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TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

OF

SCIENCES. ARTS, AND LETTERS

VOL. XIII, PART I
1900

l/V/TH TWENTY-EIGHT PLATES

EDITED BY THE SECRETARY

l'iil)lislied by Authority of Law

MADISON
Democrat Prlnting Company, State Frlnter

19OI

^, ./-^

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

OP

SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS

VOL. XIII, PART I
1900

WITH TWENTY'EIGHT PLATES

EDITED BY THE SECRETARY

Published by Authority of Law

MADISON
Democrat Printing Company, State Printer

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OFFICERS.

Preside7it.
CHARLES S. SLIGHTER, Madison.

Vice-Presidents.
HARRIET B. MERRILL, Milwaukee.
CHARLES H. CHANDLER, Ripon.
ERASTUS G. SMITH, Beloit.

Secretary,
FRANK C. SHARP, Madison.

Treasurer.
ERNEST R. BUCKLEY, Madison.

Librarian.
LOUIS KAHLENBERG, Madison.

Curator.
SAMUEL WEIDMAN, Madison.

LIST OF PLATES.

To face page

I-XVIII. Buckley, on Ice Ramparts . . 141-162

XIX-XXII. Libby, on the Lead Region . 188-281

XXIII-XX VIII. Peckham, Spiders of the Family Attidae 348-358

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE.

A revision of the pronouns, . . E dinar d T. Ov^en^ 1

Ice ramparts, . . . . . E. R. Buckley^ 141

Discussion, ..... C. R. Van Rise, 158

The plankton of fresh water lakes, . C. Dvnfjht Marsh, 163
An economic and social study of the lead region of Wiscon-
sin, Illinois, and Iowa —
Introduction, . . . . . 0. G. Libby^ 188

Ch. I. The lead region of Grant, Iowa, and Lafayette

Counties, Wisconsin, . . . 0. G. Libby, 191

Ch. II. The lead region of Grant and Lafayette Counties,

Wisconsin, ... F. Belle Stanton^ 197

Ch. III. The lead region of Illinois, Bernard M. Palmer, 208
Ch. IV. The lead region of Dubuque County, Iowa,

Allard J. Smith, 222
Appendices, ........ 231

Spiders of the Phidippus group of the family Attidae,

George W. Peckham and Elizabeth G. Peckham, 282
On the determination of chlorine in natural waters, its ac-
curacy and significance, . . Erastus G. Smith 359
Household words: their etymology, James Davie Butler^ 366
A problem of longevity, . . Charles H. Chandler, 384
The Gothenburg method of regulating the liquor traffic,

1892-8, ..... George Thompson, 387

Some pseudo-histories of the American Revolution,

0, G, Libby, 419

A REVISION OF THE PRONOUNS.

WITH SPECIAL EXAMINATION OE RELATIVES AND RELA-
TIVE CLAUSES.*

EDWARD T. OWE 2^.
I^ro/ensor of the French Language and Literature in the University of Wisconsin ,

CHAPTER I.— GEXEEAL SURVEY.

THE PEONOMIXAL MEDLEY.

With a stone that sparkles, an Indian aiTow-head, a spitted
•dragon-fly, the farm-lad begins a ''collection of curiosities,''
which grows in bnlk only to grow also more incongruous. With
hardly more definite purpose Grammar has selected the mem-
bers of the pronominal word-class. Amused by here and there
a verbal oddity, the pseudo-science also may be said to have
formed a collection of linguistic curiosities; and these in dis-
parity match the objects assembled by boyish caprice.

Into this aggregation are entered '"some," which stands at
times for any persons whatever, and ^^I," which is perhaps the
most exclusive element of speech. ''Who" (relative), although
it requires an antecedent, is fraternized with "this" and "that,"
Vfhich do not. Words said to ask a question are grouped with
others used to answer questions. In this field the lion and the
lamb lie do\\Ti of a truth together.

Indiscriminable admission is offset bv undeserved omission,
partly inadvertent, it would seem, and partly arbitrary. It
usually is not seen that "few" and "many," being quite as truly

*A dissertation for which the degree of Doctor of Philosophy was awarded
by Yale University. A selection from Chapter III. of this article was read be-
fore the American Philological Association, at the meeting of July, 1900.

2 Wisconsiii Academy of Sciences^ /Ms, and Letters.

indefinite as "some," mav quite as justly claim the rank of in-
definite pronouns. Again it must be seen that "here" and
"there" are fully as demonstrative as "tliis" and "that;" but
pronominal rank is withheld from "here" and "there," because
they are not also substantive. That is, the pronominal group,
already in^ational because both incongruous and incomplete, is
further irrationalized to fit it for a place in the larger absurdity
known as the Parts of Speech.

In forming these it has caught the notice of Grammar that
this or that word is alwavs used to name the same thouffht-ele-
ment;-^ and no doubt a language might bo so constructed that
every word, whenever used, would thus express a particular ele-
ment of thought. As a matter, however, of fact, such regular-
ity is not obtained by any language.^ To attempt then a classi-
fication of words by what may be called the function of their
ideas is hardly more encouraging than to venture a classification
of the fowls by their position in the barn-yard.

The unavailability of function as a basis for classification is,
however, no derogation to its importance. The understanding
of speech consists, it is true, on the one hand most obviously in
obtaining right ideas, but not less truly, on the other hand, in
rightly putting them together. Correct perception of function,
then, is indispensable. Its emphasis, even in a misguided effort,
might therefore have been helpful, were it not that function, in
the differentiation of the parts of speech, has been hopelessly
confounded with other matters. Thus, the adverb being de-
fined by function as an adjunct (of various sorts), the adjective
is, by an altogether different criterion, distinguished as a word
with a qualitative meaning. Still another ground of distinc-
tion is found in what a word is said to do, the conjunction being
defined as "a word which joins." It might be als-o proven that

^Thus "exceeds" will never be used to name a first term (point of thought-
departure, subject), or a last term (point of thought-arrival, object, predicate) ;
it will always name a relation, an impression derived from a pair of ideas r
that is, it will be used as a mid-term.

*Thus of a spliced rope it may be said that "The overlap of the two parts is
three feet ;" or "The two parts have an overlap of three feet ;" or "The strands
of one part overlap those of the other." That is, in these examples the word
"overlap" names an idea successively used as subject, object and mid-term, be-
ing twice therefore a noun and once a verb. It may also even be said that "The
overlap factor is ten per cent.," the same word being in this case made to func-
tionate as adjective.

Owen — Bevision of Pronouns. 3

words are further sometimes differentiated by association, that
is, by the company which they keep.^ To classify by criteria
so shifting is hardly more rational than to divide the animal
kingdom into camivora, aquatics, vertebrates, and plantigrades;
say flesh-eaters, water-dwellers, back-boned and flat-steppers.
The candidates for pronominal rank are, however, obliged to run
the gauntlet of this classification, those only being accepted as
pronouns which reach the substantive line.

In further grammatical treatment these substantive sur\dvors
are subjected to further ^-iolence, being forced into sub-classes
painfully distingTiished as personal, demonstrative, reflexive, in-
definite, relative and interroa'ative. The distinctions indicated
by these grou}>names are, however, plainly inadequate. For in-
stance, the indefinite "some," as in "Some say," is also distinctly
personal ; while on the other hand the personal "they," without
an antecedent, as in "Thev sav that France will fiii'ht," is also
distinctly indefinite. "Who," again, is regularly personal,
whether relative or interrogative.

Such procedure is the more surprising in view of the wisdom
shown in choosing a point of departure, the characteristic, that
is, put forward as distinctively pronominal. A hint of this
characteristic is oifered in the pronoun's name and definition.
By the word "^^ronomen" it is immediately suggested that
something is conceived as for something. ISTow, if what bo
meant is a something "pro nomine," or "for a word," that some-
thing is obviously itself a word; for no other kind of substitute
is under consideration. So also if what be meant is a "nomen
pro," or "a word for something," this something must either be
a word or an idea, since onlv ideas and words are under consid-
eration. But an idea is not intended; for to stand "pro" or
"for" an idea is the usual ofiice of words, and no peculiarity of
the prou'oun. Yvliichever, then, be the syntax hidden in "pro-
nomen," the meaning is "a ^vord for another word."^

^Thus iu (1) "The flag is red" and (2) "Scarlet resembles red" the ideas
named by "red" (1) and "red" (2) are the same, being distinguishable only by
the different relations in which they stand to "flag" and "scarlet," respectively.
"Is" means, in this case, the relation of an object to its own quality, thereby
obtaining for "red" (1) the rank of an adjective. "Resembles" names another
relation, thereby losing for "red" (2) the adjective rank.

-That "nomen" is actually used by Grammar in the more restricted meaning
of "noun" is ground of objection on p. 28.

4 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

This interpretation is confirmed by abundant definitions and
descriptions which agree in this, that the pronoun is a sort of
proxy, and not a linguistic principal; in other words, it presents
ideas by an indirect or mediate process. To illustrate, using for
convenience the conversational forms, suppose you enter my
room as I utter the words ''He is going to Europe."^ It is
plain that you will not know of w^hom I am thinking. But had
you come in a moment sooner, you would have heard an ampler
statement, namely, ''Brown says he is going to Europe." In
this foiTQ of mv example vou know without a doubt of whom I
am thinking, and that I think of him twice, once as saying, and
once as going. My first thinking is indicated by the word
"Brown," my second, by the word "he." But the powers of
these words are veiy different. The symbol "Brown" reveals
the subject of my thought without recourse to the aid of any
other word. The symbol "he" can not, on the other hand, ex-
press my meaning except as a proxy, taking the place of

"Brown," its linguistic principal.

That the exploitation of this distinction has been attended by ex-
treme confusion is perhaps suflBciently shown by illustrations already
offered. That the distinction itself is eminently just and will ration-
ally differentiate the pronouns I shall endeavor to show in the follow-
ing Section. Meantime this distinction may be used to aid the further
appreciation of Grammar's extraordinary achievement, of which I of-
fer the following objective illustration: Having on my farm a con-
siderable number of animals, I find it convenient to classify them by
structural differences. I thus obtain two classes, the equine and the
bovine. The latter, as it happens is somewhat numerous, while of
the former there are very few. Indeed this obvious difference in num-
ber, and therefore in commonness, rather supplants in my attention
the structural difference first utilized. The horses come to impress me
most conspicuously as exceptions. Of my cows, too, the most indeed are
Jerseys; a few, however, are black, that is again, exceptions. So I fall
into the habit of grouping the black cows with the horses in what I
cannot properly now distinguish as anything but an exceptional class.
But the nucleus of this class was, after all, the horses, originally known
as the equine class. Noting merely that this nucleus has been aug-
mented, but overlooking the change of criterion which allowed the aug-
mentation, I continue the use of the title equine with a class which
now contains not only horses but also cov/s. Developing the possibili-

^I bar the occasional use of "he" to name the person par excellence of com-
mon acquaintance. This usage will be examined under another head.

' Owen — Revision of Pronouns.

ties latent in systematic zoology of this sort, I arrive at ultimate
groups as follows: first, the equine, containing the horses, the black
cows, the spotted calf, the bull, and the cow with the crumpled horn;
second, the bovine, containing other cows and calves.

The procedure oi! Grammar is quite analogous, though carried
further, developing first a proxy class, correct, but never adequately
understood. The vast remainder, the linguistic principals, have hardly
been more than subconsciously recognized as such. The words of the
proxy class, or pronouns proper, being few in number, readily come
to be dominantly regarded as exceptional. Whether under this aspect
or some other,^ they do as a matter of fact, admit to fellowship the also
exceptional personals, demonstratives, indefinites and interrogatives,
the work of primary differentiation being so far undone. For as will
be amply shown, the personals, demonstratives, etc., so far as merely
such, are not proxies but principals.*

Grammatical classification may, at this stage, be indicated by the
following diagram, the members of the now no longer exclusively proxy
class (as conceived by Grammar), being put in italics or in capitals.

Words

-I

' Tme Prosies

True Principals

HE, SHE, etc.

Pers. Dem. Indef.

r I THIS SOME

. His (= suus)

Addition, life, death, etc. = Noun
Add, live, die, etc. = Verb

Our Hiesig Quelque Additional, live, dead, etc. = Adj.

Uiward Hier Somewhere Additionally, etc. = Adv.

Hence (thought connective) And, etc. = Conj.

The proposition of Grammar, then, is simply this: all words are of
two classes; those which do and those which do not require aid; yet
those which do, include a superior number of those which do not. By
cross classification the remainder of those which do not require aid
(e. g., the words in Roman type) are subdivided into nouns, verbs, etc.

Peter, having been robbed to enrich Paul, is now in part indemni-
fied; the pronominal class of proxies, previously extended to include
personals, etc., is now heavily reduced by the distribution of all but its
substantive members among the adjectives, etc., of the principals. That
is, the proxies having taken in many principals, the principals in turn
absorb the bulk of the proxies. At this stage Grammatical procedure
leaves only the capitalized words of the above diagram in the proxy
class, now no longer such either exclusively or exhaustively.

^The appendixes further show that personals, demonstratives, and indefinites
have also, at times, a vicarious value.

^In the meantime observe that in "Some say," "I am glad to see you," "This la
my brother," "Who is there?", the italicised words perform their duties fully
without the aid of other words, that is, as principals.

6 Wisconsin Academy of ScienceSj Arts, and Letters,

The final act in the farce is the recognition of the remaining, the
substantive proxies, as a new part of speech. To diagram this result,
the capitalized words of the diagram should be entered among the prin-
cipals, say under the word ''addition," abreast of the new title "pro-
nouns." In other words, of the primary classes one is coordinated
with the sub-classes of the other. Thus is completed a system already
accused in a general way of capricious selection, careless omission, ar-
bitrary rejection, inadequate sub-division — a system now specifically
charged with repeated acd bare-faced violation of its prime criterion —
a system which may in a sense be known as Grammar's second Babel
or "confusion of tongues."

In view of what has thus far been brought to lighl, it is hardly too
much to assume that to an orderly mind the grammatical conception
of the pronouns is untenable. But an effort to mend this conception
can hardly be cheered by the hope that its results, even if good, will
generally be preferred. He who likes the European oyster is rarely
brought to like the American. It is not to be expected that the votaries
of Grammar will welcome any substitute for what it offers.

It must be admitted, too, that in the very nature of the case, the lin-
guistic method of one mind can hardly be proven to be that of others;
for as one door gives exit both to the great and the little cat, so also,
and notoriously, a given set of v»'ords may be used by different minds
to open passage for thoughts conspicuously different. Thus to me the
phrase "if you please" is synonymous with "if you like (or prefer),"
"you" being my subject, and "please" having a meaning very different
from what appears in "This pleases me." This opinion I defend by
the sister phrases "If I please, he pleases, we please, etc." But to a
grammarian oblivious of these, saturated with syntax genealogy, in-
tensely conscious for instance of "si tibi placet," I doubt not that, as is
often claimed, my illustration has the meaning, "if to you be pleasing."
Speaking for himself alone, no doubt the grammarian is right. Speak-
ing only for myself, I believe that I also am right. Without attempt-
ing to determine which interpretation is better or more common, I
merely emphasize the fact that what is linguistically true of one mind
may be quite untrue of another. Believing thus, I must, in much of
what follows, be understood as offering a merely personal contingent
to the little total of our present observation; as describing the thought-
forms of my own mind, without claiming that those of other minds
must always be the same; as appreciating that the views to be ad-
vanced can acquire authority only so far as shared by many and able
thinkers.

The presentation of these views is further attended by this practical
difficulty, that the same linguistic means are employed, even by the
same persons, now for one and now for another linguistic end. Thus
"who" is used on one occasion as a relative, on another as an inter-

Owen — Be vision of Pronouns. 7

rogative, and in some languages even still otherwise, meaning "one"
or the "other," "this one" or "that one." More objectively, the jack-
knife serves its owner in turn as gimlet, hammer and tooth-pick. Such
activities I can easily differentiate ; but I can not so easily express my
results. Language is not lavish of names for groups of distinctive
characteristics, especially those of the accidental or ephemeral order.
For the total of distinctives, whereby a knife is ranked for the moment
as a hammer, I need such a word as "hammerness;" but it does not
exist. Also, even if I had such words, they would be very ineffective,
an argument upon abstractions being notably hard to follow. Finding
it thus impracticable to discuss the different characteristics of words,
I must make my discussion, in form at least, one of words differently
characterized. This involves me at once in a formal contradiction. My
jack-knife is ranked as a gimlet, a hammer and a tooth-pick. The
word "v.ho" is classed as a demonstrative, a relative, and an interroga-
tive. I may indeed laboriously stipulate that neither knife nor word
is in three classes at the same time. Or I may resort to the clumsy
expedient of calling "who" three different words, or my knife three
different objects. But neither course is satisfactory. The best I can
do, to avoid wrong understanding on the one hand and no understand-
ing on the other, is to say that, while for convenience I shall seem to
classify words, I shall really be aiming to differentiate their functions,
their meanings and their methods of meaning-presentation.

EEDIFFEEEXTIATIOX.

In the efiort to bring order into tlie confusion wrought by
Grammar, I invite increased attention to the fundamental dis-
tinction between proxy and principal, reviving the illustration
^'Brown says he is going to Europe.'^ As I utter the word
^^Brown," it suggests to you an idea essentially the same as my
own, and this without the aid of any other word, being, it may
be argued, self-explanatory. The same is true of every element
of my sentence except the element '^he,'' which can not suggest
my idea except for explanatory aid, afforded in the present case
by ^^Brown."

This simple distinction, of the highest value in word-study,
though strongly emphasized by Grammar, has been curiously
misapplied. Words of the ^'he" class have been isolated from
others on the ground that they revive an idea already suggested
by another word or, in grammatical parlance, " refer to an ante-
cedent.'' But such revival confers no distinction, being effected

8 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters,

by miiltitiides of other words. Tlius, suppose I say ^^Brown saw
Mr. McKinley today. The president is looking welL" Lik&
the word ^^he" the word ''president" reviyes an idea suggested
by a preceding word, doing all, in short, that can be done by
''he/' and merely doing it better. It is therefore not in what
the word ^^he" can do, bnt in what it can not do, not in its
powers bnt in its limitations, that we must find the gronnd for
isolating it from others. And what it can 7iot do, as previously
shown, is to suggest without aid an intended idea.

The difference then between other words and words like '^he'^
is roughly that of candle and mirror. The one emits a light of
its own ; the other is a mere reflector. Such a difference may
safely be used as primary; for it is absolute and fundamental.
It is also psychologically initial. The process by which I call up
inyourmindan idea is necessarily prior in time to its appearance
in your mental field. Before you can cook or even have your
hare, you must catch it. In comparison, then, to the question
how an idea is obtained, all other questions are actually subse-
quent and may plausibly rank as subsidiary ; by these I mean the
questions of the idea's nature, of its use in thought-structure
(function), of its sentential neighbors (association), of what in
grammatical parlance it is said "to do" — the tests, in short^^
which Grammar has applied in distinguishing the other parts of
speech and the pronominal subdivisions.

Seeking now to prepare the way for a suitable terminology, I
slightly change my previous form of statement. In the exam-
ple ''Brown says he is going to Europe," I prefer to put it that
"Brown" is able to take the initiative in the complete suggestion
of an idea. Self-sufficient words of this order may therefore be
kno^^Ti as initiatives.

The word "he," on the other hand, is unable to perform the
initiative act. AVhen, however, this act has once been per-
formed by "Brown," the hearer, looking mentally backward to
the idea suggested by "Brown," can use it as the meaning of
"he." Indeed, the use of "he" is a virtual order to the hearer
thus to look backward, to find a previously used idea, and to use
that idea again as part of a present thought. Words of this type-
may be known as retrospectives.

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 9

It would be natural to suppose that the self-sufficient meaning-
namer must always thus stand first in the sentence, and that the
word which needs its help should defer appearance until that
help is present, and therefore available. Such, however, is not
always the case. Thus, "Though he is very busy, Brown is go-
ing to Europe." In this example you can not know who is
meant by "he" until you reach the later "Brown." It might
seem that in this case "he" should be called initiative, and
"Brown" retrospective. And so indeed they should, were mere
order the criterion. But the actual criterion is the powder to pre-
sent in full an intended meaning, or, otherwise phrased, ability
to take the initiative in idea-naming. Now the word "he" may
seem to make an effort in this direction. But even if it does, it
scores no success; and therefore it cannot justly be called in-
itiative. As a matter of fact, however, "he" makes no such ef-
fort. For surely you do not credit me with trying to show you
whom I mean by the aid of so helpless a word as "he." And I
am very certain that I do not so intend the word myself. Judged
then, by my intention, by your acquiescence, and by results, the
word "he" can not be called initiative.

Its actual use is as follows : it expresses very inadequately, in
a purely provisional way, an idea which I intend to express with
more exactness bv a later word. In fact, the use of "he" in
this case is a virtual order to you to look forw^ard mentally to an
idea yet to be distinctly presented. As such you accept the
"he" and, tolerating its momentary inadequacy, you do look for-
ward in mind to the adequate idea which it vaguely prefigures.
Judged then by my intention, by your acquiescence, and by re-
sults accomplished, words employed thus may be known as an-
ticipative or prospective.

The prospective and retrospective words are characterized
alike by incompetency, except so far as aided by the self-suf-
ficient initiatives. They may therefore be grouped together un-
der the common title of insufficient or vicarious. The prime
divisions then of words, based upon their method of presenting
meaning, are the initiatives and the vicarious, th-. latter being
subclassed as prospective and retrospective.

Initiatives compose the main body of every vocabulary, the

10 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

signs of what I mean ontniimberino:, as might be expected, the
signs of what I have meant or what I am about to mean. The
forward and backward looking words are indeed but prologue
and epilogue of the sentential drama. Few in number^ and
unique in tactics, they form a sharply isolated class to which our
special attention will be given. In the meantime I Vv'ish, for the
sake of the side-lights oifered, to pass in review the other so-
called pronominal groups, which Grammar has established by
the aid of further characteristics, more or less distinctly appre-
hended. As, however, any effort spent upon them is in my own
opinion a digression, it is consistent and helpful to the clearness
of exposition to designate them as pseudopronouns^ recognizing
the vicarious words alone as strictly pronominal.

Among the different characteristics which Grammar has uti-
lized in establishing the pseudopronominal groups, I elect, as
most convenient to start with, indefiniteness in the meaning ex-
pressed. The effort to separate tlie definite and the indefinite
is not, to be sure, especially hopeful. But, assuming that it can
be successfully accomplished, I subdivide the initiatives into
definites and indefinites.'^

The definites are subject to further differentiation, according
as the ideas which they exhibit do or do not change with change
in the speaker. The difference between them appears most
clearly in spatial relations. Suppose for instance that you and
I are facing each other, you looking southward. Directly be-
tween us stands a tree, and a little to one side a bush. Of this
bush I remark, '^'It is east of the tree". The relation between
bush and tree is quite definite ; it is correctly expressed by the
word ^^east" ; and the expression perfectly fits my personal point
of view. Moreover, if you wish yourself to express this rela-
tion, you may also say with perfect truth, ^'The bush is east of
the tree". That is, the word ^'east" fits your point of view no
less exactly than it does my own. This is but saying that neither
of us, in using the idea expressed by "east," puts into it any
element peculiar to himself. Self, indeed, so far as may be,

^The same subdivision may be effected with the vicarious words; but aa it is
unnecessary and not suggested by Grammar, it is not attempted. For the same
reason other possible subdivisions invited later are not carried out.

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 11

is eliminated. East ic in mj conception ''cast", no matter who
I am or where I am or how I face or what may be the status of
any other person. The idea, as far as it can be, is objective and
absolute. The points of compass could hardly change, were the
race removed to another planet. Such ideas assume, it is true,
and must assume, a standard of comparison ; and this standard
no doubt is recognized by man alone; but the standard is not
man himself, the species or the individual ; and it is not a sec-
ondary standard, reckoned from man as a primary. Be it the
^North Star or the sun or the path of the sun across the sky ; be
it the meridian of Greenwich, as for longitude ; or be it an origin
of co-ordinates, as in analytic geometry; in ideas of the pres-
ent class the standard is never self.

With numerous other words the standard is always self.
Given again the objeets of my last illustration, I may elect to
say, ''The bush is on the right of the tree". With the same rela-
tion of bush and tree in your mind as in my owti, suppose that
you yourself now wish to make a statement equivalent to mine;
you will say, "The bush is on the left of the tree". Our differ-
ence in statement of the same actual relation indicates that we
conceive the relation differently. In other words, the relational
idea changes with the change in the relation-thinker. This co-
variance is occasioned by the fact that something of the thinker's
self enters or affects the relation. The categories "right" and
"left" are not obtained, like "east" and "west," from the ex-
ternal universe; they are obtained directly from the material
self. Were my body symmetrical in all directions, or were I
a disembodied spirit of the conventional type, it is difficult to
imagine how such ideas could arise. Constituted even as I am,
these ideas vary with the changes of my position. They may be
valid not only for self alone, but for the self only of the moment.
Hence their passage from my usage to your own involves some
taking out of my personality and some putting in of yours.
Their peculiarity may be indicated by saying that they are ego-
centric. That is, the individual self affects the nature of the
idea. Self is the point of departure, the center from which the
mental outreach proceeds.

Egocentric ideas may be obtained from phenomena different

12 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

in themselves and difPerentlj exploited. The words used thus
far in illustration, namely ^^right" and ^^left," express ideas de-
rived from the "universe of things. But other egocentrics deal
with what may be called the universe of speech. To illustrate,
suppose I do my thinking for a while without reference to the
possibility of exchanging thought with others. As a prelimi-
nary move I find it convenient to differentiate myself from all
else, establishing self as the prime factor of all that is. The
vast remainder I further easily disting-uish into what is near me,
namable by ^^this/' and what is more remote, namable by ^^fchat."
But I do not imagine how, on such lines, I should ever reach
the idea named by "you.'' So long as I class you by your dis-
tance only, it seems to me that you must be to me that only which
your distance implies, that is, a '^this man" or a "that man,"
according to your position.

If on the other hand I think of you as a possible hearer of
what I say, your proper designation is "you" ; and this I use
without reference to your position. Whether he whom I ad-
dress be next me or across the room, able to hear ray whisper
or just within the range of my loudest shout, in my presence
or reachable only by the longest telephonic wire; whether he
be my hearer or my reader; whether he understand by watch-
ing my lips or fingers, if deaf, or by personal contact, if also
blind ; in all cases I think of him as "you." The value of this
"you" is also in all cases the same. It names one specially re-
lated to the complex act of speech. Such a conception is clearly
quite without the category of space and, barring figurative
usage, exclusively within the category of thought-exchange.

Ideas of this nature and their symbols, being obtained from
the act of speech, should properly derive their designation from
that act. At this point, however, there rises the usual diffi-
culty, that the best verbal materials have been preempted for
other purposes. Gleaning therefore after others' reaping, I
note that the present class of words, being occasioned by the
fact of speech, are ex causa linguae. With no great stretch of
verbal capacity they may accordingly be known as lingua-
causate. The egocentrics of this special type correspond, though
not completely, with the personal pronouns of Grammar.

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 13

The remaining egocentric words are not developed from the
act of speech. Being assumablv developed in the interest of
something else, it is sufficient to know them as aliocausate.
They will be found to include the demonstratives "this/\ "that/'
etc., and other words which Grammar has overlooked.

The egocentrics, then, including linguacausates and alio-
<3ausates, comprise such definites as change their meaning with
the change of speaker. The I'emaining definites do not change
in meaning with the change of speaker. As such words require
no examination, being none of them cited as pronouns, thev may
be filed awav for future reference under the rubric absolute.

Turning now to the indefinites, I find that they also differ,
as appears in the following illustrations. If I tell you that
^^Somewhere I have a book which treats of eastern birds,'' it
is plain that the location of the book is quite indefinite ; yet,
as far as mv statement shows, the indefiniteness is to me a mat-
ter of indifference. Suppose, however, I say to you, "AVliere
is that book V it is obvious in the first place that my idea of
the book's location is quite as indefinite as before. It is further
evidenc that your knowledge of this indefiniteness must be de-
rived from the word "where", and not from any other. It
seems then safe to sav that the idea expressed bv "where" is
that of indefinite place. It also is clear that from the word
"where" you learn something further. In fact it is from this
word that you also learn my desire to know location more ex-
actly.^ For the purpose of the moment it is enough to note
that question-asking differs from mere expression of indefi-
niteness, by the addition of desire for its relief. Strict fidelity
to this difference would require that the total of words which
express indefinite ideas should be divided into such as do, and
such as do not further express the desire that the indefiniteness
be relieved. As, however, such a division involves a very cum-
brous terminology, I content myself with regarding the expres-
sion of such a desire as rouo'hlv so much unendurance or in-
toleration of the indefinite idea. I am thus able to differen-
tiate the indefinites more conveniently as the tolerated and the

^I overlook order and rising inflection, as botli are quite equivocal.

l-i Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, ArtSj arid Letters.

untoJerated. These subdivisions coincide with the gi-ammatical
classes known respectively as ''indefinites" and ''interrogatives/^

Grammar has further created a special pronominal group for
what are known as reflexives. In the fuller discussion of the
vicarious words it will appear that the reflexives are members
of that class, distinguishable from the others merely by the
somewhat restricted range of their employment. They require,
therefore, no immediate examination.

The last of the grammatical pronoun-classes, the relatives,
offer, on the other hand, peculiarities so extreme as to embarrass
any merely introductory characterization. Deferring, there-
fore, their examination, I offer, in resumption of results thus far
obtained, the following table of word-classes.

Words.

Self-sufficient or
Initiative.

Insufficient or
Vicarious.

Deflnitej

Indpfinites

I I

Absolutes. Ecocentrics.

Pseu-

do-

pro-

nouns

Pronouns.

I

Alincau-
Linguacausate sate Tolerated Untolerated
or or or or

"Personal." "Demon- "Indefinite." "Interrogative."
ptrativo "

Proepective,
Retrospective,
including Reflexive.

To a careless view this table might suggest the inference that the
words of the several ultimate groups (linguacausate, etc.) outnumber
the members of the single division of absolutes, the single title of the
latter tending somewhat to mask their number. But were the abso-
lutes also put to the torture, to wrest from them the secret of their dif-
ferences, an overwhelming multitude of subdivisions would develop,
each including an ample membership.^ The absolutes comprise, in fact,
the vast majority of every vocabulary; the half dozen grammatical pro-
noun-classes, and especially the true pronouns, contain but an insignifi-
cant minority.

Proposing now a more detailed examination of the word-
classes thus far roughly sketched, I follow the order of con-

^For illustration examine any general classification of words according to
their meaning, e. g., Koget's Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases.

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 15

venience, beginning ^vith the vicarious. On the back-ground,
afforded by these I will project the strongly contrasting rela-
tives, following their examination with some discussion of the
peculiar clauses which they render }x>ssible. The word-classes
designated as pseudopronominal will be relegated, to appendices,
except the interrogatives, which I omit, it being my purpose to
examine them in another paper, v\uth the other means of inter-
rogative expression.

16 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Aiis, and Letters.

CHAPTEE II.— VICAEIOUS WORDS OR TRUE PRO-
NOUNS.

I. THOUGHT PHENOMENA IX WHICH THEY FIGURE.

It may be assumed of any thought, as "A exceeds B", that if
any element, as "A'', retires from my consciousness before I
think of ^'exceeds B", I fail to form the thought expressed by
"A exceeds B". That is, the elements of a thouoht must exist
in the mind together; and this is true not only of myself
but also of him who seeks to understand me. The success of
the latter being first of all conditioned on attention, this is com-
monly accentuated as the hearer's duty. His duty is, however,
plainly much more onerous. Not merely must he attend to my
words and thereby attain their meanings ; but further, what he
thus attains he must retain, till all the factors of my thought
are assembled in his mind.

It is less generally recognized that, were retention excessive,
continued thought-reception would be impossible. To illustrate,
having said that ^'3479 exceeds 1958", I wish further to inform
you that "9x73 = 657". I venture to predict that you will
be quite unable even to harbor my second proposition, until you
are mentally disencumbered of all that belongs to the first. Your
duty as a hearer is then double. You must hold each element
of thought presented, until all are delivered ; you must also dis-
miss all, before attemipting the reception of another thought.
You must indeed hold fast ; you must as truly also lay aside.

I do not mean however that, before the reception of a later
thought, the elements of a prior thought retire beyond recall.
If not too late, they may be brought back. By such a phrase a3
"the first mentioned number" I may still revive in your mind
what I first suggested by "3479". This idea, it is true, with-
drew from vour mental stae:e, Avhen the thou2;ht of which it
formed a part was completed. But it did not go far ; though
what may be called the first scene of the colloquial drama was

Owen — Be vision of Pronouns. 17

ended, the actors remained behind the flies, awaiting a possible
encore.

Using a homelier figure, conceive the hearer's mind as a slate.
Upon it the speaker writes a mental equation, that is, a thought.
This thought another thought shall follow. But the slate is
small. Its room is fully occupied. To meet this difficulty, the
sponge is run over the surface, giving room to write anew — not
however the wet sponge ; merely the dry. The old waiting does
not entirely disappear. It is only blurred. The new writing-
appears with great distinctness ; yet the old continues legible.
Another use of the sponge may be followed by the writing of a
third equation. The slate may then contain such third equation
fully distinct, a legible second equation, a first equation whose
terms may still be deciphered. How many erasures a given
idea may thus survive, it is needless to inquire. In actual men-
tal practice the nature of the idea (abstract, concrete, etc.), its
rank in thought-structure, the retentive power of the individual
mind, contribute each a modifying influence.

The receiving mind is then a sort of palimpsest, ever fading,
ever reinscribed. Each writing (except the first) is entered on
a surface already covered by another but a faint and vanishing
inscription. The new is much brighter than the old; but the
old may yet be read, if the effort be not too long delayed.

II. THEIR DIRECTION TROM THE PRINCIPAL.

Examination thus far indicates that, in usual mental sequence,
a vivid presentation of each idea is followed by a somewhat pro-
tracted fading, the idea becoming comparatively dim, before the
expression of a new thought is begun. Conversely, just as sun-
set and succeeding twilight are inversely paralleled by daw^n and
sunrise, so also it is possible for the more vivid appearance of an
idea to be heralded by an obscure prefigurement : vicarious words
may faintly suggest an idea before its full revelation. Such
symbols have already been distinguished as anticipative or pro-
spective. They are illustrated by the sentence ^Though he is
very busy. Brown is going to Europe", ^^he" being a sort of lin-
guistic X until its latent value is developed under the influence of

''Brown".
2

18 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letter's.

It appears then that the proxy may take its place as well be-
fore the principal as after. The former usage, being somewhat
imfreqnent and rather artificial, may be neglected, as its exami-
nation reveals only results, I think, which are corollary or con-
verse to those obtained by studying the more normal retrospec-
tives. To these, accordingly, attention will from now on be spe-
ciallv directed.

III. TIIEIE DISTANCE YIRO^L THE PRINCIPAL.

In reckoning this, the sentence-end affords a convenient land-
mark. ]^o doubt, before this be reached, ideas begin to fade or,
changing figure, to withdraw ; yet, until it be reached, they must
be clear enough and near enough to permit association with their
fellows. Otherwise, the thought of the moment would be im-
possible. But, after the sentence-end, they must be so faint or
so distant that they will not, unless invited, associate themselves
with the ideas of a following thought. Otherwise such following
thought would be confused.

Suppose now that an idea, under the stimulus of an initiative
word, say ^^Brown", effects a first appearance in your conscious-
ness. This mind-picture may be called an original. Of this
original a copy may be needed, producible by ^'he". Further,
as a matter of linguistic fact, this copy may be needed either be-
fore or after the sentence-end. Two cases therefore offer:

Case I. Principal and Proxy in Different Thoughts — Peirvx

statement.

To illustrate, ^^I just met Brown. He is going to Europe."
It is plain that these sentences express tv,^ thoughts.-^ The
first is self-sufficient v/ithout the second. The second requires
no element of the first. It is true that "He'' is inadequate,
except so far as there be a prior idea for it to revive, an idea
already adequately expressed by ^'Brown." But this inade-
quacy of ^^He" is a mere incident of its special symbolic na-
ture. So soon as I substitute ^^Bro^vn" for "he", mv second sen-
tence has no further need of my first. The second thought is

^The discussion of thought singularity and plurality is deferred, being much
more necessary elsewhere.

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 19

complete and would remain so, were its predecessor quite for-
gotten. Whether I say, then, ^'Ile is going . . ."or
■^^Brown is going . . . ", my second thought and all its fac-
tors are the same ; and this second thought in both cases is dif-
ferent and separate from the first. I may then safely say that
the idea expressed by Brown (1) belongs to one thought ; the idea
expressed by Brown (2) or by "He" belongs to another thought.
The odea named by Brown (1) fades at the sentence-end to such
:an extent, that it will not appear in the second thought, unless
recalled. Having said, "I just met Brown", if I continue with
^'1 was wearing: mv new coat", you hardlv think ae^ain of Brown.
But if, instead, I continue by saying "He is going to Europe",
the idea named by "Browm" is revived and serves again as part
-of my second thought. This idea serves then twice, once as part
of one thought, and again as part of another. But it ended the
first service before it beo-an the second. Between the two it
lost thought-membership. It was first established in attention
by the initiative "Brown". At the sentence-end it w^as dises-
tablished. It was reestablished or reinstated in attention by
"He". Yfords which thus restore lost status, may conveniently
be known as reestablishers or reinstatives.

Case 11. Principal and Proxy in the Same Thought — Coin-
statement.

That a given idea may be twice used in the same thought
is indicated by the algebraic ".r^ = 2x'\ Wishing, in the ex-
amination of this usage, the advantage of comparison with the
preceding, I use linguistic illustrations of both and j)ut them
side bv side. Accordin2:lv, as before,

Case I. "I just met Brown. He is going to Europe", and

Case II. ''Broion has bought him a horse."

In several aspects these examples are alike. In both, the
proxy is retrospective. In both the idea named by "Brown"
begins at once to fade and continues to fade until revival. This
revival is accomplished in both cases by the same means and
with the same success. That is, the idea is restored to its origi-
nal freshness.

They differ somewhat in this, that the idea revived by "He"

20 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts^ and Letters.

requires revival — cannot otherwise serve witli "is going to Eu-
rope". On the other hand, the idea revived hy ''him" does not
require revival. It is still fresh enough, as presented by
"Brown," to associate with it-s fellows, notably with "horse",
although the latter appears upon the scene even later than "him".
Accordingly the use of "him" cannot be explained by the neces-
sity which leads to the use of "He". Although, then "him",
as a matter of fact, revives the idea named bv "Brown", this re-
vival may be regarded as merely incidental, and not the special
purpose of the speaker.

That purpose is rather as follows: having formed in your
mind an original picture under the influence of "Brown" ; hav-
ing established this original in thought-membership (say as sub-
ject) ; while still maintaining this original in this membership,
I wish you to form a copy of it, and to use this copy in a second
membership (say indirect object) of the same thought. That
is, while in Case I. I use principal and proxy in different
thoughts, in Case II. I use them in the same thought.

The proxy as used in Case I., I have called a reinstative, that
is, a vicarious word which gives back status to an idea which has
lost it. Meaning now, per contra, a vicarious word wluch gives
a second status to an idea still retaining a first status, I suggest
the designation cumulative or coinstative.

Of words of this type a few have been ranked by Grammar as a
special pronominal group under the title "reflexives." To illustrate,
"Brown has hurt himself." In this sentence it is plain thai "himself"
cannot alone inform you who is meant, but requires the aid of a prin-
cipal, namely, "Brown." That is, "himself" is vicarious. Again, the
proxy and the principal serving in the same sentence, the former is
what has been described as coinstative. As a reinstative, moreover,
it cannot serve. I may not say, "I just met Brown. Himself is going
to Europe," or "I was glad to see himself." To this rule exceptions are,
I think, apparent only. Thus, "I just met Broivn. He professed Jiim-
self glad to see me." In this sentence "himself" might seem to re-
instate "Brown." But the only actual reinstative is "He;" it is this
word that "himself" regards as its principal, without regard to "Brown."
The action of "himself" is then as before coinstative.

Even as coinstative the use of "himself is further restricted and,
I think, to service of a first term, as in "Broicn has bought himself a
house," or "has hurt himself." I may not say, " Broivn' s house suits
himself' (unemphatic), or "To Brown the house of himself is pleas-

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 21

ing." Details and apparent exceptions I omit, as also any effort to
settle how far, as claimed, those actions alone be reflexively expressed
which recoil upon the actor. My interest ends with the proposition,
that reflexives are coinstatives (possibly even sometimes reinstatives),
which differ from others merely in the narrower range of their usage.

Another formally coinstative usage, commonly served by the same
words as the last, is the emphatic. To illustrate: ''Brown paid for
the house himself." In this sentence it is true that I invite your at-
tention to an idea a second time; but I do not do this because I
wish this idea to obtain two thought-memberships; I wish it rather,
in a single membership, to be in some way more effective. I may
desire to make sure that you think of Brown, and not some other
person; of Brown in his own personality, and not in that of some
agent; of Brown in all his character, and not in any fractional exhi-
bition. In short, I am merely extending the effort distinctly to sym-
"bolize my idea. So far as you think my idea over again, you do so
merely to make sure of its being right. Such re-thinking does not
concern thought structure; as it also is attended by no new mode of
symbolization, it may be neglected in the present examination.

Principal, proxy, and their mental interim cannot be regarded as ade-
quately examined without some notice of a peculiar usage, illustrated
by the following words of the New England Primer:

"Zacliactis he
Did climb a tree
His Lord to see."

The primitive aspect of such phraseology invites consideration of the
difficulty encountered by primitive minds in the reception of a mental
message. To exhibit this, suppose my barber to be linguistically back-
ward, not indeed in talk, but in understanding the talk of others. As
he begins to shave me, I remark "You have a new razor". I merely re-
call repeated experience, in supposing him to ansv/er "Who, me?" Now
it is perfectly plain to my questioner vrhom I mean; and his question is
hardly put for the sake of obtaining further assurance. He asks it, I
think, for the sake of gaining time; and he wants time, because I have
rushed ideas upon him vvith a rapidity for his mind excessive. To be-
come intelligible, I must reduce the speed of exposition.

In doing this I will omit the commoner expedients such as slower
utterance, the use of bulky synonyms or paraphrases, the intercalation
of what is unnecessary or may safely be inferred, the makeshifts, in
short, of the embarrassed extempore speaker. I will merely meet in
turn, by legitimate and strictly linguistic means, what may be ranked as
legitimate needs of a mentally torpid hearer. I begin, then, my attempt
upon the barber with "Ahem!" or "Say!", the latter being in this case
not a superfluous hint to say anything, but the announcement that I
am about to say something myself. My utterance corresponds to the

22 Wisconsin Academy of ScienccSj Arts, and Letters.

military order "Attention!" Proceeding circumspectly, I next say
"John!", from which, vocative my hearer learns that what I am yet to
say will be directed to him; that it is time to put on his thinking cap.
My warning, now double, being both general and personal, answers to
the specialized "Attention, Company A!" I next ejaculate "Razor!",
thereby indicating that what I am to say will concern that tool of the
barber's art. So, too, in military practice, a considerate captain might
amplify the ordinary "Attention, Company A!" by hinting the general
nature of the order about to follow. The barber is now aware that I
am going to talk — to him — about a razor. He is amply prepared for the
statement "You have a new razor". I mas'- look with some confidence
for an immediate answer.

Of all such preliminaries I invite especial attention only to the last,,
the one which advertises the coming topic, the precursory or prodromie
theme-namer, the colloquial "mise en scene.". The import of this may
be expressed by the sentence "Razor is to be talked of" or "I am going
to talk of a razor". But economy or brevity commonly reduces the
sentence to a phrase or even a single word, as for instance, "Speaking of
razors", "apropos of razors", or merely "Razor'". Such reduction of
course establishes no sentential fellowship between the precursory
theme-namer and the utterance which follows. That is, "Speaking of a
razor" has nothing more to do with "You have a new razor" than did
"I am going to talk of a razor". Yet, just as weaker men of old became
the vassals of feudal superiors; just as words of scanty meaning, volume
or importance join their betters as proclitics or enclitics; so also the
mutilated sentence, or say the residuary phrase, unites itself with its
unimpaired neighbor.

The same is true of a single residuary word. Thus the sentence "I
am going to speak of Zachaeus", used as a preliminary namer of my
coming topic, may be reduced to the single word "Zachaeus". This
word, unable thus alone to functionate as a sentence, formally allies
itself to the following sentence, producing "Zachaeus he did climb
etc." The alliance is not however structural; for, given "he" as oc-
cupant of the subject-place, no other place remains for "Zachaeus". In
fact "he" is "Zachaeus", which is but saying that "Zachaeus" is already
in the only place that "Zachaeus" can occupy. It seems therefore just
to say that in "Zachaeus he did climb, etc." the presence of "Zachaeus"^
is purely adventitious; that the word is properly a mere residuum of a
prior sentence.

The different relations of a principal to the sentence containing its
proxy may be illustrated as follows:

(1) "Zachaeus saw Ms Lord." The principal is in the proxy's sen-
tence and of it.

(2) "Zachaeus hr saw his Lord." The principal is in the proxy's
sentence but not of it.

Owen — Bevision of Pronouns. 23

(3) "I am going to speak of Zachaeus. He saw his Lord." The prin-
cipal is neither in the proxy's sentence nor of it.

In (2) the principal is held by Grammar to be of the nominative case.
Experience, however, justifies the interpretation of this verdict as mean-
ing merely that the word is spelled with the same letters as when it
names the subject. It surely has no other claim to nominative rank. It
attends in fact to none of the duties performed by the different cases.
In particular it gives no hint of how its idea will be used in the struc-
ture of any thought. For if the thought of which that idea is a con-
stituent factor, were what I express by "Zachaeus is my topic", no doubt
Zachaeus would be planned to serve as subject and would properly rank
as a nominative; but if that thought were rather "I am going to discuss
Zachaeus," no doubt Zachaeus would be planned to serve as object and
could not rank as nominative. Again, of the thought whose expression
begins with "he", "Zachaeus" does not foretell the subject or the object.
I may indeed be about to say that "he climbed"; but I may also be
planning "a tree upheld him", etc., etc.; in fact I may not even myself have
determined the structure of this thought.

The use of nouns in book and chapter titles is much the same. In
these the nolm does not, indeed, by force make room for itself in the
following sentence, and its forewarning purpose is not so special; it
does, however, suggest the general nature of what is to follow. It is
also true of every principal that it may be taken as a warning of its
proxy's meaning. When such becomes its special purpose, through the
renunciation of other purposes, it may be recognized by a special desig-
nation, such as propositive, introductory or titular. As indicated above
it is really a caseless form, a proposition of an idea, that is, in blank,
without any of the various further conceptions which Grammar has
grouped in the category of case. Yet, if that must be known as case
which really is no case, it would be less confusing to call the principal,
in the now considered usage, a titular or propositive case, than to call
it nominative.

If it be conceded that "Zachaeus he did climb" is a mere curtailment
of "I am going to speak of Zachaeus. He did climb," it is obvious that
after "Zachaeus" a breach of thought occurs in both expressions.
Strictly then the former should be written "Zachaeus. He did climb
etc." It would be the merest corollary to add that "He" is reinstative;
that is, an idea named by Zachaeus disappears at the end of a first
thought or rather a fragment thereof; the idea reappears in another
thought under the infiuence of "He".

I feel however that the usual thought-procedure is different. The
mind of the people seems to persuade itself that what it seeks to ex-
press by "Zachaeus he did climb" is a single thought. That such is
indeed the popular persuasion, is indicated by the popular utterance of
the sentence. This may be indicated in writing as follows: "Zachaeus he
did climb." What may be the actual structure of the thought so oddly

24 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

expressed, I am peculiarly unfitted to say, as the phraseology has never
been part of my expressional outfit. I have therefore no attendant
thought to name as even my individual meaning. All that I can offer is
a suspicion, as follows: From a mere propositive, "Zachaeus" has be-
come legitimate subject. From the rank of subject, "he" has descended
to that of an explainer, distinguishing the subject as a person (an-
tagonized to "it"), as masculine (antagonized to "she") and as nomi-
native (antagonized to "him"). That is, this usage merely exhibits a
stage of the process by which the personal pronouns, first appositively
associated with nouns and next emptied of their meaning, finally an-
nex themselves as case-endings. The present phenomenon, thus con-
strued, is merely a case of arrested encliticism. A vicarious word,
primarily reinstative and later coinstative, is in value somewhere on
the line of development into an inflectional sufiix.

I have thus far adhered to the plan of examining proxies only
in their retrospective aspect. As a mere snggestion of the com-
pleteness with which such examination might be carried out,
I note that also the anticipative proxies may be differentiated,
according as the idea rudely prefigured by the proxy dees or
does not lapse before its completer exhibition by the following
principal. Thus, suppose you enter my r6om as I utter the
words ''He is very ill". The word ''He" is reinstative to an-
other auditor, possessed of my previous utterance ; but in your
case the word must be treated as anticipative, if you are to un-
derstand my meaning. I accordingly add "I am speaking of
Brown". To you, then, "He" is a proxy of the prospective or-
der. Also, if you think as I do, the idea expressed by "He" is
allowed to lapse (to the degTce at least of clearing the way for
ideas possibly yet to come) before the appearance of the princi-
pal "BrO'\\Ti." The office of "He" may be distinguished then
as predictive, preinstative or annunciative.

In "His illness alarms Smith," the "He" contained in "His"
appears again as a proxy and again prospective. Its idea does
not, however, lapse before the appearance of "Smith." It may
be distinguished as inceptive or inaugurative.

The two prospective usages may be illustrated as follows:
the annunciative office is that of Isaiah the prophet, long fore-
telling the Messiah's coming; the inaugurative is that of John
the Baptist, accompanied by the One foretold. The annuncia-
tive is an advance agent, the converse of a reinstative. The in-
augurative is rather an usher, the converse of a coinstative.

Owen — Eevisiofi of Pronouns. 25

IV. TPIEIR SIMULTANEOUS SEBVICE OF DIEFEKENT PRINCIPALS.

Suppose a series of ideas to be expressed in turn by successive
initiatives ; it lies within the power of one vicarious word to
serve as simultaneous proxy to them all. To illustrate, "I just
met Brown, Jones and Eohinson. They were on their way to
the Court-House''. In the latter sentence ^'Thev" reinstates
at once each one of the ideas expressed in turn by ^^Brown",
^^Jones," and ^'Robinson".

In doings of this sort the vicarious words accommodate their
scruples to the service of masters not only many, but also differ-
ent in sentential status. Thus, "A year ago I (subject or first
term) introduced you (object or last term) to Brown (indirect
object or adjunct of mid-term). ^Ye were rather gay that
night." 1

Such difference of principals may be even greater. Thus,
^'Blue is the color of Yale. The Harvard flag's are crimson.
These are famous colors." ^'These" presents vicariously and in
substantive function the ideas expressed by "blue" and "crim-
son". But of these ideas the former was, as principal, a noun,
and the latter an adiective.^

V. THE COMPLEXITY OF THEIR PRINCIPALS.

I have in mind at present the case in which two or more
ideas, structurally built together, are treated as a unit, and pre-
sented a second time by a vicarious word. In the previous case
the proxy might be said to serve one or more individuals. In
the present case it may rather be said to serve a society. To
illustrate, "The physicians declare the daughter of Brown to be
insane. He, is greatly depressed. She is his youngest child.
It is verv sad." In this sentential series "He" reinstates
"Bro^vn" and "Brown" only. "She" reinstates "the daughter
of Bro^vn". "It" reinstates the plexus expressed by "the daugh-

^It will furtlier be noted, in the appendix on personals, that also the lexical
values of principals are, in this case, very different.

2 This inaccuracy is repeated and extended in the interest of brevity. Strictly
the ideas noted have in thought that function v^-hich gives to their corresponding
words the sentential rank of noun and adjective.

26 W{sco7isin Academy of Sciences, Arts^ and Letters.

ter of Brown to be insane". Differentiating by another figure
of speeclij I may say that ''He'' pulls out a single stone from
previous thought-masonry, to use it in succeeding structure.
"It"j on the other hand, cuts from previous thought-masonry a
section made ujd of several stones and moves it in block, without
disintegration, into a succeeding structure.

VI. THEIK FIDELITY TO THE PEIXCIPAL.

By this I mean the exactness with which the proxy repre-
duces the idea suggested by the principal, either in extent (that
is, its quantitative aspect) or in content (that is, its qualitative
aspect). Fidelity, in other words, may have to do with either
number (or bulk) or kind. Confining examination to the for-
mer as more tangible and as showing all the variations found in
the latter, I note that the strictly faithful proxy presents an idea
in the same nmnerical aspect as its principal. Thus, having
said that ^'I just met three soldiers'', if I add that ^^They were
in uniform", you assume that I mean the original three, no more
and no less. Such vicarious service may be known as complete
or equivalent.

The vicarious word, however, sometimes augments the scope
of its principal. Thus, ^'I saw a tiger yesterday. In fact I
have seen a great many of them.'' ''A tiger" distinctly contem-
plates a single animal. "Them" reinstates this individual, but
adds thereto the remainder of the species. ^ Such uses of vicari-
ous words may be kno\\m as excessive or augmentive.

The vicarious word on the other hand may diminish the scope
of its principal. Thus, ''Birds are bipeds. Tliey have been
known to be also bicephalous." By "Birds" all individuals of
the order are plainly intended. "They," however, includes as-
suredly some birds only. Again, "'Brown ovei^slept. I expected
he would do that." "That" reinstates the idea of oversleeping,
but not the idea of past time or the personal belief (assertion)
expressed by "overslept". Vicarious w^ords of this sort may be
known as incomplete or reductive.

. . . — - ... - ■- — ■ <

1 Again " I just met Brown. His son is- ill." "His" reinstates "Brown" and does
this business accurately ; but at the same time " His " goes into business on its own ac-
count, presenting initiatively an idea of say possession, expressible by "of." As thus
presenting more ideas than its principal, " His" also may be ranked as in a sense aug-
mentive.

Owen — Bcvision of Pronouns. 27

The proxy of this type may rednce the number of the ideas
expressed by its principal to unity or even to zero. To illus-
trate, ^^ There was a bridal couple on the train. They seemed ill
at ease. She was dressed in Avhite. Neither was very young."
Of the proxies employed ^^They" is equivalent, having exactly
the scope of ^'couple". '^She" is reductive, reinstating a single
member of the original pair. "Neither," strictly taken, is
what may be called exclusive; that is, the number of conceived
persons, describable as very young, is zero.-^

The proxy may even both reduce and auginent, in a single vi-
carious act. Thus, ''x\n elephant's trunk is a useful member.
With it they perform the most delicate operations.'' AYithout
discussing the elegance or expediency of such usage, I note that
"elephant's" presents initiativeh' a single individual and further
the idea say of possession. "They" omits the idea of possession
and expands the individual into the species.

VII. THEIR FALLIBILITY.

Where many eligible principals occur in close succession, it
may or may not be evident, which one a proxy is intended to
serve. There is, indeed, a tendency to regard the dominant
word as principal ; but this is offset by another tendency so to
regard the nearer ; and either tendency may be abrogated in fa-
vor of a word neither near nor dominant. This embarrassment
may be relieved when the principals differ, as in number and
gender. Thus, given "Brown's sister has bought a horse. He,
she, or it is in the country", each proxy is available for a single
principal only. But given "Brown's brother has heard from
Smith's nephew. He, by the way, is going to Europe," "He"
may reinstate the idea expressed by either preceding noun ; and,
barring special knowledge of the speaker's linguistic methods, it
cannot be determined which possible principal is actually served
by "He".

This difficulty, which may be known as that of the which, is
matched by another, which may be known as that of the how

^The policy of ranking words lil^e "neither" as negative (in the sense in which
"not" is negative) is matter for interpellation in a special review of linguistic
negation.

28 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

much. When the proxy serves a plexus of icleas^ it is often
quite impossible to determine the extent of that plexus. Thus,
^'The papers declare Brown to have announced himself to be
unable to pay his debts. I didn't expect that.'' In this exam-
ple ^^that" may stand for the whole or a part of the preceding
sentence ; and the ]3art may be large or small. Thus by ^^that"
I may mean ''Brown to have announced etc.", or ''Bro"\^'n to be
unable etc.'', or even ''Brown to be able etc."

VIII. THEIR SERVICE OF VARIOUS PARTS OF SPEECH.

In this section I invite an effort to find, if it may be, with
Grammar's own eyes, the reinstated sentence-elements (or parts
of speech) which grammatical vision has overlooked. Conform-
ing then, so far as in me lies, to Grammar's categories, and con-
fining myself for the moment to vicarious substantives, since
Grammar recognizes these alone as pronouns, I first recall that
the use of such vicarious words to reinstate preceding nouns,
has already been amply illustrated. Similar reinstatement of
substantives classed as p7^onominal may rank as the merest corol-
lary. Thus, ^'That is my hat. It can't be yours."

Some tendency Grammar shows to the opinion that other parts
of speech are not thus reinstated. That, however, which words
(grammatically ranked as pronouns) do actually reinstate, is
often an adjective. Thus, extending illustrations beyond that
which perhaps alone ought to be and including what linguisti-
cally is, ''Bed rags enrage bulls. That is unfortunately the color
of my hat," or "The flag is red. That (or it) is a beautiful
color.'^

Even the idea expressed by the enfeebled ego-centric known
as the definite article (derived from that) is not unfrequently
reinstated. Thus, suppose you utter the word "Bro^vns" ; it
may suggest to me a considerable number of families. But if
you say "The Brow^ns", I at once restrict the scope of the word
to the particular family foremost in our common acquaintance.
Let now vour statement be ''The Broiuns have sailed for Eu-
rope". I reply: "They are great travellers". By "They" I
mean not merely what I have learned from the word "Browns",
but also what I have learned from the word "The" ; that is, I

Owen — Be vision of Pronouns. 29

reinstate by ^^They" the idea initially expressed by ^^The". The
further reinstatement of what was sncwsted bv "Browns" is
merely so much ordinary multiple symbolization. Again, if my
answer be ^"Those Browns are gTeat travellers", the reinstativo
action of "Those" appears to be conlined to what was expressed
by "The." My example however suffers now in cogency from
the fact that Grammar commonlv fails to note the vicarious and
therefore strictly pronominal value of "Those."

The reinstated idea is often primarily verbal. For instance,
"He said that he hurried. But he never did it in his life."

That the verbal adjective or 'participle should also be rein-
stated is a foregone conclusion. Thus "Hurrying people are
subject to accident. You needn't worry about Brown ; he never
does that (or t^)."

The verbal substantive or gerund is also subject to recaU.
Thus : "Brown's hurrying caused his accident. He is not
often guilty of that (or i^)."

The vicarious presentation, in substantive function, of an idea
initially adverbial is less common and should perhaps be noted
merely as a possibility. Thus, "Brown is v^alking very rapidly.
That (or it) does not often characterize his movements."

Much the same may be said of ideas initially prepositional.
Their reinstatement in substantive function may be illustrated
as follows. Suppose you ask me, "Is Brown in the house or in
the barn ?" I may answer, "He is that (or it) in respect to
neither." Thus guarded, my statement seems to bar the appli-
cation of "that" to any other idea than -what was expressed
bv "in. "

To reinstate an interjection by a recognized pronoun seems
a rather unlikely feat ; yet it is performed at least with quasi
success. For instance, speaking of a notorious public enemy,
suppose you say: "Alas! He is dead." I answer: ''That
is not my feeling."

Conjunctions are unfortunately much confused with preposi-
tions and adverbs ; I think, however, that I respect grammatical
opinion in giving the conjunctive rank to the word "but" in the
following illustration. Meeting me in the guest-room before a
dinner, you remark: "Miss X. is to be here. But I have

30 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arls^ and Letters.

come." To this I answer: ^'That doesn't describe your com-
ing at all. It is because she is to be here.'' The thonght ex-
pressed by remark and answer seems to me to be as follows:
"But" expresses addition of a discordant type, addition of the
preceding thonght, addition to ''T have come." The full mean-
ing, then, of the second sentence is, "I have come in S2:)ite of
Miss X's prospective presence." Condensing and redranghting
thonght perspective, I obtain "My coming is huf^ or antagonis-
tic (to her expected presence). In the same way my answer
resolves into the follovv^ing: "That (namely, antagonism)
doesn't describe yonr coming. It is resultant" (or because of her
prospective presence). While this use of "that" may stretch
conventionality, it does not seem to overtask the powers of the
reinstative. I therefore think it not too much to say that the
reinstatement of a conjunction by a pronoun is at least a lin-
guistic possibility.

IX. THEIR SERVICE AS VARIOUS PARTS OF SPEECH.

The following section aims to observe the reinstatives in their
use as different sentence-elements (parts of speech), including,
therefore, many uses to which Grammar has closed its eyes, re-
fusing to recognize as pronouns any but substantive words.

That the vicarious word may be used as a noun has been
abundantly shown in Section viii. That in such usage it is
separately ranked as a pronoun, has been noted as a mere vagary
of Grammar.

That it is also used as an adjective appears in the following
illustration: "Are the flags red? They are that/'^

Its use as an article is somewhat less assured. But suppose
you ask, "Where are my shoes?" and I answer, ''The shoes
are under the table ;" it is possible at least that "the" be taken
as reinstating the idea expressed by "my." For, had I said:
"They are under the table," "they" would surely be regarded
as reinstating "my shoes." Xow this possible "they" and the
actual "The shoes" of my answer seem to be synonymous.

^French Grammar lias been much embarrassed by such failure of usage to
abide by the dictum of syntax, sometimes ranliing "that" (le) as a pronoun and
sometimes, tbr reasons not easy to imagine, as an adverb.

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 31

^^Tlie shoes" may then, as well as ^*thev," be regarded as a re-
instatement of '^mj shoes." In such reinstatement obviously
^'shoes'' reinstates ''shoes only;" accordingly the reinstater of
the remaining ''my" wonld seem to be the article ^'The."

The verbal use of the proxy is well-nigh theoretical only.
To the question vrhether Brown sawed or chopped his Avood,
language might provide an intelligible answer of the form, ^^He
thissed it," or "He thatted it." But, so far as I am aware,
approximations only to such usage have been noted in actual
practice. Thus, if you ask whether my son stammers, I may
answer, "He does/' and while it mav be aroaied that "stammer"
is understood, there is some reason for believing that it is not,
or at least not alwavs. Latin sometimes allows a similar usa2:e
with '^facere ;" but "f acit bulbutire" would not be tolerated in
the sense required. ■'■

Obviously such verbal usage of the vicarious word may read-
ily become particiinal or verbally adjective.

It may also plainly become gerundive or verbally substantive.

The adverhial use of the proxy is very common, though not
always recognized by Grammar. To illustrate, suppose you
say of your horse that "He walks rapidly/' I answer that ^^My
horse walks so too."

Prepositions are constantly repeated without linguistic squeamishness.
Thus if you ask whether I was in the house cr in the barn, I answer
that "I was in the house", without fear of giving offense by using so
soon again the unobtrusive "in". The reasons of this exceptional tol-
eration need not be demonstrated. The fact itself discourages the
search for prepositional proxies. The possibility of reinstating by a
preposition may be suggested, however, as follows: Suppose you enter
my room as, in answer to a previous question, I utter the words "By
me". To your mind the word "by" suggests no doubt an idea; indeed
it is likely to suggest several. It may mean "near", as in "He sat by
the fire; it may mean "alongside of", as in "The path runs 61/ the river";
it may mean "past", as in "He walked ty my door". As a matter of
fact I use it in the present case with none of these meanings. While
then it can, it is true, make abundant suggestions, it is unable of itself
to specify the right idea. If however this right idea be previously
presented by an initiative, the word "by" can reproduce it exactly. To

iConf. "He does not stammer: but he bids fair to." In such expressions it
has been claimed that "to" has the value of "to stammer ;" that is, "to" is re-
garded as vicarious and is verbally employed.

32 Wisconsin Academy of 8cien,ces, Arts, and Letters.

show this, I expand my illustration as follows: "Through the agency of
whom was the glass broken? By me." In this expression it appears
that "by", though unable alone to suggest intended meaning, succeeds
In accomplishing the expressional purpose through the reinstatement
of the idea initiatively named by "through the agency of." That is,
"By" may be said to illustrate the possibility of reinstatement by a
preposition.

The reinstative use of the intei'jection is also essentially theoretical.
Its possibility may be illustrated as follows: The isolated "Ah!" sug-
gests many possible emotional S/tates. If the extra-verbal aid of vocal
tone, facial expression, etc., be excluded, "Ah" alone is unable to ex-
press a particular emotion. But by the aid of initiative words it may
do so. Thus "Brown alasl is dead. Ahl" The emotional status, ex-
pressed by "ah!" unaided, might be that of joy, or sorrow. As a re-
instater of what was meant by "alas!" the word "ah!" is entirely ade-
quate. Again, to your "Hallo!", meaning "I want your attention", I
answer "Aye!", meaning "You have my attention". That is, the in-
terjection al "Aye!", in part at least, reinstates what was expressed
initiatively by "Hallo!"

The vicarious use of the conjunction is clearly sho\\Ti in
French by one of the uses of ''que." While no doubt this word
may often imply an ellipsis (as of ^'lors/' when standing for
'%rsque"), and while it may strictly even imply a new con-
struction (as vvdien taking the place of "si"),^ nevertheless the
grammars no doubt are right in claiming that, to the average
mind, the value of ''que'' is merely that of a repeater, that is,
a reinstative, bringing in a second time an idea initiatively ex-
pressed by another word.

X. EXTENT OF VICARIOUS USAGE.

Under this caption I invite a moment's attention first to several
strict!}" vicarious uses of words which Grammar has ranked as
personals. Of these the words "I" and "thou," as indicated later,
commonly stand directly for the person intended, without the aid
of any initiative presentation. In written or, say, epistolary
language they may, however, be regarded as vicarious. Thus,
in a letter which you have written, finding the word "thou,"
I do not know whom it intends, unless I read the preliminary
"J. B. Smith, Dear Sir." It is possible, therefore, in this case
to rank your "thou" as vicarious and of the retrospective type.

^Conf. "Si vous venez et (suppose) que je ne sois pas cliez moi."

Owen — Bevision of Pronouns. 33

Also, if there be in the letter an ^'T," it is uncertain whom it in-
tends, until I read at the letter's end, ^'Respectfully yours, H. C.
Bro^^Ti." It is possible, therefore, in this case, to rank the "I"
as vicarious and of the anticipative type. ^'ITe,'' ^'she," and
•^^it,'^ as also "we," "you" and "they," are almost always vica-
rious, as in the frequent illustrations already given. The ex-
■ceptions are treated in the appendices.

The vicarious use of so-called demonstratives has been, I
think, sufficiently indicated. That words regarded by Grammar
as indefinite pronouns may serve in fact as proxies appears in
the following sentence : "A sower went out to sow his seed, and
as he sowed, some fell by the way-side." That the reflexive is
always vicarious has been already argued. That the usually
relative word may be vicariously employed is apparent in th-e

sentence: "lis chercherent , qui d'un cote, qui d'un

autre" (Balzac). That even the interrogative may be in part,
at least, vicarious Avill probably be conceded in "Here are two
apples. Which will you have ?"

The following sentences exhibit a cluster of words, whose
powers, though distinctly vicarious, are more or less in danger
•of being overlooked. "Brown and Smith can't agree. The
former dislikes the latter. Each distrusts the other. Neither
has reason. I would trust either. Both deserve confidence,
one as much as the other.^^ Speaking, again, of a larger group
of persons, I might remark: ^^All are my acquaintances.
Many are my friends. Few dislike me. None are my enemies."

The vicarious symbol is also readily overlooked, when dis-
,^ised, as often happens, in a compound. Thus : "Brown gave
me a hooh. Therewith (= with it) I was greatly pleased.
Therefrom I have learned much. Thereto my thoughts recur.
^ Therefor I have thanked him." The differentiation of these
words being a lexical matter, involving no fundamental principle
of idea-presentation, may be neglected.

Much deeper suggestion is offered by the frequent vicarious
use of "such." To illustrate, mv bookseller writes: "You ask
for novels. I send you a dozen such." In this example the
vicarious action of "such" is of the ordinary, simple type. On
the other hand, in the phrase. Soldiers, sailors and such," the
3

34 }'Visco?isin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

idea-presenting jDOwer of ^^sncli" is only in part vicarious. That
power, in fact, is the same as that of ^^persons like them," in
which "soldiers" and "sailors" are a second time presented by
"them," while "persons like" are presented initiatively. Again,

"Suffer little children to come unto me For of such is the

kingdom of Heaven." "Such" in this case stands, I take it,
for two groups : first, by simple reinstatement, for "little chil-
dren" ; second, for "persons like little children," this latter
group being obtained by a second reinstatement of "little chil-
dren" simultaneous with the initiative presentation of "persons
like." That is, "such" accomplishes one initiative and two
vicarious presentations.

The multiple activity of the vicarious word is even more note-
worthy in the folloAving illustration : Suppose that two children
have just figured at a school commencement; one is a boy and
the other a <2:irl ; thev belonc* to different families : the mother
of one and the father of the other are present. I may ^then
very well say, (1) "Mr. A. has witnessed the graduation of his
boy,"^ using "his" at the same time to reinstate "Mr. A." and
initiatively to express a relation hardly possessive, indeed more
strictly parental; (2) "Mrs. B. has witnessed the graduation
of her girl," in which "her" reinstates "Mrs. B." and initiatively
indicates the parental relation. The two parental relations are,
however, quite independent, as each concerns a different pair
of terms ; indeed, we strongly tend to differentiate them qualita-
tively. I am hardly hair-splitting when I specify the former
relation as paternal and the latter as maternal. Assuming this
differentiation to be conceded, I note that what I have expressed
in two sentences is commonly put in one, as follows: ''Mr. A.
and Mrs. B. have witnessed the graduation of their boy and girl,"
a sentence in which Hheir' accomplishes all that was effected
by 'liis' and 'lierf' that is, ''their'' makes two reinstatements,
while initiatively expressing two different relations. The com-
plexity of the feat performed by "their" may be emphasized in
the following algebraic paraphrase: given a > h and c < dy
it is required to express a, c, > and < by a single symbol.
Other sjanbols, though conspicuously vicarious, are sometimes

^I avoid the word "son" in order to throw all relation indication upon "his."

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 85

overlooked by Grammar, ^vlien tliey chance to be adverbial.
That the adverb may indeed be vicarious was intimated on p.
31. In further illustration I offer the following sentences. Sup-
pose you say: "Jones acted impolitely." To this I answer:
^^I don't think he acted so at all." ''So" reinstates ''impolitely."
Again, answering your question, "Does BrowTL dine here ?" I
answer: "He dines elsewhere/' that is, I name by ''elsewhere'^
place distinguished as different from this place ("here") ; in
other words, the symbolic value of ''elsewhere" is partly reinsta-
tive and partly initiative. So, too, in "BrowTi eats wdth a fork.
Jones eats otherwise,'' the last word indicates a method differ-
ent from that indicated bv "with a fork." A2:ain, to vour state-
ment that "Bro\\^l is rich," I answer, "He is handsome, too,
Ukeiuise, also, withal, besides," meaning by "too" (or any of its
successors) '*in addition to rich."

It has already been remarked that the pronouns, instead of
reviving a single idea, may revive an ideal plexus. It is nat-
ural to expect that such a plexus should sometimes have the
nature and the fullness of a thought. So far as the vicarious
word is in such a case conceived as a "thought-connective" or
sentence- joiner, it has been examined in another paper, in which
it is argued that the thought of a first sentence is substantively
reconceived and put by the connective in oblique or adverbial
association with the verb of the second sentence. To illustrate^
"He invited jrq. . .Therefore I came." "Therefore" dissects
into "for (= from) that," the latter being a reinstative and the
former a relation-namer, the two together forming an adverbial
adjunct of "came." That is, "my coming" is conceived as
"from (= on account of) his inviting me."

The thought vicariously presented may enter the structure of a sec-
ond thought in several ways, for instance, as its first term or subject.
Thus, to your statement: "Brown is ill", I answer "That (i. e.,
Brov/n's being ill) surprises me". Again, the first thought, being rein-
stated in the second, may be its last term. Thus, answering again
your "Brown is ill", I say: "I regret ^Tiaf. " Je n'2/ crois pas" pre-
sents the illness of Brown as an indirect object or dative, "Ten suis
fache" offers it as genitive of source or ablative of cause. In short,
the various relations indicated by case forms are assumed by reinstated
thought.

The vicarious presentation of thought thus far considered has beea

36 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts^ and Letters.

of the retrospective type; it may also be anticipative. To illustrate,
"Wishing to put before you the proposition that France will fight, and
wishing further to put it that people say this, I am likely to begin with
the expression "People say". At this point I find it convenient to in-
troduce a provisional object, namely "that". This object has the ad-
vantage of being accustomed to objective function, whereas the ex-
pression "France will fight", though my actual object, Is accustomed to
rank as a sentence, and does not readily resign itself to being the mere
object of another sentence. The word "that" is no doubt inadequate,
because indefinite; but this very indefiniteness is so extreme as to give
sufficient assurance that it does not express all that I intend. The sen-
tence "They say that" is surely far from worth the effort of expression.
You safely argue that more is yet to follow. You accept my "that" as
a quasi promise of further and more definite expression. In other
words you recognize my "that" as a mere prelude, as an anticipative
proxy. And when I continue with "France will fight", you readily ac-
cept these words as the proxy's principal — as the definite expression,
promised by "that".

Such I mean is the original and clearer conception of "that," as in-
dicated by its history in several languages. In time the word has been
largely emptied of meaning and has sunk to the level of a sign that the
following thought is merely a substantive factor of another thought.
Occasionally in Spanish, the equivalent "que," having many other pos-
sible values, is reinforced by the article. Such usage renders obvious
a structural displacement of "that", which has passed from an earlier
full membership of "People say that" into ancillary membership of
"that France will fight". This change too is further accompanied by
change in punctuation. The sentence, as originally constructed, would
be written "They say that — France will fight". As now construed it is
written, w^hen at all protracted, "They say, that France will fight".

In the present illustration the anticipative "that" is last term or ob-
ject. In "That France will fight is commonly believed" it is subject.
In "They do evil that good may follow" it is indirect object or say a
dative of purpose. In "I am sorry that he is ill", it may be regarded
as ablative of cause. It is in all cases the result of mere neglect, that
the anticipative "that" is uninflected.

When the original anticipative value and the full structural signifi-
cance of "that" have once been forgotten, the purpose of its introduc-
tion naturally seems to be unfulfilled, and therefore may be carried
out a second time. Thus primarily one would naturally write "That —
(namely) France will fight — is generally believed" or "That is gen-
erally believed — (namely) France will fight" or even "Is generally be-
lieved that — (namely) France vdll fight." But so soon as such inter-
pretation of the last is reached, as may be expressed, with change of
punctuation, by "Is generally believed, that France will fight;" that is.

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 37

80 scon a5 "that" is regarded as a mere sign of substantive usage, the
main sentence is left without apparent subject. The bla,nk may then be
filled by the anticipative "It", with the following result: lb is gener-
ally believed that France will fight." Also rearrangement permits suc-
cessive use of both anticipative and retrospective proxies as follov/s:
"As for this, that France will fight, it is generally believed". That is,
historically rendered, the fighting of France is anticipated by "i/tis"
and by "that'' as well as retrospectively repeated by ' it".

The conception of "that" as a "conjunction", required to connect the
following clause v/ith the principal, is obviously untenable and actually
losing favor. If saying needs joining to v/hat is said, I see no reason
to doubt that eating needs to be joined to vrhat is eaten. And con-
versely, given "The boy ate the pudding", if I can dispense with a bond
of union between the boy's eating and the pudding, so also in "They say
that France will fight" I doubt not that I can do without a conjunction
between "their saying" and "France's fighting". The error of Grammar
lies however deeper than these suggestions indicate, and deserves a
moment's attention in view of its bearing on the general problem of
conjunction. It lies in conceiving the saying and the fighting as in a
condition to be joined, that is, as separate. In fact they arc members
of a single sentence, one utterly unfaithful to my purpose, if either
member be omitted. "They say" does not tell you what I mean or any
self-suflicient part thereof; the same is true of "France will fight".
These two are parts of one whole and accordingly as closely joined as
thought and speech can make them. For the utmost union that any
factor of thought or sentence can establish with its fellows, is attained
so soon as it is recognized as indispensable to what is intended. Union
and junction are really the merest figures of speech. The reality of
the case is indispensability. Now of all the words in my illustration
one only can be omitted without injury to my thought or its presentar
tion, namely, "that".^ Yet on this word, of all my words the least
necessar5% Grammar lays the burden of performing the conjunctive act.
That is, in extremely objective parlance, the word "that" does not stick,
itself, to either part of my sentence; yet one of the parts thereof it
shall, as Grammar will have it, stick to the other. It is, in other v/ords,
expected to glue two things together, without itself adhering to either.

The vicarious function is somewliat more obscure in "Yes"
and "JSTo." To illustrate tliis^ suppose you ask me, "Is Brown
ill?" and I answer, "Yes." I think it will generally be ad-

^When "that" is left out, it is the merest begging of the question to claim
that it still is present in thought. No such claim is made with a direct quota-
tion. Yet such quotation consists of the same thought as the indirect, being
merely further conceived as in the words of a particular individual. In short
the direct quotation, as the larger addendum, should require the stronger bond
of union, and presumably can least dispense therewith.

38 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ ArtSj and Letters.

mitted tliat ^^Yes" means ^^Brown is ill." In expressing this
meaning, ^'Yes'' might reinstate preceding thought as a total,
in two parts or in three. If the last, the most difficult method,
be the one pursued, I must find in ^^Yes'' three factors, say (1),
(2), and (3), which respectively reinstate "Brovsoi," "is,'' and
"ill.'' But the "is," being easily supplied, is therefore often
omitted. It may be, then, that "Yes" contains only (1) and
(3). Assuming such to be the case, let "Hoc" take the place
of (1) and "illud" the place of (3), developing "Hoc— illud,"
with the understood value of "Hoc est illud," namely, "This
(i. e. Bro^vn) is that (i. e. ill)."^ This combination, historically
familiar, produced by successive changes, "o — il," "ou — il,"
"oui." That is, and I argue nothing more, the "oui" is con-
ceivable as a simultaneous reinstatement of those preceding
thought-factors, which are regarded as most necessary.

That "hoc" may rather reinstate the whole preceding thought,
being merely reinforced by "illud," or vice-versa, I should not
seek to disprove ; I would even admit that different minds may
have used this linguistic mechanism differently ; I imagine, too,
that minds have utilized other expedients for reaching the re-
sults accomplished by "yes" and "no." For instance^ such a
word as "truly" may add to the power of initiatively suggesting
truth the power of reinstating what is conceived to be true ; and
such procedure would justify, so far as it goes, the grammatical
practice of ranking "yes" and "no" as affirmative and negative
adverbs. All that I wish to emphasize is that the affirmative
and negative idea, to be of use, must be juxtaposed in mind with
what is affirmed or denied. In the case of "yes" and "no"
this requirement involves the reinstatement of preceding
thought. In the absence of other means, this reinstatement
must be effected by these words themselves. That is, the so-
called affirmative and negative adverbs express all that is ex-
pressed by affirmative or negative propositions. They properly
rank then, as others have noted, not as parts of speech, but as
sentences.

XI. THEIR ORIGIN.

This may very well have been of many kinds. For instance, the ini-
tiative may have changed into a vicarious symbol. Conceived as a mere

>Conf, "That's it.'

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 39

possibility, such a change may be illustrated as follows: given "this"
and "that," meaning initiatively the near and the far of space, by a
well-worn path of idea transition they become the near and the far
of time, and these have but a line to cross to become the near and the
far of consciousness. Accordingly "this" coincides with an idea of
which I am thinking or am vividly conscious; "that" by antagonism
associates itself With an idea already distinctly thought and now wan-
ing, or yet to be thought distinctly and now but dawning — an idea
then, in either case, of which I am at this moment conscious but dimly.
Many reasons might be alleged in favor of a preliminary leaning in
favor of what has been thought already; that is, the use of the vica-
rious word was at first presumably retrospective. Suppose then I say:
^'Brown was married on Christmas. That is my birthday." My
meaning is as follows: That (of which I icas thinking, i. e., Christmas)
is (this of which I am thinking, necessarily specially symbolized as)
my birthda5\ "That," being primarily used of things, tends to over-
look an idea so unobjective as marriage; the choice between "Brown"
and "Christmas" is settled by number, gender, adaptability to context,
-etc.

XII. THEIR MOTIVE.

The vicarious word is rather a liniriiistic liixiirv than a ne-
cessity. It may always be replaced by its principal ; but such
use of the latter involves an obtrusive repetition, and to this
a dislike is early developed. Thus I may, with perfect exact-
ness, tell vou that "Brown savs Brown's brother has sold Bro^vn
Bro^vn's brother's horse ;" but the fastidiousness of speech is
offended. Preference is ffiven to '"Brown savs his brother has
sold him his horse."

XIII. THEIE i:^CIDEXTAL ADVAXTAGES.

A suitable corps of idea-repeaters aids correct understanding.
As soon as they are fully recognized as such, they give notice
that what they name has been named before. Initiatives, on
the other hand, create an expectation of the new. Thus, sup-
pose I say, "I have been talking with Broivn. I learn that my
neigJihor is ill." As a matter of fact ''my neighbor" and
^'Brown" are one person; but this you do not expect, because
neighbor" is usually employed to name an idea different from

4i

40 Wisconsiji Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

its predecessors. To use initiative words for old ideas is, then,,
to thwart expectation, I shonkl do better to sav, ^^I have been
talking with BrowTi. I learn that lie is ill." When old ideaSy
then, are intended, their reception is aided by the use of rein-
statives, words, that is, which announce the old as snch. The'
gain attending the nse of idea-repeaters is accordingly this : the
speaker is able to announce each idea in its turn as okl or new,
thereby reducing the field in which the hearer is to seek the
idea. ^

The use of idea-forerunners may aid the receiver of thought-
elements in their right assemblage. This advantage, already in-
timated on p. 36, may be illustrated more completely as follows r
^Trance w^ill fic'ht is thous^ht bv manv." In this sentence you
are embarrassed bv difficult v in determining what my subiect
is, until mv sentence has been half concluded. This embarrass-
ment may be relieved by a prospective. Availing myself of its-
aid, I tell you, "It is thought by many France will fight." "It"
is obviously not my actual subject, but rather a promise of a
subject. Accepting it as such, you realize that what immedi-
ately follows must be what I have to say of my subject; and
when that saying is ended, you recognize the remainder as my
actual subject.

To their inferior prestige, whether used as idea-repeaters
or as forerunners, the vicarious v/ords exhibit physical con-
formity, being weak in bodily presence. By this I mean that
they are comparatively small and inconspicuous, thereby making
a double practical gain. In "Montgomery says his brother-in-
law has sold him his horse," the shortness of the proxies brings
me on the one hand quicklv to mv sentence end and on the other
somewhat beguiles your sense of repetition. This double gain
is more conspicuous, if the above sentence be compared with the
followino;: "Monta'omerv savs Monta'omerv's brother-in-law
has sold Montgomery Montgomery's brother-in-law's horse."

In the discussion of vicarious usage I have rejected current phraseol-
ogy, because it tends to offer uncertain and even deceptive suggestions.
Grammar, for instance, calls a pronoun's principal its "antecedent.""

^This advantage may be compared to that afforded, in the game of twenty
questions, by the Initial establishment of the unknown object as animal, vege-
table or mineral.

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 41

The fact that the so-called ct^^ecedent is often really a posfcedent, is
alone sufficiently embarrassing to invite the use of another name. The
suggestion offered by the grammatical term is also quite illusive, tend-
ing to reverse the prestige of principal and proxy. To call the former
the antecedent, that is, the preceder, offers somewhat such a slight as
to call the kite the forerunner of its tail or the Sistine Madonna the
precursor of its chromolithographic effigy.

Again, the vicarious word is said, like the relative, to "refer" or
"relate" to its initiative original. Without emphasizing the fact that
the proxy, in its frequent precedence of its principal, strictly /);-olates,
I raise the fundamental objection, that referring and relating give no
hint of what in fact linguistically happens. To illustrate, suppose that,
having said to me "Brown is ill," you add "He is going abroad,"
Grammar will have it that "He" "refers" or sends me back to "Brown."
But in thought I cannot go backward. The succession of my mental
states and activities runs in one direction — forward. It is impossible
for me really to return to one of them, v\fhen once it has lapsed. My
"breakfast today may be exactly like my breakfast of yesterday,
but in eating it I do not go backward or revert; at most I repeat.
So, too, I may think today essentially what I thought yesterday, but
I do not really go back even in thought; I do not revert; I merely
think again today what I thought the day before. There Is, then, no
sending backward of the thinker and no going back, of course, on the
part of the word.

The presentation of an idea hj a vicarious word is a mere in-
cident of symbolism. This incident, of extreme importance to
the study of symbols, is unimportant to the study of thought.
Whether I say ^^Brown thinks he is ill," or ^'Brown thinks Brown
is ill," my thought may be regarded as the same. Concentrat-
ing attention now on thought, and in particular on the thought-
element illustrated by ^^he," I note that the idea presented by
such a word is used as a thought-factor once when presented
initiatively and again when presented vicariously; that is, the
idea symbolized by principal and proxy appears in the minds of
speaker and hearer twice at least. The following theory of
"relatives" consists essentially of the proposition that, so far as
an idea be sjTnbolized by merely an ^^antecedent" and a "rela-
tive," that idea is thought but once.

42 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, ArtSj and Letters.

CHAPTER III.— RELATIVE WORDS.

These are described by Grammar as words which relate to
an antecedent, that is, to a principal. But, even if such be the
fact, it does not sensibly differentiate them from the already
examined vicarious words. Like these the relati 'cs are also a
linguistic luxury; they assume both retrospective and prospec-
tive attitudes ; they vary in nearness and fidelity to their prin-
cipals and in the certainty of their service; they enter the sen-
tence now as one and again as another part of speech. Their
principals also vary in number, complexity and thought-factor-
ship, being sometimes single and sometimes multiple, present-
ing sometimes a single idea and sometimes a plexus, and being
at no time confined to appearance as any particular part of
speech.

Turning from characteristics shared by relatives with other
words, I wish to find a characteristic, if such there be, which
distinguishes relatives only. Such, being found, may show
whether Grammar is right in ranking relatives as a special pro-
nominal class ; whether, to question more deeply, the relatives
after all are pronouns ; whether indeed they are properly rated
even as words.

The following inspection, necessarily somewhat microscopic,
I wish to appear as part of a broader survey of mental phe-
nomena, for the sake of making sure, if possible, that nothing
indispensable is overlooked. Conceding then to mental activ-
ity the greatest fullness conceivable, I offer as my initial topic,

I. MULTIPLE THINKING,

supposing that a mind may work on several lines of thought at
once; that two such lines of thought may be parallel, each fail-
ing to coincide in any part with the other ; that they may be con-
vergent, passing from* parallelism to coincidence; that con-
versely they may be divergent; that two lines of thought, one

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 43

more dominant than the others may converge for a moment and
then diverge^ the other becoming more dominant than the one;
that is, two lines of thought may cross each other, or exchange
supremacy.^

In normal thought-expression, which is all I wish at present
to consider, it is not required to take account of these various
forms of multiple thinking. I can tell you and you can success-
fully listen to one thought only at a time. Even in exchange of
thought-supremacy the presenting effort of the moment is single.
Written and printed language, being, as thus far developed, mere
transliterations of oral speech, are subject to its law, which may
therefore be more broadly formulated by saying that, howsoever
many thoughts occur together in the speaker's mind, he must
present them to the hearer one at a time. That is, simultaneous
thoughts must be made successive before linguistic presentation.
Attention may therefore be confined to

II. SINGLE THINKING.

•It is obvious that in a single series of successive thoiights one
member may or may not be linked to its neighbor. That is,
single thinking may be

(a) Incoliei^ent.
Thus, given "I just met Brown. Peace is concluded with
Spain," it may provisionally be admitted that the two thoughts
of this series do not cohere or, in other words, are incoherent.

(h) Coherent.

Given, on the other hand, "I have a book will please you,"
it may be assumed that the thoughts expressed, namely, "I have
a book" and "a book will please you" are coherent.

III. EXPRESSION OF INCOHEKENT THOUGHT.

(a) Interrupted.
This mode of expression was followed in "I just met Brown.
Peace is concluded." Such expression only is in such a case

^Thus in the French "Je crains qu'il ne vienne" a fear that he will and a hope
that he will not come may be regarded as exchanging supremacy at "ne." But
such change in mid-sentence from fear-expression to hope-expression may be
relegated to the special field of sentence pathology.

44 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences,, Arts, and Letters.

completely natural. Incolierent tliouglits should be expressed
by unconnected sentences. Sometimes, liowever, the expression
of incoherent thought is

(h) Continuous.

Thus, "I played, he sang, she danced." This mode of expres-
sion, common enough in actual conversational style, is in this
case plainly unnatural. My thoughts not being coherent or
connected, I should not make my sentences even formally contin-
uous. As neither this nor the preceding case will be found to
make use of relatives, both may be neglected.

IV. EXPRESSION OF COHERENT THOUGHT.

(a) Continuous.

This method appears in "I have a book will please you."
Such may be regarded as the normal expression of coherent
thought ; in such the relatives figure ; such will form the special
object of examination. It is meantime useful to recognize the
occurrence of the other method of expression, namely the

(h) Interrupted.

To divide the expression of coherent thought m.ay seem as use-
less as to make two bites of a single cherry. To say "I have a
book'' and again "A book v/ill please you", is plainly quite un-
natural. That sometimes, however, such a method must be fol-
lowed, appears as follows :

V. LIMITATIONS OF CONTINUOUS EXPRESSION.

To express continuously an unlimited amount, even of co-
herent thought, is quite impracticable. Aid to such expression
is amply furnished indeed by relatives, as also by tantamount
expressions (see p. 104, later), each of which in turn may form
the point of attachment for additional relative or similar ele-
ments. The linguistic possibilities thus developed are amus-
ingly shown by the nursery phrase-chains introduced by ^'This
is the house that Jack built." E'or are such abuses merely im- •
aginary. I quote from a college daily the following sentence,

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 45

which, being part of an obitnary notice, may be taken as seri-
ously intended: ^'The sad ending of the beginning of a life
full of promise of all that is held dear in this world, was that

of young , affectionately liked by his fellow-students and

impressing all with whom he came in contact with his sterling
qualities of character, modest, unassuming and conservative,
dignified and imposing in appearance, yet allowing an air of con-
viviality and alertness to hover about him, that readily made him
a most companionable fellow, an acquaintance to be desired by
those who had not the pleasure of his friendship and hospitality,
which was always lavish, yet in such good taste as never to be
conspicuous." This example proves perhaps too much, indicat-
ing the possibility of avoiding sentence-rupture indefinitely. Yet
the reader's fatigue may be accepted as showing that bounds have
been overstepped. A thread indeed may be spun without a
break, as long as spinning mechanism and materials endure.
But for the convenience of both seller and buver it is cut into
lengths. So too the mental output, though it might indefinitely
continue unbroken, as a matter of linguistic fact, is delivered by
installments.

*

VI. THE BULK OF THOUGHT-INSTALLMENTS.

(a) How Influenced.

Of all the causes which tend to modify the length of the men-
tal message, the most important is no doubt the capacity of the
speaker. A successful ca]3tain may be a failure, if required to
act as general. He who has the linguistic strategy needful to
the command of a short sentence, may utterly lack the general-
diip required for a long one. The capacity of the hearer is also
properly consulted by the speaker. The size of a verbal army
is conditioned on the ability of the invaded region to support it.
With a child the thought-installment must be very small; with
an adult it may be greater ; with an adult German it may be ex-
tremely great.

(h) How Measured.

The individual thought-installment will be found to contain
all that this investigation must consider. Since much depends

46 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts^ and Letters.

on the length of snch instaUment^ it is desirable to establish a
scale by which it can be measured. I therefore invite an ef-
fort to determine the proper

VII. rXIT OF THOUGHT-MEASUREMENT.

Snj^pose that in addressing nie you utter merely the phrfise
"The sun" ; and suppose further that you successfully rouse in
my mind the idea for which this phrase is connnonly used ; sup-
pose too that from your utterance I infer that you also are think-
ing of the same idea. It must still be admitted that the ideal
total common to our minds is very meager, too small indeed to
be worth your labor in expression or mine in apprehension. The
price "for your thoughts" being currently quoted as " a penny,"
the market value of a single thought-factor can hardly be great
enough to warrant the expense of transportation.

Suppose now you go further, saj^ing "The sun, the moon."
My mind is now enriched by two ideas, which otherwise I might
not enjoy. I may furtlier correctly infer that you also have
both in mind. But the market value of your mental output is
presumably only doubled. It is safe to say that, were language
able only to deal with pairs of ideas, it would not exist in a form
deserving the name. Two ideas thus summoned together may,
it is true, induce us both to perform upon them mental opera-
tions. But nothino' assures us that these would be the same or
that, even if they were the sailie, we should be sure that they were
so. Such operations, the essentials of thought, are not sug-
gested by the words of my example. These words indeed give
only thought-data ; and these data alone have not sufficient value
to justify expression.

The passage of attention from one idea to another is con-
veniently known as a mental transit. That you have made such
a transit from the idea of the sun to that of the moon, I raay
of course infer. But my knowledge, even thus augmented, is
quite unsatisfactory. I care little to learn that you have merely
experienced a succession of ideas, or where the succession began,
or where it ended. If anything in such an experience can in-
terest me, it will be the impressions of the mental traveller.
You must give me something of the personal element that sat-
iirates the "Sentimental Journey."

Owen — Eevlsio7i of Fronouns. 47

Suppose now you say ^Tlie sun exceeds the moon," or "is be-
hind the moon." You give me now not only two ideas, but also
a relation between them ; in other words, I know that you have
made a mental journey, where it began, where it ended, and,
most important of all, your impressions by the w^ay. You re-
veal in short a complete experience. Such alone is worth the
effort of telling and that of learning.^

Such an experience, commonly called a thought, consists of
two ideas and their relation. Its expression does not always con-
tain a special word for each of its terms. Something is oft^i
left to inference. Extra-linguistic aid, for instance that of
gesture, is sometimes invoked. The sam.e word even may sim-
ultaneously stand for more than one thought-factor. But, how-
ever expression be effected, if it be indeed effected, these three
elements of thought, a pair of ideas and their relation, all
are present. Xothing less w^ll answer. Given "The sun
exceeds the moon," if a single term be omitted, the value of
the remainder to a receiving mind is essentially nil. !Nor
wdll anv substitute suffice. "The sun, the comet, the moon"

*J 7 7

is worthless ; so also is "The sun exceeds equals" ; the same would
be true of anv other variation from the combination described
as a thou£:ht, that namelv of two ideas and their relation. ISToth-
ing less indeed is attempted by speech.^ This total then may
be recognized as the lingaiistic minimum and therefore, with
special propriety, the linguistic unit. So often then as we find
this combination of two ideas and their relation, w^e tally one
upon the thought-score.

VIII. COHEEENT UNITS HAVE A COMMON FACTOR.

This truism merely calls for illustration. Suppose I tell you
that "I just met Brown — Smith is ill." Measuring by the unit
just established, I find two thoughts, namely my meeting with

^Tbe question whether thought results imprimis from analysis or from
synthesis need not be raised. In any language using words as signs of single
ideas (not as signs of whole thoughts) the speaker necessarily analyzes his
thought, however first conceived, into ideas. These ideas the hearer forms into
a thought by synthesis.

21 overlook interjectional utterance, the more or less unmodified survival of
the purely reflex cry, originally a mere leakage of the expressional mechanism,
void of that purpose essential to the genuinely linguistic act.

48 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts^ and Letters.

Brown and the illness of Smith. These are plainly incoherent ;
or, in popular parlance, they have nothing to do ^vith each other ;
that is, they have nothing in common ; that is, again, no element
of one is also an element of the other.

Suppose, however, I say "I have a book you will like." My
total thought again consists of two units, first my possession of
the book, second vour likino- the book. But this time one ele-
ment is indispensable to each thought, namely ^'the book." That
is, the two thought-units have a common factor. This commu-
nity is plainly the condition of their coherence. It seems in-
deed entirely safe to generalize as follows: If two units have
a common factor, an element, that is, which is indispensable to
or inseparable from each, they cohere.

As the common factor is the key to relative usage, it is well
to distinguish sharply between strictly common and merely
equivalent factors. In doing so it is convenient, how^ever, to ac-
cept a usage which indiscriminately ranks them both as common
factors and, using this phrase with admitted inaccuracy, to re-
differentiate them as common factor varieties. Of these I take
up first

IX. THE SUCCESSIVE OR TWICE THOUGHT COMMON FACTOR.

The common factor of this type occurs when coherent thought
is, in its expression, interrupted. Thus "I have a book will please
you," expresses a coherent thought continuously expressed.
The expression of this thought may however be interrupted,
as in "I have a book. The book will please you." In this ex-
pression, so soon as I have finished saying "I have a book", all
ideas mentioned withdraw from your immediate attention. ]^one
of them will reappear without a special invitation — that is, if
you be a faithful listener. Wishing you now to think of one
of them as factor also of a second thought, I must recall it to
your attention. Accordingly I continue with ^The book will
please you". The idea named by ^^book" appears, then, twice
in your mind, once as a factor of each thought presented. That
is, it is a twice-thought factor. It is merely speaking from a
different point of view^ to say that) this idea appears later on the

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 49

second occasion than on the first. That is, it is a successive-
factor.

The same is true if I substitute a reinstative for ^^hook" in its-
second usage. ''T have a book. It will please you" differs from
my last expression merely in a minor incident of symboliza-
tion. ^ Thought is the same. Generalizing on this example, I
venture the proposition, that the special office of reinstatives is
the formal restoration of thought-coherence, when that coher-
ence is formally broken by the interruption of expression.

X. THE SIMULTANEOUS OR ONCE THOUGHT COMMON FACTOE.

The sentence "I have a book will please you" plainly contains
tw^o thoughts, expressible by ^'I have a book" and "Book will
please you." It also is plain that the idea named by '^book" is
a member of each of these thoughts. It seems to me olso plain
that this idea, although a factor of tvv-o thoughts, is conceived
by the mind but once. I claim, that is (what many minds may
rank as self-evident) that a single idea is in two simultaneous
thought-memberships.

That such a claim is not inherently absurd is shown by its validity
even in the most trying application, namely to objects in space. Thus,
the northeast corner-stone of my house is at the same time a member
of the north wall and of the east wall. The validity of such a claim in
the structure of thought may be tested as follows: If the idea named
by "book" in my example be twice (or more) conceived, it is plain that
its double conception may occur either with "I have" or with "will
please you"; or it may oe once conceived with "I have" and again with
"will please you."^

Suppose then first that I doubly conceive the book in connection
with "I have," expressing myself by the words "I have the book (1) book

^It may be noted that "It" even more certainly indicates the particular book
of the preceding sentence than a repetition of "book" itself.

^In examining these cases let it be understood at the outset that the question
is one of facts and not of possibilities. That the simultaneous factor or indeed
any other idea can be thought of twice or even more, if the mind be so disposed,
must be admitted. Such repetition I will, for the sake of illustration, perpe-
trate, announcing frankly each appearance of the idea, by a separate use of its
word. Accordingly "I I I I I have a book." Such sentences, however, I do not
in actual practice employ. Just as at a dinner I do not offer you course after
course of soup or oysters, so the mental banquet to which speech invites you is
not likely to be of the type illustrated, nor of the type "I have have have have
a book" nor of the type "I have the book book book."

4

50 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

(2)." In this expression it is plain that book (2) must be in relation
with some other element of my thought or else out of relation with each,
that is, irrelevant. If it be irrelevant, it has nothing to do with my
thought and requires no consideration. If it be related, it must be
with book (1) and in the relation of identity; otherwise there is no
repetition. Letting this relation be roughly expressed by "is," and
expressing thought in Tull, I obtain "I have the book (1) is the
book (2)". But this sentence itself is the expression of two thoughts
with a common factor, namely "I have the book (1)" and "Book (1) is
book (2)." That is, the present expression is precisely analogous to
"I have a book will please you", itself divisible into "I have a book"
and "Book will please you." The same result would be reached by a
double conception of book with "will please 5''0U." I may as well then
dismiss these cases and center attention at once on "I have a book
will please you."

In this sentence suppose then that "book" is thought of once with
"I have" and again with "will please you." Tabulating the total I obtain
"I have the book (1) book (2) will please you." In this total it is more
necessary even than in the preceding ease to find a relation between
some term of one thought and a term of the other. For, if none such
be found, it is plain that one thought has nothing to do with the other,
a status which absolutely violates my conscious purpose. Also there
is no relation except between book (1) and book (2) ; and their re-
lation must again be that of identity. Otherwise the two thoughts
are after all concerned with different books; that is, on the one hand
the thoughts have still nothing to do with each other and on the other
hand there is no repetition.

If there be then repetition, there must be an identity of book (1)
and book (2). The thought total may therefore be represented, with
the aid again of "is", as follows: "I have a book (1) is a book (2)
will please you."

If, however, I adopt the policy of repetition, consistency requires me
to go further. Book (1) should be thought of once in "I have a
book (1)" and again in "Book (1) is a book (2)". Also book (2)
should be thought once in "Book (1) is a book (2)" and again in
"Book (2) will please you." Relations being supplied as before, my
thought in full would be "I have a book (1) is a book (1) is a book (2)
is a book f^) will please you." This, hovv^ever, is the merest begin-
ning. Each idea named by the word "book" is still a common factor,
inviting double thinking as before, with still further expansions as its
corollary. V/ere I to respond to all such invitations, my thought would
take the form "I have a book (1) is a book (2) is a book (3) is a
book (n)." That is, my imaginary library would overwhelm me; my
thought would never be completed. It seems accordingly rational to as-
sume that, in some cases at least the common factor of two thoughts is

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 51

not repeated; that is, it is single; that is, its functions or member-
ships are simultaneous.

Such usage is extremely extensive, being, in fact, by no means a sen-
tential exception, but rather the rule. For thought, in the elementary
form of two ideas and their relation, is comparatively rare. In most
thoughts one or more of these elements is modified, that is, attended
by an adjunct, the modified element being the simultaneous factor
of two thoughts. Thus, in "I have a new book" th'^ elements "I" and
■"book" are plainly in the relation say of owner to property, indicated
by "have." But certainly "book" and "new" are also in some rela-
tion. For, if not in relation, they are out of relation; and this is but
another way of saying that "new" is irrelevant to "book" or has noth-
ing to do therewith. Now as "new" has surely nothing to do with "I"
or with "have" or with their combination, it has nothing to do with
the thought in which it appears. But this conclusion is obviously un-
true. It must therefore be conceded that "new" is in some relation
to "book." Whether such relation be indicated by the speaker and,
if so, how, is for the moment unimportant. It must be in the thought
of speaker and hearer, sub-consciously perhaps, but as an indispensa-
ble factor of the mental total. "Book" then is a factor both of "I
have a book" and of another thought which might be asserted by "The
iDOok is new."

The singleness of the common factor is in this case more evident.
So far as introspection may be trusted I feel sure that, in saying "I
have a new book", I do not think of the book once as "had" and again
as "new." I should also credit you with a most plodding intellectual
gait, if I assumed that you were obliged in such fashion to follow
my linguistic lead. I do not doubt that you can in fact perform more
difficult feats. If I ask you to "bring me a fresh, long-stemmed, red,
Japanese rose," I assume that your mind is able to associate the "rose"
with "bring," with "fresh," with "long-stemmed," with "red,"' and
with "Japanese," — and all this without separately conceiving the rose
in each association. In fact I should almost as soon expect you to
iDring me five roses.

Were the common factor in such cases doubly thought, the purpose
of adjunctive usage would often be imperiled. Thus, in "Ripe apples
are wholesome," the purpose of the adjunctive "Ripe" is to restrict
your attention to a particular class of apples, alone conceived as whole-
some. That is, I do not want you to think, in this connection, of ap-
ples that are decayed or immature. Now, my only safety lies in your
using my idea in its restricted scope at once. If you let it lapse in
the least from your attention, I do not know in what shape it will re-
appear. That it may come on to the mental stage the second time
in greatly modified shape, has been shown in examining the fidelity
of reinstatives. To illustrate again, "The carefully selected apples of

52 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

my orchard were barreled with those of the neighboring farmers." I
have in this sentence used, to be sure, not the reinstative, but the
much more immediate coinstative. But obviously the apples suggested
by "those" may be a very indiscriminate lot. The restrictive force of my
epithet "carefully selected" has been dissipated. It appears then, that
if I wish to subject an idea used in one environment to the restriction
of another environment, I must, to be sure of my purpose, put the idea.
in both environments at once. If I dress up an idea for a verbal party
and then let it loose to play with chance companions, I may hardly hope
that, when the party begins, my idea will be presentable. It is safer
lo extend the cares of the dressing-room upon the scene of the party
itself. That is, the common factor is made simultaneous.

It is obviously with simultaneous factors that relatives
are employed, as in the form, "I have a book which will please
yon." Two symbols, being however associated with the same
idea, Grammar makes the facile assumption that the idea is twice
thought. To prepare the way for showing what actually hap-
pens I take up next the

XI. DOUBLE FUNCTION OF THE SIMULTANEOUS FACTOE.

Though thought but once, the simultaneous factor has a mis-
sion, a part to play, in each of the thoughts of which it is a
member ; and this part is what I mean by its function. Thus,
in ^^I have a book you will like," ^^book" is at the same time
last term in ^^I have a book" and in ''you will like a book." In
^'Here is a book will please you," "book" is first term in either
thought. In "I have a book will please you," "book" is last
term in one thought and first term in the other, or, in gram-
matical parlance, object in one case and subject in the other.

The embarrassment likely to arise, when the two functions of
the simultaneous factor are not the same, suggests some com-
ment on

XII. THE CONVENIENCE OF INDICATING FUNCTION.

This is considerable, even wdien function is single. To il-
lustrate, using the poetical order, to avoid the hints afforded
by usual order, suppose I say that "George the dragon slew."
You cannot be sure whether George slew the dragon or the
dragon slew George, unless you have some means of information

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 53

other than my statement. If, however, some sign were added
to '^George'^ or ^'the dragon" or both, by which you could know
what place the idea named by each should occupy in the struct-
ure of thought, your knowledge would be complete.

XIII. ruisrcTio^s" ixdicatioi^ by inflection.

This it is most convenient to illustrate first in the case of
single function. Thus, suppose I tell you that "Universities
teach.'' Into this valuable thought I v^ish to inject the idea ex-
pressed by ''thorough." Realizing your need of knowing what to
do with this idea, and abrogating, as before, the aid of order, I
guide you by the termination of the idea's symbol.* If I wish
you to use the idea as an adjunct of teaching, to conceive, that
is, that the teaching is thorough, I add to my symbol the ending
^'ly," obtaining '^Universities thoroughly teach." If the idea
is to be an adjunct of "universities," I let the word remain
without a termination and say that "Universities thorough
teach." If I wish the idea to appear as a term, I use the ending
^'ness" and tell you that "Universities thoroughness teach." ^

The indication afforded by inflection may be even more pre-
cise. In "Lunam sol excedit" the inflection "am" exhibits not
merely gender and number, but also the use of "Lunam" as last
term of thought ; at the same time "sol" is by its ending an-
nounced as first term. That is, whatever be the order of actual
mention, to build my ideas into the intended whole, it is neces-
sary to begin with the sun and end w^ith the moon. For if
you begin with the moon and end with the sun, you will need
an entirely different relation, not that of superior to inferior,
I)ut that of inferior to superior ; not that expressed by "excedit,"
but that expressed by "exceditur."

Whatever else be expressed by such infiections may for the
present be overlooked, special attention being concentrated on
the momentarily important fact that inflections can and some-
times do announce the function of the inflected idea. The
bearing of this fact on the interpretation of relatives can best
I)e seen in the li^ht of

^On the incompleteness and the imperfection of this method I do not stop to
insist, or to justify the merely convenient use of the word inflection to include
all kinds of word-variation, those even usually ranked as derivative.

54 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

XIV. THE HISTOEY OF INTLECTION'S.

It is the accepted doctrine of philology that these are the
mere debris of words at one time in every way complete, origi-
nally nsed as the s^mibols of thought elements. In illnstration
it is best to make use of sentences containing verbs of action,
these being for many reasons the most frequent. Of these, too,
those known as active or transitive are the most striking, deal-
ing as they do with an action of which not only the source, but
also the eifects are regarded. With the active verb it is also
conspicuously important to know which of its attendant terms
is point of thought-departure or subject and which is point of ar-
rival or object. Indeed, it is a priori probable that any scheme for
announcing a so-called subject (actor) or object (actee) as such,
would originate with the active verb, the verb, that is, with
which, both being employed, the distinction between the two is
of special importance. To illustrate, suppose that a phenomenon
occurs describable by the statement '^A strikes (ferit) B." Sup-
pose it further uncertain, from this form of statement, whether
the striking is done by A or B. ISTote also that the relation ex-
pressed by "ferit" is that between a striker and one struck, be-
tween an actor and, say, an actee; for the reverse relation be-
tween one struck and a striker would be expressed by "f oritur."'
Given, then, the relation named by "ferit," if you are to con-
struct a thought like m.ine you must put "A" as first term and
"B" as last. If you should reverse the process, you would form
a thought conspicuously diif erent from my own.

To avoid such an error, suppose I characterize "A" as an
active person and "B" as inactive. From such general char-
acterization you infer that in this particular case also "A" is
active or the actor, and "B" inactive or the actee. If, now,
"A" be actor, he must appear as first term, in order to fit the-
relation named by "ferit," that of actor to actee. For I can-
not, by thinking say from actee to actor, obtain the relation
of actor to actee, any more than I can obtain the sensation of
descent by climbing from a low point to a higher. Accordingly
the designation of "A" as active shows the function of "A" in
thought construction.

Owen — Revision of Pro7iouns. 65

As a matter of historical fact a subject sign was so de-
veloped. A word meaning active was used with the subject
of the active verb. Activity being, however, but an indirect and
probably subconscious means for suggesting subjectivity or use
as first term, the original meaning was lost ; and the word at
one time meaning ^'active" came to mean "used as subject."^

At the outset, no doubt, "activity" was used as an actual part
of the speaker's thought; but "subjectivity" regarded merely the
putting together of thought factors. The value of the word for
"activity" sank accordingly from the structural to the instruc-
tional rank, from that of a sign of meaning to that of a sign
of function. Morphologically speaking, it was "emptied of its
meaning," or became "an empty word," that is, in the present
case, a function-sign.

ITow the number of such signs is in lingnistic practice small.
Each mav therefore reduce its acoustic bulk or shrink in vol-
ume, becoming even a single letter, without material danger of
confusion with its fellows. Such a sign, moreover, would natur-
ally stand beside the name of the idea whose place in thought-
structure it determines. I^aturally, also, the order of the two
would be, first, the name of the idea ; second, the sign of what
to do with it. These two, again, the idea and what to do with
it, marking a single stage of expressional progTcss, would nat-
urallv combine in a sinsrle sentence-member or word. Such, in
fact, is the history of an Indo-European subject-sign, the "s"
ending of the nominative case, first a separate word naming an
idea or thought-element, later the indication of another idea's
function, afterward reduced in volume, at last united to the
name of the subject-idea.^

^That such is the fact appears conspicuously when the subject-sign is used
with the eminently inactive subject of the passive voice.

2 That this same 's' may also have the idea-naming value of singular number
and masculine gender, is no derogation to its value as a function-sign ; it is a mere
illustration of what may be known at pleasure as linguistic economy or linguistic
poverty. Separate inflections might uniformly have been used for number, gen-
der and case ; but as a matter of fact they were not.

It is notev-'orthy also that the nominative and the subjective categories do
not exactly coincide, as appears in the occasional use of the last term or predi-
cate in the nominative, that is, the case peculiarly appropriate to a subject or
first-term case. The grounds of this inconsistency do not here require examin-
ation, attention being invited merely to the general fact that language does pos-
sess a method, somewhat clumsy, very inconsistent and quite incomplete, yet an
available method for distinguishing idea-function.

.S6 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Generalizing on the offered illustration, I note two central
facts in the history of functional inflection: (1) function-signs
or inflections have lost original ideal value; (2)_ function-signs
have generally lost original isolation. In the light of these facts
it is worthy of note that (3) some function-signs retain their
isolation.

XV. ISOLATED INFLECTIONS.

To illustrate these, observe in the first place that in "He urged
me to eaf ' the word "to'' may be taken with ordinary preposi-
tional value. I may indeed, without change of value, substi-
tute "He urged me toward eating," building ideas together by
the same plan as in "He pushed me toward the table." When
now, in a large number of similar cases, the preposition has thus
been employed with a verbal idea in substantive usage, the prep-
osition comes to create an expectation of such usage ; that is, it
becomes a sign that a verbal idea enters structure as a noun.
At the same time its prepositional meaning may disappear, as
happens in "He ceased to eat ;" for a statement retaining such
meaning, say "He ceased toward eating" is hardly tenable.
That is, the meaning of the preposition forms no part of my
thought. "To," in short, like "zu," "a," "de," etc., has become
an "empty word;" it stands for no thought-element; it is the
mere sign of the substantive function of a word commonly ver-
bal onlv — a function clumsilv called infinitive. "To," in other
words, is, broadly speaking, an inflection. Yet it maintains
its isolation.

Further illustrations of isolated inflection abound ; and much
more might be said of the field, the aims, the nature and the
methods of function-indication. I have hovrever noted what
seems indispensable to the immediate purpose of guiding the
student of relatives. I therefore pass at once to the special oc-
casion for relative usage, which may be sought in

XVI. THE INDICATION OF DOUBLE FUNCTION.

In section XII. it was observed that function, even when sin-
gle, may be difiicult of apprehension. '\Mien now the function of
an idea is double — when, that is, it is at the same time member

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 57

of two thoughts — the chance of misunderstanding function is
naturally multiplied. To illustrate, abrogating as before the
aid of order, 'The man the dragon slew the lion wounded.''
Erom this statement you do not even learn which factor is sim-
ultaneous. Assuming this however to be the dragon, I note
that, in ''The man the dragon slew" you do not know whether
"man" or ''dragon" was the victim; and, in "dragon the lion
wounded," you do not know w^hether "lion" or "dragon" did the
wounding. Clearly then, whatever language does in the way
of indicating function, is specially desirable, when function ia
double. Once committed to the policy of function-indication,
language may be expected to attempt such indication hi the case
in which it is most of all needed. Obviously, too, such an at-
tempt will fail of complete results, unless it indicates each func-
tion of the doubly functionating idea.

That the indication of each function is actuallv felt to be
important, appears in the follow^ing examples. In Bulwer's
Kienzi 2, 1 (so Maetzner), occurs the phrase (1) "defense
against w;7iosoever shall aspire," In the same volume, 2, 6, the
same author writes "control of wdiomsoever should be elected."
The structure of these phrases being the same, I substitute in
the latter, for greater ease of comparison, the ideas of the for-
mer, obtaining (2) "defense against ivJiomsoevev shall aspire."
It is obvious that, in (1) and (2) alike, some one (or any one)
is conceived at the same time as the object in a defense, and the
subject in an aspiration. In (1) the subjective aspect of this
some one is indicated bv the form "who," the behavior of "who-
soever" toward "shall aspire" being irreproachable. But "who
soever" is guilty of ignoring the claims of "defense against,
which requires the form "whomsoever." Per contra in (2) the
objective aspect of the some one is indicated by "whom," the
conduct of "whomsoever" toward "defense against" being quite
beyond reproach. But "whomsoever" utterly neglects its duty
toward "shall aspire," which requires the form "w^hosoever."
That is, collectivelv stated, the cited author recognizes the need
of indicating each function of a some one, although he fails to
meet both needs at once.

The actual method by which these needs are commonly met,
though transparently simple, is so obscured by gTammatical

7?

58 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

misconception, tliat it can hardly be examined to advantage till
the mind is freed, so far as may be, from existing preconcep-
tions. Digressing therefore from the actual method, I offer, as
a help to breadth and clearness of view, a brief examination of
a priori possibilities. Snch examination will reveal a consist-
ent method of indicating double function — one the more worthy
of note, that the actual method will be found to be its merely
formal adaptation — a method which may be designated as

(a) The Consistent Method.

It has already been observed that the function of an idea in
one thouo:ht is indicated bv one inflection. The functions of
an idea in two thoughts w^ould self-suggestively be met by two in-
flections. The simultaneous thought-factor would be inflected
once to indicate its function in one thought, and again to indi-
cate its function in the other.

In some languages, notably in Greek, inflections are applied,
as is the case with a part of the tense-signs, to the word's begin-
ning. More commonly inflections appear at the end. When
now an idea is simultaneous factor of two thoughts, an earlier
and a later, it would be distinctly proper to exhibit function in
the earlier thought by an inflection of the earlier part of the
idea-symbol or word, and to show function in later thought by
inflection of the latter part of the word.

Remembering that the merest possibilities are in considera-
tion, suppose I have in mind a thought expressible by "The Bi-
ble teaches whosoever (or any one or the man) wishes to learn.''
The idea expressed by "whosoever," "any one" or "man" is at
the same time last term or object in "The Bible teaches the
man," and first term or subject in "the man wishes to learn."

Wishing novf in illustration the aid of a very distinct inflec-
tional system, I put my example into somewhat imaginary
Latin. Let then the idea named by "man" be expressed by
"hom." Inflecting my new symbol in its earlier part, to indi-
cate objective function in the earlier thought, I obtain "Biblia
decent nem-hom." Inflecting the word again in its later part,
to indicate subjective function in the later thought, I obtain
"hom-o vult discere." In combining the two sections of my to-

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 59

tal thought, I remember that, as argued, the idea named by
^^man'^ is thought but once. Accordingly I use the symbol
^^hom" but once, obtaining "Biblia docent nem-hom-o \^ilt
discere.'^ In this expression the imaginary ^^nem-hom-o'' be-
haves itself with perfect propriety in both its memberships. It
performs its duty to "docent,'' without in the least neglecting
what it owes to "vult."

To make my example even more suggestive, I will slightly
change its form. Eecalling the fact that function-bigns were
at one time independent words, entitled to be written separately,
I restore the "o" to its ancient rights, obtaining "Docent neni-
hom o vult discere." Noting also that noun-inflections, whether
showing function in preceding or following thought, affect the
terminal position, I conform to custom by changing my illustra-
tion into "Docent hominem o vult discere.''

In fact it is in such a form that the effort to indicate double
function would be expected to find expression. For language,
so far as I have learned, has not conceived the expedient of
uniting to one word two functional inflections. Such being the
case, whichever need of showing function is sooner felt, is met
by the use of a single inflection, which is suffixed to the idea-
sign or word. The function-indicating power of the word is
then conceived to be exhausted. When now the need of show-
ing another function is also felt, and the sign of that function,
being made ready, seeks to join itself also to the word, it finds
its natural place pre-empted. What would consistently appear
as part of the word remains therefore, so to speak, a verbal out-
sider.

This accident however does not seem to imply any change of
values, "^em" as appearing in "hominem" is still a mere sign
that "hom" is to be taken as object of "docent." "O" as before,
though now separately written, is merely a sign that "hom" ia
also subject of "vult." "O" then, although at present separately
written, is still a mere inflection of "hom." Also, what is most
of all important, the idea named and functionally twice de-
scribed by "hominem o" is necessarily no more twice thought
than was the case with the mentally equivalent "nem-hom-o."

60 Wiscojisin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

(h) The Actual or Relative Method.

To conform to linguistic fashion, I offer one more improve-
ment in my illustration, obtaining "Decent liominem qui ^^It
discere.'^ Although this change is formally somewhat striking,
I claim that in values there is no change whatever. As I read
my own thought and expressional purpose, the idea named by
"hom'' is still conceived but once; its objective function with
"docent" is still shown by '^nem;" its subjective function with
"\ailt" continues to be shown by "qui." Generalizing on the
value of "qui,'' as thus interpreted, I reach the following propo-
sitions : The relative is a function sign. It differs from other
function-signs in the fact that, while such others become parts
of the idea-sign or word, that is, inflections, the relative main-
tains its formal separateness or isolation. Also the relative is
employed only when it is desirable to indicate two functions of
a simultaneous thou a'ht-f actor. In such case one function is
indicated by an ordinary inflection. To indicate the other is
the special duty of the relative. Accordingly the relative is
merely a specialized and isolated function-sign.

To illustrate more objectively the situation met by the relative, con-
ceive a wedding ceremony and a funeral service to occur simultaneously
and so near together, that a woman present may be regarded as form-
ing part of the group attending each. Thus situated she may cherish
the laudaBle wish to conform her dress to each of her two environ-
ments. She is in somewhat the predicament of a simultaneous sen-
tence factor, which might advantageously also suit itself to each of
two verbal companies. A harlequin costume, partly festal and partly
funereal, is forbidden by accepted usage. Could she, hov/ever, duplicate
herself in form, while remaining personally one; could she in short
make use of a dummy; or could she, in theosophic parlance, project
alongside of herself an astral body or fictitious self; this illusory second
self she might harmonize in dress with one environment, while her real
and primary self conformed to the other. That is, without repetition
of her actual self, her individual significance, or say her meaning, she
might be in formal accordance v/ith her two surroundings. So too of
the relative pronoun it may, very figuratively, be said that it is the
verbal dummy, on which we hang the drapery of inflections suitable to
a second verbal environment.

That the action of the relative word is analogous is suggested by
some uses of the definite article. Remembering that the article is

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 61

in some languages unemployed, we are prepared to believe that even
when employed it may, so far as meaning is concerned, be quite super-
fluous. Thus in "Er hat den Himmel erreicht," I am unable to associate
any suitable idea with "den." It does not distinguish the Heaven con-
sidered from other possible Heavens nor add to the idea of Heaven any
other idea. It does, however, as admitted by a recent German gram-
mar, serve and serve only to indicate that Himmel is last term or say
the object. That is, it is an isolated accusative inflection. On the other
hand, in "Der Himmel erwartete ihn," "der" is an isolated nominative
inflection.

It is further worthy of note that "der" v/as originally demonstrative.
From this value it varied along two lines. On the one hand, weaken-
ing in value, it followed the procedure of other languages and came to
be ranked as an article; and further weakening, becoming indeed an
empty word, it sometimes reached, as shown above, the value of a mere
inflection. On the other hand the demonstrative, by sacrificing its
initiative power, became vicarious, dropping from the value of an ini-
tiative "that" to the value say of a reinstative "that;" also it further
sank from the value of "that" (reinstativej to the recognized value of
"that" continuative or say "which," and came to be ranked as a "rel-
ative."

Seeking to show the significance of these facts by combining my il-
lustrations, I somewhat violate the usual order of German words, ob-
taining "Er hat erreicht den Himmel der erwartete ihn." In this sen-
tence Himmel names an idea once conceived, the simultaneous factor
of two thoughts. The function of "Himmel" in the first thought is ad-
mittedly shown by "den;" its function in the second is obviously shown
by "der." * Den Himmel der" is then exactly synonymous with "nem
hom o." More especially "den Himmel" is equivalent to "nem horn" or
"hominem;" and "der" is equivalent to "o." But "der" is a fully de-
veloped relative pronoun, recognized as such by Grammar; and "o" is
the purely imagined isolated sign of function. By the interpretation of
this illustration it appears then anew, that the relative is merely an
isolated function sign, a conclusion in this case the more iiatural, that
the same word with the same original value appears in the same sen-
tence to perform the duties vainly differentiated by Grammar as those
of case-signs and relative pronouns.

The form "Der" suggests the process by which the relative was de-
veloped. To illustrate: Let my thought in the first place be planned
for interrupted expression. I may crudely verbalize it as follows: "Er
hat erreicht Himmel. Himmel erwartete ihn." Preferring, however,
to avoid formal repetition, I substitute for "Himmel" (2) a reinstative,
obtaining "Er hat erreicht Himmel. Der (=that, it, or Himmel) erwar-
tete ihn." In this expression "Himmel" initiates an idea; the idea
lapses; it is reinstated by "Der." Now "Der" has in fact two values;

62 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Ai^ts, and Letters.

one is ideal, reinstating "Himmel;" the other is functional, showing
that "Himmel" reinstated is subject of "erwartete." Let now my
thought be planned for continued expression; that is, let the idea ini-
tiated by "Himmel" not lapse, but remain in mind as a simultaneous
factor. TlJis idea is accordingly no longer twice used, once as an orig-
inal and again as a copy, but once only, as a persistent original. SucH
being the case, "Der" can no longer have any power to present this
idea, which has already appeared, which still remains, and of which no
copy can be utilized. There remains only then to "Der" the opportun-
ity for its secondary value, that of showing that "Himmel" is subject
of "erwartete." That is, the reinstative, itself an adaptation of the
demonstrative (egocentric), being emptied of its meaning, becomes an
isolated inflection or relative.

XVII. SUBSIDIARY VALUES OF RELATIVES.

While emphasizing the function-naming value of the relative, I have
not meant to suggest the impossibility of co-existent values. The rela-
tive, indeed, may be expected to do what is done by other function-
signs. These by linguistic economy are often called upon to accomplish
multiple aims. The ending of the word "victor," contrasted with that
of "'victorem," is an obvious sign of nominative function. But this end-
ing, contrasted with that of "victoria," is a sign of meaning, namely
agency; and juxtaposed with that of "victrix" it is the sign of another
meaning, namely sex. So, too, even in the inflectional poverty of
French, the relative may at the samSe time exhibit function and initiate
an idea. Thus in "avoir (ce) a quoi penser" the simultaneous object
of "having" and "thinking" is by "quoi" exhibited as a thing; but in
"avoir a qui penser" the simultaneous object is revealed as a person.
On the other hand "cui," "cujus" and "quo" express initiatively ideas
namable by "to," "of" and "from."

The relative also, and very commonly, has an associative value.
Thus, in "The tailor made a suit for Miss X is very beautiful," some
factor of "The tailor made a suit for Miss X" is obviously also a factor
of "is very beautiful." When now I come to indicate that this simulta-
neous factor is the subject in the latter thought, I find two available
function-signs, namely "who" and "which." Of these "who" is used to
fihow the function of persons only and "which" of things. Accordingly
If, to indicate function in second thought, I use the word "which," you
assume that the idea whose second function I have in mind must oe a
thing; that Is, the simultaneous factor must be "suit." In other words,

the simultaneous factor is indicated by the associative value of the rela-
tive.

Owen — Bevision of Pronouns. 63

XVIII. DEGRADED RELATIVES.

In feeblv inflected languages it often happens that the rela-
tive exhibits no power of indicating meaning, association, or
any particular function. To illustrate, in ^'The ship of Mrs.
X's husband that you met is lost,'' some idea is plainly simul-
taneous factor of two thoughts. But the word "that" is unable
to exhibit this idea as certainly either a person or a thing, mas-
culine or feminine ; that is, it has no meaning value. It is also
unable to show which preceding idea is simultaneous factor ;
that is, it has no associative value. It also does not show you
whether this idea is =ubject or object of "met ;" that is, it has no
specific functional value. The question rises. What is the use
of "that" ?

Overlooking the ambiguity attending the further employ-
ment of "that" as sometimes a "conjunction" and sometimes a
^^demonstrative," suppose that from context and situation it be
satisfactorily understood that the word "that" is the object of
"met," and "refers" to "'ship." Though these important data
be as supposed inferred, that is, in no way indicated by "that",
some opportunity yet remains for "that" to be of service. In
showing this I take as my jDoint of departure the fact that the
relative "that" is the habitual si£:n of a simultaneous factor's
function. As such a sign it is the sigTi also that simultaneous
factorship occurs ; it serves as a warning that some part of the
thought "The ship of Mrs. X's husband is lost" is to be at the
same time part of the thought incompletely rendered by "you
met;" that is, it shows that an idea, used already amid given
surroundings, is to stand its ground while new surroundings
^^ather about it ; though ceasing to serve the hearer as a guide,
it still does service by putting him on his guard.

XIX. PROMOTED RELATIVES.

By these I mean a number of words which have graduated
from an ordinary relative value into one of higher sjTiibolic
rank. In following their advancement, I find a favoring in-
fluence, I think, indeed, the originating impulse, in the conten-
tiousness of the averaa'e mind. To illustrate this, the statement

64 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, ArtSj and Letters.

that A is B, in tlie absence of any possible antagonism, is at the
most but tamely gratifying ; but to bold tbat A is B, against the
attack of even a single opposition, is a bait to tlie controversial
impulse ; and to defend this proposition against all comers, chal-
lenges a knightly instinct in matters of speech as well as in
those of the lists.

The antagonistic element cited in connection with a statement
is commonly called a concession. From what has been noted
above it follows that, when a concession is made, it is rhetorical
to make it big. I shall hardly say that "I can thrash Brown,
though he is an inch the taller.'' Better make it a foot, or add
to his superiority in height advantage in years, strength, weight,
and knowledge of pugilistics. Or better yet, make B's superi-
ority quite indefinite ; leave its determination to your imagina-
tion; and stimulate that imagination by making the indefinite-
ness intense. Accordingly, ^^I can thrash B, though he is taller
to any decree whatever." As a matter of fact, when con-
cessions are made, they are as a rule in some way intensified.
It now, it be true that concessions are attended by intensifica-
tion, it holds conversely that to some extent intensification is at-
tended by concession. The door is therefore open for intensi-
fication to become the sieii that concession is intended. Thus
the phrases "for a truth," "indeed" and "forsooth" are obvious
intensifiers of reality; as such they have become unmistakable
signs of concessive intention. If I start by saying that "My
nephew is forsooth industrious," you are well aware that I shall
continue with something: like "He nevertheless is unsuccessful."

These tendencies proved extremely useful in the develop-
ment of concessive particles. He who first endeavored to ex-
press concession must have been considerably puzzled, for how-
ever adept he might be in the invention of symbols naturally
suggestive of objects, qualities and actions, he could hardly
invent a word suggestive per se of a relation so subtle as the con-
cessive. The best he could do was what is still done even to-
day. He would name what was conceded and also w^hat held
in spite of the concession, leaving the concessive (antagonistic)
relation to be inferred.-^ The limitations of inference on the
one hand would restrict him to such concessions as miffht read-

o
^Conf. "He might come at any moment. He would always find a welcome."

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 65

ily be taken for sucli ; on the other hand the belligerent impulse
noted above would lead him to intensify his concession. The
intensifier, once become the habitual attendant of concession,
■would soon be taken as a hint of its occurrence, and would even
become in time the recognized sjonbol of the concessive rela-
tion.

Reviewing in this light the development of an illustrative word
originally relative, I note that "He lies (there) where he fell"
means that ^^He lies in the place (which) he fell in," the idea
of place, except so far as defined by his fall, being merely in-
definite. On the other hand, ''He lies wherever he fell" means
that ''He lies in any place (which) he fell in;" that is, the in-
definiteness of the place-idea is now intensified. "Wlierever
he fell he lies" may have exactly the same meaning ; but there
begins to be felt a suggestion of antagonism between his falling,
conceived in any place, and his present lying, somewhat more
distinctly conceived as in a place imrticulav, though unknowm.
You presumably take me to mean "In spite of the location of
his fall" or "Never mind what place he fell in," "in that place
he lies." That is, the word which intensifies the indefiniteness
of his fall's location begins to suggest the concession of the fall
itself. If now I say "Wherever he fell, he lies here," the con-
cessive suggestion is fully developed. I mean that "In spite
of his falling in any place Avhatever, he lies (not in that place,
but) in this jdace."

In fully acquiring the power of hinting a concessive relation
between two thoughts, the intensified indefinite renounces its
double membership. The obscurer reasons of this fact may be
overlooked in favor of the obvious reason that it is not well for a
single word to perform at once too many duties. Accordingly,
in "Wherever he fell he lies here," it appears that the originally
relative "vfherever" has abrogated its membership of the state-
ment "here he lies." It is therefore no longer relative, but
solely an intensified indefinite adjunctive to "fell." In this
capacity, according to the above noted tendency, it is able to hint,
at least, at the concessive relation. That is, it suggests that one
thought is felt to vainly antagonize another.

As this relation is of a high intellectual order and in lingiiistic

practice extremely important, the means of its indication are nat^
5

66 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, arid Letters.

urally perfected. Their development is clearest perhaps in orig-
inal relatives of manner. Thus '^ ^However he lies he doubtless
fell" may mean that he fell in any way (which) he lies in. But
in "However he struggles he will sink/' the case is different. I
no longer mean that his sinking will be marked by any peculiar-
ity which characterizes his struggle. I certainly mean that in
spite of his struggling he will sink; and the conception of his
struggling as of any sort you please is a mere intensifier, agree-
able to me as showing the range of antagonism that my final
clause will bear^ and helpful to you as suggesting the concessive
character of mv initial clause.

The rhetorical force of concession is augmented when it is pre-
liminarily put in the form of isolated statement, as in "He strug-
gles bravely." In this form the concession has the further force
of being vouched for as true. In order now that you may clearly
perceive the antagonism between my concessive and my final
statement, I reinstate the former in the statement of the latter,
thus : "He struggles bravely. However, he will sink." Examin-
ing in this expression the whilom relative, I find its value to
be as follows: Its original relative power of double thought
membership has totally disappeared. Its indefinite and intensive
powers are also essentially lost. Per contra its power of hinting
at antagonism has become a power of complete symbolization.
"However" has all the meaning of "though" (in spite of), as ap-
pears in the exact equivalence of "He will sink, though." Again
"However," for the more perfect performance of its new duty,
has further taken on the power of reinstating a preceding
thought. The meaning of my second sentence in full is, accord-
ingly, "In spite of (trotz) his struggling bravely he will sink."
That is, from an earlier rank as instructional sign of second
thought membership,^ "however" has attained the rank of a
'^^thought-connective," a word, that is, with the power of rein-
stating a previous thought, and at the same time naming its rela-
tion with a following thought.

^Conf. "I don't know how (=the manner in which) ever (become an intensi-
fier of "how's" indefiniteness) it happened."

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 67

XX. PSEUDOBELATIVES.

The fact that a linguistic implement was elected to serve a
given purpose does not always save it from being put to other
uses. In "Is your horse a trotter? He is that/' the word
"that" is plainly vicarious. In "The horse that I bought is a
trotter," it is quite as plainly relative. This change of value is
so frequent as to obtain a general recognition. Its converse,
overlooked so far as I have noted, may be illustrated as follows :
Closing a geometrical demonstration, I say that "A B equals
C D, which was to be proven." In this expression "which"
informs you that the whole thought embodied in "A B equals
C D" is subject of "was to be proven." That is, the simul-
taneous factor of two thoughts is so extended as to become the
whole of the first. Except for this common extension, "which"
is a normal relative. I am a2)t, however, to express myself
as follows: "A B equals C D. Quod erat demonstrandum."
That is, I force the "quod" or "which" to perform (or perhaps,
in view of the history of the word, I should say it continues to
perform) the symbolizing office usually assigned to "this" or
"that." In other words "which" is in this case not relative at
all, but pseudorelative and, in particular, vicarious and of the
retrospective type.

Much rarer is the correspondent use of "which" in the antici-
pative aspect. To illustrate, "Which I rise to remark — ^^and my
language is plain — that, for ways that are dark and for tricks
that are vain, the heathen Chinee is peculiar." It is indeed pos-
sible to construe this sentence as merely inverted and equivalent
to "The Chinee is peculiar, which I rise to remark." But
abundant similar cases suggest that probably the meaning is
rather as follows : "I rise to remark this : the Chinee is pecul-
iar." That is, "which," as above, is vicariously used, but this
time in the anticipative aspect.

The reinstative use of the relative seems to be growing in
favor. Its very infrequency makes it felt to be a relative out
of place, or rather a relative whose place is out. That is, being
taken as relative, the hearer feels that it should not be preceded
by an expressional break. Thus, having said "This is Miss X'*
and having let my sentence end, if I continue with "Whom I am

68 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

going to marry", jou feel that I either ought to have suhstituted
"her" for "Whom" or put my two sentences in one. The pre-
dominance of the latter view gives my second statement the
aspect of the supplementary, the overlooked, a sort of post-
scriptal flavor considerably utilized with humorous intention.

The use of the pseudorelative is most remarkable in expres-
sions which exhibit that combination of several ideas under a
single symbol, for which I have used the name of multiple sym-
bolization. Such expressions are frequent in Latin, a conven-
ient type being offered by "Helvetii legates mittunt qui dice-
rent." In this sentence Grammar interprets "qui" as contain-
ing, either by incorporation or inferentially, an "ut." Now "ut"
itself, whatever its original value, has come to mean, in such a
usage, "for" (in the sense of "pour," "um," etc.) ; that is, it
names the relation which holds between an act and its intended
result ; in brief it names what may be called a purpose relation
and ranks sententially as a preposition.^ Utilizing this mean-
ing in diagram I obtain

The Helvetians — send — ambassadors

for (in order that)
they — say — etc.

Now, as will appear in the following chapter, if I maintain the
connection between upper and lower clauses which is established
by "for," I shall not also connect them by making "Caesar" and
"he" simultaneous. That is, it is unlinguistic to say "I wrote to
Caesar in order that who should come to me." If, therefore,
"qui" contains an "ut," either by incorporation or inferentially,
it must be that "qui" is not also the bign of simultaneous factor-
ship. This conclusion indeed is endorsed by Grammar, v/hich
interprets "qui" as meaning "ut ille" and not at all as meaning
"ut qui." That is, the word "qui" is interpreted as uniting with
"ut," not indeed a relative element, but rather a demonstrative
or, to speak with more exactness, a coinstative. The actually

*How far "ut" has also anticipative power, presenting substantively the fol-
lowing thought, with the force originally resident in the phrase "in order that,"
"for that," or for ]> y, may be neglected.

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 69

present formal ^'qiii" may accordingly be ranked among the
merely apparent relatives, that is to say the psendorelatives.

It should also be remarked that clauses of tliis nature, being
not at all relative, have no claim to that adjective value which be-
longs to so many clauses genuinely relative. Clauses of the pres-
ent type are substantive, governed, to use the terminology of
Grammar, by the prepositional force of "ut." From the later dis-
cussion of relative clauses they may accordingly, for reasons
forthcoming, be excluded.

XXI. MISINTERPRETED RELATIVES.

I

To illustrate these, suppose I say, "It was Brown who gave (me) tho
book." Wnatever might he meant by these words, as a matter of fact
I use them to express a thought which may also be rendered by the
following words: "The giver of the book was Brown." o fit my ex-
ample to the expression of this thought it must be construed in viola-
tion of several strongly urged grammatical principles. The book-giver
is in the first place obscurely heralded by "it," my subject pro tem.
This "it," though not ranked by Grammar as an indefinite. Is in fact so
extremely indefinite that it may stand provisorily, not only for any
thing, but also for a person of any gender or number. (Conf. in French
"Ce sont mes amies.") This indefini'te provisory subject it is which is
made definite by the clause "who gave me the book." That is, "who"
"'refers" to "it."

That, however, "who" is felt by many a speaker to refer to "Brown,"
I do not deny, admitting rather that in many cases such a feeling is
proven. Thus, in "It is I v/ho am the fastest runner," it is plainly "I"
that is felt to be the antecedent of "who." For if a verb agrees with its
subject in person and number, conversely also v/hen a verb has a given
person, it must be because its subject is felt to be of that person. By
this law the subject of "am", continued by "who", must be conceived as
first personal. Since now the relative and its antecedent deal with the
two memberships of a single thought factor, it can hardly be supposed
that they would disagree as to the person of that factor. If "who," an
obvious relative, regards this factor as of the first person, its antecedent
cannot be a word which presents this factor as of another person. By
this law "It" is excluded; for it distinctly puts an idea as of the third
person. The antecedent therefore can only be "I." The speakers, then'
who are responsible for such phraseology, plainly conceived that the
simultaneous thought-factor, secondarily described In its function by
^'who," had been primarily symbolized by "I."

Such a conception is, however, obviously false. In "It was Brown

70 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

who gave the book," "Brown" needs no help in showing who is meant>
"It," on the other hand, is in need of very much help. Without such,
help the word "It" is so extremely helpless, that you can hardly sup-
pose I designed to tell you what I meant by the use of a word so im-
potent. For practical purposes I may quite as well substitute its al-
gebraic synonym and tell you that "a; was Brown." Nor does this
worthless statement make any important gain in value, when I specify
that "x was the book-giving Brown" or "re was Brown-who-gave-the-
book." To add to its value, I must put the specification where it will
do some good. If I tell you that "ic-who-gave-the-book" or the "book-
giving-a?" or the "book-giving person was Brown," you learn something
possibly worth the effort of telling.

The actual structure, better illustrated by "It is I who am the fastest
runner," is the presumable result of inattention, occurring also in the
following example: "Not a single one of his uncles, his aunts, his
nephews or his nieces were there." In the enumeration of my plurals-
I have simply forgotten that my subject was singular; and for that rea-
son I have used a plural verb. In "It is I who am," etc., the nearer "I"
has come between me and the remoter "It;" and I have the more
readily^ overlooked the true dominance of the "It," from the
fact that the relative commonly stands immediately after its antecedent.
The absurdity of the structure, so carefully indicated by the usual ex-
pression, is revealed by the grammatical trick of turning it end for end.
"I who am the best runner is (or am) it" does not tell anything that I,
for one, feel any impulse to declare. But "I am it (or he) who is (not
"am") the fastest runner" announces a claim which I might be induced
to enter.

XXII. LATENT RELATIVES.

By these I mean tlie strictly relative words which Grammar
has failed to recognize. To illustrate in crescendo, in ^'He lay in
the place in which he fell/' 'Svhich'' is clearly recognized as rel-
ative. In "He lay in the place where he fell/' this clearness is
hardly diminished, "where" being plainly synonjTuous with "in
which." In "He lay there where he fell," it is further felt that
"there" is synonj^mous with "in the place," the only sign of con-
fused perception being the use of the special designation "cor-
relatives" which seems to isolate the merely pregnant "there"
and "where" from the mass of word-pairs employed to exhibit
simultaneous factors. In "He lav where he fell," the "where"'
continues to be felt in its full equivalence to "there, where,"'

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 71

miicli as ^Svliat" is felt to express by multiple sjinbolization all
the value of ''that" and 'Svhich."

So far then so good. But, instead of dealing with place, as
above, let the simultaneous factor deal with attitude. Accord-
ingly, "He lay in the attitude in which he fell." Substituting as
before a somewhat indefinite synonym for ''in the attitude," and
another for "in which," I obtain "Thus he lay as he fell." This
sentence, on the one hand, closely resembles the preceding even
in meaning. I have merely substituted the mutual space relation
of body members for the space relation of the body itself to other
objects. That is, I mean that "He lies in the arrangement, so to
speak, in which he fell," instead of "He lies in the location in
which he fell." On the other hand, in structure the two sen-
tences are exactly similar. But in "Thus he lies as he fell," I
think that Grammar does not distinctly recognize the relative
character of any word. Indeed, if I let the "as" express by mul-
tiple symbolization all the meaning of "thus as," obtaining
"He lies as he fell," the "as" is commonly put by Grammar in
the obscure category of conjunctions.

Reserving closer examination of relative procedure for special
sections under that caption, I merely claim for the moment that
"as," in the present class of cases, is distinctly relative. I be-
lieve, indeed, though without exhaustive examination, that all
of the so-called correlatives which are employed without an inter-
vening thought-break, will be found to be twin servants of a sim-
ultaneous thought-factor, the first member of the pair effecting
that thought-factor's initial nomination and the second serving
merely to adjust it to a second environment.

In further illustration I note that "A is as great as B" is an ob-
vious equivalent of "A equals B (in magnitude)." The indirect-
ness of the first expression might well excite astonishment, were
it not adopted by many cultured peoples. For, my intention b&-
ing to compare two magnitudes, I strictly ought to say that the
greatness of the one is ecjual to that of the other. But, making
a false start, I put it centrally that "A is great." This announce-
ment, futile in itself, I may utilize by developing it into "A is
great to the degree to which B is great.'* Of this expression I
propose to show that "A is as great as B" is the exact equivalent.

