthidium hastiferum var. Toweri Cushman; Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 31: 163. PI. 7, fig. 9. 1894. Length (without spines) 35-38/x, (with spines) 50-60 /x; breadth (without spines) 35-40 /x, (with spines) 65-75 /x; breadth isthmus 8.5-11.5 /x; length spines 12.5-22 /x. Echo (rrr), Loon (rrr), Strange (rr). This variety comes more appropriately under X. subhastiferum than under X. hastiferum. The spines on both the upper and the lower angles of the semicells are upwardly divergent in a grace¬ ful curve, while the spines of the typical X , subhastiferum are straight and much shorter. At times there is a supplementary pair of smaller spines, a single spine, or the rudiments of spines Smith — Phytoplankton of the Muskoka Region. 347 on the apex of the semicells. The dimensions of the individuals that I have found are smaller than those found by Cushman. Xanadithium antilop aeum (Breb.) Ktz. Leech (rrr). var. limneticuxn var. nov. PI. X, figs. 14-16. Semicells with spines on lower angles gracefully curved and those on upper angles straight and divergent. Central area color¬ less or brownish, generally with an arc of 4-8 subapical pores, more rarely with an irregular ring of pores. Length (without spines) 51-56 y, (with spines) 81-90 y; breadth (without spines) 47-50 y, (with spines) 87-100 y; breadth isthmus 12-14 y. Gull (1) (ss). Hamer (rrr), Muskoka (rrr), Pennsylvania (r), Sil¬ ver (1) (s). The elegant curvature and length of the spines in this variety distinguish it from the typical X. antilopaeum. The ornamenta¬ tion below the apex suggests the variety polymazum, but in this variety the marking is due to pores while in the variety polymazum the marking is due to small rounded granules. var. polymazum Nords. Black (1) (rrr), Burned Rock (rrr), Gull (1) (rr), Joseph (rrr). Little Dudley (rrr), Long (2) (rrr), Marion (rrr), Otter (rrr), Penn¬ sylvania (rrr), Round (2) (rrr), Rowley (rrr), Silver (1) (rrr), White (rrr). var. minneapoliensis Wolle White (rrr). ARTHRODESMUS Ehrenberg 1836 Arthrodesmus incus (Breb.) Hass. Otter (rrr). var. ralfsii W. & G. S. West Strange (rrr). var. indentatus W. & G. S. West. Clear (1) (rrr). 348 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters. Arthrodesmus constrictus sp. nov. PI. X, figs. 17, 18. Cells of medium size, breadth (without spines) slightly greater than the length, deeply constricted, sinus rectangular, with sides outwardly divergent; semicells broadly cuneate with convex sides and a slightly convex apex, lateral angles somewhat pointed and furnished with strong, straight, somewhat divergent spines. Isthmus cylindrical, elongate, with a slight constriction at the point where cell division takes place. Vertical view elliptic, each pole furnished with a single spine. Length 22.5-25 /a; breadth (without spines) 28-30 /a, (with spines) 58-68 /a; breadth of isthmus 4 /a; length of isthmus 5 /a; spines 15-19 /a long. Long (1) (rrr). Pine (rr). The semicells of this species are much broader in proportion to their length than those of any other species of the genus. The isthmus is also peculiar in that the point of origin of the new semicell is shown by an annular depression, whereas in other species the point of union of the two semicells is not discernible. Arthruuesmus triangularis Lag. Hamer (r), Harbon (rr), Vernon (rr). var. inflatus W. & G. S. West Portage (rr). var. subtriangularis W. & G. S. West Black (rr), Burned Book (rr), Gull (2) (rrr), Joseph (r), Long (2) (rrr), Muskoka (rr), Nelson (sss), Silver (1) (r), Thompson (r). Arthrodesmus quiriferus var. subparallelus var. nov. PI. X, figs. 19, 20. Sides of cells straight, not curved, and with the long spines at the angles only slightly divergent. Length (without spines) 20-22.5 /a; breadth (without spines) 20-24 /a; breadth isthmus 6-7 /a; spines 28-31 /a long. Corner (rrr), Henshaw (rrr), Loon (rr), Rowley (rr). The dimensions of the cell in the variety are approximately the same as in the typical form, while the spines are somewhat shorter in the variety. This variety approaches biradiate forms of Staurastrum jaculiferum W. & G. S. West ever more than the Smith — Phytoplankton of the Muskoka Region. 349 typical A. quiriferus , but the retuse apices of the semicells are not found in S. jaculiferum. Arthrodesmus subulatus Ktz. Big Dudley (rrr), Muskoka (rr), Vernon (rr). STAURASTRUM Meyen 1829 Staurastrum muticum Breb. Pl. X, figs. 21, 22. Length 27.5 n; breadth 23-26 breadth isthmus 6 y. Butterfly (sss), Harbon (rrr). Staurastrum grande Bulnh. Rowley (rrr). Staurastrum cuspid atum Breb. Big Dudley (rrr), Black (rrr), Butterfly (rrr), Gull (1) (rrr), Joseph (rrr), Lake of Bays (rrr), Otter (rr), Portage (rrr), Rowley (sss). var. divergens Nords. Brush (rrr). var. canadense var. nov. PI. X, figs. 23, 24. Isthmus of cells with a slight constriction at the point of origin of new semicells, Length 22-25 breadth (without spines) 22-24 y, (with spines) 45-58 fi ; breadth isthmus 5 y. Clear (2) (rrr), Echo (rrr), Muskoka (rrr), Pine (r), Rosseau (rrr), Round (1) (rrr), Strange (rrr). Staurastrum dejectum Breb. Burned Rock (rrr), Echo (rrr), Harbon (rrr), Henshaw (rrr), Loon (r), Muskoka (rrr), Round (2) (rr), Rowley (r). var. Tellami W. & G. S. West Portage (rr). Staurastrum curvatum W. West Black (1) (rrr), Burned Rock (rrr), Butterfly (rr), Harbon (rrr), Loon (rr), Muldrew (sss), Muskoka (r), Nelson (rrr), Pennsylvania (rrr), Round (2) (rrr), Rowley (r), Silver (2) (rrr), Vernon (ss). Staurastrum megacanthum Lund. Gull (2) (rrr), Lake of Bays (rrr), Long (1) (rrr), Long (2) (rr), Nelson (rrr), Strange (rrr). 350 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters. var. scoticum W. & G. S. West Gull (1) (rr), Hamer (rrr), Silver (1) (rr). Staurastrum Brebissonii var. paucispinum var. nov. PL X, fig. 25; PL XI, figs. 1-5. Cells small, with three or four large spines at the angles and one or two small spines on the apex of the semicells just within the angles. Length 31-34 fx; breadth (without spines) 32-40 /*, (with spines) 45-52 /x; breadth isthmus 8.5-10 /x. Black (1) (ss), Burned Rock (rrr), Echo (rrr), Muldrew (rrr). This variety is quite similar to the variety heterocanthum but differs in the possession of only one or two smaller spines at the cell angles and in a general occurrence of four large spines at the angles. Staurastrum setigerum var. brevispinum var. nov. Pl. XI, figs. 6-8. Semicells with several stout aculei at the corners and with two rows of 6-8 short aculei across the median portion of the semi- cell. Vertical view with one row of the smaller spines in profile on the margin and an inner row of smaller spines following the gentle concavity of cell margins. Large spines at the angles as in the front view. Length 35-40 fx; breadth (without spines) 37-^3 fx, (with spines) 47-55 /x; breadth isthmus 12-14 fx. Gull (1) (rrr), Gull (2) (rrr), Pennsylvania (rrr). Pine (rr). Rowlev (rrr), Silver (rr), Vernon (rr). Staurastrum minnesotense Wolle. Pl. XI, fig. 9. Muldrew (rrr), Otter (rrr). The Wests (Trans. Linn. Soc. 2 Ser. Bot. 5; 260. Pl. 17, fig. 15, 1896) infer that regular specimens with pairs of spines in each semicell are quite rare. Practically all specimens collected in On¬ tario possessed the six stout and twelve delicate spines on each semicell. The chief variation from the type is the lack of some of the delicate spines on the sides of the semicells. Staurastrum subnudibrachiatum W. & G. S. West Brush (rr). Burned Rock (rrr), Gull (1) (rrr), Joseph (rrr), Loon (r), Portage (r), Silver (2) (r). Smith — Phytoplankton of the Muskoka Region. 