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TRANSACTIONS

OF THK

WISCONSIN Academy

OP

SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

1870-2.

Publis-Jied hy Order of the Legislature.

/f-

MADISON, WIS.;

AT\VOOI> it CULVER, PRINTERS AND STEREOTYPERS.

1S73.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

ARTS, AND LETTERS.

1870-2

Published by Order of the Legislature.

f ♦«»

MADISON, WIS.;

ATWOOD & CULVER, PRINTERS AND STEREOTYPERS.

1872.

/->

ONTENTS.

Page.
I. LISTS OF OFFICERS AND MEMBERS 5-8

II. REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT—
Embracing:
1. Reasons for tlie organization of the Academy, witli a record of what liad
previously been done by, and in behalf of, Wisconsin in the Sciences, in

the Arts, and in Letters 9

3. General Plan of the Academy 36

3. What the Academy has done 38

III. SOME OP THE PAPERS READ BEFORE THE ACADEMY:

DEPARTMENT OF THE SOCIAX, AND POLITICAL SCIENCES.

1. The Relation of Labor and CaDital. By A. L. Chapin, D. D., LL.D.,

President of Beloit College 45

2. The German Sunday. By Right Rev. W. E. Armitage, D. D., Protestant

Episcopal Bishop of Wisconsin 63

3. Social Science and Woman Suffrage. By Rev. Charles Caverno, A. M. .. 72

4. The Common Jail System of the Csuntry. By Hon. S. D. Hastings, Sec-

retary of the State Board of Charities 90

DEPARTMENT OP THE NATURAL SCIENCES.

5. Deep Water Fauna of Lake Michigan. By P. R. Hoy, M. D 98

6. On the Classification of Plants. By I. A. Lapham, LL.D 103

7. Insects Injurious to Agriculture— Aphides. By P. R. Hoy, M. D 110

8. Coniferse of the Rocky Mountains and their Adaptation to the Soil and

Climate of Wisconsin. By J. G. Knapp, Esq 117

9. Report on the Geology of the Region about Devil's Lake. By Professor

Jas. H. Eaton, Ph. D 134

10. On the Age of the Quartzites, Schists and Conglomerates of Sauk County.

By Professor Roland Irving, E. M 139

11. Suggestions as to a Basis for the Gradation of the Vertebrata. By Prof.

T. C. Chamberlin 138

12. Ancient Lakes of Wisconsin. By J. G. Knapp, Esq 151

13. On the Mineral Well at Waterloo, Wis. By Rev. A. O. Wright, A. M. . . . 154

14. On Potentials, [and their Application in Physical Scienee. By Prof.

John E. Davies, M. D : 155

4 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

DEPARTMENTJOF THE ARTS. ^ d ) V-CAAJ^-I'^ ,

15. The Production of Sulphide of Mercury by a New Process, and its Use in

Photography. P.y W. H. Sherman, Esq 105

16. The Kural Population of England as Classified in Domesday Book. By

Prof. William F. Allen, A. M 167

17. On the Place of the Indian Languages in the Study of Ethnology. By

Prof. John B. Feuling, Ph. D 178

IV.-PROCEEDINGS.

1. Proceedings of the Convention called to organize the Academy 183

2. First meeting of the Academy, February 16, 1870 185

3. First meeting the General Conncil 186

4. Second meeting of the Academy, July 1870 186

5. Third meeting of the Academy, September, 1870 188

6. First annual meeting of the Academy, February, 1871 190

7. Fifth meeting of the Academy, July 1871 192

8. Sixth meeting of the Academy, September 1871, 197

9. Second annual meeting of the Academy, February, 1871 197

GENERAL OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY.

PRESIDENT :

Dr. J. W. HOYT, Madison

t

VICE PRESIDENTS, EX-OFFICIO :

Dr. p. R. hoy, Hacine.

Rt. Rev. W. E. ARMITAGE, - - Milwaukee.

Ex-Gov. NELSON DEWEY, - - - Cassville.

Rev. Dr. A. L. CHAPIN, - - - Beloit.

GENERAL SERETARY :

Dr. I. A. LAPHAM, Milwaukee.

ACTING SECRETARY :

Dr. J. E. DA VIES, University of Wisconsin.

TREASURER :

GEO. P. DELAPLAINE, Esq., Madison.

DIRECTOR OF THE MUSEUM :

WILLIAM DUDLEY, Madison.

LIBRARIAN :

J. G. KNAPP, Esq., Madison.

COUNSELORS EX-OPPICIO :

HIS EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR OF THE STATE.

THE LIEUTENANT GOVERNOR.

THE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.

THE PRESIDENT OF THE STATE UNIVERSITY,

THE PRESIDENT OF THE STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

THE SECRETARY OF THE STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

OFFICERS OF THE DEPARTMENTS.

Departinennt of the Natural Sciences.

President, Ex.Officio— THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.
Vice-President.— Y>^. P. R. HOY, Racine.
Secretary.— Qo\.. S. V. SHIPMAN, Madison.

Counselors.— T>K. R. Z. MASON, Appleton; Dr. SOLON MARKS,
Milwaukee; Dr. E. B. WOLCOTT, Mihuaukee.

Department of the Social and Political Sciences.

President, Ex-Officio.-TVL'S. PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

Vice President.— ViT. Rev. W. E. ARMITAGE, Miwaukee.

Secretary.— ^TL\. CHARLES CAVERNO, Amboy, III.

Counselors. — Rev. Dr. G. M. STEELE, Laxvrence University; Rev.
A. O. WRIGHT, Nevj Lisbon; Dr. A. S. McDILL, State Hos-
pital for the Insane.

Department of the Arts.

President, Ex-Officio.—THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.
Vice President.— Hon. NELSON DEWEY, Cassville,
Secretary.— Coi.. S. V. SHIPMAN, Madison..

Counselors.— ]Oll^ H. VAN DYKE, Esq., Milwaukee; ALEXANDER
PROVIS, Lancaster; Hon. J. I. CASE, Racine.

Department of Letters.

President, Ex- Officio.— HU'E PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.
Vice Presidefit-REV. Dr. A. L. CHAPIN, Beloit College.
Secretary —YviO¥. JOHN B. FEULING, State University.
Counselors. — Vrof. W. F. ALLEN, State University; Hon. LYMAN

C. DRAPER, State Historical Society; J. L. HAUSER, Esq.,

Milivaukee.

Corixsponding Members.

MEMBERS OF THE ACADEMY.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Prof. E. B. Akdrews, LL. D., Marietta College, Marietta, O.

T. Blossom, M. A.. M. E., School of Mines, Columbia College, New York.

Dr. N. Bridge, M. D., Chicaffo, 111.

J. G. Brinton, M. D., Philadelphia, Penn.

Prof. E. S. Carr, M. D., LL. D., University of California, Oakland, Cal.

F. Ebkner, Ph. D., Baltimore, Md.

J. W. Foster, LL. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.

J. C. Freer, M. D., President of Rush Medical College, Chicago, 111.

H. P. GatC'IIELL, a. M., M. D., Kenosha, Wis.

Prof. D. C. GiLMAN, Yale College, New Haven, Conn.

Prof. S. S. Haldeman, LL. D., University of Pennsylvania, Chickis, Pena.

Asa Horr, M.D., President Iowa Institute of Arts and Sciences, Dubuque, la.

Prof. J. S. Jewell, M. D., Northwestern University, Evanston, 111.

Prof. Oliver Marcy, LL. D., Northwestern University, Evanston, III.

Prof. L. D. McCabe, D. D., Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware, O.

Prof. J. I. Newberry, LL. D., Director of the Geological Survey of Ohio'
Columbia College, New York.

Prof. E. Orton, a. M., President Antioch College, Yellow Springs, O.

Prof. J. W. Safford, Director of the Astronomical Observatory at the Uni-
versity of Chicago, 111.

Wm. Le Barron, State Entomologist, Geneva, 111.

*Wm. Stimson, M.D., Secretary Chicago Academy of Sciences, Chicago, 111.

Prof. N. S. Shaler, A. M., Harvard University, Cambridge, M?.ss.

J. WiNGATE Thornton, Esq., Boston, Mass.

J. Hammond Trumbull, LL. D., Hartford, Conn.

Prof. M. SciiELE DE Vere, LL. D., University of Virginia, Charlotteville, Va.

Prof. A. E. Verrill, A. M., M. D., Yale College, New Haven, Conn.

Prof. James Watson, A. M., Director of the Astronomical Observatory at
Ann Arbor, Mich.

Prof. W. D. Whitney, Yale College, New Haven, Conn.

Prof. Alexander Winchell, LL. D., LTniversity of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
Mich.

G. Ward, LL. D., President of the University of Western Pennsylvania,

Pittsburg, Penn.

♦Deceased.

Wisconsin Academij of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

LIFE MEMBERS.

Hon. J. I. Case, Eacine.

Ex-Gov. Nelson Dewey, Cassville.

J. J. Hatjennp.nn, Esq., Milwaukee.

J. L. Hill, Esq., Madison.

Dr. J. W. Hoyt, Madison.

Dr. I. A. Lapham, Milwaukee.

John Lawler, Esq., Prairie du Chien.
Hon. J. L. Mitcliell, Milwaukee.
J. A. Noonan, Esq., Milwaukee.
Hon. J. E. Thomas, Sheboygan Falls.
Hon. J. G. Thorp, Eau Claire.
Hon. S. A. White, Whitewater.

ANNUAL MEIMBERS.

Prof. W. F. Allen, A. M. State Uni-
versity, Madison.

Prest. Oliver Arey, A. M., State Nor-
mal School, VYhitewater.

Kt. Kev. Bishop Wm. E. Armitage, D.
D., Milwaukee.

Hon. Henry Biietz, Madison.

Mosses Barrett, M. D. Waukesha.

Hon. H. D. Barron, St. Croix Falls.

Hon. LI. Breese, Madison.

Elisha Burdick, Esq., Madison.

J A. Byrne, Madison.

Prof. S. H. Carpenter, LL D., Uuiver-
of Wisconsin.

Prof. T. C. Chamberlin, A. M., State
Normal School, Whitewater.

Rev. C. Caverno, Amboy, Ills.

Joseph S. Carr, Milwaukee.

Prast. A. L. Chapiu, D. D., Beloit
College, Beloit.

Prest. E. A. Charlton, A. M., State
Normal School, Platteville.

Alexander Provis, Esq., Lancaster.

Prof. W. W. Daniells, State Univers-
ity, Madison.

Prof. J. E. Davies, State University,
versity, Madison.

Geo. P. Delaplaine.Esq., Madison.

W. A. De LaMatyr, Esq.,Mazomaine.

Wm. Dudley, Esq., Madison.

Daniel S. Durrie, State Historical So
ciety, Madison.

Prof. .Jas. li. Eaton, Beloit College,
Beloit.

Prof. P. Engelmaun, Milwaukee.

Rev. Samuel Fallows, A. M., Supt.
of Public Instruction, Madison.

Prof. J. B. Feuling, Ph. D., LTuivers-
ity, Madison.

A. J. Finch, Esq., Milwaukee.
Prof. J. C. Foyp, A. M., Lawrence

University, Appleton.
Hon. S. D. Hastings, Madison.
J. L. Hauser, INIilwaukee.
C. T. Hawley, Esq., Milwaukee.
Joseph Hobbins, M. D., Madison.
Hon. E. D. Holton, Esq., Milwaukee.
P. R. Hoy, M. D.. Racine.
Prof. R. b. Irving, M. E., Madison.
J. T. Kingston, Necedah.
J. G. Knapp, Esq,, Madison,
E. B. Leland, Esq., Milwaukee.
Prof. T. H. Little, A. M., Wis, Ins.

for the Blind, Janesville.
A. S. McDill, M. D., feupt. St. Hosp.

for the Insane, Madison.
Solon Marks, M. D., Milwaukee.
R. Z. Mason, LL. D., Appleton.
Hon. John Murrish, Mazomanie.
Prof. Wm. J. L. Nicodemus, U. S. A.

State University, Madison.
Prof. J. B. Parkinson, A. M., State

L'niversity, Madison.
Rev. J. B. Pradt, A. M., Madison.
Ch.Preusser, Pres. Nat. Hist. Society,

Milwaukee.
Hon. George Reid, Manitowoc.
H. W. Roby, Esq., Milwaukee.
Wm.'H. Sherman, Esq., Milwaukee.
S. V. Shipman, Esq., Madison.
Hon. Wm. E. Smith, Fox Lake.
Prest. G. M. Steele, D. D. Lawrence

University, Appleton.
Prest. W. C. Whitford, Milton Col-
lege, Milton.
E. B. Wolcott, M. D., Milwaukee.
Rev. A. O. Wright, New Lisbon.

REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT.

His Excellency, Cadwalladeh C. Washburn",

Governor of ^Y^scons^n:

Sir : In compliance witli tlie law, I have tlie honor to submit
the following report of the "financial and other transactions"
of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, for
the year ending February 13th, 1872. And inasmuch as cir-
cumstances prevented the delivery of the report of the previ-
ous year in time for its transmission to the last Legislature, it
has been deemed proper to embody herein such important facts
as are necessary to complete the public record of the Academy
from the date of its organization.

Motives in which the Academy Originated.

^ The Academy was organized on the 16th of February, 1870,
"■^ by a Convention called for that purpose by the Governor and

( more tJian one hundred other prominent citizens of the State.

<' The general objects aimed at were these :
_5 The material, intellectual and social advancement of the

- State;

^ The advancement of Science, Literature and the Arts.
^^- 1. On the part of the State, the reasons were as many as the
numl)er of the elements involved in both of these gene-
I'al objects. For while it was obvious that the advanta-

■^-geous geographical position of tlie State, the variety and vast-

"-*ness of its natural resources, and tlie character of its popula-
co

CO

10 Wisconsin Academy of /Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

tion, both demanded and encouraged tlie employment of agen-
cies calculated to rapidly advance it to a condition of material
prosperity and power, it was no less demonstrable that true
greatness could only be assured by tlie timely adoption and
earnest use of measures looking to higli intellectual and social
development.

"What then is the status of Wisconsin as a civilized State ?
was a question that demanded attention. And since the de-
velopment of a people is illustrated and measured by its cul-
tivation of Science and the application of it to the numberless
uses of political, social and industrial life, as well as by its
achievements in Literature and Art, it was a question that
could be answered — a question, indeed, that must be answered,
if new agencies for the advancement of the commonwealth
were to be wisely planned and put into successful operation.

To the question. What has hitherto been done in the vari-
ous departments of Science — that is, for Science and by means
of it ? the answers were these :

In Pliilosopliy^ which may be called the science of Science,
and is the common, though unseen, source in which all the so-
called sciences have their origin, — in Philosophy, distinctively
considered, almost nothing, so far as had appeared to the pub-
lic through the medium of any publication ; unless, uj)on the
one hand, by the application of established principles, to con-
firm past deductions, or, on the other, to supply facts for new
generalizations. Indeed, we have learned of but a single im-
portant contribution to Philosophy made by a citizen of our
State, and even that was a contribution to its literature rather
than to Philosophy itself, to wit :

Upon the Pkesekt Stand-point of Philosophy. By Dr. K. S. Bayr-
HOFFER, Ph. D., late of Green County, Wisconsin. Published by the
PhilosopJiische Moiiatshefte of Berlin, Germany, Vol. III., Nos. 4 and 5;
Vol. IV., Nos. 4 and 5.

Report of the President 11

In Jmisp-udence^ barely so mucli as is represented by tlie
organic and statute law of tlie Territory and State, and by the
reports of judicial proceedings.

It was a just ground of pride and satisfaction that tlie
decisions of tlie supreme court of Wisconsin had gained so
high a reputation in the country at large, and that the jurists
had won for themselves and the state so honorable a place in
connection with American jurisprudence. But it was, never-
theless, a fact that hitherto no contribution had been made to
the science and literature of this great department other than
those contained in the catalogue of publications herewith
presented, to wit :

Statutes of the Territory of Wisconsin. 1839 to 18i8.

Revised Statutes of Wisconsin. 1849.

Revised Statutes of Wisconsin. 1858.

An Appendix to the Revised Statutes, from 1859 to 1867 inclusive, of the
State of Wisconsin, in accordance with a Resolution of the Legislature.
By D. A. Reed, Attorney-at-Law. Madison. 1868. 8vo. pp. 28.

The General and the Private and Local Laws since enacted and annually
published.

A Digest of the Laws of Wisconsin from the year 1858 to the year 1868,
both years inclusive; to which is added an Appendix, giving a List of
all the Laws and Provisions of the Constitution passed upon by the
Supreme Court. Compiled by E. A. Spencer, Counselor-at-law. Madi-
son: Atwood & Rublee. 1868. One vol. 8vo. pp.

Laws of Wisconsin concerning the Organization and Government of Towns,
and the Powers and duties of Town Officers and Boards of Supervisors,
with numerous Practical Forms. By Elijah M. Hains. Chicago: Wm.
B. Keene & Co. 1858. One vol. 8vo. pp.

Reports of the Supreme Court cf the Territory of Wisconsin for 1842 and
1843. Reported by T. P. Burnett. Madison: Geo. Hyer. 1844. Oce
vol. 8vo.

Reports of Cases Argued and Determined in the Supreme Court of the State
of Wisconsin. By Daniel H. Chandler. Milwaukee: Sentinel Press.
1854. Four vols. 8vo. (1849 to 1851 inclusive.)

Reports of the Cases Argued and Determined in the Supreme Court of Wis-
consin. With Tables of the Cases and Principle Matters. Vols. 1 to
11, by Hon. A.D. Smith; vols. 12 to 15, by P. L. Spooner, Esq.; vols. 16
to 24, by 0. M. Conover, Esq. 1853 to 1870.

12 Wisco7isin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

A Complete Digest of the Decisions of the Supreme Court of the State of
Wisconsin, in Law and Equity, from its organization down to and in-
cluding the Cases reported in vol. xiv of the Wisconsin Reports. By
Wm. E. Sheffield, Couuselor-at-Law. Chicago: E. B. Myers & Co.
1865. One vol. 8vo.

A Digest of Wisconsin Reports, from the Earliest Period to the year 18G8;
comprising all the Published Decisions of the Supreme Court of Wis-
consin presented in Burnett's, Chandler's and twenty volumes of the
Wisconsin Reports, with References to the Statutes. By James Sim-
mons, Counselor-at-Law. Albany: William Gould & Son. 1868. One
vol . 8vo.

Argument in the U. S. Supreme Court, in the matter of ex-parte, Wm. H.
McCardle, Appellant. By Hon. Matt. H. Carpenter. 1868.

In the Science of Politics, so mucli liad been done, and sucli
contributions had been made, as appeared from tlie legislative
journals, the executive messages, the proceedings of political
conventions, the discussions and reports of discussions con-
tained in the public journals, and the few political speeches
which had been published in pamphlet form, namely :

Speech on the Fugitive Slave bill, delivered in the United States Senate,
August 6, 18j2, by Hon. Charles H. Durkee.

Speech on the Lecompton Constitution, delivered in the United States Sen-
ate, March 20, 1858, by Hon. Charles H. Durkee.

The Calhoun Rebellion; its basis. Speech of the Hon. J. R. Doolittle in
the Unied States Senate, December 14, 1859.

State Rights. A speech delivered in Madison in 1860, by Hon. Abram D.
Smith.

The State and the National Governments; their Mutual Political Relations;
a speech delivered at Madison in 1860, by Hon. Tim. O. Howe.

Are we a Nation? By J. M. Bundy, Edq., Beloit, 18G0. Second edition of
same, with an Historical Letter by Hon. Tim. O. Howe. New York,
1869.

On approving certain acts of the President. Speech of Hon. Tim 0. Howe
in the United States Senate, August 2, 1861.

African Colozination. Speech of Hon. J. R. Doolittle in the United States
Senate, April 11, 1862.

On the Conduct of the War. Letter of D. H. Waldo to Gov. Edward Salo-
mon. Milwaukee, 1862.

On the Amendment to the Constitution. Speech of Hon. Tim 0. Howe
in the United States Senate, April 4, 1864.

Report of ill e President. 13

On Reconstruction: being a Review of a Speech made by Hon. J. R. Doo-
little at Madison in 18G5. By John Y. Smith, Esq., Madison, I860.

Reconstruction. Speech of Hon. J. R. Dooliltle in the United States Sen-
ate, January 17, 18G6.

On a Military Despotism. Speech of Hon. J. R. Doolittle in the United
States Senate. 18GG.

Reconstruction. Sj)eech of Hon. H. E. Paine in the United States House
of Representatives.

Reconstruction and Equal SufFrage. Speech of Hon. M. H. Carpenter, de-
livered in the Music Hall at Milwaukee, October 4, 18GG. Milwaukee.
8vo.

The Legal Consequences of the Rebellion. Speech of 0. H.Waldo, Esq.,
made at Racine in 18GG.

Confiscation. Speech of Hon. C. A. Eldridge in House of Representatives,
December 10, 18G7,

Reconstruction. Speeches of Hon. Tim. 0. Howe in the United States Sen-
ate, January 10,18GG, June 5, 1866, January 31, 1868.

On the impeachment of the President. Speech by Hon. Tim. 0. Howe in
the United States Senate.

On the Claims of Loyal Citizens living in the South during the Rebellion.
Speech of Hon. Tim. O.Howe in the United States Senate, January 14
and 15, 1869.

State Rights and the Appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of the
United States: A Constitutional Argument. By a member of the
Rock County Bar. Beloit: Journal and Courier 'pv\ni,l'd^!>S). 8vo.

The Mission and Future Policy of the United States. Address at the
Dedication of Memorial Hall, Beloit College, July, 1869. By Hon.
Matt. H. Carpenter.

Neutrality between Spain and Cuba. Speech of Hon. Matt. H. Carpenter
in the United States Senate, December 15, 1869.

The Laws of Neutrality. Speech of the Hon. Tim. 0. Howe in the United

States Senate, February 2, 1870,

Til Social Science^ so mucli of Political Economy as was
found in tlie executive messages, tlie legislative discussions
and enactments, the annual reports of tlie State departments
and industrial societies, of the boards of trade, and in the pro-
ceedings of conventions held in ihe interest of the various in-
dustries and of public improvements looking to our commer-
cial supremacy ; so much of Educational Science and Social
Economy as was shown by our schools, libraries, charitable,

14 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

reformatory and penal institutions, by tlie statute law of tlie
State, and by tlie documents, journals, and otlier publications
mentioned below :

POLITICAL AND SOCIAL ECONOMY.

Depreciation of the Currency: a short essay on the Financial Condition and

Prospects of the Country. By John Y. Smith, Esq. Madison. 8vo,

pp. 14.
The Practical Development of the Rtfsources of Science in relation to Agri-
culture and tlie Health and Habitations uf the People. Dr. D. B. Reid,

LL. D., F. R. S. E. 8vo, pp. 20. See also Trans. Wis. State Agr., vol.

vi., 1860.
The Position, Value, and Duties of the Agriculturist in the Economy of

Society. An address by J. H. Lathrop, LL. D. 16mo, pp. 34. 1851 .

See also Trans. Wis. St. Agr. Soc, vol. i., 1851.
The Farmer and the Manufacturer. Address by E. B. Ward, Esq., before

State Agr. Soc. 8vo, pp. 20. 1868. See also Trans. Wis. State Agr.

Soc, vol. viii., 1869.
The Growth of Monopoly in the Carrying Business. An address by Hon

Matt. H. Carpenter, U. S. S. Milwaukee: Sentinel Print. 8vo, pp. '^0.

1860. See also Trans. Wis. St. Ag. Soc, vol. viii., 1869.
Oj Banks and Railroad Bonds. By Hon. Moses M. Strong. Milwaukee

Sentinel Print. 185-. 8vo, pp. 21.
On the Public Debt. Speech of Hon. Tim. 0. Howe in the U. S. Senate,

Feb. 12, 1863.
National Currency. Speech of Hon. Tim. O. Howe in the U. S. Senate, Jan.

24, 1870.
On the Purchase of Russian America. Speech of Hon. C. C. Washburn in

the H. of R., Dec. 11, 1867.
On the Postal Telegraph. Speech of Hon. C. C. Washburn in the H. of R.,

Dec. 23, 1869.
The Iron Interests of America. Address of Hon. Tim. 0. Howe before the

American Iron Association, ai Chicago, May 24, 1865.
Banks and Banking. 8vo, pp. 6.

Annual Reports of the State Treasurer of Wisconsin. 1848 to 1870.
Annu'al Reports of the State Agricultural Society. 1851 to 1870.
Annual Reports of the Milwaukee Chamber of Commerce. 1857 to 1870.
Report on the Improvement of Kock River; submitted by a Committee

authorized by the Legislature. Adopted by Legislature of 1867.

Janesville. 1867. 8vo.
Proceedings of the Wisconsin and Fox Rivers Improvement Convention,

held at Prairie du Chien, November 10, 1868, and at Portage City,Octo-

Re^jort of the President 15

ber 1809; with a Memorial to Congress. Prepared for publication
under the direction of Lucius Faircliild, Uovernor of Wisconsin. Mad-
ison. Atvvood & Culver. 1870. With maps. 8vo, pp. 88.

EDUCATION AND SOCIAL ECONOMY.

Universal Education necessary to the Stability of Republican Institutions.
Address by Hon. Tim 0. Howe before Wisconsin Stale Teachers' Asso-
ciation in i860. Madison. 8vo, pp. 20.

The Claims of the Natural Sciences to Enlarged Consideration in our Sys-
tems of Education. Inaugural Address by Dr. E. S. Carr, M. D., Wis-
consin State University. 185G.

University Progress: a Paper presented to the National Teachers' Associa-
tion at Trenton, New Jersey, in 1869. Part I. The University of the
Past. II. The University of the Present. III. The University of the
Future. By John W. Hoyt, A. M., M. D., President Wisconsin Acade-
my of Sciences, Arts and Letters. New York. D. Appleton & Co.
8vo, pp. 88.

Education in Europe and America: Being a Report to the Government of
the United States in connection with the Paris Universal Exposition of
1867. By John W. Hoyt, United States Commissioner. Washington.
Government Printing OfRce. 8vo, pp. 398.

Annual Reports of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. 1848
to 1870.

Annual Reports of the Regents' of the University of Wisconsin. 1849 to
1870.

Annual Reports of the State Board of Normal School Regents. 18j7 to
1870.

Annual Reports of the Trustees of the State Institution for the Education
of the Blind. 1850 to 1870.

Ar.nual Reports of the Board of Trustees of the Wisconsin Institute for the
Deaf aud Dumb. 1852 to 1870.

Annual Reports of the Board of Management of the Soldiers' Orphans' Home,
1866 to 1870.

Annual Reports of the Board of Managers of the Wisconsin State Industrial
School for Boys. 1859 to 1870.

Annual Reports of the State Prison Commissioners. 1852 to 1870.

Annual Reports of Board of Trustees of the State Hospital for the Insane,
1860 to 1870.

The annual publications of the colleges, seminaries, academies and local
boards of education.

The published Proceedings of the Wisconsin State Teachers 's Association.
1853 to 1870.

16 Wisconsin Academy cf Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

The Wisconsin Journal of Education. Published and edited successively
by Geo. P. Dodge, Janesville; John G. McMynn, Racine; A.J. Craig
and John B. Pradt, Madison, from 1856 to 1864; by Williams & Peck,
Mineral Point, from 1866 to 1869.

The School Monthly. By Milwaukee Teachers' Association. 1869.

In Journalism, wliicli niiglit properly enougli be considered
under tlie head of Social Science, "Wisconsin liad readied a po-
sition wliicli at once evidenced tlie general intelligence of lier
population and reflected credit upon lier journalists ; for tlie
total numl^er of newspapers and otlier periodicals was no less
tlian 174, — of wliicli 6 were montlily, 1 semi-monthly, 11 daily
and weekly, and 153 weekly, — and for creditable appearance,
editorial ability and extent of circulation, they compared fa-
borably with the like publications of any state in the union,

It is also worthy of note that Wisconsin was one of, if not
the, first of the states to form an editorial association (organ-
ized in 1857,) and that the same has had a career of uninter-
rupted prosperity and usefulness; holding annual meetings
and publishing fourteen volumes of its proceedings.

A list of the newspapers and other periodical publications
regularly issued at the date of January, 1870, will be found
in the Legislative Manual for that year.

In the Natund Sciejices more had been accomplished than at
first appeared ; but unhappily for our State, comparatively
little of it could be credited to Wisconsin ; and even this had
been chiefly the work of a few private citizens devoted to
scientific pursuits, such as Dr. I. A. Laphani, LL. D., and Dr.
P. R Hoy, M. D., who without other reward than the satis-
faction of having done the public a great service, have con-
tinued their scientific labors without intermission even from
early territorial times down to the present hour. Moreover,
the work actually done, whether by citizens, the State, or the
United States, had been almost wholly confined to geodetic,
tojoographical, nautical and natural history surve3's.

Report of the President 17

The State liud four times in quick succession legally recog-
nized tlie importance of a geological survey by tlie appoint-
ment of a geologist, or a commission of geologists, to perform
that service — once in 1853, by the appointment of Edward
Daniels ; once in 1854, by the appointment of Jas. G. Percival
to sncced Mr. Daniels ; again in 1857, by the reappointment
of Mr. Daniels, upon the death of Dr. Percival ; and yet again
by the appointment of a Geological Commission consisting of
James Hall of New York, and Edward Daniels and E. S.
Carr of Wisconsin, in 1858. Nevertheless, except in the Lead
Eegion, to which considerable special attention had been given
by the sveral state geologists, but little more than general or
preliminary work had been accomplished up to 1861, when
the law instituting the survey was repealed.

In Pure Mathematics, and in Physics, including Astronomy,
nothing of importance could be claimed by us. What had
actually been accomplished, both by us and for us, in the
departments of scientific investigation first above named, up
to the date of which we are now speaking (1870), will appear
on reference to the following quite complete catalogues of the
books, journals and charts embracing the results of such
labor:*

IN DESCEIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY, TYPOGRAPHY AND HYDROGRAPHY.

Report and Map of a visit to the Northwestern Indians in 1833. By Lieut.
J. Allen and H. R. Schoolcraft. Executive Document. 1833-4. No.
323. Washington. 8vo.

Notes on Wisconsin Territory — Iowa Laud District. By Albert M. Lea.
Philadelphia. 183G. 12mo, pp. 53.

Observations on the Wisconsin Territory: Chieflly on that part called "The
Wisconsin Land District," with a Map of the settled part of the Ter-
ritory, as laid oil' by Counties by act of the Legislature of 1837. Phil-
adelphia. 1838. 12mo, pp. 134.

* The author of this report has pleasure lu stating that for the material of this and the
suhsequcnt bibliographical enumeratious he is largely Inclebtecl to that ethcient and
conscientious public officer, Mr. Daniel S. Durrie, Librarian of the Wisconsin State His-
torical Society, and Member of the Academy, whose Bibliograpliy of Wisconsin, being
now quite complete, should somehow be published at an early day. For the perfection
of his chartology, he acknowledges his indebtness to Dr. I. A. Lapham.

18 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

A Condensed Geography (and History) of the Western States, or the Mis-
sissippi Valley. Cincinnati. 1828. 2 vols. Bvo.

Boundary, Township and Sectional Surveys. Land Office Reports. 1833-
41-44-48.

Map of Wisconsin Territory; Compiled from the Public Surveys. By
Capt. T. J. Cran^. Senate Document. No 140. 1st Session 36th Con-
gres. 18.38.

Reports of Surveys of the Mouths of Milwaukee, Root, Manitowoc, She-
boygan and Kewaunee Rivers. By J. M. Berrien. Senate Document.
No. 175. 25th Congress, 2d Session. February, 1838. With Maps.

Report on the Improvement of Fox, Wisconsin and Rock Rivers. By Capt.
T. J. Cram. Senate Document. No. 318. 26th Congress, 1st Session.
March, 184(».

Report relative to Internal Improvements in Wisconsin. By Capt. T. J.
Cram. Senate Document, No. 140, 26th Congress, 1st Session. Jan.
uary, 1840. With Map of the State.

Report on the Survey of the Boundary between Wisconsin and Michigan,
with Maps. By Capt. T. J. Cram. Senate Document, No. 151, 26th
Congress, 2d Session. February, 1841. Also Senate Document, No.
170, 27tli Congress, 2d Sesbion. March, 1812. See, also, Vinton on
" the Northeast Boundary of Wisconsin," in Collections State Histor-
ical Society, Vol. 4, pp 350, et seq.

Report of the Survey of Green Bav. By Capt. Wm. G. Williams. See
Executive Document No. 170, 1st Session 29th Congress. 1846.

Report intended to Illustrate a Map of the Hydrographical Basin of the
Upper Mississippi, made by I. N. Nicollet while in the employ of the
Bureau of the Corps of Topographical Engineers, January 11, 1845.
Washington. 1845. 8vo, pp. 170.

Elevations in Wisconsin. By I. A. Lapham. See Silliman's American
Journal of Science, Vol. 46, (1844), pp. 258.

On the Public Land Surveys and the Latitude and Longitude of places in
Wisconsin. By I. A. Lapham. See Collections State Historical Socie-
ty of Wisconsin, Vol. 4, pp. 359 et seq.

Land Office Report. 1843. Maps of surveYs of Mineral Lands adjacent to
Lake Superior. By Gen. John Stockton. Report of 1845.

Report to the Secretary of War of Explorations and Surveys of the Min-
eral District of Lake Superior. By A. B. Gray. Washington. 1846.
8vo, pp. 23.

Survey of the Upper Mississippi River: Report of Gen. G. K. Warren, to
the Sec. of War, of the Surveys of the Upper Mississippi and its Trib-
utaries. Senate Doc, 2d Sess., 39th Congress, Lib. 15, 1867. 8vo, pp.
116. Also his Report for the year ending June 30, 1867, in Appendix^
" D," Ex, Doc. No. 1, House of Rep., 40th Congress, 2d Sess. 8vo, pp.

Bej'tori of tJie President 19

6. Also his Report for the yenr eDcling June 30, 18G8, in Appendix G,
Ex. Doc. 1, Part 2. House of Rep., 40th Congress, 3d Sess., Aug., 1808.
8vo, pp. 8G.
Geographical and Topographical Description of Wisconsin, with br'ef
Sketches of its History, Geology, etc. By I. A, Lapham. Milwaukee.
1844. 12mo, pp. 255. Also 2d Ed. greatly improved, with Map. Mil-
waukee. 1840. 8vo, pp. 208.

Report to the War Department of the Surveys, Commerce and Improve-
ments of the Harbors of Wisconsin, Illinois, Michigan and Indiana.
By Lieut. Col. Jas. D. Graham, U. S. A, Washington, 1850. 8vo,
pp. 480.

Surveys of Sheboygan and Manitowoc Harbors (charts). By Lt. Col. J. D.
Graham, U. S. A. 1850.

Chart of West End of Lake Superior, St. Louis River, etc. Lake Survey
Report. 1801.

Map of the Territories of Michigan and Ouisconsin. By John Faraicr. De-
troit. 1830.

Map of the Surveyed Part of Wisconsin Territory. Compiled from pub.
surveys. By S. Morrison, D. Dwelle and J. Hathaway, Jr. 1837.

Map of the Northern Part of Illinois and the Surveyed Portion of Wiscon-
sin Territory. New York. 1830.

Sectional Map of Wisconsin. By I. A. Lapham. Milwaukee, 1846, 1847.

Map of Wisconsin, with Recent Surveys. By L. Chapman. Milwaukee.
1857. Subsequent Editions.

Map of the Copper Region of Lake Superior, embracing Michigan and Wis-
consin. By J. Farmer. 1858.

Map of Wisconsin, prepared for Legislative Manual. By I. A. Lapham.
1865.

Map showing the Position of the Reef near Racine Harbor. By S. Farmer.
1837. The same, smaller. 1868.

Township Map of Wisconsin. By S. Farmer. 1807. The same, reduced.
1808.

COXNTY MAPS OP THE FOI-LOWING COUNTIES.

Winnebago. By I. H. Osburn. 1855.

Milwaukee, Waukesha, Racine, Kenosha and part of Walworth.

By S. Chapman.
Dane. By A. Menzes and A. Ligowski. 1858.
Milwaukee. By Louis Lipmau. 1858.
Milwaukee. By H. F. Walling. 1858.
Waukesha. By H. F. Walling. 1859.

Dodge. By 1800. ^

Racine. By Redding and Watson. 1800.

20 IVisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Kenosha. H. F. Walling, 1861.
Green. By J. T. Dodge. 1861.
Sauk. By W. H. Canfield. 1861.
Columbia. By A. Legonski & C. Wasmund. 1861.
Sheboygan, By Randall & Palmer. 1862.
Jefferson. By H. Steeger.
Grant. By J. T. Oodge. 1863.
Grant. By Gray & Pettengill. 1868.

Milwaukee County and City. By Silas Chapman & S. Crampton.
1869.

IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPnT.

On Supposed Tides on the Lakes, with Observations at Green Bay. By
Maj. Henry Whiting. See Sillimau's American Journal of Science,
Vol. XX, pp. 205. 1831.
Indian Summers at Fort Winnebago, etc. See Silliman's Journal of Sci-
ence, Vol. 30, 1836, pp. 8.
On the Tides of the North American Lakes, with Observations at Green
Bay. By D. Buggies. See Silliman's American Journal of Science,
Vol.xlv., pp. 18, 1843.
Lake Superior: Its Physical Character, etc. By Lous Agassiz. Boston.
1850. 8vo, pp. 428.

The Flu-ituations of the Water Level at Green Bay. By Col. Chas. Whit-
tlesey. See Silliman's American Journal of Science, May No., 1859,
pp.8.

Some of the Supposed Causes of the Peculiar Climate of Wisconsin. Il-
lustrated by a Chart of the State. By J. W. Hoyt. See Transactions
Wisconsin State Agricultural Society, Vol. vi, 1860. Republished in
pamphlet by the State.

Map of Wisconsm, with lines showing the Remarkable Effect of Lake
Michigan in Elevating the Temperature of January and Depressing
that of July. By I. A. Lapham. 1865. Republished in Transactions
of Chicago Academy of Sciences, Vol. i, Plate x. 1865.

Remarks ou the Climate of the Country bordering on the Great Lakes. By
I. A. Lapham. See Transactions Chicago Academy of Sciences, Vol.
i, p. 58. With Map. 1867.

Certain Physical Features of the Upper Mississippi River. By Gen. G. K.
Warren. See Proceedings of American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science. 1868.

The Mississippi Valley: Its Physical Geography; With Sketches of To-
pography, etc. By J. W. Foster. Chicago: S. C.Griggs & Co. 1869.
8vo.

Reports of Meterological Observations. See Army Meterological Register,

Report of ilie President 21

1826-1854. 4to and 8vo. Also Transactions Wisconsin State Agricul-
tural Society, 1851 to 1859. Also Patent Office Reports, 1849 to 1861.
Also Reports of Commissioners of Agriculture, 1863 to 1872.
Report on the Disastrous Effects of the Destruction of Forest Trees in the
State of Wisconsin. By J. G. Knapp, I. A. Lapham and Hans Crock-
er, State Commissioners for that purpose. Madison. 1867, pp. 104.

IN geology:

The Wisconsin and Missouri Lead Regions. By James T. Hodge. See
American Journal of Science. Vol. 13, pp. 35 to 72. Bvo.

Report on Copper Mines of Montreal River. By James T. Hodge. Bvo.
pp. 19.

Report of a Geological Reconnoissance made in 1835 from the seat of Gov-
ernment, by way of Green Bay and the Wisconsin Territory to the
Couteau de Prairie. By Geo. W. Featherstonhaugh. Washington.
1836. 8vo, pp. 168.

Geology of the Region about Fort Winnebago. By D. Ruggles. See Sil-
liman'p American Journal of Science. Vol. 30, part 1. With Fig-
ures. 1836.

On the Mining Country in Wisconsin. By J. P. Sheldon. See Senate Doc-
uments, 25th Congress, 2d session. No. 411. May, 1838.

Report of a Geological Exploration of the Mineral Lands of Iowa, Wiscon-
.siu and Northern Illinois. With maps, plates, etc. By David Dale
Owen, United States Geologist. Washington. 1840. 8vo. pp. 161.
Includes Report of John Lock on Geological Magnetism and Antiqui-
ties of Lead Region of Wisconsin, pp. 110.

Fossils from Wisconsin, etc. By Alex. Winchell. See Silliman's Ameri-
can Journal of Science. Part 3. Vol. 37. pp. 226.

Observations on the Lead-bearing Limestone of Wisconsin, and Descrip-
tion of Fossils. By T. A. Conrad. See Proceedings Academy of Natu-
ral Sciences. Philadelphia. Vol.1. 1843. pp.329.

Report Relative to the Lead Mines. By Lieut. Col. G. Talcott. See House
Documents, No. 152. 27th Congress, 3d session. February, 1843. Al-
so another Report on same subject. House Documents, 28th Congress,
pp. 28.

Report of the Ordnance Bureau on the Mineral Lands of the Upper Missis-
sippi. Washington. 1844. 8vo, pp. 52.

Rei:>ort to the Secretary of War relative to the Copper Mineral of Lake Su-
perior. By Walter Cunnintjham. Washington. 1845. 8vo. pp. 8.

Report of the Secretary of War on the Condition and Government of the
Mineral Lands on Lake Superior, with maps. By John Stockton.
Washington. 1845. 8vo, pp. 23.
C.

22 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

A Canoe Voyage up tlie Minnay Sotor; with an account of the Lead and

Copper Deposits of Wisconsin, etc. By G. W. Featlierstouliaugli.
London. 1847. 2 vols. Eighty maps and plates.

On the Lacustrine Deposits in the vicinity of the Great Lakes. By L A.
Lapham. See Sillimaa's Amer. Jour, of Science, 1847, pp. 90, with
figures.

Report of a Geological Reconnoissance of the Chippewa Land District of
Wisconsin; with a portion of the Kickapoo Country of Iowa and Min-
nesota. Numerous plates. By David Dale Owen. Washington; 1848.
8vo, pp.134.

Report on the Geology of Wisconsin. By J. G. Norwood. See Ex. Doc.
No. 57, 1st Sess.SOth Congress. 1848. pp. 78-129. Washington. 8vo.

Report on the Geology of Wisconsin. By. J. G. Norwood. See Executive
Doc. No. 57, 1st Sess. 30th Congress. 1848. pp. 73-129. Washing-
ton. 8vo.

The Geological Formations of Wisconsin. By L A. Lapha^^a. See Trans-
actions of Wis. State Ag. Soc. Vol.2. 1857. Page J22 e<se(7.

-On the mineral Regions of Lake Superior. By F. C. Koch, Gottingen.
1851. 8vo.

Report of a Geological Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa and Minnesota and a
portion of Nebrask.-i, with 72 wood cuts, 27 steel plates and 18 maps.
By David Dale Owen. Philadelphia. 1852. 4to.,pp.638.

'On the Geology of the south-east portion of Wisconsin not heretofore sur-
veyed. By I. A. Lapham. See Foster and Whitney's Report on the
Geology of the Lake Superior Laud District. Part 2d, p. 167 et seq.
Washington. 1851.

.Annual Report (first State Report) on the Geology of Wisconsin. By
Edward Daniels, State Geologist. See Executive Messages and Doc-
uments of 1845. Doc. " H." 8vo, pp. 84.

First and Second Annual Reports of the Geological Survey of Wisconsin.
By James G. Percival, State Geologist; (being for the years 1855 and
185G), with map. See Executive Messages and Documents of those
years, pp. 101 and 111.

■Report on the Iron Region of Dodge and Washington counties, with Maps.
By Jas. G. Percival. Milwaukee. 1855. 8vo, pp. 9.

A Geological Map of Wisconsin. By I. A. Lapham. 1855.

Second Report of Edward Daniels on the Geology of Wisconsin; (being for
the year '1857). See Executive Message and Documents. Doc. " P."
1857.

Preliminary Report on behalf of the State Commission of Wisconsin. By
James Hall. Executive Message and Documents. 1858.

Report of Progress on behalf of the Geological Commission of Wisconsin.
By James Hall. Executive Message and Documents. 1859.

RepovL of the President. 23

Report of tbe Superintendent of Geological Survey of Wisconsin. By James
Hall. January 1, 18G1. Executive Message and Documents. 1861.
Bvo, pp. 53. (Descriptive of Fossils.)

Eeport of tlie Geological Survey of Wisconsin. By James Hall, Superin-
tendent; (covering Report of J. D. Whitney on " the Lead Region.")
Vol. 1. Royal 8vo. pp. 40G. ,With Plates and Maps. Albany. 1863.

The Penokee Iron Ridge, with Map. By I. A. Lapham. See Transactions
Wisconsin State Agricultural Society. Vol. v. 1858-9. pp. 391 et seq.

Descriptions of New Species of Fossils from the Northwestern States. By
I. H. McChessney. Chicago. 1859. Royal 8vo. pp.154. With Plates.

Wiscon.sin Building Stones and Marbles. By Edward Daniels. See Trans-
actions Wisconsin State Agricultural Society. Vol. vi. 1860. pp. 299
et seq.

On the Drift Cavities or Potash Kettles of Wisconsin. By Col. Chas.
Whittlesey. See Proceedings American Association for Advancement
of Science. Vol. 13, pp. 297. Springfield. 1860. Also, hy same au-
thor, Origin of the Azoic Rocks of Wisconsin and Michigan, pp. 301.

Notice of New Potsdam Sandstone Fossils of Wisconsin and Missouri. By
B. F. Sherward. See Transactions St. Louis Academy of Sciences,
Vol. 3, 1863. pp.101.

Fauna of the Potsdam Sandstone. By Jas. Hall. See Annu^ Report of
Regents of University of New York, 1863. pp. 119. With Plates and
numerous Figures of Wisconsin Fossils.

Iron Ridge Mines, Wisconsin. Milwaukee. 1863. 8vo, pp. 16.

Description of Fossils of the Niagara Group. By James Hall. See 20th
Annual Report of Regents of University of New York. pp. 308. Plates
and Figures of Wisconsin Fossils.

The Penokie Mineral Range, Wisconsin. By Chas. Whittlesey. See Pro-
ceedings of Boston Natural History Society, July 1863. pp. 10.

Relations of Niagra Group. Recent Limestone. By James Hall. See
Annual Report of Regents University of New York. 8vo. pamphlet,
printed in advance, pp. 48.

Report of the Bladder Rock Iron Property, Ashland county. By Chas.
Whittlesey. 8vo, pp. 9. 1865.

Report on the Montreal River Copper Location, Ashland county. By Chas.
Whittlesey. 1865. 8vo, pp. 5.

Report on the Marangoin Iron Property, Ashland county, with Map. By
Chas. Whittlesey. 8vo, pp. 7. 1865,

Account of the Copper Lands of Sections 15, 16 and 21, Town 45 north
Range 2 west, Ashland county. By Chas. Whittlesey. 8vo. pp.6. 1865.

Fresh Water Glacial Drift of the Northwestern States. By Chas. Whit-
tlesey. See Smithsonian Contributions. Vol. 15. 1866. pp. 33.
Maps and Figures,

24 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

Mineral Regions of Lake Superior as known from theii earliest discoveries
to 1865. By Henry M. Rice. Bee Collections of Minnesota State His-
torical Society. 1867, pp. 8-1 *).

On the Mines of Wisconsin. By Edward Daniels. See Transactions of
Wisconsin State Agricultural Society. 8vo.

Remarks on the Wisconsin Meteorite. By J. Lawrence Smith. See Silli-
inan's American Journal of Sciences. Part. 2d. Vol. 47. March 1859,
pp. 271.

On the Western Boulder Drift. By E. Andrews. See Sillimau'a American
Journal of Sciences. Part 2. Vol. 48. 1769. pp. 172.

A new Geological Map of Wisconsin. Prepared from Original Observations,
By L A. Lapham. 1869. 15 miles to the inch,

IN BOTANY.

Catalogue of Plants found in the vicinity of Milwaukee. By I. A. Lapham.

1838. 12mo, pp. 23.
On the Plants of Wisconsin. By I. A. Lapham. See Proceed. Amer. Ass'u

for Advancement of Science, Vol. 2, 1850, p. 19. Also published iu

Trans, of Wis. State Ag. Soc, Vol. 2, 1852, pp. 375 et seq.
Notes on the Woods of Wisconsin. By P. R. Hoy. See Trans. Wis. State

Ag. Soc, Vol. 2, 1852, pp. 419 et seq.
The Grasses of Wisconsin and the adjacent States. By I. A. Lapham. See

Trans. Wis. State Ag. Soc, Vol. 3, pp. 397 et seq.
The Forest Trees of Wisconsin. By I. A. Lapham. See Trans. "Wis. State

Ag. Soc, Vol. 4, pp. 195 ct seq.
Additions to the Flora of Wisconsin. See Trans. Wis. State Ag. Soc, Vol.

v., 1858, pp. 417; also Vol. VL, 18G0, pp. 258.
Map of Wisconsin illustrating Distribution of Timber, etc. By J. W. Hoyt

See Trans. Wis. State Ag. Soc, 1860.

IN ZOOLOGY.

Fauna of Wisconsin. By I. A. Lapham. See Trans. Wis. State Ag. Soc,
Vol. 2, 1852, pp. 237 et seq.

Notes on the Ornithology of Wisconsin. By P. R. Hoy. See Transactions
State Agricultural Society, Vol. 2, 1852. p. 341; also the same, with
additions, in Proceedings Academy Natural Sciences, Philadelphia,
Vol. 6, pp. 304, 381, 425, 1854.

Description of Minerals from Wisconsin. By P. R. Hoy. See Proceedings
Academy Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Vol. 6, p. 210, 1854.

Quadrupeds of Illinois, Wisconsin, etc. By Robert Kennicott. See Patent
Office Reports, 1856. pp. 52.

The Sapsucker {Pious varius and Picus jyuhescens); with Illustrations. By
Dr. P. R. Hoy. See Transactions Wisconsin State Agricultural Socie-
ty, Vol. vi., 1860, pp. 243-249.

Report of the President. 25

IN MEDICINE,

Transactions of tlie Wisconsin State Medical Society, Vols. I and II, 1843

to 18G9.
Reports of Superintendent of the State Hospital for the Insane. See Ke-

porta of Board of Trustees, 1866 to 1870.

The Uiii'fnl Arts liacl been cultivated with considerable suc-
cess. Agriculture bad advanced witli steady pace, until the
improved lands had an area of nearly five-and-a-half-million
acres, and a total valuation of more than three hundred mill-
ion dollars. Horticulture had Avon many honors in its strug-
gles with the adversities of climate. The inventive genius of
our citizens had made valuable contributions to the mechanic
arts. Manufactures had reached an aggi-egate annual produc-
tion of more than eighty million dollars, and in some impor-
tant classes gained a supremacy in the western markets. State
and county societies were in successful operation, guiding and
stimulating the industry of the state in its various depart-
ments. Books and lesser documents had been regularly issued
by authority of the legislature, while periodical and occasion-
al publications, looking to the same end, had made good
record of individual enterprise, and sown tlie seed of future
harvests, as will appear from the following catalogue of indus-
trial publications ;

Notes on Wisconsin Territory — Iowa Land District. By Albert M. Lea,
Philadelphia. 1836. 12mo, pp. 53.

Observations on the Wisconsin Territory; chiefly on the part called the
" Wisconsin Land District," with a map of the settled part of the Ter-
ritory, as laid off by counties, by act of the Legislature of 1837. Phil-
adelphia. 1838. ]2mo, pp. 134.

A condensed Geography (and History) of the Western States, or the Mis-
sissippi Valley. Cincinnati. 1828. 2 vols, 8vo.

Valley of the Mississippi; or the Emigrant's and Traveler's Guide to the
West. With maps. By R. B. Philadelphia. 1835. 12mo, pp.573.

The Western Transit to Oliio, Michigan, Illinois, and Wisconsin, and the
Territories of Wisconsin and Iowa. By J. Calvin Smith. New York.
1840. 12mo,pp. 180. With maps.

26 Wisco7isin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Notes on tlie North-west or Valley of the Upper Mississippi. By J. A.
Bradford. New York. 1846. Pp.302.

The Wisconsin Farmer; a monthly Magazine d3votedto Agriculture, Horti-
culture, Mechanic Arts and Eural Economy. 18 vols. 8vo. 1848 to
1866, inclusive. Managed from 1848 to 1856 by Mark Miller; 1856 by
Powers & Skinner: 1857 to 1860, by Powers, Skinner & Hoyt,1860 to
1866 by Hoyt & Campbell ; 1866 by W. B. Davis. Changed January, 1867
to a weekly folio, with title of Western Farmer; 1867 to 1870, by Morrow
Brothers ,

Transactions of the Wisconsin State Agricultural Society. 8 vols., to wit:
vol. 1, 1851; vol. 2, 1852; vol. 3, 1853; vol. 4, 1854-5-6-7; vol. 5, 1858-9;
vol. 6, 1860; vol. 7, 1861-8; vol. 8, 1869, 8vo, pp. 500, each. Prepared
by A. C. Ingham, D. J. Powers and J. W. Hoyt, successive Secretaries.

Industrial Progress and Condition of Counties. Trans. Wis. State Ag. So-
ciety, vol. vi., 1860.

The Emigrants' Hand Book and Guide to Wisconsin. By Samuel Freeman.
Milwaukee. 1851. 8vo, pp. 147.

Wisconsin: a paper prepared for the use of the State Immigration Agency.
By J. H. Lathrop. Madison. 1852. 8vo, pp. 16.

Industrial Resources of Wisconsin. By John Gregory, C. E. Chicago.
1853. 13mo, pp. 329.

Wisconsin Gazeteer: containing the names, location and advantages of the
counties, cities and. towns, etc. By J.W.Hunt. Madison. 1853. 8vo,
pp. 255.

Wisconsin Almanac and Annual Register. By J. W. Hunt. Milwaukee.
1856. 8vo, pp. 96. 1857. 8vo, pp. 119.

Hand Book of Wisconsin; or Guide to Travelers and Emigrants. By Silas
Chapman.

Northern Wifcconsiu; its Capacities and Wants. By Albert G. Ellis. See
Transactions Wisconsin State Agricultural Society, Vol.2, 1852, pp.326;
also Historical Society Collections, Vol. 3, pp. 135.

Western Portraiture and Emigrants' Guide; a Description of Wisconsin,
Illinois and Iowa; with remarks on Minnesota; with Map. By Daniel
S. Curtis. New York. 1852. 12mo, pp. 180.

Wisconsin and its Resources; with Lake Superior, its Commerce and Nav-
igation; Map. By Jas. S. Ritchie. Philadelphia. 1857. 12mo, pp.312.

Wisconsin; its Natural Resources and Industrial Progress; with a Map
showing the General Geology, Climatology and Distribution of Timber.
By J. W. Hoyt. Reprinted from Transactions Wisconsin State Agri-
cultural Society for 1860, by order of Legislature. Madison. 1862.
8vo, pp. 68.

The Great West; or the Garden of the World; its History, Wealth and
Advantages. By Chas. W. Dana. Boston. 1861. 12mo, pp. 396.

Eeport of the President. 27

Wisconsin; its Resources, Condition and Prospects. By A. F. Carman.
See Hunt' s Merchants' Magazine, Vol. 28, pp. 444^53.

Wisconsin and its Resources. By Josiali Bond. See Hunt's Merchants'
Magazine. Vol. 10, p. 541 .

Emigrants' Guide to the West. By C. F. J. MoUer. Madison. 1865. 8vo,
pp. 14. (In Danish.)

Statistics— History, Climate and Productions of Wisconsin. Published by
order of the Legislature. Svo., pp. 33, with maps.

Wisconsin and the International Exhibitions of 1863 and 1867. By J. W.
Hoyt, State Commissioner. Madison. 1869. 8vo. pp.100. Also pub-
lished in Transactions Wisconsin State Agricultural Society. Vol. 8.
1861-8.

Reports of Wisconsin Fruit Growers' Association. Organized in 1853. First
reports in pamphlet form; from 1859-1865 inclusive. In Transactions

Wisconsin State Agricultural Society.

Reports of Wisconsin State Horticultural Society, 1805-1870. See Trans-
actions Wisconsin State Agricultural Society.

Proceedings of the Wisconsin Sugar-cane Growers' Convention. Madison.
W J. Park, State Printer. 1864. Svo.

Tlie Fine Arts had received some attention, but had made
little impression upon the life and character of the people.
The practice in Architecture, both in the construction of
private dwellings and buildings for public use, gave here, as
elsewhere in our country, painful proof of a prevailing ignor-
rance of the principles of the art. Painting had been favored
with many votaries of considerable promise, but no effort had
been made to bring them into any sort of relations of associ-
ated effort, and there was nowhere in the State, even the
beginning of what could be called an Art Gallery. Sculpture
had been attempted by but two of our citizens, so far as we
are aware, both of whom, however, were artists of high promise,
and one of whom — Miss Vinnie Ream, a native of Madison —
had already commanded the attention and confidence of the
National Government and won for her name a more than
national distinction.

In Letters^ the product of our labor, though interesting, and
in some cases of very superior quality, did not aggregate much

28 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

in amoiiut outside of History. Even in this important branch,
although a history of the State had been published, and im-
jDortant researches were steadily progressing under the direc-
tion of Hon. Lj-man C. Draper, the accomplished and indefat-
igable Corresponding Secretary of the State Historical Society,
comparatively little had yet been accomplished beyond the
collection of material — an imjDortant work, to which the His-
torical Society has devoted itself with so much zeal and with
such signal success that its library and collections fairly enti-
tle it to rank second among the historical societies of the
United States. So that the facts of Wisconsin history then
accessible to the student, in printed form, must be sought for
in a gi-eat number of works, of which, however, the somewhat
extended catalogue herewith presented is believed to be very
nearly, if not quite complete :

IN LANGUAGE.

Manual Latin Grammar. By \Ym. F. Allen, A. M., and Joseph H.Allen.

Boston: Edwin Glinu & Co. 18G8. 12mo. [Also contained in

foregoing catalogue of Educational Works.]
A Latin Reader; with Copious Notes and Vocabulary. By same authors and

publishers. [Also found in list of E ducational Works.]
The First Six Books of the Aeneid. Translation and Notes by F. S. Searing,

A. M., Professor of Ancient Languages, Milton College.
Phocylidis Poema Adminitorium. Recognovit Brevibusque Notis Instruxit.

J. B. Feuling, Ph.D.. A. 0. S.S., Professor Philologiae Compar in Un

ver.sitate Wisconsiuensi. Editio Prima Americana. Andoveri: W. F.

Draperi. 1869. Svo.

ni.*TORY — ANTIQUITIES.

Description of Ancient Remains, Animal Mounds, and Embankments, prin-
cipally in the counties of Grant, Iowa and Richland in Wisconsin Ter-
ritory. By Stephen Taylor. See Silliman's Amer. Journ. of Science,
xliv., 21-41.

Indian Mounds, etc. By Richard E. Taylor. See Silliman's Am. Jour., vol.
XXX. Also Squier & Davis' Ancient Monuments, pp. 124 et scq.

Observations on the Aboriginal Monuments of the Mississippi Valley. By
Edward G. Squier. New York. 1847. 8vo.

Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley: comprising the result of
Extensive Original Surveys by Edward G. Squier and E. H. Davis, with

Report of tlie President. 29

numerous eugravings. Vol. i. Sniitlisouian Contributions. Washing-
ton. 1848. 4to.

Ancient Mounds or Tumuli in Crawford County, Wis. By Rev. Alfred
Brunson. See Histor. Soc. Collec, Vol. 3, j^p. 178.

The Antiquities of Wisconsin surveyed and described on behalf of the
American Antiquarian Society, with drawings, maps, etc. By I. A.
Lapham. Washington. 1855. 4to, pp. 95.

Traditions of De-coodah and Antiquarian Researches: comprising exten-
sive explorations, surveys and excavations of the Earthen Remains of
the Mound Builders of America. By WilHi.m Pidgeon. New York,
1858. 8vo.

EARLY EXPLOEATIOKS AKD TRAVELS.

Voyage et Dccouverte de quelques Pays et Nations de 1' Amerique Sep-
teutrionale en 1673, par h'. Pere Jacques Marquette. Paris. 1G81.
13mo.

Description de la Louisiane nouvellement decouverte a Sud-ouest de la
Nouvelle France, avec Je carte du Pays, les moeurs et la Maniere de
vivre des sauvages. By Louis Hennepin. Paris. 1G83. 1C88; Am-
sterdam. 1680. l2mo.

Nouveau Description d'un tres grand Pays situe dans I'Amerique entre le
nouveaa Mexique et la mer Glaciale, depuis 1670 jusqu'au 1682; avec
des reflexions sur les enterprises de M. Carvalier de la salle, et autres
choses concernfuit la description de I'Amerique Septentrionale. Utrecht.
1687. Amsterdam. 1688. 1711. 1720. 12mo.

English edition of the above London. 1698. 12vo.

New Voyages to North America; containing an account of the several na-
tions of this vast continent; their customs, commerce and navigation
on the lakes; the attempts of the English and French to dispossess oje
another; and the various adventures between the French and the Iro-
quois confederates in England. Containing also a geographical de-
scription of Canada, etc.; to which is added a Dictionary of the Algon-
kine Language; with twenty three maps and cuts. Written in French
by the Baron La Houton; done into English. London. 1703. 2 vols,
vols. 8vo. La Haye. 1703. 2 vols. 12vo. La Have. 1715. 2 vols.
12vo.

Relations of the Jesuits- Contenant ce qui s'est passe de plus remarka-
bles dans les missions des peres de la campagne de Jesus dans La
Monville France. Ouvrage public sans les auspices du Gouvernment.
1611-1672. Quebec. 1858. 3 vols. 8vo.

Voyage dans le Canada, et eon naufrage en revenant en France. Par le
pere Emanuel Crespel. Frankfort. 17^2-1752. Amsterdam. 1757.
l2vo. and 18vo. Republished in English at London. 1797. 12vo.

so Wisconsi7i Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

Quotations from, in Smith's History of Wisconsin. Vol. 1. pp. 339.
(Crespel's visit to Green Baj in 1728.)

Historical Journal of the establishment of the French in Louisiana. By
Berard de La Harpe. See French's Historical Collections Louisiana.
Vol. 3. Also Smith's History of Wisconsin, vol. 1, pp.321. (Le Sueur's
visit to Green Bay and voyage up the Mississippi in 1693 and 1700.)

Discovery and Exploration of , the Mississippi Valley; with the original
Narratives of Marquette, Alloues, Membre, Hennepin and Anastase
Donay, with a fac simile of the newly discovered Mpp of Marquette.
By John Oilman Shea, LL. D. New York. 1852, 1853. 8vo, pp. 268.

Histoire et Description Generalede la Nouvelle France, avec le Journal His-
torique d'un Voyage fait dans I'Amerique Septentrionale. P. Fr. X.
de Cliarlevoix. Paris. 1744. G vols. 12mo. 1744. 3 vols. 4to.

The same translated, with notes by John Oilman Shea. New York. 1866-
70. 4 vols. 8vo.

History of the Conspiracy of Pontiac, and the war of the North American
Tribes against the English Colonies after the Conquest of Canada.
By Francis Parkman, Jr. Boston. 1851. 8vo. New York. 1853. 8vo.

Diary of the Siege of Detroit in the War with Pontiac. Albany. 18G0. 4to.

New York Colonial Documents, published by order of the Legislature.
Albany. 1855-1858. 10 vols. 4to. (Earb- History of Green Bay, etc.)

History of Louisiana or the western part of Virginia and Carolina, with
Descriptions of both sides of the Mississippi River. By Le Page du
Pratz. London. 1763. 2 vols. 12mo.

Journal of a Voyage to North America, undertaken by an order of the
Frencli King; containing a Description of Canada, Address to the
Dutchess of Lesdiguieres. By P. Fr. X. Charle-Voix. London. 1761,
1763. 2 vols. 8vo. See also French's Historical Collections of Lou-
isiana. Vol. 3.

History of the War between the United States and the Sacs and Fox nations
of Lidiaus in the years 1827, 1831 and 1832. By John A. Wakefield,
Jacksonville, His. 1834. 12mo, pp. 142.

Synopsis of the Indian Tribes o North America. (See Trans. Amer. Anti-
quarian Soc. Vol. 2. By Albert Gallatin. Worcester. 1836-38.

Sketches of the West, or the Home of the Badgers; comprising an Early
History of Wisconsin. Milwaukee. 1847-8. pp.48.

History of Hlinois; (containing an account of the Black Hawk War.) Bv
Gov. Ford, Henry Brown, Ex-Gov. John Reynolds.

Various other works relating to the Black Hawk War, by the following au-
thors: Orrin Clemens, Keokuk, 1866, 12mo; rSamuel G. Drake, Boston,
1851, 8vo; Lieut. Gen. Winfield Scott, New York, 1864; Benj. Drake,
Cincinnati, 1856 and '58, 12mo; Elbert H. Smith, New York, 1848, 8vo;
J. B. Patterson, Cincinnati and Boston, 1833 and 1834 and 1845, 12mo.

Report of the President. 81

Anuals of the West: embracint? the principal events which have occurred

in the Western States and Territories. By Jas. E. Albach. Pittsburg.

1857. 8vo.
Historical and Scientific Sketches of Michigan (including infonnation about

Wisconsin), by Gen. Lewis Cass, H. R. Schoolcraft, John Beddler and

others. Detroit. 1834. 12mo, pp. 215.
History of Michigan, etc. By J. H. Lanman. New York. 1839. 8vo, pp.

398.
Sketches of Iowa and Wisconsin. St. Louis. 1839. 12mo, pp. 103.
Eeport on Indian Affairs: comprising a Tour in 1820 to ascertain the State

of the Indian Tribes. By Rev. Jed. Morse. New Haven. 1822. 8vo,

pp. 496.
Communications relative to his Travels in the Northwestern Wilderness of

Wisconsin. By Rev. Alfred Branson. Wis. Leg. Doc, Dec. 19, 1843;

House of Rep., 1844, appendix, pp. 30.
History of Wisconsin from its first discovery to the j^resent time. By Don-
ald U.McLeod. Buffalo. 1840. 8vo, pp.309.
Sketches of the West; or Home of the Badgers: comprising an early his-
tory of Wisconsin and familiar letters on the country. Milwaukee.

1847. 8vo, pp. 48.
Early Voyages up and down the Mississippi. By Cavalier, St. Cozme, Le

Sueur, Gravier and Guiquas; with an Introduction and Notes by John

Oilman Shea. Albany 1861. 4to, pp. 191.
The Discovery of the Great West. By Francis Parkman, jr. Boston. 1869.

8vo, pp. 425.
Historical Collections of Louisiana; embracing many rare and valuable

Documents relating to the Natural, Civil and Political History of the

State; compiled with Historical and Biographical Notes. Philadelphia

and New York. 1846-1869. 6 vols. 8vo.
History of the Catholic Missions among the Indian Trib'is of the United

States, 1529-1854. By John Gilman Shea. New York. 1855. 12mo'

pp. 514.
Travels through the Interior of North America in the year 1767 and 1768.

By Jonathan Carver. Illustrated with copper plates, colored. London.

1778. 8vo, pp. 543. Many times re-published.
Voyage in a Six-oared Skiff to the Falls of Saint Anthony in 1817, with an

an Introductory Note by Edward D. Mill. Philadelphia. 1860. 8vo,

pp. 88.
Report of Congressional Committee on the Petition of Sundry Indians of

the Stockbridge Nation, comprising their Title to certain Lands.

House Report, February 24, 1820.
Narrative Journal of Travels from Detroit northwest to the sources of the

Mississippi river in 1820. By Henry E. Schoolcraft. Albany. 1821

32 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

pp. 424. Map and Illustrations. Also a summary narrative of tlie
same Expedition revised and completed in 1832. New York. 1834.
pp. 308. Also an Edition under the direction of the United States,
with Official Report and Scientific Papers. Philadelphia, 1855.

Narrative of an Expedition to the source of St. Peters' River, Lake Winne-
peck, Lake of the Woods, performed in 1823, under the command of
Maj. Stephen Loug; compiled by Wm. H. Keating. Philadelphia.
1824. 2 vols. 8vo. Map and Plates. London. 1825.

Sketch of a Tour to the Lakes, of the Character and Customs of the Chip-
pewa Indians and of incidents connected with the Treaty of Fond du
Lac; with a Chippewa vocabulary. Baltimore. 1827. 8vo, pp. 493.

A Pilgrimage to Europe and America, tending to the Discovery of the
Sources of the Mississippi, etc., with a Description of the whole course
of the same, etc. By J. C. Bettrami. London. 1828. 2 vol.*. 8vo.
With Maps and Engravings. New Orleans. 1824. Bvo, pp. 328.

Tour of the American Lakes and among Indians of the Northwest Territo-
ry in 1830. By Rev. Calvin Cotton. London. 1833. 2 vols. 12mo.

The Ramble in North America. 1832 and 1833. By Chas. Joseph Latrobe.
New York. 1835. 2 vols. 12mo.

Dakotah; or Life and Legends of the Sioux around Fort Snelliug. By Mrs.
Mary Eastman. New York. 1849. 12mo, pp. 268.

History of the Ojibway Indians. Boston. 1851. 12mo.

Personal Recollections of a residence of thirty years among ludian Tribes
on the American Frontier. By H. R. Schoolcraft. Philadelphia. 1851.
8vo, pp. 703.

On the Nortliwestern Indians. By Alex. Ramsay. See Pres't's Mess, and
accomp. Doc, 1849-50, Pt. 3, pp. 1005.

History of the Valley of the Mississippi. By A. M. Hart. Cincinnati.
1853. 12mo.

Report of Commissioner on Indian Affairs on the removal of the Wiuneba-
goes from Iowa and Wisconsin to their Lands in Minnesota. (See Plouse
Doe. No. 510, 1st sess., 31st Congress, 1850.

Wau-bun: the Early Day in the North- West, with illustrations. By Mrs.
J. H. Kinzies. New York. 1856. 8vo, pp. 498.

Our Whole Country: Historical and Descriptive. By John W. Barber. Cin-
cinnati. 1861. 8vo, pp. 1496. (Wisconsin portion, pp. 1167 to 1210.)

History of Wisconsin in three parts, Historical, Documentary and Descrip-
tive. By Gen. William R. Smith, under direction of the Legislature.
Madison. 1854. 8vo. Vol. 1, pp. 432; vol. 3, part 2, pp. 443,

Historical Collections of the Great West. By Henry Hare. Cincinnati.
1853. 8vo, pp.410.

Lights and Shades of Missionary Life; or nine years in the Region of Lake
Superior. By Rev. J. H. Pitezel. Cincinnati. 1859. 12mo, pp.431.

Report of the President 33

Various papers relative to the supposed identity of Rev. Eleazer Williams
(for a time resident at Green Bay) and Louis Capet, Dauphin of France,
to-wit: In Putnam's Magazine for 1853, 4 and '08, by Rev. J. H. Han-
son and A. H. Vinton ; in New York World (September 19, 1867.)

Military History of Wisconsin; a Record of the Civil and Military Patriotism
of the State in the War for the Union. By Edmund B. Quiner.
Chicago. 18G6. 8vo, pp. 1022. Steel Engravings.

Wisconsin in the War of the Rebellion; a History of all the Regimentb and
Batteries. By W. iJeLoss Love. Chicago. 18G0. 8vo, pp. 1130.
Plates.

The Army of the Potomac. Behind the Scenes; a Diary of Unwritten His-
tory. By Alfred L. Castleman, M. D., Surgeon of the 5ih Regiment
Wisconsin Volunteers. Milwaukee 1863, "08, pp. 288.

Battle Fields and Camp Fires of the Thirty-Eighth Wisconsin Volunteers.
By S. VV. Pierce. Milwaukee. 1866, 12mo, pp. 354.

A Soldier of the Cumberland; Memoir of Mead Holmes, of the twenty-
first Wisconsin Volunteers. Boston. 1864, 1864, 12mo, pp. 240.

Metomen, Springvale, Alto and Waupun in Fond du Lac Counties, Wis., dur-
ing the late War. Brandou. 1837. Svo, pp. 16.

Statement of the Military services rendered by him to the government since
March 1861. By Gen. J. C. Starkweather. Prepared at the request of
the War Department, Milwaukee, 8vo, pp.14.

Opening of the Mississippi: or Two Year's Campaigning in the Southwest;
a record of the campaign, sieges, actions and marches in which the
Eighth Wisconsin Volunteers participated. By a non-commissioned
officer. Madison. 1864. 8vo.

History of the Wisconsin State (and Territorial) Medical Society, from the
date of its organization in 1842 to 1868. See Transactions of the Soci-
ety. Vol.2, pp.102. Beloit, 1869.

BIOGKAPHY AND GENEALOGY.

Biographica, Genealogica Americana; an Alphabetical Index to American
Genealogies and Pedigrees contained in State, County and Town His-
tories, Printed Genealogies and kindred works. By Daniel S. Durrie,
Librarian of the Wisconsin State Historical Society. Svo, jip.
296. 1868.

Steele Family; a Genealogical History of John and George Steele, settlers
at Hartford, Conn., 1685-6, and their Descendants, with general infor-
mation respecting the families of the name. By Daniel S, Durrie. En-
larged edition. Sup. royal 8vo, pp. x., 168. 1862.

Holt Genealogy; a Genealogical History of the Holt family in the United
States; more particularly the descendants of Nicholas Holt, of New-

34 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

bury and Andover.Mass., 1634-1644, and of Wni. Holt, of New Haven,
Conn. 8vo. By Daniel S. Durrie. 8vo, pp. 367. 1864.
Bibliography of Wisconsin. By Daniel S. Durrie. See Hist. Magazine for
July, 1809.

Siicli is a pretty full record, so far as made public, of the
labors wliicli had been performed b}^ and for AVisconsin in the
Sciences, in the Arts, and in Letters up to the j'ear 1870. If
it shows that in the Practical Arts— in the rough work of civ-
ilization— we had achieved marvelous results for a State of
but twenty-two years, it reveals, on the other hand, how little
has been accomplished in those higher fields of human activ-
ity, the scientific, literary and aesthetic, whose cultivation, if
more difficult and apparently less fruitful of immediate re-
sults, is nevertheless not only indispensable to them but also
essential to those high intellectual achievements which exalt
man as an individual and make of the otherwise half-civilized
community an enlightened and refined commonwealth. And,
in so far as this deficiency has been shown, to that same extent
has it been demonstrated that the welfare of the State would
be j)i'omoted by an efficient organization formed for the ex-
press purpose of suppljnng it.

2. On behalf of Science, Literature and the Arts, the rea-
sons which influenced the founding of the Academy are briefly
stated.

The sympathies and aspirations of a people should not be
limited to objects which refer to the State. Every communi-
ty is in duty bound to contribute something to the common
stock of liuman knowledge. Nay, more ; there is a sentiment
higher than even philanthropy, namely, fealty to truth inde-
pendent of all its relations. It can hardly be said, to-day,
when the rule of might is not yet ended, that a state or nation
is influential in proportion as it cherishes those higher senti-
ments and makes them the rule of its conduct. But it is cer-
tain that none can justly claim the respect of mankind from
whose policy they are excluded.

Bepori of tlie President 35

In other words, a people become truly gi'cat, prosperous
and powerful, and thus fulfil the ends of the State, in propor-
tion to their loyalty to the best interests of the race.

It was in view of all the foregoing facts and considerations
that so large a number of the leading citizens of the State
united their efforts in the movement which resulted in the es-
tablishment of this Academy, and that, in the call issued by
them for the convention at which the organization was effected,
they used the following language :

" An institution of tlie kind in question would bring into more intimate
relations many men, who, though already more or less engaged in original
studies and investigations of various kinds, accomplish less than they would
had they frequent association with each other, a common storehouse into
which to bring their material collections, and some proper medium through
which to publish the approved results of their scientific labors to the world.

" It would awaken a scientific spirit in all enquiring minds, and thus lead
to a more fruitful intellectual activity among the people at large and to a
wider diffusion of useful knowledge.

" Through a scientific and economical exploration of the State, to which
it would early lead — and which it might with great advantage direct — as
well as through the published results of independent investigations, con-
ducted by its members, it would do much towards bringing the many natu-
ral advantages of our State to the notice of foreign populations, and espec-
ially to capitalists, both at home and abroad; thus promoting the more rapid
and more economical development of our material resources.

" It would result in new and important applications of science to the
practical arts, and thus advance the industry of the country.

" It would associate artists of every class, establish higher standards for
the execution of works of art, and lead to the formation of an art museum.

" It would bring together men of letters and promote advancement in
every department of language, literature and philosophy.

" It would also tend to promote the literary and aesthetic culture of the
people, and by the quickening, invigorating, and elevating influence it
would exert upon all our higher educational institutions, largely contribute
to the social progress of the State, and the earlier insure to Wisconsin an
advanced position among the most enlightened communities of the world.

" We further believe that the time has now come, when, with proper ef-
fort on the part of those who may be reasonably expected to aid in so im-
portant an enterprise, the foundations may be laid for an institution that
she ]1 be of great practical utility and a lasting honor to the State."

36 Wiscojisin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

II.

Plax of the Academy.

In view of the general objeets to be accomplislied, tbe great
value of associated effort, and tlie relation of harmony that
exists between the several departments of knowledge, the
Academy was broadly planned, so as to embrace every im-
portant interest of the State and every department of investiga-
tion looking to the advancement of knowledge.

Its objects more specificaly stated, are set forth in the terms
of the Charter, as follows :

" Section 3. * * Among the specific objects of the Academy shall be
embraced the following:

" 1. Researches and investigations in the various departments of the
material, metaphysical, ethical, ethnological and social sciences.

" 2. A ]irogressive and thorough scientific survey of the State, with a
view to determine its mineral, agricultural and other resources.

" 3. The advancement of the useful arts, through the applications of
science, and by the encouragement of original invention.

" 4. The encouragement of the fine arts, by means of honors and prizes
awarded to artists for original works of superior merit.

" 5. The formation of scientific, economical and and art museums.

" 6. The encouragement of philological and historical researches, the col-
lection and preservation of historic records, and the formation of a general
' library.

" 7. The diffusion of knowledge by the publication of original contribu-
tions to science, literature and the arts."

The Departments named in the Constitution are these :

The Department of the Sciences.
The Department of the Arts.
The Department of Letters.

But with a view to subsequent development, the Constitu-
tion provides that, " any branch of these Departments may be
constituted a Section ; and any Section or group of Sections

Report of the President 37

may be expanded into a full Department whenever sucli ex-
pansion shall be deemed important."

By reason of modifications made under this provision, the
present scheme of the Departments is as follows :

1st. The Department of Speculative Philosophy (not yet
organized).

2d. The Department of the Social and Political Sciences —
Embracing :

Jurisprudence.
Political Science.
Political Economy.
Education.
Pubhc Health.
Social Economy.

3d. The Department of the Natural Sciences —
Embracing :

Mathematics.
Physics.

Natural Histoiy,
Medicine.

4th. The Department of the Arts —
Embracing :

The Useful Arts.
The Fine Arts.

5th. The Department of Letters.
Embracing :
Language.
Literature.
Histoiy.

Bach department has its own officers, while all are under
the direction of a General Council.

The membership embraces Honorary and Corresponding

38 Wisconsm Academy of /Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Members, Founders, Patrons, Members for Life, and Annual
Members.

Tln-ee meetings are held annually for tlie reading and dis-
cussion of papers.

The proceedings of tlie Academy at these meetings, includ-
ing brief abstracts of the papers read, are published, as soon
as i^racticable after the adjournment, in a neat octavo periodi-
cal called the Bulletin.

III.

What the Academy Has Done.

At the time of its organization, the attempt, in so new a
State, to form an association whose active members must of
necessity be capable of making either original researches and
investigations or valuable contributions to the Arts, was
thought by some cordial friends of the objects of the Acade-
my to be a little premature. The results have shown, on the
contrary, that the enterprise had been too long postj)oned.
The presidents of our colleges as well as the professors con-
nected therewith, distinguished scientists and members of the
several professions, have heartily united in the inauguration
of the enterprise and have since shown their deep interest in
its welfare by giving to it not only their moral and pecuniary
support, but also the fruits of their intellectual labor.

The present number of Life Members is, 12 ; of Annual
Members, 55 ; of Corresponding Members, 29.

The report of the Treasurer, herewith submitted, shows the
condition of the fiscal affairs of the Academy at the date of
the late Annual Meeting.

Report of the President 39

[Copy.]

Treasurer's Eeport.

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters,

Office of the Treasurer,

Madison. Feb. 14, 1872.

Hon. J. W. HoYT, President of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and
Letters:

Sir: — I have tlie honor to report the financial condition of the Academy

as follows:

Total annual fees received from 44 members §^480 00

To fees from life members 807 25

11,287 25
Disbursed in payment of warrants, as per vouchers hertofore

and herewith furnished 382 75

Leaving a balance in the treasury of $904 50

Placed to credit of life members' permanent fund ^807 25

To credit of general fund 97 25

1904 50

Report of Fixaxce Comaiittee.

I have this day examined the foregoing report and account of the Treas-
urer, and compared the same with the vouchers and stub books, and find
the same in all respects correct.

MADiS0N,Feb. 14, 1872.

NELSON DEWEY,

Chairman Finance Committee.

As the duties of all officers have been performed without
compensation, and the expenses of members in making their
investigations and attending the meetings have been defrayed
by themselves, the only expenditures have been for incidental
purposes and for the printing of the Bulletin, of which five
numbers have been issued.

The Museum of Natural History and the Useful Arts has
made considerable growth, and must eventually come to be
exceedingly valuable to the State for scientific uses, as well as-
interesting to the general public. By favor of the Governor
and of the State Agiicultural Society, it occupies the larger

40 Wisco7isin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

one of the elegant apartments in tlie capitol so generously as-
signed to Agriculture some years ago.

There are many private collections in the State which would
make great gain in usefulness could they be brought together
at the capitol, and which, it is gratifying to be able to add,
their proprietors, in some cases, purpose giving to, or deposit-
ing with, the Academy, so soon as suitable preparations are
made for them.

Field work in Geology and the other branches of Natural
History, being necessaril}^ attended with considerable pecuniary
outlay, it cannot be expected that very great progress will be
made therein until the Academy is in a condition to relieve
its members of at least a portion of such burden of expense.
It already includes gentlemen fully competent to thorough
work in each of the departments ; and when this condition of
pecuniary ability is reached there is reason to believe that, un-
der a well devised system, embracing a judicious division of
labor, a good deal may be done by it towards a scientific sur-
vey of the State, with comparatively little expense.

It is of much practical as well as scientific importance that
further work of this kind should be done; for as yet no single
-county has been thoroughly examined in its relation to all the
departments of natural histor}^, and much the larger portion of
the State, as already intimated, has not been favored with so
much as a general reconnoissance.

The construction of railroads now in progress through the
centre and northern portions, which are believed, upon e\'idence
already furnished, to be rich in mineral and other resources,
will facilitate the needed explorations and should prompt the
state, as well as citizens who have an interest — and what citi-
zen who has not? — in the development of that region, to extend
to the Academy all reasonable encouragement in its endeavors
to institute and carry on such investigations as properly come
■within the plan of its scientific labors.

Report of the President. . . 41

The nature and extent of the work actually performed by
members of the Academy, in the field, laboratory, and private
study, since its oranization in 1870, will appear from the fol-
lowing titles of papers prepared for its meetings:

On the classification of llie Sciences. By Rev. Albert 0. Wriglit, M. A.

New Lisbon.
On the importance of more attention to the Preservation and Culture of

Forest Trees in Wisconsin. By Mr. P. Englemann, Secretary of the

Natural History Society, Milwaukee.
Ihe Coniferae of the Rocky Mountains, and their adaptation to the Soils

and Climate of Wisconsin. By Hon. J. G. Knapp.
On the Origin of the Potsdam Sandstone. By Hon. John Murrisb, State

Commissioner for the Survey of the Lead Region.
On the Importance and Practicability of finding a Unit of Force in Physics

that shall be of Universal Application. By Prof. John E. Davies, M.

D., Wisconsin State University.
The Fauna of Lake Michigan off Racine. By P. R. Hoy, M. D., Vice

President of tae Academy, Racine,
On the Age of the Quartzite of Baraboo. By Dr. I. A. Lapham, LL.D., Gen-
eral Secretary of the Academy.
On the Formation of certain new Compounds of Manganese. By Prof. Jas.

H.Eaton, of Beloit College.
The Metamorphic Rocks in the Town of Portland, Dodge county. By Rev.

A. 0. Wright, M. A.
The Metamorphic Rocks of Devil's Lake. By Rev. A. 0. Wright, M. A.
Some Observations upon the Fauna of Mammoth Cave. By Mr. P. Engel-.

mann, Milwaukee.
On the Nebular Hypothesis in Astronomy. By Dr. R. Z. Mason, LL.D., Ap-

pleton.
The Mineral Well at Waterloo, Wisconsin. By Rev. A. 0. Wright, M. A.
On the Classification of Plants. By Dr. L A. Lapham, LL.D., Milwaukee.
Metallic Veins and the Deposition of Minerals. By A. J. Finch, Esq.. Mil-
waukee.
On the Geology of the Region about Devil's Lake, Sauk county; being a

Report of Observations made by request of the Academy. By Prof*

Jas. H. Eaton, Beloit College.
On the Relations between Social and Moral Science. By Hon. Charles

Caverno, M. A., Secretary of the Department of the Social and Political

Sciences, Lake Mills.
The Mammalia of Wisconsin. By Dr. P. R. Hoy, M. D., Racine.
On the Climatic Relations of the Flora of Wisconsin. By Hon. J. G. Knapp,

Madison.

•42 Wisconsin Academy of /Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Eeeults of Recent Observations in the Lead Regions of Wisconsin. By
Hon. John Murrish, Mazomauie.

On the Laws which Govern the Configuration of Comets. By John Y. Smith,
Madison.

On the Kinetic Measure of Forces. By Prof. John E. Davies, M. D., State
L^niversity.

On the Duty of the State to its Idiotic Children. By Prof. 0. R. Smith, Mil-
waukee.

On the Place which the Indian Languages should hold iu the Study of
Ethnology. By Prof. John B. Feuling, Ph. D., Secretary of the De-
partment of Letters, State University.

On the Clay Deposits and the Fossils found therein in the Region about
Appleton. By Dr. R. Z. Mason, LL. D., Appleton.

On the Ancient Lakes of Wisconsin. By Hon. J. G. Knapp, Madison.

Suggestions as to a Basis for the Gradation of the Vertebrafa. By Prof*
T. C. Chamberlin, State Normal School, Whitewater.

Facts Relating to the Local Geology of the Whitewater Region. By Prof.
T.C. Chamberlin.

On the Rocks and Mines of the Upper Wisconsin River. By Hon. J. G.
Knapp,, I^adison.

The German Sunday. By Rt. Rev. Wm. E. Armitage, D. D., Vice President
of the Department of the Social and Political Sciences.

The Relations of Capital and Labor. By Dr. A. L. Chapin, D. D., LL.D.,
Vice President for the Department of Letters.

Social Science and Woman Suffrage. By Hon. Charles Caverno, Secretary
for the Department of the Social and Political Sciences.

The Common Jail System of the Country. By Hon. D. S. Hastings, Secre-
tary of the State Board of Charities.
The Physical Basis of the Mineral Sources of Wisconsin. By Hon. John

Murrish, late Commissioner for the Survey of the Lead Region.
Insects injurious to Agriculture — Aphides. By Dr. P. R. Hoy, Vice Presi-
dent for the Department of the Natural Sciences.
On the Age of the Quartzites, Schists and Conglomerates of Sauk county.
By Roland Irving, M. A., M. E., Professor of Geology, etc., in the State
University of Wisconsin.
Observations on some of the Coal Deposits of Colorado. By Dr. J. W.

Hoyt, President of the Academy.
On the Potential Functions and their application in Physical Science. By

Prof. John E. Davies, M. D., State University. ,

On a Modification of Grove's Battery for a special Purpose. By Prof. John

E. Davies, M. D.
The Theory of Evolution illustrated by the Science of Language. By Dr.

i

Report of the President. 43

John B. Feuling, Ph. D., Professor of Comparative Philology, in the

University of Wisconsin.
The Rural Population of England, as classified in Domesday Book. By

Wm. F. Allen, A. M., Professor of Ancient Laiiguages and History in

the University of Wisconsin.
Outline of a Plan for a National University. By Dr. J. W.Hoyt, President

of the Academy.

While many of tliese papers were of such interest as to
make their publication in full very desirable, the Council have
limited their selection for this purpose to those herewith sub-
mitted, the important character of which must commend them
to an intelligent public.

On behalf of the Academy, I have the honor to be, Sir,

Very respectfully.

Your obedient servant,

J. W. HOYT.
Madison, March 10, 1872.

DEPARTMENT OF THE SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SCIENCES.

THE KELATIONS OF LABOR AND CAPITAL.

BY KKV. A. L. CHAPIN, D. D., LL. D.,
President of Beloit College.

The problems respecting the relation of Labor and Capital
which are now engaging the attention of all sorts of people in
all parts of the civilized world, may be greatly simplified by
a clear apprehension of a few elementary facts and principles.
The presentation of these facts and principles is the object of
this paj)er. I attempt nothing more than a brief digest of
some matters familiar to all who are acquainted with the
science of political economy. In this I follow mainly Mr.
Mill's line of thought, and adopt often his own forms of
exjDression, claiming no merit for the paper excejDt for the
putting of things together with a bearing.

We start with the simple fact that all icealih is produced hy
the application of lahor to natural objects. In the case even of
those objects which nature brings forth spontaneoiisly in a
form to gratify desii'C, some labor is necessary to find and ap-
propriate them. In most cases some further labor is requisite
to bring natural objects into a condition fit for use. Fig-leaves
must be sewed together before they can serve for clothing.
The fish and the deer, after being caught, must be divided,
cleansed and cooked before they are fit for food. The dirty
ore, taken from the bog or mountain, must pass through a suc-
cession of varied jDrocesses of labor before it takes the fomi of
a knife, convenient for a thousand purposes. So it is with

46 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

everything wliicli contributes to man's necessities, comfort or
enjoyment. " All tilings are full of labor." In each we find
a natural gift from God, with an added gift from man's labor.
So long as there is found a desire of man ungratified, or an
object of nature unappropriated or unexhausted of its capacity
to gratify desire, there will be place for human labor to be ap-
plied to natural objects for the increase of wealth.

We advance a step and come upon another obvious fact. It
is that in civilized society, all the processes of industry require
some accuTmilaiion of the products of former labor to begin with.
The blacksmith cannot begin his work without iron to work
upon, and a forge and its fuel and hammer and anvil to work
with. And, moreover, if he is to spend the day in his shop,
the food which supports him must be provided beforehand.
In other words, he must have materials, tools and sustenance.
But these all come as the results of previous labor, his own or
another's. So it is in every branch of civilized industry. To
this necessary accumulation of the products of former labor
the name capital is given. This is the radical idea of capital.

Now putting these two facts together, we have the universal
fundamental principle that the union of these two elements, lahor
and capital, is essential to the production and to the very existence
of icealth. Hence comes the obvious inference that the true
relation of capital and labor is that of partners — coadjutors for
a common end — sharers in a joint result. Each is indispensa-
ble to the other. Abstractly considered, they meet on an
equality. Antagonism between them is ruinous to the inter-
ests of both. This view of the subject is fundamental to all
sound political economy. It is so plain as to seem a truism
which hardly needs a formal statement. Sound philosophy
and common sense both sustain this view. Yet in practice it
is very generally ignored, and in the sharp discussions of our
times it seems almost lost sight of on both sides. Amid the
din of the workshop and above the din of wordy contention
this simple truth needs to be continually affirmed, elucidated

The Relations of Labor and Capital. 47

and reiterated. No -labor reform movement can avail anything
wliicli does not start with the proposition that labor and capi-
tal are partners, not rivals, and write upon its banners, "What
God hath joined together let not man put asunder."

For a better apprehension of the principle in all its bearings,
let us linger a little on the questions — what is labor? what is
capital? and what conditions most favor the harmonious and
profitable union of these two forces of industry ?

1. Labor is fitly defined to be "the voluntary effort of hu-
man beings to produce objects of desire." Since the human
being is made up of body and mind, we must distinguish two
kinds of labor, viz : physical labor, in which muscular exertion
is the chief thing, and mental labor, which engages chiefly the
faculties of the mind. I say chief smd chiefly because in reality
all human exertion combines some phj^sical and some mental
effort. The dullest laborer must think some about the work
of his hands ; and the profoundest thinlcer must task his mus-
cles some to present to the world the products of his brain-work.

Recognizing this distinction, let us note what each kind of
labor achieves. Mere physical labor only puts things in mo-
tion. The muscles of the body are made capable of contrac-
tion. This creates a pressure which when applied to a piece
of matter, tends to put it in motion, or if it be already mov-
ing, to change or stop its motion. This is all that mere mus-
cular exertion can do. But through this power of putting
things into contact and relation with each other, man is able
to command the hidden forces of nature to an unlimited extent.
Man stirs the earth and drops a seed into it, then the forces of
vegetation hid in the seed and in the soil multiply the seed a
hundred fold. Man brings coal, places it in a furnace, sets
fire to it, and at once a force of nature in the process of com-
bustion turns the carbon into heat. He may add to the pile
ore taken from the earth, and another force of nature by the
action of heat makes the iron flow. Man's muscles grasp and
wield the hammer only to enable nature's forces, gravitation

48 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

and density on the one hand, and tenacity and malleability on
tlie other, to make the blow effective to sha^^e the iron as he
will. Man sets his poles and strings his wires and adjusts the
comj^onents of his battery and arranges his machine so that by
touching a key he can command that subtle force of nature,
electi'icity, and make it the bearer of his thoughts to the ends
of the earth. Yet in all this, physical labor only moves
things ; the forces of nature do the rest.

But how does the man know what things to move, what
kind of motion to give and how to produce that motion so as
to accomplish his purpose ? ISTot every putting forth of muscu-
lar exertion is effective in producing desired results. Action
must be suited to the nature of things and guided by
methodical rule. Hence the constant necessity of mental labor
to precede and attend the operations of all physical labor.
The faculties of the human mind must be tasked in investi-
gating the properties and laws of nature, in studying the
philosoj)hy of motion itself, to find the mechanical powers, in
contriving in detail tlie means or instruments through which
the force of nature may be made available, and various
motions may be combined on philosophical principles for
certain results, and in watching over the actual operations of
both the human laborers and the natural agents in the com-
plex combination of productive industry. It is plain on the
bare statement of it that the mind-work of discovery, inveyition
and superintendence is indispensable, an essential part of all
productive labor, and that its importance and value, though
often overlooked, cannot be overestimated. We say, therefore,
of mental labor in this form, that it is directly concerned with
all productive industry. We recognize, also, another kind of
labor, chiefly mental, which is employed to develop and
improve the physical, intellectual, moral and social condition
of human beings themselves. The results of this kind of
labor affect men individually and collectively, and determine
very much their qualities as laborers and the circumstances

Tlie lielations of Luhor and Cajjiial. 49

and associations in whicli tliey live and work. It is thus
indirectly concenied witli all departments of productive in-
dustry. Under this head may be set down the mother's
nursing and training of her child, the teacher's efforts, the
services of the phj^sician, the lawyer, the minister of religion,
the author, the editor and the greater part of the labor
involved in the administration of government— all that is
commonly called professional and official service.