In the first place the phrases "aussi gi'and que/^ "so gross

72 ^yisco7lsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

wie,' "tarn quam/' etc., arouse at once the suspicion that the
second '^as" may be of relative value. Moreover, history reveals
the original formula '^A is all so (=just so) great. All so great
is B." This pair of statements can hardly express a comparison
of equality unless the ^'^all so" of the one has the meaning of ^^all
so" in the other. Such meaning is that of some degree not fixed,
say ^^the degree," to distinguish it from other possible degrees.
For while this degree is far from definite it is not interchange-
able. It is indeed an x, but it may not be replaced by a y.
The meaning then of the original formula is ^'A is great to the
degree. To that (same degTee) gTeat is B."

In that formula ^^all so" is plainly a common factor of two
statements, the first ''all so" being initiative and the second rein-
stative. By successive formal reductions each '^'all so" becomes
the modern "as" At the same time the two sentences coalesce,
producing (if all elements be retained) the single sentence "A is
as great as great is B." This coalescence, it should be noted, en-
tails an important change in thought procedure. My former
two installments of thought are condensed into one; and since
I may be supposed to conform my plan of thinking, for conven-
ience's sake at least, to my plan of exposition, it may be assumed
that mv thinking: itself is unbroken. That is, the idea of deo:ree
is not twice thought, with an intermediate lapse from attention,
but once thought only. In other words the idea of degree is now
a simultaneous factor. The second "as" can no longer be para-
phrased by "to that (same degree)," but must be rendered by "to
which (same degree)."^ Accordingly

"A is as great as great is B" is equivalent to
"A is to the deaTee areat to which areat is B."
With a slight inversion the upper expression takes the form of
"A is as great as B is great." By ellipsis of terms readily in-
ferred, this form is changed to "A is as great as B — ." That
such inference occurs in fact, is hinted by the French equivalent
"A est aussi grand que B Test," in which "1" is the obvious
equivalent of "grand." Also even in English, whenever the
comparison is no longer between degrees of the same attribute,

^The change from "demonstrative" to "relative" value is too common to ad-
mit of comment.

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 73

iDut between degrees of different attributes, ellipsis fails to occur.
Til us, *'A is as yellow as B is blue."

In illustration of an even greater linguistic curiosity, suppose
tliat my acquaintance with Brow^n and my regard for him are
both increasing; that, further, the rate of one increase is that of
the other. The case is roughly that of two progTcssions, the
ratio of one of which I perceive to equal that of its fellows In
expressing this perception, much more delicate than the one I
last considered, I am more likely than ever to make a false start;
this I do by stating that ^^I like Brown increasingly" or ^'better."
This announcement, futile in itself, I may utilize by developing
it into "I like Brown better to the degree to which I see him
more." Of this expression I propose to show that "I like Bro^vn
the more, the more I see him'' is an exact equivalent.

Putting history again to the question, I find that "the" (or ]>J
in Anglo-Saxon) means "by thus much," or again, as above, to
"a degree."^ Also in close analogy with the former case, the
original expression is presumably this, "I like him the more. The
more I see him," which the purest paraphrasing renders into
"I like him to a degi-ee more. To that (same degree) more I see
him." But the two former sentences have coalesced, producing,
if all elements be retained, "I like him the more the more I see
him." In this coalescence, also as before, an important change
of meaning has occurred. I may no longer paraphrase the sec-
ond "the" by "to that degree," but only by "to which (same) de-
gree." That is, "I like him the more the more I see him" is
equivalent to "I like him to that degree more to which degree
more I see him."

Bemembering that the relative may be anticipatively used, I
interchange my clauses in both expressions, obtaining "The
more I see him, I like him the more," and "To w^hich degree
more I see him, I like him to that degTee more." With another
change in the order of the second clause I obtain the conventional
form "The more I see him, the more (or the better) I like
him. ^

^The difference between the former degree of intensity and ttie present de-
grcKi of difference may be overlooked.

' In support of the above interpretation I may lay some stress upon its recon-
ciliation of the English formula to the corresponding "je, desto," "d'autant,
d'autant" and especially "tanto, quanto."

Y4 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

Of presumable latent relatives the most remarkable, perhaps^
appears in the expression "A is greater than B," an expression
not merely curious, but also difficult to such a degree, that I ven-
ture only to indicate the possibility of applying to its solution the
methods thus far utilized. That in this expression a relative ele-
ment is really hidden, may be suspected from the occurrence of
quam and its derivatives in the equivalent expressions of Latin
and the neo-Latin languages. Moreover history reveals the orig-
inal value of " than" (Anglo-Saxon Jeanne) as '^that" accusative.
Kemembering the constant passage of demonstrative into rel-
ative values, I feel that the door at least is open to a relative-
value of ^^than."

Again in ''A is greater than B" it is plain that I do not express-
myself directly. The direct expression of my thought is ob-
viously ^'The magnitude of A (not, e. g., its color-intensity)
exceeds the magnitude of B." In departing from such direct-
ness, I first have overlooked, for the instant, my genuine subject
^^magnitude (1)," and substituted ^A." Continuing my ob-
liquity, I have centrally announced that ^^A is great." For
"greater" expresses the idea of greatness subjected merely to aug-
mentative determination. That is "A is greater," does not mean
that A possesses greatness of any type you please, but only of a
major type. In other words, the announcement made by my
first three words amounts to this, tluit "A is great to a degree
surpassing." This announcement, futile in itself, I may utilize
by developing it into "A is great to a degree surpassing that de-
gree to which B is great." ^

In showing the possible equivalence of this expression to "A is
greater than B," I need the aid of a rare expressional method il-
lustrated in ravTa 'exoVrws, that is, ^^tlie same things havingly."
In this, an adverb, derived from a verbal adjective (participle),
retains the verbal power of governing an object. In short, there
is such a thing as a verbal adverb. ^ Availing myself of this ex-

^The somewhat figurative use of "surpassing" is nearly allied to the figure
believed to be employed in the Latin ablative, when quam is omitted. In the lat-
ter case it is felt that the ablative is the point of departure in reckoning, or
that the major degree is reached by a withdrawal "from" the minor. In the
present case the major is felt to overtake and pass beyond the m'inor. , A dif-
ference is in one case figured as a shunning, and in the other as an outstripping.

2 Even in English the same construction appears in compounds, thus, "She
Bang ear-splittingly,"

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 75

preesional implement, I replace the phrase ^'to a degree surpass-
ing" by its equivalent ''surpassingly;" and in doing so I retain
for ^'surpassingly" the object-governing power of its parent
form ^'surpassing." Following then my Greek original, without
flinching, I develop ^^A is great surpassingly that degree to which
B is great."

In further approximation to '^A is greater than B," let ^'gTeat
surpassingly" be replaced by the essential equivalent ''greater;"
and let the latter retain, as such equivalent, the governing power
of the former. My sentence now becomes "A is greater that de-
gree to which B is great." "Greater," with the meaning "great
surpassingly," or "great beyond," should be able to govern "that
degree" in the accusative, quite as well as the Latin "major" can
manage it in the ablative. Or, from another point of view, "is
greater," with the obvious value "exceeds," can take an object
quite as well as "schuldig ist" with the value of '^owes" can take
an object in German.

To bridge the remaining gap, let "that degree" (accusative)
be replaced by the historically accusative "than," employed in
the sense of "that" (somewhat vaguely suggesting the idea of
degree, which is inherent in "greater"). My sentence now be-
comes "A is greater than to which B is great," meaning "A is
great to a degree surpassing that to which B is great." 'Now just
as "that," with possible aid from inference, may stand for "that
which" in "Pay me that you ow^e me," so also with no important
stretch of power, "that," or its inflected e^quivalent "than," m-^ay
stand for "that to which," especially as, after all, "to w^hich"
might possibly be replaced by "which" alone, the common ac-
cusative of degree. Accordingly I may change my sentence
again, obtaining "A is greater than B is great" with the value,
as before, of "A is great surpassingly that degree (to) which B is
great." By ellipsis of terms readily inferred, I finally reach the
conventional expression "A is greater than B." That the indi-
cated inference of terms is an actual fact is hinted by the French
"A est plus grand que B (ne) Test." Also even in English,
whenever the comparison is no longer between degrees of the
same attribute, but between degrees of different attributes, all
of the thought, as formulated above, is necessarily expressed.
Thus, "A is redder than B is blue." This last example also

76 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

clearly shows that A and B are not at all compared, nor even
their respective qualities, but solely the intensities of these. For
it may be assumed that were A and B compared or their respec-
tive redness and blueness, the discovered difference would not
be expressed in terms of either color. That is, I should hardly
tell you that an A is redder than a B which is not red at all,
or that the redness of an A is redder than the blueness of a B.

The current interpretation of "than" as "then" I have slighted be-
cause it does not appear to be historically defended, because it does not
seem to fit the requirements of English context and because it is ap-
parently unavailable with the correspondent expressions of other Indo-
European languages. These expressions bear so strongly the marks of
original equivalence, that any explanation of a single one is open to
suspicion, unless it applies to all. Such general application must, I ap-
preciate, be proven of my own explanation before it can be accepted;
and, as I have not the means for a complete verification, this explana-
tion must rank as a pure hypothesis, useless till confirmation except
for working purposes, and ultimately, perhaps, at most, as a mere sug-
gestion that existing explanations are inadequate.

Once started in the formation of comparisons, the mind pro-
ceeds to astonishing feats. Beginning with separate manifesta-
tions of a single quality, it readily notes them, as indicated
above, either in their equivalence or in the contrary. It easily
also deals with separate manifestations of diiferent qualities,
and even compares with ease the rates at which diiferent degrees
are acquired. It establishes a norm of quality and compares
amounts of deviation therefrom, as in ^'A's intemperance is as
great as (or more so than) that of B.'' Deviations in oppo-
site directions appear as merely plus and minus aspects of ex-
tension in a single dimension. In "A is as tall as B is short"
comparison is made between positive and negative departures
from a nomi. Comparison is even effected between terms es-
sentially incomparable. Beauty and wit pan no more be put in
comparison, which resembles subtraction of one from the
other, than they can be added or multiplied. Yet I shrink not
from saying that ^'He is as handsome as she is witty." If the
claim be made that after all it is his departure from a norm of
beauty that is compared with her departure from a norm of
wit, the difficulty is little relieved. For I have but an imaginary

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 77

common unit of measure. I am doing much the same as if I
said ^^This saucer's departure from flatness equals that tardy
student's departure from punctuality" ; or "It is as spherical as
he is late." The results also of comparisons are thems'^ives com-
pared, as in "lie is as superior to her as she is superior (or infer-
ior) to her sister ;" or "He is as superior to her as she is better
than her sister ;" or "He is more superior to her than she is su-
perior (or inferior) to her sister ;" or, with more confusion, "A
is more redder than B, than C is bluer (or less blue) than D."
Such comparisons obviously present the merest extensions of the
mathematical conception known as proportion. "A :B : :0 :D" (or
A:B=C :D) is a manifest preparer of the way to "A:B> C :D"
etc. Also the scope of reality or its imaginary degree is subjected
to comparison. Thus, "The more (truly) A equals B, the more
(truly) C equals D." Opportunity is thus offered for the occur-
rence in a single proposition of still further complication. A
comparison may be made between the realities of two proposi-
tions, each of which compares the results of preceding compari-
sons. Thus, "The more (truly) A is as much larger than B as
C is than D, the more (truly) E is as much larger than F as Gr is
than H." And examples of still greater complexity may be
made by comparing degrees of truth and untruth, or of inferior-
ity and superiority, and by substituting irrelevant qualities.
Thus, "The more truly A is as much yellower than B as C is
less magnetic than D, the less (truly) E is as much broader than
r as G is heavier than H."

These illustrations, partly imaginary, I have not form.ulated
with any purpose of reviewing in their wearisome solution the
principles already indicated. I note them only as suggesting
that, however imperfectly those principles be established, the
effort to establish them lies in the right direction; as indicat-
ing that something more than the facile relegation of words
to "conjunctive" and "relative" categories must be attempted,
before the sentence as the picture of thought can be adequately
understood.

78 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

XXIII. LINGUISTIC RANK OF RELATIVES.

Answering now the question raised in the second paragraph
of this chapter, I find that the relative not only lacks the vicar-
ious powers which would give it rank as a pronoun proper, but
also is so weak in symbolizing any part of a thought, that it can-
not even rank as what is ordinarily meant by a word. To its
centrally intended exhibition of a thought-factor's thought-mem-
bership it sometimes adds, it is true, the indication of accessory
ideas such as gender, number and case relations expressible by
prepositions. But even in these bona fide idea-symbolizations it
does that only which is done by forms regarded as mere infleo-
tions and not at all as words. Barring the accident of formal
isolation, the relative is characterized as an idea-namer by noth-
ing which does not characterize the endings of victoris, vic'
tricis and victorum. With these then it should strictly rank.
Or if it be insisted that "whose," for instance, contains what is
expressed by -"of" and that "of" is a word, it may be conceded
that the "se" of "whose" is a word, but not the remainder.
Apart from such occasional idea-naming, the relative is quite
analogous to the isolated infinitive signs to, zu, a and de. These
I should personally not invest with the rank of proper words, to
give, zu geben, and a donner being but so many split synonyms
of donare.

XXIV. RELATIVE TERMINOLOGY.

The view of the relative thus far upheld presents it as a mere
inflection, distinguished from others by its isolation. These
others, which have abrogated their formal independence, may,
with some extension of a grammatical figure of speech, be de-
scribed as leaning upon the words which they inflect, sometimes
at the front and sometimes at the rear. They may, that is, be
ranked as, in a larger sense, proclitics and enclitics. In con-
trast to these, the function-sigTis which maintain their isolation
may be known as aclitics or inflections which do not lean.

Again the incorporated inflection is known, according to its
place in word-formation, as prefix, infix or suffix. Analogously
the isolated sign of an idea's function might be called, when

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 79

it precedes the sign of the idea itself, a profix; and when it fol-
lows the sign of that idea, it might be called a postfix.

Yet another, and I think a better designation, is suggested by
comparison with vicarious words. To illustrate, given ^^The
Bible teaches him who will learn," it is plain that 'Svho" does
not indicate that the idea expressed by ^'him" is to be reinstated
(taken up in a second thought after being dropped at the end
of a fii*st) or coinstated (duplicated in the same thought before
being dropped) ; the duty of ^'who'' is to show the second func-
tion of a factor which has two simultaneous functions. But
also, inferentially at least, it tells you more generally that a sec-
ond fimction will occur. When now, as usual, the idea in its
first function has already been presented, the relative warns you
to keep it in mind for further use.-^ It accordingly somewhat
resembles the musical sign which directs the musician to hold a
given note.

Comparing now it and its linguistic neighbors, I note that the
implied order of the reinstative is to recall ; that of the coinsta-
tive is to repeat ; that of the relative is to continue or retain.
Such being the procedure of the relative, and its special service
being the maintenance of continued expression, it is perhaps
most of all convenient to contrast it with reinstative and coin-
stative by calling it continuative.

^Even when such idea, as sometimes happens, is yet to be presented, the rela-
tive, showing in the meantime one of its memberships, warns you to IooIj out for
the exhibition of a second membership at the same time with the presentation
of the idea itself. Thus, in '"Who claims me first that man I serve," you ob-
tain from '^who" a warning to watch for an idea of which "who" might tell you
nothing but the former of two functions. That is, you are warned to maintain
an attention which in this case takes the form of expectation instead of the com-
mon form of retention.

80 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

CHAPTER IV. RELATIVE CLAUSES.

I. SE]SrTET<rCES IN WHICH THEY APPEAR.

Of these, which may in brief be known as relative sentences, I
note as more or less axiomatic that,

(a) They must express two or more thought-units.

An expression of one thought-nnit, as "Men are happy," af-
fords no opportunity for a relative ; but an expression of two
thought-units, such for instance as "Men are happy" and "Men
are virtuous," permits the use of a relative, as in "Men ivho
are virtuous are happy." Also, as the number of units in-
creases, such increase permits the use of several relatives, as in
"Men ivho are virtuous enjoy a. happiness that well repays the
pleasures ivhich they renounce."

(h) Two units must have a common factor.

To illustrate, "Men are virtuous" and "Angels have wings,"
being without a common factor, do not admit the formation of a
relative sentence. But "Men are virtuous" and "Men are
happy," having a fact-or in common, namely "Men," allow the
use of a relative sentence, as above.

(c) Their common factor must he simultaneous, not successive.

Suppose, for instance, I say that "Men are virtuous" and again
that "Men (human beings, they) are happy." Obviously I have
expressed two thought-units ; and these units have a common fac-
tor, namely "men." But this factor has been once conceived in
"Men are virtuous," has then lapsed from attention, and has
again been brought to attention by "Men (2)" or an equivalent,
in "Men (human beings, they) are happy." So long as men-
tal operatio^i is of this sort, a relative sentence will not be formed.
That is, a reinstated common factor is not available for relative
usage.

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 81

Again, in "Brown has lost his horse/' there are pLainly two
thought-units, namely "Brown has lost a horse/' and what
might be more fully expressed by "The horse is Brown's." These
units have two common factors, namely "horse" and "Brown."
Of these two the common factor "horse" is also simultaneous
and would permit, for instance, the relative sentence "Brown has
lost the horse which is Brown's (or his)." But as this possi-
bility is not utilized, it need not further be considered. On the
other hand, the common factor "Brown" is not simultaneous.
It is successive, being twice thought, once in "Brown has lost a
horse" and again in what might be more fully expressed by "The
horse is (Brown's, his or) of Brown." This factor, however,
has not meantime lapsed from attention. In other words the
symbol "his" presents the idea of Brown coinstatively. Now I
may not say that "Brown has lost luhose horse." That is, not
only a reinstated, but also a coinstated common factor is unavail-
able for relative usaire.

These propositions apply as follows : A given idea must ob-
viously be thought either once only or more than once, say twice.
Again, between two thinkings it must either lapse or not lapse.
That is, the second thinking, if it occur, must be either rein-
stative or coinstative. If now in relative usage it can be neither,
such idea cannot be thought of more than once ; or in other words
it is thought once only. If then, as in relative usage (see b)
such idea be a common factor, it must be of the simultaneous
type, as announced at the head of this section.

Obedience to this law requires an analysis of the relative sen-
tence different from the one adopted by Grammar, which latter
may be illustrated as f ollovrs : Given "I met Brown, who is ill,"
Grammar conceives "who is ill" as the relative clause, and the
remainder of the sentence as the principal. If the latter be ob-
literated, Grammar further notes that the residuary "who is
ill" is inadequate, observes that "Avho" is void of meaning, as-
sumes that it ought to have a meaning, believes that it would
Tiave a meaning, were "I met Brown" restored, and accordingly
claims that the relative clause depends upon the principal in the
vital sense of needing it in the interest of its own meaning.

In argiiing against this opinion, w^hich quite obscures the truth,

T revive in the first place the claim that "who" is the mere sign
6

82 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

that a simultaneous factor of two clauses is, in tlie relative clause^
the subject; that it has no meaning; that it is not the subject in
the relative structure ; that the actual subject of the relative-
clause is "Brown," simultaneously object in the principal. That
is, the true analysis is not [I met Brown] (who is ill), but [I
met (Brown] who is ill.)

If now one of these clauses be abolished, the question rises, what be-
comes of their common property? Passing to an extremely objective'
illustration, suppose that you and I are common owners of a horse.
If I am killed, that incident does not destroy the beast or abrogate your
ownership. You are no less and it may be even more the owner of
the horse than before. Returning to matters of thought, in the phrase
"a tall slender tree," I might indeed conceive a tree as once character-
ized by a pair of qualities. But I may also think of it as twice char-
acterized and each time by a single quality; that is, the tree may be
the simultaneous factor of two thoughts. If now I omit the conception
of the tree's tallness, I do not find that, in disappearing, it tears from
my mind the idea of the tree or even that it makes off with the proper
word for that object. That is, given

( characterized by tallness
Tree -J

( characterized by slenderness

I do not find that either phrase is mutilated by the disappearance of
the other.

In striving to show that the same is true of the strictly relative.-
clause, I wish to avoid multiplicity of issues, such as number and
gender. Accordingly let the Latin stem "Homin" stand, in a contem-
plated illustration, for men; let "es" stand solely for use as subject, or
first term, in principal thought; let "qui" stand solely for use as sub-
ject in relative thought. In diagramming my illustration, I will write
the principal clause downward on the left, and the relative downward
on the right. As I shall think of men but once, though in two thoughts,.
I write the symbol "homin" once only, indicating the sequence of each,
thought by downward lines. "Qui," as sign of function in the right-
hand clause, will naturally stand at the right of "homin." "Es," being
sign of function in the clause on the left, I will for convenience write
it on the left of "homin." To indicate the functional parity of these-
signs, I will join each to "homin" by a hyphen. Accordingly

es-Homin-qui

/ \
sunt sunt

/ \

mortales animales

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 83

Suppose now I elect to omit the principal thought, namely, that men
are mortal, expressed by "Es-Homin sunt mortales." As I have sought
to indicate, its disappearance does not involve the loss of the idea
named by "homin" or of the symbol "homin" itself. That is, the drop-
ping of the principal clause has not affected any structural element of
the relative clause. Far from disappearing, "homin" steadfastly holds
its place.

It cannot then be said that "qui" or "who" is left without a meaning.
In the first place "who" never had a meaning. In the second place the
meaning required by Grammar is present in "homin" or "men,"
which does not disappear from either my thought or my sentence.

That "men" may be forced to disappear must be conceded. All of
my example might no doubt be suppressed except "who are animals."
But to such suppression I object as excessive. The severance of the
principal, including its share in a common subject, is no doubt legiti-
mate. But such amputation, like that proposed by Shylock, must draw
no blood. Much more then must it not cut off any member of the rela-
tive body. It must leave to the relative clause its share of the common
subject. Properly then the relative clause consists of "Homin-qui sunt
mortales."

It appears accordingly, that the relative clause as well as the
principal contain the simultaneous factor. The symbols of all
other required meanings it also sujDplies. It does not therefore
depend upon the principal for any part of its meaning. While
the relative word is a convenient formal means of recognizing
the relative clause, the latter in strict analysis consists of what
Grammar calls the antecedent, plus the isolated inflection, plus
associated words. Thus in ^'I met Brovvm, who is ill," the
relative clause is ^'Bro\^Ti (who) is ill," ^*who" being merely the
nominative case ending peculiar to the secondary membership
of a simultaneous factor.

(d) Ttvo units may have more than one common factor, but one only
is made simultaneous.

Given "A stone struck Brown" and "A stone hurt Brown," I may say
that "A stone which struck Brown hurt him," or "A stone struck Brown
whom it hurt;" but I may not say that "A stone struck Brown whom
which hurt;" and much less may I say "A stone struck Brown yester-
day on the shoulder, which hurt whom when where."

It is obvious that a simultaneous factor directly links the wholes of
which it is a part. To this proposition it is merely corollary to add
that two thoughts, if linked directly each by a simultaneous factor to a
third, are indirectly linked each to the other. It is further conceivable

84 Wisco7ism Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

that three thoughts be so constituted that two of them may be linked
either directlj-, each to the other, or indirectly through the medium
of the third. Accordingly

(e) Two units may have a factor in common and also, each, a fac-
tor common to a third unit. In this case either the factor covimon to
the two or the factors common to the third may he made simultaneous^
"but not both.

To illustrate, let three thoughts be diagrammed as follows:

(1) Men — suffer — pain.

Suffering

(3) -( is because of

I I

(^ disobedience.

(2) Men — disobey — laws.

Of this trio (1) and (2) have the common factor named by "men."
Further, (1) and (3) have the common factor named by "suffer" and
"suffering;" also (3) and (2) have the common factor named by "dis-
obedience" and "disobey." As indicated, I may follow either one of two
linking processes. On the one hand I may make "suffer" and "suffer-
ing" simultaneous, and also "disobedience" and "disobey;" I may at the
same time reduce the causal relation of (3) from declarative to merely
suggestive form, obtaining "men suffer pain because men (or human
beings or they) disobey laws." On the other hand I may make men (1)
and men (2) simultaneous, obtaining "Men who disobey laws suffer
pain." I may not, however, follow both these methods at once. That
is, I may not say that "Men suffer pain because who break laws."^

^ After linking two thoughts by one of these methods I may, however, again
by the other method link one thought to a repetition of the other thought. Thus,

(1)' Men — disobey — laws.

(2) Men — suffer — pain.

r suffering
I I

(3) -l is because of

I I

[disobedience.

CD' Men — disobey — laws.

Let now fEe "men" of (1)' and (2) become simultaneous, developing "Men
who disobey laws suffer pain." It is practicable further to reduce (2), (3), and
(1)'' as before, obtaining in toto "Men who disobey laws suffer pain because men
(or human beings or they) disobey laws." It is common in this operation to
replace the word "because," etc., by the single word "therefore," which, as I have
elsewhere striven to show, is equivalent to "because of that," or, in full, "be-
cause men disobey laws." The fact of momentary importance is my ability to
use the rcinstative relation namer, as in "Men who disobey laws, therefore
(hence, on that account), suffer pain." I may not, however, use the contin-
uative relation namer ; that is, I may not say "Men who disobey laws, icherefore,
whence, on which account) suffer pain."

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 85

The substance of (d) and (e) may be resumed by saying that
when one thoue*ht is linked to another, to draw it into the se-
quence of exposition, a single point of attachment is elected;
each car of the mental train is dra^^Ti by one coupler. For this fact
a psychological reason may be suggested as follows: While I
may think two thoughts at the same time, I must, in oral com-
munication and in its thus far current written or printed substi-
tutes, express them in succession. This of course implies their
successive appearance in the mind of my hearer. Also my o^vn
thinking, under the in^^uence of the successive expressional pro-
cess, will adopt the successive method. In other words I shall,
while speaking, think my thought in the shape in which I mean
to tell it ; for to tell it in one shape, Avhile thinking it in another,
is a feat unduly difficult, if not indeed impossible.

Successive thinking being then adopted, the use of a simul-
taneous factor implies the holding in my mind of a factor of
one thought, during its service as factor of another. This alone
is not difficult ; but thought-building further implies the appre-
hension of the factor's structural position in each of two
thoughts ; and this apprehension of the factor's position implies
again some perception of its field or, in other words, the two
thoughts of which it is a part. That the mental effort involved
is somewhat difficult is indicated by the notorious frequency of
error in the use of relative words.-^ This difficulty may be com-
pared to that of looking at the same time after the doings of an
Alice and those also of an ^^Alice in the looking-glass." When
now the speaker undertakes the management of two simultaneous
factors, direct or indirect, his difficulty may be compared to that
of looking at the same time after the doings of two actual and
two reflected Alices. Happily such a task is never prescribed.
Instead of making each of two common factors simultaneous, in-
stead that is of continuing two factors of one thought into an-
other, the speaker may always drop one or even each of them
and pick it up again at his convenience. Thus, declining the
effort involved in "A stone struck Brown whom which hurt,"
I am allowed the less perplexing forms, "A stone struck Brown
whom it hurt" or ^^which hurt him ;" and if further indisposed

^Conf. "The enemy tchom he thought would injure him." "The enemy who
they were sure they had defeated."

86 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

to complex cerebration, I may even say "A stone struck Brown.
It liurt him.'' The linguistic law of single simailtaneoiis factor
is then but a special application of the general law that energy,
in this case mental, tends to follow the line of least resistance.

(/) Of the relative sentence the relative clause may he infor-
mational.

This proposition, being generally admitted, may be merely
illustrated as follows: ^'I have met Brown, who is ill.''
By this sentence I wish you to understand both that I have met
Brown and that Brown is ill. That such is mv intention is in-
dicated by my ability, without thwarting that intention, to sub-
stitute "I met Brown. Bro^oi (he) is ill." My sentence then
contains two statements ; or my apparently single sentence is
really two. It may be knovv^n as polyphrastic.

(g) Of the relative sentence the relative clause may he re-
strictive.

This proposition merely substitutes the term restrictive
for the currently accepted term ^'determinative," and again
requires illustration only. Accordingly, ^'I want a horse which
can trot in 1 :30." Applying again my previous tests, I find
that if I say ^^I want a horse. He can trot in 1 :30," my inten-
tion is defeated. Postponing rigid examination, I confine
myself, for the moment, to noting that, in associating a horse with
a 1 :30 gait, I desire solely to guide you to the mere conception of
a particular equine type. I am far from wishing to assert that
any horse can trot so fast. My relative clause is accordingly not
informational, but restrictive, excluding horses otherwise think-
able. The sentence of which it forms an essential part, con-
taining but a single statement, may be known as monoplirastic.'

^The difference between the informational and the restrictive clause may be
emphasized as follows : Given the word "men," the idea which it will rouse in
your mind is obviously variable. You may think of all men in all that consti-
tutes their manhood — of less — or even of more. The restrictive relative leads
you to think of less. Thus, "who are virtuous," excluding "wicked." leads you to
think of less men and less qualities. It resembles a numerical coefficient of the
fractional type, e. g., i. On the other hand the informational clause, for in-
stance "who are God's creatures" leads you to think of men in a broadened
range of characteristics. Such a clause is, in a sense, augmentive ; it resem-
bles a numerical coeflacient of the integral type, e. g., 5.

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 87

(7i) Of the relative sentence the relative clause may he hoth informa-
tional and restrictive.

Such a clause is merely a peculiar illustration of that economy of
speech, which leads the linguistic marksman, when able, to kill two
"birds with a single stone. To illustrate, suppose that I wish to intro-
duce to you an acquaintance; in doing so I might employ the sentence,
"This is Mr. Brown." But suppose again that, knowing several per-
sons of that name, I wish to distinguish this one from others; in doing
so I may use the expression "This is the Mr. Brown met by me in
London."- Suppose also that, never having mentioned this meeting
before, I wish to inform you of it; I tell you that "This is the Mr.
Brown whom I met in London."

Such usage is comparatively rare; and as it obviously carries with
it the peculiarities of both restrictive and informational usage, it may
\)e neglected in favor of these latter pure and simple.

(i) Of the relative sentence the relative clause may he equivocal.

By this I mean that the hearer may be uncertain whether the relative
clause be intended as informational or as restrictive. To illustrate,
■"The strawberries which were ripe were greatly enjoyed," This sen-
tence may be taken as meaning either "Such strawberries as were ripe
(no others) were greatly enjoyed," or "The strawberries (incidentall;?
declared to be ripe) were greatly enjoyed."

An effort has been made to differentiate such clauses by the scope
(content or extent) of the simultaneous factor, as it appears in the
relative clause. It is indeed obvious that, if the scope of this factor
in the relative clause be universal, that clause must be unavailable for
restrictive purposes. Thus, strawberries being all of them larger than
currants, it would be useless to say, with any restrictive intention, that
'"The strawberries which were larger than currants were enjoyed."
That is, I have no chance to distinguish berries from berries by their
superiority to currants. But it by no means follows conversely that,
if the simultaneous factor has only partial scope in the relative clause,
it is therefore unavailable for purposes of information. To illustrate,
"Strawberries, which arc very wholesome, are larger than currants."
In this sentence "which are wholesome" is plainly informational; to
construe it as aiming to indicate what berries are larger than currants
would be simply impertinent; it plainly expresses collateral informa-
tion. Yet in my statement that strawberries are wholesome you must
not suppose that I mean them all. I sRould wish to make a reservation
in the case of the unripe and the decayed.

The scope of the simultaneous factor in the principal clause is an
equally unsafe guide. It is doubtless true that, if the scope of that
factor be universal, I shall not seek to restrict it. But it does not fol-
low that, if it be partial, I must restrict it; for I may even leave it as it

2 1 use the past participle to avoid any appearance of assertion.

SS Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ ArlSj and Letters.

is. Thus, in "Strawberries are wiiolesome," though I do not mean all
strawberries, I leave to you entirely 'the elimination of such as I da
not mean. It also does not follow that I cannot use an informational
clause. Thus I am likely enough to say that strawberries, which are
larger than currants, are very wholesome." That is "strawberries,"
viewed as wholesome, means certain berries only, the unripe and the
aecayed being excluded; but "strawberries" viewed as larger than cur-
rants may even mean all berries of the species.^

The scope then of the simxUltaneous factor cannot, in either of its
functions, settle the question whether the relative clause be restrictive
or informational. This is settled purely by the speaker's intention.
This intention is usually known from mode (when reliabl-3), context,,
situation and the other available extra-linguistic aids. When it re-
mains unknown, the relative sentence merely presents a case of that
ambiguity with which language abounds. Such ambiguity of the rela-
tive clause, comparatively rare and of minor importance, I have noted
merely in the effort to avoid oversight, reserving all more careful ex-
amination for relative clauses of unequivocal value.

Of these the informational clause, so far as I have observed, presents
no difficulties which do not also appear in clauses either principal or
restrictive. The last indeed so exceed the first, both in number and de-
gree of ditliculties, that I may in the interest of brevity, confine m.yself
in the main to restrictive clsAises. As a convenient background on
which to project them, I offer a few observations on

II. THE INFORMATIOXAL RELATIVE CLAUSE.

The distinctive features of this appear to best advantage, when
its services are compared with those of the principal clause. Ac-
cordingly, given ^'I have met Brown, who is ill,'' it is plain that
each of my clauses diligently attends to the business of giving
its own contingent of information ; and each neither aids nor
meddles with the business of the other. The information that I
met Brown is not made, in any one of its elements, either more
or less clear, certain or comprehensive by the mention of his
being ill ; and the information that he is ill is quite unaitected
by the mention of the meeting. The business of the relative
clause is then, when informational, exclusively its o^m, a fact
of multiple significance.

In the first place it is obvious that, of two things one: either
a given relative clause is needed to restrict some element of the

^My change in the scope of simultaneous factor is hardly flattering to my
mental precision, but does not, I think, outdo the practice of average minds.

Owen — Ee vision of Pronouns. 89

principal clause or it is not. If now it be not so needed, then
and then only is it free to attend to business exclusively its own.
In other words the special condition or say the 02)porlunity (oc-
casion) of the informational clause is the adequacy of the prin-
cipal, without its aid.

Looking now from external conditions to conditions inherent
in the relative clause itself, I note that, the business of principal
clause and that of informational relative, being mutually quite
independent, the relative obtains no countenance from the prin-
cipal. It need not allege activit}^ in the interest of the princi-
pal as a raison d'etre. Its own business offers ample justifica-
tion of its existence, without being also the business of the prin-
cipal. It is not a means to an end but rather an end in itself.
In the strongest sense of the word it therefore may be said that
the informational clause is self-sufficient. Its warrant, like that
of the principal, is the intrinsic value of what it expresses.

This value is primarily dependent on reality. For, if w4iat
I tell you be not true, it alone can hardly help you* Yet some
leniency must be shown when the informational clause ex-
presses what is not true. Such untruth or unreality may be
explained either by deliberate falsification on my part or by
self-deception. The former possibility may be dismissed as,
strictly speaking, extra-linguistic. That is, it isn't the j)urpose
of speech to express wdiat speakers do not think. As to self-
deception, it should be remembered that the purpose of speech
is not to express external fact. It aims to embody solely in-
ternal or subjective fact, wdiat the speaker thinks he knows, what
in other words he believes.^ Though, as sometimes happens,
this belief be not in accordance with external fact, such an in-
cident is the mere misfortune of human weakness, and is again
strictly extra-linguistic. So long as I successfully express my

^Thus from my assertion that "A equals B" you learn my subjective status
only, my belief in the equality of A and B, but by no means the truth of my
proposition. Such belief indeed you also learn from sentences not as a rule
perceived to be assertive. Thus even the imperative assures the hearer that
the speaker desires or commands ; that is, it asserts or expresses a belief, not
indeed in what is desired, but in the mental state of desiring. Again interroga-
tion, it is true, is a solicitation of knowledge. But it takes the form of infor-
mation-giving ; for it informs the hearer that the speaker desires to be told
something. That is, it does not assert that something, nor that telling, but only
the mental status of desire, being therefore a pregnant imperative, just as the
imperative itself is a pregnant indicative.

90 Wisconsi7i Academy of Scieiices, Arts, and Letters.

belief/ I am doing all that the linguistic mechanism was in-
tended to perform. Accordingly an informational clause may
be recognized as having primarily the necessary value, if only it
expresses what the speaker believes to be true.

This value is secondarily dependent on the hearer's previous
ignorance of what the informational clause expresses. As a
reasonable person, I shall not waste my breath in telling you
what you already know. And passing from my personal view-
point to that of my hearer, I must perceive that he will not wel-
come speech which merely reviews for him the items of his knowl-
ed^re, but only such as augments it. If, knowing you to be aware
of Brown's illness, (and also who is meant by Brown), I never-
theless declare that "I have met Brown, who is ill/^ I am guilty
of a linguistic impertinence second only to falsehood. Indeed
it may be questioned whether a stale truth be not on occasion
more offensive than untruth. It must indeed be admitted that I
may err in supposing you to be unacquainted with what I tell
you ; but such an accident may be overlooked. So long as the
speaker thinks that he is going to augment the hearer's knowl-
edge the requisite condition is fulfilled.^

Overlooking, as unnecessary, the aesthetic, utilitarian and
ethical aspects of value, I resume as follows : the warrant of the
informational clause is the supposed reality and novelty of its
import.

As the relative clause of the informational type is active, like
the principal, solely in its own interest, it may be said to be ego-
istic. Its purpose, like that of the principal, and like that of
an isolated sentence, is to give information of its own.

In tactics the informational and principal clauses offer further

1 Disbelief, bein;? merely belief in the unreality of what is mentioned, may be
fncluded in this stipulation, thus extending its application to negativi sentences
proper.

2 The tentative review of facts in argument is merely a form of exposition
adopted, in protracted reasoning, for the sake of greater ease and clearness.
Thus, assuming you to know that a=& and that 6=c, but not to have perceived
the relation of a and c, I say to you "a=b. l}=c. Therefore fl.=c." Of these
announcements the first two may be interpreted as inviting objection to prem-
ises, being equivalent to '■a=b? J)=c?" Or the whole may be regarded as merely
a paraphrase of "Because of a's equality to 6 and b's equality to c, a is equal
to c." Again, while aware that you know the equality of a and 6, as well as
that of b and c, I may think it likely that you have forgotten these facts or at
least are not thinking of them at this moment, that is, that you are in a state
of momentary ignorance, in which case the use of informational expressions is
justified by their momentary novelty.

Oiven — Revision of Pronouns. 91

agreement. To illustrate, in ^^I have met the Browns, who are
going to Europe" I will suppose that you know perfectly well
whom I mean by ^^the Browns/' without the help of anything
but the word itself. AVith the idea which it suggests, by means
of suitable words I induce you to associate other ideas, so as to
form the thought expressed by ^'I have met the Browns." Also
with the idea expressed by ^'Browns," by means of other suita-
ble words, I induce you to associate still other ideas, so as to form
the thought expressible by ^'The Browns are going to Europe."
This, too, I believe is all that you do, either by my inducement
or independently. That is, whether the principal or the infor-
mational clause be examined, one form of procedure appears.
In particular, then, it may be said that the lyrocedure of an in-
formational relative clause is this : by means of terms associ-
ated with a term occurring in the principal it formulates a propo-
sition.

As both the principal and the informational clauses aim, as
expressions of the speaker's belief, to increase the hearer's
knowledge, both are properly put in the form of assertions.
Thus, in ^'I have met Brown, who is going to Europe," there can
be, I think, no question that I assert not only my meeting with
Browm, but also Brown's going to Europe. iSTow assertion is
the distinctive characteristic of a sentence. (See IvTote, p. 89.)
As a sentence, therefore, the informational relative properly
i^anks, diiferins: from others merelv in the circumstance that
one of its factors is simultaneouslv a factor of another sentence.-^
This circumstance, it is moreover obvious, is characteristic also
of its principal.

In the examination of the restrictive clause an effort will be
made to show that it enters the principal clause as one of its ele-
ments, or in other words as a part of speech, i^ow the informa-
tional clause is not a part of speech at all, but, so to speak, a
speech in itself. In other v^ords the function of the informa-
tional clause is that of a sentence.

The exact opposite, in most cases, of the informational clause
in opportunity, warrant, purpose, procedure, and function I ^^lan
to exhibit in

^Or, in other words, principal and informational clause together form a
polyphrastic sentence. See Section I, f.

02 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, AriSy and Letters.

III. THE EESTEICTIYE SELATIVE CLAUSE.

(1) Its Opportunity.

To illustrate this, if ^'^vlen die yearly of cholera" expresses to
my satisfaction what I intend, I shall let well-enough alone and
use no other words of any sort. But if my statement is inade-
quate, if for example I further wish you to know what kind of
men or how many or which, I am likely to use linguistic means
to effect my desire. Of these, which are many, the restrictive
relative clause alone is of momentary interest. Of it in par-
ticular it may then be noted, that its opportunity is the inade-
quacy of the principal clause.

(2) Its Warrant.

Supposing such an opportunity to exist, the right or warrant
of the restrictive relative to utilize it may be illustrated as fol-
lows. Suppose that, meeting you at a social gathering, I wish
to tell you that one of its members, a Mr. Brown, is the son of my
brother. My natural impulse is to say that '^Brown is my
nephew." But I recall that you do not know his name. His
specific designation being therefore unavailable, the best remain-
ing single word for him is possibly ''guest," which at least ex-
cludes the host, the family, servants, reporters, and all beings
not human. But from this word vou cannot learn which one of
many persons I intend. Casting about me for a remedy, I note
an exchange of salutations between mv kinsman and one Smith,
at the very moment when your eyes are on the former. I solve
at once all difficulties by designatino; the person I intend as "The
guest who bowed to Smith."

In doing so I am not to be understood as attaching special im-
portance to the salutation. Any other distinctive act would have
served as well. Thus, overlooking a mere aesthetic preference
for the comely, I might with equal clearness say ''The gniest who
stretched his legs" or "The guest who yawned so dangerously
is my nephew." But had any other person bowed to Smith or
yawned or stretched while Brown Avas doing the same, I should
have neglected each of these acts, for the reason that no one of

Owen — Eevision of Pronouns. 93

them "would have served to show you the person of whom I wish
to speak.

To generalize, given in a principal clause a need of determi-
nation, a particular restrictive clause is admitted only in case
it can meet that need. Given also several restrictive clauses
able to meet that need, the choice among them is guided first of
all by their respective ability. The restrictive clause has no in-
dividual raison d'etre. It cannot justify its existence by the
unaided value of what it mentions. This is not itself an end,
but onlv a means to an end. Far from beinc; like the informa-
tional relative self-sufficient, it is in itself conspicuously insuffi-
cient ; it is merely ancillary or auxiliary ; it is dependent in the
sense of needing another clause in justification of its own exist-
ence. Its warrant for entering the sentence is by no means the
intrinsic value of what it expresses, but the availability thereof
in the service of the principal.

Such being the case, it is strictly irrelevant to consider at all the
question of its intrinsic value. Yet the confusion prevalent at this
point is so great as to invite some development of the following axio-
matic proposition; the intrinsic value of a restrictive relative may be
what it will, either in reality or novelty.

Examining in turn the elements of value already noted on p. 89,
! find, in the first place, that the import of the restrictive clause might
be either already known or unknown. That the already known should
be available in the clarification of a statement has been already shown
in "The guest who bowed to Smith is my nephew." In this example
I utilize your knowledge of the bowing, to help you understand what
guest I mean. The contrast between the restrictive and the informa-
tional clause is in this case at a maximum. The latter is a gift added
to that of the principal. The restrictive is rather a draft upon your
acquisitions to pay the expense of transporting the principal. The in-
formational embodies what you don't know, because you don't know it,
and in order that you may know it. The restrictive embodies what
you do know, because you know it, and in order to help you know some-
thing else.

That the unknown should also be available in restriction is not so
obvious. To illustrate, I choose, among many possible cases, the ex-
treme one, in which neither speaker nor hearer knows that which the
restrictive mentions, and neither has ever even heard or thought of it
before. I assume accordingly that the thought of men's eating rats has
never appeared in your mind or mine, and that much less can either
of us know that they do so. Wishing now to indicate the gastronomic

94: }Visconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

fortitude required at our boarding-house, I tell you that "We need th&
stomachs of men who live on rats;" and this I do with perfect confi-
dence that you will think of such men and thereby of such stomachs
as I do myself.

Again, that what is true should offer available aid in the acquisition
of truth, is sufficiently illustrated by "The guest who bowed to Smith
is my nephew," the salutation being supposed to have occurred. That,
however, the acquisition of truth may be aided by untruth, is not so
plainly apparent. A complete examination of the different forms of
this possibility would lead too far. Contenting myself on that account
with a single crucial test, I suppose that my servant has worn to a fire-
men's ball a pair of trousers, which at the time he believed to be mine.
But later he has learned that what he actually wore was the similar
garment of a guest who has since departed with all his belongings. To
make the illustration even more effective, let it be conceded that I also
know this and that each of us is aware of the other's knowledge.
Suppose now that I say to my servant, "Bring me the trousers that you
wore to the firemen's ball." Bringable trousers including assumably
only my own, it is plain that none such can truly be characterized as
worn to the ball. Yet I do not hesitate so to characterize the desired
pair; and, guided by such characterization, my servant thinks of the
right trousers; he wastes no time in psychologizing on the reality, prob-
ability, possibility, or plausibility of the characterization; he gets the
trousers.

Be then the intrinsic value of the restrictive what it will, it will be
used for restrictive purposes, if only it be able to restrict.

(S) Its Purpose.

To illustrate, suppose that, as above, I use the sentence ^'The
guest who bowed to Smith is mj- nephew;" my motive needs, I
think, no demonstration. Recognizing that, without the clause
"who bowed to Smith," my contemplated statement would be
inadequate, I intend that by the use of this clause such inade-
quacy be relieved. My motive is even more conspicuous in ex-
amples offering a severer test. In "All men who live in Eng-
land are called English," and again in "I don't know any man,
w^ho is perfectly happy," the inadequacy of the isolated princi-
pal clause becomes untenability. Unless my principal shall ab-
solutely contradict me, I must relieve its inadequacy by a re-
strictive. The relieving purpose of my relative clause is em-
phasized on the one hand by glaring need. On the other hand

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 95

it is emphasized by the completeness with which it meets that
need. The restrictive chnise is not, then, used for its own sake,
but for the sake of the principal It is not, like the informa-
tional, egoistic ; it is altruistic. Its purpose is to aid the inform-
ational effort of the principal.

(Ji) lis Procedure.

In examining this it is convenient to begin with cases in Avhich,
to use the words of Grammar,

(a) The relative word is subject of the relative clause.

Let such be illustrated bv ''The c:uest who bowed to Smith is
my nephew\'' Reviving the doctrine proposed on p. 60 that
the value of ''who" is not structural, but only instructional (like
that of plans and specifications), and assuming that the instruc-
tion offered by "who" has been duly utilized, let attention be con-
fined to structural elements only. Such elements may be pre-
sented, and their simultaneous factor indicated, by the diagram,

rpi ^ ( — bowed to — Smith (relative)

Ihea-uest -^ . ^ , • • ^^

( — is — my nephew (prmcipal)

t)'

The psychological reactions attending the presentations of
ideas in the above tw^o clauses are by no means alike. In "The
guest is my nephew" (principal), since you regard ideas named
as mutually suitable to thought-formation, you accept my sug-
gestion to combine them into a thought. On the other hand,
in "The guest bowed to Smith" (relative), since you perceive
ideas named to be put by me as forming a thought, you infer
that they are mutually suitable for thought-formation. That
is, in the principal clause, because ideas are mutually suitable,
you combine them into a thought ; but in the restrictive clause,
because ideas are combined into a thought, you accept them as
mutually suitable.

To complete my purpose, you must comply with two condi-
tions. In the first place, while conceiving the ideas named by
"The guest bowed to Smith" as in a general way mutually suita-

96 Wisconsiji Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ble, joii must in particular conceive the ^%iiest" as suitable to
"bowed to Smith;" and this yon cannot do of each and every
gnest. Yon mnst not therefore think of any gnest who did not
perform that act. That is, in order that the idea named by
'^gnest" may snit the ideas named by "bowed to Smith/' it must
be the idea of only one, and a particular one, of the persons as-
sembled. In the second place, having thought of the right guest
in connection with "bowed to Smith," you must hold fast to him,
and not allow him to be displaced in your mind, or accompanied
by any other, as you pass on to his being my nephew That is,
in the relative clause of restrictive type, the simultaneous factor
must be conceived suitablv to the other ideas with which therein
it is associated ; and in the principal clause that simultaneous
factor must be conceived exactlv as in the restrictive. In other
words, the scope of the simultaneous factor is, in the relative
clause, adjusted to suit its fellows; and in the principal clause
this scope is maintained. The simultaneous factor, it may then
be said, is specially fitted for its service in the principal clause
by its service in the relative clause; and, as this special fitting
is a reduction of possible scope, it may very well be said that
the simultaneous factor, in its use as part of the principal clause,
is restricted, determined, or limited bv its associates in the rela-
tive clause ; or, in particular, "giiest" is limited by "bowed to
Smith." 1

In order to feel this limiting, this adaptation of the scope
of the relative to its fellow clause-members, the mind is obliged
to view the relative clause as made up of a limited and a limit-
ing part — to analyze it, that is, in the present case, into its sub-
ject (the simultaneous factor) and its predicate or remainder.
"Guest," the true subject of the relative clause, is juxtaposed

^By Grammar, however, the limiter of "guest" is said to be ''who bowed to
Smith." The utter untenahility of this proposition will appear, I hope, in
further examination. For the moment it may be enough to note that if, as I
argue, "who" is merely an instructional element, it cannot be recognized as nam-
ing one of the ideas restricting "guest," but if. as Grammar will have it, "who"
stands for an idea or thought element, that idea can only be that of "guest ;"
that is. such idea is twice thought of, once as symbolized by "guest," and again
as symbolized by "who." But the moment "the guest" is thought of twice, it
ceases to be a simultaneous factor, becoming successive ; that is, a breach occurs
in thought continuity, and the actual value of my sentence becomes "A guest
bowed to Smith. The guest is my nephew ;" that is, I have no longer a single
monophrastlc sentence, but two sentences or, at tlie least, a sentence of the
polyphrastic type.

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 97

to ^'bowed to Smith," as predicate. Between the two there is
perceived a fellowship, a mutual belonging, a relation of part
to part (of a single mental whole), the relation expressed by the
60-called copula, as holding between subject and predicate.
Now, gi'anted this predicate, plainly the subject, in order to
maintain this belonging, must adapt itself to whatever the predi-
cate requires. Conversely, the predicate, forcing the subject to
do this, may be regarded as its liniiter, determiner, or restricter.
Accordingly the ordinary subject-predicate analysis, constantly
urged by Grammar and Logic, fits the present case. But the
present case is one only of many, with the remainder of which
this analysis w^ill not avail. These remaining cases I will bring
together under

(b) The relative word is not the subject of the relative clause.

This case presents itself in many varieties, of which I propose
to examine a few only of the more conspicuous. To illustrate,
'^The guest whom Smith saluted is my nephew." In this sen-
tence also I think it undebatable that my purpose in saying
"whom Smith saluted," is the same as it was in savino; "who
bowed to Smith," namely, to confine jour attention to a partic-
ular giiest, although in the present illustration "guest" is no
longer subject in the relative clause. The usual analysis, how-
ever, no longer meets requirements. If I regard my relative
clause as consisting of a subject "Smith" and a predicate "sa-
luted the guest" (here again by no means "whom"), I not only
receive no aid, but am actually hindered from seeing the opera-
tion of restrictive elements. For the blending of "saluted" and
"guest" in a single total precludes that discreteness of "guest"
which I require in order to feel its adaptation of itself to its fel-
lows. So also the separation of "Smith" and "saluted" breaks
the totalitv in which I wish to view them as a restricter of
"guest." I must plainly conceive the analysis of thought more
largely than is customary either in Logic or in Grammar. I
advance accordingly these general propositions: A thought
mav be analvzed into any one of its ideas and the remainder;
betweeen that one and the remainder may be conceived that
7

98 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

mutual belonging indicated by the so-called copula ; in any such
analysis the remaider may force the one idea to maintain this
mutual belonging by self-adaptation. That is, to any element of
a thought the remainder may be a restrictive predicate ; or, in
other words, any thought-element may be restricted by the total
of its fellows :

In illustration, suppose that a given orange is larger than a
given lemon. Were I to analyze my thought historically ; were
I, that is, to regard the method of its actual development, I
might very well find that I had seen first the orange; that I
had next observed the lemon; that I had, in passing from the
one to the other, been conscious of a difference or relation ex-
pressed in "The orange exceeds the lemon.'' That is, my analy-
sis would develop three factors, an orange, a lemon, and a quan-
titative relation. But I can, no doubt, re-analyze this thought
into a pair of parts related merely as the mutual complements
of one whole. In so doing I may elect either of my three orig-
inal terms as one part and regard the others as its complement,
my analyses taking the follo^^dng forms :

Oranere — exceeds lemon.
Exceeds — orange, lemon.
Lemon — orans^e exceeds.

Also any chosen part may be noted as adapting itself to the
requirements of the others. Thus,

The orange must be of such a size that it will exceed the lemon.

The excess must be such that it will suit the lemon and the
orange.

The lemon must be of such a size that the orange will exceed it.

In other words, the orange, the excess and the lemon may be
successively determined, each by the total of its fellows.

The determination of a relation, sav that of excess, bv this
method is not, to my knowledge, directly accomplished in speech.
I may indeed make use of such an expression as '^^The plum ex-
ceeds the cherry to the degree in which the orange exceeds the
lemon." But I do not use a relation simultaneouslv as factor
of two thoughts, for the purpose of letting the use in one thought
fit it for use in the other. That is, I do not use expressions of

ii

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 99

the type ^'The plum exceeds the cherry, wJiiches the orange the
lemon." In other words, we have not yet developed relative
verbs. Such verbs, being then merely an unrealized possibility,
require no consideration.* Accordingly the present case (b), in
which the relative is not the subject, excludes both the case in
which the relative is subject and the case in which it might be
the middle term or verb.

Among the varieties of case (b) I take up first the one in
which the simultaneous factor appears in the relative clause as
its direct object. Reviving the illustration ^'The guest whom
Smith saluted is my nephew,'' I note that my meaning is as fol-
lows: The guest suitable to ''Smith saluted" is my nephew.
That is, just as with "who bowed to Smith" the simultaneous
factor was determined bv its fellows "bowed to Smith " so also
with "whom Smith saluted" the simultaneous factor is deter-
mined by its fellows "Smith saluted."

What holds of the direct object holds also of the indirect. In
The guest to whom Smith bowed," the simultaneous factor

guest" is determined by "to Smith bowed." That such

is the fact is vividly suggested by the antigrammatical tendency
to range all the idea-naming words of the relative clause together,

as in "The guest (whom) Smith bowed to." The motive

for this arrangement seems to be that, the simultaneous factor
"guest" being put by itself, and the remainder of the relative
clause appearing as an unbroken total, the necessary juxtaposi-
tion of such factor and such total is made more easy.

The adjunct of the subject is similarly treated. Thus, in
^'The dancer, of whom the partner bowed to Smith, is my
nephew," "whom" is merely the sign that "dancer," in the sec-
ond of two simultaneous thought memberships, is governed by
of;" moreover, the prepositional phrase, "of whom," that is,
of the dancer," is in one aspect obviously a restrictive adjunct
of "partner ;" but, in a momentarily more important aspect, "of

the partner bowed to Smith" is a restricter of "whom,"

that is, of "dancer," as suggested again by the popular form "the
dancer (whom) the partner of bowed to Smith."

The adjunct of the object forms no exception. In "The
dancer of whom Smith saluted the partner," "dancer," in its
second membership, forms with "of" an adjunct of "partner/'

4(.

100 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

the object of the relative clause. But here again it is also and

more sis'nificantlv true, that dancer is restricted bv ^^of

Smith sainted the partner," as again is strongly hinted by the
popular form, ''The dancer (whom) Smith saluted the partner
of." Indeed, if strict account be kept of the double value of the
so-called possessive 'Svhose," an even stranger construction may
be developed. For 'Svhose" unquestionably means ''of whom"
and may, indeed, be analyzed into the elements "who (the mere
sign of second membership) and "se" (synonymous with "of").
The merely instructional value of "who" being once noted, it
mav. in the consideration of thouirht-elements, be allowed to dis-
appear. Thought-architecture may accordingly be faithfully
indicated either by

"The dancer (whom) Smith saluted the partner of," or

"The dancer — (who) Smith saluted the partner se/' That
is, by either notation, the clause beginning with "Smith" is a
restricter of "dancer."

The simultaneous factor may serve in the relative clause as
verbal adjunct, or, more strictly, as part thereof. To illustrate^
in "This is the place in which Lincoln fell," the prepositional
phrase "in which" is grammatically ranked as the adjunct of
"fell ;" and of this adjunct the relative "which" is a part. But
in this example my aim in using the relative clause was to re-
strict the idea expressed by "place." I wish you to conceive a
place distinguished from all others by Lincoln's in-falling.
That such indeed is the usual intention is indicated by the popu-
lar "This is the place (which) Lincoln fell in," the purely in-
structional value of "which" being further hinted by its frequent
omission.

The structure of thought in such usage is commonly disguised
by multiple symbolization, the duties of both "in" and "which""
being performed by the single w^ord "where." I may accord-
ingly say, "This is the place where Lincoln fell." In this ex-
pression "where" is commonly styled a relative and an adjunct.
But strictly speaking, "where" possesses two values, namely, "in"
and "which;" and of these one only is relative, while both are
required to form an adjunct.

The place-idea may be combined as above with the same re-
lation (e. g. "in") in both clauses; and also each combination

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 101

may be expressed by multiple symbolization, as in "A stain of
blood remains there (in tlie place) where (in which) Lincoln
fell." In such case the function of the simultaneous factor be-
ing in both thoughts the same, the need of indicating it in the
relative clause is little felt ; accordingly the relative word might
be omitted. But at this point confusion arises. In substantive
usage of 'the simultaneous factor it is, as properly, the relative
itself that disappears, as in "I have met the man (whom) you
seek,'' etc. But, in the case of a verbal adjunct, what disappears
is more commonly the so-called antecedent, as in "A stain of
blood remains (there) where Lincoln fell." Whether in such
case there be a supplying of ^'there" or an exchange of mean-
ing between "there" and "where" or an incorporation of both
meanings in "where" (Conf. "what" = "that which"), it is
needless and possibly useless to inquire.

That the simultaneous factor may appear not only as part of
an adjunct in the relative clause, but also as part of an adjunct
of an adjimct, and so on to the nth degree of remoteness, is an ob-
vious possibility. The actual retirement of this factor into the
more distant background of the relative clause may be illustrated
as follows : "Bring me the trousers for the pocket of which you
were sent to ransack the shops to find a button." That is, in
diagram :

You — were — sent

I

(was for)

(you) to ransack the shops

I

(was for)

I

(you) to find — a button

I

(was) for

I

the pocket — (was) of — ( which )
Bring ( trousers )

Accordingly "trousers," in its membership of the relative
clause, is part of an adjunct of "pocket," which is part of an

102 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

adjunct of "button/*' wliich is part of an adjunct of ^"ransack,"
which is part of an adjunct of "sent;" or, roughly speaking,
"trousers/' in the above membership, is in the fourth degree
adjunctive to "sent/' That all of this intricate relative clause,
except "trousers," is however used as a restricter of "trousers,"
is indicated by the fact that popular arrangement juxtaposes
"trousers" with the gathered troop of its fellows, thus : "Bring
me the trousers (which) you were sent to ransack the shops to
find a button for the pocket of."

Generalizing on cases examined, I contrast the restrictive
clause again with the informational, noting that the procedure
of the restrictive clause is this : By means of terms associated
with a term occurring in the principal, it occasions an adapta-
tion of that term, in scope, to its associates.

(5) Its Function.

E-eviving the substance of (2), I note that the restrictive is
a mere auxiliary. It always determines an otherwise inadequate
element of the principal clause. It is not in itself a speech,
but a "part of speech." What part of speech it is depends in
grammatical classifiv^ation, largely at least, upon Avhat part of
speech that element is which it determines. But such elements
themselves are classilied as parts of speech by conflicting criteria
(see p. 2). Also, in the exposition of Grammar, many restrict-
ive uses of the relative clause are overlooked.^ To state the
functions of restrictive clauses in ,2;rammatical phraseology,
that is, to rank them as parts of speech, is largely, therefore, to
arrange what Grammar has not seen by categories which Gram-
mar cannot justify. To be consistent, then, v/ith the grammati-
cal system thus far developed, would be like solving on a larger
scale the kill-joy problem: "If a third of six were three, what
would a fourth of twentv be ?" That is, the extension of the
grammatical system must be conformed in error to the parts
already developed. From a task so embarrassing and also, I
think, so needless, it is perhaps no shame to recoil. Assuming

*Thus, in "A government of the people in the sense which you employ in
'if the doctrine be of God,' " the relative clause is adjunctive to "sense ;" and
"in the sense" is itself adjunctive to "of" (1) ; that is, the restrictive clause is
adjunctive in the second degree to a proposition.

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 103

therefore, that the operation of restrictive clauses has been suffi-
ciently exhibited in the preceding illustrations, I content myself
with the following generalizations : The purely restrictive
clause is an adjunct, auxiliary to some element of the principal
clause ; it may, at least in theory, be adjunctive to any such
element and in any degree of remoteness ; its function is never
that of a sentence, but always that of a subordinate sentence-
factor ; accordingly it does not make a statement.-^

From what has thus far been noted it appears, as many think-
ers indeed have conceded, that whenever thought is extended
beyond the minimum of the type "A = B,'' it must be by the
methods followed in forming that minimum. Some element of
'^A = B,'' as for instance ^^B," must appear in relation with
some new element, as in '^B> C." If the increment is to be
felt as structurally one with the original, the common factor of
the two, namely B, must be once thought only, or simultaneous.

JSTow thought, at least as expressed in the language of cultured
peoples, exhibits extension as a rule, and usually very miany ex-
tensions. The venerable propositions, "Men are animals,''
"John is a man," "John is an animal," are rarely encountered
outside of philosophy. It is much more common to meet with
statements such as "That smug Jolin Smith, who just bowed so
deferentially, with all his conciliatory manner, is a sly fox/*
What may be called the minimal sentence is, then, the linguistic
exception. In actual practice the sentence is almost always ex-
tended ; and, as above indicated, extension implies the occurrence
of a simultaneous factor.

The problem of the simultaneous factor (which is the prob-
lem of the extended sentence) is, accordingly, far more fre-
quent than that of the minimal or elementary setitence. It
may indeed be conceded that this is the problem of speech.
To exhaust this problem, in the present investigation, would
require time and effort quite excessive. Yet, the relative clause
being only one of many forms in which the simultaneous factor,

lit must be admitted, as implied on p. 87, that a given relative clause, while
aiming on the one hsind to aid the informational effort of another clause, may
occasionally be at the same time intended to give information of its own. Such
a clause, though restrictive, will be asserted because also informational. On
p. 110 will be found some indication that assertion by purely restrictive clauses
is apparent only. The exhaustive discussion of the assertion problem in relative
usage seems to belong of right to a special investigation of mode.

104 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

Proteus-like, appears, tlie adequate compretiensioii of such, a
clause requires at least some illustration of the equivalence
which obtains between it and fellow forms of expression.

Indeed these fellow forms themselves deserve at least a brief enu-
meration. As closing topic I therefore offer

IV. THE EELATIVE CLAUSE COMPAEED WITH TAI^TAMOUI^T

EXPRESSIONS.

Confining attention to restrictive usage, but mindful that its compre-
hension provides a key to the minor diSBculties of informational clauses,
I note that the tantamount expression nearest of kin to the relative
clause is, perhaps, the adjective. To illustrate, "Apples which are ripe"
and "Ripe apples" are commonly recognized as essential equivalents
in meaning.

For the adjective a participial phrase is often substituted; and in this
the participle may or may not be transitive. Thus, "Active men" is
readily replaced by "Men exercising," and this again by "Men taking
exercise." Each expression, moreover, may be paraphrased by a rela-
tive clause, thus, "Men who are active," "Men who exercise" and "Men.
who take exercise."

The prepositional phrase is also often adjective in function; and in.
such usage it also is readily expanded into a relative clause. Thus,
"The book on the box" becomes v/ithout difficulty "The book which is
on the box."

Of the adverb proper or immediate adjunct of the verb I can show
no exactly equivalent relative clause, because, as indicated on p. 98, no
verbal relatives seem to have been developed. That is, I am unable to
use a simultaneous factor as verb in a principal clause, and follow it by
a verbal dummy, of which latter a special subject, etc., form together
a restricter. Thus, meaning that "Brown does his hearty eating at
six," I may not say, "Brown eats, he whiches heartily, at six." But
I might say, with some stretching of relative powers, "Brown
eats which is hearty at six." In this expression "(which) is hearty"
is no doubt a restricter of eating; but the eating is conceived for the
moment as a substantive. Now I can hardly regard "which is hearty"
as overlooking this nearer substantive aspect of eating, in favor of the
remoter verbal aspect presented by "eats," ^Vhile therefore "eats" no
doubt obtains restriction from "is hearty," it does not do so in its ver-
bal aspect; and perhaps I can not strictly designate "is hearty" as ad-
verbial in its function.

On the other hand, a secondary or mediate verbal adjunct (adjunct
of a verb's adjunct) is not unfrequently replaced by a relative clause.
Thus, in "He comes on the occasions on which he is invited," it is ob-
viously my intention to declare of my subject a coming, not universal.

Oiven — Revision of Pronouns. 105

Taut quite restricted. Both my meaning and the structure of my
thought I may vaguely suggest by "He comes invitedly." But the ad-
verb being hardly adequate and altogether unconventional, I resort to
tne expression "He comes (then) when he is invited," in/ which it is
clear that "lie is invited" determines an idea of times or occasions
(continued by "when"), v/hich is itself applied (by "then") to "comes*"

Such restrictive clauses of plainly relative structure imperceptibly
shade into clauses of a strictly prepositional order, especially known
as adverbial sentences. Thus "He comes if he is Invited" m.ay be para-
phrased by "He comes in the cases in which he is invited." But in
*'He will come if he is invited" the "if" expresses rather a relation of
condition and conclusion between the inviting and the coming. Though
inexpressive, I think, by any single word, this relation is a single idea,
and one of the sort as a rule expressed by a preposition. I should
therefore regard "he is invited" as merely a substantive clause, which
unites with "if" to form a prepositional phrase of adverbial rank. This
view is supported by my abilit5% without loss of any thought-element,
and with no material change of structure, to substitute "in-case-of his
"being invited, in which "in case of" is merely a verbal plexus with an
essentially prepositional value.

The equivalence of the relative clause to a conjunction, or rather to a
phrase in v/hich a conjunction is used, is much more obscure, being
made so in part by Grammar's confusion of several radically different
forms of thought construction. It is, to illustrate, one thing to join
"apples" and "ripe," by furnishing to them the element necessary to
their union in a complete mental trio or thought. Such an element is
furnished by "are" in "Apples are ripe." Such a joiner, known in
Grammar as a copula, may be specially ranked as an organizer or
uniter. It is quite another matter to join by "and." In "Six and four
are ten" the duty of "and" is plainly to lead my hearer to the forma-
tion of an idea-group, to be used as subject of "are ten." Joining of
this sort may be specially known as grouping. Joining is of yet an-
other sort in "Brown dresses fashionably, as does Smith." By this I
do not mean to compare the dressing of one man with that of another,
but, having made my statement of the one, to repeat it with the other.
That is, I make two statements with a simultaneous factor, as appears
in the diagram [Brown dresses (fashionably] dresses Smith). If this
factor, remaining common, were made successive, my utterance would
take the form "Brown dresses fashionably. So does Smith." The ef-
fect of making this common factor simultaneous by the use of the
merely contlnuative "as," is to combine what would otherv/ise be two
statements into one. Joining of this sort may be specially known as
linking.

Of copulative joining nothing needs to be said. "Whichever element
of an idea-trio or thought be conceived as indispensable to its fellows,
that element may be ranked as the copula of the other two; and plainly

106 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

such rank may be given to a simultaneous factor as well as to any other
factor of a thought.

Of grouping little must be said, as the subject is broad enough and
deep enough for a special thesis. I merely note in the first place that,
in "Six and four are ten,*' "and" historically means "in addition to'"
or "added to." Among the possible methods of thought structure the
following is perhaps more plausible than others. Consciously intend-
ing "six"' as a partial subject, the speaker can however present the
same, according to observed linguistic methods, only as if it were his
whole subject. The same is true of "four." He can, however, indicate
that these subjects are to be taken concomitantly or cumulatively; and,
in so doing, he might either indicate that the two are to be taken to-
gether, or that one is to be taken with the other. As the latter
method is psychologically somewhat easier, it is more natural to suppose
it to have been elected, as words like "and" date back to extremely
early stages of mental development. Again the speaker, within the lim-
its of this method, may elect to add either the first group-element to the
second or the second to the first. Here again, it seems more natural to
suppose the latter alternative. To add the first to a not yet men-
tioned second, requires a greater mental effort, both in exposition and
in comprehension, than to add the second to an already mentioned first.
I accordingly assume, without attempting proof, that in "Six and four'*
I mean that "four" is added to "six." Accordingly my thought is as
follows: "Six" is partial subject of "are ten;" "four" is also partial
subject of "are ten." Between "four" and "six" there further holds
the relation algebraically expressible by "plus," linguistically expressi-
ble by "in addition to" or by "with" or by "and." But this relation
reads backward and not forward. That is, "four" is in addition to
"six" (not "six" to "four"), as indicated by the arrow in

^ <r

"six and four."

"Six" being now a common factor in this last expression and "Six are
ten," I may indicate its function in "Six and four" by a relative word.
In so doing I elect the word for group-suggestion most tolerant of a
relative, namely, "with," obtaining "Six, wherewith (is) four, is ten."^
That is, the relative clause and the conjunctive phrase are quite equiv-
alent.^

Further, in all my effort to show you that "four" is taken with "six"
in the formation of my subject, I do not forget that the very aim and

^In such phrases Grammar has distinctly missed the really conjunctive word.
"And" or "in addition to" or "with" is merely an indispensable element of the
idea-trio (thought) expressed by "Six and four." As it advances "Six" and
"four" to a new thought-membership it may be said in a sense to join them.
But such joining, as indicated, is not distinctive of any thought element, being
conceivable of each. The true joiner is "Six ;" for it is at the same time a full
factor of "Six and four," and a partial factor with "are ten."

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 107

object of this grouping ia to put both "sis" and "four" before you as
actually, each, in part, a subject. Accordingly, I put both "six" and
"four" in the nominative. Also, having shown you that my partial sub-
jects form indeed a group, I use that form of the verb which is cus-
tomary when the subject is in the plural number, or consists of more
than a single individual. ilccordingly my verb is of the so-called
plural form.

Linking v/as illustrated above by "Brov/n dresses fashionably, as
does Smith." In this sentence Grammar recognizes that "does Smith"
is joined by "as" to "Brov/n dresses fashionably." In this case, then,
the joining regards two thoughts. As previously argued, it is effected
by their simultaneous factor, the idea oi manner expressed in the first
place by "fashionably," and continued by "as." I do not, in this case,
need to show that the conjunctional clause is equivalent to a relative
clause; for, as already indicated, (pp. 71-2) the so-called conjunction
"as' is itself a relative.^

The equivalence of expressions noted as tantamount, thus far roughly
assumed, deserves more careful verification. In attempting this, I wish
to avoid, if possible, the inexactness of Grammar. To illustrate, given
"Men who are virtuous are happy" and "Men are happy if they are
virtuous," the bewildering statement is made, that the relative clause
and the "if-clause" are equivalent.

Such equivalence 1 am ready to admit, provided only its special na-
ture be clearly recognized. To illustrate this, suppose that "The
French king befriended the Pope." If now the befriending be of the
tenth century, the king can hardly be of the eighth and the Pope of the
twelfth. It may indeed be still more broadly affirmed that, subject,
object, or action being, any one of them, conceived as of a given time,
the laws by which phenomena seem to be governed, may compel me to
conceive the others also in time coincidence. The same is true of
space. The same is true in some of the other categories. That is, it
may on a given occasion make no essential difference what element of
my thought I choose to restrict; the restriction, once applied to either
element, may extend to the others. In my initial example I may ac-
cordingly saj'- either "Men-who-are-virtuous (leaving out other men) are

^As already noted, the simultaneous factoi* may appear in any function of
either principal or relative clause ; that is, it varies greatly in structural im-
portance. As I shall farther indicate, the simultaneous factor also varies in
volume. It viould accordingly be natural to suppose that, the bigger and the
more important such common factor, the more actual would be the junction ef-
fected. Given tv;^o calves with even a tail in common, I should no doubt admit
their junction. If their common element were the muzzle, I should concede
their junction even more readily, recognizing this muzzle as of structurally
higher rank than the tail. If the vastly larger and more important trunk or
torso were theirs in common, I should regard the proof of junction as over-
whelming, and the joining common element as effective in the highest degree.

Oddly enough, however, Grammar reverses such interpretation, recognizing
as conjunctions only smaller and inconspicuous common elements. Thus in
"There you have the large slice of rai-e roast beef you are so fond of," it is

108 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

liappy" or "Men are-if-they-be-virtuous (leaving out other cases)
happy." That is, the two expressions are in a sense equivalent.

The special nature of this equivalence may be indicated as follows:
Being unready to risk the unrestricted proposition that "Men are
happy," I discover two available restrictive methods. I may, by an
if-clause, confine the scope of relation between men and happiness
(that is, the scope of "are") to the cases in which men are virtuous.
Or, by a relative clause, I may confine the scope of "men" itself to such
persons as are distinguished by virtue. Either method develops a
thought which agrees in substance with external fact, to a degree suf-
ficient to meet the unexacting requirements of speech. In such sub-
stantial agreement the methods noted may accordingly be ranked as
equivalent. But in structure the two are very different; for in one I
have restricted the first term of thought, and in the other the mid-
term. This difference between substantial and structural agreement
may be reinforced by algebraic illustrations. Thus given "6 a;> y,'
let the coefficient of the first term be transferred to the last, developing
'*ir> 62/." These two expressions may be equivalent in the sense that
both are true to external fact; but they exhibit widely different inner
facts, by which I mean subjective phenomena produced by external
fact; that is, they are structurally very different. The equivalence of
relative clause and tantamount expression may however be not only
substantial but also structural.

Such equivalence I will exhibit by a single illustration, choos-
ing the relative clause in "Apples which are ripe" and its ad-
jective substitute in "Eipe apples" or, in the order common with
other languages, "Apples ripe."

In this relative clause the word "which," being not the sym-
bol of any thought-element, but merely the instructional indi-
cation how to use an element already furnished to thought, may
be omitted. The programme of a procession, even of ideas, is
no part of the procession itself. Islj expressions to be compared
reduce then to "Apples are ripe" and "Apples ripe."

■■ ■— — .., •«-——■ •- ■■•— -..^ ■ ... - , . ' ' -..-■—■■ — — >~<m

obvious that "the large slice of rare roast beef" belongs in structure at the
same time with "There you have" and "yon are so fond of;" that is, it is a
simultaneous factor of large dimensions and of great importance in each of my
thoughts ; it surely joins the wholes of which it is a part no less effectively than
would a common element of minor bull? or importance ; yet Grammar does not
recognize it as conjunctive. Again, in "I have the b'oolc you want," while the
simultaneous factor ("booli") is much reduced in magnitude, it remains an ele-
ment of major importance, being no less than the immediate object of both my
clauses ; yet it it not conceived by Grammar to be conjunctive. But let the
simultaneous factor, retiring from the sentential foreground, appear as merely
an adjunct, that is, a common element of minor importance ; it may at once
be recognized as a conjunction, as in "Brown dfesses fashionably as does Smith."
So also in "He lay as he fell," the common manner-naming factor "as" is usually
ranked as conjunctive.

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 109

In the adjective expression ^^Apples ripe" the association of
ideas named can be justified only by the existence between them
of some recognized relation. Given "Apples" and "ripe" alone,
the ideal trio required to make a thought is incomplete. Unless
there be between them a relation, they are simply unrelated in
the mind ; that is, again, they have nothing to do with each other ;
accordingly the idea expressed by "ripe" cannot have a place as
part of my thought. Since, however, this idea, as a matter of
fact, does obviously make good its claim to such a place, it must
be in relation with the idea expressed by "apples." This rela-
tion, I may add, is by no means merely that of an object and
a quality ; for such relation would hold between horses and
"ripe" or "apples" and "blue." It is the relation of an object
and its ovrn quality.

How this relation is learned by the hearer is a matter of minor
importance. It may be merely inferred. It may be even ex-
pressed by the adjective ending.^ It may be understood from
the very association of objective and qualitative words. The im-
portant fact is its being there, its actual presence in the minds
of speaker and hearer alike.

It appears accordingly that "Apples which are ripe" contains
no term or relation which is not expressed by "Apples ripe,"
either directly or by implication. It also appears that "which"
as a mere function sign may be neglected in the comparison of
thoughts and their architecture. The subsidiary ideas expressi-
ble by verbs, such as beginning (inchoation), continuation or
completion, and repetition or singleness of action, do not appear
in "are." Even the time-element of the verb, in any case in-
ferrible, is in the present case, no doubt, excluded. "Are" is
valid for present, past, or future, being used in this example as
a "tenseless" form of the verb. There remains, however, the
question whether in "are" there be an assertion, an element of
personal belief, which fails to appear in "Apples ripe." The
answering of this question will be aided by a momentary exten-
sion of our view.

1 While I do not personally believe this to be the case, the adjective ending
being otherwise amply occupied, some indication that it is the case is offered by
the use. in German, of the adjective endings on those occasions only in which re-
lation is not expressed by a verb, that is, in the attributive position. Conf,
"Gute Miinner" and "Die Milnner sind gut."

110 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

To the distinction between relative clauses^ informational and
restrictive, a parallel is found in the distinction between re-
strictive and informational adjectives. The latter type is il-
lustrated in ^'My sick wife." In a monogamic country, you
recognize that the sickness of my wife is quite unnecessary to
her differentiation from others possibly my wives. My purpose
in mentioning her illness being therefore not restrictive, you,
crediting me with some purpose, assume that purpose to be in-
formational, ^ow, informational relative adjuncts, as pre-
viously indicated, are treated like independent information ;
that is, they are asserted. It may therefore be said that with
*^sick wife" there is inferred an asserted relation of object to
its own quality. That is, ^^sick wife" means ^/wife, who is sick,"
in which an assertion is present.

On the other hand in "Perfect men do not exist," which il-
lustrates the restrictive adjective, the case is very different. Re-
placing "Perfect" by "who are perfect," I find in the latter no
assertion. For, if there be one I am in the untenable position
of denying by "do not exist" what I affirm by "are."^ ISTow,
such an exploit is beyond the daring of even a veteran liar. If
I am flatly to contradict myself, you may expect me to put my
conflicting statements well apart in time and also in space. You
may be quite sure that I will not invite their comparison by
putting them in a single sentence. You may safely infer that
my "are" is not designed to be taken assertively.^ So also, in
"'Apples (which) are ripe," restrictively taken, there is no as-
sertion.

^I am aware that the non-existence or unreality of "men," coupled even with
that of "perfection." is not in itself a bar to an existent relation between the
two. Thus 1 may say, analogously, "Centaurs antedate sea-serpents," asserting
their time relation, while ready to deny the existence of either "centaurs" or
"sea-serpents," and without any feeling of contradiction. But, in "perfect men do
not exist," it is not such unreality that I have in mind. I do not commit my-
self to the denial of either "men" or of "perfection," but me'rely to the denial
of the combination, "perfect men." And this combination I deny, either rely-
ing on or at least implying the absence of a combining element, namely, a par-
ticular relation. In "Perfect men do not exist" I do accordingly vouch for the
unreality of qualitative relation between "men" and "perfection." If now, in
"Men who are perfect," the "are" be assertively taken,_ I am obviously made to
contradict myself.

2 Such use of assertive forms instead of the solely proper unassertives may be
charged in English on the general renunciation of the effort to distinguish by In-
dicative and subjunctive between assertive and unassertive thought. The sub-
junctive being practically lost, both indicative and subjunctive duties fall to

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. Ill

It appears accordingly that there is in "Apples which are
ripe'' no element which is not at least inferred from "Ripe ap-
ples." Any difference between them is then explained by a
purely formal word-ellipsis. Grammar, therefore, is right in
ranking the relative clause as equivalent to an adjective. The
informational relative clause and the informational adjective
agree in the nomination of a term betweeen which and a term
of the principal clause a relation is recognized, and either
actually or inferentially asserted. The restrictive relative clause
and the restrictive adjective agree in the nomination of a term
between which and a term of the principal clause a relation is
recognized, but neither actually nor inferentially asserted.

When a minimal thought, consisting of two ideas and their
relation, is increased by the service of one of its terms as simul-
taneous term of another thought, the latter thought or increment
may, as has been shown, appear in several forms of expression.
Of these the relative clause has been seen to be peculiarly ef-
fective, when the functions of the simultaneous factor in differ-
ent thoughts are themselves conspicuously different. It is also
of the utmost convenience in the lack of single words or phrases
to express a required meaning. For the relative allows the de-
tailed formulation of a thought complete, being in this particu-
lar no wise inferior to a sentence. ]^ow, a sentence is the em-
bodiment of the powers of speech. Whatever power of expres-
sion, therefore, resides in a language may be utilized in the rel-
ative clause. To illustrate, wanting a servant, and in particu-
lar one distinguished from others by the thorough currying of
horses, and having no adjective to express this conception, I say
that "I want a servant who curries horses thoroughly." In this
particular case I might indeed do measurably well by using the
virtually adjective phrase "distinguished by thorough currying

the indicative mood. The modal value of tlie latter is accordingly equivocal ;
the forms entitled by English Grammar indicative mood should rather be
designated as indicative-subjunctive. In other languages such inconsistency may
be explained by the supposition that this modal distinction has sometimes proved
a bit too subtle for the average mind, the type of mind by which, of necessity,
linguistic usage has mainly been determined. Sometimes the irregularity may
be placed to the account of a common inability to let well enough alone, which
reveals itself not only in formally double assertion (e. g., "I believe that he Is
honest," which says no more than "I believe him to be honest"), but also in for-
mally double negation (e. g., He isn't honest I don't think).

112 Wisco72sin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

of horses.'' But, in yet more amplified restrictive conceptions,
I feel the positive need of a full sentential structure. To illus-
trate, 'The man who, expecting to find him absent, called on my
greatly esteemed guest this afternoon, with his son, in order to
square his social account without the loss of time involved in a
personal meeting, has lost my good opinion." In this example
the primary elements of my adjunctive thought are expressed
by ''man" (of which the second function is indicated by "who"),
"called on" and "guest." What-ever be then the multitude of
further, secondary elements, in dealing with them I have the
great advantage of three visible terms, among which I can ap-
portion their government; while, even if I could replace these
three by an adjective, I should be left Avith but a single term
available for governing purposes, namely the adjective itself.
Generalizing, I may then say that the relative clause has this
advantage over tantamount expressions, that in it the labor of
marshallinc: reinforcements is divided anions: three terms.

Of these three terms moreover the verb, I think, is the most
competent ; that is, it can handle more adjuncts and more effect-
ively than either its subject or its object. It also has uncom-
mon instructional powers, showing by its number and person
what is its subject, and indicating by its modal inflection its
own function as term or adjimct.-^ Incidentally, too, as a sin-
gle word, it can express more ideas than any other sentence-ele-
ment: it adds to its fundamental meaning, by mere inflection,
useful accessories such as time (in the sense of either Zeit or
Mai), and such as initiation, continuance, or completion; also
it chooses by its voice between the proverse and reverse aspects
of the same relation.-

It appears accordingly that, when a sentential increment is
small in bulk and simple in structure, almost any one of the
tantamount adjunctive expressions is adequate; but, when the
bulk and complexity of the increment imperil its structural clear-
ness, relief is sought in a form of adjunctive expression, in
which all the powers of speech may be exploited, that is, in the

1 Compare "amat," *'(ut) amet," and "(qui) amet."

^Thus in "Homo occidit urgum" "occidit" shows relation to be that of slayer
to victim, while "occiditur" would show relation to be that of victim to slayer.

Oiven — Revision of Pronouns. 113

relative clause or, in other words, the adjunctive expression
which has the sentential structure.

In comparing the tantamount forms of sentential increment,
I accordingly feel justified in ranking the relative clause as the
'highest species ; it presents a thought with the fullest analytic
completeness and commonly provides a special symbol for each of
its elements; it alone distinctly recognizes the double function
inherent in simultaneous factorship. It is also, no doubt, the
most effective, especially when the increment is bulky or com-
plex. It is, however, more than others, dangerous in the use
of the unskilled, being often used on wrong occasions, and also
often wrongly constructed, even on right occasions. It is of all,
moreover, the least necessary, as appears by its total absence
from several languages, its comparative infrequency in many,
and its not uncommon neglect in all.
8

114 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Ai'ts, and Letters.

APPENDIX A— PERSOiSrALS.

HOW THEY DIFFER FROM OTHER WORDS.

This has been suggested in Chapter L, and will be emphasized
again. Words like ^^I" are imprimis initiative and not, as a
rule, vicarious. As initiatives they are further distinguishable
from the indefinite members of the initiative class, being ob-
viously definite.-^ Again, as definites, they are distinctly of
the egocentric type. To the most superficial observation it is
plain that the values of ^T," ^Hhou," etc., change with the change
of their user. But this peouliarity is shared by '^this" and
^^that," by '^come" and "go ;" to separate the personals from
these, a further distinctive is required.

Such a distinctive has been found for the personals in their
restriction of the egocentric view to the phenomenon of speech,
it being held that such an idea as that expressed by "thou" could
not be developed, except in the field of thought-communication.
It therefore seems sufficient to designate the personals as words
which egocentrically distinguish the participants in thought-
communication.^

HOW THEY DIFFER OlS^E FROM ANOTHER.

The fact that the personals change their value with the change
in the user forces our examination to elect one user as a guide
and to abide by his point of view. For convenience I adopt the
view-point of myself, rejecting the Pharisaic formula "I am not
as other men." It is true that our ego-centric ideas are very

^For the occasional indefinite use of "they," "you," etc., see appendix C.

2 In carrying out this view some difficulty offers in the case of "I," which ap-
pears as common term of the spatial series "I," "this," "that," and the colloquial
series "I," "thou," "he." It is plain that "this" and "thou" are very different,
as also "that" and "he". The question rises whether the "I" of one series be
also different from the "I" of the other. Frankly admitting that the question
is too deep for my own psychology, I merely suggest that they seem to me the
same, a change of category not appearing to require change in idea. The same
point may be a part of two lines, without assuming a double character. The
sr.xne self may be differentiated from persons (or things) In other places and

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 115

different, your "right" and "left" of space or yonr "before" and
"after" of time being, it may be, opposite to mine. Yet, so to
speak, by a turn of the wheel, our categories coincide ; and I as-
sume that also in the field of thought-exchange the case will be
the same; that is, our categories tally, though we apply them
differently.

I further confine myself to oral speech, regarding written lan-
guage as a mere transliteration, a trifle different from the oral
in its use of personals, because the colloquial participants are
not in mutual presence. But I assume that such difference is
the easy corollary of mutual absence and will not essentially
modify conclusions drawn from the study of oral speech. For
analogous reasons I mainly neglect the examination of solilo-
quy, of speech "in concert," of the figurative address to that
which can not answer or understand, and of the use of language
as a mere notation.

Used as a means of oral thought-communication, language re-
quires two participants at least. Choosing in illustration the
leading role for myself, to avoid entanglement otherwise im-
minent, I note that, while speaking, I am active; you are com-
paratively passive. In thought formation I am an originator;
you are at best an imitator only; you merely "think my
thoughts after me." I give; you receive. The source of a
stream of energy is in me ; in you it discharges. Without you,
indeed, the message is not received ; but without me there is no
message.

Indeed my every statement contains me by implication, even
"when I am not mentioned. For instance, suppose I say that
'^The moon exceeds the sun." It is true that my sentence con-
tains no mention of myself; yet you appreciate that this sen-
tence does not stand of necessity for a fact, but for an opinion,,
and that this opinion is mine. Fully rendered, my statement
would take the form: "I believe in the reality^ of the moon's

again from persons otherwise implicated in speech, without being modified In
my conception. It is possible, no doubt, that the "I," as antagonized to "this"
and "that," is conceived especially as having location and that the "I," as an-
tagonized to "thou" and "he," is conceived as colloquially active. But it seema
to me that the "I" is rather absolute and invariable, an origin of coordinates,
unaffected by the point of view because itself the point of view. I shc^uld ac-
cordingly tabulate: "I" (absolute), "this" and "that" (spatially related to-
"I") ; "I" (absolute), "thou" and "he" (colloquially related to "I").

^My belief in unreality, etc., would be expressed by "The moon not exceeds
the sun," or an equivalent.

116 Wisco7isi7i Acadeiny of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

superiority to the sun." In the business then of speech I am,
when speaking, ever conspicuous. The fact that you are also a
sharer in this business may or may not be specially indicated ;
and, even when it is so indicated, it is only as a minor associate
that I recognize you. I rank myself as the senior partner.

A moment later our respective rank may change. In answer-
ing me you are in turn, in your ovm estimation, the speaker, the
first person, the protagonist, the leading actor on the stage of
thought-exchange. That is, your estimate of yourself will tally
with my previous estimate of myself.

But I shall not fully accept your estimate. Though I cease
to speak and become a listener, I do not forfeit, in my own esti-
mation, my linguistic prestige. Putting myself in your place,
I assent indeed to your use of the "I," to designate yourself.
But this assent is based upon a mere hypothesis. From my
point of viewing the actual, I alone am ^^I." I do not speak of
myself as "thou'' or recognize that another is really ^'I." The
fact that a converse view is taken by every other person, the fact
that is, that no one calls me "I" except myself, and that every
one appropriates the "I" in self-designation, is merely the fact
that the egocentric view-point is, in matters colloquial, not pe-
cular to myself.-^

The other required participant in thought-communication is
a hearer. Of the several sorts of hearers, I have in mind for the
moment the intended hearer only. There may indeed be more
than one such hearer, but this case of mere plurality may be neg-
lected.

My intended hearer is such, of course, from the special view-
point of myself. The person addressed by me, it is true, may
coincide with the person addressed by you or by another; but
this is the merest accident. He is to me a person addressed,
so far alone as I address him. The aims of others than myself
are to me irrelevant. ^^Intended hearer of what I have to say''
may be accepted as expressing what I mean by ^^thou."

^This essential immutability of "I," even when the role of speaker is ex-
changed for that of hearer, further indicates the absoluteness of self-conception.
The speaker, it is true, uses the "I" only when speaking of himself, that is, of
a speaker ; but his reason for using it seems to be, not that he is the speaker,
but that he is self ; whether this self be speaker or hearer seems to be at least
of very secondary importance. "I," then, is the name for self in the absolute,
whether speaking or hearing— being, thinking or acting— in "splendid isolation"
from all else that is.

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 117

While I may or may not expect from you an answer, the pos-
sibility of an answer seems to be always contemplated. Even
while I speak, you are the condition of thought-communication ;
a moment later you may become its cause. While I then am
the actual senior partner of the moment, you are the potential
senior "oartner of the moment to come. In your present par-
ticipation, you deserve at least as high a rank as that of junior
partner.

Besides the speaker and the intended hearer, there may be an-
other hearer (or several), present, perceived, accepted, but not
intended. Such a one it is simplest to conceive for the present
as also not expected to assume the lead. You and I then, in the
alternating role of speaker, have no objection to his hearing
what we say ; but neither of us is talking for his sake. If you
or I w^ere absent, what either now is saying for the other's sake
w^ould not be said at all.

The colloquial rank of such a hearer is plainly quite inferior
to our own. Far from being indispensable, he is distinctly su-
pernumerary. Our thought-exchange may be not more com-
plete, because he is present, nor less so, be he absent. His par-
ticipation in the act of speech concerns not us at all, but him-
self alone. He does not even merit the name of a hearer. He
is rather an overhearer, or a silent partner.

If now I wish to mention such a hearer, I may speak either
to or of him. The former alternative merely makes him a jun-
ior partner, suggesting nothing new to our examination. The
latter allows me to designate him absolutely by his name (a
method foreign to the present inquiry, or egocentrically. But
even egocentric design a tion^ to deserve our notice, must not be
merely in the broader meaning egocentric. "That man" and
"this person" are egocentric in such broader meaning ; but they
lie without the present field. To lie within this field, the desig-
nation must be an egocentric of the specially colloquial type ; it
must name the overhearer by a word suggesting a colloquial par-
ticipant, but not a speaker or an intended hearer. Such a word
is "he" (or "she").

I do not mean that this is the only or even the common mean-
ing of "he." Indeed this meaning is somewhat rare. From
the usage of the polite it has disappeared, for the very obvious

118 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

reason that it slights the person mentioned. But as one of the
names for colloquial jDarticipants or strictly ^^personal pro-
nouns/' ^^he" must in this meaning be emphasized and, I think,
alone recognized.

So far as "it'' is concerned, I do not remember any usage in
which it is personal in the present restricted sense, except as
word of either gender, applied for instance to a babe or child
of unknown sex.

By extension "he" is made to name any person present, even one by
deafness excluded from the rank of hearer. Such usage begins an ob-
vious transition to the demonstrative category, "he" in this case ap-
proaching the meaning of "that person." However, distinction from
the senior and junior colloquial partners still is dominant, rather than,
spatial relation to you or me.

With the colloquial trio, composed of speaker, hearer and over-
hearer, the list of participants in thought-communication may be re-
garded as complete. It is true that in the act of speech there may be
other quasi participants. These may be distinguished, in a sense, as
secret partners, including the hearer whose unnoted presence is acci-
dental, as well as the intentional eaves-dropper. As such, however,
figure only in their own consciousness or, if perceived, take rank at
once as participants of the already mentioned orders, they may safely
be neglected.

THEIR SO-CALLED PLURALS.

Grammar will have it that "we" is the plural of "I." In striv-
ing to reduce this proposition to absurdity, I naake at once the
somewhat difficult concession, that "we" may have developed
from "I," somewhat as "cows" or "kine" developed from "cow ;"
that is, the "we" may have the form appropriate to a plural
word and be moreover derived from "I." I contend however
that the meaning of "we" is not a plural meaning, and that, even
if it were, it could not be plural to the meaning of "I."

Overlooking the artificial use of "we" by royalty, the editor
(collaborator) and him who deems it more modest to speak
of himself as many than as one, I first observe that plurality
is something more than multiplicity. Thus a cow and one or
more other cows assuredly constitute a plural, while a group
made up of a cow, a horse, and a goat, is only a multiple. By
modification it is doubtless easy to make it a plural. If you

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 119

•choose to overlook the mutual differences between group-mem-
bers; if you are content to conceive those members as merely
so many animals ; the group becomes at once undifferentiated,
homogeneous, and accordingly a plural. But this plural is by
no means that multiple. Original differentiated constituents
bave been discarded ; others undifferentiated have been substi-
tuted. The fact that the substitutes form a plural does not
■even suggest that their originals do the same.

The case of ^Sve'' is closely parallel. This appears most
plainly when ^Sve," as recognized by Grammar, has the value
of "he, thou and I.'' The persons designated form indeed a
multiple group, but one by no means plural. By modification
they may no doubt become a plural. Thus, if you overlook the
mutual distinctions of "I,'' "thou" and "he" (as speaker, hearer,
•and overhearer), and merely conceiv^e the three as so many
colloquial participants, ideas named, being now undifferentiated
and accordingly homogeneous, form no doubt a plural gToup.
But, in this case also, original group-members have beeen dis-
carded; others very different have been substituted. The fact
that the substitutes form a plural offers not even a hint that
their originals do the same.-^

Again, were "we" a plural, it could not be the plural of
■^^I." To illustrate, speaking of the soldiers' voting in the early
sixties, I might say that "The regiment voted mainly for Lin-
coln." It is plain that "regiment" stands in this sentence rather
for a number of individuals than for their total conceived as
a unit; that is, "The regiment" names a group. Suppose it
now to be claimed that "regiment" is the plural of a particular
captain. It would be difficult to show why this particular cap-
tain should be preferred to any other captain, or to some other
officer, or even to a private. Yet, as the regiment does contain a
number of captains, such a claim might be tolerated ; for it does
not, at least, insult the quantitative instinct. But were it

^In other words "we" can become a plural only by losing the meaning of "he,
thou and I," and assuming the meaning of "three undifferentiated speech-par-
ticipants." That "we" might do exactly this, I regard as neither impossible nor
«.bsurd. But, as a matter of fact, I believe that even a "thou" and a "he," as
■constituent factors of a "we," maintain their mutual differentiation — to a degree
at least much greater than two "hes" or two "thous" in a "we" consisting, say,
•of five persons : e. g., myself, two Smiths addressed and two Robinsons not ad*
"dressed.

120 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, ArtSj and Letters.

claimed that the regiment is plural of its colonel, a halt would
surely he called, on the ground that a plural of colonel must
contain more colonels than one.

So, too, were it claimed that "we" is a plural of "thou" or
of "he," it might indeed be hard to see why it is more a plural
of one than the other. Yet the claim might sometimes have
a quasi plausibility; for sometimes a "we" contains more than
one "he" or more than one "thou." But when summoned to ac-
cept the doctrine that "we" is the plural of ^'I," the powers
of faith are overtaxed. For the idea named by "I," is from the
user's view-point, absolutely unique. A plural of self is ac-
cordingly a mystery even more difficult than that of the Trinity.
There simply cannot be a plural (that is, many) of that of
which there is but one. The triumvirate is not the plural of
Antony ; nor the ox, of his lights, pluck, or liver ; nor the regi-
ment, of its colonel ; nor United States, of Wisconsin ; also "we"
is not the plural of "I."^

To redefine the "we" is by no means easy for one embarrassed
still by mental habits formed in a long acceptance of false teach-
ing. The scope of the word, moreover, in literal and figurative
use, is so wide and varied, that the danger of an oversight is
extreme. I therefore make a tentative effort only, in venturing
to define the "we" as the name of any group in which the "I"
is a member.

In the case of "you," I neglect the vagaries of colloquial eti-
quette, which make even a single "thou" appear in various lan-
guages either as singular or as plural — of the third as well as the
second person. Considered in its normal value and in rela-
tion to a normal "thou," the "you" may be defined as naming
any group including "thou" but not including "I."

The use of "they" is even further restricted, the word (in
its now considered value) being definable as the name of any
group including the colloquial "he" ("she" or "it"), but not in-
cluding "I" or "thou."

^ Since reaching this view I find it adopted by Kern and one or more others.
In further illustration, compare the procedure of Grammar with that of the ex-
military mendicant, who invites charity by a placard inscribed as follows : Bat-
tles 4, wounds 5, children 6 ; total 15."

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 121

THEIR SENTENTIAL EANK.

The "^^'ords thus far examined, though somewhat peculiar in
meaning, being specially characterized by their purely egocentric
validity and by their restriction to the act of speech, are merely
nouns.

In seeking their mutual differences, I note that the use of
"thou'' is somewhat analogous to that of "grandfather." Each
may name a person in his relation to myself, their difference
being merely that relation is in one case colloquial and mo-
mentary, in the other ancestral and permanent. Each may be
applied to different persons ; each may be used by many per-
sons ; indeed, in either aspect "thou" is much the broader
word. The same may be said of "he." I see no reason there-
fore why "he" and "thou" as well as "you" and "they" should
not be ranked as common noims.

The case of "I" is very different. To illustrate, suppose my
name be Cicero, and that no other person bears, or ever bore,
this name. Examining "I" and "Cicero" from the special view-
point of self, I find that each, in my personal usage, means
myself alone. They differ merely in this, that "I" is my ego-
centric, naming me from the special view-point of self, while
"Cicero" is my absolute, naming me from no special view-point
of my own. "I" names me as part of the universe in its special
conception by myself; "Cicero" as part of the universe in its
conception by anyone. The difference is essentially that which
obtains between "here" and "Xat. 43° :N"., Long. 90° W.
Prom the view-point of my individual usage, I think both "1
and "Cicero" should rank as proper nouns.

Looking now from the view-point of others, I can strengthen
my comparison by including an intermediate term, for instance,
"Smith," which, although a proper noun, suggests a formidable
portion of the race. Accordingly, "Cicero" may be used by
one man only, to name himself ; "Smith," by many men ; "I"
by all men. "I" is, in a wa}-, an intensified "Smith." The
three designations are respectively unique, generic and uni-
versal. In passing from "Cicero" (and "Smith") to "I" we
have indeed forsaken the field of absolute designation and en-
tered the egocentric; and so I do also in replacing "614

122 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

State Street'' by ^*liome." But, just as in ^^I aiu going home'^
I use the word "home" with an individual value and by no
means generally (as in "The homes of the working classes") ;
and just as in "Grandfather is ill" I name to my friends a par-
ticular person even more distinctly than by "Mr. Bro^vn ;" so
also in using the "I," it appears that I name a single particular
individual; and other persons, in using the same word, do the
same. The fact that this individual varies in the usage of dif-
ferent speakers cuts no greater figure than similar variation
in other ego-centrics. "Mother" and "Father," as used in the
family circle, I have always felt to be proper nouns and have
always written them with a capital. I am merely consistent,
in expressing the opinion that "I" should also rank as merely a
lexically somewhat peculiar proper noun.

The adjective use of personals has been to Grammar, as might
be expected, the source of some embarrassment. While "whose"
in many languages is recognized as merely a genitive of "who"
relative or interrogative; while "one's" is consistently grouped
in declension with the nominative "one;" "my," "thy," "his,"
etc., are wrested from their cognates "I," "thou" and "he," and
marshalled in a separate division, commonly known as possessive
adjectives.

The motive for their isolation may be sought in the fact that,
in many languages, they are adjectively inflected. But such
inflection is an accident, without reliable value. In "Er ist
ein zu liebender Mann" "zu liebender" is merely an adjectively
inflected oblique infinitive. In "Elle est toute bonne," "toute"
is merely an adverb falsely invested with adjective inflection.
In "eine nach-haiisische Fahrt," "nach-haiisische" would merely
be an adjectively inflected prepositional phrase. This phrase
and the oblique infinitive both, no doubt, deserve to rank as of
adjective function ; that is, their ideas enter the structure of a
thought precisely as do the adjectives themselves. But as
Grammar commonly means by an adjective something more than
this, it is necessary, to avoid confusion, to examine a little
further.

Given "wolf," the noun, and "wolfish," the adjective, it is
plain that the latter has lost the objectivity of the former, shrink-
ing to the expression of quality alone. "Wolf," again, suggests

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 123

with more or less distinctness not only an individual being, but
also quite an outfit of qualities. In "wolfish" the tendency of
these is to become less numerous ; in a "wolfish appetite" one
only may be conceived; indeed even this may lose everything
except intensity. Vv'hat is more important still, no idea foreign
to "wolf" is grafted on the idea expressed by "wolfish."

In the word "my," on the other hand, there is no abatement
-of self; and no quality connoted under "I" is lost; ]3er contra
the important idea of possession is added. "My" differs from
■^^I" or "me," much as "Indian-owmed" (in the sense of owned
by Indians) differs from "Indians," for instance in "Indian-
owned lands." As "my," with the value of "by me o^vned,"
is ranked as the adjective of "me," consistency requires that
"^^Indian-owned" be ranked as the adjective of "Indian." So
also, by strict analogy, "shark-eaten" and "man-eating" rank
as adjectives, the one of "shark" and the other of "man." Ob-
viously the initial move of Grammar leads to much that is be-
yond the grammatical purpose. It is better, perhaps, to admit
that "my" is not the adjective of "I" in the usual sense employed
by Grammar.

It is also but a part of the truth that "my" is possessive.
"^^My" has doubtless the meaning "of me;" and "of" may cer-
tainly name the relation of owner to property; "of," that is,
may have a possessive value, as in the "book of me" or "my
book." But "of" may have and often does have other values,
many and very different. Conceiving myself a boy again, I
lament "my punishment by a teacher." "My," as usual, stands
also here for "of me ;" but this time the protean preposition ex-
presses the relation of action (punishment) to its actee (sufferer,
object), myself; or, in other words, "my" is the objective geni-
tive. Or, letting the teacher speak, "My punishment of that boy
was proper." Again "My" stands for "of me ;" but this time also
^^of" expresses not at all the possessive relation, nor that indeed
of action to actee, but the relation of actor to his act, "My" be-
ing now a subjective genitive.

Grammar seems, moreover, to misconceive the sentential rank
of "mine." To illustrate, in "This book is mine," the value
of "mine" being taken as "my object," "mine" itself is rated

J>

124 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

a noim.^ It is however wortliy of notice that ^^mine" is even
today much used with the value of ^'mv ;'' that many languages
have but a single form for both f that the difference in their
usage tallies with, a difference always made in German between
the adjective as adjunct and the adjective as term.^

The grammatical opinion is merely a special application of
that advanced by some logicians, who deny the use of the ad-
jective as term. Its holders will have it that "The rose is red
is at least an impropriety; that the careful thinker must con-
ceive that "the rose is a red object." ITo\^^ver convenient such
structure of thought may be in a purely logical notation, it seems
to me self-evident that it is not followed in thought, as prepared
for ordinary linguistic expression. Much argument to the
contrary, I may think no doubt by the method indicated in the
expression "Redness (by no means a red object) characterizes
the rose ;" I may also reverse my mental current in "The rose
is characterized by redness (by no means a red object) ;" and
this latter sentence expresses exactly what I think I mean by
^'The rose is red." That is, the rose and its redness only are
put before you in the relation of an object to its own quality.

I do not accordingly find that "object" is to be supplied either
in "The rose is red," or in "The rose is mine." I therefore
rank the "mine" as a predicate adjective, (or, more strictly, as
the predicatively employed genitive of I) somewhat dis-
tinguished from the attributive, as in German, by a different
termination.

In "Lieutenant Brown of ours" a closer approach is made to strictly
substantive usage. So far as "ours" shall mean "our regiment," it is,
no doubt, a noun. If it be admitted that an ellipsis has occurred, and
that "regiment" is supplied, then "ours" remains an adjective. This
purely lexical question may be dismissed with the remark that com-
ment similar to the above may be made on "thy" — "thine," "his" —
(his'n), etc.

It has apparently escaped the notice of Grammar that the use of
pronouns adverbially is at least a linguistic possibility. So far indeed
as "my" is the adjective of "I," so far "usward"^ is the adverb of

^E. g., in French grammars.

*Conf. mens, tuus, leur, loro, etc.

^Conf. "Die schone Frau" and "Die Frau ist scbon,"

■•Thiii word, so far as noted, is preceded in English by a superfluous "to." as ini
"God's mercies to usward." But in German dialect "unserwarts" appears un-
aided, as an adverb.

Owen — Revision of Pronou7is. 125

■^'us." The addition of new matter to the primary idea expressed by
■"us" is surely no more important than the addition in the case of "my."
Plainly, however, both "my" and "usward" go far beyond the ideal
reach of their primitives. The immediate adjective of "I" would be
expressed in German by a theoretical "ichisch," Thus, what you or I
would call a "Napoleonisches Gesicht" the emperor himself might have
called an "ichisches Gesicht." And obviously the same imaginary
word might also be adverbially used. Thus, "Das hat er recht Napo*
leonisch getlian" would take in imperial parlance the form, "Das hat
er recht ichisch gethan."

The gist of ^^possessive'^ peculiarity may then be put as fol-
lows: So far as structure of thought is concerned, "My coat"
is the same as ^^The coat of me;" the latter is structurally on
a par with "The coat on me;'' and this, again, exactly tallies
in structure with "The coat on the chair." The "possessive,"
then, is but a prepositional phrase, expressed by multiple sym-
bolization in the form of a single word. This word, moreover,
often assumes, but by no means always, the adjective inflection.
This inflection, accordingly accidental, may be the more safely
overlooked that it is neither ideal nor functional but purely
associational ; see p. 62.

THE SENSE IN W^HICII THEY AEE PEESONAL.

Words of the present class are sometimes defined as pronouns
which stand for persons. Overlooking the fact that some of
them almost exclusively stand for things, I note that "who,"
in either interrogative or relative usage, is claimed by Gram-
mar itself to stand for persons, though not admitted to personal
rank; and many indefinites, for instance "some" (as in "Some
say, etc.,"), as also the reflexive "myself" and others, have
equal claim to personal rank. Plainly the definition includes
too much. Again, in figurative usage, all the personals extend
their scope beyond the range of persons. The definition there-
fore plainly includes too little.

Personality indeed, in the given sense, is quite beside the
question. When of my horse, my dog or my pipe I use a
^^thou," it is in spite of their not being in such sense personal,
and because I am talking to them. And when, in talking to
a man, I address him as "thou," it is solely because I am talk-

126 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ing to him, and not at all be<3ause tie is a person. That is,,
whatever I have in mind, its presentation by a ^^personal" de-
pends by no means on its rank in my classification of things
animate or inanimate, but on my classification of participants
in the act of speech. If then I wish the word personality to
suggest the true distinctive of the personal words, I must define
it as meaning egocentricism of the specially colloquial type;^
and this I take to be the meaning of ''person" as used by Gram-
mar in the more special sense.

HOW FAR THEY ARE PRONOMINAL.

To the strictly personal words, as noted in the second para-
graph of Chapter IL, Section 10, a vicarious value is sometimes
superadded. Such occasional double value has presumably
helped grammarians to regard the personals as pronouns, to
infer, that is, that personality entails pronominality.

Without exhaustive examination, I will merely test this in-
ference by bringing, so to speak, a suit against a single one of
the personals, choosing as defendant the so-called pronoun ''I,""
the usual leader of the pronominal list. Suppose then that,
meeting you for the first time, say in a stage-coach, I remark
that ^'I am glad to have a companion." It surely will not be
claimed that, in this sentence, ^^I" is in any sense a substitute
for any other word or phrase. In the first place ^^I" is not a
replacer ; that is, it does not, as sign of an idea already men-
tioned (or yet to be mentioned), take the place of any word
that is actually used and might be used again. "I," in the sec-
ond place, is not even a &placer ; that is, it does not, as sign
of an idea in its only mention, take the place of any word that
might he used. The word "I" stands for myself, not only
immediately, but also with such perfection, that no other word
or combination can advantageously take its place. Even my
legal name is comparatively uncertain. If you do not already
know me, and if another be present, you readily take that name

^It goes without saying that such "personality" may appear In other symbols
by no means recognized by Grammar as personal pronouns. Thus, in "Our
Father, who art in Heaven," no doubt the "who" (while serving as an order to-
continue "E'afher," and as a sign that "Father" is, in second function, nomina-
tive), contemplates the "second personality" of "Father" in its second function.

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 127

as standing for that other. Such laborious circumlocutions,
too, as "your humble servant," "your prospective fellow-trav-
eler," etc., are felt to be at best extremely clumsy substitutes.
If any of these words or phrases shall be reckoned as taking an-
other's place, it can hardly be the "I," but rather my name or
any circumlocution. To rank the "I" as a verbal deputy is,
then, to misconceive the procedure of speech completely.

The fact that a genuine personal is occasionally used with
added vicarious value, does not justify the inference that every
personal is a pronoun. Though Democrats are sometimes Bap-
tists, I may not therefore rank the former as a sub-class of
the latter. So also, though personals be sometimes further
used vicariously, that is, as pronouns, it is only their vicarious
usage that admits them to pronominal rank. As merely per-
sonal, as egocentrics, that is, of the colloquial type, they are
not also vicarious ; that is, by the definition of Grammar itself,
they are not pronouns. Per contra, when they are not only per-
sonal but also vicarious, their personality ranks, in a strict pro-
nominal classification, as merely a lexical accident.

128 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

APPEXDIX B— DEMOXSTHATIYES.

It was indicated on p. 13 that these express the egocentric
ideas which are not developed under influence of the act of
speech. Eew of them are recognized at all by Grammar, and
even these so indistinctly as to remain effective stumbling blocks.
Their determination and mutual differentiation form a strictlv
lexical problem, of which I can offer only the merest outline.

Examining first

THEIR CATEGORIES,

I note that the condition of every egocentric idea — every
idea, that is, which takes its departure from self — is obviously
the establishment of self, as point of departure. Egocentric
thought of any kind assumes a prior distinction between the self
and all else — the I and the not-I. To this distinction the con-
stant presence of self in consciousness may be noted as an
excitant. For linguistic purposes the "I am always with you'^
may be reformulated as ^^I am always with myself.'' Other
ideas are occasional ; the idea of self alone is ever present. That
the one abiding idea of self should serve as landmark for other
ideas is a foregone conclusion.

Such a landmark is available in many fields of thought. In
the category of space it is plain that all that is not ^T' may
be subdivided according to its distance from self. Thus, in
English, what is near me I designate by "this," and what is
more remote by "that." Spanish recognizes three degrees of
distance marked by "esto," "eso" and "aquello." Indeed a
larger number of such degrees is possible and entirely practi-
cable.^

^ Under colloquial influence the regions of remoteness or of nearness somewhat
tend to use the hearer as a landmark, "that" inclining to confine itself to what
is near to you. and the "yonder" affecting what is far from us both. But evea
in conversation such a tendency is merely a putting of myself in your place,
that is, an application of my own egocentric classification to your point of view
(in soliloquy my personal point of view is unchanged) ; the definition of "that"
as what is near to you. must accordingly be rejected as giving neither its pri-
mary nor even its commoner meaning.

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 129

'Next to the question how near an object is, may rise the
question which way it lies or, in other words, what may be
called its hearing^ To illustrate, while the phrase '^this hat'^
denotes an object near to me, it gives no indication whether
it be 071 my head or under my feet, before or behind me, at my
right (reclits) or my left (linhs). But each of the italicized
words refers the hat to one of three dimensions of egocentric
space and further, using self as a center, shows the section of
that dimension to which the object belongs. There is indeed
some tendency to confine these words to objects somewhat near ;
but in ^^above" and ''below" this tendency fails to appear and,
even in the others, bearing itself is distinctly and, I think, pri-
marily indicated.

Passing now to the egocentric indication of motion, I can
suggest it best by reference to a line conceived as the path of
the moving object. On such a line it is plain that opposite
motions may occur. That is, in addition to given terminals,
motion has what may be specially known as direction. For in-
stance, of motion on the line A B, there are two kinds, one from
A to B and the other from B to A. It is obvious also that one
at least of these terminals must be somewhat definitely con-
ceived. A motion from ''here" to "there" I readily grasp in
its antagonism to a motion from "there" to "here." So also I
easily differentiate a motion from "here" to "anywhere" and
a motion from "anywhere" to "here." But a motion from
"anywhere" to "anywhere" is not in itself sufiiciently fixed to
permit me to conceive an opposite.^ JSTeglecting motion thus
unavailablv indefinite, and examining first the case in which
both terminals are somewhat definitelv fixed, I note that "for-
ward" means along a line from myself to a point in front o£
me.^ "Backward" means along the same line, but in the oppo-
site direction. Also "backward" means along a line from my-

^This awkward technicality I use to avoid confusion with direction, which is
examined later.

*In egocentric usage the terminals of the motion line (e. g., from "here" to
"there") are either self or determined from self as a landmark. Contrast there-
with the absolute "northerly," "southerly," northeasterly," etc.

3 It is true that in "Forward Co. A!" I reckon direction from the view-point
of my hearers. But this point of view, again, I merely adopt for the moment.
In such a phrase as "on your right" I advertise such adoption. In "Forward
Co. A!" I let this adoption be understood. Conf, "Sind Sie da?" and "Ich bin
da." (=I'm what you call da.).

9

130 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

self to a point behind me, and "forward" the opposite. Turn-
ing to the case in which one terminal only of the motion line
is fixed, I note that ''hither" means along a line from anywhere
to at, or near, myself, while ''hence" denotes the opposite.
"Thither" denotes a motion from anywhere (but with a little
preference for self) to a point "there,'' that is, a point deter-
mined by self as a landmark; "thence" denotes the opposite."^

In the above illustration direction is an abstraction from mo-
tion, conceived as an attribute of motion, while motion itself is
expressed by another word. But sometimes the motion per se
and its direction unite under a single designation which may be
roughly known as course. Thus "to come" means to move along
a line, one end of which is at or near myself. By "to go" is com-
monly meant a motion along the same line, but in the opposite
direction.

By the usual transition egocentric distinctions pass from the
field of space to that of time. What is "now" belongs to the
actual self, as distinguished from the self remembered or an-
ticipated. Time remote from the "now," but not distinguished
in direction, may be iudicated by an equivocal word such as the
Latin "olim." Or the two divisions of time not "now" may
be indicated, as in English, by "once" and "some time," which
indicate respectively the past and the future.

ThougM-near7iess is also egocentrically distinguished. ^'This
kind" (e. g. "this kind of men") and ''that kind" m'ay both in-
clude what lies within my mental horizon of the moment, what
lies without being expressible by ''other kinds ;" and ''this kind"
again may stand for what is focal in consciousness, while "that
kind" names an idea comparatively marginal."

^By an easy transition many spatial words become entirely indefinite. The
Ideas expressed by "lience" (from this place) and "thence" (from that place) are
grouped wFth their possible kin under such words as "off," "away," "hin."
Again, when once incapable of expressing alone an even approximately definite
direction, they are ready to enter vicarious service. Thus, in "Brown used to
live here. But he has moved elsewhere," the last word means "a place different
from here." conceived as term of a motion from here. That is, the "elsewhere"
is partly reinstative and partly initiative.

2 Somewhat similar is the use of "he" to denote the person par excellence of
common acquaintance. To illustrate, " 'He cometh not,' she said." The idea
expressed by "He" is obviously that of an individual likely to assume the focal
position in tlie minds of speaker and hearer. This focality may be regarded
as normal with the speaker and recognized as such by the hearer. When it be-
comes estabTished to a sufficient degree, such "he" acquires a footing inferior
only to that of the "I," with which I think it may be classed rather than else-
where, ranking essentially as a proper noun.

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 131

Manner, too, is the subject of egocentric distinction. To il-
lustrate, noting your method of tying a knot, I remark that "I
cannot do it so (in the manner shown by you) ; I do it thus
(in the manner now shoT\Ti by me or yelt to be showTi)''.

Family relation is commonly viewed in the egocentric aspect,
"^Tather," as used by me, standing for one who may be to you a
nephew, cousin, etc., or an entire stranger.

Professional status is also at times a matter of purely ego-
centric determination, my lawyer being, it may be, your doctor
or your spiritual adviser.

To call upon the science of linguistics to present completely
the egocentric categories, plainly would be unfair and useless,
particularly since at present even the simpler categories are far
from being adequately understood. As a merely interesting
suggestion of the extent to which the egocentric tendency enters
idea-formation, I offer an illustration from what may be called
the social category. In a society made up of a ruling class (in-
cluding, say, nobility, clergy, and military), a middle or bour-
geois class, and a laboring class, the prestige of the bourgeois
depends entirely upon the class view-point from which he is
regarded. Suppose now that you are a noble and I a laborer.
As used by me the epithet "bourgeois" is an expression of es*^
teem, while in the usage of yourself it is an expression of con-
tempt. In fact, in certain styles in French, the designation
"bourgeois" (or middle class) has discarded the absolute value
and adopted that of "above me" or "beneath me," according to
the social status of the speaker.

THEIR SENTENTIAL EANK.

Assuming my reader to be no less weary than myself of
verifying in actual usage the obvious ability to use any idea
as any element of thought, I confine myself to the merest sug-
gestions. Preferring an epistolary illustration, because it al-
lows a variation in time which does not occur in oral thought-
exchange, and using poetic phraseology, to avoid an embarrass-
ing auxiliary, I imagine that you write me in the evening a note
as follows: "Came you here today?" My answer, dated the
following day, is this : "I went there yesterday." In this ex-

132 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

change of tlioiiglit, what you express is a desire to learn my
opinion about an act; what I express is my opinion of that
act. But as neither your desire nor my opinion materially af-
fects the description of the act, we may neglect them both and
merely regard the letters as act-descriptions. Xow it is some-
what striking that in these descriptions, though the act is the
game, the words elected to describe it are, without exception,
different. That is, we both of us abide, in every element of
thought, by the egocentric point of view. And in our sentences
we hold to our view-point in every sentence-element or "part
of speech" employed. The "I" and "you," indeed, are special-
ly linguacausate ; but in "Kam jener hier diesen Tag?" and
"Dieser ging dort jenen Tag," all words but "Tag^' are alio-
causate, that is, demonstrative. Examining their rank as parts
of speech, I find in each sentence an adjective (diesen, jenen),
an adverb (hier, dort), a verb (kam, ging) and a pronoun (jener,
dieser), or, as I ha^'e previously urged, what should in no
way be distinguished, in substantive usage, from a noun.

Passing to more difficult parts of speech, I note that Avhat is
''a house" from your point of view may very well be 'Hhe house"
from mine, the article, or weakened demonstrative, assuming,
as would be expected, the egocentric aspect. Verbal nouns and
verbal adjectives follow the lead of the verb itself. Preposi-
tions are even specially prone to presuppose an egocentric point
of view, as abundantly illustrated above. That such at least of
the so-called conjunctions as name a relation between two
thoughts should deal with that relation from the special view-
point of self, is a foregone conclusion. In illustrating this, I
must first make sure that your view-point is actually different
from my own. Accordingly I imagine you to be a physician and
myself a teacher. Of your patient. Brown, who is also my
pupil, you say, following your medical tendencies : "He is
ill; for he cannot study," deducing his illness from his men-
tal incapacity, and putting the former in a sort of effect-to-cause
relation with the latter. But I, as his teacher, following very
different tendencies, may also say: "He is ill; hence he can-
not study," deducing from his illness his mental incapacity,
and putting the former in the cause-to-effect relation with the
latter. That is, illness being our common point of departure

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 133

and incapacity our common point of arrival, from your view-
point the latter is to the former a sort of cause, while from
mine it is an effect. What to you is ^%r/' to me is ^^hence"
and vice versa.

The interjection may be merely extra-sentential, expressing
irrelevant thought. In this activity, it obviously has the same
egocentric opportunity as thought which is relevant. And When
the interjection is strictly extra-linguistic, being almost a re-
flex cry, the associated emotion again may obviously be purely
egocentric.

From what has occasionally appeared in this examination,
it is obvious that a given word may be at the same time vica-
rious and an egocentric of the particular order now in mind.
Thus, imitating the methods of the neo-Latin languages, sup-
pose I say: ^'The house and the barn are mine. Tliat (= the
house) is of brick. This (= the barn) is of wood.'' In this
sentence ''That" and ''This" respectively reinstate "the house"
and "the barn." At the same time these reinstatives, being
synonymous with "the former" and "the latter," distinguish
their principals as the nearer and the further of thought, the
thinking self of the moment being the landmark from which
their nearness and re-moteness are reckoned. While this simul-
taneous occurrence of different values is both familiar and far
from difficult in itself, it is perhaps desirable, in view of Gram-
mar's confusion, to emphasize their difference and their inde-
pendence. Accordingly I note that in "That (meaning yonder
schooner) is my yacht," "That" is fully egocentric, but without
a trace of vicarious value. On the other hand in "Is your dog
a collie ? He is that" I find in "that" a reinstative value, but
nothing any longer consciously egocentric. When accordingly,
in my example of the house and the barn, I find a "that" which
is at the same time vicarious and egocentric, I see no occasion
for embarrassment. Looking merely at the nature of the idea
presented, I rank my "that" as egocentric or demonstrative.
Looking at the method by which the idea is presented, I call
my "that" vicarious or pronominal. But I call it egocentric
because its idea is what it is, and vicarious because its idea

134 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

is presented as it is; I certainl}' do not call it vicarious from
any peculiarity in the nature of its idea. Above all, it does not
occur to me to argue that, because a vicarious word appears on
this occasion to be also egocentric, the next time I meet a mere-
ly egocentric word I am to rank it as vicarious, and hence a
pronoun. I am further not at all surprised that the same
word may on occasion simultaneously rank in two categories;
for no effort was made to render these categories mutually ex-
clusive. The egocentric category is concerned with the forma-
tion of an idea in the mind. The vicarious category has to
do with the idea's presentation by a word. The two are as
irrelevant as the gi'owing of wheat and the method of its ship-
ment. The same grain may be at the same time of my rais-
ing, and sent to London by your steamer. But its production
by me does not necessarily locate it in your vessel. So also the
egocentric grO'"\\i:h of an idea does not make its presentation vica-
rious. In other words, the special type of egocentricism known
as demonstrative does not per se entitle an idea's presentation
to rank as pronominal. That is, barring the expressional ac-
cident of vicarious presentation, the demonstratives are not pro-
noims in the sense of being vicarious. Their study is foreign to
the field of Grammar, and belongs of right in the domain of Lex-
icology.

Owen — Revision of Pronouns, 135

APPENDIX C— INDEFINITES.

THEIR l^UMBER.

This is plainly vastly greater than Grammar indicates. With-
out attempting to complete what seems to me an idle begin-
ning, I will merely suggest a few of the unrecognized indefi-
nites. As point of departure note the following illustration:
'^In carving I reserved something, somewhat, somedel (del =
Theil) for myself." In this sentence ^'something^' is recog-
nized by Grammar as an indefinite and ranked as a pronoun;
(Conf. "etwas"). But for ''something'^ I may substitute "part/'
'^a portion/' "a slice/' etc., and this without essentially chang-
ing the corresponding idea, the method of its presentation, or
the part which it plays in sentence-structure. "Someone," too,
is hardly more indefinite than "John Doe" or his rival "Richard
Roe /' and in "If a hody meet a body comin' through the rye"
we recognize the same familiar though dimly outlined physiog-
nomy. In '^TJiey say you can't make me criminate m^yself
I use each one of the italicised words as fully the peer of "on"
(French) or "Man" (German). The "Chose" and "Machine"
(masc. "Machin") of French argot are quite analogous ; and once
without the pale of classic parlance we find a throng of "Ful-
anos," "Zutanos," "Thingimibobs," "What's-his-names," which
may well diminish confidence in Grammar's effort to form the
indefinite word-class.

THEIR VARIETY.

There are moreover other grounds for questioning Grammar's
wisdom. Of indefiniteness there are several sorts. To illus-
trate, suppose I send you an oral message. It is plain that
you may fail exactly to understand me, either by reason of my
original inexactness, or through the inaccuracy of my messen-
ger. Now in thought-communication my messengers are my

136 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

words. The iiidefiniteness of any idea which vou receive may
be the fault of either myself or my messenger, that is, my word.
In the sentence ^'The post needs repairing," the word ^^post'' is
in a sense indefinite : you do not know whether I mean the Post
Office or a hitching post. But my own original idea, though
ambiguously expressed by "post," was entirely definite ; and even
the ideas, between which you are unable to choose, are entirely
definite. Any existing indefiniteness characterizes the symbol
and not the symbolized idea. It is better to call such symbols
uncertain, ambiguous, or equivocal, reserving the term "indefi-
nite" for ideas themselves.

The indefiniteness of ideas mav be the result of different

ft/

causes. In using the phrase "a group of men," I may be actu-
ated by the fact that I do not know their number. Again it
may be that what I perfectly know I do not care to tell.

Such indefiniteness mav also be of different kinds. To il-
lustrate, "Something lay in the darkness across my path." This
"Something" answers the question "how many ?" That is, it is
numerically definite. The question "Of Avhat kind ?" it can-
not answer, being valid, for instance, for a stone, a dog, or a
fallen tree ; that is, it is categorically indefinite. Xor can it an-
swer the question "Which?" for, even if it specially suggested
dogs, it would fail to indicate a particular individual ; that is, it
is selectively indefinite. "Man" (German) and "on" (French)
are categorically definite but indefinite selectively and numeri-
cally. The same is true of "Some" in "Some men are vir-
tuous."

Indefiniteness, moreover, varies in degree. "Some," in the
notation of logic, is forced to cover every meaning from "one"
to "all" inclusive. In actual practice, "some" includes neither
"one" nor "all," but may include approximately any other
number. "Several" is a good deal more restricted, standing,
I should say, for never less than three and, at the most, for
less than half of all. "Most" affects the upper; "many," a
middle ; and "few," a decidedly lower numerical range. Transi-
tions even offer to the exactly definite. In "A dozen sprang
to their feet," I should say that eleven and thirteen are contem-
plated possibilities. In "Twelve arose," it seems to me that

Oiuen — Revision of Pronouns. 137

other numbers are positively excluded. In fact a sufficiently
careful examination would doubtless here and there reveal a
continuous series of ideas, in which the completest precision
of which the mind is capable, would pass by imperceptible
gradations into the utmost vagueness.

To draw a line of satisfactory demarcation between the defi-
nite and the indefinite would, accordingly, even in the single
case of number, be quite embarrassing. Suppose, however,
that such a line be satisfactorily established. Another line
must be determined between the definite and the indefinite as to
kind; and consistency requires that one such line should, so to
speak, be abreast of the other — that both be equally far from
the absolutely definite. But who will tell me whether the
categorical indefiniteness of ^'something" is equal in degree
to the numerical indefiniteness of ^'some" or the selective in-
definiteness of '^someone ?" Or how shall I compare the spatial
indefiniteness of "somewhere" with the temporal indefiniteness
of '"^once upon a time ?" Or what is my common unit for meas-
uring the indefiniteness of what I know, as in "Some liked my
dinner,'^ and that of what I want to know, as in ''Who are com-
ing to dinner ?"

THEIE SENTEiq^TIAL RANK.

Their use as nouns appears in the following sentences : ''Peo-
ple say one should not praise himself." ''They say much,
little^ numbers of things." "For aught I know they say any
thing/' "li you don't go it with all your might, it will go hard
with you; it is raining already." "^'Who is it?'' (in the phrase-
ology of children's games.) Among the virtual indefinite nu-
merals I should rank, besides those already noted, flock, bunch,
herd, drove, bevy, flight, school, crowd, party, constellation,
swarm, shoal, covey, cloud, etc. In the quantitative field I find,
beside such definites as inch, foot, yard (linear, square or cu-
bic), a throng of indefinites, for instance, mass, batch, heap,
deal, lot, morsel, sip, sprinkling, dash, taste, etc.

Their adjective function, as in "Some animals are men," has
been amply illustrated. Of this indefinite adjective plural, the
so-called indefinite article is merely the nearest possible singu-

138 ^Y^scot^sin Academy of Sciences, Arts^ and Letters.

lar. ''Some/' whicli is indefinite as to individuals and num-
ber/ becomes of necessity definite in number, in order to be
a singular. It is by the merest accident that English has de-
veloped the special "a" or ''an" for indefiniteness of the singular
number. The actual correlation of "a" and "some" is shown by
the Spanish "uno," "unos," etc. Moreover, when numerical
degree is displaced by degree of bulk, as happens in the case of
m.ass-words, the range of degrees expressed by singular "a" and
plural "some," is covered by a "some," itself now singular, as
in "some flour," "some powder," etc.

The true significance of the indefinite article is sho^m by
languages possessing more than two numerical inflections. In
such languages the noun occasionally offers inflectional series
of the following values : "one man," "two men," "three men,"
"four men," (more than four or) "many men." All these
forms are indefinite in selection, but the last alone in number.
Whether now the numerical elements be expressed by separate
adjectives, or incorporated in the nouns by inflectioUj the value
of the series is the same. According to the point of view it
may be claimed, with prior attention to number, that "one" is
the singular of "two," "three," "four" and "many," that is^
three definite plurals and one indefinite. Or, wdth prior atten-
tion to numerical definiteness, "many" may be ranked as the
indefinite corresponding to four definites, of \Vhich one is singu-
lar and the others plural. Or, with exclusive and closer atten-
tion to number, the successive forms may be knowm as Grammar
knows them, namely, as singular, dual, trial, quatrial and pliis
quam quatrial or plural.

The adverbial indefinites present a categorical range of un-
usual interest. The "somewhere" of space becomes, by an easy
transition, the "sometime" of temporal position. This, moreover,
leads readily to the "somehow" of manner, which again becomes
a word of indefinite cause, as in "Somehow I fell." Such in-
definiteness of kind is paralleled by indefiniteness of degree, as
in "Somewhat imcommon," "Rather imusual," etc.

A tendency at least to verbal indefinites appears in the exces-
sive range of meanings employed wdth "to get," a phenomenon

^Category it renounces in favor of its accompanying noun.

Owen — Revision of Pronouns. 139

"by no means peculiar to bad Englisli, bnt duplicated, more or less
exactly, throughout the range of language.

The use of strictly indefinite conjunctions, especially those
distinguished as thought-connectives, is notoriously the stum-
bling block of many writers.

The interjections, meaning now particularly the words for
emotion, are frequently of the most non-committal type.

The indefinite preposition is specially interesting as showing
with special clearness the occasional indefiniteness of even the
simplest relations. To illustrate, the relation expressed by "at"
in "at the intersection of two streets," while definite enough per-
haps with respect to distance, is quite indefinite as to bearing
(see p. 129). I may for instance have in mind a house on either
corner, an electric light above the central line of either street, or
a cistern directly heloiu. Again the extremely variable "of," in
some of its uses, seems to be as completely indefinite as any
element of speech. In "The things of this life," I can hardly
define the "of" as standing, even to my own mind, for anything
more special than "related to in any way."

THEIR NOK-PEONOMIITALITY.

By this caption I invite the question : Can the indefinite be
also a pronoun, or, can a single word be not only indefinite, but
also vicarious ? That it can, is to my own mind so nearly axi-
omitic as to invite no comment. But, to make sure of the mat-
ter, suppose, in illustration, "I bring you a box of roses. Some
are red and others are white." In this sentence "Some" is no
doubt indefinite ; but it is also reinstative (vicarious) : it re-
vives in mind a part of an idea already expressed by "roses,"
but meantime allowed to lapse; and in the present usage it is
helpless without its principal.

The fact, however, that the same word is at the same time
vicarious and indefinite, should hardly entail confusion of these
attributes. The case is merely parallel to that of personals (p.
127) and that of demonstratives (p. 134). It does not even
suggest that what is indefinite should therefore be ranked as
also pronominal. Accordingly I deny that indefinites are pro-
noims, meaning that mere indefiniteness does not constitute pro-

14:0 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

nominality. That is, indefinites, so far as they are merely such,
must be ranked as pseudopronouns ; in other words they are
not pronouns, except so far as they may claim the pronominal
rank by ^^rtue of something more than their indefiniteness.
Madison, Wis., January, 1900,

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01

ICE RAMPARTS.

E. R. BUCKLEY, PH. D.
Assistant Superintendent Wisconsin Geological and Natural Hiatory Survey.

The diurnal and weekly changes of temperature during the
winter months cause a sufficient expansion and contraction of
the ice covering the inland lakes of Wisconsin to shove up
the sand, gravel, boulders, and sod along the shores into peculiar
ridges, known as ice ramparts. These ridges are of various
shapes and sizes, but ordinarily the longer direction extends
approximately parallel to the shore. The ridges are discontin-
uous, of variable length, and range from a fraction of a foot to
several feet, in height. Observations have shown that they are
not ordinarily an accompaniment of ve?^ small or very large
lakeSj, although their formation is not entirely controlled by the
size of the lakes, depending in the region under discussion
mainly upon the prevailing climatic conditions. In this state
the temperature conditions are such that the formation of ice
ramparts is limited to lakes of moderate size, and they are best
developed during seasons when the snow-fall is very light.

During the winter of 1898-99 the precipitation and tem-
perature conditions in south central Wisconsin were exception-
ally favorable to the formation of ice ramparts by the moderate
sized lakes. During this season ridges were shoved up at many
places along the shores of different lakes in this region.

The ice ramparts which attracted the special attention of the
author were formed along the shores of Lakes Mendota and
Monona. These lakes are located in the south central part of
Wisconsin, immediately adjacent to the city of Madison. The
general shape and outline of the lakes are sho^vn in Plate L
Lake Mendota has an area of 15.2 square miles, and the area
of Lake Monona is about 3.9 square miles. The volume of
water in Lake Mendota is roughly 16,880,000 cubic feet; that
of Lake Monona is very much less. The coast line of both lakes

142 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

is irregular. In some places the lakes are bordered by low
swamp lands, while at other places the land juts out into the
lake, forming vertical, or nearly vertical escarpments, thirty
or forty feet in height. The bank is in some places vertical, or
even overhanging, while in other places it slopes very gradually
to the lake. The banks of the lakes consist of horizontal beds
of limestone and sandstone, sand and gravel, boulder clay,
and marly ooze and weeds which pass shoreward into marsh-
grass meadow-land. At many jDlaces the banks are covered with
trees down to the water's edge. This great variety of shore con-
ditions furnishes a corresponding variety in the shape of the
ice ramparts, resulting from the shoving of the ice.

According to the records of the Madison Democrat,^ Lake
Mendota closed on the 7th day of December, 1898, while Lake
Monona remained open until the 12th. During the winter
which followed very little snow fell in the region under consid-
eration, and during a greater part of the season the ice on the
lakes was bare. The temperature changes during the months of
December, January, and February were very great, as is sho^vn
by the accompanying table, which was compiled from the rec-
ords of the Washburn Observatory. The season was one of al-
ternating warm and cold spells. Several warm spells were fol-
lowed by periods of intense cold ; the changes being very rapid
and extreme for this region. During three days of the latter
part of December, the thermometer fell 54° F., or from +42^
to — 12° ; during four days in the latter part of January, the
temperature changed 55° F., falling from +30° on the 26th to
— 25° on the 29th; from the 12th to the 15th of February the
temperature changed 61°, rising from — 30° on the former day
to +31° on the latter. Many other temperature changes occurred
during this period but these were the most marked.

^This record is taken as authority because it corresponds with observations
made by the author.

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Buchley — Ice Ramparts,

143

Table I. — Maximum and minimum temperatures during the months
of December^ JS9S, January, 1899, and February, 1899.

In degrees Fahrenheit.

Decembee,

1898.

January, 1899.

c : :

February, 1899.

Date.

Max.

Min.

Dif.

Max.

Min.

Dif.

Max.

Min.

Dif.

1

28

16

1
12

11

—9

20

11

-4

15

2

24

12

12

28

8

20

8

-5

13

3

24

14

10

39

21

18

8

-4.5

12.5

4

18

7

11

40

8

32

5

-^

13

5

20

4

16

16

1

15

5

-9

14

6

22

15

7

16

2

14

5

— 5

10

7

18

5

13

10

—6

16

2

—13

15

8

9

—2

11

10

-^

16

2

-13

15

9

10

—5

15

16

6

10

—15

—27.5

12.5

10

20

1

19

25

8

17

— 5

-25

20

11

29

15

14

28

15

13

-6

—18

12

12

22

-8

14

34

19

15

0

—23

23

13

8

—2

10

36

31

5

13

—10

23

14

20

— 5

25

36

25

11

20

3

17

15

24

5

ly

37

26

11

38

19

19

16

30

16

14

36

23

13

44

26

18

17

33

16

17

30

16

14

44

33

11

1
18

33

21

12

25

7

18

39

26

13

19

33

24

9

32

14

18

42

28

14

20

33

29

4

35

24

11

49

37

12

21

33

30

3

36

28

8

41

32

9

22

33

26

7

34

21

13

36

27

9

23

29

20

9

32

24

8

28

12

16

24

22

8

14

25

13

12

21

0

21

25

21

9

12

35

12

23

32

15

17

26

32

11

21

35

1

34

36

17

19

27

32

6

26

11

-10

21

23

0

23

28

31

6

25

12

—13

25

29

11

18

29
30

42
34

30

12
39

—2
1

-20
—16.5

18
17.5

Total sn
Very 1
at any

)w fall 5
ittle on
one tim

inches,
ground

e.

31

1

—12

13

1 4
1

—16

20

144 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

During the periods of low temperature the ice increased in
thickness until it attained a maximum of from thirty to forty
inches. Shallow portions of the lakes were frozen to the bot-
tom, and in many of the especially shallow places the bottoms
of the lakes were frozen beneath the ice.

Turning our attention from the conditions prevailing at that
time to the resultant shore phenomena, we distinguish three dif-
ferent forms of ice ramparts, which depend for their peculiari-
ties largely upon the size, shape, and composition of the bank.
The first kind occurs along a sand or gravel beach of gradual
slope; the second kind occurs along an abrupt shore, adjacent to
which the water is somewhat deep ; and the third kind forms at
the head of bays where the shore is low, marshy meadow-land,
adjacent to which the bottom of the lake is composed of mud,
marl, and weeds. There are all gradations between these forms.

Examples of the first kind were observed at many favorable
places along the shore of both Mendota and Monona. In many
of the especially shallow places, as stated above, the bottom of
the lakes had frozen to a considerable depth below the water.
During the periods of expansion the frozen lake bottom, consist-
ing of boulders, pebbles, and sand, together with the ice sheet
above, to which it was welded, was shoved up the gradual incline
of the beach. The boulders, pebbles, and sand composing the
lake bottom maintained the same relative positions which they
had before they were moved, and when the ice melted later in
the season the boulders, pebbles, and sand were left as a thin
mantle, often extending six or eight feet beyond and above the
edge of the water, (See Plate 11.) The best example of this
phenomenon was observed along the beach an eighth of a mile
east of the Mendota Hospital for the Insane. (See A, Plate I.)
The same was also observed along the southeast side of Picnic
Point (See B, Plate I), and at one or two places along the south
shore of Lake Monona. (See C, Plate I.)

The second form of the ice rampart occurred where the shore
line was abrupt, forming steep banks of variable height. The
result of the ice shoving against such banks depends upon the
thickness of the ice and the character and composition of the
shore. In some places the bank was uninjured by the ice-shove,
relief taking place by the breaking up of the ice near or at some

01
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Buchley — Ice Ramparts. 145

distance from the sliore. Where this occurred, the ice was ordi-
narily piled lip in irregular blocks forming what is commonly
known as an ice ridge. ( See Plate III. ) In some places the re-
lief occurred near the shore, on account of which the bank was
nearly covered with a mass of broken ice. In this way, boulders,
which were originally at, or even below the surface of the water,
were carried ujDward and deposited on the top of the bank,
where they frequently remained as perched blocks after the ice
had melted in the sj)ring. The best illustration of this phe-
nomenon occurred along the south shore of Lake Monona, where
a heavy bank of glacial boulders effectually resisted the pressure
of the ice. ( See D, Plate I. ) Similar examples were conspicu-
ous along the shore of Lake Mendota bordering the University
grounds (See E, Plate L), and also along the steeper and more
resistant portions of Picnic Point.

In some places the expansion of the ice resulted in elevating
and pushing over almost vertical banks of boulder clay. The
most striking examples of this phenomenon occurred on Lake
Mendota at Picnic Point and in front of the Mendota Hospital
for the Insane. The bank on the east side of Picnic Point (See
R, Plate I. ) , composed of sod, boulders, and clay, was shoved up
into a ridge having an average height of about four feet, a breadth
of base of about eleven feet, and a breadth at the top of about
four feet. At one place the band had a height of not less than
eight feet and carried on the top a tree of considerable size.
(See Plate IV.) In many places the ice-shove was made more
effective by numerous boulders and large quantities of gravel
which had been caught up and frozen into the ice along the
shore. These boulders were in many places actually rammed
into the bank, where they presented much the appearance of
plums in a pudding. A larger part of the rampart on Picnic
Point was nearly vertical, although in one or two places it had
been partly overturned.

The shore of Lake Mendota in front of the Hospital for the
Insane is bordered close to the water's edge with many trees.
(See P, Plate I.) The bank is in many places vertical or even
over-hanging and large masses were raised up and overturned
by the ice-shove. Trees twelve inches and more in diameter
were dislodged and overturned. (See Plate VII.) In one place,
10

146- ^y^sconsm Academy of Sciences, Arts^ and Letters.

the sod covering the ground between the lake and a small lagoon,
a distance of about twenty feet, was dislodged throughout the en-
tire distance by the force of the ice-shove. (See Plate VIII.)
The main ridge which was formed at this place had a height of
from three to five feet, but was not as continuous as the one
which occurred on Picnic Point.

This same form of rampart was observed along the shore of
Lake Monona. In a number of instances on this lake the ice
froze back under the bank and when the ice-shove came large
blocks of sod, carrying trees and underbrush, were elevated and
displaced. At other places the bank was torn up, forming
ridges resembling the one at Picnic Point. East of the assem-
bly grounds (See M, Plate I) the sand forming the beach was
piled up in a long symmetrical ridge, as shown in Plate IX.

In several places on Lake Mendota the ice came in contact
with small cliffs of sandstone and limestone, and in two of these
instances fragments of considerable size were broken off by the
ice-shove.