351 Staurastrum tetracerum var. trigonum Lund. Black (r), Butterfly (rrr), Harbon (rrr), Leech (rrr), Otter (rrr). Staurastrum leptocladum Nords. Basil (rr), Big Dudley (rr), Black (1) (ss), Burned Rock (sss), But¬ terfly (sss), Harbon (ss), Gull (1) (rrr), Gull (2) (rrr), Little Dudley (sss), Long (1) (cc), Long (2) (c), Loon (s), Muldrew (ss), Muskoka (ss), Nelson, (ss), Otter (rrr), Rosseau (rrr), Round (2) (rrr), St. Mary (rrr), Thompson (rrr), Vernon (ss). . W. & G. S. West (Jour. Linn. Soc. Bot. 33:317, 1898) have reached the conclusion that Nordstedt overlooked the subapical spines in his original description of the species, so that the variety cornutum described by Wille cannot be recognized. var. denticulatum var. nov. PI. XI, fig. 14. Variety with a broad, slightly emarginate sub-apical tooth in¬ stead of a sharp spine. Dimensions as in the typical form. Corner (r), Echo (rrr), Nine Mile (ss), Pennsylvania (rr), Pine (sss), Round (1) (rrr), Silver (1) (rr), Silver (2) (rrr). var. sinuatum Wolle Clear (ss), Gull (2) (rrr), Harbon (rrr), Mud (rrr), Round (2) (rrr), White (rrr). var. insigne W. & G. S. West. Pennsylvania (rrr). Staurastrum Johnsonii W. & G. S. West Basil (sss), Big Dudley (ss), Black (1) (sss), Black (2) (rr), Brush (c), Burned Rock (sss), Butterfly (rr), Clear (1) (rrr), Clear (2) (rr), Echo (sss), Gull (1) (s), Gull (2) (r), Harbon (rr), Henshaw (sss), Leech (c), Little Dudley (rr), Long (1) (r), Long (2) (s), Loon (rr), Mill (rrr), McGowan (rrr), Muldrew (ss), Muskoka (rrr), Nelson (sss), Nine Mile (sss), Otter (rr), Pine (rrr), Portage (rrr), Round (2) (sss), Rowley (rr), St. Mary (rrr), Silver (1) (r), Silver (2) (rrr), Strange (ss), Thompson (sss). Staurastrum americanum (W. & G. S. West) comb. nov. Staurastrum grallatorium var. americanum W. & G. S. West, Trans. Linn. Soc. 2 Ser. Bot. 5: 265. PI. 17 , fig. 15. 1896. This alga, which was described by the Wests as a variety of S. grallatorium Nords., is sufficiently differentiated to warrant 352 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. specific recognition. It differs from S. grallatorium in the smooth convex apex of the semicells, the deeper constriction at the isthmus, and the denticulation of the arms. I have not noted the typical organism in Ontario although I have it from the plankton of Wis¬ consin lakes. var. longiradiatum var. nov. PL XI, figs. 10, 11. Semicells with longer, gracefully divergent processes ; wall some¬ what thicker at the apex of semicells than in other portions. Length (without processes) 30 ft, (with processes) 80-95 /x ; breadth (without processes) 25 ft, (with processes) 132-150 ft; breadth isthmus 7. 5-8. 5 ft. Gull (1) (rr), Silver (1) (rrr). var. triradiatum var. nov. PL XI, figs. 12, 13. Semicells triangular, not flattened, with the angles produced into long, very slightly tapering processes with undulate sides. Apex of semicells with walls slightly thickened. Length (without processes) 25 ft, (with processes) 62-68 ft; breadth (without processes) 17.5-20 ft, (with processes) 60-70 ft; breadth isthmus 7.5-10 ft. Butterfly (ss). Staurastrum aspinosum var. verrucosum var. nov. Pl. XI, figs. 17-20. Semicells with two apical verrucae between each adjacent pair of the three processes. Arms of semicells lying above one an¬ other and not alternately arranged. Length (without processes ) 25-28 ft, (with processes) 50-64 ft; breadth (without processes) 22 ft, (with processes) 65-75 ft; breadth isthmus 10 ft. ©lack (1) (sss), Burned Rock (rr), Gull (1) (sss), Gull (2) (rr), Hamer (sss), Joseph (rrr), Long (1) (rrr), Muldrew (rr), Portage (rrr), Silver (2) (sss). The processes of this variety possess the peculiar spines that characterize the species but they are laxer than the type. The apical verrucae found in this variety are not mentioned by Wolle. Staurastrum paradoxum Meyen. Brush (rr), Clear (1) (rrr), Thompson (rrr). Smith — Phytoplankton of the Muskoka Region . 353 var. longipes Nords. Basil (rr), Clear (2) (rrr), Corner (rrr), Echo (rr), Henshaw (rrr), Long (1) (r), Long (2) (s), Loon (sss), Otter (r), Portage (ss), Rosseau (rr), Rowley (rr), Silver (1) (rrr), Silver (2) (sss), Vernon (ss). Staurastrum subiongipes n. sp. PI. XI, figs. 15, 16. Cells of fairly large size, about twice as broad as long (with processes), moderately constricted, sinus obtuse angled and widely open; semicells cyathiform, with concave apices, ventral margin smooth, apical margin with a single emarginate verruca, angles prolonged into long gradually tapering processes that are smooth on the lower surface and denticulate on the upper, processes terminating in three small spines. Vertical view triangular, with a single emarginate verruca on the body of the cell between the angles ; processes with a double row of spines ; the angles of one semicell alternating with those of the other. Length (without processes) 37-40 /a, (with processes) 55-65 y. breadth (without processes) 18-20 /a, (with processes) 80-105 y; breadth isthmus 8.7 /a. Burned Rock (r), Corner (rrr), Gull (2) (rrr), Joseph (rr), Lake of Bays (ss), McGowan (rrr), Muskoka (rrr), Pine (r), Rosseau (ss). Round (2) (rr), Rowley (c), iSt. Mary (r), Silver (2) (r). The species has a considerable resemblance to S. paradoxum var. longipes , but differs in the shape of the upper portion of the semi¬ cells and the apical verrucae. Staurastrum cingulum (W. & G. S. West) comb. nov. Staurastrum paradoxum var. cingulum W. & G. S. West, Jour. Linn. Soc. Bot. 35: 548. PI. 18, figs. 6, 7. 1903. Gull (1) (rr), Hamer (r), Leech (rr), Muskoka (sss), Otter (rrr), Rosseau (rrr), Rowley (rr), Silver (1) (r), Vernon (rr). Study of the plankton of the Ontario lakes shows that there are a number of closely related forms that are characterized by a ring of small spines at the base of the semicells. These seem to form a natural group and the only named form, which has been considered a variety of S. paradoxum , is taken as the type for the species. var. tortum var. nov. PI. XII, figs. 1, 2. Semicells with the processes at the cell corners curved upwards in the outer half only. Processes of one semicell alternating with those of the other semicell. 23— S. A. L. 354 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. Length (without processes) 25-28 /a, (with processes) 32-50 /a; breadth (without processes) 16-20 /a, (with processes) 56-75 breadth isthmus 6-8 /a. Big Dudley (rrr), Gull (1) (rr), Long (2) (rrr), Otter (sss), Round (2) (rr), iRowley (s). var. obesran var. nov. PL XII, figs. 3-5. Semicells stouter and with the processes sub-parallel. Processes slightly upturned at their apices. Length (without processes) 35-40 /a, (with processes) 47-60 /a; breadth (without processes) 25 /a, (with processes) 60-68 /a; breadth isthmus 10-12 /a. Burned Rock (r), Echo (rrr), Gull (1) (r), Miuldrew (rrr), Silver (1) (sss). Statjrastrum pseudosebaldi Wille Clear (1) (rrr). Statjrastrum vestitum Rails Basil (rrr), Pennsylvania (rrr). var. subanatinum W. & G. S. West 'Clear (2) (r), Long (2) (rrr). Staurastrum anatinum Cooke & Wills Butterfly (sss), Clear (2) (rr), Harbon (ss), Henshaw (rrr), Long (1) (rrr), Otter (rrr), Thompson (rrr). var. longibrachiatum W. & G. S. West Echo (r), Gull (1) (rr), Leech (rrr), Loon (rrr), Muskoka (sss), Nine Mile (r), Round (2) (rr), Rowley (sss), Silver (1) (sss), Vernon (sss). var. curtrnn var. nov. PI. XII, figs. 6, 7. Body of cell smooth below the apex. Processes short, parallel, not divergent. Length 30 /a; breadth (without processes) 25 /a, (with processes) 68-75 n ; breadth isthmus 11 /a. Big Dudley (rr), Brush (rr), Burned Rock (r). This variety shows considerable resemblance to the variety longibrachiatum, but differs in the nature of the processes which are shorter and not divergent. The length of the cells is also con¬ siderably less than that of other varieties of the species. Smith — Phytoplankton of the Muskoka Region. 