This distinction of labor as directly or indirectly concerned
in production is much more simple and better every way than
the old distinction much insisted on by some writers on Po-
litical Economy and as strongly contested by others, of labor
as productive or unproductive. The term unproductive can
properl}^ be ap})lied to labor only when it is labor wasted
through misdirection, as when a wag paid a man ten cents
an hour to bail out the river, as its waters set up between two
boats, or as a luckless inventor may spend years of brain-work
and manual toil on a machine which has no practical use.
Certainly we may not say of Morse's years of study and work in
devising the elective telegraph, or of Webster's labor to bring
under sentence of the law the murderers of White, or of Coan's
preaching the gospel in the Sandwich Islands, it was unpro-
ductive labor.

Much exertion is put forth for mere recreation, as in hunt-
ing, boating, ball-playing, etc. If this really recruits mind
and body, it pu.ts the laborer in better condition for produc-
tive toil, and so indirectly aids it.

There are professions, such as those of the musician and the
actor, in which labor is put forth only to furnish a passing en-
tertainment— a moment's pleasure. Though after the enter-
tainment is over, nothing is left which can be laid up and
counted as wealth, yet is it for the time a real gratification,
and the sweet memory of it will abide. The true end of labor
is accomplished immediately. The satisfaction follows the
effort instantaneously. The hearer of Nilsson has his quid

50 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

2)ro quo in tlie ecstasy of tlie hour. "Why then is not thisp?'o-
ductive labor just as truly as if it had produced a ribbon for
ornament, or a shoe for protection, or bread for food? Proper
gratification of this kind cheers the spirits of men, and so in-
creases their productive energy. If the recreation is, in kind
or degree, exhausting, if the amusement is in its influence de-
moralizing, or if the taste be so fostered that amusement is
made itself an end — then the economist and the moralist may
fitly enter their joint protest against a waste and a wrong. But
that labor which brings refreshing relief to wearied body and
mind, or ministers a gratification to a pure and healthy taste,
cannot be fitly called unproductive.

Still less properly can the term be applied to professional
labor generally. It is a very common notion, which has been
encouraged by some who would be esteemed philosophical
writers on the subject, that the manual labor of the farmer,
the carpenter, the cotton manufacturer, etc., is productive ; but
some are disposed to set down the mental labor of the doctor,
the lawyer, the editor, the teacher, the legislator, etc., as un-
productive. But the real diffei'ence is only that the labor of
the latter class is directed in a general way to favor the essen-
tial conditions of effective labor universally. It is expended
on the human beings individually and in their social state to
fit them for labor, to protect them in their labor and to gi-at-
ify and expand the wants which are to be satisfied by the
fruits of labor. So long as physical health, intelligence, mo-
rality, security under good government and just laws, justly
administered, and social refinement and good feeling are essen-
tial conditions of successful industry, all labor of the kind re-
ferred to must be set down as indirectly productive. Nor is
labor in this form further removed from, or less essential to
the ultimate result than is the labor of the miner in the ore-
bed, with reference to the needle and the comfort of the coat
made by its use. I have seen a pictorial sheet, the prominent
object in which is a farmer standing in the centre, while around

The Relations of Labor and Cai^ital. 51

him, in tlie margin, appear representatives of half a dozen dif-
ferent professions. The Lawyer saj^s, "I plead for all ; " the
merchant, " I trade for all ; " the clergyman, " I pray for all ; "
the soldier, " I fight for all ; " the railway manager, " I carry -
for all," and the physician, " I prescribe for all." But in letters
of double size, the farmer is made to say with emphasis, " I
^ay for all."

Now I suppose this picture fitly represents the cun^ent pop-
ular notion on the subject. But according to the views just
expressed, the notion is false. None can deny that agricultu-
ral labor lies at the foundation of human society, at the be-
ginning of human industry, because it is busy producing the
necessaries of life. For that very reason it is sustained, stim-
ulated, and imid hy all. It gives no more than it receives.
Its interests are all identified with the growth of diversified
society, organized, protected, enlightened, refined. In well
ordered society each branch of honest industry is tributary
to every other, and all are mutually dependent. For, to quote
the words of holy writ, "the body is not one member but
many, and the eye cannot say to the hand I have no need of
thee, nor again the head to the feet, I have no need of you ; nay
much more those members of the body which seem to be more
feeble are necessary and those members of the body which we
think to be less honorable, upon these we bestow more abun-
dant honor; and our uncomely parts have more abundant
comeliness." There is necessity fixed in the nature of things
that the greater part of men must be occupied with agri-
cultural labor or other forms of manual labor. Let the
intrinsic worthiness and dignity of all such labor be re-
cognized and honored. But, at the same time, let it be
■understood that with this labor is closely interwoven all
the busy brain- work of the minority who, though they seem
to stand aloof, are efficient partners in both the toil and its re- .
suits. The correction of the false and substitution of true
views respecting labor itself, is the first step in every wise and
sincere movement for labor reform.

52 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

2. Next Ave liave to study Capital. It will serve for a gen-
eral definition to say Cajyital is that jKirt of loealth lohich is act-
ually employed in production. Wealth is a broader term. Cap-
pital is a part of wealth. It is not synonymous with money,
for money itself does not go into production. More specifically
Capital is the sum toted of the products of former labor empjloyed to
provide shelter, protection, tools and materials for the processes of the
production and to feed and otherwise to maintain the laborers during
the process. This threefold classification of capital should be
particularly noticed. There are the instruments of production
— as land, buildings, tools and machinery — the materials on
which labor is expended, such as wheat, iron, cotton, leather,
etc., and also houses, food and clothing for the safety and sup-
port of the laborers while engaged in productive operations.
The items last named are usually provided for by the laborers
themselves out of the wages paid them. Wages therefore rep-
resents this form of capital, whether paid in money or in rent
and groceries and dry-goods.

Capital is not money but things in one or other of these
forms. What a manufacturer wants is not money but a steam
engine and gearing and spindles and looms and cotton. La-
borers look at their money- wages only as means for procuring
food and raiment and the protection of a home. Money is but
the convenient instrument of exchange. The same money
may go out of the bank in the morning, run around a busy
circuit and get back in the afternoon. In its circuit, perhaps,
it sent a machine to the shop and a load of wool to the mill
and a load of potatoes to the laborer's home, but it comes
back just what it went out ; money is nothing else, though its
value is represented threefold in as many forms of capital. So
far as money has in itself real value it is a part of the products
of former labor, saved and set apart for this specific service in
the exchange of products. So it is capital in the form of an
instrument which aids production. Banking capital is thus a
portion of the wealth of a community appropriated to this ob-

The Relations of Labor and Capital. 53

ject It renders a very important service. Yet the benefit it
confers may all be resolved into tbe greater facility it furnishes
for the transfer of values in the form of tools and machinery —
materials and the means of sustenance — into one or other of
which all capital must be brought in order to be made product-
ive. The proper and legitimate business of a bank is to fur-
nish just these facilities for the productive industry of the
community in which it is located. When the banks of New
York permit their fu.nds to be absorbed in the gambling specu-
lations of Wall street, they work mischief rather than benefit
to productive industry. The wealth represented by their capi-
tal stock is withdrawn from production. It forms no part of
cajntal in the true sense of the term. They are, for the time,
so far, turned into nothing better than faro-banks, mere reser.
voirs of wealth, to be played with and shifted fi'om hand to
hand at the turning of cards. Wealth so absorbed can by no
possibility come into union with labor. It is of the highest
consequence to the clear understanding of our subject that the
term cajntal be held strictly to its technical meaning, and that
it be conceived of as existing mainly in the instruments, the
materials, the wages, directly or indirectly provided for the
employment of labor. Apprehending thus the nature of capi-
tal, I must content myself with the bare statement of a few
fundamental propositions laid down and illustrated at length
by Mr. Mill.

1. Industry is limited hy capital. Every increase of capital
may give additional employment to industry. Industry can-
not go beyond the limit of capital ; it may not, through lack of
laborers, come up to it. This recognizes the mutual depend-
ence of these two elements, labor and capital. It says, simply,
that the most stalwart or skilled laborer can do nothing until
he has tools and materials and something to live on while he
is working, i. e., capital. If he has acquired these by former
labor, then is he owner of the needed capital, and in a sense

indciDendent ; if he has not these he must wait the will and
E.

5-i Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

pleasure of some one wlio can come into partnersliip witli liim
by finding tliese tilings for liim to begin with.

2. Capital is the residt of saving. To consume less than is
produced is saving. Saving is simply laying up tbe difference
between wliat one spends and wliat lie earns — between wealtli
produced and wealtli consumed. The amount saved and so
added to capital may be increased by either consuming less or
producing more, or both. There is no other source of capital.

3. Yet capital though the result of saving is actually consumed
in the very process of production.

The wealth saved goes at once into implements, materials
and provisions for the daily wants of laborere, and there is sub-
jected to consumption, quick or gradual. It is withdrawn fi'om
all other possible uses. Investment for production and spend-
ing for enjoyment coincide in the first stages of their opera-
tions. Both begin with the destruction of a portion of wealth.
But in the spending the first is the final stage. In the product-
ive investment a second stage is reached, when an equivalent
of what has been consumed is returned with increase. Tlius
capital is kept in existence from age to age, not by preserva-
tion, but by perpetual reproduction. The greater part of the
present capital of England was produced within the last
twelve-month. The growth of capital is like the growth of
population. Every individual who is born dies, but in each
year the number born exceeds the number who die. The
population increases while the individuals pass away. So with
capital ; out of the productive consumption of one year comes a
greater product available for the next.

4 What supports and employs labor is the capital lohich sets it
at work, not the demand for the comphted p)roduct. The demand
for commodities determines the directions of labor, but not the
amount of labor itseli That depends on the amount of the
capital devoted to the sustenance and remuneration of labor.

The Relations of Labor and Ca])ital. 55

One does good to laborers not by what he consumes on him-
self, but by what he does not so consume. This corrects the
very common error that the lavish expenditure of the rich is a
benefit to laborers. The distinction of wealth is in itself an
injury or loss. The only qualification of this view needed is
in the case of a class of rich persons who have no disposition
themselves to turn their wealth into capital. Their lavish ex-
penditure may bring their wealth into other hands, so that it
may be used productively. The whole community, laborers
most of all, are interested in the accumulation of wealth as
capital. Saved and so employed, it is multiplying ever the
sum of comforts in the world.

It is very obvious that the principles stated confirm the gen-
eral view with which we started, that the true relation of labor
and capital is that of partners. We are prepared now, in a
few words, to define the conditions most favorable to their har-
monious union. They meet most advantageously in the same
person, i. e., when the laborer is owner of capital enough to
employ his labor. This brings both the elements under the
control of one and the same will, to be governed by one self-
interest. All rivalry and antagonism is excluded, and accord-
ing to the measure of his capital and his capacity, the man will
multiply products.

But this adjustment cannot be made universal, because —

1. Such is the tendency of capital to increase that the man
will soon find in his hands a surplus, to employ which he must
either bring in another who has only labor to work under him,
or lend it as capital to another independent worker, and so a
distinction between capitalist and laborer is sure to begin,

2. But a greater difficulty comes from the fact that the ca-
pacities and tastes of men differ greatly. Some efficient labor-
ers lack managing skill and tact in saving so as to keep and
accumulate capital independently. Others j^eculiarly endowed
in these respests lack physical strength for labor. J |;To some,

56 WisconsiJi Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

manual labor is irksome, and they will seek exemption from
it as soon as their increase of capital enables tliem to do so.
Others find the care of manas-inar business no less distasteful

O O

and so put their accumulating capital into other hands. Then,

3. Many forms of production, most essential to a state of
highest civilization, must be carried on in large establishments
which shall combine great capital and great numbers and di-
vers grades of laborers. The most economical division of
labor can be secured only through such establishments.

Hence there is a strong tendency to a separation of the two
elements, so that the capital will be the chief concern with
some and the labor with others. This disturbs the abstract
equality and mutual dependence just spoken of. Perhaps
with respect to actual increase, capital alone is most helpless.
But in the meeting of persons to enter into contract, the capi-
talist has the advantage because he can live on his capital with-
out labor, but the laborer cannot live except he earns his neces-
sary food by working with somebody's capital. Under the
sway of short-sighted self-interest, therefore, capitalists are in-
clined to use this advantage to domineer and oppress laborers.
I say short-sighted self-interest, for in the long run and in the
broad view, such oppression reacts upon the oppressors. When
laborers are held down to starvation wages, capital must be
heavily taxed for the support of paupers, and in time there
must come an insurrection which will make capital insecure.
On the other hand, the consciousness of dependence tends to
make laborei^ sensitive to the least real wrong and suspicious
of wrong where none exists. Against their own true interests
on both sides the parties are thus led into a partial antagonism.
The fact of these tendencies must be recognized. They are
not so strong in our country as in England. Yet enough is
apparent here to awaken thoughtful consideration. The prob-
lem is to guard the rights of both parties so that they shall be
bound by their natural common interest in harmonious union
with each other.

The Relations of Labor and Capital. 57

It is a liopeful sign that tlie minds of pliilosopliers and plii-
lantliropists and practical working men and capitalists are Just
now intently engaged upon this problem. The surest way to
reach the true solution of the problem is to enlighten the people
generally respecting the elementary principles involved. By
these both rights and interests are to be defined, and when they
are distinctly apprehended, both parties will be drawn by nat-
ural affinity into harmonious union.

We may deduce from the principles, already stated, three
leading circumstances which favor the most profitable union
of labor and capital.

1. First to he named is the general distribution of capital. I
mean such a condition of things that the capital of a country
shall be in many hands rather than few — that laborers them-
selves shall have some capital. Whatever in the social organ-
ization creates or sustains privileged classes is opposed to this
and needs to be removed. Whatever in legislation or usage
by the easy allowance of public opinion tends to create or
maintain monopolies, is opposed to this and needs to be espe-
cially guarded against. If no hindrances are in the way on
the one side and no special protection accorded on the other,
the natural working of things on the principles of self-interest
will secure a pretty general distribution of capital. The end
will be promoted by all measures which encourage saving on
the part especially of laborers. Savings banks, such as New
England has had and profited by for a century, or perhaps
better yet a government savings bank through a modification
of the postal order system, on the plan now in use in England,
will be of great service in this matter. In large manufactur-
ing establishments the stock may be divided into small shares
and brought within the reach of the employes so as to induce
them by their savings to become owners in part of the capital
and so entitled to dividends from the profits in addition to
their wages. Such measures elevate labor and give it inde-

68 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

pendence, and also increase capital by devoting mucli wealth
that would be spent, to production. And capital thus dis-
tributed stimulates energy, develops talent, comes closer to
labor, better defends itself and superintends operations by
having in each operative an interested observer of both his
own and others work.

2. A second circumstance to be considered is the ratio of
the ivhoh amount of capital to the whole number of laborers and the
ratio of the increase of capital to the increase of labor. This only
recognizes the principles before stated that industry is limited
by capital and every increase of capital demands increase of
labor.

No universal rule can be given for this proportion. It will
vary somewhat according to the circumstances of each country
and the spirit of its people. Here the age of a country must
be taken into account — its natural advantages — the general
occupation of its people. In a new country, occupied by a
thrifty people, capital increases faster than labor, and there
we see always the highest stimulus to production. For all
countries and all people, the general principle is, that there
should be labor enough to employ the capital and capital
enough to employ the labor. A perfect balance is perhaps
nowhere realized. Yet, if labor and capital are free, the flow
of each under the law of competition towards an equilibrium
is as natural as that of the waters of the ocean under the
action of gravitation. In the order of nature undisturbed,
there is provision for the steady increase of both capital and
labor in something like a defined proportion. There is no
danger of a surplus of either, for the whole world, nor for any
one country, if only the passage is open for the outflow and
inflow of either.

8. The third circumstance to be named is the certainty that la-
bor and capital shall each be made sure of a just reward. The part-
ners join hands each for an expected reward. Men will not

The Relations of Labor and Capital. 59

labor for nothing, nor will capital be put out in uncertain
risks. To ensure this certainty of reward to each, there must
be,

1. Division of property, personal ownership in everything
that can by labor be made an object of value and appropriated.
Without this capital can not be. On common property men
will not labor except on the compulsion of force or stern neces-
sity.

2. There must be also, security to all property-rights by
both prevalent moral sentiment and Just laws, equitably ap-
plied and faithfully executed. When governments invade or
are weak to defend property-rights, capital withdraws itself
into secret places as hoarded wealth, and labor is stinted and re-
duced to the lowest degradation. It is a terrible mistake to
suppose that existing wrongs under which labor suffers can
be relieved by that greatest of all wrongs the invasion or sub-
version of the rights of property.

8. And once more : there must be for both capital and labor,
perfect freedom, iinrestricted by monopolies or special legisla-
tion of any kind. A special favor in these relations of labor
and capital involves an infringement of freedom on one side or
the other, and that is an interference with natural law — a hind-
rance to the best results. The world is opening its eyes, after
centuries of wrong and mischief, to the fact that the business
of governments respecting these relations of capital and labor
is simply to protect the rights of each and hold other things
in even balance for tlie free working of natural law — to let
both alone, giving neither any advantage, but both the utmost
freedom. They are natural partners, and if not interfered with,
will spontaneously seek each other as birds mate in the spring
for a happy fruitful union.

There is not time, nor is this the place to discuss in detail
measures for the better harmonizing of labor and capital. I
will however, as we leave the subject, suggest a few thoughts
which come as corollaries from our main proposition. It must

60 ]Visconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

be acknowledged that tlirougli greater facility for organiza-
tion, through, false views which have gained acceptance in
the current usage of business and through mistaken legisla-
tion in some things, capital has been unduly favored ; it has
the advantage and inclines to opj)ress labor. Laborers have
some reason to complain and ask for relief. Justice and
philanthropy require that every man who fears God and loves
his fellow-man should consider the rights involved and lend
a helping hand to the weak. But admitting this, it is obvi-
ous, from the views we have considered, that any measures
which directly increase the antagonism between the parties,
any organization which contemplates open war between labor
and capital will only aggravate the evil and work damage to
both sides. Combinations of employers on the one hand to
set the j)rices they will pay — or of laborers on the other to
agree upon what they will demand, and, in general, strikes
and trades-unions are in this light positively mischievous. The
great interests of both are common, and the true relief must
come fi'om the better understanding of those common interests.
On the other hand, all measures which tend to increase the
intelligence and promote the thrift and independence of labor-
ers and so inspire them with self-respect and confidence as
they come into contact and union with capitalists are helpful.
Co-operative associations which gather up the scattered capi-
tal of many laborers, to be used in the employment of their
own industry, under their own management, may fitly be com-
mended and encouraged. If capital has gained an advantage
by special legislation, this is to be counter-balanced, not by
sjoecial legislation to favor the other side, by attempts to fix
the hours and the wages of labor, but by earnest united pro-
tests against all special legislation — by insisting on freedom as
the fundamental law of productive industry. From the study
of principles and the observation of facts within the range of
my opportunities I am convinced that prominent among the
sources of wrong to labor is the use of an unreal, ever fluctu-

The Relations of Lahor and Cafpital. 61

ating currency. The control of that whole matter has been in
the hands of capitalists. They profit by it, not through its
relations to legitimate productive industry, but through the
chances and stimulus such a currency gives to speculation.
Capital invested in real production, and labor both suffer from
it, but labor most of all ; for in the ever recurring fluctua-
tions wages are slowest to rise and quickest to fall, and all the
mischiefs of deranged industry touch the very seat of life with
laborers. Honest capitalists and laborers are alike interested
in urging by all practical measures the correction of this cry-
ing evil. Freedom to work and honest pay for honest work
well done is the universal maxim of wisdom for genuine thrift.
The mischief is that thousands are studying and struggling all
the time to thrive by the opposite rule, reaching on the one
hand after the fruits of honest work without rendering honest
pay, and on the other reaching after dishonest pay for dishon-
est work. The grand correction for this condition of things
is a more sacred regard on all hands to that great command
uttered by Jehovah at Sinai some few thousand years ago,
" Thou shall not steals

62 Wisco7isin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

THE GEKMAN SUNDAY.

BY RT. REV. W. E. ARMITAGE, D. D.
P. E. Bishop of Wisconsiu.

I venture to present, as a topic of social science, one on
wHcli it would be easier for me to preach. But while I do
not for an instant concede tliat tlie Divine authority, and the
teaching and practice of the Christian Church, are not to be
quoted here, I recognize the wisdom and the value for our
present purposes of rather choosing authorities and proofs
from human and social history and experience. And, there-
fore, I shall hold in reserve what to many of us would be
more conclusive than what I offer ; but with the conviction
that if on this, as on any other subject, we could perfect our
social science — give the result of the widest induction and the
soundest deduction— we might expect it in the language of
that marvellous Book with which no perfected science has ever
found itself in discord.

Europe inherited, no matter whence or how, the custom of
marking one day in seven fi-om all the others. And immigra-
tion brought that custom from Europe to our shores. It brought
with it also two distinct modes of observance, which we may
call the " English Sunday," and the " Continental Sunday."
The influx from the Continent during the last twenty years, and
the consequent strengthening of the latter mode, seem to have
caused many of those disturbed by it to overlook some very
obvious facts. The two modes of Sunday observance were
brought here in the earliest period of settlement. While the
English colonies, some of them under exacting religious con-
victions, enacted and practised the English mode, the French

The German Sunday. 63

and other European settlers were equally attached to the
Sunday of their own old homes. And it was, indeed, a result
of the old French war, as our fathers used to call it — the most
momentous of all our wars in its results — I often think that
the English Sunday was established as the custom of the
country. In Lower Canada the French left their Sunday with
their religion at that period, but every where else, in Canada
and in the future United States, England planted her own
usage as to the observance of every seventh day.

Unhappily however the importation of this English custom
took place just at a period when the custom itself was a subject of
controversy in the mother country. The Puritans had made it
one of their leading purposes to reform the national habits of
Sunday observance ; had recalled from the Bible the name of
Sabbath for the day ; and were enforcing, as far as they could,
the substitution of a strict Sabbath, like that of the Jews as
they understood it, for the Sunday which the Eeformation had
left to the English people. Our sympathies in all parts of the
conflict between the Church of England and the Puritans are
likely to be biassed by our own present affinities, but it seems
to me that any fair-minded man ought to look back to the two
parties with a readiness to interpret the action of either in the
light of the provocation of the other. They were about as
wrong-headed in those days, as we are now, with the difference
that it was a more earnest age than this in the maintenance of
principles, whether civil or religious. The enormity of the
" Book of Sports " on the one hand, is only explained by the
the aggressive strictness of Puritan books and enactments on
the other, and vice versa. Hence it came that when a Puritan
commonwealth was founded on our shores, the Sabbath was
imposed with all the greater strictness because i1> had been
fought for in England. The rulers and people would have it
and enforce it, and prove their doctrine about it by a demon-
stration. I need not quote the blue-laws which even made
Sabbath-breaking a capital offence, and then by prohibiting

64 Wisconsin Academy q/ /Skieiices, Arts, and Letters.

walking in one's garden, cooking, making beds, sweeping house,
kissing one's wife or child, must have tempted men even to
risk the halter. Those laws were soon repealed, but the Sab-
bath, down to the childhood of some of us, burdened men,
women and children, specially the latter, with a load almost
too grievous to be borne. And the natural result has followed,
a reaction so complete, that thousands of the descendants of
the Puritans have either given up the pretence of keeping the
day holy, or are content with an observance for which their
fathers would have put them in the stocks.

But meanwhile, du.ring the progress of this history of the
Sabbath, our population was being steadily recruited from the
old world. And the new comers did not usually bring the
Sabbath with them, unless they came from Scotland, where
the Puritans had succeeded in planting it. But finding here
either the New England Sabbath or the English Sunday, with
which most of them were familiar, they confirmed and aided
in the establishment of Sunday observance as the national
custom and law. The immigrants from the continent, gi'eatly
in the minority, more or less conformed to American usage ;
and all over the land Sunday was marked from other days by
the cessation of business, the public worship of God, and the
general quiet and rest of our whole people. Within the last
quarter of a century events on both sides of the ocean have
turned the tide of continental immigration to us, and great
changes have resulted in many directions. And one of these
has been, that the continental Sunday has been brought to us
by thousands, fresh from its own home, accompanied with such
associations, and sustained under our universal suffrage, with
such political power and other influence, that it threatens to
usurp the established American custom and to reign in its
stead.

I can but regard it as unfortunate for all who are rallied
against it, that the reaction from the Puritan Sabbath has lost
them so many allies. I do not mean allies in talking, but in

The German Sunday. 65

action and influence. The advocates of tlie continental Sun-
day may say to tliose on the other side : Your custom has had
two centuries of possession of the land ; it should be strong
enough to stand ; but we find thousands of your own people,
if not welcoming our mode, at least weary of yours. Had all
our English-speaking citizens been firm for our own custom, the
new comers would have accepted it, in spite of their increasing
numbers, as their predecessors had done. But having lost
that vantage-ground, the friends of the old mode are disposed
to strike very wildly and unreasonably, I must be allowed to
say, in its defence and in attack upon the strange Sunday.
Into the theological aspects of the question we do not enter
here ; but the most strenuous advocates of the Puritan Sab-
bath, or the one most shocked by the continental innovations,
may well be advised not to waste breath, and risk his cause
by surveying the field from no point of view but his own.
There may be in the annals of human folly precedents enough
for announcing, "Thus saith the Lord," with one's own inter-
pretation of the saying, and then proceeding to style all who
don't agree and obey, infidels and unbelievers. But I think
it will be wiser to consider what is to be said on the other side
before you band together against you all sorts of opponents,
many of them of your own making by your process.

Here in Wisconsin our conflict on the question has been
brought about chiefly by our large German immigration, and
I shall speak therefore, henceforth, of the German rather than
the Continental Sunday. If we inquire into the history of
the German Sunday, we shall find that it has the highest sanc-
tions of Luther and his brother-reformers. Those great men
were but human, and could no more restrain the reformation-
pendulum at once in its proper arc, than the rest of us can in
minor-matters They found the Lord's day included in a
great number of church festivals and fasts, all put on a like
ground of obligation, and burdening the people. Their re-
forming zeal undertook to discriminate between the Sunday

66 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

and the. other days, among the Latter retaining certain great
festivals, but very jealous for the paramount authority of the
Sunday. They were not agreed among themselves about the
ground of its obligation, and as discussion went on about it,
Luther, and even Calvin, and others were drawn into giving
their authority to what seems to us lax observance of the day,
in their fears of the people's relapsing into unreformed prac-
tices, or adopting views of their own opponents. For instance,
Luther's saying, quoted from his Table-talk, " If anywhere the
day is made holy for the mere day's sake, if anywhere any one
sets up its observance on a Jewish foundation, then I order you
to work on it, to ride on it, to dance on it, to feast on it, to do
anything that shall remove this encroachment on christian liber-
ty." And what he counselled, he seems to have done — and as it
was a convenient mode of proclamation of reformed views and
j^ractices, one in harmony with the national instinct for out-
door enjoyment, whatever the previous Sundays have been
among the throng of holy days, the German Sunday now was
established with all the honors, and with all the earnestness,
of the leaders of the Eeformation.

Very sad, sometimes, are the evidences of human weakness,
even in the case of great men, and of whole nations. We may
wonder and lament that they did not reach the divine truth,
instead of supposing that they found it in the contradiction of
errors ; but so it was. The religious earnestness of the time
probably prevented immediate evils from their laxity, if we so
regard it. But they bequeath it to less earnest generations,
with the sanction of their great names, and with national pride
associating them with it. So when you undertake to waive
away, or condemn the Grerman custom as a mere instance of
infidelity, or actual hostility to the christian religion, you are
very likely to array in its defence every German who hears
you, from the mere instincts of patriotism. Whereas the Ger-
mans in this country are as much divided on the questions
about the day, as we are divided ourselves between the Puri-

The German Sunday. 67

tan Sabbath and the English Sunday. Thousands of them
not only are not infidels, but are contending for the Lord's
day against infidel associations whose avowed object it is to
desecrate and destroy it. And it is not more honest to con-
found friends with foes, than it is politic to make them all foes
by indiscriminate attack. The custom is hallowed to them by
education, by associations of their childhood, of their friends
living and dead, their home and the fatherland. It is no more
than plain common sense to look at it with their eyes, to ad-
mit what ever good there is in it, and to enlist their aid with
some other argument than that our Sunday is of the Lord,
while theirs is of the devil. And that is actually what they
constantly have to hear upon the subject.

The love of out-door life I have referred to as a natural trait of
the German race, and it is one which we Americans may well
envy and imitate. I have seen a little bit of yard in a crowded
city, containing a small grass-plat and a shrub or two made
the chief scene of family recreation, despite the large and well-
furnished parlor. And let it also be borne in mind that it is
always family recreation which they seek ; that in their sim-
ple amusements and pleasures, men, women and children par-
ticipate. It is not their way to leave home and all its affec-
tions and influences and go to places and entertainments to
which they cannot take their wives and sisters. All who have
seen them in their own country will testify to the quiet and
well behaved crowds which assemble in the gardens and parks,
evidently not for entertainments — for in many of the most fre-
quented none are allowed, still less for hard drinking or other
vice, but for the enjoyment of their friends and of out-door
life. I am not prepared to pronounce a Sunday afternoon so
spent intrinsically less innocent than that of nine-tenths of our
native population in which a special dinner, a lazy sleep, after
the children have been sent to the convenient Sunday school,
and the Sunday papers, are the chief employments, even
when conscience, personal and traditional, forbids riding and

68 Wisconsi7i Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

visiting and walking out. Let us make no naked issue witli
tlie Germans. In the Fatherland men whom all honor for their
Christianity have followed the custom we condemn. To us?
with our habits and opinions it would be wrong, but to them
attending circumstances will make it right or wrong, and
those circumstances I think we need to press upon them,
waiving the question of difference of custom, until we can
convert their judgments and consciences to our views of ob-
ligation and duty.

I have made no apology for the German Sunday, but only
urge that it should have the full weight of the fact that our
adopted citizens like it, not because they are sinners but
because they are Germans. Feeling an intense anxiety that
our English and American custom should prevail, I wish to
point out the injustice and impolicy with which the matter is
commonly treated. And now granting all that has been
admitted, let me iirge some reasons why the German innova-
tion should be resisted in all proper ways.

That some consideration is due from them to the feelings
and habits of the country which so heartily welcomes them,
the intelligent among them would readily admit. You cannot
imagine an American crowd invading the rights and customs
of a German community, as they have done ours. It would
not be tolerated for an instant. The day we reverence as of
God's appointment, the quiet and order we desire for it, the
undisturbed houses of worship and burial places of our dead
to which we are surely entitled, the influence and moral
atmosphere we would keep about our children — all these are
invaded by strangers within our gates. We give them citizen-
ship and all its privileges, even suffrage and political power,
and they trample on our ways and feelings, sajdng that they
have rights as well as we. I have known a beer-garden to be
opened almost at the door of one of our churches, and the
services broken in upon by the blasts of a brass-band. I have
buried the dead to the music of a waltz and the laughter of a

Tlie German Sunday. 69

merry crowd while the mourners were almost jostled at the
side of the grave by other Sunday idlers. Our Sunday
Schools, on which we depend, foolishly enough, I gi-ant, for
the religious teaching of thousands of our children, are com-
monly depleted of the boys during the summer months, be-
cause of the attractions and excitements of the gardens. The
vicious of all nations, our own included, find on Sunday both
their strongest temptations and their best opportunities. Thou-
sands of men, women and children are robbed of the rest of
one day in seven to minister to the pleasure-seekers. The
moral sense of the community is debased and weakened by the
example of the violation of law, and the victory of pleasure
over restraint. Nay more, it has come to be the settled and
avowed determination of associations of men to compel the
day's desecration ; to choose it for public celebrations, to
■ repeal all restrictions and restricting ordinances ; to release
the American people from the superstition of Sunday observ-
ance.

Now for these evils, which justify my subject on the present
occasion, for these evils who are responsible ? Not we, say
many of our Germans. If we were left to ourselves, many of
these excesses would not occur. We never had them in our
own land, we have no desire for them here. Vicious Americans,
Irishmen, and others interfere with our quiet; so much so
that many of the gardens we never visit, nor can we take our
wives and children to them as we used to do at home. This
has been often said to me by respectable Germans who at the
same time were offended by the denunciation of their custom
as all evil. And" they were right, and yet admitted all the
charge. Granting all that they can say as to the harmlessness
of the Sunday in the Fatherland — for that is not the point of
discussion — it cannot be harmless here. They exchange a
society of one race for one made up from all the nations of
the earth ; a society, of defined ranks and orders, for one in which
F.

70 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

all men, from the liigliest to tlie lowest, liave equal riglits ; a
society under strict law absolutely enforced, for one whose
jDolice regulations and administration are swayed by the
popular breath ; a society accustomed for centuries to the
Sunday, for one in which it is an innovation, a step of decline,
a liberty which instantly passes into a license for immorality
and vice. And good citizenship— may I not say, sound social
science — demands that they should look iipon the custom as
one that cannot be ti-ansplanted from the Fatherland. There
it may continue as they have known it ; there they may enjoy
it when they return to visit or to dwell. But here, in return
for American opportunities and rights, which, they would
acknowledge, repay for all such sacrifices, they must be
content to give up the custom, or be held responsible for the
flood of evil to which it opens the gates.

As, however, my opinion and advice are not likely to bring
all the Germans at once to give up their Sunday, I think there
are some measures that we Americans should take for our
own protectioiL Every city and large town should have its
own public gardens and gi'ounds conveniently situated in the
outskirts where it will interfere with no worship ; made as
beautiful and attractive as possible, and on Sunday under
special police regulations and oversight The Germans at
home have their beer gardens, private establishments, and al-
so palace gardens and such public parks where no beer is sold
no amusements provided, nothing but the heightened beauties
of nature and convenient seats and look-out places, and so on
to enable all to enjoy them. Now let the public provide the
the latter kind of resort here. Our own mechanics and la-
borers need it, shut up as they are on all working days, and
having but confined and close homes. Suppress with a strong
hand the sale of liquor, and indeed all buying and selling on
the grounds and in the vicinity, and everything like disorder^
Then all that is innocent and valuable in the German custom
will be within reach, while the vicious of their own and other

The German Sunday. 71

nationalities will be kept down. And the only servants of the
crowd who will lose the day of rest which mere human exper-
ience, apart fi-om the Divine Law, has j)ronounced to be abso-
lutely necessary, will be the police, whose apportionment of duty
may save them even that loss. If any are disturbed by the
suggestion of allowing and encouraging such laxity as this,
I have only to say that having made this provision to prevent
a great abuse, it will then be the field of effort of all christians
of all names in this free country to bring the people up to the
standard of religious observance, w^hich they may severally
regard, as a matter of obligation under Divine Law. It does
not follow in every instance that a man's view of the Sabbath,
or the Lord's day, is such that he can win the others to its
adoption. And it may be that the reason is in the view it-
sel£

I have wished, in this paper, to indicate what seems to me
the right line of argument on a difficult question, and to con-
demn the one which is usually taken as impolitic and unjust.
It is one of a great number of topics belonging to this section
of the Academy, growing out of the relations of our Ameri-
can and foreign born citizens. And on all those topics I
venture to lay down a proposition by no means new, and yet
being constantly forgotten, in legislation and in social prob-
lems, one under which all that I have said, when restraining my-
self from religious arguments, might perhaps have been inclu-
ded— that foreigners, on becoming citizens, should become
Americans as far as possible — that neither in language, nor
schools, nor churches, nor in other social or political relations,
should they be encouraged to perpetuate their nationalities.
It is true that they must mingle with us in a generation or two,
but no little evil is caused by their efforts to keep themselves
apart and by the politician's concessions to this natural but
mistaken desire.

72 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

SOCIAL SCIENCE AND WOMAN SUFFEAGE.

BY REV. CHARLES CAVERNO, A. M..

Amboy, 111.

The English periodical, Nature^ reviewing an essay of Hux-
ley's on what it calls "the irrepressible woman question,"
makes the following statement . " We are confident that this
question is one which must be ultimately settled mainly upon
physiological grounds, and it is just because the conventions
of society very rightly do not admit of the full and fair discus-
sion of those grounds before mixed audiences that the extreme
emancipationists have been enabled to obtain for their theory
the amount of currency which has fallen to its lot." It would
seem, however, if the conventions of society forbid the discus-
sion on the platform and in the parlor of the most fundamental
aspects of one of our gravest social problems, that there ought
to be some method devised by which such material matters
may be brought prominently before the public mind. Human
society cannot be preserved if matters which are of primary im-
port cannot somehow be subject to open and general consider-
ation. Social Science, if it is to have any value at all, ought
to adapt itself to such exigency. The object of this essay will
be to suggest thought mainly upon the physiological features
of the question of suffrage for woman.

So far as the advocates of political fi-anchise for woman have
gone, their position seems, in the main, to be correct. We ac-
cept the most radical theories of " rights " that have been pro-
pounded. We maintain that "governments derive their just
powers from the consent of the governed."

Social Science and Woman Suffrage. 73

We have no confidence in the distinction so often sought to
to be made between natural and political rights. Political
rights grow only out of natural rights, and of these latter wo-
man has as many and as comprehensive as man. And if the
agitation which we are having on this subject shall explode
the notion that man has some royal political prerogatives over
woman, it will have done a good work toward settling a basis
of correct ideal of the relation which should exist between the
sexes.

We challenge also another of our political aphorisms com-
monly regarded as axiomatic ; to wit — that rights and duties
con'espond. This is only ideally true. It cannot be pressed
in practical life. We may have rights by the score without
duties attached. The man who stays by the bedside of a sick
wife or child, may have the right to vote. The duty may be
not to vote. So long as it is a question of "rights," we are
convinced that the right of a woman to vote is as good as that
of a man. But we have not solved the problem of society
when we have thought along the single line of personal rights.

When in practical life all questions are considered, it may
not appear to be the duty of woman to assume active partici-
pation in politics. With the same inherent right to have share
in political affau's as man, woman may nevertheless refuse to
consider it to be her duty, either • from the consciousness that
nature has assigned her sufficient duties of another character,
or that she has already assumed a sufficient number of her
own choice.

We see no insuperable obstacle why government may not
sit finnly in the " consent of the governed," though half of
the governed be women without the ballot, not even if
the statute gives the ballot to males exclusively. That statute
may and ought to express the consent and conviction of wo-
man as well as of man. We hope the discussion respecting
"rights " will be continued till this result is attained. Let no
government over woman rest on the suspicion of might or of

74 Wisconsiyi Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

prescription. If man retains the sole agency of society in po-
litical affairs, let it be only upon assent by woman after ex-
amination of the whole matter had. "We predict that such
assent will ultimately be given.

We discard all theories of woman's inferiority. We believe
that woman can do what man can do. Possibly man may
have some advantage in power of brain or brawn, and in en-
durance. But the advantage is not so great that woman can-
not keep near enough to him in any kind of activity to be a
helpmeet for him. And it is a matter of common observation
that the helper is often in all respects superior to the helped. If
in anywise woman be inferior to man, we regard her as having
also compensating superiorities. We do not oppose the entry
of woman into politics, because we suspect her of incapability
for its emergencies. Given a common field to woman and to
man, and we will grant substantially equal results.

But if woman is to be a wife and mother, the inquiry arises :
Does she want a common field ? Is it wise or prudent to at-
tempt to cover the ground of all man's activities, and dis-
charge the functions of motherhood beside ?

Marriage constitutes a special condition for woman, as it
does not for man. Yet the vast majority of women pass into
this special condition. Married woman is the dominant and
representative element in th6 class woman. A social scheme
for woman, founded on her condition as femme sole would be
playing Hamlet with the part of Hamlet left out. The bear-
ing which the assumption of political duties by woman will
have uj)on this special condition, needs to be closely scruti-
nized. Suffrage, and all the burdens that follow with it, will
be opened to woman near the years in which, as a rule, she en-
ters upon the responsibilities of marriage. The question is,
does woman, as she enters upon those responsibilities, want to
assume the department of politics beside? If the married
woman does not, is it wise to open the department to women
at all ?

Sociul Science and Woman Suffrage. 75

The cry of tlie mother from an average home now is of
over work. Grant that this comes from the ignorance and sin
of man, yet woman's assumption of the right of suffrage will
not put the millenium in his heart. It will not take an ounce
from the burdens already pressing. It will simply add the
distraction of one more. The great source of misery to a
married woman now is that her maternity is regarded as only
an incident in her life, while during the months and years in
which her vitality is consumed by it, it should be regarded as
the sole end. Maternity is duty assigned and enough of duty.
Instead of asking if woman cannot assume some other duty,
the attention of society should be directed to devising meth-
ods of relief from the necessities that now press upon her.
Beyond what natu^re imposes, a mother's duties should be op-
tional. And yet she is asked to assume another duty which
ought to be inexorable wherever it falls.

We see often 'in the high quarters of the advocacy of suf-
frage for woman an ignorance or an ignoring of the physiologic-
al bearing of the question that is astonishing. A far-famed
and much respected supporter of the so-called reform hails the
good time coming when " marriage and motherhood no more
complete a woman's mission to the world than marriage and
fatherhood complete a man's." We grant that a married wo-
man may have other aims in view besides what maternity im-
poses, hut she cannot have such aims on equal footing ivith man.
If she is to be a mother, these other aims must be held by her
in a comparatively subordinate position to that in which they
may be held by man. Mamage and motherhood do complete
a woman's mission to the world more than marriage and
fatherhood can complete the mission of a man. It would be
impossible to secure equality between the sexes here, even
with "just men made perfect." God has drawn the fiber of
woman around motherhood with a tension he has not pat upon
the paternity of man. Marriage assigns function and destiny
to woman as it does not to man. What kind of wild reason-

76 Wisconsin Academy of /Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ino- may we not expect when the enormous difference between
the physiology of maternity and of paternity is sunk from
sight ?

The entry of woman into political life means burden, if the
event is to have any significance at all. If woman is not going
to reform politics and government, she might as well let them
alone. But if she is going into the work of political reform,
she will find there is something to be done beside the holiday
sport of riding to the polls at elections in gaily -bedecked car-
riages, with streamers flying,

"All the while
Sonorous metal blowing martial sounds."

If she is to improve the present condition of things, she
must master the science of government and the arts of politics ;
she must attend caucuses, and plod through the weary work
of the investigating committee. Unless she does this with an
energy and purpose not now practiced by men, where will be
the gain to society from her advent into politics ? Kemember
now the fact that the strain in politics comes in just those
years when the functions of maternity make their demands.
If woman is to be a helpful element in political affairs, she
must be a constant element in it. One of the most serious por-
tents of our politics now is the lack in men of steady and per-
sistent action. Senator Wilson, of Massachusetts, in a late
review of the situation of affairs in the city of New York, puts
the responsibility for the disgraceful condition of things there
existing upon the men who were entitled to the right of
suffrage and did not use it. But all motherhood ought to
have no sense of care or responsibility for politics. It is idle
to say that those upon whom the burdens of maternity are
actually resting, either prenatal or past natal, may be allowed
the privilege of retiracy. If fi'om time to time, as she emerges
from retirement, a mother is to be of any help in politics, it
must be because she has the while canied it along with her.

Social Science and Woman Suffrage. 77

Two years of dismissal of it from the mind in tliese days is to
take a Eip Van Winkle sleep upon it. It may be said tliat
men neglect politics when they please ; and it may be asked
why women may not do so also. The answer is, men do neg-
lect it ; mothers ought to.

The appearance of woman in politics then means her constant
agency in it. It must take that form or our politics will be
swept by the lower stratum of society with majorities such as
we never heard of before. The mothers there will be govern-
ed by neither reason nor delicacy. They will appear at the
polls let what will of maternity betide. And then must come
our appeals to the mothers of culture and refinement not to
allow our system to be swamped by the votes of the stolid and
ignorant. Now remember that woman is particularly im-
pressible to duty. Remember that motherhood from its pecul-
iar physiological conditions is especially sensitive to excite-
ment ; then think of a presidential campaign and ask if the
considerations from physiology alone are not sufficient to war-
rant shutting the gate against the possibility of bringing the
sense of duty to bear on the mothers of our land, in such times
of passion and agitation ? The Independent^ a firm and reason-
able advocate of woman suffrage, says with respect to suffrage
as it now exists : " Not to vote is an offence against society as
stealing is an offence." That is right. And that is bringing
the sense of duty home to men as it ought to be brought.
But will you lash motherhood to political action with any such
scorpion ? Yet it must be done if she is to step into the polit-
ical arena to take equal responsibilities with man. Voting is
not all of the matter. Behind the vote must be planning and
care and anxiety and effort that the election go rightly.

The physiology of this matter must somehow be brought to
the front in the public consideration, unless we are willing to
take a Niagara plunge on folded oar.

To ask woman to take up the department of politics ought
to be considered an imposition upon her.

78 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

Our civilization or our barbarism lias already added too
mucli to lier duties. We liave added now so mucli that she
lias to let department after department of culture and social
activity drop from lier grasp wlien she takes up from nature the
great office of maternity, and they lie in neglect and confusion
around her. And yet we have the coolness to ask her if she
could not possibly stagger under an additional burden.

" The harp that once through Tara's halls
The soul of music shed,
Now hangs as mute on Tara's walls
As if that soul were fled,"

is the requiem that almost every young mother has to sing
over many a discontinued accomplishment. With no time
now for music, art and literature, we propose to ask her if she
will not spend a few days on an investigating committee, on
the accounts of the keeper of the house of correction, or pre-
pare a speech for the next ward caucus in favor of vacating an
alley in somebody's addition.

The matter seems ridiculous. But Just where ridicule seems
now to come in it is more than possible that a cleft might be
made for the entrance of the sense of duty if suffrage be opened
for woman.

Woman must stop somewhere or break. She cannot dis-
charge the functions of maternity and assume all the depart-
ments of man's activity beside. This is as sure as the doc-
trine of the conservation of force. In fact that doctrine under-
lies the whole matter. When the forces of the system are
taxed to their utmost in one direction, if severe efforts in other
directions are assumed, it is in vain to expect to avoid catas-
trophe.

Right here is the place to look at the bearing of this matter
of suffrage upon the question of the education of woman. We
are now attempting to carry up the public education of our
young women to the same grade as that of young men. We
believe with due care for health and physical development, this

Social Science and Woman Suffrage. 79

may safely be done. But even this will be pliysiologically de-
fensible only on the ground that the young woman's competi-
tion with the young man shall cease when she enters the mar-
riage relation and the forces of her system are directed by na-
ture to maternity. Woe betide the day to her offspring if she
attempt to carry it on then. There is exhaustion in any sys-
tem of education. It may be but healthy exhaustion if we
stop where nature has marked a pause. Your high systems
of culture for women will take their place only as part of a
general system of physical debilitation, if the struggle for
equality with man is to continue under the extraordinary tax
of maternity.

Why woman needs a culture equal with man before mar-
riage, is because she must or ought to cease when she comes to
motherhood, from the efforts he can continue to make. If the
same tension that he can endure is kept on her continually,
and then she assume maternity beside, her thread will part.

By and by, if we are not wise, we shall have a rebellion
against the attempt to open our higher systems of education to
woman, when the real trouble may not lie in this preliminary
work of life, but in the attempt to run an equal race, canying
double burdens afterwards.

Kow if there is any one department of man's activity that
woman can afford to let him bear alone, it is this one of poli-
tics. She ought not to be so alien to her own nature but that
the sweet influences of maternity can compensate her for any-
thing man finds in political life. Politics is but pure drudg-
ery to the mass of men. So much is this so, that the great
difficulty is now to get intelligent men to endure its irksome-
ness. Doubtless almost anyone would be willing to accept
some office high in rank and flush with salary. But these
places are only for one in hundreds of thousands of men now,
and a mother would rarely or never see them if woman had
suffrage and was eligible to office. Motherhood in solid pha-
lanx would be remanded to the wearisome, distasteful tug of

80 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

work to wliicli most educated men are bound only by a sense
of duty. It is not the highest style of manhood that is led
captive by politics ; and how a woman can become enamored
of it is "passing strange."

Politics represents rather the friction of society than its con-
served energy. It is a low state of civilization where much
of social power is turned into its channels. When you hear a
great din in politics you are only listening to the creaking of
the wheels of state. When politics runs high, arts, industries,
sciences and education are apt to be running low. You can
see this illustrated in the difference between the south and
north divisions of our own union. The south for generations
has consumed its energies in politics. It has simply been
burnt up in its own excitement, and it has nothing to show for
it. The great unfilled vacancies of the south on a railroad
map, are testimonies to the desolation that results when soci-
ety makes politics a prime ambition. Viewed as an industry,
it is the most precarious of all methods of meeting the prob-
lem of subsistence. What chances it offers could scarcely be
open to mothers at all.

Neither need unmarried women look in this quarter for any
hope of solution of their difficulties. One of the most pitiable
objects among men is the stranded politician. If a woman has
failed to secure a life companion, she need not give her heart
to politics. Politics can jilt as well as an individual. It is
proverbially fickle. Heaven forefend an unmarried woman
from adding to her man-forsaken plight the condition of a
bankrupt politician, forsaken of the gods. Politics is not an
industry. As an industry it has done nothing for man. It
can do nothing for woman. At any rate it has nothing for
motherhood but burden.

The prizes which a few women might possibly draw in poli-
tics cannot compensate the disaster of precipitating the incu-
bus of its dull, repugnant, fruitless toil on the great mass
already oppressed.

Social Science and Woman Suffrage. 81

Why sliould women attempt to cany along eveiytliing?
Men cannot do it. Tlae advocates of woman suifrage often
attempt to ridicule woman because of her ignorance of politics
and related subjects. They attempt to constrain her to de-
mand suffrage, to save the point of their lampoons.

But why may not women let a department go as well as
men ? Why may there not be some departments that they
may not care to assume just because they are women ?

In this age we are making our great strides in progress be-
cause we are respecting the principle of the division of labor.
Is it inconceivable that that principle should sometimes fall
between woman and man as it does between woman and wo-
man and man and man ? A genius cannot prosecute every-
thing in these days. It was no disgrace to Senator Carpenter,
to say, as he did the other day, that he knew nothing of chem-
istry. A professional man cannot cover the ground of all the
outside knowledge there is in the world. Nay, even a man
cannot carry all that was once reckoned as belonging to his
own profession or handicraft.

We are gaining success in our civilization just because we
are specializing so much.

One of the foremost lawyers in Boston recently remarked
that he hardly knew the meaning of facts in admiralty. He
had devoted himself largely to the law of patents. " The dog
that ran after two hares caught neither," is the expression of
some very old wisdom. But oj^portunities for its application
are multij^lying every day in the increasing complexity of civ-
ilization. Suppose woman is ignorant of politics ! It is just
possible that it may not be worth her while to know much
about it. It is possible she can put her mind and energies to
some other matter to better advantage to herself and society.

We do not believe there can be any very serious conviction
among women that they need suffrage for their political or le-
gal protection. Certainly the legislation of this country for the
past generation has been swift to enact every well defined wish

82 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Aris^ and Letters.

of woman. If not every wrong wliich tlie clearest minded
can see that legislation can touch is instantly righted, all can
see that there is a tendency in legislation in the hands in which
it is now placed, to rectify all known injustice to woman.
But legislation has not yet managed to anticipate all the wants
of man. It will hardly be able to do so in the case of women.
If women have wrongs that are subject to remedy by legisla-
tion, let it be remembered that the general law is that wrongs
must be endured till they are smitten into the general sense .of
society as wrongs, before it is wise for legislation to meddle
with them. We have been so hasty to execute any wish
of woman that the wisdom of some things done is questioned.
If any thing has appeared clear, it is the right of a woman to
dispose of her own property. But even the wisdom of that
was challenged by a woman the other day in a prominent pe-
riodical.

It was claimed that the right of a widow to dispose of her
homestead, in practice brought evil, and that such right should
be taken from her. Let it be generally felt throughout socie-
ty that it is an evil, and does any one doubt that its correction
can be secured through the present system of legislation;
though to do so would be just to box the compass in the at-
tempt of legislation to meet the wants of woman. The ques-
tion recurs, do women to secure fitting legislation for them-
selves as a class need to assume the burdens of suffrage ?

There is one other respect in which the physiology of moth-
erhood is seen to have even a more important bearing upon
this suffrage question than in the matters already considered.
What has thus far been treated relates almost entirely to the
welfare of the mother herself. We shall look now to the wel-
fare of her offspring. The Saviour, on an important occasion
in his teaching, took a little child and "set him in the midst."
If we oftener imitated his example in social questions, we
should less often commit blunders. The child is the key to
the whole position. If we are worthy the name of Social

Social Science and Woman Suffrage. 83

Scientists we shall look to tlie well-being of tlie coming gener-
ations. If we do this we shall see why it is that the -mother
comes to the fore front in the consideration of the question of
suffrage for women. The next generation is the gift of the
motherhood of this. We need to scrutinize this movement
for suffrage to see if it does not have more particular reference
to those who are not mothers, than to those who are — to wo-
man out of the ordinary family relation rather than to those in
it. If it does, the probabilities are decidedly against it as a
movement in the interest of posterity. The very first claim
that one generation has upon that which precedes it, is the
transmission to it of sound physical constitutions. Unless this
is done, the gift of being under ever so favorable a condition
of "rights," will hardly be worth thanks.

The question is one of direction of vital force. Where shall
a mother's energies, go — to politics or to her children ? Is our
j^olitics m such need of the efforts of mothers in it, that to rec-
tify it we must rob our children of the flush of vitality?
Of course this argument is good for nothing if no power is to
be put forth in politics. But if power is not to be put forth,
again we ask what significance there is in woman's entry upon
it ? This argument too has no validity, unless the mother in
an average home is already an over-burdened factor in society.

We desire here to give credit to Gail Hamilton as the only
writer whose works we have read who seems to have a proper
conception of this matter we are now considering. To the
often asked question why the women of this generation cannot
do the work of their mothers, Gail Hamilton replies " We can-
not do the day's works our mothers did because \X\e,j did them."
We regard that reply as containing philosophy enough to cov-
er this whole suffrage question. The spinning wheel and loom
of our mothers consumed vitality that should have come to
us. There is an everlasting weariness on us all who came out
of the average well-to-do homes of the past generation — the
legacy of the over- work of our mothers. The mothers "ate

84 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

sour grapes and tlie children's teetli are set on edge. " Not only
tlie iniquity but even the frugality and industry of mothers
may appear in curse upon their offspring. You cannot cheat
the law of the conservation of force. You cannot break the line
of continuity between generations. Nature goes down through
all and if she cannot collect her forfeitures of the guilty she
will of innocent offspring. We are convinced that before suf-
frage is taken up by woman we need a great deal more of con-
sideration given to the probable influence of the assumption by
motherhood of greater work than she now performs upon the
well-being of posterity.

It is not simply the " personal rights " of the generation on
the stage that is concerned in this matter. We stand in thought-
ful pause before a question Coleridge asks : " Can anything
be more dreadful than the thought that an innocent child has
inherited from you a disease or a weakness, the penalty in
yourself of sin or want of caution? "

We question whether our social or domestic life would gain
anything in value from bringing forward politics as a more
prominent element in them, as must be the result if woman is
compelled to take up this new department.

After a mother has performed the home duties which the
day imposes, we question whether it would be profitable for
her to spend her time in studying and expounding to her fam-
ily questions pertaining to tariffs or civil service. It probably
is important to determine how much a sheriff's fees should be
or whether the government duty on indigo should be two shil-
lings or two and six per pound. But we question whether it
would be a step upward for a mother and her children to pass
to these matters fr'om the music, art and literature which now
adorn or ought to adorn our homes.

There is one collateral matter to which we desire to allude,
and that is the matter of inequality of wages. Now we do
not for a moment argue that there cannot be nearer approxi-
mations made to justice in this matter than we now make.

Social Science and Woman Suffrage. 85

But as a general rule, is there not justice in the present an-ange-
ment that a man should receive more pay for the same work
even, than a woman ? Ought not family wages to be more
than the wages of an individual ? And ought not a husband
to be charged with the responsibility of earning the family
wages ? The working factor of the family ought not to be the
wife. The line of labor through which the family living comes,
ought not to be prosecuted by the wife. Saying nothing of sen-
timent, physiology forbids it. The man who goes forth to work,
represents not only his own needs, but those of wife and children
behind him. He must receive more wages for his work
than an unmarried female who is his competitor, or the possi-
bility of maintaining the family relation in society is at an end.
It may be asked, why speak of his competition with an un-
married female? why not look at the case of a widow with
children to support ? The reason is because the case of a
widow with a family to care for, is an exception to the rule in
the case of families. "We should occasion more misery than we
should relieve if we were to equalize wages to meet her diffi-
culty. Her case must be met in some other way than by put-
ting all the families of the land down upon the footing of com-
petition with those who have only the needs of a unit to
supply.

If it be asked, why not give the unmarried of each sex
equality of wages ? The answer will be that this in effect will
only be to make them both competitors against families at
lower rates than those on which families can be supported.
And a further answer is because the adumbration of marriage
is over them both. If man ought to earn the money from
which the support of families comes, it is difficult to see how
the general rule can be otherwise than that the wages of man
ought to be greater than those of his female competitor. The
main work of life for which wages is paid is done or ouglit to
be done by married men. If young men unmarried, as against

young women unmarried, so far as wages are concerned, are
G.

86 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

reckoned with married men, it is because "coming events cast
their shadows before." They may both be reckoned now for
what, as a rule, they are to be. The injustice is not great in
reckoning man from the beginning as the wages-producer and
compensating him as putatively responsible for the mainten-
ance of a family. The wife at marriage enters into the enjoy-
ment of any surplus the husband may have gained. If this
discussion is not understood, we would like to ask a question
Vfhich, we think, can be understood.

When the wages of women are everywhere equal to those
of men, how can a mechanic hire the female assistance which
Ms wife again and again in her motherhood must need ? His
'day's wages can only offset the wages of the help he hires and
then where shall the family subsistence come from ?

Unjust as the present system of wages may often seem to be
to woman, it is questionable where we can put our hand in to
remedy it, without doing more damage than benefit. We are
convinced that no system of reform respecting wages can be
sound which does not plant itself immovably by the side of
woman married and regulate everything primarily in the light
of her highest interests.

We are pushing the principle of inviduality to a destructive
extreme. It is a surface question in sociology to ask simply if
the wages of one individual ought not to be equal to that of an-
other for the same work. Behind this lies the question " ought
not families to be supported, and how can this be done ?"

Business with its great motto, " You buy best where you
buy cheapest," has respect only to this principle of individ-
uality. But the interests of business are a narrow foundation
on which to rest a social system. A society that followed
business maxims only, would be barbarous, infernal. If social
science desires to be of service to humanity, it must impress
society with the idea that the necessities of families must
be looked to in settling the principles of compensation for work.
When this is done, other things being equal, we shall find that

Social Science and Woman Suffrage. 87

in competition for employment, preference will be given to
married men, and that there will be discrimination in the rate
of wages in their favor. Thus shall we render aid to the
greatest number of women, and to the class most sorely need-
ing it. Here let it be said that the great social question
before us is not how units of either sex can take care of them-
selves. The subject of prime importance pressing upon us is
not the matter of opening new avenues of employment to
women who are out of the ordinary family relations. So far as
the "struggle for existence " is concerned, there is no one now
in our society more favorably situated than an unmarried
female willing to work, no one who has less difficulty in main-
taining an honored social position The great social qmsiion is
hoiv to lighten the burdens of women in an average home^ how
the wives of farmers, of mechanics, of laborers, of men on
small salaries and men with moderate incomes may assume
motherhood, without the grave or an insane asylum in the
near prospect. In other words, the great question is how a
married man can properly provide for his family.

We want to enter a protest against the philosophy of John
Stuart Mill respecting the social position of woman. He asserts
that because woman has never been on practical, political
equality with man, that therefore we know nothing about her
or about her appropriate social position and function. That
we have nothing for it but to try her in every new position as
it is proposed. But if all human experience has gone for
nothing, all human experience will go for nothing. If the
human race has not hit the high road of nature in this matter
hitherto, there is little likelihood of its ever striking it, or of
ever knowing it if it did. If something like the great law
which has prevailed in all time, across the whole social scale,
from the wigwam to the palace, by which the exoteric duties
of a home have been assigned to man and the esoteric to wo-
man, we may despair of being able to find any regulative prin-
ciples whatever. It has not yet become folly in other depart-

88 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

ments of our social life to be guided mainly by experience and
to attempt the untried only with circumspection.

The great body of our liberties stands in common law. Our
special chartei-s have added little or nothing to them. There is
little in Declarations or Bills of Rights or constitutions that would
not have been law without them. These gi'eat documents that
we invest with so much of historic interest were but little more
than codifications and reaffirmations of existing liberties. Yet
our common law so rich for us in its beneficent privileges is
based on the fundamental principle of respect for past experience.
Its first motto has been and always will be "stare decisis."
Its first principle of philosophy has been that human experi-
ence is a safer guide than human speculation. True it has
adopted new principles under new exigencies, but never with-
out an examination that sifted the elements of the case to the
bottom, and subjected the finest comminution to inspection,
A man who thinks he has a new principle to engraft on com-
mon law may look upon himself as one of the elect of the ages.
So thoroughly are our liberties grounded in experience. Yet
in a social matter of as much importance to our happiness as
anything the common law secures, Mr. Mill advises us to launch
out on an " unknown sea " without chart or compass from ex-
perience and make what port we may. And there seems some
danger that we may follow his wild philosophy. So far the ques-
tion of suffrage for woman has had little but superficial treat-
ment. The fundamental questions involved have hardly
caught the public attention. That there are evils attending the
adjustment of the social relations of the sexes we do not deny.
That some of these evils may be removed and perhaps all
mitigated, we do not deny. But we can hardly expect to rem-
edy all at once by an inversion of the foundations on which
society has hitherto rested. We shall do better to do as has
been done in common law — (and by the doing of which it has
earned the name of common sense), look at our specific evil
and apply a specific remedy and then stop. The most daring

Social Science and Woman Suffrage. 89

innovator in common law, Lord Mansfield or Byron Paine,
never dreamed of revolutionizing the wliole legal fabric wlien
it was necessary to reverse a former decision or lay down a new
principle. He pruned simply what was effete. He intro-
duced just what was required for the case in hand. He did
not try to make his reform so broad as to cover all possible con-
tingencies of the need of reform.

The evil of this suffrage movement for woman is that it asks
for more than is needed. In the attempt to relieve certain
evils it brings greater calamities than it cures. It prays for
the deluge, to carry on irrigation. The question of woman's
wrongs needs to be divided and considered item by item.
Ee medics can then be devised that will meet intelligently the
case in hand. If it seem best, we can advance so far as to
make woman eligible to all office. We can do this without
compelling the whole class to take up suffrage. If a woman
wants to enter political life let it be a matter of option with
herself without compelling all womanhood to drag through
the drudgery of politics for her sake.

While society exists in anything like its present conditions,
suffrage ought not to be imposed upon woman. The only re-
sult will be to add to an already oppressed class the heavy
burdens of our political system.

90 Wisconsin Academy of ^Sciences, Arts, mid Letters.

THE PRESENT CONDITION OF THE COMMON
JAILS OF THE COUNTRY.

BY SAMUEL D. HASTINGS,
Secretary Wisconsiu Board of Charities and lleform.

The questions as to wliat shall be done with the criminal
classes ? how can society be best protected from their depreda-
tions ? how can their numbers be decreased ? what can be done
for their reforaiation ? how can their condition be improved ?
and others of a similar character have occupied the thoughts
of not a few of the statesmen, philanthropists, and christians,
not only of our own country but of all the civilized countries
of the world. Prison associations have been organized in dif-
ferent States of the Union and in different countries of Eu-
rope ; able reports have been made by these associations and
by legislative committees ; a national prison congress was held
in the city of Cincinnati, in the month of October, 1870, from
which emanated papers prepared by some of the ablest and
most learned men of this country and of Europe. Through
these various instrumentalities, and through these different
sources, much valuable information, in answer to the import-
ant questions suggested, has been spread abroad, and much
has been done to enlighten the public mind touching these
great matters.

One of the results of the national prison congi'css held at
Cincinnati was the adoption of initiatory measures for the call-
ing of an international congress.

The Rev. Dr. E. C. Wines, for many years the correspond-
ing secretary of the Prison Association of New York, was a]3-
pointed a commissioner or agent to make the necessary arrange-

Condition of the Common Jails. 91

ments for the holding of such an international congress. He
has since visited the different governments of Europe, and has
everywhere found an entire willingness on the part of these
governments to co-operate in the movement, and, as a result,
arrangements have been made for the assembling of such a con-
gress in the city of London, on the 3d day of July of the pres-
ent year.

There is but little doubt that all the governments of Europe
will be represented in this body, and it is earnestly hoped that
representatives from all the States of the Union will also be
present.

As one of the results of the investigations which have been
made in relation to the condition and wants of the criminal
classes, some most astounding developments have been made
as to the condition and influence of the common jails of the
land.

In a brief paper of this character, I shall attempt nothing
more than to present, chiefly in the language of others, a few
facts and suggestions touching the matter under discussion.

In the report of the " Special commissioners to examine the
penal reformatory and charitable institutions " of the state of
Michigan, made to the Governor of that state during the past
year, is found the following :

" Ours lias been the experience of all who have undertaken to examine
the actual condition of county jails, whether in this or in other states.

" Their condition is wretched beyond all power of description, and be-
yond all conception of those who have not had the experience of their
own senses in the matter. ,

" There are, of course, marked differences in the condition of the jails ;
some few, a very few, are subject only in a slight degree to the sanitary
objections made, but we speak of their condition in general.

" The defects in them are not owing so much to the manner in which
they are kept, as to inherent defects in their construction, their dilapida-
ted condition, and a fatal vice in the common jail system.

" For the most part, our sheriffs are both humane and competent men,
and as a general rule the prisoners are well fed, and treated with a rea-
sonable degree of personal kindness.

92 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

It is an acknowledged fact, that light and fresh air in generous meas"
ure are absolutely essential to a healthful condition of both body and
mind. For the most part, our jails seem ingeniously constructed to ex-
clude as much of these essential elements of health as is possible without
destroying life.

" Nor is any proper provision made for cleanliness of person. Many
prisoners come to the jail filthy in person and in clothing. They are
thrust into long, narrow, dimly-lighted, badly ventilated corridors, from
which open the cells. There are no bathing requirements or facilities,
and prisoners are not always required even to wash their hands and faces.
This corridor is used as the sitting and eating room of all the prisoners,
clean and unclean, and is often also, the privy and water closet of all ; and
if not, the privy is closely adjoining, and the corridor is filled with its
fetid and sickening odor.

" The cells are very small, usually not exceeding in size four or five
feet by eight, and seven feet in height ; without ventilating flues, and
with absolutely no light or air except such as steals through the iron
grates of the narrow doors opening into the corridors. No breath of pure,
fresh air ever reaches the inmates. Yet in these cells, alive with vermin,
poisoned with the stagnant, fetid air, the prisoners spend one half of their
time ; and when too sick to creep out into the corridor, the whole of it. *
" The larger proportion of the pereons confined in our county jails are
confined awaiting trial, and they are often detained month after month.

" Tliey are not convicts and the law presumes them innocent. Expe-
rience shows that a portion of them are innocent of the crimes with
which they are charged, while a much larger portion of them are never
convicted.

" The power to arrest and detain persons charged with crimes is one
essential to the public good, but it is one that is often abused by the
malice of accusers and the reckless carelessness or corruption of oQicers ;
and innocent persons are not unfrequently the victims. But we submit
that whatever right the state may have to punish convicts by depriving
them of sunlight and pure air, thus destroying health of body and mind
by such incarceration, it has no right thus to treat persons who are
simply accused of crime and are awaiting trial. T7iei/, at least, are
entitled to such of the decencies and ordinaiy comforts of life as may be
consistent with safe detention.

" The moral condition of our jails is infinitely worse than their sani-
tary condition, and after a full examination and careful consideration, we
have come to the clear and jjainful conviction, that they are the very hot-
beds and nurseries of vice and crime, and that the state is directlj^
responsible for a large share of crime which it seeks to punish.

Condition of the Gammon Jails. 93

"The general plan upon whicli jails are constructed is that of corri-
dors, with cells opening therefrom. The prisoners are locked in their
cells at night, but during the day they congregate in the corridors, with-
out employment and without oversight or restriction as to intercourse.

" There is no separation of the convicts from persons merely accused of
crime. Here, often, are gathered those old and hardened in villany,
lost to shame, proud and boastful of their crimes ; those who have com-
mitted their first crime under the influence of some strong temptation ;
those who have committed some venial offense while under the influence
of intoxicating liquors or some sudden passion; mere children in the
paths of vice ; those who are accused, but are entirely innocent of any
crime ; and those who are arrested on civil process and are unable to find
bail.

" If the wisdom of the*State had been exercised to devise a school of
crime, it would have been diflicult to devise a more efficient one. Here
are the competent teachers, the tractable pupils, the largest opportunities
for instruction, with nothing to distract attention from the lessons. Those
merely accused and those guilty of a first offense, however venial, are
taught that the mere fact of an imprisonment has shut them out from all
the avenues of respectable industry ; that there is no hope in that direc-
tion ; that society has become their enemy ; and that the only course open
to them is to become the enemy of society. They are taught how to do
this most effectually, and that the chance of detection and punishment
decreases just as one becomes skilful in crime; and all the arts, devices
and exploits of the experts are taught in detail to listening and wondering
ears, who soon learn to admire the audacity and skill described, and to
long to imitate and excel such display of them.

" Gambling is a common amusement, and the tricks of professional
gamblers are learned. The j ails are often so arranged that the male pris-
oners can converse with female prisoners, and occasional access to the
rooms of the latter has been obtained. * * *

" As a rule, the prisoners have access to no books, no efforts of any kind
are made for their intellectual or moral improvement, and no interest
shown in their welfare. * * *

" Can it be wondered at that the universal experience is that this treat-
ment tends |to make men criminals instead of reforming them ? These
evils are not peculiar to our own State. They exist elsewhere, and all
who have turned their thoughtful attention to the subject, whether as
practical men or philanthropists, unite in the opinion that our present
county-jail system is an unmitigated evil and ought to be abated."

Sucli is the testimony as to the condition and influence of
the jails in the state of Michigan, as given after personal

94 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

examination, by gentlemen every way competent to form cor-
rect opinions.

In the report of tlie State Board of Charities of the state
of Illinois we find the evidence that the jails in that state are
equally obnoxious to unfavorable criticism. This Board in
their report say :

" The prisoners, iu nearly every instance, are absolutely without em-
ployment for mind or body. There are no libraries in the jails; even a
Bible is ordinarily wanting ; papers are rarely furnished, and no work is
provided for the prisoners, much less required of them. Idleness is a
fruitful source of vice ; and enforced idleness has developed, and always
will, the most debasing passions and habits. * *

" The efforts made at reformation of criminals in the jails of this state
are unsystematic, unintelligent, fitful, and in the most of the counties
wholly wanting. * * *

"There are three objects in view in all criminal legislation— ^?'S<, the
satisfaction of justice; second^ the protection of society; tliird, the reform-
ation of the offender.

"As to the first of these ends, vengeance is a divine prerogative. The
second and third are the only ends which society has the right to seek to
accomplish. But be it so. Admit for argument's sake that the public
has a right to torture the criminal in its power, simply because he
deserves torture. What then ? Then let the law prescribe what and how
he shall suffer. If he is worthy of death, hang or behead him ; but do
not, without color of law, kill him by inches by refusing him air to
breath. If he has taken his neighbor's goods, let him by hard labor
atone for the act. Let him make restitution. But do not deny him the
light of day ; do not compel him to be idle, for weeks and months ; do not
disgrace our boasted christian civilization, by forcing him to live over an
open privy-vault used by a score of prisoners. But a county jail is not
solely or principally a place of punishment. It is more properly a
place for safe-keeping of persons awaiting trial, about one-third of whom
are, upon trial, declared to be innocent. The jail is also used for the
detention of the insane and of witnesses — persons not suspected of crime.
That a person guiltless of crime should be forced into such a place, and
there confined for weeks or months, his health destroyed, and all his finer
feelings outraged, is itself a crime against humanity. Such a policy
makes great criminals out of little ones."

We have testimony from Ohio showing that the common
jail system in that State is similar in its developments as in
other States.

Condition of the Common Jails. 95

The Ohio Board of State Charities, in their second annual
report, in speaking of their county jails, use the following em-
phatic language :

" It is a startling and terrible proposition, sustained by this report (the
report of their secretary), that Ohio is to-day siipporting, at public ex-
pense, as base ' seminaries of crime ' as are to be found in any civilized
community. Children, youth, the young man, the middle aged, the old,
all at the first simply accused of crime, and more or less wrongfully ac-
cused—many for their first ott'ense, some old ofienders, some debauched,
cunning corrupters of men, — representatives of each of these classes are
found congregated in our jails. And to perfect the -wrong they are crowded
often into an ill-ventilated, dirty, dark prison, where the whole being,
physical, mental and moral, is soon fitted to receive all ' uncleanness with
greediness.' With bad air, vile quarters and depraved associates, little
can be added to hasten the perfection of the student in crime. And these
schools of crime are to-day found in every county in the State, sustained
under form of law, and at the expense of the public."

The Committee on Prisons, of the late Constitutional Con-
vention of New York, in a report to that body, sum up the
result of their investigations as follows :

" That there is no one of the sources of crime which is more operative
in the multiplication of thieves and burglars than the common jails of
the State, as at present organized."

The Committee of the Prison Association of New York, in

their report for 1867, speaking of the jails of that State, say :

" They are, indeed, as now constructed and managed, nothing less thaa
seminaries of vice and nurseries of crime."

Miss Dix, the eminent philanthropist, after an extended ob-
servation, says :

"If it were the deliberate purpose of society to establish criminals in
all that is evil, and to root out the last remains of virtuous inclination,
this purpose could not be more eff"ectually accomplished than by incar-
ceration in the county jails, as they are, with few exceptions, constructed
and governed."

From the report of the Prison Association of New York for
1870, we find that but little improvement has been made in
the condition of the jails of that state, although the attention

96 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

of the legislature and the people was called to the matter sev-
eral years. Abraham Beale, the General Agent of the Asso-
ciation, in his report to the Executive Committee, says :

"That he is more than ever confirmed in the opinion that the best side
of a prison is tlie outside, and that tliere exists hut little within calcu-
lated to make men hetter ; and this applies especially to our county jails.
* * Nothing is done to elevate the moral condition of the prisoners —
not a friend to visit them ; not a book for their perusal ; not a rebuke or
admonition ; not a word to the innocent; not a moral lesson given ; not a
sermon preached; not a prayer offered; no anxiety or solicitude ex-
pressed either by the church or the world, for the reformation and salva-
tion of those unfortunates; hence so few reform."

John D. Gruscom, M. D., in his report to the same body of
his inspection of the jails of several of the counties in the state
of New York, during the year 1870, says :

" They remain much the same as heretofore ; and it would be a waste
of time and paper to repeat details, which have been given, again and
again, on former occasions. Their internal arrangements are for the
most part inconvenient and unsatisfactory ; old and young, novices and
professional criminals, the innocent and the guilty, are generally hud-
dled together in the day time, and imperfectly separated at night; there
is but little in jails of what may be called discipline, and less of moral
agencies for the benefit of their inmates ; the prisoners have no regular
employment, no secular instruction, no libraries, and generally, no pro-
vision is made for a due supply of their religious wants ; * * such is
the detail — by no means an exhaustive one — of the imperfections, defects,
and objectionable features of our system of common jails."

One more brief quotation fi'om a report of the New Prison

Association — one of the highest authorities on the subject in

the land :

"In the association of prisoners in our common jails the promiscuous
intercourse of all classes, all ages, and to a certain extent, we are sorry
to add, of both sexes, we have the great evil, the very Pandora's box of
the system ; the fountain head of pernicious influences, not simply to the
inmates themselves, but to the whole community as well, in the midst of
which the jail happens to be situated. If an institution should be estab-
lished in every county of the state, with the inscription over the door
"Vice and crime taught here" and the processes within corresponded to
the announcement without, this committee is impressed with the convic

Condition of the Common Jails. 97

tion that the work of manufacturing criminals could scarcely be more
effectually done than it is by our jail system as at present organized and
managed. This is strong language but it is not lightly used. There is
we think, no proposition more true, than that our present jail system is
deeply depraving to the prisoner, and a positive evil to the community."

Were tlie inmates of our jails tlie worst of criminals, were
tliey in all cases persons who had been charged with the most
heinous crimes, who had been fairly tried, found guilty and
justly sentenced, it would be an outrage upon their manhood,
a disgrace to the people of the state, and a reproach to the civil-
zation of the nineteenth century to confine them in such places
as are many of our jails ; but when we remember that the oc-
cupants of our jails are mostly persons simply charged with
crime, and that too of the milder types, and that the trial often
shows them to have been innocent, that sometimes they are
merely witnesses, or persons sentenced for a few days or a few
months for some minor offence, sometimes mere boys and girls,
the outrage, the disgrace and the reproach seem a thousand
fold intensified. The chief trouble seems to be inherent in our
present criminal system as connected with our jails. The
whole system is a relic of the barbarous ages of the past, and
the great wonder is that it should have been allowed to remain
so long unchallenged.

I have briefly called attention to the condition of the com-
mon jails of the country. Their real condition must be under-
stood and appreciated before any great improvement can be
made. The remedy for the evils and defects which have been
pointed out, will form an appropriate subject for another paper
on some future occasion.

DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

DEEP-WATER FAUNA OF LAKE MICHIGAN.

BY P. E. HOY, M. D., RACINE.

At a distance of sixteen to twenty miles off Racine the
water in Lake Michigan is from fifty to seventy fathoms deep.
The bottom, at these depths, is composed of an impalpable,
dark-colored mud, interspersed with depressions containing
quantities of partially decayed leaves intermingled with the
muddy deposits. It is on these " mud flats " that the fisher-
men capture, in gill-nets, the largest and finest white-fish and
trout.

The food of the white-fish had never been ascertained. In
order to solve this problem, I secured large quantities of the
stomachs of fish caught in various depths; by diluting the
ingesta I was enabled to determine on what the fish subsisted.
During these investigations I became deeply interested in the
new forms of animal life that swarmed in the deep water — fish
that never visit the shore ; crustaceans, that live only in the
profound depths of the lake. I discovered three species of
fish, four species of small crustaceans and one mollusk — all new
to science. The fish I sent to the Smithsonian Institute at
'Washington. They were placed in the hands of that accom-
jDlished naturalist. Prof. Theodore Gill, who described and
named them.

When I sent the fish to Prof. Bau'd I asked him to whom I
should send the crustaceans ? Who was the best authority on
that branch of natural history ? His answer was we had in the
West the very man, the best authority in America on the

Deep- Water Fauna of Lake Micliujan. 99

Crustacea^ Dr. William Stimpson, Secretary of tlie Chicago
Academy of Science. I record here this fact in justice to
Prof. Stimpson and the West,

Two of the fish belong to the genus Argyi-osomus, a genus
l^roposed by Agassiz to include that section of white-fish hav-
ing a projecting under jaw.

The Argyrosomus Hoyi^ Gill, is the smallest of the white-fish so
far found in any of the great lakes, it being only about eight inches
in length, and weighing one-fourth of a pound. The Mooneye, as
called by the fishermen, is an excellent jDan-fish, but its small
size renders its unsuitable for market. Trout devour large
numbers of these little beauties, as they constitute a large
share of their food. The Mooneye is only found in water over
forty fathoms.

The black-fin, Argyrosomus Nigripinnis, Gill, is a large and
beautiful fish, having black fins. It has never been caught in
less than sixty, and does not occur abundantly in less than
seventy fathoms. During the summer of 1871 there was not
a single black-fin taken off Racine, as the fishermen did not
go as far into the lake as they did the previous season.

The third species of fish was taken from the stomach of a
trout, caught in the deepest water. It belongs to the Coitus
family, and is closely allied to Triglopsis Thompsonii, Girard,
if not identical. Triglopsis Thompsonii was taken from the
stomach of a Lota Maculosa (by Prof. Baird) caught in Lake
Ontario in 1850, since which time not a specimen has been
taken, I am informed by the Professor, unless this be the same
fish taken now from the trout, as before mentioned. Prof. Gill
thinks it is probably an undescribed species, near T. Thomp-
sonii. If this prove so on further investigation, it will be
named Triglopsis Stimpsonii. What is peculiarly interesting
about this small fish is, that it is a salt water rather than a
fresh water form. Judging from the quantity of fragments
belonging to this species, obtained from the stomachs of trout
caught in the deep water, it must by no means be rare.

100 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Aois, cmd Letters.

I submitted tlie minute crustaceans to Dr. Stimpson, wlio
detected three species of fresh water shrimps, belonging to the
genus gammarius, and one species of mysis, a marine genus,
many species of which are found in the Northern Atlantic and
Arctic oceans. The small shell found with the crustaceans, in
the stomachs of the white-fish, proved to be an undescribed
species of pisidium.

These discoveries were considered of sufhcient importance
to Justify the undertaking of a dredging expedition. Profess-
ors Stimpson and Andrews, with Mr. Blatcliford, of Chicago,
represented the Chicago Academy of Science, while Drs. Lap-
ham and Hoy represented the Wisconsin Academy of Arts
and Letters.

_0n the 24th of June, 1870, we steamed into the lake, out of
sight of land, and spent the entire day in dredging in a most
enjoyable, and to science profitable, manner. We procured
living specimens of those crustaceans which I had previously
obtained from the stomachs of white-fish. But, with every
exertion, we were not able to keep them alive above a few
hours. Fitted, as they are, to sustain the great pressure of from
fifty to seventy fathoms of water, when this was taken off death
was the inevitable result.

I here subjoin a catalogue of all the animals thus far known
to inhabit the deep water off Racine :

Salmo amethystus — Mitchel
Coregonus sapidissimus — Agassiz.
Coregonus lattor — Agassiz.
Argyrosomus Hoyi — Gill.
Argyrosomus nigiipinnis — Gill.
Triglopsis Thompsonii — Girard,
Gammarius Hoyi — Stimpson.
Gammarius brevistilus — Stimpson.
Gammarius filicornis — Stimpson.
Mysis diluvianus — Stimpson.
Pisidium abysomus — Stimpson.

Dee;p- Water Fauna of Lake Michigan. 101

Also one species of parasite leech, found fastened to wliite-
fisli, and a small wMte Planaria.

In conclusion, tlie occurrence of marine foi-ms {my sis and
iriglopsis) go far to prove tliat Lake Michigan was once salt ;
had direct communication with the ocean. As it gradually
became elevated above the sea it would naturally take many
years to expel the salt water, especially as its greater specific
gravity would cause it to sink and remain long in the lake
— time sufficient for the animals to become acclimated to the
changed condition of things. It is barely possible that salt
springs at the bottom of the lake may have materially retarded
the change ; and that even now there may be brackish water
in the greatest depths. This seems the more probable since
the salt-bearing strata occurs in Michigan. We made an effort
to solve the query, but owing to the imperfection of the appa-
ratus I am not certain that the negative was proved.

H.

102 Wisconsin Academy of /Sciences^ Aiis, and Letters.

ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS.

BY I. A. LAPHAM, LL. D.,
Milwaukee.

Animals in the hands of Cuvier and Agassiz, and minerals
by Dana and others, have been well and scientifically arranged
into natural divisions with their proper order of succession.
But plants, especially in the higher divisions of classes and
their subdivisions, still need the attention of a systematist.

It has been supposed that since De Candolle introduced into
botany the idea of Exogens, (outside growers), and Endogens,
(inside growers,) the classification of plants was complete. It
is proposed to show that this supposition is eiToneous, and has
led to incongruous results needing reformation. It may be
claimed as true that, so far as regards the description of spe-
cies, and their grouping into genera and families, botany is the
most advanced and perfect of any of the natural sciences ; but
as regards the limitations of classes and orders it is the least
advanced. It is only in relation to these larger divisions of
the vegetable kingdom that any suggestions will be made in
the present paper.

The most important of all plant-products — important to the
very life and continuance of the plant is the seed, the organ in
which one individual plant terminates, and another begins. It
is the ultimate product, and the one towards the perfection of
which all other vegetable organs and processes seem to con-
spire. Near the close of the growing season, the whole plant-
energy is concentrated upon the seed ; the seed is perfected
and the plant dies.

As the grand divisions of the vegetable kingdom must rest

On the Classification of Plants. 103

upon the most important characters, it is quite obvious that
we must look to the character of the seed for this purpose.
Less important characters will do for the minor divisions, but
not for the higher.

The seed contains, as its most important — most essential part
an embryo^ consisting of the radicle, cotyledons and plumule.
This is usually surrounded with a store-house of food
for its future use in germination, called albumen. Two
envelopes or coverings protect these more essential parts
of the seed. These several parts are subject to various
modifications ; the cotyledons may be single, double, or
; the albumen may be stored within the body of the
embryo, etc. — though thus modified they are essentially the
same. Thus the seed contains, already, a little plant that only
requires the proper conditions to be enlarged into an oak, a
lily, or some other plant.

But seeds are not the only reproductive bodies among j^lants ;
there are others, not so familiarly known to us, called spores.
They are simple cells filled with minute dots, and have
the power of sending out little shoots, which grow and
Fig- 3. become new plants. All spores send forth these little
tubes, almost exactly alike, apparently, and yet one will grow
to be a mushroom, another a moss, and another a fern.

There are essential differences between seeds and spores ;
while one has buried in its substance an embryo, which is
enlarged in germination into a perfect plant, the other contains
no embryo ; the seed always grows from a definite point, but
the spore sends out its tube from any part of its surface ; in
the seed, the new plant has already made considerable progress •
in the spore, re-production has not yet taken place. The seed,
then, is a more advanced body than the spore and indicates a
higher order of plants. All plants produce either seeds or
spores.

Fig. 1— a seed with its embryo.
Fig. 2— a spore, magnified.

r

10-i Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

Here, tlien, we have tlie basis of our first grand division of
the vegetable kingdom into two very distinct and easily recog-
nizable parts ; the one contains the spore-bearing plants (Spo-
eifer.e), the other includes the seed-bearing plants (Spermi-
FER^). This corresponds exactly with the division generally
adopted, into flowerless and flowering plants. But these names
are objectionable, especially for the higher orders of spore,
bearers, the mosses, ferns, etc., which have organs so analogous
to true flowers that we cannot say they are really flowerless.
Recent botanical writers are hardly consistent in describing the
inflorescence, or mode of flowering of these so-called flowerless
plants. They all produce and are propagated by spores, and
hence we not only avoid this absurdity but follow nature more
closely by calling them spore-bearing (Sporiferous) plants.

Just in proportion as we value a thing, so do we provide for
its care and protection ; and so in nature the seeds and spores
■of the higher classes of plants are provided with coverings for
their protection, while those of the lower classes are left almost
or quite naked. We thus have not only a basis for the next
subdivision of the vegetable kingdom, but a sure indication of
the relative position of these subdivisions in rank and import-
ance.

I. The lowest class of spore-bearing plants — the Algge,
^Fungi and Lichens — produce spores directly upon or within

the body of the plant, without special provision for
covering or inclosing them ; hence these may be
called Gymnospor^ or naked-spore-bearing plants.
The asci in which spores are found are mere open-
ings or sacks, and can hardly be called capsules or
''^' spore covers. These are the lowest and most sim-

ple plants ; they stand at the bottom of the scale of vegetable
life.

II. The second class of plants we will call Angiospor^,
because the spores are covered or provided with little cups

Fig. 3— lichen, magnified.

On Ihe Classification of Plants.

105

Fig. 4.

witli lids in wliicli tliej are closely packed awaj. This
class of the spore-bearers includes the Liverworts,
Mosses, Ferns, Lycopods and Equisetac£e. They are
the higher families of the Cryptogams.

III. The seed-bearing plants we may divide in the
same way : first we have the Gymnosperm^, or naked
seeds, in the Coniferas, (pines, etc.,) and in the Cycadacece,
tropical plants, but little known here.

In all these plants there are no proper seed ves-
sels. They are, therefore, the lowest class of the
seed-bearers, Spermifer^.

IV. Next and last we have the Angiosper-

Fig. 5. M^, or plants with seeds that are covered, such as

the pea and most of our familiar fruits. This is the most

highly organized class of plants, standing at the head of the

list in all modern botanical works.

We have, then, two grand divisions and four minor divis-
ions or classes of plants, all based upon the reproductive

organs

thus

Sporifer^,
Spore-bearing.

Spermifer^,
Seed-bearing.

GyinnosiJorcB^i
Naked spores.
Angiosporoe^i
Covered spores.

Oymn osj)erm a,
Naked seeds.
A7igiospermai^
Covered seeds.

The beauty and simplicity of this arrangement is apparent,
and may be deemed a sufficient proof that it is in accordance
with nature, which is always simple, methodical, and progTess-
ive ; and yet it differs essentially from any heretofore adopted,
in placing the Gymnosperms (conifers, etc.) below all the
Angiosperms, whether of exogenous or endogenous structure.

Fig. 4— theca or capsule of a moss.

Fig. 5— scale from a pine core showing the two naked seeds.

106 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

It remains to be seen whether tliis classifieation, so simple
and logical, is sustained by the consideration of other charac-
teristics. •

Spores and Seeds —
Class 1. Has spores only.

2. Same,

3. Cotyledons indefinite in number.

4. Cotyledons definite ; either one or two.

In all proper systems of classification the indefinite is deemed
inferior to the definite, and hence our 3d class, the plants with
naked seeds, falls below the whole of class 4.

Mowers —

These also show a regular progression through the several
classes :
Class 1. Flowers obscure or none.

2. Without proper stamens and pistils.

3. Without pistils, (stamens only.)

4. With both stamens and pistils.

Leaves —
Class 1. Leaves none.

2. With the venation dichotomous.

3. Venation both dichotomous and parallel.

4. Yenation parallel and netted.

Structure —
Class 1. Cellular.

2. Cellular with a few woody fibres.

3. Cellular with woody fibres ; cells with discs.

4. With woody and vascular fibres.

Mode of groioth —
Class 1. Irregular ; no distinction of stem and leaf. Thallogens.

2. A regular ascending axis ; growth at apex. Acrogens.

3. By external layers. Exogens (in part).

4. By both internal and external layers. Endogens and

Exogens

On the Classification of Plants. 107

Geological age —
Class 1. Found in tlie Lower Silurian age.

2. First found in the Upper Silurian.

3. First in tlie Devonian.

4. First in the Carboniferous.

So it will be seen that whether we regard the character of
the seed, the flowers, the leaves, the structure ; whether we
regard the mode of growth or the relative age of the world at
which each class was introduced, we equally find that, with
this arrangement, there is a regular progression from the more
simple to the more highly organized ; and fi'om the oldest to
the most recent. It is therefore the most natural and proper
classification of plants.

But to find this regular progression we have been obliged to
disregard one character usually deemed of the highest import-
ance. Plants with the exogenous mode of growth are divided
and placed in two different classes. We are thus compelled, ,
in this new classification, to consider the mode of growth or
internal structure of stems as of only secondary importance.

The Grymnosperms are shown to be inferior to all the Angio-
sperms by their indefinite number of cotyledons ; by their
flowers without pistils ; by their dichotomously veined leaves,
which allies them with the ferns ; by their want of vascular
fibres in the structure of the stem ; and by the earlier epoch of
their creation. Hence it must be right to reduce these plants
to a position below that of the palms, the lily, and the orchids.

When Cuvier found that the anatomy, the internal structure
of animals indicated their relative position in the scale of ani-
mal beings, the conclusion was very natural that the same law
existed with regard to plants ; and hence the prominence given
by De Candolle to the exogenous and the endogenous struct-
ure in his classification. But this must be regarded as one of
the most unfortunate ideas ever introduced into botany ; for it
requires that we rank the Gymnosj)erms above the Monocoty-
ledonous plants, though their affinities are thus clearly shown

108 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

to be more nearly with the Angiospores, (the Lycopods, etc.)
Botanical writers generally, admit this defect in the present
arrangement, and yet persist in perpetuating it ; such is the
disposition to follow authority without examination. The
doctrine that "the king can do no wrong" is equally delete-
rious in botany and in politics !

If the more simple forms of plants were first created, to
which were added, from time to time, those of more compli-
cated structure ; and if the arrangement of classes must corres-
pond with that of their introduction in geologic time, we must
adopt this new classification ; for it is found that the Coniferoe
existed in the Devonian age, while the Monocotyledons extend
back only to that of the Carboniferous.

By thus removing the Gymnosperms from between the
Dicotyledonous and the Monocotyledonous plants we bring
these two nearly related grand divisions of the Angiosperms
together ; thus while we separate the Exogens, part into one
class and part into another, we at the same time unite and
bring together the Angiosperms, which have been unnaturally
separated. By the divorce of an unnatural union we secure
another, more congenial.

In the following table an attempt is made to represent, in a
compact form, the ideas I have thus attempted to explain ; and
also to show how each class may be divided into two well
characterized groups.

On the Classification of Plants.

109

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110 Wisconsin Academy of iSliejices, Arts, and Letters.

INSECTS INJUKIOUS TO AGEICULTUEE.

APHIDES, (plant LICE,)

BY P. R. HOY, M. D., Racine.

Entomology, the history of insects, tlieir metamorplioses,
habits, relation to plants, etc., is a branch of natural history
which has peculiar claims on the agriculturist. In view of the
millions of dollars annually lost to the state by the deprecia-
tions of insects, it becomes an interesting problem how to dis-
tinguish in all stages of growth, our insect friends from our
insect foes, that we may be better fitted to cherish the one and
destroy the other.

When will the representatives of the people understand that
Wisconsin can ill afford to dispense with the invaluable ser-
vices of a state entomologist? We have a host of insects,
peculiarly destructive, waiting for careful study, the better to
enable us to counteract their evil work. Not the least of the
advantages to be derived from the labors of an active, enthusi-
astic state entomologist, is the education of the farmers by
personal contact ; thus teaching them how to distinguish the
various insects by which they are surrounded, in their different
stages, so that this practical knowledge may be of value to
themselves and to their neighbors.