The third kind of ice rampart has the shape of more or less
symmetrical folds, which always occur near the shore, where the
water is shallow. As previously stated, the bottom of the lake
consisting of mud, marl, moss, and weeds, was frozen in the
very shallow places to a considerable depth below the ice.
Where the bank was abrupt, the folds were formed out from the
shore, but where the shore passed by a gradual slope into marsh-
land, the folds were formed on the landward side of the lake.
In several places where the lakeward and landward conditions
were balanced the folds formed on both sides of the shore line.
Where the above conditions prevailed there was formed either
a single fold or a series of consecutive folds resembling the Ap-
palachian Mountain structure.

The mxost characteristic and best defined folds of this class oc-
curred along the shores of University Bay on Lake Mendota.
(See S, Plate I.) The folds at this place were developed on two
sides of the bay. The expansion of the ice apparently resolved
itself into two components acting approximately at right angles
to each other, on account of which the longer axes of the folds
on the two sides of the bay were nearly normal to each other.
The positions of several of the folds are shown on a small scale
in Plate X.

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Buckley — Ice Ramparts. 147

Beginning at the east end of the bay, a single fold was devel-
oped which extended uninterruptedly for a distance of one hun-
dred yards. Twenty-five yards from the west end of this fold
two other folds were formed, parallel to the first. These were
normal folds, having limbs dipping at angles of 71° south and
50° north. The largest of these folds, of which one-half was
destroyed by a sharp re-entrant angle, is shown in Plate XI.
The radius of this fold was five feet, and the length of the por-
tion, which is sho^vn in the figure, measured fifty feet. When
first observed the fold was normal ; but later in the season it be-
came slightly overturned, as shown in the illustration. The dip
of the south limb was 73° south, and that of the north limb 55°
north. The arch w^as hollow^ and the limbs had a thickness of
about twelve or fifteen inches.

The main fold continued west for about 375 paces and then
died out. Xear the middle of this fold, and outside of it, a sec-
ond fold was developed, which had a length of about thirty-five
or forty yards. At the east end, these folds were so near to-
gether that they almost coalesced. Toward the w^est they di-
verged until they were about fifteen feet apart, measured from
crest to crest. The small outer ridge was normal, each of the
limbs being symmetrical Avith respect to the axial plane. The
fold nearest the shore w^as overthrust at the east end, having
limbs dipping 49° north and 79° north. As it was followed
west, the form changed until it had the characters of a normal
and then of an underthrust fold. That portion of the fold
which was parallel and adjacent to the second fold was normal,
having limbs which dipped, respectively, 85° north and 50°
south. The limbs of the underthrust portion of the fold
dipped respectively, 65° south and 50° south, also 55° south
and 75° south. The limbs of the overthrust portion at the west
end dipped, respectively, 55° north and 75° north. The promi-
nent underthrust and overthrust sections of the main fold each
continued for a distance of about fifty feet.

The main fold was fractured along the entire length of its
crest, while numerous less conspicuous fractures occurred across
the fold at various intervals throughout its entire length. These
fractures w^ere all so sharply defined that they had much the
appearance of having been cut with a huge knife.

148 }Yisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

The best developed folds were formed on the west side of the
bay and are illustrated in Plate X. (See also S, Plate I.)
Twentj-seven distinct and separate folds were formed at this
place. Fifteen of these appeared to be successive, one being
outside of the other. The size of the folds, and the distance of
those along the south half of the shore from one another, are
given in Table II.

Table II.

No. of
fold.

Lenerth
of axis.

Lenarth
of radius

Maximum

breadth of

base.

Distance from
1 crest of one
fold to crest of
n3st.

Remarks.

Feet.

Feet.

Feet.

Feet.

1

26

3

2

3

2

24

3

3

5

Isoclinal with steep limbs.

3
4

68
30

3
2

3
5

4
9

Underthrust at north end, other-
wise normal.
Axes of this and most of folds

5

57

2%

2'/2

3

are sinuous.
Underthrust.

6
7

40
35

2V2
2%

4
3

7
9

Faulted across. On one side of
fault, isoclinal, onotherside,
underthrust.

Normal, approaching isoclinal.

8
9

52
53

2%
2Vi

7
4

11

6

Normal— faulted near middle.

Throw of 7 feet.
Double curve in the axis.

10

30

2

2

10

Nearly isoclinal.

11

17

1^2

2

6

Normal— slightly faulted.

12

22

\Vz

3

5

Normal— slightly faulted.

13

19

2

\V^

4

Isoclinal— limbs about vertical.

14

13

1

2V2

26

Small arch.

15

43

2

3-4

Discontinuous along shore

16

15

27

3
3

4

6

Double curve in axis.

17

18

46
67

4
4

4

Overthrust.

19

Overthrust.

20

72
20

3

2H

2

31/2

Isoclinal.

21

22

23

21/a

3V^2

23

14
26

2H

2V'x

3/2
3i4

Broken arch.

24

25

34

2H

3^

Broken at top.

26

20

2^
2Vi

3V4

Broken at top.

27

50

3!/2

Broken at top.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIII.

Plate \

FIG. 1.
View of ice rampart on Picnic Point from the shoreward side.

FIG. 2.
A close view of the ice rampart shown in Fig. 1.

Buckley — Ice Eaniparis. 149

The limbs of these folds dipped in various directions, and at
different angles. The limbs of one of the folds dipped respec-
tively 38° west and 38*^ east; the limbs of another dipped 65°
west and 78° west, and a third had limbs which dipped 70° east
and 60° east. In this small area all classes of folds were repre-
sented, normal, overthriist, and imderthrust. Each of the folds
was sharply fissured nearly the entire length of its axis. Cross-
fractures were of common occurrence, and in a number of in-
stances they were accompanied by conspicuous faulting, as
shoAvn in Plate XII. In this instance the fold has parted in
the middle, one-half having moved horizontally past the other.
Faulting had also occurred along the crest parallel to the axis
but the movement between the limbs was not very great. In
many instances the fractures were open and the walls had sep-
arated for a space of one or more inches. Many of the arches
were hollow, although some appeared to have very little vacant
space between the limbs. Some of the folds died out gradually
at the ends, but in many cases their termination was quite
abrupt.

It was evident that the anticlines had risen much more than
the synclines had been depressed. In fact the synclines had, in
only a few places, the appearance of having been depressed be-
low their former level.

It was observed at this locality, and elsewhere, that the char-
acter of the folds and the rigidity of the shore line were closely
related to each other. Wherever the folds were near a rigid
shore line they were almost invariably overthrust. Where the
rigid bank was absent, or distant, the folds were generally nor-
mal or underthrust. These relations existing between the bank
and the folds were observed in a sufficient number of places
along the shore of both lakes, to show the interdependence of
the two.

CAUSE OF ICE RAMPARTS.

The cause of ice ramparts as expounded by G. K. Gilbert in
his classical monograph on Lake Bonneville, is well known to all
students of geology. It is as follows :

^'The ice on the surface of a lake expands while forming, so
as to crowd its edge against the shore. A further lowering of
temperature produces contraction, and this ordinarily results in

150 Wisco7isin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

the opening of vertical fissures. These admit the water from
below, and by the freezing of that water they are filled, so that
when expansion follows a subsequent rise of temperature, the
ice cannot assume its original position. It consequently in-
creases its total area and exerts a second thrust upon the shore.
Where the shore is abrupt, the ice itself yields, either by crush-
ing at the margin or by the formation of anticlinals elsewhere ;
but if the shore is generally shelving, the margin of the ice is
forced up the acclivity, and carries with it any boulders or other
loose material about which it mav have frozen. A second lower-
ing of temperature does not withdraw the protruded ice margin,
but initiates other cracks and leads to a repetition of the shore-
ward thrust. The process is repeated from time to time during
the winter, but ceases with the melting of the ice in the spring."

This explanation is the best and most satisfactory of any I
have yet read. However, the observations made during the last
two seasons have added a number of interesting details, espe-
cially concerning the manner in which the ice behaves while pro-
ducing these striking shore phenomena, which it may be profit-
able to discuss in the succeeding pages.

The entire phenomenon of ice ramparts depends upon the ex-
pansion and contraction of the ice sheet resulting from abnor-
mal fluctuations in the temperature of the ice. The deforma-
tion of the ice sheet itself is a much more complicated story than
the formation of the ice rampart. The ramparts which form
along the shore are only the more striking manifestations of the
forces resulting from changes in the temperature of the ice.
They occur only under exceptionally favorable conditions, while
the deformation of the ice sheet as a result of the same agency
occurs each winter.

At a temperature of 39° F. water is at its maximum density.
An increase or decrease in its temperature results in expansion.
When the temperature of water is lowered to 32° F. it solidifies,
and if free to move, linear contraction sets in at the rate of about
Toooofor each degree centigrade org^eooofor each degree Fahren-
heit.^ If the ice is not free to move the tensile stresses will ac-

' As determined by Struve, the linear coefficient of expansion is .000053 for each de-
gree centigrade.— See Pogrgendorffs Annalen ; Vol. 66, p. 298. Edward S, Nichols ob-
tained nearly the same result. See Phys. Rev. Vol. 8, pp. 184-186.

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Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIII.

Plate VII.

i'lG. 1.

FIG. 2.
Trees dislodged by the ice shove alon,t< the shore of Lake Mendota in front of the Hospital

for the Insane.

BucJdey — Ice Eamparts. 151

cnmulate until the limit of elasticity is reached, Avhen relief will
take place. AVhenever the temperature of the ice is increased or
decreased forces will be set up tending to either expand or con-
tract the ice at the rate above given.

During the month of February, 1900, the temperature of the
ice at different depths from the surface was obtained by using a
thermometer especially adapted for the purpose. Unfortun-
ately I was able to obtain only five sets of observations. These
indicate that the temperature of the ice at the surface, when
uncovered with snow, is about that of the atmosphere up to zero
centigrade, while it increases almost uniformly with the depth,
until the lower surface is reached, where the temperature is that
of unfrozen water. ^ From the observations taken, it appears
that the mean temperature of the ice is about midway between
the upper and lower surfaces and this can be taken as the aver-
age temperature of the ice sheet as a whole.

As stated above the tensile stresses result from a lowering
temperature. These stresses are a maximum at the surface and
decrease with the increase in temperature as the under surface
of the ice is approached. The tensile stresses will be the same
for each unit of area in any one plane parallel to the surface and
different for every other plane. Each unit of a plane normal
to the surface, except those occurring in the same horizontal
plane as above stated, w^ill have stresses of different values.
That is to say, the tensile stresses are greatest at the surface and
decrease tow^ard the under surface of the ice sheet. If free to
move, the ice sheet would contract in all directions pai^i passu
with any decrease in temperature. However, the margin of the
ice sheet is attached to the shore in such a manner that im-
mediate contraction can only take place normal to the surface of
the ice sheet. The ice particles are free to move normal to the
surface of the sheet and the stresses in this direction, occasioned
by a lowering of the temperature, are immediately relieved by
the particles moving closer together. The contraction resulting
from stresses in this direction would not exceed one-twenty-
fourth of an inch for a thickness of thirty-five inches and a fall

1 1 expect during another season to obtain a contiuuouf series of observations which
•will more fully demonstrate these conditions.

152 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

of 49° F. in the temperature. This amount is so small that it
will not need further consideration.

The tensile stresses in the horizontal directions accumulate
until one or the other overcomes the strength of the ice and
cracks form. As stated before, the tensile stresses are greatest
at the surface and rupture will begin when these stresses over-
come the strength of the ice at this place. When once started,
the cracks will continue either part way or entirely through the
thickness of the ice.

The linear contraction of a field of ice four miles wide, pro-
vided movement took place with perfect freedom, would be 0.586
feet for each degree F. In a case similar to the one under dis-
cussion, where the temperature of the surface layer is hypothet-
icallv lowered 49^ F., the contraction of this layer would be
28.714 feet. On the other hand the layer next to the water hav-
ing a temperature of 32° F. Avould suffer no contraction.

Cracks that are once formed often open again and again, but
each time they reach the under surface of the ice they fill with
water. Tlie water rises about nine-tenths of the way to the sur-
face and there solidifies. (See Plate XVII.) As the ice in-
creases in thickness it is buoyed up higher and higher, on ac-
count of which the water in the cracks rises successively to a
point which is further from the surface. Each time the cracks
fill, the water is at a lower level. When it freezes, steps like
terraces are formed from the center to the margin of the vein.

During the entire period of lowering temperature, the ice
sheet increases in thickness by the solidification of the water at
the lower surface. It also increases in density through contrac-
tion. The amount of horizontal contraction is about equivalent
to the volume of new ice which fills the cracks that show at the
surface. As the ice sheet increases in volume it is buoyed up
by the water, increasing its general level. This increase in vol-
ume comes at a time when contraction is at a maximum and may
affect more or less the results.

The water which fills the cracks expands when it freezes,
resulting in inducing compressive stresses which neutralize in
part the subsequent contraction.

When the temperature has reached the lowest point the ice
sheet is a solid mass filling the entire lake basin. When the

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Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIII.

Plate IX.

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Buckley — Ice Ilamparts. 153

temperature begins to rise compressive stresses are set up, which,
as in the case of the tensile stresses, are greatest at the upper
surface of the ice sheet, where the rise in temperature is great-
est. They are absent at the lower surface where the tempera-
ture is constant. These stresses find immediate relief only nor-
mal to the surface of the ice. The horizontal stresses occa-
sioned bv the expansive force of the molecules accumulate until
they are povv^erful enough to overcome either the rigidity of the
ice and the tensile strength of the lower layers of ice, or the rig-
idity of the bank and the tensile strength of the lower layers.

The enormous force with which water expands when passing
from a liquid to a solid state is well known, but must not be con-
fused with the force of expansion of ice due to a rising tempera-
ture. If the force in the case of freezing water and rising tem-
peratures can be said to be proportional to expansion, then the
force exerted by water upon freezing will be 666 times the ex-
pansive force of ice when raised 1° F. In other words it would
require a change of QQ%^ F. in the temperature of the ice, to
make the expansion caused therebv eaual to that of the same vol-
ume of water in passing from a liquid to a solid state.

If the rigidity of the banks is greater than that of the ice cap
relief will take place by the bulging or arching up of the latter.
If the banks are weaker than the ice cap, ramparts v/ill form
along the shore. The initial relief usually takes place suddenly,
as shown by observations on Lake Mendota. Ice ridge-s have
been known to form instantaneously on this lake, with a report
and shock resembling a miniature earthquake. After the ridge
or rampart has once formed relief takes place 'pari passu with
the compressive stresses. When the relief is once initiated it re-
quires but little force to keep the mass moving.

Owing to the greater compressive stresses in the upper than in
the lower layers of the ice sheet, when expansion takes place,
tensile stresses are set up in the latter which must overcome the
strength of these layers before relief can take place in any man-
ner. When the compressive stresses are powerful enough to
overcome the strength of these lower layers, as well as the rigid-
ity of the ice sheet or bank, relief takes place in the lower layers,
through the formation of cracks which begin at the under sur-
face and extend upwards. (See Plate XIV.) These cracks

154 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, AriSj and Letters.

from the under surface are always formed during a rising tem-
perature, and are in respect to form similar to those which form
from the upper surface downw^ard during a period of falling
temperatures.

When cracks form from the lower surface the unfrozen water
soon fills the spaces thus formed. If the temperature is still
one of freezing or if it soon changes from thawing to freezing,
this water will solidify, making the ice cap solid again from
bank to bank.

In general, all cracks, whether they form from the upper or
under surface, may be divided into two classes. The first con-
sists of those that penetrate the entire thickness of the ice and
the second comprises those that penetrate only part way. The
cracks of the first class often extend in straight lines over long
distances. Those of the second class are mainly short and dis-
continuous, and often form a veritable net work. The cracks
of the first class are sho^vn in Plate XV, and those of the second
class in Plate XIV.

The stresses on the ice sheet are very complex and the fissures
which result extend in many directions and are indefinite in
length. The fractures are frequently very complex, resembling
the spiral or feather structure shown in Plate XVI. Short
cracks, not over two or three inches long, were frequently ob-
served crossing the larger fractures at right angles. Where an
especially prominent fracture has formed it is common to find
several less important ones near by and parallel to it.

A number of cracks were observed in which the walls at the
surface were one-fourth inch apart, and yet which apparently
had not been filled with water from below, the ice being about
fourteen inches thick. Most cracks at the surface of less width
than this, however, w^ere filled with ice.

The theory that contraction is a maximum at the upper sur-
face and a minimum at the under surface leads to the assump-
tion that the ice filling a crack which forms from the upper sur-
face will have the shape of a wedge as shown in Plate XVII.
The ice filling a crack which forms from the under surface will
likewise have the same shape, except that the head will be down
instead of up.

An examination of a considerable number of ice cracks dur-

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ing a period of lowering temperature neither corroborated nor
disproved this theory, on account of the difficulty in delineating
the boundaries between the old and the new ice. By means of
the lamination, which shows at the surface, the veins could be
traced about half way through the ice sheet, but at that depth
they were always lost. The shaded portion of Plate XVII repre-
sents that portion of the vein that could be delineated. How-
ever, I am very certain that this does not represent the total area
of new ice. The lamination which extends to this depth is prob-
ably due to very fine cracks caused by differential contraction
which is constantly operating during falling temperatures.
During a rise in temperature the ice veins can scarcely be de-
lineated to any depth below the surface. Apparently the com-
pressive stresses resulting from the rising temperature obliter-
ate by regelation the fine cracks formed by tensile stresses dur-
ing the time of lowering temperature.

The actual movement of the ice sheet is further shown by
faults, which may have either a horizontal or vertical displace-
ment. When relief takes place by the formation of ramparts
along the shore horizontal displacement takes place in the ice
sheet. When relief takes place by the arching up of the ice
sheet, both vertical and horizontal displacements result. Plate
XVIII. shows a fault with a horizontal displacement of about
two feet. The crack which formed normal to the first one and
along which the displacement occurred, as shown in the illustra-
tion, may have been initiated prior to the time of expansion, or
it may have resulted from the expansion of the ice at the time
of relief. The displacement of two feet in the above illustra-
tion is evidence that a corresponding relief must have taken
place, either by bowing up of the ice at another place, or by the
formation of ramparts along the shore.

In the detection of* faults in ice, as in rocks, one may easily be
led astray by other phenomena which have all the appearance of
faults. It often happens that a crack will terminate abruptly
against another cross fracture and continue again on the other
side at a distance of from two inches to two feet from the place
where it terminates. ^N^umerous secondary cracks are fre-
quently observed to end abruptly against one of larger size.

The most complex fracturing and faulting occurs when -relief

156 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

from expansion conies in the shape of a bowing up of the ice.
The ice sheet breaks either at a place where it is weakest or
where for some other reason it is arched before expansion be-
gins. Contraction, however, precedes expansion, and it has
been observed that where the ice ridges occur, there the widest
cracks have previously been opened. The ice shove which ac-
companies expansion often elevates the ice to a height of eight
or ten feet, in consequence of which the ice sheet on either side
is depressed. Through the cracks in the synclinals thus formed
water flows out at the surface, forming lakelets which have been
observed 150 feet long by 75 feet wide and eight or ten inches
deep. When the temperature changes, the water of these lake-
lets freezes, resulting in a thickening of the ice at this place.
It has been observed that during alternating warm and cold
periods the ice ridges do not form at the same place. This is
probably due to the thickening of the ice at the place where each
successive ridge is formed, as above noted. The increased
thickness adds to the strength and rigidity of the ice at such
places, and at the next shove the ridge forms where the ice is
weaker. This change in the location of the ice crack on Lake
Mendota occurred three or four times during the winter of 1899
and 1900.

The analoc:v between the deformation of a sheet of ice cover-
ing a lake and that of the crust of the earth is in some respects
very striking. The deformation in both instances is by both
tensile and compressive stresses, although the more marked
deformation is due to horizontal compressive stresses. The re-
sults of the expansion and contraction are in both cases very
nearly alike, representing a region in which movement takes
place by combined fracture and flowage. Faulting, folding,
jointing, and the welling up of liquid material from below
through cracks are pheaiomena common to both. In the case of
the ice sheet the student has the advantage of watching these
phenomena and noting their peculiarities. The cause is also
definitely known and the observer can measure relatively the
forces which are operating.

In conclusion I will briefly summarize the changes involved
in the process of ice rampart formation.

The 1st condition is one of lowering temperature owing to
which the water of the lake freezes.

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2nd condition. — Lake covered with the ice sheet and tem-
peratnre still falling. Kesult : — Ice thickens below, raising up-
per surface. Tensile stresses are set up, on account of which
cracks form at surface. The openings thus made penetrate
through the thickness of the ice and thej are filled with water
from below, which soon freezes. The cracks open repeatedly
until the temperature reaches its lowest point. The ice sheet
is then approximately adjusted, at the minimum temperature,
to the size of the lake basin.

3rd condition. — Temperature of ice rises. Kesult: — Com-
pressive stresses are set up, which cause the ice to expand. The

relief comes either through the formation of ridges in the ice
sheet, or the formation of ice ramparts along the shore. Cracks
also form from the under surface of the ice.

4th condition. — Free-zing temperature. Result. — Water wells
up into the cracks and freezes. Ice sheet becomes a solid
mass as before approximately adjusted to the size of the basin.

This completes the cycle of changes in the ice due to varia-
tions of temperature.

Madison J ^Yis.J January, 1900.

158 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts^ and Letters.

DISCUSSIOK

BY PROFESSOR C. R. VAN HISE.

Dr. Buckley's paper upon the behavior of expanding and con-
tracting ice and the resulting deformation of ice and shore is
of very considerable geological interest, because of the many
analogies that the phenomena present to the crustal deformation
of the earth. Many experiments have been made in the labora-
tory with various materials, the aim being to reproduce on a
small scale the phenomena of crustal deformation, in order that
inferences might be made as to the nature of the forces which
produced the phenomena. Laboratory experiments simulating
the phenomena of crustal deformation date back as far as Hall,^
the contemporary of Hutton. The much later experimental
work of Daubree^ is well known. In the last few years a num-
ber of men have been working upon the problem in the labora-
tory. Rotable among these are Willis^ and Prinz.*

The shore and ice deformation caused by ice expansion de-
scribed by Dr. Buckley stimulates more nearly many of the phe-
nomena of crustal deformation than have laboratory experi-
ments. Moreover the phenomena are on a much larger scale
and are of correspondingly greater value in judging of the man-
ner in which the phenomena of crustal deformation are pro-
duced. Dr. Buckley's work is of especial interest to me since
the phenomena described by him almost exactly illustrate a num-
ber of the phenomena which I have elsewhere discussed. These
will be separately mentioned.

First is the manner in which normal folds pass into over-
turned folds. It has been supposed in such cases that the
thrusts have come ^^more largely from one direction than from
the other, and the axial planes of the folds have usually been

1 Sir James Hall : Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, Vol. VI, 1805.

2 G6oloRie Experimentale, by A. Daubr6e: "Vols. I and II, 1879.

• Thfi Mechanics of Appalachian structure, by Bailey Willis: Thirteenth Ann. Rept.,
U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. II, 1893, pp. 211-281.

*L'Echelle Reduite des Experiences Gfiologiques, by W. Prinz: Revi>e de I'Univ. de
Bruxelles, Tome II, 1896-97, p. 47. Bull. Soc. Beige d' Astronomie, 1899, p. 70.

Trans. Wis. Acad.. Vol. XIII.

Plate XIV.

im^!,:..- ..n-..-^-v.'-. s;;t -..i^^^-y

FIG. 1.

Cracks in the ice.

FIG. 2.
The ribbon like cracks have formed from the under surface and only
extend half way through the sheet.

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Buckley — Ice Ramparts. 159

regarded as dipping toward the force." ^ Such folds are over-
thrust folds. The reason that overthrust rather than under-
thrust folds commonly form is that the direction of easiest relief
is upward rather than downward.^ That is the manner in
which the forces have acted, as sho^\ai hy Dr. Buckley, in the
case of a majority of the overturned folds described by him.
He observes in reference to the folds along the shore that
^Vherever the folds were near a high shore line they were al-
most invariablv overthrust.'^

Another point of great interest is the successive development
of folds formed along marshy shores. I have explained that
parallel folds in the earth's crust are probably successive. As a
result of the formation of the first fold the strata are piled up
and thickened. ''After a time the increased thickness of ma-
terial is sufficient to present a larger total resistance to deforma-
tion than the thinner strata in advance. The stress will then
be transmitted forward. On account of the greater stress per
unit of area, a second fold similar to the first will then be
form.ed, but this results in again thickening the mass subject to
the force couple, and again the stress is transmitted forward.
A new inclined fold is then produced, and so on.''^ While par-
allel folds are largely successive, one fold does not completely
develop before the next begins to form. This sequence inferred
for mountains a number of years ago is exactly paralleled by
the manner in which the folds formed in the soft marsh as de-
scribed by Dr. Buckley.

Dr. Bucklev observed that in the successive ice and marsh
folds the anticlines are elevated much more than the synclines
are depressed. This upon theoretical grounds I have held to be
a general truth for the anticlines and sjaiclines of mountain
masses. *

Another very interesting thing in reference to the formation
of the ice and swamp folds is that where two sets form they are
at right angles to each other. (See p. 146.) This same phe-
nomenon is very characteristic of crustal folds, and the explana-

1 Principles of North American Pre-Cambrian Geology, by C R. Van Hise ; 16th Ann.
Rep., U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. I, 1896, p. 621.

' Principles cit., p. 622.

' Principles cit., p. 622.

* Estimates and Causes of Crustal Shortening, by C. R. Van Hise : Journ, of Geol., Vol
6, 1898, p. 19.

IGO JVisconmn Acade^ny of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

tion has been given tliat complex tlirnsts acting on strata are de-
composed into two directions at right angles to each other. One
of these is the direction of maximum thrust, and the other is the
direction of minimum thrust. At right angles to the maximum
thrust the more numerous and larger folds are formed, and at
right angles to the minimum thrust lesser folds are formed. ^

Another very interesting phenomenon is the combination of
folds and faults. When the ice or shore is first deformed, or is
deformed slowly, it often yields by bending or by flowage.
When, however, bending goes too far or the process of deforma-
tion becomes too rapid, faulting takes place. Faults form par-
allel to the axis of the folds, giving overthrust faults on the anti-
clines ; they also form at right angles to the folds, giving cross
faults. These phenomena precisely duplicate similar phenom-
ena shown by many mountain masses. As Dr. Buckley says,
the deformation of ice and shore illustrates very well, indeed, the
phenomena exhibited by rock deformation in the zone of com-
bined fracture and flowage.

In this connection a point of very great interest is the sud-
denness wdth which the rujotures frequently take place in the de-
form^ation of the ice. Dr. Buckley's explanation of this is that
the tensile and compressive stresses accumulate until the ultimate
strength or elastic limit of the ice is reached, when release must
come, either by tensile or compressive ruptures. Precisely the
same state of affairs takes place in rocks. They have consider-
able elasticity, and as the earth's stresses gradually increase the
molecules are pulled apart or brought closer together, until fin-
ally the elastic limit is reached, when tensile or compressive rup-
ture occurs. The evidence that the crust of the earth is under
compressive stresses within the elastic limit is conclusively
shown by the fact that ruptures are sometimes known to take
place by the layers of rock rising and breaking when there is re-
lease of load by excavation. As, for instance, in the Chicago
drainage canal, as noted by Salisbury, at the combined locks of
Appleton, as noted by Cramer, ^ and elsewhere.

Another of the interesting phenomena observed and described

1 Principles cit., pp. 626-627.

^Ona Recent Rock Flexure; by Frank Cramer, Am. Jour. Sci. iii, Vol. XXXIX, 1890»
pp. 220-225.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIII.

Plate XVI

FIG. 1.

FIG. 2.
Cracks in the ice showing spiral and feather structure.

BucJcley — Ice Ramparts. 161

by Dr. Buckley is the manner in which pools and lakes of water
form on the ice along folds and fractures which occur within the
ice sheet itself. In this case it is well known that the water is
heavier than the ice, yet the water issues through the cracks in
great pools and even in lakelets upon the ice adjacent to the ice
ridges. The rise of this water is due to two causes. In the
first place on each side of an anticline is a natural place for syn-
clines to form, as result of the downward thrust of the limbs of
the anticline. Tims there is a direct tendency, due to the
thrust of the ice, for the ice to be jammed below the water, which
therefore rises to tlie surface through the cracks. As fast as it
rises its weight is added to that of the ice and thus there is an
added tendency for the process to continue. In the second place,
the weight of the piled-up mass of ice along the ice ridge is
transmitted to the adjacent ice, and this combined with the nor-
mal amount of ice above the water is more than sufiicient to
overcome the greater weight of the water, and the water rises to
the surface. So far as the rise of the water to the surface is due
to this second reason, it is caiised by gravity. Upon the lake it
is impossible to separate these two causes. In another place I
have held, following Dutton and others, that gravity is one of
the main factors which have caused lava to rise to the surface
and have compared the rise of the lava to that of water through
ice where ice ridges form. ^ In the case of the ice the thrust is
produced by another force than gravity. ^ However, in the case
of the earth the thrust of the crust is ultimately produced by
gravity, and therefore the dominating influence of gravity in the
rise of lavas. The relative sizes of the ice ridges and the pools
of water are very interesting, the latter being many times the
height of the former. The relations are somewhat the same as
those of the great volcanic plateau of the west to the adjacent
mountain masses.

Another notable point in this connection is that where an ice
ridge once forms and water exudes to the surface, this freezes ;
and this results in greatly thickening the mass of ice for that
belt. When expansion ceases and a cold period follows, the

1 Earth Movements, by C, R. Van Hise. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arta, and Letters, Vol.
XI, lo93, pp. 495-436.
«Loc. cit.,pp. 512-514.

11

162 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

water below the ridge also freezes. When at a later warm time
ice expansion again comes the ice ridges form at some other
place. This gives a cine to the manner in which new mountain,
ranges may be formed. After a first mountain mass with ac-
companying vulcanism has formed, and there has been a long
period of quiescence, in which the lava at the surface and filling
the openings in the crust has solidified, the rigidity of that por-
tion of the crust of the earth may be greater than at some ad-
jacent place, and when later thrust accumulates so that deforma-
tion is necessary it finds relief at some other area. However,
it is to be remembered that in many cases mountain-making
movements along the same axis have recurred repeatedly, and
this would be expected, provided there were not long periods be-
tween the successive movements.

Dr. Buckley notes that expansion producing ice ridges fre-
quently follows contraction. The contraction produces tensile
ruptures. When expansion follows, the ice ridges are located by
these tensile cracks. The question naturally arises whether or
not the same thing may frequently be true for crustal deforma-
tion.

In conclusion I may say that the phenomena which Dr. Buck-
ley has so well described seem to me to reproduce on a larger
scale than has been possible by experiments in the laboratory
many of the phenomena of crustal deformation ; and, moreover,
that the analogies are so astonishingly close as to lead to the con-
clusion that in most cases crustal forces have acted in a similar
manner to those in which the forces in the ice have acted, al-
though the ultimate cause of the force in the two cases is mainly
different, that of the ice being expansion or contraction due to
change in temperature, while that in the earth's crust is that of
gravitative stress caused by the earth's contraction, which comes
from various causes, including change in temperature.

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<

THE PLANKTON OF FRESH WATER LAKES,

ADDRESS OF THE EETIEING PRESIDENT, C. DWIGHT MARSH, A. M.

Professor of Biologu, Ripon, Wis.

For some years I have been interested in the subject of the
fauna of our fresh water lakes. This interest was first aroused
in regard to the animals of the deeper parts of the lakes. The
results of the explorations of the depths of the ocean were just
becoming known. I had read in the older works that while the
sea was densely populated along shore, and had what has be-
come to be known as a ^'pelagic" fauna and flora in the open sea,
remote from land, the depths were a barren region utterly de-
void of both animal and vegetable life. But later it had been
shown that there was, even in the greatest depths, a fauna, not
very abundant to be sure, but of great interest because of the
strange peculiarities of some of the forms. With others I was
profoundly interested in this work, and it lead me to conjecture
whether there was not a field for investigation in the deeper
waters of our lakes. At that time very little had been done in
the way of any systematic study of the deeper waters of the
lakes. I think the only extensive work on the subject was
ForeFs "La faune profonde des lacs Suisses," published in 1885.
Professor Forel had begun his researches on the deep water
fauna of Lake Leman in 18 GO, and had published various no-
tices in the intervening years. In this country, so far as I
know, the first publication in regard to the deep water fauna
of lakes was in the first volume of the Transactions of the Wis-
consin Academy, in a paper by Dr. Lloy, of Racine. He de-
tailed how he had become interested in the food of the whitefish,
and had examined their stomachs, finding animals that seemed
new to science. A company v^as made up for a dredging expe-
dition consisting of Dr. Hoy, Dr. Lapham, Professor Stimpson,

164 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Professor Andrews and IMr. Blatchford, and pnt in a day's work
dredging on Lake Michigan in June, 1870. The result was the
collection of a considerable number of animals. Especial im-
portance was attached to the discovery of a Triglopsis and a
Mysis, as they are marine genera, and their presence was sup-
posed to indicate a former direct connection of Lake Michigan
with the ocean.

In 1874 Professor Smith published a paper on the "Inverte-
brate Fauna of Lake Superior," reporting the existence of the
same Crustacea in Lake Superior which Dr. Hoy had found in
Lake Michigan. The My sis there, however, occurs in somewhat
shallow w^ater as well as in the greater depths. In both lakes it
forms an important — perhaps the most important — constituent
of the food of the white fish and lake trout. As I was located
near a lake of considerable depth, a depth reputed to be any-
where between 400 feet and iniinitv, it occurred to me that I
had an opportunity to carry out similar researches.

My own work on lakes, then, originated in a desire to know
more about the abyssal animals. I soon found, hoAvever, that
the problem was a serious and complicated one, involving a com-
plete faunistic study of the lake. I was fortunate in finding on
the bottom of Green Lake the same My sis, which makes its home
in Lake Michigan. These animals have not been definitely re-
ported from any other lake in the United States, although Mysis
is said to live in a lake in E^cav York connected with the St. Law-
rence. Here was a pretty problem in animal distribution.
How did these animals make their wav into Green Lake-? Wa3
it by way of the Great Lakes, or did they come at some time by
a connection through the Mississippi Valley? I could not tell,
and I cannot today, for it becomes a problem for the geologist
rather than the zoologist. With this as a starting point I
attacked the problem of lake fauna?, and the battle is still in pro-
gress with no indications of a conclusion of hostilities for many
years to come.

During the decade in which I have been interested in limnol-
ogy there has been a very considerable advance in our knowledge
of the subject, and it will be my attempt tonight to siunmarize
this knowledge, and make as clear a statement as I can in the

Marsh —The Plankton of Fresh Water Lakes. 165

brief time at mj disposal of what is now known of the fauna and
flora of fresh water lakes.

Russell, in his work on !N^orth American Lakes, enumerates
ten agencies which, acting separately or in combination, may
produce lakes. So far as our Wisconsin lakes are concerned,
the most important of these agencies is glacial action. Most
of our lakes occupy the depressions caused by the unequal
distribution of the glacial drift, or by interference with pre-
existing drainage lines. Inasmuch as Wisconsin is not a
mountainous state, it follows that these depressions are no-
where of great depth, and that we have no lakes which com-
pare in depth \vith those located in mountainous regions. Most
of our lakes are extremely shallow, few being more than forty
or fifty feet in depth. Lake Geneva, 142 feet, and Green Lake,
237 feet, are our deepest bodies of water, while our largest lake,
Lake Winnebago, probably does not exceed twenty-five feet. All
lakes are temporary features of the topography. The outflow-
ing water is all the time deepening the outlet and increasing the
amount of drainage, while the inflowing water is bringing in
material which gradually fills up tbe lake bed. This process
goes on with comparative rapidity, and even in our new lake
areas there are numerous examples of dead lakes, where swamp
vegetation entirely covers what was formerly an open sheet of
water. The physical processes involved in the lives of lakes and
the relation of the lake vegetation to these processes are very in-
teresting, but this is not the time or place to discuss them, and
they can only be referred to in passing.

The subject of the fauna of fresh, water lakes has not been
especially attractive to zoologists. This is but natural when we
consider the great wealth of life in the ocean, and the compara-
tive poverty of fresh water. Of the more important divisions
of the animal kingdom the echinoderms and tunicates are en-
tirelv absent in fresh water, and the coelenterates and melius-
coidea are represented by few forms. Even the Crustacea, which,
form the greater part of the plankton, and are present in such
enormous numbers, have very few forms compared with the Crus-
tacea of the sea. It is to be expected that zoologists will be
attracted by this wealth of material in the sea, and that most of
them will in the future as in the past resort to the sea for their

166 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

study. It Tvas in the ocean that the ancestors of our fresh water
animals dwelt, and it is amongst those animals that the student
may expect to find the most information in regard to the devel-
opment of life on the earth.

But the lakes have their fauna, a fauna of great numbers if
not of great variety, and because of their isolation and somewhat
peculiar conditions, present a very interesting study in the dis-
tribution of animals. Of course the best known members of this
fauna are the fishes, whose numbers, habits, and food are fairly
well knoxvn. Fish are so important for human food that a study
of their habits comes to be a matter of commercial importance,
and our federal and state governments expend large sums of
money for this investigation and for the practical w^rk of rear-
ing and distributing spawn and young fish. In Wisconsin,
too, as well as in some of the other northern states, it is a matter
of great practical importance to maintain the numbers of game
fish in our lakes simply for the purposes of sport. Until one has
made the rounds of the summer resort lakes he has little idea of
the multitudes of people who come to our state in the summer
season, attracted largely by the opj)ortunities for fishing. Hun-
dreds of thousands of dollars are brought to us every summer
in this way, and it is a good business policy which leads us to do
all in our povv^er, and even spend large sums of money, if neces-
sary, to maintain our stocks of game fish.

It has long been known, of course, that fish are dependent for
their food upon smaller animals, and it has also been known that
a knowledge of these same small animals was necessary to any
accurate and complete knowledge of fish, but this study was so
difficult and involved so much drudgery that for a long time it
was neglected.

Anything like an exact knowledge of the Crustacea may be
said to date back only half a century to the ^vritings of Fischer
and Glaus, although some papers upon this subject had been
published previously.

In 1817 Say published a somewhat extended article on the
Crustacea of the United States, in which he speaks of one
Ostracod. two Daphnias and one Cyclops^ as inhabiting the
waters of the southern states. In 1843, in the "Natural History

Marsh — The Planldon of Fresh Water Lakes. 167

of New York," was published an article by DeKay on tbe Crus-
tacea, wliich was beautifully illustrated, but added little to our
knowledge of the fresh water Crustacea. In fact, though Cyclops
and Daphnia are mentioned, they are spoken of as "extra-lim-
ital," in spite of the fact that not a lake in New York would have
failed to furnish him countless numbers of these genera, had he
looked for them. To Professor Eorbes, of the University of
Illinois, is due the credit of making the first extensive collections,
of these animals in this country, and publishing accurate de-
scriptions of t'hem. His first paper was published in 1876, and
was followed by a series of very valuable investigations, cul-
minating within' the last few years in the establishment of a
floating labo^VJtory on the Illinois River for the continued study
of the fauna and flora of that river and the shallow lakes adjoin-
ing.

In Europe large numbers of investigators within the last few
years have devoted themselves to the study of fresh water ani-
mals and plants. Preeminent among them have been Porel and
his co-laborers on Lake Leman, and Zacharias and his fellow-
workers in the station at Lake Plon in Ilolstein. This station
at Plon was, I believe, the first permanent fresh water station in
the world. Since its establishment in 1S91, a considerable num-
ber of permanent stations have been established in various parts
of the world. It is not my purpose here to give a history of
these establishments, for that has already been exceedingly well
done by Professor Ward. I may call attention in passing, how-
ever, to the fact that the work in this country has been done
almost exclusively in our immediate vicinity, Illinois, Wiscon-
sin, and Michigan having published by far the most material on
this subject. Similar work has been prosecuted in Minnesota,
Ohio, and Indiana, but very little has been done in the other
states, if we except the exceedingly valuable work of Whipple.

In Wisconsin, work has been prosecuted on the Madison lakes
and Green Lake for many years, and now, under the auspices
of the Natural History Survey, a more extensive and systematic
biological survey of the lakes is being made, probably a more .
extensive comparative study than has been attempted elsewhere.
While this study is of especial scientific interest, as has been in-

168 Wisco7isin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

timated bef ore, it is of great practical interest in connection with
the problems of fish culture. It may not be likely that, as sug-
gested hy a recent writer in Forest and Stream^ the future
angler Avill carry with him a thermometer and chart with a
statement of the laws of vertical and horizontal distribution,
but such study does give a fundamental knowledge which is of
vast importance to the angler as well as to the fish culturist.

The terminology used in the study of the fauna and flora of
fresh-water lakes, as in the sea, was formulated by Hackel.
Under the term ^'plankton" is included all living things, animal
or vegetable, found in the water which do not move from place
to place by their own volition. Fishes are not considered a part
of the plankton. The life of the sea may be considered as ^'lit-
toral," "i^elagic,'' and "abyssal." To these terms Hackel adds
"zonary", to include those animals Avhich are supposed to occur
at zones of different depths in the ocean. In the littoral and
pelagic planktons Vv'e may have both animals and plants, but in
the abyssal no plants are found except bacteria. The study of
the pelagic and abyssal faunas has been entirely within the last
half century ; in fact the very knowledge of their existence dates
back hardly fifty years.

In the lakes we use a similar set of terms. The regions are
"littoral," "limnetic," and "abvssal." The characteristics of
these regions are somewhat known, but still our knowledge is far
from perfect.

A list of the plants and animals found in any one lake seems
quite formidable because of its length, but the species that are
present in any considerable numbers are very few. From a lim-
netic collection, for instance, we may find in abundance the fol-
lowing: four or five copepods, five or six cladocera, three or
four protozoa, and perhaps two rotifers. This would be a fair
average fauna in one of our lakes. Of the plants, we would find
two or three diatoms and as many alg'^e.

^ot only are the anin^als and plants of neighboring lakes
very much alike, but the same animals may be found distributed
over wide territories, and even over different continents. This
is true even of some of the higher animals of the plankton, like
the crust,acea. Of our fifteen species of Cyclops nine are found

Marsh — The Plankton of Fresh Water Lahes. 169

in Europe. In the case of one species it is not only found in
Europe, but in As 'a and in xVfrica, and literally does not vary
a hair in these widely separated localities. On the other hand,
the genus Diaptomus is very variable. We have not a single
species which is common to the European lakes. Not only that,
but there are many localized species in the United States. One
species occurs, so far as known, only in a few lakes in the north-
ern part of the lower peninsula of Michigan. A second is
widely distributed in all the smaller lakes across the continent
in the northern states. Another goes from the center of Wis-
consin north into the Arctic regions. In the Rocky Mountain
regions are several peculiar species. Through the southern
states two species are found which never come north. Mexico
has at least one peculiar species. Of the other organisms, both
animal and plant, most are world-wide in their distribution.
Erom this fact of the general uniformity of fauna and flora over
wide regions, it is clear that the study of a lake which simply
produces a farmal and floral list is of very little value. There
was a time when such lists were important, before this uniform-
ity of distribution was determined, but that time is long since
past, and those European authors w-ho continue to fill the pro-
ceedings of learned societies with lists resulting from desultory
explorations of one or more lakes are almost wasting printers'
ink.

In the littoral region we find usually an abundantflora. Those
plants which need an anchorage find it in the mud of the bottom,
and the unattached plants are protected by those that are sta-
tionary. Protected by these plants and living upon them is an
abundant fauna in which Crustacea are the most prominent,
although we find great numbers of rhizopods, infusoria, sponges,
hydrozoa, worms, true insects and mites, mollusca and bryozoa.
This abundance of the lower animals forms a rich supply of food
upon which the higher animals can live. It is in this littoral
region that the fish get the most of their food, and every fisher-
man knows that marshy borders are necessary to maintain the
supply of fish. The animals of the littoral plankton are opaque,
and generally are so colored that w^hen they are at rest they are
inconspicuous. Those that swim about and then drop to the hot-

170 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

torn to rest are ordinarily so colored that they are not easily dis-
tinguished from the mud. Frequently in littoral regions the
hottom is covered with a thick mat of Chara, which, in turn,
forms hiding places for enormous numbers of the invertebrates.

The flora of the limnetic region can be, of course, only of
floating plants. Among these are an enormous number of dia-
toms. Chloroplnjceae are present in larger or smaller numbers
and sometimes large numbers of the Cyanophyceae. Generally
speaking, the limnetic flora is not sufficiently abundant to attract
attention, but on some lakes they are sometimes multiplied in
such quantity as not only to attract attention but even to excite
alarm. The surface of the lake has a thick coat of bright green,
and as this is cast up on the shore by the waves it forms
ridges which in their decay become very offensive. This phe-
nomenon has been known in England as ^^the breaking of the
meres," in Germany as the ^'WasserblUthe," and in this country
as the ^'working of the lakes." The appearance is sometimes as-
cribed to the seeds of littoral plants. Only a few species of
plants are concerned in this phenomenon, and the species differ
somewhat in different lakes. Certain diatoms may be present,
too, in sufficient numbers to produce an unpleasant "fishy" smell
in the water. This exaggerated gTOwth of the limnetic flora is
most pronounced in shallow or comparatively shallow lakes, and
is frequently a source of great annoyance to cities which get
their water supplies from such bodies.

The limnetic fauna, as I liave said before in this address, has
but few kinds of animals, by far the most numerous and char-
acteristic being the Crustacea. These are beautiful, transparent,
and nearly colorless creatures. It is not true, as is sometimes
stated, that the limnetic fauna is entirely distinct from the lit-
toral. The general character of the limnetic animals is cer^
tainly different, and distinctly different, from that of those
found in the littoral region, but many individuals are common
to both. It is true, however, that while there is hardly a radical
distinction between the two faunn:^, certain species are common
to the limnetic regions and only rarely found in the littoral,
while some that are everywhere in littoral collections are rarely
found in those taken in the open water. There is, of course, no

Marsh — The Plankton of Fresh Water Lakes. 171

clear dividing line between the two regions, but one insensibly
merges into the other, while, under the influence of the winds
and waves, such limits as exist are continually changing.

In the species of Crustacea there is a certain distinction be-
tween the limnetic fauna of the deeper lakes and that of the
shallower. One species of Diaptornus is found everywhere in
the Great Lakes, but in only three of the Wisconsin lakes —
Lake Geneva, Green Lake, and Cedar Lake. The shallowest of
these lakes — Cedar Lake — is about a hundred feet in depth.
One of the species of Cyclops is very abundant in the Great
Lakes, but is seldom found elsewhere except in comparatively
deep lakes.

In a paper published in the Transactions of the Academy, I
made the suggestion that lakes might be divided according to
their faunse into the deep water and the shallow water, suggest-
ing as a possible limit between the two 40 meters. I have since
found that Elkhart Lake, 117 feet, and Cedar Lake, 95 feet,
have many characteristics of the deep water fauna, and it is pos-
sible that the dividing: line should be nearer 30 meters than 40.
The German authors make a distinction between "plankton-
poor'^ and "plankton-rich" lakes, which very nearly corresponds
to my deep-water and shallow-water lakes ; for the total amount
of plankton in the deep lakes is very much less than in the shal-
low lakes. This is easily explained. For the number of ani-
mals is, of course, dependent on the number of plants. Inas-
much as plants are dependent upon sunshine, they will grow in
water only in those places that are reached by the sun's light.
As the light of the sun penetrates in deep w^ater only to a lim-
ited distance, the deeper parts of our lakes are entirely devoid
of plant life. On the other hand in shallow lakes not only do we
find the floating vegetation as in the deep lakes, but as the light
reaches the bottom over a larger proportion of its surface, we
have in addition a very large flora flourishing on the bottom.
In some of the very shallow lakes nearly the whole bottom is
covered with a rank vegetation. This is true, for instance, of
Lake Vieux Desert. In Green Lake, on the other hand, inas-
much as the shores are somewhat precipitous, there is only a
comparatively narrow margin on which can be supported a flora

172 Wisconsi7i Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

growing upon the bottom, Avhile the larger part of the lake is so
deep that only the floating vegetation can exist. It is easily
seen, then, that a shallow lake wdll be "'^plankton-rich'' as com-
pared with a deep lake. Fishermen recognize this fact, and ex-
pect the shallow lakes to be better for their sport.

It is evident, then, that the living limnetic vegetation must
be at or near the surface, where it can have an abundance of
light. Animal life, h&w^ever, is not limited in this way. It was
long ago shown that in the sea there was an abundant surface
fauna and an abyssal fauna, but in regard to the condition of
the intermediate region there has been some dispute. Agassiz
has claimed that there is a region intermediate betw^een the top
and bottom, which is entirely devoid of life. This has been dis-
puted by some authors, and late explorations seem to indicate
that no region between the surface and bottom is entirely free
from animals. A similar condition exists in the lakes. By far
the most abundant fauna is at and near the surface, but animals
are found in greater or less numbers at all depths. The larger
part of the plankton is found within thirty or forty feet of the
surface ; but the same kinds of animals that form the fauna of
the upper waters may be found at all depths, altliough in small
numbers. Limnocalanus is an example of an animal which be-
longs to the intermediate regions. It, too, may be*found in small
numbers at anv depth from the surface dov\Ti, but it seldom
occurs in any considerable numbers outside the intermediate
region.

Limnocalanus and Daplmia pulicaria are perhaps the only
animals in fresh v/ater which belong distinctly to the zonary
plankton, although Cyclops hrevispinosus is much more abun-
dant between five and twenty meters than it is near the surface.

Collectors of plankton m.aterial have known that they could
ordinarily make much more abundant collections at night than
in the daytime. This has led to a belief that there is a verti-
cal migration of the plankton, tow^ards the surface at night, and
away from it in the daytime. It was supposed that the whole
body of the plankton moved up and down. This idea has been
proved to be false. What movement there is is within quite nar-
row limits near the surface, and all members of the limnetic

Marsh — The Planhton of Fresh Water Lakes. 173

fauna do not, by any means, behave in tbe same way. They
have most decided individual peculiarities, so that we cannot
speak of the movements of the fauna as a whole, but each species
must be considered by itself. Some of them do not move at all
vertically, but have the sam.e distribution from one end of the
day to the other. Others, like the larval forms of the copepods,
are more numerous at the surface in the daytime than in the
night. Some have a very pronounced migration. This is par-
ticularly true of Leptodora which is rarely found at the surface
in the daytime, but appears at almost exactly forty-five minutes
after sunset, remains at the surface during the night, and dis-
appears again at just three-quarters of an hour before sunrise.

Most of the larger Crustacea which form the great body of the
plankton do migrate in this way, and it was natural, perhaps,
to infer that the whole plankton moved up and down.

The limits of this vertical mi^rration it is verv difficult if not
impossible to fix. Most of the movement is within one meter
of the surface, the most marked changes being within one-half
meter of the surface, and below three meters the amount of
movement is very slight. Eight determining factors have been
listed by Professor Birge as controlling the vertical distribution
of Crustacea: food, temperature, condition of the water in re-
spect to dissolved oxygen and other substances, light, wind,
gravity, age and specific peculiarities. Of these factors, by far
the most important are food, temperature and light. Inasmuch
as the food supply is controlled by temperature and light, we
may speak of these two factors as, in the main, controlling tho
vertical distribution of the limnetic plankton. Of these two
factors, temperature is the most important, although light has
a marked effect on many species. In the winter season when the
waters of all the lakes are very nearly uniform in their tempera-
ture from top to bottom, the vertical distribution of the lim-
netic fauna is much more uniform than in summer.

In the smnm.er season the most marked changes in vertical
distribution are correlated with the vertical changes in tempera-
ture. This is most distinctly seen in the deeper lakes. In these
lakes it is a surface layer of greater or less depth w^hich is
warmed, the deeper layers feeling the effect of the summer's

174 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

sun only very slightly. In Green Lake below 40 or 45 meters
the temperature never rises above 6.11 degrees Centigrade,
although the surface may run as high as 26.67 degrees C. In
Lake Michigan the bottom temperature at depths of 360 feet is
4.2 degrees C, v^^ith a surface temperature of 18.3 C.

The change in the temperature from the top to the bottom is
not a gradually decreasing one, however. A layer of water at
the surface, which may be in midsummer some ten or twelve
meters in depth, is very nearly uniform in temperature. From
the lower surface of this layer there is a very rapid decrease in
temperature for a short distance, and then a gradual decrease
until a minimum is reached. This layer of sudden change in
temperature is known as the ^^thermocline," and its position
varies in depth with the season and the size of the lake. As the
summer season progresses the thermocline grows lower. In the
very shallow lakes the temperature during the summer season
is nearly uniform through the whole depth. In Lake Winne-
bago, for example,- there is seldom a difference between top and!
bottom temperatures greater than two degrees. In small lakes
the thermocline is considerably higher than in large lakes. This
is doubtless due to the influence of the winds, by which the small
lake is less affected. This was very prettily illustrated in a com-
parison of the V/aupaca lakes with Cedar Lake ancT Green Lake
about August 1st of this last summer. In three of the Waupaca
lakes — Rainbow, McCrossen and Beasley's, of which Hainbow
is the largest and Beasley's the smallest, the thermocline was re-
spectively at six meters, five meters and three meters. At the
same time the thermocline of Cedar Lake was at eight meters,
and the thermocline of Green Lake at eleven meters.

The vertical distribution of the plankton has a very close re-
lation to the thermocline, most of the animals being above it.
Limnocalanus, DapJinia longireniis and Daphnia pulicaHa,
however, are found below the thermoeline, and in some plankton-
poor lakes the proportion of the other organisms below the ther-
mocline is much larger.

It is evident that the circulation of the water is in the layer
above the thermocline, and that below the thermocline there is
insufficient oxygenation, and that this bottom layer must, too,

Marsh — The Flanklon of Fresh Water Lalces. 175

hold a great deal of the dead and decaying material falling from
the upper layers. It is a curious fact, first pointed out, I think,
by Whipple, that, the bottom waters of deep lakes are stagnant
during both winter and summer, but have a period of overturn-
ing in spring and fall. This overturning may come with con-
siderable suddenness when the waters have not been much agi-
tated by the winds. We ordinarily think that water is so mobile
that the heavier portions will immediately sink, and thus the
water of greater density will always be at the bottom. It may
happen, how^ever, as in the fall, that the upper waters will cool
off, and yet retain their position, so that the lighter water will
actually be below. The lake is in a condition of unstable equili-
brium. If, under these circumstances, there comes a heavy
wind, the whole body of water will overturn.

It is at these two periods of overturning, as shown by Whip-
ple, tliat the growth of diatoms is especially pronounced, and
they are found present in enormous numbers in the limnetic
plankton. The great growth of diatoms is explained in the fol-
lowing way : during the periods of stagnation diatoms or their
spores, if diatom spores exist, accumulate at the bottom of the
lake, inasmuch as their specific gravity is greater than that of
water. They do not grow there, because sunlight is essential to
their growth. At the bottom is accumulating during this period,
too, a large amount of organic matter from the decay of organ-
isms near the surface, and this, under the influence of bacteria,
is transformed into material fitted for food for the diatoms: in
this food material the nitrates are perhaps the most important
When the time of overturning comes, the diatoms or their spores
rise to the surface, accompanied by these dissolved organic ma-
terials, and, under the influence of sunlight, an exceedingly
rapid multiplication takes place. As the food materials are used
up the numbers of diatoms decrease again. Other organisms,
of course, show the efl^ect of the overturning of the water, for
many are directly or indirectly dependent upon the diatoms for
food, and, besides, diatoms are not the only organisms which
can make use of the food materials which are thus brought to
the surface. Diaptormis, Epischura, Limnocalanus and two
species of Cyclops show quite clearly these two periods of rapid

176 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

production, although in some of these cases the results are com-
plicated by the fact that the temperature of the surface water
has a direct effect on the reproduction.

The matter of the annual distribution of the organisms of the
plankton is a very interesting question, but is also a very compli-
cated one. As has iust been stated, certain of the diatoms have
a distinct spring and fall maximum, and there are other organ-
isms which, because of their dependence upon the diatoms, have
similar periods of maximum gTowth. But there are other
causes at work which control the growth of individual organ-
isms, so that tlieir optimum periods may come at very different
times of the year.

Generally speaking it is probably true that the largest amount
of plankton occurs in midsummer, although Yung says that the
maximum development of plankton in Lake Leman is in May
or June, and that the minimum is in March and September..
Zacharias states that the maximum period for Lake Plon is
about August 1st. Measurements of a large number of collec-
tions from various lakes in Wisconsin indicate that the maxi-
mum of plankton occurs in these lakes in the latter part of July.
There may, however, be marked exceptions to this general state-
ment. For example, I have found in Green Lake a development
of diatoms in midwinter so enormous as to make the total plank-
ton even greater than in summer. The exact period of maxi-
mum development mav varv from vear to vear, and in different
lakes, because of varying local conditions. The reason for this
July maximum seems to be both because a considerable number
of organisms have their highest development, and because there
is a greater variety of forms at this time than at any other time
of the year. This is undoubtedly because of the peculiarly
favoring conditions of temperature. It is this time of the year
that seems to be especially favorable to the growth of the algai.
The "water-bloom'' may appear in June and remains sometimes
until into September, but it is in July and August that it is
present in the greatest quantity. This summer, on Lake Win-
nebago, it was most abundant during tlie latter half of August.

The minimum of plankton development is in the winter
months, especially in January and February. At no time of

Marsh — The Planhton of Fresh Water Lakes. 177

the year, however, are either plant or animal forms wanting,
and collections made through the ice will give a considerable
variety of kinds, as well as numbers of individuals.

It will be noticed that the period of maximum plankton de-
velopment corresponds to the time of highest temperature of
the water, and that tlie period of minimum development corre-
sponds to the time of lowest temperature, so that we can be cer-
tain that the one important controlling factor in the growth of
plankton is the temperature.

Henscn and his co-laborers who worked out a very elaborate
system of measuring the plankton of the sea claimed that the dis-
tribution of the plankton over wide stretches of the sea was
nearly uniform. Granting this to be true, it evidently is pos-
sible by a series of collections and measurements to compare dif-
ferent parts of tlie ocean in regard to their productiveness in
animal and plant life. This conclusion, that the horizontal
plankton of the sea has a practically uniform distribution, has
been accepted by the majority of scientists, although vigorously
combated bv Hackel.

Apsteiu has applied the sam.e methods to the examination of
lakes, and has concluded from his investigations that the plank-
ton of lakes is uniformly distributed. It is easily seen that there
is very good reason for assuming this to be the case from the
actual conditions under which the plankton exists. The plank-
ton consists of organisms that do not move voluntarily from
place to place, and therefore do not change their positions. They
are dependent upon heat and light for their development, so that
their groui:h is mainly within forty feet of the surface ; conse-
quently a depth exceeding this would not mean any greater pro-
duction of plankton — or in other words, the amount of plankton
depends not upon depth, but upon surface.

This is a most important conclusion, if true, for it gives us
an exact method by ^^iiich we can compare one lake with another
and determine their relative productiveness, or from a series of
collections, determine the absolute annual productiveness of any
body of water. Such determinations would have an important
commercial value, for by them could be estimated the possibil-
ities of fish production in a lake. The method was worked out
12

178 ^yisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters,

in detail and very elaborately by Henisen. The collection was-
made by a conical net of bolting silk drawn vertically through
the water, thus straining out the organisms of a column of water
of the size of the opening of the net. Then the material was
counted under the compound microscope by a very laborious
process. In this way exact numerical values can be obtained
not only for the plankton as a whole, but for the individual con-
stituents. Most investigators use Hensen's methods with
greater or less modifications, and they have been productive of
very fruitful results. But, unfortunately — I say unfortunately,
because we all like to claim exact results, and are prone to think
that nature works according to certain inflexible laws — much of
the laborious detail of the work is a waste of time.

The question of the uniformity of horizontal distribution has
been discussed by various authors and with considerable vigor,
but I think it must now be acknowledged, that while there is a
certain amount of uniformity, so that, by a considerable num-
ber of collections, we can express within rather wide limits the
amount of plankton at any time on a lake, uniformity in any
exact sense does not exist. This lack of uniformity is largely
due to a difference in the number of Crustacea, although there
are marked differences in the distribution of the Other organ-
isms. Surface growing plants, for instance, are moved about
under the influence of the winds, and accumulate on the lee-
ward side of a lake. If one part of a lake is deeper than
another and the lake is not much disturbed by the winds, at the
period of maximum growth the number of diatoms will be much
greater over the deeper part. Crustacea may be in ill-defined
aggregations which may be called swarms, and these swarms are
not stationary in all cases, but move slowly, perhaps under the
influence of extremely weak currents. Xot only is there a con-
siderable variation in collections made at different locations on
a lake at the same time, but if a series of collections is made at
the same place, the amount of the plankton in some collections
may be twice as much as in others. An examination will show
that these large variations are generally due to a difference in
the numbers of some of the Crustacea, showing conclusively that
not only do the numbers of Crustacea vary at different locations,

Marsh — The Planhton of Fresh Water LaJces. 179

but that these swarms are not stationary. It follows, then, that
conclusions in regard to the plankton drawn from a few collec-
tions may be quite erroneous. If, how^ever, a considerable num-
ber of collections is made, especially if they are made from
widely-separated localities, the average of all these collections,
allowing something of a margin for error, will give a fair idea
of the amount of plankton in a lake. Of course, the larger the
number of collections the less the amount of error, but anything
like very exact results cannot be expected. We are able, in this
way, to compare the plankton of one lake with that of another,
or to determine the relative amount of plankton at different
times of the year on any single lake. But an}^ estimate of the
actual amount of plankton produced by a lake at any time or dur-
ing the year must be acknowledged to be only an approximation.
Care must be taken, too, in comparing one lake with another,
that they be compared under similar conditions. The maximum
of one lake may not be reached at the same period as that of an-
other. The conditions of a deep lake are very different from
those of a shallow lake, and a fair comparison can be made only
by averaging collections continuing over a considerable period.

In the abyssal region, because of the lack of light, plant life
is impossible, and the fauna is very meager.

It is true that the list of animals which have been found in the
abyssal regions of lakes is a long one, including, as it does, pro-
tozoa, coelenterata, worms, molluscs, bryozoa, Crustacea, arach-
nida, insect larvae, and some few fish, but an examination of
any single lake shows that not only is the numl^er of kinds
small, but the numbers of individuals of any kind are very
small. In Europe the abyssal fauna of Lake Leman has been
Tvorked up with great thoroughness. In this country verj little
detailed work has been done on this subject. It is not a fruitful
field for research, and it is not strange that it has been neglected.
In shallow lakes it is doubtful if there is any distinctive abyssal
fauna. The most abundant animals in the mud of the bottom
are worms, insect larvae, gasteropod and lamellibranch molluscs,
and amphipods. With these may be associated at times great
numbers of other animals, as occasionally one finds in the mud
of shallow lakes large numbers of fresh- water hydra. Most if

180 Wisco7isin Academy of Sciences, Avis, and Letters.

not all of these animals are identical with the littoral forms, and
the difference between the littoral fauna and the deep-water
fauna is that in the deep water those forms which are especially
dependent upon the weeds for food and protection are lacking,
while we find in abundance the mud dwellers.

In the abyssal regions of deep lakes, however, we find forms
which are characteristic of those regions, although they may be
mingled y^'ith others that are also found in the littoral region.
In the abyssal recrion of Green Lake, which may be considered
the typical deep-water lake of Wisconsin, are found, besides
some undetermined worms, a little lamellibranch, Pisidium, os-
tracods, amphipods, insect laryie and Mysis. There are some
protozoa in the mud, but they have not been studied. The os-
tracods are so numerous that their shells form a conspicuous part
of the bottom deposit.

In the smaller lakes of a depth ranging from GO to 100 feet,
like the Waupaca lakes and Elkhart, a different condition of
things exists. The bottom is composed of a dark mud, and is
almost completely devoid of life. This has been a puzzling fact,
and has been to me personally a matter of considerable disap-
pointment because of my interest in abyssal animals. The prob-
able explanation seems to be that these depths are rendered unfit
for life by reason of the more complete stagnation of the deep
water in sm^all lakes, and because of the larger amount of
organic matter which is being decomposed there. Because of
the small areas of such lakes, leaves are carried from the shore
all over their surfaces, and, sinking to the bottom, increase
largely the amount of decaying organic matter. Partly decom-
posed leaves are common in the bottom collections of small lakes
but rare in lakes of the size of Green Lake or Lake Geneva. This
may account largely for the black color of the bottom mud.
Then, in a large lake, the winds indirectly produce slow bot-
tom currents. A prevailing wind will pile up the water at the
end of a lake ; this water must return in some way, and there
is good reason to think that at least a part of it returns by a slow
bottom current. Professor Birge tells me that his temperature
observations give evidence of such a movement of the water. It
follows, probably that in the large lake there is not nerfect stag-

Marsh — The Plankton of Fresh Water Lakes. 181

nation, and lience the conditions of the bottom are more favor-
able for animals than in a small lake. The larger the lake, then,
other conditions being eqnal, the greater would be the abundance
of abyssal life. While there have been no accurate means of
comparing the abyssal fauna of the Great Lakes with that of the
smaller lakes as to quantit}^, such collections as have been made
would indicate that it is much greater in the Great Lakes, and
decreases in proportion to the degree of stagnation. If my ex-
planation proves to be the correct one, as I feel quite certain it
will, it will follow that the small deep lake will be limited in its
fauna in two ways : because of its steep shores it will have a
small littoral fauna and flora, and because of its stagnant deep
water it will have little or no abyssal fauna.

I have thus far spoken as though all lakes had the three
f aunse : littoral, limnetic, and abyssal. Generally speaking this
is true, even small bodies of water showing this distinction. But
occasionally the distinction is almost lost. This is true in Lake
AVinnebago. In spite of its great size — the lake is some twenty-
eight miles long by ten or twelve broad at its greatest width — •
it is only about twenty-five feet deep. In its fauna there is a
curious mingling of littoral and limnetic forms, littoral forms
being found in the open lake, and limnetic forms even among
the weeds along shore. The exj)lanation seems to be this: be-
cause of its slight depth the environment, even far from shore,
is favorable to the growth of littoral fonns. Then there is a'ood
reason for thinking that the w^inds have a profound effect on its
waters, thus thoroughly mixing limnetic and littoral waters, and
consequently causing a similar mingling of the organisms. Lake
Winnebago has the characteristics, in many respects, of an enor-
mously overgrov.m puddle. I do not say this, however, to show
a lack of respect for this lake, for from a practical standpoint
it is a most valuable possession to the state. It can support, and
does support, an enormous number of fish. Few lakes can com-
pare wnth it in productiveness.

All the inhabitants of fresh water are, of course, descendants
of marine forms. In some cases the modifications have been
very great bur in others they are hardly to be distinguished
from their salt-water relatives. This is true, as has already been

182 'Wisco7ism Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

stated, of some of the Crustacea : in some of these it is difficult
to make a specific distinction between the fresh-water and
marine forms. Most of the environmental conditions in fresh
water are so different, however, from those in the sea, that we
should expect a fauna to develop itself which would differ
widelv from its ancestors.

It will be noticed that the most pronounced likeness to marine
animals, perhaps, is found in the abyssal forms. So far as this
is true, it mav be explained, I think, bv the uniformity of condi-
tions existing in the depths of lakes. The temperature varies
but a few degrees from one end of the year to another, and such
currents as exist are slow and almost imperceptible. The abyssal
fauna of a lake is subject to nearly the same conditions as that
of the sea, except for the difference in the composition of the
water. If, as has been supposed, the deep-water fauna of the
Scandinavian lakes is descended directly from the deep-water
fauna of the sea, coming from the sea into lakes having a com-
munication with salt water, and surviving there after the lakes
were cut off from tlie sea, and tlioir waters had become fresh,
we can see how the animals could gradually adapt themselves
to their surroundings, inasmucli as the conditions o:^ light, tem-
perature, and food supply would remain with very little change.

With the limnetic and littoral fauna, however, a very differ-
ent condition exists. In our climate the temperature of the sur-
face varies during the year from the freezing point to ei^rhty
degrees or more Fahrenheit. In shallow lakes, not only is there
this variation of the surface, but the lake mav be frozen to the
bottom in winter, so that all forms which can not go into a rest-
ing stage of some kind are destroyed. The conditions of life are
hard, and especial fitness is required in order to make survival
possible. In the sea, on the other hand, the conditions even of
the littoral and pelagic fauna and flora are much more uniform.
It is not strange that the fresh water animals and plants are of
few kinds, and that generally they are very different from those
of the sea. It is perhaps more strange that so many resem-
blances remain, and that the forms are so varied as they are.

To trace out the connection of the individual forms with their
marine ancestors is, of course, the work of the specialist in zool-

Marsh — The Planl-lon of Fresh Water Lahes. 183

ogy and botany. It may be noticed, however, tliat the present
popuhition of our lakes has come since the glacial period, in fact
the lakes themselves only date from that period. So far, then,
as the fauna and flora pass from one body of water directly to
another, we may assume that the present animals and plants
are descended from those that were pushed south by the ice, and
that as the ice retreated they followed again towards the north.

Currents carry organisms from one part of a lake to another,
and from one lake to another by connecting streams : in this way
animals or plants introduced at the source of a river may be car-
ried through its whole length.

From lake to lake, too, seeds, eggs, and living animals are car-
ried by water fowl attached to their feathers or in the mud upon
their feet. This is not simply from one lake to its neighbor, but
many of these birds take long flights before alighting, so that
the organisms are scattered over a wide stretch of territory. It
is in this way, probably, that we can account for the uniformity
in the fauna and flora of the lakes and the wide distribution of
some of the forms. Where conditions are similar, then, we may
expect likeness in the fauna and flora. As we have seen already,
temperature is the great controlling factor in distribution, so
that in lakes of the same latitude or the same elevation, other
conditions being equal, of which the principal is depth, we may
expect close similarity in fauna and flora.

We may assume, then, that the littoral fauna and flora have
had their origin from neighboring bodies of water, and that as
the ice retreated, the lakes were populated, partly by direct mi-
gration between contiguous bodies of water, and partly by the
aid of the winds, currents, and water fowl. The limnetic fauna
and flora is descended either from littoral forms which have
gradually adapted themselves to limnetic conditions, or from
pelagic forms, which, in bays where the water was less salt or
brackish, have become adapted to the conditions of fresh water,
and have been distributed by the same agencies as the littoral
forms.

Part of the abyssal fauna is descended from marine forms
directly, as in the "fauna relicta" of the Scandinavian lakes, and
in the case of some of the animals in our Great Lakes. Another

184 Wisco7isin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

part of the abyssal fauna is descended from littoral forms which
have gradually moved into deep water, and have been modified
to suit their new environment. All the abyssal fauna of the
Swiss lakes is supposed to be of this character.

What I have said thus far applies almost exclusively to lakes
of the temperate zones, for it is there that lakes exist in the
greatest numbers, and it is upon such lakes that most of the
work of investigation has been done. But there are lakes in
warmer climates, and we may expect that a thorough study of
them will give us much that is new and interesting. A striking
example of the extraordinary interest that may be attached to
such lakes as Lake Tanganyika in Africa. Some years ago it
was reported that a jelly fish was abundant in its waters. This
excited the curiosity of zoologists, for the medusa is a marine
form, and very rarely is found in fresh water, the most noted
case being of the one found in the basin in Kegent's Park, which
is supposed to have been brought with plants from some tropical
country. The medusa of Tanganyika is one of four jelly fish
known to live in fresh water, and the other examples are very
rare. A special expedition was organized to make an explora-
tion of Lake Tanganyika, and although this work was very im-
perfectly done, the results appear to be of great interest. Along
with the ordinarv lacustrine fresh-water fauna there is a fauna
of marine origin, but this marine fauna is not closely related to
modern forms. It does, apparently, closely resemble Jurassic
forms. Indeed, it is said that were some of the forms referred
to a paleontologist, he would not hesitate to say that they be-
longed to Jurassic times. Have we here, then, a "fauna relicta"
which dates back to Jurassic times ? It is too early to answer
this question with any certainty, both because of our imperfect
knowledge of the fauna of Lake Tanganyika, and because of our
great ignorance of the geology of that part of Africa. But the
mere possibility that this may be true is startling, and should
incite scientists to a thorough study of the fauna and flora of
Lake Tanganyika and the other lakes of Central Africa. So far
as explorations have gone this "halolimnic" fauna as it has been
named, is peculiar to Lake Tanganyika, but we may expect to
find more or less of it in other lakes.

Harsh — The Planlion of Fresh Water Lahes, 185

A few words in regard to the work on plankton which remains
for the future investigator. It will, I think, be evident, that so
far as exact and comprehensive knowledge is concerned, v\^e have
but entered a vast field. We know so little, that we can say
that we are just beginning to place limits on our ignorance.

A svstematic knowled2;e of the fauna and fiora is a first and
fundaniental condition of comparative biological work. We
need accessible manuals by which the animals and plants dealt
with can be identified. Systematic work may not be the highest
or the most satisfying to the investigator, but it is very neces-
sary. The plankton student is met, at the very beginning of
his work, with a difficulty that is almost a complete block to
further progress ; although the number of forms with which he
has to deal in his plankton work may be very few, he has to have
the knowledge of a specialist in each group in order to identify
them. If a laboratory has a company of specialists, the material
is quickly identified by passing from one to another. But if the
investigator is by himself, he finds himself in a most discourag-
ing situation. The literature of the various groups is scattered
and fragmentary, and frequently is utterly useless to any one
but a specialist. There is need of a manual, or rather a series
of manuals, that shall so treat of the fresh water fauna and flora,
that any well-trained biologist shall have no difficulty in identi-
fying his material outside of the group which he may have made
his special study.

It seems to me that we have nearlv reached the time when the
publication of such a manual should be possible. Most of the
preliminary vrork has been done. More, perhaps, remains to
be done on the botanical side than on the side of zoology, for the
exact study of the lower aquatic flora has been much neglected.
I hope that the time is not far distant vchen we may have such
a manual produced in this country, with the cooperation of our
best specialists. Nothing would do more to further the study of
plankton, for it would furnish the student with a tool of ines-
timable value.

In reficard to the planlvton itself, verv little is reallv known
of the abvssal fauna and its controllins: conditions. I have
spoken of the fouling of the water at the periods of stagnation,

186 Wisco7ism Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

but our knowledge of the conditions of tlie water at those times
is very imperfect. There should be a systematic examination,
by chemical analysis, of the water and its contained gases, and
of the mud of the bottom, and an exact comparison should be
made between the lakes with sterile bottom waters and those with
comparatively abundant faima. In connection with this should
be a studv of the currents of the abvssal region. A more careful
and thorough examination should be made of those lakes whose
geological history indicates that they were formerly connected
with the sea, and may contain a ^^fauna relicta." I may say that
it is not likely that such explorations will yield any startling re-
sults. The time for that is probably past, and the lake student
of the future must content himself with hard work, without the
satisfaction of brilliant discoveries.

Our quantitative knowledge of plankton is only a beginning.
We know something of the conditions on a few lakes, but only
on a few, and we do not know what variations may be caused by
the peculiarities of individual lakes. Even in the same lake the
conditions may change from year to year, and in only a few in-
stances have observations continued through a series of years.
We are all prone to generalize on the facts in our hands, but it
must be acknowledged that the facts upon which we can build
theories of fresh-water plankton are very meager. There is
need of a series of examinations of typical lakes carried on for
a term of vears, before we can build with certaintv.

There remains the great problem, or complex of problems,
of the relation of the different elements of the plankton to each
other and to fish. We see, frequently, an apparent overproduc-
tion of one of the elements. In shallow lakes — at least in many
of them — there is apparently a great overproduction of vegeta-
tion. How is this explained ? How is the balance of life re-
stored ? What constitutes an ideal relation betw^een the vege-
table and animal growth ? When we plant a new species of fish
in a lake, we, of course, disturb the existing balance of organ-
isms ; may we not, in some cases, at least, work actual damage ?
To what extent is this balance betw'een animals and plants main-
tained in a lake that is not interfered with by man ?

These and similar questions, now without answers, offer a

Marsh — The PlanMon of Fresh Water Lakes. 187

field of almost unlimited work, and work that is worthy the best
efforts of our students. For while my address, in treating of
the present condition of the study of lakes, has dealt largely with
isolated facts, after all it is not the facts which the student pur-
sues as his ultimate aim, but the general laws underlying the
facts. He is an unfortunate man who sees the trees, but cannot
perceive the forest, who can see the stones of which the cathedral
is constructed, and show^ liow^ they \veve lifted to their places,
but cannot perceive the beauty of the structure as it stands in
its exquisite proportions, its massive masonry and w^ealth of
sculptured detail only serving to express the idea of beauty and
harmony in the master mind of the architect.
Rip on, Wisconsin,

AN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL STUDY OF THE LEAD
REGION IN IOWA, ILLINOIS, AND WISCONSIN.

BY O. G. LIBEY, PH. D.,
Instructor in History, University of Wisconsin.

F. BELI.E STANTOX, B. L., BERNARD H. PALMER, B. E., AXD

ALLARD J. SMITH, B. L.

i:N^TKODUCTIO:Nr.

In the summer of 1898 the Wisconsin Historical Society held
a meeting on one of the days dnring which Avas celebrated the
semi-centennial of the state, and at this meeting several papers
were read, representing in a certain local fashion the different
sections of our state. It was my good fortune to be assigned to
the section of the south-west, and the new material discovered
during the preparatory investigation was sufficiently valuable
to arouse curiosity and stimulate further and more exhaustive
treatment. Some of the results of this study of local conditions
in the lead region of the states of Iowa, Illinois and Wisconsin
are herewith presented. The region chosen is one peculiarly
fitted for study of this kind. Several important social and eco-
nomic transformations have taken place during its history,
transformations that overlaid rather than obliterated the older
conditions of population, industry and wealth, so that each
epoch can be studied just as certainly as can the geological
periods for the same area.

The ultimate purpose of this species of investigation is first to
arrive at a completer knowledge of the history of the towns and
counties in the state than is now possible from the perusal of
the trash that has been printed under the title of county his-
tories. Secondlv, the aim is to examine the available census

Lihhy — Study of Lead liegion: Introduction. 189

reports and other public documents in order to obtain correct
and adequate statistical information as to the development of
the given area under study. These figures should show not only
the numbers but the wealth, occupation and nativity of the pop-
ulation. Besides this, there should be some accurate showing
of the direction and intensity of the whole industrial develop-
ment of the section. This should also be accompanied by a
careful geological and topographical study of the given area, as
well as an account of its natural resources. Thirdly, it is de-
sired by this study to so relate the political with the social and
economic life that they shall mutually explain and account for
each other. The statement of the problems of these two phases
of life will thus reciprocally assist in their joint solution, where
it is not possible to otherwise reach a satisfactory solution. Such
is the aim of the investigation, the first fruits of which appear
in the following pages. The plan can hardly be said to lack
comprehensiveness, and it certainly entails an amount of careful
and laborious collection and arrangement of material that can
be appreciated only by those who have attempted similar pieces
of work. Moreover, so extensive a study necessitates the co-
operative labor of a large number of students for a considerable
length of time. But this is a positive advantage, since it more
widely diffuses the true historical spirit and makes its methods
better understood among those who are capable of doing good
work under the stimulus of the example and direction of those
who have done most in these lines. There is also an added ad-
vantage in the organic nature of the work proposed ; it is evolu-
tionarv in the best sense. There are no theories of state sov-
ereignty or constitutional rights of man or nations to exploit or
defend. 'No favoritism for section, or belief in national destinv
or the over-mastering importance of a few great men is here al-
lowed to warp the judgment or anticipate the conclusion.
There is first the laying of a simple statistical foundation for
later work. This is followed by carefully drawn conclusions,
based wholly on the mass of accumulated evidence, conclusions
drawn from many different sources and mutually checking each
other so that all merely local elements are eliminated and the
general truths emerge. To thus follow the development of a
section into all the ramifications of its many local phases, never

190 Wisconsiji Academy of Sciences^ Aris, and Letters.

losing hold of the important elements in the social, economic
and political life, is a task requiring quite a different calibre
of mind from that necessary to produce the average county his-
tory in any of our states.

It is not too much to say that it is time to stop writing Amer-
can history in the large until we have more of it in the little.
We show our national fault very conspicuously by our haste to
erect stately works on foundations too often shaky and unsafe.
It is fatally easy to generalize, especially for a popular and suc-
cessful lecturer who has been accustomed to play the dictator to
a small coterie of devoted followers. Such a habit of facile
generalization may result in the production of popular histories,
but it has never yet given birth to authoritative ones. Be that
as it may, local history as a preparation for general history is
coming into favor again. The economists, and especially the
newer sociologists, are demanding more facts, at no matter what
cost. They have found out the defect in our present historical
methods. They know from bitter experience how unsatisfac-
tory, superficial, and inaccurate is much of our American his-
torv. It is for us historians to face this serious condition of
things and bestir ourselves to retrie\^e what we are daily losing.
The method here outlined is only one of many that will ulti-
mately be worked out, but they all are fundamentally alike in
the emphasis laid upon the value of local material, records of
the family, of the town, the parish or county. Until there is
some systematic, methodical attempt made at unearthing this
undiscovered wealth, it will be in vain to expect accurate or
scientific histories of our nation or of any part of it. If we
historians ever succeed in demonstrating to our friends in po-
litical science, economics and sociology that we represent a dis-
tinct science, it will be only after we have shown our willing-
ness to make intelligent use of that almost unworked stratum
of the historical field which is usually termed local records.

The successive chapters that follow are mainly the results of
seminary work during the year 1898-9. The students, under
whose names most of this material is published, did the work
under my direction as senior theses.

O. G. LiBBY.

University of Wisconsin, September 13, 1900.

Libhy — The Lead Region of ^Visconsin. 191

CHAPTER I.

THE LEAD EEGIOX OF GRANT, IOWA, AND
LAFAYETTE COUNTIES IN WISCONSIN.

BY O. G. LIBBY, PH. D.

Two capital events bridge tlie gap between the primitive his-
tory of the lead region in Wisconsin and that of the present time.
These are the discovery of lead in the first qnarter of the century
and the Black Hawk War of 1831. The opening of productive
lead fields in this section caused such a deflection of population
into that quarter of the north-west that its future was assured.
The military operations of the Black Hawk War, besides remov-
ing the barrier of the hostile tribes, did the same service for this
region that General Sullivan's march in 1779 against the In-
dians of western New York did for the new lands of that section.
The consequence was that by the time the battle of Bad Ax had
put an end to the brief war, the rich lands of this area were quite
as well known as its lead mines, and its industrial development
moved forward without further interruption.

In its early years the life of the lead region of Wisconsin was
closely linked with that of the South, from the fact that the Mis-
sissippi River was its one highway leading to the outside world.
Southern newspapers were quoted by the local press, slavery was
a state institution of early times, the whole social and intellec-
tual tone of the section received an unmistakable Southern tinge.
But this was soon changed, for the long and dangerous Missis-
sippi route did not harmonize with the vigorous growth of the
section.

As early as 1836 the most valuable of its products, lead, be-
gan to find its way across the state to Milwaukee and other lake
ports, seeking an outlet to the New York markets by this
shorter overland route. The rapidly increasing agricultural
products followed, broadening and deepening this pioneer path
to the east. Says a writer in the Wisconsin Llerald in 1848:

192 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

"It is evident our state lias readied a crisis. We need annexa-
tion to the lakes ; some access to the markets of the great world.
When and through what avenue is light from Lake ]*>Iichigan
to break in upon us ?" ^ The response to this demand was the
magnificent net work of railroads, centering at Chicago and
ramifying through the whole jN'orthwest. The lead and shot
trade tapped that great stream of emigration that was flowing
westward by the Erie Canal through Michigan. This section
was thus enabled to profit by the great influx of Xew England
and jSTew York settlers to people its untilled lands. Thus in
Wisconsin the two almost antagonistic sections, the Mississippi
and the Lake sections were completely united by 1850. The
later union of the western section with the east bv means of rail-
roads, ushers in the last step in the development of the state.

We may now pass to the discussion of the lead-producing and
non-lead-producing groups of towns in the counties of Grant,
Iowa, and Lafayette. In the accompanying map those portions
of the toAvns that are shaded show the location of sections in
which lead mining was an important industry by 1840. These
towns are considered as belonging to the Lead Group or Group I,
and are as follows. For Grant Countv: Beetown, Clifton,
Platteville and Potosi ; for Iowa County : Dodgeville, High-
land, Linden, Mifflin, ]\rineral Point and Ridgeway; for La-
fayette County: Benton, iSTew Diggings, Shullsburg and White-
Oak Springs. All the remaining to\\Tis in the three counties,
those having no shaded sections, belong to the !N'on-Lead Group
or Group II. In many of these towns there were lead mines
but the area of the lead producing sections was much smaller in
proportion to the total area of the town than in the case of the
towns in Group I.

Taking up the subject of population first it will be seen from
the table below that Group I has a population per square mile
which, though showing considerable variation, tends to steadily
decrease. On the other hand, for Group II just the opposite is
true. Thus while the first group attains a maximum density of
population of 41.9 per square mile in 1870 and declines there-
after until 1890, the second group reaches a maximum of 30.4

1 J. T. M. in Wisconsin Herald, Juae 10, 184S. [Wis. Hist. CoU., XIII., 327.]

<

c/}

'Lihhy — The Lead Region of Wisconsin.

193

only in 1895. On the other hand, Gronp I has a considerably
greater density of population per square mile than has Group
II. This latter fact finds some exjjlanation in the difference be-

Table 1.— Population, ISGO-Do.

1

i

1

1

1S60 1865

1

1S70

1875

isso 1

1885

1890

1895

Lead area, Group I:

Total

27,144

30,S66

33,410

33,250

31,814

30,898

29,606

30,628

Per cent, of gain,
+, or loss, — —

13.74-

S.+

.3

4.4—

2.8-

4.-

3.4+

Per square mile ...

34.8

38.7

41.9

41.6

39.9

38.7

37.1

39.7

Non-lead area, Group
II:

40.0C1

43,757

51,668

52,108

50,934

48,718

49,427

Total

52,67»

Per cent, of gain,
+, or loss, —

9.3+

18.+

.8+

2.-

4.3-

1.6+

6.54-

Per square mile

23.1

25.3

29.9

30.1

29.4

28.2

28.9

30.4

tween the two groups in soil. Group II has a large area of
sand and contains a smaller per cent, of the most fertile soil
than does Group I.^ This partly accounts for the difference in
density of the population but the steady decline in population
noticed in Group I has no such explanation. We find, then, in
this small first group conditions more favorable to agriculture
that in the second group, but in spite of unfavorable soil this
latter section has a population growing more rapidly than that
of the older and more densely settled section. In other words
the younger portion of the population has for many years been
drained away from the towns of the first group, leaving the
older and more conservative part to continue on in the economic
and social habits that were peculiar to the people of this sec-
tion in the early part of our history.

But with these differences in increase of population are asso-
ciated others of a different nature. In the subjoined tables are
to be noticed various differences between the two groups of towns

1 See map of soils facing page 199.

13

*

194 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Avis, and Letters.

Table II. — Per capita valuations of farms and farm produce.

1885.

1895.

Group I.

Group II.

Group I.

Group II.

Farm values

357.2

10.2
54.8
94.9

8.7

445.1
14.0
80.4

121.3
9.4

343.4

7.1

52.8

69.5

12.5

517.8

Ffl rni imDleniGiits

11.3

Aericultural Droduce

77.4

liive stock

98.8

Dairv Droduce

16.0

.

Table III. — Farm produce per capita.

1S77 I

1880 I 1882

1886

1889

1892

1895

1897

Bushels of wheat —

Lead area, Group I

Non-lead area, Group II.

Bushels of corn-
Lead area. Group I

Non-lead area, Group II.

Bushels of oats-
Lead area. Group I ,

Non-lead area, Group II

Pounds of butter-
Lead area. Group I

Non-lead area. Group II.

5.6
7.1

52.1
105.0

4.8
9.5

59.8
77.6

11.1 I 44.0
68.6 58.2

16.6
26.1

22.4

3.4
5.0

48.4
76.1

49.0
64.1

26.0
41.1

3.1
4.9

28.3
43.6

60.1

26.9

42.8

1.9
3.5

42.6
56.1

40.3 I 55.9

92.1

47.8

1.7
3.4

36.1
48.3

54.6
55.8

23.6
34.1

.6
1.2

28.8
33.7

42.7
46.5

40.1
33.9

1.4
2.4

60.4
95.2

56.7
84.1

38.0
54.5

as to their wealth-producing power. In the first table for 1885
and 1895 the per capita products of the two groups are con-
trasted in agricultural produce, live stock and dairy produce, as
well as in per capita of farm values and farm implements. In
comparing the Lead Group with the I^on-lead Group as to per
capita of farm values and farm implements it is seen that the
former is much smaller in each case and that in farm values
there is a marked decline. In agricultural produce, live stock
and dairy produce the same is to be noticed. Though in the first
two items there is seen to be a decline in the per capita product

Lihhy — The Lead Region of Wisconsin. 195

of each group yet in all of them the second excels the first at
every point/

In the second tahle is seen a still more striking proof of the
agricultural superiority of Group II over Group I. The per
capita production of wheat, corn, oats and butter for the two
groups is compared for a period from 1877 to 1897. The yield
of wheat has declined in both groups, more in I than in II.
Oats and butter are both ]3roducts that are increasing in value
during the entire period, the to^vns in Group II taking the lead.
In the per capita of corn, Group I shows an increase in twenty
years while Group II though showing a decline, still far excels
the other in per capita production. Especially significant are
the figures for corn and oats since the production of these cereals
is connected closely with stock raising. The production of but-
ter is also an important one in the same connection. The newer
methods in farming are thus seen to make the greatest progress
in the second group of towns. The conclusion which irresistibly
suggests itself at this point is that this decline in industrial
power is connected with the corresponding decline in population.
The older and more densely settled towns of the lead region in
ceasing to increase in population inevitably fell behind the
newer communities whose citizens were composed of young and
enterprising emigrants from other parts of the country. This
transference of population from one community to another and
this loss of productive power on the part of certain towns are co-
incident occurrences. A declining community has certain well
defined characteristics apparent to even a casual observer. ISTot
only does the wealth producing power decrease but in many cases
the tax paying capacity suffers and the complaint of hard times
is prevalent. This feeling of resentment toward the constituted
authorities because of financial stress finds expression in politi-
cal action of various kinds. The rise of the greenback party, ^
the populist party or the independent voter class may often be
partly accounted for in this way. The later studies in Wiscon-
sin will bring out more clearly than is now possible the intimate

I For detailed figures by towns see Appendix A, pp. 231-5. The statistics are from the
State Censuses of 18S5 and 1895.

^ See in this connection my study of the Greenback Movement, 1878-84 ; Transactions of
Wis. Acad, of Sciences, Arts, and Letters, Xll.. 530-43. .

196 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Aris, and Letters.

connection between tlie economic and tlie political life of a com-
mnnitj. It is, however, clear from tlie foregoing evidence that in
sontliwestern Wisconsin there are areas having a social and in-
dustrial life different from that in the neighboring to^vns. Just
what those differences are, how they have come about and what
their effect has been in the past are questions yet to be settled by
more detailed study than is now possible. The present discus-
sion has accomplished its purpose if it has called attention to
the ]30ssibilities of such historical work in purely local fields.

Stanton — The Lead Region of Wisconsin. 197

CHAPTER II.

THE LEAD REGIOX OF GRAXT AND LAFAYETTE

COUIS^TIES.^

r. BELLE STAIS'TON", B. L.

The entire lead mining region comprises a much larger area
than the subject of this paper. The region as a whole embraces
besides the Wisconsin area, the lead regions of Iowa and Illinois.
These latter districts taken together do not contain as much
territory as the Wisconsin district alone.

The territory including the lead region of Wisconsin came
into the possession of the L^nited States in 1804 by a treaty with
the Fox Indians. The land did not attract the notice of settlers
until earlv in this century, but the lead had been known to the
Indians, who made little if any use of it until the French taught
them its value. Real activity in the mines began in 1822 when
the general government took charge of the region and began
granting land to operators. The rush of settlers kept increasing
until it reached its maximum in 1829. The great excitement
and enthusiasm of those early days, with the wild frontier life,
was typical of a Rocky Mountain mining camp. The popula-
tion was a changing and moving one. i^umerous mushroom
towns sprang up all over the district, and the towns remaining
permanent were the exception rather than the rule. The rapid
influx of miners finally resulted in trouble with the Indians,
and out of this grew the Black Hawk War. This was character-
ized by the usual atrocities of an Indian war, but in spite of its
unfortunate details, the war proved beneficial from an industrial
point of view since it humbled the Indians and made the country
known to hundreds of prospective settlers. ISTewspapers and
pamphlets in the eastern states were filled with descriptions of
the country and very soon a great tide of immigration began to

1 A thesis submitted to the faculty of the University of Wisconsin, for the degree of
B. L., June, 1900.

198 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

pour into nortliern Illinois and southern Wisconsin. So rapid
was the growth that Wisconsin became an independent territory
in 1836. ^ From this time on down to the middle of the century,
there continued to be great activity in the mines. The maxi-
mum production was reached between the years 1845-47. The
falling off in activity, commencing after 1848, was very prob-
ably due to the discovery of gold in California. About this time
the miners beo-an to leave and the activitv in the lead retrion has
never been so great as in former days."

At first only the lead ores were utilized, but by 1860 the zinc
came to be mined as well.- In recent years there has been a re-
vival in interest, and the future may see even greater operations
when it becomes possible to make use of improved machinery. ^

A region such as this, distinct from the rest of the state in its
resources, and presenting such an interesting chapter in Wiscon-
sin history, naturally creates a desirable field for study both for
the geologist and for the historian. On its geological side the
region has been very thoroughly studied, but from the historical
and especiall}' from the economic side, the study is far from com-
plete. It is this latter phase which is the subject of the pres-
ent paper. A small but well defined section in*the lead region
has been chosen with a view of studyins: its economic life and
of trying to understand the conditions in a region with either
a declining or stationary population. The study being a very
limited one, few definite conclusions can yet be drawm, but it is
proposed to state some of the problems and suggest a possible
solution.

The region chosen for special study consists of nineteen town-
ships in the counties of Grant and Lafayette. This group of
townships is the oldest and at one time was the most active of
all the lead regions. The seven towns of Grant county are
Jamesto^vn, Hazel Green, Potosi, Smelzer, Harrison, Platteville

1 Material for the history of the lead region may be found in Thwaites, Story of Wis-
consin, and in the histories of Grant and Lafayette Counties ; also, Thwaites, Early Lead
Mining in Illinois and Wisconsin, American Historical Association, 1893, pp. 191-6.

2 For a fuller discussion of these points see Libby, Significance of the Lead and Shot
Trade in Early Wisconsin History, Wisconsin Historical Collections, XIII.

^ See Milwaukee Sentinel, Nov. 5, 1899, for an excellent presentation of this phase of
the matter.

Stanton — The Lead Region of ^Yisconsin. 199

and Paris/ The twelve towns of Lafayette county are Darling-
ton, Shiillsbiirg, Benton, Kendall, ^ew Diggings, Gratiot, Elk
Grove, Belmont, Willow Springs, White Oak Springs, and Mon-
ticello. -

In order to make such a study it is necessary to divide each
county into sections so that comparisons can be made. In this
division each county is taken separately. The following di-
visions have been made :

Gron^D I. An area having the greatest number of lead mines.
Por Grant county, Platteville; for Lafayette county, Benton
and ]^ew Diggings.

Group 11. The general lead area consisting of the towns al-
ready named. For Grant county, seven townships ; for Lafay-
ette county, twelve townships.

Group III. A non-lead area, consisting of all the remaining
townships in each county.^

It is necessary before going further to speak briefly of the
geology and topography of this region. * It comprises the lead
mining district of southwestern Wisconsin and is marked by no
such irregularities of surface as are generally found in mineral
districts. The important watei'shed commences at Madison
and runs due west for twenty miles, southward for fifteen miles
and then resuming its westerly course, terminates in the bluffs
at the confluence of the Wisconsin and Mississippi rivers. The
most noticeable thing about this watershed is its parallelism with
the Wisconsin river so long as it holds a westerly course. The
main western division of the watershed separates the waters flow-
ing into the Platte and Pever rivers from those flowing into the
Pecatonica. The waters of the Sugar and Pecatonica rivers are
separated by the eastern division. The slope toward the south
is very gradual and here the streams have eroded the country
into undulating slopes where abrupt cliffs and ravines are the

^ The area of this section is 265 square miles ; the area of Grant County is 1,164 square
miles.

2 The area of this section is 431 square miles ; the area of Lafayette County is 630 square-
miles.

^ These townships are not entirely without lead ; there are several having important
lead mines in them ; such townships are Lima, Beetown, Clifton, Wingville and Ellen-
fcorough.

< The material that fellows was taken from Geology of Wisconsin, Vol. II., Part IV,
1873-77.

200 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

exception rather than the rnle. The northern slope is steep,
and the bluffs and ravines are rather mountanious in appear-
ance, but this as^Dect marks the outer limits of the lead region.

The interior where the nineteen towns are located is marked
by a rolling surface, and here most of the prairie land is found.
This prairie region though comparatively small, a continuation
of the Illinois prairie, comprises the townships of Jamestown,
Hazel Green, Benton, j^ew Diggings, Shullsburg, Seymour,
Monticello and Gratiot. The waters of the streams, as well as
of the mining ground, have decreased in quantity from early
times, as a result of the removal of the timber and the cultiva-
tion of the land; but in spite of this the lead region is well
watered, because of numerous sj)rings and the great amount of
annual rainfall.

South of the principal watershed the subsoil is clay with a
thickness of from three to six feet. The lime, magnesia and
alkaline earths in the subsoil and soil constitute, together with
the vegtable mould, a soil in its virgin state, unsurpassed for
richness and fertility. Exception to this clay soil is found in
the eastern part of Lafayette county where there is much sand.
Another important feature of the lead region is that it belongs
to the driftless area, so that its surface is free from bowlders and
pebbles. The subjoined map shows the location of the different
soils in the two counties as well as the boundary lines of the
three groups of to^^iships already described.

Passing now to the consideration of the population, it is
noticeable that in Group I and II there is a steady decline while
in Group III there is either a stationary or an increasing popu-
lation. The table below shows this clearly.

Stanton — The Lead Region of Wisconsin.

201

Table I. — Population per square mile.

Grant County.

Lafayette County.

Group I.i

Group 11.^

Group III. 3 1

Group I.*

Group II 5 Group III. «

I860

46
48
48
50
47
43
43
45

21
23

27
28
28
28
28
29

69
68
65
64
58
53
48
62

32
36
39
38
36
34
32
34

19

1865

2.3

1870

34

28

1875

28

1880

34
33
28
28

28

1885

28

1890

30

1895

33

Group III has the least density except in Grant County, when
in 1875 Group I falls below it. The density of the population
in the towns of l^ew Diggings and Benton is very striking. ' In
Platteville, the population of the village has been omitted in the
table just given. It is very clear that the density of the popula-
tion is greater in Groups I and II than in Group III but it is
equally evident that the increase in population is always to be
found in the last named group.

It now remains to determine what variations can be discovered
in the property valuations per capita and the per capita of pro-
duction for these three groups. The accompanying table shows
the value of farm lands and live stock and of farm implements
per capita.

1 PlatteviUe.

* Jamestown, Hazel Green, Potosi, Smelzer, Harrison, PlatteviUe and Paris. Platte-
viUe township is thus twice counted, appearing in each group.

3 Remainder of Grant County.
■* Benton and New Diggings.

* Darlington, ShuUsburg, Benton, Kendall, New Diggings, Gratiot, Elk Grove, Bel-
mont, WiUow Springs, White Oak Springs and Monticello.

^ Remainder of Lafayette County.

' Different results would have been obtained if it had been possible to separate tha
viUage population from that of the rest of the town.

202 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts_, and Letters.

Table II. — Value of farm lands per capita.

Geant County.

cLaf

vYETTE County.

Group I.

Group II.

Group III.

Group I.

Group II.

Group III.

IM)

135

145
220
166

12S
288
381
399

!
180

316

335

384

81
371
460
416

61

462
571
627

258

1870

426

1885

484

1895

533

Value of live stock per capita.

I860
1870
1885
1895

18
23
49
32

21

79
69

32

97
103

78

15
55
60
81

28

74

132

112

42
213
152

99

Value of farm implements per capita.

1S60
1870
1S85
1895

7
6
o
3

8
12
11

9

7
17
12

8

Note.— The statistics of valuations and products for 1860 and 1870, were taken from
the original records in the vault of the oflice of the Secretary of State. The Wisconsin
State Census supplied the figures for 1885 and 1895. The valuation of personal and real
estate would have made the study much more complete but it was impossible to find
the material for earlier years. It was also impossible to obtain the valuations and
products for each township before 1860, because the territory was divided into precincts
in Grant County instead of into townships.

Group I shows a marked decline in tlie value of farm imple-
ments and a smaller per capita generally for the period of
thirty-five years. In striking contrast to this is Group III
which has the largest per capita of all the groups and has in
many cases the greatest increase, also. This can not be due to
any condition of the soil. The townships in Group I have
a greater per cenit. of fertile soil in them than those of Group
III.

The statistics for the cereals, wheat, corn, and oats are rather
difficult to consider as they vary greatly and show much irregu-
larity. Two sets of figures are used, first those for the grown

Stanton — The Lead Region of ^Yisconsin.

203

crops of 1878, 188.9, 1884, 1886, 1889, 1892, 1895 and 1897^ ;
second, those for 1860, 1870, 1885, 1895.^ The accompanying
tables show the valne per capita of these cereals for the various
years.

Table III. — Bushels of oats, per capita.

Geant County.

Laf

A.yETTE County.

Group I.

Group 11. Group III.

Group I.

Group II.

Group III.

1878

27
26

27
19
37
31

18
27

24
27
29
30

46
50
55
51
61
55
47
54

21
44
65
69

42
37
57
44
78
46
45
72

23
34
62
S3

44
52
61
42
55
47
20
51

14

44
72
58

109
80
86
82

100
49
43
86

36
61

102
100

61

1S80

73

1884

67

18^

28

1889

65

1892

58

1895

17

1897

55

1860

25

1870

5T

1885

70

1895

87

Bushels of wheat, per capita.

1878
1880
1884
1886
1889
1892
1895
1897

1860
1870
1885

1895

1

1

2

1

.9

.1

.1

.1

9
6
2

.8

4
4
4
3
1

.1
1

.1

10

13

5

8

10
6
6
5
4
4
1
1

28

29

7

3

3
2
2
1
1
.3

10
11

2

2
5
3
2
1
.4

22

21

3

.1

3

23
4
2
1
1
.1
.2

22

26
4
1

1 From the original unbound records in the vault of the oflSce of the Secretary©'
State. They are given for each county by towns and by products, and the documents
are arranged chronologically.

* The figures for 1860 and 1870 were obtained from the original records and those for
1885 and 1895 from the state census.

204 Wisconsi7i Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Table IV. — Bushels of corn, per capita.

Geant Cotjxtt.

Group I.

Group II.

Group III.

Lafayette County.

Group I.

Group I[.

Group III.

1878
1880
1884
1886
1889
1S92
1895
1897

1860
1870
1885
1895

41

71

71

68

38

75

62

71

26

56

61

73

5

59

26

26

27

57

68

56

27

48

41

50

13

33

28

22

26

69

73

77

11

20

32

9

21

45

46

42

28

72

73

92

16

49

31

65

100
99
89

45
bS
51
41
88

79
79
65
39
59
46
25
49

24

29

70

43

111

87

81

61

From the foregoing tables it can be seen tliat the conditions in
Grant Count j from 1878 to 1897 were far less favorable even
than those in Lafayette Countv. Group III shows as a rule the
greatest per capita production of the cereals. The rise and de-
cline in the wheat product for the three groups is very similar.
Group I though showing in early years the least production of
this grain comes in the years 1892, 1895 and 1897 to reach the
same per capita as Group II. In corn and oats, also, Group I
falls far below the other groups in per capita production, but all
three groups show about the same rise and fall. Eor the period
between 1860 and 1895, Group I has a rank not unlike that for
the period just described. This group falls below the others,
showing both the greatest decline and the least rise.^ Grouj) III
shows the greatest per capita product in corn and wheat up to
1885 when it declines to second place.

In Lafayette County, 1878-97, Group III leads in its wheat
product per capita. Group II takes first place in the production
of corn and oats. For the period of 1860-95 the rise and fall
of the pel' capita product is very similar and Group III leads in
the wheat product only, a product of little importance.

I The sole exception to this statement occurs in the production of oats for 1860.

Stanton — The Lead Region of Wisconsin.

205

To sum up for tlie production of the cereals for both counties
and for the two periods under consideration, Group I takes low-
est rank in its j)er capita production of wheat, corn and oats.
Group II has on the whole the largest production and shows the
greatest increase. Group III, while below Group II in many
cases, is far in advance of Group I though it shows the greatest
irregTilarity.^

Passing now to the consideration of the butter and cheese pro-
ducts for these groups, the statistics may be found in the ac-
companying tables :

Table V. — Pounds of 'butter per capita.

Geaxt County.

Group I.

Group II. Group III.

Lafayette County.

Group I. Group II. Group III.

1878
1880
1S84
1886
1889
1892
1895
1897

1

9

18

19

10

24

8

22

25

16

30

6

23

39

22

56

5

20

39

19

32

9

21

49

25

Zl

.8

17

29

24

28

10

25

34

2

30

27

38

37

76

42

58
54
55
51
36
22
36
57

Pounds of cheese per capita.

1S78

.9
1

.5

1

1

1

.7

3

5

2

2

I

2

2

4

6

8

20

20

29

2

1

.1

5

1880

.2

18S4

21

1886

26

1889

2

4

.1

15

9

25

84

1892

42

160

1895

177

1897

189

In the butter product. Group III in Grant County exceeds the
others, except in 1897 when Group II has first place. Group I

1 The differences between the tables for 1878-97 and for 1860-95 may be partly explained
by the different methods employed in taking the census.

200 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

has the lowest rank throughout the period. After 18S9 the fall
in the per capita production in Group III is easilv explained
by the greater amount of cheese made between the years 1889
and 1897. The cheese product for Groups I and II can hardly
be said to exist before 1886, and after 1895 it again disappears
from Group I.

In Lafayette county Group III shows a marked decline in the
per capita production of butter, but there is also a compensating
rise in the production of cheese. Group II shows a greater in-
crease in the production of butter then the same group in Grant
County. Group I shows the smallest per capita production of
butter up to 1892 when it exceeds that of Group III, but after a
decline for the next tliree years, the butter product surpasses in
amount that of the other groups. In Group I cheese appears as
a product only between the years 1889 and 1892, but during
this time it exceeds in amount the output of Group TI.

It is clear from these facts that the cheese industry belongs to
Group III and that butter making is an important business in
all three groups, particularly in Group III.

In conclusion the results derived from the comparison of
these three groups can be sunnned up in the following manner:

The towns of Group I still retain their density of population
as in earlier days, yet this population is stationary or declining.
The rich prairie land in which this area abmiids has not brought
the farm value an^^vhere near that of the rest of the county.
The other valuations and in general all the farm products fall
far below those of Group ITT, and even those of Group II.
Group IT has been al)le to counteract the early influence of its
lead mines and its farm land has a highor value. The popula-
tion in this group is as dense as in Group I and is declining at
nearly the same rate. In valuation of farm lands and farm im-
plements, and in per capita j)roduction of wheat and corn, this
group slightly surpasses Group III.

Group ITT, comjDOsed almost entirely of non-lead-producing
towns, and showing least density of population, has steadily in-
creased in numbers and is the region of greatest progress. In
valuations and farm products it far excels Group I and it has
gained upon Group II in live stock, butter, cheese and wheat.
It is very remarkable that Group III should show a greater per

Stanton — The Lead Region of Wisconsin. 207

capita in any product since the soil is not so fertile as that in
the other groups/ Indeed the only very poor land in either of
the counties is found in this group. Along the Mississippi and
Wisconsin rivers extend wide tracts of sandy soil, which reach
in many cases far into the interior. The only poor soil in La-
fayette county is found in the eastern part, which is included in
Group III.

The influeuce of the early lead industry is thus shown to be
very important. The greater the importance of lead mining in
early days the more marked the decline and stagnation in the
economic life of the later period. Thus it is that the region
least affected by the early lead mining industry has been able
even under more unfavorable conditions of soil to show the
greatest advance both in wealth and population. What the
other influences are which differentiate these groups can not be
determined until investigation has been made into the subjects
of immigration and nationality and the still more difficult one
of politics.

1 There are some areas of prairie land iu this {?roup yet they are much smaller thaa
those in the other groups.

208 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

CHAPTEK III.
THE LEAD REGIOX OF ILLIXOIS.^

BEEXAED M. PALMER, B. L.

The lead region of Illinois is sitnated in Jo Daviess County,
the extreme northwestern corner of the state. The mines found
in this county were at one time among the richest in the world,
and furnished great quantities of lead. But about the year
1850, when the mineral began to be found less abundantly, it
became increasingly hard to work the mines on account of the
water encountered at the lower levels to which the shafts had
now^ been sunk, the industry declined, and after a period of
years, nearly ceased altogether.^ The purpose of this paper is
to investigate the effect of the lead industry upon the life of the
people in the region, along social, economic and political lines.

The lead mines of the Upper Mississippi river were early
known to the French possessors of the country. As early as 1690
lead, obtained by the Indians, was an article of traffic with the
French traders at Peoria.^ The mines were held i\s crown
property in accordance w^th the French custom, and were
worked to some extent under various grants* between the years
1723 and 1745.^

Under British control the mines seem to have been as little
worked as under French occupation, and it remained for the
United States to fully develop them and obtain the benefit of the
enormous wealth they contained. Although the richness of the
mineral region of Illinois was a matter of common knowledge,

1 A thesis submitted to the faculty of the University of Vv'isconsin for the degree of
B. L., June, 1900.

^ Libby, Significance of the Lead and Shot Trade in Early Wisconsin History. Wis-
consin Historical Collections, Vol. XIII.

2 Senate Doc. 87, 29th Cong., Ist Session, p. 3.

■* See notes on Early Lead Mining in the Fever River Region, by R. G. Thwaites, Wis-
consin Historical Collections, Vol. XIII., pp. 276-7.
* Senate]Doc., 87, 29th Cong., 1st Session, p. 3.

Palmer — llie Lead Region of Illinois. 209

no actual surveys had been made, when on Mai'ch o, 1807, Con-
gress passed an act entitled, "An Act Making Provision for the
Disposal of the Public Lands Situate between the United States
Military Tract, and the Connecticut Reserve, and for Other
Purposes," the fifth section of which provided that the mineral
lands of the United States should be leased for an annual rental,
instead of being sold outright/

This policy of the government, of reserving mineral lands
from sale, was beneficial at the time of its passage, since it
tended to prevent hasty and unprofitable disposal of rich mineral
lands whose real value was unknown. But the system was con-
tinued too long, and became the cause of great injustice to the
miners, and a source of constant trouble and expense to the
government until it was abolished in 1846. Under this system,
instead of selling the mineral lands outright, all tracts showing
signs of containing possible lead bearing rock, were reserved by
the government ofiicers, from sale, but could be worked by any
person who should register a claim with the Superintendent of
Lead Mines, and pay, as an annual rental, a certain portion of
the product, varying at different times from one-tenth to one-six-
teenth, in pure lead or the money equivalent. But much trouble
came to be experienced in collecting the rentals, after a few
years, w^hen the number of miners had greatly increased. Fi-
nallv, matters fell into such a condition that the rentals received
scarcely paid the cost of administration. The United States
V7as compelled to carry on incessant actions at law to protect its
property from trespassers. The leasing system also deprived
the state of Illinois of the ^\q per cent, to which she would be
entitled should the lands be sold, as well as the taxes derivable
from them when held as private property. But the gTeatest evil
caused by the system, was the tendency toward an uneven de-
velopment of the whole lead region. By it, all the land, except
that containing mineral, was placed on the market in the regular
way and bought by a class of people who speedily converted it
into good farms. On the other hand, people who settled for
farming purposes on land wdiich the government agent, after
a superficial examination had reserved as possible lead bearing
land, were there as trespassers. Eather than risk a possible

1 Laws of U. S., Vol. IV., p. 127.

14

210 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ ArtSj, and Letters,

ejection much valuable agricultural land remained unsettled till
tlie leasing system was abolished/

Onlv a few miners wandered into the re£:ion till after the war
of 1812. Among the most famous of these was Julien Dubuque
who settled on the site of the present city of Dubuque. He
traded with the Indians in the whole re2:ion and bought lead
from them during the period from 1788 to 1810, the date of
his death.

On l^ovember 29, 1821, the control of the mines was trans-
ferred from the Treasury Department to the War Department,
and the first leases under the Act of 1807 were granted the next
year to parties from Kentucky, among whom was Col. James
Johnson, whose brother was afterward vice-president of the
United States. This may be said to be the beginning of the real
activity of lead mining in the ^N^orthwest. The region was
destined to become one of the most important and widely known
in the West, profoundly affecting the life and economic condi-
tions of the whole Mississippi Valley. While the lead lasted,
this region was a center of interest, attracting attention from
every direction. Settlement after settlement was formed, till
the population in 1830 was over six thousand. Jo Daviess
Count V was created in 1827 and included the entire district
northwest of the Illinois river. The village of Galena grew
from four log cabins in 1826 with a population of fifty people,
to eighty buildings and three hundred people in 1830, and five
hundred and fifty buildings and three thousand people in 1839.

Galena noAV became one of the most prosperous and best
known cities in the !N^orthwest. Steamboats coming up the
Mississippi river from ISTew Orleans and St. Louis, and down
the Ohio from Pittsburg, landed on her wharves immigrants
and miners from all parts of the United States and the world,
and took away millions of pounds of lead and other products.
This was the period before railway transportation had been de-
veloped. The steamboat was the quickest and most convenient

»— ■■ ^■■— — ■ — . ■..— ■ ■ ■■■ ■ — .-I . . I I .1- - mt I ■ ■ ■ .■■■ I ■ 11 la

1 For evils of leasinar system, see: Annual Message of Pres. Polk, 1845; Ex. Doc. 1,
1st Session, 28d Cong. ; Ex. Doc. 2, 1st Session, 24th Cong. ; House Doc. 307, 2i Session
25th Cong, (by Brig. Gen. Worth) ; Ex. Doc. 3, 2d Session, 25th Cong. ; Ex. Doc. 2, Ist
Session, 26th Cong.

«Sen. Doc. 349, Ist Session, 26th Cong., Vol. VI.

Palmer — The Lead Region of Illinois. 211

means of transjDortation and the rivers were the great highways
of commerce. This gave Galena enormous importance as the
head of navigation and the distributing point for the whole lead
region. ^

Owing to the ease of communication by way of the river,
the county was at first filled with a population largely southern
in character. Many of these men brought their slaves with
them to their new homes.^ Later a j^ew England element
came in, and the conflict in ideas of these two classes furnishes
an interesting study. A class of people of great importance
were the Cornish miners who settled in the region and left their
impress on the character of the whole population.

The time of greatest prosperity in the lead region was from
1S35 to 1815. Money was plentiful, settlers were pouring in
from the East, and all signs seemed to indicate that this section
was to be the most important and influential one in the West.
In common with other cities of the iSTew West, Galena felt that
her prosperity depended upon having a railroad. Public meet-
ings were held, money subscribed, and on ^ov. 8, 1854, the first
train on the new road ran into Galena.^

Lead mining reached its height about the year 1845. After
that date no new discoveries of any importance were made.
The lack of effective machinery to work the lower levels, and
the opening of the new California gold mines, drew from Jo
Daviess County that class of eoiterprising adventurous men who
had done so much to develop the country. The building of rail-
ways into the territory formerly supplied by Galena, decreased
the importance of the city as a distributing center. The county
was compelled to fall back upon agriculture for its prosperity.
The thickly populated mining areas either decreased in popula-
tion, or were deserted altogether. Cheap land in the new West
led many of the vigorous young men to seek their fortunes there,
and Jo Daviess County began to experience a decline in popula-
tion and wealth from which it has never recovered.

In a report on the geology of the lead region written in 1860,
Prof. J. D. Whitney says : "The lead bearing district of lUi-

1 As many as fourteen steamboats were tied to wharves at one time. Northwestern
Gazette and Galena Advertiser, Aug. 8, 1845.

2 County Records : Deeds, Record A., p. 120, gives a bill of sale of a negro girl and child.
' Northwestern Gazette and Galena Advertiser, Nov. 9, 1854.

12 ^yisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters,

nois, in the northwestern corner of the state, forms a portion of
the Upper Mississippi lead region, which occupies an extensive
area in the three states of Wisconsin, Illinois and Iowa, where
they corner with each other. The whole area over which lead
has been raised, in sufficient quantity to be worthy of notice, is
about 4.000 square miles, of which nearly two-thirds is in the
state of Wisconsin and the other third about equally divided be-
tween Illinois and Iowa. The most productive jDortion of the
region, however, is that which lies between Dubuque, Galena
and Shullsburg, so that both Iowa and Illinois raise more lead,
in proportion to the area over which mining operations have
been extended, than Wisconsin does. It is quite impossible to
give the exact amount for each state, as the imaginary line which
separates Illinois from Wisconsin has no influence in the di-
vision of property or the supplies of ore furnished to smelting
works. Some of the heaviest deposits of ore in Wisconsin are
owned and managed by citizens of Illinois.

^^The lead bearing district of Illinois is entirely comprised
within the limits of Jo Daviess and Stephenson Counties, and
by far the larger portion is in the first named county. Indeed,
although ore has been found and mined, to some extent, in
Stephenson County, and although the proper lead bearing rock
covers a large area in that county, yet we are not aware of any
diggings now in operation outside of Jo Daviess County. In
fact, a circle of four miles radius, with its center a little north-
east of Galena, would include nearly all the productive diggings,
with the exception of those at Apple River and in the vicinity of
Elizabeth ; and certainly nine-tenths of the ore raised in Illinois
comes from the area included within that circle of only eight
miles in diameter."^

Map 1, Plate XXI., a reduced copy of one accompanying Pro-
fessor Whitney's report, shovrs the distribution of the geological
formations found in Jo Daviess County, and also the location of
all the lead mines that have been successfully worked. The
area on the map unmarked, is non-lead-bearing rock ; in it lead
has never been found in paying quantities. The land is valu-
able only for farming and stock-raising purposes. The area

* ■ I.. ^ ■■— ■ I.I.I. III.— .. . 11. — ■ — ^-.i — .■■■ — -. ■.■^— ..— -— — 111.^-. ■ III ■■■■»

1 Geological Survey of Illinois, Vol. I., p. 155.

Trans. Wis. Acad.. Vol. XIII.

Plate XXI.

Lend.. Group I.

I I Middle-. Group H ,

JVi^n-Lecui. GroiLp TIT,

Liberty

Ne^ l/Vine

dodge

CcLSCOjdie

White
WcLter

'Pr-cbir-ie

Mines

Traces of Lea d.

Lead, . Oroup L

Middle.CLroiLp H.
Leojd, Oro up IH .

Waskin^ton

Palmer — Tlie Lead Beglon of Illinois. 213

marked Avitli crosshatcliing on the map is the Galena Limestone,
and except for a few patches of Blue Limestone along the Galena
river, is the sole depository of the lead ore. By this statement
is not meant that mines have been found in all portions of it,
but that outside of it, in the unmarked area, no mines have ever
been worked. By reference to the map, the grouping of the lead
mines (shown in black) is readily seen. Certain districts were
given over almost wholly to mining, while others were not af-
fected by it. The location of the most important mines was as
follows :^

1. The mines on Apple Eivcr, in Apple I\iver and Warren
townships.

2. The mines on Apple Eiver in Elizabeth township.

3. The !N^ew California mines and diggings in Eice township.

4. The mines around the city of Galena in East Galena, West
Galena and Eawlins townships.

6. The Council Hill and Vinegar Hill diggings.

Jo Daviess County has been divided into townships since
1853,^ and for the purposes of this discussion, these townships
have been divided into three groups. Townships of the first
group include all townships where most lead mining was done,
and where mining was the predominating industry. The
second group comprises those to^ms Avhere some mines were
found, but where they did not assume so much importance
as in Group I. The third group is composed of the rest of the
county, and is the agricultural section. These groups shown on
Map 2, Elate XXL, are the foundation upon which rests the
structure of this investigation, and their significance must neces-
sarily be kept in mind, to understand the conclusions arrived at.

The method employed for ascertaining the effect, if any, of
the lead industry upon the locality where it was carried on was
to examine township statistics on the subjects of population and
the valuations of property as well as the records of votes cast on
different measures during a series of years. The figures for the
various towns were then placed in their appropriate groups, viz. :
Group I (lead producing) ; Group II (middle) ; Group III

1 See Geological Survey of Illinois, 1866, Vol. V., p. 45, also for detailed descriptioa
and location of mines, same, Vol. I., pp. 201-207.

2 History of Jo Daviess County, Chicago, 1873, p. 346.

214 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

(non lead producing), and an examination of the results was
made. ^

Great trouble was experienced in collecting tlie statistics for
the townships. Xo material has ever been printed which contains
the valuations and enumeration of property, as made by the va-
rious assessors, nor any record of the votes cast bv the towns. It
was necessary to go to Springfield and Galena and examine the
manuscript records as they exist in the office of the Secretary of
State at Springfield, and in the office of the County Clerk at
Galena. The records in the Clerk's office were in a very dis-
orderly condition and much searching and sorting of documents
w^ere necessary before the figures were made accessible. The
records extend back in complete form as far as 1853, the date
when to\\aiship organization in the county was adopted, and the
township lines established, practically as they are today. Be-
fore 1853 the county was governed by a board of three county
commissioners,^ and precincts of indefinite extent were the
county subdivisions. Careful search among the records of Jo
Daviess county failed to reveal the location of the boundary
lines of these old precincts, or any statistics concerning them
excepting the votes cast at various elections.^

As a consequence of this incompleteness of the sources, figures
can be presented covering only the period since 1853. This is
a period when lead mining had begun to decline, and we are
able to study the relative effects of this decline on the various
sections of the county. The questions will be considered in the
following order: — First, population; second, valuations of
property, as an index of relative changes in wealth ; and third,
the outcome of these influences, or in other word, the sentiments
of the people as expressed in their votes on various questions.

1 The lead producing group, or Group I, consists of the following towns : East Galena,
Council Hill, Scales Mound, Rice, Vinegar Hill, Kawlins, Galena and West Galena.
Middle groi^p, or Group II, consists of the following towns: Menomiaee, Guilford,
Elizabeth, Apple River, Warren, Thompson, Woodbine and Stockton. Non-lead pro-
ducing group, or Group III, consists of the following towns : Dunleith, Rush, Nora,
Ward's Grove, Berreman, Hanover, Derinda and Pleasant Valley.

' History of Jo Daviess County, p. 344.

' See Maps in Appendix C for changes in town lines. 1854-90.

Palmer — The Lead Region of Illinois.

215

Table I. — Population.

These figures are taken frnm United States Census Reports. See Appendix C for the
population of the several towns.

State of Illinois

State, except Cook County

Jo Daviess County

Group I

Group I, except Galena . .

Group II

Group III

Area iu
square mile.s.

Total Popul.\tiox.

Population
Per Square
Mile.

1860.

1870.

1880.

1890.

1860

1870
44.8

1880

1890

56,550

1,711,951

2,539,891

3,077,871

3,826,351

30.2

54.3

67.5

55,750

1,566.997

2,189,925

2,470.347

2,634,429

28.1

39.3

44.3

47.2

591.0

27,025

27,820

27,528

25, 101

46.2

47.0

46.5

42.4

112.8

12,999

11,202

10,577

8,987

117.2

99.5

93.9

79.6

108.^

4.803

4,183

4,126

3,332

44.1

38.5

37.9

30.6

259.3

9,031

10, 509

10,568

9,983

34.8

40.5

40.7

38.5

220.7

5,295

6,109

6,383

6,151

24.0

27.6

28.9

27.9

Table I shows the moveinent of population in the state, in the
county and in the three groups of the county.

It will be observed that from the year 1860 to 1890 there was
a steady, consistent rise in the population, both of the state, in-
cluding Cook County, and in the state outside of Cook County.
The state outside of Cook County, while it started at 28.1 per
square mile in 1860, rose to 47.2 in 1890. But Jo Daviess
County, while it started in 1860 wuth a population of 46.2, in-
stead of rising, fell to 42.4 in 1890.^ !N'ow let us examine the
movement of population in the three gToups. In Group I, out-
side of the city of Galena, the population started in 1860 at
44.1. This shows the densely populated condition of the lead
mining areas. After 1860, the miners and the younger portion
of the population left the country in swarms, and the result has
been a steady, rapid decline, till in 1890 the population had
reached 30.6 per square mile. From the table it will be noticed
that in the second and third groups, w^here agriculture was the
predominating industry, the region in 1860 was not so thickly
settled as in Group I ; yet they both enjoyed a continuous rise
in population till 1880, and although they declined from 1880

1 The reason why the population per square mile of Jo Daviess County is high, is ou
account of the relatively large effect of Galena, where about 20 per cent, of the popula-
tion of the county live on one per cent, of its area.

216 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

to 1890, the decline Tvas but slight compared with that which
took j^lace in the first group. This table and explanation, thern,
leads irresistibly to the conclusion that it was the decline in the
lead industry that caused the decline in poj)ulation in Jo
Daviess County, and the figures in the table show at a glance
the measure of this decline.

Having examined the relative movements of population in
the various parts of Jo Daviess County, and having compared
them with the state at large, let us now examine the relative
movement of the property valuations in the same way, in order
to obtain some idea of the wealth of the region. This we may
do by examining the valuations as made by the various assessors.

Table II. — Yaluation per capita.

The figures in the table include both real and personal property and exclude all rail-
way property. The figures for the state are taken from the printed reports of the state
auditors. The figures for the groups of Jo Daviess County are compiled from the
original collector's book in the vault of the County Clerk's office at Galena. Tha record
of each township is kept in a separate book for each year.

State

State, except Cook County

Jo Daviess County

Group I

Group II

Group III

1S60.

1870.

$208.15

$1^2.00 '

203.20

173.00

1

123.10

1:9. S5

1^.54

102.57

113.88

125.35

135.45

142.04

1380.

$239.50
250.00
170.68
120.66
194.50
214.13

1890.

$189.00
204 00
157.71
102.24
184.10
195.77

The striking fact shown by the above table is the decline of
the valuations in the lead region. Starting at a point above the
middle area, they fall rapidly from 1860 to 1870, although for
the other two portions of the county they rose during the same
period. In common with the rest of the state, the valuations in
the lead region rise from 1870 to 1880 on account of the
higher assessments of the latter year, but the rise is by no
m.eans as ^-reat. And, finallv, v\'e notice that the decline from
1880 to 1890 is greater in the lead area than in the other
two. It should be noticed that the figures for the lead group
vary but little. So we find that in valuations, also, the lead
region of Jo Daviess County is an area peculiar and distinct
from the areas Uiat surround it.

Palmer — The Lead Region of Illinois.

21

The only figures available for the nativity of the population
of Jo Daviess County are given in the Federal Census Report
and are for the vear 1870. Thev are as follows:

Table lll.—Xativiti/ in ISIO.

Native.

Jo Daviess County

Group I

Group II

Group III

19,966
7,213
7,975
4,978

Foreign
born.

7,854
3,989
2,734
1,131

Per cent,
foreign.

23. 3
35.5
23.0

13.2

These figures show the greatest proportion of foreign born
to be in the lead, and the least in the non lead producing areas:
The tendency was for a native born population to settle on the
farming lands, while miners from Cornwall and other portions
of Europe settled in the mining region. ^

The most imj)ortant of our problems is that which deals with
the political afiiliations of the population. So many elements
enter into the problem that it is extremely hazardous to arbi-
trarily include certain influences and exclude others. But by
taking a great number of votes and combining them for a series
of years, local and personal considerations may be eliminated.

Table IV shows the combined result of all the votes cast for
the Hepublican and Democratic candidates for both president
and member of Consiress, from 1856 to 1896. From this table
it is seen that the northwestern portion of the county is most
strongly Democratic in character, and when we consider the
measures advocated by that party for the last forty years, this
fact comes to have great significance. The lead region, with
the strongest southern and foreign influence was thus also most
strongly Democratic, 53 per cent, of the total vote of this group
being cast with the Democratic party, while Grouj) III, settled
by farmers from Xew England, cast 65 per cent, of their vote
with the Hepublican party.

1 Copeland, The Cornish in Southwest Wisconsin, Wisconsin Historical Collections,
Vol. XIV.

218 ^yisco}lsi7l Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Table IV. — Vote for presidential electors and congressman 1S56-1896.

Repcblicajj.

Vote.

Group I . . . .

Group II . . .

Group III. .

Total.

19,3:33
22, S31
13, 863

Per cent,
of total.

Democratic.

Vote.

.06, OTt

47

59
G5

I

Av. 56

21,769

15,236

7,420

44,425

Per cent,
of total.

53
41

35

Av. 44

Table Y shows the combiued vote on two measures for town-
ship organization taken April 4, 1854, and April 7, 1857.^
The votes here taken were in accordance with the state law,
which allowed any conntj governed under the precinct system,
to change to the more regular and perfect system of organiza-
tion by toAvnships. The precinct system was a relic of the con-
nection of Illinois with Virginia;^ it was loose and easy work-
ing in its action, but it did not appeal to the more strict and
careful ideas of governmental administration entertained by the
Xew England men who came into the county from 1840 to

Table V. — Vote on township organization.

For

Vote.

Per cent,
of total.

Group I

Group II. ..

Group III.,

Total

685
901
674

2,260

60.5
78.0
82.7

Av. 75.0

Ag.\inst

Vote.

445

255

53

Per cent,
of total.

753

39.5

22.0

7.3

A V. 25.0

1850. The}^ made several attempts to substitute the to'vvnship
for the precinct system, and finally succeeded in doing so, al-
though the influence of the southern element in the population
was strong enough to make Jo Daviess the last county north
of the Illinois River to adopt the township system.^ The

^ The statistics for these votes are taken from boz 110 in the vault of the County Clerk
in Galena.
" History of Jo Daviess County, p. 346.
« lb., p. 347.

Palmer — The Lead Eegiori of Illinois.

219

chasm between the lead region and the other groups reveals itself
in this vote. Practically all the opposition to tovraship organi-
zation comes from the principal lead region. This region sup-
plies the supporters of slavery and the old precinct systean of
county organization, vrhile the non lead producing section, with
its farming population favored the township system, and also
voted with the Republican party.

On Isov. 4, 1862, the people of Illinois were called upon to
vote on the question of adopting a new constitution for the state.
Among several measures on which a separate vote was to be
taken was a proposition to exclude negroes and mulattoes from
Illinois.^

The vote on this measure, the results of which are given in
Table VI, clearly shows the location of the pro-slavery feeling.
Group I is quite largely in favor of excluding the negro, while
Groujo III, the agricultural region in the eastern part of the
county, has a much larger per cent, of voters against the pro-
posal.

Table VI. — Vote on question of excluding negroes -from Illinois.

i?OE

Against

Vote.

Per cent,
of total.

Group I

Group II. .,
Group III
Total

1,063
821
419

75.0
68.0
55.5

Vote.

2,303 lAv.68.5

346

385
332

Per cent.
of total.

25.0
32.0
44.5

1,063

Av.31.5

In Table VII we have the result of a vote on three proposi-
tions for allowing animals to run at large on the highways of
the county. The first vote was taken iSTov. 5, 1872,^ the second
April 6, 1875,3 and the third April 5, 1887.* The vote taken

1 The statistics of this vote were found in box 113 of the vault in the office of the
County Clerk, Galena, Illinois.
'Ibid., box 113.
» Ibid., box 113.
<Ibid.,bo2 526.

220 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

periodically on this question furnishes a good index of the con-
dition of the people. The significance of the vote may best be
indicated by quoting from a personal interview with the County
Clerk, the Hon. William Rippin, who has served the county
for many years. He said, ^^The owners of waste land and the
poor peoi)le were in favor of allowing animals to run at large,
while the farmers who had all improved land were against it.
The owners of waste land and the poor j)eople in the towns were
in favor of the proposition ; the poor people, because they could
pasture on the highways, and the owners of waste land because
they could let their cattle run loose on their waste land, thus
saving the cost of fencing. The reason why the farmers own-
ing all improved land were against the proposition, was because
they preferred to build a pasture fence for what stock they chose
to keep, and allow the rest of their land to go unf enced. Should
the animals be allowed on the highway, it would compel them

Table VII. — Votes on proposition for aUoiving animals to run at large.

Group I

Group II. .
Group III ,
Total

Foe

Vote.

2,436

3,875
1,855

Per cent,
of total.

59.0
47.5
36.0

Against.

Vote.

r,966

Av. 47.5

1,669
4,216
2,932

8,817

Per cenfc.
of total.

41 0
52.5
64.0

Av. 52.5

to keep all their land well protected by fences." Bearing these
facts in mind, it is seen from the table that the lead region and
the towns along the river, except Menominee, took the side of
the poor man and the waste land owner, while the region away
from the river, the agricultural area, just as uniformly took the
opposite view.

To sum up briefly, we have found in our investigation that
two distinct areas exist in Jo Daviess County: the first one
where lead mining was once important, and the other where
agriculture has always been the important industry. The lead
region is the lowest in population and in valuations, is different
from its neighbors in politics, being mostly Democratic, and the

Palmer — The Lead Region of Illinois. 221

majority of its inhabitants are either of foreign or (probably)
of southern birth. The other region is one of no lead, is largely
agricultural, has an increasing population made up largely of
Xew Engianders, favors the Republican party, and assumes a
less pronounced attitude on the negro question. It thus ap-
pears that to study the development of political life in a given
localitv it is important to study the economic conditions which
so powerfully influence the political opinions of the people.

222 Wisco7isin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

CHAPTEK IV.

THE LEAD EEGIOiS" OF DUBUQUE COUIS'TY, lOWA.^

ALLARD J. SMITH, B. L.

The student of history can find few themes of more interest
than the migrations of peoples to new regions and the exploita-
tion of mineral land. Some fifty years ago thousands left the
Eastern states and settled in California, drawn thither by the
discovery of gold, and in more recent years the same thing has
taken place in Southern Africa. It is not generally known,
however, that in our own neighborhood, in southwestern Wis-
consin and across the Mississippi in eastern Iowa, something
of the same kind occurred, only on a much smaller scale. The
discovery of lead caused immigration into these regions and it
is the purpose of this paper to investigate some of the effects
of the influence of the resultins^ industrv in eastern Iowa.

The Erench once owned all this vast domain, from the St.
Lawrence to the mouth of the "Father of Waters," but they
showed here, as elsewhere, that they w^ere failures as colonists.
They built forts at Detroit and St. Marie and, true to their
practice, they built a line of forts from Prairie du Chien to the
Gulf of Mexico. The fort at Prairie du Chien was built in
1740, but this vast country passed into the hands of Spain be-
fore Dubuque came to this region. In 1788, at a council of
chiefs of five Indian villages at Prairie du Chien, Julien Du-
buque received a permit "to work the mine as long as he shall
please and to withhold from it, without specifying any term to
him ; moreover, that they sell and abandon to him all the coast
and the contents of the mine discovered bv Peosta," so that no
white man nor Indian shall make any pretension to it without

lA thesis submitted to the faculty of the University of Wisconsin for the degree of
B. L., June, 1900.

'Peosta was Julien Dubuque's Indian wife. She was a full blooded Indian and the
daughter of the chief.

Smitli — The Lead Region of loiva. 223

tlie consent of Mr. Julien Dubuque; and in case he shall find
nothing within, he shall be free to search wherever he mav
think proper to do so, and to work peaceably without any one
hurting him or doing him any prejudice in his labor. ^

Dubuque began mining at once with a force of ten men, and
in 1795 he got a confirmation of this title by the governor of
Louisiana, Baron de Carondelet. But, through negligence, this
was never confirmed by the king of Spain, so that his claim to
the Spanish mines, extending sixteen miles along the river and
as far back as the mines went, including in all about seventy
thousand acres, was defective and the part that he sold to
Auguste Ohosteau in 1S04 was retained by the United States,
and the part uusold reverted to the United States in spite of
the protests of his heirs. "^

In 1810 Julien Dubuque died and his settlement was aban-
doned and remained so for nearly twenty years on account of
the incessant Indian warfare. But in 1827, Galena was incor-
porated and many settlers were attracted there by the lead, and
a few of the hardier ones crossed the Mississippi to Dubuque,
or as it was known then, the Spanish Mines, and there settled
as miners.

The people brought together by the discovery of valuable
minerals, whether in Australia, Africa or America, have gen-
erally settled in the regions to which they emigrated before the
advent of any government, and consequently the miners were
obliged to make a temporary government for themselves. Du-
buque proved no exception, and in 1830, under the lead of I. L.
Langworthy, the miners, having previously obtained permis-
sion from the Indians to work the mines, met about an old Cot-
tonwood log near the banks of the Mississippi River and pro-
ceeded to enact a miners' agreement. Thev affirmed that thev
would l:)e governed by the regulations in force at the Galena
mines on the other side of the river, excepting that each man
was to hold two hundred yards square of ground by working
one day in six, and also that an arbitrator, to be elected by them,
was to settle all disputes.

1 Picard, Dubuque in Territorial Days, Iowa Historical Record, Oct. 1S93, p. 542.
"^ SeeUnited States Supreme Court Case of Chosteau vs. Malouey, 15 Howard, 203.

224 Wisco72sin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Tliev had been at work hwi a few niontlis when the United
States government stepped in and sent a body of troops from
Prairie dii Chien to move the settlers back across the Missis-
sippi. In 1832, at the close of the Black Hawk "War, when the
Sacs and Foxes ceded a strip forty miles wide from the upper
Iowa River to the northern bonndarv of Missouri ; the miners
returned but were again driven back. In the year 1833
the troops were withdrawn and the United States government
took control of the land. Thev reserved all mineral lands from
sale and leased the mines to the individual. This system was
soon discontinued, but not until 1839 were the titles to mineral
lands secure.

During this period many people, drawn hither by the great
richness of the mines, came to Dubuque. At first this mining
area was called the Spanish Mines, and later the Dubuque
Mines. These names did not seem to give any hint of civiliza-
tion, nor were they in accord with the dignity of the place. So
by a vote of the citizens this lead mining district of Iowa was
called Dubuque.

In 1834 the district had increased largely in size and was peo-
pled, so far as we Avere able to discover, by the usual mining
class. In 1836, the year in which territorial government went
into operation, Dubuque had a town site platted and the next
year the village was incorporated. At their first election, when
the community had a population of about thirteen hundred, six
hundred and tw^enty-one votes were polled, showing that a ma-
jority of the citizens were men of voting age. That this region
was growing with wonderful rapidity is attested by the incor-
poration of Dubuque under a city charter four years after it
was incorporated as a village. By 1846, the year Iowa was ad-
mitted to statehood, Dubuque was no longer a detached settle-
ment on the frontier, but an important center of population and
trade in a well-ordered commonwealth. With this date we may
bring our historical sketch to a close.

In this, as in other mining regions, the surface of the land
gives to a tyro no inkling of the wonderful possibilities beneath
the exterior. Peru, Julien, Jefferson and Center Townships,
those in which great quantities of lead were found, extend about
twelve miles along the river and back about the same distance.

Smitli — The Lead Begioii of Iowa. 225

Julien Township, on the river, is a very broken and hilly coun-
try, in fact, it is made up almost entirely of high blnffs and
deep ravines, and was, before the time of the settlers, heavily
timbered land. Peru, also on the river, is of much the same
character as Julien ; great quantities of lead were found herOo.
In fact, Dubuque, in Julien Township, was built up by the lead'
trade. Center and Jefferson Townships, which next to Peru^
and Julien produced the greatest quantities of lead, belong nat-
urally together. The land here is broken as in Julien and
Peru, but is still very hilly. Center is quite heavily timbered,,
■while Jefferson is not; otherwise they are very much alike.
These four townships produced the greatest quantities of lead,
and as this paper seeks to show the results of the lead trade by
differentiating the lead producing and non lead producing areas,
they may be considered as forming one area. Liberty, l^ew
Wine, Iowa, Dodge, Taylor, Vernon, Cascade, Whitewater,.
Prairie Creek and Washington townships show no lead at all,
or at most, a mere trace of it, and they form together what we shall
call the non lead producing area. Liberty, Xew Wine, Dodge,
and Cascade Townships have soil of an average kind and not
the slightest trace of lead. Whitevvater and Taylor are each
about half broken timber land and half prairie and each has a
trace of lead, but none of an^' importance. Iowa and Washing-
ton have clay soil, no timber, and are somewhat hilly, while
Prairie Creek and Vernon have unbroken, sandy, prairie land.
Eeiween these two divisions we have a third, composed of those
townships w^hich are neither mining nor farming areas, but are
a mixture of the two. In this class we will put Concord, Table
Mound and Mosalem. Mosalem Township, on the river, is
made up of broken land. Some lead was mined here, but it was
not found except near the river, and then in no very great abun-
dance. Table Mound had good mining lands in the extreme
northern part, but more than two-thirds of the township has clay
or sandy soil. Concord had mines in the northeastern quarter
of the toAvnship, but the rest is hilly, w^ith soil of the average
kind and no trace of lead. ^

' The foregoing description is taken from R. D. Owou's Report oa Lead Region. Sen.
Docs., 28th Cong., 1st Sess., Vol. 7, 1843-44.

15

226 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Thus we see that we have divided the count j into three nat-
ural divisions. For the purposes of this paper we will consider
the region of maximum lead production as Grouj^ I. The inter-
mediate region as Group II, and the region which produces
practically no lead as Group III. The subjoined map shows
the divisions just described and gives also the location of the
lead mines — those jDortions of the map heavily shaded. It is
seen that there were a great many mines in Julien, Peru, Jef-
ferson and Center Townshi23S, a few in ]\Iosalem, Table Mound
and Concord, and only one or two of minor importance in our
great non lead producing area.

Immigrants poured into this region early and it developed
fast. There were settlers here in 1833, and bv 1852 the to\\ai-
ship organization had been effected. It is unfortunate that no
well tabulated census report can be found for the period before
1852, for it was then that the region, especially in the lead area,
developed most rapidly. There were no mines being developed
elsewhere at this time to draw off the population as there were
after 1849 when gold was discovered in California, nor was
there any war such as the great Civil War to drain this country
of her busy workers.

Table I. — Po2}ulation iier square onile.

Compiled from Census of Iowa, 18S0 aud 1895.

Smith — The Lead Region of Iowa. 227

It was found impossible to separate Dubuque and Julien, and
so tliev were both omitted in one case and included in the other.
Dubuque had such an enormous increase in population from
causes other than the lead trade that if it were included, the
tables of population por square mile would not correctly repre-
sent the actual situation. From the table it is seen that the
population in Group I grew very slowly from 1850 to 1880.
We knovr that the lead industry was on the decline during the

For map of Iowa, see plate XXI, p. 213.

witn some aegree oi cerLainiy ijuiat ix lu uau. i±v^u iLf^:;^^^ ^^/x u^jiv.
city of Dubuque, the lead area as a whole would show a much
greater decline in population. The population of the inter-
mediate or middle area, seems to have been an unstable one.
The population per square mile in 1860 was greater than it
was at any subsequent time until 1880, after which there came
another decline. This may be attributed to the war and also
to the exhaustion of the lead mines of this region. The mines
in this middle .'^irea were not very numerous nor were they par-
ticularly rich in mineral, so that they were not opened till the
mines in the most productive region had all been opened, and
in many cases worked out. The mines of the middle area w^ere,
therefore, soon exhausted and this fact, combined with the
breaking out of the war in 1860, caused the moving of many
families from these regions. Then later came the impetus
toward agriculture and a slight rise in population; but there
were better lands not far distant, so that the population did not
long remain at its high stage, but rapidly declined.

Group III, our non lead producing area, was settled rapidly
and rose suddenly in population during the period of 1860-75.
At this time there seems to have been a slight decline, but in
1895 it had fully recovered and stood first.

Population and wealth go together. We have prepared a

22S Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Aiis,, and Letters.

table of per capita values for the period 1875-95. The figures
Tvere ohtaiiied from the assessors' returns on file in the office
of the Auditor of Dubnqne Coimtv. The books containing fig-
ures previous to 1875 could not be found. ^

Table II. — Per capita of total property valuations.