355 Staurastrum protectum var. planctonicum var. nov. PL XII, figs. 8-12. Variety with simple verrucae irregularly distributed or in rings on the processes. Body of semicells smooth between the processes in front view. Vertical view with two emarginate verrucae be¬ tween the processes. Processes ending in two long divergent spines. Length (without processes) 22.5-27.5 /x, (with processes) 45-50 / 1 ; breadth (with processes) 58-69 /x; breadth isthmus 6.25-8.50 n . Basil (r), Black (1) (rrr), Burned Rock (rr), Echo (rr), Gull (1) (rr), Long (1) (rrr), Long (2) (rrr), Loon (r), McGowan (r), Muldrew (rrr). Nelson (rrr), Otter (rrr), Round (2) (sss), Rowley (rrr), Silver (1) (rr), Strange (rrr), Vernon (rrr). The verrucae on the processes are quite variable in distribution and may be in horizontal rows or unevenly distributed. The variety is also distinguished by the lack of ornamentation on the smooth sides of the semicells in front view. An abnormal cell is shown in figure 12 where instead of terminal spines there is a branching of the processes that ends in two or three minute spines. The alga should be compared with S. patens var. planctonicum G. S. West which has a somewhat similar cell shape but a different ornamentation. Staurastrum lacustre sp. nov. PL XII, figs. 13-15. Cells of medium size, a little longer than broad (with processes), deeply constricted, sinus broadly open and apex acute; semicells obversely triangular, apex slightly concave, with two emarginate verrucae, ventral margin straight, angles prolonged into long processes with straight, nearly parallel sides and terminating in two large divergent spines. Processes with 3-4 rings of simple verrucae, scattered verrucae, or 1-2 verrucae on the apical side only. Body of semicell smooth, or with a few scattered verrucae between the processes. Vertical view triangular, sides slightly concave, with two emarginate verrucae on each side between the angles, angles ending in processes with straight sides, ornamenta¬ tion of processes as in front view. Terminal spines of processes lying above one another. Length (without processes) 26-34 /x, (with processes) 68-85 /x; breadth (without processes) 22-24 /x, (with processes) 75-100 /x; breadth isthmus 8.5 /x; length terminal spines 9-12.5 /x. Big Dudley (s), Gull (1) (rrr), Loon (rrr), Mud (rrr), Nelson (rrr). Portage (rr), Silver (1) (rrr), Vernon (rr). 356 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. This is a very distinctive species that I have found in all three regions of North America where I have studied the plankton. The long, smooth processes that terminate in a pair of spines are the distinctive feature of the species. There is considerable variation in the ornamentation, and the processes of some cells are prac¬ tically destitute of the small verrucae while other cells have 3-4 rings of verrucae on the processes. The bodies of the semicells are usually without the simple verrucae on the sides of the cells but usually have the emarginate verrucae on the apex of the cells. The form shown in figure 15 with three spines at the ends of the processes in one semicell is most unusual and has been ob¬ served but twice. Staurastrum cerastes Lund. Burned Rock (rrr), Hamer (rrr), Pennsylvania (rrr). var. triradiatum var. nov. Pl. XII, figs. 16-18. Cells larger, front view with processes not so sharply incurved as in the typical form. Semicells with emarginate apical verrucae and a row of trifid or quadrifid verrucae across the ventral mar¬ gin. Vertical view triangular, with emarginate verrucae on the bases of and between the processes; central area containing a tri¬ angle of tridenticulate verrucae with three verrucae on each side. Length 50 p ; breadth (without processes) 27.5 p, (with processes) 70 p; breadth isthmus 10 p. Gull (1) (rr), Silver (1) (rr). \ This variety is distinguished by the laxer curving of the pro¬ cesses at the corners of the semicells and the consequent greater breadth in proportion to the length. The cells are always tri- radiate and the verrucae much more prominent than in the typical form. The alga should also be compared with S. elegantissimum Johnson. Staurastrum pentacerum (Wolle) comb. nov. PL XII, figs. 19-22. Staurastrum Ophiura var. pentacerum Wolle. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 9: 28. PI. 13, fig. 5. 1882; Desmids of the United States 134. PI. 43, fig. 13; PI. U, fi9- 3. 1884. Length 28-30 p ; breadth (without processes) 17.5-22.5 p, (with processes) 81-100 p; breadth isthmus 7.5 p. Big Dudley (s), Black (2) (r), Brush (rr) , Burned Rock (s), Corner ( rrr ) , Harbon (rr), Henshaw (s), Leech (c) , Little Dudley (s), Long (1) Smith — Phytoplankton of the Muskoka Region. 357 (r) , Marion (ss), Muldrew (rr), Nine Mile (rrr), Pennsylvania (r), Round (2) (rrr), Round (1) (r), Rowley (rr), Strange (sss), Thompson (sss). In 1882 Wolle described the varieties tetracerum and penta- cerum of S. Ophiura. These have, as their name implies, four- and five-radiate semicells which are shaped somewhat like the semicells of S. Ophiura. In a vertical view of S. Ophiura there is a coronet of quadrifid papillae with one papilla between each two adjacent rays of the semicell. The arms have bifid projec¬ tions at the base while the terminal portion is serrate and with a simple projection. The organism which I believe identical with Wolle ’s S. ophiura var. pentacerum has an emarginate verruca between each two adjacent rays while the sides of the rays are denticulate and at times with a row of denticulations on the top. I have observed five-rayed specimens of S. Ophiura from New York, and in these individuals there is the typical marking of the seven- and eight-rayed individuals. I think, therefore, that Wolle ’s plant cannot be considered a variety of S. Ophiura but must be regarded as a distinct species. The number of rays is generally five, but may be six. The four-rayed specimens have the same marking and are discussed below in connection with the variety tetracerum. The specific name pentacerum has been chosen because the name tetracerum has already been used in another connection. forma obesum forma nova. PI. XIII, figs. 1, 2. Body of semicells stouter and apex more elevated. Length 38^2 y; breadth (without processes) 25-27.5 y, (with processes) 105-117 y; breadth isthmus 14 y. Long (2) (rr), Rowley (c). var. tetracerum (Wolle) comb. nov. PI. XIII, figs. 3-5. Staurastrum Ophiura var. tetracerum Wolle. Bull, Torrey Bot. Club 9: 28. PI. IS, fig. Jf. 1882; Desmids of the United States 134. PI. M, figs. 1, 2. 1884. W. & G. S. West, Trans. Linn. Soc. 2 Ser. Bot. 5: 269. PI. 18, fig. 16. 