Plant Lice. — Small, green, brown, black or white, soft
bodied insects, with or without wings ; crowding together on
leaves, stems, bark or roots of various trees and herbs. Many
species are covered with a white cottony substance, hence called
Woolly Aphides. The number of species is very large, not a
genus of plants that has not its peculiar species ; many, more
than. one. The apple alone, according to Fitch, has not less

Insects Injurious to Agriculture. Ill

than five species of plant lice. One of the most common
infests tlie tender leaves of tlie apple, tlie Aphis Mali, Fab.
This species is green, egg-shaped, one-tenth of an inch in
length ; it is either with or without wings. They are provided
with two spurs, or nectaries, which originate near the center
of the body. These nectaries secrete a fluid as sweet as honey.
So astonishingly prolific is this insect, that the increase of one
single egg, it has been estimated, in seven generations, would
be 729 millions! If it were not for the good offices of those
animals which prey upon plant lice, every thing green on the
face of the globe, would, in a short time, be covered with these
voracious insects. They crowd as thick as they can stand,
their long suckers inserted into the succulent young shoots
and leaves, pumping up the juice. If disturbed, they jerk up
their bodies in a comical way and emit, from their nectaries, a
shower of honey, apparently to bribe the intruder with this
sweet fluid. Not unfrequently they kick up their hind feet in
unison, impelled by an excess of animal spirits, from very joy
of existence.

The history of this species is extremely interesting. In the
spring, as soon as the young leaves appear, the eggs hid away
in the crevices of the bark, hatch. The young creep to the
extremity of the branch and fasten on the young shoots. In a
few days the louse is fully grown. All the eggs laid in
autumn produce wingless females, and these females do not
lay eggs, but bring forth livi7ig young which are also females.

The young when first born are milk white, but change in a
few hours to the color of the parent. In a very few days
these young lice produce living progeny also. And so on for
from fifteen to twenty generations, each individual louse pro-
ducing from five to ten each day, all without the presence of a
single male ; for in fact there is not a male in existence ! A
few winged females appear occasionally, which take wing and
plant new colonies. Thus goes on this remarkable form of
reproduction till fall, when there apj)ears a brood of winged

112 Wiscojisin Academy of Sciences^ Ai^is, and Letters.

males and females wliicli pair, in tlie usual manner. The
result of this union is not living aphides, but eggs, which in
the month of October the females deposit in the crevices and
cracks on the bark of apple trees. Soon after this the lice all
perish. The eggs remain securely hid away during winter, to
be called, by the warm days of another spring, into life, again
to repeat this wonderful phenomenon.

Aphis Peotectors. — Ants are almost always seen busily
running up and down trees and plants infested by the aphis.
These ants take charge of the lice, guard them from harm with
zealous care ; for which good services they are amply paid in
honey, by the plant lice. The ants approach the lice, and if
there is not an accumulated supjDly, they touch them with
their antennae by way of reminding them of their wants ; at
once the lice respond with a drop of their sweet fluid. For
this reason plant lice are humorously called Ant Cows. It is
a well known fact, that colonies of aphides attended by ants
thrive better and are more prolific than those which the ants
have not found.

Aphis Enemies. — Now for the Aphis foes, and conse-
quently our friends. We place first on the roll of honor, the
larvae of the Lace- wing flies, which are called Plant Lice Lions,
a name well deserved. Lace- wings belong to the family He-
merobdia, order Neuroptera. There are many species of
Lace- wings ; they are mostly not over half an inch in length ;
color, pale green, or yellowish brown, with conspicuously
prominent golden eyes, for which reason they are sometimes
called Golden Eyes. They are provided with four large wings,
which expand a little over one inch. These wings are netted
in a beautiful manner, resembling the finest lace, hence the
name. These flies may be met with during the entire summer,
in the vicinity of trees infested with lice. They are nocturnal
in their habits.

The manner in which the female Lace-wing deposits her

Insects Injurious to Agriculture. 113

eggs cliallenges our admiration at the beautiful adaptation of
means to tlie accomplisliment of important ends. Nature lias
furnished this insect with a fluid analogou.s to that of the spi-
der for spinning her web. When ready to deposit an egg, this
insect touches the end of her body to a branch or leaf, and
then elevates the abdomen, drawing out a pure white thread,
half an inch in length, which hardens instantly, on the sum-
mit of which she fixes an egg. This being repeated, from 10 to
20 eggs are thus placed on slender threads. The eggs when
first deposited are pale gi-een, becoming opaqu.e before hatching.
Now the object of thus placing the eggs on these hairs is evi-
dent. Were they placed in reach the first larva that escaped
from an egg would devour the remainder. So nature has well
guarded the continuance of the species.

The larvte of the various species of Lace-wings differ con-
siderably in color. They are mostly of a reddish brown, light-
er on the sides, with a dark line down the back. The body is
long, wrinkled, short hairs projecting from each segment ; has
six legs, and is armed with a pair of formidable, sickle
shaped jaws, which project conspicuously in front. Thus
armed these lions hurry about in one continual state of activity
day and night in quest of plant lice, their legitimate prey.
They seize the lice with their tongs, and elevate them, till they
have sucked every particle of substance from the bodies, then
giving the skins a toss, resume their search for more victims.
It is astonishing how many lice are destroyed by a single aphis-
lion.

Having attained its growth, the lion make the last meal an
excessive one, remains torpid for a day or two, then spins a
circular cocoon in which the insect is entombed during the win-
ter. The first warm day of spring calls them out. So open-
ing a small door, in this temporary grave, emerges a beautiful
Lady Lace- wing, dressed up in the most extravagant finery.

Lady Birds. — Family CoccineUidce, order Coleoptera^ small,

114 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

nearly round beetles, ornamented mostly with spots of various
colors on tlie elytra.

There are about one hundred species described as belonging
to the United States. In my collection alone there are no less
than twenty species, obtained near Racine. So Wisconsin is
not deficient in these valuable insects. These beetles deposit
their eggs in clusters on the under side of leaves on various
plants. Their eggs are of a shining, golden yellow, resembling
those of the Colorado potato beetle. In a few days they hatch
out six legged, dark colored, long bodied larvge. Their jaws
are short, but sufficiently long, however, to be of good service
in killing aphides.

These larvae are nearly, if ngt quite, equal to the aphis lions
in destroying plant lice. Dr. Fitch, New York state entomol-
ogist, so faithfully describes the habits of i}ns> plant lice wolf, as it
miglit appropriately be named, that I adopt his language.
When first hatched, "it walks about with much animation,
and coming to a plant louse, much larger than itself it may
be, the little hero, though only a few minutes old, boldly seizes
the louse, which, like a cowardly poltroon, makes no resistance
except trying to pull himself away. But the little assailant
hangs lustily to him, preventing his advancing a single step
further, and using his anterior legs as arms, he commonly raises
the louse off from the leaf and leisurely devours his body,
leaving only the empty skin remaining. As he grows, the
sides, and in some species the whole surface, becomes diversi-
fied with bright red and yellow spots with rows of tubercles or
elevated points. He is a most active voracious little creature,
running briskly over the limbs and leaves in search of his prey,
and consuming hundreds of aphides. He grows to about a
quarter of an inch in length in the course of two or three
weeks ; he then fixes himself by his tail to a leaf, or the limb
or trunk of a tree, and hanging with his head downwards the
skin cracks open along the middle of his back, and the smooth
back of the pupa protrudes partly out of the prickly skin of

Insects Injurious to Agriculture. 115

the larva, and thus remains, the old larva skin continuing to
cover the pupa on each side and beneath. The insect remains
dormant in its pupa state about a fortnight, when its hard
exterior shell cracks open, and from it crawls a small shining
beetle nearly the shape of a half pea, though often much
smaller than this."

The Agents Within Ouk Control for Destroying
Plant Lice. — The smoke of tobacco, when it is possible to
confine it for a time, is undoubtedly one of the most efficient
remedies for extinguishing these pests. In green houses,
graperies, consei-vatories, etc., the smoke is always potent.
Small out-door plants can be covered with boxes, barrels, or
even umbrellas, or anything that will form a temporary cover,
will answer, and insure the destruction of the aphides with
tobacco smoke. But on large trees, and vines, smoking is not
practicable. The next best thing is a thorough drenching
with strong tobacco water ; say one-fourth of a pound of
tobacco to one gallon of boiling water. Soap suds has been
used with good results. A strong decoction of quassia wood
has also been attended with some benefit. But of all reme-
dies for out-door trees and \dnes, I prefer collecting, with a
net, by sweeping bushes and coarse weeds, the several larv»
described in this article — cqohis-lions and aphis-ioolves.

Several years ago a fine balsam fir, fifteen feet in height,
standing in my grounds, became overrun with a species of
woolly aphis, which deformed the leaves, and there was dan-
ger of the tree being destroyed by them. With a net I col-
lected a brave lot of the larvae of lady birds, and placed them
on the lousy tree ; at the same time I noticed several packets
of lace-wing eggs. The combined labors of these soon des-
troyed every single louse. The tree, now sixty feet in height,
has never, to my knowledge, had an aphis on it since.

Last year my out-door gTapes became badly infested with
lice ; I secured many aphis-wolves and aphis-lions, which I

116 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Avis, and Letters.

transferred to the vines ; in less than two weeks the grapes were
entirely free of these pests, without resorting to other means.
I know of many incidents illustrating the woful ignorance
of persons otherwise intelligent, who were waging an exter-
minating war against insects and birds, at the very time they
were engaged in the good work of devouring noxious insects.

Coniferce of the Rochy Mountains. 117

CONIFERS OF THE EOCKY MOUNTAINS.

BY J. G. KNAPP, ESQ., MADISON.

Mr. President and Gentlemen : — I have the pleasure of pre-
senting you some seeds — nuts you may call them — which as
you perceive are somewhat irregular in form, one-half inch in
length, and one-third in thickness. Generally they are of a
pale brown color. The testa, outer shell, of a very peculiar
texture, is neither woody nor leathery, but a mixture of both,
and about .02 of an inch in thickness. It is easily broken in
fragmentary pieces, though in germination it parts in two equal
valves. When this testa is removed, the inner integument of
a slight drab color, and gauze-like texture is exposed. Beneath
this is formed the kernel. The body is of a pearly whiteness,
cylindrical, two and a half times as long as thick, with a light
brown apex. On cutting this through the centre longitudin-
ally, the cylindrical embryo or embryos, are seen occupying
nearly the entire length of the albumen, and one-third the face
of the hemi-cylinder. The cotyledons vary from three to
twelve, and are arranged around and cover the apex of a cen-
tral shaft, the radicle occupying the opposite extremity. This
nut is therefore the fi*uit of some acrogens, or is nearly allied
to such plants. The whole of this kernel is gorged with a
remarkably sweet oil, and is perhaps the most delicately
flavored of any nut in North America, if not in the world.
When the inner integument is eaten with the kernel, it imparts
to it a balsamic flavor.

These are the nuts of a pine tree, although there is no trace
of the fragile wing with which the nutlets of the coniferse are
I.

118 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts., and Letters.

usually furnislied. Sucli a wing in this case, unless it were
very large, would answer but a poor purpose in floating tliese
nuts from tlie tree. Tliese nuts came from New Mexico, and
are tlie produce of the 'pinus edulis^ or the pinon of the Mexi"
can. I shall ask you to receive and preserve these in your
cabinet.

I think I see in this kernel and embryo another evidence of
the necessity of revising the botanical classification of our
plants, and of separating the coniferae from the dicotyledonous
plants, since they do not agree with the condition, two in the
number of cotyledons ; or from the exogenous trees, where
they disagree in the form of the fibre of the wood ; and arrang-
ing them in a class by themselves, between the exogens and
acrogens.

The tree on which these nuts gi'ow is botanically named
from the edible nuts ; but one is at loss to know why the Mex-
ican has called it the pinon, large or big pine, unless we are to
suppose he has transfei-red the large or big nut of this pine
[pineo] to the tree itself. It is usually a small tree, short-
bodied, with numerous crooked branches, and a dense foliage.
The wood is very hard and full of pitch, compact and brittle,
and when dry is equal to the best of hickory for fuel.

Observers must have discovered that many of the evergreens
in cultivation in this region, are failing for some cause not
apparent to everybody. I attribute much of this failure to a
want of sufficient moisture in the atmos|)here. The native
habitat of our cultivated coniferse is in regions of great moist-
ure, where the mosses abound. The climate here is different ;
and as our fruit-growers have been taught lessons in the
expensive school of experience, so the grower of evergreens
must expect to pay dearly for knowledge, when he seeks to
transplant the trees of damp Europe and wooded America, to
the dry regions of Wisconsin, and its sister states. We are
not yet prepared, nor need we ever be, to give up the idea of
growing evergreens ; but it becomes the thoughtful inquirer,

Cdniferm of the Rocky Mountains. 119

in seeking to remedy the difficulties of rearing tlie evergreens
now under cultivation, to look toward the dry cold mountain
region on our west, and see if lie cannot there find trees more
suitable for his wants — trees that can endure the great extremes
of heat, cold and droughts of this climate. This consideration
induces me to describe these evergreens of the Rocky Moun-
tains with a little more minuteness.

The Pinus Edulis is first seen near the foot hills of the
mountains, on rocky points, and ridges, and in the out-lying
hills, where it can receive but a scant supply of moisture.
Grain in its neighborhood is only grown by irrigation. Here
the summers are only long enough to ripen beans, and the
smallest, and earliest variety of corn. The best trees are
found in regions too elevated to produce any cultivated
crop. It avoids the beds of the streams, and is seldom found
in the bottoms of the valleys, where water from melting snows
or rains may run. On the high table lands, ridges, and steep
rocky mountain sides, it takes its strongest hold, and flourishes
best. The leaves are in pairs, two inches long, dark green,
coarse and ridged, and are persistent for two or more years.
The tree gives a dense shade, and makes an excellent wind
breaker. It is of too slow growth for general use, as an orna-
mental or forest tree ; but on hard, rocky, dry ridges, and at the
brow of steep table lands, it would thrive well. When at the
end a hundred years, the tree has reached thirty or forty feet
in height, and as many in the diameter of its rounded top, it
possesses great beauty, and gives its biennial crop of nuts, and
would then be greatly esteemed. It would never suft'er from
the droughts of summer, or be likely to perish from the cold,
or winds of winter as it thrives to the very highest limit of
the pines, and nearly to the line of dayly fi'osts.

Pinus Englemani^ Engleman's pine is most deserving of
attention. This is also found in the foot hills and out-lying
mountains, but it is within, and high up the steep and pre-
cipitous snow-capped ranges, where it grows in greatest per-

120 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, J.rte, and Letters.

fection. . From a resemblance in tlie color of bark, and the
ger^.ral configuration of tlie tree, wlien seen at a distance to
the pinus resinosa, it has been named by the immigrants from
the eastern states, yellow and pitch pine. The trees grow tall
and straight, with smooth stems, and produce a yellowish
wood not unlike the wood of the 2>. Resinosa. Though the
wood is hard, the tree has but little sap wood, and in most
trees it is tolerably clear of pitch. When sawed the timber is
applied to all purposes where white pine is used by us, and it
may be reckoned as a good building material. The cones are
about the size of the pitch pine of the south, three inches by
two. The nutlets are armed with a wing an inch long, that
floats them to a great distance fi'om the parent tree. The
lea'ves are short, dark green throughout the year, grow in pairs,
and are often six inches long. It is a rapidly growing tree,
and more ornamental than the Austrian, or the red pine.
Thousands of these pines have been peeled by the Indians in
times of famine with them, for the sake of the cambrium,
which is sweet and nuritious, and used by them for food. In
this respect it seems allied to the pinus Lamberti, sugar pine
of California. This species has been the great source from
which the ties, bridge and other timber for the Pacific railroad
have been obtained.

Pinus flexilis is the white pine of the Kocky mountains. In
contour it resembles the white pine of the northern states, ^jmws
strohus. The dark green leaves grow in fives, and are six inches
in length, fine, and flexile, hence its name. The bark of old
trees is dark, and deeply furrowed. The cones are beautifully
formed, four inches long and three in their greatest diameter ;
seeds are large as peas, sweet, oily and edible. The wood
is white, but the tree produces so mu.ch sap wood, that it is
of less value than i:lie pinus Engelmani, for building timber,
and is as hard, hence it is not often sawed into timber. The
tree is a large one, often reaching one hundred feet in height,
with limbs starting out at about twenty feet fi'om the ground.

Coniferce of the Rocky Mountains. 121

It grows in the same dry lands as tlie otlier pines of tlie region,
and readies from the foot-hills to the line of daily frosts. 'his
would make a highly ornamental tree where a dark shade was
desired, and its long flexile leaves, and large cones give it great
beauty when near at hand, and its conical formed top and dark
green foliage make it a graceful feature in the landscape. It
would make an excellent shelter as a wind breaker to protect
buildings, crops and animals, from the effects of the wind.

Abies Douglassi, Douglas spruce, is a tall straight tree where it
grows in thickets, or has a fair supply of water, as in the canons
of the mountains. In dry and open grounds, it holds its long
horizontal limbs near the ground, and with these forms a per-
fect conical top, with a diameter nearly equal to its altitude.
The foliage is dense and dark green. The leaves are one and
one-half inches long, gTowing in two ranks as a slender spray,
much like the Hemlock, Abies Canadense. The bark is thicker
and rougher than the hemlock, and contains a larger per cent-
age of tannin. The cones are cylindrical, three inches long
and three-fourths in diameter, and being colored during the
first year are highly ornamental. The timber resembles the
other spruces, and is strong and elastic ; a good building mate-
rial but not as durable as the pines. I know of no spruce that
would be as valuable an acquisition to our ornamental trees
and tree belts, as this would be, especially for dry situations.
The wood burns with great heat when dry, but crackles badly,
in an open fire. The long periods of drought in its native
habitat do not affect it ; and it flourishes above the pines ;
thus proving incontestibly its hardy character. We may there-
fore safely conclude that the Douglas sprace, would thrive,
where all the other species of the family would fail from the
effects of drought and cold.

Abies Nea Mexicana (?) Eocky Mountain fir, so I have ven-
ventured to name this beautiful species. The leaves are twice
the length of the Abies balsamea, and the cones bear the same
increased proportions, being often two inches long. I have

122 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ventured to give it the specific name of New Mexican, since I
do not find it described by any of our botanists, and when
the spray and leaves were shown to ToiTcy in 1857, he doubted
its identity with the halsamea, but retained that name on the
authority of Bigelow. This tree is associated with Douglas
spruce, in its growth, and is in all respects the most beautiful
of the fir tribe. I first observed it on the 19th of Sept., 1861,
near the summit of the Sarigre de Crista pass in Colorado, at an
elevation of about 11,000 feet above the level of the sea, and
thus wrote of it the time : "I passed -through the yellow pines,
{Pinus Englemani), and turning a sharp angle in the road, saw
such a balsam tree as would have been the making of a Wis-
consin nurseryman, or the pride of the most ornamental park
in an eastern city. Its leaves were twice as long and three
times as dense as any tree of the family I have ever seen. A
little further up all of the trees were of this same beautiful spe-
cies. Another half mile and the firs gave way to spruces,
{Douglassi) of equally brilliant foliage." The timber of this
fir is like the whole tribe, of little value, except as fuel ; and
even in the dry climate where it grows, is durable only under
cover.

Four species of the juniper grow among these pines and
spruces, which show gi'eat ability to endure the gi'eatest
extremes of heat, cold, droughts and severe winds. These are
found on rocky points furthest out on the dry, windy plains,
of all trees. Though dwarfed and stunted, they sometimes
attain a diameter of two feet ; but commonly they produce
clumps of a dozen or more trees springing from a common
root, which spread out laterally as far as high, forming a hem-
isphere of yellowish-green foliage, and pale blue berries. All
are densely leaved, and yield an abundance of berry -like cones,
which are sweet and greedily devoured by the bears and birds
in winter. Hunters and Indians have been known to subsist
upon these cones, for several days at a time. At least two
Aaluable species might be selected from these junipers, well

Coniferce of the Rochy Mountains. 123

adapted for wind breakers, if not for live hedges on dry, hard
lands.

Juniperus pachypliylcBa, thick bark cedar, is the best species
of the red cedar I ever met with. I found this tree growing
in the spurs of the White mountains of New Mexico, at an
elevation of about 10,000 feet. Could it be introduced, it
would be not only a decided curiosity, but a worthy acquisi-
tion to our list of evergreens. The coriaceous bark is cracked
and seamed into cubical forms of two inches. The fibrous
exfoliation of the other j\inipers is entirely wanting in this
tree. The trees were growing among the Engleman pines,
with smooth straight trunks, often thirty feet to a limb, clear
of knots and three feet thick. The wood is close and compact,
of a rich mahogany color, otherwise it resembles the wood of
our red cedar, Juniperus Virginiana. From its habitat, where
I saw it, I should think it would thrive in Wisconsin.

124 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

KEPOET ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE REGION
ABOUT DEVIL'S LAKE.

BY PROFESSOR JAMES H. EATOU, A. M.,
Of Beloit College.

Topography. — The formation of Sauk county is the Pots-
dam sandstone. (Potsdam epoch of the N. Y. Survey.) It
lies nearly horizontal, with a gentle dip to the southeast. The
higher elevations, especially in the southern part of the county,
are capped with conformable layers of the lower magnesian
limestone. (Calcareous epoch of the N. Y. surveys.) Run-
ning east and west through the center of the county are two
parallel ridges, with an average elevation of 400 to 500 feet,
and a base of two to four miles. The distance between them is
three to four miles. The Baraboo river runs in this valley
and empties east into the Wisconsin. A north and south val-
ley cuts half way through the eastern end of the southern
ridge, and then trends east towards the valley of the Wiscon-
sin. In the north end of this valley lies Devil's Lake.

LiTHOLOGY OF THE RiDGES. — They are a comjmct, crystal-
ine sandstone, without cement, or quartzite. The predominant
colors are pink and red, often banded with straight or con-
torted parallel lines of lighter and darker colors. In some
places the rock is an homogeneous white quartz, with distinct
and well formed crystals.

Origin of the Quartzite. — Both the nature of the rock
and its position give evidence that it is metamorphic Potsdam
sandstone. The rock presents all gradations from the simple
sandstone to the perfectly crystallized quartz. The Potsdam

Oeology of the Region About DeviVs Lake. 125

sandstone consists of small rounded gi*ains of quartz, and is
very loosely cemented. It can easily be crumbled with the
fingers. Hand pieces of the quartzite may be obtained in all
stages from tMs friable sandstone to that wbere the grains are
apparent and the rock is less friable, to that where the homo-
geneousness is here nearly approached but the small grains
can still be seen, and finally to the perfect homogeneous
quartz. No sharp geographical line of demarcation between
the sandstone and quartzite, and no gradation in any direction
was observed.

The homogeneousness of the colored quartzite is not as per-
fect as it appears. Whenever a surface has been subjected to
the weather, the small grains come to view again.

The bandings of the quartzite are yqvj similar to those in
the undisturbed sandstone. These bands sometimes consist of
layers of fine grains of sand.

Some of the great blocks of quartzite, which have fallen
down the sides of the valley are most beautifully covered with
regular ripple marks. They must have been first made in the
moving sands.

The layers are nearly as perfect as in the sandstone, and
have a dip equal to the inclination of the ridges. The dip on
either side can be seen best from the opposite side. The anti-
clinal ridge on the east side of the lake is removed by the
valley, which trends to the east, and on the west by another
valley, which comes down to the lake. Vertical joints also
lead to the conclusion that the ridge has been formed by the
upheaval of the horizontal layers of sandstone. The layers
were not traced north and south to determine whether they
are continuous horizontally.

How WAS THE Sandstone Changed ? — Both the nature of
the rock and its position forbid the idea of aqueous fusion or
active volcanic agency. The change must have taken place by
the purely wet way of partial solution and crystallization, or

126 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Aris, and Letters.

by a low degree of heat, working for a long series of years
through the moisture in the sandstone, probably aided by the
pressure which lifted the ridges. If the latter, the change and
elevation of the rock took place at the same time, and both
effects were produced with extreme slowness.

When was the Eidge Eaised ? — Before the glacial epoch.
Wm. H. Caniield, Esq., of Baraboo, has found abundant proof s
of the movement of glaciers over the rock since it has been
metamorphosed. In many places on the elevated portions
smoothly polished surfaces of quartz of great extent have been
exposed by removing the soil. Before the glacial epoch, there
seem to be no data for fixing the time of the elevating and
metamorphic action. There has therefore been ample time for
metamorphic action of the most extreme slowness.

Where and How was the Yalley of Devil's Lake
Formed ?— At a previous meeting Dr. Lapham, Secretary of
the Academy, advanced in a paper the view, that Baraboo
river once ran through this valley on its way to the Wis-
consin, and was turned from its former course into its present
one by glacial drift. If this view is coiTCct, as the facts seem
to warrant, this valley may have been made at any time fi'om
the Lower Silurian up to the glacial period. It is not neces-
sary to introduce any great convulsion. The regularity of the
layers would forbid any sudden and violent upheaval and
cracldng of the rock. During the slow process of upheaval, a
greater extent than the others, perhaps of nearly the present
width of the valley, may have been made. The slowly acting
agencies of the atmosphere and of water can have widened the
fissure and thrown down the great mass of debris which lies
on the south of the valley. The valley is about half a mile
wide. The sides slope up from 200 to 300 feet, as steep as the
large blocks will lie upon each other, and the remaining
height is a perpendicular wall cut by vertical fissures into
most fantastic shapes, with natural fortifications and castles,

Geology of the Region About DeviV s Lake. 127

turrets and towers, making one of tlie most cliarming bits of
landscape in our state.

Change in Course and Bed of Baraboo Eiver. — A
word in evidence that tlie Baraboo river formerly ran through
the valley and was turned aside by the glacier drift. The
surface of the lake is thirty feet above the court house at Bar-
aboo, and one hundred and sixty feet above the Wisconsin
river to the south. (These figures are Mr. Canfield's.) The
lake is more than thirty feet deep and has a bottom of sand-
There is therefore a sufficient descent. The valley is a natu-
ral course for the river, and running water would have given
it some of the features of its present form. In the valley, both
north and south of the lake, there is an abundance of drift.
In a few hours a large variety of northern rocks was collected,
granite, syenite and Lake Superior rocks. They, with sand,
have filled up a deeper valley to such a height that the river
finds a new course to the Wisconsin.

There is another point of great interest in this region, which
does not appear to be easy of solution. On the top of the
ridge and in lines running north and south are conglomerated
boulders. These are local and do not extend far to the south
of the southern ridge. They consist of rounded, water- worn
pebbles, and large boulders of quartzite imbedded in a friable
sandstone. Some of these conglomerated boulders weigh many
tons. They are evidently deposited at a very little distance
from the place of their origin. Evidently, in this immediate
neighborhood, pieces of quartzite have been for a long time
subjected to running water, and have found themselves in a
bed of sand, which has been hardened, and some moving
cause has carried them into their present positions. The place
and time and agencies which have produced these effects,
demand a more careful and close study, such as it is the object
of the Academy to encourage. There are also signs of a sec-

128 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Aris^ and Letters.

ondary metamorpliic action in some of the quartzite. A num-
ber of specimens were obtained wbicb were homogeneous, but
contained large numbers of rounded pebbles, of the same
quartzite or of white quartz, firmly imbedded in them.

Age of the Quartzites, SchistSj Mc, of /Sauk Co. 129

THE AGE OF THE QUARTZITES, SCHISTS AND
CONGLOMERATES OF SAUK CO,, WIS.*

BY ROLAND IRVING, E. M.
Professor of Geology, Mining and Metallurgy. at the University of Wisconsin.

Througli tlie central portion of the county of Sauk, Wis-
consin, run two ranges of hills or ridges, having an east and
west trend, and a height varying from a mere rise above the
general prairie to an altitude of five hundred feet. The width
from north to south never exceeds three or four miles, and in
places is much less than one mile. The total lengths from east
to west, or rather, the exact points at which the peculiar rocks
which make up the ridges give place to the ordinary country
rock, are not as yet accurately known. These lengths, however,
seem to be from fifteen to twenty miles.

The rock material of the ridges is mainly a hard dark-colored
quartzite ; with this in some places are siliceous and talco-silice-
ous schists, and two or three kinds of conglomerate. The dip
of the strata, which, though in some places obscure, is in others
very marked — and can everyivhere be determined by careful
observation — is uniformly toward the north. The angle varies
from 20 deg. to 25 deg. in the south range, to 75 deg. to 80 deg.
in the north.

The occurrence of these bold ridges in the midst of a prairie
country, together with the marked contrast between their up-
turned and metamorphosed layers and the entirely undisturbed
strata of the Potsdam and Calciferous epochs, which for miles
around form the country rock, has caused much speculation
and discussion. From time to time, during the past twenty

* This paper has already been published, with some slight differences, In the American Jour-
nal of Science and Art for February, 18T2.

130 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

years, brief notices have appeared in various journals and re-
ports, but no careful investigation of the localities in question
seems ever to have been attempted. In most of these notices,
or rather in most of those that are not absurdly inaccurate in
their statements and wild in their ideas, the main point under
discussion has been the relative age of the metamorphic strata.
Do they, or do they not, antedate the Potsdam period ? Are
they the results of local metamorphism on the Potsdam sand-
stones, or are they the remnants of pre-existing rocks ? The
advocates of the former theory have had the last word in the
discussion.

The facts recorded in the present article are the results of a
series of visits made to the localities by the writer, during the
months of September, October and November of this year
(1871,) and they will, I think, be seen to prove beyond all
doubt or cavil, that the quartzites and schists antedate entirely
the Potsdam epoch, i. e., are either Huronian or Lauren tian in
age.

Of all of the notices mentioned, none are more than brief
mentions and only a few seem to have any value at all. Dr.
Shummard, in Owen's report on Wisconsin, Iowa and Minne-
sota, makes the first mention of the quartzite. He gives no
opinion. Dr. James G. Perceval, in the report of progress of
the Wisconsin survey for 1856, refers again to the quartzites,
calling them merely " metamorphic sandstones," but intimating
that they result from a change on the Potsdam sandstones. Mr.
James Hall, in his report of progress to the Grovernor of Wis-
consin for 1860, gives by far the most accurate description I
have been able to find. He refers the quartzites unhesitatingly
to the Huronian — but gives no proofs whatever. His pam-
phlet did not fall into my hands until after my own investiga-
tions were entirely completed. In the first volume of his final
report, Mr. Hall again mentions the quartzites, but still more
briefly, expressing the same opinion as before, and still giving
no proofs. In 1864 there appeared in the American Journal of

Age of the Quarizites^ jSchists, Etc., oj Sauk Co. 131

Science and Art (II, vol. xxxvii, p. 226) an article by Mr.
Alexander Wincliell of Michigan, in wliich lie describes, among
others, some fossils fi'om the conglomerates overlying the
qnartzites ; and npon them bases his claim that the quartzites
are a downward continuation of the Potsdam sandstones. He
himself never visited the localities. Finally, Mr. James H. .
Eaton of Beloit College, in a paper read before the Wisconsin
Academy of Science, in February, 1871, expresses the same
opinion though on somewhat different grounds. The foregoing
list includes everything of any value that has been published
on the subject.

The accompanying map includes those portions of the two
ridges where most of my observations have been made.

I. The South Eange, to which my attention was first
directed, presents, on approaching it from Sauk Prairie on the
south, a bold, and, in places, precipitous rise from the plain of
from 350-450 feet. The northern side of this ridge has how-
ever, in all places as yet studied, a much more gradual slope
down to the valley of the Baraboo river, this slope being in
many places determined by the northward dip. Punning en-
tirely through this ridge is a deeply cut valley, which has at
first for about two miles, a direction slightly north of west,
and then turns due north quite abruptly. This northern end
holds the Devil's Lake, which entirely fills the valley from
side to side. Throughout its whole length the sides of this
cleft are precipitous masses of quartzite rising everywhere more
than four hundred feet above the bottom, and reaching at the
lake an altitude of 501 feet above its level, and of 1,474 feet
above the sea. The bottom of the valley is covered with a
heavy mass of Drift material, and the lake is held in its position
by low Drift hills at its northern and southeastern extremities.
The bottom of the lake itself seems to be in a Drift sand, and
is over most of its area about thirty feet below the surface of
the water. The lake has no outlet ; but draining as it does
a very small amount of surface, the extraordinary evaporation

132 Wisconsin Academy of /Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

caused by reflection from tlie cliffs above, togetlier with tlie
liigli winds of Wisconsin, is quite sufficient to account for its
maintenance of level ; wliilst tlie character of tlie surrounding
rock shows readily the reason for its not becoming saline.

The great exposures of cliff at this locality, and the deep rock
cuttings on the newly-opened railroad, afford most excellent
opportunities for study. The change of direction, too, of the
valley, gives facilities for approaching the rocks from different
sides, not elsewhere easily obtainable.

The rock here is mainly a hard, dark-colored, very compact
quartzite, though the colors vary from a very light gi-ey in
places to deep brownish-red. The bedding joints of the
quartzite are in some places rather obscure, but the railroad
cuttings have so far exposed them, that with a little care I was
able readily to ascertain the dip. This on both sides, and
throughout the whole length, of the valley, is uniformly about
20 to 25 degrees a little west of north. Some of the writers
mentioned, and notably Winchell, have described this valley as
corresponding to an old anticlinal axis, but the uniform dip of
the strata throughout its length proves, of course, that this is
not the case.

Section 1.— North and south through the south range on section line 1 of map. A,
quartzites ; A', quartzites with some schists ; C, conglomerate ; S. P., Sauk Prairie ; B. V .,
Baraboo Valley ; L, level of lake.

The quartzite, although often looking massive, shows in
many places, on weathered surfaces, the lamination and cross-
lamination of more modem sandstones. Many of the fallen
masses show, too, on exposed surfaces of lamination, the most
distinct ripple markings I have ever seen. On the shallow
sandy bottom at the north end of the lake below, may be found
their very counterparts. Between the beds of quartzite, in

Age of the Quartzites^ Schists^ Etc.^ of Sauh Co. 133

many places, are thin layers of a schist principally siliceous,
but having always some talcose material. These correspond
apparently to the clayey or shaly layers between the beds of
sand now represented by the quartzite. In some places these
layers seem to be merely a thinly laminated qu.artzite, with
talcose films covering the laminae ; in others, the talcose mate-
rial pervades and gives character to the whole mass, the sili-
ceous material, however, always being present.

The most remarkable feature of this locality is, however, the
very striking system of vertical joints which everywhere inter-
sect the quartzite. The bearings of these joints, taken in some
fifty or sixty different localities, I found to be unifonnly KB.
and S.W. and S.E. and N.W., the variations in a few places
being evidently due to local displacement. On the cliff sides,
and more especially about the lake, these joints, together with
the bedding joints, have so cut the rock into separate blocks,
that these have from time to time been thrown down the bluff
by frost and atmospheric agencies in huge rectangular masses,
weighing by calculation from seventy -five to two hundred tons
apiece.

In many places along the north flank of thi^ ridge and lying
always above the quartzite, are outcrops of a conglomerate,
containing pebbles unmistakably from the quartzite below,
always rounded, and in size varying from a few lines to four or
five inches in diameter. In some few places there seems to be
a second conglomerate in which the sandy cement itself appears
altered to a quartzite. This is a point, however, deserving of
further investigation. There are also places where distinct
layers of coarse and fine conglomerate occur, the latter always
above and gi-aduating into a simple sandstone.

In this conglomerate are found in one locality just northeast
of the lake, the Potsdam fossils described by Mr. Winchell in
the article referred to, viz. : ScoUthus linearis Hall, Orihis Bara-
huensis Hall, Delphinocephalus Minnesotensis Owen, etc. I have
examined a collection of these fossils from the above locality,

134 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

in tlie possession of Dr. Lapliam, of Milwaukee, and have seen
tlie fossils and qiiartzite pebbles in the same fragments side by
side.

II. The observations on the North Eange were made about
the Lower Narrows of the Baraboo river and westward from
there about half a mile. This north range seems to be less
continuous both as to elevation and as to the character of its
rock material. I am told by Dr. Lapham that it seems rather
to be made up of detached masses of metamorphic rocks.
The rising ground, however, never entirely disappears, and the
quartzite seems to be found as far to the east and west as in
the south range. At the Baraboo Narrows the metamorphic
rocks are in great force, the cliffs on either side the river, which
here makes a direct cut through the range from south to north.

Section 2.— Through North range at W. Bluff of Baraboo Narrows. A, thick-bedded
dark colored quartzites, with some talco siliceous schist; B, siliceous schist; C, hori-
zontal sandstone; B. V, Baraboo Valley.

being as much as four hundred feet in height. The body of
the bluff on the west side is made up of heavy beds of quartz-
ite, with, in places, intercalated beds of metamorphic conglom-
erate, and of a talcose schist like that in the south range. These
beds all stand at a very high angle, between 75 and 80 degs.
from the horizontal, the dip being north, with possibly a slight
inclination to the east. At the bottom of the hill on the south
side is an exposure of a peculiar light-colored siliceous schist,
entirely different from any of the other rocks of the series. An
old shaft sunk some thirty feet on the schist, affords most

Age of the Quartzites^ Schists, Mc.j of Sauk Co. 135

excellent opportunity for examination. Tlie total thickness
seen was about twelve feet, tlie layers varying in thickness
from a few lines to four or five inches. Very thin films of a
talcose material sometimes appear between the layers. Directly
above this schist, I found a horizontal undisturbed sandstone,
laid open for some distance by quarrying. The beds are gen-
erally a foot or two in thickness. In the loose pieces near by
is found Scolithus linearis. The sandstone is, of course, the
Potsdam of the surrounding valleys. Section 2 will serve to
give a clear idea of the structure of this bluff.

The narrow detached ridge just to the westward, represented
on the map, is also made up of horizontal Potsdam sandstone.
There are many other such detached ridges along the Baraboo
valley, bearing the same relation to the quartzite ranges, and
showing the same horizontality of strata.

The following arguments in favor of the priority of these
rocks to the Potsdam period will, I think, after what has been
said, be admitted as valid. 1 give them in the order in which
they became apparent to me.

1st. The limited area of disturbance ; the undisturbed Potsdam
and Calciferous strata being found north, south, and between
the ridges, and in close proximity to them.

2d. The absence of any anticlinal axes. Dipping as the rocks
do uniformly to the north, in order to place them in the Pots-
dam category, we must imagine a metamorphism of the strata,
accompanied by a great fault, having on one side the unchanged
sandstones, and on the other the tilted quartzites and schists,
an idea new, I think, to geology.

3d. Tlie occurrence of rounded pebbles of quartzite in the con^
glomerate on the south side of tlie south range. To suppose this
conglomerate, which by its fossils is unmistakably Potsdam,
to be of the same period as the quartzites below, we must sup-
pose that period to have lasted long enough to cover the depo-
sition of the quartzites as sandstones, their metamorphism, and
the rounding of the pebbles by beach action, before the forma '

136 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

tion of the conglomerate ; not to speak of the time sufficient to
erase all signs of an anticlinal.

4th. The occurrence of horizontal sandstones resting unconform-
aUy on the flanks of the tilted strata. This last is, of course,
absolutely conclusive as to the north range, but lest it might
be claimed that the two are independent, I have given the
others.

Mr, Winchell argues that, since Mr. Hall states that the
fossils I have mentioned as occurring in the conglomerate are
restricted to the Middle Potsdam, either this statement must
be untrue or the quartzite must be the downward continuation
of this formation. This argument, however, loses all force
when we regard these ranges as high ridges in the Potsdam
seas, never having been entirely covered by these seas, but
having merely had the new sandstones and conglomerates
deposited about their flanks. The place where these fossils
were found must be at least 200 feet above the base of the sand-
stones of the surrounding country. A single glance at Dr.
Lapham's geological map of Wisconsin will show this. The
conglomerate is by no means necessarily the hase of the Pots-
dam because it rests immediately on Huronian or Laurentian

rocks.

In the final report of Mr. Hall already referred to, he men-
tions a low hill north of Baraboo, in which the middle of the
hill is quartzite, and the flanks conglomerate and sandstones
graduating upward into calcareo-sandy layers, without giving
any further explanation. This statement, before somewhat
unintelligible to me, now throws further light on my own
results.

To my mind these ridges were unquestionably islands in the
Potsdam sea, and a more beautiful illustration than is furnished
by the sandstones and conglomerates of wave action on a rocky
coast, can hardly be imagined.

There are many very interesting details of structure in these
ridges which would repay thorough study. The points pre-

Age of the Quartziies, Schists, Etc., of SauTc Co. 137

sented in tlie present paper are only those necessary to sliow
the age of the rocks.

There are several more of these scattered qnartzite ranges in
Wisconsin, all but one of them occurring within the Potsdam
and Calciferous areas. During the coming season I hope to be
able to make a connected study of them.
University op Wisconsin, November 18, 1871.

138 Wisco7isin Academy of /Sciences, J.rfe, and Letters.

SUGGESTIONS AS TO A BASIS FOE THE GRA-
DATION OF THE VERTEBRATA.*

BY T. C. CHAMBERLIN, A. M.,
Professor of Natural Science in the State Normal School, Whitewater.

Some of the leading principles stated in tliis scheme have
been advanced by others, and form important considerations
in the several classifications advocated by our leading natural-
ists, yet the author has seen no systematic scheme embodying
them as a basis for gradation as distinguished frora classificatio7i,
and some of the principles have not, to his knowledge, been
previously stated. To whom credit is due in reference to par-
ticular facts or principles cannot readily be stated. The author
advances it with deference, because he cannot command that
multitude of facts that are necessary to establish the claims of
any system in zoology. Great difficulties arise to the amateur
student away from the great libraries from the state of zoolog-
ical literature, and under any circumstances from the want of
sufficiently full and accurate observations on the nervous sys-
tem. It is not intended to advance assertions, but suggestions.
The suggestions here made, if of value at all, may be of value
beyond the vertebrata.

This scheme differs from most others in being founded on a
single organism, the nervous. This, at first thought may seem
a fatal objection. But it must be remembered that there
should be a clear distinction drawn between ra^ih and classifi-
cation. It will doubtless be conceded that a cephalopod ranks

* This Hubject was originally presented to the Academy in the extemporaneous style
from notes and diasrrams. The notes, which were not closely followed, constitute the
abstract which appeared in the Bulletin. As it is impossible now to reproduce the
actual presentation, and as it ia of no importance in preparing this article for publica-
tion here, I have taken all the liberties of original presentation.

Gradation of the Vertebrata. 139

liiglier than an annelid, and on tlie other hand that the insectea
outrank the bryozoa. Yet the first is classified with the last
and the second with the third, the rank and the classification
resting on entirely different grounds. While it must be admit-
ted that a classification based upon a single portion of the
j^hysical system would be of little value, it does not follow
that this is true of gradation. It is true, a classification may
be made on the basis of rank, but it is manifest such a classifi-
cation would be most arbitrary and unnatural. Array all the
animal kingdom in a line according to rank from the lowest to
the highest, and then cut that line into as many or as few
pieces as you please, and cut it where you please, and it is
evident that the classes thus formed would be heterogeneous
and unnatural. Radiates, mollusks, and articulates would be
mingled confusedly with each other, and, doubtless, even with
the vertebrata. And even though a classification be based
upon rank, it would not make the two synonymous. Classifi.
cation would then simply be founded on rank as it is com-
monly founded on structure. This distinction between grada-
tion and classification does not seem to have been apprehended
in its full force. A true classification must he based upon differ-
ences in hind^ a true gradation upon differences in degree^ dif-
ferences in kind being reduced to a common standard by
some system of equivalents. In establishing this system of
equivalents lies the great difficulty of gi'adation. The mani-
fest problem when we attempt to determine rank by speciali-
zation or otherwise in the various organs, lies in determining
the comparative value of such indications. How much will a
modification in locomotion weigh in the scale of rank when set
over against a modification in respiration f How much a men-
tal characteristic compared with a physical adaptation ? How
much of superior specialization in a limb will counterbalance
a given amount of intellectual^ m.oral or social development f It
is true, this difficulty arises to a certain extent when we take
for our basis the nervous system ; yet, I think, here nature has

140 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Aris^ and Letters.

largely done this worh for us, has made the comparison and given
us the results, and herein lies its especial fitness to be our guide.
A mental power and a physical form are so diverse in tlieir
nature that, considered independently, it is not apparent how
they can be rationally compared at all. But the nervous sys-
tem is a common medium for their action and furnishes the
means of comparison. Where two organs of diverse natures
act by means of separate and exclusive ganglia, those ganglia,
it must be admitted, furnish the true means of comparison.
And though the ganglia presiding over the various organs
may not be thus distinct and exclusive in general, that does
not vitiate the principle, but only affects its application.

Furthermore, the objection to this single organism as a basis
is very much answered, so far as it has any bearing on grada-
tion, when it is remembered that the nervous system is com-
prehensive in its nature. It is headquarters and source of
co-ordination for all the functions of the whole system. It
in a sense comprehends them all. This is a fact of supreme
importance in gradation though it may be valueless in classifi-
cation.

The nervous system is likewise rep)resentative in its nature.
Complication in any other system of the body implies corre-
s]Donding complication of the nervous sj^stem, and implies it
in terms of the common standai'd.

Moreover, the nervous system comprises the highest fomi
of organized matter. We should then expect its forms to be
most indicative of rank.

And further, while it is generally conceded that intellectual
characteristics have little value in classification, if indeed they
should not be entirely ignored, they must from the very
nature of the case form a most important element in the esti-
mation of rank. Classification should be based upon struct-
ural affinities, gradation upon functional power. Classification,
if true, is but an interpretation of nature ; gradation is a judg-
ment passed upon it. Classification is natural ; gradation is

Gradation of ilie Vertebrata. 141

artificial. Gradation being thus a judgment must liave its
basis. Wlietlier it has been distinctly recognized or not, the
same one has been instinctively and universally adopted, viz :
power, physical and psychological, qualitatively as well as
qiiantitatively considered. This is made prominent in Prof.
Dana's articles on " Cephalization as a Basis of Classification,"
and is a clearly recognized ground- work of his ideas, so far as
they are gradational in their nature. Most writers, while con-
sciously or unconsciously recognizing the basis, have looked
to the principle of "division of labor" for a decision. While
this is an important element of power, it is not the sum total
nor any sure indication of it. But the point I wish to make
in this connection is this, power is by no means all physical.
Intellectual and moral forces cannot be ignored. A gradation
that does not recoscnize these is as false as a classification based
exclusively upon them. Now the nervous system is the
especial instrument of mental manifestation. Its forms indi-
cate, so far as they can be interpreted, the mental characteris-
tics. Are we not compelled then to seek in its forms, and in
its developments, that natural co-ordination of mental and
physical indices of rank which alone can form a rational basis
of gradation ? That the systems commonly relied upon do
not give us the truth approximately and in a general way is
by no means asserted. The general truth of their results is
assumed, and is made the basis of what arguments are here
presented.

The following are suggested as indicative points :

l-s^. Position of the general line of the cerebrospinal axis.

This is essentially horizontal in fish, acknowledged to be the
lowest of the vertebrates ; perpendicular in man, the highest ;
intermediate in a general sense in the intermediate orders.
These facts have been fi'equently noted and appealed to as
indicating rank. Some difficulties in application and sources
of error exist, owing to modifications due to habits of life and

142 \Visco7isin Academy of iSh'ences^ Arts, and Letters.

variety of posture. It is to be regarded as of only general
value. Stated as an affirmation, the first principle -will be :

The nearer the approach of the general line of the cerehro-spinal
.cuxis to the perpendicular^ the higher the rank.

2d. Angle formed by the axis of the spinal cord with the axis
of the encephalic ganglia.

The lines coincide approximately in fisli, are nearly at rigbt
angles in man, are intermediate in the intermediate orders.
This principle, like the preceding, can be regarded as of only
general value. The angle of these axes is manifestly depend-
ent in many cases upon the form and habitual position of the
animal. The angle is large in the mole, rat, and similar bur-
rowing animals for obvious reasons, and on the other hand
when the habits of the animal require the longitudinal axis of the
face to be more or less transverse to the cervical vertebrae, the
angle is modified accordingly. The facts under these two
heads then are rather representatives of the position and form
of the body in general, and of positional relations of the nerv-
ous system to it, than characteristic of the functional relations
of the system itself. Hence their inferior utility. Yet they
are not without their value, and they show the representative
character of our basis. Stated as a conclusion, the second
principle will be :

The 7iearer the approach to a right angle^ the higher the rank.

Sd. Degree of separation of the encephalic ganglia from each
other.

Ready and prompt inter-communication, with efficient co-or-
dination are necessary to the higher complex mental and phys-
ical manifestations. Positional concentration facilitates this.
So long as the nervous action is of the simple reflex nature,
the nearer the several ganglia are to the organs with which
they are connected, the more favorable their position for per-
forming their functions. But when co-ordination and combi-

Gradation of the Vertebrata. 143

nation of nervous action become predominant, the greater the
concentration, tlie more efficient the action. This co-ordination
will depend partly upon positional and partly upon commis-
sural relations. One element of position is degree of separation.
We should then, beforehand, expect to find those portions of
the nervous system which are devoted to local and, in a
measure, independent functions of the simple reflex nature
scattered more or less, their position being determined rather
by that of the organs whose action they control, than by their
relations to other parts of the nervous system ; while on the
other hand we should expect to find those parts whose office
is the organization of thought, feeling and co-ordinated motion,
or whose function is closely related to these, collected together,
forming a great nervous center, more and more concentrated
and compacted as the co-operation of parts becomes more
prompt and efficient. We find it to be so. It is but a com-
mon observation of naturalists, and to a greater or less extent
its gradational value has been recognized.

The scattered situation of the sympathetic ganglia is marked
as well as their separation from the encephalic centres. So of
articulata, mollusca and radiata. The spinal cord, regarded
as a nervous centre and performing functions a gi-ade higher,
has a better relationship but not a close one. In the lowest
vertebrata the encephalic ganglia are markedly separate. As
we proceed upward the separation is less and less marked, till
in man aggregation reaches its highest state.

The less the separation the higher the rank.

4:th. Relative position of the parts.

This is intimately connected with the preceding principle
and has the same general import, but yet is in a measure dis-
tinct from it. In the amphioxus the arrangement is purely
linear, and in all the cyclostomes there is little variation from
it. In the higher fishes there begins to appear what may be
termed a two-ranked arrangement, the cerebrum and cerebel-

144 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

lum being super-imposed upon the sensory ganglia and the
medulla oblongata. This two-ranked arrangement is persist-
ent in a more or less marked degree through all the higher orders,
rank being indicated by advance from a rectilinear to a curvi-
linear arrangement. In the lowest orders in which this
arrangement appears, lines drawn through the two series of
ganglia are approximately parallel straight lines, in the high-
est they are approximately concentric semi-circumferences.
This curvilinear arrangement has a double significance. It is
the combined result of a tendency to a compact arrangement and
a relatively large development of the upper series.

Much has been said on the relative position of the parts,
especially of the cerebrum and cerebellum and more or less
significance attached to this principle, yet observation in this
direction seems to have been special rather than comprehensive.

Position with reference to the head of the spinal cord is
worthy of especial attention. From a strictly posterior position,
the spinal axis passes, as we ascend in rank, through almost a
quadrant to a sub-central position beneath. The import of
this, as facilitating co-operative intercommunication is appa-
rent.

Embryology furnishes striking facts bearing upon this sub-
ject as it does upon other points discussed in this article. But
I shall not here insist upon them, for we are, perhaps, not safe,
as yet, in assuming that embryological development is along
a line of uniform gradational advancement, however true this
may be as a general fact. Until there shall be gi'eater uni-
formity of opinion as to the origin of species and the relations
of embryology to that subject, arguments based upon it must
be regarded as questionable to a certain extent. But its gen-
eral indications must be allowed considerable value, whatever
views of development may be entertained.

Stated as a deduction, the fourth principle will be.
The more compact the arrangement of the parts, the higher the
rank.

Gradation of the Vertehraia. 145

bill. Presence or absence of certain parts^ especially connecting
imrts.

The corpus callosum, wliicli in the higher mammalia is the
largest and most important mass of commissural fibers, is want-
ing below that class and has a markedly varied development
within it. The pons Varolii and other commissures are want-
ing in many of the lower forms, the anterior commissure
being the only one traceable in fishes. The absence of these
parts indicates want of association in action and consequent
want of jjower to perform the higher complex functions, either
mental or physical. A single illustration from Dr. Carpenter :
" It is interesting to observe that in many Lepidoptera and
Hymenoptera, which are remarkable for rapid and powerful
flight, the nerves supplying both pairs of wings, are nnited at
their origins. On the other hand, in many insects which are
not remarkable for velocity or equability of motion, the nerves
supplying each wing originate separately, and have little com-
munication, just as in the larva of the Sphinx ; and in the Col-
eoptera, in which the upper pair or elytra are motionless dur-
ing flight, the nerves frequently remain entirely separate."

Ahsence of commissural parts indicates low rank..

6th. Relative size (a) of ganglia of the same animal {h) of a
single ganglion to the lohole hody^ (c) of the encephalon and of the
entire nervous system to the whole hody — {d) of the parts of the
same ganglion., (e) of connecting parts.

(a) It will not be questioned that the several ganglia per-
form different functions, that some of these functions are higher
and some lower, that size, with modifications, indicates their
functional power, that the cerebrum performs the highest func-
tions, that there is a scale of rank for the others, whatever it
may be. It is almost axiomatic then to state that the larger
the ganglia of high functions the higher the animal's rank.
The cerebrum in the lowest vertebrates is entirely wanting, in
all the lower orders it is relatively small, in the higher

146 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arls, and Letters.

relatively large. In many jEishes the optic lobes alone are
larger than the cerebrum. In man, at the other end of the
series, the cerebrum is very much larger than all the remaining
encephalic ganglia combined. Between these extremes there
is every degree of gradation.

Under this head may be included the suggestion of Dr. Car-
penter, that a comparison of the bulk of the cerebrum with the
diameter of the spinal cord would give more accurate results
than a comparison with the whole body.

{b) Unsatisfactory as this comparison is in some respects,
and inferior as it may be to that suggested by Dr. Carpenter,
it yet has much value, and when its results have been care-
fully corrected, for density, quality, activity, etc., it will be
found fi-ee from most of the objections urged against it. It
must not be expected that any one comparison will show all
of the truth, especially when the truth is so complex as here.
Each one shows its peculiar phase. All must be combined to
give all phases and the true result.

With modifications, the larger the cerebrum, compared ^oith the
whole body, the higher the rank.

General estimates would seem to indicate that the law of the
cerebellum, considered individually, is the same, subject how-
ever to more important modifications.

(c) Comparisons of the cerebrum are especially indicative of
intelligence. But this is not the only element of the problem.
Power of the more physical kind must be computed and com-
bined with it to give correct results. Given two animals of
equal intelligence, the one which has the gi'eatest muscular
power, either quantitative or qualitative, must rank the higher.
Comparisons of the encephalic mass and of the entire nervous
system must be made, to connect errors arising fi'om this source.

(e) The size of connecting parts is an additional item bear-
ing upon the co-operation of the parts, and taken in connec-
tion with what has been said already, and with the fact that
the commissures are introduced at different points in the scale.

Oixidaiion of the Vertehraia. 147

and that their development is markedly varying, renders this
a most highly indicative item. Attention should be given to
longitudinal bands as well as transverse.

{d) The parts of a ganglion, especially of the larger, have dif-
ferent degrees of develoi3ment, and if, as many believe, the
different parts have different functions, the relative size of
each must be indicative, and, whether functional differences
are conceded or not, inductive study shows it to be true at
least in a general sense. The anterior lobe of the cerebrum is
much more developed in man than in the apes or any of the
higher mammals, and in these, than in the lower orders. The
posterior lobe, as such, does not appear at all except in the
highest mammals. Similar significant facts are presented by
the other lobes of the cerebrum and by those of the cerebel-
lum. The development of the anterior, upper, and posterior
parts of the cerebrum especially indicate high rank. This is
intimately associated with and in a measure determines the
form of the parts which, however, is thought worthy of being
considered under a separate head.

1th. Absolute size.

Given two animals, alike in every other respect, the one that
possesses the greatest nervous mass must rank the higher. Size
is one measure of power. Prof. Dana in his articles on "Ce-
phalization " has given to a somewhat different application of
this principle, the importance it merits, and which seem to have
been overlooked or disregarded by other systematists.

Qth. Form of the parts, especially of the cerebrum.

The attention that has been paid to the form of the skull by
ethnologists, indicates the value of this point ; but a higher
value, the author believes, attaches to the form of the brain
itself than to its representative, the skull. The deductions of
ethnologists fi*om the form of the skull, however, must be
accepted in general, when applied to the brain itself. What-

148 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ever may be thougiit of tlie teclmicalities of tlie doctrines of
Gall and Spurzlieim, the general truth that the form of the
brain indicates the form of the character can scarcely be ques-
tioned. The force of observations in this direction will be
measured somewhat accurately by the degree of develoj^ment
of the organ, the form being most significant when the devel-
opment is highest.

9th. Relative position and amount of grey and lohite matter.

The general position is not a variable element, but is worthy
of notice as indicating the functions of the several parts ; the
tendency of the grey matter being toward the outside for the
higher functions and toward the inside for the lower. No
especial value is attached to this.

The presence, number and depth of the convolutions have
been regarded as especially characteristic of rank. The varia-
tions of the human brain in this respect, and its correspond-
ence with character have been appealed to ; as also the fact of
their late introduction into the scale of creation. A compari-
son of man with other mammals, with birds, with reptiles, with
fishes, is conclusive as to the general truth that numerous and
deep convolutions signify elevation of rank. This rule, how-
ever, taken by itself would elevate the cerebellum above the
cerebrum, and, if the general way in which Prof. Huxley states
the facts does not deceive me, aquatic carnivora above terres-
trial, and would give a much higher rank to the cetacea than
is usually accorded them. But in the cetacea on the other
hand the limited development of the commissures indicates
low rank, so that here, as elsewhere, the indications of differ-
ent parts are not always in harmony, which shows the necessity
of collating and combining all the indices. On this subject a
word at the close of the article.

The amount of vesicular matter is an important item. The
functional power of the organ is doubtless more accurately
indicated by this than by the entire mass.

Gradation of the Veriehraia. 149

10//;. Density.

The actual amount of nervous matter is to be regarded
rather than the space it occupies. Some ganglia are hollow in
one order and solid in another. Errors are liable to arise from
this. Again the structure where solid may be more dense in
one case than in another. The specific gravity will be a valu-
able guide. Simple weight will not answer. A dense struct-
ure will unquestionably differ in functional power from a loose
one of equal weight.

lltJi. Quality of the nervous organization.

This, unquestionably, it is difficult to determine with cer-
tainty and precision, but its significance cannot be questioned.
It is a very important element in determining superiority
among men, where it can be estimated somewhat accurately,
and it is doubtless equally so among the whole class vertebrata.
A general harmony of structure pervades the organization of an
animal. Coarseness in one part is usually accompanied by
coarseness in all others, and vice versa. It is not difficult to
determine the general quality of the organization as a whole,
and thus we may form a general though somewhat uncertain
estimate of the quality of the nervous organization. What
assistance microscopic study may lend in this estimate is not
yet demonstrated. That it will be important, it is reasonable
to hope.

12th. Activity of the nervous system.

Like quality, this may be difficult to determine, but yet
it is important. Yet I think, in the amount and in the changes
of the blood sent to the brain, we have a reliable index of its
activity. I am not aware that any observations, save a few
by the author, have been made with this end in view. Yet
the value of such observations are apparent upon a mere state-
ment. And that value is not confined to the determination of
activity merely, but of the total amount of nervous force. The
K.

150 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

chemical and molecular changes of tlie blood sent to the nerv-
ous centres are regarded as the true measure of the nervovs
force generated. The amount of this force compared with the
amount of nervous substance should show the activity.

ISih.- Relative development of the spnjoalhetic and cerebro-
spinal systems.

The comparative rank of the two systems is unquestioned.
The distinct differentiation of the latter from the former marked
a large advance upon previous structures. The relations of
the two systems must then be indicative.

The indications of a single one of these rules alone is not to
be regarded as decisive. The fallacy of most of the objections
that have been urged against such of these rules as have been
previously advanced lies here. Because they have not been
universally decisive, their value within the sphere of their
application and with the modifications and corrections to wliich
they are subject, has been falsely estimated. That that sphere
and those modifications and corrections can be ascertained and
their relations adjusted, is the firm belief of the author. It is
the combined and corrected result of all these rules that is to
be decisive. And as their indications are not always harmo-
nious when two subjects are being compared, the question of
their relative value arises. This question, as I have attempted
to show, has not by any means the significance it has when
applied to a system based upon the various organs of the
system. But whether more or less significant, the author is
not yet prepared to answer it, except in generalities.

Ancient Lakes of Wisconsin. 151

ANCIENT LAKES OF WISCONSIN.

BY HON. J. G. KNAPP, MADISON.

Few persons liave reflected — probably because their atten-
tion has not been directed to the subject — upon what barri-
ers have been cast across the courses of our rivers ; and how
they have been removed by the action of water and drift, in
the long periods of the past ; what immense tracts were once
covered with water, forming fresh water lakes, where now men
plow, hoe and tend crops, and human habitations stand. To
enlarge or particularly define any locations is not intended,
but to call attention to a subject scarcely noted.

The Mississippi dam may be located just below the mouth
of the Wisconsin, where the strata of rocks rise on each side of
the river in unbroken series, several hundred feet. If these
strata were carried across the river, and the supposition is not
violent, since the strata are nearly horizontal, and there is no
evidence of violent teiTemotal action at this point to break
down the strata since their deposition, then both streams would
be backed up and made to cover their present valleys ; the
Mississippi to the Falls of St. Anthony and the Wisconsin to
the Baraboo bluffs. This barrier is out of the drift region,
and has been broken down by the action of water. If the next
supposition be warranted, the Wisconsin river was much smaller
than at present.

The Baraboo barrier next deserves attention. This elevation
was united with the high lands on the east of the Wisconsin in
the southern towns of Columbia county, thus forming a large
lake into which the Wisconsin, Baraboo, Duck creek and Fox
rivers emptied, and which then belonged with the Wolf river
to the Lake Michigan watershed, as the Fox yet does. The

152 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Swan lake, east of tlie portage, and the deep holes in Big Slough
appear to be remnants of this lake. The ban-ier has been
broken down, and much of the filling up has been done by
glacial action, as here is near the western boundary of that
action. "Where the eastern boundary of this lake was located
we may 'never know, since all monuments of its former exist-
ence may have been swept away by the glacial action, which
spread over that whole region. For the same reason it will be
difficult to accurately determine the former character of the
lakes and valley of the Upper Fox and Wolf rivers ; whether
they are remnants of one immense lake or parts of several, or
whether they were deep cavities in the ancient Potsdam sand
rocks or scooped out during the glacial period, we may never
be able to detemiine with any degTce of exactitude.

Lake Winnebago was once much larger than at present.
The ancient boundaries may be readily traced, at about the
same level as the present clay banks at Appleton, which have
been cut through with the entire channel of the lower Fox
since the drift period, and the clay deposits. That higher
lake level may have been sufficient to have mingled the waters
of Lake Winnebago with the Horicon, during the existence of
the present fauna, since the fishes of Lake Winnebago and
Eock river, with few exceptions, are identical even to varieties.

The extensive lakes found in the drift, with the adjacent
wet meadows and swamps, owe ther origin to the glacial action,
and their drainage has been the work of water, and in most
cases so gradual, yet continuous, that the ancient beaches have
been obliterated, if ever fornied. These will each present
peculiar characteristics, and must be studied as individuals,
and not as a whole system.

The Upper and Lower Dells of the Wisconsin present us
with the result of the action of water in slowly cutting down
the sand rock, and emptying one of the most extensive of the
Wisconsin lakes. This lake, and the water-worn outlet was
-exterior to the drift range, and was one of the largest fresh-

Ancient Lakes of Wisconsin- 153

water lakes in the state. ' The existence of this lake will be
seen in the few shells that may be found imbedded beyond the
present beds of the river and its branches.

Other points might be mentioned, but the intention has been
only to direct attention to this subject, not to write an exactly
scientific paper.

154 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts and Letters.

ON THE MINERAL WELL AT WATERLOO, WIS.

BY REV. O. A. WHIGHT, A. M., NEW LISBON.

Tlie well referred to in tliis paper was dug in tlie fall of
1857. A strong vein of water was found at about ten feet
below tbe surface, and in a stratum of sand some two feet thick.
The direction of its flow was from north to south — opposite
to the course of Waterloo creek. It flows from underneath a
ridge some twenty or thirty feet high, which seems to be noth-
ing more than the ordinary swell of the prairie, with nothing
peculiar in its geological formation, being mainly formed of
what is usually known as the glacial drift. The vein is not
inexhaustible, but gives the well a capacity of about twenty-
five barrels a day.

The mineral properties were first discovered when it acted
as a cathartic upon the horses that were watered at the well ;
this being the only purpose for which the well was used, on
account of its peculiar taste. A gallon of water was sent to
Mr. J. H. Tesch, of Milwaukee, by whose analysis it was
found to contain :

Grains.

Chloride of sodium 23,345

Chloride of potassium 7 ,060

Chloride of calcium 28 , 779

Chloride of lithium 12, 039

Nitrate of soda 36,017

Sulphate of magnesia 11 ,490

Bi-carbonate of magnesia 15 , 786

Bi-carbonate of lime 13 ,416

Silica 1, 343

Total 149, 275

On Potentials and their A'pplication. 155

ON POTENTIALS AND THEIR APPLICATION TO
PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

BY PKO-- ESSOK JOHN E. DA VIES, M. T>.
Of the Wisconsin State University.

In most of the recent Mathematical discussions of Phy-
sical Theories and Problems, or where laws of nature, first
established by observation or experiment, are afterwards
followed to their legitimate consequences by the applica-
tion of analysis, we find a certain Function used, which,
on account of the admirable simplicity it introduces, gives
great elegance and brevity to the demonstrations, and the
nature of which should, therefore, be thoroughly known.

For attracting bodies, we read of the Potential of the
attracting mass, at some given point external or internal
to the mass itself ; of Heat Potentials ; of Potentials of
Stress, Elasticity, &c., &c. In short, the Function is evi-
dently one of such great generality and power, as to be
adapted to most cases where the effects of any forms of
Force (attractive or repulsive) are to be considered. It is
thus of indispensable service in the Dynamical Theories
of Heat, Light, Electricity, &c., now so universally ac-
cepted as the true ones.

Any attempt, then, to present the exact meaning and
nature of this Function in a clear light, ought to be of
service to those who wish for that thorough comprehension
of Physical laws, which mathematical analysis so much
aids in giving.

The Potential Fanction for Gravitation was first intro-
duced by Laplace in discussing the attractions of Spheres
and Spheroids. (Mecanique Celeste, Book II, Chap. II,

156 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

§ 11, and Book 111, Chap. 1, § 4.) He makes use of it
afterwards in discussing the Moon's influence in deter-
mining a tide at any point on the surface of the Earth
(Book IV, Chap. I, § 1 et seq.) ; her influence on the pro-
tuberant mass about the Earth's equator, causing lunar
precession (Book Y, Chap. I, § 3 et seq.), and the recipro-
cal action of this mass in causing irregularities in the
orbital motion of the moon. (Book VII, Chap. II, § 20
et seq.)

The introduction of this function enabled him to do
away with difficult — in some cases impossible — integra-
tions, and to substitute therefor the comparatively easy
processes of difierentiation.

It seems to have been used by Laplace merely as an
Analytical artifice whereby to accomplish certain results
in the calculation of attractions, by substituting indirect ^
but, as it proves, easy methods for direct but very difiicult
ones. He applies it, of course, only to the force of grav-
itation.

Afterwards, in 1828, the term Potential Function was
applied to it by George Green, a poor operative, in Not-
tingham, England, whose mathematical labors in the in-
tervals of his other labor raised him to such notice as to
cause him to be sent to Cambridge at the age of forty ;
and to be now regarded as one of the greatest contributors
to Mathematical Physics. His paj)ers have recently been
published by Messrs. Macmillan & Co. in one volume,
edited by Prof. JST. M. Ferrers. They are models of ana-
lytical elegance and skill.

Green's treatment of the Potential is, however, purely
analytical. He seems, also, to take it for granted that all
that Laplace had already written upon the subject in the
case of gravitation was well known to those who heard or
read him. He first applies this function to distributions
ot Electricity and Magnetism over bodies of various form.

On Potentials and their Application. 157

The only interpretation Green gives to this Function is
that which Laplace had ah'eady given, viz. : that it is a
quantity such that its partial differential, with respect to
any co-ordinate x of a point p, will give the attraction
due to the mass along any line chosen for the co-ordinate
axis X ; that, letting x', y', z' be the rectangular co-ordi-
nates of a particle of any attracting or repelling mass, p'
its density, dx', dy', dz' its sides regarded as an elementary
jKirallelopipedon, r' the distance of this element of mass
from an attracted point p exterior to the body, then
Y = Potential Function of the whole mass at the point p

_ rp^ dx' dy' dz'

The integral comprehending every particle (or elementary
mass) in the entire mass.

Green's own words, in beginning his essay on Electri-
city, are : '■^It is well hriown, that nearly all the attractive
and repulsive forces existing in nature are such, that if we
consider any material point p, the effect, in a given direc-
tion, of all the forces acting upon that point, arising from
any system of bodies S under consideration, will be ex-
pressed by a partial differential of a certain function
[the Potential] of the co-ordinates which serve to define
the point's position in space. The consideration of this
function is of great importance in many inquiries, and
probably there are none in which its utility is more
marked than in those about to engage our attention. In
the sequel we shall often have occasion to speak of this
function, and will, therefore, for ahridgmejit, call it the
Potential Function arishig from the system S. If p 5(3 «
particle of positive electricity under the influence of
forces arising from any electrified' body, the function in
question, as is well hioivn, will be obtained by dividing
the quantity of electricity in each element of the body, by
its distance from the particle p, and taking the total sum

158 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

of these quotients for tlie whole body." [This is expressed
by the above integral]

It will thus be seen that Green's definition is purely
mathematical ; and, moreover, that he supposes the nature
of the function already well known. The object of his
essay was " to deduce certain relations between the values
of this function for different points, and the densities of
Electricity or Magnetism that give rise to these ' values.' "

The object of the present paper is to attempt to give a
Physical interpretation to this Function and to illustrate
it and its use by some simple example. Suppose, then, a
body, say a material particle, be lifted to any point p
above the surface of the earth ; the co-ordinates of this
point p, referred to the earth's center, being x, y, z. It
is e\-ident that, to do so, work must be done by some
agent against the earth's gravity; tlie amount of this
work depending solely on the distance of p and the total
attraction of the earth, the mass of the particle raised
being supposed constant. This particle contains this
work, as it were, stored in it, and will give it oif in over-
coming resistances on its way back to the earth. The
Sun expends work — its heat — in raising the waters of the
earth into clouds. These clouds overcome resistances, or,
in other words, do work on their way as cataracts back to
the sea. For all different values of the co-ordinates x, y, z,
of the point p, we shall have different values for the work
done against gravity in raising the particle to this point.
Were the particle to remain stationary a,t p, having con-
stant co-ordinates a, b, c, this work would chano-e in
amount also, by supposing the mass or attracting power
of the central body to change. There is thus seen to be a
certain definite quantity of worh-power between bodies
endowed with mutually attractive or repulsive forces,
which work-power depends in amount on the strength of
the mutual forces and the space separating the bodies of

On Potentials and their A2:)plication. 159

the system. This quantity^ thus shown to be a function

of both force and space, is the Potential Function. The

integral

dx', dy', dz'

y=JL

I>

is its analytical ex|Dression, and means what we have just
indicated. The Physical idea it represents is, therefore,
wo?'k, or energy.

It is a quantity representing not the actual energy of
work heing done, but the jpossible energy due to work
already done. It is a consequence of the inertia of matter
and the indestructibility of force. Energy exerted is not
energy lost, but energy stored or transformed. Potential
energy is energy stored. The Potential energy of Elasti-
city is, according to Rankine's definition, the worh which
a body, in a state of strain, is capable of performing in
returning to the free state. The Potential energy of Heat
is, according to Clausius, the work which the moving
molecules are capahle of performing in being brought to
a state of less energetic motion, or to rest ; and Mohr has
apparently shown that the Potential energy of Chemical
Afiiuity is due to atomic motions within the molecule,
which, on being lessened or destroyed, must be changed
to Heat, Light, Electricity, or Mechanical work. In all
these cases, the Potential Energy is a function of force
and space, or its correlative, time. When expressed
mathematically, it is the famous Potential Function^
and its value is determined by the special circumstances
of each particular case.

We will give an easy example of its application, in a
manner which all students of Analytical Geometry and
Elementary Mechanics will readily understand.

It is well known that if a material point whose co-ordi-
nates are f, g, h, be acted on by forces whose resultant P
may be regarded as emanating from 0, a point whose

160 Wisconsin Academy of /Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

co-ordinates are x, j, z, then J* may be resolved into
three component forces acting along axes at right angles
to each other, the values of which components will be
P cos a, P cos /3, P cos y — alpha, beta, gamma, denoting
the angles made by the direction of the force P, with the
three co-ordinate axes.

Let the straight line joining p and o be called P. Then
^ — V{i— x)' -f (g — y)* + (h — z)S ^■iid the expressions
for the component forces will then become

X = P

cos a

Y = P cos /3 = P

_ p (f-x)'
~ D

_-p (g-.y)

D

Z = P cos y = P

_-p (b-z)

D

which are to be made
negative when the force
(A) P is attractive towards
O, as it then tends io'dl-
minisli the distance D.

(A reference to Fig. 1 will show the applicability of
these formulae.)

If the force P be one which depends on the mass of a
solid, like gravity ; or, like Electricity or Magnetism, one
whose accumulation or density., as we may say, is greater at
some points than others ; and if it also depend in any man-

On Potentials and iheir Aj^p^icalion. 161

ner upon the distance D, then the most general form we
can give to P will be fffE-^^11^ :

p — denoting the varying density.

dx dy dz — the volume of an element of the solid or surface

whence the force emanates.
n being any number, positive or negative ; it will be posi-
tive in the above expression when the force varies in-
versely as some power of the distance ; negative when
the force varies directly as some power of the same ; n
being the degree of the power in either case.
The integration expressed in the equivalent value given
above for P, is to be within such limits as shall include
the entire volume of the attracting mass, or the entire
surface over which the force, e. g., Electricity, is dis-
tributed.

Substituting this value for P, the expressions (A) will
become

^^ r r rpdxdjdz({-x)

T = ///^-^#^)^ (B)

z = f f fP-^l^I^^^:zIl

In the case which is most common among natural forces,
n will be j^'^sitive and equal to 2. The force will then
vary inversely as the square of the distance.

Taking this case as the easiest apprehended, and sub-
stituting for D its value before given in tenns of f, g, h, —
X, y, z, equations (B) will become

X - c f f p ^^ ^y "^ ^^ ~ ^^

"^-J J J [(f _ x)= + (g-y; + (h - z/]

T - f C C P dx dy dz (g - y) ( ,^.

""-J J J [(f_x)'+(g-yy+(li-z7]^ ( '

7 _ r C f P dx dy dz (h - z)

'^-J J J [;(f_xy-|-(g-y)^-f(h-zy]t

162 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

If, then, we wish to ascertain the amount of attraction
or repulsion exerted upon some material point whose
co-ordinates are f, g, h, by a heterogeneous mass or an
electrified surface, the integrals (B) or (C) will enable us
to write down the values of the component attractions
along the axes X, Y, Z at once. But to evaluate these
integrals is always difficult ; in some cases impossible. A
careful inspection of them, however, will show that if we
separate out from each one of them the quantity

r r rpdxdjdz

_ r r r p dx dy dz

=Y, say, then

the whole expression for X = -j—

<( (( «

« Y = ^\ P)

^- dF

Here, then, is a quantity Y, which, when once a value
is found for it, will give us the values of the attractions
X, Y, Z, by a single differentiation of it with reference to
X, y, or z. Tills quantity is the Potential Function which
we have before explained ; as is evident on a comparison
of the two expressions.

To find Y is generally far easier than to directly inte-
grate the expressions for the components of force. Indeed,
Laplace has given a general mode of expanding Y into a
series, which is both simple and beautiful. To explain
methods of finding the value of Yin different cases, is not
the object of this paper ; * but merely to call the more
general attention of students of Physical science to the

* This is very fully done in Laplace (Book III, Chap. I, § 4) ; Green's
Matli. Papers, edited by Ferrers— Thompson & Tait's Nat. Phil., Vol. I.

On Potentials ara\ tlieir AppUcation. 163

importance of this Function by a simple explanation of
its nature and use.

As a further example, we will apply it to finding the
attractions of a Sphere, on an external or internal point.
This, it is true, is a case in which it is easier to integrate
directly the expressions for the attractions ; but we use it
merely as an example.

"We already know by other methods that these attrac-
tions will be

r'
for an external point = | Trp . —

" " internal " = 2 rrp r^ + 1 7rp . x
where r = radius of the sphere.

X = distance of attracted point from centre,
p == density of the sphere.
Let us get these values through the Potential Function
in each case.

If r, j[<, CO be the polar co-ordinates of any surface ele-
ment of the Sphere, referred to the centre of the Sphere
as origin ; — r being the radius ; jtt, the cosine of the latitude
(or better, the co-latitude) ; w, the longitude of the element ;
p, the density of the sphere ; then the

Mass of this element = p r* dr djw dw.
If in Fig. 2, x' = distance of this element from p, then
will, by ordinary Geometry,

1G4: Wisconsin Acadenvj of Sciences, Aiis, and Letters.

IS'ow by the definition of the Potential, it must be
(designating it by V) = T f ^ _£^^^_.

i. e., the sum of all the quotients arising by dividing each
element of the entire sphere by its distance (x') from the
attracted point.

Effecting this summation, we have

When p is without the sphere, V = f '—^ — .

« " within " " Y'=2 7rpr'-2Trp.x'.

ISTow it has been pointed out that when the Potential Y

has been found in any case, to get the attractions, we have

only to diflerentiate Y once ; hence, when p is without, the

.. .• 1 ^^ ddupr') . r^ ,,

attraction along x = -.r— = — ^— i — ^ = 4-^0 q^ ^he
° dx dx -^ X

attraction is directhj as the maci of the sphere, and in-

versehj as the square of the distance from the center ; the

known law.

When p is within the sphere, the attraction along x =

dY d (2 rrp r^ - I Trp . x^) . , , " , ,

-V- = — ^^ — T '- = 2 Tip r' + 4 TTp . X, the value

dx dx > d I ;

of which will depend only on x (the distance from the
center), since the first term is constant. The attraction
within the sphere will therefore be directly as the distance
from the center ; which is the knovjn law in this case also.
These simple examples, it is hoped, will sufiiciently
illustrate the nature, mode of application, and usefulness
of the Potential Function when once an expression for
that function has been found. And we have carefully in-
dicated where full expositions can be found of the mode
of calculating this most important function in all the
cases that are likely to occur in the solution of physical
problems.

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARTS.

VERMILLION BY A NEW PROCESS— ITS PHOTO-
GRAPHIC PROPERTIES.

Milwaukee, February 13, 1873.

Dr. J. W. HoYT, President Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts and Letters:

My Dear Sir : Enclosed I send you a sample of Vermillion
obtained by wbat I suppose to be a new process, without sub-
limation or heat, and without the use of an alkali, but directly
from solution by deposition. I find no account of its being
produced by such method in any work which I have been able
to consult. As produced by my process it has photographic
properties^ which fact, I believe, has never been noticed. If
deposited in a weak light, or in the dark, it turns much darker
on exposure to strong light while yet remaining in the solution
from which it was deposited. This property gives the sub-
stance great value in its application to photography, for prints
after being toned by the mercuric sulphide become more deeply
impressed after completion ; whereas by the usual method the
last thing done in the production of the print is to subject it
to the action of h3^po-sulphite of soda, which gTcatly weakens
the force with which it adheres to tlie organic surface. This
sulphide is a stable substance, does not dissolve in nitric, muri-
atic or sulphuric acid except by aid of heat, and is not affected
by ordinary conditions of the atmosphere ; and by enveloping
the silver and gold depositions composing the photographic
print, with it the print is thus enabled to resist the destructive
L.

166 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

agencies wMch otherwise would cause it to fade. The reac-
tions whicli take place in the formation of the sulphide in
question are probably represented by the following equation :

Na^ S^ O' + Hg CP + NH^ CI =
Hg S^ + 2(Na CI) + NH* Clo\

The Vermillion itself does not rival the commercial product
in beauty of color, but I think will do very well for the first
result of a new process. I expect to learn to produce a finer
article.

Until very recently, I had expected to be present at your
next meeting and present this matter in person to the Acad-
emy, together with illustrative specimens, but circumstances
will prevent.

Very truly yours,

W. H. SHERMAN.

DEPARTMENT OF LETTERS.

THE RURAL POPULATION OF ENGLAND,

AS CLASSIFIED IX DOMESDAY BOOK.

BY WILLIAM F. ALLEN, A. M.,
ProfesEor of Latin and History in the Univej-sity of WieconsiR.

Domesday Book is the record of a survey of the landed
property of England, made b}" William the Conqueror, when
he had been about twenty years on the throne ; it was com-
pleted in 1086. It contains a nearly complete census of the
rural population and property of the whole country, with the
exception of a few of the northern counties, which were in too
disorderly a condition to be reported in detail. For some parts
of the country there remain also the pieliminary memoranda,
which are considerably more detailed than the final report ;
these are the "Exeter Domesday," for the western counties,
and the "Ely Inquest," for the estates depending upon the
abbey of St. Ethelred of Ely. For the counties of Norfolk,
Suffolk and Essex, this preliminary register is all that is
extant.

These documents give us a more exact and detailed knowl-
edge of the condition of England at this early date, than we
possess for any other country of Europe. And, nevertheless,
such are the inherent difficulties in the way of understanding
the social condition of a period so far removed from our own,
and so meagre is our collateral knowledge of the matters

168 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

treated, that there are many questions raised by an examina-
tion of these documents, which have never been satisfactorily
answered. Among these is the precise status of the different
classes of population enumerated.

The whole population recorded in Domesday Book is 283,242 ;
the heads of families only, it will be remembered, and, in the
main, only of the rural parts of England. Tliese are enumer-
ated in several different classes, to the four largest of which
our attention will chiefly be confined. These are : the villam,
numbering 108,407 ; the hordarii, 82,119 ; the sochemanni,
23,072 ; the liheri homines (free men), 12,138. There are also
25,156 slaves ; but these do not come within the scope of our
inquiry.

[The pages wliicli discuss the mllam, bordaru and libei'i homines will
be omitted, except the summary which follows of the general results of
the inquiry.]

1. The villani appear to have been in the main the body of
the ceorls or common freemen ; the representative of the primi-
tive Tillage Communities (see Maine, Yill. Comm., p. 82).
" From all that we can gatlier on the subject, it seems that
they were situated on the outside of the demesne land, and in
'common-field ' culture." Larking's " Domesday Book of Kent,"
App., p. 30.

2. The hordarii were those who, through misfortune or im-
providence, had lost their little estates, and been reduced to
the condition of common laborers ; tog^ether with emancipated
slaves and such others as floated to the several localities from
one place or another. Tliese had cottages (horcT), not in the
" village " proper, but on the lord's demesne, or "in-land";
they became the villains in gross of feudal times, and their
holdings were in time transformed into copyholds (see again
Larking).

3. The liberi homines were independent freeholders, discon-
nected with the regular village or manorial organization of the
peasantry ; the large numbers of them that we find in Norfolk,,

The Rural Population of England. 169

Suffolk and Essex, are to be explained by supposing tliem to
be the descendants of tbe Danes of Gutliorm (see Lappenberg's
"JSTomian Kings of England," p. 202).

4. We come next to tlie sochemanni, who present undonbt-
edl}^ tlie most puzzling problem connected witli tliese inquiaies.
It seems to me, however, that the difficulty has arisen chiefly
from the attempt to identify them with the socage tenants of
later times, to whom also the term sochemanni was applied ;
and fi'om the further attempt to explain the word by socagium,
socage, which is itself a derived word, rather than by sac or
socha, from which both of these must have been derived. It
is easy to see how inadequate this method is. The tenants in
"free and common socage" made up the body of the freehold
tenants in all parts of England ; but the sochemanni of Domes-
day Book are found only in certain counties in the east of
England ; so that the -theory in question makes no provision for
the socagers of Wessex and western Mercia. Further, it has
been shown [in the pages omitted] that the villani held their
lands by a tenure which was, to all intents and purposes, free
and common socage, that is, a tenure "by any certain and de-
termined service."* The villani^ therefore, who are found in
all counties of England, must be, in part at least, the repre-
sentatives of the later socagers ; consequently the sochemanni
must have had something to distinguish them besides this
tenure.

We must, then, leave the late and derived word socagium^
and have recourse to the primitive soc or socha^ and determine
from this, on etymological grounds, the probable meaning of
sochemannus. Etymology is a very unsafe guide to the actual
meaning of a w^ord at any given time ; but it gives a certain
clue to what must have been its meaning at one time — to one
of the phases of meaning through which it must have passed.
Thus, the derivation of socage has been greatly disputed, and,
whatever this may have been, it is not at all a safe indication

* Blackstone.

170 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

to the meaning of socman ; for, altliougli the two words may
have been, and probably were, derived from the same source,
yet there is no likelihood that either was derived from the
other. Now it is probable that socagium (socage) was derived
from the Anglo-Saxon s6c ; but it is almost certain that soche-
inannus was so derived. From the meaning of s6c, therefore^
we can deduce, not what was the meaning of sochemanmis at
any particular epoch, whether at the time of the Conquest or
two hundred years later, but what must have been its meaning
when the word was first formed.

iSoc, in Latin Soclia, is the territory of the jurisdiction of a
thegn. As the village community was transformed into a
manor, its tenitoiy came to be regarded as the propert}^ of the
thegn or country gentleman, the " lord of the manor " of feudal
times. More than this, as the development of feudal institu-
tions went on, he became " not only a proprietor, but a prince,'"
and the villagers not only his tenants, but his subjects. This
was a gradual process. The rights of jurisdiction were at first
granted to individual thegns, as a special privilege, oy franchise
as it was called. Some received them, others did not. A law
of Edward the Confessor* contrasts " barones qui curias suas
habent de hominibus suis" with "barones qui judicia non
habent," Again, the franchise was not always in the same
degTee. Full powers of jurisdiction, civil and criminal, were
comprised under the terms " sac, soc, toll, team and infang-
thef"; a lesser degree, relating only to civil cases and j)etty
offences, was "sac and soc," or, very frequently, simply wc.
Domesday Book gives the names of 35 persons, thegus and
persons of high rank — among them Queen Edith and the
Bishop of Durham — who had "sac, soc, toll and team" in Lin-
colnshire ; but in the city of Lincoln alone there were 12 who
had " sac and soc " : one of them being mentioned specially as
having also " Toll and Theim." After the Norman Conquest,
when the feudal institutions had become fully developed, and

* Stubbs, Select Charters, p. 74.

The Rural Population of England. 171

the powers of jurisdiction had been parcelled out among tlie
feudal tenants, they were an essential adjunct to every manor ;
but at the time of the Conquest, as we must constantly bear in
mind, the system was still in j^rocess of development, and vari-
ous stages of it were in existence side by side.

/Sbc, then, is the territory within which a thegn possessed
jurisdiction ; and it is often put for the jurisdiction itself,
which was more properly expressed by sac. Illustrations of
this use of the word are common in all parts of Domesday
Book ; but they are most common in Lincolnshire and the
adjoining counties, in which the socmen are principally found.
A peculiarity of these counties is that nearly every manor has
enumerated as Soca a list of small detached tracts in other
manors. For example (I take a very simple case), the manor
of Tuxfame, in Nottinghamshire, has 32 villani and 2 hordarii.
As Soca belong ; 1, in Schidrinton and Walesbi, 2 hides of
land with 6 sochemanni and 1 bordanus;2, in Agemuntone, 11-2
hide with 1 sochemannus and 3 villani. Agemuntone has a
manor of its own, and in Tuxfarne itself is a soca of West-
marcham, containing 3 carucates of land, with 3 sochemanni
and 5 villani. Lincolnshire and Nottinghamshire, and to some
extent other counties in the neighborhood, are in this way cut
up in a remarkable degree into small places of detached juris-
diction. It should be remarked that the soc varies very much ;
it appears sometimes to belong to a person, sometimes to a
manor.

Now the term soc was not properly applied to the demesne
land, of which the lord of the manor was proprietor^ but to the
tenement lands, as they were called, of which he was the
prince. The lands of a manor were strictly divided into two
parts, both of which were essential to its existence. The
demesne land, or "in-land," as it was called in Anglo-Saxon
times, was the private estate or farm of the lord, where he had
his manor house or castle, and lived surrounded by his retain-
ers and serfs. This land was cultivated by slaves, or serfs

172 Wisconsi7i Academy of /Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

hardly bettor off than slaves ; and these serfs I have shown to
be probably the hordariioi Domesday Book. The " utdand "
[o^^^land, contrasted to wi-land] or upland, as it is generally
called, was that of which the lord was recognized as proprie-
tor, but only to the extent of receiving certain dues and ser-
vices, and exercising a certain degree of jurisdiction. Its
inhabitants were fi'cehold tenants, and it therefore came to be
known as the tenement lands ; these I have shown were proba-
bly the villani of Domesday Book. The upland, or tenement
lands, were also called the ybre?^w* land, as being in a certain
sense free and independent of the lord of the manor. Over
the demesne he was master ; over the tenement lands he was
onl}^ lord. The inhabitants of the inland or demesne were, so
to speak, members of his household ; those of the upland or
tenement lands came under his authority only in certain
specified points.

Now it was to the upland, not to the inland, that the term
socf was applied ; that is, to the legal and special jurisdiction
over freemen, not the irres^Donsible mastership over serfs and
slaves. But I have shown that the inhabitants of the upland
or tenement lands were the villani of Domesday Book ; these
were, therefore, within the soc of the thegn, and were strictly
socmen. I will go a step further, and anticipate a point which
does not properly fall within the limits of this jjaper, by say-
ing that because they lived within the s6c, they were called
socage tenants.

It appears then, from the etymology of the word, that the
sochemanni must have been people living within the soc or
jurisdiction of individual thegns, as contrasted with the slaves
and cottagers upon their demesne lands. It follows that the
villani, if they were, as I think is proved, the inhabitants of
the uplands, members of organized village communities, were
properly socmen, 2^'^ovided their thegn possessed the franchise of
sac and soc. Under the fully developed manorial system all

*Bxtenta Manerii, 4 Edw. 1.

t lu dominio aulte sunt x bovata de hac terra. Reliqua est soca./. 283a.

The Rural Population of England. 173

lords of manors possessed tliese franchises, and all inhabitants
of the tenement lands became socmen, or, as the terms were
then identical, socagers. But when the system was still in
process of development, only those villani would be socmen
whose thegns had obtained these franchises by special grant ;
and on the other- hand there might be tenants living within
the jurisdiction of a thegn, and thus properly socmen, who
were not members of the organized village communities. There
were therefore villnai who were not socmen, and there might
be socmen who were not villani. In a register like Domesday
Book it would be natural to enumerate a great class like the
villani^ which was found throughout England, under this, its
special name, and that whether they were strictly socmen or
not ; while the term socmen would be reserved for those who
were not villani^ and yet who stood like these under the soc of
a lord or a manor.

It appears probable, therefore, that the socJiemanni of Domes-
day Book were persons holding tracts of land independent of
the organized village communities, but coming like the villa-
gers under the jurisdiction of the thegn. We might, there-
fore, expect them to be a comparatively scattered and occasional
class ; and the record shows that as a matter of fact there was
a great disparity in their position and protection. We find 2
sochemanni of 24 acres of arable land, and 4 of meadow ; 14 of
9 acres ; 12 of 40 acres ; 5 of 20 acres ; 1 of 1-2 hide ; 3 of 1-2
hide, etc. Their position in the record varies also ; sometimes
they are enumerated with the other classes [2 sochemanni^ 1
villanus, and 1 hordarius — 25 sochemanni and 15 villani.~\ very
rarely standing last. Sometimes they are put by themselves
[5 sochemanni of 3 hides, and 35 villani and 20 hordarii.\ A
very common expression is, " There belonged to this manor so
many sochemanni.^'' Occasionally a socman seems to rank
almost as a thegn ; as " in Nortun, 1 sochemannus with 81 acres
of land, and 1 acre of meadow, and 1 villanus and 7 hordarii ;
and he was of a free man of Roger Bigod." Here we have

174 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

villani and hordarii under a socman, himself under a " free
man," who was the vassal of the great lord Roger Bigod,
Again, "7 sochemanni having 12 villani and 6 hordariV''
Also, sochemanni holding lands " in demesne," like lords of
the manor. Again, the introduction to the Ely Inquest pro-
poses to ascertain how many villani, how many cotarii, how
many slaves — then "how many free men, how many socmen."

The following is a fuller example of socmen from Cam-
bridgshire, a manor held by one Guido :

[In the time of King Edward] " sixteen sochemanni held
this land. Of these, 10 had 2 hides and 1-2 virgate* of the
soca of St. Ethelred of Ely, of whom one could not sell his
land, the other nine could sell to whom they wished, but the
soc of all remained to the church ; and 6 others held one hide
and 2 virgates of Count Algar, and could give or sell."

Of 24 socmen, " 1 held under Edith the fair — all the others
were socmen of King Edward."

We have thus ascertained the probable meaning of soche-
mannus, from its etymology, and found this to be supported by
the facts as recorded in the survey. Both etymology and evi-
dence go to show that this was a class in nearly the same
social position with the villani, but not like them members of
the village organizations ; that they were an occasional and
scattered body, and that they differed very widely from one
another in wealth and position. This theory finds a strong
support in a provision of the Laws of Edward the Confessorf
by which in the Danalagu the "manbote " of the sochemannus
and of the villanus is the same, while that of the " free man "
is twice as much. A class like this, equal in rank to the
members of the native organizations, but occasional, scattered,
and differing very widely in standing and wealth, can be best
explained by supjDOsing an intrusion, or an invasion and occu-
j^ation by the side of the old inhabitants.

* The virgate was 8 acres ; the hide 4 virgates.
tChsp. XII.