For IS'^O the figures for personal property alone are given.

Group I.
TEzcluding
Dubuque.]

Group II.

Group III.

1875

99.0

23.0

117.5

142.3

143.5

99.7
136.3
161.7
135.9

184.7

124.9

1880

34.7

1885

237.4

1890

176.5

1895

212.5

"We see by this table that the lead region by 1875 had already
passed its period of most rapid development and was increasing
in wealth and numbers more slowly than the rest of the county.
In twenty years the wealth per capita of this lead area increased
only from $99.0 to $143.5, while in the middle area the increase
was from $99.7 to $184.7, and in the non lead producing area
from $124.9 to $212.5. After the land had been worked for
mines it was as a rule fit for little else, and with the exhaustion
of the mines came decline in population and wealth per capita
for these regions, as already shown.

The comparative strength of the political parties in these
three areas mav be seen from the followins: table which shows
the vote in Dubuque County for president from 1860 to 1896,
and the vote for governor in 1854 and in 1857. In the first
column are the total number of votes cast, either Democratic or
Republican. In the second column is given the per cent, of the
total cast for the Democratic and Republican candidates, re-
spectively. The figures for the city of Dubuque are omitted
from this table.

1 It was a task of considerable difficulty to collect these valuation figures. The figures
for each town are recorded in a separate volume and many of these volumes are miss-
ing. The auditors have made it a practice never to keep any census report longer than
ten years. After that time the reports are stored in the basement of the court house.

Smith — The Lead Region of loiva.

229

Table III. — Yotes in vresidential elections 1S60-06. Gubernatorial elec-
tions of 185^ and 1857.

Group I.
[Excluding Dubuqvie.]

Group II.

Group III.

Total vote.

Pel' cent,
of total.

Total vote.

1

Per cent,
of total.

Total vote.

Per cent,
of total.

Dem.

Rep.j

1

35

Dem.

1

76

Rep.

Dem.

108

Rep.

Dem.

Rep.

Dem.

Rep.

Dem.

Rep.

1854,.

Ill

24

1
50

69

31

1 392

215

65

35

1857..

113

20

85

15

162

41

80

20

' 577

317

65

35

1860 .

282

147

67

33

222

69

77

23

1

1,211

1

632

65

35

1864..

370

161

67

.33

361

102

78

' 1,364

532

72

28

1868..

395

236

63

37

391

108

79

21

1,669

720

70

30

1872..

360

212

64

36

299

115

73

27

i 1,381

618

70

30

1876..

477

133

80

20

485

182

71

29

i 1,730

671

73

27

1880..

429

143

76

24

422

105

81

19

, 1,844

693

73

27

1884..

529

213

72

28

417

187

: "^0

30

! 2,114,

640

.77

23

1888..

505

197

72

28

371

172

69

31

2,178

523

81

19

1892..

439

107

81

19

415

153

74

36

{ 2,099

639

77

23

1896..

408

173

71

29

411

1

197

78

22

i 2,074

1

831

70

80

If we examine these votes bv townsMps^ ^ye shall find that
only one of them, Taylor, goes Eepnblican from 1852 to 1896,
and that three, Dodge, Cascade and Whitewater, are divided,
usually going Democratic. The rest of the county is Demo-
cratic by large majorities.

In the votes of the lead producing area we can see the opposi-
tion of the river element to the policy of prohibition, important
for a part of this period in the Eepublican party. There is
here, too, plainly enough the influence of the South on the river
towns. Groups I and II show a greater fluctuation in their
Democratic majorities than does the third group.

In summarizing the conclusions so far reached we may say
that the lead region of Dubuque County had at first a very rapid
growth in numbers and in wealth, but as the mines gave out the
people of enterprise began to move away, so that today the reg-
ion is not so prosperous as formerly. The city of Dubuque, in-
deed, took its rise from the lead trade, but as this occupation de-

1 See Api)endix D, table IV.

230 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

cliiied in importance, she was able, on account of her good har-
bor a,nd fine location, to turn her attention to other lines of busi-
ness and to continue as pros]3erous as ever.

The middle area in Dubuque County was neither an impor-
tant lead producing section nor a good farming region, so that
after its mines were exhausted it declined in importance.

The non lead producing area was settled last, but it has
gi'own rapidly and steadily ever since settlement. The wealth
of the county centered at first in the lead area. In 1875 the
middle area had equalled the lead area, while the non lead pro-
ducing area had outstripped them both. In 1895 the third area
had a per capita valuation of $212.5, the middle area $184.7,
and the lead area $143.5.

Along with this change in relative rank in population and
wealth, these three areas show certain parallel differences in
political affiliations. The third area has always been more
Republican, while the lead and middle areas had just as strongly
a Democratic tendency. Thus is shown the influence of eco-
nomic factors upon social and political life.

Lihhif — Study of Lead Region: Appendix.

231

APPEXDIX A.

The population table in this appendix was compiled from the
figures found in the various bine books of the state and also in
the history of a state or conntj only after a careful study of
local conditions.

The valuations for 1885 and 1895 were taken from the state
census reports for those years.

The statistics regarding farm products for 1877-97 were ob-
tained from the unbound reports of grown crops, filed in the
vault of the office of the Secretarv of State. In case of certain
towTis in Grant and Lafayette counties, for which figures are
given in Appendix B, Miss Stanton's figures were used without
verification. All the material of this last sort has never yet
been published by towns.

Table I — Population by tovjtis, 1860-95.

Grant County.

1860

1865

1870

1875

1880

1885

139Q 1895

Is o .
{ cc ra 03

is ^3

Beetown

Clifton

Platterille

Potosi

Total

Remainder of Grant Co

Iowa County.

Dodgeville

Highland

Linden

Mifflin

Mineral Point

Ridgeway

Total

Remainder of Iowa Co

Lafayette County.

Benton

New Diggings

Shullsburg

White Oak Springs

Total

Remainder of Lafayette Co.

1,482! 1,740

958
i 2,682
2,081

877
3,039

1,624
1,076
3,683

2,754, 2,686

l,717i 1,530! 1,301

999
4,060
2,644

1,0781 1,073

7,2031 8,410! 9,069| 9,420

3,813
2,375

24, 014I25, 208, 28, 806129, 666

2, ISO 3,6221 3,708
2,4091 2,656! 3,016

1,645
1,220
3,623

1,794
1,196
3,808

1,982 2,437

13.15915,513

2,054
1,490
4,825
2,489

4,638

17,. 582

8,796

3,725
3,024
2,059
1,526
4,581

2,473

f

29,056

3,540
3,345

3,877
2,147

8,398

1,257
1,074
3,687

1,130
1,044
4,253

2,110] 2,061

8,12Sl 8,488

28,879,28,523

,1

3,492
3,240

l,996i 1,985

1.529
4,405
2,348

5,144 6,962

2,089 1,971

1,689

2,491

513

1,726

2.718
528

6,7S2| 6,943

11,359

1,723

1,794

2,702

540

6,759

13,40515,900

17,388

1,398
4,309
2,531

29,884

3,299 3,682
3,284! 3.298

1,861
1,465
3,965
2,331

1,397
1,557
4,381
2,454

6.745

1,681

1,805

2,540

446

6,472

15,697

17,163116,955 16,205

6,455

1,519

1,641

2,244

451

5,855

15,423

4,917

1,417

1,482

2,197

449

5.545

14,922

5,912

1,245

1,374

2,270

384

5,27J

14,992

16,769

175

989

515

6,678

1,458

1,325

2,155

433

5,371

16.117

225

106.5

513.5

•232 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Table II. — Bushels of wheat, hy toir^is, 1877-97

1

1877 1 1880

1882

1886

1889

1892

1895

1897

Grant Co ...

263,SC01 225,574j 155,960

1 1 '.

169.840
4,941

131,170

1

137,261

47.492

104 271

.

Beetown

I 1 1 ,

2,035 1,980 932

2,078

1,555

722

2,617

€lifton

6,39S| 8,012| 6,000

1 5,468

1 3,620

1 4,8201 960'l 1,96!

Platteville

2,773

Q '>10

4,812

7,723
7,800

4,900
7,915

3 360

4,370
3,635

435

1,625

2.599

Potosi

5,560

599

Total

*><■> 47K "^o '^^Qf '>9 ■l^"

23,224

14,618

14,380

2,716

8 80(j

Remainder of Grant
Co

243,324

196,935

133,505

146.616

1

116,552

112,881

44,776

1

95,471

Iowa Co

9fi1 fiflOl 901 S^Q

141 'idi

I
117.915

1

75,494

80,821

38,305

61.613

, !

Dodsreville

1 1

1

37,6081 31,368

1
48,966 25,274

1

17 762

12,894
30,860

7,221

12,254

6,642

4,471

12,125

Highland

18,667

15,875

10,510

12,361

Linden

13,720

9,950

7,226

3,907

1,240

2,490

50

1,537

Mifflin

5,926

8,889

' 3,410

2,235

402

387

508

Mineral Point

10,222|' 12,355

9,38S

4, SOS

4,674

2,461

1,090

679

Ridffewav <

45,795| 24,019

19,900

11,536

14,133

9.180

1,658

5.946

Total

162 237 111 R?^=i

76,353

67,2.'?7

40,014

37,035

17,779

33,156

98 763

Remainder of Iowa
Co

S9 ftSi

65,041

59,324

49,678

35,480

43,786

20,526

27,457

Lafayette Co

34,440; 212,537

49,487

27,626

14,255
530

1.334

1

9, i9o

1

Benton *

4,199

2,623

1.500

1,864

839

1

385

New Diggings

1.100

5,8.52

5.180

3,205

1,790

450

2^

Shnll *;hnv"' j

1 050

3,214

1.700

1,304
1,523

1 397

6>5

White Oak Springs.

1

359

936

60

63^

Total

6.3491 13,389

9,507

6,825

4,190

1,030
13,225

1,298

Remainder of Lafay-
ette Co

; 1

28,091 199,148

49,817

42,662

22.436!

1,334

8,49.3

Lihhy — Study of Lead Region: Appendix. 233

Table III. —Bushels of corn, by to2vns, 1877-97.

1877.

1880.

2,520,998

81,000
109,740
147,780
225,080
573, 5S0

1,947,418

1,826,898

120,850
93,230
151,200
165,780
147, 515
152,995
831,570

495,328

2,010,545

156,190

69,360

173,900

100,800
500,250

1882.

2,303,631

49,650

85,200

80,480

120,670

336,000

1,972,631

1,216,948

95,875
97, 550
149,740
150, OCO
136, 347
145,210
774,722

442,226

1,896,292

1886.

1,378,618

81,040
54,875
20,293
67,670

18-89.
2,394,132

1S92.
1,646,364

1^95.
1,153,252

1897.

Grant Co

2,428,444

3,284,813

Beetown

Clifton

Platteville ....
Potosi

49,000

77,748

118,462

141,285

386, 495

2,041,949

1,374,277

134,465
113,485
219,900
162,693
125,645
140,740
896,928

477,349

3,404,367

66,720

83,755

102,325

107,940

360, 730

1,933,402

47,745

74,380

103, 155

64,075

34,925
31,405
59,425
86,375
212, 130

941, 122

194,531

115,200
123,530

181,3r)0

Total

^Remainder of
Grant Co

223, «78
1,154,740

289,355
1,3.")7,009

614,631
2,670,182

Iowa Co

747,854

1,136,400

58,650

45,711

144,810

97,200

97,625

153,245

597,241

539, 159

1,624,8.53

100,920
47,950
94,500
59,900

303,270

805, 514

-. :

41,311

46,666
105,600
102,385

89,771
125,420
511,133

294,381

1,010,258

95,725
35,300

112,150
26,500

269,675

740, 583

728,160

69,860
59,285
79,775
48,135
52,165
135,465
444.685

1,443,802

Dodgeville

Highland

Linden

Mifflin

55,100
67,200
89,362
55,620
79,040
106,838
453, 160

2^4,694

146,950

95,075

161,335

172, 290

Mineral Point.

Ridgeway

Total

50,845
146,070
772,615

Remainder of
Iowa Co

281,475

785,304

37,415

26,100
137, 500

26,580
227,595

557, 709

671,187

Lafayette Co —

887, 697

45,205
38,096
74,960
41,280
199, 541

688, 156

2,139,094

Benton

New Diggings.

; Shnllsburg

White Oak Sp.
Total

128,308
76,000

187,495
59,200

451,003

2,953,364

160,000
77,950

136, 650
56, 455

431,0.55

1,465,237

137,700
85,750

144,250
97,175

484,875

Remainder of
Lafayette Co. .

1,510,295

1,321,583

1,674,219

234 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

Table IV.— Bushels of oats, by towns, 1877-97.

1877.
1,880,631

1880.
1,598,021

18S2.
1,823.445

1886. 1889.
1.743, 2392, 760,346

1892.
1,807,209

1895.

1897.

GrantCo

1,777,042

2,829,703

Beetown

Clifton

Platteville....
Potosi

27,613

80,664

101,046

83,950

49,774

68,712

99,270

103,094

320,850

1,277,171

43, 486

63,400

73,405

139,321

319,612

1,503,833

77,140

77,328

74,638

89,815

318,977

1,424,262

59,280
131,005
137,835
114,096
442,226

2,318,120

59,245
118,700
115,745

84,015
377,705

1,429,504

38,985
60,245
80,655
62,635
242,520

1,534,522

108,085
111,730
102,700
131,060

Total

Eemainder of
Grrant Co

293,278

1,-587,358

453,575
2,365,128

Iowa Co

1,231,408

1,097,382

1,309,109

99,026

92,715

152,495

226,000
127,482
166,940
864,658

434,451

1.0r,9,986

1,625,498

163,818
131,896
156,919
17,254
201,250
244,101
915,238

710,260

1,508,733

113,860
121,558
168,600
174,330
171.528
205,816
955,692

553,041

1,222,280

198,408
156, 170
144,633
122,575
105,628
129,841
857,255

365,025

762,484

1,672,157

Dodgeville

Highland

Linden

Mifflin. - . .

153,886
110,074
147,100
151,409
108,899
112,710
784,078

547,330

111,122

86,308
128,770
136,592
103,750
133,990

96,449
117,435

122,850
118,960
106,785
134,726
697,20.")

362,781

247,110
157,542
142,410
161,831

Mineral Point.
Ridgeway

50,580
230,727

Total

700,532

396,850

1,670,684

990,200

Remainder of
Iowa Co

681,957

Lafayette Co —

1,7.36,233

1,707,9.';2

1,377,106

1,826,476

I, 060,685

1,682,067

Benton — ...

New Diggings.
ShuUsburg —
White Oak Sp.

107,318

11,000

142,526

31,911

109,330
57,117

143,478
69.300

379,225

1,291,459

127,470
61,990

140,275
47, 782

377,517

1,329,435

1

27,910

60,650
106,050

37,264
2.31,874

1,145,232

97,207
48,950

106, 700
46,906

299,763

1,526,713

94,950
26,950

117,995
43,200

283,095

777,590

40,260
17,350

124, 100
27,820

209,530

552,954

81,975

47,350

102,300

62,720

Total

292, 755
1,443,478

294,345

Remainder of
Lafayette Co..

1,387,712

Lihhy — Study of Lead Region: Appendix.

235

Table Y.— Pounds of butter^ by towns, 1877-97.

1877.

684,142

6,775

20,283

42,425

37, 180

106,6;'3

577,479

1880.

930, 757

27,425
23,890
34,245
53,960
139.520

791,237

1882.
1,111,080

1886.
1,254,338

1889.
1,502,478

1892.

982,720

26,750

43,600

2,975

35,900

109,225

1895.

1897.

Grant Co

1,209,968

1,584,139

Beetown

Clifton

Platteville,...
Potosi

19,300
30,000
25, 725
89,495
164,520

39,954
28, 325
21,135
45,945
135,359

1,118,979

24,014

47,900
36,700

20.645

40,410

406,075

57,380

50,636
58,100
66,000
7G 910

108,614

Total

524,510

251,646

Remainder of
Grant Co

946, 560

1,392,864

873,495

685,458

1,332,493

Iowa Co

532,045

686,603

790,847

884,781

1,149,589

876, 733

1,107,487

175,500

123,630
91,550
33,865

155,241
79,300

659,086

448,401

1,413,905

Dodgeville

Highland

Linden

Mifflin

66,200
46,135
33,450
44,030
44, 787
83,630
324,252

207, 793

77,431
54,567
87,000
59, 715
92,985
72,370
464,068

222, 545

58,607

56,330

141,050

93,248
59,950
116,750
40,400
128,950
123,178
562,476

322,305

780,492

189,700
51,237

270,965
74,500
98,212

147,620

812,234

337,335
762,180

47,450
123,010

150,900
32,275
64,763

106,850

153,550

161,150

141,500

60, 225

Mineral Point.
Ridge way

107,850
125,290

52,901
113,015

Total

Remainder of
Iowa Co

489,127
301,720

525,248
351,485

682,341
731,564

Lafayette Co.. ..

702,488

783,140

1,025,614

535,491

697,900

1,030,092

Benton

New Dieeines.

43,200
18,000
43,117
20,000
124,317

28,370
23,100
59,058

27,495
65,469
51,390
32,300
176,654

848,960

25, 595
31,780
43,525
34,937
135,837

644,655

33, 755
32,200
35,000
24,900
125,855

636,325

37,970
26,800

6,100

82,136
69,800

Sbullsburer ....

6,000
34,250
46,350

40,000

White Oak Sp.

64,770
460,721

39,350

Total

110,528
672,612

231,286

Remainder of
Lafayette Co.

8,17175

651,550

808,806

236 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

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t- O X CS -r i-i

CM -♦ Cj CS r- o-f
t— CS '~ ■-■: n —<

— < »-( 1— 1 I— tSM

01

\n

IcM

o

o

; so

«

fc.O

i"

CO

CO

1 ^

.o

\ Ol

%

»o

I O x^ CS o

t~ -TOSCO
CSC- CM CO

X

X

l.O

1^

€«■

CS

O

in
c^i

€«•

o uo «(oo
i<gr:ocM

uO OJ t- t-

cT CO Oi-T

O 1 rl CM n

o

es

CO

CO

s

CO

r—

CS

iS^

1
1

se-

oo

1 e^i

€/J-

,«.-

OS CO lO o o o
CO -» in -^ CS i-<

so I— C-l t— S^l -*

I i-Tc-rXCO CM~-^
~ COCMIMCM-«>

t-

•o

!-i

t—

t^l

CO 1

t-

V,^J

|CS 1

^

S

i o

^^

-w^

CO

ee

^-

;Si

OCSOCO
C^i CO c— .ti

l-^.»^■'^fc^

1-1 rH CM
€©■

O
CM

CS

€e

ee-

in

'^
in

CO

t—

o

se

; O 1^ m

I Ift OCM

t- CO ;

CM in-fO
OJ I— < in 1— 1
m c- X in

o

CO

CV1

ee-

in

o

»3-

co

1-^
X

I in

I-*

Ix
lee-

moo
csoo

— CvIX

OCSO
CMSOCfi

•"j-co t--

cs t~ ?: o X ■* I CO

'.O O -^ -^ CO t~

CS CO 1— 1 o Os 1— <
ee- .^

X

in
ee-

CM

CM

tH

CO

SM

ee-

o
t—

so

ee^

inco t- in
t- CM in CO
CO 1-1 in c^'

-Hsooin
Xin socs

CO

so

CO oo

n CO

f^

in

O

p

c3

iX>

o o2 «
eaoftncu

o

o
u

H

.2 o

fl^ 1.V « — 03 P

o
o

as

o

O

a

E.

o

2 - ^

a;

(!3

o

o
®

CO

O
C'
<c

G

"Si

p

Stanton — Study of Lead Region: Appendix. 237

APPEXDIX B.

The sources for the tables in this appendix are as follows :

1. Parm products, 1878-97. Unbound original records in
the vault of the office of the Secretary of State.

2. Valuations and products for 1860 and 1870. Bound orig-
inal records as above.

3. Valuations and products for 1885 and 1895. Wisconsin
census for the same vears.

Table I. — Population, 1860-95.

urant County towns. | 1860

1865

I

1870 I 1875

1880

1885

1890

1895

Harrison

Hazel Green
Jamestown .

Paris

Platteville ..

Potosi

Smelser

963

984

1,045

1,049

1,090

1,078

2,542

2,686

2,161

2,121

1,821

1,764

1,402

1 362

1,114

1,194

1,215

1,149

6S2

771

907

940

876

803

2,682

3,039

3,683

4,060

3,813

3,877

2,734

2,754

2 686

2,644

2,375

2,147

1,116

1,330

1,291

1,330

1,283

1,191

1,020
1,549
961
778
3,687
2,110
1,295

1,010
1,453
1,002
832
4,253
2.061
1,375

Lafayette Co. towns. |

j

J

Belmont

Benton

Center

Darlington

Elk Grove

Gratiot

Kendall

Monticello

Is"ew Diggings

Seymour

Shullsburg

White Oak Springs...
Willow Springs

735
2,089
1,917

1,316

1,006

1,132

459

1,6S9[

855
1,971
2,692

1,405

1,323

978

473

1,726

1,303
1,723

1,251
1,681

2,491
513
843

2,718
523
950

2,773
1,377
1,718
1,131

480
1,794

479
2,702

540
1,117

2,671
933

1,721
888
469

1,805
938

2,540
446

1,064

1,244
1,519

2,599
959

1,634
849
413

1,641
898

2,245
451

1,089

1,173
1,417

1,185
1,245

2,641
868

1,489
792
325

1,482
839

2,197
449

1,041

2,682
788

1,511
754
305

1,374
783

2,270
384
931

1,274
1,487

2,936
802

1,558
705
311

1,325
803

2,155
433
989

238 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Aris, and Letters.

Table II.
1S7S.

CVsl-'S

Grant Co

Harrison

Hazel Green . . .

Jamestown

Paris

Piatteville....

Potosi

Smelser

Lafayette Co

Belmont

Benton

Darlington

Elk Grove

Gratiot

KendaU

Monticello

New Diggings..

Seymour

Shullsburg

White Oak Sps.
WiUow Springs

316, 558

4,650
7,26iJ

12,705
8,048
6, 535

14,494
5,620

63,018

5,138
3,812
4,641
2,821
5,116
6,820
0

6,119
3,925
1,171
397
4,535

o

03

yj O

O CO

P O

a s

2, 710, 760| 1, 655, 13S 4, 945 725, 257 87, 295 24, S75

CO ^

o'3

o .

2-C

K

60,580
222,070

73,330

2,039

157,069

164,370

214,475

2,021,031

141,300
149,825

76,400
173,965
229, 737

82,021
10i,350

65,140
188,955
172, 710

84,900

96,400

35,450
147,450

74,080

29,690
105,798

72,412
116,822

10 31,885
2,400 70,000

0
0
0
1
0

20,545
10,460
34, 510
14 35,228
29,115

2,056,00917,440 723,158

120, 720
91,630
70,700

727,300

192,740
74,629
78,993
50,473

141,935
98,624
12,270
40,490

27
2,270

63,520111,459

24,660
23,075

23! 23,650

2,500
300
750
1,000
1,674
400
705

19,410
95,S00
40, 100
19,805
8,625
53, 643
37,110

10,800

0

0

0
3,700

0

0

120
3,400
1,580

374
1,102

626
2.479

0

0

9,500

0

0

0
10,600

0
3,600

0

40 18,600l 8,C0i')

850

20,4101 0

1,340
0

358
125
3,550
1,030
270
342
940
0
0
400

®

63,642

O (S
en 3

^ — •

1,953

350
1,808

739
1,520
4,152
1,555

30,835

1,560
370

1,547
320

5,704

1,344
120

120

I
520!

I
240

0 I

593!

179,947

8,727
10,000
15,3iO

8.973
15,548
14,873

6,104

89,476

5,095
3,790
5,031
5,476
9,065
9,225
2,602
2,193
6,037
5,664
1,125
6,288

Stanton — Study of Lead Region: Appendix, 239

Table III.
18SO.

Grant Co

Harrison

Hazel Green

Jamestown

Paris

Platteville

Smelser

Lafayette Co

Belmont

Benton

Darlington

Elk Grove

Gratiot

Kendall

Monticello

New Diggings

Seymour

ShuUsburg

White Oak Sps....
Willow Springs. ..

I— H CO

25,574

5,272
6,797
11,422
11,422
4,812
6,214

212,537

6,490
2,623
6,48:
2,455

22,342
6,343
1,320
5,852
7,295
3,214
1,700

13,972

o

2,520,998

13,960
205,800

47,884

47,814

147,780

181,250

03

I— I .

3 O

1,598,021

37,465
154, 886
56,607
56,607
99,270
125,948

2,000,345 1,670,684

146,800

156, 190

136,700

181,800

209,550

84,585

97,400

69,360

141,900

173,900

100,800

52,880

122,660

109,330

107,549

121,200

154,508

78,412

88,100

57, 117

I 'Ti I

9 ~ a> I

H I

o u

o .

2q

46,425! 930,757

I'-i

1,117| 34,560
1,936 75,550

95,322

908

908

1,913

1,306

26,372

1,490
1,648
5,325

722
2,113

144
1,400

200

143,550' 1,620

143,478

69,300
52,649

1,670

0
1,156

17,110
17,110
34,245
53,350

783,140

31,900
28,370
72,875
29,150
81,540
36, 454

17,700
0
0
0

5,122
0

29,900

0
0

3,300
0
0
0

20,45019,900

23,100
61,200

0
5,000

42,639

94

3,388
5,162
5,162
3,400

5,658

26,311

<o

37,130

1,177

85

=41 M

O <D

CO 5

03

223,633

11,605
15,340

529i 12,267

529

1,922

649

11,552

12, '267
11,025
10,031

109,283

59,058

500

0

0

25,000

0

3,895

280
2,804
1,450
8,414
4,239

0

554

800

0

0

330

1,260
230
237
380

1,049
776
135
237
480
225
0
244

7,085
5,765
7,278
7,500
7,742
10,863
1,975
2,808
9,090
6,490

5,455

240 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters,

Table IV.

18S4-.

Bushels of
corn.

Cm

o

Toils of
cultiva-
ted grass.

1,281,005

ei-i
X §

r: ©

Bushels of
barley.

Bushels of
rye.

Bushels of
potatoes.

Grant Co

232, 73h

2,246,321

2,127,974

1
71,598

121,340

.55,923

77,285

308, 77»

Harrison

Hazel Green..
Jamestown. . . .
Paris

6,663

4,606

11,951

8,650

8,812

11,536

4,115

1

19,773

122,600

88,170

49,641

103, 105

121,545

ng.g.-io

32,191
114,360
89, 127
61,226
105, 750
107,018
153,365

1,827
2,971
2,2.53
1,358
2,996
2,525
3, .311

29,914

36, 965
36, 895
23,105
25,005
50,245
73,875

16,560

0

0

0
2,000

0

0

420
3,0.54
4,897
3,327
4,222
2,046
3,365

3,627
354
1,228
1,946
5,391
4,868
4,663

10,061
8,405

21 295

10,832
8,156

18,580
8,997

Platteville.,..
Potosi

Smelser

Lafayette Co.. ..

69,075

1,591,590

1,661,479

49,234

1,1.53,954

123,700

71,507

17,749

3,539

185

703

2,700

1,741

2,059

0

246
275
100
75
215

119,538

Belmont

Benton .

Darlington —

Elk Grove

Gratiot

Kendall

Monticello

New Diggings.

Seymour

ShuUsburg [

White Oak Sps
Willow Sps....

4,347
1,100
6,957
2,720
7,082
5,1201

827
5,336
4,785
1,675

751
5,032

111,130

130,520

110,550

136,000

158,580

92,775

52,600

83,330

1

138,500

134,480

73,000

110,690

153,320
105,950

8S,650
135,700
158,770
104,457

60,120

71,669
122,715
114,650

46,275
111,517

2,758

2,208

5,000

3,385

4,460

2,396

2,595

2,206

2,516

3,374i

2,265

2,821

40,616
26,575
280,000
27,800
99,382
39, 430
42,400
37,74e
69,745
55, 580
45, 725
70,546

0
0

450
0
0
0
0

50
0
0

1,200
0

6,179

400

14,350

3.285

12,440

10,843

675

2,552

8,640

3,810

70

3,913

6,173

5,285
8,747
5,080
9,507
10,407
1,760
3,869
8,315
8,115
2,922
9,304

Stanton — Study of Lead Region: Appendix. 241

Table V.
1SS6.

o .

CM
O

<n

A*

1— t

Bushels of
oats.

•J.

1 m
ri a

^ > u

H

Pounds of
butter.

it-i

Bushels of
barley.

Bushels of
rye.

Bushels of
potatoes.

Grant Co

169.840

1,378,618

1,713,239

106,861

1,254.328

167,355

81,578

41,163

140,960

Harrison

5,093

30, 655

31,201

2,03-i

40,950

9,3G0

670

2,769

4,941

Hazel Green..

4,520

126,675

149,822

3,702

43, 162

0

4,128

235

8.727

Jamestown —

7,212

54,535

84,989

2,405

29,360

0

2,891

225

14,291

Paris

5,570

4,900

28,400
20,293

60,001

74,6.88

1,739

18,981

21,596
21,135

0
0

1,465
6,280

603
3,290

6,340

Platteville ....

4,787

Potosi

7,915

2,168

67,670
89,860

89,815
114,045

2,296
3,354

45,945
47,260

0
0

1,530
5,286

2,304
1,865

9,971

Smelser

5,005

Lafayette Co —

49,487

887,697

1,377,106

53,847

780,492

155, a35

103,240

14,805

65,693

Belmont

■ ■ -. ■

2,906

113,360

148,010

2,767

34, 550

0

8,424

2,976

4,760

Benton

1.864

45,205

72,910

1,828

25,595

0

1,363

0

2,196

Darlington —

3,372

24,166

85,112

3,910

3,316

320

2,874

1,150

2,560

Elk Grove

1,414

50,000

81,600

2,815

20,600

0

5,510

1,160

2,235

Gratiot

6,680

85,020

181,825

5,936

115,500

0

21,845

1,015

5,382

Kendall

3,306

22,070

68,425

2,076

34,515

0

6,067

615

3,305

Monticello. ..

847

38,450

55,245

2,223

21,700

300

4,241

0

1,364

New Diggings.

3,205

38,096

60,650

2,600

31,780

0

3,827

614

2,231

Seymour

4,667

62,639

126,195

3,225

50,275

0

15,010

75

4,474

Shullsburg —

1,397

74,960

103,050

4,821

43,525

0

12,490

100

3,615

White Oak Sps

359

41,280

37,264

2,057

34,937

0

1,745

0

1,876

Willow Sps....

2,882

63,015

80,118

3,168

61,625

0

8,067

855

5,701

IC

242 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, 'Arts, and Letters.

Table VI.
1889.

o

M

a ^

c

— u
~ O

02

Bushels of
oats.

cd cs

=<- > ^

a s a;
Eh

73,783

Pounds of
butter.

Pounds of
cheese.

Bushels of
barley.

Bushels of
rye.

Bushels of 1
potatoes.

i

Grant Co

131, 172

2,394,132

2,760,:}46

1,502,478

262,825

42,459

93,501

266,749

Harrison

■ Hazel Green..
Jamestown.. ..
Paris

2,270
1,967
4,168
3,894
3,360
5,560
368

31,000
187,950

91, 350

69,195
102,325
107,940

81,800

37,100
181,890
108,741

75,541
137,835
114,096
112,400

1,643
3,872
2,075
1,868
3,503
3,240
2,-598

18, 140
93, 700
34,180
32,614
36, 700
0
27,800

31,982
0
0
0

7,500
0
0

0
9,350
4,100
2,560
1,540
1,475

800

2,919
1,230
2,083
1,958
5,910
3,530
2,102

6,750
16,810
27,550
14, 375

Platteville ....
Potosi

8,4,50
12,930

Smelser

7, 240

Lafayette Co —

27,626

1,624,853

1,826,476

45,060

762,180

512,100

48,127

31,335

108,548

Belmont

Benton

Darlington,...
Elk Grove....

Gratiot

KendaU

Monticello

New Diggings.

Seymour

ShuUsburg

White Oak Sps
Willow Sps. . . .

2,079
839

1,508
690

3,951

2,629
816

1,790

2,730
625
936

1,356

129,050

100,920

62,450

133,900

166,465

80,606

71,200

47,950

123,550

94,500

59,900

193,595

196,500

97,007

90,686

151,050

203,024

131,071

83,754

48,950

197,850

106, 700

46,906

127.851

4,019
2,244
2,170
2,798
4,362
1,950
2,068
1,424
3,166
2,035
1,698
3,705

47,650
33,755
35.700
37,900
94.425
44,050
:iO, 110
32,200
87, 120
35,000
24,900
35,625

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2,000

960
2,875
1,255
2,. 315
13,044
2,070
1,457
4,158
5,830
5,660
2,175

761 1

i

2,995

747

5,416

3,125

3.194

2,995

375

126

440

0

90

1,839

0

rj 6,804

5,490

9,145

10.500

8,895
2,878
2,680
2,600
4,575
2, 489
5,081

Stanton — Study of Lead Eeglon: Appendix. 243

Table

VII.

1S92.

o

2 o

'^'>

3 ?

122,631

4-1
o

CO

'3 a

CO O

s o

o

•Ji

«— * •

Tons of
cultiva-
ted grass.

Pounds of
butter.

CM

o .

'O CD

fl 03

%^

Bushels of
barley.

Bushels of
rye.

Bushels of
potatoes.'

Grant Co

1,615,069

1,807,209

59, 771

942, 730

568,294
5,500

24,979

64,886

145,610

Harrison

545

6,610

8,480

274

6,950

0

1.048

635

Hazel Green..

398

141,375

138, 810

3,896

50,660

0

2,574

943

11,225

Jamestown ....

1,464

66,025

94,805

2,995

34,655

0

1,278

1,138

15,330

Paris

7,474

38,800

50, 429

1,836

24,225

40,000

287

743

8,131

Platteville....

4,370

103,155

115,745

3,768

2,975

15,000

60

4,601

5,395

Potosi

3, 635
75

64,075
1.34,940

84,015
136,765

2,080
2,574

35,900
39,220

0
0

920
600

3,345

585

7,285

Smelser

6,325

Lafayette Co. . . .

14,255

1,010,258

1,060.685

37,731

535,491

1,183.031

7,297

15,528

46,704

Belmont

1,541

61,009

84,997

0

30,320

7,850

60

1,040

2,870

Benton

533

95,725

94,950

3,242

37,970

112,300

1,005

525

4,117

Darlington....

955

39,600

38, 700

0

24,600

0

920

1,265

1,635

Elk Grove

70

106,675

12, 750

2,616

45,0n0

0

0

340

3,809

Gratiot

1,.575

147,610

13,650

3,646

84,200

0

1,550

1,785

5,063

Kendall

300

14,800

33,100

1,400

20,000

20,000

0

60

834

Monticello

170

43,660

72,395

1,521

25,235

0

38

130

877

New Diggings.

450

35,300

26,9.50

682

26,800

0

0

240

416

Seymour

0

10,950

124, 150

2,790

69,700

0

0

0

3,725

ShuUsburg —

0

112,150

117,995

3,380

0

0

1,520

0

3,677

White Oak Sps

50

26,500

43,200

1,208

0

0

700

100

611

Willow Sps....

245

36,360

54,350

3,503

32,975

73,040

0

1,610

0

244

V/isconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

Table VIII.
1895.

<f4

■—1 ed

c«-i

o

w

"o a

% o

3 O

o

00

© u:

S 0

Tons of
cultiva-
ted grass.

to S

s ^

CO OT

'C ©
C C

CO

Bushels of
barley.

Bushels of
rye.

Bushels of
potatoes.

Grant Co

47,492

1,153,2.52

1,777,042

11,324

1,209,968

562,063

7,178

179,023

197,404

Harrison

Hazel Green...
Jamestown ...
Paris

144

68
293

77
435
599
0

9,200
70, 750
60,900
58, 150
59, 425
86,375
61,255

6,440
243, 180
58,290
31,340
80,655
62,635
83,456

0

50
9

61
270

69

87

3,200
55,100
43,090
25,850
406,075
59,380
74,600

0
0
0
32, 556
0
0
0

0

160
430
0
20
0
220

2,880
2,310
1,700
2,084
2,830
8,190
1,255

1,880
12,214
33,640
14,285

Platteville ....
Potosi

7,238
16.415

Smelser

9,430

Lafayette Co —

1,334

785.304

762,484

5,430

697. 9Q0

1,331,250

415

25,397

53,624

Belmont

Benton

Darlington —

Elk Grove

Gratiot

Kendall

Monticello

New Diggings.

Seymour

ShuUsburg —
White Oak Sps
Willow Sps

335

0

200

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

90,420
37,415

10,000
84,085
93,265
22,156
34,700
26,100
58, 150
137,500
26,580
52,3:31

107,410
40,260
25,000
65,120
84,133
26,968
36,525
17, 350
62,115

124, 100
27.820
92,191

300
27

600

0

163

910
63

0

156
2,112

0
2,325

49,960

6,100

15,200

44,100

123,300

0
41,275

0
28,650

6,000
34,250

5,540

2,000
0

4,000
350
0
0
0
0
14,300
0
0
120,600

50

200
0
50
0
0
0
0
1,800
0
0

2,832
615
300
5S0

3,028

3,285

602

0

180

132

0

3,061

4,761
3,003
200
4,175
5,027
2,406
1,204
1,767
4,305
3,589
1,018
2,510

Stanton — Study of Lead Region: "Aijpendix. 245

Table IX.
1S97.

Cm

0
•—1 d

Bushels of
corn.

■x.

s o

en

0-- at
52,309

Pounds of
cheese.

SM

0 .

to >i

— -f 0
0—1

r-i U

M 5

56,395^

Bushels of
rye.

Bushels of
potatoes.

Grant Co

49, 713

2,763,061

2,555,989

1,450,451

799,313

i:23, 120

217, .565

Harrison

Hazel Green..
Jamestown —
Paris

540
80
441
204
450
222
0

29,110
196,400
110,450

99,930
113, 500
109,360
li)9, 780

21,110
142,662

86,013

58,454
117,000

87,975
130,905

692
3,198
1,103
1,553
2,2S5
2,096
2,. 520

27,150
78,500
57,915
23,590
115,000
65, 550
93,226

0

0
0

27,250
0
0
0

150
1,785

567

300
2,200

230
1,003

2,855
7,069
5,985
3,137
13,000
10, 704
6,098

1,877
21,510
49,885
11,815

Platteville....
Potosi

5,950
9,360

Smelser

12,408

Lafayette Co....

2,4.51

1,641,351

1,648.709

42,205

1.019,605

1,643,219

9,520

39,810

52,292

Belmont

Benton

Darlington

Elk Grove

Gratiot

Kendall

Monticello

New Diggings.

Seymour

Shullsburg

White Oak Sps
Willow Sps....

75
140
0
0

22
0
0

400
125
0

175
0

122,100

126, 150

95,500

146,500

182,960

47,820

87,400

82,350

198,200

137,500

15,000

70,911

143,700

85,695

80,300

127, 100

164,135

103, 490

83,.S00

58,915

176,200

124, 100

12,000

119,640

2,335
2,374
1,811
2,360
3,561
1,8.53
1,509
1,448
1,800
2,112
1,000
5,560

58,000
62,850
71,410
63,500
71,870

6,870

29,300

151,600

82,300

6,000
20,000

7,290

0

0

0

0
123,679
12,000

2,000

0
80,100

0

5,000
150, 190

400

280

0

0
2.260
20
1,100

245

910
1,800

800

0

7,290

1,195

85

1,903

3,455

895

755

300

1,170

132

0

4,090

4,04S
4,554
1,848
3,475
4,471
2,516
1,494
3,320
3,860
3,589
100
4,000

246 Wisconsin "Academy of Sciences^ "Arts^ and Letters,

Table X.
1S60.

Farm
value.

Value
of farm
imple-
ments.

Value
of live
stock.

Bushels

of
■wheat.

Bushela

of

corn.

Bushels

of

oats.

Grant Co

Harrison

Hazel Green

Jamestown

Paris

Platteville

Potosi

Smelser

Lafayette Co

Belmont

Benton

Center

Darlington

Elk Grove

Gratiot

Kendall

Monticello

New Diggings

Seymour

Shullsburg

White Oak Springs.
VTillow S'prings

$5,001,359 I $284,991 | $874,383

$121,880
374,665
174,320
70,390
387,530
163,130
291,690

$2,285,622

$217,340
145,855
193,255

320,133
247,350
250,121
200,158
162,520

181,635
159,555
207,700

$7,493
15,900
9,508
5,029
21,534
12,551
16,426

$23,557
52,140
28,908
16,043
52,177
34,939
46,598

$163,163

$17,386
12,371
28,788

25,607

14,269

21,163

9,254

8,255

10,940
5,895
9,235

$404,093

$36,001
33,643
31,228

54,221
42,295
46,004
30,833
26,138

44,551
25,779
33,400

670,422

4,488
29,163
13,720

5,782
27,327
13,307
34,886

319,950

31,752
28,811
52,801

49,444
45,985
36,212
18,986
9,115

22,834

7,561

16,449

871,845 ! 710,367

14,068
84,201
34,035
11,627
34,085
23,311
48,158

8,024
73,646
22,831

7,221
69,009
17,369
66,491

347,846

35,831
19,490
39,025

45,811
53,140
37,580
25,085
15,745

29,294
18,670
28,175

516,990

68,844
39,579
52.965

107,648
63,590
50,468
42,306
15,718

36,153
19,401
30,318

Stanton — Study of Lead Region: Appendix. 247

Table XI.
1S70.

Farm
value.

Value
of farm
imple-
ments.

Value
of live
stock.

Bushels

of
wheat.

Bushels

of

corn.

Bushels

of

oats.

Grant Co

Harrison

Hazel Green

Jamestown

Paris

Platteville

Potosi

Smelser

Lafayette Co

Belmont

Benton

Darlington ,

Elk Grove

Gratiot

Kendall ,

Monticello

New Diggings

Seymour

Shullsburg

White Oak Springs.
Willow Springs

$11,663,855

208,509
1,055,565
429,720
352,480
535,860
343,405
795,850

$674,760

15,141
35,948
15,152

16,086
24,695
19,804
39,575

$7,897,893 1 $317,480

$868,800
703,310
209,675

1,247,750
995,713

1,008,510
399,890
603,180
375,604
516,236
285,625
683,600

$33,503
22,475
28,925

51,885
40,285
33,620
15,350
17,505
12,955
26,967
9,840
24,170

$3,053,186 914,455 |1, 744, 398 11,433,020

67,187
139,890
58,675
43,693
87,039
88,376
119,843

$1,265,630

$104,069

103,715

121,973

156,477

15,788

13i,715

66,521

91,241

48,429

134,927

63,197

85,578

12,154
32,474
25,988
26,566
22,891
21,451
36,801

368,166

23,562
18,066
44,192
43,215
65,728
41,591
10,935
23,208
22,690
38,047
9,458
27,546

55,725

128,098

59,530

51,495

80,175

78,364

135,985

31,575
150,101

58,734

42,758
100,831

49,431
143,892

1,052,993 11,200,608

93,490

96,860

108,050

170,405

135,680

108,800

65,850

52,795

42,900

87,965

33,285

56,913

113,043

102,400

100,015

195,928

176,817

103,716

94,510

54,260

60,381

108,082

34,680

56,776

248 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Table XII.
1 885.

Farm
value.

Value ! Y ,
of farm ^ ^^"

imple-
ments.

of live
stock.

Bushels

of
wheat.

Bushels

of

corn.

Bushels

of

oats.

Grant Co

Harrison

Hazel Green

Jamestown

Paris

Plattevllle

Potosi

Smelser

Lafayette Co

Belmont

Benton

Darlington

Elk Grove

Gratiot

Kendall

Montlcello

New Diggings

Seymour

Shullsburg

White Oak Springs
Willow Springs

$13,076,935

$375,52.5
1,124,151
694,383
269,856
8&1,209
510,725
758,305

$8,405,993

$737,200
781,375
861,008
736,785
1,119,400
637,899
-U4,100
553,126
921,900
830,557
395,265
417,378

$425,409 |$3,564,099

519,980
39,510
18,866
11,759
20,705
21,720
8,909

$110,220
244,312
124,349

74,516
193,341
147,711

59,247

$233,087 |$1,951,803

$33,300
11,200
22,280
20,295
30,350
15,667
10,380
14,690
23,350
23,700
9,530
18,345

$206,405
14,415
163,878
213,516
338,030
197,329
71,518
160,899
235,577
134,386
114.793
104,057

259,397

7.926
5,216

12,686
9,707
9,788

11,158
4,367

54,568

5.445
1,904
7,728
3,469
9,198
6,571

891
6,212
5,236
2,016

785
5,113

2,710.607 12,374,807

77,070
209,615
96,197
63,580
110,662
125,065
182,825

1,6.33,403

155,600
159,756
130,841
177.220
202,295
110,490

62,380
108,336
178,595
158,340

78,220
111,330

43,780
188,210
102,540

71,718
113,772
101,797
167,975

1,514,380

206,160
127,920

96,927
154,577
191,330
120,981

66,100

81,340
172,435
130,155

54,985
111,570

Stanton — Study of^ Lead Region: 'Appendix. 249

Table XIII.
1S95.

Farm
value.

Value of
farm im-
plements.

Value
of live
stock.

Bushels

of
wheat.

Bushels

of

corn.

Bushels

of

oats.

Grant Co

."514,935,319 $393,247 ^

$2,913,644

102,760

1,414,037

3,030,425

Harrison

Hazel Green

Jamestown

Paris

Platteville

389,650
1,130,712
654,050
407,320
710,094
514,500
981,456

J

15,031
18,717
9,480
12,209
16,565
13,045

83,427
185,209
81,523
68,887
138,829
1^,453
149,746

3,363

424

582

597

2,915

2,293

44,337
148,925
60,435
54,589
71,515
86,050
122,720

80,719
146,242
104,522

95,261
131,470

Potosi

Smelser

127,550
145,270

Lafayette Co

$9,269,547

$170,246

$1,663,617

1

2,175

1,202.890

1,488,969

1

Belmont

Benton

Darlington

Elk Grove

$864,865
590,744
872,890
685,061

1,404,620
609,739
558,175
580,000

1,077,446
927,302
364,500
7^4,205

$19,590
22,270
18,979
12,795
24,866

$135,081

137,317

158,655

157,800

296,754

76,053

96,585

93,209

163,174

157,415

68,445

123,129

1,255
80
40

1 68,840
118,620
106.960
105,660
198,295

38,240
190,770

65,935
132,895
1^,195

73,710

57,770

1 131,289

87,045

143,152

148,490

Gratiot

Ken'iall

190

360

140

90

281.089
97,400

Monticello

New Diggings

Seymour

Shullsburg

White Oak Spring

7,055

8,215

14,410

21,249

8,620

12,197

37,068

79,180

158,296

137,525

71,190

Willow Springs ...

50

117,245

250 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

APPENDIX C.

DIVISIOXS OF JO DAVIESS COUNTY.

Jo Daviess Countj, before the year 1853, was divided, for ad-
ministrative purposes, into a number of precincts. These pre-
cincts varied from time to time in extent, and the name was fre-
quently changed. The precincts also varied in number. These
facts are all that remain today concerning the old county sub-
divisions. There is no record available, and the memory of the
oldest inhabitants does not serve to recall the facts concerning
them. The boundaries of the precincts seem to have been little
understood even by the people of that time, for the census enu-
merator in 1850 says the indefiniteness of the boundaries greatly
delayed the completion of his work.^

The new system of township organization was adopted Feb-
ruary 15, 1853.^ The divisions and names, as selected at that
time, are shown on Map 1, Plate XXII. The divisions of this
map, as well as of Maps 2 and 3, are laid off exactly as described
in the proceedings of die county board of supervisors.

Map 1 shows comparatively few differences from the map of
the present day. Menominee included Dunleith, and was
bounded on the east by the Sinsinnewa River. Vinegar Hill
was called Mann. Scales included the present townships of
Council Hill and Scales Mound. West Galena included Raw-
lins, East Galena included Rice, Thompson included Apple
River, and Pleasant Valley, Berreman. Courtland was the
name given at first to Warren township, and it preserved this
name until 1865.

The boundaries, as established in 1853, were not entirely sat-
isfactory, and the county board made some changes in the period
between 1854 and 1865, as shown in Map 2. The township of
Scales was divided into the two townships of Council Hill and
Scales Mound in June, 1854.

1 Northwestern Gazette and Galena Advertiser, Dec. 21, 1850.

2 History of Jo Daviess County, p. 350.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIII.

Plate XXII.

MENOMINEE

MANN

BObNOiRlES CHldbft
MARCH 1855

COUNCIL HILL
JUNE 1854

WEST I
GALENA J ^*^^

RICE
FEB.I859

SCALES MOUND
JUNE1854

GUILFORD

ELIZABETH

HANOVER

APPLE RIVER
SEPT. 1858

THOMPSON

WOODBINE

DERINDA

WARREN

I-

RUSH

STOCKTON

PLEASANT VALLEY

NORA

WARDS
GROVE

8ERR-

MAN

FEB.
1857

COUNCILHILL

SCALES MOUNOi^

CO

I —

GUIFORD

ELIZABETH

HANOVER

APPLE RIVER I -.

IS

THOMPSON

WOODBINE

DERINDA

WARREN

RUSH

STOCKTON

BERRE

PLEASANTVALLEYl man

NORA

WARDS
GROVE

Palmer — Study of Lead Region: Appendix. 251

In March, 1855, the eastern and western boundaries of Mann
township were changed from the rivers and run along section
lines. The eastern boundary was run from the S. E. corner of
section 33, township 29, range 1 east, northward to the state
line. The western boundary was run from the state line south-
ward from the ^N". W. comer of section 15, township 29, range
1 west, to the S. W. corner of section 34, township 29, range 1
west. ^

The northwest corner of ^ora township was added to Court-
land township March 15, 1855, so that the village of Warren
would be in a township by itself, and not be obliged to share with
^N'ora in the election of supervisors.

In February, 1857, the township of Berreman was created
from Pleasant Valley. In September, 1858, Apple River was
set off from Thompson, and in February, 1859, Rice was set off
from East Galena.

Map 3 shows the remaining changes in the boundaries.
Decemjber 14, 1864, the west end of Warren township was
added to Apple River, and the west end of Apple River was
added to Scales Mound, thus throwing the villages of those
namjes into their corresponding townships. In March, 1865,
Dunleith township was set off from Menominee, and in 1888
Rawlins to\vnship was created from West Galena ; since that
date the boundaries have remained unchanged.

^ History of Jo Daviess County, p. 355.

252 WiscGnsin 'Academy of Sciences^ ArtSj and Letters.

Table I. — Area and population of the towns in Jo Daviess County,

mo-90.

Towns.

Apple River

Berreman

Council Hill

Derinda

East Galena

Elizabeth

Galena City

Guilford

Hanover

Menominee ^

Dunleith )

Nora

Pleasant VaUey

Rice

Rush

Scales Mound

Stockton

Thompson

Vinegar Hill

Ward's Grove

Warren

West Galena ^

Rawlins )

Woodbine

Area
square
miles.

19.7

18.0
16.4
36.5
21.8
36.0
3.8
36.4
51.2

37.5

24.4
36.5
26.8
36.5
12.8
35.8
36.3
13.7
17.6
21.7

17.3

35.9

Population feom United States Census.

1840.

187

170

1,843

169

310

343

124

434

1860.

1870.

1880.

Total.

Native
born.

Foreign
born.

508

1,108

804

304

1,035

415

559

494

65

590

850

725

470

255

595

818

804

501

303

944

1,045

856

520

336

867

1,460

1,618

1,163

455

1,385

8,196

7,019

4,546

2,473

6,451

1,093

1,079

752

327

1,080

969

1,191

960

231

1,410

1,710

1,945

1,314

631

2,011

950

1,046

918

128

1,007

767

943

764

179

923

539

570

382

188

676

951

1,036

867

169

1,106

896

748

489

259

808

1,044

1,214

1,027

187

1,208

647

800

522

278

948

872

693

432

261

649

425

530

474

56

403

1,634

1,786

1,533

253

1,897

601

591

374

217

531

935

959

660

299

1,004

1890.

950

561

429

743

782

1,283

5,635

933

1,666

2,026

851
859
488

1,067
686

1,352
955
507
404

1,587

440

897

Note. — The above figures for population were all taken from U. S. Census Reports.
In addition to the figures for 1840 given in the table, there were precincts at that time
having the following population : Apple River (which included Elizabeth and Weston) ^
660 ; East Fork, 527 ; Imus, 401 ; McDonald's, 483 ; Plum River, 345 ; Small Pox, 351.

The census report for 1850 does not give the population of Jo Daviess by county sub -
divisions and it is omitted from the table for that reason.

Palmer — Study of Lead Region: Appendix, 253

Table II. — Population and occupation for the towns in Jo Daviess

County, ISJfO.

Feee
Whites.

2
o

o
o

o

2

fa

•

CO

Sj

p— t

CO

©

• •—1

69
21
71
150
38
20
95
11
5

11
17
14
63
29

CO

©

s

a
fa

167

117

10

41

20
77
54
35
37
70
67
69
18
94
876

to

c
a
A
o

o

CO

u
©

O

<A

«4-l

a!

•

CO

u
c

cS
03
©
M

4

Professional men
and engineers.

1

© S

6

•

1— (

03

s

o

fa

ja o

^ en
©

O CS

o ©

;2;

Galena..

AddIc River

993
328
12(5
332
lOS
234
295
102
106
207
206
209
79
259

722
220

61
195

62
167
188

67
204
138
137
139

45
172

126

2

2

• • • 1 • •

101
. . . ■ . .

1

4

169
28
1
4
2
5
7

27
1
1
J

90
29

Connfil Hill

14

East Fork

■ • > .

39

East Galena

13

Imus

• ■ • « • •

1
2

14

IVf oT)f>na]fl.

35

Menominee

19

Pleasant Grove

1

3

12

10

8

1

13

17

Plum River

4

1

26

Scales

43

Small Pox

3

1

14

Vinegar Hill

West Galena

11

3

2

1

35

134

6

617

107

268

6

36

399

Note. — This table is taken from the Census Report for 1840.

254 Wiscoiishi Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

Table III. — Valuation of real estate and 'personal property for the town$

in Jo Daviess County, 1S53-75.

Apple River

Berreman

Council Hill....

Derinda

Dunleith

East Galena

Elizabeth

Guilford

Hanover

Menominee

Nora

Pleasant Valley.

Rice.

Rush

Scales Mound

Stockton

Thompson

Vinegar Hill..,
"Ward's Grove

Warren

West Galena. . ,
Woodbine

1853.

Real
property

$42,005

387,271
92,858
72,656

110,420
56,399
61,974
35,248

Personal
property.

$24,335

57,303
81,645
37,799
15,889
65,560

36,383

1,848,967

65,950

51,294
56,148
30,601
38,404
10,459
25, 170
22,914

18;

Real Personal I Real
property.! property. Iproperty.

1860.

Personal
property.

$•36,672
74,930
89,554

23, 258
54,652
30,055
26,342
11,004

18,219

662, 988

30, 199

462,005
146,757
109, 751
180, 167
204, 539
124,107
70,740

124,997
62,800

111; 991

158,386
79,803
54, 153

112, 774

1,786,851
89,865

$17,202
29, 571
49, 528

72, 792
70,842
46,284
78,004
21,124
38,175
31,701

43, 795
31,732
52,478
48,255
18,176
24, 485
48,779
603, 357
35, 422

$95,784
30,612
52,457

79, 758

200,654

133,047

85,895

127,000

152,796

97,935

55, 770

72, 531

106,346

53,382

73,284

57,291

52,857

55,381

126,346

830,810

78, 724

$30,860
27,538
12,700
27,306

21 , 497
42,307
:i0,293
50,857
10, 477
27,282
16,2.57
8,350
19,561
21,571
26, 572
16, 159
10,408
14,570
53.048
281,635
19.521

Palmer — Study of Lead Region: Appendix.

o

oo

Table III. — Continued.

Apple River

Berreman

CoTincil HiU

Derinda

Dunleith

East Galena

Elizabeth

Guilford

Hanover

Menominee

Nora

Pleasant Valley . .

Rice

Rush

Scales Mound

Stockton

Thompson

Vinegar Hill

Ward's Grove...

Warren

West Galena

Woodbine

1865.

Real
property.

.$62,859
28,399
40,792
62,355

104,952
95,641
71,551

105,062
42,775
69,911
58, 725
46,714
79, 118
38,389

175,962
58,220
34,344
43,023
94,636

215,761
70,808

Personal
property.

$21,864

9,184

11,867

21,738

23,609
82,887
19,428
26,193

9,143
30,334
21,001
10,005
21,263
16,029
30,238
16,143

9,657
15,484
43,042
67,430
18,420

1870.

Real
property.

$97,003
29,460
53,439
79,806
49,043

116,355

131,295
86,700

110,314
58,612

105,863
88,094
57,635

107,911
67,872

114,348
83,253
38, 449
61,498

153,313

326,822
95, 760

Personal
property.

$35,487
24,652
20,998
48,234
86,063
32,153
62,990
34,860
54,701
16,110
48,844
48,568
16,349
33,001
33,397
52,298
31,118
13,043
26,780
90,737

372, 467
38,531

1875.

Real
property

$135, 690
67,229
107,273
158,396
168,733
151,947
217,622
163,296
203,020
113,008
224,223
146,315
97,338
232,981
131,728
231,714
157,315
92,690
138,099
158,092
154,880
205,709

Personal
property.

Town
lots.

$51,377

$:38,645

23,908

26,357

1,773

58,450

23,830

33,224

56,719

37,738

135,711

28,458

46, 460

83,337

14,385

25,489
67,322
40,882
25,536
49,087
30,974
75,760
45,327
13,606
33,627
183,888
548,970
58,088

17,182

9,554
7,772

174,252
384,009

Note.— The figures in the above table are taken from the collector's books in the
vault of the office of the county clerk, Galena, Illinois.

256 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Table IV. — Valuation of real estate and personal property of the toivns

in Jo Daviess County, 1880-98.

Apple River —

Berreman

Council Hill....

Derinda

Dunleith

East Galena

Elizabeth

Guilford

Hanover

Menominee

Nora

Pleasant Valley .

Rawlins

Rice

Rush

Scales Mound . . .

Stockton

Thompson

Vinegar Hill —
Ward's Grove ...

Warren

West Galena ...
Woodbine

1880.

Lands

$78, 187

56,663

64, 561

124,029

212,473

99,557

151, 780

115, 362

156,640

91, 760

182,764

120,390

Personal
property

71, 504
147,081

84,481
157,501
115,428

57, 446
102,622
122,235

88,703
143,466

$49, 14S
27,763
26,507
92,473
49, 797
64, 782

157,408
45,460

129,216
45,289
64,302
48,815

Town
lots.

$23,931 ,

/nb

1885.

Lands.

34,130
22,490

30,147

52,302

51,684

100,434

43,968

30, 742

30,641

130,344

300,352

57, 597

15,477

15,692

153

9,374
4,377

$84,870

69,614

71,695

138,494

226,586

100,818

161,160

127,692

169,446

90,342

201,423

136,421

Personal
property.

$:i3,500
27, 506
30,229
75,975
28,343
47,497

152,821
41,320
81,284
28,194
59, 156
63,649

113,878
202,032

83,017
163,659

88,517
181,761
132,705

62,052
116, 757
121,564
102,481
151,547

26,289
51,838
34,370
88,790
46,007
20,614
38,660
119,141
315, 746
55,616

Town
lots.

$23,367

€80

49,847
25,784
22,537

20,934
13,880

11,995

5,505

100,451
192,008

Palmer — Study of Lead Region: Apijendix.

o<7

Table IV.— Continued.

Apple Hiver. ..
Berreman. . . .
Council Hill..

Derinda

Dunleith

East Galena. . .

Elizabetli

Guilford

Hanover

Menominee.. ..

Nora

Pleasant Val..

Rawlins

Eice

Rush

Scales Mound.

Stockton

Thompson

Vinegar Hill..
Ward's Grove.

Warren

West Galena . .
Woodbine

1890.

Lands

$67,418

56,217

57, 550

114,672

170,282

80,917

132,156

101,321

138,822

88,175

1S0,S26

114,328

60,031

65,929

134,429

63,402

185,808

97,695'

54,277

98,923

98,372

24, 124

132,618

Personal
property-.

$27,018
25,708
23,801
65,251
26,069
44,823

152, 007
42,833
74,441
29,642
49, S96
56, 660
15,807
22,853
43,595
30,481
94, 599
35,100
17, 355
33, 801

112,250

171,475
54,084

Town
lots.

$14,219

648

51,160
28,850
19,165

24,189

I

I
11,446

1895.

Lands

15, 031

18,355

84,945
188,569
2,515

$55, 730
56, 536
57,914

120,164

222,154
78,439

133,700
87,519

141,779
89,921

134,088

121,848
60,770
64,775

134,239
66,863

187,433
91,015
59,713
92,843
98,782
21,463

144,120

Personal
properl y.

To^vn
lots.

$22,975 318,886
21,289

18,794
44,991
23,92
34,474

120, 736
28,678
73,256
25, 523
33,240
49,846
15,178
17, 515
28,696
19, 153
97,038
24,036
13,004
IS, 178
73,723

144,248
43,353

650

44,275
27,248
22,509

25,187
11,085'

13,247
30,210

84,473

168,593

2,537

1898.

Lands

$59,434
53,979
53, 032

111,176

212,380
67,415

120,517
37,481

129,258
83,684

117,323

108, 156
54,217
61,213

121,292
51,557

165, CS6
81,755
53,461
82,128
91,561
20,091

131, 717

Personal
property.

$16,960
12,285
13,988
37,702
24,010
33,175
45,962
21,905
68,069
19,178
30,030
36,678
9,426
14,889
26,920
14,584
64,746
21,246
11,206
16,183
60,720

120,008
44,505

Town
lots.

$17,287

411

42, 171
24,694
22,998

28,081

9,150

32, 522

78.889
154,205
3,159

Note.— The figures in
vault of the office of the

17

the above table are
county clerk, Galena,

taken from the collector's books in the
Illinois.

258 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ ArtSj and Letters.

Table V. — Votes for governor, in the towns of Jo Daviess County,

1838-48.

1838.

1842. V

1

1846.

1848.

Whig.

Demo-
crat.

Whig.

Loco- 1
foco.

Whig,

Loco-
foco.

Whig.

Loco-
foco.

Atmle River

40
32
59
16
25
10
28
27
54
16
399
59

12

56

4

11

11

10

3

7

30

16

281

26

74

110

68
320
170
31
25
15

21
2:33
97
31
80
19

109

24

John McDonald's

Eaet Fork

126

7

25
9

28
25
57
12

1

I 127

1

34
32
17

44

Pleasant Valley

Menominee

Tlnm River

42
82
42

Elk Horn

Vinegar Hill

63

76

50

99

54

129

Tmn9- . . ^ .

25

34

West Galena

East Galena

15

530

14

706

53

678

.3

f4fllpna

446
72
34
14

533

19

5

15

705

Craiff'^ Mill

Mill Creek

28
32
16
82

37

22

14

121

80
40
29

81

86

210

80

84

Ward's Grove

Iri«h Hollow

. . • •

34
20

Millville .

84

Council Hill

31

Elizabeth

203

V.'f'ston.

11

Palmer — Study of Lead Region: Appendix. 259

Table VI. — Yotes of the toivns in Jo Daviess County for members of

Congress, lS.'i4-94.

1814.

1850.

1854.

1856.

1858.

1860.

1863.

1866.

•

92

%*

o

o

S
ft

21

n.
Si

o
o

o

6
o

o

37

4^

u
o

c

ft

o

c

4^
CO

u
u
o

s

o
ft

c;

^-

ft
c

PS

o
c

ft

C5

D

O
C5

a

u
o
o

£

®

ft

c

3
ft

r—
>— t

28
28
90
71

-^

C3
u

C

S
ft

18
10
21
38

a

c

.1-.
»— (

J3

D
ft
QJ

pci

82

43

97

82

93

167

210

70

130

2

128

35

49

123

54

127

50

43

33

284

244

197

100

t-l

o
o

a
ft

Apple River. ..

72

Berreman

1

36
78
73

20
27
32

45
114

98

27
22
0

19
17

30
66

Council Hill..

68

28

97
31

i

41
15

70
63

19
33

Derinda

Dunleith

East Galoua. . .
Elizabeth

49

2^

25
113

68
128

121

128
70
8-4
2
66
28

37

33
25

O-

4
59
15
15

10

182
179

78
138

92
101

84

87

55

110

82

46

47

145

314

192

103

133
63
72
36

135
44
44

37
50
47
28
72
23
40
293
269
32

188
76

120
43

115
66

118

62

101

70

57

38

167

247

206

97

73
90
27

180
47
34

36
70
47

^1
tj±

81

21

65

350

203

39

197

206

103

150

110

14b

80

19

134

64

.152

54

69

51

220

272

375

118

167
77

106
52

150
47
61
49
3G
58
65
36
95
24
97

296

330
46

135

133

87

102

64

85

61

33

89

31

99

34

51

37

175

200

163

73

185
83
89
49

186
55
64
23
20
56
64
32
83
30
55

323

222
39

1

123
43

Guilford

6a

Hanover

Menominee. . . .
Nora

23

69

5

69

50
67
44

Pleasant Val..

Rice

Rush

19

48

16

22

71
16
21

Scales Mound.

54

Stockton

••

—

52
48
23
16

48
473

54

13

0
35
16
17

238

19

44

Thompson

35

Vinegar Hill..
Ward's Grove .
Warren

69
22

105
22

30
40

107
32

88
82
24

W. Galena, 1st.

2d.

Woodbine

237
252

309
476

135

86

341

229

. . . . 1

207

195

37

East Fork

121

9

44

22

49

12

119

16

46
13
49
31

)
43

42

77
34

Plum River. ..

—

Mill Creek ....

Irish Hollow . .

260 Wiscoiisin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Table VI. — Continued.

1874.

1878.

1

1883.

188G.

1

1890.

1

1

1894.

a
a

©
fa

65

c

c

c
100

a
a
o

a
®

80

5
c

S
16

c

..-1

o

88

5

--^

a.

1

92

§

g

s
ft

82

1

S

1

sS Republican.

ec
^->

0

a

r-i
03

ft

77

o5 Prohibition.

gj Republican.

a
u
0

C

c
S
ft

149

c

ca
0

3

&
K

115

5
0

a

ft

101

c

0

a

13

45

00

Apple River.

Berreman. ..

40

17

41

6

18

44

20

5

48

21

....

54

3fi

45

80

4

■ • • •

Council Hill

78

41

95

9

29

87

9

....

91

22

....

68

27

68

19

. . .

. • • •

Derinda

49

49

55

12

37

48

61

66

25

3

58

^6

85

58

1

1

Duuleith.. .

118

95

114

60

11

8b

137

54

149

• ■ • «

106

177

124

101

2

5

East Galena

120

225

136

127

72

128

222

153

218

5

132

244

150

198

6

6

Elizabeth . . .

183

76

176

33

37

174

51

176

61

19

182

100

198

88

20

5

Guilford —

54

124

69

38

43

83

82

78

118

....

74

132

100

96

. . .

a . * •

Hanover

91

65

109

7

98

138

45

4

165

45

25

160

157

253

151

....

Menominee .

9

121

2

69

2

5

113

....

2

125

• • • •

4

146

12

134

....

Nora

70

93

95

24

52

98

59

22

114

43

17

95

104

94

64

10

8

Pleasant Val

54

70

45

14

75

50

85

15

56

73

4

50

83

69

72

5

....

Rav»iins

42
44

22
46

42
39

23
41

2

Rice

41

35

42

25

7

55

20

47

31

2

■ • • •

Rush

116

53

127

8

45

130

24

5

154

31

16

147

66

138

56

10

3

ScalesjMo'nd

64

71

85

33

23

82

58

1

94

58

....

98

60

89

58

12

1

Stockton —

86

109

102

14

84

108

67

30

117

74

16

176

123

256

112

26

2

Thompson. . .

70

55

63

17

30

68

39

1

90

45

■ • • >

82

77

97

54

....

Vinegar Hill

35

123

43

35

43

47

55

....

56

70

.. •

42

72

38

65

2

• • • •

Ward's Gr...

20

28

13

24

^;

SO

38

2

29

34

1

34

27

47

34

46

3

• * • •

Warren

247

67

285

33

32'

234

67

7

24S

68

15

226

130

255

107

23

1

W.Gal'a.lst.

191
175

318
341

185

210

244
252

78,

43I

148
110

217
190

7
4

163

90

268
171

183
99

217
138

5
2

8

2d.

368

616

....

3d.

. . . . !

126
125

206
44

1

4

136
113

205
60

141
115

174
51

3
3

1

■Woodbine...

84

47

94

23

12

109

3o

. . . .

2

Note.— 1844, John McDonald's gave Whig, 2S6, Dem., 302 ; Imus, Whig, 49, Dem., 45 ; Old
Town, Whig, 93, Dem.. 34. 1850, West Galena at East Fork of River gave Whig, 48, Dem.
^; Elizabeth at Weston, Whig, 46, Dem., 9; Millviile. Whig, 71, Dem., 70.

Palmer — Study of Lead Region: Appendix, 261

Table VII. — Votes of toions in Jo Daviess County in presidential

elections, lSJfO-96.

1
1840.

1844.

1853.

1856.

1860.

1864.

1868.

1872.

146

- 1

o
c

B

Hi

A
104

cC

o
o

S

G

96

•1^

cS

o
c

a

P

51

a
f— 1

ft

• • • •

4J
OJ

t-,

o

o

a

*-<

o

CO

a

0

a

a

(D

54

i

o

c

a

©

23

a

a
o

92

4J

a

u
o

o

a
fi

86

c

o

a
M

102

a

O

o

a

Apple River...

76

T?p>rrftmaii

45
114

98

27
22
41

46
97

98

15

15^
45

50
126

88
139

21

25

40

114

66

98

75

118

18

Council Hill..

86

23

68
61

20
34

18

Derinda

45

Dunleith

- • • •

• > • ■

• • • •

• • • .

• • • •

■ • • .

100

East Galena...

42

7

....

. . . .

72

78

175

143

192

171

156

165

132

164

180

206

Elizabeth

171

129

179

78
129

62

72

137

205
103
149

78

106

50

186

93

108

58
85
5i5

234
107
183

65
85
52

20J

8f

149

69

Guilford

90

Hanover

. . >

. . - ■

. . . >

• ■ ■ ■

■ • • •

. .

64

Menominee. . . .

39

25

12

41

....

91

149

111

144

108

153

10

86

7

110

Nora

102

8i

43
U

148
80

45
61

118
66

46

84

150
54

52
86

122
63

43

Pleasant Val..

31

23

47

41

47

39

54

Rice

49
134

64
152

54

19
86
56
65
36

47

109

57

140

48

33
27
50
57
37

71
139

80

i64

66

16
30

58

1-

40

50

153

83

159
80

36

Siisli ..... ....

87

55

110

81

37
49

47

80

Scsales Mound.

48

Stockton

58

Thomoson

45

Vinegar Hill..

81

20

63

106

44

89

46

73

69

95

43

64

50

104

55

108

Ward's Grove.

....

....

24

28

57

39

47

23

51

24

42

38

48

45

32

18

Warren

144

1

39

217

98

822

57

215

i'.i

267

57

West Galena :

1st precinct.

506

397

782

920

17c

293

295

298

259

291

199

243

249

297

207

298

2d precinct.

....

....

....

.

246

295

177

280

372

330

263

333

289

2S1

233

838

Woodbine

104

31

118

46

119

40

125

49

124

87

■Ragt Pork

94
91

28

18

110

78

51

1 23

87

43

Craig's Mill...
MiU Creek . . . .

32

11

30

18

6!;

87

....

....

....

....

• • • .

....

TmnH

4S

1f=

27

. 77

5C

7

61

23

Plum River. ..

3f

) 57

. • • •

Irish Hollow..

If

) 6

7^

i 34

. • ■ •

—

* • « .

—

—

—

....

R62 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Table VII. — CoDtinued.

1876

•

188C

1

'. 1

1884.

1838.

18S

i

1896.

13

W

108

o
o

s

9S

a

£

5

o

c

103

cS
u
o
c

s

Q
79

<D

u
O

25

o

1 — I
*-*

a
a

104

4J

o

o

E

ft

84

o
"ia

a
«

98

o

c

S
a.'

Q
105

c
.2

2

Oh
21

c
a
o

a

c
K

104

c
£

111

a
o

0

a
14

d
o

'5

a

K

139

4J

o
O

Apple River..

101

Berreman —

65

27

69

43

1

78

30

63

48

1

57

43

0

7

71

89

Council Hill.

107

17

1

110

20

0

94

19

83

24

2

72

20

0

0

75

23

Derinda

8.5

46

9

i 87

51

5

73

62

71

84

0

70

96

0

1

112

59

Dunleith

117

113

1

117

113

0

150

133

122

161

0

122

142

0

0

144

189

East Galena.

184

205

0

168

235

1

147

233

157

252

5

150

236

7

5

225

176

Elizabeth

22»

83

1

2:i5

76

3

1

184

67

193

96

21

195

92

15

246

111

Guilford

101

111

2

107

ISO

0

, >'->'■

133

87

116

0

66

145

2

0

100

96

Hanover

163

86

1

5

i 195

57

28

210

74

184

101

19

182

88

68

12

253

151

Menominee..

12

126

0

9

158

0

6

139

9

143

0

10

155

0

0

25

130

Nora

122

53

19

1";

71

9

124

6S|

103

70

25

89

97

7

12

107

103

Pleasant Val.

72

62

341

70

90

. 27

67

102

58

104

4

59

103

2

7

99

83

Rawlins

41

68

28
46

0
2

43
42

27

48

0
13

1

11

43

74

18

Eice

64

40

0'

1

77

41

0

r-
t

1
35'

44

Rush

172

29

1
15

182

40

19

179

5.;

171

58

13

158

63

6

9

186

68

Scales Md. . . .

91

51

2'

110

64

0

97

66;

98

71

6

107

68

0

5

125

53

Stockton

138

87

20;

110

99

24

139

105,

176

114

9

236

145

1

14

292

131

Thompson....

90

58

6

111

55

4

95

61'

103

69

0

91

72

3

0

124

45

Vinegar Hill.

53

113

O!

49

85

0!

47

75

37

79

4

37

72

1

3

51

65

Ward's Grove

37

40

1

45

39

2

32

54

. 33

1

47

0

S3

53

0

1

46

40

Warren

316

56

13

298

86

19

253

93

249

122

34

235

132

5

24

305

130

West Galena

r
1

Ist precinct

211

371

2

459

695

0

393

7301

167

277

8

178

280

2

3

266

181

2d precinct

227

351

1

(

....

• -

....

95

196

4

83

196

1

1

134

13S

3d precinct

124

140

243
65

1
6

130
131

236
72

1
3

1

185
167

169

Woodbine —

144

48

«

134

58

1

134

62

57

Note.— McDonald's, 1844: Whig, 339, Democrat, 308. West Galena, East Fork of River,
1852: Whig, 80. Democrat, 63. Elizabeth at Westou, 1852: Whig, 37, Democrat, 3. Mill-
ville, 1852 : Whig, 112, Democrat, 102.

Palmer — Study of Lead Region: Appendix. 263

Table VIII. — Votes on constitutional revision.

ganization.

Votes on township or-

Apple River. .

Berreman

Council Hill.

Derinda

Elizabeth

East Galena..

Guilford

Hanover

Menominee. . .

Nora

Pleasant Val.

Kice.

Rush

Scales Mound.

Stockton

Thompson.. ...
Vinegar Hill.. ,
Ward's Grove..

Woodbine

Warren

W. Galena, 1st.

2d..

McDonald's... .

Plum River. ,. .

Mill Creek

East Fork

Millville

Elizabeth at
Weston

Revising
constituti'n
Aug. 7, 1846.

o

72

20

76

S'?

137

■Ui

rn

a
"3

<

Adoption of

constitution,

Mar. 6, 18i8.

15

378
430
395
27
14
90
32

155
13

:29
0
9
0
0

O

68

179

37

49
49

318

478

23
44
95

78

32

a

be

17

35
3

10

7

Convention

to amend

conptitution,

Nov. 6, i860.

O

0

1

12

16

56
136

27
247
315

17

101

184

196

9

19
170
110
216

85

7

56

50

318

503

669

CO

a

■n

be

16

0

112

24

49

189

1

70

0

131

49

0

13

0

0

157

19

105

0

1

1

New

constitution,

Nov. 4, 1862.

o

17

15
14

38
60

180
59
47

146
47
69
I
26
44
27
16
72
26
28
44

246

25S

CO

tj)

40

44

82

65

181

97

111

96

81

118

75

42

113

47

132

63

54

40

111

172

190

184

Article
prohibiting

banks,
Nov. 4, 1862.

o

4^
CO

a

CS

25

32

25

2

19

77

54

46

82

159

193

72

141

27

47

89

160

64

60

105

103

40

40

7

51

83

46

45

73

65

66

12

93

22

40

26

119

20

43

168

268

156

Ui I

I !

ICO

264 }yisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

Table

VIII.

— Continued.

Constitu-
tional
convention

call,
Nov. 3, 1S6S.

Article

concerning

colored

persons.

Mar. 6, 1848

Exclusion
of negroes

and

mulattoes,

Nov. 4, 1862.

Negroes
not Jo hold

office or

vote,

Nov. 4, 1SS2.

Lavrs exclud-
ing negroes

from coming

to Illinois,

Nov. 4, 1862.

u
o
Pn

89

6

126

84
133
239
159
107
138

10
155

54

71
141

23
157

57
0

44

94
S22
242
224

m

a

'rt
be

<

u

C

.»3

a

S3

<

C
o

•

CO

a

cC

ti)

u
o

56
21

58
94

CO

•S

a

<

u

O

55
26
20
85

CD

a

a
tc

<

Apple Rivor

Berreman

88

64

3

40

114
50
59
21
73
86
1
86
10
16
25
7
48

154

33

52

4

279

309

90

15

50
24
17
82

6
1

77
17

0
0

33
4

1
0

Council Hill ....

74

Derinda

15

Dunleitb

Elizabeth

East Galena

167

27

158
216

i 150

1 165

!

53

104

43

68

46

63

28

88

41

127

82

313

340

68
30
13
94
50
112
22

5
66
45
65
50
20
20

2

126

95

74

209

233

166

47

217

72

108

46

84

84

125

66

87

53

126

136

378

387

12
17

3
94

3

90
18

1
47

6

7
11
16
10

2
73
16
14

193

218

154

47

167

59

104

45

79

81

75

38

86

43

121

84

318

322

27
17

Guilford

14

Hanover

94

Menominee

31

Nora

104

Pleasant Val....
Rice

30

8

19

Rush

49

Scales Mound. . .

9

Stockton

45

Thompson

1

Vinegar Hill

Ward's Grove. ..
Woodbine . ,

69
26

10
22

12

10
2

Warren

69

W. Galena, 1st..

2d...

Plum River

197

296

21

40
85
50

15

101

151

2

4

9

41

21

49

38

Mill Creek

East Fork

* > • . . .

Millville

Elizabeth at
Weston

Palmer — Study of Lead Region: Appendix. 265

Table VIII. — Continued.

Township
organization.
April 4, 1854,

Township
organization,
April 7, 1857.

For.

Against.

For.

Against.

Berreman

45
26
47
34
26
30
97
155
46
55

0

Council Hill

4

38
86
34
52

88
17
45

48

• 72

110

13

36

26

10

11

13

2

0

4

18

Derinda

16

Elizabeth

37

East Galena

48

Guilford

78

Hanover

6

Menominee

0

Nora

0

Pleasant Vallov

0

Rush

Scales Mound

14

96
36
88
44
54
139
471

39

Stockton

72
32
9
49
72
26
13

1

1

18

0

2

11

159

8

Thompson

38

Vinegar Hill

0

Ward's Grove

1

Woodbine

14

Warren

10

West Galena. 1st

27

Note. — The general confusion due to the enlistment of troops and the prosecution of the
war diverted the attention of the people from the great issues at stake when the election
for members of a constitutional convention occurred in November, 1881. But little at.
tention was paid to the selection of delegates, and the result was that of the seventy-
five members elected, the Democrats, whose leading men were watchful of their advan-
tage secured forty-five, and the Republicans only twenty-one, while seven were classed
as f usionists, and two as doubtful. The constitution evolved by this convention received
125,052 votes in favor of its adoption, and 141, 103 votes against its adoption. (See Elec-
tion Returns, No. 3, page 1, Office of Secretary of State, Springfield, lU.) The result in
Jo Daviess County is given in detail in the table (Column 4).

266 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

Table IX. — Votes on miscellaneous questions. Question of allowing
animals to run at large on liigfiways.

Two mill tax to
pay state debt,
March 6, 1848.

1

Prohibition law,
June 4, 1855.

Railroad loan,
Nov. 3, 1857.

Congressional

apportionment

laws, Nov. 4, 1862.

For.

Against.

For.

Against.

For.

Against.

For.

Against.

Apple River. ..

1

62

5

17
19
15
38
65

177
59
47

143
46
68
5
28
45
24
15
72
26
32
48

243

259

40

Berreman

0
4

3
3

54
2

...
38
4.5
34
64
120
64

8

Council Hill..

47
30
147
74
40

70
2

71

38

22
12
69
173
90
47
74
23
26

81

Derinda

64

Elizabeth

East Galena. ..

133

58

175
97

Guilford

109

Hanover

94

Menominee. .. .

6
5

185
75

77

Nora

120

Pleasant Val..

2

36

70

Rice

44

Rush

52
35
41
39
21
12
62
76
204
113

35
38
48
31
46
22
20
38
497
143

64
2

4
1

6

6
2

3
221
184

10
91
58
56
70
14
18
136
0
11

113

Scales Mound.

47

Stockton

110

Thompson

63

Vinegar Hill..
Ward's Grove.

Woodbine

Warren

12

29

70
19

42

40
107
164

W. Galena, 1st.
2d.

182
278

116
170

184
176

Palmer — Sludy of Lead Region: Appendi.

267

Table IX. — Continued.

1

To allow

animals to

run at

large,

Nov. 5, 1872.

To allow
animals at

large,
Apr. 6, 1875.

To Allow Animals to Run at
Apeil 5, 1867.

Labge,

Hor

ses.

Cattle.

Hogs-

Sheep.

u
o

4i

a

c3

to

o
125

w

a
•ft

<

O

Against.

O
76

+3
CO

a

• >-<

O

47

C
o
Em

57

as

a
%

ID

-a

Apple RiTer. ..

141

17

31

44

83

58

83

68

Berreman. ...

^8

23

19

29

0

75

0

75

0

75

0

75

Council Hill..

58

51

83

18

38

67

48

55

27

79

45

60

Derinda

95

13

78

17

6

99

11

95

6

99

4

100

Dunleitli

09

43

1 125

8

179

14

203

11

166

20

173

19

Elizabeth

188

41

177

34

99

73

126

47

100

77

105

66

East Cxalena...

228

50

239

38

157

133

175

121

147

149

159

133

Guilford

126

39

100

37

S3

122

41

113

35

113

37

115

Hanover

172

25

151

52

93

86

120

68

53

125

62

109

Menominee —

52

58

41

51

9

109

8

110

10

110

9

111

Nora

61

88

45

65

15

97

34

88

12

97

14

97

Pleasant Val..

96

35

78

35

0

75

0

74

0

75

: 0

74

Rice

79

4

76

6

52

28

43

37

31

50

1 85

41

Rush

li!0

49

112

35

15

130

27

120

11

133

1
11

133

Scales Mound.

6^^

35

70

39

20

87

54

51

29

79

1 35

57

Stockton

113

100

56

103

5

119

5

119

5

119

5

119

Thompson

114

11

112

16

5

99

5

99

5

99

K

1

99

Vinegar Hill..

120

23

104

1

57

44

57

43

56

44

52

48

Ward's Grove .

46

14

32

7

3

43

8

39

3

43

3

43

Woodbine

125

40

117

12

13

97

16

96

; 14

97

12

9S

Warren

169

79

117

122

18

168

109

94

1 14

168

17

166

W. Galena, 1st.

675

29

596

80

162

107

202

71

147

122

161

100

2d.

370

52

119

233

98
42

149
261

73
25

112
221

108

58

123
216

93

3d.

53

The proposed mill tax voted for March G, 1818, was to be devoted to paying the state
debt incurred by internal improvements. On this question, Plum River voted, for, 11,
against, 11 ; Mill Creek, for, 39, against, 5 ; East Fork, for, 49, against, 0 ; Millville, for, 44,
again.st, 49 ; Elizabeth at Weston, for, 31, against, 5.

268 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

APPE]S"DIX D.

The material in this Appendix was taken from the Dubuque
County Records. The votes were found in several volumes
called '^Yote books." The property valuations were found in
the assessors' books, in charge of the county auditor.

Table I, — Vote of towns in Diibuque County, Iowa, in election of

governor.

1857.

1859.

1861.

1863.

1865.

Towns.

1

1

1

1

Dem.

Rep.

Dem.

Rep.

Dem.

Rep.

Dem.

Rep.

Dem.

Rep.

Cascade

67

30

100

49

25

49

126

46

101

44

Center

51

0

115

27

115

40

120

62

116

25

Concord

52

29

99

23

89

37

118

44

122

S5

Dodge

10

10

36

34

34

50

51

53

51

IS

Iowa

47

9

115

11

108

17

140

15

108

B

Jefferson

29

14

8S

56

46

84 i

128

117

102

86

Julien (with city of Du-
buque)

1,582

600

1,401

1,075

1,139

1,175

1,210

1,127

1,175

917

Liberty

G4

47
124
30
54
63
54

11
3

62
6
1
9

63

153
115
163
134
102
117
65

12
13
96
10
16
64
102

181
125
135

90
129
119

56

17
22

105
38
16
57

131

246
134
181
111
138
129
81

21
20

100
67
15
52

150

137
72

174
S3

118
87
98

a

Mosalem

19

New Wine

78

Peru

24

Prairie Creek ••••

1

Table Mound

18

Taykr

125

Vernon

76

28

121

68

152

62

124

70

103

SI

Washington

77

28

112

40

113

35

138

33

108

22

Whitewater

52

38

117

55

94

52

105

70

81

49

Smith — Study of Lead Region: Appendix.

269

Table I. — Continued.

Towns.

Cascade

Center

Concord

Dodge

Iowa

Jefferson

Julien (with city of Du-
buque)

Liberty

Mosslem

New wine

Peru

Prairie Creek

Table Mound

Taylor

Vernon

Washington

Whitewater

1867.

Dam.

136
il7
101

68
1U8
127

1,518
140
115
ISS
121
147
116
103
98
109
114

Rep,

49
43
44

70

8

100

1,117

5

18

76

37
2

35
150
67
24
67

1369.

Dem.

102
97

125
60

111

125

1,379
137

99
237
117
137

94
100
104
135
110

Rep,

39
49
30
73
10
79

1,212

2

6

76

36

6

25

150

63

30

41

1871.

Dem.

95

95

: 141

f.8
108
109

1,395
140
91
197
107
140
130
114
115
128
126

Rep.

41
37

SO

8

78

1,260

6

11

60

36

7

144

145

67

23

46

1 070

1875.

Dem

133
106
145
62
84
143

1,452

95

266
131
141
139
122
114
134
148

Rep.

51
44
44

81
20
68

1,305
3
27
64
22
10
51
145
42
24
S2

jDem.

116

98
138
1.50
111
133

1,790
171
127
138
164
203
152
101
136
111
137

Rep.

44

47
S6
53
30
83

1,314

1

7

0

89

4

176

27

57

59

18

2T0 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arls^ and Letters.

Table I. — Continued.

Towns.

18

77.

18'

79.

1881.

1

1883.

1885.

Dera.

Rep.

Dem.

Rep.

Dem.

Rep.

Dem.

Rep.

Dem.

Rep.

Oascadp

127

88

115

68

42
24

28
68

145

139
117
81
109
134
157

1,507
168
154
383
117
123
108
129
132
121
126

1

73

46

57

101

118

IS

109

1,438
1

19

70

48

1

80
179
49
19
67

121
133
139
80
113
114
100

1,732
166

81
316

69
116
111
135
109
105
124

67
46

47
72
83
iO
82

1,760

2

17

74

60

1

89

141

45

23

50

154
125
147
124
123
132
151

2,673
168
141
416
123

48
159
144
112

95
153

54
29
37
54
52
2
65

1,747
0
8

22
23
3
57
157
45
29

160
135
164
123

62

Center

fJoncord

22
58

Dodge

51

TinHnnnp .....

Iowa

110
92

1,566

113

135

300

114

97

135

140

67

55

93

15
71

1,014

2

9

47

5

0

60

130

32

10

31

140
127

2,863
172
151
377
124
185
157
153
159
116
168

9

.TfifTprson

60

Julien (with city of Du-
Vmnuft^

1,723

Tjihfiftv

0

Mo^alem

10

New Wine

Peru

45

34

Prairie Creek

6

Table Mound

91

Taylor

170

Vernon

42

Washineton

27

Whitewater

54

^

SinitJi — Study of Lead Region: Appendix.

271

Table I. — CJontinued.

Towns.

1887.

1889.

1893.

1

1895.

1

1897.

Dem.

Rep.

Dem.

Rep.

Dem.

Rep.

Dem.

Rep.

Dem.

Rep.

Cascade — ,

Center

154
134
148
113
124
124
151

2,014
190
106
387
116
183
108
146
98
108
117

58
35
53
42
90
5
69

1,132

0

12

45

36

4

82
159
42
24
55

1

187
149
178
142
112
143
186

3,191
213
135
399
151
204
148
1S9
125
140
148

72
32
52
54
65
6
68

1,045

1

6

47

19

4

56
178
26
29
62

168
113
122

163
136
105

183

3,414
207
102
447
133
164
132
167
116
113
187

69
46
44
49
90
22
79

1,624

3

10

49

46

7

49
193
40
36
60

171
116
133
129
140
108
155

2,982
156

83
407

97
173
114
171

98

95
117

69
33
53
47

89
19
86

1,778
7

12
56
63
13
61
205
25
35
64

186
128
119
125
158
119
147

3,159
127

98
400

97
171
122
183
122
105
151

78
73

Concord

75

Dodge

59

Dubuque

Iowa

118
45

Jefferson

153

Julien (with city of Du-
buque)

Liberty

Mosalem

New Wine

2,591
36
28
95

Peru

92

Prairie Creek

14

Table Mound

79

Taylor

245

Vernon

32

Washington

9

Whitewater

76

272 ^yiscons^n Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Table II. — Population of Dubuque County, Iowa, from Iowa Historical
and Comparative Census, Des Moines, 1883, pp. Jfl^t-o.

Towns.

Cascade

Center

Concord ...

Dodge

Iowa

Jefferson

Julien

Julien (with city of Dubuque).

Liberty

Mosalem

New Wine

Peru

Prairie Creek

Table Mound

Taylor

Vernon

Washington

Whitewater

1852.

1851.

1856.

1859.

1860.

1863.

518

655

899

1,094

1,064

718

781

1,185

1,109

1,087

421

555

610

1,061

1,057

175

236

390

611

661

469

530

657

807

825

562

824

1,111

1,414

1,313

5,500

r,48S

12,823

14,319

13,991

14, 122

12, 823

27,319

26,617

482

712

768

1,185

1,179

551

544

795

963

943

420

615

1,010

1,575

1,507

293

380

596

833

948

277

447

608

815

804

632

755

1,125

1,112

1, 127

336

441

975

1,134

1,160

508

670

785

1,145

1,138

410

523

776

879

940

236

416

758

..... • •

1,088

1,019

1865.

1,030
1,080

960
:695

690

1,373

17,082

32.896

l,ia3

799

1,569

902

862

935

1,369

1,060

908

631

Smith — Study of Lead Beg ion: Appendix.

273

Table II. — Continued.

Towns .

Cascade

Center

Concord

Dodge

Dubuque

Iowa

JefFerson

Julien

Julien (with city of Dubuque).

Liberty

Mosalem

New Wine

Peru

Prairie Creek

Table Mound

Taylor

Vernon

Washington

Whitewater

1867.

1369.

1870.

1873.

1,076

1,213

1,289

1,102

1,116

1,234

1,039

1,159

946

1,085

1,109

1,055

872

758

979

1,010

832

861

878

824

1,160

1,391

1, 550

1,526

22,589

19,447

19,849

23,436

43,811

37,531

38,283

45,587

1,140

953

1,102

858

778

732

972

751

1,594

1,827

2,046

2,133

921

951

889

1,002

915

870

1,022

997

744

1,022

1,137

1, 345

1,190

1,473

1,742

1,688

1,118

1,109

1,243

1.141

923

939

963

853

946

1,081

1,160

1,020

1875.

1,029
1,228
1,030

825

842

1,578

24,955

48,560

924

667

3,260

960

998

1,453

1,833

1,265

929

1,067

1880.

1,231
1,276

1,100
1,144

1,399

768

1,585

22,254

949

900
2,334
1,071

988
1,175
1,668
1,077

973
1,108

IS

274: Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ ArtSj, and Letters.

Table III. — Duhuque County valuations of real estate and personal

property.

Towns.

Cascade

Center

Concord

Dodge

Iowa

Jefferson

Juiien

Liberty

Mosalem

New Wine

Peru

Prairie Creek.
Table Mound.

Taylor

Vernon

Washington...
Whitewater...

1875.

Land.

Lots.

$117,208

98,922

98,600

126,410

124,611

103,172

216.567

122,327

98,212

196,257

S-14,210
995

4,540

Personal
property.

21,870

153,930

136,199

2,302,975

203,993

135,311

33,839
182,572

28,121

$36,886

25,885

27,322

54.9651
I
27,524

44,440

1,836,470

37,970

26,035

90,665

30,020

110,718

1880.

Personal
property.

63,268
44,49?
49,781
51,580

$114,0071

29,042:

19,918|

34,630

23,478

3o,998

1,668,691

37,802

18,770

42,930

42,698

68, 892

68,555

41,586

37,139

87,555

21,950

Land.

$171,327
116, 739
106,285
174,670
128,340
126,835
208,852
152,775

81,042
227, 737

82,670
190,520
166, 266 [
164,635
188,507
178,670
127,645

Lots.

$28,480
1,500

6,320

3,497,220

83,875

6,086
5,375
9,510
2,380
3,600
27,998

Smith — Study of Lead Begion: Appendix.

TK

275

Table III. — Continued.

Towns.

Cascade

Center

Concord

Dodge

Dubuque

Iowa

Jefferson

Julien

Liberty

Mosalem

New Wine

Peru

Prairie Creek
Table Mound .

Taylor

Vernon

Washington . .
Whitewater ..

1885.

Personal
property

$70,055
27,207
25,440
37,855

26,505

47, 740

1,817,140

•ss,ioo

18,045
97,081
26,870
44,83S
64,660
70,890
45,134
46,900
46. 533

Land.

$117,482

123, 195
227,467
131,410
229,574
109, 440,
154, 465
78,035

Lots.

$2,070

6,360
14,575

99,727

99,270
191,915
163,370
212,510
187,915
133,235
314,930

2,678
5,470
4,900

10,880
2,540
1,940

70,905

1891.

Personal
property.

$37,390

39,000
59,583
25,070
120,240
1,983,710
33,390
17,900

36,660
41,515
45,670
86, 775
34,360
51,300
144,055

Land.

$1.34,135
142,869
212,975
261,920
137,823
164,280

154,870
97,915
299,137
99,320
191,330
177,660
199, 805
191,205
186,600
347,956

Lots.

$107,330
2,530

1,300
10,355
36,840

5,286,860

120,971
2,7:30
4,625
4,855

48,580
3,140
2,180

42,899

276 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Aiis^ and Letters.

Table III. — Continued.

Towns.

1895.

Cascade

Center — ...

Concord

Dodge

Dubuque

Iowa

Jefferson

Julien]

Liberty

Mosalera

New Wine

Peru

Prairie Creek
Table Mound

Taylor

Vernon

Washington . .
Whitewater..

Personal
property

$103, 430
34,860
23, 162
49, 6!)0
50,370
21,fi25
39, 190

338,000
32,200
20,390

131,730
29,835
32,510
30, 570
92,620
34,310
49. 120

131,645

Land.

$335,020
569,420
697,312
1,062,220
880, 795
529,508
647,850
109,440

443,430

358, 065
726,420
867,420
681,055

789,680

637,392

Lots.

$4,080

93,360

1899.

Personal
estate.

$131,800

79,980

93,672

176,116

133,080

90,340

144,724

1,983,710

79,500

14,335

86,564
11,408

99,500
100,853
139,640
262,028

31,902

136,452

Smith — Study of Lead Region: Appendix,

277

Table IV. — Vote of toicns in Duhuque County, Iowa, in election of

president of United States.

1860.

1864.

1868.

1872.

1876.

Towns.

Dem.

Rep.

Dem.

Rep.

Dem.

Rep.

Dem.

Rep.

Dem.

Rep.

Cascade

108
93

106
45

116

106

1,321
159
116

169

83

107

56
29
42
46
14
74

1,241
24
27
111
44
22

123
140
125
52
127
130

1,347
172
118
182
100
134
118
85
119
141
104

49

34

37

52 j

19

95

998

14

14

64

32

10

37
139

65

29

54

170
1.36
137

88
130
158

1,719
181
138
233
121
179
1.50
129
123
150
149

73
69
50
92
11
112

1,596

8

23

8§

56

9

57

202

78

26

83'

116

87
114

58
107
116

1,591
118

98
241
117
125

87
125
132
117
124

69
66
49
91
14
105

1,524
8
12
59
41
11
54
199
55
22
60

155

168
156
95
143
169

2,295
187
170
385
140
132
177
169
136
149
150

68

Center . .

55

Concord

58

Dodge

191

Iowa

28

Jefferson

Julien Cvvith city of Du-
buque)

22

1,834
0

Liibertv

Mosalem

1&

New Wine

85

Peru

46

Prairie Creek

Table Mound

1

88

Taylor

69
103

lis

116

126

87
47
57

225

Vernon

76

Washington

28

Whitewater

65

278 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Table IV. — Continued.

Towns.

1880.

1884.

1

1888.

1

1892.

1896.

Dem.

Rep.

Dem.

Rep.

Dem.

182
160
168
150
159
160
181

2,851
209
154
441
164
179
149
185
150
152
157

Rep.

Dem.

Rep.

Dem.

Rep.

Cascade

153
141
150
107
117
137
157

1,912
190
146
398
131
144
128
140
145
145
153

83
76
60
88

128
9

152

1,801
1

18
74
62
2
77
198
63
29
86

181
193
188
153
159
152
172

2,902
209
174
416
164
189
155
179
142
144
163

68

47

61

68
117

19
124

2,150
2

18

1

57
42

9

1

108

182

59

44

71

69
41
57
61

127
25

103

1,966

0

17

51

52

9

98

220

60

29

69

177

138
152
165
128
131
162

3,902
209
114
450
139
175
149
185
144
133
168

79
54
51
54
122
23
90

2,570
3
27
53
63
15
74
217
53
29
73

192
111
142
128
1 171
130
157

3,598
175
118
397
110
224
151
201
141
146
192

96

Center

102

Concord

61

Dodj?e

96

Dubuque

182

Iowa

142

Jefferson

158

Julien Cwith city of Du-
buque)

Liberty

3,6<J5
6

Mosalem

40

New Wine

110

Peru

129

Prairie Creek

Table Mound....

Taylor

5

96
222

Vernon

55

Washington

42

Whitewater

96

Smith — Study of Lead Beglon: Appendix.

270

Table V. — Votes of toiuns in Diibuqiie County, loioa, in election of mem-

hers of House of Representatives.

TO\VX3.

Cascade

Center

Concord

Dodge

Iowa ,

JefEerson

Julien (with city of Du-
buque)

Liberty ,

Mosalem

New Wine

Peru

Prairie Creek

Table Mound

Taylor

Vernon

Washington

Whitewater

1852.

Dem.| Rep

1

64
16
10

38
46

454
16
40
27
32
25
45
20
24
25
30

27
23
19
10
20
21

305

8

20

r*
t

3
14

22
14

28

8

29

1856.

Dem,

61
76
14

8
46

48

1,044
37

48
73
60
50
80
42
60
70
54

Eep,

49
24
26
13
23
16

743

6

10

42
7

12
14
70
48
23
51

1858.

Dem.

102
106
93
20
92
65

1,421

86
92

139
81
78

126
98

135
87

109

Rep.

28
28
22
25
13
28

918
9
7

77
6
11
18
78
75
28
55

1862.

Dem.

95
149
117

56
130

78

1,250
195
136
141

94
136
116

72
122
133

86

Eep.

38
44

38
45

18
98

942
12
17
99
21.
14
40

120
43
25
58

1866.

Dem.

120
104
94
73
114
106

1,239
172
114
18S
100
115
114
122
114
117
120

Rep.

45
50
43
66
8
111

1,271

11

21

79

40

5

1

178

80

24

64

I

2 so JVisconsin Academij of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

Table V. — Continued.

Towns.

18

70.

1874.

18

78.

1888.

1886.

Dem.

Rep.

Dem.

RepJ

1

Dem.

Rep.

Dem.

Rep.

Dem.

Rep.

Capcade

115
76

109
42

46
37
32
76

98

89

132

64

52
43
41

68

156
144
139

96
121

85
131

1,409

156

120

305

107

70

65

118

122

56

100

62
42
46
87
94
10
101

870
0
7

43
53
1
52
163
29
10
47

150
181
162
119

128
143
168

2,548
162
142
388
148
129
139
163
121
110
148

72
32

42

1

78 j
120

'1

80

1,4:^6

7

8

72

30

20

65

149

66

24

60

166
158
147
133
151
139
157

2,440
198
129
372
154
174
145
155
112
125
156

70

Center

37

Concord

69

Dodge

Dubuaue

72
106

Iowa

80
101

1,054
100

72
170

93
107

70

70
109

78
102

6

46

829
9
12
42
31
5
16

146
45
13
42

81
116

1,S96
128

89
237

93
116
129
127
135
133
132

22
81

1,106 1
3
4

23
32
4
55
167
56
32
49

14

Jefferson

104

Julion (with city of Du-
buoue)

1,796

Liiberty

1

Mosalem

14

New Wine

6S

Peru

38

Prairie Creek

2

Table Mound

Taylor

96

184

Vernon

Waskington

58
32

W hitewater

59

Smith — Study of Lead Region: Appendix.

2S1

Table V. — Continued.

TOWNB.

18

30.

1894.

1895.

Dem.

Rep.

Dem.

Rep.

Dem.

Rep.

Cascade

199
152
168
152
161
157
189
3,441
230
120
494
149
161
172
144
153
136
144

71

39
54
59

103
25

105
1,910
0
36
31
61
21
68

243
42
32
81

181
127
! 143
142
168
120
147
2,483
182
87
407
104
171
130
167
111
129
185

74

60
50
51

123
37

114

1,964

5

26
63
54
8
65

212
34
33
74

185

86

128

106

170

102

173

2,342

134

89

352

96

184

127

182

109

136

171

81

Center

86

Concord

63

Dodge

76

DubuQue

119

Iowa

48

Jefferson

136

Julien (with citv of Dubuaue)

2,618

Liberty

16

Mosalem

30

New Wine

100

Peru

Prairie Creek

109
10

Table Mound

90

Taylor

226

Vernon

32

Washington

46

Whitewater

80

SPIDERS OF THE PHIDIPPUS GROUP OF THE FAMILY

ATTIDAE.

GEOEGE W. PECKHAM^ AXD ELIZABETH G. PECE:nAM.

In the following paper we liave attempted to classify the
spiders belonging to Phidipims and some related genera. Other
genera must be included in this group but the work on them
is not yet completed.

We are much indebted to M. Eugene Simon and to Mr.
ISTathan Banks for their generous assistance in lending us type
species.

The drawings are by ^Ir. J. H. Emerton.

PHIDIPPUS (C. K) 1846.
Megatimus Thorell, 1891, Spindlar Xikobarerna, p. 129.

PL XXIII, figs. 1-lb.

Spiders above medium size, sometimes very large and hairy.

The cephalothorax is high and massive, wide and rather
short. As a rule the sides round out widely both from above
below and from in front to the middle point. The widening
from above below is usually more pronounced in the males
than in the females. The cephalic plate slants forward. The
thoracic plate is short and wide. The thorax falls from the
dorsal eyes, at first gradually and then more steeply.

The quadrangle of the eyes is one-third wider than long, ex-
cepting in a few species, as arizonensiSy which is one-haK, and
opifeXj which is two-thirds wider than long. It occupies about
two-fifths of the cephalothorax and is plainly wider behind than
in front. The eyes are small in proportion to the size of the

Peclcliam — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 283

spiders. The first row is curved, the middle being less than
twice as large as the lateral and a little separated from each
other, while the lateral are separated from them by from one-
third to two-thirds of their own diam^eter. The second row is
about twice as far from the third as from the first row. The
dorsal eyes are as large as the lateral and form a row which is
plainly narrower than the cephalothorax at that place.

The genus Phidippiis has many species in I^orth and Central
America, and we have one species from South America. It
was formed by C. Koch in 1846, the type being variegatus from
IN'ew Orleans, Die Arachn. XIII, j)- 125. In our Attidae of

North America we cited variegatus as a synonym of morsitans
Wlk., but since then we have received large collections from
Mexico and Texas and are satisfied that it is distinct. Mexi-
canus P., and Honmrdii P. (PL XXIII, fig. 5), are also very
close to variegatus (PI. XXIII, fig. 4).

The descriptions and drawings of P. ooscuriis and P. Rau-
terhergii, in our paper on Xorth American Attidae, were made
from badly rubbed specimens and give but an imperfect idea
of these species. We therefore redescribe their coloration from
perfect specimens which we have recently received from Texas.

Mr. Workman's'^ drawing of the type of Thorell's genus
Megatimiis (PL XXIII, fig. 2), drew our attention to the fact
that this genus strikingly resembled Phidippus. Mr. Yfork-
man very kindly sent us a specimen of the spider in question
and we find that it conforms in all respects to Phidippus.

After an exchange of fresh specimens, Mr. Emerton agrees
with us that his P. midtiformis is distinct from our P. rufus,
P. midtiformis, rufus and richer are close together but their dis-
tinguishing characteristics are brought out in the key.

Mr. Xathan Banks, in Arachnida from Baja California,
Proc. Cal. Academy of Sciences, Third Series, Vol. I, Xo. 7,
1898, described several new species of Phidippus. He has
kindly sent us specimens of these. We think that his P. fune-
hris belongs in the genus Parnaenus. P. fraternus we believe
to be identical with Philaeus chrysis Wlk., and P. disjunctus
is the same as our Philaeus fartilis.

^Since the above was written aracbnology has suffered a great loss in the
death of Mr. Workman.

284 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Illustrations of the palpi and epigyiies of multiformis, hrun-
neiis, gcdatJiea (mysfaceus), ruher and morsitans may be found
in ILmevtonh Neio England Attidae, PL XVI: of the other
species mentioned in this paper, in our North American At-
tidae. Plates I and 11.

The structure of the bulb and tube of the palpus is so similar
in califoniicus, Tyrrellii, comatus and variegatus that separate
illustrations are not giveoi.

The species of Phidippus, and especially the females, are ex-
ceedingly difficult to identify, and it is possible to do satisfac-
tory "^ork only Trhere a large amount of material is accessible.
While many of those described by Hentz are comparatively dis-
tinct, those of Walckenaer and Koch are frequently variations
or immature forms of a single species and must forever remain
uncertain. Any one working in this genus must recognize the
futility of describing new species without a careful comparison
of their relations, illustrated by drawings. We know of no sys-
tematic work that is more helpful, in this way, than that of Mr»
J. H. Emerton.

We append a list of the species in our collection, with a key
which will be found useful in determining them.

SPECIES IX OUR collectio:n^.

Phidippus ardens ne^v, arizonensis P., hardus noAv, calif or-
nicus new, comatus new, cardinalis H., carneus P., farneus P.,
galathea Wlk. (equals mystaceiis H. and alhomaculatus Keys.)
Georgii P., Hoivardii P., i7icertus new, insolens H., Johnsonii
P., McCoohii P., mexicanus P., miniatus P., montivagus new,
morsitans ^Ylh. (equals audax and tripunctatus H.), multifor-
mis Tlm..,ohscnriis P., octopunctatus P., opifex McC, otiosus
H., princeps P., Putnamii P., Raiderhergii P., rimator Wlk.,
ruber Keys., rufus H., severus Th. (Megatimus), Tyrellii new,
variegatus C. K., Worlcmanii new.

Pechham — Spiders of the Family Attidae.

285

Key to Xorth axd Cexteal Amekicax Species of the

Gexus Phidippus.

MALES.

Abdomen with a covering of red hairs.
Abdomen without red hairs

f First leg longer than second by tarsus, matatarsus

! and part of tibia

1 First leg longer than second by not more than tar-
l^ BUS and metatarsus

\ Length 5-7 mm.; palpus with longitudinal v/hite

2
8

3

4:

a

} band above; cephaiothorax black muUifoj"mis

6 ^

7 <

8

9

Length about 9 mm.; palpus with longitudinal
white band on upper surface of tarsus; ce-
phaiothorax

^ Length about 13 mm.; palpus without white
^ \ band on tarsus; cephaiothorax black

Falces with fringe of white hairs down outer edge

Falces without fringe of white hairs

Long black hairs on first leg and on palpus; entire

cephaiothorax and abdomen deep red

First iQg and palpus without noticeable hairs

Length 10-12 mm.; color of abdomen deep red with-
out black bands: cey^halothorax black

Length 6-8 mm.; color of cephaiothorax and abdomen
yellowish-red

Palpus with snow-white scales; falces dark, iridescent
green :•,••••

Palpus without white scales; falces brown, not irides-
cent

Abdomen black, with a large triangular white spot

and one or two pairs of smaller white spots behind.

Abdomen marked or colored differently from the above

Cephaiothorax black

Cephaiothorax with white bands on sides

f Upper surface of thoracic region black; cephalo-

j thorax massive and plainly wider than third

^ j row of eyes; size, 11-15 mm.; first leg at least

[^ 12 mm

insolens

californicus

Tyrellii
5

ecrrdinalis
6

Jolinsonnii

7

rufiis
ruber

9
11

rnorsitan^
10

vai'legatus

10 i

{ Upper surface of thoracic region entirely covered
j with white hairs; cephaiothorax massive and
) plainly wider than third row of eyes; size,
l^ 11 A mm.; first leg, 16.3 mm ^ rnexicanus

c i

I

White bands on sides of cephaiothorax uniting
to form a zig-zag band on upper surface of
thoracic region; cephaiothorax not massive
and scarcely wider than third row of eyes;
size 8 mm.: first leg, 10 mm ^ Hoivardii

1 Our specimen of rnexicanus is shrunken. Whan fresh it would probably measure
15 mm.

3 In variegatun there is sometimes a little reddish color on the patella of the first
leg; inHowardii there is a decided tendency to red on the proximal part9 of all the
joints. The femur is dark in both species.

286 Wiscoiisin Academij of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

C Fringes of fine, long, yellow hairs on all the legs,

11 -j heaviest on those of the first pair arizonensis

( Legs not fringed with j^ellow hairs 12

-. 2 5 Falces iridescent 13

( Falces with white hairs or scales; not iridescent 14

f First leg with a very heavy fringe of white hairs: size

-.o J 8.5 mm comatus

] First leg without heavy white fringe: first and second

(^ legs distinctly thickened; size about 10 mm galathea

f Falces entirely covered with long, soft, white hairs;

-J . J no ridge of hairs above first row of eyes Putnaraii

] Upper two-thirds of falces covered with white scales;

(^ a ridge of rusty brown hairs above first row of eyes. obscurus

FEMALES.

-, S Rpc^i hairs on abdomen . . .
I No red hairs on abdomen.

2
6

( Large spiders, more than 12 mm, long

(

Medium sized spiders, usually not more than 10 mm.
long .*

3

4

3 i

Tripunctate marking on abdomen consisting of a
a -( large central red spot and tv^-o smaller ones
further back; red hairs on cephalic part

i

\.

{ Body hairy; cephalothorax heavy and wide
(4.6 mm.); falces green; first and second legs
very heavy; third leg longer than second; ab-
domen red with central black band, and, at
anterior end, a white band with a black band
behind it

Body not hairy; cephalothorax not v/ide (3.5

mm.) nor heavy; first and second legs not

heavy; second and third legs equal: abdomen

^ 'I red, with central black band, and, at anterior

I end, a faint yellowish band with no black be-

^^ hind it

f Abdomen with herring-bone stripe; body not

■J J very hairy; cephalothorax small in proportion

1 to size of spider; falces black; second leg

[^ longer than third

ininiatus

carneus

ardena

Georgii

4 <

[ Heavy looking cephalothorax which rounds out widely
1 on the sides, and has the cephalic plate black, and

the sides of a much lighter reddish brown color;

legs barred with lighter and darker brown

Cephalothorax not heavy looking; sides rounded out

but not widely, as in insolens

insolens
5

PecJcham — Spiders of the Family Attidae,

287

a ^

{ Color brick-red; legs barred with lighter and
' darker brown; first and second legs very

short in proportion to size of spider (total

(^ length about 11.5 mm., first leg about 7 mm.)

rufus

b -i

Color varying from yellowish brown to red;^ legs
barred with lighter and darker brown; first
and second legs not short in proportion to size
of spider (total length about 9 mm., first leg
about 3 mm. J multiformis

5 i

( Cephalothorax and legs uniform dark brown

c -j or black; palpi dark; habitat, Florida, New

( Mexico

f Cephalothorax and legs uniform dark brown

J \ or black; palpi pale brown; two bands uf

] vvhite, scale-like hairs on venter; habitat,

[^ Washington, California, Mexico

rirnator

Johnsonii

f Cephalothorax with narrow white bands along
I lower sides and wide white bands higher up,
j the space between being brownish; the wide
white bands cross the ciypeus and are con-
tinuous over the thoracic part; cephalic plate
dark brown ^nontivagus

{ Upper surface of abdomen black with central white

j spot

6 ■{ Upper surface of abdomen brown, grey or yellow; or
I if black, having a pair of white spots on middle of
(^ dorsum

7
8

a <!

I

Abdomen with a white band around anterior
end; and having a pair of white dots in front
of central white spot, and two transverse or
oblique white bars behind it; cephalothorax
black, without white bands on the sides

morsitans

{ Abdomen with scalloped white band almost en-
i circling the black upper surface, a pair of
-{ white dots in front of central white spot, and
I a pair of oblique white bars behind it; cephalo-
l^ thorax black without white bands

farneus

7 <

f Abdomen with a central longitudinal scalloped
J black band enclosing a white spot; sides grey;
1 cephalothorax black with a wide white band
I entirely surrounding the cephalic part Worknianii

{ Abdomen with a white band around the front
end and two or three pairs of oblique lines or

I spots behind the central spot; cephalothorax
d <( with wide white bands, which pass along the
sides and meet on the thorax, and a narrow
white|crescent, which curves forward from the
dorsal eyes on to the cephalic plate Rauterhergii

> Since the adult females of inuUifor^nis are usually orange or red it is classed among
the red spiders, although this color is sometimes lacking.

288 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ ArtSj and Letters,

8

9H

L

10 i

11

12

13

14 i

Abdomen covered with yellow hairs 9

Abdomen grey, brown, or black 10

Cephalothorax dark; integument of abdomen, as well
as the hair covering it, yellow; falces rufus, not iri-
descent ; • • • ; -^^^ Cookii

Cephalic plate covered with yellow hairs; integument
of abdomen dark red; falces iridescent bardus

( Markings on abdomen limited to a vv'hitish band
a •] at anterior end and a single pair of white

( spots; length 8mm princejos

. { Markings on abdomen limited to two pairs of

\ white spots; length 15 mm opifex

^ Markings on abdomen consisting of numerous
^ ( white spots and bands 11

Falces reddish-brown, not iridescent comatus

Falces with white hairs at upper end and brightly

iridescent below 12

First leg a little (in large specimens plainly) longer

than fourth oUosv-'i

Fourth leg longest 13

Cephalothorax light colored and covered with short

white hairs ohscuriis

Cephalothorax dark colored; covered with grey hairs. 14

Three white spots on cephalic plate; abdomen marked
with white spots on a grey background; fourth leg
scarcely longer than first incertiis

Cephalic plate without white spots; abdomen with
white spots on dark background; fourth leg plainly
longer than first ' galathe_

Pliidippus ardeas, sp. nov.

PL XXIII, fios. r-Ta.

This is a large, handsome species, "^'ith black cephalothorax
and. legs, and bright red abdomen.

?. Length 14 nam. Legs 4123.

The cephalothorax is black, covered with vellowish hairs
which form tufts in front of the dorsal eves. The abdomen is
bright red on the back, with a narrow black band down the mid-
dle. This band, which does not reach the anterior end, is

1 When the hairs are rubbed from the abdomen of galathea, we have the form with
the longitudinal forked band, described by Keyserling as albomaculatus. In other
cases the posterior transverse bars are united, giving a puzzling likeness to otiosus.

Peck-Jiani — Spiders of the Family Attldae, 289

broken at the edges by three pairs of red bars, the first pair
near the middle, the others, less distinct, behind. There is a
faint yellowish band around the anterior end of the abdomen,
and below this and around the lower sides it is black. There
is a thin covering of black and white hairs over the back. The
falces are bright green. The palpi are dark brown with black
and white hairs, and the legs black with yellowish hairs.
We have a single female from Santa Fe, xs^ew ]VIexico.

Phidippus calif ornicuSy sp. nov.
PL XXIII, figs. 3-3a.

A handsome spider of above medium size, with red abdomen^
black cephalothorax and dark legs.

$, Length 13. Length of cephalothorax 5.5 ; width, 4.5.

Legs 1423 ; those of the first pair longer than the body

The cephalothorax is black with a covering of coarse brown-
ish hairs w^hich grow long about the front part of the head. The
falces are iridescent bluish-green. The abdomen is bright red
with two longitudinal black bands which are broken in two
places, behind the middle of the dorsum, by red bars. There is
a narrow white band, scarcely visible from above, around the
front and sides. Over the back is a thin growth of long brown-
ish hairs. The legs are very dark brown, the first and second
pairs being almost black. The first legs are more heavily
fringed than the others, the hairs being brown on the femur,
white on the patella, brown on the tibia (this joint is black and
iridescent), white on the proximal halves of the metatarsus and
tarsus, and brown on the distal halves. The palpus has white
hairs and scales on the femur, patella, and tibia.

Calif ornicus is too large to be taken for rufus (8.5) or in-
solens, (9.5), both of which have the cephalothorax red, and,
moreover, neither of these species has been found further west
than Colorado. It is most like Johnsonii, which is not much
smaller, and is also found on the Pacific Slope. The coloration
is similar, although Johnsonii has the abdomen crimson rather
than red, with the black bands very indistinct or entirely lacking.
19

290 ^yisconsm Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Thev may be distinguislied by two points, the shape of the
cephalothorax, which in calif ornicus is nearly circular, being
only 1 mm. longer than wide, while in Johnsonii it has a less
rounded appearance, being, in fact, nearly 2 mm. longer than
wide, and the relative length of the first leg, which in calif orni-
cus exceeds the second by the tarsus, metatarsus and part of the
tibia, while in Johnsonii it is lono^er bv onlv the tarsus and a
part of the metatarsus.

We hav.e one male from California. It may, perhaps, be the
mate of P. ardens.

Phidippus hardiis, sp. nov.
PI. XXIII, figs. 6-6a.

This rather heavy looking species is of somewhat over
medium size. It is yellow, with the legs and palpi dark brown,
and the f alces iridescent.

$. Length 11. Length of cephalothorax 4.5; width, 3.5.

Legs, 4132.

The cephalothorax is dark reddish brown. The upper sur-
face of the cephalic part and of the anterior thoracic, is covered
with short, bright, yellow hairs. The abdomen has a dark red-
dish ground color, entirely covered with the same gold colored
hairs, which have a much brighter effect here than on the ceph-
alothorax. Under alcohol four pairs of indistinct white bars
appear on the posterior part. Around the anterior end is a
light colored band which runs doT\m, obliquely, on the sides, and
further back, on each side, is another oblique light-colored band.
The falces are rugose and rather short, and are brilliantly
metallic, with violet and green reflections. The palpi and legs
are dark reddish brov^i, with snow-white scales and some long
white hairs. The femur, patella, and tibia of the first leg are
fringed on the underside, the patella with white, and the other
joints with brown hairs. The femur has also a fringe of black
hairs on the upper surface.

Red and orange are not uncommon colors among the spiders
of this genus, but P. McCoohii is the only other female where
the hairs are really yellow, and in that species the ground color

Pechliam — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 291

of the abdomen is also yellow, the cephalothorax is all dark,
and the f alces are riifiis, and not iridescent.

We have a single female from Long Island sent to us by Col.
iN'icholas Pike.

Pliidvpinis CO mat us J sp. no v.
'I. XXIII, figs. 8-8c.

T>1

This is a small species. The male is handsome, with gold-
colored hair on the abdomen, and the first leg fringed throtigh-
out its length with long white hairs. The female is gray, with
a white herring-bone stripe on the abdomen.

6. Length Q.S. Length of cephalothorax 3.5 ; width, 3. Legs
1432.

?. Length 10. Length of cej)halothorax 3.5; width, 2.S.
Legs 4132.

The male and female bear so little resemblance to each other
that we pnt them together with some hesitation, although they
were sent to us as one species. In the male the ground color of
the cephalothorax is black. The sides are covered with white,
and the eye-region with yellow hairs. In front of the dorsal eye
and overhanging the eye of the second row, is a long tuft of
stiff bristly hairs. The f alces are slender and darkly iridescent,
with green and violet reflections. On the clypeus and the inner
edges of the falces are long white hairs. The abdomen has a
thin covering of long hairs, which look brown, yellow, or whit-
ish, according to the way the light strikes them. Under these
is a coat of shorter gold-colored hairs around the anterior end
and the sides. In the middle of the dorsum are two paler spots.
In our specimen there is a dark central region, scalloped at the
edges, e'xtending from these spots to the spinnerets, which is
rubbed entirely bare. The legs are barred with dark brown
and black. The first one has a remarkably long fringe of snow-
white hairs on the underside of all the joints, even extending on
to the tarsus.

In the cephalothorax of the female the integument on the
eye-region and on the sides and posterior part is black, but a
band of bright reddish-brown runs across just behind the dor-

292 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

sal eyes. Our specimens are rubbed, but what hairs are left
on the sides are white and there is a square patch of white hairs
between the dorsal eyes. Over the eye of the second row is the
same long stiff tuft that appears in the male. The falces are
dark reddish-brown without iridescence. The abdomen is dark
gray with a white band around the anterior end, and white bars
on the sides. On the anterior part are four obliquely directed
w^hite spots, and on the posterior, two pairs of transverse bars,
which are sometimes continuous at their outer ends, forming the
parenthesis-like mark, which is also seen in P. ohscurus. The
legs are barred with light and dark brown and the palpi with
brown and white.

The male of this species is distinct from all others by the
fringe on the first leg. The female, although smaller, has some
resemblance to P. ohscurus, which comes from the same locality,
but the cephalothorax is of a different shaj^e, being slender, with
the sides nearly straight, while in ohscurus it is widely rounded.
It differs also in having the first legs only slightly stouter than
the others ; in having the color grey instead of yellowish-brown ;
and in having the white spots on the abdomen joined to form a
stripe instead of standing separate.

We have one male and three females, sent to us by Mr. Bol-
ter, from Las Vegas, Xew Mexico.

«

Pliidippus incertus, sp. nov.

PI. XXIV, figs. 1-la.

This is a gray species with white spots.

?. Length 9-11 mm. Legs 4132.

The cephalothorax and abdomen are black, covered with gray
hairs. There are three white spots on the cephalothorax just
in front of the third row of eyes, and on each side of the
head are two tufts of black hairs. The abdomen has a white
band around the front end, and behind this, two pairs of white
spots, the second pair being the larger. From above, the pos-
terior part of the abdomen appears to be marked with two pairs
of white bars. These extend downward on each side and join,
forming a curved band. The palpi are brown covered with

Peclcliam — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 293

white hairs. The legs are brown, Avith dark rings, and are cov-
ered with gray hairs, the first one having besides, a fringe of
short hairs, which are Avhite on the femur and patella, while on
the tibia they are whitish on the first, and dark on the second
half. The face and clypeiis are covered with white hairs. The
f alces have the upper third black, and on this section grow white
hairs. The lower part is very bright, iridescent gTeen.

This specie-s is almost exactly like galatliea, but is smaller,
and has a different epigynum. In galailiea, moreover, the
f alces are iridescent to the very top and have only a few strag-
gling white hairs along the inner edges. In otiosus, which is
also much larger, the coloring is different, the hairs on the palpi
and the spots on the abdomen being reddish, while the cephalo-
thorax is high and naiTow on top, that of incertus being rather
low and wide.

Phidippus inontivagus, sp. nov.

PI. XXIV, figs. 3-3a.

This is a medium sized species, with a small cephalothorax
and a heavy abdomen. The color is yellowish red.

$. Length 11 mm. Legs 4123.

This species is characterized by the white bands on the ceph-
alothorax. The cephalic plate, the middle sides, and the pos-
terior thoracic part are dark brown, the cephalic plate having a
growth of long, light brown hairs, which form tufts behind, and
in front of, the dorsal eyes. Along the lower margin, on each
side, is a white band, and another wider band, also white, ex-
tends around the front part of the cephalothorax and upper
sides. The abdomen is covered with short vellowish red hairs,
and has a white band around the anterior end which extends on
to the sides. There is a darker band down the middle, and on
this is a pair of central spots, and, further back, two pairs of
bars, the hinder pair being close to the spinnerets. These spots
and bars are not white, but are made of a mixture of white and
red hairs, so that they are lighter than the ground color. The
clypeus has long white hairs. The falces are dark and slightly

294 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

iridescent. The palpi are dark brown with white hairs, and the
legs dark brown with light brown hairs.

We have a single female from Chihuahua, [Mexico, where it
was found by Mr. Townsend at a height of 7,000 feet above the
sea.

Pliidippus ohscurus, P.
PI. XXIY, figs. 2-2e.

A very handsome species of a gray or brown color, orna-
mented with snow-white bands and spots, which are edged with
black.

^ . Length 10 mm. Length of cephalothorax, 4.8 mm. ;

width, 4 mm. Legs 1423 ; those of the first pair as long as the
body.

?. Length 10-13 mm. Legs 4132.

The cephalothorax is reddish-brown, covered with snowy
white hairs. In the female there are long, stiff, black hairs
around the eyes of the second row and on the middle of the
cephalic part, while the male has a ridge of stout rusty-brown
hairs beginning at each of the dorsal eyes and passing within
the eye of the second row to just above the lateral eye, while a
row of shorter hairs of the same color, above the first row of
eyes, connects the ends of these two ridges. The male has also,
low down on each side of the cephalothorax, between the dorsal
and lateral eyes, a long tuft of the same rusty-brown hairs, and
these are connected by a fringe of shorter hairs of the same
color, which crosses below the first row of eyes, edging the cly-
peus, and hanging down over the falces. The falces are iri-
descent in both sexes, but while in the female there is a band of
white hairs across the upper part, in the male they are almost
covered with white rice-like scales passing into a stiff fringe
of long white hairs, which look as if they had been cut squarely
off. In our male specimen fne abdomen has been rubbed, and
shows only a dark brown integument with a thin covering of
white hairs ; it was probably like that of the female, which is of
a delicate gray color. The pattern is essentially the same in
both, and is made up of white bands and spots outlined in black.

Peckliam — Spiders of the Family Aitidae. 295

There is a band around the anterior end, a pair of spots in front
of the middle, a large central spot, two oblique bands on each
side and a pair of spots in front of the spinnerets. The legs
and j^alpi are brown, with a good many white, scale-like hairs.
The first leg in the male has, at the inner, upper part of the dis-
tal end of the femur, a bunch of hairs, which are black w^ith
white tips. Running along under all the joints of this leg are
two fringes of hairs of mixed colors, white, dark, and rusty-
brovrn, these last growing white at the ends.

This species was described and named, some years ago, from
a badly rubbed female specimen. It is, in reality, very distinct,
the male, especially, being distinguished from all others by the
hairs on the cephalothorax and f alces.

We have one male from Xorth Carolina and several females
from Texas.

Phidippus Rauterhergii, P.
PL XXIV, figs. 6-6a.

targe, handsome spiders with metallic scales and white tri-
punctate marking on the abdomen.

?. Length 13-16 mm. LegsT423.

The cephalothorax is dark brown or black, with a crescent-
shaped w^hite band which curves forward from the dorsal eyes.
There are white hairs on the sides, and between the eyes of the
first row. The abdomen is velvety black, with a pure white
band around the front end, a white, central spot, two pairs of
white spots further back, and two oblique lines on each side, the
front one running lower down than the other. Behind the cen-
tral white spot a bronze band runs to the spinnerets, and in
front of the spot there is a less distinct bronze region, which
sometimes appears as three indistinct spots, as is represented
in the figure, and sometimes consists of a central band crossed
by a line, the dorsum being thus broken into four black patches.
The legs are black, barred with reddish brown, the first one hav-
ing a double black fringe under the femur, and a single fringe
of long hairs under the other joints. This fringe is white on

296 }Ylsconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

the patella, black on the tibia, white at the proximal and black
at the distal ends of the metatarsus and tarsus. The f alces are
iridescent green.

This may very possibly be the female of Phidippus varlega-
ius. We have several specimens from Texas.

Phidippus Tyrellii, sp. nov.
PI. XXIV, fig. 4.

A medium sized species, with bands of white hairs along the
outer edges of the falces.

5. Length 9 mm. Length of cephalothorax, 4.5 mm.;
width, 3 mm.

Legs 1423; first leg a little longer than the body; second leg
scarcelv longer than the third.

The cephalothorax is black, with wide white bands on the
sides and above the first row of eyes. Overhanging these eyes,
below them on the clypeus, and hanging do^vn between the
falces, are some long, Avhitey-brown hairs. The cephalic plate
is covered with short brown hairs. The falces are iridescent
green, with a streak of snow-white hairs along the outer edge,
ending at the insertion of the fang. The abdomen, in our speci-
men, is badly rubbed, and shows only a low band of white
around the anterior end, and behind this a good many bright
red hairs which probably covered the dorsal surface. Under
alcohol some pale markings appear, a large, central, triangular
spot, posterior to this, two pairs of transverse bars, and, be-
tween these, a central spot, all of which were very probably cov-
ered with white hairs. The legs are very dark, almost black.
The first is the stoutest, and is fringed, the hairs being colored
as follows : on the upper surface of the femur they are dark ;
on the inner face they form transverse bars of white at the ex-
tremities, with an oblique black band between ; on the outer
face there is a white fringe along the lower edge, overhung by
some darker hairs ; on the patella and the proximal end of the

tibia they are white, while on the distal end of the tibia they are
inky black, and grow very thick, both above and below. Both
metatarsus and tarsus have the proximal ends covered with
white and the distal ends with black hairs.

Peclcliam — Spiders of the Family Atiidae. 297

This species is distinguished from all others by the longitud-
inal bands of white hairs on the iridescent green falces. '

We have one male sent to us by Mr. J. B. Tyrrell, from the
Canadian Rocky Mountains.

Phidippus Worlcmanii, sp. nov.
PI. XXIV, figs. 5-5a.

This is a large species, the colors being gray, black, and white.
?. Length, 14.5 mm. Legs, 4123.

The posterior thoracic part and the cephalic plate are black,
the cephalic plate having a white spot in the middle. A wide
band of white hairs crosses the clypeus, occupies the sides of the
cephalic and anterior thoracic parts, and passes across the
thorax behind the dorsal eyes. There are two tufts of black
hairs on each side of the head. The abdomen is gray. Down
the center is a scalloped, longitudinal black band, on which is a
large triangular white spot, and further back, two pairs of white
bars which touch the gray color of the sides. On each side is
a pair of oblique white bars. The falces are bronze green.
The palpi are yellowish, with white hairs. The first, second
and third legs, excepting the metatarsi and tarsi, are rufus, the
metatarsi being yellow except the distal third, which is rufus,
and the tarsi being all yellow, excepting those of the first pair,
which have a dark ring in the middle. The fourth leg has the
femur and patella rufus, the tibia and metatarsus with the prox-
imal half light colored, and the distal half dark brown, and the
tarsus entirely light colored. All the legs are thinly covered
wdth short white hairs.

We have a single female, in the Marx Collection, marked
!N^orth America.

This species is very close to farneus, but the two pairs of
white bars on the hinder part of the abdominal black band are
transverse, not oblique, and are further apart. Farneus , more-
over, lacks the white band on the cephalothorax.

298 Wisco7isi7i Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Phidippus translatus, sp. nov..

Of this species we liave one female from Santarem. It is
so badly rubbed that a color description is impossible, but it ap-
pears to be exactly like P. morsitans, excepting in the form of
the epig}Tium. It is the only representative of this genus that
we have seen from South America.

Philaeus (Thorell), ISTO.
PL XXIV, figs. 7-Tc.

The cephalothorax is from moderately high to high, massive,
and moderately long. The sides slant outward from the upper
surface, especially in the males ; they are narrowed in front and
behind; in one species, hicolor, they are nearly parallel from
just behind the second row of eyes to just in front of the pos-
terior border, but in the others they are gently rounded. The
cephalic plate is inclined forward. The thoracic plate is short
and wide, the thorax slanting from just behind the dorsal eyes.

The quadrangle of the eyes is from a little more than one-
third wider than long to nearly twice as wide as long, is equally
wide in front and behind, or very slightly wider behind, and
occupies two-fifths of the cephalothorax. The front eyes form a
curved roAV, and are all separated, the lateral being further from
the middle eyes than these are from each other. They are not
large, the lateral being more than half the size of the middle
eyes. The second row is slightly nearer to the first than to the
third. The third row is not so wide as the cephalothorax at
that place.

The relative length of the legs is 1243, 1423, or 4132.

Philaeus clirysis has the second row of eyes plainly nearer
the first than the third row, as in Phidippus, but we place it in
this genus because the quadrangle of the eyes is but little wider
behind than in front. It has, moreover, metallic scales, which
are not commonly found in Phidippus.

In distinguishing Philaeus from the closely allied genera we
have made the following notes :

PecJcliam — Spiders of the Family Attidae, 299

In Phidippus the cephalothorax is wider and shorter; the
quadrangle of the eyes is plainly wider behind than in front;
the second row of eves is twice as far from the third row as it is
from the first ; the thoracic part is not so steeply inclined. In
Joins the quadrangle of the eyes is only one-fifth wider than
long. In Dynamius the quadrangle of the eyes is only one-
fourth wider than long, and the legs are nearly equal in length,
the third and fourth, however, heing* longer than the first and
second. In Dendry pliant es the shape of the cephalothorax is
different, being lower and flatter, without the distinctly raised
cephalic plate. In Servaea the cephalothorax is not high as it
is in Philaeus, and its upper surface is flattened. Simaetha
has the lateral eyes of the first row widely separated from the
m.iddle eyes. In Tliyene the cephalothorax is more rounded
and has its highest point well behind the dorsal eyes.

Our collection has the following species belonging to the
genus Philaeus: clirysops Poda^ Dalmatia; clirysis Wlk., Guate-
mala; hicolor Wlk., France; sanguinolatus Wlk., Dalmatia;
fartilis Peckham, Mexico ; and mexicanus Peckham, Mexico.
PI. oriclialceus C. K., which we formerly put into Phidippus,
and Phid. fraternus Banks, are synonyms of Philaeus chrysis,
Phid. disjunctus Banks is identical w^ith P. fartilis.

Zenodorus Peckham, 1885.
PI. XXV, fiffs. 1-le.

In 1881 Thorell formed the genus Ephippus for d'Urvillei
Walck. The name vras preoccupied, and Zenodorus was sub-
stituted in 1885. It is characterized by the shape of the ceph-
alothorax, which is very wide in front and narrow behind, and
by the large eyes of the first row.

The cephalothorax is wide in front, and is high at the third
row of eyes, from which it slants steeply in both directions.
All of these points are exaggerated in the male. The quad-
rangle of the eyes is one-fourth wider than long, is wider in
front than behind, and occupies one-third of the cephalothorax.
The anterior eyes are in a plainly curved row, and are all large,
the lateral being three-fourths as large as the middle. The

300 Wisco7isin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

middle eyes are subtoucliing, the lateral a little separated f rora
them. The second ro\v is halfway between the first and the
third, and the third is much narrower than the cej^halothorax at
that place.

We have only the type, from ^lurray Island, sent to us by Mr.
Workman.

Parnaenus Peckham, 1896.

Attidae of Central America, Occ. Pap. Xat. Hist. Soc. of Wis-
consin, \o\. 3, Xo. 1, p. 37, Plate XXV, figs. 2-2c.

The characteristic thing about this genus is that the front part
of the cephalothorax is widely swollen, so that the greatest width
is just behind the second row of eyes, this peculiarity being as
marked in the female, at least in the type species, as in the male.
Of other genera ^vhich resemble it in this respect Thyene is
much smaller and is found in another part of the world, Hyllus
has a differently shaped cephalothorax, with a high raised ceph-
alic plate, and Zenodoriis has the quadrangle of the eyes wdder
in front. Parnaenus is found in Texas, Mexico, Central x\'mer-
ica and South America. The sj^iders are large and handsome,
the males being darker colored than the females, and, usually,
having their first legs ornamented wdth fringes of hair.

The cephalothorax is high and massive, and when looked at
from in front the sides are seen to bulge out on each side of the
first row of eyes. The cephalic part is inclined. Behind the
dorsal eyes is a depression and then a slight hump, from which
the thorax falls in one slope to the margin. The lower outline
of the sides is not far from circular, but there is a distinct bulge
just behind the first row of eyes where the cephalothorax is
widest. Thev round out widelv from above downward so that
although the dorsal eyes are on the sides, they form a row
^vhich is much narrower than the cephalothorax at that place.
The quadrangle of the eyes is from slightly to plainly wider be-
hind than in front, is barely one-fourth wider than long, and
occupies about two-fifths of the cephalothorax. The first row is
curved, the middle eyes being slightly separated, wdiile the lateral
are placed further back, with a distinct Si3ace betw^een them and

Peckliam — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 301

the middle eves. The middle eyes are nearly twice as lar2:e as
the lateral. The second row is plainly nearer the first than the
third. In the male the falces are strong and projecting, with
a long fang, in cyanidens and funehris, but vertical in griseus.
In both males and females, so far as we know them, the first leg
is plainly the longest, and the fourth next.

This genus has for its type Phidippus cyanidens C. K., which
we have from Texas, Mexico, Guatemala and Brazil. To this
we add Phidippus funehris Banks, (Arachnida frotn Baja Cal-
ifornia, and other parts of 2Iexico), from Vera Cruz.

Parnaenus? griseus, sp. nov.

PI. XXVT, figs. T-Tb.

Large spiders, black below and silvery gray above.

0. Length, 11.5 mm. Legs, 1423, first stoutest. The first
is longer than the second by the metatarsus and tarsus. The
second and third differ but little. The fourth is longer than the
third bv the tarsus and half the metatarsus.

The cephalothorax, which is not much longer than wide, is
highest behind the dorsal eyes. The quadrangle of the eyes is
one-fourth wider than long, is plainly wider behind_than in
front, and occupies scarcely two-fifths of the cephalothorax.
The palpi are stout. The maxillae are widened at the end, with
a projection at the outer corner. The falces are stout, vertical,
and not iridescent. The cej^halothorax and abdomen are cov-
ered, above, with silvery iiray hairs, which reach, on the sides
of the cephalothorax to a little below the eyes. The lower sides of
both cephalothorax and abdomen are black. There are long
bro^\^l and ^^nhite hairs scattered over the whole body. The legs
are black, excepting the proximal halves of the tarsi, -Ahich are
light colored with white hairs. There is a short thick fringe
under the first leg, which is w^hite on the patella and black on the
tibia. The palpus has white scale-like hairs, and also long
white hairs, on all the joints. With some hesitation, we place
this species in the genus Parnaenus. The widest pai*t of the
cephalothorax is just behind the dorsal eyes, not so far back as
is represented in the figure.

We have one male from Las Cruces, ^N'ew Mexico.

302 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

Pardessus P., 1896.

•7

For illustration, see Attidae of Central America, PL III,
figs. 1-lb.

itather large, handsome spiders, with distinct patterns.

The cephalothorax is rather high, with the upper surface level,
or slightly convex. The cephalic part is slightly inclined ; the
thoracic falls little or not at all in the first half, and then slopes,
not very abruptly, to the posterior margin. The thoracic plate
is bluntly narrowed behind. The sides widen out gradually
from the anterior end to the middle of the thoracic part, and
then contract a little. They slant outvv^ard, so that the cephalo-
thorax is considerably wider below than above. The highest
point is at, or just behind, the dorsal eyes. The quadrangle of
the eyes is less than one-fourth wider than long, is about equally
wide in front and behind, and occupies two-fifths of the cephalo-
thorax. The four anterior eyes are a little separated, the lateral
more widely from the middle eyes than these from each other,
and form a straight row. The second row is a little nearer the
first than the third, and is narrower than the third, which is,
itself, plainly narrower than the cephalothorax. The type of
this genus is Plexippus mim^icus, C. K.

Servaea Simon, 1888.
PL XXY, figs. 2-2b.

Jowmal Asiatic Son. of Bengal, Vol. LVII, part 11, Xo. 3,
p. 283.

The name Servaea was substituted for Scaea L. Koch., 1879,
Arachn. Australiens, p. 1142, this being preoccupied.

This Australian genus is very close to Pliilaeus, the cephalo-
thorax having the same long, nearly parallel sides, but the upper
contour is quite different, Servaea having the dorsum nearly flat,
while in Philaeus it is distinctly convex. The quadrangle of the
eyes is one-third wider than long, and a little wider in front
than behind, occupying two-fifths of the cephalothorax. The
first row is slighty bent, with the middle eyes plainly less than
twice as large as the lateral. The second row is about half way

Pechham — Spiders of tlie Family Altldae, 303

between tlie other two, and the third is plainly narrower than
the cephalothorax. The cephalothorax is not so high as in Phil-
aeus, Phidippus and Palestrina. The cephalic part is only
slightly inclined, while the thoracic is nearly flat in the first
half, and then slopes off gradually.

We have specimens of vestita, the type, from 'New South
Wales and Victoria. The relative length of the legs in the male

is 1423, and in the female 4123.

Mollika gen. nov.

For illustration see Arachnid en Aiisiraliens, Koch and Key-
serling, Plate XCIY, figs. 7, 7a, 8-8c.

The cephalothorax is high, massive, and convex, and is nearly
as wide as long ; the sides slant outward from the upper surface
and their outline from the front to the back is gently rounded,
the widest point being behind the dorsal eyes. The cephalic
part is inclined, and the thoracic falls in one slope from the
second row of eyes to the lower border. The quadrangle of the
eyes is one-fourth wider than long, a little wider in front than
behind, and occupies two-fifths of the cephalothorax. The an-
terior eyes form a slightly curved row, the middle ones being
«ubtouching, and the lateral a little separated from them and
tw»-thirds as large, the relative size being the same as in Zeno-
doriis, although the eyes, as a whole, are smaller. The second
row is a little nearer the first than the third. The third row
is as wide as the upper surface, but not so wide as the cephal-
othorax because of the widening out of the sides from above
below. The legs are 1432, the first being plainly the longest,
while the others are nearly equal.

This genus, which we form for Pliilaeus metalescens L. K.,
differs from most of the larger genera of the Phidippus group in
the sloping thorax and the larger lateral eyes of the first row.
In these points it agrees with Zenodorus, but this genus bulges
out widely at the front end of the cephalothorax, while Mollilca
is widest in the middle. Into this genus we put Joins nvicro-
phthalrnus L. K.

304 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Palestrina gen. nov.

PL XXVI, figs. 4-4c.