1896. Length 35-38 y; breadth (without processes) 15-18 y , (with processes) 85-115 y; breadth isthmus 10-11.5 y. Basil (r), Big Dudley (sss), Black (1) (sss), Brush (rrr), Butterfly (s) , Burned Rock (r), Clear (1) (rrr), Clear (2) (rr), Gull (1) (rr), Gull (2) (r), Hamer (ss), Long (1) (ss), Long (2) (s), Loon (r), 358 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. McGowan (rr), Mill (rrr), Mud (rr), Muldrew (s), Muskoka (s), Nel¬ son (rrr), Rosseau (rrr), Round (2) (r), Rowley (s), Silver (1) (r), Vernon (c), White (rrr). In view of Wolle ’s rather diagrammatic figure of this variety, the determination rests upon the figure given by the Wests. The specimens that I have observed are not so long as the Wests state, and the breadth of the semicells with the processes may also be less. I have found the alga in quantity in several lakes without finding a single five-rayed individual and think, therefore, that it is a distinct variety. In some collections both four- and five- rayed individuals are present, but I consider this a mingling of the widespread type and variety and not a normal variation of the type. The twisting of the semicells 30 that the rays of one semicell are equidistant between the rays of the other semicell is a constant character and furnishes another distinction between this species and S. Ophmra. forma major forma nova. Processes much longer than in the -foregoing, body of semicells of the same size as in the variety. Breadth (with processes) 145-155 /x. Round (2) (r). Staurastrum ankyroides Wolle PL XIII, figs. 13-15. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 11; 14. PI. U, fi9- 4- 1884; Desmids of the United States 137. PI. 51, fig. h. 1884. Length 60-68 /x; breadth (without processes) 20-24 /x, (with processes) 92-132 /x; breadth isthmus 11-13.5 /x. Brush (rr), (Burned Rock (r), Butterfly (ss), Echo (rrr), 'Gull (1) (rrr), Nelson (ss), Nine Mile (rr), Little Dudley (r), Marion (rrr). Silver (1) (rr). This species has not been noted since Wolle ’s discovery of it in 1884. I have found an alga in the plankton of Ontario which I believe is the organism that Wolle described. It is four-rayed, with the rays of the two semicells alternating with one another. The ornamentation of the rays is very similar to that of S. Oplniura, but the ornamentation of the apex is quite different, there being four heavy semicircular verrucae with four exterior lobes. The Smith— Phytoplankton of the Muskoka Region. 359 body of the semicell is also narrower than in S. Ophiura. The shape of the semicells and the sharp incurving of the rays are as Wolle describes them for S. ankyroides, but I find the ventral sides of the semicells straight instead of slightly undulate as he figures. S. ankyroides should be compared with S. pentacerum var. tetracerum (Wolle) ($. Ophiura var. tetracerum Wolle), from which it differs in the cell shape, heavier apical verrucae, lateral spines on rays and incurving of the rays. Staurastrum Arachne Ralfs, Big Dudley (rrr), Black (1) (rrr), Brush (sss), Harbon (rrr). var. curvatum W. & G. S. West Black (2) (r), Corner (rrr), Echo (sss), Henshaw (s), Otter (r) Pine (rr), Silver (2) (sss). Staurastrum Ophiura Lund. Brush (rrr), Burned Rock (rr"). Clear (1) (rrr), Clear (2) (rrr), Long (1) (rrr), Muldrew (rrr). Staurastrum rotula Nords. Henshaw (rr). Staurastrum limneticum var. burmense W. & G. S West. PL XIII, figs. 6-11. Cells five- or six-radiate. Zygospores spherical, furnished with long, slender, gradually tapering spines that are bifurcate at the apex, the bifurcate apical portion being recurved. Length cells (without processes) 35-44 /x, (with processes) 47- 55 /a; breadth (without processes) 20-22.5 /x, (with processes) 75-87.5 fi; breadth isthmus 8.5 /x. Diameter zygospore (without spines) 42-44 fi; (with spines) 85-92 /x; length spines 20-24 /x. Black (1) (rrr), Black (2) (s), Brush (rrr), Burned Rock (r), Butterfly (ss), Clear (1) (rrr), Echo (r), Harbon (rrr), Gull (2) (ss), Joseph (ss). Loon (c), Muldrew (ss), Muskoka (ss), Nelson (s). Otter (r), Portage (rrr), Rosseau (r), Rowley (r), Round (2) (r), Silver (1) (rrr), Strange (rr), Vernon (ss). S. limneticum var. burmense has been collected from but one lake in Wisconsin, but is widely distributed in the portion of On¬ tario where these investigations were carried out. The Ontario specimens differ slightly from those the Wests found in Burma 360 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. since there is a ring of small conical verrncae on the apex of each semicell, the number of verrucae corresponding to the number of rays. The majority of the cells collected are five-armed. A cur¬ ious malformation of a semicell is shown in figure 11. The alga was forming zygospores in the plankton of Lake Joseph. This discovery of zygospores in the plankton is most unusual, and only two cases are on record of zygospore formation by a plankton Desmid. forma tetragona forma nova. PI. XIII, fig. 12. Semicells with four processes, spread of processes greater than in the typical five- or six-rayed variety. Breadth (without processes) 20-22.5 n; (with processes) 93- 105 /x. St. Mary (rr). Four-rayed cells were found in St. Mary’s Lake but not noted among the thousands of cells collected from other lakes. Staurastrum leptocanthum Nords. Black (1) (aaa), Burned Hock (rrr), Butterfly (s), Clear (rrr), Echo (rr), Gull (1) (c), Gull (2) (r), Joseph (rrr), Little Dudley (rrr), Long (2) (r), McGowan (r), Muldrew (rrr), iNelson (s), Otter (rrr), Pennsyl¬ vania (rr), Pine (rrr), Rosseau (rrr), Rowley (rrr), Silver (1) (ss), Strange (rr). Staurastrum Arctiscon (Ehr.) Lund. Basil (rrr), Big Dudley (rrr), Burned Rock (rr), Clear (2) (rrr), Lit¬ tle Dudley (sss), Long (1) (rrr), Loon (rrr), Nelson (rrr), Otter (rrr), Strange (rrr). var. GLABRUM W. & G. S. West Rowley (rrr). Staurastrum tohopekaligense Wolle Loon (rrr). var. trifurcata W. & G. S. West Gull (1) (rr), Muskoka (rrr), Rowley (rr), Silver (1) (rr), Strange (rrr). COSMOCLADIUM Brebisson 1856 Cosmocladium saxonium DeBary Marion (rrr), Rosseau (rrr), Rowley (rr). Smith — Phytoplankton of the Muskoka Region. 361 SPHAEROZOSMA Corda 1834 Sphaerozosma granulatum Roy & Biss. Basil (rr), Round (2) (rrr), Silver (1) (r). Sphaerozosma excavatum Ralfs. Mill (rrr), Strange (rrr). ONYCHONEMA Wallieh 1860 Onychonema laeve var. micracanthum Nords. Round (2) (rr). A form with the spines about half the size that Nordstedt gives was noted in Round Lake in Wood Township (PL XIII, fig. 16). var. latum W. & G. S. West Brush (rrr). SPONDYLOSIUM Brebisson 1844 Spondylosium planum (Wolle) W. & G. S. West Burned Rock (r), Joseph (rrr), Long (2) (rr), Muskoka (rr), St. Mary (rrr). Spondylosium pulchrum (Bailey) Arch. Gull (1) (rr), Otter (rrr), Pennsylvania (rrr), Silver (1) (rrr). HYALOTHECA Ehrenberg 1841 Hyalotheca mucosa (Dillwyn) Ehr. Black (2) (rrr), Brush (rr), Cornell (rrr), Little Dudley (rr), Long (1) (rrr), Loon (rrr), Marion (rrr), Mill (rr), Mud (rrr), Strange (rrr). DESMIDIUM C. A. Agardh 1824 Desmidium aequale W. & G. S. West Burned rock (rrr). Desmidium cylindricum Grev. Pennsylvania (rrr). 362 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. Desmidium aptogonum Breb. Hamer (rrr), Little Dudley (rrr). Desmidium Swartzii C. A. Agardh Clear (2) (rrr), White (rrr). Desmidium Baileyi (Ralfs) Nords. Black (2) (rrr), Marion (rrr), Mill (rrr), Otter (rrr). GYMNOZYGA Ehrenberg 1841 Gymnozyga moniliformis Ehr. Big Dudley (rrr), Black (1) (rr), Brush (r), Leech (rrr), Mill (rrr), Otter (rr). Pine (rrr), Round (2) (ss), White (rrr). var. gracilescens Nords. Pl. XIII, fig. 17. Hamer (rr), Nelson (rrr). SMITH — ALGAE COCKAYNE BOSTON TRANS, WIS. ACAD., VOL. XX PLATE IX. SMITH — ALGAE COCKAYNE BO STOTT TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. XX SMITH — ALGAE TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. XX SMITH — ALGAE COCKRTHSTE BO STOTT Smith — Phytoplankton of the Muskoka Region. 