The Rural Population of England. 175

Having considered the probable meaning of the term, and
the way in which it is used in Domesday Book, let us consider
the geographical argument, the one which led Lappenberg to
so fruitful results in the case of the "free men." In what
counties of England do we find socmen ? and is there anything
that distinguishes these counties from other parts of England?

1. With very trifling exceptions, the socmen are found
exclusively to the north and east of Watling Street.

2. They are most numerous in Lincolnshire, and next to
this in the counties adjoining — Nottinghamshire, Leicester-
shire and Norfolk. In the counties next to these they are in
much smaller numbers. That is, they may be said to spread
out from Lincolnshire south and west, over the other counties
of the Danalagu.

8. In Lincolnshire, and in a less degree, in the adjoining
counties, we find that the sochen, or detached places under the
jurisdiction of the lord of the manor, are very numerous.

We might expect from this that the socmen would be found
exclusively in these sochen ; but,

4. Although these sochen almost always contain socmen,
they do not always contain these ; and on the other hand soc-
men are found in the manors themselves. This I shaU
attempt to explain presently ; so far as it goes, it is a fact of
some importance that socmen prevail in these sochen, even if
they are not found in them universally and exclusively.

The facts here given lead of themselves to the theory which
seems to me probable. Just as the liheri homines are found in
the counties occupied by the Danes of Guthorm, so the coun-
ties in which the sochemanni most abound are precisely those
in which the later settlements of Danes were principally made ;
we find the socmen most numerous exactly where we know
that these Danes were most numerous. I can hardly resist the
conclusion that the socmen were the descendants of these
Danes. When they conquered the country, they did not dis-
turb the organized village communities of the English, but —

176 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arls, and Letters.

there being plenty of unoccupied land — partly public land,
partly tbe waste of tlie several manors — assigned tracts to tbeir
followers from tins. The leaders became thegns, and under
their soc were two classes, equal in rank — the native villani,
and the svchemanni, the rank and file of their own army.
This will explain the irregularity and disparit}^ in the condi-
tion of the socmen.*

The theory that the socmen were the descendents of Danish
settlers, finds confirmation in a law of King Cnut, which fixes
the heriot, that is, "the military equipment of a vassal, which
on his death reverted to the lord " [Stubbs.] After giving
that of the three grades of nobility, the Earl, the King's thegn
and the medial thegn, it goes on : " and the heriot of a King's
thegn among the Danes, who has his soken, four pounds, "f
Now we have found soJcen, that is, detached places under the
jurisdiction of a thegn or manor, to be very abundant in the
counties where the Danes were found ; and the passage just
quoted proves some peculiar and special relation of the sesoken
to Danish thegns.

I have now shown : 1. From the meaning of the word soc, and
hs use as contrasted with the " inland " or demesne, that the
sochemanni were probably a somewhat scattered and irregular
class, under the jurisdiction of the several thegns. 2, From
the records of Domesday Book, that they were actu.ally a scat-
tered and irregular class, under the authority of individual
thegns, nobles and great persons. 3. From the Laws of
Edward the Confessor, that their rank was the same as that of
the villani, who were the native English peasantry, and were
likewise under the jurisdiction of their several tliegns. 4
That the existence of such a local and exceptional class as the
socmen can be best explained by supposing an intrusion from
some foreign country, which introduced an irregular body by

* When the Danisli counties were recovered by the English Kings, the Danish thegns
were not displaced, and says Palgrave, "as late as the reign of Ethelred, we can trace
their existence as a privileged community, distinct from the kingdom in which they
were included." A. S., p. 97.

t Stubbs, Select Charters, p. 73.

Tlie Ruaal Pojndaiion of England. 177

tlie side of tlic compact and organized one. 5. That we know
as a fact tliat there was sucli an intrusion of Danes, and that
the intruders had their centre and seat precisely in those
counties where we find the socmen. 6. That the Danish ori-
gin of the socmen is further sujiported by the passage in the
laws of King Cnut, wliich speak of Danish thegns who have
their soken, as well as the law of Edward the Confessor, which
speaks of sokemanni in the Danalagu, as contrasted with the
rest of England.

It does not follow from these arguments that all the soclie-
manni registered in Domesday Book were of Danish origin, or
that all of Danish origin were sochemanni or liheri homines.
The point to be explained is the existence of these two great
classes in a certain group of counties, by the side of the two
classes of viUani and hordari% which are found everywhere.
This circumstance is easiest explained by supposing a prevail-
ingly Danish origin. But the time when Domesday Book was
compiled, was a time of rapid and sweeping changes ; the Con-
quest must have acted powerfully in breaking up the old
organizations and mixing together the several classes of popu-
lation. After this time we find no mention of hordarii ; the
term villanus gradually lost its dignity and became equivalent
to "serf;" ^mKAq sochemanni were no longer confined to the
Danish counties, but the name came in time to be applied to
the bod}^ of the free peasantry in all parts of England.

178 Wiscoyisin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

ON THE PLACE OF THE INDIAN LANGUAGES IN
THE STUDY OF ETHNOLOGY.*

BY PROF. J. B. FETTLING PH. D.
Professor of Comparative Philology ia the University of Wisconsin.

Physical ethnology lias slaown tliat all the different tribes of
Indians constitute but one race from tlie Arctic Ocean to Cape
Horn. Bnt physical evidence of race is as incomplete without
tbe confirmation of linguistic evidence, as is tbe latter without
the former. Race and language run parallel only in prehis-
toric times, or at the very dawn of history. The connection
therefore between physical ethnology and linguistic ethnology
consists in giving mutual advice and suggestions. Accommo-
dation and mutual concessions should not enter here.

As languages change more rapidly than races, it seems often
impossible, even in languages whose current we are able to
ascend beyond the dawn of tradition, to gather up the con-
necting links between language and race, or to point out,
when, where or how they separated. Besides we must be
careful in drawing conclusions fi'om facts, which may be the
" result of accident." All this must be borne in mind by the
student the more carefully, as the philological details are very
scanty and insufhcient. Although the affinity between the
Indian languages, as determined by their vocabularies, is not
less real than that inferred from the analogies of their gram-
matical forms, it would not be a conclusive evidence for the
original unity of the various tribes, because we have no his-
torical documents, and tradition is silent as to the existence of
a " specific centre." If we had documentary evidence of the

* The loss, by accident, of this paper, as originally presented, has necessitated its pub-
lication in the form of a brief abstract.

The Place of the Indian Language^ etc. 179

intermediate dialects, we would be able, perhaps, to give a com-
plete account for tlie great dissimilarity of Indian languages.
For tbe present the question of their mutual relation and pos-
sible transmutation from a common prototype will best be
cleared up by a careful systematic study of the actually exist-
ing dialects.

Then followed a critical account of what had been accom-
plished in this field by eminent scholars, e. g. Gallatin, G,
Gibbs, E. G. Squier, Lewis H. Morgan, Dr. Brinton, J. Shea,
Dr. J. H. Trumbull and others ; the materials and theories of
Duponceau, Heckewelder, Schoolcraft, etc. are worthless.

Besides the importance of the Indian languages in an eth-
nological view, the possibility of an approach through them
to the great problem of the origin of language was pointed
out.

Mr. F. showed the duty of the Academy towards assisting
to secure from destruction the languages of the Indians of
America and to facilitate the work of the linguistic scholar
by collecting materials, as books, etc. In collecting materials
special attention should be paid to those tribes (about 26),
which, since our first knowledge of them (a. 1670), lived within
or passed through the State of Wisconsin. Attention was
called to Col. George Gibbs' " Instructions for research rela-
tive to the Ethnology and Philology of America " * and to
the hints given by Hon. J. H. Trumbull in a paper " On the
true method of studying the American Languages," read
before the American Philological Association, at Poughkeep-
sie, 1869. t

There are other monuments, besides languages, which claim
our attention in the elucidation of the ethnological problems
involved in the past history of America, — monuments left by
a people, whose very name has vanished. " Mound-Build-
ers" is a conventional name. Geology, and the extreme

* Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, (Vol. \ii., Art. xi.)

tThis valuable paper has been published since in the "Transactions of the American
Philol. Association," (Vol. I, Art. iv.)

180 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

decay in wliicli skeletons of Mound-buiklers are found, have
assisted in ascertaining tliat the mounds are of high antiquity,
which is also attested by their relation to forest-growths. It
is impossible to give any fixed data ; it is, however, safe to say
that 2000 years at least have passed since the disappearance of
a people which were not the ancestors of the wild Indians, as it
is commonly believed. For many reasons (mining operations,
etc.) the Mound-Builders must have been stationary and agri-
cultural in their habits. We may never be able to answer the
question, Who were these Mound-Builders or whence did
they come ? Still it is not impossible to find the thread which
connects these ancient monuments and their scanty relics with
those of Central America and, perhaps, with more distant
quarters, after their extent and contents, as well as their general
character, have been better understood.

We have a meritorious work by Dr. I. A. Lapham, " The
Antiquities of Wisconsin " (Smithsonian Contributions to
Knowledge, Vol. vii), which has however not made unnecessary
further exploration and study. There remain a great many
mounds unnoticed and unexplored, which may lead to more
important results. It is hoped that these mysterious antiqui-
ties within our State will be saved as sacred mementos of the
past from oblivion and destruction.

There is hardly a farmhouse in Wisconsin, where some kind
of relics, as stone-implements, etc., are not either kept as a
curiosities or thrown aside like so many other " useless things.''
Sufficient interest should be awakened among the people to
care for the preservation of such relics or to forward them
generously to some place of collection.*

Let us mark the words of William D. Whitney, safest and
surest of guides : " Our national duty and honor are pecu-
liarly concerned in this matter of the study of aboriginal

*Mr. F. S. Perkins of Burlington, Wis. , lias the largest collection of stone imple-
ments, beside that of the Sipithsonian Institute, and he spares neither time nor money,
in order to make new additions to his valuable collection. We hope that the St;ite may
be able to procure this collection some day, as the beginning of a State Museum of
American (Wisconsin) Antiquities.

The Place of the Indian Language^ etc. 181

American languages, as tlie most fertile and important branch
of American archasology. Europeans accuse us, witli too
mucli reason, of indifference and inefficiency with, regard to
preserving memorials of the races whom we have dispossessed
and are dispossessing, and to promoting a thorough comj^re-
hension of their history. Indian scholars, and associations
which devote themselves to gathering together and making
public linguistic and other archaeological materials for con-
struction of the proper ethnology of the continent, are far
rarer than they should be among us. " " So much the more
reason have we to be grateful to the few who are endeavoring
to make up our deficiencies by self -prompted study, and espe-
cially to those self-denying men who, under circumstances of
no small difficulty, are or have been devoting themselves to
the work of collecting and giving to the world original
materials."
M.

PROCEEDINGS.

[Conclensea from the Bvlletix.]

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CONVEXTION CALLED TO ORGAN-
IZE THE ACADEMY.

Pursuant to a call of citizens, issued February 1, 1870, a large
meeting of scientific, literary and other prominent men of the
State was convened in the State Agricultural Rooms, at Madi-
son, on the 16th of February, for the purj^ose of organizing an
association that should be devoted to original research and in-
vestigation.

The convention was called to order by Dr. J. W. Hoyt, who
read the call, and nominated Hon. W. P. Ljnide as temporary
chairman.

On assuming the chair, Senator Lynde declared his hearty ap-
proval of the objects of the meeting in a neat and eloquent
speech.

Prof. Foye, of Lawrence University, was appointed temporary
Secretary.

On motion, the President appointed Dr. R. Z. Mason, Dr.
Joseph Bobbins, and Rev, Samuel Fallows, to nominate perma-
nent officers of the Convention.

The committee made the following nominations:

President— Gov. L. Fairchild.

Vice Presidents— Ex-Gov . N. Dewey, and Dr. G. M. Steele.

Secretaries— T>r. I. A. Lapliam and Prof. T. C. Chamberlin.

Dr. Hoyt said:

He regretted that, while his Escellency, the Governor, heartily approved of the ohjects
of the Convention and had expressed iii* readiness to preside at its sessions, circum-
stances woiild necessitate his absence lor ,i time. He moved, therefor, that Ex-Gover-
nor Dewey, first on the list of Vice-Presidents, be requested to take the Chair.

On assuming the Chair, Gov. Dewey said:

He thanked the Convention for the honor conferred. Althou;ih not chximing to be a
man of science, he felt deep interest in every movement that promised to i.id in the ad-
vancement of Wisconsin. He had long recognized the importance of some institution
specially devoted to scientific investigation, aiid was heartily glad that so large a number
of the prominent men of the state had shown their appreciation of the elforts in that di-
rection by attendance upon the Convention. There was much that greatly needed to be
done, and there were competent men ready to undertake its accomplishment. The worK
and workers would at all times have his cordial support, and until the return of Gov.
Fairchild, who had very properly been chosen President of the Convention, lie would
have pleasure in serving them to the best of his ability.

184 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.
Judge J. G. KnajDp offered the following resolvition :

nesolred. that we do organize an association under the name of " Wisconsin Academy
of Sciences, Arts, and Letters."

Dr. Hoyt stated that,

Tnasmuch as several of the gentlemen who had expressed cordial approval of the prop-
position to organize snch an Academy as was contemplated by the resolution just
ofi'cred, were unable to attend the Convention, it seemed proi)er that their views as pre-
sented in the communications he liad received from them, although probably not writ-
ten with reference to such use, should be laid before the Convention. Accordingly, with
the appro\al of its members, he would iiro'ceed to read at least such portions of some of
them as were likely to be of most interest.

Letters were accordingly read from the following gentlemen:

Hon. John G. McMynn, late Superintendent of Public Instruction; Prof. R. G. Hins-
dale, Racine College; Prof. J. J. Bushnell, Beloit College: Lt. Gen. Wyman Spooner;
H')n. Asahel Finch, Milwaukee; Prof W. Porter, Beloit College ; Rollin A. Smith, Esq \
Fond du Lac: Hon. W. W. Field, Boscobel; J Lawler, Esq., Prairie du Chien: Hon. I).
J. Pulliutr, Circuit Judge, Beaver Dam ; President W. C. Whitford, Milton College; Hon.
Anthony Van Wyck, Milwaukee; Professor A. K. Johnston, Mineral Point: Hon. M. K.
Young, Glen ILaven; Hon. John E. Thomas, Sheboygan Falls; J. H. Evans, Esq.,
Plattteville; President Lewis O. Thompson, Watertown; Hon. James H. Earoestl
Shnllsburg: Hon. Tim. O. Howe, U. S Senate; Hon. H. S. Baird, Green Bav: Dr. J. L.
Jenckes, Hazel Green; Dr. R. B. Treat, Janesville; Hon. J. H. Ronntree, Platteville;
Hon. G. W. Cate^ Circuit Judge, Amherst; Prof. S. S. Sherman, Milwaukee; Hon. David
W. Jones, Miueral Point.

The resolution was then unanimously adopted.

Dr. Hoyt moved the appointment, by the President, of a com-
mittee of five members to prepare and submit to the Convention
a ]ilan of organization for the Academy.

The chair appointed Dr. J. W. Hoyt, of Madison, President
G. M. Steele, of Lawrence University, President A. L. Chapin,
of Beloit College, Dr. Solon Marks, of Milwaukee, and Hon. J.
T. Mills, of Lancaster, as said committee, with instructions to
report, if possible, at the ensuing session.

Adjourned to 7^ o'clock, P. M.

The Convention met pursuant to adjournment.

On behalf of the committee on a plan of organization for the
Academy, Dr. Hoyt reported a Constitution, which, on motion,
was unanimously adopted.

[For Constitution see Bulletin No. 1.]

After the adoption and signing of the constitution, on motion
of Dr. E. B. Wolcott, of Milwaukee, the President was in-
structed to appoint a committee of five to nominate a President,
a General Secretary, and a Treasurer for the Academy. The
chair appointed as such committee. Dr. E. B. Wolcott, Geo. P.
Delaplaine, President G. M. Steele, President A. L. Chaj^in and
Professor T. C. Chamberlin.

The committee retired, and in due time returned and reported
the following nominations:

For President— T>T. J. W. Hoyt.

Foi- General Sicrf-tirri/—l)r. I. A. Lapham.

For Treasurer— Geo. P. Delaplaine.

The report of the committee was adopted.

The President of the Convention having, on motion, appointed

Proceedings of the Academy. 185

a committee consisting of Dr. E. B. Wolcott and Dr. -Joseph
Hobbins to notify the said officers of the Academy of their elec-
tion, and to conduct the President thereof to the chair,
The Convention dissolved.

FIRST MEETING OF THE ACADEMY.

Pursuant to call, made at the instant of the dissolution of the
convention of citizens met to organize the same, the Wisconsin
Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters convened in the place
of said Convention at 9 o'clock P. M. of same day (Feb. 16.)

On assuming the chair, President Hoyt said:

While lie felt hii^iiiy honored by the iinanimoiis expression of the wish of its mem-
bers that he should preside over the Institution, in the I'ormation of which all gentlemen
present had shared, and was sincerely siratei'iil to them tor their confidence, he was pro-
foundly sensible of the grave responsibilities involved in an acceptance of the position.
Pioneer work was laborious in whatever field, but especially so in the founding and up-
building of institutions devoted to a work of which the body of the peoplecould hardly
be expected to have a just appreciation. Academics devoted to original recearch were
the forerunners of a hisher civilization. It was rarely that their services were recog-
nized at their tnje value at the time, but without them the world would make but slow
progress. He was glad that the proposition to loKnd such an institution in Wisconsin
liadbeen received with warm approbation, and desired to congratulate the members of
the Academy that it had pleased them to adopt a plan of organization so broad and com-
prehensive as to include every class of searchers after knowledge. The Convention had
manifested an intelligence, unanimity and enthusiasm worthy of the cause sought to be
advanced, and it now only remained to push on the work with vigor and resolution.
Each member must consider himself a committee responsible for the advance-
ment of the Academy's interests in his own locality as well as throughout the
range of his acquaintance, and by every means in his power. Should this be the case,
the organization of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters would be no-
table in the future as the inauguration of a new era in the history of the State. He ac-
cepted the responsible and laborious position of President, in the belief that he would
not be denied the hearty o-operation he so earnestly craved, and with the purpose to do
everything in his power to make the Academy successful in every respect and in an
eminent degree.

At the conclusion of the President's remarks, it was moved
by Ex. Gov. Dewey that the Academy proceed at once to the
election of a Director of the Museum, a Librarian, and of the
constitutional departmental officers for the Department of the
Sciences; and that, in the absence of By-Laws regulating the
mode of procedure, such election be viva voce., on nominations
made by any member of the Academy, The motion prevailed,
and the following officers were duly elected:

Director of the 3Iuseum—Wm. Dudley, Esq.

Librarian — Hon. .T. G, Knapp.

Vice President of the Department of Sciences^ and ex-officio a Vice President of the
Academy— JiT. P. R. Hoy.

Secretary of the Department of the Sciertces— Col. S. V. Shipmao.

Counsellors for the Department— Proi. T. C. Chamberlin, Dr. E. B. Wolcott, Dr. R. Z.
Mason.

The Treasurer was authorized to purchase the necessary books
of record.

The President having given notice that a meeting of the Gen-
eral Council would be held in this place at 9 o'clock on the fol-
lowing morning, for the purpose of adopting By-Laws for the
government of the institution, the Academy adjourned 0)'</?e c?ie.

186 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

FIRST MEETING OF THE GENERAL COUNCIL.

Adoption of By-Laws.

The General Council of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences,
Arts and Letters, met pursuant to the call of the President, in
the State Agricultural Rooms, at 9 o'clock A. M., of February
17, 1870.

Present — Messrs. J. W. Hoyt, President, in the Chair, P. R,
Hoy, T. C. Pound, Geo. P. Delaplaine, Wm. Dudley, J. G.
Knapp, T. C. Chamberlin, R. Z. Mason, S. V. Shipman and I. A.
Lapham.

After due consideration, the Council adopted the following
By-Laws:

[For jjy-Ajiiv*'5, SGS xjULLetix 1\o, 1.]

On motion, the Chair appointed the following Standing Com-
mittees:

On Nominations— Dr. G. M. Steele, Dr. Solon Marks and Prof. Jas. H. Eaton.
On Papers Presented to the Academy— Br. A. L. Chapin, Dr. P. A. Chadbourne and Dr.
I. A. Lapham.
On Finance— Mow. Xelson Dewey, Hon. Alexander Mitchell and Hon. Wm. E. Smith.
On the Mustum— Dr. P. R. Hoy, Charles Preus-serand John Murrish.
On Library— ILon. Lyman C. Draper, Dr. Joseph Bobbins and Hon. Wm. Pitt Lynde.

The Council adjourned, " subject to call of the President."

SECOND MEETING OF THE ACADEMY.

First Session — Executive Proceedings.

The Second Regular Meeting of the Academy was held in the
rooms of the State Agricultural Society, at Madison, commenc-
ing on Tuesday, July 19; fifteen members being present. The
president. Dr. J. W. Hoyt, in the chair.

Letters were read from several members unable to be present.
Donations for the Museum were presented as follows:

A wolverine {Gulo Il'Scvs, Sabine), killed in Juneau county, and presented by Hon. J.
T. Kingston, of Necedah; and a lynx (L. Canadensis. Eatinesqiic), killed near Maditon,
and presented by Jacob Seller of that city; w..ich, on motion, \vere accepted, with the
thinks of the Academy.

Specimens of the rocks, minerals, ores, clay, etc., from Garrisonville, Sauk county,
presented by Mrs. Dr. Taylor of that place, were examined and commented upon.

The President submitted an informal report of what had been
done since the date of the last meetino-;

A liberal charter had been granted by the legislature, at its late ses.'jion, with author
ity to occupy apartments in the capitol, if not inconsistent with the public business of
the State; a law had been passed providing for a topographical survey of the lead dis-
trict, the specimens of minerals, rocks and fossils collected being required by law to be
deposited with the Academy; the publication oi a Bulletin had been commenced, in
which it was proposed to include such of the proceedings as seemed of sufficient import-
ance: and favorable responses, received from all parts of the Slate, gave encouraijemeut
to hope that the Academy would be sustained, and become an iDstitutlon of permanent
usefulness.

He then laid before the Academy the text of the Charter
granted by the State.
[See No" 1 of the Bulletin, p. 17; also General Laws of Wisconsin, 1870.]

Proceedings of the Academy. 187

The following persons were admitted to membership:

Life Members:— lion. J. B.Thomas, Sheboygan Falls ; N.S.Green, Esq., Milford;
Hon J. I. Case, Racine; Hon. Simeon Mills, Madison: Jas. L. Hill, Esq., Madison;
Hon. J. G. Thorp, Madison; John H. Van Dyck, Esq., Milwaukee; Jas. J. Hagerman,

Annu.'^l Members:— Rt. Rev. W. E. Armitage, Milwaukee; Pres. W. C. Whitford,
MiUon; Prof T. H. Litlle, Blind Asylum, Janesville : Samuel P. Gary, Esq., Oshkosh;
Rev Albert O.Wright, Waterloo; Mr. Cyrus T. Hawley, Milwaukee; Prof. John E.
Davies, State University, Madison; Rev. J. B. Pradt, Madison; Capt.W. A. DeLaMatyr,
Mazomanie; Eugene R. Leland, Esq., Milwaukee; Alex. Provis, Esq., Laneaster; Mr.
Jas. J. Cammack, Madison; Elisha Burdick, Esq., Madison; John R. Baltzel, Esq.,
Mudisou; Prof. R. G. Hinsdale, Racine College; Rev. J. C. C. Clarke, Madison; Hon. J.
T. Kingston, Necedah; Dr. Moses Barrett, Waukesha.

On motion of J. G. Knapp, it was

Resolved, That the fees for members for life be set apart as a permanent endowment
fund to be invested in Wisconsin State bonds, or other equally safe securities, and that
the proceeds of said fund, only, be used for the general purposes of the Academy.

A committee was appointed to apply to the Governor for the
assignment of apartments in the capitol for the proper preser-
vation of such scientific specimens, books, and other collections
as may become the property of the Academy.

The President and Secretary were authorized to continue,
from time to time, the publication of the Bulletin.

Adjourned till 9 o'ciock of the following morning.

Second Session — Communications.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment, for the reading
and discussion of papers. There were present several additional
members ; the President in the Chair.

The following are the titles of papers presented and discussed
during the morning session, with the leading ideas contained:

1. On the Classification of the Sciences. By Rev. Albert
O. Wright, of Waterloo. Mr. Wright said in substance, that

Every science has two aspects, a concrete and an abstract. The logical order is from
the abstract to the concrete. But the order of discovery is first the practice of an art, then
the gathering of facts for the concrete science, then ordering the principles for the abstract
science. These last have an order among themselves, which the concrete sciences and
the arts follow. Rising from the lower to the higher, this order of the abstract sciences,
with their dependent sub-sciences, concrete sciences and practical arts is; Mathematics,
Astronomy, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Psychology, Sociology, Theology. Each of
these sciences has a principle underlying it which we have discovered or hope to dis-
cover; and each science uses its own laws and the laws of all below it, but not of those
above it; and no science can be completed until the one next below it is. Commenc-
iuc with the science of Abstract Relations, by adding one law, we have the science of
celestial phenomena: by adding again one law, we have the science of terrestrial phe-
jiomena ; again adding one law, we have the science of chemical affinities ; at the next
step we enter the domain of i«7«, at the next that oi mind, at the next that of »u«d m
masses; and by the last and greatest step we rise to the Supreme of the Universe.

2. On the importance of more attention to the Preservation
and culture of Forest Trees in Wisconsin. By Mr. P. Engel-
mann. Secretary of the Natural History Society, Milwaukee.

The author commented on the rapid destruction of the forests in the State, now going
on with a geometrical ratio of progression that must, within comparatively a very few
years, bring not only a scarcity of timber, notwithstanding the munificent provisions of
Nature, but likewise important and unfavorable changes in the climate of the State. He
cited the governments of the Old World as examples of the provident care induced by
the lessons of experience, and also alluded to the wise legislative action of some of the
neighboring States of the Union in providing for even, the planting of forests whore they
have not existed heretofore. This seemed to be a matter of suflicient importance to receive
the present, and earnest consideration of the Academy and of the Legislature of the
State.

188 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

3. On the Coniferae of the Rocky Mountains, and their adapta-
tion to the Soil and Climate of AVisconsin. By J. G. Knapp,

Esq., Madison.

[Published in Transactions, p. 117.]

The Academy adjourned until 2 o'clock P. M.

Third Session — Communications.

The Academy met, pursuant to adjournment, for the reading
and discussion of the following papers:

4. On the Origin of the Potsdam Sandstone. By John Mur-
rish, State Commissioner for the Survey of the Lead Regions.

5. On the Importance and Practicability of a Unit of Force in
Physics that shall be of Universal Application. By Professor
John E. Davies, of the Wisconsin State University.

6. Abstract of a Paper On the Fauna of Lake Michigan off
Racine. By Dr. P. R. Hoy, of Racine.

[Published in full in the Transactions, p. 98.]

7. On the Age of the Quartzite of Baraboo. By Dr. I. A.
Lapham, of Milwaukee.

In 'this paper. Dr. Lapham described the <jeological character of the country about
Devil's Lake, Baraboo, and presented reasons tor concluding that the Decnhar formations
there bhould be attributed to the action of water.

8. On the Formation of Certain New Compounds of Manga-
nese. By Professor James H. Eaton, of Beloit College.

In this paper. Professor Eaton gave an account of some exceedingly interesting origi-
nal investigations into the chemical properties of mangsnese, with details of the steps
taken iu the formation of some new compounds analagous to the yellow and red prussi-
ates of iron, and observations upon the physical and chemical properties of such com-
pounds.

Adjourned till 8 o'clock P. M.

Fourth and Final Session.

The evening session was occupied mainly with an informal
discussion of various questions pertaining to the future of the
Academy, and the issuing of certificates of membership. His
Excellency, Governor Fairchild, was present, and took occasion
to express cordial sympathy with the important objects of the
Academy and to congratulate its members u^Don the success
of the present meeting.

The Academy then adjourned sine die.

THIRD MEETING OF THE ACADEMY.

First Session.

The third regular meeting of the Academy was convened in
the City Hall, at Milwaukee, on Tuesday, the 28th of Septem-
ber, at 2 o'clock P. M,; the President, Dr. J. W. Hoyt, in the
chair.

Proceedings of the Academy. 189

Owing to an error in the pviblished notices, which named the
29th as the date of the meeting, but few members were present.
And, accordingly, on motion of Dr. R. Z. Mason, an adjourn-
ment was taken until the following day, at 2 o'clock P. M.

Second Session — Executive Proceedings.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment, and, in the
absence of the President, detained by pressing duties connected
with the State Indvistrial Exhibition, was called to order by Dr.

A. Lapham, General Secretary; vipon Avhose motion Dr. R. Z.

ason was elected temporary chairman.

Rev. C. Caverno, of Lake Mills, and Messrs. G. W. Chapman
and Amasa J. Finch, of Milwaukee, were pu^t in nomination
for membership, and, upon motion, were elected without dissent.

The following 23apers were read and discussed.

1. The Metamorphic Rocks in the town of Portland, Dodge
county. By A. O. Wright, of Waterloo.

He gave a description of the positiou and appearance of the rock formations in ques ,
tion. They were fractured, and presented, to his eye, indications of having been cracke ';'■
hy some subterranean force. The force that acted below sent up through the crevic^'^
steam and heat to the cxteut of transforming the sandstone into quartzite, and, in veins,
pure quartz. He also discovered here traces of the glacial period.

Dr. Lapham said this region had be on discovered many years ago by Dr. 'Thayer ; that
it was also mentioned in Owen's and Percival's report, wherein itwas staled that the
quartzite is modified sandstone of older formation.

Dr. Mason said, as the object of the Academy is investigation, he thought it would be
proper to invito s(.me one of experience to go to this place and gatlier facts, and give, as
far as can be ascertained, the geological appearance, with the theory of iheir causes.

On motion. Prof. Eaton \\'n.s selected as a committee to make the investigations, and
afterwards. Prof. Chamberlin was added to the committee.

2. The Metamorphic Rocks at Devil's Lake. By A. O. Wright,
of Waterloo.

3. Some Observations upon the Fauna of Mammoth Cave. By
P. Engelmann, Esq., Secretary of the German Natural History
Society, Milwaukee.

Mr. Engelmann's paper embraced an account of a late visit to Mammoth Cave, with
descriptions of various curious fishes found in its waters, specimens of which were dis-
played before the Academy.

At the conclusion of the readings and discussions, Prof. T.

C. Chamberlin, of the State Normal School at Whitewater, after

some remarks upon the importance of systematic work, offered

the following:

Resolved, That the Secretary be requested to present an outline of the scientific inves-
tigations tliat have been made in Wisconsin, and tliat he indicate what lines of investi-
gation it is most desirable to pursue, and that he be empowered to assign such portion
of its work to the various members of the Academy as may seem most desirable.

Which, on motion, was adopted.

Adjovirned, to meet again at 9 o'clock A. M. to-morrow.

Second Session — Papers and Discussions.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment, J)v. R, Z. Mason
in the chair.

Papers were presented as follows:

100 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

4. On the Isothermal lines of the Northwest. By J, G. Knapp,
Esq., of Madison.

Tliis paper called attention to the climatic peculiarities of 'Wisconsin, as illustrated
by meteorological charts of Dr. J. W. Hoyt and Ur. I. A. Lapham, and sought to explaia
their relationto the actual distribution of vegetation, and to the agricultural and horti-
cultural capabilities of the State.

5. On the Nebular Hypothesis in Astronomy. By R. Z.
Mason, LL. D., of Appleton.

The author of this paper admitted tnat there was no conclusive evidence that the pro-
cess of world-formation from nebulous matter was actually going on at the present time.
There were, however, strong reasons in support of the nebular hypothesis; the first
being based on the constancy of the '•moment of inertia," the second on the identity of
composition of the earth and eisn as shown by the spectroscope, and the third on tl'e
corrslatiun of forces.

Adjourned until 2 o'clock, P. M.

Third Session.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment at 2 o'clock, P. M.
Dr. R. Z. Mason in the chair.

The reading and discussion of papers were then resumed.

6. The Mineral Well at Waterloo, Wisconsin, By A. O.
Wright.

LPublished in the Transactions, p. 151.]

7. On the Classification of Plants. By Dr. I. A. Lapham, of
Milwaukee.

[Published in the Transactions, p. 102. ]

Mr. Groodwin Lowrie, of Helena, and Mr. Joseph S. Carr, of
Neilsville, were elected members.

Judge Knapp gave notice of an amendment to the by-law
requiring meetings of the Academy to be held during the
annual exhibitions of the State Agricultural Society.

An invitation from the directors of the Association for Natural
History, to visit their museum, in the building of the English
and German Academy, was received and accepted with thanks.

Adjourned sine die.

FIRST ANNUAL MEETING OF THE ACADEMY.

First Session.

The fourth regular and first annual meeting of the Academy
was convened in the rooms of the State Agricultural Society, at
Madison, commencing on the evening of February 14. A large
number of gentlemen were present from all parts of the State.

The President, Dr. J. W. Hoyt, in the chair.

Dr. I. A. Lapham, of Milwaukee, General Secretary of the
Academy, being absent. Prof. John E. Davies of the State Uni-
versity, was elected Secretary ^:)ro tern.

Donations to the Museum of the Academy were received
from ex-Governor L. J. Farwell, of Chicago.

Proceedings of the Academy. 191

The President of the Academy, Dr. Hoyt, gave

A seneral statement of work that bad been done since tlie last meeting, and recom-
mended tiie immediate orrranizatioiin of the proposed departments of Social Hcieiice, of
the Arts, and of Letters. He also reported that the Wisconsin State Agricultural Soci-
ety had passed resolutions expressive of their interest in the work undertaken by the
Academy, and tendering the use of their rooms for its meetings and the preser/ation of
its collections, and that said Society had, moreover, amended their constitution so as to
make the President and General Secretary of the Academy members ex-otlicio of the Ex-
ecutive Board of the Society.

Which generous action was recognized by a vote of thanks.
The Treasurer, George P. Delaplaine, reported as follows:

BECEIPTS.

To fees from thirty-four Annual Memberships ■$340 00

To fees from sis llife Memberships GOO 00

Total receipts -W

EXPENDITURES.

By sundry disbursements per order of the President, as per vouchers herewith
submitted 1156 70

Balance in the treasury .$783 30

The report was referred to the Finance Committee, by whom
it was examined and reported back with their ap^Droval.

The committee on the purchase of Mr. Deininger's Natural
History Collection, were, at their own request, allowed more
time for examination.

The names of several new members were proposed, and
referred to the Committee on Nominations.

A paper was then read by A. J. Finch, Esq., of Milwaukee,

1. On Metallic Veins and the Deposition of Minerals.

The object of this paper was to refute the Wernerian theory, and to prove that metals
found in situ were deposited from their gases originating in the interior of the earth.

On motion of J. G. Knapp, the following resolutions were
adopted.

liesolved, 1st. That active members of the Academy be each requested to report to the
President or Secretary of the Department of the Sciences, and designate the section of
the Department to which he will choose to belong.

2d. That if any member be present who does not desire to connect himself with the
Department of the Sciences in any of its sect ions, he be requested to report to the Gen-
eral Secretary of the Academy, and name the Department to which he desires to be
attached.

3d. So soon as the members shall have designated the Department or Sections to which
they desire to belong, such De^jartments and Sections shall meet together and assign to
the' members thereot their respective work.

Adjourned until 9 o'clock of the following morning.

Second Session.

The Academy met pursuant to adjoui'nment. The President
in the chair.

Donations of specimens of copper, iron, lead and graphite
were made to the Museum of the Academy by Hon. J. Mvirrish,
which were accepted with a vote of thanks.

On the recommendation of the Committee on Nominations,
the following gentlemen were elected members of the Academy:

Corresponding Members.— Prof. Ezr.i S. Carr, M. D., LL. D.. of the University of
California, Oakland, Cal.; Hon. J. Wingate Thornton, of Boston, Mass.

192 Wisconsin Academy of i^icisnces. Aris^ and Letters.

Annual Members. — Prof. R. Irving, E. M., Prof, of Geology in the University' of
Wisconsin; Maj. W. J. Nicodemus, U. S. A., Prof, of Military and Civil Engineering in
the University of Wisconsin; Daniel S. Dnrrie, Esq., Librarian of the Stafe Historical
Society, Madison, Wis.; Hon. J. A. Bate, Chippewa Falls, Wis.; Prof. F. W. Woodward,
£au Claire, Wis.; Oliver Arey, Prcst. State Normal School, Whitewater, Wis.

The following papers were then read and discussed:

2. On the Geology of the region about Devil's Lake, Sauk
county, Wisconsin; being a report of observations made at the
request of the Academy. By Prof. James H, Eaton, of Beloit
College.

[Published in full in the Transactions, p. 124.]

3. On the Relations between Social and Moral Science. By
Rev. Charles Caverno, of Lake Mills.

The leading ideas were these:

Wliatevs'r relates to the development and improvement of individual man or society
will fall under the purview of Social Science. Let Moral Science be taken to be that
which concerns itself with the sphere of right and wrong, with obligation, with the sense
of ought in reference to human actions. It is the object of this paper to show the mutual
dependence of these two sciences.

First, the dependence of Social upon Moral Science. To show men the better way, and
induce them to walk in it, these are the great end of Social Science. To eflect tliis last,
there is no leverage upon humanity like the sense of right. When a new social princi-
ple is discovered and its value ascertained, then will come the question of its enforce-
ment in society. But the chances are that it will not fall into place in society with its
mere enunciation. It will have privilege and prejudice and custom, perhaps appetite
and passion, to combat. To overcome these, it will have to establish itself in the forum
of the right, with the conviction once firmly established that a thing onght to lie done,
it holds men irresistibly to it until it is done. There is no such might of enforcement in
any other department of man's nature. It will be well for this new Social Science if in
does not discard this fundamental truth and seek to attain its objects on the basis of and
of the great fallacies which have led European reformers into such pitiful failures in the
past.

If, now, we tiirn to the other side of the subject we shall find the dependence of Moral
upon Social Science no less certain and considerable. The ought in many a subject is
struggling up to the horizon, but cannot yet be seen. All the conditions upon which it
depends are not mastered and systematized. What ought to be done will depend in
many cases upon the etfect which courses of action will have. Moral Science, in strict-
ness, is 1)0 investigator or experimenter. It comes in with the power of moral obliga-
tion on the known and determined. Not so of Social Science. Society, in its advance-
ment, is constantly brought in contact with questions in which the eflect of any proposed
method of action is problematical. The race has hitherto had scarcely any otiier way of
solving such questions than by blundering in actual experiment through all possible
evil colirses to that one, whichni the end, has shown itself to be good and right. Social
Science proposes to take up such questions to see if it be not possible to avoid <nuch of
this sad experience by trying these questions beforehand, in tribunal? removed as far as
possible from human "prejtidice and party feeling, by the light of the already accumulated
stock of human experience, by actual present investigatioii and experiment, and before
the prophetic power of sound'philosophy. When such investigations shall have been
had, if the conclusions arrived at by Social Science may not be considered as established
in the forum of right absolutely, this will be established— that it will be right to experi-
ment in a direction so indicated rather than in another.

And when, after due examination had of all the'elements that pertain to a matter. Social
Science shall have reached an ultimate judgment, let it hacd it over to Moral Science to
be enforced by the binding power of moral obligation.

Adjourned to 2 o'clock P- M.

Third Session.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment. The President
in the chair.

Reading and discussion of papers resumed.

4. The Mammalia of Wisconsin. By Dr. P. R. Hoy, of Racine.

The Doctor said that the Elk existed in Wisconsin in 1863, but is now probably extinct
The moose still exists in numbers. The last bufl'alo was killed in 183-2. The antelope
was once in Wisconsin-at the time of Hennepin's voyage. The musk-ox, the mastodon
and the mammoth once existed here. The panther will soon disappear. It will be a

Proceedings of the Academy. 193

long time before the 'beaver will be exterminated. The otter will be retained longer.
The deer will soon be exterminated. The last wild turkey was killed in '4G, at which
date a llock was killed in Kacine.

5. On the climatic Relations of the Flora of Wisconsin, By
Hon. J. G. Knapp, of Madison,

6. On the Results of Recent Investigations in the Lead Re-
gions of Wisconsin. By J, Murrish, State Commissioner.

In entering upon the survey of the lead district, he found that, while there were con"
flicting opinions among miners in reference to the origin and nature of the fissures in
connection with which ore deposits were found, they were nevertheless all agreed on
this point, that there is a strong tendency in these fissures to an east and west direction.

They also recognized the fact that these so-called east and west fissures were occasion-
ally intersected by another set of fissures at right angles, thereby presenting the famil-
iar feature of mineral strata noticed in all mining regions,

In ex.nminiuing into these facts to satisfy himself in reference to their correctnese, he
had noticed, in looking over the various mines which had been opened, that, while the.
difl'erent mineral ranges and mining centers were separated from each other by a space
of barren ground, there was nevertheless a grouping of t ese ranges or mining centers
on the east and west direction.

Further observation proves that they were confined to certain belts of land having an
east and west bearing. For instance, if we commence in town six, with what mining
there is done in the town of Fernimore, in Grant county, and extend east wilh a stiip of
land three or four miles wide through a large portion of that county and the whole of
Iowa county to Blue Mounds, in Dane county, we shall include in that strip all the
mines of ^''ennimore, Wingville, Dodgeville, Ridgt-way, Porter's Grove and Blue
Mounds, giving us a belt of land through town six for a distance of over fifty miles.

If we extend our observations south from this belt to Mineral Point, we shall find our-
selves on tlie center of a parallel belt, extending east and west from that place. If from
thence to Platteville, in Grant county, on the third. If from taence to Hazel Green, we
shall find ourselves on the fourth, alT having about the same eastern and western exten-
sion. The lead district thus naturally divides itself into four distinct belts, conforming
evidently tn underlying causes, that have given origin to these peculiar phenomena.

But, striking as the evidences of the action of underlying physical forces along these
and west belts are, he was disposed, nevertheless, to regard them as subordinate to a
stronger line of forces that have acted in a north and south direction, across which these
belts are found at right angles. If, for example, we draw two lines from the eastern and
•western boundaries of the lead district, north and south, through the Mississippi valley,
we shall include with our own lead district the lead districts of Iowa and Illinois, also
the lead and iron mines of Missouri.

On the north, from what little we know along this line, we have a series of undulations
or anticlinal lims, along which large deposits of iron are found. Among the most noted
is the Penokee Iron Range, in town forty-four. These undulations of the strata, in their
bearin2 and extension, resemble very much the mineral belts of the lead districts, and
are collateral evidences, if nothing more, of an underlying north and south line of phy
sical forces of great extent.

7. On the Laws which Govern the Configuration of Comets,
By Hon. J. Y. Smith, of Madison,

This paper gave:

1st, A statement of some general facts concerning the constitution and form of comet-
ary bodies.

2d, A brief outline of the theory of Prof. Peirce, of Cambridge, concerning the forma-
tion of the tails or trains of comets, viz: That a power of repulsion in the comet itself
first throws oft' matter from the general mass as it approaches the sun, and that the sun
exerts a rejielling power upon the matter thus thrown off', driving it past the nucleus into
space and thus forming the train, so far as elongation is concerned— the curve being pro-
duced by the particles thrown into a wider orbit falling behind those pursuing a nar-
rower one.

3d. Three objections are brought against this theory, so far as the elongation is con-
cerned: First, that the laws which are supposed to produce the phenomenon of elonga-
tion are assumed, there being no positive evidence that any such power of repulsion ex-
ists, either in a comet in respect to its own matter, or in the sun in respect to the mate-
rial of a comet. Secondly, if the existence of these forces be admitted, still it is not
shown why they should take efi'ect upon one portion only of the cometic matter and not
upon the whole of i', nor what is to limit their ettect upon those portions uoon which
their power is exerted; and thirdly, that it ignores the existence and efficiency of well
known laws which must inevitably produce the phenomena in question, viz., tlio laws of
gravitation, acceleration and momentum acting upon extremely attenuated matter
movin<r in a highly eccentric orbit.

The theory advanced by Mr. Smith is, in substance, as follows: Cometary matter at
repose in space or but slightly acted on by solar attraction, (the latter being the condi-
tion of most comets at their aphelia,) possessing fluidity and gravity, however slight the

194 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

latter, tmisf assume a spherical, or nearly spherical, form. The orbit of a comet being
nsually highly eccentric, the body moves the greater part of the distance from the
aphelion to the perihelion almost in a direct line towards the sun and must, therefore,
be subject to the law of acceleration and the varying force of gravitation according to
the square of the distance. By this latter law the impulse of solar attraction will be
strongest on the side nearest the sun, and less on the opposite side. This, with the
slight gravitating power in the comet to hold its particles in a spherical form, must cause
the body to hold its particles in a spherical form, must cause the body to elongate to a
spheroidal form more and more as the difl'erence in the square of the distance between
the two extremes of the comet increases and the sqaure of the distance of the whole
from the sun diminishes. This elongating process must be assisted, to some extent, by
the resisting ether in space (if any such exists) acting upon so light a body.

As the comet approaches the sun from its intersection of the minor axis of the orbit,
the angle formed by the radius vector with the tangent of the orbit widens more and
more rapidly until they form a right angle at the perihelion. As this angle widens, the
centrifugal force comes into action in opposition to the centripetal and a new elongating
force is brought to bear upon the cometary mass. Thenceforward these two elongating
forces become subject to some curious modifications and transfers of power. "That
which results from simple solar Eravitation, or the accelerating force, goes on increasing
as the square of the distance diminishes, and diminishing as the angle of the radius
vector with the tangent of the orbit widens, till it reaches the perihelion where this force
is reduced to zero. At the same time that which results from the centripetal and centri-
fugal forces goes on increasing both as the square of the distance diminishes and as the
aforesaid angle widens, until, at the perihelion, this elongating lorce reaches its 7naxi-
mum power,

The curve of the train is the necessary result of ditferent parts of the body being com-
pelled by the elongating forces to pursue orbits of difterent breadths with no increase of
orbital motion iu the outer portions which must needs fall behind the inner and form
a curve. When the train becomes largely curved, the centripetal and ceatrifugal forces
are brought to bear transversely upon the train and it is spread and llattem. d, least at the
front and more and more at the rear. The elongation, the curving, the spreading and the
flattening by the action of these forces, must, necessarily, all take place in the plane of
the orbit.

When past the perihelion, the laws which brought the comet to its configuration at
that point being reversed in their action, their effects are reversed, of course, and the
body moves ofl", straightening, rounding and gathering up its train till it arrives at its
aphelion in the same form with which it left it.

Ajourned to 7|^ o'clock P. M.

Fourth Session.

The Academy met at the hour appointed; the President in
the chair.

The following persons were elected members of the Academy:

Corresponding Membsrs.— Wm Stirapson, M. D., Secretary of the Chicacro Academy
of Sciences; J. C. Freer, M. D., President of Rush College, Chicago; Prof. T.^'W. Saflord,
Director of Dearborn Observatory, Chicago; Prof. Alex. Winchetl, Universitv of Michi-
gan; Prof. James Watson, Diriector of Observatory at University of Michigan.

Annual Members.— II. W. Robv, Esq., Milwaukee; E. A. Charlton, President Platte-
ville State Normal School; Prof. Geo. Beck, State Normal School, Platteville.

Reading of papers resumed.

8. On the Kinetic Measures of Force. By Prof. John E,
Davies, Wisconsin State University.

9. On the Duty of the State to its Idiotic Children. By Prof.
O. R. Smith, Milwaukee.

This paper adduced evidence in favor of the capacity of the idiotic for receiving instruc
tion, and stronsly urged upon the State the importance of making provision for this
unfortunate class of persons, of whon statistics show the number to be much larger in
every community than is generally supposed

10. On the Place which the Study of the Indian Languages
should hold in Ethnology. By Prof. John B. Feuling, of Wis-
consin State University.

[Published in the Transactions p. 178.]
Adjourned to 9 A. M. of next day.

Proceedings of the Academy. 195

Fifth Session — Business Meeting.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment; the President in
the Chair.

On motion it was resolved to organize a section of Social Sci-
ence; which, on subsequent motion, was expanded into a full
Department of the Social and Political Sciences, with the
following- officers:

Vice President— m. Rev. W. E. Armitage, Milwaukee.

Secretary— Rqw Charles Caverao, Lake Mills. _ , ^ „r • , 4.

Co;/«««;ors— President G. M. Steele, D. «., Lawrence University; Rev. A. O. Wnght,
Nev*^ Lisbon; Dr. A. S. McDill, State Hospital for the Insane.

On motion there was organized the Department of the
Arts, to the several constitutional offices in which the follow-
ing persons were duly elected:

Vice i»/Y.<:«rf«w/—Es-Qovernor Nelson Dewey. Cassville.
/S'ecr^^an/— Col. S. V. Shipman, Madison. , ^ . ^

Counselors— 3 . H. Van Dyke, Esq., Milwaukee; Mr. Alexander Provis, Lancaster;
Hon. J. I. Case, Racine.

On motion there was also organized the Department of Let-
ters, with the following officers:

Vice President— Rqv. Dr. A. L. Chapin, Beloit College.
Secretary— 7vof. John B. Feuliug, Wisconsin State University.

Counselors— Fvot Wm. P. Allen, State University; Dr. I. L. Hauser, Milwaukee; Hon.
Lyman C. Draper, State Historical Society.

The Academy adjourned sine die.

SIXTH MEETING OF THE ACADEMY.

The Academy met in their rooms, at 8 o'clock P. M. of July
18, 1871, the President, Dr. J. W. Hoyt, in the chair.
Adjourned to 9 o'clock A. M. of next day.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment; the President in
the chair.

Letters were read from the following persons accepting mem-
bership:

Prof. Ezra S. Carr, Oakland, California; J. Wingate Thornton, Boston, Mass. ; Prof. T.
H.Safford, Chicago, 111.; Prof. James C. Watson, Ann Arbor, Mich.: Prof. Alex. Wm-
chcll,?Ann Arbor, Mich.

Mr. J. Murrish presented numerous specimens of the rocks,
minerals and fossils of the lead region of Wisconsin.

The President reported that his efforts, in regard to the scien-
tific exploration of the northern part of the state, the present
season, in connection with the railroad companies, had not been
successful.

The Treasurer reported

The amoiiiit of cash on hand at the date of his last report 'fTSS 30

Received for dues, &c 40 00

Total $823 30

Disbursed since last report 113 00

Balance on hand $'^'11 30

196 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arls, and Letters.

Of this balance, $600 received from Life Members constitutes
a permanent fund, the proceeds of which are only ajjplicable to
the general purposes of the Academy.

The proposition heretofore offered to amend section two of the
by-laws, relating to the meeting to be held at the time of the
exhibition of the State Agricultural Society, was considered and
indefinitely postponed.

The proposition, submitted at the last meeting, to amend sec-
tion eight of the Constitution, so as to provide that the Presi-
dent and Secretary of the State Agricultural Society shall be
ex-officio members of the Council for the Department of the
Arts was considered and adopted.

On motion, it was

JResolved, That the resolution requiring the investment of a permanent endowment
fund be so modified as to authorize the investment of the same iu any securities satis-
factory to the Committee on Finance.

The rules being unanimously suspended for the purpose, the
following named persons were duly elected members of the
Academy.

Life Members —John L. Mitchell, Esq., Milwaukee, Wis.

Annual Members.— Prof. W. P. Yocum, Appleton, Wis. ; G. F. Luders, Sauk City,
Wis. ; Kev. W. S. Alexander, Racine, Wis. ; Wm. 3. Sherman, Esq., Milwaukee, Wis. ;
H. K. Smith, Esq., Milwaukee, Wis.

Corresponding Members.— Hon. J.Hammond Trumbull, LL. D. , Hartford, Conn.;
Prof. S. S. Haldemann, State University of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia; F. Ebener, Ph.
D., Baltimore, Md. ; Prof. W D. Whitney, New Haven, Conn. ; Dr. J. G. Brintou, Phil-
adelphia, Pa.

It was resolved to publish another number of the Bulletin, to
include the proceedings of the last and present meetings.

Rev. C. Caverno announced that being about to leave the
state, it would be necessary to resign the office of Secretary of
the Social Science Department of the Academy.

The papers read at this meeting were as follows:

1, On the Clay Deposits and Fossils found therein, in the
Region about Appleton. By R. Z. Mason, LL. D., Appleton.

The geological characteristics of this region are, 1st. A thin stratum of the lower mag-
nesian limestone overlaying the Potsdam sandstone, all dipping at small angle to the
southeast. The limestone in the vicinity of Appleton grows thinner as we go westward,
and nearly disappears at the Wolf river, being replaced as a surface rock by the Potsdam
sandstone, between the Wolf and Wisconsin rivers. The Lower River flows over the
surface of the limestone at a level of about sixty feet below the general surface of the
clay deposits. These deposits, of clav mainly, are therefore about sixty to eighty feet
deep, and give every appearance of having been made iu quiet and shallow seas, inter-
mixed with these deposits of clay, are boulders, varying in size from a mere pebble to
those of many tons weight. These boulders, are granite, quartz, feldspar, hornblende,
and trap — the first and last most abundant.

Throughout this entire region there have also been found, at the depth of twenty,
forty and sixty feet, large fragments of timber, generally cedar, tamarack and other con-
ifers .

These seem to be the fragments of trees that have grown in this region at an early
period, when the temperature was lower than at present, and where the surface of the
ground was level and marshy.

The above inference is based on the fact that the forest trees of warmer latitudes and
higher regions, such as now grow there, to wit, the oak, the maple, the beech, etc., have
never been found in these clays. Nearly all the discoveries of this nature have been
made in the digging of wells.

2. On the Ancient Lakes of Wisconsin, By J. G. Knapp,
Esq., Madison.

[Published in the Transactions, p. 151.]

Proceedings of the Academy. 197

3. Suo-o-estions as to a Basis for the Gradation of the Verte-
brata. By Prof. T. C. Chamberlin, of the State Normal School,
Whitewater.

[Published iu the Transactions, p. 138. ]

5. Facts relating to the Local Geology of the Whitewater
Region. By Prof. T. C. Chamberlin, State Normal School,
Whitewater.

This paper consisted of remarks upon the Galena formation, to which the bed-rock at
Whitewater belongs, iii)on the chemical and physical characteristics of the rock, and
upon the paleontology of the region, including remarks upon the following fossil genera:
Eeceptacnlites chaetetes, Lingula, Rhynchonella, Orthis, Stropbomena Murchisonia,
Plenrotomaria, Orthoceras, and upon the questionable evidences of plants. The drift
phenomena of the region were made the subject of special description and explanation.
The peculiarities of its composition and the variety of formation, includin"; beds of clay,
of sand, of assorted sravel, of rounded boulders, of rounded and angular boulders, min-
gled and unclassifled forms, the striking features of the surface arrangement and the gla-
cial strips were particularly noticed.

6. On the Rocks and Mines of the Upper Wisconsin River.
By J. G. Knapp.

7. On the seventeen-year Cicada, its Geographical Distribu-
tion and Time of Appearance in this State. By Prof. T. C.
Chamberlin.

The Academy adjourned sine die.

SIXTH MEETING OF THE ACADEMY.

The sixth meeting of tne Academy was held at the City Hall,
Milwaukee, on the 26th of September, 1871. Owing to the pres-
ence of the State Fair in Milwavikee at the same date, and the
engagements of many members in connection therewith, the
attendance upon the first session was small. President Hoyt in
the chair.

The General Secretary being absent in Florida, on motion.
Dr. M. Barrett was chosen Secretary ^:)ro te^n.

Bishop W. E. Armitage moved that the Academy adjourn,
subject to the call of the General Council; which motion was
carried.

SECOND ANNUAL MEETING.

The Second Annual Meeting of the Academy was convened
at the State Agricultviral Rooms on the 13th of February, 1872,
at 5 o'clock P. M., a large number of members being present.

President Hoyt, on assuming the Chair, made some state-
ments concerning the work of the Academy during the year,
and said that.

Inasmuch as many members of the Legislature and other citizens would be pleased to
attend a general session, he had asked, and, by courtesy of the Assembly, had procured
the use ol' their hall lor the first evening session.

Adjourned to meet in the Assembly Chamber at 7^ o'clock
P. M.

N.

198 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment. Attendance of
members and citizens large. The President, Dr. J. W. Hoyt,
having called the meeting to order, stated the object of the
Academy, in general terms, and annovmced the titles of the
papers to be read at this session, as follows:

1. On the German Sunday. By Rt. Rev. Bishop W. E. Armi-
tage. Vice President for the Department of the Social and Po-
litical Sciences.

[Published in full in Transactions, p. 62.]

2. On the Common Jail System of this Country. By Hon. S.
D. Hastings, Secretarj^ of the State Board of Charities and
Reform.

[Published, in abstract, in Transactions, p. 90. ]

3. On the Physical Basis of the Mineral Resources of Wis-
consin. By Hon. John Murrish, State Commissioner for the
Survey of the Lead Region.

This paper 'vas an elaboration, for the somewhat popular occasion on which it was
read, of the paper entitled " Results of Recent Investigations in the Lead Resion," read
1>y the same author at a previous meeting, and printed in abstract on a preceding page.

Adjourned to meet in the State Agricultural Rooms, at 9
o'clock of the next day.

Second Session.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment; President Hoyt
in the chair.

The papers read the previous evening were briefly discussed.

Vice President Chapin moved that a committee of three be
appointed to wait upon the Governor _ and solicit accommoda-
tions for the Academy's collections. President appointed Dr.
Chapin, Wm. Dudley and John Murrish. On motion. President
Hoyt was added to the committee.

The following papers were read and discussed.

4. On Aphides observed in Wisconsin. By Dr. P. R. Hoy, Vice
President of the Department of Natural Sciences.

[Published in Transactions, p. 110.]

After the discussion of this paper the President called Dr.
Hoy to the chair.

5. On the Post Glacial Deposits of Dane county. By Hon.
J. G. Knapp, of Madison.

6. Are the great Plains to be always Treeless? By Hon. J.
G. Knapp.

Adjourned till 3 o'clock P. M.

Third Session.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment; Vice Pi-esident
P. R. Hoy in the chair.

The following papers were read and discussed:

Proceedings of the Academy. 199

7. On the age of the Quartzites, Schists and Conglomerates
of Sauk county. By Prof. Roland Irving, M. E., State Univer-
sity.

[Published in full iu Transactions, p. 139.]

8. On a Modification of Grove's Battery for a Special Purpose.
By Prof. John E. Davies, M. D., State University.

9. On Potential Functions and their Application in Physics.
By Prof. John E. Davies, M. D., State University.

[Published in full iu Transactions, p. 111.]
Dr. Hoyt resigned the Chair to Vice President Dr. A. L. Chai^in.

10. On the Theory of Evolution, illustrated by the Science
of Language. By Prof. J. B. Feuling, Ph.D., Secretary of the
Department of Letters, State University.

11. On the Rural Population of England as classified in Domes-
day Book. By Prof. Wm. F. Allen, A. M., State University.

[Published iu Transactions, p. 167.]

Adjourned to meet at 7-|- P. M.

Fourth Session.

Academy met pursuant to adjournment; Rt. Rev. W. E.
Armitage, Vice President for the Department of the Social and
Political Sciences, in the Chair.

The following papers were read:

11. Social Science and Woman Suffrage. By Rev. Charles Cav-
erno, A. M., Secretary of the Department of the Social and
Political Sciences, Amboy, Illinois.

[Published in full in Transactions, p. 72. ]

12. The Relations of Labor and Capital. By Rev. A. L.
Chapin, D. D., President of Beloit College, Vice President of
the Academy for the Department of Letters.

(Published in full in Transactions, p. 45.]

13. Outline of a Plan for a National University. By Dr. J.
W. Hoyt, President of the Academy.

11. On the Coal Deposits of Colorado. By Dr. J. W. Hoyt.

[Eeadius; omitted by author owing to lateness of the hour. For substance of Paper 13,
see bill No. 1128 S., now pending in Congress.]

The Academy then went into 'session for the transaction of
special business.

The committee appointed to confer with the Governor con-
cerning provision for the Academy's Collections, reported that
his Excellency was desirous of doing everything in his power to
aid the Academy, and that he would order new cases so soon as
the plans were furnished him.

A majority of the committee appointed to consider the pro-
priety of soliciting aid from tlie State for canvassing the field
and other work designed to be vindertaken by the Academy,

200 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

reported in favor of asking- such aid. Prof. R. Irving, of the
said committee, made a minority report, urging- the inexpedi-
ency of making such a request at this time. The minority
report was adopted.

A vote of thanks was passed in favor of Messrs. Landruff and
Co., and to Mr. Hollyking-, of Highland, Iowa Co., for specimens
furnished the Academy's Museum.

A committee consisting- of President Hoyt, Dr. I. A. Lapham,
Prof. John E. Davies, Dr. A. L. Cliapin and Bishop Armitage,
was appointed to report any changes in the by-laws deemed
desirable, and to take action in regard to the publication of
the Transactions of the Academy.

The following persons, approved by the Committee on Nom-
inations, were elected members of the Academy.

Life Member:— Hon. S. A. White, Whitewater.

Annual Members:— Prof. S. H. Carpenter, LL. D., University of Wisconsin: Prof. J.
B. Parkinson, A. M., University of Wisconsin; Hou. H. D. Barron, Osceola; JJaniel S.
Durrie, State Historical Society; G. W. Rayner, Editor Madison Democrat.

Corresponding Members:— Dr. H, P. Gatchell, M. D„ Kenosha; Prof. Scheie DeVere,
Ph. D., University of Virgenia ; Prof. D. C. Oilman, A. M., Yale College ; Prof. N. S.
Shaler. A. M., Ph. D., Harvard University; Dr. J. L. Kewberry, Li^. D., Columbia Col-
lege; Prof. K. B. Andrews, Ohio Geological Survey; Prof. E. Orton, A. M., Antioch Col-
lege; Prof. T.M. Blossom, A. M., M. E., Columbia College; Prof. A. E. Verrill, A. M.,
Yale College; Prof. L. D. McOabe, D. D., Ohio VVesleyan University; Dr. G. Wood, LL.
D., President University of West Pensylvania; Dr. J. W. Poster, LL. D., Chicago Uni-
versity: Dr. N. Bridge, M, D., Chicago: Wm. Leijarrou, M. D., State Entomologist of
Illinois; Prof. Oliver Marcy, A. I\L, N. W. University; Prof. J. S. Jewell, M.D., N. W.
Univer.-ity.

Adjourned sine (lie.

.^.

S:^

n

^

TRANSACTIONS

d

OP THE

Wisconsin Academy

OF

SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

Vol. II. 1873-4.

Published by Order of the Legislature.

f-

■?t^w

MADISON, WIS.:

ATWOOD & CULVER, PRINTERS AND STEREOTYPERS.

1874.

r:B-=i-

1

■*'^

^^v

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

Wisconsin Academy

OF

SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

Vol. II. 1873-4. N,t!f'^^'^^

• »0T •

Piihlished by Order of the Legislature.

•♦«»

MADISON, WIS.:

ATWOOD & CTXLTER, PRINTERS AND STEREOTYPERS.

1874.

CONTENTS.

I

Page.
1, LISTS OF OFFICERS AND MEMBERS 5-8

a. CHARTER OF THE ACADEMY 9-10

III. CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS 11-14

IV. REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT 15-23

Embracing:

1. General Condition 15

2. Condition and Progress of tlie several Departments 16

3. Tlie Library 18

4 . The S cientific Museum 18

5. Reports of the Treasurer 20, 244, 351

6. Results of Work done, as shown by the Titles and Papers read before the
Academy 20-22

V. TITLES OF PAPERS PUBLISHED IN THIS VOLUME.

DEPARTMENT OF SPECULATIVE PH1L080PHT.

1. The Metaphysical Basis of Science. By Prof. S. H. Carpenter, LL.D... 23 34

2. Vexed Questions in Ethics. By Rev. F. M. Holland, A. M 35-38

3. The Philosophy of Evolution. By Prof. S. H. Carpenter, LL. D 39-58

DEPARTMENT OP THE SOCIAL AMD POLITICAL BOIENCBS.

4. Population and Sustenance. By Dr. G. M. Steele, D. D 59-72

Cj[3 5. Records of Marriages. By Rev. F. M. Holland, A. M 73-76

CnI 6. Effect of the Duty on Imports on the Value of Gold. By John Y. Smith,

22 Esq 77-88

7. Requisites to a Reform of the Civil Service of the United States. By

^' Dr. John W. Hoyt, A.M., M. D 89-104

* 8. Natural History as a Branch of Elementary Education. By Dr. P. R.

yg* Hoy, M. D 105-106

^-^ DEPARTMENT OP THE NATURAL SCIENCES.

9. On some Points in the Geology of Northern Wisconsin. By Prof.

Roland Irving, A. M., M. E , 107-119

10. Some of the Peculiarities of the Fauna of Racine. By Dr. P, R.

Hoy, M. D 120-123

4 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

11. Relation of the Sandstones, Conglomerates and Limestones of Baraboo

Valley to each other and to the Azoic Quartzites. By Prof. James

H. Eaton, Ph.D. (Illustrated) 123-12T

12. Note on the Absorption of Arsenic by the Human Liver. By Prof. W.

W. Daniells, B. S 128

13. Some Evidences bearing upon the Method of the Upheaval of the

Quartzites of Sauli and Columbia counties. By Prof. T. C. Chamber-
lin,A.M. (Illustrated) 129-13a

14. On Fluctuations in Level of the Quartzites of Sauk and Columbia

Counties By Prof. T. C. Chamberliu, A.M. (Illustrated) 133-138

15. On a Hand Specimen showing the exact Junction of the Primordial

Sandstones and Huronian Schists. By Prol. Roland Irving, A. M.,

M. E ^^*

16. On the Occurrence of Gold and Silver in Minute Quantities in Quartz

from Clark County. By Prof. Roland Irving, A. M., M. E 140-141

DEPARTMENT OF THK ARTS.

17 On the Wisconsin River Improvement. By Prof. W. J. L. Nicodemus,

A.M.,C.E 142-15^

18. On the Strength of Materials as Applied to Engineering. By John

Nader, Asst. U. S. Engineer 153-160

19. Railway Gauges. By Prof. W. J. L. Nicodemus, A. M., C. E 161-177

DEPARTMENT OP LETTERS.

20. The Etymology of Church. By Prof. John B. Fenling, Ph. D 82-89

21 History of the Science of Hydraulics. By Prof. W. J. L. Nicodemus,

■ A.M.,C.E 193-302

22. The Naming of America. By Prof. J. D. Butler, LL. D 203-219

23 The Rural Classes of England in the 13th Century. By Prof. W. F.

■ „ . ,, 220-2:33

Allen, A. M

24 Ranks and Classes among the Anglo Saxons. By Prof. W. F. Allen,

. ^, 234-240

A. M

VI. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY.

Eighth Meeting of the Acancmy ^ -^

Ninth Meeting of the Academy "

Third Annual Meeting

Treasurer's Report of 1^73

247
Eleventh Meeting of the Academy ,"!.,.,

Fourth Annual Meeting " *'

Treasurer's Report of 1874

Sketch of the Life and Character of Rt. Rev. Bishop W. E. Armitage, Vice

President for the Department of the Social aud Political Sciences 25a

ERRATA.

Page 104, 5th line from bottom, for " them " read " those."
105, hist line on page, for " ghicy " read " glassy."
108, 5tli line from top, place colon after " Wisconsin."
lOsi 8th line from top, and wherever else it occurs, for " copper
bearing rocks," read " Copper-Bearing."

108, 9th line from top, for " lower silurian " read " Lower Silu-

rian."

109, 7th line from top, for " rivers," read " rivers, — "
109, last line, for " its " read " their."

Ill, 5th line from top, for ' schists, one " read " schists. One."
Ill, 4th line from bottom, for " feet, a " read " teet. A."
Ill, 4th " " erase " its."

112' 17th " " for "Keweenau" read "Keweenaw."

II2I 8th " " for " northeasterly " read " northerly."

116* 15th " " for " occupies" read "occupy."

118, IBth " " for " it" read "they."

126 19th " " for " coglomerato " read "conglomer-

ate."'
127,12th " " for "d if;" read "drift."

132^ 11th " " for "phenomena" read "phenome-

non."
135, 7th " " for " five " read " fine."

141, 7th " top, for "silver. And " read "silver; and."

143, 14th " bottom, and elsewhere, for "tertiary" read

" Tertiary."
143, 9th and 10th line from bottom, for ""tcstiary "read "Tertiary."
150, 14th line from top, for " mates " read " mats."
150, last line, after " sand" insert "above."
152, 5th line from below, for "they" read " it."
193-202, wherever it occurs, for " Bouy's " read " Prony's."
198, 15th line from bottom, for " Hetz " read " Metz."
237, 6th line and elsewhere, for "Earl " read "Eorl."

4 Wisconsin Academy of /Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

4

GENERAL OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY.

PRESIDENT :

Dr. J. W. HOYT, Madison

VICE PRESIDENTS :

Dr. S. H. CARPENTER, Madison.

Dr. P. R. HOY, Bacine.

Rev. Dr. G. M. STEELE, - . . . Appleton.

Dr. I. A. LAPHASI, Milwaukee.

Rev. Dr. A. L. CHAPIN, .... Beloit

GENERAL SECRETARY:

Dr. J. E. DAVIES, University of Wisconsin.

TREASURER :

GEO. p. DELAPLAINE, Esq., Madison.

DIRECTOR OF THE MUSEUM:

Prof. ROLAND IRVING, University of Wisconsin.

LIBRARIAN :

DANIEL S. DURRIE, Esq., Madison.

COUNSELORS EX-OFFICIO :

HIS EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR OF THE STATE.

THE LIEUTENANT GOVERNOR.

THE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.

THE PRESIDENT OF THE STATE UNIVERSITY.

THE PRESIDENT OF THE STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

THE SECRETARY OF THE STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

6 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

OFFICERS OF THE DEPARTMENTS.

Departme7tt of Speculative Philosophy.

President E x -Officio. —TYL^ PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.
Vice President. —Bn. S. H. CARPENTER, State University.
Secretary.— R^Y. F. M. HOLLAND, Baraboo.

Department of the Natural Sciences.

President Ex-Offlcio.—TB.'E PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.
Vice President. — Dr. P. R. HOY, Racine.
Secretary.— PnoY. J. H. EATON, Beloit.

Counselors.— VnoY. P.ENGELMANN, Milwaukee; Prof. T. C. CHAM-
BERLIN, Beloit; Prop. J. C. FOYE, Appleton.

Department of the Social and Political Sciences.

President Ex-Offieio.—TR^ PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.
Vice President.— Bky. Dr. G. M. STEELE, Ajipleton.
Secretary.— Rev. F. M. HOLLAND, Baraboo.

Counselors.— T>n. E. B. AVOLCOTT, Milwaukee; Rev. CHARLES
CAVERNO, Amboy III.; Hon. S. D. HASTINGS, Madison.

Department of the Arts.

President Bx-Officio.— THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.
Vice President. — Dr. I. A. LAPHAM, Milwaukee.
Secretary.— Prof. W. J. L. NICODEMUS, State University.
Counselors.— ^M. DUDLEY, Esq., 3Iadison, Hon. J. I. CASE, Racine,
Capt. JOHN NADER, Madison.

Department of Letters.

President Ux-Officio.—T'RE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.
Vice President.— IIy,y. Dr. A. L. CHAPIN, Beloit College.
Secretary.— Prot?. JOHN B. FEULING, State University.
Counselors. — Prop. Joseph EMERSON, Beloit College; Prop. W. F.

ALLEN, State University; Hon. LYMAN C. DRAPER, State

Historical Society.

Corresponding Members.

MEMBERS OF THE ACADEMY.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Prof. E. B. Andrews, LL. D., Marietta College, Marietta, O.

T. Blossom, M. A., M. E., School ot Mines, Columbia College, N. Y.

Dr. N. Bridge, M. D., Chicago, III.

J. G. Brinton, M. D., Philadelphia, Penn.

Prof. E. S. Carr, M. D.,LL. D., University of California, Oakland, Cal,

F. Ebener, Ph. D., Baltimore, Md.

*J. W. Fos lER, LL. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.

J. C. Freer, M. D., President of Rush Medical College, Chicago, 111.

H. P. Gatchell, a. M., M. D., Kenosha, Wis.

Prof. D. C. GiLMAN, President of the University of California, Oakland,

California.
Prof. S. S. Haldeman, LL. D., University of Pennsylvania, Chickis, Pa.
Asa Horr, M. D. President Iowa Institute of Arts and Sciences, Du-
buque, Iowa.
Prof. J. S. Jewell, M. D., Northwestern University, Evanston, 111.
Prof. Oliver Marcy,LL.D., Northwestern University, Evanston, 111.
Prof. L D. McCabe, D. D., Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware. O.
Prof. .1. L. Neavberry, LL. D., Director of the Geological Survey of

Ohio, Columbia College, New York.
Prof. E. Orton, a. M., President Antioch College, Yellow Springs, O.
Prof. J. W. Safford, Director of the Astronomical Observatory at the

University of Chicago 111.
Wm. Le Barron, ;-'tate Entomologist, Geneva, 111.

*Wm. Stimson, M.D., Secretary Chicago Academy of Sciences, Chicago, 111
Prof. N. S. SiiALER, A. M., Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.
J. WiNGATE TuoRNTON, Esq., Boston, Mass.
J. Hammond Trumkull, LL. D., Hartford, Conn.
Prof. M. ScHELE de Vere, LL. D., University of Virginia, Charlotte*

ville, Va.
Prof. A. E. Verrill, A. M., M. D., Yale College, New Haven, Conn.
Prof. James Watson, A, M., Director of the Astronomical Observatory at

Ann Arbor, Mich.
Prof. W. D. Whitney, Yale College, New Haven, Conn.
Prof. Alexander Winchell, LL. D., Chancellor of Syracuse University,

Syracuse, N. Y.

G. Ward, LL. D., President of the University of Western Pennsylvania,

Pittsburg, Penn.
Dr. Edmond'Andrews, A. M., M. D., Chicago Medical College.
Dr. TiiEO. Gill, M. D., Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.
Dr. F.V. Hopkins, M. D., Baton Rouge, La.
Prof. W. B. Porter, St. Louis, Mo.
Dr. Ely Van de Warker, Syracuse, N. Y.
Lewis H. Morgan, LL. D., Rochester, N. Y.
Dr. W. T. Harris, LL. D., St. Louis, Mo.
Herbert P. Hubbell, Esq., Winona, Minn.
John A. McAllister, Esq., Philadelphia,

♦Deceased.

8 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts and Letters.

LIFE MEMBERS.

Hon. J. I. Case, Racine. Jnlin Lawlor, Esq., Prairie du Chien

Ex-Gov. Nelson Dewey, Cassville. Hon. J. L. Mitcliell, Mihvaul^ee.

J. J. Hagermann, Esq., Milwaukee. J. A. Noonan, Esq., Milwaukee.

J. L. Hill, Esq., Madison. Hon J. E. Thomas, Sheboygan Fl's.

Dr. J. W. Hoyt, Madison. Hon. J. G. Thorp, Eau Claire.

Dr. I. A. Lapham, Milwaukee. Hon. S. A. White, Whitewater.

ANNUAL MEMBERS.

Prof. W. F. Allen, A. M., State Uni- Joseph Hobbins, M. D., Madison.

versity, Madison. Hon.E. D. Holton, Milwaukee.

Prest. Oliver Arey, A. M., State Nor- P. R. Hoy, M. D., Racine.

nial School, Whitewater. Prof R. Irving, M. E., State Univer.

*Rt. Rev. Bishop Wm. E. Arniitage, J. T. Kingston, Necedah.

D. D., Milwaukee. J. G. Knapp, Esq., New Mexico.

Hon. Henry Bsetz, Portage City. E. B. Lei and, Esq., Milwaukee.

Moses Barrett, M.D., Waukesha. Prof. T. H. Little, A. M., Wis. Ins.
Hon. H.D. Barron, St. Croix Palls. for the Blind, .Janesville.

Hon. LI. Bi'eese, Madison. Hon. A. S. McDill, M. D.

J. A. Byrne, Madison. Solon Marks, M. D., Milwaukee.

Prof. S.H. Carpenter, LL. D., Univer- R. Z. Mason, LL. D., Appleton,

sity of Wisconsin. Hon. .John Murrish, Mazomanie*

Prot. T. C. Charaberlin, A. M., State Prof Wm. J. L. Nicodemus, U. S.

Normal School, Whitewater. A., State University, Madison.

Rev. C. Caverno, Amboy, Ills. Prof. J. B. Parkinson, A. M., State
Joseph S. Carr, Milwaukee. University, Madis(m.

Prest. A. L. Chapin, D. D., Beloit Rev. J. B. Pradt, A. M.. Madison.

College, Beloit. Ch. Preusser, Pres. Nat. Hist. Soci.
Prest. E. A. Charlton, A. M., State ety, Milwaukee.

Normal School, Platteville. Hon. George Reid, Manitowoc.

Alexander Provis, Esq., Lancaster. H. W. Roby, Esq., Milwaukee.

Prof. W. W. Daniells, State Univer- S. V. Shipman, Esq., Cliicago.

sity, Madison. Hon. Wm. E. Smith, Milwaukee.

Prof. J. E. Davies, State University, Prest. G. M. Steele, D. D., Lawrence

Madison. University. Appleton.

Geo. P. Delaplaine, Esq. Madison. Prest. W. C. Whitford, Milton Col-
W. A. De LaMa^yr, Esq.,Mazomanie. lege, Milton.

Wm. Dudley, Esq. Madison. E. B. Wolcott, M. D., Milwaukee.

Daniel S. Durrie, State Historical So- Rev. A. O. Wright, New Lisbon.

ciety, Madison. R. M. Bashford^A. B., Madison.

Prof. Jas. B. Eaton, Beloit College, Prof. Jos. Emerson, Beloit College.

Beloit. Prof. Alex. Falk, Racine College.

Prof. P. Engelmann, j\i-ilwaukee. Rev. F. M. Holland, A. ]\I.,Baraboo.

Rev. Samuel Fallows, D. D. Presi- Prof. Alex. Kerr, A. M. State Uni-
dent of Wesleyan Univ., Bloom- versity, Madison,

ington. 111. Capt. John Nader, Asst. V. S. Engi-
Prof. J. B. Feuling, Ph. D., Univers- neer, Madison.

ity, Madison. A. C. Parkinson, A. M., IMadison.

A. .J. Finch, Esq., Milwaukee. S. F. Perkins, Esq., Burlington.

Prof. J. C. Foye, A. M. Lawrence E. D. Reade, C. E., Milwaukee.

University, Appleton. Prof. Thure Kumlein, Albion Col-
Hon. S. D. Hastings, Madison. lege, Albion.

J. L. Hauser, Milwaukee. Prof. O. M. Conover, A. M., Mad
C. T. Hawley, Esq., Milwaukee. ison.

♦Deceased.

Charter of the Academy. 9

CHARTER.

AN ACT TO INCORPORATE THE "WISCONSIN ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS."

The people of the State of Wisccnstn, represented in Senate and Assembly,
do enact as follows:

Sectiojst 1. Lucius Fairchild, Nelson Dewey, John W. Hoyt, Increasa

A. Lapham, Alexander Mitchell, Wm. Pitt Lynde, Joseph Hobbins, E.

B. Wolcott, Solon Marks, R. Z. Mason, G. M. Steele, T. C. Chamberliu,
James H. Eaton, A. L. Chapin, Samuel Fallows, Charles Preusscr, Wm.
E. Smith, J. C. Foye, Wm. Dudley, P. Engelmann, A. S. McDill, John
Murrish, Geo. P. Delaplaine, J. G. Knapp, S. V. Sl)ipman, Edward D.
Holton, P. R. Hoy, Thaddeus C. Pound, Charles E. Bross, Lyman C.
Draper, John A. Byrne, O. R. Smith, J. M. Biniiham, Henry Bie'z. LI.
Breese, Thos. S. Allen, S. S. Barlow, Chas. R. Gill, C. L. Harris, J. C.
Squires, George Reed, J. G. Thorp, William Wilson, Samuel D. Hastings,
and D. A. Baldwin, at present being members and officers of an associa-
tion known as " The Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,"
located at the city of Madison, togetlier with tlieir future associates and
successors forever, are hereby created a body corporate by the name and
style of the "Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters," and by
that name shall have perpetual succession; shall be capable in law of
contracting and being contracted with, of suing and being sued, of plead-
ing and being impleaded in all courts of competent jurisdiction; and
may do and perform such acts as are usually j^erformed by like corpor-
ate bodies.

Section 2. The general objects of the Academy shall be to encourage
investigation and disseminate correct views in tlie various departments of
science, literature and the arts. Among the specific objects of the Academy
shall be embraced the following:

1. Researches and investigations in the various departments of the
material, metaphysical, ethical, etlinological and social sciences.

2. A progressive and tlion ugh scientific survey of the State, with a
view of determining its mineral, agricultural and other resources.

8. The advancement of the useful arts, through the applications of
science, and by the encouragement of original invention.

4. The encouragement of tlie fine arts, bj^ means of honors and prizes
awarded to artists for original works of superior merit.

5. The formation of scientific, economical and art museums.

6. Tlie encouragement of philological and liistorical research, the col-
lection and preservation of historic records, and the formation of a gen-
eral library.

7. The ditt'usion of knowledge by the publication of original contribu-
tions to science, literature and tlie arts.

Section 3. Said Academy may have a common seal and alter the same
at pleasure; may ordain and enforce such constitution, regulations and
bj'-hiws as may be necessary, and alter tlie same at pleasure ; may receive
and hold real and personal property, and may use and dispose of the same
at pleasure: provided, that it shall not divert any donation or bequest from

2

10 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

the uses and objects proposed b}-- the donor, and that none of the property
acquired by it shall, in any manner, be alienated other than in the Avay
of an exchange of duplicate specimens, books, and other etlects, with
similar institutions and in the manner specified in the next section of
this act, without the consent of the legislature.

Section 4. It shall be the duty of the said Academy, so far as the same
may be done without detriment to its own collections, to furnish, at the
discretion of its officers, duplicate typical specimens of objects in natural
history to the University of Wisconsin, and to the other schools and
colleges of the State.

Section 5. It shall be the duty of said Academy to keep a careful
record of all its financial and other transactions, and, at the close of each
fiscal year, the President thereof shall report the same to the Governor of
the State, to be by him laid before the Legislature.

Section G. The constitution and by-laws of said Academy now in force
shall govern the corporation hereby created, until regularly altered or
repealed ; and the present officers of said Academy shall be officers of
the corporation hereby created, until their respective terms of office shall-
regularly expire, or until tlieir places shall be otherwise vacated.

Section 7. .A.ny existing society or institution having like objects em-
braced by said Academy n;ay be constituted a department thereof, or be
otherwise connected therewith, on terms mutually satisfactory to the
governing bodies of the said Academy and such other society or institu-
tion.

Section 8. For the proper preservation of such scientific specimens,
books and other collections as said Academy may make, the Governor
shall prepare such apartment or apartments in the Capitol as may be so
occupied without inconvenience to the State.

Section 9. This act shall take eftect and be in force from and after its
passage.

Approved March IG, 1870.

Constitution of the Aaidtmy. 11

CONSTITUTION.

KAME AKD LOCATION.

Section 1. This association shall be called " The Wisconsin Academy
of Sciences, Arts and Letters," and shall be located at the city of Madison,

GENERAL OBJECTS.

Section 3. The general object of the Academy shall be to encourage
investigations and disseminate correct views in tlie various departments
of Science, Literature, and the Arts.

DEPARTMENTS.

Section 3. The Academy shall comprise separate Departments, not
less than three in number, of which those first organized shall be:

1st. The Department of Sjjeciilative Philosophy —

Embracing:

Metaphysics;
Ethics.

2d. The Department of the Social and Political Sciences —

Embracing :

Jurisprudence;
Political Science;
Education;
Public Health:
Social Economy.

dd. The Department of ihe Natural Sciences —

Embracing:

The Mathematical and Physical Sciences;

Natural History.

The Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences.

Ath. The Department of the Arts —

Embracing:

The Practical Arts;
The Fine Arts.

5th. The Department of Letters —

Embracing :

Language ;
Literature;
Criticism;
History.

12 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Section 4. Any branch of these Departments may be constituted a
Section; and any section or group of sections maj' be expanded into a
full Department, whenever such expansion shall be deemed important.

Section 5. Any existing society or institution may be constituted a
Department, on terms approved by two-thirds of the voting members
present at two successive regular meetings of the Academy.

SPECIAL OBJECTS OP THE DEPARTMENTS.

Section 6. The specific objects of the Department of Sciences shall be:

1. General Scientific Research.

2. A progressive and thorough Scientific Survey of the State, under
the direction of the Oflicers of the Academy.

3. Tlie formation of a Scientific Museum.

4. The Ditt'usion of Knowledge by the publication of Original Con-
tributions to Science.

The objects of the Department of the Arts shall be:

1. The Advancement of the Useful Arts, through the Applications of
Science and the Encouragement of Original Invention.

2. The Encouragement of the Fine Arts and the Improvement of
the Public Taste, by means of Honors and Prizes awarded to Works
of Superior Merit, by Original Contributions to Art, and the Formation
of an Art Museum.

The objects of the Department of Letters, shall be:

1. The Encouragement of Philological and Historical Research.

2. The Improvement ot tlie Englisii Language.

3. The Collection and Preservation of Historic Records.

4. The Formation of a General Library.

membership.

Section 7. The Academy shall embrace four classes of governing
members who shall be admitted by vote of the Academy, in the manner
to be prescribed in the By-Laws:

1st. Annual Members, who shall pay an initiation fee of five dollars,
and thereafter an annual fee of two dollars.

2d. Members lor Life, who shall pay a fee of one hundred dollars.

3d. Patrons, whose contributions shall not be less than five hundred
dollars.

4th. Founders, whose contributions shall not be less than the sum of
one thousand dollars.

Provision may also be made for the election of Honorar}- and Corre-
sponding Members, as may be directed in the By-Laws of the Academy.

management.

Section 8. The management of the Academy shall be entrusted to a
General Council ; the immediate control of each Department to a De-
partment Council. The General Council shall consist of the officers of
the Academy, the officers of the Departments, the Governor and Lieuten-
ant-Governor, the Superintendent of Public Instruction, and the Presi-
dent of the State University, the President and Secretary of the State
Agricultural Society, the President and Secretary of tlie State Historical
Society, Counsellors e.v-oJficils, and three Counsellors to be elected for
each Department. The Dep:irtniental Councils shall consist of the Presi-
dent and Secretary of the Academy, the ofiicers of the Department, and
three Counsellors, to be chosen by the Department.

By-Laws of the Academy. 13

OPFICEKS.

Skctiox 9. The officers of the Academy shall be: a President, who
shall be ex-officio President of each of the Departments; one Vice-Presi-
dent for each Department; a General Secretary; a General Treasurer; a
Director of the Museum, and a General Librarian.

Section 10. The officers of each Dei)artment shall be a Vice-Presi-
dent, who shall be e.r-officio a Vice-President of the Academy; a Secreta-
ry, and such other officers as may be created by the General Council.

Section 11. The officers of the Academy and the Departments shall
hold their respective offices for the term of three years, and until their
successors are elected.

Section 12. The first election of officers under this Constitution
shall be hy its members at the first meeting of the Academy.

Section 18. The duties of officers and the mode of their election,
after the first election, as likewise the frequency, place and date of all
meetings, shall be prescribed in the By-Laws of the Academy, which
shall be framed and adopted by the General Council.

Section 14. No compensation shall be paid to any person whatever,
and no expenses incurred for any person or object whatever, except un-
der the authority of the Council.

AMENDMENT.

Section 15. Every proposition to alter or amend this constitution
shall be submitted in writing at a regular meeting; and if two-thirds of
the members present at the next regular meeting vote in the affirmative,
it shall be adopted .

BY-LAWS.

election op members,

1. Candidates for membership must be proposed in writing, by a mem-
ber, to the General Council and referred to a Committee on Nominations;
which Committee may nominate to the Academy. A majority vote shall
elect. Honorary and corresponding members must be persons who have
rendered some marked service to Science, the Arts, or Letters, or to the
Academy.

meetings.

2. The regular meetings of the Academy shall be held as follows:

On the 2d Tuesday in Februarys at the seat of the Academy; and in
July, at such place and exact date as shall be fixed by the Council; the
first named to be the Annual Meeting. The hour shal'l be designated by
the Secretary in the notice of the meeting. At any regular meeting, ten
members shall constitute a quorum for the transaction'of business. Spe-
cial meetings may be called by the President at his discretion, or by re-
quest of any five members of the General Council.

14 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

DUTIES OF OFFICERS.

3. The President, Vice President, Secretaries, Treasurer, Director of
the Museum and Librarian shall perform the duties usually appertain-
ing to their respective offices, or such as shall be required by the Coun-
cil. The Treasurer shall give such security as shall be satisfactory to
the Council, and pay such rate of interest en funds held by him as the
Council shall determine. Five members of the General Council shall
constitute a quorum.

COMMITTEE .

4. There shall be the following Standing Committees, to consist of
three members each, when no other number is specified :

On Nominations.

On Pajiers presented to the Academy.

On Fifiance.

On the Museum.

On the Library.

On the Scientific Survey of the State; -which Committee
shall consist of the Governor, the President of the State
Universit}^ and the President of this Academy.

On Publication; which Committee shall consist of the Pres-
ident of the Academy, the Vice Presidents, and the Gen-
eral S<icretary.

MUSEUM AND LIBRARY.

5. No books shall be taken from the Librarj', or works or specimens
from the Museum, except by authority of the General Council ; but it
shall be the duty of said Council to provide for the distribution to the
State University and to the Colleges and public Schools of the State,
such duplicates of typical specimens in Natural History as the Academy
liiay be able to supply without detriment to its collections.

ORDER OP BUSINESS.

6. The order of business at all regular meetings of the Academy or of
any Department, shall be as follows:

Reading minutes of previous meeting.

Reception of donations.

Reports of officers and committees.

Deferred business.

New business.

Reading and discussion of papers.

SUSPENSION AND AMENDMENT OF BY-LAWS.

7. The By-Laws may be suspended by an unanimous vote, and in case
of the order of business a majority maj- "suspend. They may be amended
in the same manner as is provided for in the constitution for its amend-
ment.

REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT.

His Excellency, William E. Taylor,

Governor of Wisconsin :

Sir — I have the honor to submit the following report of
the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters for the
period commencing September 13, 1872, and ending February
12, 1874 :

The work of the Academy, since the date of my last report,
has steadily progressed, although the number of active mem-
bers has not very considerably increased.

The publication of the first volume of Transactions, by order
of the legislature, inspired confidence in the permanency of the
institution, and has encouraged members to bestow much
laborious effort upon their investigations. It also had the
•effect to gain for the Academy an honorable standing among
organizations of like character throughout the country, and
has even secured to its objects and early labors the attention
and favor of a large number of the learned societies of
Europe.

Since the success of every organization of this kind must
depend upon the extent to which it is able to enlist the services
■of the best cultured and most original minds in the com*
munity, and since the cooperation of such persons cannot reason-
ably be asked for unless the fruits of their investigations are
sure of being published to the world, it is an occasion for con-
gratulation that the legislature has shown a disposition to

16 Wiscoiisin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

make permanent provision for the annual printing and publi-
cation of the Academy's Transactions.*

Of the Several Departments.

The department of Speculative Philosophy was only organ-
ized at the late annual meeting, and has, of course, had no
development. It is represented, however, by interesting and
valuable papers in the collections herewith presented.

The department of the Social and Political Sciences has
yielded results of importance, though but few, considering the
great breadth of its range and the large number of persons
who might with reason be expected to give it the benefit of
their services. Embracing Education, Health, Social Econ-
omy, Political Economy and Jurisprudence, it presents a
variety of distinct fields of great interest and practical im-
portance for the scientific inquiry of nearly every class of
intelligent citizens, and should be instrumental of much good
by directing public attention to errors of principle and practice
in social life and governmental affairs, as well as in contribut-
ing something to the progress of social science itself

The department of the Natural Sciences continues to hold
its precedence as the most active and productive section of the
academy. Its membership includes a considerable number of
professors connected with the State University, Lawrence
University, Beloit College, the State Normal Schools, and
other institutions of learning, besides many scientific gentle-
men not so connected. It is worthy of remark that some of
these have not only been willing to give to the academy the
time necessary to the solution of important scientific problems,
but also to expend considerable sums of money in order to
the making of original observations and studies in the open
field of nature.

* Since the writing of this report, the legislature has, by unanimous consent, made
provision, in the new law relating to public printing, for the future biennial publication,
of the Transactions, in uuifonu style with the first volume.

Report of the President. IT

The department of Arts has not hitherto met the ex-
pectations of those who were active in its organization. The
large number of intelligent gentlemen engaged in agriculture,
mining and manufacture?, as well as the considerable number
of engineers, architects and builders, who have had both scien-
tific training and practical experience, and are competent to-
make valuable contributions to the useful arts, would seem
to warrant the expectation that, under the new efforts to be
put forth by its officers, this department will have a more sat-
isfactory development.

Effort has been made to induce the artists of this state to
unite their forces and effect the organization of a department
of Fine Arts, but, so far, without success. Art has had but
little cultivation, as yet, anywhere in America. Enough has
been done by American artists, however, to demonstrate that
we have artistic genius of a quality to insure to our art a rank
in the future second to that of no other modern nation. An
impetus has already been given to it by the introduction of
art education into many of the schools at the east, and a few
of those at the west — a movement fraught with interest, whether
art be considered in relation to its refining influence upon
the mind of the rising generation, or with reference to its bear-
ings upon the progress of the industrial arts.

An art department, even though it should, for a time, simply
fulfil the offices of an Art Union, bringing artists frequently
together for mutual aid and encouragement, leading to the
gradual formation of a public art museum, and, by its co-opera-
tion with the educational authorities, promote the needed culti-
vation of art in all its various branches, would render a very
important service to the state and to the cause of American
civilization.

The Department of Letters, though it has not made rapid
growth, is nevertheless in a prosperous condition. It is in
the management of gentlemen of deep and varied culture, who
have both prepared and secured for it several papers of real

18 Wisco7isin Academy of /Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

value, and whose zeal in the work is a sure pledge of its suc-
cess.

The Library. -

It is not the poHcy of the Academy to build up a separate
library, but rather to cooperate with the State Ilistorical So-
ciety in sustaining and strengthening the Scientific, Art and
iiiterary Departments of its already extensive Library. This
it will be able to do in a large degree by securing an exchange
of the Academy's Transactions with those of kindred institu-
tions throughout the world, provided its own publications are
regularly issued at short intervals — annually, if possible — and
have sufficient value to command the respect of learned and
scientific bodies having like ends in view. It may be assumed
that the Academy will also be able to render some service by
indicating, as the result of its members' experience, the most
important deficiencies of the Society's Library, especially in
the scientific departments, which are as yet but very imper-
fectly su))plied.