This genus, while in size and general make np it recalls
PJiidippus and PJiilaeus, has a different look about the cephalo-
thorax. The sides are high, but instead of being rounded off,
they fall in a steep, straight slant. The dorsal surface, on the
contrary, is more gently rounded than in those genera, the curve
of the fall behind the dorsal eyes being just about equal to that
in front of them. The sides are narrow in front but bulge out
behind the dorsal eyes. The quadrangle of the eyes is one-
fourth wider than long, is very slightly wider in front, and oc-
cupies two-fifths of the cephalothorax. The first row is very
slightly curved and the middle eyes are larger than in the allied
genera, being about twice the size of the lateral eyes. The sec-
ond row is nearer the first than the third, and the third row is
nearly as wide as the cephalothorax. In the species that we

have of this genus the relative length of the legs is 4312, the
third and fourth being plainly longest, and the first and second
plainly stoutest. As compared with Servaea Palestrina has the
middle eyes of the first row relatively larger, the sides higher
and steeper, and the quadrangle of the eyes wider behind.

Of this genus we have only variegata, a new species from
Brazil.

Palestrina variegata sp. nov.

PI. XXVI, figs. 4-4c.

$. Length 9-10 mm.

Legs 4312, first and second pairs stoutest. The third is
longer than the second by the tarsus and half the metatarsus.

The cephalothorax is entirely covered with bright golden
hairs. On the abdomen these gold-colored hairs are mingled
with black ones to form a beautiful mottled pattern of spots and
short wavy lines, which is very effective in an unusual style.
The whole face, and the clypeus are covered with, long yellowush
white hairs which run down on to the dark colored, strong, ver-
tical falces. The same hairs form a fringe on each side of the

Pecl'ham — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 305

palpus. The dark colored legs have some short snow white hairs
en the tibia and metatarsus, but are not fringed. The metatarsi
of the first and second, and the tarsi of the first, second, and
third have the Broximal ends li^'ht colored.

We have two females from Chapoda, in the Smith collection.

Ilyllus C. Koch, 1846.

For illustration of H. pterygodes see Arachniden Australiens,
PL CXIII, figs. 6-7.

In this geaius the species are large, with long bodies, and with
the first legs very long, only slightly thickened, and not hairy.
In some of the species, and especially in the males, there is a
bulging out of the sides of the cephalothorax. It is character-
ized by the high cephalic plate, like that of Amycus. Most of
the species of Ilyllus come from the Malay Archipelago but we
have one, pratensis P., from Guatemala and Trinidad. We
have also giganteus C. K., Walchncarii White, and pterygodes
L. K

The cephalothorax is very high, having the quadrangle of the
eyes on a raised plate from which it slopes outward on the sides
and behind. It is contracted in front and behind, the widest
point being behind the dorsal eyes. The quadrangle of the
eyes is one-fifth wider than long, equally wide in front and be-
hind, and occupies two-fifths of the cephalothorax. The eyes
•of the first row are all separated and are large or moderately
large, the middle being less than twice the lateral ; they form a
slightly curved row. The second row is plainly nearer the first
than the third. The third row is not so wide as the cephalo-
thorax at that place.

C. Koch founded this genus on giganteus in 1816. In the
same year White formed the synonymous genus Deineresis for
Walchnaerii. Hyllus quadrilineatus, Wagae, nerreanhii, min-
uius, fuscGmanus, Camhridgii, callitlierinus of Taczanowskii,
and Hyllus tenuipes of Keyserling are in our collection, but we
do not include them in this genus.

The shape of Hyllus is more like that of Amycus than any-
thing else, but the spiders are much larger, heavier, and deeper
20

806 Wisconsi?i Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

colored. The males somewhat resemble the m.ale of Parnaenus
funehris, but the shape of the cephalothorax is quite diffeTent.

Simaetlia Thorell, 1881.

PL XXV, figs. 3-3b.

This genus is identical with Eulahes Keys. 1882 and Piri-
tlious Kej^s. 1883. The spiders are large, with rounded cephalo-
thorax and long first legs, but are not so high and massive as
Pliidippus and Philaeus. They are characterized by the very
wide quadrangle of the eyes and by the distance between the
lateral and middle eyes of the first row.

The cephalothorax is moderately high and has a rounded ap-
pearance, both above and on the sides. The cephalic plate is
inclined, especially in the anterior part. The thoracic part
slopes off gradually in the first third and then more steeply.
The highest point is at the dorsal eyes and the widest point be-
hind thein, where there is a gentle swelling out of the sides,
excepting in severa, which is wildest in front. The quadrangle
of the eyes is about twice as wide as long, is much w4der behind
than in front, and occupies from two-fifths to one-half of the
cephalothorax. The first row of eyes is straight or somewhat
curved, with the middle eyes subtouching or a little separated,
and more or less carried forward by a projection of the cephalo-
thorax. The lateral eyes are separated from them by at least
their own diameter. The second row of eyes is nearer the first
than the third. The third row is about as w^ide as the cephalo-
thorax at that place. The relative length of the legs is 1243 in
the males, and 1423, 1423, or 1342 in the females.

This genus was formed by Thorell for thoracica (Studi sui
Ragni Malesi e Papuani, III, p. 520). We lack this species,
the genus being represented in our collection by paetulus Keys.y
(PI. XXV, figs. 3-3b) tenuidens Keys., (Hasarius) harhatissi-
mus Keys., and sevei^a, a new species. In harhatissimus the
cephalothorax is higher than in the others, and is a little differ-
ently shaped. Severa approaches Anamosa of the Homalattus
Group, in its long cephalic part. All these species excepting
severa are from Australia. Possibly the type, tlioracia (Cape
York), is identical with S. fissidens Keys., also from Australia.

PecJcliam — Spiders of the Famih Atiidae. 307

Simaetha severa sp. nov.

?. Lengtli Q.Q mm. Legs 1423, first longest and stoutest.

In this species the quadrangle of the eyes is twice as wide as
long, occupies one-half of the cephalothorax, and is much wider
behind. The first row of eyes is straight ; the middle eyes are
large and subtouching ; the lateral are nearly half as large, and
are separated from them by their own diameter. The second
row is very much nearer the first than the third. The cephalo-
thorax is as wide as long, and is widest at the second row of
eyes, where there is a distinct bulge. The f alces are vertical^
as wide as the first row^ of eyes, and flattened. The maxillae are
rounded. The palpus has the patella, tibia, and tarsus flat-
tened. The color is brown, the cephalothorax being covered
with yellowish hairs above, and halfway down the sides and
hinder slope. Where the sides bulge out in front these hairs
grow long. The abdomen, in our specimen, is rubbed bare,,
showing only -Q.Ye pairs of indented dots.

We have one female from Singapore.

Tliyene Simon, 1885. ^

PL XXV, figs. 4-4b. i

Bidl. Soc. Zool. de Fr. 1885, t. x, p. 4. ^

This genus covers several medium sized species (5-9 mm.)
from the Eastern Hemisphere. In the males there is a char«
acteristic bulging out of the sides of the cephalothorax which
makes it resemble, on a much smaller scale, some of the males
of Parnaenus, Zenodorus and Hyllus In both sexes the sides,
are distinctlv rounded.

The cephalothorax is highest behind, or at, the dorsal eyes;.
The cephalic plate is strongly inclined and the thoracic part and'
the sides are much rounded. The widest point is just behind
the dorsal eyes, excepting in the male of huccidentum where it is
in front of the third row. The quadrangle of the eyes is one-
third wider than long, is from a little (imperialis) to a good
deal (hiicculentum) wider behind, and occupies two-fifths of the
cephalothorax. The first row of eyes is almost straight, witb

308 ^Yisconsm Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters,

the middle fiilljr twice as large as the lateral, all separated.
The second row is nearer to the first than to the third. The third
row is narrower than the cephalothorax at that place. So far
as vv^e know the relative length of the legs is 1342 or 1342 in the
male and 3412 in the female.

Simon founded this genus on impcrialis Rossi, in 1876, call-
ing it Thya (Arachn. de Fr., Yol. Ill, p. 51). The name
Thyene was afterward substituted for Thya, which was preoc-
cupied. We have the type, from France, tamafavi Vinson,
from Madagascar, hiicculentum Gers. from Zanzibar and Mada-
gascar, and varians new from Madagascar. Simon has de-
scribed T. semicuprea, Bidl. Soc. Zool. de Fr., t. x, p. 4, and
T. squamulata, Ann. Soc. Ent. de Fr., 1886, p. 347.

Thyene varians sp. nov.

The males of this species are showy brown and white si)iders,
with a wide scalloped white band on the sides of the cephalo-
thorax, and white hairs on the upper part of the falces. The
female is indistinct.

6. Leni>'th 5-7 mm. Leffs 1324, first and third much elon-

O CD '

gated.

$. Length 7 mm. Legs 3412, third and fourtli plainly
longest, and the first and second stoutest. The first and second
-are nearly equal in length, the third and fourth more unequal.

The first row of eyes is nearly straight and the lateral eyes
are larger than is usual in Thyene, being more than half as large
as the middle eyes. The quadrangle of the eyes is a little mora
than one-fourth wider than long, and is only slightly wider be-
hind than in front.

In the male the ground color is brown. The cephalothorax
has the clypeus and face white. There is a small tuft of black
hairs, on each side, below^ the eye of the second row. The
cephalic plate has a more or less triangular white spot in the
middle, and two short snow white bands running back from the
middle eyes of the first row to beyond the eyes of the second
row. Around the lower margin is a narrow white line, and on
the upper sides is a wide, scalloped, white band, which begins at

Pecliliam — Spiders of ilie Family AUidae. 309

the lateral eyes, and is coiitiniioiis on the hinder part of the
cephalothorax. This wide band is connected with the marginal
line by a white line at the back part of the thorax. The ab-
domen has a white longitudinal band down the middle which
forms, at the anterior end, a large spot. Behind this there is
an enlargement, and then a narrower part, which is crossed, back
of the middle, by a curved transverse white band. The falces
are vertical, about as wide as the middle eyes, witli a small fang.
Their color is brown, and on the upper half is a bunch of white
hairs. The palpus has white scales along the top of the femur
and patella, and at the proximal end of the tarsus, and white
hairs on the sides of the tibia. The femur and patella are light
colored, the tibia and tarsus dark. The first leg has the femur,
patella, and tibia brovm, and the metatarsus and tarsus light
colored. There are white hairs on the proximal two-thirds of
the patella, in a line along the outer upper edge of the tibia
(which is covered underneath with short brown hairs), and in a
ring around the proximal end of the metatarsus. The other
legs have the femur light at the proximal, and dark at the distal
end, and the other joints rina'ed with brown and white.

In the fem.ale the cephalothorax is covered with light bro^vn
hairs, with a not very conspicuous tuft on each side below the
eye of the second row. The abdomen is covered with gray
hairs. On each side are two oblique white bands, and on the
hinder part of the dorsum are two pairs of white spots all out-
lined in black. The markings are indistinct. The legs are
yellow with white hairs.

We have three males and one female from Madagascar.

Dendrypli antes (C. K.)? 1S3T.

For illustration of the type, see AUidae of Central America,
Occ. Pap. ISTat. Hist. Soc. of Wisconsin, Vol. Ill, Xo. 1, PI.
IV, figs. 3-3b.

This genus is widely distributed and has many species which
resemble each other closely in form, color, and marking. They
are usually from four to seven millimeters long. The cephalo-
thorax is moderately high. The upper surface varies in its con-
tour, but is never flat. Most commonly both cephalic and thor-

810 ^Yiscons{n Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

acic parts slope gradually from the dorsal eyes, the thoracic
slant becoming steeper after the first third. The sides are but
little wider below than above. They diverge very slightly from
the first row of eyes, and are only a little Avider than the third
row, but behind this point they widen out. As a usual thing
the front eyes form a curved row, the middle being less than
twice as large as the lateral, and close together, while the lat-
eral are a little separated from them. In some cases these eyes
are close together in a straight row, and the middle eyes may be
twice as large as the lateral. The quadrangle of the eyes is
from one-fourth to one-third wider than long, is wider behind
than in front, and occupies from two-fifths to one-half of the
cephalothorax. The first and fourth legs are always longer
than the second and third, the first leg being always longest in
the male.

Hentz, in his North American Spiders, described a number
of small Dendrypli antes which are very difiicult to identify.
After comparing a large number of specimens from different
parts of the country, we have concluded that parvus is the fe-
male of capitatus. Our aestivalis and also aestivalis Emerton,
are identical with capitatus. We had supposed that octavus
and hehes H. were also to be referred to this species, but Mr.
EmeTton writes to us as follows: ^'As to identification of
Hentz's names it is not much more than giiess work at best. I
^an agree with you on capitatus and parvus being probably the
eame species as our aestivalis, but octavus and Jiebes are quite
as likely to be something else. I have just looked at the original
colored figures in the Society of ^N'atural History Library, and
they are less like D. aestivalis than the engravings and descrip-
tions." Our D. alhoimmaculaius would better go into the
genus Ballus. D. vitis of Cockerel], and our D. elegaus, we
now think are better placed in Icius. D. bifida Banks and D.
aeneolus Curtis are synonyms of D. montanus Emerton. We
have compared them carefully and the only difference is that
the joints of the palpus are heavier in montanus than in aeneo-
lus. Montanus was published in the latter part of 1891, aeneo-
lus early in 1892, and bifida in 1895.

Key to some of the males of the genus Dendry pliant es, includ-

Pechham — Sinders of the Family Attidae. 311

ing felix, 'prosper, faustus, cdhopilosus, vigeiis, ruber, nitidus,
laetahiUsj octopundatus, Umbatus Banks, cuprinus Tacz., and
tropicus. In all of these species the first leg is long, often
longer than the second by the tarsus, metatarsus and part, or all,
of the tibia. In several other species the first leg is longer
than the second by the tarsus and metatarsus, but in these all of
the legs are relatively short, there being no appearance of a long
first leg.

1. Falces long, horizontal and parallel, felix and prosper.
The general appearance of these species is almost exactly

alike, but the relative length of the legs is 1 4 2 3 in felix, and
1432 in prosper, and the palpi are perfectly distinct, the tube
being straight in felix and curved in prosper.

2. Falces moderately long to long, and oblique, militaris, lim-
hatiis, nitidus and laetabilis.

The falces of laetabilis^ are stout and round, less than twice
as long as wide, with two teeth on the lower side, and a long
apophysis from the middle of the inner edge of each f alx. The
first leg is longer than the second by the tarsus, metatarsus, and
nearly all of the tibia. There is no white band on the cephalo-
thorax.

In nitidus^ and Umbatus the falces are long and rather slen-
der, more than twice as long as wide, and the first leg is longer
than the second by only the tarsus and metatarsus. Nitidus
has a white band around the lower edge of the cephalothorax, but
none on the upper sides, while Umbatus has the marginal band,
and v/ider ones running backward from the lateral eyes on to
the thorax. Militaris differs from the other three in having
white bands on the upper sides of the cephalothorax and across
the cephalic part above the first row of eyes. For a good draw-
ing of the falces of this species, see Emerton's New England At-
tidae, PL XVII, figs, lb, Ic.

3. Falces swollen, vertical or slightly inclined, with white
hairs on the front face, albopilosus, vigens, faustus and octopunc-
iatus.

Albopilosus is distinguished from vigens by its coloring, from

^See Attidae of Central America and Mexico, PI. IV, fig. 6a.
2See Attidae of Central America and Mexico, PI. IV, fig. 8a.

312 Wisccnsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

faustiis by having only one apoplij^sis on the tibia of the palpus,
and from octopunctatus by having the tube of the palpus long
and spirally curved, instead of short and straight. Vigens is
distinguished from faustiis by having only one apophysis on the
tibia of the palpus, and from octoiyunctatus by the tube of the
palpus being curved. Faustus is distinguished from octopunc-
tatus by having two apophyses on the tibia of the palpus.

4. Falces vei'tical or slightly inclined, not swollen, v^^ithout
white hairs on the front face, cuprinus, tropicus and ruber.

Tropicus is distiuguished by the short curved horn on the
under proximal part of each falx. Ruber is distinguished from
cuprinus by having the falces equally wide throughout their
length, instead of wide at the base and narrow at the end.

This leaves us a number of American species in which the
first leg of the male is not strikingly long, the spiders being
rather small, from 4.5 to 5.5 millimeters long. These species
are vegeius, perfcctus, per nix, bisquepunctatus Tacz., montanus
Em., capitatus Tlentz, arizonensis, Manii, proxima, lionduren-
sis, flavipedes, centralis and Smlthii. Of these, vegetus is dis-
tinguished by its golden-green coloring, without white bands;
perfectus by the white band down the middle of the abdomen;
pernix by the two pairs of curved white bands on the posterior
part of the dorsum; bisquepunctatus by the curved horn (simi-
lar to that of tropicus) on the falces. The remaining species
are very similar in form and coloring, and are best. distinguished
by the difierences in the palpus. Capitatus has the tube
doubled, coming off from the end of the bulb. Montanus, prox-
i^na and liondurensis have all a stout, straight tube from the end
of the bulb, and must be separated by their specific descriptions.
Manii and Smithii have a straight, slender tube from the end
of the bulb, Smithii being distinguished from Manii by having
the apophysis on the tibia of the palpus larger, and curved. In
arizonensis there is a stout, curved tube from the side of the end
of the bulb. In centralis the tube also comes from the side of
the end, but is slender and curved. In flavipedes the tube is
bifurcated to its insertion at the end of the bulb. This species
has the first and second pairs of legs light brown with a black
line along the anterior faces of the femur, patella and tibia.

Pechliam — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 313

Dendrypli antes felix, sp. nov.
PL XXVII, figs. 6-6a.

$. Length 5.5 to 6.5 mm. Falcos 3 mm. Legs 1423
first stoutest and miicli longer than the others, the first being
longer than the second by the tarsns, metatarsus and part of the
tibia. The coxa and trochanter are elongated. In A. diolenii
these joints reach to abont half the length of the falx, in this
species just to the base, while in D. prosper the coxa and tro-
chanter are scarcely visible from above, and are miUch thicker
than in felix.

The cephalothorax is plainly longer than wide ; the cephalic
part is slightly inclined, and the thoracic falls a little in the first
two-fifths and then drops abruptly. The quadrangle of the eyes
is one-third wider than long, is a trace wider behind than in
front, and occupies two-fifths of the cephalothorax. The first
row of eyes is straight, the middle are twice as large as
the late'ral, the former touching, the latter subtouching. The
second row is nearer the lateral. The third is about as wide as
the cephalothorax at that place. The falces are bronze brown
in color, and are long, parallel, horizontal and cylindrical, with
a very long fang. The mlaxillae are more than twice as long as
the labium, divergent and rounded. The color of the cephalo-
thorax is bronze, with red, iridescent scales on the upper sur-
face, and around the first row of eyes, the scales being much
more distinct in some lights than in others. There is a white
spot just above the first row of eyes, and another further back
and between the eyes of the third row. There are white bands
on the upper sides, starting from the lateral eyes of the first
row ; they do not unite behind. The abdomen is bronze brown,
with an encircling white band, which is not continuous behind.
The bronze brovvai along the middle of the abdomen is much
brighter and more iridescent than that on the sides. The first
legs are dark, except the last joint, which is pale. The trochan-
ters and proximal parts of the other three legs are light; the
rest of the legs are dark until the metatarsi, the last two joints
growing paler, the depth of color varying in different specimens
and also on the different legs. All the legs have white hairs.

314 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

«

The femur and patella of the palpus are covered with white
scales. The tube of the palpus distinguishes this species from
D. 'prosper.

We have this species from San Rafael, Mexico, sent us by Mr.
C. H. Tjler Townsend.

Dendrypliantes prosper, sp. nov.

PI. XXVII, figs. 5-5a.

5. Length 6 ram. ; lengtli of cephalothorax 3 mm. Falces
2.5 mm. Legs 1432 ; first and second stoutest and first much
longer than the others.

The cephalothorax is plainly longer than wide. The cephalic
part is slightly inclined, and the thoracic falls a little in the first
half and then drops abruptly. The quadrangle of the eyes is
one-third wider than long, is wider behind than in front, and
occupies two-fifths of the cephalothorax. The first row of eyes
is straight, with the middle eyes sub-touching and twice as large
as the lateral, vrhich are separated from them. In our speci-
mens the scales and hairs are so nearly gone that it is impossible
to get a good idea of the coloration, but the cephalothorax seems
to have been bronze, with red, iridescent scales on the cephalic
plate, white bands on the upper sides, and a white spot between
the dorsal eyes, while the abdomen is brown, with an encircling
white band. The falces are bronze brown in color and are long,
horizontal, cylindrical, r.nd parallel, with a very long fang.
The maxillae are more than twice as long as the labium, and
are rounded and divergent. The legs are brown, the first and
second pair darkest, with some close white scales. The palpus
is brown, with short white hairs on the patella.

The general aj:>pearance of this species is exactly like that of
D. felix, although there is a slight difference in the relative
length of the legs, but the palpi are perfectly distinct, the tube
being straight in felix and curved in prosper.

We have two males from San Antonio, Texas.

Peclcliam — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 315

Dendrypli allies limhatus Banks.

Arachnida from Baja, California, and other parts of Mexico.
Proc. California Academy of Sciences, Third Series, Vol. I,
1^0. 7, p. 282.

This species, which j\Ir. Banks places in the genus Philaeus,
seems to be ideTitical with Philaeus consimilis Banks, described
in the same paper, p. 283.

6. Length 5 mm ; ? 5 mm. Legs 6 1423 ; first plainly the
longest; ? 1423. Falces, $> 2.5 mm. ; fang as long.

The cephalothorax is moderately high and has a ronnded ap-
pearance, being nearly as wide as long. The first row of eyes
is almost straight, the middle being snbtoiiching and less than
twice as large as the lateral, which are a very little separated
from them. The second row is a very little nearer to the first
than to the third, and the third is narrower than the cephalo-
thorax at that place. The quadrangle of the eyes is one-third
wider than long', and is wider b hind than in front. The ceph-
alic part is a little inclined, and the thoracic falls scarcely at
all until the last third, when it drops abruptly. In the male the
whole body is bronze. The eye-region and a central band down
the dorsum of the abdomen are covered w^ith green metallic
scales. The cephalothorax has a white line around the margin,
and a white band starting from the lateral eye and running back
on to the thorax, but not quite uniting with its fellow of the op-
pt)site side. The abdomen has a white band around the base
and sides, which does not reach the spinnerets. The female is
similar, but lacks the white bands. The falces of the male are
long, oblique, and divergent, with a strong tooth underneath, and
a long, slender fang. In the female they are vertical and paral-
lel. The coloring is bronze, with iridescent scales. The legs
are dark brown Avith the tarsi pale, and the proximal ends of
the femora lighter, especially in the third and fourth. The
palpi are dark brown, those of the male having white scales and
a row of short black spines on the rather elongated patella.

D. laetahilis has no white band on the cephalothorax and has
the falces not long and slender, but heavy, with two teeth on
the lower side, and a long apophysis from the middle of the in-
ner edge of each f alx.

81G ]Yisconsm Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

In D. nitidus, wliicli is a larger species, tlie patella and tibia
of the palpus are longer than the tarsus, the tibia alone being
more than half as long, while in limhatus the patella and tibia
are shorter than the tarsus, the tibia being about one-fourth as
long. Nitidus lacks the white bands on the upper sides of the
cephalothorax.

We have one female and many males from Vera Cruz and
San Rafael, Mexico, and Rocks Reseca, Texas.

Dendry pliant es aJhopilosus, sp. nov.
PL XXVII, figs. 2-2c.

Length, ^ 5-7 mm. ; $ nearly 8 mm. Legs, 6 1234; the
first much longer than the others, which are nearly equal. The
first leg is 7.5 mm. long through the elongation of the coxa and
trochanter, and is plainly the stoutest. It exceeds the second
by the tarsus, me-tatarsus and nearly all of the tibia. ? .14 2 3,
first stoutest.

The quadrangle of the eyes is plainly wider behind, where it
is one-third wider than long, and it occupies two-fifths of the
cephalothorax. The anterior eye-s are in a straight row, the mid-
dle subtouching and less than twice as large as the lateral,
which are well separated from them. The second row is a little
nearer the first than the third, and the third is nearly as wide as
the cephalothorax at that place. The whole ce]Dhalothorax is
rounded, the widest point being at the dorsal eyes, with the sides
a little wider below than above.

The cephalic and thoracic parts of the male are covered,
above, with chestnut colored hairs, excepting a square white
spot on the front middle part of the eye-region. The sides are
covered with white hairs, excepting on the posterior lower parts,
which are bare. (It vA2ij be that in our specimens the hairs have
been rubbed away.) The narrow clypeus is dark under the mid-
dle eyeSj and white under the laterals. The abdomen is chest-
nut, with a white band around the front end, which runs on to
the sides, and a white band down the middle, crossed by two
widely opened chevrons of white hairs. The legs are bro\\"n.

PecJiham — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 317

•darker in some specimens than in others, with white scales on all
the joints. The first has the tarsus and the proximal ends of
the patella, tibia, and metatarsus light colored, while the other
parts are darker. The others have the metatarsus and tarsus
light, and the other joints dark. The palpus is brown, with
white scales on all the joints, especially on the femur and pa-
tella. There is a pointed apophysis on the tibia. The falces
are vertical and bulge out in fix)nt, more in some specimens than
in others. They are brown, the front faces being covered with
white scales. The maxillae are rounded. The female has the
whole cephalothorax mottled with white and chestnut hairs, the
white predominating. The abdomen is similar, with the color
inclining to grayish. On the posterior half of the dorsum are
two short, longitudinal, dark bands, each crossed by three trans-
verse white bars. Between the bands the dorsum is sometimes
bronzy. The dark bands sometimes run forward nearly to the
front end, when they have a fourth pair of white bars. The
legs are dark brovrn, excepting that the second, third and fourth
pairs have the proximal two-thirds of the femur pale. The
falces are slightly swollen and covered with white scales.

We have one male in which the first leg on one side is scarcely
longer than the second. It has probably been broken off and
replaced. Some of the males are colored like the females.

This species is distinguished from vigens by its coloring,
from fauslus by having only one apophysis on the tibia of the
palpus, and from octopunctatiis by having the tube of the palpus
long and spirally curved, instead of short and straight.

We have numerous exam^ples from Chapoda, Para, Sao Paulo,
and Paraguay.

Dendrypliantes vigens^ sp. no v.
PI. XXYII, fig.

3.

$. Length 5 mm. Legs 1423 ; first stoutest and much the
longest ; others not very unequal. The first exceeds the second
by the tarsus, metatarsus and nearly all of the tibia.

The quadrangle of the eyes occupies two-fifths of the cephalo-
thorax and is plainly wider behind, where it is one-third as wide

31S Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ns lonp:. TIio anterior eyes form a curved row, the middle being
less tlian twiec ns large as tlie lateral and snbtonehing, Avliile
the lateral are a little separated from them. The second row is
nearer the first than the third, and the third is not so wide as the
cephalothorax at that jdace.

The cephalothorax has the upper surface and the lower sides
bron/.e. .V white band passes backward from the lateral eye
along the u]^]'>er side on to the thorax, Init does not unite with its
fellow of the opposite side. The abdomen is bronze, with a
white encircling band which groAvs narrower toward the spin-
nerets. On the dorsum arc' four pairs of indented dots. The
legs are bronze, with all the joints darkening toward the distal
ends. The femur is nearly black in the tirst Icix, while in the
others it is dark with a ]~)ale proximal end. There are white
scales on all the joints. The palpus is brown. It looks rather
like that of oelopuneiatus, but is not so long and slender, the
tibia being shorter and broader (plainly smaller than the tar-
sus), with a longer and slightly curved apophysis. The tube
from the end of the bulb is somewhat curled, while in octopunc-
iatus it is straiiiht. The falces are vertical and are swollen, like
those of octopiuictatiiSj fanstus, and aJbopilosus, with white
scales all over the front. The clypeus is narrow and dark. The
maxillae are widened at the tip and are about twice as long as
the labium, which is lonc:er than wide.

The color of this species is entirely different from that of al-
io pit osiis. It is distinguished from faustus by having only one
process on the tibia of the palpus, and from octopunctatus by the
ditTerence in the palpus.

We have one male from Para.

Dendnjpliantes faustus, sp. nov. ^i.

PI. XXVII, figs. 1-lb.

Length, o and ^ (> m. Legs, S and ?, 1123; the first
verv lono- (0 mm.) in the male.

In the male the cephalothorax and abdomen are bronze-
brown, the cephalothorax with white hairs on the sides, and the
abdomen with an encircling white band. On the clypeus and
around the eves of the first row are briirht irolden-red hairs.

PecJcham — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 319

The fakes project slightly, and are divergent, and flattened on
the inner side, with a rather long fang. On the flat inner sides,
and along the inner edges, are pure white hairs, which have a
very ornamental effect. The legs are hrown, paler toward the
terminal joints. The first leg has the coxa and trochanter
elongated and visible from above, the coxa alone being longer
than the coxa and trochanter of the second taken together.
There are some short white hairs on the upper side of the femur,
and under the patella. The palpus has two apophyses on the
tibia, one long and blunt, one short and pointed. The maxillae
are pointed.

The female has a bro^vn cephalothorax, which seems to have
beeoi covered with white hairs, and there are long white hairs
on the face and clypeus. The abdomen is reddish bro^vn, with
some white hairs at the anterior end. The sides are mottled
with pale streaks. On the dorsum are two dark longitudinal
bands, upon which are three pairs of pale dots, and, behind
these, two pairs of pale bars. The falces are shaped somewhat
like those of the male, but are vertical and have a short fang.
On the inner faces are some short white hairs. The legs and
palpi are barred with light and dark brown.

In its elongated first leg and general coloring, faustus resem-
bles Avitus dioleniij but in that species the cephalothorax is
much narrower behind than in front, and the middle eyes of the
first row are twice as large as the lateral eyes.

Dendrypliantes tropicus , sp. nov.

PI. XXVII, figs. 8-8b.

Length, 5 4 mm.; ? 5.5 mm. Legs, 5 1423; first stout-
est and exceeding the second by the tarsus and metatarsus; ?
14 2 3, first stoutest.

The quadrangle of the eyes is one-fourth wider than long, oc-
cupies about half of the cephalothorax, and is equally wide in
front and behind. The first row of eyes is straight, the eyes all
close together, the middle being barely twice as large as the
lateral. The second row is nearer the first than the third, which
is plainly narrower than the cephalothorax at that place. The
sides round out, being widest at the dorsal eje?>.

320 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

Our specimens are rubbed. In the male the ceplialotborax
is dark brovrn and seems to 'have been covered with bronze scales.
There are indications of a white encircling band. The lower
margin has a very narrow white line. The abdom^en is brown,
the dorsum surrounded by a white band. The legs and palpi
are of a medium bro^\^l with some darker bars. The palpus
has a long, spiral tube. The f alces are divergent, nearly vertical,
with a fang as long as the f alx ; on the under proximal part just
beyond the point of the maxilla, is a short curved horn, pointing
toward the base. This is a characteristic point, as the only other
species having such a process is hisquepunctatus, which is larger
with a different palpus.^ The f alces are brown with bro^vn
hairs. The labium is a little longer than wide and a little less
than half as long as the maxillae, which are excavated, trunc-
ated, and projecting at the outer corner. The female has the
cephalothorax with light bronze scales, the sides and clypeus
being white. The abdomen is brown with a central longitudinal
band of light bronze, and an encircling band of yellowish white.
In front of the spinnerets are two pairs of oblique vrhite lines
running from the central band to the white on the border.

We have two males and a female from Chapoda.

Dendryphantes cuprinus Tacz.

PI. XXVII, fig. 7.

Length, $, 5 mm ; $ 6 mm. Legs, ^ 1243 ; first stoutest and
longer tlian tlie second by the tarsus, metatarsus and nearly al]
of the tibia; second, third and fourth nearly equal; $ 1423,
first much the stoutest.

The cephalothorax is narrow in front, widening out to a point
behind the dorsal eyes. The sides are a little wider below than
above. The quadrangle of the eyes is one-fourth wider than
long, a very little wider behind than in front, and occupies
nearly one-half of the cephalothorax. The anterior eyes are
close together in a curved row, the middle being less than twice
as large as the lateral. The second row is plainly nearer the
first than the third, which is narrower than the cephalothorax.

The male has the whole body bright brown, covered with
golden hairs which have a slight metallic lustre. The cephalo-

I Mohica Moenkhausii has a horn under the falx like that of bisquep anctatus.

PecJcliam — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 321

thorax has white bands along the upper sides which unite behind
and has some reddish hairs around' the front ejes. The ab-
domen is encircled by a white band, and has, on the dorsum;,
eight indented dots, and a narrow streak of mixed black and
white hairs down the middle of the posterior half. The legs are
brown with some small white scales, those of the first pair being
the darkest. The palpi are jellow^ish-brown with w^hite scales
on the femur and patella, and are marked by a very small apoph-
ysis on the femur, and a larger one on the tibia. The tube is
narrow and straight. The fakes are brown. They are vertical;,
stout above, but narrow at the end, where there is a little tooth.
The fang is long and slender, the whole falx resembling that of
tropicus, which, however, lacks the little tooth, and has a small
curved horn on the upper part. The maxillae are twice as long
as the labium, w^ith projections at the outer corners. Our fe-
male is too badly damaged to describe, but the cephalothorax
seems to have been dark brown with some iridescent red on the
eye-region. According to Dr. Taczanowski's description the
whole body is covered w^ith fawn colored hair, the abdomen hav-
ing a longitudinal brown band which is enlarged at the extrem-
ities and in the middle, and is bordered by a white line.

We have a male and female from Lima, sent to us by Dr.
Taczanowski.

..j>

Dendry pliant es pernix, sp. nov. :,

PL XXVIII, figs. 5-5a.

Length, 6 5.5 mm. $6.5 mm. Legs, 6 and ? 1423, first
stoutest in both sexes, wdth a distinct enlargement of the femur-
and tibia, which is more marked in the male than in the female..

The cephalothorax is nearly flat on the upper surface from the-
front row of eyes through two-thirds of the thoracic part, al-
though there is a slight rounding up toward the dorsal eyes, in'
both directions. It widens out a little behind the middle, and is
not much wider below than above. The front eyes form a very
slightly curved row, the middle ones touching and less than twice-
as large as the lateral, w^hich are separated from them. The-

21

322 ^Yisco7^sin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

quadrangle is one-fourth wider than long, occupies more than
two-fifths of the cej^halothoraXj and is but little wider behind
than in front.

We have no perfect specimen, but the coloring seems to be as
follows : The hairs on the sides of the cephalic part, and in a
band along the upper sides of the thoracic, are white ; on the up-
per surface of the cephalothorax, on the lower sides of the thor-
acic part, and in a median band on the slope of the thorax, sep-
arating the extremities of the white band, they are yellow. On
the clypeus thej are long, thick and white ; and around the mid-
dle eyes of the front row they are yellowish. There is a narrow
wliite line around the lower margin of the cephalothorax. The
front end and the sides of the abdomen are covered with snow-
white hairs. The dorsum shows traces of vellow hairs. On

t.

the posterior part there are two pairs of slightly curved trans-
verse white bands which come up from the sides, very much as
in D. duhiiahilis and in several species of Zygohallus. In the
male the first leg has the femur dark brown with a row of brown
hairs, not thick enough to be called a fringe, above, and another
below. The patella is light, the tibia dark with a fringe of
.broA\Ti hairs on the inner side, the metatarsus light in the proxi-
mal and dark in the distal end, and the tarsus dark. The second
"has the femur dark, the patella light but darkening a little at
the distal end, the tibia dark and the metatarsus and tarsus light.
The third and fourth have the femur dark, tending toward
lighter at the proximal end, the patella and tibia light, darken-
:ing at the distal ends, and the metatarsus and tarsus light. In
'the femxale the first leg is dark except the metatarsus and tarsus,
which are lighter, and the second, third, and fourth are light
bro^m, the joints tending to grow a little darker at the distal
ends. The falces project a little, and are broT^m, with some yel-
lowish hairs on the inner face. The palpus is bro\\Ti with white
hairs on the femur, these being more marked in the male than
in the female. The maxillae are truncated and project at the
outer corner. They are twice as long as the labium which is but
little longer than wide.

Whe have numerous examples from Chapoda.

Peckham — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 323

Dendryphantes perfect us, sp. no v.

PL XXYII, figs. 4-4a.

$. Length 6 mm. Legs 1423, the first longer than the sec-
ond by the tarsus and metatarsus.

The cephalothorax is a little wider below than above, and the
sides Aviden out slightly to a point behind the dorsal eyes. The
quadrangle of the eyes occupies two-fifths of the cephalothorax,
is one-third wider than long, and is wider behind than in front.
The front eyes form a curved row, the middle being close to-
gether and less than twice as large as the lateral, which are a
little separated from them, and placed further back.

The cephalothorax is dark reddish brown, Vvdth white bands
along the upper sides which do not unite behind. The abdomen
is bronze with a Vvdiite band down the middle of the back, on each
side of vrhich is a pair of white spots. Around the front end
and sides is a white band, which throws up two little points or
projections on each side, at the posterior end. The legs are dark
browQ, the first pair almost black. The maxillae are short and
rounded. The falces are brown, vertical, and have a small
tooth on the inner side at the end. The palpus is dark brown
with the tarsus as long as the patella and tibia together. There
is a process on the tibia, and the tube, coming off from the end
of the bulb, is straight and narrow.

This species, of which we have one male from Para, sent to us
by Mr. Moenkhaus, is near cuprinus, tropicus and ruber. Of
these cuprinus and ruber have the first leg longer than the second
by the tarsus, metatarsus, and nearly all of the tibia, and ruber
has the patella and tibia of the palpus plainly longer than the
tarsus, while tropicus may be distinguished by the falces.

Dendryphantes vegetus, sp. nov.
PL XXVIII, figs. 7-7a.

$. Length 4.5-5 mm. Legs 4132, first a little the stoutest.

The cephalothorax is small in proportion to the abdomen, and
has the sides nearly parallel, there being a slight widening be-
hind the dorsal eyes. The cephalic part is plainly inclined.

324 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

The tlioracic falls gradiiallv in tlie first third, and then steeply.
The quadrangle of the eyes occupies two-fifths of the cephalo-
thorax, is one-third wider than long, and is a little wider behind
than in front. The front eyes are small, and form a slightly
curved row ; they are all close together, and the middle ones are
less than twice as large as the lateral. The second row is nearer
the first than the third, and the third is nearly as wide as the
cephalothorax at that place. The whole spider is covered with
bright greenish golden hairs, the green tint being less marked on
the abdomen than on the cephalothorax. When the hairs are
rubbed off, the abdomen is light brown with two darker bands
on the anterior part, which merge into dark chevrons behind,
and dark oblique streaks on the sides. The falces are light
broAvn, vertical, and rather long. The legs and palpi are yellow
with some white scales. The lip is wide and short, the maxillae
tAvice as long, and rounded.

We have many females from San Rafael, Mexico, sent to us.
by Mr. Townsend.

Dendnjphantes odlosus, sp nov.
PL ZXVIII, figs. 6-6a.

?. Length 4.5 — 5.5 mm. Legs 4123, first stoutest.

The cephalothorax is very little longer than wide ; the widest
point is behind the dorsal eyes; the upper surface rounds off
gently in each direction from the dorsal eyes, the thoracic slope
becoming steeper after the first half. The sides are not much
wider below than above. The quadrangle of the eyes is one-
third wider than long, wider behind than in front, and occupies
two-fifths of the cephalothorax. The front eyes are rather small
and form a straight row, the middle ones touching, and a little
less than twice as large as the lateral, which are separated from
them. The second row is a little nearer the first than the third,
and the third is nearly as wide as the cephalothorax at that place.
We have no perfect specimen, but in one which is in fairly good
condition the upper surface of the cephalothorax seems to have
been entirely covered with yellow hairs, excepting a white spot
between the dorsal eyes, and the sides are entirely covered with

Pechham — Spiders of tlie Family Attidae. 325

white hairs. Around the two middle eyes of the first row the
hairs are reddish, hut on the clypeus and the upper part of the
falces they are yellowish white. The abdomen seems to have
had the dorsum with yellow hairs, and four or five pairs of white
spots, while the sides are brown with oblique white bands. The
legs are brown with white scales and hairs, and the palpus is
brown with thin wJiite hairs on the tarsus. The maxillae are
rounded, with a projection at the outer corner, and are twice as
long as the labium, which is as wide as long.
We have four females from Chapoda.

Dendry pliant es fortimatus, sp. nov.

PI. XXVIII, figs. 8-8a.

A very distinct and handsome little species.

?. Length 4 mm. Legs 1432, first darkest and having the
femur, patella and tibia enlarged.

The cephalothorax is plainly longer than wide. It is narrow
in front, widening a little beyond the third row of eyes. The
quadrangle of the eyes is one-third wider than long, occupies
nearly one-half of the cephalothorax, and is very slightly wider
behind than in front. The anterior eyes are all near together in
a straight row, the middle being nearly twice as large as the
lateral. The second row is nearer the first than the third, and
the third is almost as wide as the cephalothorax. The cephalo-
thorax is red brown above, with two dark spots on the eye-region,
and has the sides and clypeus covered with white hairs. The
abdomen has an encircling band of silvery white, and above
this, on each side, a brown band speckled with white, which has
a raised appearance, and which is cut by three narrow, oblique,
strips of white. Down the middle, between the two dark bands,
is a light brown, somewhat metallic, band. The first leg is dark,
the second pale, the third and fourth yellow, excepting the fem-
oral joints, which are dark. The palpus is pale yellow. The
falces are dark brown, short, vertical, and rounded.

We have a single female from Brazil.

326 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

D e ndry pliant es Manii, sp. nov.
PL XXVIII, figs. 1-la.

$. Length 4 mm. Legs 1423.

The front eyes are in a curved row, the middle ones close to-
gether and twice as large as the lateral, which are well separated
from them. Our specimen is rubbed badly. The cephalo-
thorax has the eye-region dark brown, and slightly iridescent,
with two black spots in the middle. There is a white line
around the margin and white hairs grow all over the sides, and
on the posterior thoracic part. The abdomen is encircled by
snow white hairs. The dorsum shows a yellow^ background with
a dark longitudinal line crossed by a shorter one in the anterior
part and three dark chevrons behind. The legs are yellow with
brown marks, the femur of the first being brown. There are
white hairs on the clypeus and around the front eyes. The f al-
ces are oblique and divergent, with a long tooth at the distal end,
opposite the insertion of the fang. On the the inner faces are
snow white hairs. The palpus is yellow except the tarsus, which
is dark brown. The maxillae are nearly three times as long as
the labium, and are truncated, with projections at the outer cor-
ners. The labium is about as long as wide.

We have one male from Arizona, sent to us by Mr. Alfred
Mann.

Dendri/phantes anzonensis, sp. nov.

PI. XXVIII, fig. 2.

6. Length 5 mm. Legs 1423.

The cephalothorax is narrow in front but widens in the
thoracic part. The quadrangle of the eyes is one-fourth wider
than long, is wider behind than in front and occupies two-fifths
of the cephalothorax. The front eyes forro. a curved row, the
middle subtouching and twice as large as the lateral, which are
a little separated from them. The cephalothorax, including the
clypeus, seems to have been entirely covered with yellowish
white hairs. The abdomen is encircled with a band of the same
color. The middle part of the dorsum, in our specimens, is

Pecl'liam — Spiders of the Family /{ttidae, 327

rubbed bare, but under alcohol, it shows on the anterior part, a
dark, diamond-shaped spot on a lighter background, and, further
back, three dark chevrons. The posterior part has three pairs
of black spots just at the edge of the white. The legs are
brown, darkest at the distal ends of the femoral joints. The
palpi and falces are brown, the falces projecting and diverging,
with two teeth on the lower margin. The maxillae are trunc-
ated, with a projection at the outer corner, and are a little more
than twice as long as the lip, which is about as long as wide. In
D. Mcmii, which is soni'ewhat like this species, the maxillae are
nearly three times as long as the lip.
We have one male from Arizona.

.-^ Dendryphantes proxima, sp. noYr

PI. XXYIII, figs. 3-3 a.

Length, 6, 5 mm. ?, 5 mm. Legs, 6 1423, ? 4132, first
stoutest.

The quadrangle of the eyes is one-fourth wider than long, oc-
cupies two-fifths of the cephalothorax, and is wider behind than
in front. The front row of eyes is bent, the middle close to-
gether, and nearly twice as large as the lateral, which are a little
separated from them. The coloration is ver}^ like that of
D. capitatus. In the male cephalothorax the upper surface is
covered with white hairs excepting a yellow patch in the middle,,
just above the front eyes. On the sides, the cephalic part is
covered with vhite hairs, which, on the thorax, narrow into
bands along the upper edge, not meeting behind. In capitatus
there are distinct white bands running back from the lateral
eyes. The abdomen has a white band high up on the front end
and sides, not continuous behind. Below this the brown color is
plainly visible. AVithin the white band is a less distinct black-
ish band, and, from both, there are projections rising toward
the middle, so that on the posterior part of the abdomen there
is a succession of white spots barred off with black, on each side.
In capitatus the white band runs low down on the sides, no
brown shovving beneath it. The clypeus is brown Avith a fringe
of white hairs. The falces are vertical and brown. The legs are
barred with light and dark, and have short white hairs. The

328 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

palpns has white hairs on the femur and patella, and a few on
the tibia. Our female is in a rather damaged condition. The
cephalothorax is covered, on top, with a mixture of white and
yellow hairs. The sides have yellow hairs with white bands
above, not meeting behind, and there is a white line around the
margin. The abdomen has no distinguishable markings when
dry, but seems to have been covered by white and yellow hairs.
Under alcohol the ground color is white or pale, with three
longitudinal dark streaks, the middle one taking something like
the herring-bone pattern, while those on the sides run off into
oblique markings. The clypeus is covered with long white
hairs, and there is a bar of white hairs across the upper part of
the face of the falces, which are brown. The legs and palpi are
yellow, the legs with short, and the palpi with long white hairs.
We have one male and one female from Cuba.

Dendnjphantes Smithii, sp. nov.

PL XXYIII, figs. 4-4a.

Length, 6 4 mm ; ? 4. 5 mm. Legs, S 1423, ? 14 32, first stout-

'est.

The cephalothorax is rounded, the widest point being behind

the dorsal eyes. The cephalic part is inclined; the thoracic
slants very sliglitly in the first two-thirds, and then drops. The
quadrangle of the eyes occupies about half of the cephalothorax.
It is wider behind than in front, and is one-third wider than
long. The front eyes are rather small, the middle being less
than twice the size of the lateral, and touching, while the lateral
are a little separated from them. This row is slightly curved.
The second row is nearer the first than the third. The third
row is nearly as wide as the cephalothorax. Under alcohol the
cephalothorax is red brown with two black spots on the eye-
region, and the abdomen paler with a dark herring-bone stripe in
the female, and three pairs of large dark spots, barred off with
white, in the male. When dry the male has the cephalothorax
covered with fawn colored hair, and the abdomen with light, iri-
descent scales, while in the female the cephalothorax has white
bands on the uj^per sides, and the top and lower sides, as well as
the abdomen, covered with yellow hairs. The legs and palpi are

PecJiliam — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 329

yellow with white hairs. The cljpeiis is brown, but has a fringe
of white hairs hanging down over the falces. The falces are
brown, those of the male being oblique and divergent, while in
the female they are vertical and parallel. The maxillae are
twice as long as the lip, and trnncated.

Of this species we have a male and female from Chapoda, sent
to us by Mr. Herbert H. Smith, for whom we have named it.

SelimuSj gen. nov.

PI. XXVIII, figs. 10-lOc.

While this genus shows a great similarity to Dendry pliant es
in its marking and coloration, it is quite distinct from it in the
shape of the cephalothorax, which widens out plainly both from
the front end backward, and from above, below. The outline
is rounded, the cheeks being swollen, and the widest point is at
the dorsal eves, which form a row much narrower than the
cephalothorax. The upper surface is nearly flat, there being a
■slight rounding up toward the dorsal eyes in both directions.
The posterior half of the thoracic part falls more steeply. The
quadrangle of the eyes is one-fourth wider than long, is a little
wider behind than in front, and occupies two-fifths of the ceph-
alothorax. The front eyes are large, in a slightly curved row,
the middle being nearly twice as large as the lateral and close
together, while the lateral are a little se^^arated from them. In
the male the relative length of the legs is 1423, the first being
the stoutest and much longer than the others.

Selimus veniistus, sp. nov.
PL XXVIII, figs. 10-lOc.

$. Length 8.5 mm. Legs 1423, the first stoutest, and ex-
ceeding the second by the tarsus, metatarsus, and half of the
tibia.

This species looks very much like Dendry pliantes militaris,
but it is larger and differently shaped. The cephalothorax is
dark brown with wide white bands, not meeting behind, along
the upper sides. Around the lower margin is a black line be-
tween two white lines. The abdomen is dark brown with a

330 ^yisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

metallic luster dowTi the middle of the dorsum, and has a vAde
silvery white band around the front end and sides, reaching-
nearly to tlie spinnerets. The legs are all dark broA\Ti without
white hairs or scales excepting a small tuft of long, pure white
hairs on the inner side of the proximal end of the patella of the
first. The palpi, falces, and clypeus are dark brown without
conspicuous hairs. The falces are robust and vertical. The
maxillae are broad and heavy, three times as long as the lip, and
truncated.

We have a single male from Sao Paulo, Brazil, sent to us by
Mr. Moenkhaus.

Admirala gen. nov.

PL XXVITI, figs. 11-llc.

Rather small, graceful spiders with the first leg longest^
stoutest, and darkest.

The cephalothorax is rather long and only moderately high.
The sides are not far from parallel but widen a little behind the
dorsal eyes. Tliey are a little wider below than above. The
ripper surface is broad, and has a level look, although there is a
slight rounding off in both directions from the dorsal eyes.
After the first half the thoracic part falls steeply. The quad-
rangle of the eyes is one-third wider than long, occupies nearly
one-half of the cephalothorax, and is a little wider behind than
in front. The anterior eyes are large, in a row which curves
downvv'ard, and are all close together. The middle eyes are at
least twice as large as the lateral. The second row is nearer the
first than the third, and the third row is nearlv as wide as the
cephalothorax at that place. The legs, so far as we know them,
are 1423 in both sexes.

Admirala lepida, sp. nov.

PL XX VIII, figs. 11-llc.

S. Length 5.5 mm. Legs 1423, first much the stoutest.

The body is covered with a mixture of white and golden hairs.
There is a white line around the margin of the cephalothorax,
and the clypeus is covered Avith white hairs. On the front part
of the abdomen are two pairs of white spots. Behind the mid-

PechJiam — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 331

die there is a median band of metallic yellow, and on the sides
of this, three j^airs of brown spots divided by transverse white
bands. The first le2:s are brown with manv white scales. The
other legs are j^ellow with black spines. The palpi are lighfc
brown with white hairs. The falces are light broAvn and ver-
tical. The maxillae are ronnded and about tvvdce as long as
the lip.

We have one female from Brazil.

Admirala regia, sp. nov.
PL XXYIIL fic^s. 12-12a.

$, Length 5 mm. Le,2:s 1423. The first is much the dark-
est, and although not ver^^ long, exceeds the second by the tarsus,
metatarsus, and nearly all of the tibia. It is plainly the
stoutest.

The cephalothorax has purplish metallic scales on top, and, on
the upper sides, white bands which do not meet behind. The
lower sides are brown. The abdomen is entirely encircled by a
white band, and has a median longitudinal band of iridescent
scales. Between this and the white, on either side, is a dark
bro^\TL band, upon which, at the very posterior part, are three
blackish spots. The first legs are dark brown with many snow-
white scales. The other legs are yellow with black spines. The
clypeus is covered with wdiite hairs. The falces are short and
nearly vertical ; they are wide at the proximal end and narrow
at the tip, the fang being short and crescent shaped. In color
they are brown. The palpi are brown with some white hairs.
The maxillae are truncated and have a slight projection at the
outer corner. The lip is as wide as it is long.

We have a single male from Rio Janeiro.

Jotus, L. K.

For illustration of tj'pe, see Aracliniden AustralienSj Koch
and Keyserling, PI. CVI, fig. 1-ld.

Of the species described under this genus by its author, we
have the type, aui^ipes, uUimus and micro pthahnus. Of these
we leave only auripes in Jotus, using ultimus as the tyj)e of a
new genus, Vircqua, and referring tnicrGpthalmus to a new

332 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

genus, MoIIika, of wliicli the type is metaJescens L. K. We liave
also two species, sent to us bv Mr. Frost, which are described
below.

The spiders are of medium size with the cephalothorax high
and convex, the cephalic part being inclined, moderately in
auripes, and very steeply in Frost ii. The sides are nearly verti-
cal and parallel in front, but widen out someAvhat behind. The
quadrangle of the eyes is one-fifth wider than long, and occupies
two-fifths of the cephalothorax. It is a little wider in front
than behind. The anterior eyes, which are all well separated,
form a straight or slightly curved row, and the lateral are more
than half as large as the middle eyes. The second row is about
halfway between the first and the third, and the third row is as
wide as the cephalothorax at that place.

All of our si:)ecies are from Australia and are represented only
by males, two of which, auripes and Frostii, have the legs and
palpi heavily fringed.

Jotus Frostily sp. nov.
PI. XXY, fig. 12; PL XXVI, figs. 9-9a.

6. Length 6 mm. Legs 1432. (The male of auripes has
the relative length of the legs 4312.)

This is a very striking and distinct species, from the shape of
the cephalothorax. The dorsum is level through half the thor-
acic and abouth a fifth of the cephalic part, and from this point
the cephalic plate, which is wedge-shaped and highly iridescent,
slopes very steeply forward. The sides widen just behind the
dorsal eves, and then narrow a2:ain behind. The first row of
eyes is straight. The falces are weak, vertical, and liglit brown
in color.

The lower sides of the cephalothorax are reddish bro^vn, with
wide snow white bands. The upper sides and the dorsum are
dark and iridescent. The clypeus seems to have been covered
with white hairs, and the eyes of the first row are of a deep violet
color. The abdomen, which under alcohol shows a dark longi-
tudinal central band, with a whitish region on each side, when
dry, seems to have been covered with a mixture of white and
pale yellow hairs, which form no distinct pattern. The legs

Pedcliam — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 333

are reddish brown, contrasting with the darker body. All of
them have the femur darker colored than the other joints and
highly iridescent, and in the first leg it is much thickened. The
first leg has, on the femur, a heavy fringe of dark hairs above,
and of pure white hairs below. The patella has a short white
fringe, and the tibia a longer, scanty one of smoky colored hairs.
The palpus has, across the proximal end of the tarsus, a wide,
transverse band of pure white hairs. This point alone would
serve to easily distinguish this species from auripes, in which
the palpus has a long fringe of brown hairs on each side.

We have one male, from Victoria, sent to us by Mr. Frost,
to whom we are indebted for a large number of Australian At-
tidae.

Jotus arci pluvii, sp. nov.
PI. XXV, fig. 16 ; PL XXVI, figs. 5-5a.

$. Length 6 mm. Legs 14-82.

This species has the cephalic part very slightly inclined and
the thoracic slopes only very slightly in the first third, and then
rather steeply.

The cephalotliorax is black, with a band of white hairs around
the lower sides. The hairs, above, are mostly rubbed off, but
form a scalloped gold-colored band around the eye region, and
grow yellow and thick on the face and clypeus. The abdomen
is black with two transverse white bands, one near the front end,
and one behind the middle, back of which are several transverse
white lines. The bands are made of scale-like hairs, which also
grow scattered over the dorsum, and in tufts on each side of the
spinnerets. The lower part of the front end is black. The legs
are pale, excepting on the tibiae and distal ends of the metatarsi
of the first and second, which are smoky-colored, with dark hairs,
and the distal ends of the femora of the third and fourth, which
are dark. The palpi are pale brown.

We have one male from St. Cruz, Australia.

334 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Viroqua gen. nov.

For illnstratioiij see Arachniden AustraViens, Kocli and Kejser-

ling, Plate CYIII, figs. 2-2d.

This genus, while in many ways like Jotus, lacks the delicate,
graceful appearance of auripes and of Frostii, being rather heav-
ily formed. The lateral eyes of the first row are more widely
separated from the middle eyes and are relatively smaller, be-
ing scarcely more than half as large, and they are placed further
back. The thoracic part of the cephalothorax looks higher than
in Jotus, falling, as it does, in a graceful slope from the dorsal
eyes for a short distance, and then in a steep slope, while the
cephalic part is strongly inclined forward.

The cephalothorax is long, the sides being nearly parallel, but
wider below than above, and swollen out in front to form cheeks.
The quadrangle of the eyes is one-fifth wider than long, occupies
two-fifths of the cephalothorax, and is wider in front than be-
hind. The first row is curved; the second row is about halfway
between the first and third; and the dorsal eyes, which are
small, form a row not quite so wide as the cephalothorax. The
slope of the cephalic part is so steep that the clypeus is very nar-
row. The legs of the first pair are plainly longer than the
others, but are not much stouter.

This genus is founded upon Jotus uliimus L. K., of which we
have several specimens, both males and females, sent to us by
Mr. Frost, from Victoria.

Escambia P., 1896.

Atiidae of Central America and Mexico, Occ. Papers Nat.
Hist. Soc. of Wisconsin, Vol. Ill, p. 41, Plate III, figs. 3-3e.

This genus, which is very like Dynamius, is found in Central
and South America and Mexico. The spiders are of medium
size and have the third and fourth pairs of legs not very dif-
ferent, in length and thickness, from the first and second. They
are also characterized by iridescence on the cephalothorax and
legs.

The cephalothorax is moderately high and convex, and is
usually not much wider in one part than in another, although

Pecl'ham — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 335

some of the species (especially conspecta) broaden out a little
behind the dorsal eyes. The sides are not far from vertical,
widening a little from above below; in the cephalic part they
are sometimes slightly concave. The cephalic part is plainly in-
clined forward. The thoracic always falls, although sometimes
only slightly, from the dorsal eyes, and in this respect Escambia
differs from Dynamius, in which genns the thoracic part does
not fall backward for some distance, although it may round off
on the sides. The quadrangle of the eyes is equally wide in
front and behind or a little wider in front ; it is about one-fourth
wider than long, and occupies two-fifths, or a little more, of the
cephalothorax. The anterior eyes are rather large and are
usually a little separated. They form a straight or very slightly
curved row (in Dynamius the first row is more distinctly
curved), of which the middle eyes are nearly twice as large as
the lateral. The second row is halfway between the first and
the tliird. The third row is as wide or nearly as wide as the
cephalothorax at that place.

This genus presents some difiiculties, as there is a good deal
of variation, not onlv aniona' the different species, but between
the two sexes. The males fall more steeply than the females
behind the dorsal eves, and have the sides more rounded out.

We have three old species, conspecta, alacris, and parvula
(described in Attidae of Central America, l^at. Hist. Soc. of
Wisconsin, 1896), and two new ones which are described below.

Escamhia valida, sp. nov.
PI. XXYI, fig. 6 ; PL XXV, figs. 13-13c.

Length, o 7 mm; ? 8 mm. Legs, $ and ? 3421.

This handsome species is the only one that we have from
Brazil.

In the male all the legs have a fringe of black hairs on the
patella and tibia. This fringe is heaviest on the third pair,
where it runs down on to the metatarsus, and is very light and
inconspicuous on the fourth. The metallic lustre is most bril-
liant on the tibia of the first and second pairs. The tarsi are
all pale yellow, contrasting with the dark color of the other
joints.

336 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

In our specimens the ceplialotliorax, althongli badly rnbbedy
shows patches of yellowish white hairs on the cephalic part and
behind the dorsal eyes. Hairs of the same color surround the
eyes of the first row, while across the lower edge of the clypeus
is a row of pure white hairs. The f alces have some white hairs
on the front surface. The abdomen is brown, with a wide, white,
transverse band of scales near the anterior end, another, nar-
rower, just behind the middle, and two pure white spots, one on
each side, just above the spinnerets. In some cases there is a
slender line of small yellowish chevrons running forward from
the spinnerets to the posterior band.

In this species the cephalic part is strongly inclined and the
eyes of the first row are large and close together, forming a
somewhat curved row.

We have one male and three females from the Amazon.

In general appearance the female of E. valida much resembles
that of Dynamius placatus, but in the former species there are
two white dots above the sj^innerets, which have the form of bars
in placatus,

Escambia electa, sp. nov.
PL XXVI, figs. 11-llc.

Length, ^6.5 mm. ; ? 5.5 mm.

Legs, $ 3421 ; $ 3412. The first and second pairs are a little
the stoutest.

This species is very like valida, the male having fringes of
black hairs on the first three legs, metallic lustre on the first and
second, and all the tarsi pale. In both sexes the cephalic plate
has a covering of yellowish scales, while the thoracic part shows
patches of white hairs ; there are wide white bands on the sides.
The rings around the eyes of the first row are distinctly yellow-
ish, but the hairs all over the clypeus and the front faces of the
f alces are white. Under alcohol the abdomen has a dark back-
ground with a white transverse band near the anterior end, and
two white horseshoe shaped marks behind, which begin on the
dorsum, curve down low on the sides and then bend up again in
front of the spinnerets. When the spider is dry, these white

Peckham — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 337

markings change to a pale golden color, and are seen to be
formed of scales, while between them the surface of the abdo-
men is covered with hairs of a rusty red hue.

The anterior eyes, which form a curved row, are not strik-
ingly large, as in valida. The cephalic plate is more strongly
inclined in the male than in the female.

We have two males and two females from Xew Grenada.

Dynamius Simon. 1887.
PL XXY, figs. 6-6b.

Ann. de la Soc. Ent. de France, Arachn. de V Amerique Cen-
irale et des Antilles, p. 204.

Type, Joins opimus Peckham, Proc. Xat. Hist. Soc. of Wis-
consin, 1885, p. 71. The drawing shows the spider as it ap-
pears under alcohol, the pattern not coming out distinctly.

This genus is found in Central and South America and the
West Indies. The spiders are usually of medium size or a
little smaller, with long, rather heavy legs which are not very
unequal in length, the most common leg formula being 34rl2.
It is verv close to Escambia.

The cephalothorax is high, convex, massive, and long. The
sides, which slant outward from the upper surface, are nearly
parallel until just in front of the posterior border in the type,
and are alwavs Avidest behind the dorsal eves. The males have
a cheek-like swelling in front. The cephalic part is strongly in-
clined. The thoracic never falls directly from the dorsal eyes,
some species having a short rounded thoracic plate, while others
are flat for a considerable distance.

The quadrangle of the eyes is only about one-fourth wider
than long, is equally wide in front and behind or a little wider
in front, and occupies barely two-fifths of the cephalothorax.
The eves of the first row are larsre and form a curved line. In
opimus they are all well separated but in the other species they
are near together. The middle eyes are plainly less than twice
as large as the lateral. The second row is variable in position.
The third row is narrower than the cephalothorax at that place.
Of this genus we have in our collection opimus, the type, from
22

338 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, A7is, and Letters.

Guatemala, metallicus P., from St. Vincent, and five new
species described below. M. Simon writes to us that he lias
more than fifteen species from Brazil.

Dynamius is distinguished from Escambia by having the first
row of eyes plainly curved, with the lateral eyes of the first row
larger, relatively to the middle eyes; and by the shape of the
thoracic part, which, in Escambia, falls more or less steeply
from the dorsal eyes. Joins, which it also resembles, is found
only in Australia. From PhUaeus it is easily distinguished by
the greater relative length of the third and fourth pairs of legs.

In all our species of Dynamius there is a metallic lustre on
the integumient of the cephalothorax (even where this is cov-
ered with scales or hairs), and, to a greater or less e'xtent, on
all the joints of all the legs, especially on the tibiae and meta-
tarsi of the first and second pairs. This lustre is also found in
Escambia.

The color and marking of the different species are very sim-
ilar, consisting of white transverse banding on a dark back-
ground.

Dynamius blandus, sp. nov.
PL XXVI, fig. 1 ; PL XXV, figs. 9-9b.

Length $> 6.5 ? 8 mm; ? 10 mm.

Legs, ^ 3421, ? 3412, first, second, and third, a little the
stoutest.

The cephalothorax seems to have been covered with a mix-
ture of white and vellowish hairs. Around the eyes of the first
row and on the cheeks and clypeus are red hairs. There are
white bands around the sides. The abdomen is dark colored
in the male but in the female is sometimes brown fiecked with
white. The markings are formed by scales and are white or
yellowish. They consist of a band on the anterior part, of a wide
transverse band behind the middle, and of a pair of spots at the
posterior end. Behind the band is a dark region which is
divided into two parts by a slender line of tiny white chevrons
running forward from the spinnerets. The first, second, and
third pairs of legs have slight fringes of dark hairs on the inner
and outer sides. The palpus has Avhitc hairs on the femur and

Pechliam — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 339

patella. Tlie falces are vertical and rather stout, witli a few
white hairs or bristle's. The quadrangle of the eyes is widest in
front, and the second row is half way between the first and the
third.

We have numerous examples from Port of Spain, Trinidad,
sent to us by Mr. Broadway.

In distinguishing blandus from ylacatiis, we notice that in
placahis the first and second legs are relatively shorter. In
placatus the third leg is longer than the second by the tarsus
and nearly all of the metatarsus, while in hlandus it is longer by
scarcely more than the tarsus.

Dynamius placatus, sp. nov.

PI. XXV, figs. 11-llc; PI. XXVI, fig. 1.

Length, «3 6-7 mm ; $ 7-8 mm.

Legs, 6 34:12, ? 3412, first and second plainly the stoutest

Our specimens have suffered much from rubbing. The ceph-
alic part is dark and iridescent ; the thoracic lighter, reddish
brown, vrith white bands around the sides. There are some
patches of light golden scales. On the clypeus and cheeks and
around the eyes of the first row are bright red hairs, the clypeus
having white hairs on the lower edge. The small vertical falces
have white bristles on the front surface.

The ground color of the abdomen is black, and the markings
vary from white to light golden, and are formed by scales. On
the anterior part are two irregular spots, sometimes united tO'
form a band; behind the middle is a v/ide transverse band, in
which is sometimes seen a small dark triangular spot ; above the
spinnerets are two small spots, the inner sides of which touch a
slender central line which runs forward to the transverse band
mentioned before. This often gives a distinctly anchor-shaped
figure. The whole abdomen is thinly clothed with long, coarse,
white hairs.

The legs are reddish brown, paler toward the ends. In the
male the tibial joint of the first and second legs shows beautiful,,
iridescent, violet reflections, which are also found less dis-
tinctly on the patella, and there are two fringes of black hairs,
one on the outer and one on the inner side of the tibia and meta-
tarsus of the first and second legs.

34:0 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Tlie second row of eves is halfway between the first and the
thirdj and the qnadrangie is equally wide in front and behind.
The thoracic part, while it does not slant backward for some
distance behind the dorsal eves, rounds off on the sides.

We have two males and several females, sent to us from Trini-
dad, bv Mr. Broadwav.

Dynamius finihriatus, sp. nov.

PI. XXV, figs. 10-lOa; PI. XXVI, fig. 12.

6. Length, 7 mm. Legs 3421.

This handsome spider has a heavy fringe of black hairs along
the front sides of all the legs, especially heavy on those of the
second pair. The first and second legs are enlarged, and have
the tibia and the distal end of the patella, brightly iridescent.
The integument of the cephalothorax is iridescent, the cephalic
part being black and the thoracic brown. There are wide white
bands on the sides, and the upper surface was probably covered
with yellowish scales of which a few patches remain. Around
the eves are rinc;s of reddish hairs. The faice-s are brown,

I/O /

slightly iridescent, vertical, and moderately stout, with little
white bristles on the front face. The abdomen seems to have
been covered with yellowish white scales. Under alcohol it ap-
pears whitish, v>dth a wide transverse brown band in front of the
middle, and two large brovai spots on the posterior part. There
:is a long fiat thoracic plate and the lirst rov/ of eyes is distinctly
•.curved. The quadrangle of the eyes is wider in front than be-
Ihind, and the second row is a little nearer the first than the third.
The fringes on the legs serve to distinguish this species. We
have two males from Chapoda, Brazil,, in the Smith collection.

Dynamius 'parvus, sp. nov.
PL XXV, figs, l-l-ll-c ; PI. XXVI, fig. 8.

Length, c^ 7mm; ? 6 mmi.

Legs $> 1324; ? 3412; all rather slender. In the female the
:first and second are much shorter than the third and fourth.

We have a good many specimens of this species but all have
suffered more or less from rubbing. Under alcohol they show

Pechliam — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 341

a dark colored ceplialotliorax Avith a Avliite band just behind the
first row of eyes, another, shorter and somewhat crescent-shaped,
behind the third row, and wide white bands on the sides, which
run forward and curve around in front of the dorsal eves. The
markings on the abdomen are less constant, although the gen-
eral impression is of a dark background transversely banded
with white. In some cases the anterior and posterior ends are
dark bevond the white bands. The central white band is be-
hind the middle of the abdomen. The sides are entirely white
and a slender, central, longitudinal vdiite line, which is often
indistinct, runs over the dorsum throughout its length. In
many specimens the white regions at the anterior and posterior
ends are indistinct, and the central white band has a small dark
triangular spot in the middle. In some cases the abdomen
might be described as white with two dark transverse bands.
There are no fringes on the legs.

When dry, the more perfect specimens show the cephalic part
covered with snow^ white hairs, while bright red hairs grow on
the clypeus and cheeks and around the middle eyes of the first
row, the clypeus having an edge of white hairs. The small,
vertical, iridescent falces have some short white bristles on the
front surface. The palpus has snow vvdiite hairs on the femur
and patella. The sanne joints on the first leg are of a beauti-
fully metallic steel blue color. The abdomen is jet black with
a transverse white band near, but not at, the anterior end, and
another behind the middle, and a patch of white just above the
spinnerets. In some specimens the black parts are covered with
yellow hairs. In one male the hairs on the abdomen and the
top of the cephalothorax, instead of being white, are of the soft
yellowish color known as ''old gold.''

In this species the quadrangle of the eyes is plainly wdder in
front than behind, and the eyes of the second row are very
slio'htly nearer the third than the first row.

We have tvro males and numerous females from Brazil, col-
lected by Mr. IT. H. Smith.

342 Wisco7ism Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

Dynamiiis gratus, sp. nov.
PL XXV, figs. 8-8a; PL XXVI, fig. 10.

Length ^ 5 — 5.5 mm. Legs, 3421.

This species is rather small for Dynamius. Looking at it
under alcohol it has a long black cej)halothorax, with wide white
bands on the sides, and a short dark abdomen, Avith three trans-
verse white bands, one in front, one behind, and one across the
middle. All the legs are iridescent, especially the first, on the
tibia and patella, but they have no heavy fringes. The thoracic
part is flat for some distance behind the dorsal eyes. The eyes
of the second row are half wav between the lateral and the dorsal
eves.

When the spider is dry, bright red hairs appear around the
eyes of the first rovr, and all over the clypeus, excepting a narrow
white line at the margin. We also find a few patches of white
hairs left on the black cephalic part. The front part of the
abdomen is occupied by a band of white hairs, behind which are
some yellowish hairs, and behind this again, is a region that is
jet black. Across the middle is a wide white band, then more
yellowish hairs, and then an indistinct band of white hairs.
The falces are small, brovm, vertical, with a few white bristles.

So far as coloring is concerned it is difiicult to distingaiish this
species from parvus. In both species the cephalic part is very
slightly inclined, but while in gratus the flat portion of the
thorax occupies four-fifths of its length, in parvus it occupies
only about one-half. The relative length of legs is different,
and while the white hairs on the femur of the palpus are long in
parvus, they are short in gratus.

Linus P., 1885.

PL XXV, figs. 5-5b.

The cephalothorax is very high, with the sides almost vertical
and parallel. It falls sharply in both directions from the high-
est point, at the dorsal eyes. The quadrangle of the eyes is one-
fourth wider than long, is wider in front than behind, and oc-
cupies one-half of the cephalothorax. The first row, which is

Peclcham — Spiders of tlie Family Attidae. 343

curved down^vard, has the eyes all subtouching, the middle ones
piojecting and very large, two-and-a-half times as large as the
lateral. The eyes of the second row are also unusually large,
and are halfway betw^een the first and third rows. The third
row is nearly as wide as the cephalothorax, which is a little
wider here than at any other point. The relative length of the
legs is 4123, all long and slender, particularly the metatarsi and
tarsi. The abdomen, above and below, and some joints of the
legs, have bunches of short stout hairs scattered over the sur-
face.

This genus was founded by Thorell, in 1878, on fimhriatus
DoL, under the name Sinus. This being preoccupied, Linus
was substituted in 1885 (Genera of Attidae, p. 289).

We have the type, and africanus Simon, from E^atal. Thorell
has described suhvexus from Sumatra and lahiatus from Bur-
mah under this genus.

Maevia (C. K.) 1848.
PI. XXY, figs. 7-7b.

The cephalothorax is moderately high and is but little longer
than wide, the sides being nearly vertical and parallel in the
-ce-phalic part, and bulging out behind the dorsal eyes. The
cephalic part is inclined, but the thoracic does not slope back-
ward in the first half, although it rounds off on the sides. (In
^oronigera the thoracic part falls from the dorsal eyes.) The
eyes of the first row are large, and are subtouching or a little
separated, the middle ones being aljout twice as large as the
lateral. They form a straight or slightly curved row. The
second row of eyes is halfway between the first and the third
or a little nearer the first. The third row is nearly as wide as
the cephalothorax at that place. The quadrangle of the eyes is
from one-fourth to one-third wider than long, is equally wide in
front and behind or a little wuder in front, and occupies two-
fifths of the cephalothorax. The legs in the males are 4132,
or 4123, and in the females, 4312, 4132 or F412.

This genus was made by C. Koch in 1848, the first species
described under the name being pencillata (which is a synonym
of Attus vittatus and Attus niger Hentz), and we therefore take

344 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

this as the type. In a recent letter M. Simon agrees to this
procedure, although he formerly used the name in a different
sense. Thorell bases his idea of Maevia upon a species
described by C Koch nnder Plexippus. The type, then, is
M. vittata Hentz.

We have three species, vittata H. and trilineata new, which
resemble each other closely, from the United States, and
(Euophrys) coronigera C K., (which differs from the other-
two in the sloping thoracic part), from Guatemala, Trinidad
and Cayenne. We take out of this genus calif ornica P., yav-
esii Simon, and tenuis, fenestrata and Stolzmanii Tacz.

Maevia Poultonii, sp. noy.

PL XXY, fi-s. 15-15b: PI. XXVI, %. 3.

Medium sized spiders, plainly marked with three bright red
lines down the abdomen, between which the color is silvery.

$. Length 7 mm.

?. Length 9.5 mm.

Legs in both sexes 4132, not very unequal, the first and sec-
ond a little the stoutest.

In the male the cephalothorax is covered with white hairs
above, and has a white line around the margin. The sides are-
rubbed, but seem to have been dark colored. Under alcohol it
appears black except on the back of the thoracic part. In the
female the general color is light, only the eye-region appearing
black under alcohol. When dry the whole cephalothorax is
seen to be covered with pale hairs. The abdomen, in both sexes,,
is silvery, with three longitudinal, bright red lines. These are
continuous in the female, but in the male they are more or less
broken by silvery bars, especially those on the sides, which form
four or five elongated spots. The f alces are short and vertical,
and both face and f alces are dark colored. The legs are yellow
and very spiny.

We have two males and one female from San Antonio, Texas,,
sent to U.S by Mr. C. Tyler Townsend.

Pechliam — Spiders of the Family Attidafl 345

^ ■ Opistlioncus L. K., 1880.

l*or illustration see Aracliniden Australieyis, Kocli and Kej-
serling, PL CII, figs. 5-6.

Meclinni sized spiders.

The cephalothorax is not very higli and is only a little longer
than wide. It is highest and widest at the dorsal eyes, the np-
per surface being lightly rounded, while the outline of the sides
is narrowed in curving lines, both in front and behind. The
quadrangle of the eyes is from one-third Vv^ider than long to
about twice as wide as long, is from a very little, to plainly,
wider behind, and occupies two-fifths of the cephalothorax. The
first row of eyes is straight or a little curved ; the middle eyes
are twice or nearly twice as large as the lateral, and are close
together, the lateral being a little separated from them. The
second row is from a little to verv much nearer the first than the
third. The third row is not so vvide as the cephalothorax at that
place. The relative length of the legs in the males is 1243, or
1423, and in the females, 1243 or 1423, the first being longest
and stoutest and the others not very unequal.

The type of Opistlioncus is Ivaeativentris L, K., {AracJin.
Aiistraliens, p. 1184). This species is not in our collection, but
we have polypliemus L. K., cdhorufescens L. K., pallidens L. K.,
ahnormis L. K., bitaeniatus L. K., parcedentatus Rainbow, and
a new species, verisimilis, described below. Of these ahnormis
is a small species with the first row of eyes bent downward, with
the quadrangle very slightly wider behind, and with the cephalo-
thorax higher and less widened than it should be for this genus.
Bitaeniatus is also a poor Opistlioncus, approaching Simaetha
in having the lateral eyes of the first rovv^ very widely separated
from the middle eyes. These species are all from Australia.

For convenience in distinguishing the species of Opistlioncus
we give the following notes.

In alhorufescens $ the first row of eyes is straight ; middle
eyes less than twice lateral; quadrangle one-third Avider than
long, and plainly wider behind. In pallidens ? the relative
length of the legs is 1423; first row straight; middle nearly
twice lateral ; quadrangle nearly twice as wide as long, and a
little wider behind. In parcedentatus $ the legs are 1423 ;

34:6 VY^isconsin Academy of Sciences^ Aris, and Letters.

first row straight ; middle about twice lateral ; quadrangle nearly
twice as wide as long and plainly wider behind. In ahnormis
? the first row is bent downward, the eyes are small, the middle
being less than twice the lateral; quadrangle one-third wider
than long, and very slightly wider behind. In hitaeniatus ?
the first row is bent downward; middle eyes are twice lateral,
and separated from each other; lateral separated from middle
by nearly their own diameter; second row twice as far from
third as from first ; quadrangle about twice as wide as long, and
a little wider behind.

Ojyisthonciis verisimilis, sp. nov.

$>. Length G mm. Legs 1243 first and second a little the
stoutest.

In this species the anterior eyes are rather large, and form a
straight row, the middle ones being nearly twice as large as the
lateral, and more separated from them than from each other.
The quadrangle of the eyes is nearly twice as wide as long, and
is very slightly wider behind.

Under alcohol the cephalothorax is reddish with a dark eye-
region. The abdomen is pale brown with a white region down
the middle, which is covered with a network of brown lines, and
has, on the front part, a brown cross. On the sides of this pale
region, behind the middle, are two pairs of dark spots. The
legs are brovvai, the femoral joints being darkest. The palpi
are pale brown, long, and delicate. Our specimens are badly
rubbed, but when dry they still shew a few Jiairs, which
are iridescent on the eye-region and on the, sides of the upper
surface of t]ie abdomen, and white on the thoracic region and
on the lov/er sides and middle of the abdomen. The clypeus is
edged with vrhite. The f alces are brown in color and are stout,
rounded, obliquely directed forward, and divergent, with a long
fang.

We have tv\^o males from Victoria, sent to us by Mr. Frost.

PLATE XXIII.

348 Wisconsin Academy of ScienceSj Arts^ and Letters.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXIII.

Fig. 1. Phidippus morsitans, female; la, face view; lb, side view of

cephalothorax.
Fig. 2, Phidippus (Megatimus) severus, female; 2a, face view; 2b, side

of cephalothorax.
Fig. 3, Phidippus calif ornicus, male; 3a, palpus.
Fig. 4, Phidippus variegatus, male.
Fig. 5, Phidippus Howardii, male.
Fig. 6, Phidippus bardus, female; 6a, epigynum.
Fig. 7, Phidippus ardens, female; 7a, epigynum.
Fig. 8, Phidippus comatus, male, X 6; 8a, palpus; 8b, female, X 6;

8c, epigynum.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIII.

Plate XXIII

' ■ ■'■"^•..■';;v■;>•'i^^;",'v

1 ^^;'.;!J.^;p>'

PLATE XXIV.

350 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Aiis, and Letters.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXIV.

Fig. 1, Phidippus incertus, female, X 6; la, epigynum.

Fig. 2, Phidippus obscurus, male, X 6; 2a, female, X 6; 2b, epigynum;

2c, palpus; 2d, face view of male; 2e, of female.
Fig. 3, Phidippus montivagus, female, X 6; 3a, epigynum.
Fig. 4, Phidippus Tyrelli, male, X 6.
Fig. 5, Phidippus Workmanii, female, X 6; 5a, epigynum.
Fig. 6, Phidippus Rauterbergii, female, X 6; 6a, epigynum.
Fig. 7, Philaeus chrysops, female, X 6; 7a, side view of cephalothorax

of male; 7b, of female; 7c, face view of female.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIII.

Plate X^

PLATE XXV.

852 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

EXPLANATION OP PLATE XXV.

Fig. 1, Zenodorus d'Urvillei, female, X 6; la, male, X 6; lb, side view
of cephalothorax of male; Ic, of female; Id, face view of male;
le, of female.

Fig. 2, Servaea vestita, female, X 8; 2a, side view of cephalothorax;
2b, face view.

Fig. 3, Simaetha paetula; 3a, face view; 3b, side view of cephalothorax.

Fig. 4, Thyene imperialis; 4a, face view; 4b, side view of cephalo-
thorax.

Fig. 5, Linus fimbriatus, female; 5a, face view; 5b, side view of cepha-
lothorax.

Fig. 6, Dynamius opimus, female; 6a, face view; 6b, side of cephalo-
thorax.

Fig. 7, Maevia vlttata, female, X 8; 7a, face view; 7b, side of cephalo-
thorax.

Figs. 8 and 8a, Dynamius gratus, two views of male palpus.

Fig. 9, Dynamius blandus, epigytium; 9a, 9b, male palpus.

Fig. 10, 10a, Dynamius fimbriatus, male palpus.

Fig. 11, Dynamius placatus, epigynum; 11a, lib, lie, male palpus.

Fig. 12, Jotus Frostii, male palpus.

Fig. 13, Escambia valida, epigynum; 13a, 13b, 13c, male palpus.

Fig. 14, Dynamius parvus, epigynum; 14a, 14b, 14c, male palpus.

Fig. 15, Maevia Poultonii, epigynum; 15a, 15b, male palpus.

Fig. 16, Jotus arci pluvii, male palpus.

Trans. Wis. Acad.. Vol. XIII.

Plate XXV.

PLATE XXVI.

23

854 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

EXPLANATION OP PLATE XXVI.

Fig. ], Dynamius blandus, male, X 16.

Fig. 2, Dynamius placatus, female, X 16.

Fig. 3, Maevia Poultonii, female, X 16.

Fig. 4, Palestrina variegata, female, X 16; 4a, face view; 4b, side of

cephalothorax; 4c, epigj^num.
Fig. 5, Jotus arci pluvii, male, X 16; 5a, palpus.
Fig 6, Escambia valida, female, X 16.
Fig. 7, Parnaenus (?) griseus, male, X 15; 7a, 7b, palpus.
Fig. 8, Dynamius parvus, male, X 16.
Fig. 9, Jotus Frostii, male, X 16; 9a, palpus.
Fig. 10, Dynamius gratus, male, X 16.
Fig. 11, Escambia electa, female, X 16; 11a, ep'igjmum; lib, lie, male

palpus.
Fig. 12, Dynamius fimbriatus, male, X 16. The fringes on the legs are

heavier than they appear in the figure.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIII.

• Plate XXVI.

PLATE XXVII.

356 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, AHs, and Letters.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXVII.

Fig. 1, Dendryphantes faustus, face of male; la, palpus; lb, epigTnum.
Fig. 2, Dendryphantes albopilosus, male; 2a, female; 2b, epigynum;

2c, palpus.
Fig. 3, Dendryphantes vigens, palpus.
Fig. 4, Dendryphantes perfectus, male; 4a, palpus.
Fig. 5, Dendryphantes prosper, male; 5a, palpus.
Fig. 6, Denidryphantes felix, male; 6a, palpus.
Fig. 7, Dendryphantes cuprinus, epigynum.

Fig. 8, Dendryphantes tropicus, palpus; 8a, falces and maxillae of male,
from below; 8b, epigynum.

Trans. Wis. Acad.. Vol. XIII.

Plate XXVI

PLATE XXVIII.

358 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters,

EXPLANATION OP PLATE XXVIII.

Pig. 1, Dendryphantes Manli, male; la, palpus.

Fig. 2, Dendryphantes arizonensis, palpus.

iFig. 3, DendryphLintes proxima, epigynum; 3a, palpus.

Fig. 4, Dendryphantes Smithii, palpus; 4a, epigynum.

Fig. 5, Dendryphantes pernix, male; 5a, palpus.

Fig- 6, Dendryphantes odiosus, female, 6a, epigynum.

Fig. 7, Dendryphantes vegetus, female; 7a, epigynum.

Fig. 8, Dendryphantes fortunatus, female; 8a, epigynum.

Fig. 9, Simaetha severa epigynum.

Fig. 10, Selimus venustus, male; 10a, face; 10b, side of cephalothorax;

10c, palpus.
Fig. 11, -A.dmirala lepida, female; 11a, face, lib, side of cephalothorax;

lie, epigynum.
Fig. 12, Admirala regia, male; 12a, palpus.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIII.

Plate XXVIII

i

n

6j

t..J

7a

0 0

8

11 <

11:

82

12

ON THE DETERMINATION OF CHLORINE IN NATURAL
WATERS, ITS ACCURACY AND SIGNIFICANCE.

ERASTUS G. SMITH, PH. D.,
Fio/essor of Chemistry , Beloit College.

The detemiination of clilorine is one of the most familiar to
students of chemistry. The great accuracy possible in the manip-
ulations due to the practical insolubility of the chloride of silver,
the simplicity of the reactions, and the general principles illus-
trated recommend this determination to teachers of the science
as a first problem to set for the student coanmencing the study of
quantitative analytical chemistry. There are three methods for
estimating chlorine commonly used in the quantitative labora-
tory:

1.) The gravimetric method, where the chlorine is precipi-
tated with silver and. weighed directly as the chloride.
2.) The volumetric methods :

a.) With standard silver nitrate using potassiimi chromate

as an indicator. (Mohr's method.)
b.} With silver nitrate and potassium thiocyanate using
ferric chloride as an indicator. (Volhard's method.)
All of these methods are in general use, the analyst exercising
his judgment as to which one to employ in any given case.

In the analysis of natural waters, however, the conditions met
with in an ordinary analysis are materially changed. Chlorine,
whatever the combination, is in small amount; whatever method
therefore is used for its determination, it must be one where the
exactness of the results obtained is above question. In an ordi-
nary analysis of a chloride, e. g., a milligram error in weighing
up the material or the final precipitates would influence the
results in the calculations but slightly, so considerable are the

360 Wiscojisin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

quantities usually taken for the analysis, and the amounts finally
weighed up. Only the most painstaking conduct of a chlorine-
deteraiination could keep the errors liable to arise during the
process of the analysis within one milligram. Many of our good
natural waters, however, carry less than one part of chlorine to
the million of water ; take Lake Superior water, e. g., with 1.2
parts off-shore, and less than one part some distance out in the
lake; or the waters from some of the natural streams from the
upper part of this state above the region of the limestones, as^
from the Wisconsin or the Chippewa Rivers, with chlorine gen-
erally less than one part to the million, or less than one milli-
gram of chlorine to ihe kilogram of water. Such minute quan-
tities require the most careful manipulation to insure the re-
quired accuracy.

Water analysts as a rule have adopted Mohr's method, viz. :
the silver method, using potassium chromate as the indicator.
This method is convenient, is easily applied,^ and has much to
recommend its wide use at the present time. The details of the
manipulations as ordinarily applied are knowTi to all analysts.
There are, however, some errors possible in the application of
this method u-'hich can seriously affect the results obtained. The
thought that out of an experience with waters from various
sources and of different characters. I might make some sug-
gestion to those having to do with this class of analytical work
and thus assist them to reduce, if not wholly to eliminate the er-
rors so aj)t to creep in despite all care, prompted this brief paper.
Prominent among such difficulties are :

1.) The indefiniteness of the statements concerning the prep-
aration and proving of the standard solutions employed
and the details of manipulation of the processes, even
in our best works on the subject; to such works, ally
whether teacher or student, must refer, and unless one
has had a considerable experience or unusually good
laboratory instruction, the description of methods is
liable to mislead.
2.) The ability of the analyst to recognize colors ; and in par-
ticular to discriminate between a yellow and a reddish-
yelloiu and thus to define sharply the end-reaction.

Smith — Deiermination of Chlorine in Natural Waters. 361

3.) The aiiioiint of standard sohition necessary to strike the
reddish-yellow color, and thus determine definitely the
end-reaction.
These are real difficulties, and are of importance, each in its
own wav, in estimatino^ the small amount of chlorine in normal
natural waters. To meet and reduce the eiTors of observation
thus introduced, and in general to make the chlorine determina-
tion more exact the following method has been adopted at this
laboratory :

A. Apparatus required.

1.) A long thin 10 c. c. Greiner Zero burette graduated to

1-10 c. c.
2.) Three white porcelain dishes imiform in color, shape

and depth, and of a capacity of a little over 100 c. c.

B. Solutions required.

1.) Standard silver nitrate. The solution to be of such
strength that each c. c. will precipitate exactly one mil-
ligTam of chlorine, i. e., 1 c. c. = 0.001 CI.

Made by dissolving 4.8022 grams pure silver nitrate
in water. Take a clean, smooth, porcelain crucible, ig-
nite thoroughly and weigh. In the crucible place
something over 5 grams of crystals of pure silver ni-
trate and fuse over a Bunsen flame turned so low that
the flame does not play on the wall of the crucihle above
the salt. The crystals should melt to a white clear
mass without any trace of decomposition along the wall
of the crucible. Allow to cool and weigh accurately.
The amount of water in which this is to be dissolved
can be conveniently reckoned as follows :

4.8022 : wt. silver nitrate actually taken : : 1000
c. c. : vol. water required.

The fused silver nitrate is dissolved in some cold
chlorine-free water prepared by redistillation with sil-
ver nitrate as given belo^w under note and made up to
above calcalated volume. Prepared in this manner
the solution is very accurate but as a precaution the
work should be confirmed by titration against the
standard sodium chloride solution prepared below.

S62 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

From this solution one-half or one-tenth strength
standard solutions are easily prepared by proper dilu-
tion with chlorine-free water.
2.) Standard solution of sodium chloride. Any arbitrary
amount mav be taken but it is well to make it of such
strength that each c. c. equals one m. g. chlorine. Use
c. p. sodium chloride recrystallized from chlorine-free
water, dried and gently heated. This solution care-
fully prepared serves the double purpose of checking
the standard silver nitrate solution and for preparing
the standard color sometimes needed for high chlorine
waters, as below.
3.) A solution cf c. p. neutral potassium chromate. Made
by dissolving two grams of c. p. chlorine-free salt in
100 c. c. water.
Xote: In the j:) reparation of all of the above solutions a
water should be used which has been redistilled with silver ni-
trate. By so doinff all traces of chlorine will be removed and
organic matters liab-e to affect the silver nitrate destroyed.
C. Procedure.

100 c. c. of redistilled chlorine-free water is measured out
into two of the porcelain dishes and then 1 c. c. of the chromate
solution added to each. The standard silver nitrate solution is
run drop by dro}) into one of them until a distinct reddish tint
or color is obtained wliich is permanent on standing five min-
utes. Using my own burette I have found that .1 c. c. of the
silver solution vrhcre 1 c. c. = 0.001 CI, is required to produce
this decided color, and this .1 c. c. is the ^'error of observation"
ordinarily employed. 100 c. c. of the water under examination
is then measured into the third dish, 1 c. c. chromate added, and
it is then titrated to the above tint of color exactly, which color
must remain permanent after standing five minutes. This end
reaction is slow in setting but is exact; the difference in the
readings of the burette less the error of observation is the true
amount of chlorine in the water.

Smith — Determination of Chlorine in Natural \Yaters. 3G3

lExample :

■Second reading of tlie burette , 2 . 8 c. c.

First reading of the bnrett^i ,. . . . 1 . 3 c. c.

1 . 5 c. c.
Less error . .1

i^o. c. c. silver solution required 1 . 4 c. c.

Equivalent to chlorine 1.4m.

The whole can then be readily calculated to parts per million
of water. In e:ood clear liaht where the conditions of the test
are kept perfectly uniform both in the comparison dishes and
the unknown solution the definiteness of the end-rea(?tion is sur-
prisingly clear. The accuracy of tliis method can be readily
proved by comparing results from definite quantities of the*
above salt solution and chlorine-free water. Silver solutions of
less strength can be used if desired where the amount of
chlorine is very low ; below one part per million, e. g., it may be
desirable to use a solution one-half or one-tenth as strong, i. e.,
1 c, c. = 0.0005 or 0.0001 CI., but I have found that a solution
of a strength of 1 c. c. = 0.001 m. g. chlorine is usually the
l>est for all work. This method is to be recommended also be-
cause it does awav with the concentration of the waters, involv-
ing, as that does, loss from spattering and direct volatilisation of
the chlorides, and the necessary attendant loss of time. Where
waters parry extractive matters as do many of the river and
lake w^aters of this section of the country, receiving the lixivia-
tions from the swamps, imparting to them a high color, the
method, can be applied satisfactorily if some finely powdered,
absolutely chlorine-free alum, or better, a little precipitated
aluminum hydrate, be first added to precipitate the dissolved or-
ganic matters ; after standing over night the requisite amount
can be removed with a pipette. The color will then be dis-
charged, the water clear and bright with no masking of the
sharp definite end-reaction.

When the chlorine is as high as twenty parts per million or
thereabout, it is advisable to add to the dish used for matching
the color enough standard sodimn chloride solution to represent
-about the same amount of chlorine as a preliminary test shall

SG4 ^Y^scoJ^sin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

have showTi to be present; this is done because the color is de-
cidedly different when there is much precipitated silver chlor-
ide, thus masking the end-reaction, but if the chloride be added
to the comparison dish and the first change therein noted it will
materiallj assist in the final determination of the end-reaction
of the unknov^n water.

There is little call for discussing the sanitary significance of
chlorine for it is well understood already. But what I want to
emphasize here is the fact that natural, perfectly wliolesome
waters always carry some small amounts of chlorine in some
form, generally as the sodium chloride. It makes little differ-
ence whence these chlorides come in a true unpolluted natural
water or whether they were at some period the product of the
animal economy as the natural processes of purification have
been at work and the accompanying undesirable matters have
been removed. All of this is within the field of research of
the sanitarian, and the healthfulness or the reverse of such
waters becomes a study for the biologist fully as much as for the
chemist. The character of sucli waters is all the more difficult
to pass upon because the chlorine is in such very small amounts
and the analytical difficulties increase with the diminution of
the amounts of dissolved matters. The exactness, therefore, of
the method becomes of great imj^ortance. It makes little dif-
ference with the interpretation of results from the sanitarian
standpoint whether a water carries 99 or 100 parts of chlorine
per million; but the difference between 1 and 1.1 partn may be
the difference between normal and polluted waters.

Further, the exactness of the method also may well be scru-
tinized carefully in waters carrying so little chlorine where the
results of different analysts are to be compared. Does not the
personal equation in the observations of different analysts play
an important role here ? In w^hat other way can we reconcile
results we sometimes read given out by those in whom we have
the greatest confidence ?

Before closing this brief paper I would like to call attention
to one of the needs of the state, viz. : the accurate determination
of the normals in chlorine for Wisconsin waters, as has been
done in some of the other states. The need for such normals is
apparent to those having to do with this kind of investigation.

Smith — Determination of CMorine in Natural Waters. 3G5

Some Vv'-ork has been done along this line at this laboratory al-
ready and items are added as opportunity Jpresents itself; it is
no easy matter, lio^vever, to secure samples above suspicion and
therefore the work is slow, as the expense of securing these sam-
ples is quite an item. In the determination of these normals
we have encountered the very difficulties alluded to above, and
the low chlorine content of most of our Wisconsin true inland
waters requires the selection of the method promising the great-
est exactness in results. So far as our experience goes the
method given is the most satisfactory yet proved and is pre-
sented here for vour consideration. The ^\Titer has drauTi
freely on all available data, written or unwritten, and gives this
as a method, modified and developed, which he has found invalu-
able in his owTL laboratory experiences.

Beloitj Wisconsin, . i ; .'

HOUSHHOLD WORDS: THEIR ETYMOLOGY.

JAMES DAVIE BUTLEE, LL. D.

All men are born etvmolo<?ists. One of tlie Mainmoth Cave

«y CD

traditions points this way. When the guide exliibits stalactites
and visitors ask why he calls those stone icicles by that name
he is said to answer, "Because thev stav there tiffht," and re-
garding the counter concretions built up from drops which have
fallen on the floor he will say, "These we call stalagmites be-
cause they might stay but did not." This tradition has some
grain of truth. I was telling it long ago to the negro who led
me through the wondrous cavern just where a stalactite from
above and a stalagmite from below had blended in a sturdy pil-
lar. Pointing to this curious creation my mentor said, "Here
is something which I shall call a stay-mighty-tight." I could
not enough admire this brand-new and new-born vocable which
has no doubt done yeoman service ever since. It proves that
wherever there is a folk there will be folk etymology.

The present paper will not trj^ to set forth the varied phases
of etymology whether popular or scientific. Xor will it deal
W'ith principles, rules, and classes of change as shovvn in
Grimm's law, or in the treatises of Max jMiiller, Skeat, and
divers x\:nierican philologists. My purpose is merely to present
specimens of every-day words concerning the origin of which
there is now a general agreement. Brevity also obliges me
to be content with a fraction of that limited vocabulary. Hence
my range extends no further than what I term household words
and to a small section of these, mainly those whose etymologic-al
meaning was long hid from my own eyes.

The atoms which it is my task to combine are chaotic, and
my fear is that in twisting this rope of sand I shall throw dust
in the eyes of all around me.

Butler — Household ^Vords: Their Etymology. 367

Family may well come first among household words. The
word originally meant a collection of servants or slaves. The
man did not belono; to his familv, but his familv belonfrod to
him. The prehistoric wife like the Sabine women, was obtained
like other slaves, by capture, and the children could have no
higher standing than their mother. Such is the English of the
Roman legal formula ; 'partus sequitur ventrem. The word fam-
ily is derived from famulus = servant, which in the adjective
familiar stands in the English Bible without change of meaning.
I Sam. XXVIII. 3. The familiar spirit of the witch of Endor
was a servant spirit who at her bidding brought up Samuel from
the dead. Servants of the inquisition, especially constables, are
now called familiars, and the root-word famulus is used by Car-
lyle more than once, and that in its radical sense. Servant is
et;)Tiiologically one ^'preserved,'' a prisoner, saved from the
slaughter which in earlier times had been the doom of all the
vanquished, but preserved no longer than suited the caprice of
his master — or house-despot — as he was styled in Greek. Slave,
a word of similar import to servant, originally denoted captives
of the Slavic or Slavonic race from v/hich the Teutons took
most captives. By one of the ironies in linguistic history it
happens that slave in its original tongue signifies glory. The
primitive constitution of families early underwent some changes
to the surprise of Solomon, who says, ^'I have seen servants on
horses, and princes walking as servants upon the earth." More
recent changes as to what the word family implies are knowTi and
read of all men.

House and hut, words radically the same with hide, mean a
shelter or protection, often in secret. Home, at first associated
with lair or place of lying down, also implied a hiding place.
Mansion (mainsion) the house where a man remained after he
had emerged from the roving, nomadic stage, naturally became
superior to a transient pastoral hut. The permanent abiding-
place of a dignitary is a residence, that is resit-ance, where he
permanently sits, the syllable re being here intensive. Loft, a
contraction from lifted, describes the highest room, called also
garret, which means a look-out. Thatch, tile, and roof are all
derivations from a classical root meaning to cover. Shingle,
that is a split, alludes to the way in which that sort of covering

368 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

is made . Door, which is an another spelling of through, is that
through which people enter and depart. The termination -hule
in vestibule, meaning to throw, gives name to the room where
we throw off something of our vestments. Vestry is a sacred
clothes-room. Threshold is a modern form sio:nifvin2: tread-
wood, -old, contracted from wold, meaning wood. Tread in
1611 still meant to thresh, for Paul speaks of the ox that tread-
eth the corn. I Cor. ix. 9.

The structure before the house-door bears several names,
each suggestive regarding the thing it denotes. It was called
porch, or portico, words derived from the portal which is near.
It was called stoop, which in Dutch means steps, from the stairs
which led up to it, and piazza which means place or square from
the open space before its steps. The railing which shuts it in is
indicated by the name verandah (Latin vara), stick, and other
points in its make-up appear in the name colonnade and arcade,
while loggia signifies a place for a lounge. Aivning is supposed
to be akin to haven and the name befits such a shelter from sun
as havens afford from seas.

Stair, stirrup, and stile all come from one root, to climb, by
one we climb to a chamber, by another upon a horse, and a fence
bv the third. In stirrup the ending -rap is contracted from rope
and recalls the era \s\\ei\ a climbing-rope was the horseman^s
only help in mounting. From the same root with climb is
climax vrhich is Greek for ladder and English for a means of
mounting step by step to rhetorical heights.

A strip two feet wide round a house was called of old eaves-
drip and then eaves-drop. It gave the name eavesdroppers to
listeners who stood thereon for overhearing. Squirrel is a
word so self-descriptive that whoever learns that it is Greek for
shadow tail must be sorry that its significance has been Greek
to him so long. Arbor, a bower or shady retreat, is in spelling
identical with the Latin name of tree, but it is now held to come
from herb. The h vanished as so often in English mouths, while
the e was sounded like the letter a, as in hearth, heart, sergeant,
clerk, etc. Its first sense was a grassy lawn, and its next a bed
of herbs. So much for house preliminaries, which signify
things outside the threshold.

Butler — Household Words: Their Etymology. 369

Passing: to apartments, the root of hall is cover ; hall is cog-
nate with hull and as the hull covers the grain of corn so the hall
is covered by rooms around it. Parlor is a room for parleys,,
from the same source with palaver and parliament. It is the
scene of domestic parliame-nts and was naturally borrowed by
taciturn English from talkative French whom they also call par-
ley-vous. Drawing-room^ contracted from with or within draw-
ing room, is the apartment within which ladies withdraw from
the dining-table when their lords begin to ^^put an enemy into
their mouths to steal avray their brains." The phrase, drawn-
game is plainer when we supply the obsolete vjith. It is one
from which the parties withdrav^. Boudoir, more private than
drawing room, is the retreat to which wise women when tempted
to scold betake themselves till their fit of sulks is over. Boudoir
is literally poutoir, a place for pouting, and is radically the self-
same word with pout.

The word niche originally meant shell, niches being hollow
like shells, which, set up against a wall, may have led to mak-
ing the first niches. JSTiches when heading in shell-shaped re-
liefs or formed out of real shells point to their own origin.

Cuspidor is from spue and was born into English in 1779.
Cigar, which means locust or gi'asshopper, got its name as being
shaped at i\\& end like the belly of such insects. It came from
Spanish so recently that its earliest American appearance in
print thus far discovered w^as in 1785, and its earliest use was
only thirty years before.

Wall-paper was till recently called paper-hangings and the
word hangings carries us back to the tapestry which used to be
hung round rooms for checking drafts of air, another name for-
the arras (so called from the French town where it was largely
miade) behind which both Polonius and Falstaff were ensconced.
The first carpets were all of rags, for the Latin root of carpet,
carpere, means to tear, a word used to describe pulling ^vool
off the backs of sheep before shears were invented — a meaning
still figuratively alive in our saying to carp at. This rag-cloth,
meaning at first a monk's robe, next meant hangings of tapes-
try, and next a table-cloth. Hence arose the phrases on the
carpet and on the tapis (Greek for carpet). Then it came to
mean the rugs on which men kneeled to be dubbed knights and..
24

370 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

so gained tlie name of carpet-Jcnights. Last of all was the sense
of covering a floor in full.

The word lamj) is from a Greek root whicli means to shine.
The text "Let vour light so shine hefore men" is literally, Let
it so lamp before them. The same element forms the middle
syllable in Olympus, which is thus the shiner, or lamp of moun-
tains. The mirror Avith wings like a butterfly gets its name of
J^syclie-qlass because a butterfly was called Psvche by the
Greeks. The table before such a glass being covered with cloth
was called toilet from a word meaning to weave. The origin
of hureau is derived from a name of the baize that covers it.

Dressing is more than putting on clothes. It implies that
it is hard to know how to put one's things on, going through that
process comme it faut, that is rightly; yes, those laborsome
and dainty trims wherein, as Shakespeare tells us, daughters of
'■earth make great Juno jealous. Its Latin root means to make
straight and is illustrated by the military orders : ''Right dress"
and "Left dress," and our vernacular "put to rights" which is
to re-dress. Spelling prevents some persons from noticing that
Taim,ent is an abbreviated form of arrayment and. so means
somethins; more than clothino'.

The vocabulary of our vesture is often no less obscure than
that of architecture or furniture. Cloak and clock are doub-
lets, coming from the German word for bell, the latter so called
as sounding the hours with a bell, and the former as giving its
wearer the shape of a bell. Mantle comes from the Latin word
for hand. In Yirgil it means a table-napkin for wiping the
hands. Its sense was extended to a table-cloth, and in dress to
mantle as covering everything like such a cloth, and then the
meaning narrows in the diminutive mantilla. The noun stock-
ing comes from the verb stick as it denotes that into which a
foot is stuck, as a malefactor's feet were stuck through holes in
a plank, — ^the village stocks still to be seen in England. Sock,
a doublet of stocking, is a variant of the socket into which a foot
is set. The form stock for stocking occurs in The Taming of
the Shrew where Petruchio's lackey comes in "with a linen stock
on one leg" (iii. 2, 67). Nether-stocks is a Shakespearian name
for locking. Falstaff says, "I will sew nether-stocks and mend
them and foot them too." 1 H. lY. ii. 4, 130. The word

Butler — Household Words: Their Etymology. 3Y1

metlieir-stocks implies "upper-stocks and over-stocks which meant
trousers, — called knee-breeches because cut off at the knee, and
trunk-hose because covering the trunk of the body. Hose had
once a wider meaning including upper and nether stocks joined
in one single garment. St. Pantaloon was one of the patron
saints of the Venetians and so often gave them baptismal names
— all the more as his name means All-lion. Venetians were
hence nicknamed pantalooners as naturally an an Irishman is
styled Patrick. A variety of indispensables borrowed from
those pantalooners may at first have been known as pantaloon-
trousers, but could not fail to be shortened into pantaloon pure
.and simple, in accordance with a law which, reducing every
word to its lowest terms, has now left us only pants. But I
anust pass by dress thus briefly for it lies mostly beyond my
•research or power to explain.

The members who make up the personnel of a household bear
names of more significance than is at once apparent.

The name man meaning thinker shows him to have been from
the start egotistical, or he would not have arrogated such a
name. Wotnan, w^hich is wife-man, proclaims her if not a rib,
an adjunct or variation of the genus man. Wife w^hich has
been interpreted to mean timid as brides are, or inspired as the
wives of ancient Teutons were esteemed, or weaver as few
wives now are, more probably means merely woman, that is,
the woman of some particular mam A meaning dead in a sim-
ple word often survives in a compound. Husband is a house-
dweller — not a wanderer abroad. The termination hand in-
stead of its obvious sense is equivalent to hor or hour in neigh-
hor and the Africander Boer, which means settler, one who is
not a nomad. So Othello says in reference to his marriage,

"But that I love the gentle Desdemona
I would not my unhoused free condition
Put into circumscription and confine."^

Mother, signifying the measurer^ defines her as the domestic
manager setting bounds to the household as she always must,
m.oulding it when most plastic, and creator of the mother-tongue

^''Unhoused" is an Italian idiom equivalent to un-husbanded, and is held by
commentators as one of the best proofs of Shakespeare's acquaintance with the
Italian language. Othello, i. 2, 29.

872 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

and motlier-wit. Lord and lady both owe tlieir names to the
loaf of bread. His name is contracted from loaf-ward, loaf-
keeper, and hence defender and dispenser; ladj is contracted
from hlaf-doegan which is loaf-kneader, she who kneads the
dough. The root of father is traceable in the compound foster-
father. Foster is a contraction of foodster, so that father means
a feeder.

The dropping of d in foodster illustrates a linguistic law
which explains many obscurities, namely that a lingual or liquid
can not stand before the letter s. In accordance with this law
the word gospel is formed from good spell by dropping d. In
like manner worshijD comes from worthship — to treat as worth or
worthy. So we get response from responds, suspense from sus-
pends, etc. In fleur-de-lis an 1 is dropped before s, and so hides
the derivation of lils from lilium. So the loss of d in necessity
hides its origin in ne and cedo, and its self-descriptiveness as the
unyielding.

A descriptive feature of many words comes out in their ety-
mology. Soji is one so\vn, as the seed of Abraham; daughter
brings back to us the pastoral era, meaning milker, sister is said
to be of the same stock as sweet, cousin is shortened from con-
sanguineous, that is, co-partnei' in blood, and cousins gennan
are those sprung from the same germ, that is, froni one grand-
father or grandmother.

A menial deriving his name from mansion was inferior in
name to no other domestic till that name was demeaned by asso-
ciation with the adjective mean. On the other hand sergeant,
deacon, and minister, which all mean servant, have been dig-
nified through association ^xi\h. higher things. The word
servant itself has a curious history. When prisoners of war who
had usually been slaughtered began to find quarter they were
said to be saved, as already stated, and they served. Thus the
name servant keeps in mind both their service and their preser-
vation. Reserved power is power re-saved. If preserves were
not saved beforehand, they could never be served up.

Marriage names are expressive of things. Its name, handfast,
described the joining of hands; nuptials — that is, veiling —
brings to view the bride's costume, Milton's ^^saintly veil of
maiden white;" hridal — shortened from bride-ale — emphasizes

Butler — Household Words: Their Etymology. 373

the attendant banquet of good clieer, which of old consisted in
■drinks more than in meats. Wedlock shows the pair inter-
locked by a wed which may mean a ring or any pledge or visible
sign of mutual vows. Espousals signify solemnizing the con-
jugal union (which is literally a yoking together) by joining
in pouring out a libation, or drink offering. Matrimonial terms
may lose something of glamour in the light of etymology.
Trousseau becomes nothing but a bundle or budget, and hride
is a breweress or broth-maker. Lady as we have seen is a
kneader of bread, but consort is a sharer altogether in another's
lot, a partnership which knows no limitations. Mate and match
were of one origin, a word meaning fit for something else so as
to complete it, but were afterwards differentiated so that we
hear of those who are mated but not matched, and matched but
not mated.

Know thyself is a short maxim yet has proved too long for
m.an to learn. J^ames for som^e of the members of our bodies
ive are slow to analyze. Many elbow their way through the
world yet cannot tell why their ovvTi elbows are so named. They
forget that the syllable el- (or ell-) was once our name for arm,
and then for a measure of an arm's length, a sense that is plain
still in the proverb. Give an inch and he will take an ell. In the
light of this obsolete meaning elhoiv is clearly arm-bow, the
bend of the arm. Finger is allied to fang and so means a
grasper, and hand has a similar sense because from the same
root as hound, the game-grasper, and with apprehend. Nail
being from the same root with nag teaches that nagging is a
figurative scratching with the ends of the fingers. Wrist is
what wrests or turns the hand, and is plainer when we find that
foot-wrist was an old name for ankle. Vertebrae are also
turners, the bones on Avhioh the body turns round horizontally,
while haunches — literally bends, analogous to hinges — are what
it turns upon up and down. Instep, if still spelled as once it
was, instoop, w^ould describe itself as the foot's stoop or bend in-
ward to the ankle. Muscle, which means mouse, takes its name
from its shape, and the ends which stretch it are tendons which
is Latin for stretchers. Beginners in Latin are pleased to learn
that the uvula at the root of the tongue means a gTape-cluster,
that the clavicle which locks up the chest means key, that a

374 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences ^ Arts, and Letters.

certain vein is called jugular — meaning pertaining to a yoke —
because near the yoke of the right and left ribs. Nostril is
nose^drill, for it pierces the nose as drills do rocks. Some of us
call a man supercilious and still have yet to learn the sense-mean-
ing of the word we use. It is brow-beating, or an action above
the eye-lids. The word was unknoAvn to both Shakespeare and
Solomon, yet both of them had the idea. ^^There is a genera-
tion," says one, "0 how lofty are their eyes and their eye-lids
are lifted up ;" and the other's words are : "Unknit that threat-
ening, unkind brow.'*' Artery etymologically is an air-tube, and
so perhaps was once pronounced airtery. K^o blood being found
in arteries after death it was natural, since nature abhors a
vacuum, to think those empty vessels to be air-pipes or ducts for
vital spirits which were an ethereal fluid quite distinct from that
in the veins. Shakespeare shared this error. "Plodding
poisons," he says, or according to some editions, "prisons up the
nimble spirits in the arteries." Muzzle is not a dignified
word for mouth but it has an origin and relations worth know*
ing. It means a biter and is cognate with morsel and remorse.
The letter d has dropped out of the middle of each (it being
hard to utter before s, as has been already stated), but it re-
mains in mordant. The mordant aids the biting of colors in:
dyeing. Muzzle is a biter, morsel is what is bitten, and remorse
is an after-bite, — the worst of all. Instead of transferring from
Latin the phrase "remorse of conscience" Anglo-Saxons trans-
lated it as the "Againbite of inwit," the title of an ancient
poem dating from the year 1340. Jaws would be a plainer
word if spelled now as it was in our Bible of 1611, that is-
chawes : "I mil put hooks in thy chawes." A doublet of jaws
is chops which is shortened from choppers.

Eating tools lead us on to the scene of eating. The names
of things which meet our eyes at every meal-time often need
elucidation. Table ^ like cupboard meaning a mere board,
carries us back to prehistoric simplicity. Trencher used to
mean a square board, a shape still surviving in the compound
trencher-cap, which is equivalent to the shape of a plasterer's-
mortar-board. Dish, traceable to the classical discus or quoit,
which means something thrown, thanks to its circular shape,,
gave name to German tables and to English plates, at first to

' Butler — HouseJiold Wo7-ds: Their Etymology. 375

such as were round, and tlien to all of the class Tumbler, in
the light of etymology, becomes historic. It was at first shaped
like the horn cups of the pastoral era. It was called tumbler
because, being pointed, it must tumble if set down unsupported,
and so it stood in a socket. Tucking in the point which en-
abled a cup to stand alone, marked an advance in glass making.
Older than that improvement is the Gothic word for cup, namely;
point, because made of a pointed horn, and in the Gothic Bible
we find the text : ''The point mv father hath given me shall I
not drink it?" John xviii. 11.

Many original meanings are quite unexpected. Thus porce-
lain means pig, or porklet. The name porcella, Portuguese for
pig, was given to a shell because it was shaped like that animal's
back, and then transferred to china which was enameled like
that shell. Shape gave rise to one word and color to the other.
Salver, the tray or waiter used at table for serving up or serving
off, means a saver, not however of eatables but of eaters. The
word is an heir-loom from times when poison was often secreted
in meats and di'inks and was much oftener feared, so that a
pregustator, or fore-taster, was the most important servant in
all great households. After the plates of guests had been filled,
each of them put a morsel of every dainty upon the salver which
was passed around by the pregustator. ^^Tot till the salver-bearer
had eaten these contributions did the feast of his betters begin.
According to Shakespeare when King John had been poisoned
and a messenger told the news, saying: ^^The King I fear is
poisoned by a monk, I left him speechless," the hearers
asked, "How did he take the poison? who did taste for him?"
His answer was, "A monk, I tell you, a resolved (resolute)
villain whose bowels suddenly burst out." King John, v. 6. 23.

Dessert, which means served off, fitly describes the final course
of a dinner. Serviette, derived by some from the same root as
salver since it saves our clothes, is traced by others to serve as
being serviceable. The root of napJdn mteans cloth and has seen
strange mutations, coming to signify cloth on a table, in the
pocket, in the hand, and tied about the body. ^N'apery, a table-
cloth, in the diminutive napkin, aside from its current use gave
its name to handkerchief, to map, forming its material before
paper was known, and to apron for the same reason. Apron

376 Wisconsiii Academy of Sciences^ ArtSj and Letters,

Tvas spelled napron till its initial was stolen bv the article before
it. So anger was once spelled nanger, adder nadder, umpire
numpire, orange norange ; nick-name and nonce still retain the
initial n, nick being formed from an eke, that is an added name.
Saucer, before t^a was known, had a wider meaning than now.
It is derived from salt which gave name to every variety of
seasoned thing as well as condiment, which word means what is
given with another thing to savor it. Hence the words salad,
sausage, sauce and so on, all indicating something salted, and
saucer, the dish which contained them.

Many foodstuffs are better known to us than are their names.
Corned heef, a termi obscure to most who eat it, is contracted
from salt-corned, and corned means with kernels of salt as large
as corn, what we now call coarse salt. Buchwlieat became a
more significant "vvt)rd when I ascertained that Vv^lieat is another
spelling of white, and that buck is an obsolete form of beech.
Buckwheat being three-cornered like a beechnut, is beechnut
wheat.

Poach being a word kindred to pouch shows that eggs are
said to be poached because they seem to be each in a pouch.
Toast becomes self-explaining Avlien we see it to be allied to
torrid, and so is bread terrified. Drinking a toast finds expla-
nation in the custom of putting toast in cups of wine. Some-
thing of it would sink to the bottom of the cup so that he who
drank a toast must drink deep and drain his cup. Analogous is
the word carouse which is made up of two German syllables
that signify all out.

But nothing on our tables is such an etymological surprise as
cream. This article, kno\\m in Italian as the flower of milk, in
Prench as well as English is cognate in origin with Christ.
Both come from a vrord meaning to anoint with oil. Cream is
the oil of milk. Christen comes from ohrismi, the anointing oil
used at baptisms, and Christ is the one anointed prophet, priest,
and king. Few food naiues^are less understood than cream.
ISTone is more misunderstood than turkey. Soon after the death
of Columbus the turkey was discovered in Mexico by Cortez and
through him was introduced into the old world. But Jiow could
an American product have gotten a name from an Asiatic em-
pire ? The misnomer resulted from geographical misconcep-

Butler — Household Words: Their Etymology. 377

tions. America was reckoned a part of India till after the
birth of Shakespeare bv geographers, and long after in popular
usage. The word America is found in Shakespeare only once,
and then is followed by "the Indies'' as if it needed explanation
by an alternate name, just as in the same connection the word
Pelgia is followed by [N'etherlands. Both phrases illustrate
Shakespeare's habit of bringing in an easier word directly after
a hard one to clear up its meaning. The Indies here, according
to the context, mean West Indies, a name under which a thou-
sand American islands to this day are classed. But Turkey in
English eyes was the dominant power in Asia and not least over
India, and so all things from India might be deemed Turkish, as
all things American have now become Yankee. Thus a fowl
which came from any corner of India, a Turkish conquest, might
naturally be called turkey, all the more inasmuch as a gobbler,
or gobble-cock, when spreading himself at sight of a red rag ri-
vals the traditional fierceness of a Turk. In buying turkey, and
on countless other occasions, we need scales. The modem pat-
ent platforms scarcely deserve the name of balance which is ety-
mologically two dishes. The old pair of balances hung in even
scale and gave a demonstration of accuracy which no eye could
fail to see. What artist will ever dare pluck the balance from
his painting of the goddess of justice ? Returning to food-names
we note strange vicissitudes in import of the self -same vocable.
Thus oil took its name from the olive which yielded it, but now
gives name to products more or less similar, but which are ob-
tained from manifold sources which seem totally dissimilar, as
cotton-seed. East Indian ground nuts, fish, fowls, beasts, and the
bowels of the earth.

The first syllable in hidter is allied to bossy, our colloquial
nlame for cow, and according to Curtius (Sec. 227) its second
syllable is thought to be the same with tur in the word distui'bed,
so that the word butter means cow's milk shaken. Cheese ap-
pears to be cognate with case. If so, it is milk pressed in a case.
Buttery would seem to get its name from butter, but linguists
derive it from the vessels or butts of liquor which were there
stored. Food and drink, however, being' laid up in the same
room led to confusing the namie with pantry which is bread-
room. Pantry is related to pan in companion — one with whom

378 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

we share bread — as comrade is one with whom w^ share a
chamber or camera. Pantler is the name in Cymbeline (ii. 3,.
129) for one who has charge of a pantry. In regard to enter-
tainment and rooms for it, the Latin for stranger, hospes, is^
mother of host, entertainer of strangers, hostel or hotel, the house
where they are entertained, 7^05p^/a? for sick strangers, 7i05p?ce for
pilgrim strangers, ostler one who cares for horses of strangers,,
and so on.

But we have perhaps kept within doors too long. In walking
abroad from a house points of compass arrest our attention.
They all owe their names to positions of the sun East is his-
position at rising, a word related to yeast, hoist and oust, and
giving a name to Easter — the rising again of the Crucified
Christ. Just the same is the meaning of the word orient and
Levant in Latin. West is where the sun wasteth, analogous-
to Occident which is Latin for falling off. South — midway be-
tween east and west, — comes either from seethe where he i&
boiling hot, or from sunth where the sun is most himself and
sunneth. Meridian, meaning mid-day, defines his position
then: "sitting in his meridian tower." Noon means ninth,
and originally signified the ninth hour from six in the morning
when day began. In those days ami;liing eaten before three
in the afternoon broke a fast day. But the food of hungry
f asters was served up very promptly and more and more so, till
minute by minute three hours were subtracted from fasts and
noon became synonymous with mid-day. A noon-nap is called
siesta = sixth, because taken at that hour. Daivn comes from
day, and is a contract of dayening. North is a word of disputed
origin. Some hold it to be he narroweth, because the sun at
his northing has a shorter course than elsewhere. Another
meaning assigned to north is left-hand because we see the sun
on that hand whenever in orienteering we face the east, as was
anciently the universal custom. A survival from this primeval
usage is the word orienteer which is to find which w'ay east
lies — or our easting. Orisons are morning prayers, when the
sun is in the orient.

Churches have usually been so orienteered that in entering
them we face the east, that is, the rising sun of righteousness,
and many words descriptive of churches must be misunderstood

Butler — Household Words: Their Etymology, 379

"bj all who fail to keep this fact in mind. The word church, an
adjective coming from Greek, means "The Lord's, belonging to
the Lord." Nave, Latin for ship, took its religions sense from
viewing the church as the ship of souls, and with allusion to the
ark of JN'oah. Altar has the same root with exalted, that is, some-
thing raised up, a high-place for sacrifices to be offered on^
Singers standing behind this church-center gave the name choir
to the place w^here they quired, that is, performed their function.
Chancel now used as identical with choir means lattice-work,
and at first was applied to the screen between choir and transept.
Transept, literally a hedge across, was so named because, lying at
right angles to nave and choir, it is a hedge between them.
'Aisles mean wings, pinions each side of the nave and combining
wtith it to form a winged ship, as if it would soar to heaven..
In the verses of Moore :

". . . . a bark of light,
Sailing through heaven as if it bore
Spirits of earth, the good, the bright.
To some remote celestial shore."

Organ is a tool for work of any sort, and specifically the-
grandest of tools for musical work. Rosary is a bed or bouquet
of roses, but if we believe the legend, when a virgin burning at
the stake prayed for her murderers, the brands were transformed
into roses which, created by prayer, becam:e emblems of prayer,,
and a string of them formed a rosary, a series of prayers. Sac-
rament wlas a Roman soldier's oath, hence it designates what-
ever is supreme in sacredness. Image is a word which could
need no definition did not contraction hinder us from seeing its
connection with imitate. But for this it would appear as imi-
tage, an imitation. The original of chapel is cape, which word
"wfas used to designate the shelter or shrine for that particular
cape, half of which St. Martin had given to Christ whom he had
m.et as a naked beggar. The name was first used in France
wfhere St. Martin was one of the chief saints, and naturally
spread to sacred shelters elsewhere. Cathedral means seat — a
church ^vith a seat for a bishop. Of old all other persons stood
or kneeled as thev do still in the Greek church. Seat is short-
ened into see. Minster is the church of a monastery, which is an
abode of monks, men who dwell alone, namely, separate from

380 ^y^sconsi7l Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

secular society; while the name convent, that is coming together,
bespeaks their imion in sacred services. Those '^rho live sep-
arate from each other are hermits, literallv dwellers in a desert.
Priest, an abridgment of presbyter, is Greek for elder. Clergy
signifies lot^ or portion, they being viewed as the Lord's own,
his portion or lot. Bishop is overseer, a name whose connection
with its adjective is obscured by changes in spelling. To make
this connection clear we must spell one T\x)rd e-bishop-al, or the
other word — piscop. The word episcopate must o\Vie its origin
to this feeling of ambiguity or doubt as to the connection of noun
and adjective. In parochial the elements are almost the same
as in neighbor, which is nigh-dweller. Its noun is parish, which
is Greek for near one's house. Crucial is a third specimen of
w^ords like parochial and episcopal where the adjective's connec-
tion with its noun is not obvious. It comt?s from cross which
was the shape of ancient guide-posts at the parting of ways, and
so gives name to crucial tests. They show us the Wiay to go at
points of divergence.

It is as true now ds, in David's days tliat "there is but a step
between us and death," but no age has been so careful as ours
to put out of sight the grand memento mori. We ape the bird
who dodges hunters by hiding her head under her wing. In-
tramural interments have become criminal. But in early ages
interments were made, if not in churches, as near them as pos-
sible, so that every church-yard became a burial-ground. Ceme-
tery is etymologically a sleeping-place, and by Greek usage came
to mean a bed ix>om for transient guests. It acquired the mean-
ing of burial-ground only after the advent of Christianity and
thanks to the !N^ew Testament view of death as a sleep. The
radical sense of coffin is a basket (as is clear from Wyclif), Matt,
xix. 20. Funeral is what is done to a corpse; obsequies means
f ollomng it to the grave. Dirge is the first word in an antiphon
in the office of the dead \^nhich begins "Dirige (from which dirge
is contracted), Dirige, Domine," "Direct, O Lord!" Ps. v. 8.
Requiem is Latin for rest, the first word in a burial ritual which
begins "Requiem eternam dona eis !" "Rest eternal grant
them !" So it is said in Hamlet concerning Ophelia,

Builer — Household ^Yords: Their Etymology, 381

"We should profane the service of the dead
To sing a requiem and such rest to her
As to peace-parted souls.'' v. 1, 260.

Here, as oftentimes, Shakespeare is his o^vn best interpreter,
following a hard word with an easy one which illuminates it,
as rest here after requiem is an excellent epexegesis.

Tomb, cognat-e with tumulus, is a burial-mound, though it is
held bv some scholars to mean cremation. At all events, the ter-
mination taph comes from the same source with typhus and ty-
phoid wihich define burning fevers. Taph in a secondary sense
means tomb or place of burial as we see in epitaph, the writing
at a tomb, and cenotaph, an empty tomb. Sepulchei', derived
from a root meaning to honor, shows not merely memory but re-
spect,— a feeling to which the history of mausoleum gives the
most intense expression. The widovv^ of M'ausolus built his tomb
so well that she made his name immortal, while the Mausoleum,
classed among the seven wonders of the ancient world, now gives
name to every modern tomb which can boast any resemblance
to its nature.

Scripture, a Latin word for writing, we limit by way of emi-
nence to sacred writing, as in the phrase sacred scripture, for
Holy Writ. Chart, charta (in Magna Charta), card, all essen-
tially one, have been traced by some to an Eg;}q)tian source. It
is more probable that we owe. them to a Greek word which means
to scratch. They all form a basis on which we scratch or write.
The same root branches out in the word character which is made
up of the scratches Avhich life leaves on our natures — the tabu-
la rasa or blank tablet with which each of us was born. Bible
and paper are ^\iords of supreme interest. Etymologically they
are two Egyptian names of the plant out of which the first writ-
ing material was manufactured ; adopted by Greeks when they
imported the material, they have spread over the whole earth,
paper in a secular and Bible in a religious sense. They show
that words called by HomBr winged as if fugitive and dying as
soon as born, in truth are supreme monuments. Older than the
pyramids they shall outlive them, and fly through all space no
less than through all time. They are of the grand humanities,

382 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

touches of nature which make the whole world and all ages kin,
wherever there is knowledge or faith, or hope. What thing is
so lasting as words ?

Within my rememhrance the teachers of language in many
colleges were called Professors of Humanity or of the Humani-
ties. They are still in Scotland. N'or is anything in the term
there thought to be antiquated or peculiar. The idea in this en-
titling was that speech is by way of eminence the human char-
acteristic, one denied to all the lower world. The worm can
weave, the bee can build, but neither can talk. Similar seems
to have been the feeling of Homer when, differentiating man
from the animals, he styles him ^Ipoij/ (merops) , the articulator,
divider of the voice. The word fx€po\f/ is highly exalted in the
Homeric vocabulary, being used by the goddess of wisdom to
describe the most sagacious class of men. The more I have
studied words, their bearings and ties, strong connections, nice
dependencies, the more my conviction has deepened that every
language is itself a greater miracle than any work of the great-
est genius who has ever written in its vocables.

TWO HUNDRED WORDS WHOSE ETYMOLOGY IS INDICATED.

Aisle, 379.
Altar, 379.
Apron, 375.
Arbor, 368.
Arras, 369.
Artery, 374.
Awning, 368.
Balance, 377.
Bible, 381.
Bishop, 380.
Boer, 371.
Boudoir, 369.
Bridal, 372.
Bride, 373.
Buckwheat, 376.
Bureau, 370.
Butter, 377.
Buttery, 377.
Card, 381.
Carouse, 376.
Carpet, 369.

Cathedral, 379.
Cemetery, 380.
Cenotaph, 381.
Chancel, 379.
Chapel, 379.
Character, 381.
Chart, 381.
Cheese, 377.
Choir, 379.
Chops, 374.
Church, 379.
Churchyard, 380.
Cigar, 369.
Clavicle, 373.
Clergy, 380.
Climax, 368.
Cloak, 370.
Clock, 370.
Coffin, 380.
Companion, 377.
Comrade, 378.

Condiment, 376. Elbow, 373.
Conjugal, 373. Episcopate, 380.
Consort, 373. Epitaph, 381.

Convent, 380. Espousals, 373.

Corned beef, 376. Familiar, 367.

Cousin, 372.
Cream, 376.
Crucial, 380.
Cuspidor, 369.
Daughter, 372.
Dawn, 378.
Deacon, 372.
Dessert, 375.
Dirge, 380.
Dish, 374.
Door, 368.

Family, 367.
Father, 372.
Finger, 373.
Fleur-de-lis, 372.
Foster, 372.
Funeral, 380.
Garret, 367.;
Gospel, 372.
Hall, 369.
Hand, 372.
Hand-fast, 373.

Drawing-room,369. Haunch, 373.
Drawn game, 369. Hermit, 380.
Dress, 370. Home, 367.

East, 378. Hose, 871.

Eaves-dropper,368.Hospice, 378.

Butler — Household Woi^ds: Their Etymology. 383

Hospital, 378.
Host, 378.
Hostel, 378.
Hotel, 378.
Hound, 373.
House, 367.
Husband, 371.
Hut, 367.
Image, 379.
Instep, 373.
Jaws, 374.
Jugular, 374.

Morsel, 373.
Mother, 371.
Muscle, 373.
Muzzle, 374.
Nail, 373.
Nave, 379.
Necessity, 372.
Netherstock, 370.
Niche, 369.
Nickname, 376.
Noon, 378.
North, 378.

Knee-breeches,371 Nostril, 374.
Lady, .373. Nuptials, 372.

Lamp, 370.
Loft, 367.
Loggia, 368.
Lord, 372.
Man, 371.
Mansion, 367.
Mantle, 370.
Map, 375.
Match, 373.

Obsequies, 380.
Oil, 377.
Orange, 376.
Organ, 379.
Orienteer, 378.
Orisons, 378.
Pantaloon, 371.
Pantler, 378.
Pantry, 377.

Mausoleum, 381. Paper, 381.
Menial, 372. Parlor, 369.

Minister, 372.
Minster, 379.
Monastery, 379.
Mordant, 374.

Parochial, 380.
Piazza, 368.
Poach, 376.
Porcelain, 375.

Madison, Wis,

Porch, 368.
Portico, 368.
Pregustator, 375.
Preliminary
Priest, 380.
Psyche-glass, 370.
Raiment, 370.
Remorse, 374.
Requiem, 380.
Residence, 367.
Roof, 367.
Rosary, 379.
Sacrament, 379.
Salver, 375.
Saucer, 376.
Scripture, 381.
Sepulcher, 381.
Sergeant, 372.
Servant, 367.
Serviette, 375.
Shingle, 367.
Siesta, 378.
Sister, 372.
Slave, 367.
Son, 372.
South, 378.
Squirrel, 362.
Stair, 368.
Stile, 368.
Stirrup, 368.

Stocking, 370.
Stoop, 368.
Supercilious, 374.
Tapis, 369.
Tendon, 373.
Thatch, 367.
Threshold, 368.
Tile, 367.
Toast, 376.
Toilet, 370.
Tomb, 381.
Transept, 379.
Trencher, 374.
Trousseau, 373.
Trunk-hose, 371.
Tumbler, 375.
Turkey, 376.
Umpire, 376.
Upper-stocks, 371.
Uvula, 374.
Verandah, 368.
Vertebrae, 373.
Vestibule, 368.
Vestry, 368.
West, 378.
Wife, 371.
Woman, 371.
Worship, 372.
Wrist, 373.
Yeast, 378.

A PROBLEM OF LONGEVITY.

CHARLES H. CKAXDLEE, A. M.,
Professor of Mathematics, Ripon College.

Tte question to wliicli I invito attention wias suggested to me
during my work upon the determination of the inter-generation
period, which I presented to the Academy last year. The some^
what unexpected results which I then obtained, pointing to a
probability that that period has not appreciably changed from
generation to generation, despite the markedly increasing size
of families, suggested an inquiry what other constant periods-
might be found in studies of human life, a question emphasized
at the Columbus meeting of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science by the discussion of a paper presenting
very careful and quite extensive investigations in relation to
changes in the median age.

I am confident that few who have not given careful attention,
to that class of problemfi recogTiize the number of different ques-
tions presented for solution which are closely related and capable
of being so confused as to present most erroneous results. I
may mention the mean age of death in a community, the median
age of its members, and their mean age, as elements in such in-
vestigations, the changes in which fro^m generation to genera-
tion are often confounded.

It is, I assume, a generally recognized fact that human life
has become longer in civilized communities, as the generations
have passed, but the method of this change is not entirely recog-
nized. The increase is often largely ascribed to a marked de-
crease in the death rate among infants. But the last report of
the State Board of Health of Massachusetts, while indicating a
marked advance in the m/cdian age of the inhabitants of that

A Problem of Longevity, 385

state, yet sliows no lessening of deaths among children below the
age of five during the last fifty years. That is, perhaps, the gain
in this respect due to an advance in pathology has been balanced
by the increase in the number of children subject to the dangers
of residence in cities. But the advance of the median age seems
to be undoubted ; from which we certainly infer a diminution of
deaths in youth and early manhood, a fact which has brought
into evidence certain philosophers of the class characterized by
the couplet,

"And this the constant burden of their song,
One truth is plain, whatever is is wrong,"
who deprecate this preservation of individuals of feeble physique
to become parents, and declare that a serious loss of average ro-
bustness and health has resulted, and that it is shown by a dim-
inution in the number of peoj)le attaining old age, in spite of
the increased mean age at death. Around the question of the
truth of this assertion statistics have been marshalled with re-
sulting conclusions by no means entirely harmonious, but appar-
ently tending, I believe, to indicate the truth of the charge that
the interference with the working of the law of the survival of
the physically fittest is bringing in a race of weaklings. It is
to one aspect of this question, which as far as I know has hereto-
fore escaped notice, that I have given some attention.

In the search for evidence in relation to such a question, evi-
dently the records of former generations are to be compared with
those of our own time, and naturally the comparisons usually
have been miade between recent and remote records of the same
region. Moreover the records of recently organized communities
are not available for such comparisons, since they contain so few
terms of the series; and hence investigations have been very
largely confined to older regions, Avhence from generation to gen-
eration there has been an exodus of those who became pioneers
in the formation of new communities. It is true that during
the past few years many persons of feeble physique have emi-
grated to new settlements in quest of improved health ; but that
condition is quite recent. Generally it has been the strongest
members of a community, those seeming most likely to endure,
who have sought new homes and whose lines have passed out of
the record of succeeding generations of their native region. The
25

386 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

resulting error in a canclusion based upon a comparison of rec-
ords is evident, and I have tried to avoid it bj substituting for
a comparison between the records of successive periods in the
same community that between successive generations of the same
family or families ; but I have not as yet been able to make my
investigations sufficiently extensive to give a basis for anything
more than a mere suggestion. 'My w^rk has covered seven gen-
erations of three distinct families extending back to the middle
of the seventeenth century in Xew England, and now widely
scattered from their early home. The records of the two earliest
generations, however, were obviously so deficient in the dates of
death of children dying young that it seemied useless to consider
them, and so many of the seventh generation still survive that
that too, was necessarilv omitted. I have tabulated below the
statistics of the ages at death of the members of four generations,
divided into five classes with respect to age at death, giving the
per cent, of the whole dying within the limits of age of each
class 'and their mean age at death.

Bbloav 5.

5 to 25.

25 to 50.

50 to 75.

Above 75.

Total

Gen.

Per

cent.

Mean

Per

cent.

Mean

Per
cent.

Mean

Per

cent.

Mean

Per
cent.

Mean

mean.

Ist

09.8
16.1
16.3
12.9

1.3
1.2
1.15
1.4

13.1
14.2
11.7
11.7

13

19.5
15.5
16.5

11.5
19.4
16.3
20 6

37
38
40
37

39.4
30.3
31.2
31.8

65
62
64
62

26.2
20
24.5
23

84
8^
82
81

53.7

2d

46

8d

48.7

4th

48.1

All

13.9

1.3

12

16.5

19

38

31.9

63

23.2

82

48.5

The near approach to uniformity in the later columns of this
table evidently suggests a serious doubt of the correctness of the
theory of decreasing vigor as the generations pass, as far as so
limited an investigation can have any weight in dealing with
the question.

THE GOTHENBURG METHOD OF REGULATING THE

LIQUOR TRAFFIC, 1892-1898.'

GEORGE THOMPSON^ B. L.

t

A discussion of the establishment of the Gothenburg liquor
ejstem, of the principles upon which it is based, and of its opera-
tion through earlier years may be found in the Fifth Special
Import of the U. S. Commissioner of Labor published in 1893.
This report, which consists of two hundred and fifty-three pages,
wlas prepared by Dr. E. R. L. Gould and is both authoritative
and elaborate. It needs no duplicate. My aim therefore shall
be rather to supplement it, to extend it up to the present time,
to see whether or not the developments within the last six years
correspond to the former developments which Dr. Gould has so
clearly mirrored.

But it may not be amiss if by ^vtay of introduction we review
in a cursory manner the results attained by Dr. Gould's in-
vestigations. In the concluding paragraph of his report, he
says: ''That the system is perfect no one will be sanguine
enough to maintain ; but that it represents the best means which
have yet been devised for the control of the liquor traffic where
licensing is permitted at all, few who understand its true char-
acter and have studied its operation will be bold enough to
deny." In 1865 when the system wtas established in Gothen-
burg, the city from which it has derived its name, Sweden was
a land of distilleries and dramshops. That nation was then
knoA\Ti as a nation of drunkards. Of this curse of inebriety the
new liquor system became a healer. As it began to operate
drunkenness began to decrease enormously. For the country of
Sweden, as a whole, the annual per capita consumption of spir-
ituous liquors decreased from 10.6 litres in 1865 to 6.5 litres

^A disserfation submitted to the facultj' of the University of Wisconsin for the
degree of B. L., June, 1899.

388 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

in 1892. For many of Sweden's cities, which had shown for
several decades an enormous amount of drunkenness, the de-
crease was still more marked. In Gothenburg the per capita
consumption decreased from 24.81 litres in the year 1877-1878
to 13.55 litres in 1891-1892; in Stockholm the per capita con-
sumption decreased from 26.56 litres in 1877-1878 to 13.63 li-
tres in 1891-1892. In 1871 when the system was introduced
into iSTorway the average inhabitant there consumed 5.3 litres
of spirituous drinks a year; by 1892 the average inhabitant con-
sumed only 3.2 litres, and Xorway could claim, Italy excepted,
that she had reached a degree of sobriety higher than any nation
of the world.

Misery was greatly lessened. In 1865 there were in Gothen-
burg 2.36 cases of delirium tremens for every thousand inhabi-
tants; in 1892 there w^ere only 1.21 per thousand. In 1876
there were in Stockholm 5.27 cases of the same terrible disease
for every thousand inhabitants, but in 1892 the number had de-
creased to 1.64 per thousand. For Korway the records of 1871
designate drunkenness as the direct cause of 2.9 deaths out of
every thousand; in 1892 the number similarly designated was
only .8 per thousand.

But the new liquor system came not only to curtail drunken-
ness and the miseries accompanying drunkenness but also, un-
like all other liquor systems, to serve as a promoter of philan-
thropy. The profits accruing from the sales of liquor were no
longer to fill the pockets of saloon keepers, but were to be used
for ends furthering the general welfare. During the years
1877-1890 the company in Bergen alone contributed not less
than $348,655.94 for such purposes. From 1886 to 1891 the
company in Christiania contributed $312,006.24. Orphan asy-
lums, schools, deaconess homes, reading rooms, temperance so-
cieties, and charitable institutions of various kinds were in this
way materially assisted. The manner of the distribution has
been more indirect in Sweden than in Xorway (the former mak-
ing larger amounts go directly into the public treasury), but
the surplus has ultimately reached approximately the sam^ des-
tination in the two countries.

With this brief outline of the results attained prior to 1892,
"we pass to a consideration of the development of the system dur-

Tliompson — The Gothenburg Liquor System, 389

ing its operation in later years. In this study it will be best to
treat of Sweden and ^N^orway separately, for during recent years
the developments have been so different in the two countries
that what can be said regarding one can rarely be said of the
other.

SWEDEN.

i

Sweden needs the less part of our attention, not because the
Gothenburg system has worked less efficiently there, but because
the recent developments of her liquor problem have not been
much different from the developments of the years so elaborately
discussed by Dr. Gould.

One surprise, however, meets us in the study of the operation
of the Swedish Samlag system. Instead of finding a continued
decrease of intemperance, we find a slight increase. From the
Swedish official statistics I take the following table which shows
the amount of spirituous liquors consumed for each of the later
years :

Year.

Total consumption.

Per capita.

1891

31,018,505 litres

6.4 litres

1892

31,300,930 litres

6.5 litres

1893

32,150,388 litres

6.7 litres

1894

33,274,581 litres

6.9 litres

1S85

33,458,088 litres

6.9 litres

1896

35,584,088 litres

7.2 litres

1897

37,059,454 Htres

7.5 litres

In seeking causes for the increase of inebriety sho\^ai in this
table let us first ask whether there have been in these years more
saloons for the sale of spirituous liquors. The following table
procured from the same Swedish Statistical Bureau will an-
swer:

390 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Number of places of sales.

(a) In the Cities.

Year.

Retail.

Bar.

Total.

No. of in-
habitants per
saloon.

1^1-92

265
268
270
269
263
264

600
576
598
605
608
613

865
844
868
874
871
877

1,073
1,111
1,096
1,115
1,144
1,164

1892-93

189^-94

1894-95

1895-96

1896-97

(b^ In the Country.

Year.

Retail.

Bar,

Total.

No. of in-
habitants per
saloon.

1891-92

1892-93

35
31
27
24
27
23

137
139
131
127
128
129

172
170
158
151
155
152

22,526
22 758

1893-94

24.666

1894-95

1895-96

25,817
25,307
25,933

1896-97

A glance at these figures, which show that in the cities as
well as in the country there are more inhabitants now to every
saloon than in 1892, proves conclusively that the increase in the
per capita consumption, sho^^^l in the first table, cannot find an
explanation here. The increase cannot be accounted for either
by any lessening of j^rices, for during these years prices have
rather been slightly raised ; nor can it be accounted for by any
increase in the use of spirits for scientific or industrial purposes
for there is no evidence to support such an argument. We are
therefore led to ask : Is there any positive evidence that drunk-
enness has increased with this increase in sales ? Yes, there is
such positive evidence. I find it in the statistics from both
Gothenburg and Stockholm. In regard to Gothenburg the fol-
lowing table is the evidence which the liquor company itself
gives in its report for the year 1898 :

Thompson — The Gothenburg Liquor System, 391

Year.