363 Figs. 1-3. Figs. 4-7. Fig. 8. Figs. 9-11. Figs. 12-13. Figs. 14-18. Fig. 19. Fig. 20. Figs. 1-5. Figs. 6-11. Figs. 12-14. Fig. 1. Figs. 2-5. Figs. 6-8. Figs. 9-13. Figs. 14-16. Figs. 17, 18. Figs. 19, 20. Figs. 21, 22. Figs. 23, 24. Fig. 25. Figs. 1-i5. Figs. 6-8. Fig. 9. Figs. 10-11. Figs. 12-13. Fig. 14. Figs. 15-16. Figs. 17-20. Explanation of Figures plate VIII Kirchneriella arcuata (x 530) Scenedesmus incrassatus var .mononae (x 530). Closteriopsis longissimum var. tenuissimum (x530). Tetraedron spiniferum (x 530). Tetraedron gracile formae (x 530). Tetraedron quadrilobatum (x 530). Ankistrodesmus spiralis var. fasiculatus (x 530). PTiaeococcus planctonicus var. ovalis (x 666). PLATE IX Micrasterias radiata var. simplex (x 200). Micrasterias radiata var. gracillima . (fig. 6 x 400; figs. 7-11 x 200). Micrasterias Mahahuleshwarensis forma dichotoma (fig. 12 x 400; figs. 13, 14 x 200). PLATE X Micrasterias Mahahuleshwarensis forma dichtoma (x 200). Cosmarium contractum var. papillatum forma minor (x 400). Xanthidium tetracentrotum var. hexagonum (x 400). Xanthidium subhastiferum var. Towerii (x 400). Xanthidium antilopaeum var. limneticum (x 400). Anthrodesmus constrictus (x 400). Arthrodesmus quiriferus var. subparallelus (x 400). Staurastrum muticum (x 400). Staurastrum cuspidatum var. canadense (x 400). Staurastrum BreMssonii var. paucispinum (x 400). PLATE XI Staurastrum BreMssonii var. paucispinum (x 400). Staurastrum setigerum var. hrevispinum (x 400). Staurastrum minnesotense (x 400). Staurastrum americanum var. longiradiatum (x 400). Staurastrum americanum var. triradiatum (x 400). Staurastrum leptocladum var. denticulatum (x 400). Staurastrum suhlongipes (x 400). Staurastrum aspinosum var. verrucosum (x 400). 364 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters. Figs. 1, Figs. 3- Figs. 6- Figs. 8- Figs. 13- Figs. 16- Figs. 19- Figs. 1, Figs. 3- Figs. 6- Fig. 12. Figs. 13- Pig. 16. Fig. 17. PLATE XIX 2. Staurastrum cingulum var. tortum (x 400). -6. Staurastrum cingulum var. obesum (x 400) . -7. Staurastrum anatinum var. curtum (x 400). -12. Staurastrum protectum var. planctonicum (x 400). -15. Staurastrum lacustre (x 400). -18. Staurastrum cerastes var. triradiatum (x 400). -2,2. Staurastrum pentacerum (x 400). PLATE XIIX 2. Staurastrum pentacerum forma obesum (x 400). - 5. Staurastrum pentacerum var. tetracerum (x 400). -11. Staurastrum limneticum var. bur mens e (x 400). Staurastrum limneticum var. burmesse forma tetragenum (x 400). -15. Staurastrum ankyroides (x 400) . Onychonema laeve var. micracanthum forma (x 400). Gymnozyga moniliformis var. gracilescens (x 400). TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. XX SMITH — ALGAE COCKAYNE BO STOTT TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. XX PLATE XIII. SMITH — ALGAE COCKAYNE BOSTON SPECIES OF LENTINUS IN THE REGION OF THE GREAT LAKES Edward T. Harper The species of Lentinus belong to the series of white-spored agarics which are tough and leathery and which revive on the ap¬ plication of moisture. Their nearest relatives are species of Panus and Pleurotus. The species of Lentinus have the edges of the lamellae serrate while in Panus they are entire. The character represents a difference in the tissue of the two genera. Typical species of Lentinus have the gills split and lacerate on the edges as shown in Plate XIV, C, not merely rough from an abundance of cystidia as is the case in many of the higher agarics. The torn edges of the gills are due to the fact that the hyphae run cross¬ wise, allowing the gills to split vertically (Plate XIV, A), while in Panus the hyphae run more nearly parallel to the edges of the gills and allow them to be torn lengthwise. The growth of the pileus is more circinate in Panus than in Lentinus. In Panus, moreover, the fibers of hyphae are looser and the tissue is more homomorphic than in Lentinus. According to Fayod, this fact places the species of Lentinus higher in the line of development than those of typical Panus. In the genus Pleurotus the tissue is still further developed and the plants do not revive on the appli¬ cation of moisture. The natural home of the leathery species of agarics is in the warm regions of the globe. The carpophores dry up and persist during the drought and revive in the rainy season. Both Europe and the United States are largely north of their zone of greatest abundance. Hence the species of these genera in our region are fewer and less variable than those of the genera whose natural home is in temperate and cold regions such as Clitocybe, Cortin- arius, etc. 365 366 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. Stevenson reports 12 species of Lentinns from the British Isles, Constantin and Dufonr recognize 14 species in France, Winter 17 in Germany, and Britzelmayr collected 13 species in Bavaria. The species lepideus, tigrinus, adhaerens, cochleatus, flabelliformis, and ur sinus or vulpinus are common to all these lists. TJr sinus and vulpinus are very closely related, and flabelliformis appears to be¬ long to the cochleatus group. The species in the lists not found in all the countries appear to be closely related to these principal species, except perhaps suavissimus or odorus, reported from France and Germany. There appear, therefore, to be six well marked groups of species of Lentinus in Europe the types of which are lepideus , tigrinus , adhaerens , suavissimus , cochleatus , and ur sinus. These are also the abundant and well known species in our re¬ gion. Here as in Europe, moreover, minor forms have been given specific names in each group : spretus , obconicus, and maximus in the lepideus group, umbilicatus % americanus , and piceinus in the cochleatus group, etc. These minor forms have not been identi¬ fied with the minor forms in the groups in Europe, though the close relationship of many, such as umbilicatus and omphalodes, has been noted. That the above mentioned are the common and well known spe¬ cies, and hence the proper species to give names to the groups in Europe and America, is also shown by the number of times they have been illustrated. According to Volume 21, of Saccardo’s Sylloge Fungorum , 89 of the over 200 described species of Len¬ tinus have been illustrated. Lentinus lepideus has been illustrated 20 times, L. tigrinus 26 times, L. adhaerens 4 times, L. cochleatus 21 times, and L. ursinus or vulpinus 10 times. Of the other species, L. flabelliformis , belonging to the cochleatus group, has been illus¬ trated 6 times, L. suffrutescens, a form of the lepideus group, 5 times, L. dunalii, a form of L. tigrinus , and L. degener each 4 times. 12 species have been illustrated 2 or 3 times apiece, and the remaining 66 only once each, usually by the author of the species. The only species commonly illustrated are lepideus , tigrinus , coch¬ leatus , and ursinus. Adhaerens, though usually reported in Eu¬ rope, has been figured only 4 times, and suavissimus or odorus ap¬ pears never to have been illustrated. Peck’s work in New York State is by far the most careful ex¬ amination of a local flora that has been made in this country. In his summary of New York species of Lentinus (Bulletin 131), he Harper- — Species of Lentirms in Great Lakes Region. 