The friends of the State Ilistorical Society should therefore
regard the Academy as another, and deeply interested organ-
ization, resolute in its purpose of promoting the steady and
■rapid growth of an already extensive and valuable collection
of books, in order that it may early become a great State
'Library, rich in all its departments.

The Scientific Museum.

The scientific collections of the Academy have made a less
.rapid increase than we were warranted in expecting, under
the circumstances. Under the provisions of the statute pro-
viding for the survey of the lead region, Mr. John Murrish,
.Commissioner, collected and sent to the Academy a considerable
amount of material, most of which has been placed in the
,museum, although it has not yet been systematically arranged
and labelled.

Report of the President 19

Chapter 292 of the laws of "Wisconsin, " an act to provide
for a complete geological survey " of the state, contains the
following provision :

" Section 3. It shall be the duty of said geological corps, in the
progress of the examinations hereby directed, to collect such specimens
.of rocks, ores, fossils, minerals, etc., as may be necessary to exemplify
the geology of the state; sets of these specimens shall be deposited with
the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, and the State
University, and with each one of the incorporated colleges of the state'
and with each of the normal schools, provided application be made to
the chief geologist before the commencement of the field work."

&^

Under this provision there has doubtless been collected,
during the past year, much valuable material illustrative of
the geology and miiieralogy of Wisconsin ; but, up to this
date — doubtless owing to the lack of time on the part of the
commissioner to make a proper classification and division of
the specimens — little or nothing has been derived from this
source.

For such collections as were sent in by Commissioner Mur-
rish and were without shelf-room for their display, his Excel-
lency, Governor Wastiburn, made suitable provision by the
construction of additional cases.

A large museum, illustrative of the several Departments of
Natural History, is still and for some time must continue to
be a desideratum in Wisconsin. None of those formed by
the collegiate institutions of the State are as yet anything like
adequate to the wants of their Scientific Departments, much
less to the needs of specialists. It is one object of the Acad-
emy to meet this want. And when it has so far advanced as
to have the means of securing exchanges of specimens with
the numerous scientific associations in various parts of the
world with which we are seeking to establish relations, it will
possess extraordinary facilities for the formation of such col-
lections as will greatly subserve the uses of Science and of
Scientific Education in the State.

20 Wisconsiyi Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

But, in order to do this, one requisite is still wanting — name-
ly, the means of properly rewarding the labor of preparing
specimens and conducting the business of exchange. Add
this to the labor of keeping the records of meetings, conduct-
ing the correspondence, home and foreign, and attending to
the preparation, printing and distribution of the Transactions
— all of which has hitherto been performed gratuitously by
the President and General Secretary — and it must be apparent
that the Academy cannot fairly begin the fulfilment of its
mission without pecuniary resources sufficient to salary a Sec-
retary, who shall give his entire lime and efforts to its work.
And when thus provided, there will immediately arise neces-
sities for yet further means to meet the incidental expenses of
office and Museum,

I therefore desire to emphasize these pressing needs of the
academy, in order that the purposes for which its scientific
department was organized may be kept distinctly before its
friends, and that measures may the sooner be put in operation
for realizing the funds so clearly requisite to the success of the
academy. It is believed that when the objects of the acad-
emy come to be better understood, the number is not few of
those who will so far appreciate their importance as to regard
it a privilege to take Lite Members', Patrons', or even Found-
ers' certificates, or to otherwise contribute to its pecuniary re-
sources.

The Treasurer's Ekport.

The present financial condition of the Academy is shown
by the report of the Treasurer for the fiscal year ending Feb-
ruary, 1874.

The Eesults of Work Done

By members of the Academy since the date of the last pub-
lished report, are chiefly embodied in the following papers :

it

Rfport of the President 21

*' Population and Sustenance," by Dr. G. M. Steele, LL.D., President of
Lawrence University,

*'The Rural Classes in England in the Thirteenth Century," by Prof. "W.
F. Allen, A. M., State University.

"Vexed Questions in Ethics," by Rev. F. M. Holland, A. M., Baraboo.
Requisites to a Reform in the Civil Service of tlic United States," by
Dr. J. W. Hoyt, President of tiie Academy.

"On the Classification of Animals," by Dr. P. R. Hoy, M. D., of Racine.

"On Some Peculiarities of the Fauna of Wisconsin," by Dr. Hoy.

^' Ou the Relation of the Sandstone Conglomerates and the Limestone of
the Azoic of Baraboo Valley," by Prof. J. H Eaton, A. M., of Beloit
College.

" Results of an Analysis of the Black River Falls Iron Ore," by Prof. R.
Irving, M. E., State University.

" On the Geographical Distribution of the Quartzite of Sauk and Colum-
bia Counties," by Prof T. C. Chamberliu, A. M., State Normal
School, "Whitewater.

" On the Metamorphic Rocks of Portland, Dodge County, and other Lo-
calities in the State," by Prof R. Irving, M. E., State University.

" On the Occurrence of Gold and Silver in minute quantities in the
Quartz of Clark County," by Prof R. Irving, M. E.

" Railway Gauges," by Prof. W.J. L. Nicodemus, A. M., C. E., State Uni.
versity.

" Fish Culture in Wisconsin — and its Claims upon the State," by Dr. J.
W. Hoyt, President.

"On General Correlations," by E. D. Reade, C. E., Milwaukee.

"The Metaphysical Basis of Science,'' by Prof S. H. Carpenter, LL.
D., State University.

" On Several Points in the Pronunciation of Latin and Greek," by Prof.
S. S. Haldeman,LL. D., Cor. Member, Philadelphia.

"Results of the Analysis of certain Ores and Minerals," by Prof W. W.
Daniells, M.S., State University.

"Analysis of the Madison Building Stone," by T. E. Bowman, State Uni-
versity.

" Discussion of evidence bearing upon the Method of Upheaval and
Fluctuations of the Quartzite of Sauk and Columbia Counties, by
Prof T. C. Chamberlin, A. M., State Normal School, Whitewater.

"Potentials and their Application to Physical Science," by Dr. John E.
Davies, M. D., State University.

" Ou the Relative Import of Language," by Prof. John B. Feuling, Ph.
D., State University.

" On the Place of Natural History in Primary Education," by Dr. P. R.
Hoy, Vice President.

22 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

"Remarks upon the late Rt. Rev. Bishop Armitage, President of the De-
partment of Social Science," by the President of the Academy.

" On Ranks and Classes among Anglo-Saxons," by Prof. Wm. F. Allen..

*' On the Naming of America," by Prof. J. D. Butler.

" On the Origin of the word ' Church ' "—by Prof. John B. Fouling.

" On the Strength of Materials," by Capt. J. Nadir, of U. S. Corps of
Topographical Engineers.

" On the Age of the Copper Bearing Rocks of Lake Superior," and " On
the Westward Continuation of the Lake Superior Synclinal." By
Prof. Roland Irving.

" On Records of Marriages," by Rev. F. M. Holland.

" Progress of the Science of Hydraulics," by Prof. W. J. L. Nicodemus^
A. M., C. E.

" On some Sample Applications of the Potential Function," also papers
on " Molecular Vortices in Electro-Magnetism," and on " Magnetic
Rotary Polarization of Light," by Prof. John E. Davies.

" On the Measurement of the Years of Yore," by Dr. Edmund Andrews,
M. D., L.L. D., late President of the Chicago Academy of Sciences

"The Philosophy of Evolution," by Dr. S. H. Carpenter.

" On Peculiarities of the Fauna of Wisconsin," by Dr. P. R. Hoy.

" Effects of a Duty on Imports upon the Value of Gold," by Hon. Joha
Y. Smith.

On behalf of the Academy, I have the honor to be,
Very respectfully,

Your Excellency's obedient servant,

JOHN W. HOYT,

President,

Madison, February, 1871

DEPARTMENT OF SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY..

THE METAPHYSICAL BASIS OF SCIENCE.

BY PROF. S. n. CARPENTER, LL. D.,

Univeri-ity of Wisconsin, M«di80u.

All knowledge is essentially one. The object-matter upon-
which intellect exerts itself, does not affect the subjective act-
of knowing. Physics, when stripped of that which is merely
contingent, becomes metaphysics. Physical science deals with
object-matter, and discusses the signs by which nature com--
municates her message — that is, phenomena. Metaphysical
science has to do with the subject-mind, and discusses the"
meaning of the message. The one converts God's hieroglyph-
ics into easily-intelligible language; the other translates this-
language into Idea. If this be true, there must be a unity of
method in all science, however great the diversity of the ob-
ject-matter investigated. This method is subjectively deter-
mined, that is, by the constitution of the mind, and not by the-
particular form of matter upon which intellectual energy may be
exerted. If there is an essential unity in all knowledge, it Ifl-
because there is a corresponding unity of method in all mental
activity. It is only when we look upon what is to be known,
that truth separates into sciences ; but particular truths become
particular sciences only under assumed relations to the whole
of which they form a part.

Objectively considered, science is classified knowledge; sub--
jectively viewed, it is the laws or principles according to which
knowledge is classified. Every actor implies an act — every'

•24: Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

thinker a thought. "We may therefore universally make this
dual classification, according as we view the mental operation
involved, or the attributes of objects which form the subject
-of thought. The possibility of science is conditioned upon
the possibility of classification. Mere knowledge is not sci-
ence, as the world ought to have learned by costly experience.
Even classified knowledge may not be science ; it becomes
science not through previous classification, but in the act of
"being classified, and therefore only as the principle of classifi-
cation is apprehended — that is, only as the particular applica-
tion of the law of generalization is distinctly recognized. A man
may know a book and know nothing more ; he knows the sci-
ence only when he is capable of making the book for himself.
"Mere knowledge thus differs from science in that the one is
held only by the apprehensive powers of the mind, while the
-other passes beyond these into the reflective or ratiocinative.
Pure science, then, must be wholly abstract. The forms and
substances of Nature with which the scientific student deals,
;are only the discrete figures of the young mathematician, to
be thrown aside with advancing knowledge. Matter is only
the staff on which the mind leans, while too feeble to go alone.
It is not the finely chiseled statue that renders a man a sculp-
tor; it is the conception which is therein embodied. A day-
laborer may have cut the stone, but only the artist could con-
cewQ the idea. So in science, we care but little for the particu-
lar results at which we arrive, compared with the laws,
according to which the results have been attained.

But conceptions cannot be communicated without being
rendered objective. The ideal of the artist is locked up in his
own mind, until on canvas, in marble, or by means of some
other physical symbol, he communicates his high imaginings.
Matter, then, according to the present constitution of things is
the condition of intellectual communication. Law cannot be
studied as abstract law ; it can be studied only while acting,
a,Dd that which exhibits this activity must be matter — some-

The Metaphysical Basis of Science. 25

thing which will always and uniformly obey. There can be no
conception of force except as acting, and the sole medium of
such activity is matter. Thus again, matter is the condition
of all communication from nature to man. Science is thus, in
a measure, determined by the conditions of its discovery and
communication. But we must distinguish between an invari-
able condition and that which is thus conditioned. Matter is
not science ; it is only the condition of its discovery and com-
munication. Air is not hearing; it is the condition of hear-
ing. We do not study matter for the sake of the matter
when we study science, but for the sake of the law communi-
cated to us in these changes of matter, and Law is a metaphy-
sical, not a physical idea. Reason, not sense, apprehends it.
Law is, so to speak, formulated in the physical, but it is not
material. Matter is only the vehicle of science, as language is
the vehicle of thought.

It is plain, then, that just as in mathematics we have a di-
vision into pure and mixed, according as we deal with matter
in the abstract or in the concrete, so we may in any science
make a corresponding division, according as we confine our
attention to the laws revealed by matter or to the matter re-
vealing the laws: in other words; just as we give attention to
the ideas of the message, or to the language in which it is
communicated. The language must first be learned, but the
words used to communicate the message may be separately
understood, and yet the meaning of the message wholly
missed. Knowing only the one makes a charlatan ; knowing
the other makes a savan. The sciences based upon this ob-
jective study of Nature are denominated Natural Sciences;
and because they lisp the first syllables of Nature's message
to man, they should be his primary teachers. It is by their
aid that the universal message of God to man must be read.
They form, as it were, a public highway leading from Nature
to God. But the difficulty is that observing men become so
absorbed in admiring some splendid piece of Divine engin-

26 Wisco7isin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

eering that they stop to gaze and wonder, until losing sight of
everything above and beyond, they refuse to advance, fondly
imagining that they have reached the end of the journey.

The science based upon this subjective study of Nature is-
called metaphysics. Logic has been defined as " The Science
of Thought;" it should be termed "The Science of Think-
ing." It is not a dead body which we are studying by dissec-
tion, but a living, vital Force, which we study by observing its
activities'. We find here the same error which we find else-
where— a stopping with the material symbol, and an ignoring
of the intellectual force which clothed itself with the symbol.
Astronomy is not the science of circles and spheres, ellipses
and ellipsoids, but of the Force whose sensible utterances are
given in these curves. We might as well call Painting the
science of pictures, or Sculpture the science of statues. So
Language, the medium of thought, is only a symbol, less-
material indeed than pictures and statues, but still physical..
What we want in " The Science of Thinking " is not the
knowledge of symbols, but the knowledge of that which is-
symbolized. The chemist does not care for the compounds he-
finds in his retort; he seeks after the truth which these com-
pounds formulate. Metaphysics and Physics evidently agree
in this ; that both are seeking to frame an articulate utterance
of the Idea given in the diverse manifestations of Force — the
Idea which includes all Potencies, the summing up of all
phenomena into that final generalization which includes the
intellectual as well as the material, until at last we reach the
essential unity of all Truth.

Science, then, is classification, or the discovery of the prin-
ciples of classification, rather than an arbitrary acquaintance
with things classified. Every science, however, must have an
objective expression — that is, must be formulated. In this^
both metaphysical and physical science agree; the only differ-
ence in this respect is, that in Physics, Nature gives us in the
first place the material interpretation of the idea — that is,

The Metaphysical Basis of Science. 27

the basis of classification — which we have only to translate
into idea : while in metaphysics, we tirst have the idea to which
"we must furnish the objective utterance. We see here the
precise difference between what is called the logical and the
natural method — the one being usually called the reverse of
the other. The difference is not so much a difference in intel-
lectual procedure as in objective expression. For instance:
The botanist has before him the whole range of vegetable
forms. He notes resemblances and differences, and groups
plants into species and genera, but his work is not ended when
these are named and known, and their qualities discovered.
He is seeking amidst these multifarious forms for the law of veg-
etable growth and reproduction. Every organ of the plant is
the symbol of an idea, and these ideas form the science of Bot-
any. These Ideas are metaphysical — that is intellectual, and
only their sensible manifestation is physical. The symbols of
these Ideas, being given in Nature, must be learned from obser-
vation before they can be used intelligently, just as words
must be learned before one can speak a language. Mastery of
the means of expression is as essential to the comm.unication:
of ideas ar, is the possession of the ideas themselves. The
botanist observes an individual plant, and notes its character-
istics. He observes others which possess some of these char-
acteristics whilst others are wanting. He forms a class-type
from these agreeing attributes, and gives this new collocation
of characteristics a name. Nature never presents this
class-type absolutely ; it is found nowhere but in intellect.
What has the botanist done but to retranslate the communica-
tion of Nature into Idea, and then to express this idea by less
complicated and less physical symbols? Man's province in
this case is simply to interpret the hieroglyphics of Nature
into a more readily, comprehended language — to express that
simply which nature has expressed confusedly. The scientist
restricts himself to the interpretation of a single class of sym-
bols, as the Botanist to plants, the Zoologist to animals, but the

28 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

end sought in each case is the same — that is, to change all
these physical utterances of Nature into Idea, and to secure
for this Idea a method of expression involving the least pos-
yible materiality of symbol — that is, to change individual facts
and phenomena into general principles, which, because ab-
stract, are unchangeable. When this has been done, the work
of the Naturalist ceases, but the work of Man, the Thinker is
not done; it is only just begun. By assuming the ultimate
expressions of the various natural sciences as individual and
not as typiiial, we can treat the truths reached by them pre-
cisely as the Botanist treated plants, and, rejecting points of
of difference, may find in them all some central idea. This is
the province of the metaphysician. Hs seeks the law of Idea,
he determines the law of Thinking, j ust as all other laws are de-
termined, from a study of the symbols formulating its expres-
sion in Nature. When this law has been distinctly enunciated,
and freed from all intermixture with the contingent, then the
work of the metaphysician ceases, the summum genus has been
reached. The truths communicated in the symbols of Nature,
have been correlated and enunciated, and finally translated
from the dialect of man the physical into the language of man
the intellectual. Physical science determines the separate
words of this message of God, the letters of which are scattered
throughout Nature. Metaphysics combines these words into
propositions which enunciate a distinct truth. There is there-
fore neither conflict nor variation between the method of Logic
and the method of Nature. The movement of both is in the
same direction ; the only difference is in the point of starting.
And another truth no less important, which follows from the
foregoing discussion, is that the method of Nature is funda-
mental to the method of Logic. Physics should precede meta-
physics, but not exclude it ; both are essential to every true
science, and physics, v/hich stops with physics, leads man by
dazzling promises into some Utopian desert only to leave him
there to die of hunger. And it is no less true that metaphys-

The Metaphysicdl Basis of Science. 29

ics, without this basis in experimental science, is illusory and
untrustworthy, wherever the original data are necessarily em-
pirical.

Two conditions are thus necessary to all science : a body of
knowable truth capable of being systematized; and an intelli-
gence capable of apprehending and systematizing it. One of
these conditions is physical and one is metaphysical ; and all
true science must be the resultant of Law and Idea, the Ob-
jective and the Subjective, the twin forces of Nature and Man.
If either of these conditions be wanting, there can be no true
science, for science can neither be "evolved from; the depths of
the personal consciousness," nor can the scattered letters of
scientific truth, as given in nature, arrange themselves into
the words of a significant message. Knowledge must be
classified before it is science, and that which classifies can
only be intellect — discovering and enunciating this classifi-
cation according to the laws of mental action. As promi-
nence is given to one or other of these two conditions we have
the division into Logical and Natural, but the fundamental
principle of classification is the same in both — it being simply
the law of intellectual action — just as the law which governs
the action of the levers of a loom will determine the pattern
of the woven fabric. There can, therefore, be no conflict
between the methods of Logic and those of Nature. The
determining element in all classification, whether of the
phenomena of Mind or of the grosser phenomena of Matter
is uniformly and always the same — the law of intellectual
action.

Science then resolves itself into a determination of this Law
of mental activity, so that in an ultimate analysis, all science is
metaphysical, just as all science primarily is physical. Here,
as elsewhere, Law can be studied only in its objective mani-
festations. The Law of Thinking can be educed only from
expressed Thought, but the Law is not objective thought, any
more than the idea of the sculptor is marble, or the conception

80 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

of the painter is paint. The simplest expression of thought
is not the syllogism but the logical proposition. Now, it is
plain that if the proposition is the formulation — the material
representative of thought — if we study it as we study other
natural symbols, we will find in it the fundamental Law of
Thinking, and ultimately the fundamental Law of all Science :
Just as, if it were possible to reduce all elementary substances
to one, the chemist would be able to find in that one a con-
densed expression of chemical science.

What then is a proposition? Simply stated, it is the as-
sertion of relation between two terms ; or more abstractly, it
is the reference of an individual to its species — the assertion of
a classification. We find here the same duality which we
noticed above. If we give prominence to the individual
notion, we consider the proposition in extension ; if we turn
our attention to the specific notion we consider the proposition
in intention : in the one case referring to the individuals com-
posing the class, in the other to the attributes composing the
class-type. The first corresponds to induction, the second to
deduction. When we study individuals we study physics ;
when we study the attributes composing the class- type, we
study metaphysics. The Law of Thinking as educed from a
study of the proposition is the law of classification. The
proposition, considered affirmatively, asserts explicitly agree-
ment between certain attributes of two terms ; that is, it asserts
a classification. The aim of science is to reach this proposition,
to discover and assert the principle of classification — in other
words, to formulate metaphysically what nature has presented
physically. We must find, then, the first or fundamental
law of thinking in this integration or classification. This
fundamental law may be subdivided into two species, accord-
ing to the two terms of the proposition ; of which the first may
be stated thus : " Every possible object of thought is to a cer-
tain extent identical with every other "; and as the proposition
implicitly states disagreement, the second may be stated thus :

The Metaphysical Basis of Science. 31

«

-" Every possible object of thought is to a certain extent diverse
from every other." The first gives the positive (subjective)
condition of the proposition, the second the negative (objec-
tive) condition : both together constitute the conditions of
thinking. The proposition is thus the assertion of the same in
the different. The proposition also asserts, implicitly, the
iertiura quid^ or the basis of classification — the class-type, to
which both terms are referred — that is, the proposition second-
arily asserts an analysis. According to the first condition we
have the inductive process ; according to the second we have
the deductive process. A complete movement of idea from
its purely physical symbolization to its metaphysical interpre-
tation, must involve both these processes.

The mind possesses the power of analysis ; it can watch its
own operations and retrace its steps, until it arrives at the
original data of consciousness ; but analysis cannot comprise
the whole of the logical process. Before there can be analysis
there must be something to be analyzed; before steps can be
retraced, they must be taken. We must not confound a con-
dition with a Law — the one is a conception antecedent to all
action, a genus to which the particular activity may be
referred ; the other is coincident with action. The one is the
medium of the other. We may illustrate this idea by science
itself, which is reached only by an analysis of Art. Matter is
the condition of the expression of an idea; hence to all but
the artist. Art must precede Science, but this cannot be in the
case of the artist; in his mind the Idea is first conceived, and
there it is given expression in the forms of Art. Here, as uni-
formly in Nature, the whole absolutely precedes the part — ■
the universal exists before the particular — God before man.
Truth absolute thus exists before truth conditioned. Science
iDefore Art. Remove conditions and the conditioned becomes
the absolute; art and science coincide. But truth which is
assumed to be out of all relations, cannot be comprehended by
man, and practically is not. Even the universal propositions

32 Wisconsin Academy of /Sciences, Arts, and Ltittrs.

of deduction express universality under conditions — that is
universality cf relation; just as inSnity in mathematics means
that which passes measurement, while in fact between infinity
and measurement there is no relation, and the infinite is thus
incomprehensible as an object of thought, although by no
means unrecognizable as a necessary condition antecedent to
all intellectual action. It is of vital importance that we note
this distinction, because reasoning, i. e. classification, is pos-
sible only so long as we deal with what is admitted to be
under relation : if we assume a terra to be out of all relation,
it ceases to be an object of thought — it can neither be classi-
fied nor unclassified ; it is beyond reason. Mathematics can
proceed with its investigations only so long as it treats all
quantities as measurable ; it must wholly cease its calculations
if an infinite term be introduced. To claim that analysis
represents the complete normal action of the intellect in
reasoning, is ultimately to claim that the initial point of
thinking is the summum genus of thought — God. Now God
is undoubtedly the initial point of absolute thought, but he is
not the beginning of human thought. Intellectually speaking,
God is the final geaeralization; every movement possible to
him must be one of analj^sis — a differentiation of Himself, so
to speak, by negatives. Thus the course of absolute Thought,
beginning with God, must be first towards a complete differ-
entiation into ultimate individualization; and lastly a com-
plete integration again of individuals into an infinite whole.
This dual action completes the circle of intellectual activity.
We have dropped attribute after attribute until we have
reached the last possible analysis ; but we do not stop here,
but by the assumption of attributes we again reach the highest
possible synthesis. This must be the method of the divine
activity, successive difi:erentiation and integration, the closing
in of a mighty circle of infinity, embracing all the finite, but
never losing the essential characteristic of the infinite.

Now, if this also represent the exact movement of the finite

The Meta'pliysical Basis of Science. 33

mind in action — that is, in reasoning, man must be God. Man
is finite. Even his infinite is only the immeasurable — not
that which is without the category of measure. He cannot
begin where the Infinite begins, at the highest possible gener-
alization,— but he must begin with the finite. If what we
have shown above be true, man must begin with the individ-
ual, and the first mental act of the positive character of think-
ing, is the reference of this individual notion to a class. Now
the class-notion is the same as the individual notion, less cer-
tain attributes as individual attributes, but gathered into a
larger whole. This process is plainly integration ; we are
rejecting from the new conception whatever prevents enlarging
the class. Each higher generalization involves all the attrib-
utes of the lower, not individually, but specifically or generi-
cally. In the final generalization, extension and intension
coalesce. Just as we reach the individual by differentiating a
universal through successive negations, we reach the univer-
sal again, by integration, by successively denying the negations
through which we just now differentiated. The movement of
the finite mind in reasoning is thus from the individual
through the universal to the individual again.

Science thus parts into two great branches — one seeking to
establish principles by what we have called integration, and
the other the elucidation of facts by a priori reasoning in-
stead of observation. That is, the aim of true science is to
free man from the restrictions of the finite, and to place him
in possession of the infinite — the closing in of a lesser circle
of infinite truth, yet never losing hold upon the finite. In
accordance with this view we see science pursuing its integra-
tions until it has identified as composing an essential unity all
the various manifestations of force. This is the finite becom-
ing the infinite, for unity is, in so far, infinity — God is one, a
unity, not a unit. But we also see science going beyond this
point, and by a new series of differentiations reaching truths
new to experience, if indeed not impossible to experience.

S4: Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Between these two limits all knowledge is forever moving.
It can never rest. The tide of thought sweeps onward to-
wards the infinite — God following it to its final absorption into
the I Am, simple being, — while finite man, because of his
finiteness, can only reach those universals which are infinite
only to human thought. Like men on a journey we leave the
train when we have reached our journey's end, but the train
passes on out of sight in the distance, sending back, now and
then, tokens of its progress, as it thunders over a bridge, or
whistles shrill as it nears some further stopping place, until at
last all is still, not because the train has stopped, but because
we can follow it no further with our senses. Even after sci-
ence has reached the utmost limit possible to it, it is not satis-
fied to rest there, but starts at once upon its return trip, to
bring to notice undiscovered facts hidden in these mighty
generalizations. Thus the pendulum of intellectual activity
unceasingly vibrates between the infinite and the finite, never
resting, because Idea and Matter, the force of Man and the force
of Nature can never be completely identified.

Vexed Questions in Mines. 35

YEXED QUESTIONS IN ETHICS.

BY REV. F. M. HOLLAND, A. M., BAKABOO, WISCONSIN.

The best and wisest people differ widely about what is right.
John Brown, Stonewall Jackson and Abraham Lincoln, were
equally conscientious in their ideas of the duty of Americans
towards slavery and the Union. Ardent friends of morality
take opposite sides about liquor laws, taxation of church
property, Sunday amusements and the use of the bible in the
public schools. Similar differences of opinion exist about the
duty of dealers to mention defects in their wares, the propriety
of giving to strangers who appear needy, and the obligation of
speaking the truth when it seems likely to do harm. We
need some general rule for solving all such problems, some
acknowledged test of right and wrong, some practical moral
standard. Two honest men might easily quarrel about the
length of a plank, if they had no rule to measure it by ; and
we quarrel continually about moral dimensions, because we
have no established system of measurement.

About a dozen different systems are advocated by moralists,
but the fact that there are so many proves that no one has
been made sufficiently accurate to take the proper place.
This diversity of opinion, about the moral standard, arises
from the general disagreement about the essential peculiarity
of right, distinguishing it from wrong. Corresponding ques-
tions are — what is conscience, and what is the ground of moral
obligation ?

We may find great assistance in solving these almost iden-
tical problems, by turning our attention to another one, which
was thought fundamental in ancient ethics, but has received
too little attention from modern thinkers, namely, what is our

86 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

supreme end, highest good, or rightful ultimate aim ? The
question once asked by classic philosophy, concerning the Sum-
mum Bonum,'has been reiterated by Christian theologians in the
form of " What is the chief end of man," but modern moralists
have not agreed upon an answer. If they had, they conld
easily have been unanimous about the true moral standard.
Given the supreme end, this standard is found in the fact that
■whatever tends towards the supreme end is right, and every-
thing else wrong in proportion to the degree of obliquity. The
true moral test is that of direction towards the highest good.
We must locate this pole in ethics before we make a compass.
Modern philosophers generally make the compass first, and try
to find a pole afterwards, so that we have some dozen com-
passes pointing all sorts of ways.

One of the oldest and most popular ethical systems, how-
ever, owes its commanding influence to its persistent attempt
to identify the moral standard with the supreme end. This pe-
culiarity has won the co-operation of such keen philosophers
as Epicurus, Pliny, Gassendi, Hume, Locke, Bentham, Mackin-
tosh and Mill, to which great names might be added those of
Lucretius, Horace, Lucian, Moliere, Rochefoucauld, VoltuirC;
Franklin and Lincoln. Rapid progress is being made in this
country, as well as in Europe, by this system, which, asserting
the supreme end to be Universal Happiness, pronounces all
actions right or wrong, according to their tendency to increase
or diminish the greatest good of the greatest number. Such at
least is the utilitarian formula, which, however, takes an un-
fair advantage of the fact that the word " good" has two senses,
sufficiently distinguished in common use, and means some-
times pleasant or productive of happiness, and sometimes obli-
gatory or obedient to the moral law. The term good may de-
note either that a dinner is well cooked or that an action is
moral. We are practically so well aware of the different signi-
fications of goodness as applied to cooking or to conduct, that a
system, which founds itself on an attempt to confound together

Vexed Questions in Ethics. 87

euub radically distinct ideas, is self-condemned. We all know
that the least pleasant duties are commonly the most obliga-
tory. The great mystery of life is that true happiness never
comes to those who seek nothing higher. The attempt to make
happiness the supreme end defeats itself

Still another objection to utilitarianism has been powerfully
stated by Lecky and Herbert Spencer, namely, that there is so
great difference of opmion about the real nature and condi-
tions of happiness, that no firm standard of morality can be
erected on such an unstable foundation.

Serious as are the defects of the greatest happiness theory,
however, no moralist can hope to displace it, unless he suc-
ceeds as least as well in recognizing the supreme end in his
moral standard. Most anti-utilitarians and semi-utilitarians
make no attempt to reconcile these two ideas, but separate
them so plainly as to make their systems self-contradictory.
This is especially the case with the intuitionalists, or believers
in the supreme authority, if not infallibility, of conscience,
which theory is further proved to be defective by the exist-
ence, not only of such great differences of opinion among its
followers about many practical questions, like non-resistance,
prohibition and free-love, as to demonstrate its inability to
supply a moral standard which can be used with suflBeiently
uniform results to make it valuable, but also of so irrecon-
cilable a controversy between leading philosophers, about the
very fact of our possessing any independent and original in-
tuitions, that to assert them as the foundation of a moral sys-
tem is too much like building a house on a lot of land, about
the title to which there is a law suit. The true system of mo-
rality must recognize supreme good higher than happiness, and
plain enough to be its own self evident authority, independent
of all metaphysical and theological disputes, so that the moral
standard shall be fully demonstrated by its connection with
the supreme end. It is also necessary that the true moral
standard should not be liable to be disturbed by individual

88 Wiscojisin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

differences of inclination and interest, and should be applica-
ble to all the relations of life and capable of supplying all
needed moral precepts. The true statement of the ethical
end and standard must be its own detinition and demonstra-
tion and need no help from any other theory.

The Philosophj of Evolution. 3^'

THE PHILOSOPHY OF EVOLUTION.

BY PROF. S. H. CARPENTER, LL. D., UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN.

The intellectual processes of a rational being must proceed'
according to some law. They cannot succeed each other at
hap-hazard. The notion of rationality is conditioned upon this
regular procedure; if this be wanting, the essential character
of rational action is wanting. But to say that rational processes
are determined by law, and conditioned upon a regular proce-
dure, is simply to assert that the steps in ratiocination are so
related to each other that the relation of each to every other
may be determined by the application of the law — the differ-
ence between any two steps being analogous to the difference
between any other two. The astronomer determines the orbit
of a planet from three observations, because he thereby deter-
mines the law of variation between these points ; from which
he assumes that this law will be constant, presenting a series
of terms each differentiated accoiding the series of differ
ences already determined.

Applying the same principle to mental phenomena, wc may
determine the law of intellectual action. Thoughts are dis-
criminated by the presence or absence of certain attributes.
At one extreme we find the summum genus, comprising the
fewest possible attributes distinguishing an idea; at the other
extreme we find the individual, comprising any number of at-
tributes. Between these two extremes we find a regular ser-
ies of intermediate terms. The movement of an idea from the
general to the individual is like the motion of a planet through
one-half of its orbit; while the return movement from the in-
dividual to the general, corresponds to the motion of the planet
over the remaining half of its orbit The same law governs
both movements and unites the two halves of the orbit into a

40 Wiscoimn Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

single whole ; and a series of observations taken at eq'ual dis-
tances, will, by the uniformity of differences presented, reveal
the operation of the same law in this dual manifestation. Up-
on examining the processes of deduction and induction, we
find in each the same series of terms, differing only in the fact
that they are in inverse order, and this correspondence reveals
the operation of one and the same law. An inductive series
is only a deductive series read backward. Any two terms in
a series whether inductive or deductive, differ only in the de-
gree of generality, and differ similarly from a third terra, so
that two being known the third can be therefrom determined.
In a deductive series the terms differ by a constant increase in
the number of individualizing attributes — a concept being ex-
panded into a deductive series by such regular additions.
Having two terms we can proceed to the third — that is, from
two propositions expressing this relation, we can proceed to a
conclusion. In an inductive series the terms differ by a con-
stant diminution in the number of individualizing attributes —
an individual term being expanded into an inductive series,
by successively dropping the attributes which compose the in-
dividual term, until we reach the required degree of^ generali-
zation.

Thought must proceed in one of these two directions. The
object-matter of thought being composed wholly of attributes
can differ only in the presence or absence of certain attributes.
A combination, then, of these two movements must complete
the intellectual orbit. The direction of the movement of the
mind will be determined by the end proposed. When we pos-
sess the knowledge of phenomena and wish to discover law —
that is, when we seek information — we proceed by induction,
from the individual to the general. When possessed of knowl-
edge, we wish to discover its applications, wlien knowing the
law, we wish to determine the phenomena necessarily resulting
therefrom, we proceed by deduction — from the general to the
individual. Complete knowledge, then, consists in the highest

The Philosopliy of Evolution. 41

possible generalization, and the expansion of this term into a
series, ending only with the last possible individualization.
The aim of physical science is to determine that half of the in-
tellectual orbit which lies between the individual and the gen-
eral— the aim of metaphysical science is to trace the other
half which lies between the general and the individual. When
we seek to know what is, we proceed by induction — the meth-
od of the phenomenal. When, knowing what is, we proceed
to determine what hence must be, we proceed by deduction —
the method of the Necessary. Thus Science, at first seeking
principles, proceeds by induction to establish them ; but after
these fundamental principles have been established, it proceeds
deductively to determine what must result from them, without
waiting to discover these truths by observation.

Knowledge is thus complete just in proportion to the ex-
tension of it;5 scope through generalization. The higher the
generalization, the more inclusive will it be, and the summiim
genus, or the final generalization, will be the highest attainable
reach of knowledge. When man can make no further gener-
alization, his knowledge will be, in so far, absolute and com-
plete, and all that remains possible to him will be the practical
application of what he already knows. Perfect knowledge is
nothing but perfect generalization. The Supreme Intelligence
being hypothetically possessed of all knowledge, that is, hav-
ing discriminated the absolute summum genus, can proceed no
further in this direction ; his intellectual activity must be ex-
erted in a descendmg series, or from the general towards the
individual, and this process must be, as we have seen above,
by a deterrninate series of steps, fixed by the operation of a
definite law, which law proceeds by the successive addition of
attributes to the general.

Complete knowledge, being complete generalization, the
Imes of all science will necessarily converge, as they approach
this generalization, until all sciences coalesce in one science,
and all truth is reduced to a single expression in the utterance

42 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

of the final conception. In accordance with the laws of think-
ing, this general term is reached bj successive omissions of
particularizing attributes, until at last we reach Being — the
absolute summum genus, wholly free from individual attrib-
utes, and thereby embracing everything possible to thought,
whether material or immaterial. But this summum germs
must be predicable of this whole. Matter and mind may thus
be reduced to a single category, and the physical and the
intellectual finally coalesce in this last generalization. Mater-
ialism and idealism thus differ merely in the degree of gener-
alization reached — or rather they both agree in avoiding the
final generalization which identifies both matter and mind.
Materialism must always deal with the individual, for matter
can appear under no other form. Idealism must always rest
upon the general, for thought, to be thought, must state a
generalization. Each, however, finds its explanation in the
other, and both are harmonized by the applicjition of the law
of intellectual action above given. Matter and Mind are com-
plementary, not incompatible. They differ with each other, but
they agree in being similarly related to a third term. Matter is
objective ; it is thought taking form, becoming individual, man-
ifesting itself in space. Mind is subjective. The one appeals
to the senses ; the other is known only to the consciousness.

Science reaches its full development only when it includes
both physical and intellectual phenomena within its scope.
Every step which it takes carries it further from the purely
physical, and brings it nearer the purely intellectual — that is
the development of physical science is from the individual
towards the general, and it reaches its end, its completion,,
only when the last distinction, that of subjective and objective,
has disappeared in the last possible generalization. When
the objective has been identified with the subjective, the
distinction between Mind and Matter has been obliterated, and
we have reached the Supreme intelligence — the "I Am" of
Scripture — simple Being.

1

TJie Philosophy of Evolution. 4S

Matter is the formal expression of thought, or the necessary
condition of such expression, and in this condition is found
the link that connects the subjective and objective manifesta-
tions of heing. Subjectivity is ideality, as objectivity is mate-
riality. The consciousness can take cognizance only of what
is within itself, and therefore without every other. Conscious-
ness is therefore wholly personal. To communicate an idea it
must be placed within the consciousness of another. To reach
this result it must cease to be personal, must pass out of the sub-
jective consciousness into objective form, so as to be placed in
the same relation to the speaker and the hearer. Thought, out
of the consciousness of the thinker, is objective to him, and to
render thought objective is to give it material form. Thought
to be communicated, must pass out of the consciousness of
the thinker into a material representation. The assumption of
material form individualizes the idea. The artist's mind may
be filled with splendid conceptions, but no one but he can
look within his consciousness and see them. Before others
can have any knowledge of his thoughts, he must give them
form, or embody them in statues or paintings. The soul of
the musician may be thrilled by the harmonies that his imagi-
nation creates, but no other soul can join him in this ecstasy
until he has given form to his conceptions. So the thinker
must embody his thoughts in language before he can commu-
nicate them to another. Matter, then, is the vehicle by which
thought is communicated, and, so far as we are concerned, the
necessary condition of such communication, so that the con-
ception of thought apart from the thinker involves the inter-
vention of material forms, and it is by the interpretation of
these symbolical forms that we discover the idea.

Now, let us suppose a Supreme Intelligence. The intellec-
tual processes of such a Being, to be conceived as rational by
us, must be identical with ours, or at least analogous to ours.
The possession of infinite attributes may in fact free him from
the control of any law, but it is impossible for us to conceive

44: Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

an intelligence acting otherwise than in accordance with law.
So that if the Supreme Intelligence is to communicate with
man, it must be in obedience to the laws which control our
mental activities. The Divine thought must, then, like hu-
man conceptions, be communicated bj means of physical
symbols.

The Supreme Intelligence, being the final generalization,
must possess all knowledge, and the only intelligent action
possible to him from our point of view, is from this absolute
generalization towards the concrete and individual. The ab-
solute general is purely subjective, which, to become cogni-
zable, must be rendered objective. This can be secured to us
only through the intervention of material forms. From this
point of view, matter is only the symbol of thought — thought
apart from the thinker. The first result of the divine activity
in self-manifestation would be the analysis of being into sub-
jective and objective — that is the discrimination of mind and
matter, which terms are severally the final generalizations of
the two fundamental divisions of science. Matter, then, mere
formless, chaotic matter, would be the first result of creative
activity. Following the development of this idea in its con-
tinually increasing individuality, as new attributes are sever-
ally added, matter assumes determinate form and becomes
related in systems, as the various so-called elementary sub-
stances are discriminated, until finally all truth, capable of be-
ing revealed by inorganic matter, is presented to us.

Add the idea of organism and we have the two great
divisions of phenomena — material and vital. The higher the
generalization, the fewer will be the attributes composing the
concept, and thus the simpler will be the form symbolizing its
expression. As in the case of matter, the first result of the
divine activity was mere matter, undiscriminated by any fur-
ther attribute ; so here, we have, as the first organic creation,
a concrete expression of the highest possible generalization
comprising the fewest possible attributes — that is, forms of

The Philosophy of Evolution. 45

life involving the fewest individual characteristics. To matter
add the simplest organic attribute — that is, the one lying near-
est the genus — and we have mere organized matter, the sim-
ple cell, the foundation of all life, no matter how great its
future complexity, equally the origin of animal and vegetable
growth, which are as yet entirely undiscriminated. This
would be the first appearance of life.* Differentiating again
by the addition of a new attribute, and organic being is sub-
divided into the two species, vegetable and animal. Begin-
ning with these typical forms, adding single attributes in a
continuous series, we at last reach the highest typos of animals
and plants. Finally, add rationality to the animal, and we
reach man, the highest and therefore the most complex type
of life, and who, so far as we are concerned, must be the end
of creation. We cannot conceive of any higher creation, be-
cause we cannot add an attribute to those we already possess,
any more than we can conceive of an additional sense by
which to cognize such new attribute.

This process has been determined from the very outset by
those intellectual laws which we cannot disobey, and which
we cannot conceive disobeyed by an intelligent creator. If the
law of intellectual action require this process from the simple
to the complex, the concrete representation of the steps of this
process must indicate the operation of this law, and must also
proceed from the simple and rudimentary to the complex
and highly developed. An intelligent Creator in revealing his
thought must follow the method which our minds must follow
in interpreting this revelation. When we know and seek to
communicate our knowledge, we proceed from the general to
the speciticf The Creator assumed to be infinite in knowl-
edge would therefore follow this process instead of the method
peculiar to investigation. The law of intellectual action de-

*This, of course, does not absolutely determine the order of organic creation ; as in
the case of the syllogism the conclusion or either premise may be' the proposition first
enunciated, the order of expression being determined by circumstances.

tCompare the demonstrations of Geometry.

46 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

termines this method, and the conditions of intellectual com-
munication determine the representation of this method in the
material expression of the ideas communicated. Considering
the operation of this law under these conditions, we find that
the thought communicating only, as nearly as may be, the gen-
eric idea, will be distinguished from it by the addition of but a
single attribute as the generic by itself is incapable of being
represented in concrete form, the expression of this thought
in form will present us matter distinguished from matter in
general by but a single attribute. The least possible individu-
alizing attribute added to the highest possible generalization
gives us the simplest expression of an idea, and the form or
the organism symbolizing this thought will be the simplest
form and the simplest organism possible. For instance : in
organic life the highest generalization barely individualized
will give us the simple cell ; and no matter what degree of
complexity we subsequently reach by the addition of an al-
most infinite number of attributes, we nevertheless begin in
every case with the same starting point

Each higher type is reached by adding to a lower. The
higher thus embraces all that can be found in the lower, and
something besides. This method is invariable, and can never
be departed from. The genus must always be predicable of
every individual component of every species contained under
it. Translating this law into the forms of material expression,
and it requires each higher species to physically include all
lower species, and to differ from them only by addition. Man,
the highest type, must thus include all the attributes of the
cell as physically expressed, and without them he would not
be man. The diflferences between no two terms in a series
can be total. If the successive steps in a train of thought
must be related, so that no two notions will be wholly distinct
from each other, these notions will constitute a series, each
term of which will, in a measure, determine the next, so soon
as the law of the series is discovered ; and if this train of

The Philosophy of Evolution. 47

thought be objectively presented, it will afford a correspond-
ing series of physical terras, each one of which will in like
manner determine the next. But thought is impossible unless
by a train of ideas so related. Its physical expression will
therefore be equally impossible except by a series of physical
terms similarly related, each one of which in some manner de-
termines the next. There must then be a perfect continuity in the
line that reaches from the simplest form of matter through all
grades of organic life up to man, the highest expression of the
divine idea. There can be no break in the chain of thought, be-
cause the law of the logical process forbids it : there can be no
break in the series of material symbols for the conditions of
concrete expression equally forbid it, A symbol is nothing
except as it represents that which is to be symbolized. So the
symbols form a physical series, because the thoughts symbol-
ized form a logical series.

If the creator has fully revealed his thought, it must be by
a series of physical terms arranged in such a manner as to in-
dicate the logical series of ideas symbolized. Every form of
matter is a symbol of thought, and challenges interpretation.
Every change in form corresponds to an antecedent change m
idea, and must be intended to reveal it. As thought, then,
begins its evolution with the general and proceeds to the in-
dividual by a series of terms each of which is similarly re-
lated to both extremes, we must find the material enunciation
of this process assuming the form of a series of terms, begin-
ning with mere nebulous matter, grading into organic life, and
organic life presenting us with a similar series beginning with
the mere cell and ending with man. So rigid and invariable
must this serial arrangement be that if a term in either series
be wanting, we are authorized to hypothetically interpolate it.

" Nature never makes a leap " says the scientific investiga-
tor, as he studies the material symbols of thought. " Thought
never makes a leap," says the metaphysician, as he studies the
necessary laws of rational action : and both have uttered the

48 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

same truth. We prove a proposition by determining the steps
hy which it was educed from a more generic statement. Science
must proceed in the same manner, for science only discovers
the track of mind — it does not make the track, it only follows
it. If then we find the chain of evolution broken at any
point, science must either stop there, or assume the wanting
term in the series. We have the right to interpolate these
missing terms, for we must assume that the thoughts of God
communicated to us in material forms constitute a continuous
revelation, beginning with Himself, the final generalization,
and ending with man the highest individualization. These
limits are fixed — the one by the nature of God, and the other
by the nature of man. Between these two extremes we must
find a series of intermediate terms. Any other conception of
their relation than that of a determinate series is impossible
and irrational ; and a series, so far as it means anything, means
evolution of some sort. Finding the relation between these
terms — distinguishing the same which reproduces itself, and
the different which introduces a new term — that is, determin-
ing the law of apparent evolution — is the problem presented
to science.

The astronomer found Bode's law to all appearance violated
by the omission of a planet between Mars and Jupiter. He
could see no reason for the law, but if the planets had been
placed by an intelligent Creator, some order of arrangement
must be discoverable according to which their position was de-
termined. The Creator being intelligent, it is impossible
to conceive them placed fortuitously. There must then be a
link between Mars and Jupiter, because the law once estab-
lished cannot be broken. The same law may be observed in
the arrangement of leaves around the axis of a plant. If in-
telligence arranged them they must be arranged in some order,
for intelligence never performs the least act without a purpose.
Each leaf or pair of leaves is not a mere duplication of the
previous leaf or pair of leaves. The relation which subsists

The Philosophy of Evolution. 49"

between any two sets in the series expresses the idea of the
Creator, and this must be constant. Completing the series as
indicated by different plants, we may assume that if any term
is apparently wanting, it is only because it has not been dis-
covered. In neither of these cases would it be asserted that
any physical evolution had taken place — the terms form a
series of which each term is equally determined by the opera-
tion of a fixed law ; and yet it is an operation precisely analo-
gous to that which in the case of animals presents every ap-
pearance of a real evolution. Take, for instance, a series of
animals, presenting at one period of time the simplest and most
rudimentary forms, and at another the most complex and
highly organized ; we cannot do otherwise than conceive these
two extremes as related by intermediate terms, through the
operation of some law which holds good throughout the series.
The relation subsisting between any two, must be the same as
that subsisting between any other two similarly situated, or a
departure from that relation which is itself governed by a def-
inite law discoverable from a comparison of two sets of terms.
The' application of this law is so universal and so rigid that we
need not hesitate to interpolate a missing term, and confidently
assert that it either does exist or has existed. To deny this
principle is to deny the necessity of continuity in reasoning.
This continuity of thought is represented in matter by the per-
sistence of generic forms under specific differences. But just
as the specific is the generic with certain additions, so the in-
dividual is this same generic with still further additions ; and
these additions, whether considered solely in space, as given in
the symbols of physical science, or in time as in the concep-
tions of intellectual science, must be determined by the same
unvarying law. The persistence of the same form furnishes
us the means of identifying this relation, while the differences
reveal to us the successive steps by which the generic was dif-
ferentiated into the individual.

If the creative thought has been expressed by the forms of

-50 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

matter, the laws of thought must be thus expressed in the rel-
ative forms of matter. Anything less than this, while it
might interpret isolated ideas, would not communicate the
method of the creative process, and science is nothing but
the discovery of this method. If the terms of the logical
process must be arranged in a series, the physical symbols
rendering this logical process cognizable, must be arranged ia
a similar series, for science becomes impossible when the logi-
cal process becomes undiscoverable.

The differences between the terms in this series must be
cognizable. Two terms which are indistinguishable are prac-
tically identical ; and two terms which are not identical vary by
a difference which is cognizable by itself apart from either term.
'The steps in the logical evolution of the final term Being must
be separable to be cognizable, and the material forms interpret-
ing these steps to the senses must also be distinguishable. A
species differs from the genus by the addition of at least one
attribute. Now, if the species is distinguishable from the
genus, the attribute which differentiates it, must be separately
cognizable — so also the individual differs from the species by
the addition of attributes, which must in like manner be sepa-
rately cognizable, or the species will never be conceived inde-
pendently of the individuals. A thought cannot proceed by
insensible steps, nor can its material expression vary otherwise
than by determinate and distinguishable differences. The dis-
tinction of species is thus a logical necessity. The addition
of distinct attributes to the genus gives origin to distinct
•species; variation in attributes not affecting their substantial
identity gives rise to varieties. One species, then, cannot be-
come another, except by the assumption of a new specific attri-
bute, so that one species passes into another precisely as the
genus passes into the species, and that is just as, and not oth-
erwise, than one thought passes into another.

The fundamental law of the logical process is that we pass
from the generic towards the individual ; from the simple to

Tlie Philosophy of Evolution. 51

the complex. Induction can proceed only by assuming a
genus at the outset — that is, by assuming certain attributes in
the individual to be generic. Translate this law into mate-
rial forms, and we have each higher — that is more complex —
species evolved from the lower by the addition of some new
characteristic. This new attribute cannot be added by the
functional activity of the lower organism ; that can only re-
produce itself. A thought does not change merely through
repeated expression. We pass to the conclusion of a syllogism,
not from each term, but from a comparison of the premises —
and this requires an intellectual operation entirely distinct from
a mere apprehension of the terms. It is one thing to compre-
hend the premises ; it is quite another to deduce a conclusion
from them. It may necessarily follow, but it requires a separate
act of the mind to reach it. Premises will not of themselves
reach a conclusion.

Eeading this same truth in the forms of matter, we may say
that species will not pass into higher species without the inter-
vention of a force distinct from either. The impulse which
adds a new attribute must be intellectually separable from all
those pre-existing, and its material representation must be
physically distinct from pre-existing forms. This complete
separability precludes the possibility of mere physical genesis.
The added attribute is presented by a new form of matter, re-
vealing the presence of a new thought — a new effect, requiring
the agency of a new cause. In accordance with the usual
economy of nature, who never duplicates her forces, change
will be made only so far as may be necessary to communicate
the additional idea. Organisms representing previous thoughts
will be added to, in order to express the expansion of the
thought, instead of a creation de novo in each instance. Thus
an indentical cellular structure will be found in all organic
beings, from the lowest to the highest, each higher type carry-
ing forward tha idea and its physical expression found in the
lower. The differences between no two terms in the series can

52 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

be total, nor can any two terms be identical, as each higher
species will embrace all the attributes of the lower, differing
only bj the addition of others. This is simply the physical
expression of the logical truth that whatever can be predicated
of the genus can be predicated of every individual contained
under it. As the individual is only the expansion of the
genus, so higher physical types must also be similar expan-
sions of lower.

Here, then, is evolution, or development : primarily an evo-
lution of the generic into the individual, the continued differ-
tiation of a generic idea through successive individualizations,
each adding lo the previous group of attributes, thus render-
ing the idea increasingly complex; and, secondly, an apparent
physical evolution or development, interpreting this logical
process by a series of physical forms so related as to reveal
the relation existing between the thoughts thus interpreted.
In the physical representation of the ideas so related, there
must be an apparent physical evolution — that is, the process
of evolution logically must, like the ideas thus evolved, have
a physical expression, and the successive steps in this logical
evolution must be revealed by material forms bearing an
analogous relation, and thereby expressing the logical process.
Matter is nothing, so far as we are now concerned, but the
condition necessary to the objective expression of thought.
Every phase of matter is simply an objective formulation of a
corresponding phase of thought. Every addition to form im-
plies an antecedent increase of thought, as there can be no
formal expression until there is something to be expressed.
There can, then, be no such thing as mere material evolution,
for whatever is material is only symbolical.

Matter being thus wholly inert, the origin of the impulse
towards greater complexity must be sought for outside of that
which undergoes the change. The movement by which one
species becomes a higher is not an elaboration, an extension or
a differentiation of existing attributes, but involves the posi-

The Philosophy of Evolution. 53

tive addition of a new attribute, different and distinct from
any or all previously existing. One species cannot pass into
another by an innate impulse, for a species is an entity com-
posed of a determinate number of attributes, and all attributes
potentially present must be considered as actually present.
We cannot say that the child is a different species from the
man, and that one passes into the other by a process of evolu-
tion, because all the essential attributes of the man are poten-
tially present in the child. If the polyp, by the action of in-
nate forces, operating through a series of ages, however ex-
tended, can, without any impulse from without, develop itself
into a man, then the polyp is as much a man as a boy is, dif-
fering only in the time required for development : and the
data for the final deduction of the highest types of creation
must be furnished in the most elementary forms of life.

The force manifesting itself in organic life is readily distin-
guishable from the organism by which it is manifested. Life
and organization are not synonyms; one is the condition of
the other, but a condition is not a cause. We can consider
force apart from organism, and this possible separation in
thought proves that the same form may not represent both,
but that life can absolutely exist apart from organs which serve
to give it a physical manifestation.* Physical life being con-
ditioned upon organization, whenever the organism varies, the
vital force thus manifested must also vary, such variation
being necessarily antecedent to its manifestation. The organ-
ism varies, because it must, in order to express the added
thought. Change in organism, therefore, is not induced by
simple organic action, because the organs and the force acting
through them can be distinguished. Assuming that matter is
the objective or formal representation of thought, there can be
no change in the material expression without a correspondino-
change in the antecedent conception. There can, then, be
physical evolution, only as there is antecedent logical evolu-

*As in the case of man after the death of the body.

54 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

tion, and then only because of this logical evolution and not
because of the operation of an innate organic force. Force,
whatever may be its genesis, is only the exertion of power, not
the increase of it. Exertion limits the view to the force im-
mediately in operation. We may replace one manifestation by
another, but the quantity is neither increased nor diminished
by this change. Change m form implies the operation of
force: and apart from such manifestation in matter, it escapes
the tests of science, and passes into the purely metaphysical
notion of cause. And unless the operation of force be con-
stant, or, if different forces are blended, variable according to
some determinate law, the action of which is constant and dis-
coverable, so that the different units of force are separately
measurable, the force thus irregular in its action can never be
placed in any scientific category. Evolution, then, cannot pro-
ceed from any innate organic impulse, unless the force that
tends to exact reproduction, and the force that induces a change
be equally and separately cognizable. Change must proceed
according to some law which accounts for the change, and dis-
tinguishes between the normal exertion of power and that ex-
ertion which causes a deviation. Science, to be science, must
explain apparent exceptions as fully as the regular operation
of forces, and that which causes the irregularity must be as dis-
tinctly cognizably by itself as the force which acts regularly.
Anything less than this is not science. The discovery of Nep-
tune was the result of the application of this principle; it was
a successful attempt to discriminate the force which caused va-
riation from the force which operated regularly.

Each species represents the operation of certain vital forces,
and one cannot physically pass into another except by the in-
crease of this force, or at least by a change in the manner of
its manifestation ; and this increase in amount or this change
in direction must separately be accounted for. Nor does it
matter, for the purposes of this discussion, as to the genesis of
this added increment, further than to show that its origin must

The Philosophy of Evolution. 55*

be exterior to the organism by which its presence is mani-
fested ; for vital energy acting through an organism is a unit,
and cannot, even in thought, be separated into distinguishable
portions. Change in the direction of vital energy indicates-
that the original impulse has been modified in its action by
encountering another force, for nothing but force can change
the direction of force. It does not fall within the range of
this paper to determine the nature of this exterior force which
is thus distinguishable from that acting through the vital or-
ganization, and therefore capable of separate objective repre-
sentation. Metaphysically we may say that force is resolva--
ble into will, but will being purely personal is incapable of
material representation, and thus cannot enter into the deter--
minations of physical science, which does not seek to discover
the origin of force, but deals solely with its presence.

As the logician must assume his premises, and. as a logi-
cian, cannot question their truth, so the physicist must assume
a force in operation, and, as a physicist, cannot examine its-
genesis. The physical or the metaphysical method of inquiry
is valid only so long as restricted to physical or metaphysical
processes : a' mixture of the two methods will give results satis-
factory neither to science nor to philosophy. As logic fur-
nishes no criterion by which to test the absolute truth of prop'
ositions, but deals wholly with conclusions drawn from given
premises, so science furnishes no data by which to determine
the absolute genesis of force, but restricts its enquiries to the
phenomena resulting from a force given. For the student of
physical science cause and effect is only the transference of a
given and determined force from one material form to another.
If this idea is to be traced further, it must be studied outside
the limits of physics. This study belongs to metaphysics.

Now, if physical science does not deal with the origin of the
initial force, but assumes at the outset its presence, no more
does it fall within its province to examine into the origin of
the increments which give to physical forms that variety which

56 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

renders science possible. Science deals with results, not ante-
cedents; and after having determined results, it is not author-
ized to affirm that one species has produced another by evolu-
tion, or has produced it at all. If there are agreements
between different organisms by which they are bn^ught into
relation, there are also differences by which they are discrimi-
nated, and these differences imply increments of force; and
to assert that one organism has evolved another is to deter-
mine not merely the presence of this new increment, but also
to determine its origin. Scientific investigation deals with
phenomena which give evidence to the senses of a transference,
of force from one form or from one manifestation to another.
Transference is not increase — an effect can be no more than
the evolution of what was potentially present in the cause ; it
cannot add to it. The origin of the force must be investi-
gated according to intellectual laws.

It has been argued that a Supreme Intelligence in manifest-
ing his thought will, according to the necessary laws of ration-
al activity, pass from the universal and general to the particu-
lar and individual,, or from concepts involving few attributes
to those involving these and others; and that these steps in
the rational process must be represented in a corresponding
physical series; and that the communication of thought is con-
ditioned upon this physical representation. If the logical se-
ries comprises one thousand terms, each related to the preced-
ing according to logical law the physical series must com-
prise one thousand terms, each physically related in such
a manner as to reveal this law. As the highest generalization
comprises the fewest attributes, the concrete expression of this
idea will present the simplest possible physical form and the
least complexity of organization, and thus will present the low-
est types of life ; and as the individual comprises the greatest
number of attributes, its concrete expression will present the
greatest complexity, and consequently the highest type of life.

The Philosophy of Evolution. 57

We have seen that the logical process begins with the general
and ends with the individual; its material expression must
therefore begin with the lowest orders and end with the high-
est. But the individual cannot be immediately derived from
the general without the intervention of intermediate generali-
zations. No more in the concrete expression of this deduc-
tion can we pass from the lowest types to the highest without
the intervention of an intermediate series. These intermedi-
ate terms are not capable of independent interpretation ; they
find their full explanation only in the extremes of the series —
God and Man.

If, then, in the intellectual process from the abstract and
universal towards the concrete and individual, we find a con-
stant evolution of idea, each advance being an addition to the
previous conception, each new term in the series embracing all
the attributes of the preceding, and differing only by addition ;
and if thought is possible only on this condition ; it necessari-
ly follows that the material representation of this thought
must present physical forms similarly related, so that, leav-
ing out of view the intellectual genesis of this relation, the
observer might conclude that these forms compose a series
evolved from a primordial cell in accordance with an organic
law. But such we find to be the universal law of intellectual
procedure : this apparent development or evolution must,
therefore, be the condition of the communication of such
intellectual process, and the physical terms are brought into
this relation by the fact that they symbolize the logical pro-
cess. If the material symbols of thought were unrelated
physically, the thoughts thus expressed would also be unrela-
ted and independent. But such a supposition renders Science
impossible, for its one aim is to find the same in the different.
If there be no same, there can be no science : if there be no
different, there can be no science. Thought proceeds by add-
ing the different to the same in an endless series, and this addi-
tion of the different to the same expressed in concrete forms is
5

58 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

what is called evolution. If no evolution were apparent in
Nature, there could be no Science ; for those steps which to
the naturalist indicate evolution, being only the physical ex-
pression— the formulation — of the logical process, afford the
means by which the student reaches the highest generalization.
If these steps be wanting, he cannot proceed.

Admitting then to its fullest extent the fact that, judged
from a purely physical point of view, all organic forms seem
to have been derived each from its immediate predecessor, by
a mere functional impulse; and admitting that science is possi-
ble upon no other condition, we claim that these material forms
are brought into such relation by intellectual evolution, and
not by physical genesis ; they represent an evolution of
Thought and not an evolution of Matter. We know from con-
sciousness that this process of evolution is the method of our
thinking. We know also that the divine thought can be ren-
dered intelligible to us upon no other hypothesis than that
which supposes it to be governed by the laws which control
human thought. Translating the physical symbols which we
see about us, and which present this appearance of evolution, we
infer that this is the method according to which the Divine
Mind proceeded. Science will not materially err in its phys-
ical results, if it adopt the hypothesis of physical evolution,
but it must confine its attention to physics ; it is only as we
attempt higher generalizations that the insufticiency of the
hypothesis becomes manifest in its failure to satisfy the con-
ditions of the problem as presented to philosophy.

DEPARTMENT OF SOCLVL SCIENCE.

POPULATION AND SUSTENANCE.

BY DR. G. "W. STEELE, LL.D.,
President of Lawrence University, Appletou.

The question of the increase of population and its relation
to sustenance is one of the most interesting with which social
science has to do. The subject, it is true, does not affect us so
directly and imperatively here in the United States as it does
the more crowded communities of the old world. We have as
yet thousands of unoccupied acres, where for centuries to come
additional millions may gather subsistence ; while in Europe
there are millions who are in continual danger of pauperism if
not of starvation. There are supposed to be too many people
for the territory they occupy, and the question is how to cure
the evil or rectify their social irregularity. This question be-
comes a serious one in view of the doctrine largely prevalent
in certain circles that by a natural law population increases by
a ratio ever becoming greater than that of the increase of sus-
tenance.

The remedies proposed for this state of things are mainly
two, viz., emigration, and the restraint implied in abstinence
from marriage. So far as the former is concerned it is a
fortunate fact that there are countries to which the surplus of
over-populated communities can emigrate. Yet this resource
is unavailable to multitudes of those who need it most; and
at best, it is only a temporary relief. Sooner or later the

60 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

habitable portions of the earth must be filled to their utmost
capacity, so that not another human being could find subsist-
ence, if nature takes its own course without artificial obstruc-
tion.

The second remedy, which is yet a precaution rather than a
remedy, has two forms. The one is that of restriction by pub-
lic law ; the other, that of self restraint. The former has been
tried in several countries, but with different success. The
fact that it has been abandoned in some of them which are now
still more populous, though less over-populous, than before the
remedy was applied and abandoned, would seem to militate
against it. A project so unnatural and fanatical is not likely
to be largely accepted among men of practical wisdom. Nor
is the other form of the remedy more promising. The influ-
ence to be exercised by self-restraint in relation to a course of
action to which both nature and inclination powerfully prompt,
must depend upon such a degree of moral and spiritual devel-
opment as seldom exists among the classes which are chiefly
to be benefited. Even so it must be in the line of motives
which nature itself furnishes and not in antagonism therewith.

If, then, the law of the increase of population referred to re-
ally exists, it would seem that no humane or prudential provis-
ion to prevent or remedy the evil is practicable. These only
remain frightful "checks of war, famine and pestilence," which
by destroying a portion of the human surplusage, will tem-
porarily relieve the remainder.

This prospect is indeed still more appalling in view of
another law announced by an eminent economist. Says Mr.
Mill:

" After a certain and not very advanced stage in the progress of agri-
culture; as soon, in fact, as mankind liave applied themselves to cultiva-
tion with any energy, and have brought to it any tolerable tools; from
tliat time it is the law of production from the land, that in any given
state of agricultural skill and knowledge, by increasing the labor the
produce is not increased in an equal degree; doubling the labor does not
double the produce; or, to express the same thing in other words, every

Population and Sustenance. 61

increase of produce is obtained by a more tlian proportional increase in
the application of labor."* " This general law of agricultural industry,"
says Mr. Mill, " is the most important proposition in political economy."

Now if there be a law in accordance with which the human
race must go on multiplying till there shall not even be stand-
ing room for them upon the earth, unless checked by famine,
pestilence or war, or by such restraints as are both unnatural
and impracticable ; and if there be another law by which the
same amount of labor gives less and less means of sustenance,
the prospect for humanit}^ is indeed deplorable. These two
laws combine to form the doctrine " that there is in the consti-
tution of earthly things a positive, natural and ever-increasing
disparity between the production of human life and the capa-
bility of the earth to support it." They agree with each other
in this respect, if in no other, that they are as discordant as
possible with all the other managements of Providence of
which we know anything. Such an hypothesis needs to be
carefully examined before it takes its place as an admitted
principle of social science.

It becomes us to be suspicious of any proposition which is
out of harmony with the general order of nature. The doc-
trine under consideration is certainly adapted to excite such a
suspicion.

It is, no doubt, to be admitted that during considerable pe-
riods of history, and in many portions of the earth, the in-
crease of population has been very rapid. It may also be ad-
mitted that in many of these times and places the mortality
has been frightfully large. In some of these instances the pop-
ulation has increased faster than the means of sustenance.
But it does not necessarily follow that the vast number of births
was the cause of the extraordinary number of deaths, or that
the diminished proportion of sustenance was owing to the too
great number of births. It is clearly possible that the in-
creased number of births was an effort of nature to supply the

*Polltical Economy, Bk. I, Chap, xii, § 2.

62 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

demand made by the fearful mortality ; for this is what nature
is perpetually doing elsewhere ; depletion at any point being
the occasion of a grand rally of forces to sup))ly whatever loss
has been sustained, and so restore the equilibrium. It is also
quite possible that the lack of sustenance, instead of being a
natural co-operating cause of the mortality, may itself be the
effect of the same unnatural cause to which the other derange-
ments are due ; the predominance of the animal over the spir-
itual elements in man. For in some of the same countries in
subsequent times has sustenance been produced for a much
larger population where the mortality has been less ; and in
no country have the capabilities of the soil for production ever
yet been exhausted.

These possibilities become more obvious and tend more
strongly in the direction of probabilities in view of certain
analogies which themselves hint, at least, at a natural law
capable of universal application. It is well known that the
insects whose term of life is but a few days are produced by
myriads ; animals whose term is half a dozen years, are re-
duced as to the number of their offspring from thousands to
only hundreds ; while those which live a score or mere of
years, are proportionately less prolific. The principle here
unquestionably is that the power of reproducing life is in the
inverse ratio to the power of maintaining it. May we not sup-
pose this law to extend not merely to all the various species,
but also to the varied conditions of the several species, includ-
ing that of man ? The facts of history would seem to warrant
an affirmative answer.

That there is no such thing as a natural law of uniform in-
crease of population can be made tolerably evident to any or-
dinary observer. Providence works here as everywhere else,
according to the conditions and requirements of the case.
Hitherto, while there has sometimes been a rapid increase, at
other times this increase has been slow or has entirely ceased.
In many instances where, according to the natural order of

Population and Sustenance. 63

things, there would have been a steady growth of numbers,
owing to the operation of unnatural causes, whole continents
have been rendered less populous at the close of a century than
at its beginning. The number of births may have been two-
fold greater in one generation than in the preceding, yet because
of devastating wars, or cruel oppressions of the lower classes, or
an unjust and unnatural economical system by which the fruits
of industry were unequally distributed, resulting in famines,
pestilences, and other various sufferings among the masses,
there has been a diminution of the population rather than an
augmentation.

Again, nature, as already stated, works here, as everywhere
else, not stiffly and inflexibly, but according to the demand
made upon her. Just as when a bone is broken, or there is a
lesion of muscle or membrane, she concentrates extra forces at
the point where repairs are needed, producing in unusual quan-
tities what is requisite to supply the need ; so after destruct-
ive wars or other seasons of extraordinary mortality, the births
are more numerous than before. It is so, also, where from
any cause there has been a disproportionate diminution of
either sex ; nature hastens to restore the equilbrium. We
might doubtless gather from these few simple observations,
the general principle that nature, in relation to the increase of
the race, would vary according to the means of support she
herself would furnish ; and that if any portion of the popula-
tion lacked sustenance, it would be not because the increase
of population was greater than that of sustenance, nor because
of the lack of artificial and unnatural restraints, but because
of unnatural and unequal distribution of the natural means of
sustenance.

The rate of the increase of population in the different com-
munities of the world is so variable as at first to seem to defy
any attempt to infer a general law, and certainly such as to
render obvious the impossibility of a law of uniform increase.
It is a well known fact that the Aborigines of this continent

64 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

have always been noted for the slowness of their increase, and
that, too, while occupying a soil and climate capable of afford-
ing sustenance many hundred fold greater than their demands.
The tribes of the Pacific and South Sea islands are conspicu-
ously prolific. In Great Britain and Ireland the population
doubless in about sixty-five years. In Great Britain alone it
doubles in about fifty years. In France not very dissimilarly
situated on the whole, at the present rate of increase, it would
require two hundred and seventy-seven years to double the
population. In the United States, deducting the increase from
immigration, the population doubles in about thirty years.
The variation would be found doubtless quite as great if we
should compare other countries.

But while we can deduce no law of increase, nature is by
no means lawless or capricious either here or elsewhere.
There is unquestionably a grand general principle governing
this whole matter and beautiful in its adaptations; a law
which is self-adjusting and to which men may readily adapt
themselves without arbitrary artificial restraints. It is that
the increase of popidatton, is inversely as the advance of civiliza-
tion ; or that the fecundity diminishes as the mental and moral
development increases. There are some apparent exceptions,
as among the hunter and, to a less extent, the pastoral tribes;
but, as a whole, we shall find that it holds good. It is doubt-
less involved in the great law before alluded to, which evinces
itself in the fact that the lower the order of animal life, the
more prolific.

Manifestations of this law are obvious in the fact that the
greatest fecundity in our times is found among the drudges of
civilization — the former slaves of our Southern States and the
lower classes of tailors in Europe and among the immigrants
to America. Here the animal prevails over the rational nearly
to its utmost; matter almost entirely subordinates mind. There
is little of self-respect and little of hope. To talk of self-
restraint to persons so conditioned, yet where such a remedy

Population and Sustenance. 65

is needed if anywhere, would be preposterous. It would be
urging a duty for which they have almost no motive. The
question of over-population and its alarming consequences,
can only arise in a community where by vicious and unequal
laws, the class of mere laborers, uneducated and unsagacious,
is kept unduly large, where there is a constant effort b}^ cap-
italists to keep labor cheap, and where, as in England,* small
properties are discouraged, and agriculture, mechanical pur-
suits and direct commerce are made subordinate to the trade
which keeps the producer and consumer at the greatest prac-
ticable distance.

It is thus, nearly everywhere m modern civilized society^
that where man is at the lowest grade of mental development,
where the animal subordinates the rational, there fecundity is
greatest. The cause is not gross sensuality ; for that is antag-
onistic to increase of population ; but one involved in the
very constitution of things and proceeding after a natural
order. As men rise above their lower grade and mind asserts
larger relative power, individuality becomes developed, self-
respect is generated and self-direction assumed, the number of
births diminishes. We may see some exemplification of it in
our own country. A few years ago some of us were startled by
the statistical reports concerning the relative number of birthg
among the immigrants and the native population in Massa-
chusetts. It was found that the former were greatly outnum-
bering the latter, and some fears were excited lest the old
Puritan stock should soon wholly disappear. Yet this is only
an illustration of what is taking place everywhere in the
world under the general law just stated, that fecundity is in-
versely as the social and intellectual development of man.
As education increases and the mental and moral predomi-
nate over the animal, the fecundity decreases. It is doubtless

*In Great Britan we are informed that the number of land owners has diminished-
within a little more than a century from two hundred thousand to seventy thousand ae-
tome authorities say, or according to others to less than fojty thousand.

66 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

in accord with this law that we find the most eminent men
leaving few or no children ; for instance Alexander, Julius
CcTssar, Napoleon, Gcx3the, Shakespeare, Washington, etc. The
British peerage affords further illustration. " Twenty years
ago," says Carly in 1858, " the number of peers was three
hundred and ninety-four, of whom no less than two hundred
and seventy-two were the result of creations subsequent to
1760. From 1611 to 1819 no less than seven hundred and
fifty-three baronetcies had become extinct ; and yet the total
number created had been less than fourteen hundred." The
same tendency is observable among the aristocracies of other
nations, ancient and modern.

Dr. William Elder forcibly sets forth some of the reasons of
this tendency as founded on physiological principles.'* The
discussion is interesting and instructive, and altogether plaus-
ible, covering the whole grounds of, and making provisions
for, the apparent exceptions noted above in the hunter and
pastoral tribes. But it is not necessary to seek all the philo-
sophical grounds of the law in question. We should certainly
be warranted a priori in presuming that a wise Providence
would so adjust the relations of sustenance and population
that the increase of the latter would gradually diminish as it
approximated the possible limits of the former, and that when
these limits were reached, it would wholly cease. That there
are so many facts which go to corroborate this presumption
and so few making against it, which cannot be otherwise
accounted for, ought to give some force of conviction of its
truth. Clearly enough, nature intended that men and women
should marry and multiply and replenish the earth, and that
for all who follow this Divine ordering there should be sus-
tenance provided, and that she will adjust the relations of the
two without any artificial intermeddling of man. If there is
at any point a derangement in these relations, such as to work
destruction or distress to any portion of the population, it is

* Questions of the Day: Economic aud Social. Pliiladelpiiia, 1871.

Population and Sustenance. 67

because nature's laws have been broken, not because tbej
have been obeyed.

The question of the diminishing ratio of sustenance to
population demands particu'ar consideration. It is difficult
to apprehend the grounds upon which this principle is based.
Mr. Mill, who strenuously insists upon the law of decreasing
ratio between the agricultural product and the amount of
labor, to which he has perhaps been the first to give a clear
and comprehensive statement, himself admits the existence of
an agency in habitual antagonism to it; namely, the progress
of civilization, or the improvements by which the products of
labor are so greatly multiplied. This, if I understand him
correctly, operates more effectually in the mechanical industry
than in agricultural, and thus makes up a part of the lack
which relative diminution of produce from the soil creates ;
but not so much as to make the means of subsistence keep
pace with the natural increase of population.

Now it may be true that of a certain portion of land, say tea
acres, or as much as one man can cultivate successfully, if two
men should labor, the product would not double, though this
would not always be the case. At any rate, the limit would
some time or other be reached beyond which doubling the
labor would not double the return. But this would, contrary
to Mr. Mills' supposition, indicate "a very advanced stage in
the progress of agriculture," at least, it would imply a cultiva-
tion of the soil such as no country, as a whole, has ever yet
nearly attained. I suppose that few would doubt that more
than double the present amount of produce might be effected
on the soil of Wisconsin already under cultivation, and that,
too, with less than double the present amount of labor be-
stowed. But then the most fertile soils have not yet been
brought under cultivation ; they are such as require for their
subjugation a very considerable advance in society and in the
art of agriculture. Probably the state of Wisconsm is not
to-day yielding one-twentieth part of the returns of which it is

'68 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

capable with no more than ten times the labor now bestowed
upon it.

But there is another condition of productiveness left out
of sight by Mr. Mill. Purely agricultural communities the
world over are almost certain to exhibit not only a diminish-
ing ratio between the agricultural product and the labor be-
stowed, but an actual diminution of products of the soil. In
our own country, on lands formerly yielding thirty bushels of
wheat to the acre, the returns at present are less than that, as
in Western New York and Ohio. In our own State of Wis-
consin the same deterioration is observable. The reason of
this is that the wealth of the soil is exhausted by the exporta-
tion of raw products, and however true it may be theoretically
that the fertility of the soil may be kept up by proper appli-
ances, these appliances are almost certain never to be made.
It is oidy where there is considerable proportion of the popula-
tion engaged in other occupations besides that of agriculture
that the soil is kept up to its original productive power or can
duplicate and reduplicate that indefinitely.

In Massachusetts there are hundreds of farms which now
produce several times their former capability, and, so far as
we can judge, with far less than the proportional outlay of labor.
The same is more conspicuously the case in England and
France and Belgium, in the communities where, by reason of
the vast diversity of employments, a large proportion of what
is taken from the soil is returned almost immediately to it.
It is not perfectly clear whether those who talk of the pres-
sure of population on sustenance mean by the latter only
food, or whether they mean to embrace, also, clothing, shelter
and some other materials of human well-being. If the latter,
then it is evident that the increase of sustenance in very many
of the most populous communities of the world greatly out-
strips that of population, even after a considerable advance in
the art of agriculture. It is certain, moreover, that, up to the
present time, in no country where a wise industrial and eco-

Pojnthtion and Sustenance. 69

nomical system has prevailed has the increase of population
outrun the increasing capability of the soil to support it. In
Belgium, where the density of the population is probably
greater than anywhere else in the civilized world — four hun-
dred and thirty-three to a square mile, or more than one to
every arable acre in the kingdom — with a very defective so-
cial system, sufficient food is produced from the soil to supply
all its own habitants and afford a surplus for exportation —
this, too, in what was originally one of the most sterile coun-
tries in Europe. France, with a density of one hundred and
seventy-nine to a square mile, feeds all her own people and
has food to spare. The agricultural productions of France
have more than doubled within the last forty years, while, as
we have seen, at her present rate of increase, it takes two hun-
dred and seventy-seven years for her population to double.
This does not appear as though population were pressing very
closely upon subsistence in France. Great Britain seems to
be almost the only country in which there is any alarm con-
cerning the relations of population to subsistence, yet Great
Britain is capable of producing far more than food enough to
supply her present population but for the system of econom.y
encouraged by her, which subordinates agriculture to trade.
Mr. Mill himself shows, with great conclusiveness, how greatly
superior is the French system of peasant proprietors, by which
the land is divided up into small farms. It was claimed by
some British economists, that this measure, which, I believe,
began to be ad(;pted before the revolution, and was more fully
carried out subsequently, would result in a vast increase of
the population, because as it would at first render sustenance
more abundant for the lower classes, it would thus remove the
motive to self-restraint, leaving them to multiply, as it was
forcibly expressed, " like rabbits in a warren." He shows
that after half a century of experiment the effect is of a di-
rectly contrary character. We have seen above that the in-
crease of population in France is insignificantly small in

70 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

comparison with the increase of food supplied from its own
soil.

A source of error which has helped to support the doctrine
here combatted exists in the assumption that the most produc-
tive lands are first occupied, and then those that are poorer,
and so on down to those whose cultivation will barely sustain
life. If this were so it would almost inevitably follow that
the increased labor necessary to secure a given amount of pro-
duct from the inferior soils would imply the truth of the doc-
trine. But it is evident that in the infancy of society when
the numbers are small and the facilities for cultivation few,
only the lands easily cultivated can be occupied, and there
must necessarily be the lighter and less productive soils. Up
to their time even in the oldest civilized communities, some
of the most productive lands have not yet been brought under
cultivation, while as in Great Britain, within the last twenty
years perhaps the most beautiful crops in the whole country
have been taken from lands which previously were considered
almost valueless.

The statistics of the most advaneed nations do not at all
indicate this disparity between increase of population and
the means of subsistence. In the United States the increase
of population from 1850 to 1860 was 35.5 per cent., while the
wealth of the country, real and personal, excluding that in the
slaves, increased 86 per cent. ; or the capital wealth of the
country grew at the rate of 8? per cent., and the population at
that of a fraction over 3 percent, per annum ; the average share
of each individual in the whole wealth of the country, were it
equally divided, being in 1850, $266, and in 1860, $449 ; being
an increase in ten years of 69 per cent, to each person. The
siatistics of the last census present still more astonishing
results. The " true value " of the real and personal property
of this country in 1860 was in round numbers $16,000,000,000,
In this was included the value of slaves who in 1870 owned
themselves, and so were not reckoned as property. Aside

Population and Sustenance. 71

from these the " true value " may be put at $13,000,000,000.
In 1870 it was as given by our census tables $80,000,000,000,
giving an increase greater in the last decade by 80 per cent.
than the total previous accumulations since the first settlement
of the country by Europeans ; this, too, in a decade of unpar-
alleled public and private expenditure, of immense waste and
destruction of both laborers and their products. This would
give nearly $1,000 a piece to every man, woman and child in
the whole country, an increase of more then 100 per cent.
over the average portion of each at the beginning of the de-
cade.*

In France in the decade ending in 1860, the increase of
population was 2.6 per cent. ; the increase of annual product
44 per cent., and the average share of each inhabitant in the
annual products was 40 per cent, greater than in 1850. The in-
creased value of each acre's share in the total wealth ia sup-
posed to have been considerably greater than this, but the
statistics are not at hand.

In Great Britain ihe average of the total values of the prop-
erty of the kingdom to each person were in 1851, $827; in
1861, $1,074; and in 1866, $1,239, being an increase of 50
per cent, in fifteen years. So that in Great Britain it is not
because there is less increase of means of subsistence than of
population that there is danger of starvation and need of pre-
ventive checks, but because there is somehow an inequitable
distribution of the products of labor.

The following proposition will answer for a brief summa-
tion:

♦Exceptions have been taken to the above statistics and to the inferences liliely to be
drawn from them, on the score of the decrease in the " purchasing power " of money.
Probably some modification should be made on that account, but not nearly so much as
has been thought by many. The vast increase of gold and silver within the last twenty-
five years, and the inrtation by means of paper currency in the last ten, while changing
the money price of many articles of ordinary traffic, has not left the values of some of
the more permanent kinds of property as measured by money, nearly unaltered except
as due lo other causes, as the latter are many times greater than the former, the prob-
ability is that the variation to be made in the estimate is comparatively moderate.

,72 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arls^ and Letters.

1. In regard to population and sustenance, nature works as
-everywhere else, in harmony with herself and for and not
against the increasing prosperity of the race.

2. Up to the present time, in every healthily ordered com-
munity, all increase of population has been accompanied by
still larger increase in the productiveness of labor in agricul-
ture, in the mechanical arts and in the emancipation of mind
from the dominion of matter.

3. Whatever remote limit there may be to the capability of
the earth to afford subsistence, and whatever may have been
the rate of increase of population, it is evident that the increase
of sustenance hitherto has been greater than that of popula-
tion ; and that in the order of nature they will adjust them-
relves to each other without artificial restriction or destruc-
tive checks.

4. Notwithstanding the crowded condition of some localities
and the vast population of the globe, only a comparatively
small fraction of the earth's capabilities of support for man
have yet been exhausted, and if humanity is anywhere a drag
or a nuisance, it is because the animal in it prevails over the
rational and the spiritual.

5. The increase of individuality and of association is the
one essential instrument to the upward and forward movement
■of the race. This depends upon the largest practicable diver-
sity of industry, the bringing of men into the most intimate
commerce with each other, rapid societary circulation, and all
possible facilities of education and development.

Records of Marriages. 7B

RECORDS OF MARRIAGES.

BY REV. F. M. HOLLAND, A. M., BARAEOO.

Records of marriages are primarily designed to furnish
proofs of the fact, but they might also be adapted to giving
valuable statistical information. The present method of mak-
ing such records in Wisconsin seems capable of improve-
ment in both respects.

Whoever solemnizes marriage in this state is required to
deposit with the county register of deeds, a certificate stating
the time and place of marriage, the full names of both parties
and of their parents, and also the occupation and place of
birth and residence of the man, though not of the woman.
Probably the legislators thought that women did not have any
occupations, but it rather looks as if they were beginning to
have some, to say the least. Women certainly have places of
residence, and also of birth, the record of which latter might
much assist the student of statistics by informing him which
portion of the marriages are between foreigners, what between
native-born Americans, and what between an American and a
foreigner. Such a record would also become much more val-
uable as legal proof.

Both objects would be yet more promoted by inserting
what has been wholly ovei looked, but is peculiarly needed for
both legal and statistical investigations, namely a record oi age.
This would plainly assist identification. Social science, also,
needs to know whether our people marry earlier or later in
seasons of unusual prosperity or adversity, and also what oc-
cupations and nationalities are most prone to early matrimony.
The question whether the American, or rather Anglo-Ameri-
can, race is dying out would be much enlightened.
6

74 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

It might, also, be worth while, in view of the presence of
negroes and Indians, to make some record of race, though this
would probably not be done with sufficient accuracy, until a
change, described below, is made in the parties making such
records.

The present law makes a poor apology for records of race
and nationality, in requiring that of color. This provision is
merely a relic of wicked prejudices, which the blood shed in
our great war should have washed away. In the name of
Abraham Lincoln, John Brown, and the countless other mar-
tyrs for universal liberty, let us cleanse our records of such
stains. Social science recognizes the distinction between ne-
gro or Indian, and Anglo-American, as she does that between
Anglo-American, German, Celtic and Scandinavian. The dis-
tinction between white and black is not scientific but barbaric.

The word " color " should therefore be exchanged for the
word "race," or entirely omitted. Indeed the mere substitu-
tion of the word " age " for the word " color," would be a great
practical benefit, and should, in the opinion of this writer, be
secured during the present session of the legislature by a com-
mittee appointed for the purpose by this Academy.

Such a committee might consider what record should be
made of nationality, and whether some record should not be
made of the wife's birth-place, residence and occupation.

The attention of such a committee, as well as of this associa-
tion, may also profitably be directed to the fact that ministers
are now required to certify that a marriage has been consum-
maiedhy them. The statute, indeed, uses invariably the proper
word ^^ solemnize," but the printed form substitutes the word
" consummate,'' which could not be properly applied to any act
of the minister, and has a special usage in reference to acts
of the parties married.

The writer has been accustomed to correct this error in his
own certificate, and now asks that this correction be made in
all the authorized forms. It is unworthy of the state of Wis-

Records of Marriages. 75

consin to require clergymen to make out certificates in bad
English.

It is further worth considering whether it is the proper bus-
iness of clergymen and justices of the peace to make out such
certificates for record in any form, and whether it would not
be better for Wisconsin to do like other states and require all
parties desirous of committing matrimony to obtain a license
from the county clerk, who shall biennially make a record of
the full names of parties and parents, as well as of age, occu-
pation, residence, birthplace, and nationality of both bride
and bridegroom. The clerk might then, if satisfied that the
parties were legally entitled to marry each other, give them a
license, which would be returned by the minister, who would
simply note down the time and place of the ceremony. The
clergymen of Wisconsin would be much indebted to this asso-
ciation for relieving them of the present necessity of acting as
police magistrates and detectives. At present, ministers have
practically to marry almost anybody that applies to them, a
custom greatly favoring runaway matches. Indeed, Wiscon-
sin marriages are becoming a proverb in adjoining states.
This is made still worse by the conduct of ministers them-
selves, in occasionally omitting to make proper returns, when
so requested by the parties. The writer was twice invited to
solemnize marriage without making the returns required by
law. In both cases he refused. In one case the parties finally
gave consent, but in the other a more accommodating parson
was easily found. But if both bridegroom and clergyman
were liable to be fined heavily for lack of a license, they
would certainl}' have one, as the minister would insist upon it
for the bridegroom's sake as well as for his own, and before it
could be obtained all needed opportunity for making full
records would be given to the most competent person, the
county clerk or register of deeds.

These officers might then be required not only to keep a
general record, setting down the ages of parties married, in

76 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

parallel columns with their occupations and nationalities, but
also annually to return abstracts to the secretary of state, who
might then issue condensed statements which would be highly
useful to students of social science.

Whether this Academy should take any steps toward so
materially altering our whole system of matrimonial records
is one question. It is quite another whether its members
should at once agitate the omission of the word ^^coloi-," the
insertion of the word '^age" and the exchange of the phrase
^^ consummated,^^ for '^ solemnized,^^ in the existing forms of
record, and whether these forms should not mention the occu-
pation, birthplace and residence of the wife as well as of the
husband. Possibly a statement whether previously married
or unmarried, might also be required with advantage.

Effect of Duties on Im]iorts upon the Value of Gold. 77

THE EFFECT OF DUTIES ON IMPORTS UPON THE

VALUE OF GOLD.

BY JOHN Y. SMITH, ESQ., MADISON.

That the paper currency of the United States is depreciated
below the common money of the world — gold and silver —
is universally admitted, and the cause generally recogniz-
ed, viz ; the excessive quantity of paper in circulation. It
is also a fact well understood by every careful student of eco-
nomic science, though not so generally understood by others,
that the nominal premium of gold over paper, as it has existed
for several years past, does not mark the true depreciation of
the paper. A careful comparison of present general prices
with those of ante-war times, fourteen or fifteen years ago, dem-
onstrates that gold itself, in this country, is depreciated even
farther below its value in other countries than our paper is be-
low our gold.

Thus far economists see their way clear, and are substan-
tially agreed. But what is the cause and what the extent of
this depreciation of gold, are problems which they have not yet
been able satisfactorily to solve. Prof Perry and others have
attributed this depreciation to the demonetization of gold in this
country. It is true that if we impair the utility of an object we
depreciate its value ; and as gold derives most of its value from
its use as money, if gold were universally demonetized, the great-
er part of its value would be destroyed. If a small portion only
of the general stock of the world is demonetized, only a cor-
respondingly small portion of its value will be destroyed. The
little gold which we have demonetized has long since been ex-
ported and distributed itself throughout the commercial world,
adding a trifle to the specie volume of all other countries. In
accordance with the law of money, that as its total quantity

78 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

is increased (other things remaining the same) the value of a
given quantity declines, the entire stock of gold in the world
has thus been slightly depreciated. From this cause, there-
fore, it has been depreciated as much in other countries as in
this. The rule for determining the general depreciation from
this influence is very simple. Assuming that gold derives
seventy-five per cent, of its value from its use as money, and
that we have demonetized one twenty-fifth part of the entire
stock of the world, the depreciation from this cause will be
four per cent, of seventy-five per cent., or three per cent, of
the whole. Considering the large amount of gold still held in
partial circulation by the demands of the government, it is not
probable that the amount actually demonetized exceeds the
fiftieth part of the world's stock, and that the consequent de-
preciation does not exceed one and a half per cent. But the
relative depreciation in this country, as compared with other
countries, is nothing at all, and it is the relative depreciation
which we wish to account for.

Some economists think that the duties on imports have
something to do with this relative depreciation, but how much
and in what way the effect is produced, they are unable to de-
termine. I think it is susceptible of scientific demonstatioa
that the depreciation is wholly the result of these duties, and
that the extent of the depreciation is just equal to the average
rise of prices on all im portables and exportables added to-
gether.

As we proceed with this demonstration, we must endeavor
to gain and keep in mind a clear and accurate conception of
the nature of value, which is often confounded with other
things or qualities which are quite distinct from it. Some
confound the value of a thing with its quality/, and as the
quality of pure gold, wherever found, is always the same, they
conclude its value must be equally immutable. Others con-
found value with utility, while utility is only one of the ele-
ments of value, always present, but rarely determining the

Effect of Duties on Ln])orts upon the Value of Oold.

79

value of anything; that being determined, almost always, by
the other element of its existence, namely, resistance^ or the
difficulty to be overcome in obtaining it. The brilliant Bas-
tiat defines value as " accumulated serviced This is much like
calling a snow-drift accumulated wind, and is quite too great
a stretch of poetic license to answer the severe demands of
scientific accuracy. A large class, including some able writers
on political economy, regard value and wealth as synonymous
and convertible terms. But ivealth consists of the aggregate
of exchangeable objects, while value is simply the ratio in
which those objects exchange, or are exchangeable for each
other, and is not necessarily dependent upon their aggregate
quantity. Let us bear in mind, then, as we proceed, that
value is the ratio of exchange between different objects, money in-
cluded.

To avoid unnecessary complications we w^ill, for the present,
entirely ignore the existence of paper currency and deal only
with the money of commerce, consisting chiefly of gold.
Under the natural conditions of commerce — free trade — each
country wnll retain, with slight oscillations, just that propor-
tion of gold which will hold the average prices of its import-
ables and exportables aggregated, at very nearly a uniform
level throughout the commercial world. If any one country
has even a slight excess over this proportion, prices there will
become relatively cheaper than domestic products, and more
goods will be imported than its exports of goods will pay for,
and the balance will be paid in gold, until, through the con-
traction of the gold volume thus effected, prices of domestic
products are again brought down to the common level in other
countries, and then the efflux of gold will cease. If the
country has hss than this proportion, domestic prices will fall
and foreign goods will become relatively dearer than domestic
goods, and the demand for the former will decline until the
imports (other than gold) will no longer balance the exports
and the balance will be brought home in gold until the vol-

80 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters

ume of gold and, consequently, domestic prices are again
brought up to the common level in other countries, and then
the influx of gold will cease. This point where the exports
and imports just balance each other, is what Mr. Mill happily
calls " the equation of sui')ply and demand^ This law of trade
is just as immutable and invariable in its operation as any law
of chemistry, as every economist knows. Owing to the com-
plicated transactions of commerce, it is impossible for com-
mercial sagacity to adjust those transactions to the exact line
of this equation. They are constantly oscillating across it,,
like a pendulum across the center of gravity, but never vary-
ing very widely from it, on either side ; for the moment the
slightest deviation is detected, commercial self-interest is
prompt to apply the corrective by importing more goods and
less gold, or more gold and less goods, as either one becomes
more profitable than the other — the one which is most profi-
table being always the right one to restore the equation of
supply and demand. Wherever gold will buy less than it
will elsewhere, there it is depreciated just to the extent of the
difference, and if unobstructed by artificial barriers, elsewhere
it will go till the difference no longer exists.