Amount of
sales, litres.

Population.

No. of cases
of drunkenness

No. per 1,000.

1892

1,441,517
1,411,986
1,414,222
1,477,505
1,531,499
1,609,843
1,753,485

106,356
106,959
108,528
H2,670
115,521
117,534
120,151

4.563
4,066
3,665
3,516
4,040
5,234
6,546

42

1893

38

1894

34

1895

31

1S96

35

1897

44

1898

54

'Drunkenness lias evidently increased considerably in Grotlien-
burg. A still further substantiation of this fact is found in the
follomno; table which shows that the alcoholic diseases, the nat-
ural concomitants of drunkenness, have also increased:

Year.

Sales per
ca pi a, litres.

No. of alco-
holic dioeases.

No. of diseases
per 1,000.

1892

13.2
13.0
13.1
13.1
13.2
13.6
14.6

129
152
163
152

205
1S9
235

121

1893

1 40

1894

1895

1896

1.50
1.35
1.77

1897

1 60

1898

1.90

These statistics are incou'trovertible and are sufficient for
Gothenburg. Turning to Stockliolm, the capital city, we find
a like tendency there. The sale of spirituous liquors in the last
twio years is the largest mthin the records of the company sys-
tem of that city. From the annual reports of the Stockholm
company I derive the f ollo\\dng table :

392 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Year.

Population
of city.

Total no. of
litres sold.

Litres per
capita.

1&91-92
1892-93
1893-94
1894-96
1895-96
1896-97
1897-98

248,051
249,246
252,936
259,304
267,100
274,611
283,550

3,381,766
3,488,825
3,429,468
3.613,155
3,812,715
4,280,961
4,288.082

13.63
14.00
13.56
13.93
14.27
15.59
15.12

In regard to drunkenness and alcoholic diseases the following
table derived from similar reports tells the condition better than
words :

Year.

No. of
alcoholic
diseases.

No. of

casp8 of
drunkenness.

No. of alco-
holic diseases
per 1,000.

Cases of

drunkenness

per 1,000.

1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897

408
420
455
504
574
688

8,122
7,863
8,073
8,828
10,669
11,592

1.64
1.66
1.75
1.89
2.09
2.43

33
31
31
33
39
41

Combining the four preceding tables, we find that Gothenburg
presents an increase of 1.4 litres in the consumption of spiritu-
ous drinks per inhabitant, and an increase of twelve cases of
drunkenness and of ,75 cases of alcoholic diseases for every
thousand inhabitants; while Stockholm shows an increase of
1.49 litres in the per capita consumption, and an increase of
eight cases of drunkenness and of .79 cases of alcoholic dis-
eases for every thousand inhabitants.

This increase in drunkenness and in alcoholic diseases is not
due, however, to the larger consumption of spirituous liquors
alone. There has been in the later years an increase in the con-
sumption not only of spirituous liquors, but also of the milder
beverages such as ale and wine. As the sale of these beverages,
however, has not been under the absolute control of the company

Thompson — The Gothenburg Liquor System,

393

system, but has been conducted for the most part by private in-
dividuals, no exact figures as to the total amount of sales are
procurable. But, as a criterion by wihich to estimate the in-
creasing consumption of ale and wine, I have here a table which
has been procured from the Gothenburg police and which shows
a record of the testimony given by the persons arrested for
drunkenness when questioned as to what kind of liquor con-
stituted their last drink:

Number

answering :

Year.

Ale or wine.

Brandy.

Not accounted
for.

1892

1,230

1,824

1,765

1893

1,044

1,640

1,566

1894

1,007

1,398

1,403

1895

995

1,331

1.352

1896

1,270

1,477

1,483

1897

1,670

1,759

2,138

1898

1,938

3,284

1,661

These figures, although an indirect basis for a comparison
of the consumption of the milder with the stronger liquors, are
cited here rather to substantiate the testimony of the Swedish
press and of the prominent Swedish authority, Sigfried Wiesel-
gren, in their affirmation that the sales of liquors of all kinds
have been rapidly increasing during recent years.

In contrast then to the promising picture painted by Dr.
Gould the present condition of the liquor movement in Sweden
presents an apparently gloomy state of affairs. Inebriety with
all its evils seems to be increasing in that country. ^lust we
therefore say that for Sweden at least the Gothenburg system
has outlived its usefulness ? It T^-ould, of course, be rash to as-
sume that the present tendency is simply a natural and tem-
porary reaction from the many preceding 3^ears of increasing
sobriety. But it must also be remembered that in seeking the
causes which lie behind any aiuount of drunkenness, we are
dealing with a subject so intinjjately interwoven with economic
and ethical conditions, that it is folly to press too eagerly in one
and only one direction.

394 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Aiis, and Letters.

A greater prosperity accom^^anied with higlier wages always
permits a more extensive satisfaction of the desire for intoxi-
cating liquors, providing saloons are near enough to make that
desire easily satisfied. A recent rise in the prosperity of Sweden
must certainly be accounted one of the causes for the present in-
crease in drunkenness in that nation, i^rnst Iludrie, the
present manager of the Gothenburg samlag, says: ''With the
recent rise in prosperity have come higher wages, and with
higher wages a great increase in the consumption of liquor ])v
the lalx)ring' classes." Ainother factor frequently referred to
in various reports is the dispersion among the people of a vast
amount of sensual literature. How far such literature may have
any influence must be, however, entirely a matter of conjecture.
But a third factor vrhich has also been suggested, — and in my
opinion this is of more weight than the second, — is the fact that
Scandinavia is becoming more and more a center of attraction
for tourists. Tourists in lar<i'e numbers often make Gothen-
burg, Stockholm, Upsala and other cities their summer resorts.
The liquor consumed by them, however, is, in the general sta-
tistical reports, counted as if it v/ere consumed by the native in-
habitants, thus making the per capita consumption somewhat
greater than the amount really consumed by the average inhabit-
ant of the land. But still after making reasonable allowances for
these factors there evidently remains a large margin of the in-
crease unaccounted for, an increase which speaks plainly of a
greater inebriety on the part of the Swedish people. Whether,
however, there is on this account any reason for condemning the
Gothenburg system vrill, I trust, become more evident after we
have considered Sweden's sister state, i^Torway.

I^ORWAY.

There are special reasons why Norway's liquor problem is at
this time both laore interesting and more significant than that
of Sweden. It is right in I^'orwlay, and just in these years, that
the Gothenburg system and the liquor problem of the ^orth is
really being tested. How and under what conditions, — that is
the problem we must seek to investigate.

Thompson — The Gothenburg Liquor System. 395

We sliall first ask, — what has been the trend of the consump-
tion of spirituous liquors for i^orway 'at large during the recent
period under our consideration ? From a special report of the
Statistical Central Bureau I derive the following table:

Year.

Total cousumption.

Per capita.

1892

6,438,000 litres

7 142,000 litres

3.2 litres

1S93

3 5 litrf^a

1894

7.628,000 litres

3.8 litres

1895

7,111,000 litres

3.5 litres

1S96

4 S27 OC-0 litres

2 3 litres

1897

4,637,000 litres

2.2 litres

1898

2.3 litres

The definite amount of the consumption for 1898 has not
jet been ascertained. The Central Bureau, however, estimates
it at 2.3 litres per capita.

For Norway at large then we have in the preceding table a
clear demonstration of a decrease of about .9 of a litre in the
per capita consumption since 1892. The reasons for this con-
dition will become apparent as we proceed. Here it may sufiice
tx) remark that the table refers only to spirituous liquors and
that sobriety has not been increasing everywhere alike. In
several of the larger cities we find a marked increase rather than
a decrease of drunkenness.

Bergen is a prosperous city of sixty-five thousand inhabitants.
It has so often been discussed by the various ^vriters on the
Gothenburg system that a knowledge of its recent conditions
will be of especial importance. Ever since 1877 samlags have
been in active operation among her people. As sho'wn by Dr.
Gould the sales of spirituous liquors decreased from 282,128
quarts in 1877 to 250,881 quarts in 1888, while it increased
again from the latter number to 331,342 quarts in 1891. A
general knowledge of the condition from 1891 to the present
time miay be obtained from the following table derived from the
latest rep)orts of the samlags in the city :

396 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences j Arts^ and Letters,

Year.

Total sales.

No. arrested
for

drunkenness.

1892
18&3
1894
1S95
1896
1897
1S98

834,123 litres
338,485 litres'
219,719 litres
301,951 litres
294,025 litres
351,059 litres

690

815

948

1,381

1^866

1,789

Here, then, as in Stockholm and Gothenburg, we find not in-
creasing sobriety but increasing inebriety, larger sales of spirit-
nous liquors, and larger numbers of arrests for drunkenness.

As to whether the above number of litres is a correct criterion
for the amount of spirituous liquors really consumed in Bergen,
it should be noted that statistics for separate cities give us in-
formation re2:ardinc: the sales bv the samla^s alone. While
it is true that in Bergen and in most of the other cities samlags
have had exclusive control over the retail and bar trade, whole-
sale merchants have, however, nearly ever^^vhere sold more or
less liquor directly to the consumers. This statement in regard
to wholesale merchants must, however, be taken with some
limitations. In the first place it is hardly true for Sweden at
all, for in that country the wholesale merchants have been bound
by law not to sell in quantities less than two hundred and forty
litres, an amount generally too large for individual purchase.
In the second place, the statement is true for Xorway only up to
the year 1896, when a new law went into force, which raised the
allovrable minimum purchase at wholesale from twenty litres
to the amount legitimized by the laws of Sweden. The
bearing of this change will be brought to our attention later.

Another city which deserves separate attention is Christiania,
the capital of Xorway. It has now a population of about two
hundred and ten thousand. Samlags have operated there since
1885. In 1886 they sold 282,843 litres of spirituous liquors,
in 1891 they sold 396,368 litres. A knowledge of the amount

Thompson — The Gothenburg Liquor System, 397

of their sales during the later years and of the condition of
drunkenness may be gained from the following table, derived
directly from the annual reports of tlie samlags of the city:

Year.

Sales in krowns.

Sales in litres.

Arrests for
drunkenness.

1892

1893

1,326,139.13
1,330,273.13
1,331,428.78
1,624.425.44
1,431,219.06
1,604,717.61
1,983,261.13

422,664.6

409.415.4

387 .091.3

461,301.9

368,653

396,117

483,465

11,496
12,876
12,611
13,526
19,249
21,521
19,582

1894

1895

1896

1897

1898

It is to be noted, however, that this table does not show the en-
tire amount of spirituous liquors consumed in Christiania even
as well as the preceding table does for Bergen. In addition to
the sales by samlags and the sale by w^holesale merchants
there has been in Christiania a considerable sale of spirituous
liquor in bottles by, on the average, twenty-nine private liquor
dealers. These private liquor dealers hold their right to the
trade as a result of earlier liquor legislation and, unless expro-
priated, will in all probability continue to exercise their rights
as long as they live.

To ascertain the exact amount of spirituous liquor consumed
in Christiania, it is evident that it would be necessary to add to
the sales by the samlags as given in the preceding table, not only
that part of the wholesale trade which is direct to consumers,
but also the sales of the retail liquor merchants of the city.
The extent of these additions cannot, however, be exactly de-
termined ; in the first place, because wholesale dealers have not
kept distinct records of those sales which before consumption
did not go through the hands of the samlags or of the private
liquor dealers; and, in the second place, because the private
liquor dealers, like so many other private establishments,
have kept no records of their sales at all, at least no attainable
records. No one can, therefore, tell how much is consumed in
Christiania. All we can attempt to do is to arrive at an ap-

398 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

proximate estimate. Such an estimiate, based on the fact that,
unlike the samlags, the private liquor dealers are pursuing
a business strictly for private gain and on the further fact that
the number of private retail saloons in the citv is gi-eater than
that of the samlags by one, it seems — and this is the opinion held
by Norwegian authorities such as Aarestad and Irgens, noted
and keen observers of the conditions as they find them in Chris-
tiania — that there is no exaggeration in saying that the private
dealers have for a considerable number of years supplied at
least one-half of the spirituous liquors consumed in Christiania.
For a somewhat reasonable estimate of the total consumption
in the capital city, then, we may simply go back to the preceding
table and multiply by two the figures found in the column under
"number of litres sold." From these facts we may also draw
the following inferences : first, that the samilags have not had a
very firm grip on Christiania ; and secondly, that it would be
grossly erroneous to attribute the city's increase in dninkenness
to them alone. We shall later see whether it is fair to attribute
it to them at all.

It is evident, as before intimated, that in dealing ^^4th the
consumption of liquors we should present an incomplete account
w^re we not to consider the sales of ale and wine which during
recent years have been increasing enormously. As in Sweden,
the sale of these beverages has been conducted not so much by
samlags as by private individuals. Aile and ^\^ne have not been
considered as dangerous intoxicants by Scandinavia, and in no
place, therefore, have they come under the absolute control of
samlags. The license for selling these beverages, too, which at
its highest cannot, according to law, exceed $107.20, is so small
that the business of the ale and wine traders has become exceed-
ingly lucrative. In Christiania we find not less than 282 of
these traders and in nearly every city they are becoming more
and more numerous. It is impossible for the samlags to com-
pete with them for ihey, unlike the samlags, are not bound by
strict rules and regulations. Out of this source arises a
difficulty which we shall consider later on.

From the preceding data it should now be evident that the
total amount of liquor consumed in ISTorway is made up of

Thompson — The Gothenburg Liquor System. 399

various factors: (1) the sale of spirituous liquors by the sam-
lags, (2) the sale of ale and wine by the samlags, (3) the sale of
liquors in bottles as found in Christiania, (4) the sale of ale and
wine by private merchants, (5) that portion of the wholesale
trade Av<hich is direct to consumers. As there are no means by
which to estimate definitely the exact force of the last three of
these factors, the Central Statistical Bureau of the kingdom has
based its estimate of the total amount of liquor consumed in the
whole realm upon the total home production, minus the quantity
exported, plus the quantity imported, minus the approximate
amoun.t used for industrial and scientific purpo&es. Thus it
estimates that for 1897 the per capita consumption of liquors
was as follows: spirituous liquors, 2.2 litres; ale, 17.8 litres;
wine, 2.66 litres. For separate cities, however, such a basis
of course could not be applied.

We have seen that Bergen and Christiania, the two leading
cities of Norway, both show an increase in drunkenness. In
thirteen other cities records show a similar sad condition. The
most important of these are : Kristiansand, Trondlijem, Holmes-
trand, Mandal, Boros, Lillesand, Molde, and Tromso. But the
condition is for the better in m,any cities. Records tell us that
in as large a number as thirty-six drunkenness is decreasing.
Among these more happy places may be mentioned : Fredriks-
hald, Drobak, Drammen, Brevik, Grimstad, ISTamsos, Hammer-
fest, Gjovikj and Floro.

There is thus a tendency towards sobriety in some cities while
there is a tendency towards greater inebrierty in others. That
being the case among the cities we ask, — what is the condition in
the country ? Our answer is not difficult, for in the country
districts of both Norway and Sweden prohibition has reigned
nearly everywhere for a considerable length of time. In iNTor-
way there is in the country but one saloon for every 12,800
inhabitants; in Sweden there is only one to every 30,839 in-
habitants. iSuch conditions are unparalleled the whole world
over. It may be noted, too, that this happy state of affairs is
not due to any special prohibitory law. The fact is that the
country people of Scandinavia, taken as a whole, do not want
saloons. Like the cities they could have samlags or they could

400 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ ArtSj and Letters.

have licenses granted to private individuals, but, except in a few
instances, thev hold aloof from both. There are two hundred
and eighty-one districts out of four hundred and seventy-eight
in which there is no liquor traffic whatever. In four hundred
and thirty-five out of four hundred and seventy-eight, drunken-
ness has been markedly decreasing within the last years; in
thirty, observations seem to indicate no change; while drunken-
ness seems to be increasing in only ten.

Having now surveyed, in a general way, the liquor traffic both
in the country and in the cities, necessarily in a cursory manner,
however, we pass to a consideration of a few particular phases
of the problem which are especially interesting and significant
as being products of recent developments.

The first, though perhaps not the most interesting of these
phases is the so-called "Ladde traffic." This has aroused con-
siderable excitement and has been the source of much trouble.
The ^^Ladde traffic" is the importation and sale of a cheap kind
of wine. It has been largely imported from France and Ger-
many. As to its nature I find among m.y various reports the
following description: "It is sweet and delicious but made of
poor material and has none of the genuine characteristics of
good wine." The fact remains, however, that this wine has
won much popularity with the Norwegian people, both on ac-
count of its cheapness and its taste. While a bottle of brandy
containing thirty-six per cent, alcohol costs 1.20 kr., a bottle of
the same size filled with "Ladde vin" that contains twenty-one
per cent, alcohol costs only .40 to .50 kr. (40 to 50 ore). That it
can be sold at so low a price is due to the fact that, being desig-
nated as wine, there is in the first place only a very small tariff
on its importation, and in the second place, practically no license
for its sale. It may be and is sold by nearly every local mer-
chant— thus it is made easily accessible. That this is a detri-
ment to a struggling movement towards sobriety is evident. Of
what account is it to bind samlags or any other organizations by
strict rules if private individuals are left free or are given extra-
ordinary privileges for working towards results directly con-
trary to such rules ? The importation and consumption of wine
has greatly increased. To show the extent as well as the recency

Thompson — The Gotheiiburg Liquor System, 401

of this ^^Laclde" development I have ]3rociired a table which goes
a little farther back than the period covered bj this paper ;

Tear. Amount imported.

1881-^5 1,672,500 litres.

188&-90 1,727,900 litres.

liS91-94 2,320,300 litres.

1S95 2,967,300 litres.

1896 4,943,500 litres.

1897 5,606,600 litres.

1898 About same as for 1897.

The "Ladde" problem is thus a problem which has come up
within very recent times for ^^Ladde'^ is the sole cause of the
enormous rise in the quantity of wine importation, a rise of two
and one-half million litres since 1895, as sho\\Ti by the above
table. How to meet this traffic is a burning question in the
liquor problem of N'orway to-day. ISTeither it nor the ale traffic
can continue in their present condition. More restrictive meas-
ures must be placed on both. Both, as we shall hope to show,
should be placed under regulations similar to the regulations
governing the traffic in brandy.

The second new phase which we m,ust consider is the inter-
esting movement arising from a new law drafted in 1594. An
article of that law provides that, from that time on, a general
ballot, to which all resident men and women over twenty-five
years of age are alike eligible, shall determine whether or not
samlags shall continue in the respective municipalities; the re-
sult of balloting, as determined by a majority of votes shall be
binding for five years, w^hen again a new ballot may be taken.
This provision, touching as it did the very heart of the Gothen-
burg System, aroused interest and excitement everywhere.
Shall the wise systeml survive ? An abundance of advocates was
found on both sides. The samlags tried every possible means
to maintain public opinon in their favor. The teetotalers and
the temperance societies generally were strongly aroused, — to
them the coming election was to bring their desired victory for
prohibition. The first election was held in 1895. It was
mjarked by great excitement wherever it took place. In an in-
teresting treatise I find quotations from various !N^orwegian
26

402 Wisconsin Academy of ScienceSj Arts, and Letters,

newspapers. Speaking of the commotion in Risor, one of the
cities where samlags had operated for a long time, the well
known ^NTorwegian paper, ^Tadrelandsvennen," says : "The week
just passed has been an exciting one for Risor, a week of strife
and battles. Agitation for and against the brandy samlags has
been conducted with all possible vigor and vehemence; hardly
any grown, person has remained entirely unaffected by it."
And here is another ^vritten shortly before election time. It
is reported in the form of a telegram from the city of Tonsberg.
"The samlag agitation is growing more and miore intense as the
time for balloting approaches. The papers are full of condeon-
nations and exaltations of the present liquor system; fly-leaves
by the thousands are being scattered daily by both parties.
"Never has there been a political campaign that has brought so
much strife or so much excitement.'^ Other quotations might
be cited, but these will suffice to indicate the general heat of the
contest.

Strange as it is the records of the ballots of 1895 show a ma-
jority not in favor of but against the samlags. There were
thirteen cities in which balloting took place, and of these there
were eleven in which the prohibition element won the day. As
the record of the votes is very important in showing the trend
of public opinion, I have procured tables from the Statistical
Central Bureau which show the exact condition. These tables
are made complete and absolutely correct.

Thompson — The Gothenburg Liquor System. 403

Balloting of 1895.

Cities.

Result.

No. of
voters.

No. for

samlags.

No.

against.

Gjovik

To discontinue from Jan. 1, 1896

To discontinue from Jan. 1, 1896

To discontinue from Jan. 1, 1896

To discontinue from Jan. 1, 1896

To discontinue from Jan. 1, 1896

To discontinue from Jan. 1, 1896

To discontinue from Jan. 1, 1898

To discontinue from Jan. 1, 1896

To discontinue from Jan. 1, 1896

To discontinue from Jan. 1, 1896

To discontinue from Jan. 1, 1896

To continue

To continue

800

210

3,654

1,088

4,249

1,616

2,073

1,476

4,359

838

965

1,814

649

328
69

1,685
522

1,696
549
787
602

1,137
322
234

1,217
534

472

Aasgardstrand —
TOnsberer

141

1,989

Brevik

566

Skieu

2,553

Risor

1,067

Arendal

1,286

Grimstad

Aalesund

874
3,222

Molde

516

Namsos

731

Bodo

597

Vadso

115

Tot., 13 samL

igs 11 to discontinue, 2 to continue

23,791

9,682

14, 109

From this table we see that of the total number of votes cast
61.5 per cent, were against the samlags while only 38.5 per cent,
were in their favor. This result may seem like a passionate re-
action but it was not. It was the expression of a wholesome
temperance spirit which had long been gaining strength in ISTor-
way and which was now given freedom of action.

Having voted down the samlags the problem interesting to
all was : Will prohibition improve matters ? Before consid-
ering this, however, and as preliminary to this consideration
we shall do well to study the election records for the later years.

404 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Balloting in 1S96.

Cities.

Drobak

Kongsvinger.

Lillesand

Farsund

Sogndal

Stavanger ...

Bergen

Levaoger . ...
Mosjoen

Result.

To continue

To continue ...
To discontinue
To discontinue
To discontinue
To discontinue

To continue

To discontinue
To continue

Total, 9 samlags 4 to continue, 5 to discontinue.

No. of

voters.

No. for
samlags.

I,f9l

757

693

539

720

2.50

857

377

213

98

11,756

4,234

28, 762

14, 593

570

275

619

317

45,197

21.4.37

No.

against.

337

67

470

480

115

7.522

14, 172

295

302

5,760

The result for this year is therefore not quite as unfavorable
to the samlags, the percentage of votes for and against their con-
tinuance standing in the ratio of 474 : 526. May not this be
taken as an indication of at least a slight dissatisfaction with
the effects produced by the discontinuance of the eleven sam-
lags in the previous year ? But passing to the year 1897 let
us see in what direction public opinion is tending.

Balloting in 1S97,

Cities.

Fredrikshald

Sarpsborg

Hamar ,

Kongeberg

Drammen

Holmestraud

Horten

Larvik

Porsgrund ...
Kristiansund
Tromso ,

Result.

To continue

To discontinue
To continue . ,

To continue

To continue

To continue

To continue

To continue ...
To discontinue.
To discontinue
To continue . . .

Total, 11 samlags 8 to continue, 3 to discontinue.

No. of
voters.

No. for
samlags.

5,482

3, 165

2,052

938

2,115

1,516

2,456

1,635

9,4.57

6,493

1,038

726

3,583

1,916

4,857

2,487

2,138

943

5,914

2,595

2,842
41,984

1.852

24,266

No.
against.

2,317
1,114

599

821
2,954

362
1,667
2,370
1,195
3,319

990

17,718

Thompson — The Gothenburg Liquor System. 405

Tlie sentiment against the samlags is evidently growing
weaker. This year the percentages for and against their con-
tinnance stand in the ratio of 58 : 42.

The result in the year 1898 as shovsii by the following table
is not much different :

Cities.

Result.

No, of
voters.

No. for

samlags.

No.

against.

Fredrikstad .. .

Moss

Lillehammer ...

Honef OS

Svelviken

Sandef jord

Kragero

Kristiansand ..
Flekkefjord ....

Egersund

Trondhjem

Hammerfesf ...
Total, 12 samlags

To discontinue

To continue

To continue

To continue

To continue

To discontinue

To discontinue

To continue

To discontinue

To continue

To con ti nue

To continue

S to continue, 4 to discontinue.

6,153

2,677

3,582

1,997

1,272

774

806

484

609

as7

2,265

938

2,57S

662

6,396

3,325

1,040

313

1,476

829

16,829

12,812

977

677

43,9S3

25,855

3,476

1,585

498

342

222

1,327

1,916

3,071

727

647

4,017

300

18,128

Again reckoned in percentages the nnmber of votes for and
against the samlags here stands in the ratio of 588 : 412. The
percentage of votes against the samlags is thus found to be
smaller in 1898 than in any of the preceding years when ballots
were taken.

JSTow taking all years together w^e find that out of forty-five
cities, twenty-three have done away with the samlags, have, in
other words, abolished the Gothenburg system and substituted
in its place prohibition. Our next problem, therefore, wdll be
nothing less interesting than a comparison of prohibition as it
has operated in these cities during later years, with the Gothen-
burg system as it operated in the same cities previously, and as
it is operating in other cities during the years prohibition has
been in vogue.

Has prohibition proved to be a gi'eater factor in the decrease
of drunkenness than the Gothenburg system ? The solution of
this problem offers the best of criteria for judging the relative
nxerits of the two systems. Of course, it is evident that in this

406 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

solution TVe must deal mtli tlie two systems not as they might
be pictured in ideal theories but as they practically exist, — as
they are and have been operating in Norway now and during
recent vears.

Since in prohibition towns a knowledge of the amount of
liquor disposed of, or consumed, is not attainable through any
statistical records, we must proceed in the rather indirect way
of judging the exten\; of inebriety by the number of arrests for
drunkenness, a record of which is obtainable through the sta-
tistical reports of the nation. Taking this as our basis then,
let us first ask whether there has been a greater or smaller num;-
ber of such arrests since the discontinuance of samla^^s in the
respective cities where balloting has taken place. In regard to
the cities where as a result of the election of 1895 samlags were
discontinued from January 1, 1896, the following table will an-
swer our inquiry by showing the number of persons reported
as arrested for drunkenness :

Number of arrests for dimnkenness.

Cities.

Namsos

Molde

Aalesund

Grimstad

A.rendal

Risor

Brevlk

Tonsberg

Aasgaardstrand

Gjovik

Total

Popula-
tion.

1892.

1893.

1894.

1895.

1896.

1897.

1,840

7

8

13

37

18

1,629

47

24

42

26

49

8,406

147

184

224

176

204

3,173

87

74

62

75

83

4,578

S13

291

239

296

350

3,148

50

54

51

55

69

2,073

52

90

87

^

38

7,215

425

492

503

497

483

398

6

6

9

1,416

1,128

154

132

122

128

33,876

1,371

1,359

1,378

1,431

33

54

214

131

260

58

33

633

23

321

1,760

From this table alone we must infer that drunkenness has not
been decreasing but rather increasing in these cities since the
discontinuance of the samlags. That being our inference, we
ag-ain ask: What are the records in regard to the number of
similar arrests for the same time in cities where samlags con-

Thompson — The Gothenburg Liquor System. ' 407

tinned in operation ? The follomng table of ten snch cities
that are approximjatelj of the same population as the above will
afford material for the necessary comparison :

Number of arrests for drunkenness.

C ties.

Stenkjaer

Tvedestrand

Ekersund

Ilolmestrand ...
Lillehammer ....

Konsvinger

Kristiansund ...

Stathelle

Ilonefos

Ilorten

Total

Popula-
tion.

1892.

1893.

1894.

1895.

1896.

1897.

1,893

37

19

31

25

74

1,759

48

35

29

32

29

2.960

70

99

121

80

102

2,3.56

53

71

94

57

62

1,832

251

199

210

127

117

1,310

58

28

72

29

37

12,813

412

919

497

526

755

373

1

1

4

4

2

1,494

76

159

158

210

276

6,813
33,603

130

150

190

161

209

1,146

1,680

1,406

1,251

1,663

58

41
130
108
140

59
909

10

225

319

1,999

These cities where samlags have continued to operate thus
show an increase in the number of cases of drunkenness since
1895, approximately the same as the increase in the preceding
cities where samlags have been discontinued.

Before inquiring into the causes of this increase, especially
of this paradoxical increase in the cities that have adopted pro-
hibition, let us also consider whether arrests have taken the
same direction in the cities where samlags were discontinued
from the first of January, 1897.

Number of arrests for drunkenness.

Cities.

Popula-
tion.

1892.

1893.

1894.

1895.

1896.

1897.

Stavanger
Sogndal .
Farsund .
Lillesund
Levanger
Total ..

23,899

630

515

535

581

786

470

3

1

3

4

1

1,648

12

7

12

14

10

1,508

7

37

41

40

23

902

25

31

36

25

35

28,427

677

591

627

664

855

885

0

2

50

41

978

408 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences j Arts, and Letters.

The same tendency is evident here. That there shor.ld be an
increase in drunkenness in cities still possessing samlags might
not seem unnatural, but that the cities that did away with sam-
lags and began a regime of prohibition should show such a
marked increase seems indeed surprising. How can it be ac-
counted for ? Xone of these cities have had legalized sales of
spirituous drinks by private individuals. They have only had
legitimate dealers in the milder drinks. An explanation of the
increasing drunkenness, therefore, resolves itself into a discus-
sion of the following three possibilities. Has drunkenness been
due (1) to smuggling in the stronger drinks, (2) to a purchase
of drinks from the neighboring samlags, or (3) to an increased
traffic in the milder drinks ?

In regard to the first possibility the following tables, de-
signed to show the number of cases of arrests for illegitimate
liquor selling during each of the more recent years will answer.

In the cities where samlags were discontinued from Janu-
ary 1, 1896:

Number of arrests.

Cities.

1892.

1893.

1894.

1895.

1896.

1897.

Namsos

2
0
3
0

1
0
5

ft

id

0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0

0
0
2
1
0
1
3
3
0
0

0
0
1
0
1
0
3
2
0
0

2
0

1
0

1
1
0

1

0
0

0

Molde

0

Aalesuud

1

Grimstad

Arendal

RistJr

0
0

4

Brevik

0

TOnsberif

1

Aasgaardstrand

Ojovil£

0
0

Total

13

7

10

7

6

5

Thompson — The Gothenburg Liquor System. 409

In the cities wliero samlags were discontinued from Janu-
ary 1, 1897 :

Number of arrests.

Cities.

1892.

1893.

1>94.

1S95.

1S96.

1897.

Stavanger

1
1
1
0
0
3

2
1
0
0
0
3

3

1
1
0
0

4
1
1

0
0

3

1
1
0
0

3

Sogndal

0

Farsund

Lillesund

0

0

Levanger

0

Total

5

G

'

3

As seen from these tables the city of Eisur forms the only
exception to the otherwise universal tendency that the number
of arrests for illegitimate sales has not increased but, if changed
at all, has decreased.

JSTevertheless, before dismissing from our discussion the as-
sumed possibility that the increase of drunkenness may be due
to illegal traffic in brandy there are two reasonable inquiries
which must be answered. First, how far is the number of ar-
rests for the illicit sale of liquor a true criterion for the extent
to which it is carried on ? Secondly, has there since the dis-
continuance of the samlags been any change in the stringency
of the laws against such crimes or in the yigilance of the police
in enforcing the laws ?

In regard to the first inquiry it may be said that Xorway, un-
like the United States, has been very successful in suppressing
illegal liquor selling. Besides the pressure of public opinion
and the weight of ciyil and moral obligation, there are two rea-
sons why the police of Xorway are especially active in arresting
the illicit liquor dealer and the drunkard. The first of these
is the fact that the police officer who arrests any offender against
the liquor law receives one-half of the fines imposed if the per-
son whom he arrests is found guilty. The second is the fur-
ther fact that if the police does willingly, carelessly, or fraud-
ulently allow any offender against the liquor law to escape be-
ing arrested, the police officer himself becomes liable for one-
half of the fines which would have been imposed upon the of-

410 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

fender. These two factors, — the first encouraging the police
vdih an incentive towards financial gain, the second confronting
him with the fear that if he shirks his duty or enters into fraud-
ulent agreements with saloon-keepers he will himself be visited
with punishment, — create (1) a competition among the police^
and (2) a scrupulous attention to duty. Under these condi-
tions it is hardly possible that the illicit dealer or any other of-
fender against the liquor law can tbCape his doom. The num-
ber of arrests as shown in preceding tables must therefore be a
tolerably true criterion of the amount of illegal traffic in liquor
actually existing.

Our second inquiry now needs but little discussion. Mr.
Aiarestad, who is undoubtedly the highest authority on the liquor
problem of Xorway and who has thoroughly investigated the
material relevant to a consideration of this inquiry, says in his
reports, — and ^\4th him the police themselves of the various
cities agree, — that, in general, the conditions under which ar-
rests for breaches of the liquor law have taken place have re-
mained practically unaltered during the last few years. In
speaking of the arrests for illicit liquor selling, he says: "There
is no reason for believing that the police have not been just as
ingenious and careful in arresting illicit dealers since the dis-
continuance of the samlags as they were before."

It being established then that even in the cities where sam-
laiTS have been discontinued drunkenness continues, and that
the cause of this drunkenness cannot be attributed to illegiti-
mate liquor selling, we next have to inquire whether these
cities patronize neighboring samlags. It does of course seem
natural that just as soon as samlags were discontinued in a city
some of the inhabitants of that city, especially those who voted
for a continuance of the samlags, would buy spirituous drinks
from the samlags still operating in neighboring cities. The
only way by which we can find out whether this is w^hat has
actually happened, is to ascertain whether or not the records
of the neighboring samlags show much greater sales after the
discontinuance of samlags in other places than before such dis-
continuance. The following tables are designed to give the
necessary information by showing the last year's sales by the

Tliompson — The Gothenburg Liquor System. 411

samlags discontinued from January 1, 1896, and the sales by
the neighboring samlags for two years following and for three
years preceding;

Samlags discontinued.

GjSvik

Aasgaardstrand

Tcnsberg

Riser

Arendal

Grimstad

Brevik

Aaslesnnd

Molde

Namsos

Total

Sales of same in 1895.

40,000 litres

8,962 litres

81, HO litres ]

20,722 litres

64,041 litres

27,993 litres

13,000 litres ]

30,647 litres

19,064 litres

25,690 litres \

331,259 litres

Neighboring samlags.

Lillehammer.

Hamar.

Holmestrand.

Horten.

Sandefjord.

KragerS.

Tvedestrand.

Kristiansund.

Porsgrund.

Langesund.

Bergen.

Kristiansund.

Trondhjem.

Stenkjar.

Sales of the neighboring samlags.

Number of litres.

1893.

1894.

1895.

1896.

1897.

Lillehammer

Hamar

Holmestrand

Horten

Sandefjord .

Kragero

Tvedestrand
Kristiansund
Porsgrund ..
Langesund .

Bergen

Kristiansund

Trondhjem .

Jatenkjaer ...

Total

64,105
68,215
30,7^0

40,412

38,316
44,372
IS, 661

160.649

32,202

8,596

338, 4S5
66,600

365,829
24,174

1,311,376

52,725
61,772
30,336
37,013
37,549
42,3S1
17,873
136,371
32,258
6,871
319,719
59,125
316,561
23,286

1,173,840

45,379

54,964

27,257

37,767

34,261

36,884

16,678

130,529

29,209

6,486

301,951

57,420

285,894

21,376

55,367
72,248
25,623

42,668

32,790
32,747
20,361

125,018

28,936

5,067

294,025
81,112

322,892
23,101

1,086,055

1,161,955

63,623
86,913
27,438
44,948
34,108
36,767
21,830

116,236

35,338

4,988

351,059
86,978

379,586

30,559

1,320,371

412 ^Y^scons^n Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

From the beginning of 1806 to the close of 1897 there was a
rise of 234,316 litres in the amount of sales bj samlags whose
traffic we should expect to be affected bj the discontinuance of
the samlags voted do^^m in 1895. We must not at once, how-
ever, infer that this rise is due entirely to the patronage of
neighboring cities. Another factor, before mentioned, must be
taken into consideration here, the fact, namelv, that by the new
law that went into effect January 1, 1896, the wholesale traffic
was materiallv altered. Previouslv, as we saw, the wholesale
merchants were free to sell in as small quantities as twenty
litres. Xow by the new law they were limited to sell in quanti-
ties not less than two hundred and fortv litres and were besides
obliged to pay a license of at least one thousand krowns. As this
change practically did away with all direct trade between con-
sumer and wholesaleT, which (previous to the new law) had been
quite appreciable, we must attribute the rise in the sales of the
neighboring, samlags, as shown in the preceding table, to the
transfer from the wholesale merchants to the samlags of approx-
imately that amount of liquor which before 1896 consiuners had
purchased directly from the former. There seems, therefore, to
be no reason for believing that the cities where the Gothenburg
system has been discontinued have, to any noticeable extent,
patronized the samlags of neighboring cities.

To further substantiate this conclusion I present another
table showins; the rise in sales bv samlasrs so located that by their
very position it would be absurd to believe that they had gained
anything by the discontinuance of any of the samlags abolished
by the vote of 1895.

Amount of Hales in litres.

Cities.

1893.

1894.

1895.

1896.

1897.

Bodo

Tromso

nammerfest

Vadso

Vardo

Total

33,072

25,919

28,189

33,095

50.460

46,126

39,672

61,014

26,640

26,175

23,600

32,573

18,369

23,792

17,355

26,069

IS, 785
147,326

22,190

17,713
126,529

33,365
186,116

144,202

36,810
60,376
31,349
20,55S
20,845
169,933

Thompson — The Gothenburg Liquor System. 413

Thus, we see that these cities around which no samlags have
been voted down have also had considerably larger sales in the
years following 1895 than they had before. Comparing the
total increase of sales at the samlags of these two different
classes of cities we obtain the following significant data:

Total sales.

1895.

1897.

Percent-
age of in-
crease
from
1 9J-li97.

By adjacent samlasrs

1,0S6,055
126, 529

1,320,371
169,933

.2157

By distant samlags

.343

We here have a direct proof that the sales have increased
more at the samlags that are far away from the cities where
samlags have been discontinued than at the samlags that are
near such cities. As no special conditions exist that would in-
crease the sales at one place more than at another, it seems to
me that we cannot avoid the conclusion that cities that have dis-
continued their own samlags have not, at least not to any large
extent, patronized neighboring samlags.

Having now shown that the continued drunkenness in the pro-
hibition to^\TLS is due neither to illegitimate sales of spirituous
liquors nor, to any large extent, to the purchase of these liquors
from neighboring samlags, we have only one of the three
assumed possibilities left. Is the continued drunkenness due
to an extraordinary sale of ale and wine ? Yes, this is the only
conclusion to Avhich an impartial study of the question can lead.
As the samlags never possessed exclusive control over other than
the spirituous liquors, it is evident that their discontinuance
would not stop the selling of ale and wine. E'aturally we
should expect a greater sale of these milder beverages. When
•one avenue is closed the other becomes doubly crowded. When
the samlags, and with them the sale of spirituous liquors, were
done away with, ale and wine, especially ^'Ladde vin," took their
places. We need not here consider the injurious hygienic
effects of ale and wine as compared with spirituous liquors.
By the tables of arrests it is only too evident that they must have

414 ^Yisconsi}l Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

been laviskly consumed. At present ale and wine are sold by
almost every local merchant. A license wliicli according to law
cannot exceed $107.20 and which is nearly always much lower
is entirely too small to put any reasonable limit to the number
of ale and wine houses. Drinking is thus made very easy, and
consequently is very largely indulged in. It is, however, not only
in the cities that have abolished samlags that this kind of drink-
ing has increased. It has found its way into samlag and pro-
hibition to^\ms alike. Ale and wine have become more and more
fashionable in later years. Vast breweries have been erected
and more are in the process of erection every year. More and
more wine, too, is being imported. I>rorway to-day need fear
not so much the brandy as the milder drinks. While the retail
and bar trade of the former in cities licensed for its sale is under
the absolute control of samlags (Christiania and Skien ex-
cepted) and it is sold only under strict regulations, the trade in
the latter, which is conducted by private individuals who pursue
the business for private gain, is practically free from ail re-
strictions.

That this laxity with res^ard to the sale of these milder
beverages is an evil which ought to be remedied is unquestion-
able, but the problem how" to remedy it is more difficult than is
apparent. It might seem that it would bfe an easy matter for
Xorway to allow the samlac^s to assume exclusive control over
the sales of all kinds of liquor, and, indeed, it may seem strange
that she, face to face with the danger of being flooded by these
beverages, has not made provisions to that effect already; but
here, as generally in all matters of reform, there are obstacles in
the way. Unfortunately, as a result of earlier liquor legislation
there still survive several hundred licensed merchants who,
according to the law of contract, hold unassailable rights to trade
in ale and wine as long as they live. As long as these private
saloons continue the traffic, there is little hope for improvement.
The samlags being governed by strict rules, are from the very
nature of their organization unable to compete with other es-
tablishments whose sales are bound by no regulations other than
those desirable from the point of view of private gain. If the
samlags have not exclusive control, then, as far as the fostering
of sobriety is concerned, they might almost as well have no con-

Thompson — The Gothenburg Liquor^ System. 415

trol at all. The step preliminary to granting samlags exclusive
control in the sale of ale and wine is therefore to dispose, in
some way, of the rights now held by the privileged merchants.
And rather than await the course of nature to do away with
these, a process which would still take from .three to seven
decades, the ISTorwegian people, through a special committee
appointed by parliament to consider plans for reforming the
liquor law, are now ready to advocate that these vested rights
be abrogated by means of expropriation. It is hoped that for
a reasonable sum the merchants will relinquish their rights. If
this is done and all rights are transferred to samlags then there
is every reason to believe that the sales of ale and wine will, like
the sales of brandy, be greatly diminished. To achieve this ex-
propriation is therefore the next and necessary step in the
further development of the temperance movement in ISTorway.

There is therefore no criticism to offer against the Gothen-
burg system other than that it has now reached a point in its
history where operating according to its past principles alone it
is no longer adequate to foster to a higher degree the sobriety
of the Scandinavian people. The necessary change, however,
will not be a change in the fibre of the system. The new system
of absolute control of all intoxicants by samlags will simply be
the Gothenburg system completely realized.

The realization of this absolute control by samlags must not,
however, mean that the samlags shall necessarily sell all sorts
of liquors. It would indeed be the height of inexpediency and
directly inconsistent with the aim of the system were it to pro-
pose a resumption of the brandy traffic in cities where that
traffic can be prohibited. Total prohibition must be recognized
as the goal of all ideal liquor legislation. The samlags should
sell only those beverages which the public opinion of the com-
munity may sanction, and which if not sold by samlags would
fall under the control of private greed for gain. Absolute con-
trol and the smallest possible sales, — such is the new Gothen-
burg system demanded by the present stage in the evolution of
the Scandinavian liquor problem.

The purpose of the Gothenburg system is to do away (1) with
the evil influences of the individual greed for gain, (2) with the
reckless impoverishment of the poor through drinking on credit

416 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

or pa^vn tickets, (3) with the injury arising from the sale of li-
quor to young people, (4) with the violation of restrictive regu-
lations of the law in regard to hours of sale, to the quantities al-
lowed to be sold, and to the entire management of the business^
(5) with a competition which lowers the prices, (6) with the use
of an unnecessarily large number of licenses, and finally (7)
with the evil influence of the saloon as an element in political
life. When the system has been extended to the sale of all al-
coholic bevera2:es, it will, bv virtue of its manv excellences, ex-
ert a blessed influence upon the future.

In order that the results at which we have arrived may not
be deemed inharmonious with the opinion of authorities who
have studied the Gothenburg system not from a distance, as we
have been obliged to do, but who have studied it in the very
theatre where the drama has been played, I shall, in conclusion,
present a few quotations to indicate that at least a few promi-
nent Scandinavian authorities agree with my conclusion. Says
Sven Alarestad, to whom we have already referred as a leading
authority: 'The same reasons which have made it desirable
that the traffic in brandy should be controlled absolutely by
samlags make it also desirable that ale and wine should be thus
controlled. Especially is absolute control by samlags desired
in the traffic in the cheap and highly intoxicating wines which
have become so common during later years. These wines seem
indeed to be even mjove intoxicating than brand}^ But it is also
desirable that samlags should be granted absolute control of the
sales of ale. It is evident that the brewers are more and more
gaining control of those channels through which ale may reach
the people. All liquor traffic should be controlled by samlags.'^
Says Siegfrid AVieselgren, the president of the Swedish Tem-
perance Society: "Under the present state of things it seems
to me it would be a very wise measure to extend the application
of the system by bringing under its control also the sale of the
milder liquors." Says H. E. Berner, the noted temperance ad-
vocate and mayor of Christiania : 'There can be no doubt that
by granting absolute control of the sales of all liquors to samlags
we should see a material decrease in the amount of drunken-
ness, and a new and great triumph for temperance work.''

Thompson — The Gothenburg Liquor System. 417

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Scandinavian Sources:

Sveriges officiela Sta.tistik, V Branvins Tilverkning och

Forsaljnmg, etc., 1896-97.
Stockholms Utskanknings Bolags Berattelser, 1892-98.
Goteborgs Utskanknings Bolags Berattelser, 1892-98.
Meddelelser fra clet Statiske Centralbureau, 1893-98.
Aarsberetninger fra Bergens Brandpvins Samlag, 1892-98.
Aarsberetninger fra Christiania Brandevins Samlag, 1892-

98.
Vedtagter for Bergens Samlag, 1897.
Tabeller vedkommende J^orges Kriminalstatistik ndgiven

af det Statistiske Centralbiirean, 1893-97.
Sarskilt Indstilling af gaardbruger Sven Aarestad.
Oplysninger vedkommende Adrnelighedsforholdene i

ITorge ( Separataf tr jk of Meddelelser fra det Statis-
tiske Centralbureau, 1898).
Lov om Brandevins Salg og Udskjankning of 24de Juli,

1894.
Von den Wirkungen des Gotbenburger Systems, Siegfrid

Wieselgren, Sweden.
■Samlags-Ordningen og Dens Betydning for Adrneligheds-

Arbeidet i Vort Land og Sarlig i Cbristiania, Per

Rygh.
The Gothenburg System, Its Origin, Objects and Effects.

Wieselgren.
'More About the Gothenburg System, Wieselgren.
La Lutte contre L'alcoolisme en Suede, Wieselgren.
Resultats du Systeme de Gothenburg, Wieselgren.
N on- Scandinavian Sources :

Alcohol and The State, R. C. Pitman, 1878.

Fifth Special Beport of the U. S. Commissioner of Labor

by Dr. E. K L. Gould, 1893.
The Liquor Problem in Its Legislative Aspects, F. H.

Wines and John Koren, 1897.
Forum, 14 : 514 ; 17 : 103 ; 5 : 281.
Spectator, 69:918; 70:277; 73:40.
Fortnightly Review, 63 : 165 ; 59 : 73.
26

418 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

^ew i^nglancl Magazine, n. s., 11 : 785.
The I^ational Review, 24: 726.
Macmillan's Magazine, 38:467; 28: 522.
International Review, 8 : 402.
Catholic World, 58 : 431 ; 59 : 224.
Jour. Statis. Soc, 56:316.
Review of Reviews, 8 : 548.
Econ. Jonr., 4: 209.
Lend a Hand, 10:244.
Charities Review, 3:282; 6 : 72.
Atlantic Monthlv, 72 : 538.
Contemp. Review, 65 : 836.
Arena, 9 : 561.
Chant., 24:: US.

:N'orth Am. Review, 147: 638; 144: 498.
The :i^ation, 46 : 25 ; 49 : 470.
Madison, Wis,

SOME PSEUDO HISTORIES OF THE AMERICAN:

REVOLUTION.

OEIX GRANT LIBBY, PH. D.
Instructor in History, University of Wisconsin.

Wm. Gordon's History of the American Revolution (London,
1788), has just been proved to be a complete plagiarism.^ In
spite of its long established reputation and the praise of well
knoA\Ti critics, there can be no doubt of the spurious nature of
Gordon's claims to be either an accurate or a truthful writer.
But his history was by no means the only plagiai'ism of the
material in the English Annual Register, l^o less than six
distinct histories of the Revolution, four of them anonymous,
appeared and passed current in the decade preceding the ap-
pearance of Gordon's well kno^^Ti w^rk. The first in order is
Russell's History of America.^ This work borrows from the
Aimual Register in part of its account of the French and Indian
War, especially in the attack upon Quebec. The appendix is
miostly a well adapted plagiarism from the Annual Register,
beginning with a complete theft of the account of Pontiac's
War. The account of the Revolutionary War ends with Feb.
6, 1778, and is an irregular copy of the Annual Register, skil-
fully put together, however, and shows on Russell's part a good
appreciation of the strong points in the original. A few
parallel readings will reveal the nature of the plagiarism.^

^^The fortunate termination of this war which not only re-
stored tranquility to our American empire but seemed to es-

1 Publications American Historical Association, I., 365-388.

'Wm. Russel, Esq., Gray's Inn: The Histoi'y of America from its Discovery
by Columbus to the conclusion of ihe late war, with an Appendix' containing
an account of the Rise and Progress of the Present Unhappy Contest betweeu
Great Britain and Her Colonies. 2 Vols. London. 1778.

•Annual Register, 1765, pp. 50 and 55, 1774, p. 46; Russell, II., 431 and 433; Rus-
sell, II., 467.

27

420 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

tablish it on a more solid foundation than formerly, revived in
the minds of the colonists the idea of inde]3endencj : and which
miight otherwise have remained for years in contemplation ; and
at length perhaps have proved no miore than an amnsing
theory." ^ ' '

From this initial sentence these three histories to which
reference is made in the note run exactly parallel with hardly
the variation of a word through pages 425-57, 45-102 and 3-69
respectively, in the order named. From this point the second
and third part company with Russell to pursue each a separate
development.

We mav next consider a fourth historv of the Revolution*
and trace its connection with the others. This historv is
■divided into two parts of which part first has three chapters. *

The first chapter deals mth the discovery of America,

1 Russell's History of America, II., 425.

2 An Impartial History of the War in America between Great Britain and
Her Colonies from its Commencement to the end of the year 1779, exhibiting
a circumstantial, connected and complete account of the real Causes, Rise and
Progress of the War, interspersed with Anecdotes and Characters of the dif-
ferent Commanders and Accounts of such Personages in Congress as have dis-
tinguished themselves during the contest. With an appendix containing a Col-
lection of Interesting and Authentic Papers tending to elucidate the History.
Illustrated with a variety of beautiful Copper Plates, representing real and ani-
mated Likenesses of those celebrated Generals who have distinguished them-
selves in the important contest. London, 1780. Printed for R. Fauldner, New
Bond Street.

Page 45, ch. 1. The History of the Origin, Rise and Progress of the Civil War
in America.

3 The History of the Origin, Rise and Progress of the War in America between
Great Britain and Her Colonies, from its Commencement in the Year 1764 to
the time of General Gage's Arrival at Boston in 1774. London, Printed.

Boston, in the State of Massachusetts. Reprinted by Thomas and John Fleet
at the Bible and Heart in Cornhill. 1780.

Page 3, ch. I. The History of the Origin, Rise and Progress of the War in
America.

*The History of the War in America between Great Britain and Her Colonies
from its commencement to the end of the Year 1778. In which its Origin,
Progress and Operations are faithfully related, together with Anecdotes and
Characters of the different Commanders and Accounts of such Personages in
Congress as have distinguished themselves during the Contest. To which is
added a Collection of Interesting and Authentic Papers tending to elucidate
the History. In two volumes. Dublin. Printed for the Company of Book-
sellers. 1779.

Part I. A General History of America from its first discovery to the Com-
mencement of the present Civil War.

Lihhy — Pseudo-Histories of the American Revolution. 421

Spanish conquest in Mexico and Peru and gives also a general
account of the JSTerw World, including a description of the
Indians. Chapter second gives an account of North America
and the West Indies and the last chapter discusses the British
colonies. This part of the work contains a large map illustra-
tive of the general features of the eastern half of the present
United States. In the London edition just referred to this
same material and its exact arrangement all reappear without
the omission of a chapter heading or a misspelled word.

In part second these editions diverge widely in title ^ and
contents. The Dublin edition uses its own summary in tracing
the course of events while the London edition follows Russell
till the incident of the burning of the Gaspe is reached. Then
the two editions coalesce once mjore not to diverge again till the
defeat of Burguoyne in 1777, on pages 312 and 499 respective-
ly. From that point the Dublin edition is a mere summary of
facts drawn from the Annual Register while the London edition
copies from the same source with only slight abridgment or
omission. " We may now recur to the Boston edition of 1780
(Impartial HistoryJ and tahe up its evolution. It has already
been pointed out that this work from pages 3-69 was copied
from Russell's history. From this point to the end of part first
it is parallel to the London edition. Hei-e, however, the work
takes a new title ^ and the remainder of the volume is a mere
copy of the Annual Register,* without reference to the copies
from the samje source in the London edition. A careful
examination of these editions with their source will show this
conclusion to be correct.^

Volume II is composed largely of material from the London

1 London Edition. Part 11. The History of the Origin, Rise and Progress of
the Civil War in America.

Dublin Edition. Part II. The History of the Civil War in America.

»0n the fly leaf of the copy in the Harvard Library is the following remark
by Jared Sparks: "The part of this volume which relates to the American
war is selected verbatim from the Annual Register."

«The History of the Rise and Progress of the War in North America from
the time of General Gage's Arrival at Boston in May, 1774.

* Compare the material with that of the Annual Register of 1775, p. 1-

»In one of the copies of this work in the Boston Public Library some one has
made a note regarding the preface to the effect that it is copied from the Annual
Register.

422 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, ArtSj and Letters.

edition' though there are some portions of the first chapter
copied from the Dublin edition.^

These four histories thus form a grou]D intertwined in such
a way that it is extremelv difficult to ascertain in manv cases
■which is original and which copy. But of this we mav be cer-
tain that for the Revolutionary stru2:£rle the Annual Rearister
was the source for miost if not all of the material to be found in
these works.

Murray's history of the Revolution^ next claims our atten-
tion. It is a very inferior work and w'as written with the Ain-
nual Register as a constant source. A single parallel quotation
will serve to show how he plagiarized.

Annual Register, 1765, p. 24: " It
could not, surely be expected that
merely out of a compliment to the
mother country they submit to per-
ish, for thirst with water in their
own wells. They suffered enough,
as it was, by being obliged to make
bricks without straw; to carry on
manufactures and trade without
either metal or paper money to facili-
tate the course of them."

Murray, I., 18. *' It was a thing
not at all to be expected that the
colonies out of mere compliment to
Great Britain should submit to per-
ish for want of the necessaries of
life, when they had a great abund-
ance within themselves. Their suf-
ferings already were of the severest
sort; for like the children of Jacob
in the land of bondage, they were
required to make brick without
straw; — to carry on trade and manu-
factures without either money or
paper currency to promote their

course.

>)

In affairs out of America, Murray copies his accounts like-
wise from the Annual Register, as in the description of the
Caribs of St. Vincent.'' That which really distinguishes Mur-
ray's history from all the others and gives it a bad preeminence
is his vicious habit of commenting uj)on his stolen material.
He never has anything original to say and some of his expla-
nations are grotesque enough to merit a place in Gulliver's

1 Chapters XVIIl. and XIX. (London Edition.)

'Pages 335-336. (Dublin Edition.)

'Impartial History of tbe Present War in America, containing An Account
of its Rise and Progress, the Political Springs thereof, with its various Suc-
cesses and Disappointments on Both Sides. 3 vols. By the Rev. Jas. Murray,
Newcastle upon Tyne.

*Ann. Reg., 1773, p. 83 ff. Murray, I.. 34^368.

Lihhy — Pseudo-Histories of the American Revolution. 423

Travels.^ A few samples will suffice to illustrate liis predomi-
nant weakness.

Speaking of the flour destroyed by the soldiers at Concord : —

"About a year after, that flour would have been of some serv-
ice to the same troops, when they were cooped up in Boston.
It argues a great malignity of temper to destroy the bounties
of providence for fear that our enemies should enjoy them."

In describing the retreat he makes the following original com-
ment:— "They were uow in a very critical situation and much
distressed, which evils they had brought upon themselves by
their rashness in shedding blood when they had no occasion."^

Again in commenting on the British treatment of the Caribs
of St. Vincent Island he says: — "In spite of all the
thick daubings of falsehood and the fair strokes of flattery, the
vile complexion of the men and their measures Avill appear to
the view of impartial observers. Ages to come will stand
amazed when they read in the annals of Britain that in an aera

of liberty, and under the government of a pious and religious
sovereign, such unjust and arbitrary proceedings should have
been carried on."'

Perhaps the worst example of all is the following reference
to the killing of Jane M'Crea : — "This tragedy will stand as a
deep blot in the annals of the present government as long as the
sun revolves in his course around this terrestrial globe. This
massacre, and others its concomitants, will in somje future reck-
oning make that coward tremble who is said to have given it
sanction by the authority of his master on this side of the At-
lantic ; and that hero who boasted great things in his sanguinary
proclamations will find the ghosts of innocents haunt him when
the weapons of warfare are buried in peace."*

'No one will doubt after reading these .quotations that Murray
has a style and that his rhetoric is consistently bad. There is
a unity of method and a certain unvarying senility in the way
he dilutes his modicum of fact with a flood of platitudes.

Winsor's treatment of Murray is peculiar and lays the great

^Murray, II., 1S3. An explanation is liere given of the true reason for the in-
adequate stores at Fort Washington at the time of its capture by the British.
'Murray, I., 441 ff.
8 lb., I., 354.
*Ib., II., 32a-321.

424 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

bibliographer open to the charge of not carefully examining bis-
materials before pronouncing judgmjent. In regard to the Wy-
oming m'assacre be says, "I should be strongly inclined to quote
here from the pages of Murray's Impartial History of the pres-
ent War, etc., to show that British opinions were as strongly
pronounced in their expressions against the reported acts of But-
ler and that they held the authorities who ]>ermitted him to bear
a commission responsible, were it not that I find so many pages
in this book identical with An Impartial History of the ^Yar in
America, which was published about the same time in Boston,
that I am at a loss to determine which was the original book.
The two books are not in all respects the same. The one pur-
ports to be an English composition ; the other an American re-
cital. Phrases in which the enemy are alluded to in the one
are reversed in the other, while topics which are elaborated in
one are barely mentioned in the other ; still there are enough
pages identical in the two, except for the toning do^^Ti of the
adjectives to make me doubtful of the authorship of the Rev.
James Murray."^ Further, he says : '^Another work of simi-
lar title, credited to the Bev. James Murray, shows a decided
affinity to the side of the rebels, though as a hurried compila-
tion, there is some mixture in its views.'*'^

^Tt is in fact, as Mr. A. M. Davis tells me after making a
comparison, to about the extent of three-quarters merely a re-
print of the text of the Boston edition, with some verbal
changes."^

The history Winsor refers to as the original source for Mur-
ray's is one published in Boston in 1781.* In the one-volume

1 Winsor, VI., 663. Note 4.

Mbid., VIII., 500.

3 lb., VIII., 500. Note 7.

<An Impartial History of the War in America between Great Britain and
the United States from Its Commencement to the end of the war. Exhibiting^
a circumstantial, connected and complete account of the real Causes, Rise and
Progress of the War, interspersed with Anecdotes and Characters of the dif-
ferent Commanders, and Accounts of such Personages in Congress as have dis-
tinguished themselves during the Contest. With an Appendix containing a Col-
lection of Interesting and Authentic Papers, tending to elucidate the History,
Illustrated with beautiful Copper Plates. 3 vols. Boston, Printed by Nathaniel
Coverly and Robert Hodge at their oflBce in Newberry St., 1781.

Vol. Ill is entitled: The History of the War in America. Containing an Account of
its Rise and Progress with its Various Successes and Disappointments on both sides ^
Boston. Printed by Nathaniel Coverly in Newbury Street, No. S3, near the sign of the
lamb. 1781.

Lihhy — Pseudo-Histories of the American Revolution. 425

edition the events are carried to the close of 1776 while in the
three- volume edition they end in 1783. The first three chap-
ters of this work are identical with those of the Dublin edition
of 1779. The larger part of the work is a copy from Murray
until the close of Burgojne's campaign. From this time on the
Annual Register is used.

The only rem'aining question is concerning Winsor's state-
ment that Murray's history is but a copy of the foregoing. In
the first place this Boston work was published in 1781, at least
three years after the former appeared. Then when we recall
Murray's pretentious style it becomes perfectly obvious that it
could not belong to an anonymous writer. Its very pose and
strut forbids the notion of concealment — such an author would
wish to proclaim his work from the housetops. Furtheiinore,
Murray's peculiar style continues throughout his work from
the preface to the conclusion. But the Boston edition of 1781
ceases to show Murray's style after the account of Burgoyne's
campaign. It is a polyglot affair at best, drawn from three
sources, while Murray's history never varies in its make up and
sho^^s traces of but one origin.

From the Annual Begister have arisen, therefore, seven his-
tories of the American Bevolution, four of which are anony-
mous. Of these four the Dublin edition of 1779 is the only
one that can make any claim whatever to originality in any part,
since it furnished the opening chapters for two other histories,
the London edition of 1780 and the Boston edition of 1781.
As a means of comj)aring the different forms of plagiarism em-
ployed by the compilers of these works, the account of the in-
cident of the Hutchinson Letters affords a very fair example.^

But one other consideration remains for discussion. The
clearing away of the accumulated rubbish of a hundred years
brings the Annual Begister prominently forward as an original
authority of high value for the American Bevolution. It be-
comes important for us to know, therefore, more certainly than:
at present, who contributed the articles in the Annual Begist-er
and from what sources they were dra^vn. As the subject is an
intricate one, involving questions of internal as well as of ex-
ternal evidence, it may w^ell remain for a later treatment.

^Vol. II.. 325.

2 Gordon, I., 32S-330; Russell, II., 457-45S; Murray, I., 392-394; Dublin Edition,
I., Part II., 4; Annual Register, 1774, p. 46, ch. L

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

OF

SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS

VOL XIII, PART II
1901

WITH THIRTEEN PLATES

1

t

EDITED BY THE SECRETARY

Fublislied by Authority of Law

MADISON, WIS.
Democrat Printing Company, State Printer

IQ02

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

OF

SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS

VOL XIII, PART II
1901

WITH THIRTEEN PLATES

UBRARV

jSEW VORK
BOTANICAL

KDITED BY THE SKCRETARY

Published by Aiitliority of Law

MADISON, WIS.
Democrat Printing Company, State Printer

IQ02

LIST OF PLATES.

Plates To face page

XXJX-XXX. Timberlake on Hydrodictyon . . 520, 522

XXXI-XXXVIII. JoliDson on Axial Bifurcation in Snakes . 538

XXXIX-XLII. Downes on the Economic and Social Develop-
ment of Kenosha County . . 548,558,560,562

XLIII. Regan on the Economic and Social Develop-
ment of LaFayette County . . . 584

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

LIST OF PUBLISHED PAPERS.

PAGE

On the errors with which logaritlimic compiitations are
affected. Carl Bremiher. Translated from the Latin
by . , P. E. Doudna and E. F. Chandler, 427

Personal names : Their significance and historical origin,

James Davie Butler, 475

Development and structure of the swarm-spores of Hydro-

dictyon, . Hamilton Greemoood Timherlalce, 486

Axial bifurcation in snakes, . Roswell Hill Jolmson, 523

On the relation between heat conductivity and density in
some of the common woods,

Louis W. Austin and C. W. Eastman, 539

Economic and social development of Kenosha and La

Fayette counties — Introduction, . 0. G. Lihhy, 543

Economic and social development of Kenosha county,-

Rohert Hugh Doivnes, 545

Economic and social development of La Eayette county,

Katherine Patricia Regan, 582

MEMORIAL ADDRESSES.

Edward Orton, . . . William H. Hohhs, 610

John Eugeiste Davies, . . John B. Parkinson, 614

WiLLARD Harris Chandler, . Charles L. Harper, 617

Truman Henry Safford, Compiled by the Secretary, 620

IV

Table of Contents.

THE WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS, AND

LETTERS.

PAGE

Officers

Standing Committees

Past Presidents,
Honorary Members
Life Members
Active Members .
Corresponding Members
Members Deceased

626
627
627
628
628
629
642
646

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY,

Report of the Secretary —

Thirty-first annual meeting, 1900
Thirty-second annnal meeting, 1901

Report of the Librarian, 1900

Report of the Librarian, 1901

Report of the Treasurer, 1900

Report of the Treasurer, 1901

645
651

6

01

659
6G0
661

RULES AND REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE

ACADEMY.

Extracts from the Charter . . . . . 666

Extracts from the Wisconsin Statutes . . .668

Constitution of the Academy . . . . .669

Resolutions ....... 672

Gei^eeai. Index, Vol. XIII, Parts 1 and 2

674

ON THE ERRORS WITH WHICH LOGARITHMIC
COMPUTATIONS ARE AFFECTED.*

By Gael Bremiker, Ph. D.

INTKODUCTION".

The original of the following dissertation on the errors of
logarithmic computation api>earecl in 1852 as an introduction
to the first edition of Bremiker's six place* tables. The great
excellence of the paper has led many students of mathematics
to read it, in spite of the fact that the edition of Bremiker's
tables which contains it is quite inaccessible, and although the
difiiculties are further increased because the original is in Latin.

Mr. P. E. Doudiia wrote out a translation of the paper in
1894-95, at which time lie was holding a fellowship in applied
mathematics in the University of Wisconsin. Mr. Doudna's
failing health required him to remove to Colorado, where he
died in February, 1900. Mr. E. F. Chandler, who was fellow
in applied mathematics in the University of Wisconsin in
1898-99, wrote out, at my suggestion, an independent transla-
tion of the paper. lie was furnished with a copy of Mr. Doud-
na's translation in order to verify his work. We deeply regret
that Mr. Doudna was not able to go over the present translation
before its publication, as his judgment would have been of
great value. It has seemed right, however, that the translation
should appear under their joint names.

♦Translated by P. E. Doudna A. M., late Asst. Professor of Mathematics in Colorado
College, and E. F. Chandler, A. M., Instructor in Mathematics in the University of North
Dakota.

1' 1 •"> "' \

428 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences ^ Arts, and Letters.

Mr. Chandler has recomputed all of the tables and illustrative
numerical examples given by Bremiker. A few corrections are
indicated in the foot not^s. ^IsTo changes have been made at any
point except the correction of palpable misprints and the inser-
tion of the numbers attached to the principal equations and
formulas to facilitate reference.

Chas. S. Slichtee.

Madison, April, 1901.

Bremiher — Errors Affecting Logarithmic Computations. 429

co:jtceeot:n^g the ereors by which loga-
rithmic COMPUTATIOISrS ARE AFFECTED.

§ I.

Since the exact value of any logarithm is in general an in-
commensnrable number, which can not be expressed except by
an infinite number of decimal figures, and since in the loga-
rithmic tables only the first decimal figures are given, which we
use in computation instead of the exact value, it is evident that
a result obtained by the use of logarithms is affected by a
greater or less error. But whenever we are willing to use in
the computation more decimal places than are called for by the
accuracy of our data, this error arising from the inaccuracy of
the logarithms may be disregarded, in comparison with that
which arises from the inaccuracy of the data. If, however, in
order to save useless labor, only as many decimal figures be
used in the computation as are called for by the accuracy of the
data,- then it will be proper before the computation is com-
menced to consider the theory of the errors which can arise
from the omitted decimals. The discussion of this theory
which is attempted below will show whether five, six, or seven
decimals ought to be used in the computation.

§ 2.

First, assume that the errors of all the logarithms used in
the computation (i. e. their true values) are known. Then by
the aid of the differential calculus the error of their resulting
sum can easily be found. For this it is sufficient to use only
the first differentials, since, in comparison with the true values
of the logarithms, the errors can be regarded as infinitesimals,
whose higher powers are of no weight in the computation. In
this computation the following equations may be used;

430 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

d (log x)

d (log sin X)
d (log cos X)

d (log tan X)

dfx

X

cot X. dx

— tan X . dx

. dx

sin 2x

d (log cot x) = —

sia zx

. dx

Ki]

Furtliermore, the manner in which the errors of the number
a and of the arc A are connected with the errors of the Lri.!j:!]:3
logarithms is shown by the following equations;

'oo-

/(log a) =^/-(a)4-/'

/(log sia A) = J cot A f{A)^f'

/(log cos A) =

1:1

tan.4/(J)-h/'

2r.i

/(logtaa.D = -^-.^/u4)i-/'
/(logcot.4) = -^;^-j/l[^4)-h/'

/l«) = ^. |/(loga)-/'
f{A)= TTtaayl . j/(!og sin .4) -/'

= — ;— cot ^ . I /(log 003^) — /'

= s^sin 2^. j/(logtan^)-/'
5.4 . [/(log cot ^)-/'

\

lia

sin 2.

\

K2]

where an / indicates tlie error accumulated in computation and
transferred from the logarithm to the number or arc, or from
the number or arc to the logarithm, and /' denotes the error of
a logarithm taken from the table; m = 0.43429 is the

modulus of the Briggs system and r = 206265 is the length of
the radius expressed in seconds of arc.

BremiJccr — Errors Affecting Logarlihmic Computations. 431

These equations, if applied to any logarithmic commutation
whatsoever, show the error of the final result as a linear func-"
tion of the separate errors. To illustrate this, take as an ex-
ample the equation

ein* \c = sin* l{n — b) -f- sin a sin b sin* 10

which expresses the third side c of a spherical triangle in terms
of the given sides a and b and the included angle C. First com-
pute

cot /I = sipjC^i/sina sin b
sin^ {a—b)

tHeu

-• 1 ^ einiCt''sin « sin 6

Bin ^ c = = — •

cos Jil

Then if the errors of the logarithms of the table are arranged in

order,

in sin ^ C the error f^

" sin a *' " /a

•• sin 5 " " /s

•' sin ^{a—h) " " /4

♦* cot /I " ♦• /s

«• cos JU " " /fl

«* Bin^c " " ft

tte error in the sum from which cot /i is determined will be

fi "r zfz 'T -if z 7 4

whence tHere arises an error

in ft equal to — ^^ sin S/iC/j+A/'z-l-i/'s— A— A)

in log cos I* " •• sin«>/(/,-^i/,-fi/8-/4-/5)+/«
in log sin ic •* •« /i+i/j+i/ 3-sin V(/i-f-iA+i/3-/4-/5)--/e

= cos»//(A-fi/84-^A)+einV(/4+/5)-/,

and in c equal to — tan ic | cos2//C/*i+i/'84-i/3)+Bin V(/4+/6) — /e — /? f

432 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, AHs, and Letters. ■

§ 3.

Tlius the error of computation takes the form'

in which the coefficients « are known, but in which only the lim-
its of the quantities /i, /g? ^^c, are determined.

Assume each / to have this limiting value, and add the prod-
ucts

the signs + or — being disregarded, and the result is the great-
est possible error

= ^ («/);
the extreme limits within which the error of the computation
must necessarily be included are

— '2 (af) and + 2 {af).

But the error will never reach these extreme limits, since each
error included within the expression frequently diminishes to
an infinitesimal, so that the maximum error as given above is
not a suitable test by which to measure the accuracy of the com-
putation. If for each error lying within these limits a propor-
tional number could be determined, which would exhibit the
relation that holds between the number of errors of that mag-
nitude ' and the total number of errors of every magnitude,
or which shows how many errors of a certain magnitude there
would be among all the errors possible, we should have enough
proportionals to test the accuracy of any formula.

Such numbers may be found if first we give to each f all the
different values that are possible, then substitute in the sum

all the combinations of the different quantities ; in this way
we may observe how often the sum will equal zero, and how
often it will be equal to any other given number within its ex-
treme limits.

Bremiher — Em^ors Affecting Lonanthmic Computations. 433

§ 4.

If r denotes the extreme limit of the error by which the log-
arithms of a given table can be affected, all the values which /
can have are shown by the series

n n—1 n — 2 ^ , n — 1 , n

in which n is an infinite number. The total number of
tliese values is ^n + 1. And it is a necessary assumption that
each one of these values will occue. once, and only once, since
there is no cause at vv^ork which will give predominance to one
value rather than another.

Then if we form a series of the values of a^f^, this series,
which is merely the previous one multiplied by a^, will be

n n—1 n — 2 ^ , n — 1 , n

•";r^^^' — ^^^^'--^-^i^--- ^••••+-^^^^' + ;r^^-

We shall have a similar series for eachn/; the number of terms
is the same in all, but the intervals are not the same. In place
of these, and for the sake of simplicity, let the various series be
so written that the terms have a common interval. It is evi-
dent that this is legitimate, since it is merely so distributing the
total interval between — (x-^y and 4- oc^y that the number of small
intervals is changed. Thus instead of ^i/i, a-j2^ .... we write
the series

n n ' n n

in which the difference between the terms is everywhere the
same, namely, — » but the number of terms is respectively

2n<2:i+l> 2na^-\-l.. .2na +1.

v

434 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Furthermore, since it is required to find tlie number of com-
binations which, taken from the terms of the series, have a sum
p, we form the series

na, na, — 1 ncr. — 1 net,

l-y 1- y 1 y ^-y

na., no'o— 1 ncxo — 1 nar-

— r ^ — r — - — r • — -

LIS]

ri'x^ na^—X na^—\ na^

zrV ::; — r — - — r

X •\-x -|-...+a:°4-...+a; -\-x

and multiply these together. The coefficient of the term x^
will be the required number.

To facilitate the multiplication, let us first divide the series

respectively, and put

21

V r

Thus, (having thrown out the factors

there results the series

1 -f 2: + ^2 4- . . . + 2^i~l

1+2 + 2:3 _|_ _, J^z'

"8

1+2+ 22 + ... +2^y"-l

in place of which can be written the expressions

) ) .... -•

1— z 1 — z 1 — z

Bremiker — Errors Affecting Logarithmic Computations. 43i

The product of these

(1 — ^"i) (1 — s''2) .... (1-^*V)

V

is to be changed into a series of powers of z. [ind so instead
of the divisor

we assume the series of ascending powers of z,

\ -{- A ^z -\- A .^z^ + .... Atzt-\- .,,.
of which the general term is

In pLice of the numerator, if vve multiply its factors, we Have
the series

+ +(-!)«

and if this series be multiplied by the series foi;

(1 - ^r*'

the coeiBcient of the term ^t will be

4?'] Vt'lsconsin- Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

In tins expression we are to retain only those terms which have
positive indices.

The binomial coefficient

At = {y+t-D t =(''+^-l)^_i

in this last form of the numerator arises from a finite number
{v—\) of factors, of which the iirst is y-\-t — l^ the last
t -\- 1. Furthermore, since it must be assumed that all
the exponents t, Ui, Uo, . • . finally become infinite, we
may write instead of

the exi^ression

(^-M-l)^_l

(v-l)!

where (r— 1)! is the product 1.2.3 (y—1). This change is

merely the neglect of the lower powers of /' in comparison with
hiojher. At the same time the coefficients

etc., are changed in value. Thas if s^7l denotes the sum of ^
elements of the series w^, u^, u^ u^ the coefficient of the

term z^ will be

{y-i)\

y — 1 -^c /J „ \'y — 1

t ^—^— 2 {t—s,uf~^ 4-:^( (5-5210 — .... c [^1

— S2WJ ^— .... f

in which ^ signifies the sum of all the similar values, and all
the sums 5 ,,2/ which are greater than ^ are omitted.

In order tliat the coefficient A the term x^ may be found,
its value, expressed as a function of x, must be substituted for z,
and also the multiplication by the factors neglected above,

must be performed, so that the power 2:' is changed into

n _ p

Bremilcer — Errors Affecting Logarithmic Computations. 437
Thus we must put

r ^

in order that everything may be included in the quantity 'p,
Furthermore, if we put for brevity

^(^ +«i-f«8+ .... + ay) — m

and instead oiu^, u^, .... w^, write the corfespondiug values
2na:i+l, 2na.^-\-l, .... 2na^ +1 ^e have

and in general

t—s u = 2nlm—s a)

in which i- a denotes the sum of// cleraentfe in the series

<Xi, tTg, (^3, .... <X^

By these substitutions we have

(2»)""^^m— 1

-2{m—s^af -^+2(771— Sg^)^ —....{

(K-i)!
as the coefficient of the pov/ex

1 2m— {a j^ H-o's + . . . . Q^^) | r.

a:

this then is the number that indicates how many times among
the total number of combinations,

{2n)^aj^aza^ .... a^ ,

that one is found whose sum is

^2m-ia,-\-a^+....-\-cx^)jr

438 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Lastly, if we divide by the total number of combinations, w»
have the 'probability of the error

52771— (a:i+a,-f.... 4-0'^)?;' yiz:

%t{y—l)\a^a.^...a\^^^ —'^{m^s^a) ^^[m—e^af —...([5]

Therefore the probability of any particular error approaches
zero as n is increased without limit.

§ 5.

If it is required to find the formula which expresses thb
number of combinations within certain limits, it is only neces-
sary to choose a series of exponents in tlie product of the series
[3] of §4 and sum the coellicients. For this purpose let u»
return to [4] and take the cocfiicient of the term z^ ,

{y-\)\ I

^ t^ ^ —^{f-SiUf ^ -\-:S{t—82U)

.-!_ )

• • • • g

and for t vv'ritc in order all its values from t = 1 to t = t and
sum them, which will give the expression required. First t^—l
is changed into the series

1+2^-1 ^.s"-! +4"-"^ ^,,„^r-l 5

this series is equivalent to

..i(i)'-+(i)'-Vj3)'-V...H.(4)-||

which, if t is assumed infinite, can be expressed by the integral

Jo

Bremil-er — Errors Affecting Logdriilimic Compulations. 4C0
B/ the same method,

[t—Uj^)'^ , {t—u-if , etc.,

in which t docs not take vahies less than Wj, u^, etc., become

— (<— mJ^ , —{t — u-i)^ i etc.

y y

The siiin of these can be expressed in the form

V

Similarly the powers

{t—u^—u^)^~ , {t — u^—u^)^~ .... {t—u^_^ — u^) ^

in which i has as its least values

can be expressed in the form

Thus the sum of all the coefScients of the powers from 2^ to
2^ will be

Then, substituting according to the same plan that was used in
^ 4 and dividing by tlij sum of all the coefficients or (which is
the same thing) by the number of all the combinations, we have

v\a^a^a^....a^ \ ^^"^ ~^{m-s^a)^ -^2{m—s^af -....( [G]

which is the probability that the error is between the limits

440 Wisconsin Acadcray of Sciences, Arts, and Leiters.
The value of this will be equal to unity if we put

representing thus the certainty that the error must always be-
between

If, however, we had preferred to develop the series in § 4 ac-
cording to decreasing j)owers instead of increasing, Ave should
have reached the same formula for determining the probability
of an error situated between

(ariH-a'a-f-....4-ay )r and {a^-\-a^-\- ....-\ra^ —2m)y

And if we put

m = i(^i-l-^2+-.--+^y )

it must be assumed that the value of this equals %, as indeed is
the case. But if we jDut

the formula will still give a value equal to unity; this and many
other properties of the same formula, which can be proved by the
theorv of finite sums and differences, it is needless to follow
out here.

Lastly, if we designate the probability [6] found above as

then J Vm is the probability that the error lies between _ sy ^^<^
— (5— 2m)x ^^d y2 — Wm is the probability that it is between
—(."?— 2 -n);^ and 0. And so, since the probability is the same if
the limits are positive, the probability that the error lies between
the limits ± {g—%n)y is l—IWm ? ^^ which m- receives in order all
the values from 0 to ]/2S.

Brcmilccr — Errors Affecting Logarithmic Compuiations. 441

§ 6.

To show by an example how the formula is to be used, let us
take twenty logarithms from the tables and form their sum. All
the logarithms taken from the table are affected by an error, of
which the limit is one-half the last decimal place; it is required
to find the error of the sum.

Here we take a^^a^^ =a^ =1, ^=20 and y = y^ oi the last

decimal place. The sums s^a, of which there 20, each equal 1 ;
«2«'=2, there being -^^-^ of these sums; S;^a=3, and of these there

are

20 . 19 ■ 18
1.2.3

; etc. So Wm becomes according to [6]

2^ ) m^°-20(m-l)^«+^^(^-2)^°--?^- ^l •3^^(m-3)»°

+gg-l^-lg'lVz-4)^o-..
1.2.3.4

The extreme limits of the error are — 10 and + 10, and the prob-
ability that the error (without regard to sign) is between 0 and
10 — m is 1 — 217771. Then if instead of m we put in turn 1,
2, 3, . . .9, we have the probability of an error between the
limits 0 and 9, 8, 7, . . . 1. Performing the subtraction and
putting the total number of different errors equal to 10,000, we
have

between 0 and 1,

5, 536 errors.

1 " 2,

3,194 "

2 " 3,

1,025 "

3 " 4,

^178 "

4 " 5,

16 '*

5 " 6,

1 "

6 "10,

0 "

that is to say, among 10,000 sums which are made by the addi-
tion of 20 logarithms taken from the table, 5,586 are affected by
an error between the limits 0 and 1 in terms of the last place of
decimals, and the error of no sum is greater than 6.

This computation can be tested to some extent by several trial
additions of twenty logarithms. Take as an example the sum

41-2 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

of the first twenty incommensurable logarithms from a tabic of
five decimal places, in which we find, by comparison with the
sum of the same seven place logarithms, an error — 1.66; in
other words the sum of the five place logarithms is 1.66 less in
terms of the last decimal place tlian the sum of the seven place
logarithms of the same numbers. 1x4 us find in the same man-
ner the error in the sum of each succeeding twenty logarithms
(the rational logarithms of the numbers 1, 10, 100, being
omitted).

The errors are found to be :*

Sum of logarithms. 2 — 22 error — 1,66

23— 42 " — 2,1(3 1

43— 62 '♦ —0,81

63—82 " — 2,D2

83 — 103 *' +0,42

101 — 123 ♦• H-0,S3

124 — 143 " —0,07

114 — 16:^ " 4- 0,87

104 — 183 *« + 0,23

181-201 " +0,01

201 — 22] " — l,75t

221 — 213 " + 3.23

214 — 2o3 " — 0,12t

2'ol — 283 »« —1,54

2S4 — .'}i){ " +0,43t

301 — 32 5 '* —0,12

321-31] " +0,19

311 — 303 *' +0,75

3G1 - 333 •* — 1 67

3S4 — 403 '* +0.80

* By performing the addition from two different sets of seven place
tables (one of them Vega, Bremiker's 40th edition; Berlin 1887), I find con-
sistently these results:

Sum of logarithms 121-113 error — 1.92

224-213 +3.13

I also find several mistakes in signs which I have corrected, judging them
to be misprints in the Latin edition. I did not correct the two given above,
although it seems they should be as here given. If corrected, then the
summary just below should read

12 errors between 0 and 1

5 " " 1 " 2

2 *' •* 2 " 3

1 " " 3 " 4

which agrees with the !heoretical results given a few lines below better

than tho30 given by Bremiker. — E. F. 0.

1 1 have changed the signs of these numbers. — E. P. C.

Bremihcr — Errors Affecting Logarithmic C amputations. 443
80 in these twenty sums selected at random there aro

13 errors between 0 and 1
4 " " 1 " 2

2 *« «* 2 " 3

1 ** •« 3 " 4

We should compare these numbers wi.h those found afoove,
dividing of course by 500 since in this case there are only twenty
sums, instead of 10,000. After this division the probability is

11,2 errors between 0 and 1
64 *» it 1 " 2

2,0 *• »* 2 " 3

04 «« «« 3 ♦* 4

SO that there is as great an agreement as could be expected in so
small a number of sums.

The smallness of the probability of the larger errors is seen
both from this result and from tine example above, since in
10,000 errors of this kind, only one exceeds five units; the
extreme limit of ten units is so far remote from the range of er-
rors which actually occur that errors of that sort are to be re-
garded as practically non-existent. For by actual computation
the probability of an error between 9 and 10 is found to be 1 :
2432 900 000 000 000 000. Moreover the extreme limJt of er-
ror is of little value in logarithmic computations, as will appear
below, where more accurate criteria are proposed for testing such
computation.

§ 7.

In discussions of the probability of errors the probable error
and the mean error must receive especial consideration. The
limits within which exactly half of the total number of errors is
situated is called the probable error. Thus the probable error,
according to our formula, is (s — 2 m) r ii m satisfies the equa-
tion 2—2 Wm =^ or Wvi =i. This equation cannot be solved by any
direct method.

The mean error denotes the arithmetical mean of all possible

444 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

erroKS, computed fram the errors without regard to sign. We
obtain it if we multiply the error (5 — 2 m) r by its probability

and double the integral of the product taken between the limits
0 and Y2 5. By this integration, either direct or as in § 5, we
have

(^-M;:^!^..-^. |(i)'-+i-^(|-..ar+i+^(|-..«)-+i-.. j [17,

In this formula we are to take only those sums of powers that
have positive exj)onents. If we take the same example as in § 6,
"we have, according to this fonnula, the mean error equal to
1.03266. The probable error, however, is found to be slightly
less than 1.

§ 8.

By the means proposed above we can determine the probabil-
ity of an error within any assigned limits in any quantity com-
puted by logarithms. Since, moreover, we have already shown
how the probable error and the mean error can be found, the
general problem may be cc>nsidcred as solved; unless there re-
main further difficulties in applying the formulas. For it hap-
pens that, whenever ^ is a large number, the separate terms of
the series employed are formed from very large numbers which
in turn cancel each other, so that it is necessarj^ to use many
more decimal places in the computation than are required in
the completed result. Thus in the example in § 6, eight place
logarithms were used in order that the probability mic:ht be
computed to four places. And for greater values of v the dif-
ficulties are increased to such an extent that if r = 100 the
computation of the values can scarcely be undertaken.

In order to avoid these difficulties, theoretical accuracv must
be to some extent sacrificed and resort had to approximate
values, in order that we may express results in terms of the

integral of e , which is of fundamental importance in discus-
Bions of probability.

BremiJcer — Errors Affecting Logarithmic Computations, 445

S 0.

For tliis purpose let us return to the series [3] of § 4 and put

g— e/— 1 fop ^n ^ go that if i is written instead of y'— i they
are changed into

-n.t,zl _^ ^ -(n-1) ct.zi^^^ ^^^e^. . . ^e(^-l)^x^^^^^«i^t = ^^(^)

e y -\-e ^ ' v +.. .+ e".. .+e^ v +e v = cp (z)

By multiplying together these series we have, as before, a series
whose coefficients show how many times the exponents can be
combined into any given sum. We have accordingly

(Pi{z) . q>2{2) q)^ (^) = ^kt eizi

if ^t is the coefficient of the power ^^^* in which t receives all
values from

— n(ai -t- ^2+ +a^ ) to -{-nicr^ + «2+ a^, )

If we multiply this equation by e~^'^^ and integrate between the

limits — 7t and + tt we shall have on the right hand side the sum
of integrals of which each one, as

k^ i e dz

becomes equal to zero if t and T have dl:fferent values, excepting
only the one in v\-hich t = t% which will equal 27i kt so that we
have

jr— 1 cp^[z).(pJz) (p^{z)G ^^^dz — ki

2it

— TT

[S]

446 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences, Arts, aiid Letters.

Then if we give in turn to t all values from — nc to + nc, instead
of e~^^* we have the series

e—vcziJf-e—(nc—l}zi-\- -{-c'^-\- -l-e("c— l)2t -{-enczi

= C—nczi[l-\~ezi-\-e'^i-\- .... -[-e(2/ic— l)2^-}-e2nc2i)
l_g(2nc+l)2i

C—nczi

l—e^i

2n^+l_,
= e — nczi ,

g ^ smf— .^T— 2) sin(— .;-'-r)

2 . sin \z £ia^2

e^'

Similarly it is found that

sin( 1 z) sinf = z)

9^1(2) = r-l^ . <Pz'^) =

sin^2 sini^^;

etc. By these substiuUtions the integral shown above is changed
into

'2k^ [from t = — eiot^=-\-c\

2^ • -^ I L_ . ■ , dz

—It {siny^z)

or, if we put nz = Xj into

sin o-jX.sin n:o3: sin n-^ a: sm crc

. dx

(sin-^y ^

Bremiker — Errors Affecting Logarithmic Computations. 447

But the function which is to be integrated here becomes a
maximum if x is taken equal to zero. As x increases, the num-
erator repeatedly becomes zero, while the denominator continu-
ally increases, so that we have a sufficiently exact value for the
integral if we take large finite quantities — g and + g \n place

of the infinite limits. By this substitution sin ^— is changed

2ii

into ^ for the quantity n is assumed infinite. Thus after

2/?. ^ ''

division bv

4/

(2Ai)^ai«:,....a

we have the probability Vq of an error between the limits — e
and + c.

1 i t^in fTj X sir. a^ x sin ex x sin ex

^ ■ a^x a^x oi X x

Then if each sine is expressed as a scries, so that

and similarly for

a^x

we havo
log

.o.,-^^y.....o.(!!^)

a^x a^x a x /

if we put
and

448 Wisco7isin Academy of Sciences, AHs, and Letters.

But this series can only be subotitiitcd if it is convergent, which
is the case if a function of the variable r of the form kr~ is
substituted for x. By this operation the series is changed to

— — -v — y — . , . ,

6 ISO

in which the first term increases, and all the others diminish,
for increasing values of ^ provided A is assumed to satisfy

H > '^ >H

Tor then the exponent of r will be positive in the first term, and
negative in all the others. For exanipie, let A=>^ and we
obtain the series

Hence if in the integral written above, we take the limits g = Icy'~^
instead of the limits — cr. and -f go , we shall approach the more
nearly to the true value of the integral the greater the value of
r. For we have

sill ex

and if we put ^ - ^V ^

sin o^X/ ?_

/<2?'3 1 V 7

Bremiher — Errors Affecting LQgarithviic Computations. 41-0
The limits will bo

1/6 1/6

in place of which oo may again be substituted since tliis limit

becomes infinite with r. Moreover the function to be inte-
grated remains the same whether x has its positive or negative
value, hence 0 may be put as the inferior limit ?nd "the integral
doubicd. Thus we have

J 0

sin cz\/ 6_
7, = ^ I e -<^-'^ V _ ^^ „. .^.) —-I dz [11]

which can be considered as the sum of two integrals and com-
puted by the assistance of the ordinary formula

.6 ^'

e ^ ^ cos2/5a; dx = i s—

JFor by integration between 0 and I with respect to ^ this gives

which is the desired reduction for the first part of the integraL
Whence

e-^^'dz. [12]

450 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

If, however, we differentiate the formula three times with re-
Bpect to/> we have

e ^ ^ x3 sin 2r^xdx =V_1_^—^ Ua*-""Tr'= J

which we can employ in the reduction of the other pr4rt of the
integral ; thus

Finally the equation

V= V— V" [141

shows the probability of an error lying between — cz and + cz ;
the second part V" either vanishes for large values of r or is
very small.

§ 10.

If Ay denotes the probable error, according to the definition

y^f^ will equal %. In order to find li from this, first take F"

= 0 and compute h by means of the equation V'^, = ^/o. Thus
by the aid of a table w^hich shows the value of the integral

corresponding to any value of z it is found that z = 0.47693(5
if the integral itself equals 1/2- This value of z being denoted
by Pi we have from the equation V'c = Yz

Bremiher — Errors Affecting Logarithmic Computations. 451

Thus we compute c as a first approximation to li; then on put-
ting c-Ydc = h we shall have dc from the equaiion

dVcdc = Vc or dc=J^»

dV

in which the value just found is to be substituted in place of a.
Thus, since

V

6^1c

dF'c = -^l.e~2»'^',

we shall have

and

A = 2, /^+^^i- (1-%P^ ) [15,

Then hy is the probable error ; but the second term either van-
ishes for very large values of v or is negligible.

The mean error, defined in § 7, can in general be computed in
the same way as the probable error was computeu in § 9. For
we may start from the equation [8] which expresses the proba-
bility of the error -7^,

1 I

(2/i) a^a^ a

— TC

and substitute for (p^ (z) the expressions involving

sines, and substitute for the prodr.ct of sines the function of the
exponents. Then we shall have

180 n

* In the notation of the author, dV here denotes the derivative of V with respect to
0. [E. F. C.J

452 Vfisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

as the probability of an error cx . Tben by putting x^X^ = z

and cos ex instead of e~^^^ (since the im:i^inary j^a-rt is can-
celled) we shall have

01^ \ ^ H

Pinally if we employ the reduction formulas

e cospzaz = « / e

and its fourth derivative

/5=

2a V4^4 4^8 ^I6a8/

we shall have

/A 3c»

2(r

( ^ / 3 _ 9c« , 9c« ^ )

as the probability of an error Cy,

The integral of this being taken between the limits — c and

+ c, in which - takes the place of dc, it is again necessary to

avoid the avoid the formula for V as found in § 9. This is
shown by the computation. The partial integration can be per-
formed according to the formula

I e-63^22n+2d2=?!^hl I ,

e-bz^z'i.ndz— —e-bz^z2n+l

BremiJcer — Errors Affecting Logarithmic Cornputations, 453

and, if the factor 2 bo inserted, the integrals maj have zero £3
lower limit.

But if we multiply bv 2cr and integrate with respect to c
between the limits 0 and s we shall have the mean error, or the
aggregate of all the errors regardless of sign divided hj the total
number of them.

Bj partial integration according to the formula

6j ^l

all parts of the integral can be reduced to the form

j:

1

from which we obtain

""""lAk (^+2^1 t^

3^.2

if the terms are omitted which have ^ ~'275^^^ ^ factor. And
this is the mean error.

§ 11.

In formula [6] of § 5 the probability of an error between the
limits ±[s — '^m)r was found to equal 1 — 2 W; and in § 0

this is shown to equal Vq for limits ±cr * So if ^ be taken
equal to ^ — 2 m, 1 — 2 W and V must necessarily express t!,e
same pn/oiibility. But V is only an approximation, since, in de-
riving it, y was assumed very large. In order that this agree-
ment may be subjected to some numerical test, let us employ tho

454 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
example of ^ 6. In this all values of a are put equal to 1;

yz=20; r=K; so that

s = a^^+a2^ + ....+a^^ =20

y ^

= 0 0023177 c c~^^' ( i_— )
m = 10-lc

Furthermore if instead of c are put the values 0, 2, 4, . ,. ,. up
to the limit 20, the corres2:)oriding values of

ox,»,|^//^, ^4cM-£!

will be as follows:*

cy

c

m

c/3
2 10

20

0

0

10

0

0.

+ 1,0

1

2

9

0547725

0,3

+ 0,8

2

4

8

1,095450

1,2

+ 0,2

3

6

7

1,643175

2J

— 08

4

8

G

2,190900

4,8

— 2,2

5

10

5

2,738625

7,5

- 4,0

6

12

4

3,286350

10,8

— 6,2

7

14

3

3,834075

14,7

— 8.8

3

16

2

4,381800

19,2

118

9

18

1

4,929525

24,3

— 15,2

10

20

0

5,477250

30,0

— 19,0

* I get for the first number after 0 in the fourth column 0.547723 and
BO on to the last 5.477226, but it hardly seems worth while to correct such
small errors. — E. F. C.

Bremlker — Errors Affecting Logarithmic Computations. 4:^jo

Then according to the formulas [11], [12] and [13] the ap-
proximate values y, F", V are easily derived which are com-
pared in the following table with the corresponding values 1 —
2 W computed according to the rigorous formulas [6] of § 5.
These are indeed the same as those which were shown in § 6
giving the number of diflerences between 0 and 1, and 1 and 2,
etc., for cy with regard to integers only.

cy

V

V"

V-

= V V"

1-2 T7

0

0

0

0

0

1

5t^l42

4-27 5

5586,7

5596,0

2

878.3 (3

4- 56

8781,0

8780,8

3

97986

— 7,5

9806 1

9806,3

4

99805

— 34

9983 9

998;V9

It is needless to continue this fartlicr; for the value-s which
1 — 2 \V and Y receive evidently agree closely and this happens

because the quantity y which we have assumed equal to 20 is

sufficiently large. For values i^ = 2 or v =3 they would

a^ree less exactlv.

Accordii:g to formula [15] of § 10, the probable error is

ny = 2y6fj^/ ^——-—=^—{l-%p^)
V 6 lo]/ 6k(53

or, if we substitute for y, 6, 6\ and y the same values that
they had above, and 0.^76030 for p

Ax =0, 87076 -h0,00554 =0.87630.
The corresponding value of m is

m = — 2- = 9,12370

If this value of m is substituted in Wm its value (according to
§ 7) ought to be ^4:- ^7 making the substitution we actually
obtain TVVn = 0.25002, which may be considered perfect agree-
ment.

456 ^Yisconsin Acadeiyuj of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

The approximate value of the mean error, Avhich we have
found to equal 1.032G6 by the exact formula [7] of § 7, will be

6'^

^^'v uA^^^o^

from the formula of § 10 or, if the values found above are sub-
Btituted;

To

/

V

'671

1+^1, =1,03203,

A more exact agreement could not be ashed.

Furthermore it is seen that if y='20 the terms which depciid

on fi' or on the fourth power of a are negligible in comparison
with the firs-t term. But since, as will appear below, the quan-
tity y is usually still larger or in a minor computation is not
far diuerent from that value, all the terms depending on (?' can
be neglect€xl altoirethcr without fear that the result will varj
far from the truih. So we can assume

e-z-dz [17]

as the probability of an error between the limits ±c^,

'^y^P-\/ g- will be the probable error, [18]

and 2x(? -i / -^ the mean error. [19] ■

Furthermore, if r = % expressed in terms of the last deci-
mal place, and we put C=c;^, then

. /I
V ^

Braniker — Errors Affecting Logarithmic Computations. 457
will be the probability of an error within the limits ± C

^P-\/ -^ will be the probable error,

and <^n / -^ the mean error,

expressed in terms of the last decimal place. Or, if there
be written in pla,ce of ^^^ its value a^^-[-az'^-\- — +a^ =^rt2

3a 8

V 'Q

will be the probable error,

and 1 / ^ - the mean error.

§ 12.

Before we nse these formulas, let ns examine more carefully
the general nature of logarithmic computations. First, it must
not be assumed that every time we pass over from logarithm to
number or from number to logarithm an error arises whose
limit is the half of unity, since we may have added to the
tabular logarithm a proportional part. Also, the probability of
error in different intervals is not the same, since many sources
of error exist. Lastly, the limits and the probabilities of error
vary according as the transition is made from number to log-
arithm or from logarithm to number. Hence it will be neces-
sary to modify equations [1] and [2] of § 2, in which it was as-
sumed that there was only a single source of error arising with
each single transition. Therefore in order that everything may
be correctly expressed by the formulas, let us more carefully con-
sider the transition from number to logarithm.

If it is required to find the logarithm corresponding to a cer-
tain number, it is commonly done by adding to the tabular
logarithm a proportional part from the table of differences. So

458 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

if Lj and L2 are the tabular logarithms between which the in-
terpolation is to take place and « is the fraction by which the
difference A=^2— ^ij is to be multiplied, according to the
ordinary rule (the basis of which is to be considered here)

will bo the required logarithm. In this of course « A is ac-
cura-ciy computed, but is expressed only in integral units of
the last decimal place.

If it is assumed that/ 1 and^a are the errors of the tabular
logarithms Lj and Ln, it is then known that since L^ + f^ and
L2 + y^o ^^6 the exact values of the logarithms, the error of the
logariilim Li + e A will be

/i+^(/a-/i)-^/3

if ^3 denotes the error which arises from the curtailment of the
product £ A , but / is considered to be ary one of the equally
probable values which lie between ^^ and _;^. In each partic-
ular case the quantity « (which lies between 0 and 1) will be
fixed and definite; nor would it be difficult to introduce into the
computation, if expressed nunierically, all the ;,value3 which e
receives during the computation. Lut since we desire to in-
vestigate the general case, we shall attempt to find a mean value
for s ; or else we may treat all the values of s as remaining
indefinite, and finally find a probability which will show within
what limits the mean error and the probable error lie.

We shall omit the consideration of the last method although it
would add to the completeness and elegance of this investiga-
tion; but the final result which we seek would be helped but
little.

So let us first inquire what values the sum

can receive if instead of each / we write all the equally probable

values between — 14 and + l^. The formula [6] of § 5

serves best for this purpose. For if we substitute in it
ffj = 1 — £, a^ = e, a'3=l, k=3, x = \ we shall have .v=2, [s — 2m)y=l — m.

Bremiher — Errors Affecting Logarithmic Computations. 459

Since m can receive all values from 0 to s, the extreme limits

are — 1 and + 1. By substituting these values in IVm we shall

havo

f 7n3 — (m— l-}-£)3-f(m— 1)3— ....

6£(1 — E)

■'I ^ — (w— l)3+(r/i— 1— £)3

But in this formula several terms in which the quantities are
negative are to be omitted since m assumes only those values
which lie between 0 and 1 ; and thus it is changed into

W.m = ^^^^;^]m^-im-l+er

—{m—ef f

in which m and « receive all values between 0 and 1, and all
powers of negative quantities are necessarily excluded. So
1 — 2 Wm will be the probability that tlie sum [X—s)f^-ifEf^-\-f^
lies between the limits ±(1 — m). Below are the values which
1 — 2 Wm takes for each decimal division of the values of m
and « indicated in the table;

m (2— 2/n)x «=0,1 £=0,2 £=03 e=0,4 c=0,5

0,9

0,1

0,19G

0,198

0,198

0,198

0,198

0,8

0,2

0,374

0,331

0,3e8

0,338

0,390

OJ

03

0,530

0.513

0,557

0,56?;

0,564

0.6

0,4

0,662

0,684

0,700

0,712

0,714

0,5

0,5

0J74

0,796

0,814

0,828

0,834

0.4

0,6

0,864

0,384

0,900

0,9ii

0,914

0,3

0,7

0,930

0,916

0,958

oo:g

0.964

0,2

0,8

0.974

0,982

09S6

0,983

0,990

0,1 0,9 0,996 0,993 0,993 0,998 0,998

There is no need to extend the table further, since for c = 0.6,
O.T, etc., 1 — 2 Wm takes on the same values that it has for
e =0.4, e=0.3, etc. If we let « = 0 or 1 we shall have
Wm-V^ ni^ and so if

{2—2m)r = 0,1 then 1 —2 Wm = 0,190

0,2

0,360

0,3

0,510

0,4

0,640

0,5

0,750

0,6

0,840

0,7

0.910

0,8

0,960

0.9

0,990

460 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Aris, and Letters,
iaid tlie j^robable error and the mean error are found to bo

for s = 0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5

probablo error = 0,293 0.279 0 270 0,2G3 0,232 0,261
mean error = 0 333 0 318 0 307 0 298 0 293 0,292

'Hence it appears that it mattci*s little what value 8 has, since
the values which the mean error and the probable error receive
for various values of e differ among themselves but little. In
order to adopt a single average value and thus arrive at a more
convenient form for computation, let U3 put « = i , for v/hich
the probable error will be 0.270 and the mean error 0.307.

Therefore we may put the error of a logarithm found by in-
terpolation as

/ = ^A-f i/2+/*3 [20]

If the trn-pciition is from logarithm to number or arc, the er-
ror which is to be assumed as occurring in the logarithm has the
form

— (1— O/l-f/o.

For there are given, the logarithm L = log (p{a) , the tabular
logarithms L^ and L2 between which the interpolation is to be
performed, the difference Zo — L^ = ^ and Z, — L^ = S.
In order that the argument a corresponding to the logarithm L

may be found, the fraction -r is compAited and added to the

argument of the logarithm L^. Thus if Li + /i, L^ + /z, are
the true values of the logarithms, and therefore

5— /j. and ^-j-fz—fx
are the true differences, we have

Brcmilccr — Errors Affeding Logarithmic Computations. 461

S . '

Then, -r being put equal to e, the error by which a is af-

A
fected will bo

- ^{i^-')f 1-^-^/2]

But sincG

cZ(log^(a) )=I^S^m da = /Ida *
cp{a)

the error of the lo;^arithm from which a is found by means of
the table may be written

Again, by examination of the various values of e it api^cars

that the value & = i holds ai]ii0;3t the mean place. Therefore
in the change from -any partieuijr logarithm to the number or to
the arc the error of the Ivr'ariiLm may be assumed as

Lastly, if it is ncGC-sarv to ra^s from the loirarithm of one
trigonometric function g) [a) to the logarithm of smother trig-
onometric function q.' [a)hj the aid of the tables, the error at-
taching to log cp" [a) is

^n ,/ .-. d\o^ cD'{a) ,. , -
•^'- "^ '■' cMog q^{a) ^'

and it does not matter whether a is first found from log9^(^)
and then from this log:<?>' [a) , or v,diether the transition is made
directly from log q>{(i) to log <p' {a) without reference to the
argument a.

♦According to the notation of the author, d<p (a) t^ei'© denotes the derivative of
(p(a) with respect to a.—[E. F. C]

462 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Accordingly the formulas [1] and [2] of § 2 are slightly
modified, thus:

/(log a) =rif^a)^f'

f (log sin ^) = -cot A.f{A)-\-f

"71

f {log COS A) = ——tan A. f{A)+f
f(logtan^)=^_^-./(^)-f/'
/ (log cot A, = - '-^^r^^ . /(^)+/'
/(«) = ~ \ /(log a) +r \
f{A) = ^tan.l |/(log sin A)^r}
= - ^cot A I /(log cos A)-\-f' }
= — sin A cos A \ f (log tan A) -}- f t

lib ^ J

= sin A cos A

m

|/(!cgcot^)+/'|

PnrtLermoro in tlie transition from log tan A and Icri^ cot Al to
log sin A and leg cos A the following for-niihis arc used:

/(log sin A) = cos^ A ./(log tan A) -\- co3^4 .f"-\-f'
/(log cos ^) = — 8in« A ./(logtan^l)- sin-^ ./"A^f
/(log sin A) = — cos2 ^ . / (log cot ^1) — cos-'.l ./"+/'
/(log cos ^) = sin2 A . /(log cot ^) -f sinM . / "+/"
/(log sin ^1) = — cot« -4 . / (log cos J.) — cot^J^ . f'-if

"whpre /' and /" are to be taken according to formulas [20] and
1[21].

in which all the quantities fj, fz etc., are entirely independent,
BO that each one denotes any one of the equally probable values
between — % and + %, whose number is infinite.

Bremilcer — Errors Affecting Logarithmic Computations. 4G3

§ 13.

THe formulas set forth above are siifficlent to indicate the
probable error and the mean error of the result of any computa-
tion according to any formula whatever, and to show how great
is the likelihood that the error is contained v/ithin any assigned
limits. In order to show this by an example, we shall examine
more carefully some formulas according to which the third side
in a spherical triangle may be found if two sides and the in-
cluded angle are given.

A. First let us consider the formulas by means of which the
third angle is computed by means the auxiliary angle m where

we put

-Qf „__ smi(7 Vsin a sin b
sin ^{a—b)

and find

<,;„ 1 ^ _ sin^ (7 i/s'in « sin ^6 _ sin|(a — 5)
cos /J. sin jii

From this formula log cot m is computed by the addition
of three logarithms, from the sum of which one is subtracted.
Each one of these is assumed to be affected by an error f^ (which
in log sin a aad in log sin b is in fact diminished a half on ac-
count of the division by 2, if account is taken of the half-units
arising in the division of the last decimal place). So we have
the equation

/ (log cot /O = /'i+i/' ,+lf\-f\

in which the subscripts indicate that the various quantities /'
are independent.

Then according to the equations sot forth in § 12 we shall
Lave

/(log cos /O = sin2,,f/',-f.i/',+i/'3-/',)+siaV/'x+/'5
/(log sinu) = - cosX/'i+l/'a+^Z' 5-/'4)-cos W2+/'i
^(logsin^c) =/(log sin|C7|/sin a sin 6)— /(log cos//)

= f'x+if'2-\-lf\-sm 2//( /'x+i/'2-f l/'a-/'.)
-sin2/i/"i-/'.

464 Wt^sconsiti Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Then we have

/(c) = ^ tan i c |/{log sin Ic) +/"3 \

If next the vahie found for / (log sin % c) is substituted in
these eqn;idons and if every /' is change<l into the form
i/^ +5/^2 +y"3 5 aiid every _/' into the form — i/^ — ^/sj
and then if, for simplicity, f^, f^, etc., be denoted by (1),
(2), etc., so that we may write

T\

—

i'Df i^2)-f (3)

s\

= |-(4)+ i'5)-h (G)

f'z

= |(T)-|- iJ8)-f (9)

fV

- ^!l0)|-,^'ll)-[-(12)

J'\

= -^(]-j-^:U)

f\

= ^a5)-f),!0)t-(17)

r.

= -^'(18)-i(19i

/'»

= ^,oo^_|.^^2l)4-(22)

f'\

= -f(23)-i^21)

576 sKall Have

0*.

r r i(i)-hH2)+ (3)1 1

m--

AT

-- ^tanjex

003= /I \ +,V4)4-TV(5)+i(6) j-

I +tV(7)+tV'3)+^(9) J

-

, . . ( ^a0) + ^(ll)+(12> )
I +|(13)+KU) )
— ^(15)-i(lG)-(17)
-t(23)-i(2i)

Therefore the probable error by which c is aifcctcd, if si:: place
logarithms are used, is

p

wF = 10-6 -^^/^(a2)
|/G

in which it is necessary to write the coefncients of the qiiantitisc

Bremiher — Errors Affecting Logarithmic Co7npiitations. 465

(1), (2), etc., in place of a, Bj this substitution we shall
have

2r

V

2{a^) =— tan 3.^0/2,52 cc3^//-f 2,3G smV + 2^3J

ft C

and, after \vriting for r^ m, and p the values

r

= 2032.15

'ill

= 0 4:]4l9

P_

= 0,1017

t-o

we have

?yF^c) = 0,13195 tan^ei/2.5^cod-*/^+2,36sin*/i-h2,36

expressed in seconds.

When jj. comes out > -^5^, another form is more convenient.*

QYClC =

SO that we have this condition :

wF{0) = 0,13405 tar4ci/3;20co3V+l,e8sinV+2 36

Prom these formulas, the first for values of m <4:5*^, the last for
/* >45°, these values of icF arise :

fi

ivF{c)

0^

0, "40357 tan lo

10

0, 40235 ' '

20

0, 38G07 * '

30

0, 33641 ' •

40

0, 35241 * »

50

0, 34526 • «

GO

0, 34626 ' *

70

0, 35628 ' *

80

0, 36727 ' «

90

0, 37175 ' *

♦Those who are accustomed to computation use the following rule for computing
C* =z A^-\-B^ hy the aid of the auxiliary angle jn. First, log ^ — log ^ is taken, U

4G0 Vtl^consin Academy of Sciences, Avis, and Lcitcrs,

Since the coefficients of tan ^/2 c, which depend on the quantity
/", do not vary ^eatlv, the quantity 0.37*, which is scarcely 10^
different from the extreme values, may be written as a mean
value/ so that we have:

c

uFic)

0°

o;oo

10

0.03

20

0,07

30

0,10

^0

0, u

CO

0,17

CO

0,21

70

0,26

60

0,31

90

0,37

There is no nood to continue this tahle, which shows aj\proxi-
mately the proluible error correspond in/^ to any particular value
of Cy since for any value c < 00^ another equation

cos* Ic = cos* l{a-\-b)-\-sin a sin 6 cos* ^G

is employed, the sohition of which is the same and which has this
same probable error for values of c from c = 00^ to c = 180°.

The 3)rn])al)ility W of an error witliin certain limits, or of an
error within ± 1 second, is computed from the equation [17].

A ^/>, and this difforence is soupht in the column of the table marked c-ot. Then
from the column marked cos the corresponding logarithm is taken, which subtracted
from log A gives the required log C. But if IS^ A the diflFerence log B — log A is to be
souplit in the cot column and the corresponding logarithm from the cos column is to
b3 subtracted from log B. That difference is alwaj'S taken which is the logarithm of a
quantity greater than 1, and the corresponding logarithm from the cos column sub-
tract*id from the greater of the given logarithms. In the computation of the probable
error the rale is so used that for ju^i.o° the change is made from cotangent to sine.

•0.38 in the original. E. F. C.

BrcniiJcer — Errors Affeciing Logarithmic Compaiations. 467
Kow, since

let the limit be put for C and the probable error for mF, and

the value of W corresponding to the argument -^ may be

sought in a table of this integral.

If for example the greatest value found above (0.37) is put
for wF, and ? = 1, then the tables of the integral show for the

argument ^-^ the corresponding value IF =^ 0.93, or, in other

Vv^ords, under the most unfavorable condition (c = 90°) there
are 93 errors out of lOO which are less th^r* one second.

B. As another example take the equation which is com-
mended in many mathematical works,

sin'' 3^c = sin^ yz'a-\-b)— sin a sin b cos' y^C
Its solution is as follows ; first from ',he equation :

cos i^C v'sin ci sin b

C03/-1 = ^-=: .

sin >2(«4-^)
the auxiliary angle ju is computed, then c from the equation

sin }^c = sin }^{a-{-b) sin/i

Since log cos m is computed by means of four logarithms taken
singly from the tables, we shall have

/(log COS/.) = f\+Hf',+y2f'z-f\
in which /'^ belongs to sin ^'2 (a~{-h). Thence it follows that
/(log sin M) = -cot^Mif\+yzr2+y2f\-f\)-cot'M/\+f',

f (log Bin ^C) = -^/',-cotV(/\+3^/ .+f^/'3+/'l)+/5

/(c) = ^ tan ^c . {/(log sin ^c)+/'s }

4-GS ^yi.scons^}l Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Lcllcr
Tlien if, instead of /'' and /" we put

i!a)+i2)H3)ancU(l)+i(5)

Tvo sliall liavG nineteen independcTit sources of error and find
tliat

V

^r'/v2

Lastly by insertir.g the factor

10-G -]^

we sliall obtain the probable error by v»'liicb c is afrected, as ex-
pressed in the following table :

u

wF\,c)

0^

CO

10

13;236 tan y.o

£0

3, 2r>

30

1,409 •*

40

0, 769 ♦ '

CO

0. 513 ' '

CO

0,412 "

70

0, 33.-; ' '

80

0, 377 * *

90

0,372 **

Since wF approaches infinity as m approaches zero, this form-
ula is eidently unsuitable for general use.

C. The Gaussiaii equations for computing the third side c
furnish another exani])le. They are the following four, if we

put

VziA-B) =ju and i^(^+^) = v

Viz:

cin }^o sin ju
sin }^c cos JU
cos l<>c sin V

cos 3^20 C03 V

sin 3^(a— 6) cos y2,C
sin }2{^'\~^) siii y^O
cos }^{a — b) cos }^iO
coa}^{a-\-b) sin }^C,

Dremiher — Errors Affecting Logarithmic Computations. 40.)
Tlie order in v/Iiich tho loi;arithni3 are writ'ten is as follows:

1. sin y'ya—b) cos 3'4C

2. sin X-^ia^-b) oin y^G
cosu

o

4.

5. cos 3^(a — h) cos 3^(7

6. cos >^(a-f-6) sin 3^C7
sinr

sin l^G

7.
8.

cos YzG

Lastly fi-om the diiierenee of the logarithms of 4. and 8. arises
log tan yo ^j ^y means of which the side c is found. But since
the anples u and '^ , which are used h'*re only as auxiliaries,
have lilt a small influence upon the probable error by which c is
aifectfd, as already has appeared in example A, the formula
may }-r- sim.plified. As the transition has t-aken place in angle
H froji'i tangent to cosine, in angle v to sine, w^e shall w^rite in
place of them 0° and 90° respectively. ISTevertheless we could
pursue a different method vvithout causing any essential differ-
ence in the final formula.

ij'urthcrn:ore, if the errors by which log cos 1/^ C and log sin
1/2 C are affected be denoted by f\ and /' 2? and the errors of the
other logaritlmis, which are used only once in the computation,
by /'s, f\, etc., we shall have

/(log tan fi) =f\-f'',±f\—f\

/(log cos /0 = -3in^"(/l-/'2+/'3-/'4)-sin2/^/^+/'5

/(log sin 3^0 =/'2+/'4"/(log cos /x)

then

/(lo^ tan K) =/'i— /', l-Z'e— /"t

f{\o4, yin v) = Q)rr{f\-f2^f\—f' ^)^co3'y f i—f\

/(log cosj'o^j) =f i-h/'e— /Cog sin v)

lastly

/{log tan>^c) = -/'i+/'2+/'4-/'6-/(log cos//)+/(log sin r)

■whence it follows that

/•(c) = — sine {/(log tan ^0)4-/% (

470 Wiscojisin Academy of Sciences^, Arls^ and Letters.

If in this formula "^e substitute the values already found/ and
put >u = .0^, v = 90°y and fcr f and f^ the values found in
§ 12, it vnll be seen that / (c) depends on twenty sources of
error and that

^(a«) =- JL sin c ^10, 76

This value beinc: substituted in

wF{c) = 10-6_J^ T /-^{(x*)

it follows that

wF{e) = 0/3033 sine

OT w F (c) will have the values sho^\Ti in the following table:

c

iuF{c)

0°

o;oo

10

0,05

20

0, 10

30

0,15

40

0,20

50

0 23

CO

0,26

70

0,29

80

0,30

90

0,30

Thus it appears from this computation that the probable error
is a little less than in the formula proposed under A, but the
computation itself is longer on account of the auxiliaries,
which moreover are in this case of no further use.

D. Lastly it is advisable to examine some equations in which
functions of the entire angles are used in computing triangles.
Let us begin with the equations

sin c sin A = sin a sin C

sin c cos A = cos a sin 6 — sin a cos b cos O

cos c = cos a cos b -}- sin a sin b coe O

and put

sin a cos C = vi. sin 3f,
cos a — m. cos IT.

Bremin-er — Errors Affecting LGgaritliniic Comvidations. 471

Then we shall have

fiin c sin A = sin a sin (7

sin c cos ^ = 771 sin (6 — J/)

cos c = m cos (6 — J/)

Hence in order to nnd c there must be computed

tan 31 = tan a cos C

tan A = . \,^ ... tan C

sin {b—M)

tan (6— iJ/)
tan c =

cos A

Accordingly we have

/(log tan 3/) =f't-{-f'2

f{3f) = ^^^° ^/ cos i!/ (/',+/' 2+/ 'i)

/(log sin ^/) = cos^ i'/(/'i+/'s+/i'')+r'3

/(log siD[6-J/]) = —cot (b—M) sin 3i cos ATl/'i-f/'a-h/'J-f/'*

,^ sin iJ/cos 3/ , -, , ,, I ^» \ I ^/

/(logtan [(6^3/]) = -31^,-,/, eos (6-3/;^^+-^ ^+-^ ^^+-^ »

/(log tan yl) = / (log «in M) —/(log sin [6—3/] )+•/'«

( /(log sin 3/)-/(log sin (6-3/) )
/(log cos ^) = — sm' A j h -hT 1

^/i 4. V sin 3/ cos 3/ ^^, ^ ^, ^ y. ^_l_^>

. /(log tan c) = - si^^5_^./-)cos(6-3/) ^-^ ^^-^ ^+*^ ^^^^^ "^

H-sin^^ cos*3/(/'i4-/'u+/'iH-sinM . /'«

+sin« ^ cot (b—M) sin 3/ cos 3/ (/'i4-/'a4-/'i)

-sin'^ ^ ./'i+sin-' ^ ./'o f sin'^ ^ • f'tS'i

finally,

/(c) = --- sin 2c {/(log tan c)+/% |

472 ]Visco7isin Academy of Sciences, Arls, and Letters.

Then if ^ve put the side 6 = 90° in order to simplify the com-
putation and to obtain a representative value from vv^hich the
others differ but little, the formula / (c) is changed as follows:.

fU-) - ^- s-:n 2^ I -^"^^ ^^ (/'x+/'.-f/\ )+/'5-/'7+/"3 \

Then, after Tve have written for the various quantities f and
/", their values according to § 12 there are seen to be 27 sources
of error, and

1/ 2»i

whence it follows that

wF[c) = 10-6 -^ /:2{a')

The values oi w F (c) corresponding to different values of A
will be;

A wFic)

0°

o;i3ii

sin 2c

10

0, 1293

20

0 1215

30

0, 11S3

40

0, 1170

50

0, 1193

CO

0, 1276

70

0, 1353

80

0, U19

90

0, 1444

Bverailcer — Errors Affectinn Ijoc-ariilimic Coiiir/utations. 473

If instead of the factor wliicli depends on A we put the con-
stant 0.13 14 we shall have

c

wF{c)

0"

0/00

10

O/'Oi

20

0/03

30

0/11

40

o;i3

50

0/13

60

0/11

70

0/03

80

o;oi

90

0/00

The maxiinum vahie of tlie proi;r;ble error will here be | of a
second, while in the formulas considered under A and C it was
% of a second. Furthermore, as long as c has a value less than
45°, formulas A, C, and D are ailecied Avith nearly the same
error, but for greater values of c the last equations are evi-
dently to be preferred.

These examples may sufSce to show the use of the formulas
proposed above. Space doc^ not permit the continuation of this
subject in this place, but its further study may be s«:rongl;/ urged
upon those who are required to make frequent use of formulas,
as in astronomy. In general i'c v.dil appear that a slight change
in a formula will sometimes bring about a very great difcerence
in precision, as exani})ie3 A and B show; and furthermore, that
the computation in which the functions of whole angles are
used, such as vv^as proposed in D, usually affords greater pre-
cision than if functions of the half angles were used, althougli
usually at the cost of a greater expenditure of time. The de-
termination of the probable error ought never to be omitted ia
actual practice since the following formulas :

tan M = tan a cos C

cos (6 — Af)

cos c = C03 a

cos M

which are recommended in many mathematical books instrr'.-l of
those v/hich we have examined under D, ought not to be used

474 ]Visconsm Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

except v/ith great cirenmspcction and within proper limits.
These limits having been found by an investigation of the
probable error, such a formula, although useless elsewhere, can
be used conveniently in the cases and within the limits where it
offers the advantage of brevity and still affords sufficient preci-
sion.

PERSONAL NAMES

THEIR SIGlS^IFICAIsrCE AXD HISTOEICAL ORIGlK

JAMES DAVIE BUTLER^ EL. D.

^^Go to pot, I tell you, Sir, go to pot!'' These words were
my greeting from the head of the Boston public library when I
began to seek there for the significance of personal names. His
language was brusk and would have sounded contemptuous to a
stranger. But he had been my classmate a decade before and
had taken as many jokes as he had given. His meaning was;
The best book in Boston to tell you what your name means is
a volume by Augustus Frederick Pott. Its full title is ; Die
Personennamen ; insbesondere die Familien-namen und ihre
Entstehungarten, auch unter Beriicksichtigung der Ortsnamen.

This work published in 1853 is by no means antiquated. It
is larger than any one of the twenty volumes on the subject in
our Historical Librarv, — and thou2;h each of those more recent
works has points of superiority, — no better advice can now be
given to a beginner in patronomatology than ''Go to Pott, I
tell you. Sir, go to Pott!"

My friend's jocular order, however, led me to tell him a trifle
of my earliest experience in the Paris police-office when pass-
ports were a daily necessity. Ushered into a long hall where
a score of clerks were wi'iting on each side, I walked up to the
nearest one, passport in hand, Avishing to get it vised. He
glanced up at me from his desk, and said O Booh ! paying me
no further attention. I passed on to another Avriter who also
said O Booh ! and nothing more. I turned across the room but
heard no other salutation. O Booh to right of me, O Booh to
4

476 ^Yiscons^7l Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

left of me, 0 Booh behind me, vollejed and thundered. At last
it da^vned on my darkness that no insulting English vocables
were in the minds of the vooif erators but that they were only in-
forming me that I must go to the end of the office, au bout!

Ko theme so comes home to all men's business and bosoms as
personal names. Some savor of their significance pervades all
literature sacred and profane — downward from the Bible and
Homer. The earliest family quarrel we read of was when an
Attic farmer who never spent anything had taken a wife who
counted nobody respectable that did not keep a horse. In
naming their first boy he insisted on a name with the element
saving in it, while she would hear of none which lacked the
syllable horse. By way of compromise the name Phoidippides,
that is son of a saving horse was invented and adopted.

Personal names being then of such varied interest cosmopol-
itan, pre-historic, post-historic, con-historic, sub-historic, no
one should essay to treat the general subject in fewer pages
than the thousand of Pott, indeed were Pott now writimr and
in regard to our American poly-glott and panti-glott direc-
tories his book would become doubly ponderous.

Broadly speaking personal names may be said to be derived
from tliree sources, namely, first, some characteristic, actual,
imagined or ascribed, secondly, one's occupation, and thirdly,
his T3lace of abode. Before tracins; a name, however, to anv
one of these sources w^e must often ascertain tlie meaning of
obsolete words or forms of words in our own toncrue, or studv
foreign lang^iages, or become conversant with many varieties
of industry nov^ no longer known or carried on by new pro-
cesses.

In the following article the names chosen for illustrating the
subject are of persons well known in Madison, but those of peo-
ple in any other town or those of authors on the backs of books
in any library would have been equally sendceable for the
writer's purpose.

The earliest personal names were naturally given in view of
some personal characteristic.

Hence oris^inated the first Pairchild and the first Brown.
Morris, tliat is Moorish, is another name for darJc hroivn.

Butler — Personal Names. ' 477

Adams and Reid — both mean red — the one being Hebrew and
the other Scotch. Russell as a diminutive of red we may de-
fine as ruddy. So Julius as well as La Follette means soft hair,
and Pavill, as some think, is yellow hair.

Greeks called one man Eustace that is well-put-together, or
Andrew meaning manly, Jews called him Asahel, that is God-
made, Saxons called him Charles and Irish Brjant, both mean-
ing stout. A similar idea of physical prow^ess led to such
names as Storm Bull, Buell also meaning hull, Hoyt, nimble,
Bjorn, a hear, Oscar, an agile warrior, Martyn, Mars-lihe,
Knapp, a striker.

Other nam.es were indicative of mental qualities. Hugh was
a thinker, Hutchinson and McKee both signify sons of Hugh.
Hubert was hriglit Hugh, and so Albert is all-hright. Robert
fame-hright and Herbert, army-hright, Gilbert, bright servant
whose son became Gibson, Gib being a contract of Gilbert. So
Aubertine was white-hright or perhaps self-hright. Hobbs and
Hobbins are possibly allied to Robert, i. e., fame-hright.

Such of our personal names as do not show location or char-
acteristics, are descriptive of occupation.

Among the most ancient of this class is Therese. This
name is Greek and means either huntress or female harvester.
Birge if not birch, may be French for shepherd, (Berger) in
pastoral poets, a rustic lover. Birge is, however, mxore prob-
ably a contract from early English Her-&er^-ere, meaning harb-
orer, that is innkeeper. Georg'c is Greek for earthworker, that
is farmer, wdiich in German is Myers, in old English it is Bower
and Burr. Gregory is Greek for watchman, not unlike Ward
in English. Edward is a guard of goods, and "Woodward of
trees, and akin to Forster [forester]. The London Bunliill
was named from a cake, and the proper name Bunn would seem
to mean the maker or seller of that dainty.

Among occupational names w^hich are plain of themselves we
have Mason, Carpenter, Turner, and Bowman. Homer is set
down as helmeter, that is helmet-maker.

Smith, is a smiter, and his monosvllabic name mav be a sur-
vival of some compound, as Arrowsmith, Bowsmith, Black-
smith, Whitesmith, Gunsmith, Goldsmith, Silversmith, Song-

478 Wi^cothsin Academy of Sciences, Aiis, and Letters.

smith [poet]. It is owing to countless defunct compounds
that Smiths are multitudinous. Baird is a poet, being Scotch
for hard.

All patronymics — or names showing men's fathers, are in a
loose sense characteristic. Such are all names ending in son,
as Carson, son of Carr ; many that end in s as Hobbs, all that
begin A\'ith 3Ic, and some that begin vrith B. Thus, Bolivar is
the son of Oliver, and Breese the son of Reese, or Bice. This
Welsh word Bhys is of cognate origin with the Latin rex, a king.
Characteristic names when given to children betokened quali-
ties not always possessed — but attributed hy parental affection,
or hoped for. Basmus, contracted from the Greek Erasmus, —
in Latin Desiderius — one lonrjed for and hence loved, is identi-
cal in significance witli David and Davie in Hebrew (mth
Taffy as a variant), and Cary in Irish. A similar feeling led
Leah at the birth of her first-1)orn to exclaim, ^'Beuben!" — that
is behold a S07i! Wiere primogeniture was law it was common
to call the oldest bov Barnes, that is the hairn — the child bv
way of eminence as the predestined heir. In astrological eras
as the hour of birth was held to have a life-long influence, and
those born at dawn were destined to good luck, a lx>y bom then
was named Lucius or Lucien, that is, belonging to light, and so
of good omen. Hence arose the Latin proverb Nomen omen.

Barental appreciations — sometimes exaggerations — of babea
in the house, are to be credited with such names as Theodore,
i, e., gift of God; John and Jones, God's grace, the most per-
vasive name in Christendom, leaving no corner of it untouched.
On the same lines were fonned ]\Iargaret — a pearl, Bosella —
a little rose, Bomanzo — a fairy talc, Anna — condescending,
Augustus — dignified, Stevens — crowned, Emil — emulous, Ed-
win— a lucky wi7iner, Willard — strong ivill, Elizabeth — de-
vout, Delia — chaste from a name of the Grecian Artemis,
Gold — the most precious of all metals and as too many
think of all things — Stearns — a star, though some interpret it
*' stern, from the natural disposition of the first bearer."

Other names characterize still less flatteringly. Thus the
Irish called Cassoday [Cassidy] an accuser or caviler, Jacob as
well as its variant James is a heeler, heel-catcher, because the

Butler — Personal Names. 479

patriarch at first seized his brother by the heel (Gen., 25, 26),
and afterward tripped him up ; and Favill in old English was
a liar or at least a fabulist. Says Chancer :

"Looke on the luft-hond, and see wher he stondeth
Both fals and fauvel, and all his hole meyne."

Barnes suggested by temperament are frequent. Thus, a
sanguineous daughter was called Ella — that is, sunny ; Allen, if
it was not at first a hound, All-ivin, as if he had won all, meant
cheerful ; \^^2.c meant laughter, for he was the cause of it;
Mary — in Latin, Maria — was tearful, and so was well named
hitter. The same sense I find assigned to the first Hervelin
who was born blind, and so to a hitter life.

Other characteristic appellations allude to some exploit his-
toric, or prophetic, or hoped for. Thus, Daniel is divine judge;
Uriah, light of God ; Joseph, augmentation; Jairus, enlight-
ener; Alexander, helper of men; William, helmet of many;
Louis^ hold ivarrior; Pringle, pilgrim. Oliver — so called from
complexion, or as living by an olivet — long meant peaceful,
with a reference to the olive branch of Noah's dove. But be-
coming confused with Olaf, the old Norse fighter, it came to
mean a champion whom no one but Roland could match.
Hence the phrase. Give a Roland for an Oliver. Henry means
home-ruler ; Hanks, Haskins, and Hendrick are some of its
variants, though Lower says Hanks means house-iuolf (p. 146).
Frederick is peace-ruler; Richard, great heart; Willard, strong
will; Sarah is mistress. l^oble explains itself, and also Eu-
gene, which is Greek for lu ell-horn. Freeman describes a man
who first among a crowd of serfs broke his birth's invidious bar,
and so was known by way of distinction as the freeman.

Another class of personal names denotes location — the place
of origin or abode.

Jastrow comes from a Polish to^vn so called in the present
province of Posen. Brandenburger is a name given to one who
originated in that German region of which Berlin is the cap-
ital, and Frankenburger denoted one who^ came from an impe-
rial circle now in Bavaria. The name Lincoln showed that a
man had to do with the English county of that name. Orville

480 Wiscormn Academy of Sciences^ Aiis, and Letters.

and Pavill, if French, may mean : the one a to\vn of gold, and
the other a suburb. Ely and Kamsav indicate islands, the one
of ezls and the other of ram^, as Shelly points to an isle of
dheUs. Pinney is isle of pins, a word which of old included
both pegs and underpinning. The name of old was spelled
with a y ; so was pin, which also had two n's. Such place-names
were often first given by outsiders when natives migrated, and
in their new homes were thought of in reference to their prov-
enance.

Several namxcs cam^e from connection with trees. Grover,
one dwelling by a grove, is similar to Atwood. Analogous is
Silas, that is, icoodman, being a contraction of silvaniis, which
is woodman in Latin. So Birge, if English, is probably hircli
wood. Thwaites is a clearing in a wood, — a place where the
trees have been thivnclced. Other names show connection with
valleys. ComiStock is the clan in a comb — comh in old English
meaning a valley or the ridge which hems it in. The' word
honeycomb still shows the ancient meaning. Dalzel is the
white dell, and Kendall the dale of kindred.

Newton — neiv tovjn — is self-explaining. Stanley is a field
of stone. Lansing — the field of a lancer — reminds of a West-
emism, namely, tomahawk right. Sheldon is hill of shells, and
Conover, a cow-yard.

Several local names were given in reference to water. Moore
is a marsh; so is Kerr, so is Van Hise — Hise being a corruption
of ness, which is Dutch for a swamp, and akin to the German
nass.

Bashford is tlie passage of a stream ; the first syllable may
be has as in Bascom — i. e., loiver valley, or is it rather a varia-
tion of hush f " Olin, unless his lineage runs back to the Xorse
Ole, may denote a pool, — and especially, one not shallow. Lin-
coln is a colony beside a pool. ITpham is upper hamlet, and
Updike probably upon the dike.

The name Wright is the same word as ivorker, the letter r
being transposed. It was in usage restricted to a mechanical
worker, as car^wright, etc. The name Wayne, the old English
form of luain, or wagon, is still found in the compound, Wain-

*In the British gazetteer I find thre^ places now set down as das-ford,
and one as 6as church.

Butler — Personal Names. 481

wriglit. The name Cole is collier abbreviated, and Mills is
miller. McMynn is Scotch for son of milner [miller] ; Stuart,
that is, Stow-ward, is guardian of what is stowed in a house.
Reeve is a similar term, but with a wider meaning. Thus
Chaucer sajs, Bards, 223:

"His lordes shepe, his cete and his deirie,
His swine, his hors, his store and his pultrie
Were wholly in this reves governing."

It is agreed that Butler mxans cup-hearer, but it has been
doubted whether his name came from the bottle he uncorks or
from the butt out of which bottles are filled. The name King,
appai'ently signifving the highest of occupations, may really
have been an adjunct of the lowest — King's groom., scullion or
factotum, as King John said (iv., 2, 222) of such tools,

"Fellows by the hand of nature marked
Quoted and signed to do a deed of shame."

It seems clear, on the whole, that personal names may all be
reckoned to have been at first significant of characteristics, loca-
tions, or occupations. As time vv^ent on, however, those names
were often bestowed wuthout anv reu'ard to their ori^-inal mean-
ing. Christian names were from early ages so given, a fact too
little dwelt on by writers on the specialty of names. Church
calendars had their beginnings as early as the fourth century.
They grew rapidly so that, though every dog has his day, many
a saint must be! content with none, or at most with a part of
one. Each saint was viewed as the tutelar genius — or guardian
of all children born on his own day — and so they were natur-
ally often called by his nam.e, with no care for their location,
occupation or characteristics. All old almanacs — ^^vhateveT
they lacked — showed at least one saint for every day in the
year. Such a list was invaluable. It taught the most ignor-
ant mother in a moment what name it was predestinated her
child should bear. This saintly calendar appeared in the first
volume of the w^orld-famous Goth a Almanac issued in 1776, and
it has been repeated every year since. The adoption of names
in accordance with the days of saints did not end at the Kefor-

482 Wiscon-siii Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

mation even in Protestant Europe. The Gotha roster is three-
fold: one column presents Greek saints, the second Catholic,
and the third, equally lona:, the saints recognized by the Keform-
ers. As often as the Lutherans reject-ed one of the Catholic
band, they filled the gap by inserting another saint, and that
usually from the Old Testament. Thus Genevieve was thrown
out and Enoch was substituted. This fact shows where many
hard Hebrew vocables came from which were fathered upon
the Puritans, but have been proved to be older than they, and
also prevalent in the church of England. Adam in the Ke-
formed calendar stands for the Catholic Delphine, who was the
tutelar of Dec. 24th.

Whatever then the proximate occasion of our being called by
the names we bear, it would seem that not a few of them ulti-
matelv came to us from the calendar of the saints, often because
we were namesakes of god-fathers. Tracing the possible lin-
eage or descent of one sino^le name may shed a side-liaht on that
of others. The name George, as has been stated, means farmer
and was derived from occupation. It was doubtless common
in a region between the Black and Caspian seas which Avas
called Georgia, or land of farmers, to distinguish it from the
Xomads or pastoral tribes around. Xear there in Cappadocia
a certain George slew a dragon and saved an imperilled vir-
gin. This exploit, as some hold rather prosaically, lay in de^-
livering the ground from weeds and enabling it to yield crops.
In the view of others, George vanquished the persecutors of
the church, of whom the serpent Satan was chief. At all events,
George became a saint, one of tlie seven champions of Christen-
dom, and the patron of knights, and of several countries. In
England, his royal chapel — still the finest in the kingdom — at
Windsor, was completed four centuries ago. It was in 1349
that St. George had been taken by Edward III., at the
siege of Calais, as the national saint of England. His name
became the English battle-cry, so in Shakespeare Talbot ex-
claims: ''Saint George and victory, fight, soldiers, fight!" A
hundred and sixty-two parish churches have been ascertained
to bear his naane. His day was the 23d of April, but we may
be sure that many a boy born on other days was christened with

Butler — Personal Names. 483

this favorite's name. King George the First, who came from
Hanover, getting his ov\'n name from the saint, passed it on
to three of his successors. All the royal Georges unawares
spread the name among unroyal scions, as when Calhoun took
snuff all Carolina sneezed. Among such plebeian namesakes
was George Washington, to whom more Americans proximately
owe their first name than to any king or saint.

Several others of our names go back ultimately to notables
whom they strive to keep in mind. Alexander is a memorial
of a monarch who in 128 G was the Washington, or at least the
Lincoln, of Scotland. Lucien was suggested to many a mother
by the career of the most irreproachable brother of the first Na-
poleon. So was Eugene, by Napoleon's step-son Beauharnais,
and Bolivar, meaning as already stated, son of Oliver, who, more
than any other man, was the liberator of South America. His
name has been linked with our greatest name by Byron, who

sang:

"The prophets of young freedom summoned far,
From climes of Washington and Bolivar."

It is no wonder that political sympathies multiplied his name,
Bolivar, among us. VeneTation for a most heroic missionary
whose sun went down at noon, has given us many a Henry
Martin, by adopting his whole name. In remembrance of the
first American chief magistrate who died in ofiice, and that
on its tlireshold, more than one cradling was then named Will-
iam Henry. If Abraham as well as Lincoln appears in the
name of a citizen, it is clear that his mother's heart was a shrine
of our first presidential martyr. Homer says tlie infant As-
tyanax was like a star, and so, no doubt, many an English boy
was in the eyes of his mother. Then she had no hesitation
about a name for her earth-treading star. Many a Grecian
mother must have lulled her babe to sleep with an epigram
of Plato's :

"Thy looks are heavenward to the starry rays,
Were I that heaven all stars on thee should gaze!"

484 Wiscojisin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, aiid Letters.

So slio would name liiin Star, or its variant Sterns. Should
that brightest of stars in her eyes have proved too good to live,
she had a still better epitaph, also from Plato:

"Thou wert the morning star to all the living

Ere thy young life had sped,
Now, like tne evening star, thou 'rt giving
New lustre to the dead."

Some names represent the ecstasies of voung mothers and
perpotup.te them. One of those blessed women beholding in her
infant the best of v/hat she had read in romances realized,
called him her rom.ance — Romanzo. Another, admiring the
Old Testament knight, — most without fear and without re-
proach, the Chevalier Eayard of tlie Bible — called her man-
child the light of God, Uriah. We cannot see the name de-
graded in the Uriah Pleep of Dickens without feeling again as
we did vdien the Hag of the Union was hauled down and dragged
in the dust. I\Iilton^ however, had glorified the name in its
variant, Uriel, beyond degradation :

"The archangel Uriel — one of the seven
Who in God's presence nearest to his throne,
Stand ready at command, and are his eyes
That run through all the heavens, or down to the earth."

St. Easmus — the Christian Castor and Pollux — showing at
the mast-head electric tiashes welcome to sailors as a liii'ht-house,
gave ]N^orwe'gian mothers of sea-farers a name that was above
all other names. That corposant lighted vikings to many dark
deeds. In the Italian Pasmus is spelled St. Elmo, and gives
name alike to Neapolitan sailor boys and to the high-gleaming
castle at ^N^aples which is their land-mark, or sea-mark.

This lucubration began with Dr. Pott, and it may well end
with him. I repeat it then : Go to Pott ! Pott, starting with
his own family name, passed on to the study of all personal
names and then to comparative linguistic research, rising still
from high to higher until he became one of the most illustrious
philologists of his time, and some would maintain of all time;
as Germans say, a path-breaker and epoch-maker.

We may naturally gain some analogous impulses from the

Butler — Personal Names. 485

study either of our own names or those of those with whom we
are most familiar. The habit of letting no word pass from
us without analysis will give us always and everywhere food
for thought and speech. It will satisfy us that in properly
studying words we must study things. Botany turns in the
eyes of its votaries every weed into a flower. Linguistics trans-
form every vocable, no matter how trite or trivial. They show
our commonest phrases to be carrier-doves flying through all
ages and continents bearing on their mngs a flavor of poetry,
history, philosophy, religion. Thus they become veritable birds
of "Daradise regained.

-i- o

DEVELOPMENT AND STRUCTURE OF THE S\VARM-

SPORES OF HYDRODiCTYON.

HAMILTON GKEE^'WOOD TIMEEELAKE^ M. S.
Instructor in Botany, University of Wisconsin.

Of the various large groups of plants the green Algae, with the
possible exception of Spirogyra, have perhaps been the least in-
vestigated from the modern standpoint of cell structure and by
aid of the newer technique. The special problems that need
careful attention are connected with the method of cell division,
the structure and division of the nuclei and the development
and structure of the swarm spores.

Until very recently the prevailing accounts of cell division
accompanying spore formation in many of the coenocytic Fun-
gi and green Algae agi-eed that the protoplasm is divided at
once into uninucleate segments. But the researches of Harper
(11, 12) upon Synchitrium, Piloholus, Sporodinia and Fidigo
showed that many stages of cleavage in these forms had been
entirely overlooked by previous observers. Harper showed
that in the forms enumerated instead of the cleavage being si-
multaneous it is progressive in that the protoplast becomes di-
vided into large multinucleate masses that are further divided
into uninucleate ones. There is, moreover, quite a variation
in the manner in which this process of progressive cleavage may
be accomplished. It may be done by means of constriction
furrows in the plasma membrane alone, as for example, in
Sporodinia or by means of constriction furrows which fuse
with angular vacuoles on the inside of the protoplast as is the
case in Piloholus. Analogous processes may be expected to
occur in the spore forming cells of the coenocytic Algae. Klebs
(16) has, in fact, described a process of progressive cleavage

Timberlahe — 8warm-Spores of Hydrodictyon^ 487

in Hydrodictyon but, as will appear later, without giving a
full or accurate account of the important details. Klebahn
(15) has also briefly described a similar process in Spliaeroj)-
loea annidina. In this case irregular clefts are said to arise in
the protoplast and by further growth and branching to sepa-
rate it into the final cleavage products. The origin of the
clefts Klebahn does not describe'.

To Schmitz (21) and Strasburger (23) is due the credit
for establishing the presence and peiTnanency of numerous
nuclei in many loweT Algae, especially such forms as Hydro-
dictyon, Cladopliora, etc., as well as many of the lower Fungi,
but the structure and division of the nuclei so far as the coen-
ocytic green Algae are concerned, are practically unknown
with the exception of Fairchild's (8) work on Valonia and
more recently that of Klebahn on S phaeroploea.