367 reports nine species, of which lepideus , tigrinus, suavissimus, coch- leatus , and ursinus are the type forms. He describes two minor forms which he thinks sufficiently distinct to merit names : spretus, a form of lepideus ,, which he says European mycologists have prob¬ ably overlooked, and umbilicatus, which he recognizes as closely related to cochleatus, but which he considers not quite the same as omphalodes of Europe. Peck also reports Inaematopus, the red¬ stemmed form of suavissimus , and L. sulcatus the same as L. ful- vidus of Bresadola, a rare species found only once in the state. Peck found no form of the L. adhaerens group. No one of the seven or more species of Lentinus described by Peck from material sent him by correspondents from different parts of the country has group value. Murrill, in the North American Flora, does not admit any of them as valid species. They should not, however, be dumped in as synonyms. They represent forms worth noting and which future collectors must reckon with. Their peculiarities should be noted in their proper groups. As has already appeared, the Lentinus floras of the Northeastern United States and of Central Europe are very nearly alike. The details of the variations are given more fully in the description of the species, but a few general facts are noted here. 1. The species of the Lentinus tigrinus group are so universally parasitized in this country that the plants appear to have been stunted. Large, luxuriant forms like those illustrated in Cooke, lUust., 1138, and Rolland, Atlas, 45, are not reported. The para¬ site has not been found in Europe. 2. The sticky, pulverulent, and resinous species of the Lentinus adhaerens group are poorly represented in this region, but are com¬ mon in Europe, where leontopodius, pulverulentus, resinaceus, ad¬ haerens, and adhaesus are distinguished. 3. On the other hand, the Lentinus suavissimus group appears better represented here than in Europe. The plants are quite com¬ mon in Northern Michigan, and besides the lateral stemmed forms which appear typical of the group we have the larger central stemmed plants represented by L. odorus or L. jugis. We have also the red-stemmed form L. haematopus, which is much more marked than the European L. anisatus. 4. The variation in the Lentinus cochleatus group appears very similar in both countries. The small central-stemmed forms are referred to L. omphalodes there and to L. umbilicatus here. The 368 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters . dimidiate imbricated form is L. flabelliformis there and L. Ameri¬ canos here. 5. The same is true also of the Lentinus lepideus group. An¬ nulate and exannulate forms are found in each country. Obconicus here resembles suffrutescens there, spretus here may be closely allied to homotinus there. Many monstrous forms are found in the group in both countries. 6. In the Lentinus ursinus-vulpinus group, the corrugated scrupose forms (L. vulpinus), the even tomentose forms (L. ur- sinus ), and the smaller, smoother forms (L. castoreus) are found in both countries. This great similarity between the species of Lentinus in North¬ eastern North America and Central Europe was to be expected from what is known of the relationship between the floras of the two regions in general. The cool temperate zone in the northern hemisphere is divided into an eastern and a western floral region in both the old world and the new, middle Europe and the China- Japan regions in the old world and the Great Lakes region and the Northwestern states in this continent. The floras of Europe and the Great Lakes region are very closely akin, the China -Japan region comes next while the flora of the Northwestern states is farthest removed. This is due to geological history even more than to climatic conditions. The Lentinus flora of Western Amer¬ ica is not well known, but according to the North American Flora the Lentinus lepideus group appears to be the only one of the groups found in the region of the Great Lakes which has repre¬ sentatives on the Pacific coast. It is found also in Asia. L. ti- grinus extends west to the Rocky Mountains, and the Lentinus cochleatus group has a single known representative, L. piceinus in Idaho. The other groups, so far as known, are confined to Europe and the eastern half of the United States and Canada in the cool temperate zone. In the warm temperate zone and in the tropics, species of Len¬ tinus become very abundant, but none of our forms appear to be found in those regions except tigrinus which extends as far south as Cuba and is reported also from Australia. Our knowledge of local floras is, however, too scanty to permit any definite statements as to the character and distribution of the Lentinus flora of the globe as a whole. Fries’ scheme for the division of the genera of tough and woody fungi into sections is based on the position of the stem or point of PLATE XIV. TRANS. WIS. ACAD.. VOL. XX. HARPER — LENTINUS COCKAYNE BOSTON LENTINUS LEPJDEUS FR. A. B. C. D. ANNULATE FORM. E. EXANNULATE FORM. Harper — Species of Lentinus in Great Lakes Region. 369 attachment of the pilens to the substratum. The divisions are Mesopus, Pleuropus, Merisma, Apus, Reflexo-resupinati, and Re- supinati, according as the stem or attachment is central, lateral, branching, or dorsal. Lentinus and related genera are poorly adapted to this classification. The tough and pliable substance readily adapts itself to circumstances, and the position, on the top, side, or underneath a log, erumpent from a crack or from under bark, gives a great variety of form to the carpophores of the same species. Forms belonging to more than one of Fries’ sections are found in each group. In the Lentinus cochleatus group repre¬ sentatives of all the sections may be found. Murrill uses these sections for the division of the genus into genera in the North American Flora , which places plants belonging to the same group in different genera. For example, L. cochleatus and umbilicatus are scarcely more than habitat forms but are placed in widely separated genera. Emphasis must be laid on the fruiting bodies, the nature of the tissue, and other phylogenetic characters in de¬ termining the groups, and especially must there be large familiarity with the plants as they grow in different localities and positions. Synopsis of the Species I. Stem central. Scales large, appressed, spot-like. The Lentinus lepideus group. 1. Annulate form _ -Plate XIV, A-C 2. Exannulate form _ Plate XIV, D, E 3. Form with decurrent lamellae and long slender stem (L. spretus Pk.) _ Plate XV, A Related species. L. hornotinus Fr. 4. Form with an obconic pileus and long stem (L. obconi- cus Pk.) _ _ _ _„__Plate XV, B Related species. L. suffrutescens Fr. 5. Large plants growing on the ground (similar to L. mag- nus Pk.) _ _ _ Plate XVI Related species. L. maximus Johnson. 6. Form with finely furfuraceous stem _ Plate XVII, A 7. Form growing from a sclerotium _ _ _ Plate XVII, B II. Stem central. Scales of the pileus small, fibrous, tufted. The Lentinus tigrinus Group. 1. Form with the pileus thin, • irregular, splitting on the edge _ _ _ _ _ _ Plate XVIII 24— S. A. L. 370 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. 2. Form with the pileus regular, orbicular, not splitting on the edge _ __ _ _ _ _ _ —Plate XIX Related species. L. dunalii Fr. L. ravenelii B. & C. 3. Form with the pileus irregular. Stems long and flexuous _ _ _ _ _ _ _ -Plates XX, XXI, A 4. Form with a thick, short stem _ Plate XXI, B-D III. Stem central. Pileus not scaly, gummy, resinous, or pul¬ verulent. The Lentinus adhaerens Group. 