Now suppose a country places obstructions in the way of com-
merce in the form of heavy duties on imports, as our country
has done. What will be the consequence ? Undoubtedly the
price of all importables, that is, commodities imported and all
domestic products of the same descriptions, will be forcibly
raised to the extent, or very nearly to the extent of the duties
imposed, except where the duties are so high as to become
probibitive ; while the prices of exportables, that is, all domes-
tic products of which we raise a surplus for exportation,
whether exported or consumed at home, will still be governed
by the foreign market and remain the same as before. The
consequence will be a rise of average prices above the average
prices in other countries where these obstructions to commerce
do not exist, and the advance of average prices will continue

Effect of Duties on Imports upon the Value of Gold. 81

as long as the obstructions which raised them above the com-
mon level continue. Average prices being thus raised and
held there by arbitrary means, as water is held by a dam
across a stream, more money than before will be required to
effect the exchanges of the country ; for it is a very plain prop-
osition that it requires more money to buy and sell a given
quantity of products at a higher range of prices than it would
to buy and sell the same quantity at a lower range of prices.
One of two things, then, must be done — either average prices
must come down to the former level, or the volume of money
must be increased. The price of exportables will not yield,
to restore the former level, for that is governed by the foreign
market. The price of importables will not yield, for that,
both in respect to actual imports and domestic products of
like descriptions, is governed by the foreign cost and the du-
ties added. There is but one remedy left — the volume of
money must be increased. How can it be done ? It will be
effected in this wise.

The cost of imports being largely increased, the demand for
them will as certainly be diminished — not always in the ratio
of the increased cost, but very sensibly diminished. The
demand for exports will remain the same, because the cost
remains the same, and the imports will no longer pay for
them, and the balance must be returned in gold. This pro-
cess must go on, and very rapidly too, until the volume of
money has been raised the same per cent, that average prices
have been increased, and then the equation of supply and
demand will be restored upon a new and artificial basis of
prices, and the influx of gold will cease. But the ratio of
exchange between gold and other things will be changed.
"We shall then pay just that much more gold for the same
things, in the aggregate, which we before bought for so much
less, and so much more than we could again buy for under
the natural equation of supply and demand ; and keeping in
mind our definition of value — that it is the ratio of exchange

82 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

between different objects, money included, our gold is depre-
ciated by the duties on imports just that much below its natu-
ral value. In exchange for importables, the gold will be de-
preciated to the extent of the average per cent, of the duties
upon them ; but in exchange for exportables it will not be
depreciated at all, so that ior general purposes it will be de-
preciated only to the same per cent, that the average per cent.
of duties bears to the total natural value of both exportables
and importables added together. Thus: if the two classes of
commodities be each represented by 100, and 45 be added by
the duties, the per cent, advance on importables will be 45,
but the advance on the two aggregated will be but 22^- per
cent.

To determine what the advance is in average prices and the
resulting depreciation of gold, is a difficult problem only be-
cause of the difficulty in ascertaining the exact value of im-
portables and exportables, respectively, the extent to which
they are respectively subjects of exchange, and the extent to
which exchanges of real estate, which is neither exportable
nor importable, may modify the result. By reference to ac-
credited statistics we may, however, arrive approximately at
least, at the true depreciation of gold from the cause stated;
the object of this paper being rather to develope a principle
than to arrive at exact results from its operation.

The average per cent, of duties on imports, as determined
by dividing the total amount of revenue derived from them
by the total amount of imports, is about 45 per cent. This
per cent, (with slight modifications) is added to the price of all
importables, whether foreign or domestic. Now what we wish
to know is, what per cent, this adds to ihe average price of
importables and exportables aggregated.

According to the census returns for 1870, tlie total valua-
tion of manufactured products, deducting $90,000,000,
the product of mines, and adding $462,277,587 of actual
imports is $4, 004,703, 029

Peduct from this the tariff element in the valuation (45
per cent 2, 072, 116, 363

Effect of Duties on Imports upon the Value of Gold. 83

Leaves as the natural value 2, 532, o8C, 666

Value of farm products (exportables) 2,447,538, 6G8

Natural value of both. $4,980,125,324

Divide the tariff element in the valuation of importables by
the total natural value of importables and exportables added
together as above, gives about 4i per cent, as the average ad-
vance in prices and the true depreciation of our gold. Lest
this result should appear too startling, it should be remarked
that this is the true depreciation from the absolute free trade
standard, or, normal state of commerce. By this rule, the
present depreciation is about 83 per cent, below what it would
be under a strictly revenue tariff, averaging say 15 per cent.

This explains how it is that the country has been able, for
the last four or five years, to float such an enormous amount
of paper so nearly at par with gold ; when, in 1857, only about
twelve years before the gold premium settled down to about
its present figure, two hundred and fourteen millions of paper
was sufficient to drive all the gold out of the country and
produce a general supension of specie payments. Now, the
paper volume is seven hundred and fifty millions, and has
been for years past, and at an average discount of only about
twelve per cent. Many of our statesmen, or rather I should
say politicians, pretend to believe that this is the result of the
national growth and developement of the country. But no
rational man can believe that the country, in twelve years,
has advanced three hundred per cent, in population, wealth
and exchanges, with four of those years devoted to the most
destructive war of modern times, when about twenty per cent,
has been the usual advance in a decade, in peaceful and pros-
perous times.

I am aware that this law by which gold is depreciated by
duties on imports, seems to conflict with the general law
which causes gold to flow from where it is worth less to where
it is worth more ; for, we have seen that, pending the adjust-
ment of the volume of money to the forced increase of average

84 Wzsconsi?! Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

prices, gold actually flews from where it is worth more to
where it is worth less. In a correspondence on this subject,
which I had with Prof. Perry of Williams College, this ap-
parent conflict with a well established law, was what staggered
him as to the soundness of the principle I have endeavored
to develop. But this conflict is only in appearance; for,
although the gold imported to raise the volume of money to the
new volume of prices, is actually depreciated below its general
commercial value, still it is worth more to tis than the foreign
goods we would get instead, clear of the custom house. The
demand for our exports, we have seen, is not diminished by
the duties on imposts, and we must import something in ex-
change for them, or give them away. Give them away we
will not, and in importing gold in preference to goods, we
only choose the better of two bargains, either of which is bad
enough.

The elements of this calculation are liable to some modifica-
tions, both in the direction of a greater and of a less deprecia-
tion ; the greater from the vastly larger proportion of farm pro-
ducts which are consumed by the agricultural population and
never become the subjects of exchange at all, than can be pre-
dicated of manufactured products; which will considerably re-
duce the agricultural element in the total of exchanges and
make the average rise in prices and the depreciation greater ;
and then the less, as money used in the transfer of real estate
will add to the volume of non-importablesand tend to diminish
the average per cent, of prices and depreciation. But it is
probable that these opposite tendencies will nearly balance
each other, and leave the results I have arrived at not very
wide of the practical truth.

Thus far we have reasoned upon the assumption of a purely
metallic medium of exchange. Will the introduction of paper
currency change the result? Not in the least. If a local cur-
rency exists in the meantime, equal in volume to the gold
which would otherwise have been imported and held in the

Effect of Duties on Imports upon the Value of Gold. 85

country, the same results will be arrived at without any influx
of gold at all, and the little gold remaining in the country will
be depreciated in the same degree as if the circulation bad been
all coin — the high duties acting as a strong inducement to im-
port gold, and the paper currency acting as an equally strong
inducement to export it — the two antagonistic forces just bal-
ancing each other. If the paper volume, in the mean time, is
greater than the gold volume would have been, with no paper,
the tendency to import gold, produced by the duties, will net
only be balanced, but overpowered by it, and gold will flow out
just so long as there is any iu the country not held back by
arbitrary means. This latter state of things has existed in the
United States ever since the commencement of the civil war.
The paper volume has all the while been in excess of what
the gold volume would have been without any paper, and, of
course, gold has all the while been flowing out of, instead of
into the country. Our gold, then, as compared with its value
in other countries, is depreciated a little more than forty-one
per cent., estimated upon a free trade basis, or a little less than
thirty-four per cent, estimated upon the basis of a strictly rev-
enue tariff, and our paper currency, by its enormous volume,
is depreciated ten to twelve per cent, below that, making the
total depreciation of our currency, upon the one basis, about
forty-five per cent., and upon the other, about fifty-three or
four per cent.

The foregoing facts and principles have an important bear-
ing upon the financial and commercial policy of the country,
if it is ever again to have a policy. The country is now suf-
fering both from a depreciated, irredeemable currency, and
from an exorbitant monopoly tariff, and the signs of the times
indicate a determination on the part of the people to rid them-
selves of both as speedily as possible. But can we with safety
get rid of both at once and all at once ? Let us see. The
depreciation of the currency, as we have seen, is compound.
The paper is depreciated eleven or twelve per cent, below the

86 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

gold in the country, which is itself depreciated say thirty per
cent, below what its value would be under a strictly revenue
tariff. So long as the present high duties are maintained, the
depreciation of the gold will continue, and we will only have
to overcome the present premium on gold by contraction of
the paper volume to that extent, in order to maintain specie
payments. But, repeal the tariff entirely, and gold in this
country would immediately resume its normal value and shoot
up to about fifty-three per cent, premium, and we would see
just ho'.v far, between tariff and paper inflation, we have
drifted with our currency, from a normal specie basis. Re-
duce the duties to a revenue standard, and the Fpremium on
gold would at once rise to fully forty-four per cent., and we
would be compelled to overcome that by a like contraction of
the currency before specie payments could be maintained.
It should also be noted that, in returning to specie payments^
the gold which we have demonetized must be drawn from the
general stock of the world to resume its functions as money
in this country, and thus the whole stock of gold will be ap-
preciated in value as much as it was depreciated in the pro-
cess of demonetization, and will add one, two or three per
cent., whatever it is, to the depreciation of our currency, and
which must be overcome by contraction. Such a contraction,
even if extended through a whole year, would doubtless be
seriously felt by the business interests of the country, though
it would be trifling compared with those which used to occur
under the old bank suspensions, when the currency was con-
tracted, sometimes to the extent of fifty or sixty per cent, in
sixty days. I am satisfied that much of the dread of contrac-
tion results from the memory of the violent and sudden con-
tractions of 1837 and 1857, which sprung like a steel trap
upon its unsuspecting victims. But contraction is an absolute
necessity if we are ever to return to a specie basis. True,,
some politicians, who pass for statesmen, talk of resumption
without contraction of the paper volume; but a tyro in eco-

Effect of Duties on Imports wpon the Value of Gold. 87

Domic science knows that this is as impossible as for a man to
walk across the Atlantic with a crowbar for a walking stick.
Any attempt of the kind would result in another suspension
in less than sixty days. It would at once add 11| per cent.
to the profit on the exportation of gold, and the gold would
disappear as fast as it could be counted out. To resume with-
out contraction and at the same time reduce the tariff to a
revenue standard, would add forty-four per cent, to that profit,
and how long would resumption last then? And yet the
country is beginning to demand a return to a specie basis and
reduction of duties on imports to a revenue basis, and that de-
mand will become more and more imperative. Both can be
accomplished without serious disaster; but, in order to do
that, the currency must be contracted and the duties reduced
by regular installments ^ in pursuance of a steady and persever-
ing policy, regardless of the clamor of bankers and specula-
tors. A contraction of ten per cent, a year would bring us to
a specie basis, under a revenue tariff, in about four years ; and
if business men could know that such a policy would be inex-
orably carried out, they would regulate their business accord-
ingly and steer clear of disaster. A contraction of five per
cent, a year, steadily pursued, would accomplish the same ob-
jects in eight years, and scarcely be felt at all. The latier
policy would perhaps be the better one, if we could depend
upon our government to maintain any definite policy for that
length of time. The danger is that it would be reversed be-
fore the end could be accomplished. Inflation is easy and
contraction is hard. It is easy to jump down from the top of
a tower, but not so easy to jump back again. The misfortune
is that many of our statesmen (?) propose, as the shortest way
to get back, to jump down a precipice at its base — to arrive at
resumption by way of further inflation ! Many others of
them propose to drift back — to wait for the country to grow io
the present paper volume ; while the very few who have tak-
en the pains to qualify themselves for their business, and

68 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

know what the difficulty is and how to remedy it, are either
dragged down by the jumpers or overwhelmed by the drifters,
who persistently refuse to learn anything from the laws and
history of finance, the experience of other countries, or even
of our own country. They will grant that two and two make
four in the old countries of Europe, but insist that this great
republic is so different from all other countries in the world,
that, here, two and two will make five, or seven or nine — any-
thing you please, except four ! And thus they drift on in
complacent imbecility, without chart or compass or rudder,
they know not whither.

u e

Requisites to a Reform of the Civil Service. 89

EEQUISITES TO A REFORM OP THE CIVIL

SERVICE.

BY DR. J. W. HOYT, PRESIDENT OP THE ACADEMY.

If it be true, as asserted by the civil service commission of
the United States, that tine present system of the civil service
'■'■ violates the fundamental principles of thrift and economy ;
fosters personal and political corruption ; paralyzes legislative
honor and vigilance ; weakens and degrades official conduct;
tempts dangerous ambition; and, by poisoning the springs of
moral action, vitiates the character of the people and endan-
gers the national prosperity and permanence," then is it a
matter of the most vital importance to the nation, and to the
republican principles upon which the government is based,
that we accept it as truth and devote our best thoughts and
energies to the reformation of that service.

Unhappil}', there is nothing in the results of inquiries insti-
tuted by the civil service commission, nor yet in the facts
recently brought to light by the investigations of committees
formed by the state and national legislatures, that is calculated
to disprove these grave charges. It is true that the civil war,
through which the nation has so recently passed, mr.y be held
responsible, in large measure, for the corrupting influences
which have so infected the body politic and tainted the polit-
ical atmosphere of the country. This is one of the le 'mate
fruits of all wars, one of the terrible penalties a peopK lust
suffer for yielding to the impulse of passion instead of hold-
ing themselves bravelv to the demands ot reason. But far
more of this political demoralization is chargeable against our
system of the civil service. And if, on the one hand, we &
filled with alarm at the revelations made from time to time
of the extent to which these corrupting agencies have done
7

90 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

their fearful work, we have just cause, on the othgr, to con-
gratulate the country and the friends of republican institu-
tions everywhere, that the patriotism and morality of the
country, acting through the thoughtful, earnest and pure men
of all sections and all political parties, have already begun the
great work of purification.

A further ground of encouragement is found in the fact that
this reform did not have to wait for its inauguration until uni-
versally demanded by an indignant people, but originated in
an appeal from the chief magistrate of the nation, clothed in
these words :

"Always favoring practical reforms, I respectfully call your attention to
one abuse of long standing, which I would like to see remedied by this
Congress. It is a reform in the civil service of the country. I would
have it go beyond the mere fixing of the tenure of office of clerks and
employees who do not require the advice and consent of the Senate to
make their appointments complete. I would have it govern, not the ten-
ure, but the manner of making all appointments. * * * * The pres-
ent system does not secure the best men, and often not fit men, for public
places. The elevation and purification of the civil service of the govern-
ment will be hailed M'ith approval by the whole people of the United
States." [Message of 1870.]

The promptness with which congress seconded these views
of the president and gave him authority to appoint a
commission charged with the duty of devising a plan under
which the needed reform should be inaugurated, and the
readiness with which he adopted the recommendations of
that commission and sought to give them efficiency, — these
circumstances have so enlisted the sympathy and support of
good me)i throughout the country as to have warranted the
hope that the reformation will steadily go on to its completion.

It matters not so much that many friends of the object
sought to be accomplished criticise and condemn some of the
details of the plan adopted by the commission ; much less that
selfish demagogues, who see in it a curtailment of their prerog-
atives, hold up its weak points to public ridicule. The plan

Reqiiisites to a Reform of the Civil Service. 91

recognizes and embodies important principles, which cannot be
contemptuously treated, which are sustained by reason and
have Btood the test of long-continued aud faithful trials in
other countries.

It is no longer the rule that the clerkships in all the depart-
ments at Washington are filled by favorites of senators and
members of congress, with little regard to fitness, as had been
the case almost since the foundation of the government. Un-
der the present regulations, requiring notice of vacancies and
impartial competitive examination of all candidates, it is-
manifest: first, that merit, and not mere party and personal
subserviency, is to be the prime consideration in the selection
of persons to do the work of the departments ; and secondly,
that in proportion as these regulations are perfected and faith-
fully enforced, we have a guaranty that this work will be ivell
done.

But the civil service commissioners have been charged with,
only a small part of the work of reform, which, viewed in its
totality, is as comprehensive as it is important, involving a
necessity not only for legislative action, but also for modifica-
tions of state and federal constitutions.

As the subject presents itself to my mind, the requisites to a
thorough reform of the civil service of the conntry are these :

I. A judicious and faithful application of qualification tests
in the case of all oflSces filled by appointment.

The work of the United States civil service commissioners,
as already observed, is limited to a few subordinate places in
the executive departments; whereas, the principle should have
a much wider, indeed a general application.

Objections may with propriety be urged against filling
some of the higher government offices by open competitive
examinations ; the chief of such objections being, that the
duties performed by the incumbents of them are not routine
and largely mechanical, as in the case of a majority of clerk-

92 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ships, but largely administrative, and lience demanding such
high natural qualifications as must be personally known,
either to the officer having the appointing power, or to per-
sons of his acquaintance whose recommendation is a guaranty
of capacity and trustworthinss. But no objection can be urged
against the right of the people to demand that all appoint-
ments, even the highest, shall be made on the principle that
ability, integrity, special adaptation, and special attainments
wherever essential to a proper discharge of the duties devolv-
ing on the appointee, are absolutely essential, and hence para-
mount to all considerations of mere party relationship or parti-
zan service. Such right is undeniable, and the only reason it
is not exercised is, that, on the one hand, there is a lack of
appreciation of it, and, on the other^ the potent influence of
party prejudice and party interest. As a consiquence, most
unfit men are found in all branches of the civil service.
United States judges, unsited to the responsibilities of the
bench ; foreign ministers, without the slightest knowledge of
diplomacy, scientifically or historically considered ; consular
agents, without any idea of consular duties or even oi the
language of the country to which they are accredited ; and
even heads of executive departments, sometimes chosen with
less reference to special fitness than to influential standing in
the political party of the administration.

Here is a vast and immensely important field for civil
service reform, in which the executive is supreme, one in
which, practicing on the principle, "country first and party
afterwards," wo may do a great deal to promote the welfare of
the country and establish the world's confidence in the wisdom
and economy of republican institutions.

II. A second requisite is the making the tenure of all such
offices as require special preparation and considerable experi-
ence for the proper discharge of their duties, conditional, not
on party affiliations merely, but on demonstrated ability and
fidelity.

Requisites to a Reform of the Civil Service. 93

The theory long practiced by successive administrations^
but first sanctioned, if not formulated, by President Jackson,
this, namely, "To the victor belongs the spoils," is demoralizing
and dangerous. It places party before country, discourages
laboriousness of preparation for, as well as faithfulness in, of-
fice, and puts a premium upon trickery and rascality in the
conduct of every political canvass. Contending under this
banner for the mastery, the citizen is lost in the partizan, and
the idea of sacred trusts gives place to the idea of public
plunder. It is the very system to breed a race of thieves, as
is shown by both reason and experience. And yet it is a
most difficult system to overthrow, for it is rooted in human
selfishness, and has been so long nourished, that it is now of
rank and giant growth. But its overthrow is possible, and
great will be the reward of that party or administration which
shall bravely and resolutely enter upon this patriotic work,

III, There should also be adopted some equitable system
of promotions and other rewards wherever practicable.

In the army, we have a career for the soldier ; he knows
that although he should enter the service as an obscure pri-
vate, there is before him a line of promotion, which, if he
can but once enter upon it, is as sure as life and good behav-
ior to lead him upward, and may eventually place him in
the supreme command. But in the civil service, upon whose
skilful and faithful administration the welfare and security of
the country no less depend, we have as yet no career. The
man whom pecuniary circumstances may have constrained to
secure for himself a subordinate position in one of the depart-
ments, but who possesses rare qualifications for that or even a
superior position, and who, by long experience and close at-
tention to his duties, has fairly entitled himself to the grateful
recognition of his chief, has hitherto been doomed, — unless
able to bring powerful party influence to bear for his advance-
ment,— to see inexperienced and possibly totally unfit persons

94: Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

appointed to positions above him and directly in what ought
to be the line of his own promotion. That sach a course of
injustice — injustice to both the individual and the govern-
ment— must be highly injurious to the public service is plain-
ly manifest. Something has been done towards remedying
the evil by the civil service commission. It has at least done
good service in calling public attention to the principle, and
in securing lor it some degree of practical recognition.

It may also be well to inquire whether there could not be
adopted yet other methods of rewarding services of extraor-
dinary merit. In the military service, we have brevets, boun-
ties, pensions, etc. Is there any good reason why correspond-
ing rewards should not be provided for specially meritorious
services in civil departments of the government ?

IV. There should be an increase in the legal or constitu-
tional term of many offices.
This would —

1. Encourage able and good men to accept office who now
stand aloof because they are unwilling to break up present
business relations tor the questionable advantage of a very
brief term of public service.

2. Discourage mere adventurers and worthless politicians in
the same proportion, smce it would have the effect to make
all conscientious and intelligent voters more scrupulous and
exacting.

8. By diminishing the frequency of elections, tend to cure
the present thirst for political excitement and the mania for
political office, now become a most prominent evil of the times.

4. As a consequence, correct that absurd practice of frequent
rotation^ which is based on the false theory that office is a
perquisite of citizenship, a thing for the individual, and not
for the government and the common good of the whole people
to be affected by it.

This requisite to a reform of the civil service deserves there-

i

Reqidsites to a Reform of the Civil Service. 95

fore to be urged upon the country with great force and persis-
tency. We are already a nation of politicians — politicians, too,
in the most objectionable sense ; by which is meant a great
body, a mighty host, of place-hunters, hungering, panting,
scrambling, fighting, each for his share of the spoils of office.
With an alarmingly large and increasing proportion of the
people, an ordinary legitimate businees, yielding a comfortable
living, is unsatisfying, and to be escaped if possible; and as
for downright labor, that is contemptible !

Of those who are politicians in the better sense, the great
majority are almost totally ignorant of political science, while
the number is by no means small of those who openly scout
the idea of there being any such science. As to statesmanship,
that is a thing of which we hear much talk but see few illus-
trations. What wonder that so much of our legislation is
botcb work, requiring to be torn to pieces and done over
again and again, in the vain attempt to accomplish the desired
object. How can it be otherwise, when each successive legis-
lature or congress is composed, for the greater part, of men
who have neither knowledge of the principles of political
science, nor the advantage of legislative experience — composed,
in a word, of raw recruits, whisked off, with short warning and
no preparation, from the field, the workshop, the factory, the
counting-room, or the professional office, and required to de-
vote themselves, for the space of a few months at the most,
to the settlemnt of a thousand and one questions, a majority
of them entirely new, and some of them gravely important, re-
quiring years of the most careful research for their solution?

The same is true of offices other than legislative. The term,
as a rule, is too short, and changes are too frequent. In most
of the states the governor and other state officers are chosen
once in two years ; and although re-eligible, it is quite as often
as otherwise that they remain in office bat one term. Not
because of neglect of duty or malfeasance of any sort, but be-
cause some one not in office is bent on having his turn ! And

96 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

so it is, that, with annual local elections, biennial state elec-
tions, and quadrennial national elections, we manage to have
nine-tenths of the most important offices filled with inexperi-
enced men, and to keep the whole body of the people in a fever
of excitement and under the play of demoralizing influences
from the beginning to the end of their lives.

But for this state of things, or in other words, if the people
were always capable of acting wisely and calmly in the selec-
tion and support of men to represent them in official positions,
so that the selection of an officer conspicuous alike for ability
and fidelity would depend more upon his willingness to con"
tinue in service than upon the manoeuvering of ambitious
scramblers for his place, then, in that case, the necessity for an
increase in the term of office would not be so urgent. But the
people are not universally capable of so acting, and it is next
to impossible that they should ever become so under the short-
term system.

In connection with the presidency, there has been much dis-
cussion within a few years past, of the one-term principle.
Able senators have urged congress to take preliminary steps
looking to a change to that effect in the constitution ; and at
least one candidate for the presidency has inscribed the one-
term proposition on his banners.

The strong argument, if not indeed the only one, employed
by the advocates of this change is, that, as the provision now
stands, the tremendous power of the public patronage, so much
of it in the hands of the president, is liable to be used to secure
his re-election, regardless of the wishes of the people of the
whole country. This is indeed a matter worthy of thoughtful
consideration. It seems to me, however, that the proper order
of the discussion is : first, to inquire whether re-eligibility is
in itself desirable ; secondly, whether the objections thereto are
of sufficient weight to overbalance the reasons for the present
provision ; and, thirdly, whether in such event, it is not pos-
sible to remove the objections without the sacrifice of any other
important interest.

Requisites to a Reform of the Civil Service, 97

To the first of these questions there can be but one answer.
The wisdom of the founders of the republic, the experience of
our past history, and the unbiased judgment of the present
time, all agree that, in a matter of so great moment, as in other
matters of moment, it is best to leave the hands of the people
untied, the popular will free to act in accord with the popular
judgment.

The second question cannot be so easily disposed of, since
it is impossible to determine the extent to which the power of
patronage is ever used by the executive for the purpose of
securing a renomination and re-election. As a rule, to which
there have been but few exceptions in the history of tlie gov
ernment, the high character of the chief magistrate is a good
guaranty against the corrupt exercise of power for personal
advantage; and as it may be Jissumed that an exceptional pres-
ident will very certainly have favored his first supporters, by
way of reward for their services in securing his first election,
and hence, in large measure, have exhausted the resources of
his patronage, there is reason to believe that the danger from
this source is very much overrated. It is also to be borne in
mind that the unfortunate experience of such of the presi-
dents as have ventured to disregard the wishes of ther constit-
uents has already pretty well impressed it as a conviction upon
the public mind that no amount of corrupt use of patronage
will be sufficient to override the popular will, when it has once
declared itself with the voice of condemnation. "While, on
the other hand, it is worthy of mention that, of the presidents
who have been re-elected, not one has disappointed the public.

The advocates of the one-term rule admit the force of the
reasons that sustain the constitutional provision as it stands, — '
namely, the great value of experience on the part of the exe-
cutive, and of steadiness in the administration of the govern-
ment,— for, with one accord, they propose to couple an exten-
sion of the term with their limitation of the number of elections.
But they appear to overlook this important consideration, that,

98 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

in order to meet the argument based on experience and steadi-
ness by any considerable extension of the one term, they sub-
ject the country to the liability of serious injury from the pro-
longation of a most faulty administration. But granting, for
the sake of the argument, the full force of the arguments
urged by the advocates of the one-term proposition, let us see,
in the third place, whether there cannot be found remedies for
them less open to the serious objections above alluded to.
The following suggest themselves at once :

1. The proposed general increase in the term of most ofifi.-
ces, as a means of correcting the present tendency of the whole
people to make politics a trade ; thus, in a great measure res-
cuing them from the dangers of political corruption.

2. The cutting down of the presidential patronage, by pro-
viding suitable conditions on which many of the appoint-
ments shall of necessity be made, — a work already commenced
by the civil service commission under the inspiration and sup-
port of the present chief magistrate, — and, possibly, by trans-
ferring the right of choice, in some other cases, from the pres-
ident to the people themselves.

3. The choice of our presidents by a direct free vote of the
people, or by some other method worthy to succeed the pres-
ent fraud-engendering electoral-college system.

I confidently believe that, if these several remedies were
applied, the evils now attending the re-eligibility of the presi-
dent would be so nearly cured that the heroic and very ques-
tionable measures proposed by the limitationists would cease
to be urged.

y. A fifth requisite is the re-adjustment of salaries on the
basis of equity and public policy. At present, there is a
great, and often very unjust, inequality. The head of an im-
portant bureau or department perhaps receives less compensa-
tion than a second class insurance or dry goods clerk, while
the collector of a port, with but little to do personally, except

Requisites to a Reform of the Civil Service. 99

to " set up the pins'' for his party, enjoys an income of ten
times as much.

So, likewise in the states, salaries are often a very inade-
quate compensation for the service required. So recently as
five years ago, the constitutional salary of the governor of
"Wisconsin was twelve hundred and fifty dollars ; and it is
not long since the salary of the chief justice of the state was
but twenty-five hundred dollars, while certain officers of the
county government were receiving twice as much for services
of a much lower grade.

It is not a sufficient answer to the objection, that a given
salary is not a sufficient compensation for the duties of the
office to say, as is usually said, " There are a plenty of com-
petent men willing to accept of the salary and perform the
service ;" for, as a rule, it is not true. Competent men, in the
fullest sense, willing to perform any sort of service for le;5S
than a fair living price, are not plenty. You may find here
and there one who will make the sacrifice for a short time, for
the purpose of accomplishing some worthy public object, or
for the gratification of a private taste, or from the hope that
the loss may be made up to him by some future advantage —
motives, of which the public should be too just and honorable
to take advantage. But such places are always liable to be
filled by ambitious persons not competent, or who, being intel-
lectually so, merely seek them for the illegitimate profits it is
supposed they may be made to yield.

To state the whole case in the fewest words, in determining
the salary to be attached, to any office, the question should be,
not. For how small a sum is it possible to have the work done ?
but rather, What would be an adequate and liberal compensa-
tion for the quality of service demanded ? For the fixing a
compensation less than reasonable must have the effect to dis-
courage competent and honorable men from accepting public
office, and hence to open the door to incompetency and fraud,
greatly to the injury of the public service and the demoraliza-
tion of the community.

100 Wisco7isin Academy of Sciences, Arts^ and Letters.

For similar reasons, the method of providing com.pensation
in the form of fees, moieties and the lil^e, is injudicious, un-
just to those who bear the burdens of the government, and
demoralizing in its influence.

YL A sixth and very important requisite is a change in
the method of electing persons to of^ice^ so as to diminish the
power of the caucus and guarantee the true sovereigyity of the
peo2:)le.

It is manifest that he who owes his position, not to the peo-
ple who are theoretically his constituents, but to a small clique
of political wire-pullers, who have their own ends to accom-
plish, is in danger of holding himself, consciously or uncon-
sciously, amenable to them, first of all, and of neglecting his
duty to the people in the same proportion. The clique elected
him once, and they can do it again. Why then trouble him-
self too much about the will of the multitude, who can prac-
tically neither help nor hinder?

As this is not a pure democracy, and cannot be, the system
of representation is unavoidable and must be used alike in
the making and in the execution of the laws. The question
is, therefore, not, how to do away with representaiion, but, how
to limit it and rid it of objectionable features, so as to give
practical effect to every individual elector's ballot, and, as a
consequence, to make every representative, in whatever capa-
city, directly responsible to his constituents. Every intelli-
gent citizen must see, on reflection, the vital importance of
this object, if we would save our republican system of gov-
ernment from passing irrecoverably into a practical and intol-
erable oligarchy of the majority, nay worse than this, a tyran-
nical and ruinous oligarchy of the caucus.

This object can only be accomplished by the adoption of
some system of 2X7-sonal representatmi, to the maturing and in-
troduction of which the attention of thoughtful and patriotic
citizens throughout the country should be directed. A system

Requisites to a Reform of the Civil Service. 101

so planned that it would secure the elector from the present
necessity to support one of two candidates, dictated to him by
a clique of political managers, or to throw his vote away, and
give to him a free choioe of candidates from the whole body
of his fellow citizens ; that would give to every ballot a defin-
ite and an equal political value ; that would give to each con-
stituency its due proportion of political power; that would in-
sure to each claes of citizens and each public interest their just
share of representation in the government ; such a system
would cerfcp.inly guarantee a great improvement in the quality
of the civil service, in the manner already pointed out — by in-
creasing the conscious weight of every official's responsibility
to those who gave him their suffrages. It would accomplish
still more, in an indirect way, by putting an end to the trick-
ery and tyranny of the nominating caucus and convention ; by
insuring in many instances the election of a class of superior
men, who under present conditions are neither able nor willing
to take part in politics ; by diminishing the temptations to
bribery and other forms of corruption in elections ; by increas-
ing the elector's sense of the responsibility of citizenship, and
stimulating him to the acquirement and exercise of an intelli-
gent judgment in governmental affairs; and, finally, in gen-
eral terms, by improving the intellectual standard and elevat-
ing the moral tone of the whole body of the people.

YII. Still another requisite is the infliction of the most
summary and condign punishment upon all who are found
guilty of corruption in securing, or of malfeasance in, office.

It is not enough to provide every safeguard against the
appointment and election of bad men to office. In spite of
all that can be done to prevent it, there will be cases in which
men will work themselves into power by dishonest means ; in
which, likewise, persons fairly entitled will prove traitors to
the public interests they were chosen to protect. The pur-
chase of place by ambitious charlatans and unscrupulous dem-

102 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters,

agogues ; the bartering of legislative power and privilege, for
influence or pecuniary gain ; the corrupt letting of contracts ;
embezzlennent of public funds, and rascality in many other
forms, have their root in human nature and are incidental to
all governments. But they would certainly occur less often,
even under the best possible system, if their perpetrators when
detected, were made to feel the full rigor of the law and the
withering condemnation of the people.

VIII. But it were unphilosophical to expect oflEicial virtue to
outmeasure public virtue. It is only in exceptional cases that a
representative of the intelligence of a community will not also
be a fair representative of its morality. Hence it is requisite,
above all, that the community, the state, and the nation
should adopt and vigorously enforce measures calculated to
increase the intelligence and to strengthen and refine the
moral sense of the people.

This is a trite statement. But that it sadly fails of universal
recognition, even among those who rank as intelligent leaders
and guides in social and political affairs, will appear from the
action of great numbers of town boards, municipal councils,
and legislative assemblies.

We are a great nation, aiming at self government — the
only great republic so fortunate in its conditions of social and
political life as to have gained the world's confidence. Confi-
dent of the ability of the republican system, under these favor-
able conditions, to successfully resist tbe disturbing or deter-
iorating influences consequent on the immigration of the mul-
titudes destined to come, first from the oppressed populations
of Europe, and later from the semi-barbarous lands of the
Orient, the founders of the government made easy provision
for their absorption into the body politic. Then, to make the
system of government more fnlly consistent with the principle
of equality, which lies at its very foundation, we have our-
selves extended the privileges of citizenship to the millions of

Requisites to a Reform of the Civil Service. 103

our black population who were, but recently, in the chains of
slavery, and are of necessity still in the fetters and clogs of the
grossest ignorance. And soon, as a logical necessity, the same
privileges and immunities that we enjoy will be accorded to
the whole body of women. Bat with all this recent and pros-
pective multiplication of voters unaccustomed to the responsi-
bilities of freemen, it is only with the utmost difficulty, and
after a struggle of many years, that the American congress
has been induced to concede that the government owes any-
thing further to the cause of popular education, after having
granted for its encouragement a small portion of the unsold
public lands. Even at this hour we present the spectacle of
a mighty nation of forty millions resting our only rational
hope of a great and glorious future on the intelligence of the
masses, and yet showing a most alarming proportion of illiter-
acy, hesitating over the proposition to consecrate the net pro-
ceeds of the public lands, hereafter sold, to the education of
the people, and denying to the cramped and crippled,
though nobly officered. Educational Bureau of the Interior
Department the few thousand dollars essential to its greater
efficiency. In such schools as we have, but little instruction
is given ia the elementary principles of our government, and
•in too many of even the best of them there is recognized a
mucb more important defect bearing upon the question of good
government, namely, the want of a judicious and systematic
culture of the moral nature, such as is calculated to insure to
the country virtuous and noble men, in all respects fitted to
meet the responibilities of citizenship, and to save the re-
public from the increasing dangers which already threaten its
destruction.

To my mind, nothing is more manifest than that this requi-
site, although mentioned last, lies at the foundation of all.
In a country governed by an autocracy or a monarchy, it is
possible to have an efficient and economical civil service with-
out universal intelligence, with intelligence of the governing

104 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters

class merely. But in a republic, the way to whose highest
places of power and trust is open to any citizen who has the
intellectual energy or the mere self-assurance to enter, and
who furthermore possesses the tact essential to political man-
agement, or only the means to command the tact of others,
there is no security short of universal education.

Nor is this enough, if understood in the ordinary sense.
The rudimentary education of the whole people is not suffi-
cient. The elementary principles of government and of a
sound social and political economy must also be widely under-
stood and appreciated ; and in qwqtj community the number
must not be few of them who have made statesmanship a
profound study.

Stopping short of the most ample provision for all these
guaranties, we have left our free institutions in peril, and are
justly obnoxious to the censure of mankind.

Natural History as a Branch of Elementary Education. 105

NATURAL HISTORY AS A BRANCH OF ELE-
MENTARY EDUCATION.

I am persuaded that great good would result from making
the study of natural history one of the most elementary
branches of education. Children should be taught to see
carefully and minutely, and thus early learn to observe and
compare, a most important part of education. Their atten-
tion should be directed to the more common object.^ by which
they are surrounded.

The chipping bird that pecks at crumbs in the yard, and
nests in the currant bush, what a warm, light and beautiful
feather-coat it wears, its wings are only a variety of hands
which enable it to fly where we cannot follow. See how it
hops, with one foot a little in advance of the other, in place
of running, or walking like the chickens. All birds that
perch on trees move by hops, when on the ground.

The ant that labors so diligently in the garden — observe its
six feet, its pinchers to elip and cut its food, its antennae, by
means of which it makes its wants known to other ants. How
busily ihey are running up and down that tree. Watch and
we shall find that they have discovered the locality of their
cows (plant lice), and are in haste to sip the sweet fluid se-
creted by these curious insects.

See the " pinch bug," that comes stumbling in at the open
window, attracted by the light. Observe its antennae ; how
curious its eyes, how large. All beetles have a beautiful box
fastened on their backs, in which are neatly packed their deli-
cate, transparent wings They elevate the two lids (wing
cases), and unfold the glacy wings, then they prepare to fly.
8

106 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

What curious claws, like forks, this fellow has to enable him to
hold on securely. What stout jaws. You see they open side-
wise, instead of up and down, like all the large animals. There
too is the butterfly that flutters on the garden flowers, suck-
ing with its long tongue, the sweets of the blossoms. It has
no pincers; like the ant and bee it cannot bite. What large
beautiful wings, four in number. See the long "feeler," with
a nob on the end. The spider, that spreads its lace trap, to
catch heedless flies, the grasshopper that springs up from the
grass. All, these thing should be a subject of thought, obser-
vation, and comparison ; for it is by comparison that we form
ideas of the differences which exist between things ; by com-
parison alone that we reach conclusions the most valuable for
the developementof mind and the acquisition of knowledge.

How common the mistake parents and, I am sorry to say,
teachers often make, in impressing the young and sensitive
mind with horror and alarm, at the sight of the more harm-
less, and in all cases, beautiful works of God. Impressions
thus made in youth, are very permanent and should be care-
fully avoided. We should be ever watchful that nothing
prejudicial finds a lodgment in the minds of our children.

There is nothing farther from the truth, than that " any
one is qualified to teach primary schools." It is far more diffi-
cult to teach the rudiments with profit than the more advanced
branch of any subject. Especially is this true of Natural His-
tory. I am aware of the difficulty, the lack of qualified
teachers; but let the demand be made with sufficient
emphasis and the supply will be furnished. The law of de-
mand and supply is as good in education as in commerce.

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DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL SCIENCES.

ON SOME POINTS IN THE GEOLOGY OF NORTH-
ERN WISCONSIN.

BY ROLAND IRVING, A. M. E. M.,
Agsistant State Geologist of Wisconsin.

When the title of my paper was sent to the secretary, in an-
swer to his request, I had intended to give in detail all the
facts I could collect bearing on the question of the age of the
copper bearing rocks of Lake Superior — the subject propos-
ed in the title then sent — including also the observations
made by myself and my assistants in northern Wisconsin ;
and to elaborate a subject which is briefly stated without theo-
retical discussion in my report on the geology of that region,
now before the legislature. My double professional duties
have however, rendered it impossible for me to do this at all
satisfactorily, so that I have been obliged to give up present-
ing an exhaustive paper to the Academy. It has seemed to
rae, however, that the very interesting discoveries made by my
party, bearing on the relations of the copper bearing series of
rocks, and the Silurian sandstones of the west end of Lake Su-
perior, should be presented to the Academy in some way. I
had supposed also that the members of the geological corps
would be expected to give some account of the results of their
work, — I propose, then, to give briefly an outline of the geol-
ogy of the district which has been under my charge, includ-
ing a bare statement of the discoveries alluded to. This I am

108 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letteis.

the more able and willing to do since no special preparation
is required, the subjects being those upon which my thoughts
have constantly dwelt for many months past.

I. There are four distinct groups of rocks in northern
Wisconsin, the Laureniian granites, gneiss, and schists ; the
Huronian schists, quartzites, iron ores and diorites ; the mela-
phyrs, porphyries, greenstones, conglomerates, sandstones and
shales of the series known now as the ''copper bearing rocks;"
and the lower silurian sandstones. In addition to these are
enormous thicknesses of quarternary clays and of boulder
drift.

The Laureniian (I on the map and section) rocks, are always
furthest removed from the lake, never coming nearer to it than
eighteen miles, and being usually much more distant than
this.

So far as observed these Laurentian rocks are altogether
granitic, gneissoid or syenitic in character, though undoubt-
edly various schistose beds must be present, since they are
found just east of the eastern limit of the district, within the
area of the upper peninsula of Michigan. In Wisconsin the
rocks of this group are almost everywhere overlaid by enor-
mous accumulations of drift material, showing through this
covering in but very few places. This overlying drift is
heaped up in masses which sometimes attain the altitude of
from 1,100 to 1,200 feet above lake Superior. Amidst these
drift heaps, and amidst the swamps which everywhere cover
the country between them, the northward and southward flow-
ing streams iuterlosk in an intricate manner, the former in a dis-
tance often not more than thirty miles from their sources to their
mouths, falling as much as 700 or 800 feet. It can readily be
seen from this that their courses must be a series of chutes and
falls, which is the fact, the single falls reaching in many in-
stances a height of from 60 to 70 feet, and in one instance at least,
that of Black river in Douglas county, a height of 160 feet.

Some Points in the Geology of Northern Wisconsin. 109

The completeness with which this drift covering conceals
the Laurentian rocks, may be understood, when I say that ia
all that portion of Ashland county underlaid by them, an area
of not less than 800 square miles, only four localities are known
where outcrops are to be seen, all of which are very near to
the junction of the overlying Huronian, and two of which are
caused by the action of rivers, the main Bad river and its
Marangouin branch, — where they leave finally the Laurentian
rocks and pass on to the Huronian. At each of these places the
exposures are bold, and give rise to falls of some size. Those
on the Marangouin have a height of sixty feet in three leaps,
the river curving as it falls, so that the last leap faces in a di-
rection at right angles to the first, the curve being around a
bold face of svenitic rock.

The Huroyiian (II on map and section) rocks, which directly
overlie the Laurentian and unconformahly^ — as shown by
Brooks and Pumpelly, from observations made by them just
east of the Montreal river in Michigan — constitute in Ashland
county a continuous narrow belt, whose central portion is the
well known Penokie Range, and whose width never exceeds
two miles, being generally much less than this. These rocks ex-
tend without break into Michigan, almost as far as lake Goge-
bic, when they become lost, being covered by accumulations of
drift, and finally by newer rocks, until, one hundred miles east
of lake Gogebic, the Marquette Iron Region is reached,
where they are again found, but covering a much wider ex-
tent of country than in Wisconsin. Towards the west, the
Huronian belt comes to an abrupt ending, the underlying
Laurentian, and overlying Copper Bearing series closing
in on one another. Still further west, however, just on
the west side of Ashland county, are two isolated belts of Hu-
ronian rocks, in every way similar to the main area, having
each also its central ridge rising abruptly above the level
of the country. Further west still, we know nothing of
its continuance. In an old congressional document I find an

10 Wiscojisin Academy of Sciences, A its, and Letters.

account of a trip made from the interior of Wisconsin to
Lake Superior, by way of Long Lake and White river, by Dr.
Randall, one of the assistants under Dr. D. D. Owen, then in
charge of the geological survey of Wisconsin, Iowa and Min-
nesota. He gives a detailed description of all the rocks seen,
but says nothing of any that could possibly be Huronian. I
infer their absence, or entire concealment by drift material.

This question of a western continuation of the iron belt of
Penokie range opens an interesting field for further investigation
the question being one of economic importance, quite as much as
of scientific interest. We have absolutely no facts going to
show the entire absence of the Huronian in the southern ends
of Bayfield and Douglas counties. The wonderful quantities
of iron which the strata of this series carry everywhere on the
south shore of Lake Superior, makes this investigation of such
importance that it should be undertaken at an early day by the
geological survey. The dip needle will soon tell the story,
even if the rocks are entirely concealed by drift.

The rocks of the Huronian group in northern Wisconsin
are siliceous schists, talco-siliceous schists, white quartz rock,
very peculiar black slates of unknown lithologir.al affinities,
magnetic and specular schists and slates, banded magnetic
schists (alternating bands of magnetite and jasper or quartz),
metamorphic diorites, and diorite schists. In Ashland county
the whole series divides naturally into three portions. The
southernmost,' lowest or oldest portion is composed mostly of simple
siliceous schists with some granular white quartz, grey quartzite
and black slate. The central portion, consists of magnetic and
specular slates and schists, whose content of the oxyds of iron
varies from a fraction of one per cent, to sixty and even eighty
per cent, in which latter case the schists are iron ores. In
this portion of the group occur all the famous ores of the
Penokie Range — and indeed all the ores whose existence is yet
known — these ores being never intercalated lenticular masses,
independent of the enclosing rocks, but simply portions of the

Some Points in the Geology of Northern Wisconsin. Ill

great group — 6 ve hundred feet thick — of magnetic and specular
schists, carrying a larger portion of the oxjds than the general
run. The northernmost, highest, or newest portion of the groups con-
sists, so far as known, almost entirely of diorites, diorite slates
and diorite schists, one locality, however, of quartz slate is
known, and no doubt more occurs, since this portion of the
group is much concealed by drift, and, indeed, has not been
examined with the thoroughness devoted to the lower members.
Between the exposures of this uppermost member and the
next one beneath, there is always a gap without exposures, at
least a thousand feet in width, on the southern side of which
rises the Penokie Ridge, whose mass is chiefly made up, at least
on its western portion, of the middle member of the group.
It is evident that some general cause gives rise to the lack
of exposures in this interval, which cause I take to be greater
softness of material ; and, inasmuch as in the Huronian of the
Marquette region, the soft portions are chiefly the soft hema-
tites, which are never found outcropping, for this reason, and
for others, I have reco .amended in my report, that this part of
the county be thoroughly searched by test-pitting.

The total thickness of the Huronian series at Penokie Gap,
as calculated from actual measurement, is about 4,000 feet, as

follows :

Feet.

-. , , i not exp., 900

Lowest member j in sight, 700

Central member 600

Space witliout e iposure 1400

Upper member 400

4000

About fifty miles east of Penokie Gap, Messrs. Purapelly
and Brooks estimate the thickness of the same belt at -ijOOO
feet, a remarkable uniformity of its structure is thus shown.

Copper Bearing Series. — Next north of, and immediately
overlying the Huronian, are the enormously thick beds of the
copper-bearing series, which have, in all, an apparent thick-

112 Wviconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arls^ and Letters.

ness never less than four miles, and in places on the east
much more than this. This enormous thickness may be due
to some extent to folding and faulting, although no evidences
of this have been seen. Of course, if portions of the group
are of igneous origin, as they are supposed to be, the great
thickness may be readily explained by the rapid formation of
molten masses. Still, the upper portions of this series are,
beyond all doubt, the results of sedimentation exclusively,
and in one portion of Ashland county, one can walk over the
edges of upturned sandstones, which show no sign of fault or
fold whose actual thickness, after making the trigonometrical
correction for dip, falls but little short of 10,000 feet.

The rocks of this copper-bearing series, form in Ashland
county a broad belt, which is widest at its eastern end, where
the rocks reach the shore of the lake, and narrows toward
the west, at the same time receding toward the southward.
The most westerly known portion of this belt is at Long Lake,
in the southern end of Bayfield county. East of the Mon-
treal river the series continues without break to the end of
Keweenau Point. The Wisconsin belt, however, is the re-
sult of the fusion of two distinct belts in Michigan, which
come together just east of the Montreal river, and which, east-
ward of the point of junction, are separated by an area under-
laid by horizontal Silurian sandstones.

Northward of the belt of copper-bearing rocks in Ashland
county, and removed from it as much as eight or ten
miles, are two or three isolated outcrops of sandstones and
traps, along a line some twenty-five or thirty miles in length,
which I have regarded as forming the northeasterly edge of a
synclinal of which those already mentioned, to the southward,
form the southerly edge.

In Douglas county, the Copper Bearing Series is largely rep-
resented, and forms a broad belt curving southwestward across
the county from one side to the other, and extending on the
east into Bayfield county, whose peninsular form is doubtless
due to this continuance, as indicated further on.

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Some Points in the Geology of Northern Wisconsin. 113

The Copper Bearing Series in Ashland county divides nat-
urally into three members.

The lowermost member, designated A, in my report
[II. a], covers the broadest surface of country of any of
the three divisions. The rocks are always highly crystal-
line, generally very coarsely so, and present such a varia-
tion in lithological characters that I have not yet attempted to
describe all the varieties, or even a small portion of them. The
prevailing kinds, which themselves, however, include many
varieties, are : 1st, a dark colored, coarsely crystalline rock,
breaking with jagged edges, and showing broad, crystalline
faces, with often a high lustre, varying in color from a light
gray, through green, to dead black, and composed apparently
of either hornblende or pyroxene, and a triclinic feldspar,
probably in most cases Labradorite, although this last ingre-
dient does not seem always to be present; that portion of
Ashland county just north of English and Bladder lakes, pre-
sents on all outcrops, which are very numerous indeed, rock of
this character : 2d, peculiar varieties whose aspect is usually
pinkish, from the presence of orthoclase feldspar, and a black
mineral probably, hornblenrie, with a varying amount of
quartz : 3d, finer grained hornblendic and pyroxenic rocks.

The indications of stratification in this portion of the group
are seldom seen — the whole mass being apparently without it —
still, in the few places where they are seen, they are marked,
and point towards entire con form ability with the underlying
Huronian.

Next north of and overlying the rocks just described, are
the beds of that portion of the group designated B in my re-
port [Ill.b.] This division, like the preceding, occupies a
belt of country stretching entirely across the county, and
having a much greater width on the eastern side. It includes-
a series of alternating beds of trap of many different kinds, both
amygdaloidal and compact, always cryptocrystalline, and, in the
upper portions, beds of a very remarkable conglomerate, (III.c.)

114 Wisconsi7i Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

together with great thicknesses of sandstone (Ill.d.) and shale.
These sandstone, shale and conglomerate beds do not altogether
overlie the trappean beds, hut are, near the junction, directly and
unmistaheally inter stratified with them. The whole series, traps,
conglomerates, shales and sandstones, have a very high dip to
the north, seldom less than 85 degrees, the beds having often
a true vertical position. The sandstone, conglomerates and
shales have not as yet been seen west of Bad river, in the cen-
tral part of Ashland county, but the trappean members can be
traced uninterruptedly as far west as Long Lake.

The outcrops of traps and southward dipping sandstones
(IlI.e), already alluded to, I have regarded as being really the
same as those just described, forming the opposite edge of a
synclinal.* These rocks are exposed only in isolated patches,
those thus far seen in Ashland county, being sandstones only,
of great thickness; but on the same line further west, in Bay-
field county, trap occurs.

tSilurian. — Over all that portion of Ashland county north
of division " B '' of the copper bearing series, there is an
immensely thick mass of a peculiar red marly clay, almost
every where concealing the underlying recks, which are
exposed in but very few places. In the interval between
" B " and the line of southward dipping sandstones, are found
horizontal sandstones and shales in every way similar to
those on the Apostle Islands, which last constitute the fourth
great group of northern Wisconsin. These sandstones are,
without doubt either the exact equivalents — or, which is
more probable the downward continuation — of the light-
colored primordial sandstones of the Mississippi valley. They
form every where the basement rock of the Apostle Islands,
and of the adjoining coast of Bayfield county. Following
them westward into Douglas county they can be traced, with
the same horizontality, to exact junction with the copper
bearing traps of that part of the state, (Ill.f.) Farther south>

*See section.

Some Pomts in the Oeology of Northern Wisconsin. 115

again, these sandstones reappear (at points marked lY), on the
Lead waters of the St. Croix, from where they can be traced
uninteriiptedly until they disappear beneath the light-colored
sandstones of the Mississippi valley. From these latter the
horizontal red sandstones of the west end of lake Superior
differ much in appearance and composition, being always of a
dark red or reddish brown color, and always carrying a large
percentage of sesquioxide of iron, and of alumina. These
peculiarities have led many geologists to assign these red
sandstones to a much later date than the Lower Silurian, and
it has always been wondered why they should so differ from
the light- colored sandstones of the Mississippi, if they are of
the same age. The explanation is, however, very simple, as
shown further on.

On the east side of Keweenau Point there are horizontal
reddish sandstones which are, without doubt, the exact
equivalents of those just described, because: 1st. they bear
the same relation to the associated copper bearing and Huro-
nian rocks ; 2d. They graduate upward into light-colored
sandstones, which themselves pass underneath limestones of
Trenton age ; and, 3d. They extend westward nearly as far as
the Montreal river, being thus separated from the sandstones
of the west end of the lake by only a few miles.

Having given thus briefly an outline sketch of the geology
of northern Wisconsin, with the main features of its four great
groups of rocks, it remains for me to draw your attention es-
pecially to those points bearing on the age of the copper-bear-
ing series. The age of this series, as well as that of the accom-
panying horizontal sandstones, now proved to be Lower Silu-
rian, has for years given rise to discussion, the earlier geolo-
gists calling them all Triassic, Foster and Whitney making
them the equivalents cf the Potsdam sandstones of New Y'ork,
whilst the Canada geologists have regarded them as the equiv-
alents of the Quebec group of Canada East. Still more lately
Mr. Bell of the Canada Geological Survey, has revived the

116 Wisco72sin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

half forgotten theory of their Triassic age. All of these geolo-
gists have however considered these two groups, i. e., the cop-
per-bearing, and the horizontal sandstones as of the same class.
It is only within the last year that Messrs. Pumpelly and Brooks
have recorded observations, going to show an entire difference in
age between the two groups, and proving that the former is
much the older of the two.'

^In Michigan the highly tilted beds of the Copper Bearing
series, which dip northward, and which form the back bone of
Keweenaw Point, are flanked on the south and east by hori-
zontal Silurian sandstones, which abut directly against their up-
turned edojes. These sandstones continue westward nearly to
the Montreal river, having the tilted beds of trap always on
the north. They come to an end where the belt of Copper
Bearing rocks on their north unites with one on the south.
This more southerly belt is composed like the northern one
of a series of traps with interstratified sandstones and conglom-
erates, all inclined at a very high angle. The horizontal undis-
turbed beds oj the Silurian sandstones, occupies then a trough be-
tween two lines of highly tilted beds of the Copper Bearing series.

In Ashland county, on Silver creek, occur horizontal sand-
stone, and shaly sandstone, loithin a few hundred feet of Copper
Bearing Trap, and within two miles of vertical sandstones of the
same group.

In Douglas county the horizontal sandstones are traceable
to within a short distance of the trap) — and sometimes to actual
contact, the traps here dipping, wherever dip is observable always
to the southward, and having no tilted sandstones and conglomer-
ates associated ivith them.

The interstratification of the trap with sandstones, and
their mutual conforrnability — as observable everywhere on the
south shore of Lake Superior — proves that the trappean beds,
if ever thrown out in a molten condition, must have been

lAm. Jor. Sci. June, 18T3. T. B. Brooks—" Iron Bearing Rocks.'' Michigan geologi-
cal survey, 1873.

2 Brooks and Pnmpelly.

Some Points in the Geology of Northern Wisconsin. 117

spread out in horizontal layers on the bottom of the sea, whilst
the sedimentation of the sandstones was still in progress.
Hence the present tilted position of these sandstones and traps
was produced by a movement entirely subsequent to the solid-
ification of the latter ; and, therefore^ the tilted position of the
sandsfones of the Montreal and Bad rivers, those of the former
reaching a thickness of nearly ten thousand feet, is not due to the
protrusion of igneous rock, hut to an ordinary regional disloca-
tion, in which the trap-pean beds themselves partook. Moreover
the strong indications of conf or mobility between the whole of the cop-
per bearing series, and underlying Huronian, goes to show that this
disturbance was due in part, at least, to the same causes that ele-
vated and folded the beds of the latter series. We have then in
this case horizontal sandstones found in immediate proximity
to sandstones which have undergone regional disturbance. The
vertical sandstones^ then, belong to a period far antecedent to that of
the horizontal sandstone.

The conclusions, then, that I would draw are these :

1. The Copper Bearing and Huronian Series were once
spread out horizontally one over the other and owe their pres-
ent highly tilted position to one and the same disturbance.

2. That subsequently — alter a long period of erosion — the
horizontal Silurian sandstones were laid down over, and against
the upturned edges of the Copper Bearing Series, filling also
the synclinal, in Ashland county, which lies between the north-
ward and southward dipping sandstones.

3. That hence the Copper Bearing Series is more nearly
allied to the Archaean, than to the Silurian rocks.

One fact observed, however, seems at first difficult of explan-
ation on this hypothesis. In Douglas county, as already said, the
horizontal sandstones can be traced to their exact junction with
the southward-dipping traps. But, in several places, these sand-
stones present a very remarkable change as the trap is ap-
proached. On passing up the gorge of Black River, whose
sides are perpendicular exposures of rock over one hundred

118 Wisco7isin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

and fifty feet in height, towards the south, the horizontal layers
of sandstone are suddenly seen to change from their ordinary
position to a confused mass of broken layers, dipping in every
conceivable direction, and increasing in confusion as the trap
is approached, until, finally, the whole changes to a confused
breccia of mingled trap and sandstone fragments. This ap-
pearance is presented along both sides of the gorge, for a dis-
tance of 300 feet, and I am assured by my assistant, Mr. E. T.
Sweet, by whom all observations in Douglas county were
made, that it is certainly due to no mere surface displacement.
The same appearance is presented on one of the other north-
ward flowing streams in Douglas county, on a much diminish-
ed scale however, the undisturbed sandstones reachmg within
twenty feet of the trap. On all other of these streams, the
sandstones are undisturbed. The explanation which first sug-
gests itself to account for these disturbances is naturally, that
they were caused by the ejection of the traps through the al-
ready formed sandstones. In answer to this it may be said
that it is very difficult to see how just such a disturbance as
this could have been caused in this way, the sandstones pre-
senting no appearance of baking or other indication of heat,
but seeming rather to have been crushed by a pressure from the
south. Next the trap it is crushed to a confused mass, a little
further a few layers of sandstone become distinguishable, still
further these are all distinct but broken and pitching in every
direction, and finally they grade into regular unbroken hori-
zontal layers. It may also be said that the proofs already
given of the greater age of the copper bearing rocks, as com-
pared with the horizontal sandstones are so strong as to neces-
sitate some explanation of these disturbances other than the
one just mentioned. The only one that lean offer, is this ;
the traps being deep seated are, as it were, independent of the
more superficial sandstones, and would, if impelled to move by
any force, move independently of them. Now a very slight
movement of the traps northward against the sandstones would

Some Points in the Geology of Northern Wisconsin. 119

produce all the phenomena observed. Such a movement is not
at all difficult to explain,

IT. Westward continuation of the Lake Superior synclinal.

Foster and Whitney long since pointed out that the rocks
of Isle Royale and those of Keweenaw Point formed the oppo-
site edges of a synclinal in whose depression lie the waters of
Lake Superior, The rocks of Keweenaw Point continue west-
ward uninterruptedly as far as Long Lake in Wisconsin, Do
those of Isle Eoyale extend westward in a similar manner? I
have obtamed facts going to show that they do, and that the
peninsula of Bayfield owes its existence to this extension.
The facts alluded to are these : 1st, The known existence of
a synclinal in Ashland county. 2d, The southward dip of
traps of Douglas county. 8d. The known existence of an ex-
tension of the Douglas county traps into Bayfield county."' 4th,
The vertical position of the beds of traps and sandstone in the
westward continuation of the Keweenaw Point belt, as com-
pared with the much lower dip at its eastern end ; — since to-
wards the west the two sides of the supposed synclinal ap-
proach more nearly to one another, it would be expected that
the dip would be much greater, on one side at least, than
where they are far apart, 5th. A westward continuation of
the IsIeRoyale rocks is nowhere else found. 6th. The Doug-
las county traps are very similar to those of IsIeRoyale. The
accompanying section shows at once what is actually known of
the geology of the country along its line (D. E. on accompany-
ing maps), and the probable structure of the concealed portions.

The views thus set forth at once explain, and are confirmed
by, the ferruginous and aluminous character of the Lower
Silurian sandstones of Lake Superior, as compared with the
quartzose character of their equivalents in the Mississippi
valley ; the former have been derived from the wear of the ftld-
spathic and magnetite hearing trajjs of the Copper -bearing
seriesj whilst the latter owe their material to the wear of quartzose
Laurentian granites andof Huronean quartzites and scJusts.
♦These traps dleappear under the drift as they are traced eastward.

120 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Aris^ and Letters.

SOME OF THE PECULARITIES OF THE FAUNA

NEAR RACINE.

BY P. K. HOY, M. D., RACINE.

With few exceptions, the facts recorded in this paper were
obtained by personal observation within fifteen miles of Racine,
Wisconsin, lat 42° 49' north ; Long. 87° 40' west. This city is
situated on the western shore of Lake Michigan, at the extreme
southern point of the heavy-limbered district the base of
which rests on Lake Superior. At this point the great prairies
approach near the lake from the west.

The mercury rises in summer from 90 to 100° Fah., while in
winter it sinks from 12° to 20°. The average daily temperature
for the four warm months, June, July August and September,
is within a fraction of 70° Fah.

The isothermal line curves farther north in summer and
retires farther south in winter, than it does east of the great
lakes; which physical conditions will sufficiently explain the
remarkable peculiarities of its animal life the overlapping, as it
were, of two distinct fauna. More especially is this true of
birds, which are enabled to change their locality with the
greatest facility. ^

Of summer birds I will enumerate only a few of the many
that belong to a more southern latitude in the Atlantic states :

Yellow-breasted Chat, Icteria Virideis.
Mocking Bird, Mimus Polyglottus.
Great Carolina Wren, Thrloihorus Virginicus.
Summer Red bird, Pyrangia j^stiva.
Carolina Parrot, Conurus CaroUnensis.
Whooping Crane, Grus Americana.
Wood Ibis, Tantalus Loculaior.
Royal Tern, etc.. Sterna Regia.

So7ne of the Peculiarities of the Fauna near Racine. 121

Among Arctic birds that visit us in winter are :

The Great Grey Owl, Syrnum Ginereum.

Hawk Owl, Surnia Ulula.

Arctic Three-toed Woodpecker, Picoides Arcticus.

Banded Three-toed Woodpecker, Picoides Hirsutus.

Magpie, Pica Hudsonica.

Canada Jay, Perisoreus Canadenses,

Evening Grosbeak, Hesperiphona Vespertinus.

King Eder, Somateria Spectabilis.

Black Throated Diver, Colymhus Arcticus.

Glaucus Gull, Laurus Giaucus.

Of mammals I will instance :

The Opossum, Didelphys Virginica,
Silvery Mole, Scolai^s Argentatus.

As belonging farther south.

Of northern mammals fouud here are :

Pine Marten, Mustela Americana.
Canada Lynx, Lynx Canadensis.

Reptiles, southern forms:

Glass Snake, Ophisaurus Ventralis.
Blue Tailed Lizard, Sincus Faciaia ; (as far north as
Lake Winnebago,

Insects furnish many intjresting examples of Southern spe-
cies found here, some of which are abundant, as : Leiicanus
elephas, Copris Carolina, {Phanaeun) carnijex, Terias nicippe^
Golydryas ehula, Paphia glycerium, apatura Qeltis, etc., etc.

These examples are sufficient to indicate the rich fauna of
this loculity. It is doubtful if there is another locality where
the Canada Jay and its associates visit in winter, where the
Mocking Bird nests in summer, or where the Haiok Owl flits
silently over the spot occupied during the warmer days by the
9

122 Wisco'/ism Academy of Sciences^ A)is, and Letters.

Summer Bed-bird and the Yellow -breasted Chat. Within the
last twenty-five years in the narrow bounds of Racine county
there have been collected over three hundred species of birds ;.
more than have as yet been noticed in any single state — nearly
one half of all birds known to naturalists within the entire ter-
ritory belonging to the United States.

But the axe has already leveled much of the " great woods,"
so that there is now a great falling off on the part of our old
familiar feathered friends. It is extremely doubtful if such a
collection can ever again be made within the limits of the
state.

Relation of the Sandstone, etc., of the Bardboo Valley. 123

ON THE EELATION OF THE SANDSTONE, CON-
GLOxMEKATES AND LIMESTONE OF THE BARA-
BOO VALLEY TO EACH OTHER AND TO THE
AZOIC QUARTZITES.

BY JAMES H. EATON, PH. D.
Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy, Beloit College.

The age of the quartzite hills and ridges of Sauk county
has been satisfactorily determined by Mr. Roland Irving' to
be pre-silurian. Mr. James Hall'^ in his report of the State
Survey, calls them Huronian. Their relation to the great cen-
tral area of azoic rocks in Wisconsin may, perhaps, be deter-
mined by finding their junction with the latter. On Dr. Lap-
ham's map a small region on the Eau Claire river, adjacent to
the great central area of granitic rocks, is colored as quartzite.
An examination of this locality, to determine whether the
quartzite rests unconformably upon the granite rocks, would
doubtless determine their age.

The accompanying map is by Mr. Wm. H. Cantield, of
Baraboo, who for many years has been the official surveyor of
Sauk county. It is taken from surveys made by him with
the especial purpose of marking the quartzite outcrop.

In regard to it I would only remark, that it does not present
so much the appearance of two parallel ridges, terms generally
used in describing the elevations on either side of the Baraboo
river, as of a group of islands, with a common east and west
trend at right angles to the dip of the rocks. These elevations
formed islands in the Potsdam sea. The point marked (2) on
the map is the locality from which the fossils were obtained,

1 Trans, of the Wis. Acad'y, 1871-72, p. 129.
2 Survey of Wis., p. 11.

124 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

which were described by Mr, Alexander Winchell* in 1864.
I was assured that there is a quarry of the rock in place
near by, but a subsequent visit has shown that the sandstone
only exists at this point as loose pieces. In a short time a
larger number of Potsdam fossils were obtained. They were
/Scolithus Linearis, Hall, Orthis Barahooensis, Wicchell, Strapa-
rollits primordialis, Winchell, Dicellocephalus Minnesotensis,

A, Abelman; B, Baraboo; B R, Baraboo River; L N, Lower Narrows; U N, Upper
Narrows. 1, DeviPs Lake; 2, 3, Potsdam Sandstone; 4, Section; 5, Limestone. Scale,
three-twentieths of an inch equal to a mile.

Owen. At the locality marked (4), however, is a section (fig.
2), which is truly magnificent in its exposure of all the rocks,
which belong to this region, in their stratigraphical relations,
except the limestone. It is at the railroad station, Abelman,
The Baraboo river, in forming the upper narrows, has left up-
on the east side a nearly vertical section, about half a mile
long and 800 feet high at the highest point. This section is
of a core of tilted rock, flanked on both sides by horizontal
Potsdam sandstone and conglomerates. No doubt can there-
fore remain that the tilted rock is Pre-silurian.

The dip of the entire section of Azoic rock is to the north or
slightly west of north. Its face is cut by numerous vertical

+Am. Jour. Sci. and Art, II, yoI. XXXVII, p. 226.

Relation of the Sandstone^ etc.^ of the Baraboo Valley. 125

joints in the same manner as the cliffs at Devil's lake. At the
extreme southern end, the rock varies from a compact, dark-
colored, homogenous quartzite to a much less compact and
lighter quartzite. One large detached block of the hard, dark
quartzite was seen beautifully covered with ripple-marks.
Passing along the face of the cliff toward the north, it becomes
covered with large blocks of quartzite, sandstone and con-
glomerate, which have fallen from above. Coming to the ex-
posed rock again, it changes to a metamorphic conglomerate.
This makes up more than half the section. It consists of an-
gular pieces of the compact, dark quartzite, firmly imbedded
in a cement of white crystalline quartz. The former vary in
size from small fragments to masses several tons in weight.
Numerous cavities are lined with quartz crystals. The dip
here is from 75-80 <=> N.

Fig. 2.

3 3 1 2^ 1

1, Quartzite. 2, Metamorpliic Conglomerate. 3, Potsdam Sandstone. 4, 5, Conglom-
erates. 6, Drift.

The remainder of the section consists of the homogeneous,
dark, compact quartzite, bedded in the same manner. We
have indications then of these successive sets of circumstances
in Azoic times ; those in which were formed respectively the
underlying quartzite, the conglomerate and the overlying
quartzite. The lower quartzite must have been already hard-
ened from the moving sands before it was broken into frag-
ments for its conglomerate. And then its cement was crystal-
lized. Finally layers of sand spread over this were hardened.
As has been said, upon the southern flank of this Azoic core,
horizontal beds of Potsdam sandstone lie unconformably. They
extend a short distance over the edges of the upturned beds
of quartzite. The relations of this sandstone to the underly-

126 Wisconsi7i Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ing quartzlte show most unmistakably the effects of shore
action. The quartzite is generally in place, but the large
blocks, formed by the crossing of the planes of bedding and
the joints, are somewhat isolated, as if they had formed crags
on an old coast, where the wearing of the waves had enlarged
the cracks. Into these fissures and crevices the sand is forced.
There are also blocks of quartzite, that have been displaced
somewhat, which are enveloped in sandstone. In the sand-
stone itself is an occasional rounded pebble of quartzite. The
sandstone which rests upon the northern flank is irregularly
bedded, having the ebb and flow structure. Further north
are these isolated hills of sandstone.

Eesting on the sandstone at the south, and stretching also
over the quartzite, is a conglomerate made up of a friable
sandstone, like that below, containing numerous rounded peb-
bles of the quartzite of obvious sizes. The cement makes up
a considerable part of the rock. This coglomerate, as I have
assured myself by careful examination, is exactly like that
mentioned by Mr. Irving, as occurring on the quartzite just
northeast of Devil's Lake, and containing Potsdam fossils.
The finding of this conglomerate, therefore, in its true rela-
tion, verifies Mr. Irving's supposition in opposition to Mr.
Winchell, that neither the conglomerate nor the quartzite is
the base of the Potsdam system, for here the true base comes
in between, as sandstone.

In the same manner there is a conglomerate at the north,
resting conformably on the sandstone and unconformably on
the quartzite. One of the isolated hills of sandstone is also
capped by the same. Though on the same level as the con-
glomerate at the south, its character is different. It is made
up almost entirely of small rounded pebbles of quartzite of a
pretty uniform size. The cement is quite hard, but true sand-
stone.

This section, then, represents an old Azoic reef of tilted
rock, running east and west, washed upon either side by the

Relation of the Sandstone^ etc., of the Barahoo Valley. 127

waves of the Potsdam sea. On the south the action, appears
to have been gentler than on the north, for the quartzite has
been triturated to a fine sand, containing, to be sure, larger or
smaller pieces of quartzite well rounded. The northern shore
must have been exposed to the breakers, which washed out
the fine sand and left pebbles of a uniform size. It may be
that within the circle of these islands was a sheltered bay.

At the point marked (5) on the map is a limestone quarry.
The limestone is horizontally bedded and rests on the southern
flank of one of the ridges, but all points of junction with the
underlying rock are concealed. About half a mile distant is
sandstone on the same level, and in another direction is sand-
stone at least 100 feet higher, I am inclined to regard this
limestone as a local deposit of the Potsdam epoch rather than
of the Lower Magnesian epoch. The latter supposition would
require an enormous erosion between the putting down of the
Potsdam sandstone and the Lower Magnesian limestone. The
fossils, also, a number of which were secured, although unde-
termined, have more the aspect of Potsdam fossils than of
those of the following epoch. A number of cephalic shields
of a trilobite, with other fossils, were obtained.

Another feature of interest in this region is the evidence of
glacial action aside from the dift. At the point (3) on the map
is an isolated hill of sandstone. On my visit the earth had
just been removed from a large surface in order to quarry the
rock. It was entirely smoothed and covered with glacial
striae. Their direction is N. 66° E, On the surface of the
limestone previously mentioned, the polishing is even more
perfect, and the striae have the same direction. Polished sur-
faces have also been observed three quarters of the way up the
quartzite hills. The most reasonable explanation of the de-
flection of the striae from the us^ual direction seems to be, that
they were produced by ice masses small enough to be influ-
enced in their motion by the east and west trend of the ridges.

128 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

NOTE ON THE EAPIDITY OF THE ABSORPTION
OF ARSENIC BY THE HUMAN LIVER,

BY W. W. DANIELLS, M. S.,
Professor of Analytic Chemistry, University of Wisconsin.

In June, 1873, August Mansard died suddenly. In Decem-
ber following the body was exhumed, the stomach, bowels, and
a portion of the liver were brought to me to be examined for
poisons. The stomach and duodenum were examined at once,
and found to contain eight grains of arsenious acid. The liv-
er and remaining portions of the viscera were put in a glass
jar, covered with dilute alcohol, and sealed December 25th.

On the 9th of February, 1874, that portion cf the liver
brought to me. weighing thirty -one ounces, was taken from the
alcohol, decomposed by Fresenius and Babo's method, and
the arsenic weighed as arsenious sulphide. The weight of ar-
senious sulphide thus found was 1.864: grains, which is equiv-
lent to 1.5 grains arsenious acid.

The subject died three hours after eating dinner, and it is
supposed that the poison was given in the food at this time.

As death is seldom caused by arsenic in so short a time as
three hours, this case is of interest on account of its showing
the rapidity of the absorption of this poison by the liver.
The weight of an adult liver is about four pounds. Suppos-
ing the weight of this liver to have been sixty-two ounces, the
amount of arsenious acid contained in it would have been
three grains.

The Quartzites of Sauk and Columbia Counties. 129"

SOME EVIDENCES BEARING UPON THE METHOD
OF THE UPHEAVAL OF THE QUARTZITES OF
SAUK AND COLUMBIA COUNTIES.*

BY T. C. CHAMBERLIN, M. A.,
ProfesBor of Natural History, Beloit College.

Next to the age of these quartzites, perhaps no question in
WisconsiQ geology has been more prolific in speculation and
discussion, if not in investigation, than the method of their up-
heaval. The former question has been discussed with much
success by Prof. Irving. Evidence bearing upon the latter
question cannot then fail to be interesting in itself, while it
must also strengthen or otherwise the conclusions that have
been reached concerning the former. The evidence which will
be adduced in this paper rests chiefly on the peculiarities of
certain bands of talco-silicious schist interstralified between
heavy beds of quartzite. The best observed exposure of thia
is to be found on the east side of Devil's lake, and is repre-
sented in the accompanying figure.

The dip of the quartzite beds, as well as of the included
stratum of schist is 15° to the northward. The determination
of this does not rest alone upon the inclination of the beds,
but is rendered certain by that of the laminie and layers of
pebbles included in the quartzite, as well as by ripple-marked
surfaces. Another similar band, but less conveniently ex-
posed, occurs in the north range near Ableman, standing^
nearly vertically, corresponding to the higher dip of that
range.

The material of these bands is not sufficiently defined by

*It is proper here to state that the observations on which this and the following paper
are based, were made in connection with a party organized at Whitewater for the pur-
pose of studying this region, and some credit at least is due to the remaining members
though I hare made use of my own observations exclusively. The party consisted of
T. a. Vincent, S. R. Aldeu, A. L. Arey, P, 11. King, L. C. Wooster, L. W. Winslow and
H. D. Bell.

loO Wisconsm Academy of /Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

the term lalco-silicious schist, although, perhaps, no better
single term can be used. It consists of thin laminations of
lalcosc material, separated by somewhat thicker layers of
>|uartzite, presenting a structure quite peculiar. Ii is neither
a typical schist nor a true slate. It lacks the cleavage of the
former and the homogeneity of the latter. It cleaves readily
along the laminte of talcose material, which, however, are not
entirely parallel, nor always continuous across the band. If
^n oblique direction is found, it follows the talcose layer as
far as possible, when it passes by an abrupt transverse fracture
^across the intervening quartzite layer to the next tolcose lami-

J^Jiz

A, Quartzite; BB, Talco-silicious schist; C, unexposed.

i3se, and so continues by alternate cleavage and fracture, result-
ing in a step-like face. In this sharp distinction between
cleavage and fracture, the rock shows its relationship to the
irue slates. Were it demonstrably a true slate, the sugges-
-tions of this paper, now advanced with deference, would be
stated as a deraonstratioQ. It is the "foliated" structure of
some authors, but the foliations are not parallel to the bedding
lines.

In the formation on the east side of the lake, the lamina-
tions cross the band at an average angle of 27^", having thus a
dip of 42° to the north. (See figure.) On reaching the quart-

The Quartzites of Sauh and Columbia Counties. 131

zite bed above many of the talcose laminae disappear, while
a few of the more prominent curve as they enier it until they
take a direction more nearly perpendicular to the laminations
of the quartzite. Their behavior with the underlying bed
was not observed, it being obscured by a projecting shelf of
rock, from the surface of which, however, it was inferred that
it was the same, the curvature being probably in the opposite
direction.

That the material forming this schist and the quartzite beds
above and below was originally deposited in an essentially
horizontal position, does not admit of doubt. That the ma-
terial of these talcose laminae was deposited in its present re-
markable position and relationship, is not to be supposed. To
what then do they owe their origin?

That the lamination and cleavage of true slate are due to
pressure is now considered as demonstrated. That pressure is
competent to produce such cleavage and lamination has been
verified by direct experiment, with homogeneous as well as
heterogeneous material. That some of the so-called schists
owe their structure to a similar cause, has been conceded by
high authority. Mr. Sorby has shown* that cleavage may
even be produced in sandy layers included in slaty material,
by the pressure which gave rise to the slate. Bearing these
facts in mind, let us go back to a time previous to the meta-
morphism of these rocks. The quartzites were then sand-
stones and the schist would have been classed as the same with
magnesian impurities. The metamorphism of these implies
either heat or pressure, or both. But there are no evidences
of any source of heat, unconnected with pressure to be found
in the region. There are no volcanic or trappean rocks, no
deposits of thermal springs. Any source of heat of this char-
acter must have been considerable, and should have left its
traces, for the area includes more than 150 square miles, about
75 of which are occupied by the quartzite ridges.

*0n the Origin of Slaty Cleavage, by n. C. Sorby, Edinburg. New Phil. Jour., 1853,
vol. iv. p. 137.

132 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

But the fact of upheaval bears its own evidences of pressure.
Over all this area, the rocks have been tilted northwards till
they dip at angles varying from 15" to 90°. Similar outcrops
elsewhere in the state present like phenomena. The common
cause of tilting throughout the globe is lateral pressure, and no
other cause seems competent in the present case. The same
is true of metamorphisra, though in a somewhat less degree.
The two are usually synchronous events having a common
cause. The lateral force usually acts from the direction of the
neighboring ocean. This would require, in the present case,
a force acting from the south. Let such be assumed to be the
case. While the beds were horizontal, the force would tend
to produce compression, heat and metamorphism, and as the
strata oifer the greatest resistance in this position, these results
must be supposed to be greatest at this stage. The result of
compression would be cleavage in such portions of its rock as
were capable of taking it in a direction transverse to that of the
force, according to the law of slate formation. The more re-
sisting quartzite would prevent the complete compression of
the more yielding schistose material. This is substantiated by
the observations of Mr, Sorby. But as the strata yielded, the
force would take a new direction relative to the layers and ex-
pose the schistose material to farther compression, producing
new foliations in a new direction, and those previously exist-
ing would be modifed. And so for every change in the strata
till the force ceased to act. This is precisely the phenomena
presented by the case in hand. Some of the features of what
is known as " drag " in slate are unmistakable.

A line drawn perpendicular to the laminae should, if this
reasoning be true, represent the direction of the upheaving
force. A line so drawn would be transverse to the shore of
the Eozoic island to the northward, and precisely in the di-
rection demanded by theoretical considerations.

The fact that the foregoing explanation is so fully in har-
mony with the usual phenomena of upheaval and metamorph-
ism is at least an element in its favor.

Fluctuations in Level of the Quartzltes. 183

ON FLUCTUATIONS IN LEVEL OF THE QUARTZ-
ITES OF SAUK AND COLUMBIA COUNTIES.

BY T. C. CHAMBERLIN, M. A.
Professor of Natural History, Beloit College.

In this paper, the level of the ocean will be assumed as a
fixed standard, and all changes will be supposed to take place
in the quartzite. This, though not a strictly accurate method,
is, I believe, tacitly assumed in the literature of geology.

1. Their original position was submarine and essentially
horizontal. This is abundantly demonstrated by ripple marks,
lines of rounded, water-worn pebbles, and the phenomena of
bedding and lamination, and may be dismissed with the mere
statement.

2. The position assumed was the result of the tilting and
metamorphosis of the strata. That this was one of consider-
able elevation above the ocean level is more than probable.
The sea was shallow during their deposition, as is shown by
the mere fact that they were sandstones, and by the evidence
quoted above. The sea was also shallow during the Primor-
dial period following, as is shown by precisely similar evi-
dence. So that, unless great depression accompanied the tilt-
ing and metamorphosis, an idea that has never, I think, found
a place in geology, a very considerable elevation above the
ocean must be supposed. This much at least is certain, a vast
amount of denudation took place before it assumed the posi-
tion next to be noticed. To understand this lully the two
ranges must not be considered as separate and distinct, but as
portions of one grand group of strata, by estimate, 15,000 or
20,000 feet in thickness. The disassociation of the two ranges
seems to have resulted from the fact that previous observa-

134 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

tions have been confined chiefly to the region of Baraboo,
where the ranges are most separated. Their more intimate
association, if not direct connection, both at the east and west,
was shown in mj paper on the geographical distribution of
these rocks, and may be seen by reference to the paper of
Prof. Eaton, of this volume.

The dip increases from south to north and indicates an ar-
rangement such as is represented in the following ideal sectioOj,
which also shows the nature and amount of denudation :

Fij.l.

S.R.

S. R., South Range. N. R., Norlh Range. B. V., Baraboo Valley. Q., Quartzite.-
P. S., Potsdam Sandutone.

That a portion at least of this erosion was sub-aerial is ne-
cessitated by the nature of the case, for in that way only can
we explain the deep excavations between and on the outside
of the ranges. Preceding the Potsdam period all of these-
rocks that are now exposed, must have stood above the ocean
level, and were doubtless portions of the Eozoic continent.

3. In the earlier part of the Potsdam period, these ridges of
quartzites stood as islands in the seas. This is evident when
we consider that they exceed, in places, 500 feet in height,,
while at the base, sandstone, showing cross lamination and

Fluctuations in Level of the Quartzites. 135

containing Scolithus linearis is found, and that a complete sub-
mergence would have been incompatible with such a deposit
The greater mass however, of what we are now acquainted
with was beneath the surface of the water ut some time dur-
ing that period, though probably not at its commencement, for
it is highly probable that a slow snbeidence was in progress
during this time, and this may have been but a continuance of
the depression that constituted the change from the elevated
position just described to the present one.

That the shores were precipitous is a matter of observation.
That the water along shore, was of moderate depth, is inferred
from the nature of the deposit. The following .section will
render this more clear :

a, Quartzite. b b, Potsdam sandstone, showing , beach structure and iucludedi'
quartzite fragments, d, Potsdam sandstone, c, Conglomorate.

This is an ideal section, but no feature is introduced that
has not been verified by personal observation, and no vio-
lence has been done to nature in the combination. It is here
used as a convenient substitute for the seven natural sections
accompaning the original presentation. I beg leave also to
refer to the rive natural sections accompanying the paper of
Prof Eaton on the relations of these rocks, to be found on
page 125 of this volume. The sandstone formed at this lime
is marked b b. Near its junction with the quartzite, well
defined cross lamination occurs. This is beautifully showu
near Ableman. Near the vertical junction there also occur,,
imbedded in the sandstone, large and chiefly angular masses

136 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

of quartzite, lying in such positions as to leave no doubt that
they fell from above and buried themselves in the soft sands
and were thus not subjected to erosion. This may be seen at
Ablemau, near the western extremity of the outcrop, and in
■the town of Caledonia, near the eastern extremity, and more
than twenty miles distant. It occurs on both the inner and
outer side of the range.

From these facts it appears that the deposit was not, on the
one hand, beneath the limit of wave action on the shifting
sands, nor, on the other, so near the surface as to be subject
to the more violent assorting and eroding action of the
breakers.

4. There came a time, however, when this last became true
.and resulted in the formation of a conglomerate marked cc,
in fig. 2. The well rounded pebbles of this conglomerate are
evidently from the adjacent quartzite and vary in size from
the fraction of an inch to three or four inches in diameter. The
matrix is similar to the under and over-lying sandstones. This
is not a mere local formation, as might be supposed. I have
observed it at Ableman, at the canon of Narrows creek, two
miles further west, where one of the finest sections in the
whole region occurs, at two or three points south of this in
the towns of Freedom and Westfield, at Devil's lake, at the
mill about four miles east of the lake, at the chapel three
miles east of the last point, in section 35, town of Caledonia,
near the eastern extremity of the outcrop, and again on the
north range in section 22 of the same town ; in other words, at
every point where an opportuniiy for observation presented
itself. As near as could be judged, the elevation at all these
points was about the same.

The conglomerate was not observed to exceed 30 feet in
thickness, and was usually much less. Its definition both
above and below is sharp, and would seem to indicate a sud-
den elevation which caused the shallow beach necessary to its
formation.

Fluctuations in Level of the Quartziies. 137

In the figure the conglomerate is represented as joining the
quartzite on a shelf or terrace such as is often formed by the
breakers on a rocky coast. This was observed to be true in
some cases, but may not be a general fact, though I suspect it is.

5. Following the period of the formation of the conglomer-
ate, which previous investigations have identified as the Mid-
dle Potsdam, there occurred another subsidence indicated by
the formation of the sandstone marked dd, Fig. 2. This sub-
sidence seems to have continued until the entire formation was
submerged beneath the ocean level, and buried beneath its
sediment. This, however, I ami not able to positively demon-
strate in respect to certain portions of the south range. East
of the Lower Narrows, resting upon and rising high above the
north range, is a high bluflP, which presented at a distance the
appearance of sandstone, and which I was assured by Mr.
Canfield it was. The elevation of this seemed about equal to
that of the higher portions of the south range, but I had no
means of measurement. Even should its elevation be found
to be considerably less, its approximation to the height of the
quartzite can scarcely be regarded as less than a demonstration
of the fact in question, when it is remembered that at least
400 or 500 feet of sandstone in the vicinity have been swept
away by eroding agencies, and that this bluff" must have suf-
fered much more denudation proportionally than the quartzite.
I conjecture, however, that the quartzite rose into the horizon
of the lower magnesian limestone.

On the high bluff just east of the lake, in excavating for a
cistern, Trenton fossils in a siiicified condition were thrown
out. This portion of the bluff" does not. seem to have been
visited by the glacial agencies, although northern drift occurs
a short distance east. This will not seem strange when it is
known that the drift, even on the lower lands, extends but a
short distance west of this. There was no foreign drift dis-
cernable in the material excavated or in the vicinity, and the
quartzite bottom did not indicate glacial erosion. These facts
10

138 Wiscoiisin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

whatever may be thought of their force or conclusiveness, are
at least interesting.

6. Subsequently the whole was elevated above the ocean,
and, whatever fluctuations may have intervened, stands there
to-day, testimony to which this academy has received, per-
haps, ad nauseam.

Junction of Primordia I Sandstones and Huronian Schists. 139

ON A HAND SPECIMEN, SHOWING THE EXACT
JUNCTION OF THE PEIMORDIAL SANDSTONES,
AND HUHONIAN SCHISTS.

BY ROLAND IRVING, A. M., E. M.,
Professor of Geology ia the University of Wisconsin.

On Black River, in Jackson county, this state, in the vicin-
ity ot the town of Black River Falls, the Primordial sand-
stones are found overlying Huronian and Laurentian rocks.
About a mile or two above the town the banks of the river
are formed of abruptly rising and as abruptly sinking mounds
of tilled Huronian schists, — chloritic, talcose, talco siliceous,
siliceous and ferruginous. Between these mounds, the de-
pressions are filled with the light colored quartzose Primordial
sandstones of the region, and these often form the bank of the
stream. So close is the association of these formations, that in
following the bank of the stream, one is constantly stepping
from the Primordial sandstones, on to the Huronian schists,
and then as abruptly back again. In many cases the sand-
stones form the upper part of a high bank, whilst below, im-
mediately at the water's edge the schists are visible. In these
cases the exact junction of the sandstone and schists is nearly
always concealed by debris, soil and undergrowth. In one
place, however, Mr. T. B. Bowman, assistant on the geological
survey, found a long exposure showing the exact line of junc-
tion, the horizontal sandstones above, and the ferruginous
schists below. From this place he obtained specimens, of
which I exhibit one. It will be noticed that even the hand
specimen shows the horizontal position of the sandstones and
the inclined position of the schist, or "iron ore" the lamina-
tion being marked. (See sketch.)

140 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF GOLD AND SILVER IN
MINUTE QUANTITIES IN QUARTZ FROM CLARK
COUNTY.

BY K. D. IRVING, A. M., M. E.
ProfesBor of Geology in the University of WisconBin.

In the fall of 1871, some samples of quartz from Clark
county, Wis., were handed me by Mr, Geo, W, Brown, with a
request for an assay for Gold and Silver, The samples were
barren looking, tough, white quartz, presenting none of the
reddish or rotten appearance common to surface Gold ores of
any value. Scattered throughout the quartz, were small
quantities of Magnetite in scales, Pyrite and Arsenopyrite ;
this association being a usual one in Gold quartz. Mr. Brown
pointed out the locality from which the samples came in Clark
County just north of the junction of the Potsdam Sandstone
with the Eozoic rocks. He represented the prevailing rocks
in that section as Chloritic and Talcose Schists ; and of the
former he brought me fine specimens. The quartz he repre-
sented as occurring in veins ; though his samples seemed to
have been selected from loose masses. I need hardly say that
these associations are the common ones in Gold regions. On
taking the usual amount, four (1) Assay Tuns., or about 120
grns., the resulting button of bullion weighed just enough in
excess of the Silver in the Litharge used, to make me suspect
the presence of Gold in the quartz. On dissolving the button
in Nitric Acid, one or two small flakes remained, but not
enough to weigh. I then took for a second Assay, four times
the usual quantity and obtained a weighable amount of gold,
corresponding to about 20 cts per 2,000 lbs of ore.

Mr. Brown subsequently, at my advice, sent me samples,
showing the reddish and rotten appearance already alluded to.

Gold and Silver in Clarla County. 141

The result ot the assay on these samples, however, was the
same as before, save that in this case, the difference between
the weight of the button obtained and the silver in the lith-
urge used, was not fully made up by the weight of the gold ;
the presence of silver was thus indicated. In making a fur-
ther assay some time afterwards, I obtained an unmistakable
amount of silver. And during the fall just past, Mr. Theo-
dore Bowman, of the University, made two assays, in which
he obtained the following results :

PER 2,000 LBS. OF ORE.

\st Assay. 2d Assay.

Gold A trace. Gold A trace.

Silver 0.407 oz. Silver 0.37 oz.

Total 0.407 oz. Total 0.37 oz.

Gold A trace. Gold A trace.

Silver $0.53 Silver $0.47

Total $.53 Total $0.47

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARTS.

ON THE WISCONSIN EIVEE IMPROVEMENT.

BY W. J. NICODEMUS, A. M. C. E.,
Professor of Engineering, in the UniTersity of Wisconsin.

Before speaking of the physical features ol the Wisconsin
river, we will offer some general remarks applicable to the
whole of North America. Recent surveys show that Lake
Winnebago formerly had its outlet southward to the Wiscon-
sin river, and since changed to the north through the lower Fox
river into Green Bay. It has long been known that Lake
Michigan once had its outlet southward through the Illinois
river, and that Chicago stands in the old bed of the lake, the
southern shore of which is twelve miles south of the city. All
the small lakes examined show the same condition, an eleva-
tion south of a line drawn from Cape Hatteras on the Atlantic
to Cape Mendocino on the Pacific, and a depression north of
that line. If this supposition be correct, going back in time,
the lake outlets would all be southward, and not northward as
at present. Hence we would infer that the Niagara and prob-
ably the St. Lawrence rivers (though there are signs of greater
antiquity connected with the last), are of comparatively mod-
ern origin, which is confirmed by the fact of their abounding in
waterfalls and rapids. There is no doubt that Lake Winnipeg
was once continuous southward, covering the central portion
of the valley of the Red River of the North, and having its out-
let down the Minnesota River, and not as now, down the Nel-
son river to Hudson's bay. The river bank near the old out-

On the Wisconsin River Improvement 143

let show that this change took place since the glacial period.
The ancient Lake Winnipeg was larger than the present Lakes
Superior and Michigan combined. The northern depression
is known to be going on along the Atlantic coast from New
Jersey to Greenland. Any one can test the matter of north
ern depression and southern elevation for himself by examin-
ing the published maps, and remembering that the effect of
bodies of water on the shore is to abrade it and spread the ma-
terial smoothly over the bottom, while the effect of the atmo.
sphere is to cut the land up in ridges and to wash the soil
from the rocks ; so that the land rising from the water will
have comparatively smooth outlines, and successive lagoons
parallel to the shore, while the land going under the water will
show jagged and sharp outlines, with deep indentations and
numerous islands. We know that during the cretaceous pe-
riod, an ocean extended from the present Gulf of Mexico to
the Arctic Ocean, covering a large portion of the space between
the Missouri River and the Rocky Mountains. At that time
the country through which the Upper Mississippi now flowH
was dry land, and its slopes must have sent its water westward
to that cretaceous ocean. As the continent rose this ocean
disappeared, and the tertiary period began with great fresh water
lakes along the Rocky Mountains, Into these lakes the
waters of the upper Mississippi region continued to drain west-
ward. The gradual southwestern elevation of the continent
throughout the testiary period is distinctly proved by the de-
posits of the testiary lakes. The earliest deposits were of the
least area, and as they become more recent they expand north-
eastward, and this action continued apparently to the time pre-
ceding the glacial epoch. Preceding the glacial period, then
all the water-courses westward of the upper Mississippi region
were westward and not southward, as now. Not only the slope
of the laud but the great folds of the Silurian strata compelled
the water to this course. Over a great deal of the region thus
drained, no rocks more recent than the Silurian are found, so

144 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

that it must have been dry land since the Silurian period. In
the immense ages succeeding the time of the Silurian oceans,
the rocks being exposed to the destructive atmospheric influ-
ences must have been cut up by the ravines and valleys en-
croaching on each other in endless confusiou. The pre-glacial
erosions of even the hard Azoic rocks which formed the dry
land of the Silurian period can still be distinguished from those
made since. When the glaciers came they planed down the
whole region of the upper Mississippi river, removing silurian
strata 500 feet in thickness over hundreds ot' miles. Tiae south-
western limit of the glacial drift action is the Missouri river
from the 48th down to the 43d parallel of latitude. From the
Missouri river to the Rocky Mountains, over a space varying
from 300 to 500 miles in width, there is no drift. The motion
of the glacial mass must have been along the line of least
resistance ; and towards this limiting line, the glacial
scratchings in the northwest show that the glacial motion was
southwest. There, then, on that limit, a river must have been
formed to carry away the melting water from the glacier, and
this limit was the Missouri river, and that was the river so
formed. As the glaciers began to retire to the northeast, as
long as the general slope of the plain was towards the glacial
mass, successive rivers were marked out by it along the west-
ern face ; and all have a parallism and are close to each other,
and have short tributaries or parallel branches, if any. There
are, besides minor streams, the James, Big Sioux, Des Moines,
Iowa and Cedar rivers ; and finally the Minnesota and Missis-
sippi the last of the parallel rivers. After the lowest line of
the continental valley was passed, the glacier would retire, so
that the melting water would run directly from it, and thus we
see the origin of the tributaries of the Mississippi on the east
side.