In Kairchild's account of nuclear division in Valonia, there
is described and plainly figured for the first time stages showing
very clearly that the mitotic division in that plant is similar
in its essential features to the nuclear division in the higher
plants and animals.

The chromatin collects into a thread and segments into
chromosomes that are collected into an equatorial plate. The
daughter chromosomes are dra^\Ti to the poles of the spindle
where thev foiTii the dau2:hter nuclei in a manner similar to
that observed in most cells. The method of spindle formation
was not made out in detail, but at the time of the formation
of the equatorial plate the fil^res were seen to conyerge at two
points on opposite sides of the nucleus. Whether centrosomes
are present Fairchild could not definitely determine, but his
figures show quite well defined bodies at the poles of the spin-
dle. Around these bodies numerous short rays radiate forming
apparently quite typical a.sters.

The nuclear membrane persists, according to Fairchild, un-
til the anaphases in which it is drawn out into a long sac like
structure between the two daughter nuclei. Fairchild saw no
trace of the central spindle fibres in connection with this sac
like structure. The fact that, in Valonia, amitotic nuclear di-
vision may occur in the same cell with the mitotic divisions

488 Wisco7isi7i Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

seems to have also been clearly established bv Fairchild's re-
searches.

Klebahn's figures of Spliaeroploea show by the presence of
a well defined spindle and distinct chromosomes that in that
alga the nuclei divide by a typical mitotic process.

Golenkin (10) has recently studied the nuclei of various
green algae and has attempted to show that the nuclei in such
forms as Tlydrodiciyoii and Spliaeroploea correspond in struc-
ture to those in Spirogyra in that in the resting stage the choma-
tin material is collected in the middle of the nucleus in the form
of a larfre nucleole. Between this body and the nuclear mem-
brane the space is filled vdth a formless hyaline substance.
During the division stages the bodies corresponding to the chro-
mosomes of hiirher T)lants are diffei^entiated out of the central
nucleole-like mass. Golenkin thinks that this type of nucleus
is of a primitive character as indicated by its occurrence in
these lower forms, but it is quite probable that Golenkin worked
with poorly prepared material in which the nuclei were dis-
torted. Such a result can easily happen in connection with
forms whose nuclei are so small as those of Hydrodictyon.
But my figures show that the nucleole in this plant is the same
organ in structure and occurrence as it is in the nuclei of the
higher organisms.

The discovery of special cilia forming organs in the anthero-
zoids of various Gymnosperms and Pteridophytes, by Webber
(33), Ikeno (14), Ilirase (13), Belajeff (3), and Shaw (22)
and the attendant discussion as to their homology has brought
into prominence the question as to the homologies of cilia bear-
ing organs in swann spores and other ciliated cells.

In a paper on the Clilamydomodineae, Dangeard (G) discusses
at some length the question of the structure of the cilia bearing
organ in the swarm spores of those plants. lie thinks that the
cilia are attached to a small basal nodule just within the
plasma membrane. There extends from this nodule toward the
nucleus, according to Dangeard, a fine protoplasmic fibre, that
may or may not reach the nuclear membrane. The basal
nodule is thou2:ht by Dangeard to be equivalent to the blepharo-
plast of the antlierozoids of the Gymnosperms and ferns.

Timhcr-lahe — Swarm-Spores of Hydro did yon. 489

Strasburger (25) has recently discussed very fully the
question as to the structure and homology of the cilia bearing
organs of the swarm spores of such forms as Cladophora, Vau-
cheria and Oedogoniuin. He thinks that there is a simple
swelling of the plasma membrane at the point of insertion of
the cilia, and that this is neither a centrosome nor the equiva-
lent of the blepharoplast. Strasburger contends that the entire
"mouth piece" of the swarm spore of Oedogoniuni is to be re-
garded as the homologue of the cilia bearing band of the an-
therozoids of the Gymnosperms and ferns.

Dangeard (7) has attempted to establish homologies be-
tv/een the structure of the swarm spores and gametes of the
Clilamydomodineae and Polytoma uvella, and the spermatozoa
of the higher animals. But he fails to show that the develop-
ment of the structures that he thinks are homologous is in any
Tvay similar.

The main features in the morpholog}^ and reproduction of
Hydrodictyon have become well known through the researches
of Vaucher (3), Areschoug (1), Braun (4), Pringsheim
(20), Suppanetz and others. A very complete historical ac-
count of these researches is given in Artari's (2) paper re-
ferred to beloAV, so that I shall take account of those papers
only that have a direct bearing upon the problems here inves-
tigated. The most accurate and complete account given by
the earlier observers of the cell structure and method of spore
formation was that of Braun ((3).

According to this observer the protoplasmic contents of the
cell consist of three distinct layers: 1. The "primordial
membrane," a thin, somewhat opaque layer appearing finely
punctate which is dravxTi away from the cell membrane by the
action of acids. 2. An outer "mucilaginous" layer, which is
thicker than the preceding, but thinner than the following
layer. It appears to be irregular on the outer and inner sur-
faces and contains numerous "mucilage granules" (nuclei ?)
which are som.ewhat large and irregular in outline. 3. "In-
ner mucilaginous laver" — the thickest laver of the three con-
taining the chlorophyl which in young or poorly developed cells
appears in irregular rows of small granules forming a network,

400 Wiscojhsiii Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

but in old, well developed cells is evenly distributed. Tbis
layer also contains starcli vesicles (pyrenoids) tbat project
into tbe central vacuole on tbe inside.

Wliile tbe above description lacks many important details
and is in error as to tbe differentiation of tbe protoplast into
layers, it is notable tbat later observers using tbe same metbods
as Braun, bave made very little advance beyond tbe results be
obtained as to tbe structure of tbe cell contents.

Tbe cell wall is also, according to Braun, comjwsed of tbree
layers as follows: 1. An outer, tbin cuticle. 2. A middle
tbick layer, tbat swells strongly in sulpburic acid and stains
blue witb iodine. 3. An inner laver tbat swells so as to be-
come tbe tbickest of tbe tbree wben treated witb sulpburic acid
and to present wavelike folds on tbe inner surfaces.

In tbe account of tbe spore formation Braun described only
some stages tbat belong to tbe later pbases of tbe cleavage of
tbe wliole protoplasmic mass, lie determined, bowever, tbat
preliminary to tbo beginning of tbe process tbe pyrenoids
(starcb vesicles) disappear, Tbe first stage of cleavage con-
sists, as be described it, in tbe appearance in tbe protoplasm, of
numerous liglit spots equidistant from eacb otber between
wbicli tbe granides of cbloropbyl arrange tbemselves in rows.
Tbis stage is followed by one in wliicb tbe granules retreat
toward tbe clear spots, leaving transparent lines tbat mark off
bexagonal areas on tbe surface. Eacb mass tbus formed
finally becomes a spore. Tbe transparent lines are supposed to
be of some substance tbat separates tbe bexagonal masses, and
is dissolved during tbe subsequent process of tbe complete sep-
aration of tbe spores, wben tbe lines disappear except for tri-
angular spaces between tbe rounded masses.

After a period of rapid movement inside tbe motber cell wall
tbe swarm spores come to rest and form a new net. Tbe pyre-
noids begin to appear immediately after tbe swarm spores bave
come to rest. Braun beld tbat tbeir origin was entirely de
novo and tbat tbey were never multiplied by fission.

In some cases swarm spores were observed wbicb bad two
or more pairs of cilia. Tbis was accounted for by tbe non ap-
pearance of tbe ligbt cleavage lines in an earlier stage. It is to

Timhcrlahe — Swarm-Spores of Hydrodictyon. 491

be noted that Braiin failed to distinguish the nuclei as such. It
is quite probable, of course, that the light spots that he speaks
of were the nuclei, but it would be hard to always distinguish
them in living material.

In material fixed in alcohol and stained with haematoxyline,
Strasburger (23) was able to distinguish, in the protoplasmic
layer of the cell, numerous small nuclei which he thought di-
vided just prior to cleavage. Strasburger bases his account
of the rest of the process of cleavage entirely upon the obser-
vations of Braun and Cohn (5) as tlieir descriptions agreed
well v.'ith his account of simultaneous cleavage in many other
coenocytic cells of the Algae and Fungi.

In 1890 Artari (2) attacked the special problem of the sig-
nificance of the nuclei in the process of cleavage and also gave
considerable attention to the structure of the chromatophore.
He thouaiit that the chroma toT)hore is in the vounsr cell an irre^-
ular plate like body with long projections similar to the chro-
matophore of Drapar?ialdia. During the growth of the cell
the projections bend over and fuse so as to form a net which
by increase in extent of its parts becomes a perforated plate
on the inner side of which the nuclei lie. In material fixed
in picric acid and mounted in glycerine or Canada balsam
Artari was able to make out that each nucleus contained a
prominent central nucleole. Farther than this, however, no
details of nuclear structure were described. Cleavage begins,
according to Artari, by the division of the chromatophore into
irregularly hexagonal areas each of which contains a single nu-
cleus. These areas are separated by a transparent plasma cor-
responding to the light lines of Braun.

It Vv'ill be seen from the above paragraph that Artari's ac-
count of the cleavage process difi'ers in no important particu-
lar from that of Strasburger. His description of the develop-
ment of a distinct chromatophore is, as I have pointed out in
another place, based upon inadequate means of observation, due
to his methods of treating the material. The apparent simil-
arity of the chromatophores of such a form as Draparnaldid to
the chlorophyl containing cytoplasm in the young cells of Hy-
drodictyon might easily lead one to the conclusion that chro-
5

492 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

matophores of similar structure were being observed in the two
cases provided only surface vie^vs were studied. Artari does
not attempt to solve the problem as to the mechanism by
which the so-called chromatophore is divided. His account of
the cleavage process is no doubt influenced by the conception
of the Vollzellbildung of Strasburger in connection with nu-
merous other forms as noted above. That he observed only the
later stages in the process is evident from the work of Ivlebs
and the figures that I have shown in this connection.

Klebs (16) gave a very complete account of the appearance
of the Hydrodictyon cell under various conditions and de-
scribed the process of cleavage as taking place in a manner en-
tirely different from that described by previous observers.
KlebSj however, like his predecessors, limited his observations
to surface views of the material for the most part in the living
condition. He confirms Braun's statement that there are three
distinct layers of protoplasm in the cell, but identifies the outer
as the hautschicht and the inner as the vacuolar membrane or
tonoplast of De Yries, leaving the middle layer occupied by
the chromatophore and the layer of protoplasm containing the
nuclei. Klebs' account of tlie structure of the chromatophore
is essentiallv the same as that of Artari. He thinks that while
this is a distinct chromatophore it is of a Ioav order of organi-
zation since it is merely passive during the process of cleavage
and shows at no time the initiative power of reproduction.
The nuclei are said by Klebs to occupy no definite position
with reference to the pyrenoids, but to appear in the openings
through the chromatophore as if lying deeper in the protoplasm.
They are described as vesicular structures each having a single
large central nucleole. The nuclei, like the pyrenoids, are
connected by special strands of protoplasm foimiing a network
with tJie nuclei at the anodes of the meshes.

The process of cleavage begins, according to Klebs, by the
formation of angular, in some cases almost canal like, vacuoles
in the middle layer of protoplasm. The vacuoles fuse \\dth one
another so as to cut the protoplasm, including the chromato-
phore, into large irregular pieces which, by constriction or by
further branching of the vacuoles, are cut into smaller pieces

Timherlake — Swartn-Spores of Hydrodictyon. 493

until the whole protoplast is divided into uninucleate bodies
whose mutual pressure gives to each a hexagonal shape. The
hexagonal bodies appear to be separated by light lines. This
appearance is caused, as Klebs rightly observes, by the two
limiting layers of protoplasm being pressed together. This is
the condition described by Strasburger and Artari as the earli-
est stage in the division of the cell. At no time, according to
Klebs, do the cleavage vacuoles cut through either the plasma
membrane (hautschicht) or the vacuolar membrane of the
motlier cell. Klebs thinks that the cleavage is never complete
but that the swarm spores always remain attached to one an-
other by thin strands of protoplasm, which only disappear after
the spores have come to rest and the new walls are formed
around the young Cells.

From the fact that in many cells the number of nuclei is
greater than the number of swarm spores that could be formed
from the same cells, Klebs suggests that there must be a fusion
of the nuclei in such cases prior to the complertion of the
cleavage. The observations of Braun and others of the disap-
pearance of the pyrenoids prior to cleavage is confirmed by
Klebs.

I have published elsewhere a brief resume of some of the main
facts described in the following pages. (28) The material
with which I have worked was collected in the vicinity of
Madison, Wisconsin, from small, slow flowing streams or in
protected portions of the lakes surrounding the city. The
plants were generally brought into the laboratory in large
quantities and placed in aquariiun jars in well lighted places.
No attempts were made to use special culture conditions for
the production of swarm spores but it was often found that
they Avere produced within a few days after the collection of
the material. This phenomenon, however, was by no means
constant and very frequently material was kept in the labora-
tory for many da^'s without showing any signs of spore for-
mation. Very often cultures growing under diverse condi-
tions of light and temperature would all be producing swarm-
spores at the same time. I have not succeeded in finding any
material producing sAvarmspores when collected, but in some

494 \Yisco?hsi?i Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

lots new nets apparently under twenty-four hours old were ob-
sen^ed.

The difficulties in getting well fixed material of such alga
cells as" those of Hydrodictyon possibly help to account for the
fact that so few investigations have been carried on in this
group of plants by means of modem cytological methods.
The relatively thick and impervious cell walls and thin layers
of cytoplasm combined with a large central vacuole present a
set of conditions under which fixation without shrinkage and
consequent distortion of the plasma contents is hard to accom-
plish. A solution must be found that will readily penetrate
the cell wall and plasma membrane and thus fix the cells mth-
out distortion. The two solutions that I have found to best
answer these conditions have been ^MerkeFs platinum chloride
chromic acid mixture and a mixture of iridium chloride and
acetic acid. Two formulas were used for this latter combina-
tion ; one that of Eisen consisting of 100 parts, five^tenths per
cent iridium chloride in distilled water and 1 part glacial acetic
acid ; and a stronger sohition consisting of 100 parts of 1^
iridium chloride in distilled water and 3 parts glacial acetic acid.
Very little difference could be detected in the effects of the two
iridinm-chloride-acetic acid mixtures, although the stronger
Avas generally more reliable for fixing the finer details of struc-
ture, especially in the nuclei.

As between the ^lerkel's solution and the iridium chloride
acetic acid mixture, the latter is to be preferred for cases where
very delicate structures are to be dealt with, such, for example,
as the comparatively young cells of Hydrodictyon where the
layer of protoplasm is very thin and its finer structures very
easily destroyed. Still both solutions are veTv satisfactory and
I have tried them on various other Algae, including Spirogyra
and Yauclieria, with gratifying results. They are to be fur-
ther recommended on account of their adaptability to various
stains. I have found that the triple stain of Flemming, the
Fuchsin-Iodine green of Zimmerman and Ironliaematoxylin
all give good results.

Flemming's cliromo-osm.o-acetic acid mixture was tried for
fixing but abandoned owing to the blackening of the tissue

Timbcrlake — Swarm-Spores of Hydrodictyon. 495

caused apparently by the action of the killing fluid on the chlo-
rophyi and the frequent distortion of the structure of the pro-
toplasm. Solutions containing mercuric chloride were gen-
eralh' unsatisfactory since nearly all details of structure were
lost in material killed in them.

The best stain for delicacy of differentiation was Flemming's
well known triple stain, although very good results were ob-
tained by the use of Zimmerman's Fuchsin-Iodine green. This
brought out the figures of the dividing nuclei very well, but
was of little value to aid in studying the pyrenoids and other
structures.

I have discussed in anotlier connection (29) the general
structure of the cell and have showed that there is no distinct
chromatophore in Hydrodictyon. In tliat place I pointed out
that the pyrenoids and nuclei were distributed in such a vray as
to preclude the possibility of the protoplasm between the
plasma and the vacuolar membranes being differentiated into
distinct layers. We may then, pass directly to a consideration
of the structure of the cytoplasm and nuclei and the process of
cleavage. The cytoplasm varies in appearance from an al-
most homogeneous finely granular mass with ang-ular vacuoles
placed quite wide apart, to a decidedly foamy structure whose
typically rounded alveolae differ much in size ranging from
very minute, scarcely perceptible openings to quite large vac-
uoles whose diameter extends nearly the w^hole depth of the
plasma layer. Xeither of these appearances is confined to any
one stage in the development of the cell. They occur in the re-
cently formed swarm spores as well as in the mature cell, and
it is quite probable that they simply represent different con-
ditions of metabolism, etc. The foamy appearance is however
much the more frequent of the two in all stages. In many cells
having this alveolar structure, there is a tendency for the small
alveoli to be arranged in rows giving the appearance of furrows
or tubes through the cytoplasm, but in nearly all cases strands
or lamellae could be detected cutting off rounded alveoli (Figs.
3, 21). During cleavage there is often a noticeable tendency
for tlie larger vacuoles to be aggregated along the cleavage fur-
rows (Figs. 24-26) in a manner much resembling the arrange-
ment in Synchitrium.

106 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Whether the smaller alveoli are really vacuoles in the same
sense as the larger openings mav be a matter of doubt. But
the fact that all o^rades in size can be found from the verr
small alveoli to the larger ones would seem to show that there
is no difference between them. In manv sections the smaller
"vacuoles appear to be fusing with larger ones. All stages may
"be made out from that in which the two adjacent vacuoles have
nearlv their oriainal spherical form to those in which the fusion
is almost complete and one appears as a slight protuberance
upon the other. The larger vacuoles above described often ap-
pear in turn to fuse with the central vacuole so that their mem-
brane becomes continuous with that of the central vacuole (Fig.
2). It is of course possible that tlie appearance of fusion of
the vacuoles just described is due to slight distortion in fixation,
for it can be readilv seen that if two vacuoles each surrounded
by a slight film, are lying very close together ; a very slight
disturbance in the protoplasm might cause a break in the films
so as to give the appearance of stages in the fusion of the
vacuoles. Still there seems to l)e no doubt that in the gro^\'th of
the cells from swarm spores the central vacuole is the result of
the fusion of two or more smaller vacuoles of the vouna: cell.

While the above description of the relations of the larger and
smaller vacuoles seems to agree in many respects with what
Wilson (35) has recently descrilx^d for some Echinoderm
eggs, I have not been able to make out here any such morpho-
logical series consisting of granules, microsomes, alveoli and
vacuoles as Wilson described. Wherever the alveoli and vacuo-
les can be made out they seem to l)e quite distinct from the
other cell contents, and I am therefore inclined to think of
them as distinct cell organs perliaps in some respects coordi-
nate with such structures as the pyrenoids. Still if this
view be correct the question as to the origin of the vacuoles
is a perplexing one. The fact that smaller vacuoles may fuse
to form larger ones and that as a result of cleavage the
large central vacuole entirely disappears, would seem to
strongly negative the doctrine of De Vries (31) and Went
(34) that the vacuole is a permanent cell organ reproduced by
division of a preexisting vacuole. To be sure tlie vacuolar

Tlmherlahe — Swarm-Spores of Hydrodictyon. 497

membrane is retained as a portion of the plasma membranes
of the new cells so that it is in a sense a permanent structure.
But it performs an entirely new role and the identity of the
vacuole is as completely lost as if the membrane itself were
destroyed.

The production of artificial yacuoles by PfefPer (19) and
more lately by Xemec (18) throws little light on the real prob-
lem as to the origin of the yacuole, for it is not at all certain
that the vacuoles that were apparently formed anew were not
already existing, except in those cases described by Pfeffer
where the so-called food yacuoles in some of the slime molds
« may arise as invaginations of the outer plasma membrane.
This identity in character of vacuolar and plasma membrane's
so shoym^ is important when taken in connection with the fact
shown in various Ascomycetes and Phanerogams that the latter
membrane is formed by a direct metamorphosis of the kino-
plasmic fibres. In various Phanerogamic cells I have shown
that the young cell plate splits and the halves become partly
separated before the plate has reached the mother cell mem-
brane (27). This fact may furnish a suggestion as to the pos-
sible method of origin of vacuoles, for the cleft in the cell plate
is essentially a flat vacuole surrounded entirely by the pro-
toplasm of the motlier cell, and enclosed by a membrane derived
from the spindle fibres. The fact that its membrane finally
forms a part of the plasma membrane of either daughter cell
may be compared to the history of the membrane of the central
vacuole in the cleavage of Hydrodictyon and in those fungus
sporanges in which the cleavage is partly accomplished by
means of numerous small angular vacuoles. To be sure the
vacuole formed by the splitting of the cell plat« may be consid-
ered a very special structure without any relation to the other
vacuoles of the cell. But the analogy just pointed out may
prove suggestive as to a possible line of investigation in connec-
tion "\v^ith the question of the origin of vacuoles in other cases.
The structure and division of the nuclei of Hydrodictyon is
in the main features the same as that of the nuclei of the higher
plants. In general there are one or more fairly prominent
nucleoles that take a bright red color in the triple stain, and a

498 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

blue stained diromatin network that can always be clearlv seen
in good preparations. The nuclear membrane is quite sharply
differentiated and sometimes stands out as a deeply stained
thick boundary.

While the above general statement is true for all of the
nuclei there is a remarkable individual variation both in ap-
pearance of contents and in form and size. In a typical rest-
ing stage the nuclei are generally quite small spherical bodies
with the chromatin arran^red in a verv fine sli£:htlv stained, but
verv clearlv visible network. At various places in the net the
chromatin appears to be more or less collected into limips.
Very frequently in cells showing great vegetative activity, as
for example, in the grow^tli of the young nets or in cases in
which starch is being rapidly formed the nuclei become quite
large and vesicular in appearance (See Figs. 41 and 42. Cf.
also Fig. 1 in my paper on starch formation in Ilydrodictyon).
In these cases the chromatin frequently appears as very fine
lines radiating from the prominent central nucleole to the periph-
ery. Unless the preparations are well stained the chromatin
in such cases might be easily overlooked, but in no stages of cell
life have I been unable to demonstrate a clear differentiation
of the nuclear contents into chromatin and nucleole.

Spherical nuclei with the contents arranged as above de-
scribed are always found in cells showing no signs of reproduc-
tive activity. In all cases, however, in which cleavage is tak-
ing place the chromatin is collected into denser roughly elon-
gated masses taking a deeper stain and connected by fine
threads as of linin (Figs. 24-32).

The nucleole becomes much less sharply defined in these than
in the resting stages just described and in some cases is so sur-
rounded by the chromatin as to be almost indistinguishable.
The whole structure of the nucleus is in fact identical in ap-
pearance with the early prophases or late anaphases of division.

The nuclei vary in shape from the S2:)herical forms just
described to those with verv irreinilar outlines, some of which
are quite sharply angular, while others have blunt rounded ex-
tensions resem.bling the pseudopods of an amoeba. In many
cases, especially in cells in process of cleavage, the nuclei are

Timhcrlahe — Swarm-Spores of Hydrodidyon. 499

slightly elongated with one end quite small and drawn out into
a blunt point, that is directed toward the cleavage plane (Figs.
29 and 30). In other cases the nuclei are more elongated and
the two ends are of tlie same size. Such forms may be con-
stricted in the equatorial region so as to suggest strongly that
direct division is taking place. (Figs. 21a, 22, 23.) Both of
the above mentioned forms of nuclei generally occur together
in the same cell. (Figs. 21-23). They may in turn be associ-
ated with those that are more definitely amoeboid or angular in
outline. The size of such nuclei varies very strikingly
(Compare Figs. 6, 21, 34 and 44). In figures 6, 34 and 35
are shown the extremely large size that the elongated amoeboid
and angular nuclei may reach. Such unusually large nuclei
may occur in apparently any stage of cell life, although my
preparations have not sIiOAvn them in ciliated swarm spores.
Still they occur in the cells in which the cleavage is complete
(Figs. 34, 35), as well as in the cells of very young nets (Fig.
44). By comparing figures 43 and 44 a very good idea may be
obtained as to the relative size that such nuclei may attain.
Both figures are drawn according to the same scale of magni-
fication.

In all of the irregular shaped nuclei the contents generally
present the same appearance as in the other nuclei in the cells
in which cleavage is taking place.

The distribution of the nuclei presents some interesting
phenomena. Those described above as typical resting nuclei
are generally quite evenly distributed throughout the cytoplasm
at points equidistant from one another (Fig. 3). The number
of such nuclei that may occur in a given area of the protoplasm
varies considerably. As Klebs pointed out, cells are often
seen in which the nuclei are much too numerous to have swarm
spores of the normal size formed in the cell with a single nu-
cleus to each spore. But the assumption that a fusion of nu-
clei occurs in such cases before or during cleavage is not
at all necessary, for there is no evidence that such cells are go-
ing into cleavage stages wuthout further growth. Even if
they are in the same net in which some of the cells are forming
spores they may not, as I shall show" later, themselves undergo

500 WiscG7isi7i Academy of Sciences, Aiis, and Letters.

sucli a. process, but are just as likely to live for some time veg-
etativelv. The onlv case in which an excessive number of
nuclei need to lead to the assumption of fusion, would be to find
such a numerical excess in connection with the later stages of
cleavage, and this relation I have not found in any of my prep-
arations. It is quite probable that the large number of nuclei
is the result of a period of nuclear division just completed that
is to be followed by a pei-iod of cell growth.

In cells in which cleavage is in progress the nuclei are very
frequently ai-ranged in pairs, the two nuclei of a pair often al-
most touching one another. (Figs. 25-30.) This arrange^
ment is very clearly the result of the process of nuclear divi-
sion as I shall describe it farther on. Figure 21 shows a very
striking arrangement of the smaller irregular nuclei into groups
consisting of from two to eight individuals. How such an ar-
ran2:ement came about I have not been able to learn. The
forms of the nuclei might suggest that they have moved together
from various parts of the cell, but otlier evidence in support
of such a suggestion is entirely lacking. On the other hand
it is quite possible that each group repres.ents the product of
a series of successive nuclear divisions, and that the individual
nuclei will later be distributed more equally throughout tlie
cell. The fact that the dividing nuclei sometimes appear in
groups and that the daughter nuclei when first formed are fre-
quently quite irregular in shape, being thus identical in form
and structure with some of the grouped nuclei in the conditions
shovrn in Fig. 21, adds weight to this latter hypothesis.

Owing to the small size of the nuclei it is impossible to make
out clearly all of the details of karyokinesis, but enough stages
stand out sharply to show that the process is essentially the
same as in the higher organisms. A verv distinct looselv coiled
thread is formed that apparently becomes segmented
into chromosomes (Figs. 7 and 8). In a few cases I have been
able TO make out quite clearly that there are ten segments; but
usually it was almost impossible to distinguish the' individual
chromosomes accurately enough to count them. When this
stage is reached the nuclear membrane has generally disap-
peared so that the peripheral parts of the chromosomes lie in im-

Timherlake — Swarm-Spores of Hydrodidyon. 501

mediate contact with the cytoplasm, which has not, however,
penetrated to the interior of the nuclear cavity. The nucleole
disappears so far as I have been able to observe before the equa-
torial plate stage is reached.

The history of the spindle in these early stages I have not
been able to make out at all. When the equatorial plate stage
is reached the spindle is distinct. It usually ends in two
sharply defined poles, at either of which there is a small spher-
ical, densely stained body ; but there are no indications of polar
radiations to form an aster (Fig. 9). The spindle fibres gener-
ally come to a sharp point apparently just at the surface of the
body so as to give the appearance of a distinct body lying rather
in contact with the end of the spindle than forming a part of it.

Owing to the impossibility of observing the early stages of
spindle formation the origin of the above described bodies, as
well as their relation to spindle development, could not be made
out. During the period of the reconstruction of the daughter
nuclei when the spindle disappears, the bodies also become in-
distinguishable. Whether they are the homologues of centro-
somes is, in view of the scarcity of data in connection with their
history, of course, not evident, still the constancy with which
they appear in the equatorial plate stages and early metaphases
indicates that they bear the same relation to the process of di-
vision as the centrosomes in other cells. I shall apply the name
centrosomes to them in the subsequent discussion. In many
cases the whole spindle seems to lie in a clear cavity, as if the
nuclear membrane persisted throughout the greater part of the
division process, but the boundary of this cavity is always quite
iiTcgular and I am inclined to think that it is the product of
the fusion of the vacuoles of the cytoplasm surrounding the
nucleus. (Figs. 9, 11, 12.) In other cases the cytoplasm is
apparently in immediate contact with the spindle. (Fig. 10.)
The chromatin material in the equatorial plate forms so com-
pact a mass as to render it almost impossible to distinguish the
individual chromosomes, and consequently to make out the
method of the separation of the daughter chromosomes.

In the metaphases the daughter chromosomes go back, to their
respective poles in dense groups, all the individuals of each

502 ^Y{scons^n Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

group lying practically in the same plane. (Fig. 10.) During
these stages the spindle is frequently much elongated so that at
the beginning of the anaphases the central spindle is drawn out
into a fine thread in its middle part (Fig. 12.) During the
anaphases the chromosomes fonn at first somewhat rounded
dense masses that later form the daughter spirems. Xew
nuclear membranes are formed and the daughter nuclei are
completely organized. While the fonuation of the daughter
nuclei is taking place they undergo a remarkable change of po-
sition. With the disappearance of the central spindle the
nuclei approach each other so that by the end of the anaphases
they lie almost in contact. (Figs. 12-14.) The explanation of
this change in position is not at all evident. I have described
a similar phenomenon in connection with the formation of the
cell plate in the onion and larch and suggested that it might be
due to the mechanical pressure of the cytoplasm upon the daugh-
ter nuclei which pushes them into the space left vacant when the
central spindle disappears. The same explanation may pos-
sibly hold here although the small number of fibres constitut-
ing the central spindle would seem to render it less probable.
The juxtaposition of the daughter nuclei thus brought about
gives a striking appearance to the cells where all of the nuclei
are frequently in pairs. This position of the nuclei, as pre-
viously stated, may persist in the cleavage stages. Fig. 20 pre-
sents a curious condition in which it appears as if the chromo-
somes, instead of going back to the poles in compact bodies, as
above described, are here more or less strung out along the
spindle fibres either singly or in irregular clumps. The explana-
tion of these figures is not apparent. It is possibly due to some
peculiar effect of the fixing fluid although the other cell contents
show no abnormalities.

Interesting variations in the size and form of the spindle are
shown in figures 17-19. In figures 18 and 19 is shown very
clearly that two spindles lying closely adjacent to one another
may vary as much in size as do the niiclei in some cases in which
division is not clearly in progress. That the apparent differ-
ence in size is not due to a possibly somewhat flattened spindle
viewed in different aspects is showm in polar views of the equa-

Timherlake — Swarm-Sporcs of Hydrodictyon. 503

torial plates in. which the chromatin mass always appears, so
far as my preparations show, to be nearly equal in its length
and breadth. The equatorial plate in the larger spindle con-
sists of a greater amount of chromatin than that of the smaller
one. Whether the number of chromosomes varies in the two
cases is an important point that I could not determine, as I was
unable to find the stages of division in which the chromosomes
could be distinguished from each other. It is quite probable
that the different sized nuclear figures are derived from nuclei
that differed in the same respect before division commenced,
though I have not yet succeeded in finding the stages that would
confirm this suggestion. The largest spindles are somewhat
multipolar with the chromatin arranged in such a way as to form
a branched equitorial plate (Figs. 17a and 10a), so that the en-
tire figure has the appearance of the well kno^vn cases of poly-
centric nuclear fio-ures in cells treated with certain Doisons or
subjected to other unusual stimuli. But there was no otlier evi-
dence of abnormality either in the structure of the cytoplasm or
that of the nuclear figures themselves.

So far as I could determine there was no particular time
during the day when nuclear division was most likely to take
place. Material in which I have found it was in part killed
at various hours during the forenoon and in part in the after-
noon. In a small amount of material killed at different times
during one night, I w^as unable to find any indications of
division, but of course so small an amount of material would
not show conclusively that it never takes place at night. Still
it seems quite evident that there is no regular daily period
to which division is confined. This is made the more cer-
tain by the fact that in a single net one cell alone may show
nuclear division while in the other cells the nuclei seem to
1)0 in a resting condition. That, however, the divison de-
pends upon conditions common to the whole cell is shown by
all of the nuclei of a single cell dividing at the same time though
without being in the same stage. Very often all stages from
the early prophases to the late anaphases can be found in a
single cell in a more or less regular succession from one end
of the cell to the other. (Figs. 15 and 10.) This fact is in-

504 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

teresting when taken in connection witli the fact that in the
process of cleavage the same order of events is frequently ob-
served.

As is kno^^Tl, anv cell of a net may foi-m spores vrithout the
accompanying cells being visibly affected. It generally hap-
pens, however, that a number of the cells are in some stage
of spore formation at the same time. I have frequently found
in my material single nets of which the majority of the cells
were in a vegetative condition while one might show stages of
cleavage, another ciliated spores, and in still another there
w^ould be a newlv formed net. The relation of these' different
cells to another so far as their position in the net is concerned,
I could not make out, since in imbedded and sectioned material
the general arrangement is difficult to determine. I have not
made any special observations as to the age of the nets whose
cells produce swarm spores, although such an investigation
would be of great value. Ivlebs has shown that a nmnber of
special conditions of nutrition, etc., will cause spore fonna-
tion, but the age of tlie cells thus experimented upon was not
accuratelv determined.

The first indication of the approach of cleavage consists of
the disappearance of the pyrenoid and increase in thickness
of the protoplasm. This latter j)henomenon is very clearly
shown in Fig. 32, which shows sections of two adjacent cells,
in one of which cleavage has just begun, while in the other
there is no indication of it. In the account of the process of
starch formation in Hydrodictyon I described the disappear-
ance of the starch and pyrenoids as usually occurring before
cleavage begins, but showed that such a process is not necessa-
rily preliminary to cleavage since it sometimes happens that
some of the starch and the pyrenoids may persist through all
the stages even to the spores and young cells formed from them.

Cleavage itself is, as Klebs pointed out, a progi'essive process ;
but it is accomplished entirely by means of two sets of surface
constrictions instead of, as Klebs thought, by means of intra-
plasmic vacuoles. In the first stages in the process short fur-
rows that have no apparent special orientation with reference
to one another or to the nuclei appear here and there through

TimhcriaL'c — Sivarm-S pores of Ilydrodidyon. 505

the cytoplasm. (Fig. 22.) Seen in a surface' section these
furrows appear as single lines and thus might easily he taken
for cell plates formed in the protoplasm without the help of
visible spindle fibres ; but if a vertical section is studied, the
appearance of furrows becomes manifest. (Figs. 31-32.)

In these latter sections it is also clearlv shown that the
cleavage furrow'S thus formed cut through at right angles to
the surface. In none of mv material have I found the fur-
rows forming appreciable oblique angles with the surface, al-
though such a phenomenon might of course occur in large cells
in which the protoplasmic layer is much thicker, as for exam-
ple, in such a cell as that shown in Fig. 2. I have not suc-
ceeded in getting the stages of cleavage in these larger cells.
During the succeeding stages the furrow^s become branched and
increase in length so as to soon intersect with one another and
thus block out very irregular multinucleate areas on the surface
of the protoplasm. Concurrently with the development of the
cleavage furrows on the outer surface similar ones are formed
by the vacuolar membrane on the inner side of the protoplasm
(Fig. 33.) The two furrow^s from opposite sides finally meet
in the interior of the protoplasm and fuse, thereby completely
cutting through the entire layer. The process of growi:li and
branching of the cleavage furrows continues until the entire
protoplast is cut into unincleate pieces, which later round up
into the sv^-armspores.

While the tw^o sets of cleavage furrows generally seem to ac-
complish the complete division by coming together from oppo-
site piaces on the two surfaces, it frequently happens that one'
furrow may reach nearly through the entire layer of proto-
plasm before there is any indication of a corresponding furrow
being formed on the opposite side. Still I have not found
any cases wdiere one furrow^ cut clear through without meeting
a constriction from the opposite side. The deeper constric-
tion may, how^ever, be from, either the inner or outer surface.
In the early stages of cleavage the constrictions are irreg-
ular and wavy in a surface section, while in the later stages
they seem to become straighter and their intersections form
sharper angles. (Fig. 27.)

506 Wwconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

As before stated the process of cleavage may sliow a suc-
cession of stages from one end of a cell to another. Figures
26, 27, and 28 bring this out very clearly, since they are all
taken from the same cell at diffcTent regions thmrough its
length. The process of cleavage above described seems to go
on in its early stages at least, entirely independently of the
nuclei, but the result is al^vays, with an exception to be pres-
ently noted, the formation of uninucleate segments. In cells
in which the cleava^re phones cut between recentlv divided nu-
clei, so that the nuclei lie quite close to the cleft, the nuclei
frequently have the elongated pointed shape previously de-
scribed. (Figs. 28, 30.) The smaller end of tlie nucleus lies
nearest the cleavage plane. In some cases a distinct granule
can be seen Ivinc: next to the newlv formed membrane at the
point nearest tlie smaller end of the nucleus. Whether this
granule has anv special significance could not l>e determined.
Its occurrence is by no means constant, and the cases where it
w^as obser\^ed are quite possibly accidental ones, the granule
itself being but one of tlie numeroiLS small bodies frequently
found in other parts of the cytoplasm as well.

When the cleavage has reached the uninucleate stage the
segments begin to separate from one another and to round up
into distinct bodies. The sides of the cleavao:e furrows are
drawn away from each other so as to leave between them irreg-
ular quite broad clefts through the protoplasm. (Fig. 30.)
So far as I have observed the clefts do not usually appear un-
til the uninucleate stage is reached, but in some cases the sepa-
ration may take place before cleavage is complete wdtli the re-
sult that large binucleate masses form spores directly. In
these spores there is a pair of cilia connected with each nu-
cleus. (Fig. 39.) These giant spores were, as previously
stated, observed by Eraun and his conclusion that they repre-
sent cases of incomplete cleavage is undoubtedly correct.
The clefts thus produced are perhaps what Klebs thought were
intraplasmic vacuoles, and it is quite possible that he failed to
see the earlier stages showing the cleavage furrows first
formed. It would certainly be very easy to overlook
such stages in matenal poorly fixed and stained and viewed
only from the surface of the entire cell.

Timherlake — Sivarm-S pores of Hydrodictyon. 507

An explanation of the meclianics of the process of cleavage
described above is by no means obvious. The best known
cases of cell formation from large coenocytic cells in plant
tissues are those of the formation of a layer of endosperm cells
from a large multinucleate! mother cell and those cases of spore
formation in certain fungus sporanges as described recently by
Harper. The Hydrodictyon cell has a striking superficial
resemblance to the multinucleate endosperm mother cell in
that in both cases there is a relatively thin layer of protoplasm
containing numerous nuclei and surrounding a large central
vacuole. There is also somewhat of a resemblance in the
process of cleavage in that a somewhat regular succession of
stages m.ay be observed in passing from one end of the cell to
the other. (See Strasburger, 23.) But at this point the re-
semblance ceases, and it may serve to bring out more sharply
the problem to be solved in case of Hydrodictyon if the differ-
ences in the actual process of cleavage in the two cases are
pointed out. In the first place in the embryo sac the cleav-
age is very clearly in direct connection with the nuclei tlie po-
sition of any one part of the cleavage plane being detei^
mined jointly by the two nuclei that are connected by the fibres
in which that part of the cell plate is being formed. To be
sure the planes may not always be so arranged as to cut out
uninucleate pieces as Strasburger has shown for Corydalis
and other forms, but in these cases it is none the less true that
where the division does take place the cleavage plane is just
as distinctly determined by the nuclei in pairs. In Hydro-
dictyon as previously sho^vn, no such relation of cleavage
planes to nuclei is at all evident, with the possible exception
of those cases where the constriction cuts in between two re-
cently formed nuclei. Again, in the embryo sac the process
is clearly initiated and practically completed in the midst of
the protoplasm, the two boundary membranes being simply
divided into portions that form the outer and inner portions
of the membranes of the new cells, the lateral membranes be-
ing formed entirely anew from the spindle fibres, while in
Hydrodictyon the process is clearly indicated on either sur-
face by the limiting membranes and its completion depends
6

508 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

upon their further groAvth from the surface inward^ so that
the new cells are entireh^ surrounded by the portions of the
tvvo original membranes. The cleavage in the tTvvo cases,
then, so far as the mechanics of the process is concerned seems
to belong to totally different categories. Still if the pre-
vious suggestion that the cleft formed by the splitting of the
cell pJate is comparable to a vacuole prove correct it would be-
come more nearly possible to find a similarity in the two pro-
cesseSj but even in that case it must be kept clear that the sub-
stance for the increase in extent of the vacuole in the one case
is furnished by tlie spindle fibres for whose formation the nu-
cleus is probably a metabolic center while in the other there is
not the slis^htest direct evidence of anv such connection be-
tween the nucleus and the growth of the membrane forming
the cleavage furrow. To be sure there may be, as Harper has
suggested for Syncliitriuni, a diffusion of kinoplasmic ma-
terial from the nucleus to the plasma membrane, but here, as
in Syncliitriuni direct evidence for such diffusion is entirely
wanting. On the whole the process of cleavage in Hydrodic-
tyon seems to correspond most closely to that of the fungus
sporanges in which there is a progressive and complete cleav-
age, as for example in the formation of the protospores in
Synchitrium decipiens and Filohohis where the cleavage con-
tinues to the ultimate formation of the imi nucleate cells.

A point of much si_gnificance in connection with the cleav-
age in Hydrodictyon is the fact tliat the two membranes which
take part in the cleavage are entirely discontinuous, although
they lie parallel to each other with a relatively thin layer
of protoplasm between them. But the two cleavage furrows
produced by these independent membranes from opposite sides
regularly meet in the midst of the protoplasm. This would
seem to render necessary the assumption that the impulse for
division is seated in the protoplasm between the two mem-
branes rather than in the membranes themselves. Such an
assumption need not involve the conception that the begin-
ning of the process takes place in the protoplasm betv/een, but
merely that the stimulus to which the cleavage is a response
is an internal stimulus acting upon the two membranes at

Tiinherlahe — Swarm-Spores of Hydro diet yon. 509

the same time, a conception tliat, however, in no Avay helps to
a mechanical explanation of the process. The conditions here
must be kept sharply distinct from those cases of tlie bipartition
of a single coenocytic cell by simple constriction, as for example
cell division in Cladopliora. In this latter case one may readily
imagine that the stimnhis arises in the membrane itself and is
either external or internal since it is a case of the construction
of a sino^le continuous membrane.

When the spores are fully formed it is quite evident that
they are entirely separated from one another. It is not im-
probable that what Klebs took for connecting strands of pro-
toplasm was the slime wliich is sometimes found on the inside
of the central vacuole Ivins^ next to the vacuolar membrane.

The general structure and form of the spores I have found
to be identical with tliat described by previous observers.
The young spores are generally almost spherical bodies with
the nucleus occupying a position near the plasma membrane
and connected with a pair of cilia which are attached to the
cell at the point nearest the nucleus. (Fig. 36.) In older
stages the portion to which the cilia are attached becomes
somewhat elongated and tilled with hyaline protoplasm, that
extends down into the cell as far as the nucleus. (Figs. 37
and 38.) In connection with the structure of the swarm
spore most interest now attaches to the locomotor apparatus.
This consists in all of the normal uninucleate spores of a pair
of cilia attached to a small spherical basal body lying gener-
ally in contact with, but quite clearly independent of the
plasma membrane. (Fig. 38.) Connecting the basal body
with the nucleus there are two or more protoplasmic fibres.
Owing to the small size of the above mentioned organs, it is
extremely difficult to make out any details as to their struc-
ture or origin. The basal body generally stains quite densely,
especially in the triple stain. In the best stained prepara-
tions it frequently appears to be of a dark red color, a fact
that shows quite clearlv that it is entirely distinct from the
plasma membrane, which, in the same preparations has a blue
color. In nearly all cases too it can be seen that the contour
of the basal body is clearly distinct from the plasma mem-

510 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

brane. (Fig. 38.) It is not impossible that the basal bodj
is the granule' previously described, that lies against the cleav-
age furrow near the nucleus in the latest stages of cleavage ;
but I could not find such a body during the stage's of separa-
tion and rounding up of the spores.

The threads connecting the basal body with the nucleus
sre very fine and are not always easy to distinguish from the
surrounding cytoplasm ; but in most cases they are clearly
enough differentiated to enable one to trace them from one
body to the other. Thev are colored in the various staininoj
methods used about the same way as the spindle fibres or cilia,
and in general appearance resemble very much such struc-
tures. There is no evidence, however, that any portion of the
spindle- ever remains after nuclear division is complete which
could be identified as these threads. At the point where a
connecting thread is in contact with the nucleus there is no
indication of any distinct body or even a swellinor of the nu-
clear membrane. I have sometimes found three such threads
quite plainly visible, but in most spores there are only two.
I have found no cases in which it was clearly evident that
there was but a single thread.

The cilia appear as single fine threads resembling in stain-
ing capacity and structure's the spindle fibres. In spores in
which the contour of the basal bodv is clearly distinct from
the plasma membrane, the attachment of the cilia to the basal
iDody itself can be clearly seen. (Fig. 38.) The points of at-
tachment of the two cilia to the basal body may either lie at
some distance from each other or they may be in immediate
contact. (Figs. 36-39.) As previously indicated, the proto-
plasm in the forw^ard end of the spore has in the mature spore a
hyaline homogeneous appearance. This fact makes the differ-
entiation of the basal bodv and connectino; threads much clearer
than it otherwise would be. In the giant swarmspores there is
a complete locomotor apparatus consisting of cilia, basal body
and connecting threads connected with each nucleus. (Fig. 39.)

As is well kno^\Ti, the swannsporee of Ilydrodictyon do not
normally escape from the cell wall within which they are
formed but after swimming about for some time in the cavity

Timherlake — Swarm-Spores of Hydrodidyon. 511

come to rest, lose their cilia, become surrounded by cellulose
walls, and become attached to one another at various points so
as to form a young net that is later set free by the breaking
down of the mother cell wall. The changes that occur in the
cell contents during growth are of importance as throwing
some light upon the structures found in mature cells. In the
very young cells I have looked carefully for the first indica-
tions of the formation of the pyrenoids but without getting
much light as to the nature of the process. As Braun long
ago showed, these organs are formed shortly after the spores
come to rest. The youngest stages in which I could clearly
distinguish structures that were undoubted pyrenoids showed
them as small spherical red stained bodies enclosed by a hya-
line region sharply bounded off from the surrounding cyto-
plasm (Figs. 41 and 42). The difiiculty of identifying the
earliest sta£:es in the formation of such structure lies in the
fact that any of the numerous granules so frequently found in
the cell may be mistaken for a young pj^renoid, and I have not
discovered any reaction by which to determine whether such
bodies are or are not the young pyrenoids. It is interesting,
however, in this connection, to note that the pyrenoids and nu-
clei are generally quite closely associated in the young cells,
and that in manv cases tlie number of nuclei is the same as
that of the pyrenoids. But this equality is lost in the older
stages and the number of nuclei is frequently in excess of the
number of pyrenoids. The reverse condition, however, is
often observed. See especially Fig. 44, where the number of
pyrenoids is greatly in excess of the number of nuclei, a rela-
tion that holds quite generally in the case of these very large
nuclei.

I did not find any stages of the first nuclear division, but a
comparison of Figs. 40 and 41 shows clearly that a large in-
crease in the size of the cell may occur before any nuclear
divisions take place. (See also Fig. 43.) It is important to
note, however, that the increase in size of the cell is out of
proportion to the increase in the amount of protoplasm.
Before a cell has grown very much, fairly large vacuoles begin
to appear in either end apparently leaving a very thin layer of

512 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

protoplasm bet^veen themselves and the cell wall (Fig. 41).
The nucleus and pvrenoid are generally situated in the cen-
tral region of the cell where the protoplasm still extends be-
tAveen the vacuoles clear through the diameter of the cell, as
is clearly shown in a cross section (Fig. 42). In these early
stages in living cells, the chloropliyl can only be seen in the
thicker portions of protoplasm as the middle part in which the
nucleus and pyrenoid lie and the ends where the vacuoles do
not press out to the cell wall. But this appearance is prob-
ably due to the fact that the layer of cytoplasm between the
cell and vacuoles is so verv thin as to render the color indis-
cernible when viewed from the surface. There is certainly
no indication in sections of anv differentiation of the cvto-
plasm to form a chromatophore in this or any other stage of
the cell life. The arrangement described above is undoubt-
edly what led to Artari's (2) statement that in the earlier
stages the chromatophore is a branched structure similar to
the chromatophore of DraparnalcJia. But if Artari had had
better prepared material he would have seen that there is no
trace of any differentiation of the protoplasm into an or-
ganized cliromatophore.

As the cell becomes larger the vacuoles fuse into one large
central vacuole and the protoplasm, now containing numerous
nuclei and pyrenoids, becomes evenlv distributed in a layer
next to the cell wall (Fig. 1).

If we attempt now to apply the facts described in the fore-
going pages to the problems suggested in the introduction,
several points of general interest are at once apparent. Xot-
withstandino; the very small size of the nuclei the structure
and essential features of mitotic divisions are identical ^vith
those of the higher plants. Hydrodictyon agrees in this re-
spect ^Yit\\ all of the carefully investigated cases of nuclear
structure and division in the other thallophytes with the pos-
sible exception of Spirogyra, in which it seems quite probable
according to the recent researches of Mitzkewitsch and Wis-
senlingh that the nuclear structure is different from that of
most other forms. But in that case the peculiar structure of
the nucleus probably represents a highly specialized tj^e and

Timherlake — Swarm-Spores of Ilydrodlctyon. 513

is not to be considered in any way more primitive than tlie or-
dinary type of nucleus found in other thallophytes and the
higher phmts. The existence of a body so closely resembling
a centrosome in Hydrodictyon is in accord with the facts as
worked out in other lower forms, especially among the Fungi
and broT\Ti Algae.

The significance of the variation in size of the nuclei is not
at all clear. The very large nuclei probably represent cases
of unusual growth of the smaller ones. Such a variation in
size of the nuclei is not uncommon in other plants at diffcTent
stages of the life history. For example, in the uninucleate
plant of Syncliitrhtm the nucleus is many times as large as the
nuclei of the multinucleate staore or the sin<]^le nuclei of the
spores. The striking fact in Hydrodictyon is, however, that
the very large nuclei may occur in practically any stage in the

life history. Whether these larsie nuclei give rise to smaller
ones by division, as is the case in Syncliitrium, is not clearly

evident; but the variation in the size of the soindle indicates

that thev do.

The question as to whether direct nuclear division takes
place in Hydrodictyo}2 is as yet unsettled. While many of
the figures indicate quite strongly stages in such division,
the evidence is not at all conclusive. As Hertwig very justly
remarks, the mere fact that a nucleus may be elongated and
constricted in its equatorial region is not to be taken as posi-
tive evidence that direct division is in progi'ess, for in many
cells the nuclei are capable of assuming a great variety of
forms without showing any other indication of division. In
Hydrodictyon the capacity of the nuclei to assume such varia-
tions in form is very marked and it is quite probable that the
elongated nuclei that appear to be constricted in the middle
are simply forms of resting nuclei coordinate with the more
angular or pointed forms.

As the facts at present stand, there are two distinct methods
of cell division in plant cells, peculiar to the thallophytes on
the one hand, and the coi*mophytes on the other. In the
former types we have such coenocytic cells as the fungus spor-
anges and the Hydrodictyon cell where there is a progressive

514 Wisccnsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

cleavaffe bv means of surface constrictions. In c-ell division
in Cladoplwra, conidia formation in the mildews, and the
cutting off of the gametes in Sporodinia Ave have simple con-
striction, as Harper lias pointed out. All of these cases may
be c^rouped together as examples of cell division l\v constric-
tion and thereby be clearly distinguished from the case of tbe
cormophytes where cell division is accomplished by means of
the formation of a cell plate.

These two types of cell division are most sharply differ-
entiated when compared as to their relation to tlie nuclei. In
the case of division bv constriction there is no visible relation
of tlie nuclei to the process so far as the mechanism involved
is concerned, while in the case of cell plate formation the nu-
clei are apparently the active controlling centei's for the pro-
cess bv meaiis of tbe spindle fibres, manv of which, and some-
times all, may be formed for the express pui'j:)ose of cell
division.

The relation of the processes of cell division in certain
brown Algae t-o the two types al)ove described is not at all
clear. In all of these forms so far described division is
said to take place by means of a cell plate that is formeil A\dth-
out being directly connected with the nuclei. (See 9, 17, 24,
26.) Owing to the difficulty of getting numerous stages of
division in these forms it is quite possible that some of tlie
most important phases have been missed.

The structure of the swarm spore of Ilydrodictyoii com-
pared t/O the structure of other ciliated cells presents many
interesting problems. The most thoroughly investigated
cases of the development of such cells is that of the spermato-
zoa of the higher animals and the antherozoids of some Pteri-
dophytes and Gymxnosperms. While there are some differ-
ences as to detail, zoologists seem to be in accord as to the main
facts concerning tbe development of tlie spermatozoon (See,
Wilson, 36.) The axial filament of the tail grows out from a
spermatid centrosome tliat may persist as a distinct body ("end
knob") at the base of the fibre or may enlarge to form a part of
the middle piece. This fact of the growth of the axial filament
from tlie centrosome forms a possible basis of comparison be-

Timherlalift — Swa7-m-S pores of llydrodictyon. 515

J

twcon the spermatozoon and the swanrispore. The cilia of tlie
swarrnspore clearly bear tlie .same relation to tlie hasal body
as does the axial filament to the middle piece or more particu-
larly to that part of the middle piece derived from a centro-
some. But whether the basal body really corresponds to the
middle piece must be left unsettled until its origin is deter-
mined.

Discussion of the question as to whether the basal body in
llydrodictyon corresponds to the blepharoplast of some Pter-
idophytes and G^minosperms, is for the present quite prema-
ture. That question is also quite distinct from the further one
as to the homology of the blepharoplast itself.

The development of the swarm spores in such forms as
Cladophora and Ocdogonium needs to be carefully investi-
gated. Strasburger's (24) conclusion that the individual
nodule at the base of each cilium is merely a swelling of the
plasma membrane was based entirely, so far as his descrip-
tions and figures indicate, upon the study of the fully formed
spores. It is quite possible that early stages in the develop-
ment of the spores would show that the origin of both the
cilia and the nodules at their bases is quite different from
what Strasburger supposed it to be.

University of Wisconsin, Xovember, 1901.

516 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Aiis, and Letters.

LIST OF PAPEES REFEPEED TO.

1. Areschoug: Ileber die Vermelinmgsart des Wasser-

netzes. Linnaea, 1842.

2. Artari, A. : Ziir Entwickeliingsgescliiclite des Wasser-

netzes. Bull, de la Soc. Imp. des ^at. Moscou, 4: 269,
1890.

3. Belajeff, W. : (Various papers on spermatogenesis. Ber.

d. deut. hot. Ges. 16, 1898 and IT, 1899.)

4. Braun, A. : Betrachtungen liber die Erschemungen der

Verjlingung in der Xatur. 1849-1850. Eng. Ed. in
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5. Colin, F. : Untersucliungen liber die Entwickelungsges-

chichte der Algen und Pilzen. Xova Acta Acad. Leop.
Carol. 24.

6. Dangeard, P. A. : Memoire sur les Clilamjdomona-

dinees ou 1' Historic d'une cellule. Le Botaniste 6:65,
1899.

7. : Etude sur la structure de la cellule et ses func-
tions. Le Polytoma uvella. Le Botaniste 8 :5, 1901.

8. Fairchild, D. G. : Ein Beitrag zur Keimtniss der Kem-

theilung bei Valo?iia utricidaria. Ber. d. deut. bot. Ges.
12: 331, 1894.

9. Farmer, J. B. and Williams, J. L. : Contributions to

our knowledge of the Fucaceae. Philos. Trans, of the

Pov. Soc. London. Ser. B. 190 : 623, 1898.

10. Golenkin, M. : Ueber die Bef ruclitung bei Spae?^oploea

annulina und lib. die Structur die Zellkeme bei
einigen gTlinen Algen. Bull. d. la Soc. imp. d. ]^at.
Moscou 1899, p. 343.

11. Harper, P. A. : Cell division in Sporangia and Asci.

Annals of Botany, 13 : 467, 1899.

12. : ^N'uclear and Cell division in Fuligo varians. Bo-
tanical Gazette 30: 217, 1900.

13. Hirase, S. : Etude sur la fecondation et I'embryogenie

du Gingho hiloha. Joura. Coll. Sci. Tokio, 7: No. 2.

Timherlake — Swarm-Spores of Hydrodictyon. 517

14. Ikeno, S. : IJntersucliimgen liber die Entwickelimg der

Geschleclitsorgane und den Vorgang der Befruclitung
bei Cycas revoluta. Jabrb. fiir wissen. Bot. 32 : 557,
1898.

15. Klebabn, II. : Die Befrucbtung von Sphaerofjloea an-

nidina, Ag. Festschrift fiir Schwendener, p. 81, 1899.

16. Klebs, G. : Fortpllanzungszellen bei Hydrodictyon utri-

cidaiuni, Eotb. Botanische Zeitung 49 : 789, 1891.

17. Mottier, D. M. : Nuclear and Cell Division in Dictyota

dicliotoma. Annals of Botany 14: 163, 1900.

18. ISTemec, B. : Ueber experimentelle erzielte neubildung von

Vacuolen in baiitmnkleideten Zellen. Sitzungsb. d.
Kon. bohm. Ges. d. Wiss. Math. — j^aturwiss. Classe,
1900, Xo. 5.

19. Pfeffer, AY. : Znr Keiitniss der Plasmabaut und der Vac-

uolen. Leipzig, 1890.

20. Pringsbeim, N. : Ueber die Dauerscliwarmer des Wasser-

netzes, Berliner Akad., 1860.

21. Sclimitz, Fr. : Ueber die Zellkerne der Tballopliyten.

Sitzunasb. d. iSTiederrb. Gesellscli. f. !N'at. u. Heilk.
1879, p. 345.

22. Shaw, W. E. : Ueber die Blepbaroplasten bei Onoclea u.

Marsilia. Ber. d. deut. bot. Ges. 16: 1898.

23. Strasburger, E. : Zellbildung u. Zelltbeilung, 3 Aufl.

1880.

24. : Kerntlieilung und Befruclitung bei Fucus. Jahrb.

f. wissen. Bot. SO: 251, 1897.

25. : Ueber Peduktionstbeilung Spindelbildung Centro-

sonie und Cilienbildner in Pflanzenreiche. Histolo-
giscbe Beitriige 6. Jena, 1899.

26. Smngle, W. T. : Zur Ivenntniss der Kern und Zelltbeilung

bei den Spbaceiariaceen. Jabrb. f . wissen. Bot. 30 :
297, 1897.

27. Timberlake, H. G. : The Development and Function of

the Cell Plate in Higher Plants. Botanical Gazette 30 :
73, 1900.

28. : Swarm Spore Formation in Hydrodictyon utricu-

latum, Ptoth. Botanical Gazette 31 : 203, 1901.

518 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

29. : Starcli Formation in Tlydrodictyon utriculatum.

Annals of Botany 15: 619, 1901.

30. Vaiicher: Histoire des Conferves. Geneve, 1803.

31. Vries, H. de: Plasmolvtische studien liber die Wand der

Vacuolen. Jahrb. f. wissen. Bot. 16: 463, 1885.

32. V\'ebber, H. J. : Peculiar stmctnres occurring in the pollen

tube of Zamia. Botanical Gazette 23 : 453, 1897.

33. : The development of the Antherozoids of Zamia,

Botanical Gazette 24 : 16, 1897.

34. Went, F. A. F. C. : Die Entstehung der Vacuolen im

Fortpiianzungszellen der Algen. Jahrb. f. wissen. Bot.
21: 299, 1890.

35. Wilson, E. B. : On protoplasmic structure in the eggs of

Echinoderms and some other animals. Journal of Mor-
phology^ 15: 1. Supplement.

36. : The Cell in Development and Inheritance. New

York, 1900.

Timherlake — Swann-Spores of Hydrodictyon, 519

PLATE XXIX.

520 Wisco7isin Academy of Sciences,, Arts_, and Letters.

EXPLAXATIOX OF PTATE XXIX.

All figures were drawn with the aid of the Abbe camera
lucida and with the Zeiss apochromatic objective 2 mm. aper-
ture 1.30, and compensating oculars 2, 4, 12, and 18. They
have been reduced in reproduction to 7/10 the size of the orig-
inal drawings.

Fig. 1, Vertical longitudinal section of an entire cell, x 175.

Fig. 2, Small portion of section similar to that showm in Fig.
1, showing distribution and structure of cell con-
tents, X GOO.

Fig. 3, Portion of tangential section, x 1500.

Fig. 4, Portion of tangential section, showing large spherical
nuclei, x 1500.

Fig. 5, Procleavage stage, after disappearance of pyrenoids,
X 1500.

Fig. C, Vegetative stage with large nuclei, irregular in out-
line, X 1500.

Figs. 7-14, Successive stages of nuclear division, x 2250.

Figs. 15-lG, Differe-nt parts of a single cell, showing successive
stages of nuclear division from one end of the cell
to the other, x GOO.

Figs. 17-19, Spindles of unequal size, a. Multipolar spindles,
X 1500.

Fig. 20, Unusual forms of figures of nuclear division, x 1500.

Fig. 21, Irregular forms of nuclei, collected into groups, x
1500.

Figs. 22-23, Early cleavage stages. Many nuclei with elon-
gated or pointed shapes, x 1500.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIII.

Plate

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TimheiiaJce — Swarm-Spores of Hydrodidyon. 521

PLATE XXX.

522 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

EXPLAXATIOX OF PLATE XXX.

Figs. 24-25, Successive stages of cleavage, x 1500.

Figs. 26-28, Successive stages of cleavage as found in differ-
ent parts of the same cell, x 1500.

Fig. 29, Late stage of cleavage. Xuclei arranged in pairs
with cleavage planes cutting in between the adja-
cent nuclei, x 1500.

Fig. 30, Beginning of the separation of the uninucleate seg-
ments, x 1500.

Fig. 31, Cross section of cell in early stage of cleavage with
the cleavage furrows formed by botli plasma and
vacuolar membranes, x 600.

Fig. 32, Portion of vertical section of two adjacent cells, one
of which is undergoing cleavage, x 1500.

Fig. 33, Portion of vertical longitudinal section of cell in late
cleavage stage, x 1500.

Figs. 34-35, Uninucleate segments containing large irregular
nuclei, x 1500.

Fig. 36, Young swarm spores with cilia, x 1500.

Fig. 37, Mature swarm spores, x 1500.

Fig. 38, Anterior end of mature swarm spore, showing loco-
motor apparatus, x about 3000.

Fig. 39, Giant swarm spores. Mostly binucleate, x 1500.

Fig. 40, Longitudinal sections of cells of very young net, x
1500.

Fig. 41, Longitudinal sections of somewhat older cells. Each
cell still contains a single nucleus and a single pyre-
noid, X 1500.

Fig. 42, Cross sections of cells in same net as those in Fig.
41, X 1500.

Fig. 43, Binucleate stage of young cell, x 1500.

Fig. 44, Section of a quite large cell containing but two large
nucl*^i, x 1500.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIII.

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30

AXIAL BIFURCATION IN SNAKES.

BOSWELL HILL JOHNSON.

This paper contains descriptions and skiagraphs of thirteen
two-headed snakes, a recapitulation of others previously de-
scribed, and a concluding general treatment of this abnor-
mality.

In the belief that the skeleton should be the basis of descrip-
tions of cases of axial bifurcation, I have studied as many of
these abnormalities as could be obtained from American mu-
seums. It seemed to me that skiagraphy, offering an opportu-
nity for such skeletal study, might reveal some possible laws
of this abnonnalitv. The numerical data for the thirteen in-
dividuals is given in Tables I and II.

Case I. This is the case recorded as ^^a small double-headed
snake from South America,'' ^o. 856, in the descriptive Cata-
logue of the Anatomical Museum of the Boston Society for
Medical Improvement. This museum is now a part of that
of the Harvard Medical School. This specimen [Plate
XXXII, rig. 1] was found to have scales impermeable to
Roetgen rays, the only one of the snakes in which this was the
case. The snake is in so bad a condition as to render specific
determination difficult. It is probably Tropidonotus fasciata
fasciata Linn., the range of which is the Austroriparian Region,
or the Southern States. A normal specimen of this species,
however showed the scales to be permeable to the Roentgen rays.
The arrangement of the shields upon the dorsal aspect of the
head is unusually irregular as Plate XXXIII, Figure la,
shows. The angle of the sagittal planes of the skulls is 90°,
that of the frontal planes is about 145° with the angle facing
dorsally. Measurements upon the two divisions show that the
left is less than a millimeter shorter and slightly broader than

the right division.

7

524 Wisconsiyi Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

Table I.

Skulls united.

Left Skull.

Eight Skull.

Condyle
TO Tail.

Length,

Length
to Unioa.

Length.

Length
to Union,

Length.

1

10
13

8

7
7
3

10
13

8

7
7
3

170

2

250

11

123

Skulls .

separate.

Length
Left Skull.

Length
Right
SkuU.

Length
Left Neck.

Number of
Vertebrae.

Length
Right
Neck.

Number of
Vertebrae.

Length

Re-
maining.

3

U

14

5

9

5

10

215

4

11

11

21

26

19

25

225

5

9

9

3

10

4

e+

162

6

14

13

9

11

7

8

289

7

11

11

11

18

11

16

251

8

9

9

17

22

18

22

190

9

13

13

16

22

17

20

210

10

14

14

72

67

85

72

245

12

10

9

15

25

11

20

119

13 ... .

9

9

3

6ap.

3

6ap

165

14

10

11

2

9

3

10

151

Case II. This is a Bascanium constrictor Linn. [Plate
XXXII, Figs. 2 and 2a, Plate XXXIII, Pigs. 2b and 2c],
from the collection of the Buffalo Society of Xatiiral Sciences.
It was without label but was undoubtedly brought in from the
vicinity of Buffalo, where the species is occasionally seen. The
point of division of the heads of this snake is close behind the
eyes. Plate XXXIII, Figs. 2b and 2c, show the arrangement
of the plates on the heads. The angle of the sagittal planes is
75°. The two frontal planes coincide. Here also the left head
is slightly shorter and broader than the right.

Johnson — Axial Bifurcation in Snakes.

525

Table II.

Data in Teems of Maximal
Lengths of Veetebeae.

Data in Teems of Peo-
POETIONAL Length.

Case.

Left
Division.

Right
Division.

Re-
mainder.

Left
Division.

Right
Division.

Average.

1

7

7

170

3.8

3.8

3.8

2

6

6

20S

1

2.7

2.7

2.7

3

14

14

153

8.1

8.1

8 1

4

29

27

205

12.5

11.8

12 1

5..

12

13

162

6 9

7 4

7.1

6

18

15

222

7.4

6.5

6.9

7

20

•10

228

7.8

8.1

7 9

8

26

27

190

12 0

12 4

12.2

9

29
57

30
66

2J0
163

12.1

27.8

12.5

28.8

12.3

10

28.3

11

4

4

166

2.3

2.3

2 3

12

30

24

143

17.4

14.4

15.9

13

13

13

181

6.8

6 9

6.8

14

11

13

151

2 4

3.7

3.0

Case III. This is an Ancistrodon piscivorus Lacepede
[Plate XXXIV, Fig. 3], lent from the collection in the Wash-
ington and Jefferson University. The heads are equal in size
and normal in appearance except that there is an additional
snpralabial upon the right side of the right head. The angle of
the sagittal planes is 105°, that of the frontal planes about
150°, facing ventrally.

Case TV. This Ophiholus getidus getulus Linn. [Plate
XXXIV, Pigs. 4 and 4a], is Xo. Y276 in the Smithsonian col-
lection. It was found by Miss Marshall at Point Tobacco,
Maryland, and was described in the American Xaturalist, Vol.
XII, p. 470, by H. C. Yarrow. The heads are equal. The
angle of the frontal planes is a trifle less than 90°. The verte-
bral column of the risrht division is in less intimate connection
with the common vertebral column than that of the left division.

Case V. This specimen [Plate XXXV, Fig. 5], lent through
the kindness of Mr. Whiteaves by the Geological Survey of Can-
ada, bears this label : ''Shore of Moira Lake, near Modoc, Aug.

526 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

1886. E. Coote." It is a Eutaima sirtalis svrtalis Linn. The
light dorsal stripe divides caiidad to the point of division of
the vertebral column. The angle presented bv the frontal
planes of the two heads is nearly a right angle, that of the
sagittal planes is about 70°. The right head is slightly longer
and broader than the left one.

Case VI. This Pitijopliis catenifer Blainv. [Plate XXXV,
Fig. 6] lent by the California Academy of Sciences was col-
lected by J. W. A. Wright in 1878. It was later described in
the American Xaturalist, Vol. XII, p. 264. The angle pre-
sented by the frontal planes of the two heads is about 115°,
that between the sagittal planes about 35°. A ventral fold
of skin which extends fonvard from the point of division in
the plane of the gastrosteges is present similar to that in the
Ophibolus, Xo. 7276 of the Smithsonian collection.

Case VII. This is another Opliiholus getulus Linn. [Plate
XXXVI, Pigs. 7 and 7a] lent by tlie Smithsonian Institute,
It was collected by J. M. Spainhorer in Lenoir, X. C, and bears
the number 14540. The frontal planes make an angle of about
90°. Their longitudinal axes are almost parallel, however,
for the necks curved toward the plane of the common partition
and are connected by skin for an unusual distance cephalad.
The heads are equal.

Case VIII. This is a Thamnopliis elegans lineolata Cope
[Plate XXXVI, Fig. 8] belonging to the University of Cali-
fornia. The data given are ^'Marin Co. ( ?) California. 1879.
C A. Allen, collector." An additional peculiarity in this
snake is the presence of a sharp angle in the common ver-
tebral column, as shown in the skiagraph. The light dorsal
stripe, prominent in this specimen, divides sharply 5 mm.
cephalad to this angle and so is considerably caudad to the ex-
ternal division as well as to the vertebral division. There
are twentv-one lons^itudinal rows of scales, which is the nor-
mal number for this species, from the sharp angle to a point
about two centimeters caudad to it, where two rows end.
Cephalad from where the dorsal stripe divides, many new rows
begin. The right neck is shorter and the right head slightly
shorter and narrower than the left.

Johnson — Axial Bifurcation in Snakes. 527

Case IX. This is the young Bascanium constrictor Linn.
[Plate XXXVI, Fig. 9] described by Wyman in 1863. It was
obtained from the Warren Museum of the Harvard Medical Col-
lege. When the necks are as long as in this specimen, it is
impossible to determine the angle of the frontal planes.
However, as the snake is now, this angle is 90°. The heads
and necks are nearly equal. From the point of external divi-
sion to the point of division of the vertebral column, the dor-
sal blotches are in two rows.

Case X. This is the snake in the United States Xational
Museum bearing the catalogue nimiber 25398 [Plate XXXVII,
Figs. 10 and 10a.] It was collected by Miss M. Desha; the
locality is not given. It belongs to the genus Pityopliis, but its
specific position in this difficult genus is less plain. If, how-
ever, the species Pitypliis sayi Schlegel be made to include
Pityophis hellona Bd. and Gird, following Cope, it may be
called Pityophis sayi, since it seems intermediate between these
two forms. This specimen is remarkable for the extreme length
of the anterior doubled portion, which is much longer than in
any case ever described, with the exception of that of Redi.
The skiagraph reveals the division of the vertebral column
very much farther back than that of the bodies proper, although
the color markings show irregularities over the portion un-
derlaid by the two vertebral columns.

Case XL This small snake embryo [Plate XXXVIII, Fig.
11] has been so bady dessicated that a determination of its spe-
cies is impossible. Together with cases XII and XIII it was
purchased from a dealer, Mr. X. L. Wilson of 170 Tremont St.,
Boston, Mass., who was unable to furnish data concerning any
of his specim.ens. The point of division is posterior to the
eyes. The angle of the sagittal planes is apr)roximately 80°,
and there is no appreciable angle of the frontal planes.

Case XII. This is an embrvo of Eutainia sirtalis Linn,
still without color [Plate XXXVIII, Fig. 12.] It is remark-
able for the considerable inequality in the length of the two
necks and the deficiencies in structure. The rii^ht head on the
shorter neck is singularly deficient. The lower jaw is repre-
sented by a mere stump and the dorso-ventral thickness of the

528 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

bead is miicli reduced. The eyes are absent on this right head,
but two slits possibly representing orbits are found lateral to the
parietal plates. The left side of the lower jaw of the left
head is also deficient.

Case XIII. This is either an embryonic or very young
Tropidonotus fasciata sipedon Linn. [Plate XXXYIII, Fig.
13]. The inner side of the left head is deficient, there being
no eye. A sharp angle is noticeable in the vertebral column re-
jsembling very much that of Case VIII. Somewhat farther
■caudad is a loop with the ventral surfaces inward and mutually
coalesced. Cephalad to this loop is a median deficiency in the
gastrosteges making an opening into the abdominal cavity.
The number of longitudinal rows of scales is variable, for
rows begin and end at several points along the body. The
angle of the frontal planes is about 90°.

It might be well at this point to put on record other cases of
two-headed snakes which were described in the popular press
or Avhich were seen by the author but were not made tlie sub-
ject of detailed stud v.

Mr. Outran! Bangs had a young Tropidonotus fasciata
■sipedon Linn, which he had collected at Stoneham, Mass. In
degree of bifurcation it resembled the individual described
above as Case II.

In the Scientific American of December 5, 1896, is an ar-
ticle describing a double-headed snake and illustrated by a
cut from a photograph. It is said to be a Heterodon simus
Linn, from Central America. But since this locality is outside
the range of the species as given by (Jope, it is probably wrong.
From the cut the degree of bifurcation seems to approximate
that of Case VI. in this paper.

A two-headed snake was advertised on exhibition in a cisrar
store in XeAv York in 1896 or 1897. The owner, Mr. 11. C.
Somers, told me that after the snake died, it had been de-
stroved. It v/as found in the Catskills, though attributed in
.•an advertisement to South America. I believe that this was
the snake described in the Scientific American.

A two-headed snake was found near the Xew York Zoologi-
cal Park in 1901. The Xew York Tribune said it w^as a

Johnson — Axial Bifurcation in Snakes. 529

milk snake ten inches long. Judging from the photograph
reproduced in the paper, the degree of bifurcation was most
nearly like that in Case XII.

Dr. J. S. Kingsley in describing an abnormal frog in the
American JSTaturalist, Vol. XII, pp. 694-695, states that a
two-headed snake is in the collection of the Lyceum of IN'atu-
ral History at Williams College. Prof. S. F. Clark informs
me, however, that the snake probably referred to is one which
merely simulates this condition from having been crushed.

Mr. Samuel Garman tells me that this abnormality may be
found frequently in embryoes of Tropidonotus fasciata sipedon
Linn.

RESUME OF ALL CASES DESCRIBED.

Table III records the more important data gathered from
previous descriptions of two-headed snakes v/hich are suffi-
ciently complete.

530 Wisconsi7i Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

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532 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Species. One must expect more of these abiLorm.alities to
be found in those species native to regions where most atten-
tion is paid to the fauna and also in the most abundant spe-
cies. Yet after making these corrections, it is probable that
this axial bifurcation is more frequent in some species than in

others.

Tabulating the data, we find:

Tro2ndo7iotus.

3 T. fasciata sipedon Linn.

2 T. natrix Linn.

1 T. fasciata fasciata Linn.
5 Bascanium coistrictor Linn.

3 Eutainia.

2 E. sirtalis Linn.

1 E. elegans lineolata Cope.
2 Ophiholus getulus Linn.
2 Pelias herus Merr.
2 Pityophis.

1 P. catenifer Blainv.

1 P. sayi Schlegel.
1 Ancistrodon piscivorus Lacepede.
1 Pelamis hicolor.
1 Lachesis lanceolatus ( ?)
1 IIeterodo7i simus Linn (?)
1 ^'Yellow snake of Barbadoes.''

This result together with Mr. Garman's statement concern-
ing Tropidonotus would seem to make it advisable to examine
gravid snakes of the genus Tropidonotus and eggs of Basca-
nium if in search of this abnormality.

Type of Bifurcation. The great majority of cases are
those of cephalic bifurcation, the catadidyma of Fisher.
!N^one show merely caudal bifurcation, the anadidyma of
Fisher. But three cases have been described where both
cephalic and caudal bifurcation existed, the anacatadidyma
of Fisher. Tliese are the case of Wyman and t^vo of tlie three
described by Mitchill. The former's* specimen is further re-
markable for a median duplicity of the vertebral column,

Johnson — Axial Bifurcation in SnaJces. 533

v.hicli is the' onlv case of the kind on record and which lies
without Fisher's system of classification.

Degree of Bifurcation. The data as regards degree of bi-
furcation aside from the tliirteen cases here described and that
of Borgert have little quantitative value, for frequently the
descriptions are no more specific than merely '^two-headed."
Fortunately, however, the fact is sometimes noted whether
there are two heads on separate necks, or two skulls in organic
fusion. Classifying on this basis we have :
8 dipropi :

7 near the eye.

1 in the region of the nose.
23 dicephali:

15 ''short neck."

8 "long neck."

In Tables I and II, and Plate XXXI, the degrees of bifurca-
tion of the thirteen snakes here described and the one of Borgert
(Xo. 14) are represented. Only by such precise criteria can the
question of degree of bifurcation be properly studied. Three
criteria were employed as a discontinuity might be shown by
one criterion which Avould not be shown bv the others. These
were the numl^er of vertebrae, the lengths of the divisions in
terms of proportion of the total length and in terms of vertebral
units. The lengths of the divisions were measured to the
cephalic end of the skeletal division, not the external division.
The verteljral unit v/as chosen, i. e., the length of one vertebra
where the vertebrae are largest, because it was found that occa-
sionally in the divisions there was a very large number of ab-
noiTnally small vertebra?. In each case, both classification by
the longer division and by the average, division was used.

Even the few cases here described are so discontinuous in
their distribution as to degree that I Ijelieve it is safe to say
that axial bifurcation is more likelv to occur in some dearrees

f o

than in others, and that the most frequent degree is from about
6 to 13^ of the length from the cephalic end.

Angle of Bifurcation. In the case of dicephali, the general
rule may be made that when the vertebral column is double for
a very short distance, the angle of divergence of the proximal

534 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ends of tlie double vertebral column is a large one, and it de-
creases as the degree of bifurcation increases. This applies
only to the bifurcation of the vertebral column. The apparent
angle made by the divisions does not seem to conform to any
rule.

In the cases of dipropi the rule is the reverse, — the greater
the degree of bifurcation, the greater the angle.

The frontal planes of the two heads do not always coincide,
but may meet at an angle. In all the cases of dicephali, this
angle was directed downward. Of the three cases of dipropi,
the angle was directed upward in one, and in the other two there
was no appreciable angle.

Accompany ing Ahnormalitics. In the cases of dicephali,
the necks are likelv to be of different leno-ths, the difference
being greater as the necks are longer, though with the data in
hand, it cannot be said that tJie difference would be greater
in comparison.

Abnormalities of the shields on the head are not noticeable
in the cases of dicephali, except where there is marked defi-
ciency, but they are evident in the cases of dipropi, as would
be expected. These in-egularities, hovrever, were usually of
proportion and of outline, rarely of absence or of redundancy.

Deficiencies were noted in three cases: VIII, XII, and
XIII, enough to lead one to believe that they are frequently
correlated with axial bifurcation. Another peculiarity which
seems to be correlated in some way is the presence of sharp
angles in the vertebral colmmi in Cases YIII and XIII.

Especial attention has been given in this paper to the point
of divergence of the vertebral column. This, however, does
not fully express the degree of bifurcation of the color mark-
ings and of the internal organs. I think it may be said that
when the color markinsfs show a lonaitudinal arransrement,
they will be affected caudad to the point of division in the axis.

Data concerning the internal anatomy of these anomalies
are very uncommon, the only instances of adequate descrip-
tions being those of Eedi, Dorner, and Borgert. The evi-
dence there £:iven certainlv shoAvs that in these cases there was
a doubling of internal organs caudad to the vertebral bifurca-
tion.

Johnson — Axial Bifurcation in Snalces. 535

SUMMARY AIS^D COK'CLUSION".

1. Thirteen two-headed snakes are described by means of
skiagraphs.

2. The previous descriptions of two-headed snakes are re-
viewed.

3. It is conchided that this abnormality is more abundant
in some species than in others and that the point of bifurca-
tion is most likely to occur in the cephalic half of the snake,
between 6 a.nd 13^ of the entire length from the cephalic end.

4. The point of bifurcation of the vertebrae is more posterior
than would be supposed from external examination. The
skulls frequently appear united externally when in reality
thev are not.

I am much indebted to Prof. C B. Davenport for kind ad-
vice and assistance, to Mr. Samuel Garman for help in deter-
mination of species, to Mr. Outram Bangs, Mr. F. K. Mixer,
Mr. J. F. Whiteaves, Prof. Edwin Linton, Mr. F. W. True
and to Prof. W. E. Bitter for loans of material, and to Dr. W.
McM. Woodworth for assistance with the bibliography and
for the loan of books.

Anatovfiical Lahoraiory, University of ^Yisconsil^,
November 21, 1901.

BIBLIOGBAPHY.

Aldrovandi, Ulyssis. 1640. Historise Serpen tmn et Dra-
conum, Libri Duo, Bononiss. p. 60.

Bancroft, Edward. 1769. Natural History of Guiana.
London, p. 214.

Bateson, Wm. Materials for the Study of Variation. Lon-
don. 1894. p. 561.

Boettger, O. 1890. Ber. lib d. Senck. nat. Ges. in Frankf. a.
M. p. LXXIIl.

Borgert, H. Tiber eine Zweikopfige Kreuzotter. Yerhand-
lungen des Xaturwissenschaftlichen Vereins in Ham-
burg (3). Band IV. 1896.

536 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

College of Surgeons Museum Teratological Catalogue^ 1872,

Xos. 24-27.
Dorner, H. Eine Kreuzotter mit z^vei Kopfen. Zoologisclie

Garten, 1873, XIY. p. 407.
Echvards. Xatural Historv of Birds, &c., Pt. IV. London.

1751. p. 207.
Eisher, G. J. Diploteratology. Albany. 1868.
Geoffroy-St. Hilaire. Histoire des Anomalies. Ed. 1838,

II. p. 197.
Jackson, J. B. S. Descriptive Catalogue of the Anatomical

j\Iuseimi of the Boston Society for Medical Improyement.

Wm. D. Ticknor & Co., Boston. 1847.^
Klaussner, Ferdinand. Mehrfachbildunger bei Wirbelthieren.

Eine Teratologishe Studie. Bieger, Miinchen. 1890.
Lacepede. Histoire naturelle des Serpens, II. 1789 ; p. 482.
Lanzoni. Miscell. curios., 1690, Obs. CLXXI, p. 318, Eig. 36.
Mitcliill, S. L. American Jouriial of Science. X. 1826.

p. 48.
Bedi. Osserv. int. agli anim. vienti, &c. 1778. p. 2, Tay. 1.
Schenck, J. G. Monstrorum historia memorabilis, monstrosa

humanorum partuum etcetera. Erancofurti.
Valentin, ]M. B. Ampliiteatrum Zootomicum. Erancofurti

ad Moenum. 1704. Ibidem 1720. Pars. II. p. 172.
Wright, J. W. A. Mining and Scientific Press, San Erancisco,

Eeb. 16, 1878.
Wyman, J. Proceedina's Boston Society of Xatural History.

1862, IX. p. 193.
Yarrow, H. C. American Xaturalist, Vol. XII. p. 470.

Johnson — Axial Bifurcation in Snalces. 537

PLATES XXXI-XXXVIII.

538 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

expla:n"atio:n' of plates.

The figure' numbers in each plate correspond to the number of
the case.

The skiagraphs were taken with dorsal surfaces next tlie
plate. The sides are not reversed therefore in the figures, as
may be seen bj comparing the photograph and skiagraph in
Plate XXXVII.

Figures 12 and 13 are tracings from skiagraphs since th3
plate was broken before good prints were obtained.

Figure 11 is a drawing substituted by the engraver for an
obscure skiagraph.

or

Co

(/I

JO

I*

1*

•5= 8

P5

O

o

Si'

?

_^

—J

CP

_

■«

o

^

?3

ts

i^-

■f-

en
O

<

C/9

0>

o>

00
JO

00

Ti

-C3

0=
Si

O'

CD

IS

o

>o

3

_ O

"Co ^ ~^ "^ ^

.. P

o

00
o

>o

UJ

<

^^

*-»

-^1

to

r^'

KJ

0

4>.

—5

—

J^

c

r3

.^

Qo

1

Oi

00

o

0)
31

O

o

-cr

■(>■

•Cu

03

• tn -"

.OS c-^ _

cc -

—J _

P -

'»<;> _

P ^

C5- o-

O

ro

CD-

09
O

CO

CD

-Oa (VO. -J
■ e-o, ns

O r

♦•A —

ro'

3 .

P O

— \

o

-a

o

CP

o ^

QD

P

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o

o

o

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o

p

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI 1 1.

riate XXXII.

Fill. 1

FIG. E

FIG. 2 a

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIII.

Plale XXXIII.

Fig. la.

Fig. 2b.

Fjg. 2C.

Trans. Wis. Acatl., Vol. XIII.

Plate XXXIV.

FIG. 3

■ '-ii^iiSimmsk

Fl G . 4^

FIG. A< a

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIII.

Plate XXXV

FIG. 5

FIG. 6

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIII.

Plate XXXVI.

FIG. r

■fes.

FiCr. 8

« - ■■ - *

FIG. 7, a

>,'*?tS?.'

FIG. 9

Trans. Wis. AcaJ., Vol. XIII,

Plate XXXVII.

FIG^. lO.

^^^F

FIG. lO a

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIII.

Plate XXXVI II.

FIG. 11

Fia. 12

FIG. 13

ON THE RELATION BETWEEN HEAT CONDUCTIVITY
AND DENSITY IN SOME OF THE COMMON WOODS.

LOUIS W. AUSTIN AND C. W. EASTMAN.

In 182 8 De la Rive and De Candolle/ after examining the
conductivities of five varieties of woods, announced tlie inter-
esting fact that along the fibers the thermal conductivities of the
different woods were approximately proportional to their den-
sities. Some observations made by C. G. StangeP in 1899 in
connection with his work on the effect of moisture on the heat
conductivities of woods and rocks called attention again to the
relations between the conductivities and densities of woods. As
far as has been ascertained no other work has been done on the
subject since that of De La Hive and De Candolle, the extensive
work of TvndalP on woods being confined to the rapidity of
propagation of the heat wave, or, diffusivity.

In our own experimental work a method was made use of
which v/as presented in outline by Yoigt* in 1898, the general
plan of which is as follows : The specimens whose heat con-
ductivities are to be compared are cut in the form of right
angled triangles and joined along the hypotenuse, as shown in
the figure. If one of the edges AB be heated until a steady
flow of heat is established so that the temperature at each point
becomes constant, the isothermal lines in the lower specimen
will be parallel to the base AB, while in the upper specimen
they will be bent upward or downward depending on whether
the conductivity is greater or less than in the lower. Accord-

iDe la Rive and De Candolle, Pogg. Ann., vol. 14, 1828, p. 590.
2C. G. Stangel, University of Wisconsin Thesis, 1899.
sTyndall, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc, vol. 143, 1853, p. 217.
4Voigt, Wied. Ann., vol. 64, 1898, p. 95.

8 \

540 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ing to the tangential law of refraction of a disturbance cross-
ing the boundaiy of two media in which it is propagated with
conductivities ki and ks,

K, tan. Q>i

Kj, tclQ. «y^2

The determination of the relative conductivities then resolves
itself into the measurement of the angles 4>x and ^o- In prac-
tice the isothermal line is determined bv the melting of a thin
layer of wax spread over the specimen.

—.2)

In applying this method to determining the relative conduc-
tivities of woods the following arrangement was used: Blocks
of wood about 8 cm. square and 2 cm. thick were cut in tri-
angular form and placed in a wooden frame with their fibers
parallel to AC, as shoAvn in the figure. These were covered on
the bottom and on the sides AC and BD with thick pieces of
asbestos to cut down the loss of heat. A uniform distribution
of heat along AB was obtained by pressing a strip of iron of
about the same dimensions as the edge of the block against the
wood, and heating this by means of a row of small gas flames.
The wax used to show the isothermal line was composed of par-
afiin mixed with a little turpentine. This mixture had a melt-
ing point of about 40° and gave a sharp line of demarcation
betsveen the melted and unmelted portions. To prevent the
wax soakinc: into the wood and also to insure a more uniform
radiation both blocks were covered mth a sheet of tinfoil on
which the melted wax was painted with a flat brush. This de-

Austin-Eastman — Heat Conductivity in ^Yoods. 541

vice was first used by C. G. Stangel in his work on heat con-
ductivity to which reference has already been made.

It was found that there were two chief sources of en^or to be
guarded against, the first of Avhich is the direct effect on the
wax of radiation from the source of heat. To prevent this the
metal from which heat is communicated to the wood must not
be allowed to extend above the edge of the wood, this being much
more effective than any system of screens used with a larger
heating plate. The second possible source of error lies in the
difficulty in obtaining a perfectly good contact between the
specimens. To insure this as far as possible, two strips of tin-
foil were placed between and the blocks pressed tightly together
by means of wedges. It was also found necessary in order to
preserve the contact, to plane the blocks frequently as they be-
came warped by the heat. With these precautions very uni-
form results were obtained.

In our experiments only the conductivities parallel to the
fibers were tested. The piece next to the source of heat (posi-
tion 1 in the figure) was in all cases the same specimen of white
oak, the others being placed in position for comparison with it.
The densities were determined partly by weighing and measur-
ing the specimens and partly by the method of immersion. Five
sets of angles were taken for each wood and the average of these
used in computing the conductivity. These measurements were
estimated to be correct to within two per cent. Some errors are
undoubtedly introduced into the results by the fact that in the
second specimen the flow of heat is not in general strictly paral-
lel to the fibers, and since the conductivity at right angles to
the fibers is smaller, the true values of the conductivities of
some of the lighter woods may be slightly greater than those
given. In order to reduce the relative conductivities at least
approximately to absolute units, the value for walnut parallel
to the fibers, found bv Peclet^ is assumed to be correct for our
specimen and the conductivities of all the other woods are ex-
pressed in the same terms.

iC. G. S. System of Units, Everett, p. 128.

542 Wisconsin Academy of ScienceSj Arts, and Letters.

In the following table are given tlie conductivities and densi-
ties of the twelve woods examined :

Wood.

Density.

Cond'ctivity.

Wood.

Density.

Cond'ctivity.

•Sequoia

0.380
0.394
0.406
0.408
0.506
0.534

0.000342
372
358
391
428
451

Gum

0.559
0.609
0.615
0.649
0.657
0.711

0.000458

Butternut

Walnut

4S0

Pine

! White oak

Brown ash

Georgia pine

Red birch

472

Linden

539

W^hite wood

Cherry

540
528

The results of the work seem to indicate that the law of pro-
portionalitv between heat conductivity and density, as an-
nounced by De la Rive and De Candolle is at least very approxi-
mately obeyed. It is true that in our results slight exceptions
to this are shown but it is quite |X)ssible that all the variations
obsei'ved are due to errors of obser\^ation. It seems more prob-
able, how^ever, that slight variations really do exist, as the dif-
ference in form of the cells in different woods must produce a
difference in the distribution of material which w^ould in itself,
at least in some degree, affect the conductivity.

The University of ^Yisconsin, December, 1900.

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF KENOSHA
AND LA FAYETTE COUNTIES.

ROBERT HUGH DOWNES, B. L., AND KATHERINE PATRICIA REGAN,
B. L., WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY ORIN GRANT LIBBY, PH. D.

INTRODUCTIOK

The two studies in local history following this introduction
are part of a year's seminaiy work on a new field in Wisconsin
history. The pui*pose of this seminary has been to lay an ade-
quate statistical foundation for later work of a somewhat dif-
ferent character. Owing to the fact that accurate and de-
tailed state records are not published to any considerable extent
by any state it became necessary to compile carefully a large
body of statistics from the original records before any really
valuable research work could be carried on in Wisconsin local
history. In the two senior theses published under this cover
the complete record, on which a part of the discussion is based,
are to be found in the appendix. Smaller tables in more con-
cise form and maps of several kinds appear in the papers and
make clear what is sought to be proved.

The work so far accomplished has proceeded along certain
definite lines. A special county has been studied, not as a
whole but with reference to its units, the towns. The bound-
ary changes have been in most cases worked out and there has
been a brief survey of the geological condition and the main
topographical features in so far as they bear upon the question
of soil and general productive power. Following this the dis-
tribution of the population is studied, and the nativity of the
whole population is worked out for every town. This supplies
a basis for a still further study of the per capita wealth, occu-
pation, etc., of all who have entered the state since 1850. Thus

544 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

in this way we are able to compare the productive power of the
various nationalities, to discover where they go and what occu-
pations they engage in. To some degree also we may be able to
trace the movement of emigration across the continent by the"
birth i:>laces of the various members of a family who in the end
settle in this state. In one of the theses the studv was carried
to the political conditions and the various nationalities were
considered not only as immigrants and producers of wealth, but
also as voters. One not unimportant result of the study so far
as carried on, is the means it has afforded for the correction or
verification of the published census records of the state and
United States. The count of the actual population for 1850,
1860 and 1870 has enabled the students to discover substantial
erroi-^ in the published reports.

It is my purpose in the end to use this work of the seminary
for a series of years as the foundation and starting point for an
economic history of Wisconsin. The great problems of immi-
gration, of industrial change and development, and of the influ-
ence of foreigners on our social, economic and political life can
never be fairly discussed without some such careful study as is
indicated above. It is no sli2:ht task to undertake the exam-
ination and arrangement of the hitherto unpublished records of
the state. But the task has been attempted with the hope that
tlie results obtained will be of pennanent value to the student
of statistics and political economy, as well as to the student of
sociology and of history.

I desire to acknowledge my indebtedness to the Secretary of
State for his courtesy in loaning to the State Historical So-
ciety, at my request, the copies of the original United States
census returns for 1850, 1860 and 1870, on file in his office.
This rendered these Yery valuable unpublished materials more
accessible to the students of my seminary for the present year
and made the labor of compiling statistical tables less burden-
some. These census reports seem to have been entirely ignored
heretofore by students of Wisconsin history and it is to be hoped
that they will not again be lost sight of by students of local his-
tory in the state.

O. G. LiBBY.

University of Wisconsin, Novemher 28, 1901.

Downes — ^Development of Kenoslia County. 545

eco:n'omic akd social developme:n't of

KEIs^OSHA cou:^rTY.^

ROBERT HUGH DOWNES.

Chapter I.

FORMATION OF TPIE COUNTY AND TOWNS.

Kenosha county is located in the southeastern part of the
state of Wisconsin. It is bounded on the east by Lake Michi-
gan and on the south by the state of Illinois, and covers an area
of 268.04 sq. miles. At the territorial formation of the pres-
ent state of Wisconsin in 1836, the state was divided into four
-^.ounties — Crawford, Iowa, Brown, and Milwaukee. The
-region north of the parallel 46° 31' north latitude was yet un-
organized. The southeasteiTL part of the state was included in
Milwaukee county.^ An act passed by the legislative assem-
bly in 1836, provided that the townships number one, twO;
three, and four north, of ranges nineteen, twenty, twenty-one,
twenty-two, and twenty-three east of the fourth principal merid-
ian be erected into a separate county, named Racine.

By this act what is now Kenosha county was included in Ra-
cine county and it remained a part of Kacine county until 1850,
when by an act approved January 30, 1850, it was enacted that
all of Kacine county within the boundaries, commencing at the
southwest corner of township one, range nineteen east and run-
ning thence east on the state line to the center of lake Michigan ;
thence northerly along the eastern boundary line of Wisconsin
to the township line between townships two and three; thence
west on said township line to the range line between ranges

lA thesis submitted to the faculty of the University of Wisconsin for
the degree B. L., June, 1901.

2 Formation of the counties of Wisconsin, A thesis by Herbert Scott
Blake, '94, pages 3-4, 5, 21-22,

546 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

nineteen and twenty east ; thence soutli on said range line to tlie
section line between sections twenty-four and twenty-five, in
tOAvnship tAvo, range nineteen east; thence west on said section
line to the range line between ranges eighteen and nineteen east ;
thence south on said range line to the place of beginning, shall
be erected into a separate county called Kenosha.^

The boundary of tlie county as determined by the above act
has never been altered, but since that time there have been sev-
eral changes in the town boundaries for no special reason other
than local advantage or convenience. The accompanying maps,
I and II, shoAv Kenosha countv and the toAvns as erected by the
act approved Jan. 30, 1850, and as they are today. By con-
sulting these maps one will readily see the nature of the changes
that have been made. The legislature, Jan. 2, 1838, created
the tOAvns of Salem, Pleasant Prairie, and Southport.^ Salem
and Pleasant Praine have remained unchanged to the present
time, while Southport by an act of the Board of Supervisors of
Kenosha county, Feb. 26, 1853, was vacated and divided. The
parts, except so much of the town as was embraced in the city
of Kenosha by the act of the legislature of Jan., 1850, incor-
porating the city, Avere added to the towns of Somers and Pleas-
ant Prairie. That part of Southport lying in town one north,
range twenty-three east, was annexed to the tOAvn of Pleasant
Prairie, and that part lying in town two north, range twenty-
three east, Avas annexed to the toAvn of Somers.^ The towns of
Bristol and Paris were created by the action of the County
Board of Supervisors of Kacine county, Jan. 11, 1850, and
neither have been changed since that time. It was impossible
to ascertain the dates Avhen the toAvns of Brighton, Pike, and
Wheatland were created, but all three existed Avhen Kenosha
Avas formed. Brighton has remained unchanged, while the
name of Pike was changed to Somers early in 1851.* The toAvn
of Wheatland was divided by the action of the Board of Super-
visors of Kenosha county in 1860 by a line commencing at the

1 Session Laws, Wis., 1850, p. 25. Southport Telegraph, Friday, Feb.
15, 1850.

2 Hist, of Racine and Kenosha Counties, 1879, p. 308.

3 Alterations of Towns, filed March 9, 1853. File Town Plats, "Old",
Office of Sec. of State.

4 Kenosha Telegraph, April 11, 1851, March 21, 1851.

Downes — Development of Kenosha County. 54Y

northeast corner of section thirteen, town one, range nineteen
east, and extending west on the north line of sections thirteen,
fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, seventeen, and eighteen to tlie range
line, and the town of Randall created.^ This was the last
change made in the boundaries of any of the to^vns.^

Chapter II.

GEOLOGY, SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY.

The surface features of the county are simple and imdulat-
ing in character with a gentle slope to the southeastward. The
height of the land above the level of Lake Michigan gradually
increases, with the exception of a small region in the western
part of the town of Pleasant Prairie and the eastern part of the
town of Bristol, to the westward, reaching its greatest height in
the extreme northwestern part of the town of Wheatland.

The important rivers in the county are the Fox, Des Plaines,
and the Pike. These are located in the western, central, and
northeastern parts of the county, respectively. The current in
these rivers and their tributaries is not swift enough to furnish
any power for manufacturing purposes.^ The slight rise in the
height of the land in the eastern part of the county which ex-
tends through the central part of the town of Pleasant Prairie,
and then northwestward through the towns of Somers and Paris
is notable because it makes the streams which flow into Lake
Michigan short and abrupt, and forms a continuation of the
watershed between the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi basins.

In its geological formation Kenosha county is divided into
four distinct north and south sections by the deposit of four
different varieties of coarse drift by the glaciers upon the
Niagara limestone, which forms the bed of the entire county.
These four different varieties of drift differ from each other

iKenosKa County Records.

2 For changes in town boundaries see Plate XXXIX.

3 Census taker of 1850, remarked: "The only remarkable thing to
be seen in this town (Bristol) is a flouring mill built upon a stream
(Des Plaines) that it would require an 'observation' to tell which way
the water runs."

548 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

m color, degree of coarseness, time of deposit, and cliemical
composition. The section in the western part of the county, in-
cluding the greater part of the towns of Randall and Wheat-
land, is the region of Kettle Range Moraine Kames. This sec-
tion composes the extreme southeastern part of the Kettle range.
This region is more undulating than any other part of the
county, in fact some of the hills are quite abrupt. In this same
region and also in the town of Salem tliere are numerous small
moraine lakes, which add much to the beauty of the land. The
most important of these lakes are Powers, Elizabeth, Mary,
Silver, and Camp.

Adjoining this section to the eastward, and including the
eastern part of the towns of Randall and Wheatland, all of
Brighton and Salem, and the western part of Paris and Bris-
tol, is the recrion of bowlder clav. This resrion is of an earlier
formation than that just described and consists of a commingled
mass of clay, sand, gravel, and bowlders variously arranged
with reference to each other and spread out irregularly over the
surface of the limestone bed below.

The formations of the other two sections are known as the
light colored pebble clay and the beach. The light colored
clay covers the greater part of the towns of Paris, Bristol,
Somers, and Pleasant Prairie. This formation is very similar
to the bowlder clay, and only differs from it in that the bowlders
are smaller and the clav is of a liirhter color. The beach forma-
tion covers the eastern part of the towns of Somers and Pleasant
Prairie, extending on an average about one mile inland from
the lake shore. At the surface there is a deposit of sand and
gravel, with a varying, but subordinate admixture of clayey and
marly material. The gravel averages about ten feet in thick-
ness, and is usually fine, and interstratified with sand and occa-
sionally with clay.

The essential features of a drift foimiation of this sort are its
industrial value. The accumulation, deposit, powdering, and
commingling of a vast variety of materials by the glacial forces
must inevitably result in producing a sub-soil rich in variety of
minerals and well suited to give a secure and permanent foun-
dation to agricultural industries.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIII.

Di sTRtBurioN OF Soils

Plate XXXIX.

W,

m

PRAIRIE LCHM

HEHVIEF^ M/^ffLY CLBY

HUMUS {pert)

SILICEOUS S/INPY LOffM

I I LIGHTER Mf\RLr CLRY

BOUNPRRY ChRNGES

BRIGHTON
ZZ.QSO. SI A.

LEM

19, e9~),0Z A

5(

IbUERS

k.

149,30 A.

^Mi

4 Changeo

^OM

PiKs: lb 51

FEASANT
PRAI Rl,

Co

lO

7 "^

5 ?

Fi.lS E

H ZO. E

R.ZI . E

H.2Z. E

R.Z3E,

Dowries — Development of Kenosha County. 549

Taking up now tlie prevailing sub-soils, we find that there are
four in the county. They are known as prairie loam, lighter
marly clay, humus (peat) heavier marly clay, and silicious
sandy loam. Map II shows the location of each. The prairie
loam is found chiefly in the central and eastern part of the
county. It predominates in the towns of Paris and Somers,
while in the four counties in the west there are only small scat-
tered areas. This is a rich, black soil and very responsive to
proper fertilizers. Its chief ingredient is silica, with which is
associated a varietv of soluble mineral substances which exist
in abundance in the limestone and drift deposits beneath.
These soluble minerals constitute excellent food for plant life.

The lighter marly clay is the predominating soil in the
county. It prevails in the same general region as the prairie
loam, its areas being interwoven with them. It is a reddish
soil and is very durable and fertile. The chief ingredients are
calcium and nia;iniesium, and it contains enough of sandy ma-
terial to make it loamy and easy to work.

The heavier marly clay is a heavier sub-soil than any of the
other soils in the county. This soil with the silicious sandy
loam constitute the poorer soils of the county, and fortunately
they only form a small part of the soil when compared with the
area of prairie loam and the lighter marly clay. The chief
characteristics of this soil are that it contains a notable amount
of lime, magTxCsia, and silica. The surface is frequently strewn
with bowlders, chiefly "hard heads," while cobble stones and
pebbles mingle more or less with the soil. The silicious sandy
loam, is found along the lake shore and is a result of the beach
deposit already described. It is a sterile, silicious soil, but
when mingled with clay it produces a rich fertile soil well
adapted to certain kinds of plant life.

The humus (peat) is found along the Fox and Des Plaines
It is a result of the decay of peat and swamp muck, upon which
various ccrasses flourish.^

From this study it seems evident, that the soil and con-
tour of Kenosha county are admirably suited for agricultural

iThis discussion of the Geology, soils and topography, is abridged
from Geology of Wisconsin, vol. 2, part 2, 1873-1877.

550 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

purposes; that the vast supply and variety of minerals, in
the underlying strata, constitute excellent plant food, and insure
a permanent foundation for agriciiltural industries, and that
the wealth of the county must depend primarily upon agricul-
tural and dairy pursuits/

Chapter III.

THE PEOPLING OF THE COUNTY.

We now come to the study of the peopling of Kenosha county.
During the period of 1836 and the few years just preceding that
rivers and in small areas in the low lands throughout the county,
time, the gi'eat West, its boundless natural resources and its
many advantages for the acquiring of wealth was the subject of
absorbing attention throughout the Middle and Eastern states.
In December, 1834, a resident of the toAvn of Hannibal, Os-
wego county, N. Y., gave a dinner party to a number of friends.
At this dinner the dominant theme of discussion was the West,
its beautiful prairies, productive soil, and remarkable possibili-
ties. Members of the party related marvelous tales and glow-
ing descriptions which they had heard from travelers who had
explored the country west of the great lakes. The enthusiasm
during the evening became so great that before the party broke
up those present had mutually resolved upon a plan to organ-
ize an association to settle a colony in the West, in which those
becoming members should be of assistance to each other, and
mutually share profits and losses in the enterprise. Shortly
afterwards there was a general meeting of the people of the
town called for the purpose of inviting the co-operation of all
who desired to join such an enterprise. The meeting was well
attended and the obiect under consideration met with more ffen-
eral favor than was anticipated. At a subsequent meeting, held
Feb. 20, 1835, an organization was finally perfected, under the
name of the '' Western Emigration Company." Peter Woodin

iFor soils and topography see Plate XXXIX.

Dowries — Development of Kenoslia County. 551

and Jolin Biillen, Jr., both of Hannibal, were elected president
and secretary of the company/

The constitution of the company proposed to raise a cash cap-
ital of $8,000 by subscriptions of stock in shares of $10 each,
the funds so raised to be invested in real estate suitable for a
town site, and the share-holders to be entitled to the proceeds
arising from any increase in the value of the property. The
stock of the conipany promised to be lucrative, and many peo-
ple of small means, who desired to find a new home in the West,
became shai*e-holders. Old men and young men, and even un-
married women, who were employed as house servants, in some
instances, appropriated from their earnings sufficient to pur-
chase a share, in the hope of realizing large profits.

In the spring of 1835, the company appointed a committee
to explore the distant, and then comparatively little known
regions of the west. The explorers left Hannibal March 19,
1835. The account says the day of departure was one of con-
siderable interest to the inhabitants of Hannibal. The instruc-
tions to the committee were explicit and reduced to writing.
The committee was instructed to examine the country along the
western, shore of Lake Michigan with a view of finding an elegi-
ble situation for a commercial to^vn, with lands in the vicinity
adapted to agricultural pursuits. Milwaukee was fixed as the
first point the committee was to visit^ — that being the only place
then known between Chicago and Green Bay as being settled by
white inliabitants. From Milwaukee they were directed to ex-
plore either north or south, along the shore, as they might judge
best.

On reaching Milwaukee the committee learned that there
were several points on the lake shore toward Chicago capable
of being rendered of commercial importance, which were yet un-
occupied. Thereupon the committee proceeded southward, ex-
ploring such points as they considered afforded a natural ad-
vantage for the construction of a harbor. Their first step was
at the north of the Root river. The land here was claimed by
other parties, but the committee entered into an agreement with

lA communication printed in the Kenosha Leader, June 26, 1890,
states that John Bullen was originator and organizer of the Western
Emigration Co., and was the only individual at any time elected presi-
dent of the association.

552 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

these parties bv which they were to pay $2,700 for the claim
upon the land upon which the principal part of the city of Ra-
cine now stands.

Owing to some misunderstanding the committee was removed
and John Bullen, Jr., was made sole agent for the company.
On his arrival at Root river, the parties who made the agree-
ment mth the committee refused to abide bv its terms. An at-
tempt to enforce the agreement failed and Bullen, together with
his party proceeded to examine the country further south. On
the 6th of June, 1835, the exploring party reached Pike Creek,
They were stiiick by the depth and width of the creek and de-
cided at once to build a town upon its shores. As soon as the
news reached Oswego county, immediate preparations were
made by stockholders to emigrate to the newly-selected home.
About fifteen families, mostly from the town of Hannibal, came
on during the summer and fall of 1835. A part of these were
not meml3ers of the company, and on their arrival, made claims
on land in the vicinity of Pike Creek for the purpose of pursu-
ing the business of farming. This was the beginning of the vil-
lage of Southport, the first village in the county, and which in
1850 became the city of Kenosha.^

The Western Emigration Company was dissolved in Dec.,.
1836. It proved a losing venture to most of the stockholders,
but it nevertheless served as an intennediary between the people
in Xew York who were about to emia-rate and the new lands of
Xenosha county. During the shoit existence of the company it
advertised and made Pike Creek known to a large number of
the people of Xew York. In so doing it must undoubtedly have
directed a large part of those emigi^ating from Xew York to
the West to this point. In our study of the nativity of the
population of the county for the two decades from 1850 to
1870, we may therefore expect to find a large percentage of the-
population born in Xew York. Table 1^ shows this to be tnie
in every town in the county.

iThis account of the first settlement in Kenosha Co. is abridger! from
the History of Racine and Kenosha Counties, 1879, pages 331-340.

2 This talDle was made from copies of the original U. S. census re-
turns for the state for 1850, 1860 and 1870, which are in the vault of
the office of the Sec. of State. For the actual number born in the
different states and foreign countries see Table 1, Appendix.

Downes — Development of Kenosha County.

553

Table I. — Nativity by percentage.

M

6

TJ

ous.

o

aCQ

3

County and Towns.

'6
a

^

3z

a

4i
CO

o

£
S

an

0)

fcc

b<

yj .

M

O

4J

<

n-^

.

^«

W «

a

o

0-3

o

J3

to

•*^ SC

73

a

■oS

a

z

3S

3=-

CO

O

Z

o

n

5^

O

£2

s

u
Oh

Kenosha county . . .

1850

11.9

29.6

2.2

18.7

5.3

.2

2.5

9.2

11.7

7.9

.3

.9

186U

7.8

18.3

1.5

31.6

3.3

.7

1.6

7.5

8.7

4.1

8.6

6.1

1870

4.9

12.4

1.5

45.3

3.8

.8

1.1

5.6

6.1

3.2

13.4

2.4

City of Kenosha . ..

1850

11.4

27.6

1.5

17.4

7.6

.4

2.5

7.3

16.4

6.5

.6

.£

1860

7.9

15.4

1.0

31.8

4.4

l.S

1.9

5.1

11.8

4.9

6.9

6 9

1870

6.

11.6

1.1

44.1

5.3

.9

1.6

3.3

7.4

4.3

11.

2£

Brighton

1850
1860

5.5
1.9

16.1
7.6

4.0
.9

21.2
3S.

2.7
1.3

.3

3.2

.6

16.4
14.5

18.9
10.4

10.7
2.2

1919'

5

?, 6

1870

.3

3.0

.6

54.3

.0

.3

.4

8.1

7.4

1.1

22.5

1.1

Bristol

1850

1860

20.8
12.3

39.
31.8

3.3
1.4

18.8

26.7

5.5
5.4

.....

1.3
1.8

1.7
1.4

4.7

7.9

4.0
.9

'2.V

5

7 5

1870

10.3

22.3

.7

41.6

6.4

1.4

.3

2.2

6.4

1.0

5.3

1.7

Paris

1850
1860

6.8
5.9

28.7
15.4

1.2
1.7

19.4
34.2

4.8
1.3

.1
.1

.6
.4

15.2
13.4

7.3
5.9

11. 1

7.6

1.0

10.5

2 7

3,5

1870

3.8

6.5

.8

46.9

1.0

.9

.6

12.7

4.1

4.9

12.4

4.8

Pike

1850
i860
1870

1850

13.6

29.7

1.0

20.8

4.5

.5

.9

13.

5.4

10.

.1

.

Pleasant Prairie ..

11.9

19.2

1.2

21.4

2 2

.1

1.8

16.8

19.6

3.5

1.2

1860

9.1

15.6

.9

29.6

1.5

.6

.9

10.1

11.1

4.5

2.6

13.1

1870

4.7

13.1

6.5

39.1

1.6

1.3

.8

7.9

10.7

2.9

8.8

2.4

Randall

1850
1860

7.6

29 6

6 6

29.1

3.6

.1

1.2

7.5

6.2

2.8

1.5

7.2

1870

3.0

20.4

1.5

46.5

6.1

.1

4.5

2.6

.5

13.5

.9

Salem

1850

13.

36.1

2.3

17.1

3.5

.4

8.1

8.8

5.1

1.4

.5

1860

10.4

24 9

1.2

31.4

5.5

.6

2.9

9.5

8.6

.6

2.8

1,7

1870

6.2

18.1

.8

42.8

5.2

1.

1.1

8.0

6.6

1.0

7.3

1.4

Somers

1850
1860

5.9

20.4

.6

33 4

2.3

.1

2.5

10.8

4.4

4.3

8.9

6.1

1870

3.6

14.8

1.2

45.5

2.5

.8

1.7

9.5

1.8

4.4

10.6

3.4

South port

1850

20 1

34.9

11

15.4

4.2

3

7 r

6.9

5.5

5

.8

1860
1870

1850

Wheatland

8.9

35.2

4.4

19.2

6.0

.08

.5

4.6

4.2

15.7

.08

.8

1860

3.3

12.4

3 1

33.

2.3

.2

1 3

.4

3.0

7.5

28.4

4.5

1870

1.0

4.5

.1

57.3

2.5

.1

1.5

1.2

.8

5.6

28.8

1.8

Coming now to a more careful study of the results in Table
1, v:e find that as late as 1870 only two towois, Brighton and
Paris, had a population of over 50^ horn in Wisconsin. Of
the total jDopulation of the entire county in 1870 only 45.3^
were born in Wisconsin. This shows plainly that the bulk of
the population in 1870 and previously, was bom either in other
states or in foreis^i countries.

554 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

The population of the city of Kenosha in 1850 consisted
mainly of those born in Xew York, "Wisconsin, Ireland, Xew
England and Great Britain. In IS 60 and 1870 the percent-
ages of the population furnished by these states and countries
fall, Avhile that of Wisconsin and Prussia rise. The rise in the
percentage of the Wisconsin born is to be expected,^ but the rise
of the percentage of those born in Prussia shows the com-
ing in of a large number of Germans during the two deo-
ades." The large decline in the percentage of the Xew York
element from 29.6^ to 18.3^ between 1S50 and 1860, and from
l^.Zfc to 12. 5,^^ between 1860 and 1870 indicates very plainly
that a large number of those bom in Xew York left the city
and went elsewhere. The falling off of the Irish element indi-
cates the same thimr, but not to such an extent as in the case of
the Xew York element.

A large percentage of the population of the towns of Brigh-
ton, Paris and Wheatland in 1850 were from Xew York, Xew
England, Ireland, and Great Britain. Between 1850 and 1870
a large part of the Xew York and Xew England population left
the towns ; especially is this tnie in the towns of Wheatland and
Paris, where the Xew England element sank from 6.8^ to 3.8^
in Paris, and from 8.0;?! to li in Wheatland, and tlie Xew York
element from 28.7;^ to 6.5;^ in Paris, and from 35.2^ to 4.5^ in
Wheatland. The Enoflisli and Irish elements remained in the
three towns and naturally declined a little each year, with the
exception of the town of Brighton. The fall of the percentage
of the Irish in this town from 18.9^ to 10.4;^ between 1850 and
1860 shows that part of the Irish emigrated. The most impor-
tant feature of Brighton and Wheatland is the rapid increase in
the number of Gennans, chiefly from Prussia. The number of
Germans increased slightly in the town of Paris, but not to such
a degree as in these other two towns. By 1870 these three
to^vns were mainly settled by people of a foreign nationality.
Wneatland was chiefly settled by Germans, Brighton by Ger-
mans, English and Irish, and Paris by Germans and English.

1 Those born in Wisconsin rapidly increased, so the Wisconsin born
is an important factor in each town,

2 The percentage of the Germans who were born in Prussia is so great,
that hereafter in this discussion the term German will mean those who
werei born in Prussia.

Downes — Development of Kenosha County. 555

The town of Pleasant Prairie has a characteristic of its own.
In 1850 the percentage of the population bom in Ireland and
Great Britain was greater than that of those born in E'ew York
and ^ew England, while in 1860 those bom in ISTew York and
!N'ew England were greater than those bom in Ireland and Great
Britain, and in 1870 they w^ere about equal. The noticeable
sinking in the percentages of the Irish and English elements
from 19.6^ to 11.1,^ and from 16.8,^ to 10.1^, respectively, dur-
ing the first decade makes it very plain that the Irish and Eng-
lish elements either settled in the town and then left, or that they
settled in what was Pleasant Prairie in 1850, and when the
southern part of the to-vvn of Southport was annexed in 1851,
the great predominance of the 'Nev7 York and ISTew England ele-
ments in the district added, offset the large percentage of Irish
and English which existed in Pleasant Prairie in 1850. By
examining the actual number of the population born in ISTew
York, ISTew England, Ireland, and Great Britain in the town of
Pleasant Prairie and Southport in 1850, and in the town of
Pleasant Prairie for 1860 and 1870 in Table 1 of the Appendix,
the latter statement will be seen to be true. So it is evident
that if any of the English and Irish elements emigrated from
this town they did not do so in such great numbers as the E'ew
York and Xew England elements. The German element in-
creased steadily during the period.

The towns of Bristol, Somers, formerly Pike, Salem, and
Eandall, are the ones which show the least thinning out of the
'New York and ISTew England population, but the fall in the
percentages, however, is greater than it would ordinarily be,
providing no emigration of these elements had taken place.
In all of these towns there was a small increase in the number
of Germans. The town of Randall shows the greatest increase.
Erom 1860 to 1870 the German element in this town rose from
1.5^ to 13.5,^. The town of Bristol was settled chiefly by the
!N'ew York and the New England population. In 1850 the
ISTew York element was 39^ and the ISTew England 20.8^, mak-
ing together 59.8^ of the total population of the town. From
1850 to 1860 there was a slight increase in the number of Irish
and from 1860 to 1870 a small increase in the number of Eng-
9

556 ^yisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

lish. Tlie Xew York and ]^ew England elements nevertheless
remained the predominating population of the town. Salem,
like the town of Bristol, was settled bv the Xew York and ^ew
England people, and they remained the prevailing elements in
the town. During the first decade quite a number of Irish and
English came in and settled. There was also a small but steady
increase in the German population. The towns of Somers and
Randall, although Randall was not formed until IS 60, show a
greater increase in the number of Gennans than the other two
towns. In Somers those born in Xew York, Germany, chiefly
Prussia, Ireland, and Great Britain, were the gi*eatest in num-
ber, while in Randall, those bom in Xew York and Germany
predominated.

To sum up the study of the accompanying Table 1 and Table
1 of the Appendix, we find: 1. That the nativity of the popula-
tion of the county, according to relative importance, takes the fol-
lowing order : in 1850, Xew York, Wisconsin, Xew England,
Ireland, Great Britain and Gennany ; in 1860 Wisc-onsin, Xew
York, Ireland, Prussia, Xew England and Great Britain ; and
in 1870, Wisconsin, Xew York, Prussia, Ireland, Great Britain
and Xew England. 2. That the population furnished by
Xew York and Xew England declined steadily and rapidly
since 1850, not so much by natural decline, as by emigration
from tlie county. Those that remained in the county massed
in the towns of Bristol, Salem, Randall, Somers, and a large
number in Pleasant Prairie. 3. That the Irish have steadily
declined since 1850. They scattered in the county, but settled
chieflv in Pleasant Prairie, Brighton, and the citv of Kenosha.
Thev are the onlv foreign nationalitv that had a tendency to
emigrate. Erom 1850 to 1860 a large number left the city of
Kenosha and the town of Brighton, some leaving the county,
and others moving into the towns of Bristol and Salem. 4.
That the English in the county increased slightly from 1850 to
1860, and settled mainly in the city of Kenosha, Brighton,
Paris, Pleasant Prairie, Salem and Somers. The only town, in
which there is an indication that a small number emigrated
after settling is Brighton. 5. That the total number of Ger-
mans in the county, chiefly from Prussia, increased nearly 145^

Downcs — Development of Kenosfia County,

557

from 1850 to 1870. They scattered all over the county, but
massed principally in the towns of Brighton and Wheatland.
6. That the foreign nationality predominated in Brighton in
1860.

Table 2.—

Nativity of county and town by percen

tage.

Native.

Foreign Born.

1S50.

1860.

■ 1
1870.

1850.

1830.

1870.

Kenosha county
Kenosha city ..

Brighton

Bristol

Paris

Pike-Somers . . .
Pleasant Prairie

Randall

Salem

Southport

Wheatland

68.2

65.6

69.1

31.8

34.4

66.6

64.7

68.4

33.4

35.3

50.2

49.7

59.3

49.8

50.3

87.6

81.9

82.9

12.4

18.1

60.7

59.1

60.7

39.3

40.9

70.4

65.8

68.7

29.6

34.2

57.0

66.3

66.7

43.0

33.7

78.9

78.3

21.1

75.8

74.7

74.3

24.2

25.3

75.6

....

24.4

• • • •

73.7

54.9

60.8

26.3

45.1

30.9
31.6
40.7
17.1
39.3
31.3
33.3
21.7
25.7

• • • •

39.2

Note.— For the total number of native and foreign born in the county and
towns for the three years, see Table 2, Appendix.

To further show the distribution of the foreign and native
population in the county and towns, Table 2 was made by con-
sidering all born within the United States as native, and all
born outside as foreign, for the three years 1850, 1860 and
1870. Taking the percentages of the native and foreign bom
in each to^\Ti for each of the three years, and comparing them
with the percentages of the native and foreign born of the en-
tire county for the same years, one readily sees that in 1850
the towns of Bristol, Salem, Southport, and Wheatland were
settled mainly by native born. In the towns of Somers, then
Pike, and the city of Kenosha, the native born were about the
same as the county average, the former being a little above and
the latter a little below. In the towns of Brighton, Pleasant
Prairie, and Paris, the percentage of native born falls below
that of the entire county, which indicates strongly the presence
of a large foreign element in these towns. In 1860 the per-

558 Wisco7isin Academy of Sciences, A7is, and Letters.

centages of the native and foreign bom of these various towns
bear about the same relation to that of the entire county as they
did in 1850, except Pleasant Prairie and Wheatland. When
Southport was divided and the southern part added to Pleasant
Prairie, the evident predominance of the Sew York and IN'ew
England elements in this district, had the effect of raising the
percentage of the native bom in this town from 57^ in 1850 to
66.3^ in 1860, which is .7^ above the county average in 1860.
The town of Pandall, which was formed out of what was a part
of Wheatland in 1850, has a percentage of native bom of 78.9^,
or IZ.Zfo above that of the county, while the percentage of the
native born of what is left of Wheatland, after the division,
sinks to 54.9^, or 10.7;^ below the county average. This is a
strong indication that, while the town was not arbitrarily
divided in 1850, it was nevertheless naturally divided by the
settlement of the foreign elements in the northern part and the
native in the southern part. This fact may have been what led
to the division of Wheatland in 1860. In 1870 the percentage
of the native born in Pleasant Prairie again sinks below the
county average, while the percentage of the native and foreign
bom for the other towns maintain about the same relation to
the county average as they did in 1850 and 1860.

The sub-joined maps in Plate XL. show very clearly the loca-
tion of the native and foreign elements in the county in 1850,
1860, and 1870, and verify the conclusion drawn from Table
1 in regard to the location of the foreign elements.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIII.

Plate XL.

OI5TRI6UTION OF N/^TIVE & FOREION POPULHTION
COUNTY AV£R/^6E NATIVE 03.2% FOREK^N 31. b%

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RBOUT COUNTY f^YERHOE

BELO^
MBOVE

II

II

II

Dowries — Development of Kenoslia County. 559

Chapter IV.

DENSITY OE POPULATION^ VALUATION PER CAPITA AND

OCCUPATION.

Taking up first the subject of population, it will be observed
from Table 3 that the population per square mile from 1850 to
1900 for the entire county, including the city of Kenosha, has
steadily increased, but with considerable variation. Between

Table 3. — Density of Population.

Area in
square
miles.

Population Pee Square Mile.

18.^0.

1860.

1870,

1880.

1890. 1900.

Kenosha county

City of Kenosha

Co. of Ken. (exclud'g city)

Brighton

Bristol

Paris

Pike-Somers

Pleasant Prairie

Randall

Salem

Wheatland

268.04

40.3

50.4

49.1

50.7

58.0

1.25

2831.2

3193.6

3447.2

4031.2

5225.6

266.79

27.7

35.6

33.5

31.7

33.7

35.7

24.6

32.9

33.2

28.7

25.7

35.98

31.2

38.1

31.7

29.7

29.9

35.67

26.8

34.2

28.4

28.9

24.6

r 40.07

[35.42

19.2

31.9

33.9

36.4

40.7

r43.41
[35.93

26.7

32.2

31.7

32.0

37.9

21.59

30.5

24.7

20.9

30.5

30.77

36.5

46.9

45.0

42.3

48.7

r21.59
145. 15

26.4

51.6

40.3

38.7

1

34.8

80.9
9284.8
37.8
23.8
32.3
22.4

50.1

40.9
36.3

60.2

38.5

Note.— The area of Pike before changed to Somers was 35.42 sq. miles. The
area of Pleasant Prairie before the northern part of SoTithport was set off was
35.93 sq. miles, and the area of Wheatland before Randall was set off was 45.15
SQ. miles.

1860 and 1890 there was only a very small increase of popula-
tion, but from 1880 to 1900 there was an increase of 30.2 to
the square mile. The largest and most consistent growth of
population took place in the city of Kenosha. The population
to the square mile for the county, not including the city of

560 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Aris, and Letters.

Kenosha^ varies greatly. Starting with 27.7 to the square mile
in 1850, it reaches 35.6 in 1860, sinks to 31.7 in 1880, and
again increases to 37.8 in 1900. Soiners is the only town in
the county which has a steady and constant increase. The town
of Pleasant Prairie attains its maximum density in 1900. Be-
tween 1860 and 1880 the population to the square' mile slightly
declined. Considering the inland towns, which have a predom-
inance of foreign elements, namely, Brighton, Paris, and Wheat-
land, as Group 1, and those which have a predominance of na-
tive born, namely, Bristol, Salem and Pandall, as Group 2, it
will be seen that the population of Group 1 tends, with consider-
able variation, to decline, while that of Group 2 tends to stead-
ily increase. The towns composing Group 1 attain their
maximuc density of population in 1860 and 1870, while those
in Group 2 reach their maximum density in 1890 and 1900.
The fluctuation of the population of the town of Wheatland is
more marked than any other town in the county. In 1850 the
population to the square mile in this town was 26.4, in 1860,
51.6, in 1870, 40.3, and in 1900, 38.5.

Plate XLI shows those towns in which the population has de-
clined, and Chart I, Plate XLII, shows graphically the rise and
fall of population in each town from 1850 to 1890.

Table 4.— Valunfions ppr cap

ita.

Group 2.

Year.

Cash value
of farms.

Total
valuation.

Towns havinsT native-born Dooulation

1850
1860
18 iO

1850

1860
1870

$252.9
6*57.2
659.5

214.2
285.0
619.8

$80.89

Group 1.
Towns having largest foreign-born population —

287.8
584.9

96.39
273.9
467.1

Note.— See Table 4, Appendix, for the cash value of farms and the total assessed val-
uation of the county and towns for 1850, 1S60, and 1870.

Having seen that the population in the towns of Group 1 has
declined, while that of the towns of Group 2 has increased, let
us now compare the cash value of the farms per capita and the
total valuation of the personal and real estate per capita of
Group 1 for 1850, 1860, and 1870, mth that of Group 2 for the

Trans. Wis. AcaJ., Vol. XIH.

Plate XLI.

FLUCTUATIONS IN POPULATION FROM 1850-/900

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DECLINE

erfTTZ

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■j^^^

INCREASE U'JDER C0%
INCREASE OVER S0%

Dowries — Development of Kenosha County. 561

same jears. The figures in Table 4 show that the cash value
of the farms per capita is greater in Group 2 than in Group 1
for the years under consideration. The same is true of the
total valuation of personal property and real estate per capita,
except that in 1850 that of Group 2 is less than that of Group 1.
This exception may be partly accounted for by the fact that
there seems to have been a great demand and rush for the farms
in Wheatland and Brighton during the period from 1850 to
1860, due to the excellent quality and quantity of the wheat
gro\\Ti in this section/ The fact that these valuations per cap-
ita are greater in Group 2 than in Group 1 may be regarded as
an indication that the native bom were more thrifty and made
greater improvements on their farms than the foreign bom.

This decline in the population in the towns of Group 1, and
the fact that the cash value of the farms per capita is lower on
the whole than that of Group 2, leads us to examine the prod-
ucts of the towns of the two groups. Chart II, Plate XLII,
shows graphically the fluctuation of the chief products of the
county, excluding the city of Kenosha, from 1850 to 1895. The
most striking fact shown is the steady decline of the number of
bushels of wheat per capita and the great increase in the number
of pounds of butter and bushels of oats per capita. The result
in Table 6 of the Appendix points out clearly that there was a
strong tendency in the towns of Group 1 to depend upon the
production of wheat, oats, and Indian corn, while the towns of
Group 2 went into the dairy industry. In the study of the soils
of the county it was pointed out that the prevailing soil in the
western area of these two groups of towns is the lighter marly
clay and in the eastern area, including the towns of Paris and
Bristol, there is a considerable amount of prairie loam, espe-
cially in Paris. This fact leads irresistibly to the conclusion
that the decline in the population and the smallness of the cash
value of the farms and the total valuation per capita of Group 1,
when compared with that of Group 2, is due not so much to the
soil as to the nativity of the people. The Germans, English, and

iSee Table 6, Appendix. The census taker of 1850 in his remarks
on the town of Wheatland said that the town had a great reputation for
wheat.

562 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences j, Arts, and Letters.

Irish evidently lacked the ability to adapt themselves to the
economic changes and agricultural improvements ; on the other
hand, the native bom of Group 2 took advantage of such
changes and improvements.

Table 5 — Profession, occupation,or trade of the males over 15 years
of age in Kenosha county, excluding the city, by total and percent-
age.

Farmers

1,567

Artisans and mechanics. . ..

Small trades and profes-
sions

133
44

Petty tradesmen

10

Laborers

336

Professional men

23

Capitalists and merchants..
Miscellaneous

5

Totals.

1850.

1860.

1870.

Percentage.

1850.

1860.

1,324
104

42
4

806
40
18

712

1,429
112

58
8

907
38
43

161

73.9
6.3

2.01

.47

15.8

1.08

.23

43
3.08

13

.1

26.4

1.3

.6

23.3

1870.

52.7
4.07

2.1
.3
32.8
1.3
1.56
5.8

Note.— For the percentage of occupation in each town see Table 5, Appendix.

The principal occupation of the males of the county, exclud-
ing the city of Kenosha, is farming. In 1850 of the total
number of males over fifteen years of age, as will be seen from
Table 5, 73. 9,'^ were farmers, in 1860, 43^, and in 1870,
52.8^. The laborers in 1850 constituted 15.8^ of the males,
26.4^ in 1860, and 32.8^ in 1870. The decrease in the num-
ber of farmer sfrom 1850 to 1870, and the increase in the num-
ber of laborers would seem to indicate the concentration of the
farm lands into the hands of a few large and wealthy farmers,
the many small farmers finding employment as laborers.

To conclude we find : 1. That the population of the county
has steadily increased, but with a considerable variation. The
greatest increase has taken place in the city of Kenosha, the
coast towns, and the town of Salem. 2. That the towns which
show a marked decline in population and a lower cash value of
farms and a total valuation per capita, are the towns settled by
foreign bom, chiefly Germans, English, and Irish. The only

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI 1 1.

riale XLII.

1850

i^y>

1875

mo

la-yo

ifoa

1890

Dowries — Development of Kenosha County.

563

exception is the town of Pleasant Prairie, in which the foreign
elements are mainly English and Irish. 3. That the decline in
population and valuations per capita is due not so much to the
soil as to the nativity of the occupants ; and 4, that the princi-
pal occupation of the county is farming.

Chapter V,

A STUDY OF THE POPULATION BY NATIVITY AND OCCUPATION IN

1850.

The following tables were prepared in order to get an idea of
the class of the people that had just settled in Kenosha county,
or were on the move in 1850. Table 6 gives the number and
per cent, of the males over fifteen years of age in each occupa-
tion. Prom the table it will be seen that a little over one-
half of the male population were farmers, while 18.1^ were la-
borers, and 12.6^ were artisans and mechanics.

Table 7 shows the percentage of males in each occupation,
with and without wealth. The striking feature of this table is
the excellent condition of the farmers. Slightly over one-half
have more or less wealth. Aside from the capitalists and the
merchants, the next best off in order are the artisans and me-
chanics and the smaller trades and professions.

Table 6. — Occupation, number, and per cent.

Farmers

Artisans and mechanics

Smaller trades and professions

Laborers

Petty tradesmen

Professional men

Capitalists and merchants

No occupation

Number.

Per cent.

1,620

51.7

395

12.6

221

7.0

569

18.1

118

3.7

82

2.5

46

1.1

82

2.5

564 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Table 7. — Percentage in each occupation of those with and unthout

wealth.

Farmers ,

Artisans aud mechanics

Smaller trades and professions

Laborers

Petty tradesmen

Professional men

Capitalists and merchants

With.

Without.

50.7

49 3

40.7

59.3

37.1

62.9

17.9

82.1

31.3

68.7

47.5

52.5

97.8

2.2

From Table 8 it is seen that the Middle States furnished
more males mth and without w^ealth than Xew England or the
miscellaneous states. The number in each occupation without
wealth, except the capitalists and merchant who came from
the ^riddle States, is greater than those with wealth. On the
other hand, those who came from the Xew England states are
less in number, but those with wealth in each occupation is
greater than those wdthout, and the average wealth in each oc-
cupation on the whole is greater than tliat of the Middle States.

The most noticeable thing in Table 9 is that the average
wealth in each occupation of the native bom is much larger than
that of the foreign bom. The number of farmers bom in for-
eign countries who have w^ealth is greater than those who have
no Avealth, while the number of native lx>m farmers w^ho have
wealth is less than those wdio have no wealth.

The object in preparing these tables and pointing out a few
of the facts w^hich the figures in the table show, was simply to
indicate that there is a possibility of reaching valuable conclu-
sions as to the nature of the emigi-ation movement in 1850, by
studying the occupation, the nativity and wealth of those who
first settled in the county, and taking them as typical of the emi-
gration that moved further forward.

Downes — Development of Kenosha County,

565

Table 8.— Number and luealth of those from the Eastern States.

New England.

Without.

With.

Farmers

Artisans and mechanics.

Smaller trades and pro-
fessions

Laborers

Capitalists & merchants..

Professional men

Petty trades

Average.

129

161

35

36

26

26

16

2

• .

16

12

17

18

11

$3,337.6
1,089.7

2,273.4

1,150.

17,166.8

4,226.4

747.27

Middle States.

Without.

With.

355

319

82

60

58

20

74

6

25

20

15

28

7

Average.

$2,461.15
879.13

8,879.9

508.3

16,345.5

2,640.

1,712.8

Table 9. — Proportion by occupation of native and foreign-born and
the wealth of the native and foreign-born of each occupation.

Native.

With.

With-
out.

Average.

Farmers

Artisans and mechanics..

Smaller trades and pro-
fessions

Laborers

Capitalists & merchants.

Professional men

Petty trades

508
131

91
101

35
48

487
100

49
8

42
32
20

$1,144.4
846.78

3,652.4

618.8

11,925.6

3,482.8

1,087.

FOEEIGN.

With.

289
100

43

343

7
33

With-
out.

334
61

30

82
3
7

18

Average.

$1,233.4
676.2

980.
476.7
8,680.
507.1
715.

566 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences,, AriSj and Letters.

Chaptee YI.

some cokrections ix the united states and state census

eepoets eeom 1850 to 1870.

It was discovered upon comparing the results obtained in this
study with those of the United States and State Census returns
that there were considerable variations. The following tables
show the differences for the years 1850, 1860, and 1870. In
column one the population is given which was obtained from the
records already referred to. Columns 2 and 3 show these varia-
tions from the United States Census returns. The plus sign
before the number indicates that the returns for the towns ex-
ceed and the minus sign that they are less than those found in
the records. The blanks indicate that there is no variation.

In getting the results from the records a table similar
to Table 11 was used. The number of persons on each page of
the Census report from each separate state or country was
counted and the result placed in a small square opposite the
name of the state or country. When all the names on the page
were classified according to nativity, the column was added and
the result placed below. Then to make sure that no names were
omitted, the names on the page were counted and placed above
the column. This result had to correspond to the footing if the
Avork was correct. When all the material for a town was exam-
ined the number from each state or country was added and the
same placed in a column to the right. To still further avoid a
mistake and to be positive that the results were correct, the hori-
zontal and vertical colmnns of sums were added, and if these
results were equal the work was considered correct.

Dowries — Develo'pment of Kenoslia County. 567

Table 10. — Correction of the U. S. and State Census.

Town.

Population.

1850:

Briglitoa

Bristol

Kenosha city ...

Paris

Pike

Pleasant Prairie

Salem

Soutliport

Wheatland

1860:

Brighton

Bristol

Kenosha city ..

Paris

Pleasant Prairie

Randall

Salem

Somers

Wheatland

1870:

Brighton

Bristol

Kenosha City ..

Paris

Pleasant Prairie

Randall

Salem

Somers

Wheatland

880

1,125

3,539

956

680

959

1,123

363

1,193

1,173
1,369
3,992
1,085
1,400
660
1,444
1,278
1,115

1,187
1,140
4,307
1,014
1,377

533
1,386
1,359

871

United States
Census.

—84

- 65
-17

-24
-289

2
28

1
20

2
1

Wisconsin
Blue Book.

— 28

— 3

— 1

— 3

— 3

— 1

— 1

— 1

— 3

— 2

2
1

—28

568 Wisconsiji Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Table 11. — Method used in obtaining the accurate Population hy
nativity in county and towns of Kenosha.

Randall, 1860.

40

77

78

76

77

79

79

78

76

New York

Wisconsin

M a^saRhnifttts

9

15

3

9
10

25

28

32

18

32
13

17
23

32

20

2

17

21

2

19
27

=660

= 192
=175
= 11
= 11

Connecticut

1

3

3

New Hampshire

Vermont

PRnncvlvania .

— 0

1

4

2
9

1

1

2

2

6

4
4
6

6
14

2

2

8
2

2

2

4

1

1

= 23

— 35

Ohio

. ■ « • • .

— 10-

Illinois

2

— 11

Canada

— 7

England

5
6

4
5
1

3

2

1

0

1

2
4

5
1

— 24

Ireland

11
2

1

3

1
1
3

— 41

Germany

— 7

Rhode Island. ..

1

— 'A

Not eriven

39
3

3

1

1

1
2

— 46

New Jersey

— 9

Holland

1

7
1
2
2

— 2

Saxony

1

— 8

Michigan

1

— 3^

Prussia

1

2

1

3

— 10

Baden

— 0

N. Carolina

1

- 1

Brunswick

1
7
1

— 1

Isle of Man

7

— 14

Wittenburg

— 1

Wales

9

1

— 9

Luxemburg

— 1

Scotland

2

1

— 3

40

77

78

76

77

79

79

78

76

=660

Dowries — Development of Kenosha County.

569

Chapter VII.

ANALYSIS OF THE ELECTION RETURNS FOR PRESIDENTIAL ELECT-
ORS^ MEMBERS OF CONGRESS^ AND GOVERNORS OF THE STATE.

Since it lias been shown in the preceding chapters that the
towns of the county in which the native born predominate show
an increase in population and wealth, while those towns settled
by the foreign born, chiefly Germans, English and Irish, show
a marked decline in population and a decrease in wealth, it
becomes an interesting and an important feature of this study
to investigate the political associations of the people of each
town and group of towns.

To consider the votes of the towns for one or two elections
would be inaccurate and useless, on accoimt of the manv local
and personal considerations brought to bear in every election.
These influences, however, may be eliminated by combining the

Table 12. — Combined vote for presidential electors^ congressmen^

and governors^ 1859-1900.*

Republican.

Vote.

Kenosha county
Kenosha city ...

Brighton

Bristol

Paris

Pleasant Prairie

Randall

Salem

Somers

Wheatland

67,532
25,188
2,868
7,273
3,740
7,135
3,329
8,311
8,011
2,677

Per cent,
of total.

55
49
35
75
49
58
66
66
68
38

Democratic.

Vote,

56,352
25,941
5,221
2,360
3,910
5,035
1,699
4,335
3,662
4,084

Per cent-
of total.

45
51
65
25

51
42
34
34
32
62

'These figuresi are taken from the Wisconsin Blue Books.

570 ^Ywconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

votes for the candidates of the leading political parties, respect-
ively, for a series of vears. Table 12 shows the combined re-
suit of all the votes cast in the county, city of Kenosha, and in
each town for the Republican and Democratic candidates for
presidential electors, members of congress, and governors from
1859 to 1900, with the exception of a few elections of member
of congress and governor, for which it was impossible to obtain
the election returns bv towns. From this table it is seen at
once that the strength of the Republican party is in the towns
of Bristol, Somers, Salem, and Randall, while that of the Dem-
ocratic party is in the towns of Brighton, Wheatland, Paris,
Pleasant Prairie, and in the City of Kenosha. The strongest
republican town in the county is Bristol and the strongest dem-
ocratic town is Brighton. Seventy-five per cent, of the com-
bined vote of the former from 1859 to 1900 was cast with the
Republican party, while 65 per cent, of the total vote for the
same period in the latter to^^m was cast with the Democratic
party.

On referring to table 9 of the Appendix it will be seen that
in not a sin2:le election did the town of Bristol s^o democratic or
the town of Brighton republican. The to\\Tis of Salem and
Somers have gone republican in every election, and the town of
Wheatland has gone democratic in every election except in the
last congressional election when the election was a tie, and in
the last two presidential elections, in which the Republican can-
didate received a slight majority. These facts are very im-
portant when the measures advocated by these two parties dur-
ing this series of years, are considered.

By combining the votes cast in the inland towns of the county
into the same groups, which were used in the chapter on the

Table 13 — Vote for presidential electors, congressmen and gover-
nors, 1859-1900}

Republican.

Group I.
Group II.

Vote.

9.2?5
18,913

Per cent,
of total.

41
69

Democratic.

Vote.

13,215
8,394

Per cent,
of total.

59
31

^Vote of county, city and lake shore towns not included.

Dowries — Development of Kenosha County. 571

density of population, valuation per capita, and occupation, we
find from table 13 that of the total vote cast in Group I, 41 per
cent was for the Republican candidates and 59 per cent, for
the Democratic. In Group II, 69 per cent, of the total vote cast
was for the Republican and 31 per cent, for the Democratic
candidates.

From these results we must conclude that there is a strong
indication of a close connection between the political, social,
and economic conditions of the people. Those towns in Kenosha
County in which the foreign bom predominate, and in which
there has been a decline in population and a decrease in wealth,
furnished the strength of the Democratic party, while the
strength of the Republican party is in those towns in which the
native born predominate and in which there has been a marked
increase in both population and wealth.

10

572 Wisconsin Academy of Scien-ces, Arts and Letters.

APPENDIX.

Table 1. — Population hy nativity for 1850y 1860 and 1870.

Native Boe.v.

County and Towns

Years.

New
England.

New
York.

Middle
states
exclud-
ing New
York.

Wiscon-
sin.

North-
west.

Miscel-
laneous
states.

Kenosha county . . .
City of Kenosha...