1. L. adhaesus Britz _ Plate XXI, E Related species. L. adhaerens Fr. L. resinaceus Fr. L. pulverulentus Fr. IV. Stem central or lateral, short, reddish brown mycelium at the base. Odor pleasant. The Lentinus suavissimus Group. 1. Stem white with little or no red mycelium at the base (L. suavissimus Fr.) _ _ _ Plate XXII, A-C 2. Stem wholly reddish brown (L. haematopus Berk.) _ _ _ Plate XXII, D-F Related species. L. anisatus P. Henn. L. odorus vill. L. jugis Fr. V. Plants typically irregular, clustered, with the stems concres- cent. The Lentinus cochleatus Group. 1. Dense clusters of large plants _ —Plate XXIII Related species. L. cochleatus var. occidentalis Bres. 2. Dimidiate imbricated forms. (L. flabellifo'rmis Fr.) Plate XXIV Related species. L. piceinus Pk. 3. Stem central grooved (L. omphalodes Fr.) -Plate XXV Related species. L. curtisii S. & C. L. micheneri B. & C. 4. Stem central, smooth and even (L. umbilicatus Pk.) _ _ _ Plate XXVI, A, B Related species. L. americanus Pk. 5. Form with long, relatively thick, even stems, growing among moss _ _ _ _ _ _ _ -Plate XXVI, C VI. Large plants with dimidiate imbricated pilei the Lentinus ur sinus— vulpinus Group. 1. Pileus ridged and reticulated on the margin, corrugated behind (L. vulpinus Fr.)_, _ _ — Plate XXVII 2. Pileus even on the margin, coarsely pubescent behind (L. ursinus Fr.) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Plate XXVIII Related species. L. pelliculosus Schw. L. castoreus Fr. L. pectinatus Schw. Note. L. sulcatus Berk., which appears to be the same as L. fulvidus Bres. and L. pholiotoides Ell. & Anders., is a rare plant and it is not certain to what group it belongs. TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. XX. PLATE XV. A. A. LENTJNUS SPRETUS PK. B. LENTJNUS OBCONICUS PK. HARPER— LENTJNUS cockatoo: boston Harper — Species of Lentinus in Great Lakes Region. 371 Description of the Groups The Lentinus lepideus Group Stem central, pilens with large appressed spot-like scales. The plants of this group are of medium to large size with lacerate serrate lamellae usually sinuate at the base. The pileus and stem are coarsely scaly, and the spores are oblong, 3-6 x 8-12/x. The sporophores are usually found on wood of coniferous trees. Rail¬ road ties and timbers in docks and bridges are especially liable to attack. The mycelium is very destructive. The timbers in a dock at Neebish, Michigan, were scattered all over with the fruiting bodies showing that the wood was everywhere penetrated by the mycelium. The plants are usually regular in shape, but many ab¬ normal and monstrous forms occur. ( See Stevenson 2 : 155, Sow. t. 382; etc.) Pileus 2-3 inches broad, fleshy, compact, tough, hard when dry, convex or umbonate to depressed, sometimes irregular or eccentric, solitary or caespitose, cuticle whitish, pale ochraceous or dark brown, breaking up into adpressed, spot-like scales which sometimes become blackish. Flesh tough, white. Odor pleasant. Lamellae broad, sinuate-decurrent, transversely striate, torn and serrate on the edges, white. Stem 1-2 inches long, l/2 inch thick, solid, woody, often flat or pointed at the base where it emerges from the wood, more or less scaly. Annulus near the apex of the stem, more or less evident. Spores : ovoid to oblong, 6 x 10/*. Peck 4-6 x 10- 12y2/JL. Stevenson 5 x 11/*. Britzelmayr 3-4 x 20-12/*,. On structural timber, usually of coniferous trees. 1. Plate XIV, A. B. This is the common form with a short stem and well marked annulus. The annulus is broad and thick and covers the gills in the young carpophore. It is sometimes very broad and marked on the upper side with ragged ridges where the partial veil was torn from the margins of the gills. 2. Plate XIY, Z), E. The exannulate form. The stem and margin of the pileus are finely scaly, but there is no evident an¬ nulus. The plants photographed grew on pine timbers in a side¬ walk. 3. Plate XY, A. A form with slightly scaly pileus, more decur¬ rent lamellae, and long, slender stem destitute of an annulus. Such forms were associated with others on timbers at Neebish, Michigan. The form is Lentinus spretus Pk. (N. Y. State Mus. 372 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters. Bull. 105: 24, and 131: 43). The species is reported from Ohio by Stover. Peck says : “The species has probably been confused with Lentinus lepideus from which it may be separated by its more slender habit, thinner pileus, smaller scales, more decurrent lamellae without a sinus and especially by its smaller spores. In our specimens there is no evidence of a veil. ’ ’ In Bulletin 131 Peck adds that the dimensions of the spores of Lentinus lepideus as given by European authors vary enough to include this form. Peck gives the measurements as 4-5 x 7%-10/a. In our collections of L. lepideus the spores are often no larger than this. Murrill gives a wide range of size to the spores of L. lepideus , 3-6 x 7-15/a. Peck’s description of L. spretus reads: “Pileus thin, tough, convex, becoming nearly plane, obtuse or umbonate, rimose-squamulose, grayish brown or pale alutaceous, sometimes more highly colored in the center. Flesh white. Lamellae close, rather narrow, decurrent, whitish, serrate-dentate on the edges, sometimes lacerate. Stem equal or sometimes nar¬ rowed toward the base, sometimes thickened, solid, subsquamose, often eccentric, whitish, often brownish toward the base. Spores white, oblong, 4-5 x 7%-10/a. “Pileus 2-5 inches broad, stem 1-3 inches long, 3-6 lines thick. Decaying wood of pine and railroad ties. July to September.” Note. L. spretus has much in common with L. hornotinus Fr. That species is said to be villous-pulverulent rather than scaly. The spores are 3 x 10-12/a. It is illustrated by Britzelmayr 522.3. It is quite, likely, however, that L. hornotinus belongs to the Lentinus adhaerens group. 4. Plate XV, B. A form with obconic pileus, long decurrent lamellae and slender, somewhat scaly stem. This is Lentinus ob- conicus Pk. The photograph was made from plants of the type collection loaned to me by Dr. Whetstone. They were found in a lumber yard, but the exact position was not noted. They evi¬ dently grew from some crevice in the timber. The loose strands of mycelium, composed of hyphae 4/a in diameter, which make up the sporophore, the club-shaped basidia 4-6 x 20-30/a, and the spores A- 5 x 8-10/a are all characteristic of L. lepideus . It is an ex¬ treme form of the nature of L. spretus. The species has been found but once. Peck’s description (Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 33: 215) reads : TRAMS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. XX. HARPER™ LENTINUS COCKXTNE BOSTON FORM NEAR LENTINUS MAGNUS PK. Harper — Species of Lentinus in Great Lakes Region. 373 “Pileus obconic, fleshy, sometimes slightly depressed in the cen¬ ter, whitish with tawny brown squamules in the center. Flesh white. Lamellae narrow, close, very decurrent, lacerate and den¬ tate on the edge. Stem long, flexuous, solid, whitish at the top, tawny brown and squamose toward the base. Spores oblong, 4-5 x 8-10 ix. “Pileus 2.5-6 cm. broad, stem 5-8 cm. long, 6-10 mm. thick. Caespitose, decaying wood in a lumber yard, Minneapolis, Minn. “The thick flesh and obconic shape of the pileus with the long, decurrent lamellae are the prominent distinguishing features of this species. The flesh of the dried specimens cuts easily. The scales of the pileus are smaller than in L. lepidem Fr. It is closely related to L. cyathiformis (Schaefl.) Bres.” Note. Peck relates the species to the European Panus cyathiformis which is considered a Lentinus by Bresadola. It is, however, a form of Lentinus lepideus, and probably the same as the European L. suffrutescens Fr. illustrated by Schaeffer (t. 248-249), which is considered by Murrill (N. A. F. 9: 296) a form of L. lepideus. 