This direction corresponds with that of the pre-glacial rivers,
and it is probable that many of them were washed out and re-
gained their old beds ; such as the St. Croix, Chippewa and

On the Wisconsin River Improvement 145'

Wisconsin rivers, and is confirmed by their appearance. From
the foregoing we infer that the Wisconsin River was
in the trough of what was formerly a far mightier stream ; that
the ancient river was not on'y greater in volume, but cut deeper
into the bed through which it flowed ; that this ancient bed is
composed of the silurian or older rocks and is silted up many
feet deep. Such are a few of the facts which geology lays be-
fore the scientific engineer to guide him in making his plans for
water improvements. A knowledge of the old channels of
our rivers would have prevented the folly of making a canal
through the solid rock in order to avoid the falls of the Ohio
at Louisville, instead of digging through the drift of the old
channel of the river. Instead of probing with an iron rod
every inch of the bed of the Mississippi before we can deter-
mine the practical depth at which firm rock may be reached,
geology steps in and tells us it will be found at a depth of at
least 60 to 100 feet through the sand, with two remarkable ex-
ceptions at the rapids, one at Keokuk, the other at Hock
Island. Tiiese exceptions are readily accounted for, when we
know that the whole valley of the Mississippi was covered with
an extension of the Gulf since the glacial period as high up as
Savannah or Dubuque. That the silt brought in by the Des
Moines river in the one case, and the Iowa and Rock rivers in
the other, during this period, filled up entirely the valley cut
out by the great glacial river, and that when the land rose
again the Mississippi could not at these points regain its old
bed, so it had to cut a new one, which is not yet completedr
There is no doubt that Lake Erie had formerly an outlet past
Fort Wayne, Indiana, and down the Wabash valley, which in-
dicates the natural course for water communication between
the lake and the Ohio river.

From these general remarks which will be recognized aa^
germane to my subject, I will now turn to its special consid-
eration. The main features of the Wisconsin river are com-
mon to northwestern rivers. First, there is a high bluff ott

146 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

each side of the river valley, from one to ten miles apart, and
from 100 to 400 feet high, composed mainly of horizontally
stratified rocks ; and in the case of the Wisconsin, of Magne-
sian Limestone of the Silurian formation. The slopes, how-
ever, are often covered with earth and green grass. The sand
feature is a level or nearly level terrace mainly composed of
sand, though occasionally having a rich surface soil. This ter-
race is from 20 to 60 feet above the level of ihe water. It is
never continuous throughout the valley on either side, and
rarely of much extent but on one side at a time. It is proba-
bly the shallow part of an ancient water-course which once
occupied the valley from bluff to bluff. It is now generally
above overflow. The third feature is the bottom land of the
river, generally overflowed at highest stages, and having the
high bluff or terrace for its margin. This bottom contains
many lakes and marshes, and is cut up by sloughs forming
islands. These islands sometimes divide the main stream into
nearly equal parts. The margins of these bottom lands are,
in the natural state, generally wooded, and form the banks of
the streams at moderate stages when the sand bars are covered.
The fourth feature is the bed of the stream, which includes the
part covered at medium stages, but large portions of which be-
come dry sand or gravel bars at very low ones. There are
thus four different prominent branches or levels in the river
valley: 1. The level forming the main bluff. 2. The sand
terrace generally above overflow. 8. The bottom land gener-
ally overflowed at highest water. 4. The bed of the stream.
In 1867, a careful survey under direction of Gen. Warren was
made of the Wisconsin river from Kilbourn City to its junc-
tion with the Mississippi river. A continuous transit line was
carefully measured and staked off on one bank or the other of
the main river, as was found most easy and all the topography
sketched along it. The opposite shore was located by triangu-
lation across. A careful line of levels was run, noting fre-
quently the height of the bottom lands, or sand terrace when

On the Wisconsin River Improvement. 147

near, the height of the water at the time, that of the last high
water, and the most noted high or low water mark ascertdned.
Besides the parties who ran these main lines there were two
subordinate compass parties who surveyed the minor channels
making connections with the main line as often as possible, a
cross section level party and a sounding party. The object of
this survey was to determine the practicability of improving
the river so as to form part of a line of communication by
steamer from the Mississippi Eiver by way of the Wisconsin
Eiver, Upper Fox, Lake Winnebago and Lower Fox River to
Green Bay, and thence with the lakes. For this improvement
Gen. Warren submitted three plans. 1. By means of a series
of wing dams, etc., and the use of Long's scraper, so as to
make it navigable for boats drawing three feet water. Esti-
mate $42S,000. 2. By use of natural channels in connection
with side-canals of sufficient width and depth for steamboats
drawing four feet water. Estimate, $3,207,000. B. By means
of a canal designed for steamboats drawing five feet water,
built along the valley, alternating from one side of the river to
the other, as circumstances demand, and using the natural bed
of the river for crossings. Estimate, $4,164,000.

In 1871, Col. Houston, U. S. Engineer, was directed in ac-
cordance with these plans to improve the navigation of the
river at those points where the proposed canal was to cross the
river, and in doing so to determine the practicability of im-
proving the river itself. The proposed canal starts from a
point on the canal now connecting the Wisconsin and Fox
rivers, near Portage City, where it connects by a lock with the
river. The canal then commences on the opposite bank of
the river and proceeds on the right bank to a point about 56^
miles below Portage, when it again connects with the river
by a lock. Commencing again on the left bank opposite it
proceeds to a point 88f miles below Portage, when a similar
crossing becomes necessary, and then proceeds on the right
bank to Prairie du Chien, when it connects with the Missis-

148 Wtsco7isin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

sippi river. The depth of the proposed canal is for vessels
drawing five feet, and the lengths of the river to be improved
to enable boats navigating the canal to cross the river, are, at
the upper crossing, 2,300 feet; at the middle crossing, 7,000
feet ; and at the lower crossing, two and a half miles. There
are two classes of obstructions. Those arising from causes
not now operating and which once removed will not return,
and those arising from causes now operating and which must
be constantly recurring until the cause is removed. In this
latter class we find sand the chief obstruction to the improve-
ment of the Wisconsin river. What shall be done with it?
This problem, John Nader, Assistant U. S. Engineer, under di-
rection of the U. S. officer above named, has been endeavoring to
solve, since July, 1871. He finds the sandbanks of the upper
river the cause of the sandbars below Portage. That wher-
ever the river is contracted between narrow banks, the sand-
bars will form only behind projections or obstructions, and in
this case tend to improve rather than obstruct the channel ;
also occasionally, where the river is moderately wide, sand-
bars are found to have lodged on one side or the other (prob-
ably caused by some obstruction) and preserve a good chan-
nel ; but where the stream is straight for some distance, and
of considerable width, there will be formed a middle ground,
"with but little water over the same, and sometimes a dry bar ;
in either case the channel is on one side or the other, never on
both. Where the middle ground is flattened out, and extends
across the whole width of the river, one side of the bar ad-
vances more rapidly than the other, and the crest of the bar
is formed obliquely across the river ; the current generally
flows at right angles with the line of the crest, and the width
of the river is virtually nearly doubled in some cases; in
nearly everv case, deep water is found along the crest of the
bar. The motion of the sandbars is quite regular, and de-
pends not so much on the stage of the water as upon the ra-
pidity of change from high to low, and upon the velocity of

On the Wisconsin River Improvement. 149

the current. During a continuous stage of water, the move-
ment is slow and regular, and the bars are moved along as an
obstruction by the pressure rather than by the velocity of the
water, rolling slowly and steadily along the bottom with no
floating sand, until the equilibrium is disturbed. When
moved by the velocity of the water, they move quite rapidly,
and the sand is found floating in the water in quantities. He
gives an instance of a bar above Steamboat Slough, contain-
ing a uniform depth of water of twenty-two inches at a cer-
tain stage of water. After the water had fallen twelve inches,
the same amount was found ; also subsequently when the river
had risen again a little above its former stage, still the same
amount of water covered the bar, clearly indicating the exist-
ence of equilibrium between the current and weight of sand.
In order to determine the most favorable condition of equi-
librium to preserve a good channel, a section was measured
near Lone Rock, where the channel is quite uniform for sev-
eral hundred feet, and the stream at low water is confined to
one channel of 325 feet between banks ; the greatest depth
was 7.4 feet, and the mean depth six feet, giving the cross-
section of 1,950 square feet ; a series of floats gave a mean ve-
locity of 1.95 miles per hour; the channel in question always
preserves a uniform depth, and is free from sand-bars. As
there are many similar places on the river, it will be safe to
assume from these the necessary section for any required
depth of water.

Aside from the sand bars, the only other obstruction to nav-
igation are the railroad bridges an J the principal difficulty with
these is that they are built obliquely across the stream ; the
water is thereby inclined to flow to the bank at the down-
stream end ; whereas the draws of both the Spring Green and
Lone Rock bridges are at the opposite or up-stream end ; in
addition to this the draw spans are very narrow; and still more
contracted by the piles and protection of the pier-loun-
dations, making the entire available width at low water about

150 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

86 feet only. The experimental improvement was made by
building wing-dams at suitable points along the line to be im-
proved. The plan adopted required only the use of brushy
with sufficient stone to retain the same in places and the ad-
dition of gravel to prevent leaks under the brush. The brush
was made in fascines of 11 feet long and 13 to 15 inches in di-
ameter, securely bound. The fascines were then formed into-
mats of about 9 feet wide, by placing a number of fascines side
by side, and placing light poles on top and bottom, and tying
the ends of the poles with twine. Having determined the po-
sition of the dam with stakes driven into the sand, a sufficient
number of mats were prepared as above stated, and a quantity
of stone and sand bags being in readiness, the work was com-
menced. The mates were floated into position and sunk by
placing stone and sand bags upon them. They were placed
side by side in the line of the draw, and the bottom row car-
ried to the entire required distance; the brush ends or tops
were placed up stream, and after the first course was laid the
tops were covered with a layer of gravel, to prevent undermin*
ing; and the remaining courses were carried up in the same,
manner ; each course was brought forward from 2 to -1
feet in order to break the fall of the water. After the dam
rose a little above low water, a substantial laver of loose brush
was placed along the entire face of the dam, and covered with
a layer of stone, and then with sufficient gravel to stop all leaks.
The general effect of these dams was the usual effect of con-
tractions ; the water was elevated above the contracted part in
some cases as much as six inches, but subsided again as the
channel accomodated itself t@ the change. In the case of cross
dams, a general movement of sand took place for some dist-
ance above, and to a considerable distance below the work ;.
and as soon as the current was checked there was a deposit of
sand in tront of the dam in its whole length. As soon as the
dams were brought to the surface, there was a rapid deposit of
sand and below the same; that above was concave, and that

On the Wisconsin River Improvement. 151

below convex to the axis of the stream. In connection with
the work, observations were made of the movements of sand
bars, and the effect of the work upon them. The movement
at Portage was from 3 to 5 feet per day which seemed to be
the average upon the river unless disturbances occured. At
Dekorra the effect of dams caused a movement of from 7 to
14 feet in twenty-four hours, and at Lone Rock from 6 to 2Q
feet in twenty- fours hours. The bars moved along at this rate
until reaching the dams, and then receded as rapidly and dis-
appeared, the sand being deposited behind the dams. From
the result of the work it would appear that it is only necessary
to contract the stream proportionate to the required depth^
everything else depending upon the stability of the dams, of
which he has not the slightest doubt, as he considers the test
which they withstood, when in an early stage of progress, the
water poured over the same in an entire sheet, as much severer
than any resulting from high water. Concerning the stability
of the channel produced, the question arose as to whether high
water with increased pressure and velocity would not continue
excavating the same until banks and dams would slide in, and
the channel become useless ; this gave rise to an examination
of the river where the same is confined to a narrow channel,
so that its depth is from 6 to 8 feet at low water ; at such pla-
ces the bottom is found to be composed of coarser material and
gives considerable resistance to the thrust of a pike ; the bottom
always remains the same excepting during the passage of a
sand bar during a freshet.

For my own part I think the canal project by far the mo&
preferable. As the work will be principally excavation in
sand and loam it can be done with proper machinery at a
comparative small cost. When once completed it can be
maintained at small cost. The banks as proposed will be
above high-water mark in the river and consequently not
be liable to damage from floods. No estimate need be made
for feeders. The Wisconsin river will constitute a natural

152 Wisco7isin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

feeder. The daily discharge of water in the Wisconsin at
Portage City is 259,000,000 cubic feet ; not less than 8,000
cubic leet per second. The total daily supply of water for the
Erie canal of Pensylvauia, enlarged with a prism greater in
area than the one here proposed, is less than 20,000,000 cubic
feet — about 231 cubic feet per second — not one-twelfth of the
amount available in the Wisconsin, and yet the Erie canal,
which is 186 1-2 miles in length, and has a lockage of 926 feet,
has sufficient water to pass through the locks 14-4 boats per
day, or to carry through the boating season 5,400,000 tons of
freight. The Dalles, which is a gorge in the rock about 28
miles above Portage, reduces the river at one place 54 feet, so
that the extreme of fluctuations from low to high water below
the Dalles does not exceed 10 feet, and arrangements could
be made, besides supplying the proposed canal, to turn only
the desired quantity into the Portage canal and Fox river.
Freight could be carried by this line for about one-fourth of
what they can by railroad. In view of the great and increas-
ing amount of grain annually shipped to the east from the
west of the Mississippi, it should be constructed at the earliest
practicable day.

The IStrengtli of Materials as Applied to Engineering. 153

THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS AS APPLIED TO

ENGINEERING.

BY JOHN NADER,
AsBislant United States Engineer.

The subject herewith presented deserves, and in fact re-
quires, particular attention.

It is not the intention to give tables and formulas on the
subject in question, but only to discuss the obscure, uncertain,
and therefore unreliable, manner in which information is placed
before the public, and, in such a manner as to call the atten-
tion of this and other scientific societies to this subject, in
order that at sometime, and I hope not a distant day, something
reliable may be obtained on the subject, either from existing
data or from those obtained from special researches. Barlow
and Hodgkinson appear to be the favorite authorities; but, if
these authors have experimented on wood of which we have
no knowledge, or if we have, cannot obtain or make use of, of
what use is repetition of the record of their experiments?

In examining a set of tables on the strength of timber,
what a useless lot of materials do we meet with, for in-
stance, crab, elder, plum, willow and the like; and in passing
to the useful, how are we not mistihed by the simple word
deal. This in its real sense means nothing more or less than the
wood of the fir or pine, yet we find in most of these copied
tables no less than four kinds of deal, the same number of
firs, and also the same number of pines. The question now is,
how is all this to be reduced to common sense or practice ?

So far as other timbers are concerned, the matter is not quite
but nearly as obscure as deal. This dealing out of spurious
11

154 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

matter cannot be too severely criticised, and the time must and
will come, when such information will be accepted only from
scientific organizations, where the same will have been thor-
oughly discussed before passing to the public.

In iron, the matter is not quite so bad. Iron being a valua-
ble material, and a saving in weight of importance, so that an
excess in any structure over and above that which was actu-
ally necessary, would be a very expensive as well as worse than
useless application. This simple fact brought about a number
of experiments by able and reliable men, some of whom made
a specialty of the subject and deduced formulae which are now
in general use.

Some valuable and carefully calculated tables on the
strength of columns were published in 1860, by Mr, G. P,
Kandall, in the Architects and Mechanics' Journal, and by Mr.
Wm, Bryson, in the Journal of the Franklin Institute, Both
were calculated from the formulae of Prof, E, Hodgkinson.
Mr. Randall assumes one-third of the breaking weight as the
weight of perfect safety, and thereby makes no allowance for
a misfit; and since a pillar imperfectly set is less than one-third
the strength of one properly fitted, this fact should have been
taken into account, Mr, Bryson, on the other hand, adopted
one-tenth of the breaking weight as the weight of perfect safety,
and carefully computes the minimum quantity of metal which
will support the weight under the assumed conditions, and at
the same time he is on the safe side in case of imperfect work-
manship.

Quite recently an article comes from England which is not
only at variance with previous data, but contrary to all ac-
cepted laws. The following is the article :

" Strength of Iron Increased by Strain.— Some experiments
recently made in England to ascertain the effects of strain on wrought
iron, give results quite at variance with the supposed data of previous
experiments, and are therefore worthy of attention. It is usually sup-
posed that the eifect of strain is to diminish the strength of iron, but if

The Strength of Materials as Applied to Engineering. 155

these experiments are to be trusted, the contrary appears to be the case,
and that very heavy strains, even to the extent of the breaking strain,
and this even several times repeated, actually increases the strength of
iron by every application. The result of several experiments are stated
as follows on ' Iron ' :

*' ist fracture, mean breaking strain of 33}4 tons; 2d fracture, 35^ tons;
3d fracture, 37)4^ tons ; 4th fracture, 4Q\ tons ; diff. Q\\ 20 per cent.
•^4"' These facts,' says the official report, 'appeared so important, and
were so much opposed to the opinion of the best informed persons upon
the subject, that in order to prove beyond all question that the increased
strength was due to the repealed previous strains, and not to the dimin-
ished length of the bar, we considered it proper to make experiments
upon this point.

" ' We therefore took several bars of the same kind of iron, of the same
diameter, but varying in length from ten inches to ten feet, and found
they were all equally strong. It may be proper to state the circum-
stances which usually attend the fracture of iron bars, namely, that con-
siderable heat is evolved at the breaking place,^nd that the diameter of
the bar is everywhere reduced, but particularly so at the place of frac-
ture ; but it is worthy of remark that at the second and subsequent frac-
tures of the bars, it generally happened that little or no heat was given
out at the place of fracture, and that the general diameter of the bar was
not again sensibly reduced, except in some instances, at the place of
fracture.' The publication of these results in a government blue book is
sure to attract general attention to this important question."

I sbould say it would.

All experimenters, without any exception, men who have
made this problem their particular study report results in contra-
diction to the foregoing article. In reading the above, the ques-
tion would occur to some. Who would think of testing a bar
after the same was ooce broken or injured? But it seems that
experimenters did think of it, and they did also faithfully re-
port the results, and turthermore, they all agreed exactly upon
this point, more so than upon many others. Their unilorm re-
ported results were : that the strain exceeding the limits of
elasticity and producing permanent elongation, could not be
borne for any considerable length of time. Yet it might be
argued tbat the relaxation of the strain would have had some
influence on the results. This, however, was also thought of by

156 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Fairbairn, who made tests a little beyond the elastic limits, re
moved and reapplied the same weight a number of times, and
ultimately produced fracture with a strain much less than that
which would have done so if the first strain had been carefully
and gradually increased.

From a common sense point of view alone, it would appear
as though a bar of iron of uniform section would be perma-
nently injured by a breaking strain, since at the moment of
rupture the particles would be all uniformly strained and rup-
tured until the break occurred at some point of mechanical or
other imperfection, the remaining portions would remain in
their almost entirely ruptured condition. In my experiments
on timber I found that the strain which produced a permanent
pet would break the same, and that a less weight applied for
a longer time would also produce rupture if the specimen had
been injured previously.

The heat evolved by tearing asunder a bar of iron is com-
mon to violence, and is the result of friction produced by the
excursion of the molecules, simply denoting work done. The
almost entire absence of heat in the subsequent fractures in
the aforementioned experiments would go to show that the
wcrk had already been done. I have purposely dwelt upon
this subject to invite inquiry, and have based my arguments
not upon my own, but upon the knowledge of men who have
been the leaders of special branches of science and industry.
Another case more serious than the former frequently makes
its appearance in lengthy articles ; it is the effect of frost upon
the strength of iron and steel. The subject is a comparative-
ly new one, and has but very recently been seriously consid-
ered by scientific men.

Railway companies have been in the habit of attributing
every accident in winter by broken rails or axles to the effect
of the frost upon the metal. In some manner this led to
investigations, and several have appeared who have attempted
to refute the idea entirely, and who endeavor to prove that

The Strength of Materials as Applied to Engineering. 157

frost, instead of weakening iron, on the contrary strengthens it.
That this should be ;50, in respect to axles and rails in extreme
cold, remains yet to be proven.

Papers on the subject have been read before several socie-
ties and associations, one of which I will here introduce and
then discuss its merits.

" Effect of Frost xjvon Iron and Steel — (From ' Nature,'). — From
papers read before the Manchester Philosophical Society, Dr. Joule made
experiments with iron and steel wires stretched through a freezing mix-
ture, so as to be part within and part without. In every case tried the
wire broke outside of the mixture, " showing that it was weaker at 50°
Fah. than at 13°." Also further experiments on darning needles, sup-
ported on steel props '2,% inches apart and weights suspended from the
middle. The average breaking weight of six needles at 55' Fah. was 58|
oz.,and that of six at 13 degrees was 59| oz. The next experiment was
with cast iron " garden nails," 1}^ inches long and % inches thick; they
were supported on props Ij^^ asunder and a blunt-edged steel chisel
weighted to 4 lbs. 3 oz. was let fall from a given height upon the middle
of the nail. Twenty-one cold nails broke and twenty warm ones. " The
general conclusion," says Dr. Joule is this: Frost does not make either
iron (cast or wrought) or steel brittle, and accidents arise from the ne-
glect of the companies to submit wheels, axles and all other parts of their
rolling stock to a practical and sufficient test before using them. Mr.
Spence also made experiments on cast iron bars of % inch squai'e, sup-
ported on knife edges nine inches apart and suspended weights from the
centre by means of a knife-edged hook to which was attached a scale
pan. The average breaking weight of six bars at 60° Fah. was 4 cwt. 4
lbs. and of six bars at 0° Fah. was 4 cwt. 30 lbs.'* being an increase of 33^
per cent."

Further evidence to the same effect has been furnished by
M. Caron of Paris, the result of whose observations on the
fracture of car axles, have lately been laid before the Paris
Academy of Sciences. He finds, in every case, that the break
is due to the bad form of the pieces or the faulty nature of the
iron ; and denies that bar iron becomes crystalline and brittle
under the influence of winter cold. This denial is based on
the following experiments : Several pieces of good bar iron
were exposed for four months in an ice factory, to temperature

158 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

varying from 0 to 19°. Others were allowed to remain
throughout the cold of last winter, 1872 and 1873, exposed to
a temperature of about 20° in the open air. The bars were
broken, both in their cold state and after raising the tempera-
ture above 0. In no case was there any appearance of crystal-
lization. Mr. Caron attributes the breaking of rails in winter
to the greater shock to which they are subjected on tLe frozen
ground and to inferior qualities of iron.

Should the publication from which I took my information
be correct, neither Doctor Joule nor Mr. Spence have proven
anything which I did not consider a fact, viz : that the speci-
mens tested by the former were stronger at 12° Fah., than at
50°, or that the difference were uncertain, and that those tested
by the latter showed as great, or a still greater difference than
8^ per cent, existed in bars of cast iron of 1-2 inch square. There
is no doubt that a great many fractures of rails and axles occur
from the faulty nature of the iron, but these occur at all seasons,
and, as a general thing, it is difficult after a railway accident to
say what broke first. All that I could discern in several cases
was an indescribable wreck.

From my experience with various kinds of implements and
machinery, I have every reason to believe that iron and steel
become stronger under a moderate degree of frost to a steady
strain, but that from a very moderate to an extreme degree of
frost they are exceedingly more susceptible of fracture from
impact than when not frozen. The latter is well known to
every mechanic who endeavors in every way to guard against
the results. I had hoped to make some experiments, and
made some preparation for the purpose, but found that I
would not be able to produce the same in time for the present
meeting of the Academy. I will conclude by noticing a few
special cases of application. The entire weight of a structure,
such as a bridge or roof, together with its passive or accidental
load, is borne by the points resting upon the walls or abut-
ments, and the plates and bolsters, if of wood, receive the en-

The Strength of Materials as Applied to Engineering. 159

tire strain in a direction perpendicular to their fibre ; I have
found that American white pine will not bear a strain greater
than five hundred pounds per square inch under these condi-
tions, and that even less than this will leave a permanent im-
pression ; no regard is however paid to this fact, and it is very
common to find premature rot produced in wall plates, bol-
sters and chords of bridges, by a partial crushing of the tim-
ber. The same is also true with regard to the bearing of
brace-blocks in bridges.

A similar fact came to my notice. It was that of an ice
bouse. The ice, to the amount 200 tons, being packed on the
second story, the entire floor was constructed to bear its pro-
portional weight per square foot of the entire mass. The ice
was packed and supported safely until towards the close of the
first season, when the mass, by use and thawing, was reduced
to less than one-half, when suddenly the center portion of the
floor began to bend and finally to break, requiring a number
of props for safety. Before the packing of the second season,
additional joists were placed between the broken ones and a
straining beam under all, and suspended at intervals of nine
feet from trusses above ; still, at about the same time as in
the previous season, the centre interval broke. I was called
into consultation and examined the case carefully. I found
that, after admitting a loss of one-third the strength of the
timber from moisture, the original floor should have s£^fely
supported the entire weight desired, provided the same had
been uniformly distributed. This led me to re-examine the
matter. I found that the ice, which was a solid mass, had
melted beneath from the heat conducted by the zinc-covered
floor and assumed a convex form, so that the center joist,
which would break at sixteen tons, broke when overloaded,
and its companions in turn, until the spherical segment in
•contact rested upon a sufficient number of joist to support it.
This is not by any means a singular occurrence, but I doubt if
the same has been taken into consideration by builders.

160 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

I would add a word with regard to obtaining coefficients
and formulae for conaputing the strength of materials. As a
general thing, experiments are continued until fracture takes
place, and a fractional part of the breaking weight is taken as
the coefficient of safety. The specimens must also be of lim-
ited size in order that they may be broken by ordinary means.
Hence the results would be doubtful in two respects: 1st.
There would be a flexure not admissible in practice with even
a fraction of the breaking weight. And, 2d. The specimens
must necessarily be selected, and would differ from material
used in practice. (These remarks are in reference to wooden
beams.) Mr. Wm. Hearding in making experiments on the
retaining power of large bolts in wood, found that the resist-
ance to a transverse strain in very strong beams was materially
different from accepted data. I would hence suggest, that in
experiments the strain producing the extreme flexure admissi-
ble in practice be taken as the safe strain ; it would then be
possible to use specimens of large dimensions, even those
used in practice, and also for comparison to subject some to a
breaking strain. Parallel with the strength of materials is an
accurate knowledge of the weight of all materials used in
construction and especially in their applied form. Consider-
ing the subject in question one of great importance, I have
determined to make the same a specialty and will convey the
result of my investigations to the Academy as occasion may
permit

Railway Gauges. 161

EAILWAY GAUGES.

BY W. J. L. NICODEMUS, A. M., C. E.
Professor of Civil Engineering in the University of Wisconsin.

The great need of this country is cheap transportation. AIT
sections would have railway facilities if they had the money
or could borrow it at a reasonable rate of interest. As the
narrow-gauge will do all the business of any section of the
country with a much less bonded debt, it tends to give a
better security to the bonds and stock of the roads, making a
better sale lor the same, and in that way furnishing many
feeders to our present through lines which would not other-
wise be constructed, and soon connecting lines so as to make
new through lines of the three-feet gauge, north and south aa
well as east and west. Experience has shown that in very
rough mountainous countries the narrow-gauge can be built
for the transportation of ores, such as gold, silver, iron, cop-
per and other minerals in bulk, before reduced, so as to col-
lect the same at the various smelting works, with the coal,
wood and fluxes used in their reduction and manufacture for
about one-fifth the cost of such roads as the Erie, Pennsyl-
vania Central, and Baltimore and Ohio; that in the broken
rolling country, where most of our roads are located, the cost
will be about one-half as much as that of present broad-
gauge roads; and in the slightly undulating prairie country
the cost will be about three fifths. As it is easier to raise-
$10,000 per mile than it is $30,000, in the same ratio is it
easier to construct the narrow gauge than the broad gauge.
Where the light business of a road would not justify the con-
struction of a broad-gauge, or if one were constructed, the

162 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

high rates would rather retard than stimulate development, the
construction of the narrow-gauge would offer good_,inducements
to capitalists for investment and furnish cheap transportation
for the people. Comparing the cost of operating the two
gauges we find that the narrow-gauge coach, weight 12,000
pounds, carries, when full,' 36 passengers, with a dead weight
of 12,000 divided by 36 = 333 pounds per passenger, while the
broad gauge coach, capacity 56 passengers, weighs an average
of 19 tons, giving a dead weight of 38,000 divided by 56 =
678 pounds, a difference of 345 pounds per head in favor of
the narrow-gauge. But these coaches seldom run full, in
which case the advantage will be still greater in favor of the
latter. Suppose we have 38 passengers, two more than the
small coach will accommodate, making it necessary to put on a
second one. Here we will have two narrow-gauge coaches
weighing 24,000 pounds, or 24,000 divided by 38=634 pounds
per passenger, while by the broad-gauge we have 38,000 di-
vided by 38 = 1,000 pounds dead weight per passenger or a
difference of 366 pounds per head in favor of the narrow-
gauge. Again, let us suppose that we have two narrow-gauge
car loads, 72 passengers, or 16 more than can be accommo-
dated by one broad gauge coach, necessitating the use of a
second one. The account will then stand as follows: two
narrow-gauge coaches, 72 passengers, 24,000 divided by 72 =
333 pounds per passenger ; while by the broad-gauge it will
be, two coaches 76,000 divided by 72 = 1,055 pounds per pas-
senger, a difference of 722 pounds per passenger, or a total of
.52,000 pounds, or over 26 tons' saving in dead weight in favor
of the narrow-gauge in only two cars. The dead weight per
passenger on roads in Massachusetts in 1870 was 1,250 to
2,782 in New York. In New York this was exclusive of
baggage, with an average of 13 passengers per car. On a large
majority of roads the average dead weight is much greater.
The passenger coaches, then, on the New York roads, run
about one-fourth full. Assuming that our broad-gauge rail-

Railway Gauges.

163

ways average the same number (13) per car, we have the fol-

lowing table

Kind of Trappic.

Gauge.

No. of Passen-
gers per car.

a
u .

o ^

•° o
tec

1-2

as

E.S

St CI

111

S « o

a
n

C3 .
O OQ

OJ 3

1^

Passenger

( Broad

( Narrow . . .

13
13

38,000
12, 009

1,950
1,950

2,923
923

39, 950
13,950

26, 000

2,100

26,000

A difference of 26,000 lbs, or 13 tons, in favor of the narrow
gauge, or 2,000 lbs. per head per passenger. Assuming the
weight of the broad-gauge car to be only 15 tons, or 30,000
lbs., the difference in favor of the narrow-gauge cars will still
be 18,000 lbs. or 1,384 lbs, per head for each passenger, as
against 923 lbs. per head by the narrow gauge. So much for
passenger traffic ; now let us see how the account stands with,
regard to freight. The average weight of the most recently
constructed broad gauge cars is 20,000 lbs., capacity 20,000 lbs.
The average weight of the southern broad-gauge cars is 18,-
500 lbs., capacity 16,000 lbs. But to make it as favorable as
possible we will consider their weight to be 18,500 lbs., capac-
ity 20,000.

Gauge.

Frei?ht

of box cars

in lbs.

Capacity

of box cars

in lbs.

Broad

18,500
8,000

20,000

Narrow

16,000

4,000

The average pounds of dead weight to one ton of paying
freight carried on railways in Massachusetts and New York
in 1870 was:
Massachusetts 3,136 NewYork 3,109

164 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

By this we see that the railways of Massachusetts and New
York average only about one-sixth of their capacity. The
general average of our railways will fall far short of this, es-
pecially in the agricultural districts of the South, West and
Northwest.

In transporting way-freight the narrow-gauge cars have still
greater advantages as is shown by the following table :

o .

S.2-

d
2;

TONS.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

DEAD WEIGHTS.

Br'd

1
2
1
2

18,500

9,250

6,166

4,625

3,700

1 (
3,083 2,642 2,312 2,055

1,850

3,363

Narr.

8,000

4,000

3,066

2,000

1,600

1,333

1,1421 nno

1,777

1,6001,454

*

10,500

5,250

3,500

2,025

2,100

1,750

1,500

1,312 278

2501,909

This table shows that if it is necessary to drop cars with 9
tons of freight, at a way-station — this being an amount which
is one ton over a car load for the narrow guage, and which
renders necessary the use of two cars at the utmost disadvan-
tage— the dead weight is even then only 1,777 lbs. per ton,
and still 278 lbs. less than the broad-gauge. As to wear and
tear, if we assume that the repairs of machinery and rolling
stock are in direct ratio to their cost, the reduction for the
narrow-gauge would be about 50 per cent., which is the differ-
ence in the first cost. Narrow-gauge locomotives weigh from
6 to 18 tons, depending upon the nature of the service they
have to perform. The following table gives the principal di-
mensions and weights of various patterns and sizes of narrow-
gauge locomotives, together with the loads they will haul on a
straight track in good condition :

*Difference in favor of narrow-guage.

Railway Gauges.

165

1>

n
H
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ICOIO OOlO lOLOlO L-OIOLO
Ot-00 10«3t- QOOOi l-OiT-'

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fig

O

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t-cco

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ooo

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woo
1-1 -ri I-

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ooo
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ooo

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00

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d CO CO CI CO CO

CO CO CO CO CO CO

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05S50 O-i-HCI o->-ici

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c3

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y .

a> a>

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t-5

t4

s
o

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I «=

Si

0

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03

^ a >

02 O O

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02

o m

03

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ttJ

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C/2

166 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

As the weight on each wheel and the momentum with which
the wheels strike irregularities in the track affect the " wear
and tear," we give the following data for the two gauges :

WEIGHT ON WHEELS — THEIR MOMENTUM.
[Passenger trains— Speed 25 miles per hour.]

Five Feet Gauge.

Three Feet Gauge.

Weight on

single wheel

Pounds.

Momentum.
Pounds.

Weight on

single wiieel

Pounds.

Momemtum.
Pounds.

Encine driver

8,000
5,000

7,650
4,000
4,760

288, 000
180,000
174, 000
144, 000
171,360

6,250
2,500
3,500
3,000
1,780

225,000

Engine truck

90,000
126,000
108,000

64,080

Tender

Basraaaie car

Passenger car . .

The ends of the rails are beaten to pieces, the surface abrad-
ed, the ties splintered, the fibre of the wood cut under the iron,
weak joints rapidly made worse, so that each succeediog wheel
falls with an increasing force upon the ends of the yielding
rails by the tremendous forces developed by the passage of these
enormous weights at high speed. The lightest broad-gauge
coach weighs about 16 tons, or 32,000 lbs. empty, and ham-
mers the rail joints with 4,000 lbs. on each wheel. When
loaded and driven over the rails at 25 or 30 miles per hour,
the weight of the blow is enormous and terribly destructive to
the superstructure, crushing out the best rail in five or six
years. The passenger car of a three-feet gauge would only
hammer the rail with 1,500 lbs. per wheel. The same applies
to locomotives. A 30-ton locomotive, and its loaded tender,
weighing about 14 tons, or a total of 57 tons, will exert a pres-
sure of nearly six tons on each driving wheel. When driven
at a high speed, the strain upon the track is terribly destruct-
ive. The " Fairlie " engine, constructed for narrow-gauge lines,
bears its whole load, including wood and water, on the driving

Railway Gauges. 16T

wheels, thus utilizing the whole weight in the work of hauling
the train. Instead of an engine carrying 57 to 50 tons to ob-
tain the power of 20 tons, we have an engine weighing 20 tons
and no more ; and this load distributed over eight wheels, with
a pressure of 2 1-2 tons per wheel, instead of 6 tons, as with
the broad-gauge. The action upon the rolling stock is the
same as upon the track. The wheel receives a blow of pre-
cisely the same weight as that administered to the rail at alow
joint, and the shock is transmitted to the axles except what is
taken up by the springs and the yielding of the parts of the
whole structure of the engine or car. The saving of dead
weight is so much saved from the grand total of this destruct-
ive agency ; and by the reduced weight upon each wheel, no
single blow of such enormous forces can be given on the nar-
row gauge.

Can narrow-gauge locomotives be constructed of sufficient
power and speed to answer the general requirements? They
can, as daily experience testifies. The locomotives of the
Denver and Rio Grande Railway, freight and passenger, are
giving entire satisfaction both as to speed and power. By
adopting the proper form of construction, the engines can have'
sufficient power to handle any number of cars that can be-
prudently and economically run together in one train, and such
a train can be handled with as much safety as on the broad-
gauge; while the proportion of dead weight being much less,
the same number of train men will handle more tons of pay-
ing freight, when worked up to the same tonnage. There is
no difficulty in making as fast time as the great majority of
the broad-gauge roads make, which is all the public demands.

The first class narrow-gauge coaches on the Denver and Rio
Grande Railway are 40 ft. long over all, 7 ft. wide inside, 7 ft,
6 in. high, with two 4-wheel trucks, wheels 24 in. in diameter^
weight 12,000 lbs. and carry 36 passengers. The sills are only
27 in. above the rails, making the center of gravity very low^
hence the cars ride exceedingly steady and with less lateral or
oscillating motion than is usually observable upon the broad-

168 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

gauge. The seats are arranged, double on one side and single
on the other, one-half the length of the car having the double
.seat on the right, and the other half having them on the left,
so as to distribute the weight equally. The single seats are 19
in. wide or long; the double, 86 in. ; the aisle 17 in. If found
desirable the width of the car can be increased to 8 ft., mak-
ing the single seat 22 in., the double, 39 in., and the aisle 23
in. These cars, finished in the best style, furnish every comfort
of a first-class coach. Sleeping coaches with a single berth
on each side, can be constructed so as to be as comfortable as
those now in use. •

The freight cars of the Denver and Eio Grande Railway
carry 9 of the largest cattle in a car weighing less than
8,000 lbs., while the brcad-gauge cars carry only 14 of the
same class in a car weighing from 18,000 lbs. to 20,000 lbs.
The stock cars have 4-wheeled trucks, are 24 feet long, the
•door being at the side, but near the end instead of the center,
.and on the opposite side of the other end. For heavy and
valuable cattle, they have two gates in the car (which when not
in use are folded back against the side of the car), which makes
three rooms 6x8ft., into which they put three head of stock,
each, giving a space of 2x8ft. to each head. The broad-gauge
puts 14 head of the same cattle into a 28ft. car, which gives
the Denver and Eio Grande and other narrow-gauge cars the
same floor room that the broad-gauge cars, have and with
much less dead weight.

COMPARATIVE DEAD WEIGHT IN THE TRANSPORTATION OF
CATTLE BY THE TWO GAUGES.

Gauge.

Broad . .
INarrcY.

Weisht of
cars iu lbs.

18, 000
8,000

No. cat-
tle pel-
car.

14
9

Dead weight in favor of narrow gauge

19,600
12, COO

Weiarht of jGross weight Total
cattle iu of loaded \veit;ht
lbs. I cars. per head.

37, 600
20,600

1,285
888

397

Railv:ay Gauges. 169

A difference of 397 lbs. per head, 3,573 lbs. per car load of
5 head, and, in a train of 20 cars, 71,460 lbs. or 35 tons in fa-
vor of the narrow-gauge. As so many are not put together
in the latter, the danger of the cattle getting down is much
less, while they can be fed and attended to much better.

COMPARATIVE COST OF TRANSPORTATION.

The average cost of transporting freight by the broad-
gauge may be estimated at 1 1-2 cents per ton per mile, and
on the narrow-gauge one cent. Estimating the cotton crop of
the south at 4.000,000 bales, transported on an average 200
miles, the narrow-gauge would effect a saving of $4,000,000
per annum to the producers; a sum sufficient to build 400
miles of narrow-gauge railway at §10,000 per mile. The East
India Company, looking to the extension of the cotton culture
in their territory, have projected 10,000 miles of narrow-gauge
railway, and that, too, in a country far more densely popu-
lated than ours, and offering a large general business. They
are, besides, changing their broad to narrow-gauge. Break of
gauge is an evil, but not so great as generally supposed. The
time of transferring freight need be very little, if any, greater
than is now necessarily consumed in the inspection and repair
of cars at intermediate points, which are sent over long lines.
In Great Britain the cost of transferring freight is about 2
pence per ton. In Canada 5 cents per ton. The cost will be
heaviest upon through freight, which has to be changed at
each end of a line, at a cost of 5 cents per ton, or a charge of
10 cents per ton total. As the average cost of transportmg
freight by the broad-gauge is 1 1-2 cents, one ton transported
200 miles would cost $3.00. But, as is seen by the following
table, there is a saving of 25 per cent, in actual working ex-
penses. A saving of 25 per cent, on $3.00 would be 75 cents,
so that an expense of 10 cents per ton may be incurred in
transferring freight, and still leave a balance in favor of the
narrow-gauge, or shipper, of 65 cents per ton, $6.50 per car
load of 10 tons, or $162.50 for a train of 25 cars.
12

170 Wisco7isin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

CLASSIFICATION OF EXPENSES.

Per-
centage of
whole op-
erating
expenses.

Maintenance of Roadway —

Repairs road-beds

Cost ot iron for renewals

Repairs, building fences, etc. . .

Taxes

Repairs of machinery and cars

Per-
centage

saved,
by Nar.
Gauge.

Opekatin
Office expenses, agencies and employes on trains and at

stations

Fuel, oil and waste

Loss and damages to goods and persons

General superintendence, etc

Contingencies

Total

.166
.129

.037
.038
.30

.123
.125

.030
.052

.055
.065

.070

!04i
.017

.248

In Norway, railways of the 4 ft. 8i in. and of the 3 ft. 6 in.
gauges have been constructed by the same engineers, and
worked by the same manager for the government, and the fol-
lowing is the result of six years' experience :

Cost of construction per mile.

Receipts per mile (alike)

Maintenance per mile

Locomotive expenses per mile

Gauge,
4 ft. SKsin.

$20, 343

27, 600

7,173

9,426

Gauge,
.3 ft. 6 in.

$17,143

27,600

6,555

5,760

Difference

in favor of

Narrow

Gauge.

$9, 200

608
3.666

Mr. Millington, Chief Engineer of the Memphis and Knox-
ville Railroad, has made a careful estimate of the compara-
tive cost of building 30 miles of the track extending from
Memphis to Macon, with 3 feet and 5 feet gauges. The sur-
face of the country is undulating, — in places rolling and bro-

Railway Gauges. 171

ken, but with no serious obstacle to the construction of a first-
class road at the average cost per mile of Southern roads. No
gradients steeper than ^'o feet per mile, and this only for
short distances. No curves less than Ijl-IB feet radius, and
none of this radius on steeper grades than 46 feet per mile.
Grading all earthwork and easy to handle. The average haul
about 400 feet. One girder-bridge of three 50 feet spans.
The piers, piling. In consequence of the soil being very lia-
ble to wash during heavy rains, piling is used in preference to
trestling, for which safe foundations would in so.ne places
be difficult to obtain. Weight of rail, 30 lbs. per yard for
narrow-gauge, and 60 lbs, for broad-gauge.

GAUGE, FIVE FEET.
COST OF ROADBED.

664 stations, clearing and grubbing, at $9.00

per station $5,976 00

461 ,150 cubic yards eartli excavation, at 30 cents

per cubic yard 138, 345 00

150 lineal feet girder bridge, $13.00 per lin-
eal foot." 1,800 00

5,665 lineal feet piling and trestling, at $7.50

per lineal foot 42,412 50

41,520 cubic feet timber, log culverts, 3^ cents

per cubic foot 1 ,453 20

36, 950 cubic feet timber in cattle-guards, roads,

etc, at 3 cents per cubic foot 1 , 108 50

9,860 ieet, lioard measure, plank in ditto, at 3

cents per foot, board measure 295 80 ,

Laying 30 miles of track, at $500 per

mile 15,000 00

$206,391 00

79, 200 cross-ties, at 40 cents each $31,680 00

Engineering, right of way,
salaries, office expenses,

stationery, incidentals. . 10,000 00

41,680 00

$248,071 00

COST OP StrPERSTJlUCTURE.

3,168 tons of rails (60 lbs. per yard), at $90.00

per ton $285,120 00

13,000 joint fastenings, at $1.00 each 12,000 00

165 ,000 pounds spikes, at 5 cents per pound ... 8, 250 00

$305,370 00

Total for roadbed and superstructure $553, 441 00

172 WviConsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Cost per mile for road-bed $8, 269 00

Cost per mile for superstructure 10, 179 00

Cost per mile for roadbed and superstructure $18,448 00

THREE-FEET GAUGE.
COST OF KOADBED.

589 stations, clearing and grubbing, at $9.00

per station $5, 361 00

244, 200 cubic yards earth excavation, at 30 cts.

percubicyard 73,260 00

150 lineal feet girder bridge, at $12 per lin-
eal foot 1 ,800 00

5, 655 lineal feet piling and trestlingat $6 per

lineal foot 33,930 00

29,580 cubic feet timber, in log culverts, at 33

cents per cubic foot 887 40

23,400 cubic feet timber in cattle-yards and

road-crossings at 3 cts per cubic foot 703 00

6,020 feet, board measure, planks in ditto, at 3

cents per foot, board measure 198 00

laying thirty miles of track at $375 per
mile 11,250 00

$127,329 00

79,200 cross-ties at 30 cents each. .. $23,760

engineering, right of way,
salaries, office expenses,
stationery and incidentals 10,000

38,760 00

$161,089 00

COST OE SUPEKSTRTJCTUKE.

1,584 tons of rails (30 lbs per yard), at $95 per

ton $150,480 00

10,500 joints fastenings at 80 cents each 8,400 00

105,609 pounds spikes at 6 cents per lb 6, 336 00

$l(i5,216 00

Total for roadbed and superstructure $326 ,305 00

Cost per mile for road-bed $5 ,369 63

Cost per mile for superstructure . . 5 , 507 20

Total cost per mile for road-bed and superstructure. $10,870 83

I

Railway Gauges.

173

RECAPITULATION.

Cost of p r e -
paring road
bed for rails

Cost of super
structure.

MF

30, 5 $248, 071 00 $305,370 00
30! 8 161,089 OOj 165,210 00

$86,982 00:$140,154 00

Cost of road-
bed and su
pers truct-
ure.

$553,441 00
326,305 00

$227,136 00

Cost per Mile.

Koad-bed.

Superstruct
ure.

$8,269 00 $10, 179 00
5,369 63' 5,507 20

$2,899 37j $4,671 80

Total.

$18, 448 00
10,876 83

$7,571 17

Making a saving in favor of the narrow-gauge on the cost
of preparing the road bed, 35 per cent. ; on the cost of super-
structure, 46 per cent. ; on the roadbed and superstructure, 41
per cent. We have the following estimates of cost of two
Canada roads, guage 3 ft. 6 in. :

TORONTO, GRAY AND BOUCE.
Western Junction to Orangeville, 41 Miles.

Grading, fencing, ties, bridges and culverts

Rails and fastenings

Track-laying and ballasting

Station buildings

Right of way ,

Telegraph

Engineering

Commissions, officers, directors' fees, etc. . .

Law expenses

Sundries

Rolling stock

Total cost

Total.

$196,595

181,015

67,770

24, 407

24, 600

1,640

23, 370

15,469

3,936

2,000

$540,802
105, 960

$646, 762

Per mile.

$4,795

4,415

1,653

595

600

40

570

377

96

49

$13,190
2,560

$15,750

* Difference in favor of narrow-gange.

174 Wisconsin Academy of /Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

TORONTO AND NEPISSTNG.
Scarhoro Junction to Uxhridge, 32 Miles.

Grading, fencing, ties, bridges and culverts

Rails and fastenings

Track-laying and ballasting

Station building

Riglit of way

Telegraph

Engineerir g

Commissions, officers and directors' fees . .

Law expenses

Sundries , .

Rolling stock

Total cost

Total.

Per mile.

$151,307

$4,725

139,041

4,345

46, 696

1,460

15,012

470

22, 092

090

1,500

47

14,110

441

10 292

321

936

30

615

20

$401,601

$12,549

101,588

3,175

$503, 189

$15,724

By which we see that the Toronto, Gray and Bouce Railway
has cost $18,190 per mile, exclusive of rolling-stock; and
including rolling-stock $15,760 per mile. The earthwork
averages 10,500 cubic yards per mile. The line is fenced
throughout, at a cost of $800 per mile. The grubbing amounts
to an average of one-half an acre per mile ; the clearing to
three acres per mile ; slashing on each side of the railway to
the entent of four acres per mile has also been done, the grub-
bing, clearing and slashing having together cost $140 per mile.
The ties have cost an average of 25 cents or $500.

The Toronto and Nepissing Railway has cost $12,549 per
mile, exclusive of rolling stock, or including rolling-stock,
$15,724 per mile. The earth-work has averaged 9,750 cubic
yards per mile. The line is fenced throughout at a cost of
$700 per mile. The ties have cost $480 per mile on this
section, and the grubbing, clearing and slashing, $140 per
mile.

Upon the authority of Col. W. W. Nevin, who is connec-
ted with the management of the Mexico National Railway

Railway Gauges.

175

Company, I give the following statistics in regard to Narrow-

Gauge.

IN THE UNITED STATES.

Name.

Denver and Rio Grande

Cairo and St. Louis

Utah Northern

Kansas Central

Arkansas Central

Colorado Central (N. G. Division)

North and South of Georgia

Montrose

Ripley

At Johnston (private)

Cherokee, Alabama.

Iowa, Eastern

Milwaukee and Des Moines

American Fork (Utah)

Peoche (Nevada

Central Valley

East Broadtop

Mineral Range, Michigan

Wasatch and Jordan Valley

Pittsburgh and Cattle Shannon

Bell's Gap

Peekskill Valley

Summit County, Utah

Tuskegee

Louisville, Harrod's Creek and Westport.

Painesville and Youngstown

Baltimore, Swan Lake and Lowsontown .

Peachbottom

Bingham Cannon and Salt Lake

Ceredo Mineral, W. Va

Cheraw and Salisbury

Lawrence and Evergreen ,

Echo and Coalville, Utah

Natchez, Jackson and Columbus

Galena and Southern Wisconsin

The following were to have completed additional mile-
age by January, 1874:

Cairo and St. Louis

Des Moines and Minnesota

Parker's Landing and Kansas City

Miles

Total

Built.

Length.

156

870

92

1.50

70

160

65

560

64

150

43

237

35

130

27

27

26

36

25

25

23

45

20

183

20

380

18

22

18

18

12

12

12

30

12>^

100

12

16

8

8

8K

40

7

7

W2

30

^Yz

30

5

28

12

65

^¥2

6^

5

60

20

20

12

20

11

80

5

5

9

9

6

260

30

150

9083^
52

3,8891^

17

18

1,0071^

176 Wisconsi7i Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

IN THE CANADAS.

Name.

Toronto, Gray and Bouce
Toronto and Mississippi.

New Brunswick

Prince Edward's Island. .

Total

lens^th

The following list is given of

EOADS ACTUALLY UNDER CONSTRUCTION.

Namb.

Florida, Memphis and Columbia

Lexington, Lake and Gulf

Wyandotte, Kansas City and Nortli'Vesteru

Cairo and Tennessee River (under construction in Duck

River Valley, Ala.)

South Branch (W. Va.)

Cheraw and Salisbury

Nashville and Vicksburg

Bambridge, Cuthbert and Columbus

California Central

Des Moines and Sioux City

Salt Lake, Sevier Valley ai. d Pioche

Alameda, Oakland and Piedmont

St. Louis and Manchester

Juan, San Pete and Sevier

Washington, St. Louis and Cincinnati

Greenville and Paint Rock

Stockton and lone (California)

St. Louis and Western

Denver and Rio Grande miles graded .

Utah Northern do

Arkansas Central do

North and South of Georgia do

Summit County (Utah) do

Peachbottom do

Ceredo Mineral (W. Virginia) do

Natchez, Jackson and Columbus do

Under
construc-
tion.

Total,
length.

120

260

170

170

50

250

75

100

26

51

15

80

26

470

20

140

150

465

20

180

25

300

60

60

8H

30

10

75

65

950

5

23

36

36

100

315

50

90

86

60

3U

45

6

14

Railway Gauges. 177

The following

PROJECTED ROADS

Are organized and more or less under way :

North Pacific Coast 250

Biff Sandy Valley 137

People's Narrow Gauge, of Iowa 170

Minneapolis, Rochester and La Crescent 140

St. Louis and St. Charles 14

Holly Springs, Brownsville and Ohio (being graded)

Long Island Narrow Gauge

Toledo and Maumee

Northern and Southern Narrow Gauge, N. C

St. Louis and Florissant 16

The South Park Railway, Col 260

Tennessee Central

Memphis and Raleigh

From which we see that the total length of projected nar-
row-gauge roads in the United States is 8,889 1-2 miles, and
in the Canadas 791, making a total of 4,680 1-2. Of this there
are completed 1,354 1-2 miles; 908 1-2 in the United States,
and 446 in Canada.

Wherever the narrow-gauge has been adopted it has proven
a success — in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Russia, India, Great
Britain, Canada, United States and other places. Costing
about one-half as much as the broad-gauge, many sections of
the country now waiting for railway facilities for development
can afford to build them at once, and thus prepare a market
for their produce. Their first cost being small, their operating
expenses and maintenance light, they will prove paying in-
vestments in almost any part of this country. For the rea-
sons enumerated, I would recommend the narrow-gauge of
three feet for general adoption.

DEPARTMENT OF LETTERS.

'ON SEVERAL POINTS IN THE PRONUNCIATION
OF LATIN AND GREEK.

BY S. S. HALDEMAN,

Professor of Comparative Philology iu the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
Corresponding Member of the Academy.

Modern facilities for travel have had the effect of bringing
the people of different countries together to such an extent
that an opinion has been developed in favor of pronouncing
names and quotations in the native mode, in some cases even
when thej contain sounds which do not occur in English, and
the study of philology is gradually showing that language is
amenable to the laws of speech, and not to the conventicnali-
•ties of spelling.

Loose views about "English analogies" have resulted in
•much false science. By a true English "analogy," that is, by
a law of English speech, pure or hard gay cannot occur before
"soft" dzhee or jay; in genuine English speech, therefore,
there can be no lug-jer for lugger, no beg-jar for beggar^ nor
words like exag-jerate and sug-jest. When we introduce a for-
eign word which corresponds with an English syllable, it is
consistent with analogy to preserve the sound, as the syllable
hey in musquito and quinine (kee-neen — which is by some sup-
posed to have the initial syllable of quiet), lee in Liebig and rin
in rinderpest. A Latin analogy appears in the initial of wine,
wind, wit, worm, and a French one in veal, vile, victual, vagrant,
and even in vacuum, whose initial we pronounce with vee and

Points in the Pronunciation of Latin and Greek. 179

not with Latin way. Some Latin words or parts of words oc-
cur in English, as obey, core^ mari7ie, genteel — which is an older
word than gentile, having preserved the Latin vowel which gen-
tile has lost.

Most of our grammarians being grammatolaters or letter-
worshippers, who determine vowels by the eje and not by the
ear, they have given currency to several important errors.
They tell us that ' the vowel of not is long in note,' when in
fact naught is the lengthened form of 7iot, and it requires more
time to pronounce know with its single consonant than note or
not with two consonants, for note and obey have a short o,
which is long in owe, lo, and oiun. The long vowel of may
shortens in mate, which is neither met nor 7nat. Feet and fit
are equally short, with distinct vowels, and the rare vowel of
fat, which is unknown to normal German, French and Italian,
has no relation to that oi far, but is akin to that of met.

Overlooking such facts, some who reject the English pro-
nunciation of Latin fall into the error of giving the vowels of
hat, hit, hot, hut, as Lafin and Greek sounds. An English
scholar once objected to a speaker for saying Xojo!;, because he
supposed the vowels to be pronounced long, but the speaker
made them very short — as short as in o-mit. When a Latin or
Greek vowel varies in length, it does not change in quality,
that is, it does not become a different vowel. Independently
of its final, lociista must be pronounced like lucils, except that
it must occupy twice the time in utterance, and the 6 of locus
must be placed in honor, homo (genitive hominis,) chorus?
Greek y^opbc:, which rhymes with morose (Latin morosiis.)

The erroneous assertion has been made that in syllables
termed long by position, the quantity is short. Latin, like
Italian and Arabic, has doubled consonants, as in penna, stella^
in which each consonant must be pronounced as in un-natural,
which gives length, whether the vowel is naturally short or
long. The principal vowel is naturally loog in hlx, luceo,
lUctfer, li'inu; ferox, ferocUds; fr'igeo, frlxl. The short

180 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

vowel of vcho may continue short in vexl^ vector but this is
difficult to determine, because e, of rego, regimen is long in
regdlis, reglna, and perhaps in r-cx. In Greek (liXf'^- (ochre) we
have length by nature and position, and in o')^?^^ (a crowd) the
syllable is lengthened by two continuous consonants.

Those who pronounce the first syllable of the Greek ulo^:
(son) like English hivee, convert u into a consonant, instead of
keeping it strictly to its vowel power of French or German ii,
and subjecting the c to modification, for as two vowels cannot
make a single syllable, one (usually the latter) must become a
liquid consonant of the lip or throat series. A German can-
not pronounce such an English form as hwee-os, although he
can pronounce every letter of the Greek word, which in his
alphabet is hiijos. To sap hwee-os instead of this, is like say-
ing why for high.

The initial vowel of Greek and Latin diphthongs does not
vary from its ordinary sound, so that if Latin o is German and
English 0, the dipthongoe is nearer to English oi in going than
to that of loiter ; and Greek sc (with £ of e7id) should not be
confounded with ac. Greek oo became the Latin vowel u (in
fool) at an early period, but it is properly a diphthong begin-
ning with 0, which shows the relation between /5oyc and the
Latin genitive bovis where the middle consonant is English
w. Compare the double forms sUvd and silica, m'llvus and
mlliius.

As the Latin angular letter v is now rounded when it stands
for the vowel u (oo), and as] the letter q (coo) was introduced
to show the consonant nature of the next element, qv should
be printed instead of qu, the power being that of English kw.
Some words in the derived modern languages have lost the
liquid sound, leaving such forms as French qui, Italian chi, and
Spanish quien^ which have led some to believe that the Eo-
mans said ' aca ' for aqva, and ' cando ' for qvando. Even
granting that some Komans may have pronounced thus, the
liquid must have had an existence in normal Latin, because

Points in the Pronunciation of Latin and Greek. 181

such originals as ' cando ' could not have produced the Spanish
words cuando, cuantidad, cuarta, cuestion (formerly ' question ' ;
nor could ' aca ' have produced Italian acqua, Spanish agua^
Rhastian aua, ava, and Wallachian ape.

In conclusion, an opinion may be given, that as o^^phthong
means two sounds, it is possible to separate such, as in ol'co and
occo (to suppose), and we find the monosyllable xXec^ beside its
cognate dissyllable xh/c(;. Bat if the power of er or o: is that of
I, as in Ellenic (modern Greek), no division can be made, be-
cause a vowel cannot be separated into two sounds, and diasre-
sis has not the power to "separate " the English word be into
by, boy, or bo-i.

182 W'isco7isin Academy of Sciences, Arts, a7id Letters^.

THE ETYMOLOGY OF "CHURCLI."'

BY J. B. FEULING, PH. D.

Professor of Morlern Languages and Comparative Philology in the Tlniversity of

Wisconsin.

It is commonly assumed that xufnaxov is the orignal of
" Churcli," but not universally admiited. Before considering
the etymology of our word, let us first note some of its forms
in English and the more important cognate dialects. In O. E.
we have chirche, cMreche, churiche, chiric-(lond), etc.; in A. S.
(Low Grerman), cyrice, cirice, circe. The a of cyriac, which I
remember of seeing, but where I saw it I cannol now recall,
crept in to connect it with kjriakon. The 0. H. G. form is
chirihha, chilihha. It is probable that chiruhha=chirjihlia,
found in Isidor, arose for a similar reason as cyriiic. The
Old Danish or Old Northern form is kirkia, which was intro-
duced along with the gospel by missionaries, especially from
England, from the IX to the beginning of the XI century. The
first impulse had been given by the Frieslander Liudger,
and the real " Apostle of the North," Anskar, had acted as
the head of a school at Corvey, in Westphalia, on the banks of
the Weser, and preached among the natives before he set out
for the Scandinavian kingdoms. Among the Slavonian races
we should expect to find a word directly derived from the
Greek, as the first lasting success was gained by Cyril
and Methodius, who were monks of the Greek communion
and in intercourse with Rome. In the documents referring to
their missionary labours '^ ecclesia" alone occurs. But the
Slavonian words for church {Cyrkew, Cerkieiv, etc.), are evi-
dently connected with the parent of chirihha, which indicates
the far reaching influence of the Teutonic spirit. Lipsius was
the first who rejected the derivation from xupiaxou : " Credo

The Etymology of " Church^ 183

et a circo kirck nostrum esse, quia veterum templa instar circi
rotunda." He was followed by J. Grimm who, in his G. Gr.,
proposed likewise circus (circulus), which is found very early
under the form of chirih and chirch ; in his preface to E.
Schulze's Goth. Glossar (p. XI), he proposed the Gothic
Icelikn^^avcoyatov^ the upper floor of a house {rc'jfjyoz), in which
he sees the Alemannic c/ii7icAa = tempi um, "as the oldest
churches were not without spires." The kelikn^ he says,
would be an allied word to the Albanian xohXXe^ Lith. Koras
or Koryczia^ which come very near the Anglo-Saxon and Old
High German words. But in the German Dictionary, edited
by Hildebrand, \^ol. V, he abandons these etymologies and
returns to xupcaxov, still not without objections. First he men-
tions the change in the grammatical gender; but it has been
shown that Latin (Greek) neutra become feminine, not only in
the Romanic, but also in the Germanic dialects. Another,
more important diflSculty lies in the loss of a, which could not
be accounted for. Still the difficulty of which the derivation
from xufnaxov presents, is little compared with the difficulty of
wanting historical probability. We must be able to answer,
how did the Germanic nations receive the word, or how did
it happen, that they agree in this one word with the Greek
church, but differ from the Latin church, which held sway
among them in all other respects ? From Rome they ought
to have received ecclesia, perhaps basilica, as the Latin nations :
French, eglise (iglise, esglise); Prov., gleisa ; Italian, chiesa ^
Spanish, iglesia ; Port., igreja ; only in Roumansch, haselgia
and Wall., hiseric i. e. basilica. But chilihha, cyrice, etc.,
must have been rooted so deeply among the Germanic nations,
when they came under the influence of the Latin church-
language, that it could no longer be supplanted by the word
ecclesia. It must have become a national word, which, like
the Germanic Ostara, could not be dispossessed by pascha of
the Latin church. Now if we stop at the etymology of church
as is generally adopted, Philology cannot inform us, how ths

18-i Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Germanic nations came into possession of this word, but Ec-
clesiastical History alone. Of the attempts to account for the
introduction of " church^'' if derived from xupco:/.6v, I mention
the most important. Of. Grimnj's German Dictionary, Vol. V.,
791 seqq., and Smith's 'Bible. Diet. I, 452.

Jacobson, in his Church liistory, is of the opinion that this
word had been introduced into Germany by British missiona-
aries, either by the Anglo-Saxon Winfrith, or by the mission-
aries who had come before him from Brittany, who were how-
ever Celts. The Anglo-Saxons never came in direct contact
with the Greek church ; only an indirect contact may have
taken place through the Celts of Brittany, who must have re-
ceived their first missionaries from Asia Minor or from Gaul,
where the churches at Lugdunum and Vienna had been
planted by missionaries from Asia Minor. But this theory is
not supported by the fact, that the Celts themselves have only
Latin words: Ir. teampall, domhnach ; Kymr. te7nl ; Gael.
eaglais, eglwi/s, Bret His, His, i. e. ecclesia. In the Kymr. law
of the 10. century we find ecluys. Old Cornish, eglos.* The
introduction of the word into Germany by Winfrith, as men-
tioned above, is impossible, since we find, before his appear-
ance in Germany, names of places compounded with it, e. g.
in Alsace (a. 718) Chiricunvillare, a. o. For similar names of
places in England see Taylor's " Words and Places."

The Greek influence can have made its way only from ihe
south, and a considerable time before the mastery of the Latin
<}hurch. But Ecclesiastical History is silent about such a far
reaching Greek influence. Still it might have come from the
lower Danube, where some Goths had been brought to the
knowledge of Christ by Greek missionaries from Constantino-
ple, since the 3d century; or from the river Rhone, across the
upper Rhine. The Bishop of Lyons, Irenaeus, a Greek of the

*Roinaa influence, however, had entered into England, even before the
landing of Roman missionaries, for Ninias, the apostle of the southern
Picts, had been educated at Rome, and died early in the fifth century.

The Etymology of " Churchy 185

2d century, speaks already of "«? iv Fsp/jiaucac^ Idpu/jteuai ixxXrj-
aiacy Mark here the term ixxXr^alac, as also the fact that in
Gothic we 6nd only aikklesjo and gudhus {lepov).

Max Miiller's theory that our word "c/mrc^" was brought
"by the Christian missionaries and priests, from the time of
St. Augustine's landing in 597 to the time of Alfred," remains
unproved. The passage in which Kupcaxov is used in the sense
of church, according to M. Miiller, is found in the canon of
the Sixth Council, which prescribes: "orr ou dec iv rotq
Kupcaxott;, tj iu xalc, ixxXfja'taK; rat; Xeyopevaq u:(o.7za.z TzoceTuy
Zonaras, of the 12th century, in commenting on the passage,
says that the name of Kupcaxov is frequently found in the
sense of a church, although only this canon directly distin-
guishes ixxlqala and Kupcaxov^ " but I think," he adds, that
the Tj is not there used disjunctively, but by way of explana-
tion." See Wedgwood's Etymol. Diet. The fact, however,
that in the canons of the first four councils Kopcaxov is never
used, but ixxXr^ata (the same word occurs in all the other docu-
ments, both Greek and Latin, which I had the opportunity^ to
consult), and that Modern Greek has no word for church de-
rived from Kupiaxbv^ seems to indicate that -q in the passage
quoted by M. Miiller is used disjunctively. On considering
again this passage of the 6th council, I think that iv ro'l<^
Kupcaxdcc: refers to the Lord's Supper and o-yaTzdc: to the enter-
tainment in which the poorer members of the church partook,
furnished by the richer members. This canon would pre-
scribe, therefore, that such entertainments should ncjt take
place either in connection with the Lord's Supper, or in the
church. I venture further to conclude, although I had not the
opportunity to examine the passages where it is said to occur,
that wherever in the Canons Kopcaxou (sc. dtinvov) is found, it
refers to the Eucharist.

Trench ('On the Study of Words' p. 101) says: The pas-
sage most illustrative of the parentage of the word is from
Walafrid Strabo, abbot uf Eeichenau 8-12-849, who writes
13

186 Wisconsi7i Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

thus : " Sicut domus Dei Basilica, i. e., Rogia 9 Rege, sic etiam
Kyrica, i. e.. Dominica, a Domino nuncapatur.''* Bat this as-
sertion of the 9th centuary does not prove more than the same
assertion of the 19th century. In Fitzedward Hall's " Recent
Exemplifications, etc." I noticed that he tried to derive
'church' from ' ecclesia '; but I could not procure his article
to see how he has succeeded. Nor have I been able to consult
the dictionaries of Du Cange and Weigand.

History tells us that Roman legions and colonists had come
in contact with Teutonic nations both north and south, long
before the Christian religion had made its way among them, at
the time when they established themselves in Gaul, along the
line of the Rhine and later in other parts of Germany, under
Drusus and others. Wherever it was convenient, they found-
ed military camps and colonies ; and it is well known that
the neighboring tribes were not alwavs in a hostile con-
tact, but came by way of trade, etc. into a peaceful inter-
course with the Roman soldiery. f Many Teutonic barbarians
entered the Roman service and whole tribes accepted Roman
protection. The Roman fleet visited the shores of Slesvig and
Jutland. The consequence was that Germanic words crept
into the lingua vulgaris (a few of which were adopted into the
lingua urbana), as Roman words into the language of the bar-

*Es ist bekannt, wie wenig sich die alten Geschiclitschreiber sowohl
als die Urliuiidensteller in die Reclitsclireibung der Namen zu findeu
Tvussten, die sie bald nach der Aussprache des gemeinen Lebens auszu-
driicken, bald in mancherlei, ihrer Meiuung nach lateinischen (grieclii-
sclien) Formen einzuschmelzen suchten. Wenck, Hess. Landesgesch, I
670, Anm, a.

•f-Les Remains avaient tonj ours etc un peuple d'esprit pratique. Le
pays barbare quil n'avaient pu dompter par les amies, ils s'appliquerent
a I'exploiter au profit de leur commerce. Geffroy, Rome et les Barbares.
(Paris 1874 p. 45. — Dus I'epoque ou la rive gauche etait devenue romaine,
les marchands et uegociants de Fempire avaient iJenetru dans ces nou-
veaux pays, et bientot traverse le fleuve. Id. p. 257 ; cf. also pp. 263 and
348 sqq. and Tacitus' Annal., in regard to the jus commercii, established
under Marbod.

The Etymology of " Church^ 187

barians ; and principally such words which were most com-
monly used in their mutual intercourse or whose import was
new to either of them. But which terms could have been
more often used by the Roman invaders or be more novel to
the barbarous nations, than those relating to the command of
the legions, to the charge or oversight of the military and
other works necessary for the establishment of colonies?
Such terms were ^^cura,^^ ^^curatio^' rerum, fruraenti, legionis
armandae, operum publicorum, viarum, aquarum, etc. Gr,
superioris Germaniae legiones curabat, Tacit. Annal. VI, 30.
That the word " cura " or one of its congeners has been the
parent of ^' church,^' we shall endeavor to show. If we adopt
cura, the c, hh, etc. of the Germanic dialects would be excres-
cent consonants or formative elements (cf. 0. H. G. chranih ;
Slav, zeravi, zoraw ; L. grus ; Gr. ysf/avo^), and the name of
the English ^iVJ'^/churchtown, as also the German Mriveihy
kirmes, (i. e. originally the mass celebrated on the anniversary
of the consecration of a church), a. o. would remind us of
cura, unless the prefix kir is the phonetic decay of curatio. It
is well known that only an educated ear is able to catch a for-
eign word and its stress and to observe this stress in the pro-
nunciation. Now the barbarian in mouthing over curatio
threw the accsnt of the antepenult back on the stem-syllable.
This shifting of the accent we observe in all Latin words
which were iniroduced into the Germanic dialects at such an
early period. E. g., L. cupella, O. H. G. chubili, G. Kilhel ;
L. cellarium, O. H. G. chellari, G. Keller; L. coquina (cokina),
0. H. G. chulihina G. kiiche, A. S. cycene, E. kitchen. In conse-
quence of the changed accent there followed Gravitation, i. e.
the tendency of sounds to accentual centers. It is seen in the
lengthening of accented syllables, the lightening and final dis-
appearance of unaccented syllables. According to this law of
gravitation the o of curatio was dropped, from i developed e,
as it generally does among the North European nations, a sunk
into e and after passing through intermediate i fell out alto-

188 Wisconsin Academy of /Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

getlier. Thus we arrive at curite (curte). The Anglo-Saxon i or
y corresponds to Old High German i, which develops from ce
of Latin words, e, g. pina=:pcena. As ciira appears under an
older form coira, coera, which oe (whose sound, in Latin we do
not know) easily passed into u or i ; cl. fcedus and Jidus; moe-
nia and mwiire ; it is possible that in the lingua vulgaris the
pronunciation of cura fluctuated between ccera and cira. Any
one acquainted with the vowel scale in the dialects of a mod-
ern language will not be surprised at such a supposition. For
the change of the dental i into the guttural c we would account
by the shifting of one consonant to another of the same class,
which was favored here by the initial c (assimilation). A
similar assimilation we find in ^ohxs^ for the older ^o^Aos:: ; cf.
also panca, Tze/me {nipTe), quinque, fimf etc. Tliis change
has been explained physiologically and occurs quite frequent-
ly ; it is probable that in the Eoman folk speech c and t were
hardly distinguished* (cf. Aeol. x7jU0(: and Dor. tyjUu:;—xs7uo^),
so that the ear of the Teutonic barbarian was more liable to
mistake the one for the otber.f

The Anglo-Saxon guttural appears usually as c (rarely as k),

* See M. Miiller, Science of Language, 2 Series, p. 182. Grimm, W. B.
V, 5, K 6.

f Other words in which we find c (k) and t (d) interchanged, are: Wih
peraht, Wilpert, Wilperc ; O. H. G. hart, hare andharug; Tuisco, Tuisto;
schlenkern, schlendern; schlank, slender ; Hekenstal, Hetonstal ; Schalk-
jar, Schaltjar; Mikwoch, Mitwoch; Schwiibisch-Augsburg. Woerterb.
von Birlinger, (Miinchen 1864). In a dialect of Modern Greek we find a
peculiar change from r to x in the nom. and ace. neuter, of ixs7uo^.

See Geldart, Modern Greek, p. 121 ; (Oxford, 1870). In the CantiUne de
Sainte Eulalie of the IX century, as also in the Vie de Saint Liger of the
'K cent., yid f^nCi veintre ^or veiacre {vencre)—vaincre. In the latter poem
we find cartres (castres) Lat. carceres. " Le c de career parait plutut
s'etre change en 't par un simple adoucissement euphonique " (Dissimi-
lation). G. Paris, Romania, Vol. I, p. 313. It seems to me that the forms
d^■dra^■ and rfiYra?" of which G.Paris (Romania, Vol. I, p. 290) saj'S: "Je
ne sais pas comment expliquer ces formes" — arose from di&rai by as-
similation.

The Etymology of " Church:' 189

which through the influence of Norman French is aspirated in
the Southern dialect : chirche for cir (^) c — e. To c (k) corres-
ponds in Old High German ch^ which appears usually as hh in
the middle of a word : chirihh — a. If we remember that from
about 200 A. D., words with ^^ began to be spelt with a, it will
be easy to derive the Teutonic cyrice and chilihha from curacioj
on the condition of the vowel changes in consequence of the
shifted accent, as above mentioned. See A. Fuchs^ Die Roman-
isdien Sprachen (Halle 1849), p. 304.

The reason why the Latin word cura {curaiio) had found
such an easy access into the Teutonic speech and held its
ground so tenaciously, until it was appropriated by Christian
missionaries, perhaps already in the second century, who fol-
lowed in the wake of the Roman soldiers and merchants — may
be found in the fact that it has a similar meaning as theGrothic
hara^ O. H. G. chara^ A. S. cearu, caru, E. care, though
Grimm's Law does not allow to connect the Teutonic words
with the Latin cura. Compare with these words the A. S. carci
cark, in which c is an excrescent consonant, as k in h ear-ken, etc.

Those changes, through which we have accompanied our
word, we may call its history anterior to the period, when it
was taken into Christian usage. It had lived on in the mouth
of the common people, which prepared it for casting it into the
declensional mould of the Teutonic dialects. It was undoubt-
edly familiar to and perhaps permanently appropriated by
Columhanus (590-615) who worked in Switzerland, in the
neighborhood of Ziirich, by his fellow-worker and country-
man, Gallus (690-640) who, with a perfect knowledge of the
native dialects, promoted the conversion of the Swiss and
Swabians, and later by Kilian (650-889), the center of whose
labors was at Wiirzburg, in Franconia. As these missionaries
came from Ireland, it is probable, that the Gadhelic word Kil
which we find in a large number of local names in Ireland and
which is said to denote originally a hermit's " cell," and after-
wards "church," may have caused the change of r into 1 in the

190 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters. '

South German dialects : chilihha cliirihha ; — altbougli we find
this interchange in many other words of the South German
dialects, in which we can not assume such an influence. The
consonant 1 being a weakening of r, may not the Gadhelic Kil
stand for kir, and kir be a reminiscence of the Roman cur a?
but it remains to be proven, whether kil as prefix in Irish
village — names points indeed to " local centers from which
proceeded the evangelization of the hali-savage Celts." As
kil means also inclosure in general, may it not have entered
into the naming of villages long before the appearance of
Christianity in Ireland? And if it really had the distinct
meaning of " church " in the 1,400 local names in Ireland,
according to I. Taylor (Words and Places, p. 227), it seems
very strange, that the Celtic dialects did not retain it as the
common name of ' church,' as the Teutonic dialects.

The theoretical middle steps through which we have follow-
ed " church," of course have passed away without a trace of
them being left ; they were perhaps only momentarily taken,
but surely unconsciously. Foreign words taken by the uned-
ucated into a language obey apparently no rule ; they seem
to enter into a chrysalis state, till they emerge fully fashioned
from the depth of the folkspeech and take their rank in the
literary language, no further mutable. But the external or
phonetic change of a word is frequently accompanied by an
internal or ideal change. The spirit of Christianity filled our
word with a nobler meaning. From the oversight or charge
of worldly affairs, implying responsibility for safety and pros-
perity it passed to the charge and oversight of that which con-
cerns mankind so much — cura or curatio animarum. Thus we
easily perceive the later development of its meanings, to that
of the edifice, for instance, in which the cura animarum took
place.

In conclusion, it will be of interest to consider briefly the
history of cura in the Romance languages, whose ideal develop-
ment in these languages seems to support our etymology of

I

The Etymology of " Churchy 191

^'church." We have seen above, the Latin cura is used both
of military commands and of civil administration. From this
meaning the French cure (Sain ton geois, chure; Wallon, Keure ;)
passed into the meaning of 'charge ecclesiastique, cure d'dme
(Seelsorge). In Old French it is still found in the meaning of
soin, souci. Then it passed into the meaning of the " house of
the priest," but not of the " house of the Lord," for ecclesia had
already been firmly established.*

In Low Latin we find curatus, (celui qui est charge d'un
soin, du soin des ames), whence French, cure ; Italian, curato ;
while the Spanish employs the abstract cura. D'Arnis' Lexi-
con ad Scriptores MedJas et Infimae Latinitatis mentions, be-
sides curatus^ curator=c\xBios, ecclesiae; and also the following
suggestive phrases : CURATA ecclesia, parochial! s, cui prasest
curio; curatum heneficium, sacerdotale, ad quod pertinet cura
animarum. Of special interest is the form czmto=curatura,
which exhibits the trace of a phonetic decay, as postulated
above.

In the preceeding we have endeavored to follow the two
fundamental rules of etymological research: 1. "No etymol-
ogy is admissible which refuses to account for all the letters
of the word it proposes to explain, without a single exception;

*In the documents of the Merovingian epoch we find ecclesia or basili-
ca used for the sacred edifice, but neYGV templum. Also Monasterium and
coenobium signify church, while a monastery was called " casa Dei."
From monasterium we have in A. S. minster, G. miinster, in O. F. mons-
ter, mushier, which were lost in Modern French. It is strange that the
forms mouster and iglise or esglise which were brought to England by the
Norman-French, and were employed in the middle of the XIII century
(Cf. Romanz de un chivaler e de sa dame e de un clerk, ed. by P. Meyer,
Romania, Vol. I), did not supplant the A. S. cirice, for we owe to the Nor-
mans most of the terms pertaining to the church. See R. M. Morris,
Historical Outlines of English Accidence, p. 30. This shows, that the
word from which developed cirice, must be older than the ecclesiastical
terms which entered the Anglo-Saxon in the 6th century, so that the
words of Robert of Gloucester apply to it: Ac lowe men holdeth to Eng-
liss and to hor owe speche yute.

192 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

and 2, every etymology which assumes a change of letters
ought to have in its favor at least one example of a change
quite identical with that which it assumes." If thus the pho-
netic growth alone of our word out of the Latin curatio (cura),
is more organic than out of the Grreek xopcaxou^ and therefore
preferable, — it becomes still more so through historical proba-
bility and through the beauty of its import.

History of the Science of Eydraulics. 193

HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE OF HYDRAULICS,

BY W. J. L. NICODEMUS, A. M., C E.
Professor of Civil Engineering in the University of Wiscontin.

Although some of the fundamental principles of the science
of hydraulics were discovered and applied by Archimedes,
the progress of this science was almost imperceptible until
about the fourteenth century. And this, notwithstanding we
read that Rome in A. D. 98 was supplied with water by nine
aqueducts, whose discharge was 27,000,000 cubic feet per day,
and whose aggregate length was 250 miles. About the begin-
ning of the fourteenth century, great damage was experienced
by the overflowing of the mountain streams of Italy, which
resulted in disastrous litigations, arising from the stringent
laws enacted for the protection of property. This called the
attention of practical and scientific men to the necessity of in-
venting some means of preventing these inundations and ren-
dering the streams more navigable. This resulted in the in-
vention of the canal lock, which was first applied to the canal
between the Ticino and Milan, which is at the present day irr
a perfect state of preservation. From this date hydraulic
engineering was ranked as a science, and has steadily pro-
gressed to the present time. The successive stages of this*
progress it is now proposed to follow.

Towards the last of the fifteenth, or the beginning of the six-
teenth century, Leonardo da Vinci, one or the architects en-
gaged upon the construction of the cathedral at Milan, first ap-
plied his invention of the mitre-sill gate to the lock above-
mentioned. Canals were now rapidly constructed throughout
all parts of Italy. In 1628, Castelli first introduced the mefch-

194 Wisco7isin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

od of estimating the discbarge of a river by the velocity of the
water. In 1643, Torricelli discovered the general theory of
hydraulics that neglecting resistances, the velocities of fluids
in motion are in the sub-duplicate ratio of the pressures. He
also argued that the acceleration of the currents of rivers was
due to the slope of their surfaces, basing his conclusions upon
the supposed analogy between spouting fluids and rivers. Pas-
cal made valuable contributions to the science in his works
published between 1646 and 1663. A dispute having arisen
in 1665, among the inhabitants of the Chiana valley as to the
disposition of the water of a certain stream, Eome and Florence
assembled a scientific congress to report upon the best plan of
accomplishing this task. Many theoretical essays upon river
improvements were submitted, but these added very little to
what was previously known upon the subject.

Near the close of the seventeenth century appeared the
work of Mariotte and Guglielmini. These authors adopting
the parabolic theory of rivers, of the celebrated Torricelli,
perfected it. According to this theory the velocity of any
particle of water in a river will be the same as that of a body
falling from a state of rest through a distance equal to that of
the particle below the plane of the surface of its source pro-
duced. As this theory is contrary to observation and was
adopted by so many writers it shows how theoretical was the
science at this period of its history. The principal writers
upon it being philosophers whose lives were passed in invent-
ing theories and deducing therefrom practical laws instead of
making practical observations and building upon this founda-
tion their theories.

Newton in his Principia, published in 1714, discusses the
friction of fluids on solids and the discharge through orifices,
and though some of his conclusions are erroneous his contribu-
tions to the science are valuable.

The Marquis Poleni first discovered that by adapting a
.small cylindrical tube to an orifice in a thin plate the discharge

Histonj of the Science of Hydraulics. 195

could be increased. His work upon the discharge of fluids
through orifices was published in 1718. Varignon in 1725
published his work on hydraulics in which lie reduced the
parabolic theory of rivers to algebraic formulae.

M, Pitot, between the years 1730 and 1738, made a series
of experiments upon the velocities at different depths by
means of the tube which bears his name. These experiments
proved the fallacy of the parabolic theory of flowing water.
In 1732, were published the results of the experiments by
Couplet upon the discharge of water-pipes at Versailles. At
the same time appeared the works of many Italian writers,
such as Gracdi, Manfredi, Zendrini, Frisi, Zanotti, Gennette.
In 1798 was published the work of Daniel Bernouilli, who
applied the principle of living force to the motion of fluids,
which forms one of the schools of hydraulics.

Between the years 1742 and 1752 appeared the works of
John Bernouilli and d'Alembert, upon the theoretical science
of hydraulics. Valuable theoretical papers upon the motioa
of fluids by the celebrated engineer, Lecchi, and by Euler,
appeared between 1765 and 1771. Professor Michelotti of
Turin, and the Abbe Bossuet of Paris, first established it as a
fundamental principle, that formulae must be deduced from
experiment and not from theory. The former conducted an
extensive series of experiments under the patronage of the
king of Sardinia, the results of which were published in 1771:;
the latter conducted a series of experiments under the patron-
age of the French government, the results of which were pub-
lished from 1771 to 1778. Both of these furnish important
data, particularly the latter, and have been of great value
to succeeding writers in deducing constants and testing the
accuracy of formulae. We consider that the origin of the
modern school of hydraulics is due to the last two named
authors. The works of the earlier writers are now of but
little importance to the practical engineer.

In 1775, M. Chezy, an eminent French engineer, deduced

196 Wisconsiyi Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

the first formula for mean velocity in terms of the slope and
dimension of cross-section.

In 1782 was published a voluminous work of Belidor, Arch-
itecture Hydraulique, Paris. In 1874, M. I'Espinasse published
in the Memoirs of the Academy of Science, at Toulouse, two
papers on the expenditure of water through large orifices, and
on the junction and separation of rivers.

In 1786 was published the celebrated work of M. Dubuat,
which is still a standard authority in the science. He pro-
duced a formula which is applicable to most problems respect-
ing the uniform motion of water. He fully illustrates its prac-
tical application and touches upon all the general questions of
interest to the hydraulic engineer. Valuable works on hy-
draulics were published by Bernard in 1787, by Briinings in
1790, by Woltmam between the years 1791 and 1799. Fabre
published a work on torrents in 1797. Venturi published a
memoir in 1798, giving the result of a series of experiments
upon the contraction of the fluid vein, in which he discusses,
among other things, the effect of eddies in rivers and shows
that they retard the current.

In 1800 Coulomb published a paper in which he enunciated
the principle that the resistance arising from the friction be-
tween fluids and solids may be represented by a function
consisting only of two terms, being the first and second pow-
ers of the velocity. This is called Coulomb's law. In 180 1,
M. Eytelweine published a large work on hydraulics, following
the methods of Dubuat, which has been translated by Nichol-
son, and has received a very flattering notice from Dr. Young
in the Journal of the Royal Institute. In 1803, M. Girard
first applied the law of Coulomb to flowing water in open
channels, producing a much more simple and practical formula
than that of Dubuat. Some of his other articles, particularly
those on canals are of special importance. M. de Prony pub-
lished his first work on hydraulics between 1790 and 1796^
his second work in 1802, and his third in 1804. These works

History of the Science of Hydraulics. 197

have placed him in the foremost rank of writers on this sub-
ject. He shows in his third volume, by discussing experi-
ments, that the resistances of fluids in uniform motion may
be represented, as indicated by Coulomb, by an expression in-
volving only two terms, one containing the first, and the other
the second, power of the mean velocity ; but that these terras
should be affected by independent coefficients, and not by a
common one, as advocated by Coulomb and Girard. He then
deduces the value of these coefiicients for pipes and canals by
employing two methods given by La Place in his Mecanique
Celeste, and by a general equalization of disturbing causes;
he gives a new formula of his own for obtaining the mean
velocity, etc., from that of the surface.

He published an additional paper in 1825, giving methods
of simplifying the application of his formulaj. In 180i, Le-
creulx published his Recherches sur la Formation et I'Exist-
ence des E,uisseaux, Rivieres et 'J^orrents.

In 1808-9 appeared the work of Funk, a celebrated Ger-
man scientist, upon hydraulic architecture. M. Krayenhoflf
published in 1885, his "Recuil des Observations Hydrauli-
ques et Topographiques faites en Hollande," containing a full
collection of tables of observations upon the hydrography and
topography of Holland, a standard work of great value. He
made detailed measurements of discharge, slope of surface,
etc., determining the velocity by means of observing the time
of transit past a base line of vertical poles reaching from the
surface nearly to the bottom. In the Memoirs of the Acad-
emy of Berlin, 1814, 1815, appeared the celebrated articles of
M. Eytelwein, giving new values to the constants in de Bouy's
formulas, etc. In 1816, Girard read before the French Acad-
emy his valuable work upon the Nile ; his graphic representa-
tion of the daily gauges kept for the years 1799, 1800 and
1801, is the first diagram of the kind on record. In 1820
appeared Funk's second work on hydraulics. Escherde la
Linth, in 1821, read a paper before the Helvetic Society of

198 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Lttters.

Natural Sciences in Basle, upon the upper Ehine. By modifi-
cation of Eytelwein's formula from a few measurements of sur-
face velocity, he deduced by a daily gauge-record the annual
discharge from 1809 to 1821 at Basle. De Prony published
1822, his noted work on the Pontine Marshes. In this year
was published the result of a reconoissance of the Ohio and
Mississippi rivers by General Bernard and Lieut. Colouel Tot
ten, of the United States Engineers. This contains valuable
information, especially upon the Ohio river.

In 1823 was published a valuable collection of Italian pap-
ers which made the collection complete from the fourteenth
century. In 1824-26, M. Eancourt made his well-known ex-
periments upon the Neva when frozen and when open. Mr.
Poncelet published in 1828 his theory of permanent motion,
that is, the permanent motion of water moving through a
channel of variable area and slope. In the same year M. Be-
langer published his noted work on the same subject contain-
ing an original formula which gave more accurate results than
any which had preceded it. In 1829, M. Genieys published a
practical treatise upon water-works. In 1827 experiments
were begun at Hetz upon a large scale to establish the princi-
ples of, and fix the constants in, the formula^ for water flow-
ing through orifices. The results were published in 1812, by
order of the French government and are known as the Pon-
celet and Lesbros experiments. In 1833 were published the
results of observations upon the Rhine and its tributaries.
This is the most important contribution to river improvement
of modern times. The works used were both temporary and
permanent. The temporary works were built for the purpose
of inducing deposits of sediment, etc., which being of service
but for a short period, were made of perishable materials.
The permanent works consisted of levees and either solid rev-
etments or breakwaters, to prevent the banks caving. These
improvements were under of charge Defontaine. He advocates
two geneial plans for improving the Khine, first by closing all

History of the Science of Hydraulics. 199^

chutes to confine the river to a single channel ; and second, con-
verting all straight lines to curved in the river's course. His
reason for the latter plan is that in a bend the caving is limit-
ed to one bank, and can be more easily prevented than in a
double line of defensive works on a straight line. The dimen-
sions of the levees are far greater than those of the Mississip-
pi. Thev are 10 feet thick at top, with a slope of one upon
two towards the river and one upon one and a half toward
the land. The height is calculated to be a foot and a half
above the highest floods. Even the large levees are not con-
sidered sufficient. Strips of grass-land are left en both sides
6 1-2 feet wide on the exterior and 3 1-2 feet on the interior,
measuring from the foot of the slope of the levee. On the
outer edges of these strips are planted willows and poplars.
To guard against filtration when the levees are more than 7
feet high a banquette 'n added. Here and there when the
current of the river would be liable to act upon the levees,
large and strong traverses at distances of 600 to 1000 feet
apart are placed and protected, if need be, by fascines, to break
the force of the current.

In 1834 appeared the first edition, and in 1810 the second
edition of a general treatise on hydraulics by D'Aubuisson de
Voisins. In 1835, M. Destrem published the result of a care-
fully conducted gauging of the Neva and its various branches,
under his immediate supervision. In the same year appeared
a historical sketch of the progress of hydraulics by Charles S.
Storrow, Boston, giving the demonstrations and practical ap-
plications of various formuhe proposed by different writers on
hydraulics. In 1836, Tredgold published Smeaton's experi-
mental papers on the power of water and wind to turn mills \
Venturi's experiments on the motion of fluids (1798); and
Dr. Young's summary of practical hydraulics, chiefly from the
German of Eytelwein, In 1840, M. Dausse obtained* a pre-
mium for a paper upon the best methods of improving the
navigation of the principal rivers of France. Between 184S

■200 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, arid Letters.

and 1853, the celebrated hydraulic engineer Lombardini, pub-
lished a number of papers upon the hydraulic condition of the
river Po, in which he demonstrates that levees have not ele-
vated the bed of the river, although they have increased the
height of floods by retaining between the banks the waters
which before escaped through crevasses ; and this height has
been further increased by the more rapid flow caused by clear-
ing the mountain sides of their forests. lu 1841, M. SurelJ
published a paper upon the torrents of the Alps, showing that
forests exercise an miportant moderating effect, and advises
their cultivation for that purpose. In 184:3, M. de Buffon pub-
lished his theoretical and practical treatise upon irrigation.
He adopts de Prony's formula for the mean velocity with
Eytelwein's co-efficients. He thinks the float, from its sim-
plicity, is superior to all other instruments for measuring the
■velocity. M. Weisbach in his mechanics, published at Frei-
berg in 1846, treats very fully of hydraulics, for which task
fthe special study of many years had peculiarly fitted him.

M. Surrell, in 1847, published an elaborate work upon the
improvement of the river .Rhone. In 1818 appeared Dupuit's
work on hydraulics, which is a valuable contribution to the
science. This same year was published a memoir by M.
Baumgarten upon a portion of the Garonne, giving the
various works used in the improvement and discussing their
effects. He reports some very interesting experiments, among
others that of measurements upon the transverse section of
the water-surface at a nearly straight portion of the river
>(width about 600 feet), both when the water was rising and
fallino-. When rising, at the rate of about 5 feet in twenty-
four hours, with a maximum velocity of about 7 feet per
second, he found the water in the middle to be about 0.4 of a
foot above that on the right bank, and 0.1 above that on the
left. When falling at the rate of about 8 feet in twenty-four
hours, with a maximum velocity of about 7.5 feet per second,
the water-surface was sensibly a plane, being at the right

History of the Science of Ilydraidics. 201

bank a little less than 0.1 of a foot above its level at the
opposite side of the river. In the proceedings of the American
Association for the Advancement of science for 1848 and
1849, are valuable papers, which contain the results of experi-
ments made at Natchez and Memphis upon the Mississippi
river. The daily discharge at Memphis was' determined by
making a cross-section of the river, and subdividing it into
three partial areas. The surface velocity in each of these areas
was measured by anchoring the boat and using a chip and
line. During calm weather the relative velocity near the
bottom was also measured by comparing the velocity of a sur-
face float and a double float whose lower portion, composed
of a tin vessel, was sunk nearly to the bottom. The discharge
was equal to the sum of the products of the partial areas by
the average velocities in them. The temperature of the water
at the bottom was found to be the same as at the surface.
The velocity near the bottom was to that at the surface in the
ratio of 268 to 300. The average downfall was 0.11 inches,
and the average evaporation from the surface of the water of
considerable depth, was 0.13 inches daily.

Mr. Ellet, in a memoir to the Smithsonian Institution in
1849, advocated the reservoir system for the improvement of
the Ohio and other rivers. M. Boileau made a very extended
series of hydraulic experiments by order of the French gov-
ernment between the years 1844 and 1854, which were pub-
lished in the last mentioned year. It is a work of great value
to the science.

In 1851 Mr. Ellet submitted a report to the War Depart-
ment upon a survey made by him under its direction to deter-
mine the best method of preventing the overflows of the delta
of the Mississippi. In the same year appeared a work on
hydraulics by M. de Saint Venant, which contains much
origmal and valuable matter. In 1855, Herman Ilaupt pub-
lished a pamphlet advocating the improvement of the Ohio

river, by a low dam and chute plan. Lombardini, in 1858,
14

202 Wisconsi7i Academy of /Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

published a memoir upon the recent inundations in France
and the means of remedying the evils thereof. During thi&
same year Dapuit in France, David Stevenson in England and
Ellet in this country, made valuable contributions to the
science.

The annual reports to the Chief Engineer of the Army fur-
nish valuable information upon the improvement of rivers
and harbors. Time at present will not permit my tracing
farther the progress of this science, and I will merely add that
the governments of all civilized nations have fully awakened
to its importance, and by authorized experiments are daily
aiding in its advancement.

The Naming of America. 203

THE NAMING OF AMERICA.

BY PKOFESSOR J. D. BtTTLER, LL. D.

The name America has been called a monument of ingrati-
tude. It is said to be a misnomer, and worse than that, to owe
its origin to fraud.

Our continent owes its name to Americus, the baptismal
name of the Florentine navigator, Vesputius. Concerning
him some specimens of popular opinion are these.

It is charged that, " after returning from Brazil, he made a
chart in which he gave his name to that part of the main land.
The date of his first voyage, as he gives it, is unquestionably
false." So says Appleton's Cyclopedia. The whole narrative
of that voyage Irving pronounces a "fabrication." Morse,
father of the telegraphic inventor, says, "Americus had so in-
sinuated that the glory of discovering the new world belonged
to him, that the bold pretensions of a fortunate impostor rob-
bed Columbus." Morse quotes the Scotch Kobertson as au-
thority. A thousand others have done likewise. Eobertson
accuses Americus " with premeditated usurpation of rights," etc.
One of the most elaborate of British encyclopedias says, that
" as the employment of Americus afforded him opportunity, so
while drawing charts he distinguished the new discoveries by
the name of America, as if it were Amerigo's land, so that the
true discoverer, notwithstanding the complaints of the Span-
iards, was defrauded of the honor that belonged to him.''
Delapluine of Philadelphia — father of our Madisonian pio-
neer, charges Americus with imposing his name on the conti-
nent by stratagem, and says he gained his end by waiting till
after the death of Columbus before putting forward his own
pretensions.

204 Wisconsi7i Academy of Sahices, Arts, and Letters.

Such, during three centuries, were the ideas prevalent
regarding the naming of America.

Within the last generation, however, the researches of
Humboldt in his Examen critique of the Geography of the Fif-
teenth Century, 1835-9 ; of Henry Harries in his Bihlioiheca
Americana Vetustissima, (New York, 1866) ; of Varnhagen in
his monograph on Amerigo Vespucci, (Lima, 1865), and of
others, have vindicated the character of Americus, demon-
strated that he discovered more of America than any other
man, and even rendered it probable that he set foot on this
continent (June 17, 1497,) before either Columbus (August 1,
1498,) or Cabot (June 24, 1497,) while his name was bestowed
on his discoveries not only without his instigation but without
his knowledge.

It ought to be here said, in passing, that but for aids minis-
tered by the Library of our State Historical Society, the fol-
lowing paper could not have been prepared in Wisconsin.
There is no possibility of finding elsewhere, within the limits
of our state, the documents to which every original investi-
gator of my theme must betake himself.

The earliest charge against Americus, and that the mother
of a myriad others, — -fons et origo malorum, — originated twenty-
one years after his death, and a thousand miles from his home.
These circumstances stamp it with suspicion, and the more
since no contemporary trace of similar aspersions can be de-
tected in Spain, where he lived and labored.

It was in 1533, and in Nuremberg, that John Schoner re-
marked in a geography he issued then and there {Opusculum
Geographicum), that "Americus sailing westward from Spain
and coasting Asia, believed a region which belongs to upper
India to be an island, which he appointed to be called by his
own name."

Schoner's words were : " Americus Yesputius maritima loca
Indian superioris, ex Hispaniis navigio ad occidentem perlus-
trans, earn partem quae superioris Indiiv est, credidit esse insu-

The Naming of America. 205

lam quam a suo nomine vocari instituit. (H. Harries, p. 304.)
This passage affords no proof that Schoner ikmec? Americus
for thus baptizing his finding with his own name. But there
is no doubt that he did. Yet the first name which Schoner
himself gave to the southern half of our continent on a globe
he had made thirteen years before, and which we may see to-
day in the city library at Nuremberg, is America. Besides,
eighteen years before, — or in 1515, the same Schoner had pub-
lished a geography in which we read, " America or Amerigen
a novus mundus, — and fourth part of the globe, named after
its discoverer Americus Vesputius, a man of sagacious mind,
who found it in the year 1497." (H. Harries, p. 142.) As
Schoner subsequently censured Americus, he must have
changed his mind after 1515. It was after that time perhaps,
that he first learned about the abuse of Columbus by Span-
iards, and iiTdignant at his wrongs naturally attributed the de-
frauding him of fame to the man who had gained most by that
fraud. Yet the truth is, there is no proof that Americus ever
gave his own name either ou maps or otherwise to any portion
of hi« findings, — though most other voyagers in all ages have
thus perpetuated their fame.

The slur cast on Americus by Schoner was repeated and
exaggerated, especially by Las Casas in his Historia de las
Indias, a work not completed for forty-seven years after the
death of Americus, till it reached the pitch indicated at the
commencement of this article.

But no map with the name " America" on it of an earlier
date than 1520, is known to exist, or to have ever existed any
where. This first map appeared in Vienna, and long before
any bearing the name America was issued in Spain, although
its own date was eight years after the death of Americus. If
any suggestions of his led to its issue, they must have been
those fabulous, or at least thaumaturgic, " poisons given to work
a long while after."

But the maker of this Vienna map had no thought of doing

206 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Ai-ts, and Letters.

injustice to Columbus. It is true he printed "America" in
capitals on the southerly portion of the new found region
which extends no further north than the equator, but he
intended to call only a portion of that region by that name,
for "beneath the word America the word ^rofiwce, " Provincia,"
is subjoined. America, as then and thus designated, was a
smaller part of the West Indies than the West Indies now are
of America.

Thus much of honor may have been deserved by Americus,
who possibly first discovered the American main land, and at
all events was the first explorer of more of it than even Colum-
bus.

Moreover, on the Vienna map, above the name America so
that it may well apply to the north shore of South America
and the West Indies, we read this epigraph : " In the yoar
1497 this land with the islands adjacent was discovered by
Columbus, a Genoese by order of the King of Castile."

The original text is, Anno, 1497, hajc terra cum adjacentibus
insulis inveuta est per Columbum, Januensem ex mandato
regis Castellae. America, provincia.

On this map, as on all before it and on legions afterward,
the two portions of America are widely sea-severed. The
truth is they were long regarded by no means as Siamese
twins, but as belonging to different continents.

Men find what they seek. Columbus voyaged for India,
thought his first landing was there, and forced his crew to
swear they thought so too by threatening to cut out their
tongues, (H. Stevens, " Historical and Geographical Notes.")
Like too many others, he forgot that voting asses to be horses
never made long ears short.

Columbus called his finding the main land or islands of In
dia beyond the Ganges {Insulw Itidicc supra Oangem.) Mani-
fold memorials of his mistake we see to this day. Witness our
aborigines from pole to pole called " Indians ; " witness the
archipelago between the Americas now as in the beginning,

llie Naming of America. 207

^' "West Indies ; " witness Las Indias, the Spanish official name
including even now all our continent ; witness the words,
"King of the Indies," Indiarum rex, stamped on every Spanish
dollar we, ever saw.

Show Agassiz one bone, and he would reconstruct any ani-
mal ; so when Columbus beheld one corner of trans-Gangetic
India, that is of Eastern Asia, he could map the whole of it,
for that eastern coast line was known to him from the relations
of overland travelers. The configuration of that Asiatic line
is not without resemblances to that of eastern North America.
Hence the delusion lasted longer, and each new finding pieced
out the Asiatic map, like a new patch sewed on an old gar-
ment. A quarter of a century after the death of Columbus,
the prince of German geographers still maintained that Mexico
conquered by Cortez ten years before, was the Chinese city
Quinsay, so excessively extolled by Marco Polo. So Hum-
boldt tells us in his Cosmos,

Syllacius, the first Italian who described the first voyage of
Columbus, in his '' opusculum de insulis nuper repertis^^ assured
both that that navigator had pushed through to trans-Gangetio
India, and perhaps also satisfied that a ship sailing westward
must slip off from the world, represents Columbus as circum-
navigating Africa. Ultra JEquatoris metas, usque ad Arabiae
heatas insulas. Persistence in mistaking North America for
Asia was one among countless illustrations that false knowl-
edge is worse than ignorance ; a truth so well understood by
Isocrates, who always exacted double fees from siudents who
came from another teacher, one for unteaching as well as one
for teaching.

Among the results of Columbus's error, the Pacific was
called the /South Sea, being supposed to lie almost altogether
south of the equator, and the better half of the western hemi-
sphere was reckoned by many an appendix of Asia, even un-
til Behring passed through his Straits only four years before
(the birth of George Washington.

208 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

Faith in the connection ot North America with Asia out-
lived many a proof to the contrary. It was scarcely less cred-
ulous than the " hard shell " citizens of the Egyptian section
of Illinois, who are reported to continue deaf to all reports
concerning the death of " Old Hickory," and so still cast their
Presidential votes for Jackson.

But this Asiatic mania, if I may so call it, was much less
lasting in reference to South than to North America. That
portion of our hemisphere in fact approaches the old world
nearer than the northern half of it does, and its actual distance
from Africa was under-rated. On some early maps its eastern-
most cape was set down as no more than ten degrees west of the
Cape Verd group. Its outline was also ascertained by nau-
tical survey, while the corresponding coast of North America
was still mapped after the model of Asia.

As neither the position nor the coast-line of South America
had anything in common with European ideas respecting
Asia or the globe southeast of it, it was at once regarded as a
discovery veritably new. Accordingly^ while the West Indies
were viewed as only an extension of the Canaries, and Colum-
bus was thought to have discovered only some other islands
further toward the Indies of the East {Insulas alias incognitas
versus Indos), and North America was drawn after an Asiatic
pattern, or held at most for a thin barrier on the road to Asia
and cut through by straits if not by seas, — men were already
satisfied that South America was nothing less than a continent,
and so sought for it a name. No man did more to make South
America thus known to the old world than Americus. He
was first to trace its shore line through fifty degrees of latitude
even down to Patagonia.

"As early as 1501, Yespuccius proposed to double the ex-
tremity of the Southern Hemisphere." H. Harries, p. 226.
"Would it have been surprising if he had appeared in the ear-
liest maps and books honored with a name in the world of
wonder he had revealed? But he does not?

The Naming of America. 209'

The oldest map containing engraved delineations of the
new countries was published at Eome in 1508. On this we
see the southern portion of our hemisphere which stretches
through more than fifty degrees of latitude and sixty of longi-
tude, inscribed, " Land of the Holy Cross, or New World."
No America was yet dreamed of. Says Roselly de Lorgues,
" The discovery having been made under the auspices of the
cross, and for the triumph of the cross, the new land was
usually designated on maps by the sign and name of the
cross. {Terra sanctae Grucis.") Nor yet was there any other
western continent in existence, according to the notions of the
Eoman mapmaker. His nearest land west of Cuba is Bengal.
North of it the nearest land is that explored by the Cabots,
which is mapped as a part of Asia, and conterminous with
Gog and Magog. This map (llixlG inches) was drawn by
Euysch, a German navigator, who is believed to have sailed
with Americus.

It was forbidden to infringe its copyright or that of the
geography which contained it, on pain of excommunication,
but the price of the work was to be fixed by the Pope's
librarian. Such a defense of the public from booksellers, and
of authors from pirates is now, alas ! one of the Lost Arts.

Humboldt arguing that Americus never knew that he had
discovered a continent, holds that the words Mundus Novus
(new world), in the fifteenth century, meant no more than any
region new found, no matter though of small extent. Ad-*
mitting the phrase to have been often thus used, it clearly
was not as to the case in hand. The title of the first German
edition (1505) of the third voyage of Americus is, " Concern-
ing a new found region which may well be named a world."
Von der neu gefundenen Region die wohl eine Welt genennt mag
iverden. Again the Mundus Novus on Raysch's Roman map
was well-nigh as extensive as we now know South America to
be, and larger than Europe. Bat this map appeared four
years before the death of Americus. Can we believe that he

-210 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

himself knew less concerning the greatness of his own dis-
coveries than was manifest on maps to all the world ?

It is further worth notice that while the words mundus
novus head the very first publication of the voyages of Amer-
icas, they never occur in the title of any one among the twenty-
one works which were issued in the fifteenth century in rela-
tion to Columbus,

One reason may be that the islands — or at least the main
land which Columbus brought to light needed in bis opinion
no name. According to his foregone conclusion they had
been named already with appellations time-honored and in
part sacred.

A principal reason then why our continent does not bear
the name of Columbus, was that he and his contemporaries
supposed there was no continent in existence which still re-
mained without a name. Bombastes cut off only the hand of
his slain enemy, because the head had been cut off already.
Janus was never struck on the back of the head because he
was all face, and time cannot be seized by the hind-lock for he
is bald behind.

The first landing of Columbus on the American main was at
the mouth of the Orinoco. He thought it the paradisaical
Gihou. He died assured that he had there bathed in one of
the rivers of Eden. According to his faith, " the airs of Para-
dise did fan its shores, and angels orficed all." Small thanks
would he have rendered anyone who had proved that his land-
ing was not in Paradisaical Asia, but that it was of the earth
earthy. His celestial dream he would have scorned to ex-
change for stamping his name on any continent. If forced to
give up his beau ideal for a continental reality, his must have
been the feelings of Lessing's hero in Nathan the Wise, who
at the denouement found out that the lady whom he had
adored with the love of forty thousand brothers, and who loved
iiim as much, was after all only his own sister.

Should a less sentimental image be demanded, Columbus, if

The Naming of America. 211

■disenchanted of his golden delusion, may be compared to a
Californian pioneer bringing to the mint a load of glittering
specimens from far off placers^ and there convinced that they
were one and all iron pyrites, — fool's gold and nothing more.

Columbus fancying America to be Asia lay under a mistake
analogous to that of the Northmen in the tenth century. They
sought no collective name for their great discovery, because
they were convinced the America they had found was no more
than an outlying fragment of Europe.

But hoW was greatness thrust upon Americus? How did
his name, at first too plebeian to appear on title-pages, or to in-
dicate a cape or bay, make its way into books and maps, and,
supplanting all other appellations of the New "World, gain a
glory eclipsing whatever is reflected from all such names as
New Spain, New England, New France, etc. ?

Americus wrote several private letters, about his voyages,
to friends in Italy and France, perhaps in 1502, but made no
claims to give his name to any locality. These accounts of his
discoveries were soon published, and were sometimes headed
with his name, as Nouo Hondo da Alherico VespiUio^ Milan
1508. More commonly their titles were complimentary to
some sovereign, for that servility was then ubiquitous, which,
to- Jay, in British army bulletins forbids naming any non-
commissioned officer, even though a victory should be alto-
gether due to him.

Thus the title-page of the earliest German edition of the
letters of Americus (1509) is: "This little book relates how
the two most illustrious Lords, Ferdinand King of Castile, and
Emanuel King of Portugal, have searched through the vast
seas, — discovered many islands, and a new world," etc. (Dies
Bilchlein saget wie die zwei durchlilchtigsten Herren Fer-
nandus, K. zii Castilien und Herr Emanuel, K. zu Portugal
haben das weyte mor erziichet und funden vil Insulen, und
ein Neiiwe welt von wilden nackenden Leiiten, vormals un
bekannt.)

212 Wisconsiti Academy of Sciemes, Arts, and Letters.

Another edition in Latin, was entitled, '' concerning the
Antarctic region formerly discovered by the King of Port u.ajal."
{De ora antarctica per regein Poriugallm pridem inventa.) The
earliest Italian edition was styled, " All the navigations of the
King of Spain." [Libretto de iutta le Navigazione del Re di
jSpagna Lsole trovate novamente per el He di Spagna, 1495.) That
monarch voyaged as easily as Solomon built the temple with-
out lifting a finger, and no one has profited more by the law-
maxim : quod fojcit jper alium facit per se.

Perhaps it was his wile who, accustomed to do all drudgery
by proxy, when urged by her confessor to do penance, said :
" 0 yes, I will. I will make my maids of honor fast all
through Lent ! "

In many editions the motto was :

" Cum Deus astra regat et terrae climata Caesar,
Nee tellus nee iis sidera majus habent."

As God in heaven, so kings on earth bear sway;
Above, below, no greater names than they.

The voyages of Araericus were published separately many
times, but, so far as can be ascertained, never together till the
year 1507, and then in Lorraine at Saint-Die. A professor in
the gymnasium there, born in the neighboring Freiburg, was
then publishing a Latin cosmography. While thus engiiged,
he fell in with the letters of Americus in French, translated
them into Latin, dedicated them to Rene the local potentate,
and added them to his other geographical chapters. His work
was entitled, " Gosmograp)lii<x, introductio. * * * Insuper,
quatuor Americi Yespucii navigationes."

On the title-page he mentioned this addition as " things un-
known to Ptolemy and discovered by moderns." The pro-
fessor's name was WaldzeemfiUer. After the fashion of his
time he latinograecised it as Hylacomylus. In a note treating
of the progress of discovery in the old continents, he adds :
" but now another fourth part has been found by Americus, as

The Naming of America. 213

•will be seen in the sequel. I see not why any one can right-
fully forbid it to be called Amerige, or America as if the land
of Americus after Americus, its discoverer, a man of sagacious
mind, since both Europe and Asia have derived their names
from women." So long ago were men fearful that women
were getting more than their rights ! In the margin of this
note he printed the word America.

The exact words of the St. Die cosmographer are as follows :
"Nunc vero et hte partes sunt latius lustratie, et alia quarta
pars per Americum Vesputium (ut in sequentibus audietur)
inventa est, quani non video cur quis jure vetet ab Americo
inventore, sagacis ingenii viro, Amerigen, quasi Araerici ter-
ram, sive Americam dicendam : cum et Europa et Asia a
mulieribus sua sortitas sint nomina. Ejus situm et gentium
mores et binis Americi navigationibus qua? sequuntur liquide
intelligi dant."

This suggestion, according to our best knowledge, was the
first ever made for giving honor to Americus and a collective
name to his findings. It was published in 1507, on the 25th
of April, which is accordingly the birth-day of the American
name. But it never has been pretended that Americus knew
Hylacomylus or could by possibility have incited him to bring
forward his name.

It is not to be forgotten that the name America was thus
proposed in 1507. This date refutes and renders ridiculous
the pretense that Americus first foisted the name into maps
when he was head of the Spanish cartological bureau, for he
was not appointed to that position till a year afterward. Could
lie be guilty of a sin that was committed before he was born?
No more than he could be guilty of Adam's sin. No more
than a preacher can be called to account for his hearers' naps
if they begin before he stands up for sermonizing.

Besides, as already stated, the earliest map on which the
word America is inscribed, was made eight years after the
death of Americus, and that name was introduced on Spanish
maps later than any where else.

214 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

If any further vindication of Americus from the stain of
stealing the laurels of Columbus could be needed we should
see it in the fact that Columbus, to the very close ot his life
and his son after him, though very jealous for his father's
glory, remained the fast friends of Americus. The charges of
Las Casas, Humboldt considers refuted by the life-long friend-
ship of the Columbus family with Americus. He also remarks
that those charges are very mild near the beginning of his-
book, which was written scon after the death of Americus,
but very harsh near the end of it which was written thirty
years afterward. We may, therefore, appeal from Philip drunk
to Philip sober — from Las Casas in his dotage to Las Casas
in his best years.

Again, Cuba was believed to be the continent till after the-
death of Columbus, and he discovered that island in 1492.
Americus sharing in this belief had no motive to date his first
voyage 1497, unless it then took place. Why forge and;
falsify only for the name of discovering what, as was firmly
believed, had already been five years discovered ?

It was once my fortune to visit Freiburg — the native town
of the namer of America. My journey thither in 1868 was re-
paid by its mountain scenery, its streets irrigated with living
water after the manner of SaltLake, — its cathedral unsurpassed
in Germany till Strasburg was captured, and its associations
with the inventor of gunpowder. But I was not then aware
that it had given birth to the god-father of our western hemis-
phere. Had I been, its charms would for me have been ten-
fold. I also passed near Saint Die where the name " Ameri-
ca" was first printed, and perhaps first written. Had this
fact been known to me how gladl}' would I have turned aside
to gaze upon that cradle of our name. However small to the
eye it would have been great to the mind. Still greater
would have been my interest in it, had I not been ignorant
that a head-master of the school there, Pierre D'Ailly, had writ-
ten the picture of the world — Imago mtoidi, which stimulated

The Naming of America. 215-

Columbus to his great voyage, and which is still to be seen ia
Seville with marginalia penned by the hand of Columbus
himself. Americans will ere long pilgrim to Saint Die, as the
mother of their name, and so the source of a ^stream flowing
further than the Mississippi, yes from pole to pole.

From the peaks of the Vosges, towering above the college
of Hylacomylus, you can almost espy Strasburg, which claims
the invention of printing, Freiburg where gunpowder was first
compounded in Christendom, and Spires where Protestantism
first assumed its name.

The new name for the new continent, proposed by Hylaco-
mylus in 1507, was employed about five years after by Vadia-
nus of Vienna, who indeed, until recent researches, was
mistaken for its author. But three years sooner, or in 1509, it
was adopted by an anonymous writer, who then published, in
the neighboring Strasburg, his " Globus Ifundi, or a descrip-
tion of the world as a round globe, whereby every man, evea
if he do not know much, can see with his own eyes that there
are antipodes whose feet are opposite ours, together with
many other things concerning the fourth part of the earth re-
cently discovered by Americus."

Here, in this title, is one secret of the special importance
attached to discoveries in South America, and hence to the
exploits of Americus. His logic of facts rooted up two dog-
mas which had been viewed as essential to orthodoxy, one
that there could not be antipodes, and the other that the equa-
torial zone was too hot to be inhabited. A commentator oa
Albertus Magnus soon detecting in him the same heretical
taint, exclaimed in 1514, as if at the fulfillment of prophecy,-
"Lo! Albertus, two centuries ago, conceived that the earth
might be inhabited beyond the equator, as Americus has found
and described it" — things not in heaven and on earth but
under the earth.

Interest in occidental exploration turned mainly southward
for another reason, namely, that the first adventurers to the-

216 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

West Indies and northward, reported much codfish, but no
gold. Where the carcase is there the eagles gather. JJhi mel,
ibi apes.

Onward from 1511 the name America appears in most
geographies, and from 1520 in most maps But it long de-
noted no more than a portion of our southern hemisphere
which was itself up to the year 1548 reckoned rather an island
in the West Indies than a continent. Tlie earliest known MS.
map bearing the name America, is supposed to date from
1514. It was drawn by Leonardo da Vinci, and is among the
treasures of the British museum. (R. H. Major, p. 888.) The
extension of the name is worth tracing, yet not easy to trace.

On the Nuremberg globe of 1520 the southern part of the
new continent is inscribed, America vel Brasilia sive papagalli
frra, and the name for some decades after seems no more than
commensurate with Brazil.

The name "America" in English cannot be traced back
of 1520, and then it appears in an anonymous work " touching
dyvers straunge regyons and the new found landys.'' It is
thus introduced :

" But this new lands fouude lately
Been called America by cause only
Americus dj-d first tbem fynde."

A year or two later was issued the first English book de-
scriptive of this America. In this book the new region is
spelled " Armenico." A century later Lord Bacon (vol. xiii.
p. 196), speaks of " Mexico, Peru, Chili and other parts of the
West Indies.'"

The Landshut cosmography of 1524 calls America noiv a
fourth part of the world — but adds that it is an island. ^^Quo-
niam marl undique clauditur insula merito appellatur."

Copernicus, in 1543, writes that his theory was confirmed
anew by taking into account the islands brought to light in
his time, and especially America, which, owing to its magni-
tude still unascertained, men thought to be another world, a?/er

The Naming of Ame7'ica. 217

crhis terrarum. The great astronomer was before his age ia
geography also. So potent is a name that men still called
geographies " Ptolemies," as we now call a dictionary Webster,
though so metamorphosed that Webster would not recognize
it But the Ptolemy of 1540, only three years before the
death of Copernicus, inscribes the map of the western hemis-
phere Novce Insulce^ and its southern portion Insula Atlantica
quam vacant Brasilii et Amerkam. In the Ptolemy two years
later there is still no collective name for the north half of our
continent, but a strait runs through it labeled per hoc /return
iter paiet ad Molucas.

The rapids at Montreal were named La Chine (China) be-
cause the pioneers there thought they could ascend the St. Law-
rence even into the Celestial Empire.

Nor were these Frenchmen so far wrong as were their more
learned compatriots, for in " the Mirror of the World," issued
at Lyons in 1546, three years after the death of Copernicus,
we read : " Since Ptolemy no land called a continent has been
discovered except one called America, about which we are not
well assured, and several islands. As to America (which the
writer also calls LAmeque^) I place little reliance on those
who have been there, but speak of it so obscurely that one
cannot guess what their dreams mean." Two years before,
the Brazil map is inscribed America sen Insula Brazilii. The
Antwerp cosmography of 1545 inscribes the map of the West-
ern World on the southern part America^ and on the northern,
which is a narrow, elongated prolongation, Baccalearum^ a
word which means land of codfish.

At length, in the Venice Ptolemy of 1548, forty-seven years
after the discovery of Brazil, the southern half of the New
World is mapped as a continent. A partir de 1548 touies les
cartes quefai examinees representent VAmeriiiue meridionale comme
un continent. So says Santarem, but his meaning is not clear,
for he seems also to say that the map of South America is in-
scribed Castill del Oro, Golden Castile.
15

218 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

The new name America, having mastered the Southern,
that is the largest, richest and best known half of the West-
ern world, naturally spread over its outlying peninsulas, and
the Northern portion was still either viewed as nothing more
than one of them, or most of it was deemed more likely to
be joined to Asia than to South America.

At some date, however, between 1548 and 1570, North
America had also grown in men's minds to the dimensions of
a continent, or at least to half that size, for on a map of 1570,
the entire new world is inscribed America. This map of 1570
is the most ancient of all the goodly number in the library of
our Wisconsin Historical Society. Its imprint is Antwerp.
This map of the new world is inscribed near the Arctic eircle,
America, sive India Nova. The northern and southern por-
tions are described as the northern and southern peninsulas,
but neither of them is inscribed with any general name. It
is added that the southern peninsula was called Terra Firma
by Spaniards.

This map also shows a southern continent encircling the
whole globe and at certain points almost touching the equator.

There is a wide channel from Baffin's Bay to the Pacific,
although our portion of the northern peninsula stretches so far
westward that its western shore is almost in sight of Japan.

When the name America was extended from pole to pole
it lost its hold on Brazil, and it would seem for a time on the
two grand divisions of the New World.

In Heylin's '* Cosmographie," long in great repute, published
in 1652, we read that " the fourth and last part of the world
is called by some and most aptly the New World, but
the most usual and yet somewhat the more improper name
is America." "The whole is naturally divided into two great
peninsulas, whereof that towards the north is called Mexicana,
and that towards the south hath the name Peruana." On
Heylin's map, however, the northern peninsula is inscribed
"America Mexicana," the southern "Peruana America."

The Naming of America. 219

One question remains, and that too important to be now con-
sidered.

It is whether Americus really landed on the American main
before Columbus and Cabot. Varnhagen claims that he did,
and so that America is no misnomer after all.

He must have so landed if his date is correct, and Hum-
boldt has demonstrated that his voyages are no where willfully
falsified.

But however this may be, thus much seems clear, that
Americus next to Columbus best deserved to have the New
"World named for him, that he never sought that honor by any
means fair or foul, that the name originated without his knowl-
edge, never appeared on a map until after his death, and then
was long confined to a region smaller than that he had him-
self discovered.

It is pleasant to see clouds of suspicion rolled away from
anv character. Thereafter we think better of our race, and
learn to believe Satan himself not so black as he is painted.
What a good time was that when men ceased to burn geome-
tries, on perceiving tbat the sign plus might not be popish,
and that circles might not be conjurer's rings. It was a still
better day when men saw a sovereign die and yet suspected
neither poison nor foul play. It is especially pleasant to be
assured that the American name which is our own, and which
will be in the mouths of millions forever, is neither a monu-
ment of ingratitude, nor yet owes its origin to fraud. The
word America, according to etymologists, means rich in work.
May the American continent, in all its parts, forever deserve
its name I

220 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

THE EUEAL CLASSES OF ENGLAND IN THE
THIRTEENTH CENTURY.

BY WILLIAM P. ALLEN, A. M.,
Professor of Latin and History in the University of Wisconsin.

At the last annual meeting of the Academy, I had the honor
to read a paper upon the rural population of England in the
eleventh century, a part of which has been printed in the
Transactions of the Academy, I propose, to-day, to follow
up the line of inquiry there suggested, and examine the
changes in the social relations of the English peasantry dur-
ing the two centuries that followed. I take two centuries
rather than one, simply for the reason that the materials
within my reach for the twelfth century are so meagre as, by
themselves, to afford no certain results ; while for the thir-
teenth century the materials are relatively abundant and in-
structive. On the other hand, I go down no later than the
thirteenth century, because at this epoch the social institutions
of the Middle Age had reached their complete development,
while after this they were subjected to rapid and fundamental
changes. In the thirteenth century, the abuses of feudalism
had reached their height, and remedies began to be provided.
In the thirteenth century jurisprudence began to be studied;
and usages that had grown up in the confusion of the preced-
ing century, were reduced to a system, formulated, and, so to
speak, codified. The thirteenth century was the century of
Magna Charta, of the "Establishments" of St. Louis, of the
" Customs of Beauvoisis," of the treatises of Bracton and
Britton, of the legislation of Edward I., the "English Jus-
tinian," In the fourteenth century, on the other hand, the
feudal ties were loosened, and the system essentially under-

i

The Rural Classes of England. 221

mined ; commerce and industry began to assume a leading
place in society ; in the fourteenth century serfdom was abol-
ished. At the accession of Edward I., in 1272, English ville-
nage was at its height; at the death of Edward III., in 1877,
(just about a century later,) villenage no longer existed. The
commencement of the reign of Edward I. is therefore the time
which one would choose, of all others, to study the full de-
velopment of feudal institutions.

It so happens that this is precisely the time at which our
materials are most abundant ; those materials, at all events, to
which I have had access. If any thing is lacking to the full
understanding of them, it is not so much in the actual exist-
ence and workings of the institutions, as in their history and
formation.

Edward I., the greatest king who sat upon the throne of
England between William I. and William III., has left the
marks of his legislative activity in every department of Eng-
lish law ; from him, as is natural, we derive our first clue to
the solution of the problem before us. In the fourth year of
his reign, 1276, a document was issued, entitled Extenta Mane-
rii, which prescribes the several points to be reported upon, in
what we may call the census of the manors — their extent, pop-
ulation and value. In this document we find three classes of
tenantry specified ; the liberi tenentes (free tenants), ciistumarii
(customary tenants), and coterelli (cottagers) — the free tenants
being again divided into those who held by military service,
those who held by socage, and those held in any other manner
{alio raodo). There is no mention, by name, of villeins, which
we know from other sources to have been at this time the ap-
pellation of the great mass of the tenantry. Here we have a
general classification of the English peasantry, to which we
may expect the census of the several manors to conform.

The Cartulary of the Abbey of St. Peter of Gloucester,*
contains the register of twenty-seven manors, belonging to

1 Historia et Cartulariiiin Monasterii Gloucestriae, Vol. iii.

222 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Ltittrs.

this Abbey, dating from the years 1265 and 6. This was a
few years before the statute Extenta Manerii ; and, as would
be expected, the reports do not precisely follow the rules laid
down in that instrument. They follow them, however, in the
main ; that is to say, they contain most of the points of infor-
mation there specified, although sometimes in a different order,
and with some variation in names. For example, for the second
class,instead of Custumarii, they give Consuetudirarii — an equiv-
alent Latin form in place of the latinized form of an English
word. In like manner, for the third class, besides Coterelli^ we
find Colerii^ Cottagii" and Codandarii," forms which are obvi-
ously the same at bottom, and which appear precisely equivalent
in meaning. We have thus the three classes defined in the
Extenta Manerii ; but besides these, we find other classes, not
there mentioned — Honilond, Ferendelli and Lundinarii, be-
sides a few occasional ones, described by terms which appear
to be a variety of expression for one of these others. It is
obvious that, however many shades of servile tenure there
may have been, and however many local usages and expres-
sions, all these must have been reducible, in the judgment of
the authors of the statute Extenta Manerii, to three general
classes — free tenants, customary tenants, and cottagers.

On examination of the documents, we find it possible to
assign at least two of these additional classes to one of these
principal ones. In order to do this, let us take up the several
classes in their order.

The Kegister of each manor begins with the names of the
tenants and estates of the first class. These differ very widely
from each other in the amount of land held, varying from a
hide of 160 acres (or even larger estate), down to a mere mes-
suage and lot of land. They differ also in the terms on which
these estates are held; some by military service, some by the

1 Extenta de Churchehamme, p, 139.

2 Extenta Berthonae Abbatis, p. 164.

3 Extenta de Broctrope. The obligations of tiiese are somewliat higher than the rest.
* Extenta de Hynehamme, p. 119.

The Rural Classes of England. 223

payment of a fixed sum of money, some by a personal service
of an honorable nature, as, for instance, holding' the towel
while the Lord Abbot is washing on the day of St.
Peter and Paul. These three forms of tenure would appear to
be respectively Knight service, free socage and the ^'- alio
modo " referred to in the statute. In a few cases there is agri-
cultural labor in addition to the money payment, but this
labor is of the highest class of agricultural operations, and is
always moderate and fixed in amount: as, "he shall gather
and carry hay for four days." ^ The tenure likewise varies in
form and degree ; some hold by deed, some by ancient tenure,
some for life, some at the will of the lord. What they all
agree in, is in the services being free and honorable in charac-
ter, and, except the military, fixed in amount and time. The
number of this class differs widely in the different manors — in
some there are only one or two, in others a considerable num-
ber.

In a few manors there come next to the free tenants, the ten-
ants of Jlonilond, that is " Honey-land ; " whose estates are
small, and whose rent is a certain amount of honey, e. g., one
gallon to each acre.^ This is of course an equally free and cer-
tain service — equally socage — with those before described ; the
tenants of Honilond fall, therefore, in the class of free tenants —
as their position in the register would indicate.

Next come the Co7isuetudinarn, the largest, and, in a sense,
the most important class. In this class, instead of the irregu-
larity of the free tenants, we find the greatest possible regular-
ity and uniformity ; all (with very slight exceptions) hold an
equal amount of laud (or at least an amount proportionate in
quantity), and are subject to the same services. The custom-
ary land, terra co7isuetudinaria, is 'inva.T\a.h\y given by virgaks,
and the virgata varies very widely in extent.' I find ten differ-

> Extenta de Hynetone, p. 55.

2 Extenta de Clifforde, p. 51.

* Extenta de Ledene, p. 128.

« It is always one-fourth of a hide. The hide being a variable quantity.

224 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ent values given to it, ranging from eighteen to eighty acres^
but almost without exception the same is all estates of the
same manor. The customary tenants hold either a virgate
apiece, or half a virgate apiece, or a virgate in common be-
tween two. For this they render a very great variety of ser-
vices, prescribed with the greatest minuteness, hardly varying
at all in the same manor, and not varying much in different
manors. The enumeration of these occupies in each case from
a page to a page and a half in the book ; and when they have
been enumerated for one tenant, the Eegister goes on merely
to give a list of the names of those holding the same estate,
adding to each etfacit in omnibus sicut praedictus Rohertus, or-
whatever the name may be.

The consuetudinarii are the one class, besides the free tenants,
who are found in every manor ; the classes that follow are
quite variable. The FerendelU come next, when they are men-
tioned at all, and their tenures and services are precisely anal-
ogous to those of the Consuetudinarii, and are given in the same
uniform style. Their estate is always one-fourth of the vir-
gate, that is twelve acres where the virgate is forty-eight, six-
teen acres where the virgate is sixty-four. The Ferendellus is-
the latinized form o^ferding, a form equivalent to farthing, and
meaning a fourth part. As the farthing is one-fourth of the
penny, the ferdmg is one-fourth of the virgate. The name
ferdingi occurs in some documents of the twelfth century.' In
one manor ^ we find this estate called quarterium, and the ten-
ants have no special name. The services also vary in about
the same proportion to those of the virgatarii, as the holders of
a full virgate are sometimes called. It is clear that the Fer-
endelli are properly classed with the Consuetudiniarii, as hold-
ing one-fourth of a virgate ; indeed, sometimes they are enu-
merated under the same head with them,' just as the holders
of a half-virgate are regularly.

' Leges Henrici Primi, XXIX.
*Extenta de Berthona Regis, p. 69.
3 c. g. Manor of Bertonestret, p. 160.

The Rural Classes of England. 225-

The Coterii, Coierelli, Cotlandarii and Cotagii, all agree in
holding Coitagium or " messuagium cum curtilagio," that is, a
cottage with a small lot of ground, for vsrhich they pay in ser-
vices, similar to those before described, but less in amount.
They are the lowest class of laborer.-?, and have no farms — -
nothing but cottage lots.

The Lundhiarii, Monday men, are less easy to classify.
Their place in the list is after the FerendelU, and before the
Coterii ; but they occur 'oftener than either of these classes.
Their estates vary in different manors, but do not appear to-
have any relation to the virgate. The " luyidinanus," or estate
of this class, is defined as " messuagium cum curtilagio '' — thus-
associating them with the cottagers — and, in addition, so many
acres of land, generally two, four or six : that is, small farms
besides their cottage lots. The distinguishing characteristic of
their tenure, implied in their name, is that of laboring one day
in the week throughout the year : but this does not exclude
other services. It would seem likely therefore that they were
a specially privileged class of cottagers; and I feel inclined^,
although with some hesitation, to place them with this third
category of the Extenta Manerii It is true we meet the ex-
pression '^ lunditiaria consuetudinaria,^' ^ and the introduction to
the Cartulary '^ quotes an expression, " duo o'ofta, cum duahus
lundinariis terrae, vocata Mundais land de custumariis terris
manerii-^'' still, in the strict sense of the word, all below the
free tenants hold by customary services, that is, defined
amounts of agricultural labor ; and in one case, in fact, we find
all of them grouped as Consuetudinarii m,ajores and minores f
several times as Consuetudinarii simply. I am inclined, there-
fore, in spite of this expression, to consider these as cottagers-
who had received additional allotments of land, on the tenure
of certain customary services, rather than as customary tenants-

J Extenta de Culne Rogerl, p. 207.

*p. cvi.

* Extenta de Calne Sancti Aly wini, p. 303.

226 Wisco7isin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

proper, of an inferior grade, — as privileged cottagers, rather
than as inferior customary tenants. In one case ' they are in
fact classed with the Coterelli. It may be remarked that the
services of the lundinarii agree very nearly with those of the
■Cotsetlan, the second, or intermediate, class of peasants of the
Rectitudines. The importance of this distinction will appear
further on.

It will be observed that in this Cartulary, as in the statute
Extenta Manerii, we hear nothing of villeins as a class. I have
met in it with the word villani once and villenagium, twice, as
will be shown presently.

The result of an examination of these registers, is fully to
confirm the classification of the statute Extenta Manerii. We
find that the three classes there enumerated are distinctly
mentioned here, under names essentially the same ; and we
find that every other class can be easily reduced to one of
these three, with the single exception of the Lundinarii, who
agree in certain points with one class, and in certain point,
with another ; probably what puzzles us now, was perfectly
plain to the men of that time. Further, the result of this ex-
amination is to develop the fact that the class of consuetudi-
narii, or customary tenants, ranking between the other two,
was distinguished by a remarkable regularity and uniformity,
both of estate and of services ; while the free tenants, the
class highest in rank, are exceedingly variable and irregular,
and the cottagers, the third in the list, are uniform, it is true,
but wholly insignificant. The customary tenants enjoy a
relatively very respectable standing, and their estate — the
virgate, usually of 36 to 60 acres, — is a very comfortable farm,
especially when it is considered that this was exclusively
arable land, and that they had besides the use of the common
.pasture, wood-land, etc. For this farm they paid in a great mul-
tiplicity of prtedial services, burdensome no doubt, but deter-
fnined in amount and time. Including the ferendelli, this class

^ Exteuta de Ledeue, p. 131.

The Rural Classes of England. 227

far outnumbers all the others taken together ; the consueiudinarii
may therefore be pronounced the main body of the peasantry,
and the uniformity of their estate and services shows them to
have been a compact, organized body.

It remains to trace, so far as possible, the origin of these
three classes. In this, our starting point mast be Domesday
Book. According to this, there existed throughout England,
in the eleventh century, (besides certain local and occasional
classes), two great classes of peasantry — the villani, or villagers,
and the bordarii, or cottagers. Borh these classes are found in
every county, and in nearly every manor.

In the paper that I read last year, I attempted to prove that
the villani, who are generally recognized to have been the
Anglo-Saxon ceoy^ls, were the representatives of the primative
Village Conmmunities, which recent investigations of Nasse,
Maine and others, have shown to have existed in early times
in England, as in other Germanic countries. The argument may
be briefly summed up as follows: 1. The word villanus means
villager etymologically ; and we find no trace in the eleventh,
century of the servitude or degradation which are associated
with the villeins of the thirteenth century. 2. The villani are,
in the document entitled '■'■ Rectitudines Singularura Person-
arurUy'' identified with the Anglo-Saxon Geneat^ as the highest
class of the peasantry ; and their services are described as
more moderate and of a higher order than those of the other
classes. 3. In the " Exeter Domesday " the villani are regu-
larly spoken of as land-holders, as distinguished from the
hordarii on the other hand, and from the lord's demesne on
the other. 5. The laws of King Edgar' contrast the thegn's
" inland " or demesne, with the " geneat-land ; " and we have
just seen that the geneot were the villani.

Thus far we have proved only that the villani were the occu-
pants of the " utiand " or " tenement lands " of the manor, that
the land held by them was of a very considerable amount, and

»i. 1.

228 Wisco7isin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

that they held these lands on the tenure of a moderate and de-
terminate amount of agricultural labor. But nothing so far
shows in what manner these lands were distributed among
these tenants. So many villani hold so many hides or bovatae
of land , but, from all that appears, their estates may have
been variable, like those of the liberi tenentes of the Gloucester
Cartulary, or uniform, like those of the consuetudinarii. For-
tunately weareable to supply the required proof, and to show
that the villaniheXdi their lands in equal estates ; from which we
may infer with certainty that they were identical with the con-
suetudinarii, only with changed name.

The first link in the argument is supplied by the Boldon
Book, a register of the property of the see of Durham, A. J).
1183, just about 100 years after Domesday Book, and 100
years before the Gloucester Cartulary. This document de-
scribes the services of the l'^7Za7^^, very much as those of the
consuetudinarii are described a century later ; and what is of
more importance, themY/awiare described as holding uniform
estates of two bovatae each, amounting to 32 acres. Below the
villani is a class of cotmanni, or cottagers, and there are also a
number oifirmarii, who hold similar estates to those of the vil-
lani, but on a privileged tenure. Here the villani, from the de-
scription of the services, appear to have sunk below the posi-
tion which they enjoyed when the "Rectitudines " was com-
piled, although the services are less burdensome than those of
the consuetudinarii of the following century.

Nearly contemporary with the Boldon Book, we have the
rent-roll of a few manors of the Abbey of Abingdon in Berk-
shire.' This gives three classes of tenants precisely corres-
ponding to the three classes of the Extenta Manerii, except in
name. First come a few free tenants, holding estates of vari-
ous sizes, by very varying tenures. Next follow the neti, the
most numerous class, who hold equal estates of one or two
virgates, and pay for them in an equal amount of specified

J Chronicon Monaeterli de Abingdon, li, p. 302.

The Rural Classes of England. 229

services, similar to those of tlie consuetudinarii, but far less
burdensome. Lastly the the cotsetel, who appear to correspond
with the cot&rii of the thirteenth century. Now the word neti
is evidently the Latinized form of geneat, which we have
found to be the Anglo Saxon equivalent for villani This class
therefore forms another link between the villani and the
consuetudinarii.

We have now seen : 1. That the villani of the eleventh
century are identified with Anglo-Saxon geneat; and that the
term is applied to the highest class of peasantry, the body of
the Anglo-Saxon ceorls, who held considerable amounts of
land by the tenure of predial services of a respectable charac-
ter, moderate and fixed in amount. There is nothing to show
the size of their individual estates at this period. 2. That in
the twelfth century the villani, and in the south of England
the 7ieit, — whose name is obviously the Latinized form of
geneat {villanus), held equal estates of a very respectable size
on the tenure of predial services of a respectable character,
moderate and fixed in amount. But they are no longer the
highest class of peasantry. There is, above the neti, body of
free tenants, whose estates are irregular in amount, often
quite inconsiderable, although under a privileged tenure.
3. In the thirteenth century, that there was a class of con-
suetudinarii, who in like manner held equal amounts of land
in respectable quantities, but on the tenure of predial services
of a very multitudinous and burdensome character. There is
above these two a body of free tenants, precisely correspond-
ing to those of the twelfth century. Each of these classes
appears to embrace the main body of the peasantry at their
respective epochs ; and to have been a compact and organized
body.

We find then that the class which makes up the substance
of the peasantry, is called by different names at these three
epochs, — villani, neti and consuetudinarii. Further, we find
that its position has deteriorated in two respects ; first, by the

230 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

development of another class above them ; second, by the in-
crease in number and degradation in character, of the services
by which they hold their lands. In other respects the classes
are identical in character, and we may fairly infer that the
neii of the twelfth century, and the consuetudinarii of the thir-
teenth, are the same as the villani of Domesday Book. This
view is supported by the fact that the term villenargium is
twice applied, in the Cartulary of Gloucester," to the tenure
of these consuetudinarii.

The question next arises, what was the oiigin of the liberi
lenentes — a class that lias come into existence since the time of
Domesday Book ; for the liberi homines of Domesday Book
are almost exclusively confined to two or three counties (Nor-
folk, Suffolk and Essex) ; and that document gives only villani
and hordarii in manors where, two centuries later, we find h'heri
tenentes. An examination of the lists of liberi tenentes will show,
as has been already remarked, that there was a verj' great
disparity in their condition ; the Extenta Manerii distinguishes
those who hold by Knight's service and those who hold by
socage. Those who hold by Knight's service need no ex-
planation ; they were members of the aristocracy, who had
received grants of land in the manors, but were broadly sepa-
rated from the other tenants. The tenants in socage, on the
other hand, appear to have been specially privileged villani^
In the manor of Ledene, for example, nearly all the free ten-
ants appear also as customary tenants — that is, they held two
estates at a time (not at all an uncommon thing), and these
two estates were of different rank, — the one free, the other
servile. In some cases, again, the freehold is precisely the
virgate or half-virgate of the customary estate; and the free-
holder would appear to have received the special privilege of
setting apart his strip of land from the strips of the rest of the
villagers, fencing it oflf, cultivating it after his own system, and
paying for it in money instead of in services. In other caseS;.

1 Extenta de Lutlethone, p. 37; Linkeholte, p. 43.

The Rural Classes of England. 231

the freehold is nothiug but a cottage or a messuage with a
garden lot. It is testified by Britton ' that a villain may be
enfeoffed by his lord, " et par tel feffement est le vileyn
fraunc." It is a strong confirmation of this view, that in the
only place in which the word villani occurs in this GloucesteF
castulary, it is used of the tenants in free socage.^

The free tenants in socage appear, therefore, to have been
members of the class of villani^ and to have been either ad-
anced by way of privilege to a more favored condition, or were
exempted from the burdens gradually imposed upon the rest
of the class, and thus remained more nearly in their original
freedom ; for there seems no doubt that the villagers as a
class had sunk between the eleventh century and the thirteenth
— the villani had become villeins^ serfs. Probably the correct
view is between the two. The y^7?ay^^' held by praedial services
in the eleventh century, as is shown by the Rectiiudines ; the
free tenants were therefore actually privileged by having these
services commuted for money payments, while at the same
time the services of the class from which they were raised were
made more base and burdensome. This view agrees with that
of Mr. Finlason, editor of Eeeve's History of English Law,'
that "our common freehold estates arose out of villenage.'j
It is also supported by the rent roll of the manor of Addingtott
in Kent, dating 1257-71, where we find asimilai irregular and
quite insignificant class of freeholders, while the mass of the
tenants hold by praedial services,"

As regards the position of this class which I have called the
body of the peasantry, — the villani of the eleventh century ,-
and the consuetudinarii of the thirteenth, — I have attempted
above to identify them with the members of the primitive vil-
lage communities, which have lately been shown to have con-
tinued in existence down through the Middle Ages, and eveo

1 Book II. 7, 2.

^Extenta de Mayesmore, p. 171.

»Vol. I, p. 70. note.

<Larking's Domesday Book of Kent, .A pp. p. XXI.

•232 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

in some cases to the present day. There are many indications
that the land held by the Gonsiieiudinarii of these manors were
subject to certain of the obligations of the community. The
equal size of the estates — the virgate, or half or quarter virgate
— is a proof of something organized and regular in the assign-
ment of the estates. In one case the estate is a virgate, " in
-utroque campo " ' — another indication of regularity and organ-
ization, and undoubtedly a reference to the custom of having
the arable lands in two or three fields, which were alternately
.cultivated and fallow. There are still clearer indications of
this " three-field culture " in other manors.^

In saying that the Consuetudinarii were the representatives
of the village communities, I would not be understood to im-
ply that they all had their origin in such communities, or that
all such communities had kept up their compact organization
down to the thirteenth century. As Mr. Maine says : ^ ''it
€annoi be supposed that each of the new Manorial groups
takes the place of a village group which at some time or other
consisted of free allodial proprietors. Still, we may accept the
belief of the best authorities, that over a great part of England
there has been a true succession of one group to the other."
And at any rate, the " compact and organically complete as-
fiemblage of men, occupying a definite area of land,"* can be
identified with nothing but the viY/ant of the eleventh century,
and the consuetudinarii of the thirteenth.

My object in this paper, has been to trace one of the steps
in the social history of the English peasantry. Several ques-
tions have presented themselves, in the course of this enquiry,
which I have not been able to answer ; I think, however, that
the facts and arguments here brought forward, are sufficient to
establish the essential identity of the most important class of
the peasantry during the period between the Norman Con-

tExtenta de Duntesburne, p. 194.

2 Extenta dc Lutlethone, p. 36. Linkholte, p. 43.

3 Village Communities, p. 135.
■*id., p.133.

The Rural Classes of England. 233

quest and the accession of Edward I. At this time the process
of deterioration in their social condition had reached its low-
est point, and the free villager had become a servile villein,
bound to the soil, and almost a slave. After this time the
history of the class is one of progress and amelioration, no
longer of degradation.

Note. — Since writing the above paper, I have succeeded in procuring
a copy of Nasse's important work, " The Agricultural Community of the
Middle Ages," which I tried in vain to secure while preparing it. Prof.
Nasse's attention is given rather to the organization of the community,
than to the classification of the peasantry; he gives a few pages, how-
ever, to the latter, and his views are in the main the same as those here
presented. Especially he takes the same ground as to the identity of the
consuetudinarii with the mllani (p. 39), and as to the lundinarii being
" a peculiar kind of ' cotarii ' " (p. 42). It may be remarked that his au-
thorities, for the thirteenth century, are entirely diflerent from mine.
He makes no reference to the Gloucester Cartulury, and on the other
hand I have not had access to the documents to which he refers. I need
not say that I have been on my guard against drawing conclusions
broader than the facts will warrant. I have made use — for this period —
of only a small group of manors in the west of England, and, what is of
more importance, the property of an ecclesiastical corporation, where
we might expect to find peculiar usages, and jierhaps a more liberal or-
der of things. It is gratifying, therefore, to find ui}^ conclusions sup-
ported by researches based upon such a mass of evidence as tiiat used
by Prof. Nasse.

16

284 Wisco7isin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

BANKS AND CLASSES AMONG THE ANGLO-SAX-
ONS.

BY W. F. ALLEN, A. M.,
ProfesBor of Latin and History in the University of Wisconsin.

[Only that portion of this paper Is here printed, which treats of the Eorls.]

Tne accepted doctrine as to the original classification among
the Anglo-Saxons, is that the entire population fell into two
distinct classes, eorls and ceorls, terms which have been cor-
rupted into the modern earl and churl, but which originally
implied nothing more than a certain ill-defined hereditary dis-
tinction in rank, hardly so strong as that of noble and freeman.
This view, which is held by Lingard, Palgrave, Kemble, Hai-
1am and Stubbs, is nowhere better expressed than by Mr. Free-
man.' "In the primary meaning of the words, eorl and ceorl —
words whose happy jingle causes them to be constantly op-
posed to each other — form an exhaustive division of the free
members of the state. The distinction in modern language i&
most nearly expressed by the words Gentle and Simple. The
ceorl is the simple freeman, the mere unit in the army and the
assembly, whom no distinction of birth or office marks out
from his fellows." This is, as I have said, the prevailing view
at present ; and, so lar as the word ceorl is concerned, there is
no question as to its correctness; but with regard to eorl, lam
inclined to go back to the earlier opinion, held by Thorpe * and
Lappenberg, ^ and to take the ground that it never designates

' Norman Conquest, i. p. 37.

s Glossary to "Ancient Laws and Institutes of England.'''

' Vol. ii. p. 313. — Compare also Waitz, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte, i. p. 76.
Wailz remarks, as a matter of course, that the Anglo-Saxons, like the Franks, had no
hereditary nobility. To explain this departure from the prevailing institutions of the
Germanicnstiong.we must consider, in the first place, that the German nobility was

Hanks and Classes among the Anglo-Saxons. 235

an hereditary rank, but always a personal office or relation.
It is admitted that this was the case in the eleventh, and par-
tially in the tenth centuiy ; it appears to me that the weight
of evidence is as to havitig always been so — that it never es-
sentially changed its meaning until after the Norman Conquest,
when, in its modern form earl^ it became an hereditary title of
nobility.

The passages in which the word Eorl occurs, may, for oar
purposes, be classified iuu) three groups: — the early Kentish
laws of the seventh century ; the laws of Alfred and his suc-
cessors; and the Saxon Chronicle and other works of litera-
ture. Between the two groups of laws there is an interval of
about 200 years ; and it is to be noticed that the arguments
for "the distributive cliaracter of the words" eor^ and ceor?,
i. e., as, with the meanings " Nobleman " and " freeman," mak-
ing up the entire free population, are derived wholly from two
or three passages in iht; later laws. Taken by themselves,
neither the early laws nor the scattered passages in the Saxon
Chronicle and other documents, would suggest any such mean-
ing. Now it may fairly be urged that the use of the words
in the seventh century, if explicit enough, is sufficient by
itself to establish their ongiiial signification.

First, however, it will oe proper to compare the English
Eorl with the Danish Jm i, which is of course the same word,,
and may fairly be presunjed to have the same original mean-
ing. The settlers of Kent, it will be remembered, in which
kingdom we first meet the term as a legal one, were neither
Angles nor Saxons, but Jutes, or natives of the peninsula of
Denmark. That is, while itie English as a whole are more
nearly related to the Scandinavians than to the Germans, the
Kentishmen stand in a f ( culiarly near relation to the Scandi-

very limited in numbers — amoDga'! (he Saxons, there were only about twenty-five noble
familie!<; audin the next placi.', tba; tht-y migrated, not under kinge, bat chiefs— /t^reio^a
—and that these chiefs und ubtodiy included whatever nobles chose to join in the enter-
pjise. It is hard to see, therefoio, what can have been the origin of the eorls ,as au^he-
reditary class.

236 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

navians. It may be assumed therefore, that the Eorls of Kent
were identical with the Jarls of Denmark and Norway. Now
the Scandinavian Jarls were not an hereditary class of noble-
men, but were officers or magistrates appointed for life or
pleasure.' It is significant too, that the late well-established
use of Earl, as the governor of a province, is attributed to
Danish influence.

In the laws of Kent its use is never inconsistent with this.
Ceorl is used, as it always is, for the common freemen — " pea-
sant," if we choose to employ this term, but not by any means
& low order of peasant ; the ceorls are represented as land-
owners and even slave-owners, and may perhaps be best
described by the term "yeoman." The legal standing of ihe
Eorl, as represented by the hot or composition, is double or
triple that of the Ceorl ; but this is by no means a proof of
difference in hereditary rank, but may equally well indicate a
personal authority or a special relation to the king.

Turning to the Saxon Chronicle for this early period, we
find this conclusion strengthened. In a speech of King
Wihtred of Kent, A. D. 692, we read : " Kings shall appoint
Earls and Ealdormen, Shire-reeves and Judges " (eorlas and
ealdermen, scire-revan and domesmenn.) From this it appears
clearly that the Eorls were not an hereditary, but an appointed
class. In the same document, A. D. 657, we read (of the
King of Mercia): " to all his thegns, to the archbishop, to the
bishops, to his earls." Note the word "his," showing a per-
sonalj rather than an hereditary relation. Again, A. D. 675
(in Merciii) : " neither king, nor bishop nor earl nor no man."
This, although not so explicit as the others, certainly implies
no hereditary rank. The above are all the instances of the
use of the word eorl which I have been able to find before the
time Alfred except in works of poetry. I think it will be

1 Dahlmann, Gesch, Danemarcks, ii. pp. 88 and.305. The same Tiew is taken by the
latest Norwegian historians, Munci and Kevsjr, an I am informed (being myself igno-
rant of Norwegian) by Mr. R. B. Anierioa, Instruc'orln the Scandinavian languages in
the Universitj of Wisconsin.

Ranhs and Classes among the Anglo-Saxons. 237

admitted that they clearly support the view that the English
eorls were, like the Danishya?-^, appointed officers or magistrate?,
not hereditary noblemen.

Let us now pass to the later group of laws, those of Alfred
and his successors. Here we find four passages in which the
words Earl and Ceorl are coupled in what appears to be a dis-
tributive use : these are, Laws of Alfred, 4, " all degrees,
whether enrl or ceorl"; Judicia Civitatis Lundoniaj : Intr.:
"as well eorlish as ceorlish"; Laws of Ethelred, vii. 2i:
" we know that through God's grace a thrall has become a
thane, and a ceorl has become an eorl." Of Peoples' Ranks
and Laws : "each according to his condition, eorl and ceorl,
thegen and tbeoden." These four are, I believe, all the in-
stances of the so-called distributive use of the terms Eorl and
Ceorl ; upon these, therefore, the prevailing theory is exclu-
sively founded.

It may be observed, in the first place, that in the Latin trans-
lation of these document::?, dating probably from the twelfth
century. Earl is uniformly rendered by comes, a word which
has more than one use, but which certainly never has the gen-
eral meaning of gentlemen or noblemen, but always that of
some special rank or office, as follower, magistrate, or, in later
times, count or earl. I do not rest much upon this argument,
for the reason that this translation was made at a time when
earl had a fixed meaning in English, as designating particular
grades of nobility, so that it is very easy to suppose that the
translator confounded the meaning of the word in his own
day with that which it had in the original document. It is
more to the purpose to remark that we have an equal number
of cases, in genuine Latin laws of the tenth century,' in which
comes and villanus are used precisely as these same words are
used in the translation just referred to, and as earl and ceorl
are used in their originals. If therefore earl and ceorl are dis-
tributive, we have a right to infer that comes and villanus were

> Aeth. Deer. Episc. 6.— Deer. Ssp. Ang. 3 and 6.— Eadm. Cone. Cul., vii.

238 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

so ; that is, that all persons who were not ceorls or peasants
(the accepted meaning of villanus) were comites — a use of comes
which is certainly inconsistent with any accepted meaning of
this word. It is still more to the purpose to note that tliegn is
joined with ceorl in precisely this same way (Ord. resp. the
Dun-saetas, 5); and the inadequacy of the argument is proved
by noticing that in Ethelred's Law thrall and thegn are joined,
exactly as ceoi-l and earl are. I^ow a thrall was a slave ; and
it certainly was not true that all who were not slaves were
thegns. The coupling o^ earl and ceorl is easiest explained by
the jingle, as that of thrall and thegyi is by the alliteration.
It may be noticed too that the Norsemen made use of precisely
the same jingle— jar/ar ok Jcarlar. As to the explicit state-
ment (Eih. vii, 2) that a ceorl might become an earl, Mr. Free-
man is obliged, in consistency with his view of the strictly
hereditary rank of the earl, to question the correctness of the
statement. " I may remark that the jingle of beginnings and
endings has carried the lawgiver a little too far. In strictness
the Ceorl could not become an Earl (in the older sense of the
word.)'

When we leave these four passages, we find that the use of
the word Earl in the ninth and tenth centuries is perfectly
consistent with what we find in the sixth. It is usually as.
sumed that the later use of Earl as a governor of several coun-
ties was introduced by Cnut; and it is certain that Cnut did
reorganize the kingdom and establish a new grade of governor
with this title. It is no less certain, however, that even before
his time the word was frequently used to designate magistrates,
as equivalent to ealdorman, (see Bosworth, Anglo-Saxon Dic-
tionary, s. v.), and that this use occurs even in legal docu-
ments. In the Laws of Edward and Guthram (12) we find :
" If any man wrong an ecclesiastic or a foreigner, then shall
the king, or the earl there in the land, and the bishop of the
people, be unto him in the place of a kinsman and of a pro-

* Norm. Conq. i. p. 95, n. 1.

Ranks and Classes among the Anglo-Saxons. 239

tector." Again, in the Saxon Chronicle (A. D. 968) ; " neither
king, nor bishop, nor earl, nor shire-reeve." In these two pas-
sages the earls are certainly not an hereditary class, but per-
sons invested with power and authority. This view is sup-
ported by the fact that in the Saxon Chronicle this word is
regularly used for the Danish jarls.*

The use of the word in poetry is not inconsistent with the
view here presented. In Beowulf,' for example, the earliest
Anglo-Saxon poem, it is translated by Mr. Thorpe, 20 times
by warrior^ 13 times by earl^ 7 times by man, hero once, and
nohle once : where it is translated nolle, (v. 4488) either of the
other terms would have made equally good sense. Indeed, if
one always rendered it " man," using the word with the same
latitude that we do in English (e. g., as in the expressions,
" This was a man," " a company of so many men," " he was
such a one's man ") it would answer fairly enough ; in several
verses (3458, 4272 and 6327) we find eorlscipe translated
" bravery" — virtus. (Noble is regularly aetheling ; see vv. 1968,
2592). This is consistent likewise with the song of the Battle
of Brunanburh (Sax. Chron. A. D. 937), where Athelstan is
called " Eorla Dryhten," (lord of earls) ; again, (A. D. 957),
•we read of Edgar " thaet cyningas and eorlas georne to him
bugon " (that kings and earls willingly submitted to him). In
Christian poetry Christ is called " Eorla hleo," refuge of men.

There is, however, one poem of very great antiquity, the
Eigsmal, which certainly appears to support the view that the
Danish jarls were originally an hereditary class ; it is cited
by Munch and Keyser to show that this was the mythical or
praehistoric meaning, although they hold without any ques-
tion that its historical meaning was that here presented. In
this poem the three classes, of nobles, commons and slaves are
represented as descended from three brothers, Jarl, Karl and

le. g., A. D. 8T1, 915.

2 Moat of these references to Beowulf were furnished to me by my fiiend, Mr. Thos.
Davidson, of St. Louis.

240 Wisconsin Academy of Scieyices, Arts, and Letters.

Thrall. Inasmuch as my concern is simply with the historical
value of the term eorl, as applied to the Anglo-Saxon classes,
its mythical or praehistoric value makes no difference to my
argument. 1 will only mention, to show how little consistency
there is iu this mythical genealogy, that among the sons, not
of Jarl, but of Karl are, besides Smidr (Smith) and Bondi
(peasent) ; Thegn, which is the title of the later nobility ia
England, and which even as early as Beowulf (v. 3293, eald-
or Thegna, prince of Thegns) indicated a vassal of rank ; and
Hauldr, the designation, according to Dahlmann,' of " a genuine
primitive nobility," and which we find also among the Danish
invaders of England," and afterwards as the highest nobility
in the Danish parts of England.^

We are warranted, therefore, in the conclusion that, although
there are a few expressions a little hard to explain, there is
nothing really inconsistent with the view supported by the
great weight of evidence — that ^ar/ originally designated some
purely personal rank or position — one to which even a peasant,
cemi, could rise. It must have been the title either of a class
of officers or magistrates, or of the personal followers of the
king.

1 ii., p. 304.

2 Sax. Chr., A. D. 905, 911,91.5.

5 Of Wergild's, North County Laws, 4.

PROCEEDINGS.

EIGHTH MEETING OF THE ACADEMY.

July 15, 1873.

The Academy met, pursuant to requirement of By-Laws, ii>
the capitol, this evening at 7^ o'clock.

Present, Dr. J. W. Hoyt, President; Dr. A. L. Chapin, Vice-
Presdent; Prof. T. C. Chamberlin; Geo. P. Delaplaine, Treas-
urer; W. Dudley, Esq., Director of the Museum, and Dr. John
E, Davies, acting Secretary; President Hoyt in the chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting having been read and
approved, the secretary read letters from some ten of the mem-
bers, regretting their inability to attend on account of antici-
pated absence from this state at date of meeting, and suggested
■whether it might not be better, under the circumstances, to con-
fine the present meeting to the transaction of necessary busi-
ness; which suggestion, on motion of Dr. Chapin, was approved,-

Some matters pertaining to the printing and publication of
the Academy's next volume of Transactions, and of the Bulletin,
were considered, but without action.

The President called attention to the deficiences of the Mus-
eum, and urged the necessity for additional cases for specimens-
already here and for others soon expected.

On motion. Prof. Chamberlin was appointed a committee to-
draft plans for cases and to submit the same to the President,
Secretary and Director of the Museum, for their approval and
presentation to His Excellency the Governor of the State.

The names of Prof, Joseph E. Emerson, of Beloit College, J,
B. Reade, C. E., of Milwaukee, and Prof. Alexander Kerr of the
State University, were presented for annual membership and
referred to the standing committee on Nominations.

On motion, the Academy adjourned sine die.

John E. Davies,

Acting Secretary.

242 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

NINTH MEETING OF THE ACADEMY.

City Hall, Milwaukee, September 34, 1872.

The Academy met pursuant to requirement of By-Laws, and
notification of the press, at the old City Hall in Milwaukee, on
the evening of September 24, 1872, being Thursday of the week
of the annual exhibition of the Wisconsin State Agricultural
Society.

Attendance small, on account of the distractions incident to
the exhibition; the President, Dr. J. W. Hoyt, in the chair.

Dr. I. A. Lapham, General Secretary, read the minutes of the
last meeting, which were formally approved.

The Secretary also submitted some remarks touching the dif-
ficulty, if not impracticability, of holding successful meetings of
the Academy during the progress of the state industrial exhi-
bitions, and proposed amendment to sec. 2 of the by-laws,
providing that

Hereafter there «hall Toe but two regular ineetinss of the Academy annually, to-wit:
the Annual Meeting, to be held, as now. on the --.'d Tuesday of February, and a summer
meeting, to beheld at such time and place hb shall be determined by tha General Council.

Which amendment was put upon file and record, for action at
±he next regular meeting.

On motion, the thanks of the Academy were tendered to His
Honor the Mayor of Milwaukee, the City Clerk and other of-
iicers of the municipality, for the use of the City Hall and its
preparation for this meeting.
Ajourned sine die.

I. A. Lapham,

General Secretary.

THIRD ANNUAL MEETING.

First Session.

Academy Museum, Feb. 11, 1873.

The Academy met at their room in the State Capitol, in the
.evening of this day, at 7^ o'clock; attendance of members and
citizens large.

The President, Dr. J. W. Hoyt, in the chair.

The acting Secretary, Dr. .Tohn E. Davies, read the minutes
€>i the last two meetings, which were approved.

The President gave an account of the work of the year.

Report of Treasurer deferred until a subsequent session.

Proceedings of the Academy. 243

The following named gentlemen were put in nomination for
membership, and unanimously elected under a suspension of
the rule requiring reference to the standing Committee on
Nominations:

R. M. Bashford, Esq.. Madison.

Prof Joseph EinersDn, Beloit College.

Prof. Alexand'T Falk. Racine Colletje.

Rev. F. M. Holland, Baraboo.

Prof. Alexander Kerr, State University.

Capt. John Nader, U. S. Corns of Kni^ineers, Madison.

A. C. Parkinson, Esq., Madison.

S. F. Perkins, Esq.. tiurlin};ton.

E. D. Reade, C. E., MilwauKee.

Prof. John E. Davies submitted the following as amendments
to the Constitution and By-Laws :

(1) That the titles of the Departments of the Academy be changed so as to read, " De-
partment of Science," 'Department of Philosophy," "Department of Art," "Depart-
ment of Letters."

(3) That the initiation fee of annual members be hereafter five dollars in place of ten ;
the annual fee two Instead of five.

(3) That there be a perminent publishing committee, to consist of the President, the
Vice Presidents — one of whom shall be a resident of Madison — and the General Secre-
tary.

On motion, a committee consisting of Prof. W. F. Allen, Dr.
I. A. Lapham and Dr. A. L. Chapin, was appointed to nomi-
nate officers of the Academy for the ensuing three years.

The reading of papers being now in order, the following were
read and discussed, to wit :

Population and Sustenance, by Dr. G. M. Steele, President of Lawrence University.

On the Rural Classes of England In the Thirteenth Century, by Prof. Wm. F. Allen, of
the State University.

Vexed Questions in Ethics, bv Rev. P. M. Holland, of Baraboo.

On the Requisites Reform of the Civil Service of the United States, by the Presi-
dent, Dr. J. W. Hoyt.

The following papers by Dr. P. R. Hoy, of Racine, owing to
his detention at home by sickness, were read by title only, to
wit :

On the place of Natural History in Primary Education:
On some Pecularities of the Fauna of Wisconsin: and
On the Classification of Animals.

The Academy adjourned to meet at 9 o'clock, A. M., to mor-
row.

Second Session.

February, 12 — 9 o'clock, A. M.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment; President Hoyt
in the chair.

The Treasurer submitted his annual report for the fiscal year
just closed, of which the following is a copy:

244 Wisconsin Academy of /Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Wisconsin Academy oi' Sciences, Arts and Letter?,
OrricE OF THE Treasurer,

Madison, February 13, 1873.

Hon. J. W. HoYT, President of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters :
Sir: I have the honor to report the financial condition of the Academy, as lollows:

receipts.

Total amount fees received from 4!) members .- $512 25

To fees received from ten life members 1,000 00

To interest on loan of same 100 00

$1,642 35

disburpements.

Disbursed in payment of warrants as per vouchers heretofore and herewith fur-
nished... .. f^OO 00

Balance in treasury $1, 133 35

Placed to credit of Life Members' Permanent Fund .?1, 000 00

Total credit of general fund 133 25

$1,133 35

[Signed] GEO. P. DELAPLAINE,

Treasurer.

In the absence of the members of the Standing Committee
on Finance, the Treasurer's report was referred to a special
committee, consisting of Prof. T. C, Chamberlin, Gen. John
Lawler and Prof. James H. Eaton, who subsequently reported
as follows:

We have this day e^famlned ihe above report and account of the Treasurer, and com-
pared the same with the vouchers, and find the same in all respects correct.

[Signed] T. C. CHAMBERLIN,

JAMES H. BATON,

Uommittee.
(General Lawler being absent.)
Madison, February 12, 1873.

On motion, the President, Dr. Hoyt, and Messrs. Chamberlin,
Steele, Lapham and Irving, were appointed a committee to ex-
amine the several bills now pending before the Legislature for
a Geological Survey of the State, and to make such sugges-
tions in regard to the same as said committee may deem advis-
able.

The following papers were then read and discussed:

On the Relation of the Sandstone, Conglomerates and the Limestone to the Azoic of
Baraboo Valley, by Prof. J. II. Eaton"', of Bcloit College.

On the Geographical Distribution of the Qiiartzite of Sauk and Columbia counties, by
Prof. T.O. Chamberlin, of State Noimal Sciiool, Whitewater.

On the Metamorphtc Rocks of Portland, Dodge coniiiy, with remarks on the occurrence
of similar rocks in other parts of the state, by Prof. R Irving;, State University. _

Kesults of Analysis of certain Ores and Minerals, by Prof. W. W. Daniells, State Uni-
versity.

Analysis of Madison Building Stone, by T. E. Bowman, of State Univertity.

Results of Analysis of Black River Fails Iron Ore, by Prof. R. Irving.

The Academy then adjourned until 2 o'clock P, M.

Proceedings of the Academy. 245

Third Session.

February 13, 2 o'clock P. M.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment, the President in
the chair.

The committee appointed to nominate officers, made the fol-
lowing report, which was unanimously adopted:

For President— Dr J. W. ICoyt, Madison.

For Vice Presidents—

Beimrtmerd oj Natural Scienas—'Dx. P. R. Hoy, Racine.

" of Sotial Science - Rt. Rev. Wm. E. Armitage, Milwauliee.

" o/^r^s— Dr. I. A. Lapham.

" of Letters— VesxCmwt A. L. Ciiapin, Beloit.

For General Secretary— Prof. Joiin E. Diivies, Madison.
For Treasurer— Gen. Geo. P. Delaplaine, Madison.
For Director of Museum— Prof. R. Irving. University.
For Librarian— D. S. Durrie, Esq., Madison.

For Secr" aries of the Departments—

Natural Sciences— Prof. J. H. Eaton, Beloit.
Social and Political Sciences— Bey. F. M. Holland, Baraboo.
^/•^«— Prof. W.J. L. Nicodemus, State University.
Letters — Prof. J. B. Ftuling, State University.

For Counselors—

Department of Natural Sciences— Vroi P. Englemann, Milwaukee; Prof. T. C. Cham-
berlin, Whitewater; Prof. J. C. Foye, Appleton.
" of Social and Political Scienceg—Pre:6. G. M.Steele, Appleton; Rev.

Charle'"'Caverno, Amboy, 111.; Hon, S. D. Hustings, Madison.
" of ilr<s—Wm. Dudley, Esq., Madison; Capt. John Nadir, U. S. A.; Hon.

J. I. Case. Racine.
" o/ Ze<^er«— Prof. Jos. Emerson, Beloit; Hon. Lyman C. Draper, Madi-

son; Prof. W. F. Allen, Slate University.

Prof. W. W. Daniels submitted an amendment to the by-
laws, providing that the officers of the Academy shall hereafter
be elected by ballot.

The following amendment to the by-laws, submitted by Dr.
I. A. Lapham at the ninth regular meeting of the Academy,
was taken from the file and adopted, nern con., to- wit:

Instead of three meetings annually, as heretofore, there shall hereafter be but ttvo
namely: The Annual Meeting, to be held at Madison, on the 2d Tuesday of February,
and a Summer Meeting, to be held at such time and place as shall be determined by the
General Council.

The following papers were then read and discussed, to- wit:

On the Occurraci'e of Gold and Silver in Minute Quantities in Quartz, in Clark County,
by Prof. R. Irving, State University.

Evidence bearing on the Methods of Upheaval and Fluctuations of the Quartzite of
Sauk and Columbia Counties, by Prof. T. C. Chamberlin, Whitewater.

Potentials and their Application to Physical Science, by Prof. John E. Davies, State Uni-
versity.

On Kerosene Oil, by E. T. Sweet, of the State University.

On the Improvement of the Wisconsin iliver, by Prof. W. J. L. Nicodemus, State Uni-
versity.

On the Correlation of Forces, by E. D. Reade, C. E., Milwaukee.

Adjourned to 7^ o'clock P. M.

246 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

Fourth Session.

February 12, 7 o'clock P. M.

Academy met pursuant to adjournment.
Reading and discussion of papers resumed:

On Kailway Gauges, by Prof. W. J. L. Nicodemus, State University.

Fish Culture iu Wisccnsin: its Claims upou the State, by the President, Dr. J. W

Hoyt.
On Several Points in the Pronunciation o( Latin and Greek, by Prof. S. S. Haldeman, of

Philadelphia, Corresponding Member.
The Metaphysics of Science, by Prot. S. H. Carpenter, State University.
Oa the Relative Import of Language, by Prof. J. B. Feulmg. State University,

The reading of the papers prepared for this meeting having
been concluded,

President Hoyt, from the committee on Geological Survey,
reported a bill, which had the approval of the Academy, and
was authorized to be laid before the proper committee of the
legislature.

On motion, it was

Resolved. That papers Intended for publication In the Transactions be examined by
the Vice President and Secretary of the department to which they belong, and then by
the President and General Secretary.

The following named persons were nominated and duly chosen
corresponding members of the Academy:

Dr. Edmund Andrews, M. D., Chicago.
Dr. Theodore Gill, M. D., WasLiugtuu.
F. V. Hopkins. M. D., Biton Rouge, La.
Prof. W. B. Porter, St. Louis, Mo.

On motion, it was

Resolved., That the next meeting be held at Appleton. at such time in the month of
July, as shall be determined by ihe President and General Secretary.

The Academy then adjourned sine die.

[Signed] I, A. Lapham,

General Secretary.

Tentli Meeting — Memorandum.

Owing to the absence of the President of the Academy in
Europe, and the inability of many other officers and members
to be present, the July meeting of the Academy was not held.

J. E. Davies,

General Secretary.
Madisox, July, 1873.

Proceedings of the Academy. 24T

ELEVENTH MEETING OF THE ACADEMY.

Academy Rooms, December 13, 1873.

Pursuant to a call of the Secretary — the President being still
absent in Europe — a special meeting of the Academy was held
at their rooms, December 12, 1873, at 4^ o'clock P. ]M.

Prof. J. B. Parkinson of the State University was called to
chair.

Prof. W. F. Allen announced the sudden death, in New York
city, on the 6th inst., of the Rt. Rev. Bishop W. E. Armitage, S.
T. D., Vice President of the Academy, and spoke of the great in-
terest manifested by the deceased in all that concerns true pro-
gress, and particularly of his special interest in the work of the
Academy, contributing to its success, as he did, not merely by
the influence of his name and position, but also as an active
member in all its meetings.

Remarks were also made by Profs. Parkinson and Davies, and
by Hon. W. W. Field and Daniel S. Durrie, Esq.

Letters were read from President A. L. Chapin, of Beloit
College, and Dr. I. A. Lapham, of Milwaukee, expressing their
regret at not being able to attend the meeting, and uniting la-
the tribute of respect to their deceased associate.

On motion, a committee was appointed, consisting of Pro-
fessors W. F. Allen and J. E. Davies, of the State University,-
and Daniel S. Durrie, Esq., Librarian to the State Historical
Society, to draft resolutions expressive of the sense of the-
meeting.

The committee, through their chairman, reported the follow-
ing resolutions, which were adopted:

Hesolved, That the Academy has learned, with deep regret, of the death of its late'
Vice President, the R'v^hi Kevcreud Bishop Wm. E. Armiiage, S. T. U.; and that it rec-
QtjnizeB that iu him it hae lost an active and useful member, who has been identified
with ii8 interests irom ihe beginning, and to whom a large share of Its siiccef^s is due.

Resolved, That these resolutions be published in each of the daily papers of this ci'ty<
and that a copy of tnem be transmitted to the family of the deceased.

The Academy then adjourned sine die.

J. E. Davies,
General Secretary.

FOURTH ANNUAL MEETING.

Firat Session.

Academy Rooms, Feb. 10, 1874.

The fourth annual meeting of the Academy was commenced
in these rooms on Tuesday evening, February 10, 1874, at

■248 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

•7|- o'clock; their being a large attendance of members and
citizens; the President, Dr. J. W. Hoyt, in the chair.

The minutes of last previous meetings, regular and special,
were read by the Secretary and approved.

The Librarian presented his report and tendered his resigna-
tion. Report approved ; resignation subsequently withdrawn
at the request of the President and many members.

The President of the Academy made appropriate and feeling
remarks upon the death of the late Rt. Rev. Bishop Armitage,
Vice President for the Department of the Social and Political
Sciences and expressed a desire that some member of the
Academy should be chosen to prepare a carefully written
biographical sketch of his life and labors.

Being obliged to retire from the meeting on account of
severe indisposition the President then called Dr. E. B. Wol-
cott, of Milwaukee to the chair, who presided during the re-
mainder of the evening's session.

Prof. Davies next read a " Preliminary Paper on the Magnetic
Rotatory Polarization of Light," illustrated by diagrams and
electro-magnets.

A committee of arrangements, consisting of Professors Irv-
ing, Chamberlin and Eaton, was appoited to provide for the pub-
lic evening lecture by Dr. Edmund Andrews, of Chicago, Corres-
ponding member ; also to assist in the discharge of other duties
preparatory to the meeting.

On motion, the rules were suspended and the following
named persons were elected annual members of the Academy
to wit :

Prof. J. D. Butler, LL. D., Madison;

Prof. Edward Searing, Milton;

H. E. Copeland.Esq.;

John Bascom, Pre><ident elect of the State University;

J. W. Bashford, Esq., Madison ;

Thos. L. Cale, Esq., La Crosse;

W. G. Ballentine, Esq., Eipon.

Adjourned till to-morrow at 2 o'clock P. M.

Second Session.

February 11, — 3 o'clock P. M.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment; the President,
Dr. J. W. Hoyt, in the chair.

Reading and discussion of papers resumed.

The first paper was by Rev. F. M. Holland, of Baraboo, on
•^' Records of Marriages," after which, on motion of Prof. J. D.
Butler, a committee, consisting of Dr. Hoyt and Professors Kerr
And Feuling, was appointed to wait on the proper legislative

Proceedings of the Academy. 249

committee and to urge such changes relating to marriage cer-
tificates as are recommended in Mr. Holland's paper.

The remainder of the afternoon was occupied with the read-
jng and discussion of the following papers :

On the Naming of America, by Prof. J. D. Butler. LL. D., Madipon.

On Ranks and ClasseB among the Anglo Saxons, by Prof. W. F. Allen, A. K.

On the Derivation of the Word Church., by Prof. J. B. Feuling, Ph. U.. Stale University.

On some Azoic Outcrops in Wisconsin not previously noticed, by Prof. T. C. cham-
berlin, A. M., Beloit CoUegre.

On some Stone Implements in the Cabinet of Beloit College, by Prof. James H. Eaton,
Ph. D., Beloit.

Adjourned till 1\ P. M.

Third Session.

February 11 — 1^£ o'clock, P. M.

Pursuant to adjournment and to published notice, the Acad-
emy met in the Assembly Chamber to receive a paper in the
form of a lecture, from Dr. Edmund Andrews, A. M., M. D., of
Chicago, Corresponding Member, on the views of Lyell and
Lubbock on the antiquity of the human remains found near
Abbeville, France; also on the age of the remains in the
cave of the Fieriere, at the head of Lake Geneva, Switzerland,
and on the rate of the land deposits, etc., around Lake Mich-
igan.

The President, Dr. J. W. Hoyt, in the chair.

The paper was well illustrated with diagrams and charts, and
was listened to with great attention. The authors, conclusions
were, that, from all the sources examined by him, there was no
sufficient ground for claiming an antiquity of more than 5,000
to 7,500 yeais for the oldest human remains heretofore dis-
covered.

At the conclusion of the paper, which occupied one hour and
a quarter, a vote of thanks to Dr. Andrews was moved by Dr.
E. B. Wolcott, and unanimously carried; whereupon the Acade-
my, on motion, adjourned to meet in the rooms of the Academy
the following day at 2 o'clock P. M.

Fourth Session.

Thursday, February 13, 9 o'clock A. M.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment.

President Hoyt in the chair.

The following papers were read by title only, to wit:

"On some peculiar Terminal Moraines," and " On the Rela-
tion of the Magnesian Limestone of Wisconsin to the Manu-
facture of Lime," both by Prof. T. C Chamberlin.
17 i

250 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

Prof. W. F. Allen oiFered the following substitute for the
constitutional amendment placed on file by Prof. John E. Da-
vies at a former meeting, to wit:

"With a view to the convenience of holding meetings, the Departments of the Acade-
my shall be ai ranged in iwo classew, to be denominated respeciively, the CMase of Sci-
ence and the Arts, and the Clas's of Philosophy and Letters, which latter shall include
the Uepartintni of the Social and Political Sciencee. This amendment to be an addi-
tion to section four of the constitution."

Which was laid over for one year.

The law requiring an initiation fee of |iO, and an annual fee
of $5, was changed so as to read, " an initiation fee of $5, and
an annual fee of $2."

On motion, the transaction of further business was postponed
until the evening session.

Adjourned till 2 P. M.

Fifth Session.

Thxtrsday, 2 o'clock, P. M.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment; the attendance
of members and citizens being unusually large.
President Hoyt in the chair.
The follouing papers were read and discussed :

On the Fauna of Wisconsin— certain peculiarities thereof, by Dr. P. R. Hoy, Vice Presi-
dent for the Department of the Natural Sciences, read by Prof. J. D. Butler.

History ol the Scieme of Hydraulics, by Col. W. J. L. ISicodemus, Professor in the
University of Wisconsin. „ ,, , t i. i' e -.u r^

On the Influence of Duties on Imports on the Value of Gold, by John i. bmitn, Jisq-^
Madison. _,

On the strength of Materials, by John Nader, U. S. Asst. iinglneer.

The Academy adjourned till 7^ o'clock.

Sixth Session,

Thursday, 1% P. M.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment, with a full at-
tendance.

The President in the chair.
Papers were read as follows:

On the Philosophy of Evolution, by Prof. S. n. Carpenter State University; and
On the Amount of Arsenic absorbed by the Human Liver, by Prof. W . W. Darnells, btate
University.

Remarks on the latter paper were made by Drs. Joseph Hob-
bins and E. B. Wolcott; after which, on motion, the Academy
went into a business session.

Proceedings of the Academy. 251

Dr. Wolcott reported favorably on the nomination of Dr.
Ely Van De Warker, of Syracuse, N. Y., who was thereupon
elected a Corresponding- Member.

The following persons were also nominated for corresponding
membership, and elected under a suspension of the rules:

Lewis H. Morgrau, LL.l)., Rochester, N. Y.
T. W. Harris, LL.B., St. UmU, Mo.;
Herliert P. lliibbcll, Esq., Winona, Minn.;
Jolin A. McAllister, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa.

Prof. O. M. Conover, Madison, and Prof. Thure Kumlein, of
Albion College, were elected Annual Members.

The Treasurer of the Academy presented his annual report,
as follows:

Wisconsin Academy of Scibnces, Arts and Letters,
Office of the Treasurer,

Madison, February 10, 1874.
Hon. J. W. IIoYT, President:

Sir: I have the honor to report the financial condition of the Academy ts follows:

Total amount of fees and dues received from 51 members ?.59'2 2.5

Fees received from Id Life members 1 ,000 (X)

Interest on loan of same 100 00

$1, 699. 25
Amount disbursed in payment of warrants to date 555 55

Balance in treasury ifl, 1.36 70

Placed to credit of Life Members' Fund .?1,000 00

Placed to credit of General Fund 136 70

G. P. Delaplaine, Treasurer.

The report was read and referred to a committee consisting
of members Nicodemus, Wolcott and Durrie, who, after a care-
ful examination, reported the same back with an endorsement
of its correctness.

Prof. Daniells called up his amendment to the constitution,
providing that hereafter the election ot officers shall be by bal-
lot, which was adopted, wem ecu.

On motion, a committee consisting of Dr. J. W. Hoyt, Dr. E.
B. Wolcott, Ex-Gov. Nelson Dewey, and Rev. J. W. Bashford,
was appointed to procure the printing of the Academy's Tran-
sactions.

President Hoyt submitted a proposition that the constitution
be so amended as to make the President and Secretary of the
Wisconsin State Horticultural Society members c'-officio of
the General Council of the Academy; also the following
motion:

That the Treasurer be instructed to omit the collection of fur-
ther dues from the Secretary of the State Historical Society.

252 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

The proposition was put on file and the motion was adopted^
Secretary Davies offered the following, which was unanimous-
ly adopted:

Eesolved, That the President is hereby requested to designate some member of the-
Academy to prepare a suitable sketch oi the life and labors of the late Rt. Rev. Bishop
Armitajje, Vice President for the I'epartment of the Social and Political Sciences, for
publication in the next volume of Transactions.

On motion, a ballot was taken for a Vice President of the De-
partment of the Social and Political Sciences, to fill the vacancy
caused by the death of Bishop Armitage, which resulted in the
election of Rev. Dr. G. M. Steele, D. D., President of Lawrence
University, Appleton.

Dr. E. B. Wolcott, of Milwaukee, was chosen to succeed Dr.
Steele as Counselor for said Department.

In pursuance of a proposition submitted at the third annual
meeting, there was created the new Department of Speculative
Philosophy; and on motion a ballot was taken for the two prin-
cipal officers thereof, with the follow result:

Vice PresideT.t— Prof. S. H. Carpenter, LL.D.. State University.
Secretary— Rev. F. M. Holland, Baraboo.

The following resolutions were adopted:

Resolved, That hereafter there shall be held a meeting of one or more departments of
Academy on the second Tuesday of pach month.

Resolved, That the next regular meeting of the Academy be held in the city of Mil-
waukee on the 1st Tuesday in July.

The President and Secretary to have authority to change
time and place if it shall be best to do so.

5eso;«;«(Z, That the thanks of the Academy are hereby tendered to the Assembly for
the use of theirchamber lor the Wednesday evening's session, and to the Madison'Z'^'w.o-
crat and the State Journal for their valuable reports of the proceedings of the Academy.

The President designated the Rev. J. B. Pradt as the mem-
ber who should prepare a biographical notice of the lamented
Bishop Armitage, [which notice will be found on the following
page.]

The Academy adjourned sine die.

John E. Davies,

General /Secretary.

IN MEMORIAM.

BY KEV. J. B. PRADT, MADISON.

Entered into rest, December 7, 1873, the Rt. Kev. William Edmond Armitage, S. T. D.,
Bishop of WiEConein, and VicfTresident of this Academy.

William Edmond Armitage was born in the city of New York, Sep-
tember 6, 1830. Educated under the influences of the Episcopal Church,
he entered Columbia College, in the same city, at the earliest age the
statutes of that institution allowed, and graduated with honor in 1849, at
the age of 19.

Having, from early youth, determined to devote himself to the sacred
ministry, after graduation he immediately entered the General Theologi-
cal Seminary of the Episcopal Church, in New York, and after finishing
the usual three years' course of study, was ordained deacon early in the
summer of 1853, and to the priesthood in 1854.

His first ministry was as assistant to the venerable Dr. Burroughs,
rector of St. John's Church, Portsmouth, N. H. His first parish was St.
Mark's Church, Augusta, Me., where, in 1858, he married Louisa, daugh-
ter of Mr. Allan Lombard.

His next parish was St. John's Church, in the city of Detroit, of which
he was the first rector, and which he built up to a very remarkable de-
gree of strength and prosperity.

From this post of usefulness he was called, in 1866, to become the As-
sistant of the venerable Bishop Kemper, of Wisconsin, his consecration
taking place in his own parish church, December 6, and his funeral in
the same church seven years later, December 11.

It is in keeping with the beautiful symmetry of his character, that he
thus spent seven years in scholarly preparation for his life-work, seven
years in its more youthful prosecution at the east, seven more of ma-
tured labor at the west, and seven as a Christian Bishop in Wisconsin.
For Dr. Armitage was indeed a man of singularly beautiful and sym-
metrical life and character. Of sweet and serene temper, of methodical
habits, of orderly and untiring industry and devotion, these traits ex-

254 Wisco7isin Academy of Sciences, Arfs, and Letters.

tended to every part of his life, and gave cliaracter to his thought, his
speech, his chirography and to his manners.

As might be expected from such a man, his mind was singularly free
from dogmatism and illiberality, While firm in his own convictions, he
was courteous and charitable towards those who thought differently. In
this respect he was a model as a man as well as an ecclesiastic. Nor was
he so absorbed in his peculiar calling as to disregard or underrate secular
things. On the contrary, he took a lively interest in the promotion, not
only of the arts and sciences, but of the general business of life.

In the department of the Academy entrusted to his charge as a Vice
President, namely, that of Social Science, he took especial interest, and
was anxious that its management and labors might be attended with
beneficent results. He made, himself, a valuable contribution to the
labors of the Academy in this department, in a paper on the Sunday
Question.* In the discussion of this delicate subject he showed himself
equally free from bigotry and weakness.

Though much pressed with the burden of his Episcopal duties, and
suffering from a disease which shortened his life, he found time to attend
several meetings of the Academy, and evinced, by frequent letters, his
interest in its affairs.

His memory will be cherished by his associates in the Academy with
respectful and affectionate regret, and his character revered, not only for
its higher qualities, but as one eminently befitting all who would pro-
mote the cause of truth, of science and of human progress.

* Published in Vol. I of the Transuctions, page 62.

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