5. Plate XVI. Large plants with irregular spot-like scales on the pileus, decurrent lamellae and thick squarrose stems. Len¬ tinus magnus Pk. The plants grew on the ground by rotten logs in woods at Frankfort, Michigan. They were very large with large areolate scales on the pileus. The stem was squarrose with thin, flake-like scales. They agree with Peck’s L. magnus except that the scales on the pileus are darker colored. All the characters of the spores, basidia, and mycelium are those of L. lepideus. They grew on ground full of humus. The peculiar surface of the pileus and the thick lamellae emphasized by Peck can be seen in the photograph. The spores averaged 3 x 7-8/a, a little narrower than the measure¬ ments given by Peck. The species is described (Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 23: 413, 414) : “ Pileus thick, hard, convex, slightly depressed in the center, glabrous, dingy white, the surface cracking into broad areolae or scales, margin involute. Flesh whitish. Lamellae broad, close, thick, slightly decurrent, coarsely dentate or lacerate on the edge, pallid. Stem stout, hard, solid, squamose, slightly thickened at the base, colored like the pileus. Spores oblong-elliptical, 4 x 7^/*. Pileus 6 inches or more broad, stem about 4 inches long, 1 inch or 374 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. more thick. Gregarious on ground abounding in humus, Mount San Antonio, California. August. “This large species was found at an elevation of 1000 ft. It is well marked by the peculiar areolate and scaly cracking of the surface of the pileus. The scales of the stem are similar to those of the pileus. The lamellae are thicker than those of Lentinup lepideus and the spores are smaller. The scales are concolorous not spot-like as in that species.” Note. Lentinus maximus Johnson (Bull. Minn. Acad. Sci. 1878: 338) has nothing according to the brief description to distinguish it from a large form of L. lepideus. 6. Plate XVII, A. A form with an even, finely furfuraceous, branching stem and small scales on the pileus. The plants are peculiar in the character of the stem and in the habitat on deciduous trees. The stem is covered with a brownish furfuraceous coat like that on the pileus of Polyporus brumalis. The pilei are regular, somewhat umbonate, yellowish tan color, with small, darker colored, spot-like scales. The general appear¬ ance, spores, and substance were those of Lentinus lepideus. The plants were collected at Geneseo, Illinois. 7. Plate XVII, B. Sporophore growing from a sclerotium. The plants grew in sawdust by an old slab pile at Neebish, Michi¬ gan. They were typical Lentinus lepideus , except that the stem was bulbous and black furfuraceous where it emerged from the sclerotium. The sclerotium was tough, black, white and finely fibrous within. It was dying at one end and had a growing point at the other with some lateral buds. The formation of the sclero¬ tium was probably due to the growth of the plants in the loose sawdust. Plants with a similar sclerotium but more irregular in shape have been found growing in very rotten wood at Geneseo, Illinois. Species of Lentinus which form sclerotia have long been known. Pries made a special section in the genus (Scleroma) for them with L. tuber-regium as the type. These sclerotia vary from the solid, black-coated masses of hyphae of L. woermanni, described by Schroeter to simple conglomerations of earth and fungal hyphae. T. Petch (Ann. Eoy. Bot. Gard. Peradeniya, August, 1915) has described another form produced by L. similis and L. infundibuli- formis ,, which consists of masses of rotten wood penetrated and TRAMS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. XX, PLATE XV ii HARPER— LENTiNUS COCKAYNE BOSTON TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL, XX. PLATE XVIII LENTINUS TIGRINUS (BULL.) FR. HARPER- LENTINUS COCKrOTlE BOSTON. Harper — Species of Lentinus in Great Lakes Region. 375 compacted by the persistent hyphae of the fungus. The sclerotium I have illustrated resembles a rhizome with definite buds from which the carpophores are produced. I have found the same kind of sclerotium produced by Polyporus radicatus and will discuss its nature more fully in an article on that species. Petch leaves the question open whether different kinds of sclerotia are confined to different species of fungi or whether the hyphae may assume different forms under different conditions in the same species. The Lentinus tigrinus Group Plants smaller, scales finer and fibrous-tufted, not spot-like, and spores smaller than in the Lentinus lepideus group. Usually found on deciduous trees. Pileus 1-3 inches broad, coriaceous, somewhat fleshy, thin, con¬ vex to plane, umbilicate, easily splitting on the margin, covered with fibrous-tufted, innate, brown or blackish scales on a whitish background. Flesh whitish, often turning reddish when bruised. Lamellae narrow, very crowded, decurrent, finely serrate or erose on the edges. Stipe 1-3 inches long, 1-5 lines thick, solid, flexuous or curved, whitish, more or less scaly like the pileus. Spokes ob¬ long, obliquely apiculate 3-4 x 6— 9/x. Basidia club shaped, 4-5 x 20- 25/*. On stumps of deciduous trees. The large, luxuriant forms of tigrinus such as are illustrated by Cooke (Illust. 1138), and Rolland (Atlas 45), are not found in our region. The reason may be that the carpophores are so universally parasitized that they have become stunted. There is much variety in the group and I show four well marked forms in the photographs. 1. Plate XVIII. Rather small plants with the pileus thin and easily splitting on the margin. White with small dark scales on the pileus and stem. Stem short, equal, slender, flexuous or curved. This is the form shown in Cooke’s Handbook, Volume 1, figure 56, and copied by Winter in Kryptogamen Flora 1 : 488. It appears to be the usual form in Europe, though the form shown in Plate XIX is more common with us. The gills of the plant in figure E are partially parasitized. 2. Plate XIX. Small plants with regular orbicular pileus which is thick and incurved, not splitting on the margin. It resembles somewhat L. dunalii as illustrated by Cooke (Illust. 1139 B), which 376 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. is considered by Berkeley a form of L. tigrinus ; but that species is said in the descriptions to have an irregular pileus. A small, thin form, of this nature appears to be L. ravenelii B. & C., described from specimens collected in South Carolina. This is by far the most common form of L. tigrinus in this coun¬ try, and it is usually parasitized, showing the characters appearing in the photographs in Plate XIX. Morgan based his Lentodium squamulosum on this form (Jour. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist. 1895 PI. I, fig. 3). Morgan appears never to have seen the form with normal gills. Dr. Moffatt found the normal and parasitized forms about equally common in one locality near Chicago. He says in a letter to me: (