Brighton

Bristol

Paris

Pike

Pleasant Prairie...
Randall

Salem

Somers

Southporf

Wheatland

1850
1860
1870

1850
1860
1870

1850
1860
1870

1850
1860
1870

1850
1860
1870

1850
1860
1870

1850
1860
1870

ISr.O
1860
1870

18.50
1860
1870

1860
1870

1850
1860
1870

1850
1860
1870

1,300

1,016

646

419
318
259

49

23

6

234
171
117

65
65
40

93

114

128

65

48
16

146

1-^0

85

76
49

73

107

37

9

3,203
2,4a3
1,640

965
618
501

143
89

439
438
254

271

168

68

202

193
218
179

192

109

444

,'6.i
2tl

260

202

126

420

138

40

243
210
203

55
42
49

36
11

7

38
20
10

12

19

9

12
13
90

44
8

26
18
12

2.025
4,286
5,959

615
1.262
1,908

187
446
645

213
368
475

186
371
476

142

205
415
538

175
248

192
452
594

8
17

429
618

56

53
35

229
?68
457

579
457
504

268
176
230

24

16

6

62
74
73

46
15
11

31

21
22

22

24
33

40
73
73

30
34

15

72
27
22

31

100
116

16
73

40

1
16

1

2

10

1
9

19

5
9

14

2
12

1
3
1

Downes — Development of Kenosha County.

5Y3

Foreign Born.

County and Towns.

Years.

British
America.

Ireland.

Rest of

Great

Britain.

Prussia.

Rest of
Germany

Rest of
Europe
and Mis-
cellane-
ous.

Kenosha county...

1850
1860
1870

272
225
150

1,227

1,177

807

1,004
1,012

777

36
1,168
1,622

801
549
428

97
836
322

City of Kenosha...

1850
1860
1870

90
77
71

574
471
320

257
203
144

22
277
476

229
197
185

29

278
124

Britrhton

1850
1860
1870

28
7
5

167

122

88

144

171

96

94

26

5

234
267

31
13

Bristol

1850
1860
1870

15

25

4

53

108

73

19
19
25

46
13
12

6

29
61

103
20

Paris

1850
1860
1870

6
5
6

75
64
41

152
146
128

10
109
126

106
83
50

26

38
49

Pike

1850
1860
1870

18.50
1860
1870

6

37

89

1

68

T*lpn';nnt T'TJiiriP

18
13
11

188
156
148

161
142
110

34
63

40

12

37
122

184
33

Rnndflll

1850
1860
1S70

8

1

41
14

50

24

10
10

19
3

48
5

Salem

1850
1860
1870

91
42
16

58

125

92

99

138
1,111

16

9

14

6

41
102

25

22

Rompr<5

1850
1860
1870

32
23

56

24

138
128

114
J44

55
61

78

47

Southnort

1850
1860
1870

18.50
1860
1870

11

25

28

2

20

3

Wheatland

7

16
13

50
34

7

55

5

11

1
317
252

188
84
49

10

51
9

Note. — The fijrnres in the above tahle are taken from copies of the original
TT. S. Census Returns, which are in the vault of the office of the Secretary of
State.

574 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Ai^ts and Letters.

Table 2. — Nativity of county and towns.

Native-Boen.

1850.

1860.

1870.

FOEEIGN-BOEN.

1&50.

1860.

1870.

Kenosha county
City of Kenosha

Brighton

Bristol

Paris

Pike-Somers

Pleasant Prairie

Randall

Salem

Southport

Wheatland

7,381
2,338
442
986
581
479
546

853
274
882

8,500

2,437
585

1,072
640
805
805
484

1,064

608

9,068
2,987
704
945
614
932
913
414
1,029

530

3.437
1,201
438
139
375
201
413

270

89

3U

4,444
1,328
590
236
443
420
433
130
364

500

4,057
1,292
483
194
397
423
456
115
356

341

Note.— The above figures were obtained by carefully going over the copy of the
original manuscript of the census returns for the above years, which are in
the vault of the office of the Secretary of State. The census taker neglected
to give the birth of 575 in 1860, and 49 in 1870, consequently these numbers are
not included in the table.

Dowries — Development of Kenosha County. 575

Table 3.— Total Population.

Area in

square

mile.

1850

1860

1870

1880

1890

1900

Kenosha county . , .

268.04

10,818

13,519

13,174

13,550

15,581

21,707

City of Kenosha...

1.25

3,539

3,992

4,307

5,039

6,532

11.606

Kenosha Co., excl.
city of Kenosha.

266.79

7,279

9,527

8,867

8,511

9,049

10,101

Brighton

35.7

880

1,176

1,187

1,024

926

850

Bristol

35.98

35.67

( 40.07

1 35.42

1,125
956
680

1,369
1,085
1,278

1,140
1,014
1,359

1,069
1,002
1,458

1,071

871

1,632

1,151

Paris

818

Pike-Somers

2,044

Pleasant Prairie...

j 43.41
1 35.93

959

1,400

1,377

1,386

1,646

1,776

Randall

21.59
30.77
12 14

660
1,444

533
1,386

451
1,286

658
1,493

784

Salem

1,123
363

1,846

Southport — -

Wheatland

21.59

1,193

1,115

871

853

752

832

45.15

N'ote.— The above figures for population were all taken from the U. S. Census
Reports. Those for 1850, 1860 and 1870 are as corrected. The area in square miles
was obtained by getting the actual number of acres in the towns from the plats
of the original U. S. Survey in 1835-36 and dividing by 640.

576 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Table 4. — Valuations.

Cash

Value of Faems.

Total Valuation.

1850.

1860.

1870.

1850.

1860.

1870.

Kenosha Co. ...\
City of Kenosha

$1,995,510 1

$4,494,499 |

$6,013,271

1
1^1,065,956

348,317

85,940

95,543

90,9.')5
100,732
100,071

$3,973,150
1,040,093
316,626
413,933
373.553
538,048
479,136
221,156
358,457

$5,047,434
439, in

Brighton

Bristol

148,430
277,964
245,445
312,637
299,990

360,186
1,646,930
465, e)0
529,521
582,492
88,225
576,370

706,748
792,821
823,801
1,060,690
1,094,836
457,050
704,344

596,059
854,097

Paris

661,276

Pike-Somers

Pleasant Prairie
Randall

873,197
516.723

260 864

Salem

226,092
215,805
269,147

90,615
60,955
92,818

671 553

Southport

Wheatland

245,080

373,081

232,148 173,954

Note. — Cash value of farms taken from U. S. Census Returns, and the
total valuation from the Assessment File in the vault of the office of the Sec.
of State.

Down-es — Development of Kenosha County.

577

Table 5. — Occupation of Males over 15 yeora of age by percentage

for the years 1S60 and 1870.

Years.

Per cent.

of total

poi)ula-

tion.

j

Farm-
ers.

Capital-
ist^ and
Mei ch-
ants.

Profes-
sional
men.

Artisans

and
Mechan-
ics.

Labor-
ers.

Kenosha County

I860
1870

S8.4
30.6

33.2
37.06

1.8

2.8

2.3
2.3

7.5

8.8

25.5
31,01

City of Kenosha

1860

1870

27.-3
23.1

4.3
3.7

5.3
5.7

5.03
4.5

19.02
19.58

23.1

26.8

County without city

1860
1870

32
31.1

43
52.7

.6
1.56

1.3
1.3

3.08

4.07

26.4
32.8

Brighton

1S60

1870

31.6

30.2

41.2
60.5

1
.5

2.1
1.4

29.8

.3

35.0

Bristol

ISGO
1S70

.23.3
32.5

39
54.8

.9
3.7

2.1
1.6

4.6
5.9

30.6
29.9

Paris

1S60
1870

1360
1870

?4.2
So. 2

33.8
34.2

41.8
58.2

41.2
43.5

.8
1.4

1.2
.6

2.4
2.8

1.4
3.4

34.5

30.6

Pleasant Prairie ...

.2
2.3

17.6
37.6

Somers

1860
1870

?2 1

.57.2
59.9

.7
.7

.9
1.6

2.6
3.9

14.6

27.2

Randall

1860
1870

.^3.4
19.2

42.2
17.6

26.8

.9

.9

4.9

56.9

Salem

1860
1870

30.7
31.5

39.9
41.9

1.12
2.7

2.03
2.05

7.6
6.2

25.3

33.5

W heatland

1860
1870

1

28.5
27.9

59.7
58.9

1.5

.4

1.25
2.07

4.4
4.14

36 2

26.9

578 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

Table 6. — Products.

1850.

Value of

farm per

capita.

Bushels Pee Capita.

Lbs. Per Cap.

Wheat.

Indian
corn.

Oats.

Barley.

Butter.

Cheese.

Kenosha county without city

Kenosha county with city

Brighton

272.1

184.4

168.5

246.8

256.4

312.4

460.

200 4

594.

225.1

41.7
28.
33.9
39.9
43.7
42.2
£0.7
34.7
6 52
59.3

13.8
9.3
8.66
14.7
12.6
14.6
14.7
9.27
9.35
21.8

28.8
19.3
17.5
21.9

30.1
28.3
57.6
17.8
8.76
18.7

1.3

.8
1.13
1.12
.6
.4
1.78
1.87

' "2.'4i'

36.4
24.5
44.3
41.2
40.8
42.5
29.9
32.6
24.2
28.7

8.08
5.43
1.58

Bristol

Paris

Pleasant Prairie

Pike

Salem

10.02

3.7

12.1

8.3
8.18

Southoort. . .,

38.7

Wheatland

1 8

1860.

Kenosha county with city

Kenosha county without city

Brighton

Bristol

332.1
472.
306.8
l,20:i.8
431.8
416.
133.7
413.8
220.

21.9
31.1
37.7
32.4
54.5
28.9
12 6
29.2
22.5

11.8
16.8
12.4
18.5
14.3
13.6
17.6
15.5
15.9

15.15

21.5

25.6

27.9

31.9

18.1

11.2

17.2

15.

2.

2.9

2.1

6.4

4.8

2.1

.2
3.3

.4

24.2

34.5

32.8

12.3

45.7

48.5

13.5

52.

20.5

2.9

4.2

.3

7.

Paris

Pleasant Prairie

3.09
3.1

RandaU

Somers

Wheatland

"io^g'

.7

1870.

Kenosha county with city

Kenosha ceunty without city.

Brighton

Bristol

516 1

678.

591.9

694.1

811.9

796.5

877 1

506.2

7^2.5

427.5

15.4
22.6
38.1
J9.4
40.2
14.2
37.2
12.3
14.7
31 4

23.1
34.5
34.8
34.8
29.2
31 6
47.5
23.5
20.1
41.6

24.7

36.6

26.2

45.

40.

36.4

54.2

29.2

40.6

29.1

36.6
48.3
3.5
9.1
6.6
5.8
9.3
2.
4.9
2.2

35.4
52.6
75.2
56.2
65.2
44.5
51.9
40.5
50.8
37.1

22.8
34.
4.4
27.8

Paris

Pleasant Prairie

17.5
162.2

Randall

Salem

6.9
11.5

Somers

1.7

Wheatland

.6

1885.

Kenosha county with city

Kenosha county without city.

Brighton

Bristol

Paris

Pleasant Prairie

426.9

668.

691.

647.

672.5

723.

7,=i2 8

714.

506.

533 5

3.6
5.7
7.:^9
2.2
7.6
7.3
12.1
3.7
3.9
.47

43.8

6S.4

80 8

52.2

49.8

45.7

131.2

106.8

26.7

109.8

45.

70.
115.8

66.3
111.9

.^)4.9
105.3

51.7

57.3

38.7

5.9
9.2
8 5
8.4

17.4
6.5

22.4
1.7
8.4

11.5

51.4

bO.b
63.8

127.2
66.9

126.1
53.8
88.5
58.4
23.9

10.5
16.5
10.3

""i'.s

Randall

163.1

Salem

27.8

Somers

Wheatland

14.5

1895.

Kenosha county with city

Kenosha county without city

Brighton

Bristol

Paris

Pleasant Prairie

Randall

Salem

Somers

Wheatland

423.
787.2
879.9
826.
616.5
1,062.5
971.
528.9
779.2
788.

.52;^

23.85

42.1

1.6

83.4

.981

44.5

78.4

3.1

155.1

.8

108.9

145.

.9

22.2

.5

41.3

65.7

2.9

230.4

.2

90.8

173.9

2.3

1.3

20.8

51.1

4.1

135.2

3.2

43.7

92.1

8.1

546.9

1.0

15.4

31.4

2 7

79.2

.7

28.2

63.1

4.55

151.5

1.77

96.3

81.3

3.462

.304

22.9

Dowiies — Development of Kenosha County,

619

Table 7.— Occupations, 1860-1870.

'

CO

1

a

s

u

Capitalist

and
merchant.

Professional
men.

Artisans
and
mechanics.

Smaller trades

and

profession.

Petty trades-
men.

£

Miscellaneous.

Kenosha county

1860
1870

4,141

3,971

1,371
1,475

76
113

95
93

312
350

189
266

71

99

1,059
1,233

968

342

Kenosha city

1860
1870

1,091
1,215

47
46

58
70

55
55

208
2:38

147

208

67
91

253
326

256
181

County without city

1860
1870

3,050

2,756

1,324
1,429

18
43

40
38

104
112

42

58

4

8

806
907

712
161

Brighton

1860
1870

372
357

172
216

"i'

4

2

8
5

1

"***i'

111

125

76

7

Bristol

1860
1»70

456
371

178
203

4
14

10

6

21

22

11
12

140
111

92

3

Paris

1860
1870

371

356

155

207

3
5

9
IJ

O

2

128
109

58

18

Pleasant Prairie

1860
1870

473
471

195

205

1
11

6
3

7
16

6
12

'"'i'

82
177

176

45

Randall

1860
1870

1860
1870

220
102

411

426

93

18

235
255

2

59
58

59
116

66

1

3
3

1

4

7

5

11
17

19

Somers

4

7

1

2

94

19

Salem

1860
1870

444

437

t

177

183

5
12

9
9

34

27

12
19

2

1

112

146

93

40

Wheatland

1860
1870

318
241

119
142

5
1

4
5

14

10

3
6

1

2

115

65

57

10

Note. — The above figures were taken from the U. S. census returns, in the office of the
Secretary of State.

580 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Tables. — Population and chief products of count}/ and towns for

185C, 1860, 1870, 1885 and 1895.

1850.

County and town.

Kenosha county

Brif?liton

Bristol

Paris

Pleasant Prairie

Pike

Salem

ISouthport

Wheatland

Total
popu-
lation.

10,818

880

1,125

956

959

680

1,12.5

3'i3

1,193

Cash

value of

farms.

1,995,510,
148,430,
277,i*6ll
215.4451
i:99,y9ol
312,637'
226,09
215,805
269, 1 47

Bush.

of
wheat

303,
29,
■14,
41,
40,
34,
39,

7o;

176
»12
595
5&.
331
470
061
363

i>a4

Bush.

of

Indian

corn.

Bush

of
oats.

100,294
7,616
16.642:
12,060
14,032,
10, 0.59 1
10,410[
3.:S93!
26,082

209,790
'.5,427
23, 828
28,94?
27,lbO
39, l;w
2iJ, 193
3,179
2i,889

Bu«h.

Pounds

of

of

barley.

butter.

9,4.59

265.023

974

38,980

1,255

46, 340 i

hSi

39, r^Of

429

40, 760

1,235

20. 130

2,114

36, 645

8,780

2,8c5

34,266

Pounds

of
cheese.

58,923
1,390

11,273
3, 540

11,570
5,647
9.191

14.060
2.250

1860,

Kenosha county .

Briehtoa .. .

Bristol

Paris

Pleasant Prairie

Randall

Salem

Somers

Wheatland

13, .519
1,176.
1,369
1,0S5
1,40<J
or'-O
1,441
l,^7x
1,115

4,494,499

297,722

160,911

205.117

27,825

328. 739

.-(60, 186

44.069

14,678

30,092

2,474

38. 608

1,646,9.15

44,346

25,311

:W. 257

8,8:S5 16, 8 <^

465.6.^0

'i\ 1.59

15, 553

34,416

5,292 49,600

5^2, 49;!

40, 454

19,0.)T

25, 358

2,9.53 67,779

SS, Zl^

8,3.59

11,644

7,394

143 8.930

576,370

39, 889

37, 108

30,831

3,378 57,547

529, .52 1

:^7,335

19,77W

21.979

4,275 66,427

245,080

25,111

17,752

16, 790

475

ii2,965

40,239

365

9,555

3, 3.55

4,352

■'7,' 8.50

13.962

79;i

1870.

Kenosha county

Brighton

Bristol

Paris

Pleasant Prairie

Handall

Salem

Somers ,

Wheatland ,

13,174

1,1>?7|

i,ne|

1,014
1,377

53.<
1.3HH
1,3.59

8/1

6,013,271

205, 732

270,919

325,246

45,8'0

466,407

706,71.S| 41,751

36, ;^07

31, 185

4,203

89,005

792,821, 22,109

39,712

51,494

10, 422

64,099

823.f<01

40,849

29,610

-10,684

6,774

66, 452

1,094,836

19, .506

43, 600

50, 526

8,069

61,. 520

457,050

16,971

25, 360

28,997

4,972

27,7«5

704,344

17.117

32,618

4;), 719

2,778

.56, 190

1 , 060, 690

1^,923

2.', 346

26, 250

6,721

69.0«)6

373,081

27, 506

36, 366

25, 391

1,931

32,350

300,517

5,200

31,730

17,830

223,065

3,7^5

16,025

2,385

557

1S85.

Kenosha county

Brighton

Bristol

Pariss

Pleasant Prairie

Randall

Salem

Somers

Wheatland

14

137

961

134

991

494

4H9

382

,590

993

6,032,904

52, 179

618,036

632, 403

83,125

726,096

864,780

7,118

77,793

111,195

8, 242

61,460

734,240

2,515

.59,215

75,215

y, 59»

144,115

665, 405

7,543

49, 370

110,9.52

17,254

66,365

1,07H,3.50

10. 9ii6

»-.8, 102

82,2:i6

9, 775

lrt!5,650

367, ^79

5,910

64,211

51,. 552

10,964

26,281

9^5,050

5, 20.i

147,340

7l,4>s8

2,295

1^2,365

805,000

6,299

42,445

91,1.30

13, 437

92,960

532, 2O1J

478

10.4,560

38,64U

11,. 550

2.i,90U

149, 572
9,920

6,800
79,812
3S, 540

"ij.soo

1895.

Kenosha county

Brighton

Bristol

Paris

Pleasant Prairie

Randall

Salem

Somers

Wheatland

17,548

8<8
1, 143

883
1,524

643
1,887
1,819

649

7.416,013
763, 143
946,650
544,275

1,617,900
62 4,. 500
99X, 605

1,410,360
510,610

9,211

773

552

':240

1.992

2, 112

1,139

1,284

1,149

418,815
95, .5.50
47,495
80, 050
30, 800
28,075
23,360
51,0.50
62,815

73.i,658

127,1901
75,:i55

1.53, 5561
77,H25
59, 230
78, -^10

114,607
5'^, 785

29,403'l.460.»5G

19,. 5.50
265,187

863
3,321

2,040

6,289' 206,4.50
5,218; 351,850
1.165! 149,040
8,262, 191,293
2,245 277,280

17,900

17,900

Note.— The above figures for 18.50, 1850, and 1870 were taken from the United States
census returns, which are in the office of the Secretary of State, and the rest from the
state census reports.

Dowries — Development of Kenosha County.

581

Table 9. — Summary and percentage of Republican and Demo-
cratic votes for president, governor, and congressman.

Kenosha
county ..

Kenosha
city

Brighton..

Bristol . . .

Paris

Pleasant
Prairie..

Randall...

Salem

Somers ...

Wheatland

PEEaiDENI

', 1860-1900.

Repul

3ii-

Demo-

can

cratic.

©

o
>

*i'cO

§2

so
a.

56

©

O
>

15,900

Per cent.
t. of total.

20. 101

7,100

52

7,030

48

869

35

1,584

65

2, 139

76

678

24

1,169

51

1,122

49

2,107

58

1,503

42

1,025

67

491

33

2,446

68

1,253

32

2,441

69

1,077

31

805

41

1,157

59

GOVERVOE, 1859-lGOO.

Republi-
can.

o

*J CO!

« — j

27,943i 53

10,387
1,208
3,150
1,558

3,068
1,409
3,617
3,386
1,160

481
34
75
48

58
66
66

68
38

Demo-
cratic.

©

o
>

24, 510

11,206
2,28S
1,030
1,703

2,174

711

1,855

1,510
1,843

+i CO

© o
« *-

© ^

a,

47

52
66
25

F9

42
34
34
32
62

Congressman, 1866-1900.

Republi-
can.

©

.4-1

o

>

19,488

7,701

791

1,984

1,013

1,960

895

2,248

2,184

712

-u CO

© o

© o
a*

55

52
31
75

48

59
64
65
68
39

Demo-
cratic.

©

O
>

•

-»j"eO

0) O

3 o

19,942

45

7,645

48

1,349

69

652

25

1,085

52

1,358

41

497

36

1,227
1,045
1,084

35
32
61

582 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF LA
EAYETTE COUNTY BETWEEN 1850 AND 1870.^

KATHEEINE PATRICIA KEGAN".

Chapter L
formatiolsr of the county and towns.

La Fayette county, situated in tlie soutliTvestem part of Wis-
consin, was originally a part of Iowa county. But the discov-
ery of the lead mines about 1820 resulted in so great an in-
crease of population that in 1847 it was found necessary to di-
vide Iowa county, the southern part of which containing the
lead mines of the Wisconsin district was designated as La Fay-
ette county.

The class of people attracted by mining interests, however,
made no permanent settlements. They were of too migratory
a nature, moving here and there as their interests directed them.
And though tliere was a considerable scattered population soon
after 1822, no permanent settlement was made before 1826. It
is doubtful whether any would have been made even then, had
not the inhabitants found it necessary to build a fort at Gratiot's
Grove for protection against the Indians.

Certain lands north of what is known as the Ridge^ had been
reserved for the Indians. But finding that these contained rich
lead deposits, miners constantly crossed the line in utter disre-
gard for any rights the Indians might have. Repeated protests
on the part of the Indians resulting in no redress of their griev-
ances, the matter finally concluded in the uprising commonly

lA thesis submitted to the faculty of the University of Wisconsin for
the degree B. L., June, 1901.
^ The Ridge is two miles north of the village of Shullsburg.

Began — Develo'pment of La Fayette County. 583

known as the Winnebago War. Then it was that the fort known
as Gratiot's Eort was built, and the first permanent settlement
started. The prompt action of Governor Edwards of Illinois
quelled the disturbance, however, and the fort was never used as
such. This defeat had tke effect of quieting the Indians, and
the valuable lands held by them were thereafter open to
settlement.-^

The legal boundaries of La Fayette county are as follows:
"That part of the county embraced in Iowa county designated
as to^vns 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 east, and the south half of town 4,
ranges 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, shall be set off into a separate county
named La Fayette."^ It was organized for judicial purposes
after May 1, 1847.

Before its organization into towns La Fayette county con-
sisted of ^YQ election districts, — Kendall, Willow Springs,
Argyle, Gratriot and the Fever River District. On January 3,
1849, from the Kendall district the towns of Belmont and Ken-
dall were organized ; from Willow Springs district, Darlington
(Centre) and Willow Springs; from Argyle, Fayette, Argyle
and Wiota ; from Gratiot, Wayne^ and Gratiot ; from the Fever
River district, Benton, ISTew Diggings, Elk Grove, Shullsburg,
White Oak Springs and Monticello. Blanchard was organized
out of the northern part of the town of Argyle, and Seymour
from Centre, in 1869.*

iThe above was taken from the History of La Fayette County, Wis-
consin, 1881, and the Geography and Gazeteer of Wisconsin.

2 These boundaries are copied from the thesis of B. M. Palmer, "The
Lead Regions of Illinois." They became the legal boundaries Feb. 14,
1847, Session Laws of Wisconsin Territory for 1847, p. 57.

3 Wayne is known as the "lost township" as the original survey of
that town was lost on its way to the United States land office. In 1835
it was re-surveyed.

4 See Plate XLIII.

584 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences,, AriSj, and Letters.

Chapter II.

TOPOGRAPHY AND SOILS.

Before taking up a discussion of the population of this
county, it ^vill be necessary to state something of its geology '}
The county forms part of the great watershed passing from
Madison to the confluence of the Wisconsin and Mississippi riv-
ers. The western branch of this watershed separates the rivers
that flow into the Fever river from those that flow into the
Pecatonica. Entering at the town of Belmont, it passes through
Shullsburg in a southeasterly direction, leaving the county
through Monticello. The highest point on this divide is the
Platte Mounds, in the northern part of Belmont.

La Fayette is well watered by the Pecatonica, East Pecatonica
and Fever rivers and their branches. Springs also abound, espe-
cially in the towns of Willow Springs, Centre, Wiota, White
Oak Springs, Shullsburg, Benton and New Diggings. They are
scarce on the prairie lands of Kendall, Belmont, Elk Grove,
Wayne, Gratiot and Monticollo.^

The soil is well adapted to agricultural purposes and unus-
ually large successive w^heat crops have been raised with no
regard to rotation. A belt of rich, black loam extends through
the western and central parts, including the greater parts of
Seymour, Shullsburg, Darlington, Gratiot, White Oak Springs
and Monticello ; also large parts of Elk Grove and Belmont.
There is also a much narrower belt passing through the westr
central part of Fayette, which curving through the west-central
parts of Wiota, enters the southern part of Argyle. The subsoil
is clay underlaid witli limestone, which forms in ridges along
the larger streams, affording some valuable quarries. Sand is
found in the eastern part to some extent and along the rivers.^

1 Geology of Wisconsin, vol. 11, part IV, 1873-1877.

2 Taken from the United States Census for 1850, manuscript records,
in the office of the Secretary of State.

3 See Plate XLIII.

Tin IS. Wi--. Acad., Vul. XIII.

Boundary Changes

Plate Xl.in.

Belmont

Elk Grove

I r^

to

C-1

vs

GO

*0

^ J)

Hendall

3eyfiouy

Willow
Springs

FcLyette

Darlington

or-

Centre

3?iullsbur^

iVhtte Oak
5pnn<js

fnfonijizeZlc

BloLTtchcurd,

A-r<^Lfle

\A/lota,

Grcctiot

I
(eS5\

Woiy

ne

Original Boundaries /6^7

PrincijoaJL Charvyes in, Bound.a.rie5 Since /047

Distribution of Soils

TP

^/Belmont

5hicllsbu.rtf/

'-''/.

W}Liifyqa,t\

^ y ///y / /yV

"^yA

PKairt^ 5oiI

D

CXa,-u So-it

Regan^ — Development of La Fayette County. 585

Chapter III.

POPULATION".

A study of the population was made by taking the nativity
and occupations of all inhabitants of the county from the census
of the United States for 1850, 1860 and 1870.' The population
was then considered as divided into two parts, the native and
foreign bom.^ The native-born were again gi'ouped into sections,
namely, Xew England, Middle States, Southern States, South-
western States, Northwestern States and Western States. Wis-
consin is given in the table separately. Under the heading,
Western States, are included all the states not mentioned in the
other sections.

In the foreign countries the following groups were made:
British America, Great Britain, the rest of Europe^ and miscel-
laneous. Under the latter were grouped such as were bom at
sea, on the lakes, in the United States and the like.

Tables were made of the population of each section by nativi-
ties for the various towns. Comparisons can be made between
the census for 1850, 1860 and 1870, for such towns only as did
not change their boundary lines. These towns are Benton, New
Diggings, ShuUsburg, Wayne, White Oak Springs and Willow
Springs.

By examining Table 1 in the Appendix it will be seen that
in native population Wisconsin leads for the entire period con-
sidered, that is, from 1850 to 1870 ; so it will not be considered
in the present comparison. Next to Wisconsin are the North-
western States, the towns of Belmont, Wayne, Fayette, Centre,
and Arg3^^1e leading. The Middle States are next, but with a
percentage almost one-third less. The number from New York

1 United States Census, manuscript records, office of Secretary of State.

2 Those who were horn in any part of the United States were consid-
ered native born, — the rest, foreign born.

3 This division includes the countries not comprised in the other
groups of foreign countries.

586 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

alone differs but slightly from that of the remainder of the sec-
tion of Middle States. In this Middle Section the town of
Fayette contains about one-fifth of the entire number represented
by both the Middle and Northwestern sections. The IsTew Eng-
land and Southern sections are represented about equally. In
New England settlers Centre, Willow Springs Wayne, Eay-
ette and Argyle are in the lead. In the Southern section the
towTis of Monticello, White Oak Springs, KendaU, Eayette and
Behnont have the largest number.

In the foreign population Great Britain stands first, with Ire-
land second ; together these sections constitute nearly one-half of
the entire foreign population of the county. Under Great Brit-
ain, Benton leads with Ell^ Grove, New Diggings, White Oak
Springs and Shullsburg closely following. These are the towns,
it will be remembered, that constitute the mining district.^ Ire-
land is represented chiefly in this district, also, in New Dig^
gings, Shullsburg, Benton and Willow Springs and Kendall.
The rest of the foreign population altogether constitutes about
5 per cent, of the entire foreign population. It is thus seen
that the mining districts contain the greatest foreign popula-
tion in 1850.

In 1860 the towns showing the highest percentage of popu-
lation from the Northwestern section are Belmont, Fayette,
Monticello, Gratiot and Wiota." New York in this census is
represented by a greater percentage than the rest of the Middle
States. Centre, Gratiot, Wayne, Argyle, Wiota and Kendall,
the last two being equal, lead in population from this state. The
rest of the Middle section is most largely represented in Mon-
ticello, Fayette, Wiota, Belmont and Gratiot.

In the foreign population Ireland leads Great Britain, but
has decreased slightly since 1850, though the decrease in the
percentage of Great Britain has been twice as great. The towns
having the highest percentage of Irish are New Diggings, Ken-
dall, Shullsburg, Willow Springs and Benton. These are the

iFor further information on this subject see: Thesis of F. Belle
Stanton, Lead Regions of Wisconsin, Univ. of Wis, 1901; Libby, An
Economic and Social Study of Lead Regions in Iowa, Illinois and Wis-
consin; Thwaites, Early Lead Mining in Illinois and Wisconsin.

2 See Appendix, Table 2.

Regan. — Development of La Fayette County. 587

same towTLs which showed the highest percentage of Irish in
1850/

The towns having the highest percentage of population from
Great Britain are Benton, White Oak Springs, 'New Diggings,
Elk Grove and Shullsburg. These towns also lead in 1850.^
The percentage from Great Britain and Ireland is more than
twice as great as the percentages of the combined population of
the rest of the foreign countries.

In 1870 the ^Northwestern States still have the greatest per-
centage of population, with the to\\Tis of Wayne, Monticello,
Gratiot, Benton and White Oak Springs leading.^ The per-
centage of I^ew York differs but slightly from that of the re-
mainder of the Middle States, but both have decreased since
1860. Xew England and the South are about equally repre-
sented.

In the foreign population the percentages of Great Britain
and Ireland are almost equal. The towns with the largest Irish
population in 1870 are Kendall, Sejanour, InTcw Diggings,
Shullsburg and Benton, the last three of which held the same
relative position in 1860. The towns having the largest pop-
ulation born in Great Britain are i^ew Diggings, Benton, White
Oak Springs, Willow Springs and Seymour, three of which,
!N^ew Diggings, Benton and ^\^iite Oak Springs, had the great-
est population from the same country in 1860.

To summarize : — The Wisconsin-born population has the
largest number, and the N'orthwestern States stand next in all
three censuses. New York has a greater population than any
state in the East during the whole period. In 1850 the !N'ew
England and Southern sections are about equal; in 1860, New
England has not changed, but the South has decreased slightly ;
in 1870 they nre again about equal.

In the foreign population in 1850, Great Britain leads with
Ireland second ; in 1860, Ireland exceeds Great Britain, but the
population from both these countries has decreased. In 1870

1 Kendall must be omitted in tliis comparison as its boundary line
had been changed between 1850 and 1860.

2 Except ETk Grove, whose boundary line was changed between 1850
and 1860.

3 See Appendix, Table 3.

11

588 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Great Britain and Ireland are about equal. It was shown that
the percentage of population of these t\vo countries taken
together was greater than the percentages of population of the
rest of the foreign countries. The percentage of German popu-
lation greatelj increased between 1850 and 1860.

Table 1. — Percentages of native and foreign horyi population .

1850.

I860.

Native.

Foreign .

Native.

Foreign,

Argyle

Belmont

Benton

Blanchard

Darlington

Elk Grove

Fayette ,

Gratiot

Kendall

Monticello

New Diggings

Seymour

Shullsburg

Wayne

White Oak Springs..

Willow Springs

Wiota

Average for county]

1870.

Native.

Foreign .

72

28

66

34

64

86

14

77

23

68

39

61

52

48

61

• •

• •

• •

60

78

22

76

24

80

57

43

56

44

65

85

15

79

21

76

79

21

82

18

78

78

22

66

34

67

64

36

71

29

76

43

57

53

47

62

• •

55

52

48

57

43

65

92

8

92

8

88

64

36

66

34

71

69

31

66

34

70

74

26

1

71

29

72

\ 60

40 1

1 66

34

70

36

32
79
40
20
35
24
22
33
24
38
45
35
12
29
30
28

30

In Table 1 the percentages of the entire native and foreign
bom for each town and for each census are given. In 1850 the
percentage of native bom population for the entire country was
60 ; of the foreign bom population, 40. By 1870, the native
born population had increased to 70 per cent. ; the foreign bom
had decreased to 30 per cent.

Of the towns whose boundaries did not change, Benton had
39 peT cent, native born in 1850, and 61 per cent, in 1870, a
gain of 22 per cent. Of foreign bom population, Benton had
61 per cent, in 1850, and 39 per cent in 1870. ]^ew Dig-

Began — Development of La Fayette County. 589

gings in 1850 had a native born population of 43 per cent. ; in
1870, 62 per cent, a gain of 9 per cent, while the foreign
born population decreased from 57 per cent, in 1850 to 38 per
cent in 1870. The towns of Shullsburg, Wayne and White
Oak Springs show a similar increase in the native born popula-
tion and decrease in the foreign. Willow Springs, however, in
1850 had a native born population of 69 per cent. ; in 1860, of
66 per cent, and in 1870 of 70 per cent, showing £. total in-
crease between 1850 and 1870, of 1 per cent In 1850, Willow
Springs had 5 per cent, more native born population than White
Oak Springs, but in 1860 the percentages of both are the' same.
In 1870 White Oak Springs had increased 1 per cent, over Wil-
low Springs.

Chapter TV.

DENSITY, WEAI.TH AND OCCUPATION.

Table 2. — Per capita ivealth, and population per square mile.

Towns.

Years.

Nativity. |

i

Peopeett.

Native.

Foreign. 1

Person'l.

Real

estate.

Popula-
tion per
square
mile.

Benton

New Diggings

Shullsburg

Wayne

White Oak Springs
Willow Springs

1850

39

61

1

34

1860

52

48

11

62

1870

61

39

32

168

isr.o

43

57

6

46

18fiO

53

47

20

71

1870

62

38

33

155

1S50

52

48

10

66

1860

57

43

45

79

1870

65

35

64

217

1850

92

8

13

65

1860

92

8

40

216

1870

88

12

53

143

1850

64

36

78

107

1860

66

34

25

146

1870

71

29

73

282

1850

69

31

7

114

1860

66

24

49

238

1870

1

70

30

79

232

1 1

81
76
62

65
63

68

47
69
73

9
18
29

28
32
33

12
17

590 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

In Table 2 is given the per capita of real estate and personal
property and the native and foreign born populations with th^
population per square mile for six towns of fixed boundaries/ In
this comparison the native born population increases in every
town except Wayne, where a slight decrease is noted between
1860 and 1870. But this to^^^l also shows a less increase per
capita for that period than any other town. Between 1860 and
1870 the population per square mile is doubled, the native and
foreign born retaining the same percentage as in 1850, while
the per capita is more than trebled. A greater increase, in the
per capita is shown in the to\vns where the native population
increases. This may be shown more clearly, perhaps, by a
comparison between the mining towns and farming towns of
this table: ]^ew Diggings and Shullsburg composing the first

Table 3. — Percentages of increase and decrease of density in popu-

lation.

Benton

New Diggings

Shullsburg

Wayne

White Oak Springs
Willow Springs

Increase,
Pee Cent.

1850.

Decrease,
Per Cent.

1870.

Population Per
Squarb Mile.

1S.)0.

1870.

I

29

81

65

47

9

28
12

3

61

214

19

81

1
1

1
1

1

1

62
68
73
29
33
23

class of towns and Wayne, White Oak Springs and Willow
Springs, the second class. The per capita of the real estate and
personal combined in the mining towns for the whole period
betAveen 1850 and 1870 is $64, while a similar per capita of the
farming to\vns is $224. But the area of the latter class of
towns is one-tenth greater than that of the former ; this would
leave the per capita of the towns of the farming class about

iln computing the population per square mile, some difficulties arose
because of the changes in town boundary lines, the county history being
inaccurate in this respect. After a comparison of the Plat book for
1895, an atlas for 1847 and various maps found in the office of the
Secretary of State and the map room of the Historical Library, the
areas given in Table 5 in the Appendix were decided upon as being
approximately correct.

Regan — Development of La Fayette County.

591

$200. This is the more striking when we remember that White
Oak Springs, classed with the farming towns, had large mining
interests in an earlier period. We may thus see that although
mining as a factor in the industrial life of the county had
almost disappeared, its influence upon the economic life of the
towns considered is still marked.

In comparing the percentages of increase and decrease be-
tween 1850 and 1870 of these same towns, in Table 3 we find
Wayne increasing 214 per cent, and from 9 to 29 per square
mile. White Oak Springs increases 19 per cent, and from 28
to 33 per square mile. The greatest increase in the first class is
in Shullsburg, with 61 per cent., and from 47 to 73 per square
per square mile.

Table 4. — Percentage of principal occupations.

F

AKMEES.

Miners.

Laboeebs.

1850.

1860.

1870.

1850.

i860.

1870.

1850.

1860.

1870.

Argvle

65.3

84.8

8.5

02

72.4

30

38.3
30.8
23.1
42.9
55.8

9.8
43.8
55

39.4
50.1
42.7
70.5
34.4
23.4
50
44.9
60.9
41.2

18.2
3

77.2

50.5

3.2
.43
37.7
2.4

5.7
1.5
1.6-

26
18
7.2

41

Belmont

51.9

Benton

28.4

Blanehtird

39.6

Darlincrton tcwn

38.6

Darlington, town & village
Darlinsrton villasre

76.6

56

7.8

.2

.5
1.1

1.8

.6

18

33.7

Elk Grove

73.6
74
80
84

52.9,
7.5

69

71

65

78

48.8

16.2

11.1

15.8
3

2.9
73

5

3.5
1

1.5
2.2

2.2

17

24

29

15.8

41

21

47.8

Fayette

35

Gratiot

40.8

Kendall

3

3.8
50.4

.31
47.6

48

Monticello

52.6

New DifiTfirincrs

26

SsPvmonr

43

Shullsburg

12.3

87.3

53

76.4

6,

24

59.7

38.4

21.7

63

61

1.2
21
13.7

7:4

35

32.2

4.5

1.2

2

3.3

3.7

15

21

54.7

55.4

31.5

25.8

Wavne

48

White Oak Springs

Willow SDrinsrs

13

3.6

.99
1.9

47.3

.9

Wiota

52

The mining class was kept separate since the southwestern
part of the county is a mining district. Farmers, miners and
laborers have the largest percentage. Table 4 shows the rela-

592 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

tive importance of these occupations in the census of 1850, 1860
and 1870.

The percentage of farmers seems to have greatly decreased
between 1850 and 1870, but a fair estimate cannot be made
since in the census of 1850 no distinction is made between farm-
ers and farm laborers ; that is, all are classed a5 farmers, irre-
spective of property. In the census of 1860 and 1870 this
distinction is made. This fact will also explain, at least in part,
the large increase in the laboring class between 1860 and 1870.
In comparing the towns whose boundary lines remain fixed, we
find that the percentage of farmers has increased in Benton,
'New Diggings and Shullsburg between 1850 and 1870, despite
the fact that farm laborers are included in 1850. The percent-
age of artisans is but 1.9 less than the percentage of farmers in
1850, while in 1870 tlie latter has increased 20.6 per cent. The
mining class, on the contrarv, has decreased. Wavne shows a
decrease in the farming class and the mining class disappears
after 1860, but the laboring class increases 41.8 per cent.
White Oak Springs and Willow Springs show so slight a
decrease between 1850 and 1870 in the farming dass that we
may conclude that had the census tabulations been made upon
the same basis in all three censuses, an increase would have been
shown. Mining declines in both these towns and the laboring
class increases.

We see from the foregoing that La Fayette county is dis-
tinctly an agricultural region, though that particular industry
would seem to be on the decline. We should note that in the
to\^Tis of the mining district mining has given place to farming,
but the influence of the former occupation is shown in the lower
per capita of these towns.-^ The constant shifting of the bound-
ary lines of the various towns makes comparisons between all of
the towns impossible for the different census periods, and hence
the studv has not been as extensive as we would like. It has
been possible to compare an equal number of to^vns of the farm-
ing and mining regions, however, and these may be considered
typical for the entire county.

iSee Table 2.

Began — Development of La Fayette County. 593

APPENDDL

Tables 1-5.

Showing Nativity of population of each town in La Fayette county
for 1850, 1860 and 1870. Taken from copies of the original Census Re-
turns in the office of the Secretary of State.

Table 1.

1850.

New England States.

Middle States.

73

•

ed

3

C8

O.

>.

fl

tn

-w

S

3

OS

6

4^
o

<B

fl

03 .

03

^•

O

>>

ca

a

a

'a

o

>s

CO

«3

^

^

.3

ee

o

a)

1— J

CD

aj <r:

sS

O

o

0)

01

c

O

S

«

K*

2

S

H

2

2

^

n

;

o

Argyle

Belmont

Benton

Centre

Elk Grove

Fayette

Gratiot

Kendall

Montieello

New Diggings

Shullsburg

Wayne

Willow Springs —
White Oak Springs

Wiota

Total

1
4
6
6
8
3
4
67

54

11

5
3
3

32
2

16
8
1
1
6

19
3

10
3

11
123

7
1
2
3
4
6
11

51

2

21

11

1

9

9

10

25
13

22

55

7

49
24
5
8
42
50
22
27
23
32

981 404[

31

19
40
58
37
35
83
38
11
14
58
26
39
37
60
616

1
1

22
7
2
5

1
7

10
2
3
2
4

67

40
22
38
49
28
93
64
59
15
59
61
26
53
12
52

671

72

42

100

115

68

134

147

98

27

110

129

54

95

51

118

1,360

594 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences ,, Arts, and Letters.

Table 1, — Continued.

1850.

Argyle

Belmont

Benton

Centre

Elk Grove

Fayette

Gratiot

Kendall

Monticello

New Diggings ,

Shullsburg

Wayne

Willow Springs.
White Oak Spr.

Wiota

Total

SouTHEEN States

•

SOUTH%\

Stai

•ESTE]

ES.

a

es

a

j2

— ^

*— 1

i

a

U

c
o

^3

a
a

>>

c

o

o

U

1

>>

o

a

CD

Oj
X

a>

a
a

o

— ^

o

CO

a

es

c
a

(T.

P

o

<

O

S

Z

>■

«

H

H

2

<

hJ

16

4
16

1

3
1

50

4
3
4
2
2
7
1
3
1
6
2
2
1
3
4
45

3

4
15

8
11
13

3
10

9

10
19

6

7

14
14

146

12

14

38

33

8

11

1

9

3

21
24
4
13
6
10

207

1
7
7
6
1

22
2
2

16
10
13
1
6
10

22
32
73
53
24
58
17
25
13
60
77
28
23
34
40

1041 579

2
8

55
2

11

i

2
3
6

27

50

4

14

7

1

199

o
H

2

8

56

2

12

7

2

3

6

29

52

4

14

7

1

205

Began — Development of La Fayette County. 595

Table 1. — Continued.

1850.

Northwestern States.

td

•

a

d

■1.^

CO

'o

a

CO

a

o

l-H

Michiga

o

a

6
q

cS

1

a
o

Argyle

Belmont

Benton

Centre

Elk Grove

Fayette

Gratiot

Kendall

Monticello

New Diggings

Shullsburg

Wayne

Willow Springs —
White Oak Springs
Wiota

Total

30
50
84
40
53
88
52
19
11
80
79
30
25
45
57

743

6

2

11

14

17

5

13

1

6

13
4
16
21
16

145

3
7
2
3
5
1
7
1
8
13
2

52

22

58
29
21
62
28
80
40
9
5
16
48
49
49
8
46

548

94

84

128

118

84

190"

101

48

18

111

161

85

94

77

120

1,513

90

99

487

127

163

205

107

81

55

393

407

116

171

97

224

2,822

CO

S
O

a

CS
p-H
►— (

a>
o

C/J

4
2
3
1

6

2

1
5

24

596 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

Table 1. — Continued.

1850.

Argle

Belmont

Beuton

Centre

Elk Grove ,

Fayette

Gratiot

Kendall

Monticello

New Diggings

Shullsburg

Wayne

Willow Springs

White Oak Springs
Wiota

Beitish America.

as

eS

a

as

O

a

s

T3

a

sS

a

o
Em

o
u
CO

>
o

z

o
H

Great Beitain.

T3

5

Total

17
10

5
15
16

7
29

7
22

o

o

2

7

149

11

17
10
16
15
17
7

29
9
24
3
5
7
5

168

11
10

707
52

152
40
60
21
17

449

330

4

44

112
7

T3

a

as

10

29

478

41

62

32

27

37

13

499

387

119
34
76

2, 016 jl, 844

-a

o
o

Oi

T3

13

cS

a

ai

hH

a

,

>>

CQ

O

o

<V

a

1-^

12

19

14
2
5

2
1

12
12

86

o

H

<

33

5

1
7
1

44

1,205

100

1

1

230

75

92

60

31

960

1

1

731
4

1

170

147

7
9

91

17

1

3,973

Regan — Development of La Fayette County. 597

Table 1. — Continued.

1850.

Argyle

Belmont

Benton

Centre

Elk Grove

Fayette

Gratiot

Kendall

Monticello

New Diggings

Shullsburg

Wayne

Willow Springs

White Oak Springs

Wiota

Total

13
3

29

2!.

110
10
16

12
2
4
7

14
25

10
4

216

2

2

18

4

86

208

77

27

Rest of Europe

T3

a

Ki

>»

,

.

CO

;<

•

a

t;

>>

u

CO

©

cd

fl

cC

•

a>

■

g

a

1-^

>,

^

•F^

tS)

f— H

fl

u

a

■4^

<s

0

o

a

0

a.

^

o

fi

fe

o

X

1— (

Z

O!

CC

H

79

3

131

17

16

18

12

6

11
21
40
18
16
9
87

484

a
©

©

©
02

598 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences ^ Arts, and Letters,

Table 2.

I860.

New

England States.

! Middle States

-d

1

03

■^
^

a

,

;A

.^H

o

o

^

M

s

ea

o

0)

■SI

a
o

,

\ 1

1-5

>>

V2

b4

a

en

a

s^ic

O

fa

! ^

^

Q

ca

o

Cj »J

-C

a>

o

Q

©

<v

©

o

S

S

Z

»

!>

H

1 :z

Z

^

tt

o
H

Argj'le

Belmont

Benton

Centre (Darlington).

Elk Grove

Fayette

Gratiot

Kendall

Monticello

New Diggings

Shullsburg

Wayne

Willow Springs

White Oak Springs.

Wiota

Total

14
6
3

42
7
9

13
2
2

2

4

116

7
2
5

50
2
6

13
7

> 10
4
4
10

3

2

38

26

22

9

13

I
4| 11

10 3

176

92

9
1

17
2
6
1
4

4
12
27
1
1
3

12

21

7

11

1

55
3

23
6
5
1
9
14
13
7

49
25
13
176
14
50
34
20
3
54
54
97
21
18
25

160 6531

109

71

27

4

58

23

15

19

• ■ • • •

337

24

89

• • • > •

65

9

59

2

48

7

94

2

152

3

70

80

3

73

1

23

2

54

38

6

25

91

8

50

! 70

11

29

36

5

30

28

2

10

1 84

115

111,211
II

99

846

5

180

89

57

450

135

151

225

157

79

69

149

110

71

40

199

12,161

Regan — Development of La Fayette County. 599

Table 2, — Continued.

Southern i

STATES.

Southwestern
States.

I860,

a

03
IS

So
m

*6JD

O

o

CD

T3

o

a
a

..H

c/>
J-

X

a

n

a

•

G

i— 1

o
e-t

;-
O

<D
Oy

a

3

5

2o

5

9

1 1
3
4
3
16
34
3
2
1
1

113

rn
CO
w

a
a
-a

<

in

a
M
a;
H

1-^
a
+->
o
H

Arsvie

1

10

5
54

5
10

5
11

1
13
22

4
12

1
10

164

9

10

. 5

3

15

2

4
37
28'
71
21
33
35
19
13
22
60
17
16
17
30

423T

1

3

Belmont

6
3

2

1

2
2

1

4
2
5
3
2

7
9
7
9

o
i>

18
6
3
5

15
7
1
3
6

99

1

—

—

1

6

Benton

23

Centre (Darlington)
Elk Grov9

1

—

5

9

Fayette

2
8

1

....

■ T

-Gratiot

1
1

1

4

Kendall

—

1
3
3
1
5
2

O

o

7

63

1

1
4

4

T\f ontippllrt

2

4

R

New Diggings

■Rh n 1 1 «?l>n ror

—

2

18

1
1

18

34

Wayne

3

Willow Springs

White Oak Springs
"Wiota

1

1

;?

3

O

29

1

5
3

47

1

3

1

1

1

1

1

7

1

1

Total

31 6

117

1

600 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ ArtSj arid Letters.

Table 2. — Continued.

I860.

NOETHWESTEEN STATES.

MiSCELLAXEO

0

CO
♦J

15

M
GQ

G^

cc

tn

c

CO

c

S5

O

c
o

ce

C

03

*m4

es

r*

B

o

ec

CO

i^c

•^

• .H

J

■ «o4

V

&

C

C

o

l-l

»0

e6

a

^-i

c
1— 1

O

a

)«

O

H

cs

fi

ci.;*

O

ee

o
H

Argyle

Belmont

Benton

Centre (Darlington)..

Elk Grove

Fayette

Gratiot

Kendall

Monticello

New Diggings

Shullsburg

Wayne

Willow Springs

White Oak Springs..

Wiota

Total

J

26
77
50
59
44
39
59
36
39
21
90
33
22
34
50

679

8
2
6
9

5
17
18
11

4

1
18
16
14

8

20

157

11
1

39

14

1
2
6
3
1
1
6
47

60
57
18

107
25
89
57
62
28
9
29
97
48
4
76

766

100

378

140

269

76

890

194

576

77

484 f

148

398

147

379

112

432

72

1571

34

6911

155

1 966

150

240

85

357

1

48

2191

1 1

153

4391
1 1

1,691

6,8751
II

1

1

Regan — Development of La Fayette County. 601

Table 2. — Continued.

Bri

TisH America.

Gee A

T Britain

.

18C0.

cd

1

CO

k

c
o
xn

o
5i

c
c .

ri

o

ll

•-<

1

•
CO

H

C

It

1 •"•

a
to

1— 1

d

C4-I
O

»— 1

(D

a

u

a
re

o
o

C/2

•

o
re

re

o
H

Argyle

12
2
25
54
17
6

10
1

47

7

36

17

3

6

5

248

■ • « • •

1

13

2

261
59
20

6
10

1
48

7
37
17

5

7

5
260

82 59

36 36

481 352

115 215

264 160

19

2

30

11

11

1

7

2

1

5

16

1
b4

1

2

3

15

161

Belmont

1?^

Benton

1

2,
2

6

869

Centre (Darl'ton)

1
1

2

34:^

Elk Grove

3

4

444

Fayette

78

47

58

52

369

418

7

84

113

45

2,249

76
93

236
24

399

505
2

164

49

69

2,439

158

Gratiot

147

Kendall

811

Monticello

1

77

New Diggings ...

Shnllsburg

Wayne

773

1

939

9

Willow Snrings..

1

2

2

3

6

116

1

77

?51

White Oak Spr.
"Wiota

165

126

Total

4

5

1

5

9

4

4,894

602 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Table 2. — ContiDued.

Rest of Europe.

Miscel-
laneous.

I860.

Denmark.

o

a

*-•

T3

a

>>

'a

^-1

a

"3
a

CO

a

N

03

0-
(S

en

5^

a
a

e

u
o

CD

3
u

o

CO

ID
<

a

o
a

a

Argyle |

1

1

207
14

1

2

23

15

10

13

3

8

4

2

19
2
4

2
13

78
37
95
4
2
56

14
58

17

4

69

449

210
36

108
62

106

40

25

71

4

17
97
30

28

1

41

2901

1

1.1281
1

Belmont

4

1

1

5!
1

2

1

Benton

1
1

1
1

1
1

Centre (Darl'ton)
Elk Grove '

3

5
1

21
19

1
5

Fayette

1

1
1
4

Gratiot

Kendall

1

1

1

Monticello

New Diggings . . .

1
15

1

ShuUsburg

1

2

2

28

2

1

"Wayne

"Willow Springs .

5

White Oak Spr..

"Wiota

1

1

26

2
20

218
517

106

Totals

1

6

1

2

1

2

2

9

Regan — Development of La Fayette County. 603

Table 3.

New

England.

Middle States.

1870.

o

*^
o
<u

a
a
o
O

6

a

•
o

a

u

>

a
ca

J]

1— t

•o

O

w

3

o

CO
CO

ca

'a
o

J4

O

<D

a
cd

cn

a

a
<a

6

u
CO

Argyle

11

5
3

2

7
10
1
3
2

1

4
4

2
4
5
1
7
6
3

22
11
10

8
72
38
16
14
34
16

7
25

4
36
69

8

51

1

311

1

4261
1

68

42

8

9

250
73
23
47

193
20
13
30
25
49
94
18
45'
96

11,103

1

2
1
3
5

1

1

10

3

3

1

13

'

6

59

56

53

15

13

65

57

26

117

155

48

38

13

4

26

TS

9

33

87

887

• • • • •

3

1

1

5

126

Belmont

96

lienton

3
2

11
4
3

10
9

10
2

26

Blanchard

1

3
3
1

4
1

6

4
47
15

6

27

Darlington Village ...

Darlington town

Elk Grove

316

125

62

Fayette

165

Gratiot

13
1

4
5
2

5

11

1

6

4

348

Kendall

72

Monticello

51

New Diffsrinffs

. ...

14

1
19

4
3

1

7

87

46

Sevmour

1
6
6
2
3
3
86

30

Shullsbura:

1

42

1

8
86

5
6

1

1

4

36

88

"Wayne

181
28

78
189

2,054

White Oak Springs..

Willow Springs

Wiota

9
131

. w. . .

Total

12

604 Wiscoihsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

Table 3. — Continued.

1870.

SocTUEEX States.

e3
- C

Argyle

Belmont

Benton

Blanchard

Darlington VII...
Darlington town

Elk Grove

Fayette

Gratiot

Kendall

Montlcello

New Diggings ..

Seymour

ShuUsburg

Wayne

White Oak Spr..
Willow Springs..

Wlota

Total

3

14

4

8
1
2
3

11

9

4

2

14

7

1

81 1 1.5

4

2

3

1

10

1

1

I

51

10
1
1
2
4

50

..

A

c

1 X

n

&

^

a

••

a

^^

&

<

H

1

o

it

17
3
1

V

<"l

«■

1
6
6
2
1
13

64

^1

6!

36
20

o

Southwestern States.

6

31

14

■ I

47il
II

2411
II

I

:\i 1 1

5!

I

3'

1

6

1
191

16

3

481

7

21

1

1

6

5

8

10

38

129

■

3481

1

c
c

■J,

1

9

10
1
8

3
2

19
3
2
1
5

70

f!

m

e

O

a

c

X

tr.

ec

• art

a

^

S
C

K

u

&

<;

*^

H

o
H

1
10
12

1
10

4

4
2

3
4

19
3

2
1
5

81

Regan — Development of La Fayette County. 605

Table 3. — Continued.

1870.

Argyle

Belmont

Benton

Blanchard

Darlington, village
Darlington, town ..

Elk Grove

Fayette

Gratiot

Kendall

Monticello

New Diggings

Seymour -

ShuJlsburg

Wayne

White Oak Springs

Willow Springs

Wiota

Total

Northwestern States.

X

26
58
29
9
63
25
14
31

134

31

37

49

4

73
65
45
20
68

781

11
5
4
2

10
1
1
7

15
4
3
5
2
4

14
4
7

17

lie

•

rt

c

■♦->

«

O

^

fcC

,

•

es

-a

c

o

ed

^

o

a

•^

•^

o

C

3

2

O
38

H

3

81

17

1

1

61

148

2

1

3

5

44

6

6

23

7

9

....

73

162

2

1

....

37

66

2

1

1

22

4]

2

2

64

106

2

6

....

90

247

1

....

31

67

9

....

22

71

5

4

....

4

67

....

7

13

10

5

1

17

110

2

5

....

90

176

1

....

1

4

55

6

4

....

31

68

2

14

1

60

162

64

71

8

662

1,702

Western States.

a

o

13

CO

R)

C

en

22

«5

a;

ea

;2;

a
o

o

O

>

_3'_

3i 3

IB

o

13

34

n
o
o

515
600
944
208
759
576
762
583
691
596
231
952
174
1,437
479
286
612
792

11.197

Miscel-
laneous.

ec

■« s
.2 3

■M o

Sir

302

11

o

11
1

16

17

606 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Table 3. — Continued.

British America.

Great Britain.

1870.

a
a

CO

a
•-2

PQ

<B

® 5
•-2

a

3

08

o

>
0

c

ri

a

c
1 H

-6

a

o

03

a,
'a

d
CO

IS

«»>
o

111

l-H

"a

a

u
O

•

CO

o
H

Arjryle

1

8
16

i

..... 1

1

9

16

78

100

319

6

138

46

170

•71

85

75

51

361

58

26

73
270

42
125
134
129

83
139
214

28
2S7

71
431

19
155

90

17
4

15
1
6
S

17
1

14
3
2
4
2
3
2

2

1
SI

121

Belinout

1

79

?«6

Benton

604

Blanchard

49

Darlington Vil...
Darlington town.

34
8
6
4
9
8

12
4
1

22

10

12

9

5

169

1

1

35
9
8
4

12
8

12
4
11

4

273

188

Elk Grove

2

2

318

Fayette

155

Gratiot

3

1

239

Kendall

3

1

295

Monticello

82

New Diggings —
Sevmour 1

652

1

2
9

133

Shullsburg

Wavne

. .J^ .

1

1

1
1

1

1
I

II
2311 365

II
1211 11

II
1211 1141

II
9M 61

II
5|l ^

808

32

Willow Springs..
Wiota

11

1
11

272

1
1

1

1

31

'

163

White Oak Spr,.

Total

1

1 1
1 1

1 1
47! 11

138

11

— 1 — 1 —

11 71 2

1 I

1

1801
1

1

2.1P9'

1

1

2,3631

1

1
110'

1

1
102'

1

1
31

(

1'

1

4,778

Regan — Development of La Fayette County, 607

Table 3. — Continued.

Rest of Eueope.

Miscellaneous.

1870.

rt

E

c
a

6
o

c

u

C

'c

•

c
to

SI

is

'6
5

V

C3
CO
«
CO

a
a

S

u

CD
25

CO
S

O

H

as

a

a

u
ct

6
a

s

o
Oh

1— H

O

H

o
a

a
P

Areryle . . . 1 . .

' l' .l' .

1

301 1 1

1 i J

..1 .^n-;"!

1

1

1

Belmont l.-.l 1

1 1 «

3

4
8

10
14

133

23

• • • •

9

136

20
53
16
20

4
59
11

7

4

147

44

133

47

23

152

115

116

70

22

21

56

95

82

51

1
2021

1
111

Benton

9 3

1

■ • •

• • • •

123
24

20

1

1

2

Blanchard

Darlington Village

Darlington town 1

Elk Grove

1... 1...

10 4

98 17
55 S7

1
Favette 1 . . .

2

2

Gratiot | 1|...|...| ?.i...

Kendall | 1|...| 1

Monticello |...|...l...

1

1

15
1

21...

1

3
1

New Diggings 1 1

1

Sevmour

8

7

1
5

37

Shnllsburg 1

61

1

6

...

2

19

21

Wayne

5
...

1
30 3fi

Willow Springs | 5

...
1

1 ...
1 ...

3

35

Wiota 1...

1
... -1

White Oak Springs ..

1
10

1

...1...

1

6

248

...

1

...l...i...

Total

19

-1
61

1

21 SI flsi

1

495 1 7SQ 1

1 o 91

19

25

4

1

r

608 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

Tabled. — Pojndation of Lafayette County.

1850.

1860.

1870.

Towns.

Na-
tive
born.

For-
eign
born.

1

!

Total.

1
1

Na-
tive
born.

For-
eign
born.

Total.

Na-
tive
born.

For-
eign
born.

Total.

A rgvle

305

278
870

116

47

1,353

42i;

325

2,223

1
1

714

566
1,088

384

135

1,004

1,098

733

2,092

755

891

1,052

1 271

424
412
666
iS2

1,179

Belmont

1,:303

Benton

1,718

Blanchard

453

Centre

472

129

601

1,473

464

1,938

( Village. .

1

1,366

833

899

913

1,349

1

i 758

i 364

1,112

228

1,751

9:30

779

386

1 222

1

15, 859

355
210
478
276
367
373
115
677
190
947
126
345
154
474

1,721

Darlington ■<

( Town

1

1,043

Elk Grove

361
6U
398
260
127
751

262
108
121
73
71
990

623,

752'

519:

1
3:«i

198

1.741

740
781
824
745
327
891

570
204
182
383
129
800

1,315
985

1,006

1,128
456

1,692

1,377

Favette

1,189

Gratiot

1,716

Kendall

1,131

Monticello

480

New Ditjffinsrs

1,731

Sevmour . .

418

Shullsburg

878
309
424
290
540

795
25
191
163
183
4,627

1,673
334
615
4.53
723

1 1,4:8

i

617

5.52

343

847

1,07.}

56

284

176

415

2.492
673
836
519

1,262

2,701

Wayne

1,056

Willow Springs

White Oak Springs. ..
Wiota

1,124

540

1,696

Total...

6,907

11,534

11,926

6,290

18,225

6,772

22,635

Note.— The above table was compiled from copies of the original returns in the office
of the Secretary of State. The total for 18^0 is increased by 9 for whom no birthplace
is recorded, and the total for 1870 is increased by four from the same source.

Regan — Development of La Fayette County. 609

Table 5. — Areas, and population per square mile.

La Fayette County.

Argyle

Belmont

Benton

Darlinarton

Elk Grove

Fayette

Gratiot

Kendall

Monticello

New Diggings

ShuUsburg

Wayne

White Oak Springs.

Willow Springs

Wioca

Blanchard

Seymour

Aeea in Square Miles.

1850.

54

36

27.4

74

54

85

63

51

10

25.6

36

35

18

48

GO

1860.

54

36

27.4

74

54

35

54

54

19

26 6

33

36

16

48

60

1870.

36
42

27.4

76

35

35

54

48

19

26.6

36

33

16

48

60

13

36

Population Pee Squaee
Mile.

1850.

7

9

81

8

11

21

9

6

19

65

47

9

28

12

12

1860.

30
20
76
26
25
29
18
20
24
63
69
18
32
17
13

1870.

32
31
62
49
38
34
31
23
24
68
73
29
33
23
28
25
11

Note — The above table was compiled from the Plat Book for 1895, office of Secretary
of State, and from maps in State Historical Library.

MEMORIAL ADDRESSES.

EDWARD OETOX.

The manv American ffeolooists who sinc^ the death of Pro-
fessor Edward Orton have paid tribute to his memory^ lay
much stress upon the beauty of his character. Wherever he w^as
known, he was a valued friend, and from all his lovable
nature and sterling worth called forth an affection but rarely
seen between man and man. In the Stat« of Ohio, where most
of his life work was done and throughout Avhich he traveled in
pursuit of his investigations, he appears to have been looked
upon as a great and good man whom it was an honor and a priv-
ilege to welcome and assist. Yet this lovable personality offers a
striking instance of a man persecuted because the expansion of
his intellect and the widening of his horizon of knowledge
brought changes in his religious belief. Sensitive man that he
was, these persecutions caused him much mental suffering.

iMeraoir of Edward Orton, by G. K. Gilbert, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am.
Vol. 11 (1900), pp. 542-550. (Includes a bibliography of Professor Or-
ion's scientific writings.)

Edward Orton, by J. J. Stevenson. Jour. Geol. Vol. 8 (1900), pp.
205-213.

Edward Orton, by I. C. White. Am Geologist. Vol. 25 (1900), pp.
197-210. (Contains a bibliography compiled by Lucy Allen, Ohio State
University Library.)

Edward Orton, Educator, by T. C. Mendenhall. Science, N. S. Vol.
11 (1900), pp. 1-6.

Edward Orton, GJ^ologist, by G. K. Gilbert. Ibid., pp. 6-11. (Not the
article published in Bull. Geol. Soc. Am.)

The above articles have been freely used in compiling this article.

Note. — The Historical Collections of Ohio (Centennial Edition, 1899.
Vol. 2, p. 59), contains a sketch of Dr. Orton's life which according to
Gilbert is, though anonymous, clearly autobiographic.

\

(

/

)

t^^^^t^-'^^'L^^:^ Cf y^-^t

i^y^

By courtesy of the Ainsi-ican GeDlogist.

Memorial Address — Edward Orton. 611

So dominant is the note of praise for Edward Orton the man,
that one unfamiliar with Edward Orton the geologist and edu-
cator might think that it is only as the man that his name \vill
be remembered. Yet surely a man who was chosen President of
the American Association for the Advancenaent of Science,
President of the Geological Society of America, President of a
large State University, and for many years State Geologist of
Ohio, must have some claim to recognition as a scientist and
educator.

Edward Orton was born at Deposit, Delaware County, ise'W
York, March 0, 1829. His father, who w^as a Presbyterian cler-
gyman, soon after removed to Kipley, 'New York, an agricul-
tural community. Prepared for college by his father, at the
age of fifteen he entered the sophomore class of Hamilton Col-
lege, and graduated in 1848. After a year of teaching at Erie,
Pa., he entered Lane Theological Setainary (Presbyterian) to
prepare for the ministry, but his eyesight failing he gave up
study at the end of a year and took a position as clerk on a
coasting vessel. In 1851 he was Instructor in l^atural Sciences
and German in the Delaware Literary Institute of Eranklin,
I^ew York. The following year he spent at Harvard University
in study of chemistry and botany, returning to Franklin for
another year of teaching. He then resumed his preparation for
the ministry, this time at AndoveT Theological Seminary.
Licensed to preach in 1845 he shortly thereafter was ordained
as pastor of the Presbyterian church of Downsville, Delaware
County, jSTew York.

Yet with his course of study there had arisen doubts respect-
ing matters of belief which warred against the doctrines instilled
in his early life. In 1856 he resigned his pastorate to become
professor of ^N^atural Sciences in the ISTew York State ISTormal
School at Albany. Here, though not compelled te do so, he
avowed his change of belief from that of the Presbyterian
church to essentially Unitarian doctrines. In the fifties, before
the days of evolution, the church was controlled by narrow and
illiberal ideas, and most educational institutions were dominated
by the church. This avowal of Dr. Orton's, therefore, was
regarded as go serious a matter as to lose him the position which
he held. The succeeding six years were spent in an obscure

612 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

academy, but in 1865 he was called to Antiocli College, Ohio,
by the acting president, who had learned to know and respect
him. Dr. Orton felt that here at last was his opportunity, and
he said, ^'The prison doors are at last opened for me.'' Driven
from his own state by danger of persecution he felt that here
his search for truth vrould be untrammeled. While at Antioch
he was appointed assistant to Dr. Xewbury, then State Geolo-
gist of Ohio, in w^hich capacity he won such golden opinions that
when, under the Morrill Act of 1862, the new State Agricultural
and Mechanical College was founded, he vras chosen for its Pres-
ident. The difficulties of this position may be better imagined
than described. Ohio, always foremost amone: the states in the
number of its strongly denominational colleges, naturally
regarded the new institution as an interloper, but Professor Or-
ton's tact was only equalled by the necessity for it, and notwith-
standing the unpromising conditions, he was able to make of the
Agricultural and Mechanical College the State University of
Ohio as it is today. Prof. I. C. White says of this work :

"The unceasing toil of eight years which Dr. Orton had given to its
interests had not only allayed all opposition but built up for it a host
of friends in every portion of the state, so establishing it in the hearts
of the people that its continued growth and influence have been phe-
nomenal. The Ohio State University is so largely the creation of Dr.
Orton's personal efforts that he needs no other monument to perpetuate
his name and fame, not only as a great teacher, but also as a consum-
mate organizer, director, and promoter of educational forces. i

President T. C. Mendenhall, who was associated with Dr.
Orton for a period of thirty years, says of him :

"He believed that the character of an educational institution should
be judged by the quality of its work rather than by the number of
students enrolled in the annual catalogue, a principle which everybody
admits and nearly everybody ignores. To stand up for it and do it,
especially during the early struggling years of a college, demands a
courage that few possess. That Dr. Orton did this, even under the
most trying conditions, I set down as, on the whole, the most notable
characteristic of his career as president. For I am thoroughly con-
vinced that if he had chosen to do otherwise, if the doors had been
opened wide, at both ends of the curriculum, the institution would
have long since sunk into a deserved oblivion. 2

11. c. p. '200.
21 c. pp. 3-4.

Memorial Add?xss — Edward Orton, 613

Professor Orton's scientific work was very largely done in the
state of Ohio in the capacity of assistant to Professor Newbury
in 1869, as above described, and later as State Geologist, his
activity as an officer of the state extending over a term of thirty
years. The results are largely contained in the voluminous
reports of the Ohio Geological Survey. Devoting himself largely
to the problems of stratigraphy of the sedimentary formations
and the superincumbent drift mantle, and to the economic
resources of the state in coal, gas and oil, there is little that is
spectacular or striking in his views, but the every-day problems
w^hich he studied were so thoroughly examined that his conclu-
sions stand unchallenged. In his later years perhaps the best
known specialist on natural gas in its relations to coal and oil in
subterranean reservoirs, he is most widelv known from the sim-
pie and adequate theory which he propounded to explain them.

Of his geological work, Mr. G. K. Gilbert says :

"As an investigator he freneraiized freely and did not shrink from
the propounding? of theories, but ail his theories were so broadly founded
upon, and so faithfully verified by, the phenomena of observation that
they came to the world as demonsti-ations which could not be gainsaid."

Professor J. J. Stevenson says of him :

" The debt of geology to Edward Orton is very great, far greater than
we are apt to think, for, in his writings he effaced himself and often
gave credit to others for what was rightfully his own."

" We can lay a double tribute upon his grave, one to the man whom
we loved and one to the geologist who solved so many perplexing prob-
lems."

Professor Orton died in 1899 after nine years of partial inca-
pacity for work caused by a paralytic stroke. Only a short time
before his death, however, ho delivered an address as president
of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
The Wisconsin Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters, in elect-
ing him to corresponding membership, chose a man whom all
recognize as a worthy representative of American science, and
who has been as widely known and loved as it is the privilege of

a man of science to be.

William H. Hobbs.

614 Wisconsi/ii Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

JOHX EUGENE DA VIES.

John Eugene Davies was born at ClarkstowTi, X. Y., on the
23d of April, 1839. Two years later his parents moved to the
city of Xew York, where he was sent to the public schools until
twelve years of age, when he was admitted on examination to
the Free Academy, now kno'^Ti as the University of the City of
!N^ew York, In 1855 he came with his parents to Wisconsin,
where he continued his studies as best he could, while teaching
in the Avinters and doinc: farm work in the summers. He
entered the sophomore class of Lawrence University, at Apple-
ton, Wis., in 1859, and graduated from that institution three
years later, with honors, by reason of special attainments in
pure and applied mathematics.

After receiving his baccalaureate degree, he entered at once,
through the solicitation of a physician friend, upon the study of
medicine, yielding the more readily as he knew such a course
would keep him somewhat in touch witli the sciences, for which
he was already acquiring a taste. But his studies were soon
interrupted. The news of the battle of Pittsburg Landing, and
of President Lincoln's call for '^300, 000 more," was too much
for him to withstand, and hq enlisted as a private in the 21st
regiment, AY. V. I.

His record as a soldier was varied, interesting, and highly
creditable. He marched with his regiment, first to Covington,
Kentucky, and afterward to Louisville, during General Bragg's
approach from Chattanooga. At both places he served in the
trenches and performed such other duties as fell to the lot of a
private soldier. After General Bragg's retreat, he was, without
solicitation, put on detail duty by Major-General Buell in one
of the hospitals of Louisville. He was afterwards appointed
Sergeant-Ma j or of his regiment, and took part in the battles of
Chickaraauga and Mission Bidge. He served six months on
picket duty on the top of Lookout Mountain, Tennessee ; was
with his regiment in all its fighting on the march to Atlanta,
Georgia, and around that city, and on its baclavard march to
Chattanooga, and he afterwards saw Atlanta burned. He was

JOHN EUGENE DAVIES.

By courtesy of ilie \Viscon>in Alumni Magazine.

Memorial Address — John Eugene Davies. 615

recommended for promotion at this time, but liis commission as
first lieutenant did not reach him until after the battle of Ben-
tonville, and the army had entered Goldsboro, Korth Carolina.
He finally accompanied Sherman on his famous ''march to the
sea/' and returned home with his regiment by way of Richmond
and Washington, having served three years without a day's
furlough.

His war record was without a blemish. Entering the ranks
as a private and from pure love of country, he served, it is true,
in comparatively humble positions, but always with the highest
courage and fidelity.

As soon as he was mustered out of service, he resumed his
studies at the Chicago Medical College, and received the degree
of Doctor of Medicine in the spring of 1868. He continued his
attendance, however, at clinical lectures in Cook county hospital,
and at Mercy hospital, until the end of August, 1868, when he
came to Madison to enter upon his duties as professor of natural
history and chemistry in the University of Wisconsin, to which
chair he had been elected bv the Board of Resrents at their mid-
summer meeting. He had already occupied a professorship in
the Chicago Medical College for a year, giving lectures on
organic and inorganic chemistry and t-oxicology. In connection
with the regular work of his professorship. Dr. Davie's taught
the subject of astronomy also in the University, and in 1874 the
title of his chair was changed to that of astronomy and physics.
In 1878 his chair was made to include physics only, and in 1891
it was changed to that of electricity and magnetism and matlie-
matical physics, which chair he continued to hold at the time
of his death.

Dr. Davies was a charter member of the Wisconsin Academy
of Sciences, Arts, and Letters, was for many years its general
secretary, and was always one of the Academy's most sincere
and devoted friends, sharing liberally in its best contributions
to the cause of science. He was also an active and efficient
co-laborer upon the United States coast survey, contributing
many manuscript volumes to its records, and performing special
and very valuable service in the triangnlation, and on the gen-
eral geodetic survey of Wisconsin. It was through his inter-

616 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

cession that the department of the coast survey prevailed upon
the Board of Regents to establish a magnetic observatx^ry npon
the grounds of the University, which for some years was used
very efficiently under the Professor's general supervision.

He Vv-as married in March, 1866, to Miss Anna Burt, of Chi-
cago. One child was born as the fruit of this marriage, but
died in infancy. He was married again, March 31st, 1891, to
Miss Olive M. Thayer, of Madison, who also bore him one child,
a son, of whom he was very fond and who, with the widow, still
survives.

Dr. Davies was a devotee of science and a thorough mathe-
matician. He loved especially the natural sciences, and seemed
to revel in the very mathematical calculations their investiga-
tion involved. Few men have been more fully imbued witli the
true scientific spirit. He w^as also a scholarly man, and one who
read much and read widely. His contributions not only show
careful though upon the subjects they discuss, but they also
show a broad range of scientific inquiry. He was a modest man
— seemed almost diffident at times — but his modesty was such
as usually graces the genuine scholar and investigator. When
antagonized upon questions which he had thoroughly studied,
and in regard to which he felt reasonably sure of his ground, he
was alwavs resolute and self-reliant.

As an instructor of college classes, he was subjected, as most
instructors are, to some criticism ; but no one, so far as I know,
ever made complaint as to his grasp of the subject he was called
upon to teach ; as to his zeal and enthusiasm in his efforts to
impart instruction, or as to his sympathetic nature, and earnest
desire to render the best possible service to those under his
charo'e. The criticisms sometimes made were half complimen-
tary. It has been urged that his very familiarity Avith the sub-
iects he usuallv had under consideration made it difficult for
him to appreciate the limitations of his pupils, and that his
eagerness to grapple at once with the most difficult questions
connected with the matter in hand, and his intense enthusiasm
in their handling, tended to carry his instruction over the heads
of the average of his pupils. But it is more than doubtful
whether any who entered his classes with suitable preparation

WILLARD HARRIS CHANDLER.

Memorial Address — Willard Harris Chandler. 617

and with an earnest determination to do thorough work, ever

failed to profit by his instruction or had any personal ground

for complaint.

Dr. Davies was a man of kindly nature, of deep sincerity,

and of warm and generous impulses. He was domestic in his

life and habits, as gentle as a child, and as true as steel to the

demands of honor and the claims of friendship. Coming to the

University in his early manhood, he gave his maturer life —

his very best years — to its service. By that service he has won

the lasting gratitude of every true friend of the UnivcTsity;

and for his priceless qualities of heart and soul, his memory will

always be warmly cherished by his neighbors and his colleagues,

and especially by those who knew him longest and knew him

best.

J. B. Paekinsoit.

WILLAED HARRIS CHANDLER.

»

Willard H. Chandler was born in Brattleboro, Vermont, Nov.
18, 1830. He made the most of the educational advantages
offered by his home school, until his fift-eenth year, when he
entered the office of the Vermont Phoenix, a Aveekly newspaper,
where he remained, with the exception of a short period, until
he came to Wisconsin in 1854. He first settled in Delavan,
Wahvorth county. One year later he moved to Windsor, a few
miles east of ]\Iadison, bought a piece of prairie land, and com-
menced to work out a farm. This farm he sold in 1868 and
moved to Sun Prairie village, where he resided for twenty years.
For the gTeater part, of this time he was in the employ of the
state, in some capacity or other. His liking for a farm home
was so strong, however, that he purchased a fine tract of land
near Sun Prairie village, which he improved and on which he
resided at the time of his death, March, 1901.

His farm life was prosperous and characterized by the same
energy, judgment and earnestness evinced by him in every
undertaking.

618 Wisconsin Academy of Scieri'Ces, Arts, and Letters.

His career as a servant of tlie state was most remarkable,
especially when it is remembered that his school-days prac-
tically closed when he was fifteen years of aoje. But he was
always a student, and his nine years of experience in every
phase of work to be found in a newspaper office did much to
make amends for the loss of school-room instruction in those
early davs. He was a thinker, and at all times honest and inde-
pendent in his thinking. He was perhaps slow in reaching
conclusions, but a conclusion once reached became a conviction
to be lived up to. It may seem singular that one who had made
no special preparation for educational work should have had so
large a part in building up a great and connected public school
system, and in directing the trend of educational work in a
great state. Yet this is the case.

In 1856 he taught in an ungraded school near his home in
Windsor ; later he was made town superintendent of schools.
When this system was abolished by legislative enactment, he was
elected to the office of county superintendent, a position which
he held for four years. He was most efficient in the discharge
of the duties imposed ])y these positions, and his work attracted
most favorable notice. In 1861 he was elected to represent his
district in the Assembly. He at once became a recognized leader
on his side of the House. He proposed and was able to secure
much helpful legislation along educational lines, during the two
years he represented his district. In 1863 he was elected to the
State Senate, and was a member of that body for four years.
Part of this time he was president pro tem., and his experience
and acknowledged ability enabled him to secure very important
■legislation relating to the organization of our state normal
schools, the first of which was opened at Platteville, in 1866.
In 1871 he was made a member of the Board of Regents of ]^or-
mal Schools, a position which he held continuously until 1892.
For nine years of this time, from 1881 to 1890, he also held
the position of Assistant State Superintendent of Public In-
struction, and in this capacity he was instrumental in securing
helpful legislation for the common schools, as well as the inau-
guration of needed reforms. The labor of organizing and out-
lining the work to be carried on by the teachers' institutes fell

Memorial Address — Willard Harris Chandler. 619

largely under his direction, and through, this work he was
largely instrumental in bringing the normal school and common
school work into close and vital connection. On his resignation
of the secretaryship of the Board of Regents in 1892, the fol-
lowing resolution was unanimously adopted by the board:

"Whereas, W H. Chandler, for many years a member and secretary
of this board, has just retired therefrom, and tenders his resignation
of the secretaryship,

"Resolved, That in accepting such resignation, it is the sense of the
board that as such member and secretary the service of Mr. Chandler
to the normal schools of this state, in their establishment, extension
and maintenance, and in the improvement and supervision of the in-
struction given, and in his efforts which have materially contributed
to make these schools efficient and prosperous to a degree which will
bear favorable comparison with like schools elsewhere, as well as in
moulding and directing the institute work of the state for many years,
has been of inestimable value to this board and to the public school sys-
tem of Wisconsin, and that such services merit and should receive the
cordial recognition and grateful acknowledgement of the board and the
friends of public education throughout the state."

As a speaker, Mr. Chandler was clear and forceful. His
familiarity with the details of school management and instruc-
tion, his clear knowledge of the body of the law relating to
schools, as well as his earnest and sympathetic nature, enabled
him to secure and hold the confidence and esteem of all with
whom he came in contact in the educational field. He possessed
a judicial temperament, and though perhaps not brilliant in the
general acceptance of the term, he was always dignified, logical,
and fair in the exposition of any topic which he discussed, —
and never failed to secure attention. He was also a man of
genial qualities and large benevolence. He was always ready
to aid young men and women in securing education. It is safe
to say that no v/orthy person with a meritorious purpose in view
ever applied to Mr. Chandler for aid, without securing it.

He became a member of the Wisconsin Academy in 1872,
and continued his m.embership until the time of his death.
During the four years that he was inspector of high schools un-
der the administration of State Superintendent Emery, it was
my fortune and privilege to occupy a desk at his side, and,
though he had ceased to take an active part in the proceedings
13

620 Wisconsin Academ-y of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

of the Academy, he was fond of discussing many of the topics
presented at its annual meetings.

In closing his public labors, in January, 1S99, he stated his
intention of neyer again taking upon himself the burdens im-
posed by public office. He looked forward with pleasure to a
season of rest and tray el. The only lourneys of any moment
which proyed possible for him txD take, was one to the Pacific
coast, where he spent a most delightful two months, and one to
his old home in Vermont.

His three score years and ten were crowded full of high ideals
and an unselfish purpose. His earnestness and ability haye left
an impress on this state that time will not efface and such as
has been left by fe\v other persons. The work which it was his
fortime to do was done with coura^re and fidelity with all his
heart, and with the mind and hand of a master.

Charles L. Harper.

TKUMAX HENRY SAFFORD.

Truman Henry Safford^ was born January 6, 1836, at Roy-
alton, Vermont. His parents belonged to the great middle
class to which we are indebted for so many of our teachers and
professional men. Even in his infancy he showed signs of that
maryelous power to deal with numbers mentally, which he pos-
sessed to an unusual degree throughout his entire life. When
he was six years of age he said to his mother that if he knew

1 Arithmetical Prodigies, by E. W. Scripture, American Journal of

Psychology. Vol. IV.. No. 1.
Truman Henry Safford. by Harold Jacoby, Science, N. S., Vol. XIV.,

No. 340.
Truman Henry Safford, by H. P. Hollis, The Observatory, Vol. 24,

No. 308.
The Late Professor Safford, by E. Knobel, The Observatory, Vol. 24,

No. 309. Reference is made in this article to an article on "The

Boy Safford" in Chambers' Edinburgh Journal for Oct., 1847.
Obituary Notice of T. H. Safford. by Arthur Earle, Astronomische

Nachrichten. Bd. 157, No. 3749.
The above articles have been freely drawn upon in compiling this
notice. I have also to thank Professors G. C. Comstock and C. F.
Smith of tlie University of Wisconsin for important data concerning
Professor Safford's like and work.

Memorial Address — Truman Henry S afford. 621

the nTimber of rods around his father's large meadow he could
tell the measure in barley corns, and when he was told that it
was 1,040, he computed the result, 617,760, mentally in a few
minutes. Before he was ten years old he had computed a table
of logarithms of numbers from 1 to 60 from the formula given
in Hutton's mathematics, and had cx^nstructed an almanac which
was published. Before he was eleven he had constructed four
more almanacs. It is related that on one occasion when he was
about ten years old he performed the astonishing feat of finding
the square of 365,365,365,365,365, giving the correct result, a
number with thirty-six figures, in about one minute. This
power of reckoning with large numbers and of discerning the
divisors of large numbers he possessed to some extent throughout
his life, but it was not nearly so marked in his later years.

He entered Har\^ard University at an early age and was grad-
uated in 1854 at tbe age of 18, after having enjoyed the in-
struction of Benjamin Peirce, one of the foremost American
mathematicians. After his graduation he remained for some
years at Harvard as observer in the Harvard College Observa-
tory under Professor Bond. In 1865 he came to Chicago as di-
rector of the old Dearborn Observatory, which position he held
until the great fire of 1871 by which the observatory was de-
stroyed. The people of the great city by the lake were too busy
repairing the damage wrought by the fire to feel the need of a
new observatory so the young astronomer had to seek employ-
ment in other fields. He found it in Wheeler's astronomical
survey in the far west, and through this work became connected
with various scientific bureaus at Washington. In 1876 he was
made professor of Astronomy at Williams College, in which
work he continued till his death June 12, 1901.

Professor Safford's real scientific work began in 1866 at Chi-
cago, when he undertook the observation of one of the zones of
the Astronomische Gesellschaft. This work was cut short, how-
ever, by the great fire of 1871. During the years between the
great fire and his call to Williams College he seems to have
been engaged principally in routine work, of which computa-
tion formed the greater part. While at Williamstown he took
up the work of discussing the stars most suitable for the deter-

622 Wiscojisin Academy of Sciences, Ai^ts, and Leitei'S.

mination of geographical latitudes in the United States, and as
a result of this labor constructed a catalogue of 2,018 stars,
which was published by the Engineers' Department of the
United States Army. This work was extended by a similar cata-
logue of 612 stars, which was published in 1898 as a part of the
Mexican Boundary Commission's report. One of the latest
papers published by him is a short paper entitled ''Combinations
of Pythagorean triangles as giving exercises in computation,"
which appeared in Vol. XII of the ''Transactions" of the Wis-
consin Academy. Perhaps his most striking v%'ork was the pre-
diction in 1861 of the existence of the minute companion to
Sirius, based on very small irregularities in the existing observa-
tion. The companion was found by Alvan Clark in the place
indicated in 1862.

Professor Saiford's life work was doubtless much influenced
by the fact that when he went to Harvard the Harvard astron-
omers saw in him the making of a great computer, and his train-
ing was carried on with that side of astronomy always in view.
He was a good astronomer and his work is of much value, but it
is always the work of the patient observer and computer, and
contains little of theoretical interest. Owing perhaps to the
bent given him at Harvard, his work in pure mathematics is in-
considerable, although he undoubtedly possessed exceptional
ability for such work. Indeed, from his writings and especially
from his monograph on mathematical teaching one is led to be-
lieve that he looked upon mathematics rather as part of his
physics than as a branch of knowledge to be cultivated for its
own sake. He says, "The modern, and to my mind the true,
theory is that mathematics is the abstract form of the natural
sciences ; and that it is valuable as a training of the reasoning
powers not because it is abstract, but because it is the representa-
tion of actual things." For this reason he was not wholly in
sympathy with ''the new mathematical school — chiefly in certain
branches of abstract higher algebra — recently established at
the Johns Hopkins University."

As a teacher Professor Safl^ord did not come into contact with
a large number of students, but those who were instructed by
him are unanimous in their testimony as to the value and the

Memorial Address — Truman Henry S afford. 623

inspiration of his work. In the article already referred to, Pro-
fessor Harold Jacoby says of him, ''Great as were his abilities as
an astronomer, he was yet at his best as a teacher." The influ-
ence he exercised over a few bright students who resorted to
Williamstown to profit by his instruction was undoubtedly
great. On the other hand it has been said of him that his in-
struction was not adapted to the student not well advanced in
his work. He himself probably realized this weakness as thor-
oughly as any one, for in the monograph on mathematical teach-
ing, already mentioned, he insists strongly that we fail to rec-
ognize the difficulties that beset a beginner.

His range of information v/as very broad, not only along all
lines of physical and natural science but in literature and in
music as well. Says Professor Charles Forster Smith, "If, as a
professor in Williams College, I became interested along any
line of work whatever, I was sure of a cordial and sympathetic
interest on the part of Professor Saiford."

His home life is said to have been singularly happy. Care-
less and inattentive to the petty details of practical every day
life, he gave these things over to the charge of his devoted wife,
who took delight in relieving him from care and making it pos-
sible to g"ive himself wholly to his books a,nd his telescope. Pro-
fessor Jacoby sa^^s, "He was a man of simple and genuine piety
for whom the conflict of scieoice and religion had no terrors.
He knew that no such conflict exists." As a teacher, as an in-
vestigator and as a man he did honor to the college to which he

gave the best years of his life.

Eei^est B. Skinnek.

eist of publicatiol^s of the eate peofessoe saffoed.

The following list of Professor Safford's writings has been
prepared through the kindness of Pev. Charles H. Burr, Li-
brarian of Williams College. It is believed to be substantially
complete :

S AFFORD, Tkuman Henry. Catalogue of declinations of 532
stars near the zenith of the observatorv of Harvard Col-
lege. (From American Academy, Memoir*. J^. S. YoL
8). Camb. 1861. folio. Welch, Bigelow & Co.

624 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Catalogue of the mean declination of 2,018 stars between

0^ to 2^ and 12^ to 24^ right ascension and 10° and 70°
of north declination for Jan. 1, 1875. Wash. 1879. folio.
Govt.

Catalogue of the mean declinations of 981 stars between

twelve hours and twentv-six hours of rieht ascension and
thirty degrees and sixty degrees of north declination for
Jan. 1, 1875. Wash. 1873. folio. Govt.

A catalogue of standard polar and clock stars for the

reduction of observations in right ascension. (Harvard
College ObseTvatory, Annals, vol. 4). Camb. 1863. folio.
Welch, Bigelow & Co.

Combinations of Pythagorean triangles as giving exer-
cise in computation. (Wisconsin Academy of Sci., Arts,
and Letters, Transactions, Vol. 12, pp. 505-8.) Madison.
1889. 8°.

Comparison of Groombridge's and Struve's right ascen-
sions of close circumpolar stars. (Royal Astron. Soc,
Monthly IS^otices, Vol. 46, 'No. 2.) L. 1885. 8^

The development of astronomy in the United States. A

discourse read June 25, 1888, to commemorate the fiftieth
anniversary of the dedication of the Hopkins Observatory
of Williams College. Boston. 1888. 8^ T. R. Marvin
& Son.

Mathematical teaching and its modern methods. Bos-
ton. 1887. 12^ D. C. Heath & Co.

Mean right ascensions of 133 stars near the north pole,

observed in 1882 and 1883 at the Field Memorial Observa-
tory of Williams College. (Am. Academy of Arts and
Sci., Proceedings, 1884.) 8^

Nebulae found at the Dearborn Observatory 1866-8.

(In Chicago Astron. Soc, Annual reports 1885-6.) Chi.
1887. 8^

^ot€S upon certain doubtful star places. (Royal

Astron. Soc, Monthly :^otices, Vol. 43, No. 5.) L. 1883.
8^

Editor. Observations upon the great nebula of Orion

by G. P. Bond. (Harvard College Observatory, Annals,

Vol. 5.) Camb. 1867. folio. Riverside Press.

Memorial Address — Truman Henry Safford. 625

- On the accuracy of late catalogues of declination of
standard stars. (Royal Astron. Soc, Monthly E'otices,
Vol. 55, ]^o. 9.) 8^

- On the need and usefulness of co-operation in meridian
observation. (Eoyal Astron. Soc, Monthly JS'otices, Vol.
55, JSTo. 3.) 8^

- On the reduction of star places by Bohnenberger's
method. (Royal Astron. Soc, Monthly !N'otices, Vol. 48,
:N'o. 1.) 8^

- On the right ascension of the pole star, as determined
from observation. (From the Proceedings of the Am.
Acad, of Arts and Sciences, Vol. 6.) Camb. 1864. 8**.
Welch, Bigelow & Co.

- On the solar motion in space and the stellar distances.
2nd paper. (Am. Academy of Arts and Sciences, Pro-
ceedings.) 8^.

- On the various forms of personal equation in meridian
transits of stars. (Royal Astron. Soc, Monthly N^otices,
VoL 57, :^o. 7.) 8^.

- The psychology of the personal equation. (Science,
]Si. S., Vol. 6, pp. 784-88.) 8^

- Williams College catalogue of north polar stars, right
ascension for 1885.0. Williamstown. 1888. 8^. Col-
lege.

- Williamstown (Mass.) Field Memorial Observatory.
(Vierteljahrsschrift der Astron. Gesellschaft, Band 19,
Heft 2.) 8^

- On Pistor and Martins's prismatic reflecting circle.
(American Journal of Astronomy, Vol. 21, ^o. 7.) Cam-
bridge. 1901. 4^

THE WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS, AND

LETl'ERS.

OFFICEKS.

President,

Charles S. Slighter^

University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Vice-President of Sciences,

Erastus G. Smith^

Beloit College, Beloit.

Vice-Preside7it of Arts,
Charles H. Chander^
Ripon College, Ripon.

Vice-President of Letters,

Harriet B. Merrill^

Milwaukee Public Museum, Milwaukee.

Secretary,

Ernest B. Skinner^

University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Treasurer,
Liorarian,

S KAHLENBERG, Homer W. Hillyer,

of Wisconsin, Madison, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Curator,

Samuel Weidman^

Madison.

COUNCIL.

The President, Vice-Presidents, Secretary, Treasurer, Libra-
rian and Past Presidents retaining tlieir residence in

Wisconsin.

Oificers. 627

COMMITTEE OI^ PUBLICATIOlSr.

Chakles S. Sliciitee, Madison, President.
Ernest B. Skints^er, Madison, Secretary.
AiaBert S. Flint^ Madison.

committee on library.

Louis Kahlenberg^. Madison, Librarian.
Reuben G. Thwaites, Madison.
C. DwiGHT Marsh, Eipon.
John I. Jegi, Milwaukee.
John J. Davis, Racine.

COMAIITTEE ON MEMBERSHIP.

Ernest B. Skinner, Madison, Secretary.
John G. Gregory, Milwaukee.
Dexter P. isacHOESON, Appleton.
Hiram D. Dens]\iore, Beloit.
John J. Davis, Racine.

PAST PRESIDENTS.

Honorable John W. Hoyt, M. D., LL. D., Washington,

D. C, 1870-75.
Professor P. R. Hoy, M. D.,* 1876-78.
President A. L. Chapin, D. D.,^ 1879-81.
Professor Roland D. Irving, Ph. D.,^ 1882-84.
Professor Thomas 0. Chamberlin, Ph. D., LL. D., Chicago,

HI., 1885-87.
Professor William E. Allen,*"^ 1888-89.
Professor Edward A. Birge, Ph. D., Madison, 1889-90.
Librarian George W. Peckham, LL. D., Milwaukee,

1891-93.
Professor Charles R. Van Hise, Ph. D., Madison,

1894-96.
Professor C. Dwight Marsh, A. M., Ripon, 1897-99.

♦Deceased. **Deceased December 9, 1899. Professor Birge elected to fill unex<
pired term.

628 Wisconsin Acadeiny of Sciences, Aiis, and Letters.

HOXOEARY MEMBERS.

Agassiz^ Alexander, Cambridge, Mass.

A. B., S. B., LL. D. (Harvard). Director of the Museum of Comparative
Zoology, Emeritus, Harvard University.

Chambeelix^ Thomas Clirowder, Hyde Park, Hotel,

Chicago, 111.

A. B. (Beloit); Ph. D. (Wisconsin, Michigan); LL. D. (Michigan, Beloit,

Columbian), Head of Geological Department and Director ef

Walker Museum, University of Chicago.

GiLMAis"^ Daniel Coit, 614 Park Av., Baltimore, Md.

A. B., A. M, (Yale); LL. D. (Yale, Harvard, Princeton, St. Johns, Co-
lumbia, North Carolina). Ex-President of Johns Hopkins University;

President, Carnegie Institution.

Harris, William Torrey, 1303 P. St., :N'. W.,

Washington, D. C.

a. M. (Yale); Ph. D. (Brown, Jena); LL. D. (Missouri, Yale, Princeton,

Pennsylvania). United States Commissioner of Education; Officer

d'lnstruction Publique of France.

Shaler, Xathaniel Southgate, 25 Quincy St.,

Cambridge, Mass.

S. B., S. D. (Harvard). Professor of Geology, Harvard University; Dean

of the Lawrence Scientific School.

Whitman, Charles Otis, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.

A. B., A, M. (Bowdoin); Ph. D. (Leipzig); LL. D, (Nebraska). Head

Professor of Zoology, University of Chicago; Director of Marine

Biological Laboratory, Woods Holl, Mass.

LIFE MEMBEKS.
Barnes, Charles Beid, University, of Chicago, Chicago, 111.

A. B., A. M., Ph. D. (Hanover). Professor of Plant Physiology, University

of Chicago.

BiRGE, Edward Asahel, 744 Langdon St., Madison.

A. B., A. M. (Williams); Ph. D. (Harvard); Sc. D., Honorary (Western
University of Pennsylvania). Professor of Zoology and Dean of the
College of Letters and Science, University of Wisconsin;
Acting President, University of Wisconsin 1900-1902; Sec-
retary of Commissioners of Fisheries, Wisconsin;
Director and Superintendent Wisconsin Geo-
logical and Natural History Survey.

Flint, Albert S to well, 450 Charter St., Madison.

A. B. (Harvard); A. M. (Cincinnati). Assistant Astronomer, Washburn
Observatory, University of Wfsconsin.

Life atid Active Members. 629

Hastings, Samuel Dexter, 1202 Hinman Av., Evanston, IlL

Ex-Treasurer of State of Wisconsin; Ex-Secretary of State Board of Char-
ities and Reform.

HoBBS, William Herbert, 223 I^. Carroll St., Madison.

B. S. (Worcester Polytechinic Institute); A. M., Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins).

Professor of Mineralogy and Petrology, University of Wisconsin;

Assistant Geologist, U. S. Geological Survey.

HoYT^ John Wesley, The Victoria, Washington, D. C.

A. M. (Ohio Wesleyan); M. D., LL. D. (Missouri). Chairman of the
National Committee to Promote the Establishment of the University

of the United States.

Maesh^ Charles Dwight Kipon.

A. B., A. M. (Amherst). Dean and Professor of Biology, Ripon College.

Mitchell^ John Lendrum, Milwaukee.

Ex-U. S. Senator from Wisconsin; Vice-President of Board of Managers of
National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers, Milwaukee.

Peckham^ George Williams, 646 Marshall St., Milwaukee.

LL. D. (Wisconsin). Librarian, Public Library.

Van Cleef^ Frank Louis, 39 Fort Greene PL,

Brooklyn, ^. Y.

A. B. (Oberlin, Harvard); Ph. D. (Bonn). Expert in Office of Commis-

sioner of Records, Kings Co.

Van Hise, Charles Richard, 630 Francis St., Madison.

B. Met. E., B. S., M. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Geologist in charge of
Division of pre-Cambrian and Metamorphic Geology, United States

Geological Survey; Non-Resident Professor of Strucutural Geology,

University of Chicago; Professor of Geology, University of

Wisconsin; Consulting Geologist, Wisconsin Geological and

Natural History Survey; Advisor, Carnegie

Institution, Washington, D. C.

ACTIVE MEMBERS.

Adams^ Charles Kendall, Redlands, Cal.

A. B., A. M. (Michigan; LL. D. (Harvard); J. U. D. (Glasgow). President
of the University of Wisconsin; Member Ex-officio of Board of Com-
missioners, Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey,

and President of Board.

Anderson, Mrs. W. E., 134 Twentieth St., Milwaukee.

Armstrong, Mary, 112 Emmet St., Portage.

B. S. (Wisconsin).

Anthony, Gertrude, 450 Charter St., Madison.

B. S. (Wisconsin). Teacher of Biology, Madison High School.

630 Wwconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Allek^^ Charles Elmer, 222 Charter St., Madison.

B. S. ("Wisconsin). Instructor in Botany, University of Wisconsin.

AusTii^, L. W., Phjsikalische Technische Reichs Anstalt,

Charlottenbiirg, Berlin, Germany.

A. B. (Middlebury); Ph. D. (Strassburg).

Baetz, Henry, 2820 Highland Boulevard, Milwaukee.

Ex-Treasurer, State of Wisconsin. Purcliasing Agent, Pabst Brewing

Company.

Benxett, William Chase, 936 Hackett Av., Milwaukee.

B. S. (Wisconsin); M. D. (Rusli). Professor of Embryology, W^isconsin

College of Physicians and Surgeons; Registrar of Vital Statistics,

Milwaukee Health Department.

BiEEE^ John, River Falls.

Teacher.

Blackstone^ Dodge Pierce, 921 Wisconsin St., Berlin.

A. B., A. M., C. E. (Union).

Blaip.. Emma Helen, University Heights, Madison.

B. S. (Ripon). Assistant in State Historical Library.

Blake^ William Pliipps, Tucson, Arizona.

A. M., Hon. (Dartmouth); Ph. B. (Yale). Professor of Geology and Mining,

University of Arizona; Director, Arizona School of
Mines; State Geologist, Arizona.

Bleyer^ Willard Grosvenor, 625 Langdon St., Madison.

M. L. (Wisconsin), Instructor in English, University of Wisconsin.

Brandel^ Irving Walter, 117 So. Butler St., Madison.

Ph. G., B. S. (Wisconsin). Fellow in Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University

of Wisconsin.

Brown^ Eugene Anson, 152 E. Johnson St., Madison.

M. D. (Hahnemann Medical). Physicira and Surgeon; Secretary of Board
of Federal Pension Examiners, Madison District.

Brui^ckex, Ernest, 2003 Cedar St., Milwaukee.

Attorney at Law, Room 18, Mack Block.

Buckley^, Ernest Robertson, Rolla, Mo.

B. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). State Geologist and Director of the Missouri

Bureau of "Geology and Mines.

Burgess, Arthur Joseph, 1102 Grand Av., Milwaukee.

M. D. (Harvard). Physician.

Burke, Jolm E., 904- Pahst Building, Milwaukee.

Butler, James Davie, 518 Wisconsin Av., Madison.

A. B., A. M., LL. D. (Middlebury). Minister and Teacher.

Active Members. 631

Cairns, W. B., 606 Madison St., Madison.

A. B., Ph. D. (Wisconsin), Assistant Professor of English, University

of Wisconsin.

Chandler, Charles Henry, 308 Thorne St., Ripon.

A. B., A. M. (Dartmouth). Pi-ofessor of Mathematics and Astronomy,

Ripon College.

Chandler, Elv/jn Francis, University, N". D.

A. B., A. M. (Ripon). Assistant Professor of Mathematics, University of

North Dakota.

Chapin^ Robert Coit, 709 College St., Beloit.

A. B., A. M. (Beloit); D. B. (Yale). Professor of Political Economy,

Beloit College.

Cheney, Lellen Sterling, 318 Brnen St., Madison.

B. S., M. S. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutical Botany,

University of Wisconsin.

Clas, Alfred Cliarles, 640 Van Buren St., Milwaukee.

Architect (Ferry & Clas), 419 Broadway. Milwaukee: Member, Board of Park
Commissioners; Director, Merchants and IManufacturers Associa-
tion, Milwaukee; Director, Milwauukee Industrial Exposition.

Clements, Julius Morgan, 609 Lake St, Madison.

A. B., A, M. (Alabama); Ph. D. (Leipzig). Assistant Professor of Ge-
ology, University of Wisconsin; Assistant Geologist, U. S. Geologi-
cal Survey.

CoMSTOCK, Elting Houghtaling, Houghton, Mich.

B. S., (Wisconsin). Principal, Houghton High School.

CoMSTOCK, George Cary, Observatory Hill, Madison.

Ph. B. (Michigan); LL. B. (Wisconsin). Professor of Astronomy and
Director of Washburn Observatory, University of Wisconsin; Secre-
tary of the Astronomical and Astrophysical Society of

America.

CoPELAND, Edwin Bingham, Palo Alto, Calif.

A. B. (Leland Stanford Jr.); A. M., Ph. D. (Halle-Witfenberg). Instructor
in Botany, Leland Stanford, Jr., University.

CowLEs, Emma, Milwaukee.

Ph. B. (Chicago). Professor of Mathematics, Milwaukee-Downer College.

Culver, Garry Eugene, 1103 Main St., Stevens Point.

A. M. (Denison). Professor of Physical Science, State Normal School.

Daniells, William Willard, 515 IN". Carroll St., Madison.

M. S., Sc. D. (Michigan Agricultural). Professor of Chemistry, University

of Wisconsin.

Davis, John Jefferson, 504 Monument Sq., Racine.

B. S. (Illinois); M. D. (Hahnemann). Physician.

632 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.
Densmoee^ Hiram Delos, 718 Clary St., Beloit.

A. B., A. M. (Beloit). Professor of Botany, Beloit College.

Deenehl^ Paul Herman, 942 Second St, Milwaukee.

student, University of Wisconsin.

Desmond, Humphrey J., 395 E. Water St., Milwaukee.

B. L. (Wisconsin); A. M. (Notre Dame). Lawyer.

Dieteich^ Otto, 805 Grand Av., Milwaukee.

Ph. D. (Halle). Principal, Milwaukee Latin School.

DowLiNG^ Linnaeus Wayland, University Heights, Madison.

Ph. D. (Clark). Assistant Professor of Mathematics, University of

Wisconsin.

Downes^ Robert Hugh, 53 W. Algoma St., Oshkosh.

B. L. (Wisconsin).

Dudley^ William H., Platte ville.

Instructor in Biology, State Normal School.

Eaton^ Edward Dwight, 847 College Av., Beloit.

A. B., A. M. (Beloit); B. D. (Yale): LL. D. (Wisconsin): D. D. (North-
western). President and I'rofessor of Ethics, Beloit College.

Ely^ Richard Theodore, University Heights, Madison.

A. B., A. M. (Columbia): Ph. D. (Heidelberg); LL. D. (Hobart). Profes-

sor of Political Economy, and Director of the School of Eco-
nomics and Political Science, University of Wisconsin.

EwiNG, Addison Luther, " River Falls.

B. S., M. S. (Cornell). Professor of Natural Science, State Normal School.

Perry, George Bowman, 19 Woodland Court, MilwaiLkee.

Architect (Ferry and Clas).

PiscHER, Richard, Madison.

Ph. C, B. S. (Michigan); Ph. D. (Marburg). Assistant Professor of
Practical Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin.

Plagg, Rufus Cushman, Berlin, N. H.

A. B., D. D. (Middlebury).

PoLKMAR^ Daniel,

A. B., A. M. (Western).

Prankenburger^ David Bower, 115 W. Oilman St., Madison.

Ph. B., LL. B., A. M. (Wisconsin). Professor of Rhetoric and Oratory,

University of Wieconsin.

Prost, William Dodge, 311 Charter St., Madison.

B. S., M. S. (Minnesota). Instructor in Bacteriology, University of Wis-
consin; Lecturer on Bacteriology, Wisconsin College of Physicians;

and Surgeons.

Active Members. 63

o

Gapen^ Clarke, Madison.

M. D. ( ). Physician.

GiBBS, George, Park Eow Building, ISTew York, ^. Y.

M. E. (Stevens Institute). Consulting Engineer, Rapid Transit Subway
Construction Company; Member P. R. R. Board of Engineers New
Yorli Tunnel Line and Terminal; Member, Advisory Com-
mittee on Engineering, Carnegie Institution, Wash-
ington, D. C.

GiESE^ William Frederick, 426 Bruen St., Madison.

A. B., A. M. (Harvard). Assistant Professor of Romance Languages, Uni-

versity of Wisconsin.

Gordon^ Mrs. George, 1144 Humboldt Av., Milwaukee.

Graenicher^ Sigmund, 551 Seventh St., Milwaukee.

Ph. D. (Basel); M. D. (Munich).

Gregory^ John Goadby, 717 Jefferson St., Milwaukee,

Associate Editor, The Evening Wisconsin.

Griggs^ H. W., Portage.

Superintendent of Shops, C, M. & St. P. Ry.

Haessler^ Ltjise, 467 Hanover St., Milwaukea

Teacher of Modern Languages, South Division High School.

Halsey^ Pufus H., Oshkosh.

A. B. (Williams). President, State Normal School.

Hancock, Edward Lee, La Fayette, Ind,

B. S., M. S. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Mathematics, Purdue University.

Hanks, Lucien M., 525 Wisconsin Av., Madison.

B. L. (Wisconsin). Teller, State Bank.

Harper, Robert Aimer, 324 N. Carroll St., Madison.

Ph. D. (Bonn). Professor of Botany, University of Wisconsin.

Harvey^ JSTathan Albert, West Superior.

Teacher of N'atural Science, State Normal School.

Harwood^ Mary Corinthia, Bartlett Cottage, Ripon.

B. L., M. L. (Lawrence). Preceptress and Instructor in French and Ger-
man, Ripon College.

Haskins^ Charles Homer, Cambridge, Mass.

A. B., Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of History, Harvard University.

Henry^ William Arnon, University Farm, Madisoiu

B. Agr. (Cornell). Dean of the College of Agriculture and Director of
the Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Wisconsin.

634 }Viscojisifi Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
HiLLYER, Homer Winthrop, University Heights, Madison.

B. S. (Wisconsin); Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Assistant Professor of Or-
ganic Chemistry, University of Wisconsin.

Hodge, Willard Addison, Madison.

k. B.. A. M. (Ripon).

HoiiLFELD^ Alexander Rudolph, 145 W. Oilman St., Madison..

Ph. D. (Leipzig). Professor of German, University of Wisconsin.

HoLLisTER^ Albert Henry, ] 7 Langdon St., Madison.

Pharmacist.

Hook, Edward Alfred 23 Mellen St, Cambridge, Mass.

B. S., M. S. (Wisconsin). Graduate Student. Harvard University.

Hooper, Sanford Adolliort, Los Angeles, Cal.

A. B., A. M. (Belolt).

Hubbard, Frank Gaylord, i!-2T Langdon St., Madison.

A. B. (Williams); Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of the English Lan-
guage, University of Wisconsin.

Huntington, Ellsworth, Milton, Mass.

A. B. (Belolt). Graduate Student, Harvard University.

Jastrow, Joseph, l:47 Langdon St., Madison.

A. B., A. yi. (Pennsylvania); Ph. D. iJobn.s Hopkins). Professor of Psy-

chology, T'niv-Tsity of Wisconsin.

J EG I, Jolm L, 254 Twenty-ninth St., Milwaukee.

B. S. (Chicago); M. S. (Normal College, Dixon. III.). Professor of Physi-

ology and Psychology, State Normal School.

Jennings, John Thompson Wilson, W. Oilman St. Madison.

B. S. (Cornell). Superiutentliug Architect of Buildings and Grounds,

University of Wisconsin.

Johnson, Roswell Hill, 435 Warren St., Madison.

B. S. (Chicago). Assistant in Vertebrate Anatomy, University of

Wisconsin.

Johnson, Warren Semour, 120 Sycamore St., Milwaukee.

Mechanical Engineer.

JoLLiFFE, William Morley, 604 Elmore St., Escanaba, Mich.

B. S. (Lawrence). Superintendent, Public Schools.

Juday, Chancey, Madison.

M. A. (Indiana). Assistant, Wisconsin Geological and Natural History

Survey.

Kahlenberg, Louis, 306 Lake St., Madison.

B. S.. M. S. (Wisconsin); Ph. D. (Leipzig). Professor of Physical Chem-
istry, University of Wisconsin.

Active Members. G35

Kimball^ Mather Dean, 528 Frederick St., Milwaukee.

B. A. (Northwestern).

KiNG^ Franklin Hiram, 1540 University Av., Madison.

Chief of Division of Soil Management, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Department

Agriculture.

Knowlton^ Amos Arnold, University Heights, Madison.

A. B., A. M. (Bowdoi-n), Assistant Professor of English, University of

Wisconsin.

Kremers^ Edward, 320 Jackson St., Wingra Park, Madison.

Ph. G., B. S. (Wisconsin); Ph. D. (Gottingen). Professor of Pharma-
ceutical Chemistry and Director of the School of Pharmacy,

University of Wisconsin.

Kkueger^ Henry, 376 Twenty-seventh Av., Milwaukee.

Principal, Tenth District School, No. 2.

KuHN, Harry,

Ladoff^ Isidor, Milwaukee.

Analytical Chemist.

Laird^ Arthur Gordon, 619 Langdon St., Madison.

Ph. D. (Cornell). Assistant Professor of Ancient Languages, Univer-
sity of Wisconsin.

Lamb, Francis Jones, 212 N. Carroll St., Madison.

Attorney at Law.

Lane, George Frederick, Ripon.

Director of Conservatory of Music, Ripon College,

Leaven Worth, William Stowell, Ripon.

M. Sc. (Hamilton). Professor of Chemistry and Physics, Ripon College.

Legler^ Henry E., City Hall, Milwaukee.

Secretary of School Board; Secretary, Parkman Club.

Lenher^ Victor, 148 W. Gorham St., Madison*

Ph. D. (Pennsylvania). Assistant Professor of General and Theoretical

Chemistry, University of Wisconsin.

Leith^ Charles Kenneth, 220 W. Gilman St., Madison.

B. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Geologist, United States Geological Survey.

Lessing, Otto Edward, 113 W. Gorham St., Madison.

Ph. D. (Michigan). Instructor in German, University of Wisconsin.

LiBBY, Orin Grant, State University, IST. D.

B. L., M. L., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of History,

University of North Dakota.

14

636 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ ArtSj and Letters.
Lloyij-Joiv^es, Thomas E., Hartford.

B. S. (Wisconsin). Superintendent, Public Schools.

LouGH^ James E., Oshkosh.

Professor of Psychology and Pedagogy, State Normal School.

LuEDEKS^ Herman Frederick, Sauk City.

B. S. ("Wisconsin).

Mai.i-oey^ Mrs. R. E., 909 Cambridge Av., Milwaukee.

Magnusson^ Carl Edward, Albuquerque, ^N'ew Mexico.

E. E. E., M. S. (Minnesota); Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Professor of Mathe-
matics and Physics, University of New Mexico.

Marks, Solon, 6 Erospect Av., Milwaukee.

M. D. (Rush). Professor of Fractures and Dislocations' and Military Sur-
gery, Wisconsin College of Physicians and Surgeons.

Marshall^ Euth, Apple ton.

M. St (Wisconsin). Teacher, Ryan High School.

Marshall^ William Stanley, IIG E. Gorham St., Madison.

B. S. (Swarthmore); Ph. D. (Leipzig). Assistant Professor of Zoology,

University of Wisconsin.

Maurer^ Edward Eose, University Heights, Madison.

B. C. E. (Wisconsin). Professor of Mechanics, University of Wisconsin.

McKenna, Maurice, 78 Third St., Fond du Lac.

Attorney at Law; President of the Bar Association and Chairman of the
Board of Supervisors, Fond du Lac County.

Mc^IiNX, Amelia, 172 Twenty-iirst St., Milwaukee.

B. S. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Biology, West Side High School.

Meaohem^ John Goldsborough, Jr., 745 College Av., Eacine.

M. D. (Rush). Physician.

Merrell^ Edward Huntington, Eipon.

a B., a. M. (Oberlin); D. D. (Lawrence); LL. D. (Middlebury). Profes-
sor of Moral Philosophy, Ripon College.

Merrill, Harriet Eell,

Milwaukee Eublic Museum, Milwaukee.

B. S., M. S. (Wisconsin). Lecturer to Schools.

Merrill^ J. A. State ]^ormal School, West Superior.

B. S. (Harvard). Director of Science Courses, State Normal School.

Merrill, Mary Ellen, (Mrs. S. S.),

3355 Grand Av., Milwaukee.
Meyer, Balthasar Henry, University Heights, Madison.

B. L., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Professor of Institutes of Commerce, Uni-
versity of Wisconsin.

Active Members. 637

Miller^ William Snow, 422 X. Henry St., Madison.

M. D. (Yale). Assistant Professor of Vertebrate Anatomy, University of

Wisconsin.

Mitchell, Andrew Stuart, 220 Greenbnsh St., Milwaukee.

Ph. C. (Michigan). Analyst and Teacher of Chemistry; Chemist, Wiscon-
sin State Dairy and Food Commission, Madison.

Mitchell^ Irving ^., 2921 Cedar St., Milwaukee.

Ph. B. (Michigan). Professor of Biology, State Normal School.

Mow^AGHAN^ James diaries, 28 E. Gilman St., Madison.

A. B. (Brown). Professor of Tlieory and Practice of Domestic and

Foreign Commerce, University of Wisconsin.

Morris^ William Augustus Pringle,

1 Howard Place, Madison.

A. B. (Hamilton). Attorney at Law.

MoRS^ George Qiarles, Carnegie Bldg., Pittsburg, Pa.

B. M. E., M. E. (Wisconsin). Assistant Chief Engineer, American Tin

Plate Company.

Nader, John, 302 W. Main St., Madison.

Architect and Civil Engineer.

!N'ehrling, Henry, Gotlia, Orange County, Fla.

(Palm Cottage Experiment Gardens.)

l^EiLsox, Walter Hopper, 114 Garfield Ave., Milwaukee.

M. D. (Rush). Dean of the Medical Faculty and Professor of the
Principles and Practice of Medicine and Clinical Medicine, Mil-
waukee Medical College.

Kicholson, Dexter Putnam, 504 John St., Appleton.

B. S., M. S. (Lawrence). Professor of Natural History, Lawrence University.

INoRTOisr^ Ricliard Greenleaf, 117 W. Mifflin St., Madison.

Mechanician.

KoYES, George Henry, 204 Prospect Av., Milwaukee.

A. B., LL. B. (Wisconsin). Attorney; Ex-Judge, Superior Court.

O'Connor^ Charles James, 1242 E. Dayton St., Madison.

A. B. (Wisconsin).

O'SiiEA, M. Vincent, 140 Langdon St., Madison.

B. L. (Cornell). Professor of the Science and Art of Education, Univer-
sity of Wisconsin.

OwEN,. Edward Thomas, C14 Stat^ St., Madison.

A. B., Ph. D. (Yale). I'rofessor of the French Language and Literature,

University of Wisconsin.

638 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Pabst, Fred, 2000 Grand Av., Milwaukee.

Palmek^ Bernard Morev, 625 Francis St., Madison.

B. L. (Wisconsin). Student in College of Law, University of "Wisconsin.

Pakkinsox^ John Bar]>er, 803 State St., Madison.

A. M. (Wisconsin). Vice-President and Professor of Constitutional and

International Law, University of Wisconsin.

Paekee^ Fletcher Andrew, 14 W. Oilman St., Madison.

Professor of Music and Director of School of Music, University of Wis-
consin; Musical Director, Madison Choral Union; Vice-President,
ilusic Teachers' National Association.

Peppell, S. v.. Care Ohio Geological Survey, Columbus, O.

Chemist and Assistant, Ohio Geological Survey.

Peebles^ James M., 529 Astor St., ^[ilwauke^.

LL. B. Lawyer. Ex-President, Public School Board; President, Public
Library; ex-County Judge, Milwaukee Co.; Regent, University of

Wisconsin.

Peebles, Jennie W. (Mrs. J. M.), 529 Astor St., ^\[ilwaukee.

Treasurer, Wisconsin Training School for Nurses; Secretary, Milwaukee
Flower Mission and Mission Kindergarten.

Peeeles, Xellie W. (Mrs. T. J.), 535 Astor St., Milwaukee.
Peeeles^ Thomas Jefferson, 535 Ast^r St., ]\Iilwaukee.

LL. B. (Wisconsin). Attorney at Law (Nathl. Pereles and Sons).

Peeisho, Ellwood Chappelle, Platteville.

B. S., M. S. (Earlham); M. S. (Chicago). Professor of Geology and

Physics, State Normal School.

Plantz, Samuel, Appleton.

A. M. (Lawrence); Ph. D. (Boston); D. D. (Albion). President of

Lawrence University.

PoETEE, William, 735 College St., Beloit.

A. B., A. M., D. D. (Williams). Professor of Latin, Beloit College.

Post^ Harriet L., 1182 Humboldt Av., Milwaukee.

M. D. (Woman's Medical College of New York Infirmary). Instructor in

Biology, East Side High School.

Peetts, William Walter,

B. S. (Wisconsin.)

Peingle, Ealph W., Appleton.

Principal, Eyan High School; Supervisor, Second District.

PuLs, Arthur John, Wells Bldg., Milwaukee.

B. L. (Wisconsin); M. D. (Heidelberg). Physician; Eegent, University

of Wisconsin.

Active Members. 639

Putney, Frank HoAvell, 105 Park Av., Waukesha.

Attorney at Law.

Eankii^, Walter L., 201 East Av., Waukesha.

A. M., Ph. D. (Princeton). President, Carroll College.

Regan, Katherine Patricia, 414 E. Washin^on Av., Madison.

B. L. (Wisconsin). Assistant Principal, Jefferson High School.

Reul, Miss Matilda E.^ Baraboo.

B. S., M. S. (Wisconsin)'. Teacher, Baraboo High School.

EiCE, Ole S., Deerfield.

B. S. (Wisconsin). Principal, Deerfield High School.

E-iCHTER, Arthur William, 929 University Av., Madison.

B. M. E., M. E. (Wisconsin); M. M. E. (Cornell). Professor of Experi-
mental Engineering, University of Wisconsin.

RoiiDE, Hugo W., 635 Second St., Milwaukee.

B. S. (Wisconsin).

RoESSLER, John Samuel, 1404 iN". Fifth St., Sheboygan.

B. L. (Wisconsin). Principal of High School.

PoGEES, Au^Tistus J., 318 Ogden Av., Milwaukee.

Ph. B. (Cornell). Principal of Soxith Division High School.

PuENZEL^ Henry Gottlieb, 753 Third St., Milwaukee.

Ph. G. (Wisconsin). Pharmacist; Member, State Board of Pharmacy.

PussELL^ Hari-y Luman, 1532 Univ. Av., Madison.

B. S., M. S. (Wisconsin); Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of Bacteri-
ology, University of Wisconsin.

Salmox^ Edvv^ard Payson, 618 Church St., Beloit.

A. M. (Beloit). Congregational Minister; Second Vice-President of Board

of Trustees, Beloit College.

Sanborx^ John Bell, Madison.

B. L., M. L., Ph. D. (Wisconsin).

Sanford^ Albert Hart, 1052 Clark St., Stevens Point.

B. L. (Wisconsin); A. B. (Harvard). Instructor in History and Civics,

State Normal School.

Saunderson^ George William, Pipon.

A. B., A. M. (Dartmouth); LL B. (Boston). Professor of English Litera-

ture and Oratory, Ripon College.

ScHLUNDT^ Herman, 202 Bruen St., Madison.

B. S., M. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Chemistry, University of

Wisconsin.

640 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
ScoTT^ William Amasa, 619 Langdon St., Madisou.

A. B., A. M. (Rochester); Pli- D. (Johns Hopkins). Director of the School
of Commerce and Professor of Economic History and Theory, Uni-
versity of Wisconsin.

Sessinghaus, Gustaviis, 1360 Columbine St., Denver, Colo.

E. M. (Columbia); M. S. (Wisconsin),

Shaep^ Frank Chapman, 27 Mendota Court, Madison.

A. B. (Amherst); Ph. D. (Berlin). Assistant Professor of Philosophy,

University of Wisconsin.

Sherman, Lewis, 448 Jackson St., Milwaukee.

B. S., A. M. (Union); M. D. (New York).

SiEKER^ William Christian, 131 Fourteenth St., Milwaukee.

B. S. (Wisconsin),

Skinner^ Ernest Brown, 414 Cliart-er St., Madison.

A. B, (Ohio); Ph. D. (Chicago). Assistant Professor of Mathematics,

University of Wisconsin.

Slaughter^ Moses Stephen, 633 Francis St., Madison.

A. B., A, M. (DePauw); Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of Latin,

University of Wisconsin.

Slighter^ Charles Sumner, 636 Francis St., Madison.

B. S., M. S. (Northwestern). Professor of Applied Mathematics, University

of Wisconsin.

Smith^ Erastus Gilbert, 649 Harrison Av., Beloit.

A, B,, A. M. (Amherst); A. M., Ph. D. (Gottingeu). Professor of Chem-

istrj', Beloit College.

Smith^ Ilov/ard Leslie, 222 Langdon St., Madison.

A, B., LL. B. (Wisconsin). Professor of Law, University of Wisconsin.

Smith, Leonard Sewell, 939 University Ave., Madison.

B. C. E., C. E. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of Topographic and Geo-

detic Engineering, University of Wisconsin.

Smith, Walter Mci\iynn, 218 Park St., Madison.

A. B. (Wisconsin). Librarian, University of Wisconsin.

Snow^ Benjamin Warner, 518 Wisconsin Ave., Madison.

Ph. D. (Berlin). Professor of Physics, University of Wisconsin.

Sparling, Samuel Edward, 505 N. Carroll St., Madison.

A. B, (Indiana); Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of Political

Science, University of Wisconsin.

Starr, William J., 135 Marston Av., Eau Claire.

LL. B. (Columbia). Member, Board of Commissioners of Fisheries, Wis-
consin; President of the Eau Claire Public Library.

Active Members. 641

Stanton^ Florence Belle, Lodi.

B. L. (Wisconsin). Teaclier in High Scliool.

SuYDAM, Vernon Andrew, Ripon.

B. S. (Wisconsin). Teacher in Ripon High School.

Taleert, G. a., Oshkosh.

Tawin^ey, Guy Allan, Beloit.

A. B., A. M. (Princeton); Ph. D. (Leipzig). Squier Professor of Mental

Science and Philosophy, Beloit College.

Teller^ Edgar E., 170 Twenty-ninth St., Milwaukee.

President, Wisconsin Natural History Society.

Tetzel, Fanny Grant, 817 Kewhall St., Milwaukee.

Thwaites, Reuben Gold, 260 Langdon St., Madison.

Secretary and Superintendent, State Historical Society of Wisconsin.

Timberlake, Hamilton Greenwood, 313 Mills St., Madison.

M. S. (Michigan). Instructor in Botany, University of Wisconsin.

True^ Rodney Howard, Washington, D. 0.

B. S. (Wisconsin); Ph. D. (Leipzig).

Tur:^er, Frederick Jackson, 629 Francis St., Madison.

a. B., a. M. (Wisconsin); Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Director of the School
of History and Professor of American History, University of Wis-
consin.

UiHLEiN^ August, 332 Galena St., Milwaukee.

Updike, Eugene Grover, ' 148 Langdon St., Madison.

B. S., M. S.. D. D. (Lawrence). Pastor, First Congregational Church.

Upham, Arthur Aquila, 106 Conger St., Whitewater.

Professor of Natural Sciences, State Normal School.

Van Yelzer^ Charles Ambrose, 131 W. Gorham St., Madison.

B. S. (Cornell); Ph. D. (Hillsdale). Professor of Mathematics, University

of Wisconsin.

Yiebahn^ Charles Frederick, 703 Western Av., Watertown.

Superintendent of Schools and Principal of High School.

YoGEL^ Guido Charles, Milwaukee.

B. S. (Wisconsin).

Yoss^ Ernst Karl Johann Heinrich,

23 E. Johnson St., Madison.

Ph. D. (Leipzig). Professor of German Philology, University of Wisconsin.

Watson^ Walter S., Whitewater.

M. S. ( ). Professor of Biology and German, State Normal

School.

642 Wiscojisiji Academy of Sciences^ ArtSj and Letters.
Weidmatnt^ Samuel, 229 W. Gilman St., Madison.

B. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Geologist, Wisconsin Geological and Natural

History Survey.

Whitcomb, Annabel! Cook (Mrs. Henry F.),

721 Franklin St., Milwaukee.
Whitsox^ Andrew Robinson, 420 Charter St., Madison.

B. S. (Chicago). Professor of Agriculutural Physics, University of Wisconsin.

WiNGATE^ Uranus O. B., 204 Biddle St., Milwaukee.

M. D. (Dartmouth). Professor of Diseases of the Mind and Nervous Sys-
tem, Wisconsin College of Physicians and Surgeons; Secretary of

State Board of Health.

WiNKEisrwEEDER^ Hugo August, 217 Murray St., Madison.

Assistant in Biology, University of Wisconsin.

WoLcoTT^ Edson Ray, 202 Langdon St., Madison.

B. S. (Wisconsin). Fellow in Physics, University of Wisconsin.

Wolff, Henry C, 225 State St., Madison.

B. S., M. S. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Mathematics, University of Wis-
consin.

WoLL, Fritz Willielm, 424 Charter St., Madison.

B. S., Ph. B. (Christiania); M. S. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of

Agricultural Chemistry and Chemist to the Agricultural Experiment

Station, University of Wisconsin.

Zimmerman N^ Charles Frederick A., 622 Otjen St., Milwaukee.

Ph. B. (Illinois W^esleyan); A. M. (Charles City). Principal, Seventeenth

District School.

ZiMMERMANN, Oliver Bruner, 209 Brooks St., Madison.

B. M. E., M. E. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Machine Design and De-
scriptive Geometry, University of Wisconsin.

CORRESPOXDIXG MEMBERS.

Abbott, Charles Conrad, Trenton, 1^. J.

M. D. (Pennsylvania).

Andrews, Edmund, 100 State St., Chicago, HI.

A. B., A. M., M. D., LL. D. (Michigan). Professor of Clinical Surgery,
Northwestern University; Surgeon, Mercy Hospital; Consulting Sur-
geon, Michael Reese Hospital and Illinois Hospital for Women

and Children.

Armsby, Henry Prentiss, State College, Pa.

B. S. (Worcester Polytechnic); Ph. B., Ph. D. (Yale). Director of Experi-

ment Station.

Corresponding Members. 643

Bascom, John, Park St., Wiliiamstown, Mass.

A. B., A. M. (Williams); D. D. (Iowa); LL. D. (Amherst, Williams). Pro-
fessor of Political Science, Williams College.

Bennett, Charles Edwin, 1 Grove Place, Ithaca, ^N". Y.

A. B. (Brown). Professor of Latin Language and Literature, Cornell

University.

Bridge^ Gorman,

217 S. Broadway, Los Angeles, Calif. ; Oct. and ISTov. each
year. Rush Medical College, Chicago, 111.

A. M. (Lake Forest); M. D. (Northwestern, Rush). Emeritus Professor

of Medicine, Rush Medical College.

Caveeno, Charles, Lombard, 111.

A. B., A. M. (Dartmouth); LL. D. (Colorado). Clergyman, retired.

Coulter^ John Merle, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111,

A. B., A. M., Ph. D. (Hanover); Ph. D. (Indiana). Head Professor of

Botany, University of Chicago.

Crocker, Joseph Henry, 110 X. State St., Ann Arbor, Mich.

D. D. (St. Lawrence, Nashville). Minister. Unitarian Church.

Davis, ^lc)J<i7 317 Iowa Loan and Trust Bldg., Des Moines, la.

Ph. B., C. E., E. M. (Missouri); Ph. D. (Miami). Analytical and Consult-
ing Chemist.

Eckels, William Alexander, Oxford, Ohio.

A. B., A. M. (Dickinson); Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of Greek,

Miami University.

Fallows, Samnel, 9G7 W. Monroe St., Chicago, 111.

A. B., A. M., LL. D. (Wisconsin); D. D. (Lawrence). Presiding Bishop

of the Reformed Episcopal Church; Chancellor of the University

Association; President of Board of Managers, Illinois State

Reformatory.

Hendrickson, George Lincoln, 5515 Woodlawn Av., Chicago.

A. B. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of Latin, University of Chicago.

HiGLEY, William Kerr^ Lincoln Park, Chicago, 111.

Ph. M. (Michigan). Secretary, Chicago Academy of Sciences; Editor,

Birds and Nature.

Hodge, Clifton Fremont, 3 Charlotte St., Worcester, Mass.

A. B. (Ripon); Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Assistant Professor of Physiology

and Neurology, Clark University.

HoLDEN, Edward Singleton, U. S. Military Academy,

West Point, K Y.

B. S., A. M. (Washington): S. D. (Pacific); LL. D. (Wisconsin and Colum-

bia). Astronomer.

644 Wisconsin- Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
II0LT.AND, Frederic May, Main St., Concord, Mass.

A. B. (Harvard).

HosKiNS, Leander Miller, Palo Alto, Calif.

B. S., M. S., B. C. E., C. E. (Wisconsin). Professor of Applied Mathe-
matics, Leiand Stanford Jr. University.

Iddings^ Joseph Paxson, 5730 Woodlawn Av., Chicago, 111.

Ph. B. (Yale). Professor of Petrology, University of Chicago.

KiNLEY, David, Urbana, 111.

A. B. (Yale); Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Dean of the College of Literature and

Arts, and Professor of Economics, University of Illinois.

LEtEKETT^ Frank, Ann Arbor, Mich.

B. Sc. (Iowa Agricultural). Geologist, U. S. Geological Survey.

LuETON^ Freeman Ellsworth, Spring Valley, Minn.

B. S., M. S. (Carleton); Ph. D. (Gale). Superintendent of Public Schools.

Luther, George Elmer,

2G6 S. College Av., Grand Papids, Mich.

Chief Mortgage Clerk, Michigan Trust Co.; Treasurer of the Historical

Society of Grand Rapids.

Marx^ Charles David, Palo Alto, Calif,

B. C. E. (Cornell); C. E. (Carlsruhe). Professor of Civil Engineering, Le-
iand Stanford Jr. University.

McClumpha, Charles Flint, Minneapolis, Minn.

A. B., A. M. (Princeton); Ph. D. (Leipzig). Professor of English Language

and Literature, University of Minnesota.

Moorehouse^ George Wilton, 39 Cutler St., Cleveland, 0.

B. L., M. L. (Wisconsin); M, D. (Harvard). Physician to the Dispensary

of Lakeside Hospital and Western Reserve University.

Peet, Stephen Denison, 5817 Madison Av., Chicago.

A. M., Ph. D. (Beloit). Clergyman; Editor, American Antiquarian.

Potter, William Bleecker, 1225 Spruce St., St. Louis, Mo.

A. B., A. M., M. E. (Columbia). Mining Engineer and Metallurgist.

Power, Frederick Belding, 535 Warren St., Hudson, N". Y.

Ph. G. (Phila. Coll. of Pharm.); Ph. D. (Strassburg). Director of Well-
come Chemical Research laboratories, London, Eng.

Paymoi^d, Jerome Hall, Chicago, 111.

A. B., A. M. (Northwestern); Ph. D. (Chicago). Associate Professor of

Sociology, University of Chicago.

Salisbury, Rollin D., University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.

A. M. (Beloit). Profesosr of Geographic Geology and Dean of the Grad-
uate School of Science, University of Chicago; Geologist, U. S.
Geological Survey, State Geological Survey, JN'ew Jersey.

C orresi^onding Members. 645

Sawyek, Wesley Caleb, Elm and Asbury Sts., San Jose, Calif.

A. B., A. M. (Harvard); A. M., Ph. D. (Gottingen).

Shipman, Stephen Yauglm, 269 Warren Av., Chicago, 111.

Colonel, Regiment, U. S. Volunteers, Civil War; Architect.

Stoi^-e, Ormond, University Station, Charlottesville, Va.

M. A, (Chicago). Director, Leander McCormick Observatory and Pro-
fessor of Practical Astronomy, University of Virginia.

Tatlock, John, Jr., 32 Nassau St., 'New York, IST. Y.

A. B., A. M. (Williams); F. R. A. S. Assistant Actuary, Mutual Life

Insurance Co.

ToLMAN", Albert Harris, 5750 Woodlawn Av., Chicago, 111.

A. B. (Williams); Ph. D. (Strassburg). Assistant Professor of English

Literature, University of Chicago.

ToL^iAisr, Herbert Ciishina, ^N'ashville, Tenn.

A. B., Ph. D. (Yale); D. D. (Nashville). Professor of Greek, Vanderbilt

University.

TowNLEY, Sidney Dean, 2023 Bancroft Way, Berkeley, Cal.

B. S., M. S. (Wisconsin); S. D. (Michigan). Instructor in Practical As-

tronomy, University of California.

Trelease, William, Botanical Garden, St. Louis, Mo.

B. S. (Cornell); S. D. (Harvard); LL. D. (Wisconsin). Director of
Missouri Botanical Garden and Henry Shaw School of Botany,
Engelmann Professor of Potany, Washington University;
Secretary, Academy of Science of St. Louis; Secre-
tary, The Round Table, St. Louis; Honorary Pres-
ident, Engelmann Botanical Club, St. Louis.

Van de Warker, Ely, 404 Eayette Park, Syracuse, ^N". Y.

M. D. (Albany Medical and Union). Surgeon Central New York Hospital
for Women; Consulting Physician St. Ann's Maternity Hospital;
Senior Surgeon Women's and Children's Hospital; Commis-
sioner of Education, Syracuse; Member of the Holland

Society.

Van Vleck, Edward Burr, Middletown, Ct.

A. B., A. M. (Wesleyan); Ph. D. (Gottingen). Professor of Mathematics,

Wesley an Unrversity.

Verrill, Addison Emory, 86 Whalley x\v., IN'ev/ Haven, Ct.

S. B. (Harvard); A. M. (Yale). Professor of Zoology, Yale University.

Wi^CHELL^ I>rewton Horace,

113 State St., Minneapolis, Minn.

A. M. (Michigan).

Young, Albert Adams, 531 S. Claremont Av., Chicago, HL

A. B., A. M. (Dartmouth); D. B. (Andover). Clergyman.

64:6 V/isconsin Academy of Sciences^ AiiSj and Letters,

MEMBEES DECEASED.

INFORMATION OF WHOSE DECEASE HAS BEEN RECEIVED SINCE

THE ISSUE OF VOLUME XII.

Orton^ Edward, A. M., Ph. D., LL. D., Columbus, Ohio.

Professor of Geology, Ohio State University, State Geologist of Ohio, 1899.

Davies, John Eugene, A. M., M. D., LL. D., Madison, Wis.

Professor of Electricity and Magnetism and Mathematical Physics,
University of Wisconsin; Jan. 22, 1900.

Chandler, Willard Harris, Madison, Wis.

state Inspector of High Schools; March 24, 1901.

Safford, Truman Henry, Ph. D., Williamstown, Mass.

Field Memorial Professor of Astronomy, Williams College; June 12, 1901.

Bacon, Charles Alfred, A. B., A. M., Beloit, Wis.

Professor of Astronomy, Beloit College, and Director of Smith Observa-
tory; Sept., 1901.

Steele, George McKendrae, D. D., LL. D., Chicago, HI.

President of Lawrence University, 1865-1879; Principal Wesleyan Academy,
Wilbraham, Mass., 1879-1893; Jan., 1902.

CoNRATH^ Adam, Ph. C, Milwaukee, Wis.

Pharmacist; Jan., 1901.

Goodhue^ William Eletcher, Milwaukee, Wis.

Civil Engineer; 1901.

Johnson, John Butler, C. E., Madison, Wis.

Dean of the College of Mechanics and Engineering, University of

Wisconsin; June 30, 1902.

PROCEEDINGS.

REPOKT OF THE SECRETARY, 1900.

Tpiikty-fiest An-in'uai. Meeting.

Milwaukee, Wis., Dec. 2Y-28, 1900.
All meetino;s of the Academy were held in Club Room ISTo.
486 of the Plankinton House. The several sessions were car-
ried out in accordance with the printed program, with the ex-
ception of some few change's in the order in which the papers
were read. This program was as follows :

TKUESDAY MORXING, DECEMBER 27.

Reports of officers and other general business.

Address in memory of the late Professor John E. Davies, by Professor

J. B. Parkinson.
Reading of papers at 10:15 o'clock.

1. An example of a theoretical system of weight factors of ready ap-

plication in the solution of observation equations. Albert S.
Flint.

2. On an improved method of determining latent heat of vaporiza-

tion. Louis Kalilen'berg.

3. The plankton of Green Lake and Lake Winnebago. G. Dwight

Marsh.

4. Some recent observations on the migration of birds. H. A. Win-

keniverder.

THURSDAY AFTERNOON.

5. Determinism, decrees, and immutable law. Charles Caverno.

6. Personal names, their etymology. James D. Butler.

7. A campaign cry of 1844. H. J. Desmond.

8. Shakespeare's knowledge of criminal psychology. F. C. Sharp.

9. Early political platforms in Wisconsin. John G. Gregory.

648 Vvisconsin Academy of Sciences^ ArtSj aiid Letters.

Friday Morning.

General business.

Reading of papers at 10:00 o'clock.

10. The cause of cleavage in rocks. C. K. Leith.

11. The supposed lessening of geyser activity in the Yellowstone

National Park. D. P. Nicholson.

12. Harmonic curves of three frequencies. Second paper; with exhi-

bition of stereograms drawn by E. A. Hook. Charles S. Slich-
ter.

13. On repeating decimals. E. A. Hook.

14. On the thermal conductivity of the common woods. L. W. Austin

and C. W. Eastman. (By title.)

15. The expansion of wood due to absorption of water. L. W. Austin,

G. 8. Cassels and W. H. Barber. (By title.)

Friday Afternoovy.

16. The orientation of stream channels as related to geological struc-

ture. Willianfi H. Hobbs.

17. The old tungsten mine at Trumbull, Ct. William H. Hobbs.

18. The future of the clay and cement industry in Wisconsin. Ernest

R. Buckley.

At the various sessions matters of business were transacted
as follows/.

Thursday^ Dec. 27.

Morning Session.

The meeting was called to order at 9 :30 o'clock by President
Slichter. On motion, the reading of the minutes of the 30th an-
nual meeting was dispensed with, on a.ccount of their publica-
tion during the intervening year in Vol. XII. of the ^^Trans-
actions."

An informal report of the secretary was read. On account
of the absence of the treasurer and librarian the reading of their
reports was postponed till the meeting of Friday.

No further business was transacted during the day.

Friday, Dec. 28, 1900.

The momine^ session Vv^as called to order bv President Slich-
ter. The report of the treasurer was read and accepted. The
auditing committee, consisting of Messrs. Bruncken, Flint and

Secretary's Report, 649

Leavenworth, previously appointed bj the president, reported,
approving the accounts of the treasurer.

The treasurer's report showed that the treasury contains
$1,513.87, of which $1,000.00 are invested in a debenture bond,
leaving the sum of $513.87 uninvested.

It v/as voted that \hQ president and treasurer be hereby in-
structed to invest $500.00 of the above sum in interest bearing
bonds, the said $500.00 to be added to the permanent fund of
the Academv.

The committee on membership then made its report. On its
recommendation the following names were added to the list of
active members of the Academy :

B. W. Snow, Madison.

J. B. Parkinson, Madison.

J. C. Monaghan, Madison.

Howard L. Smith, Madison.

B. W. Wood, Madison.

E. K. J. H. Voss, Madison.

F. W. Meisnest, Madison.
Otto E. Lessing, Madison.
Walter H. Smith, Madison.

A. A. Meggett, Madison.
W. G. Bleyer, Madison.

H. G. Timberlake, Madison.
H. A. Winkenwerder, Madison.
E. B. Wolcott, Madison.
Bernard M. Palmer^ Madison.
E. A. Hook, Madison,
S. T. Smythe, Delafield.

B. H. Halsey, Oshkosh.
J. E. Lough, Oshkosh.

W. S. Leavenworth, Bipon.
W. H. ^eilson, Milwaukee.

G. A. Chamberlain, Milwaukee.

C. E. Monroe, Milwaukee.

J. A. Merrill, West Superior.
W. S. Watson, Whitewater.
L. J. Freese, Waukesha.
Chancey Juday, Madison.

650 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Lewis Sherman, Milwaukee.

R. W. Pringle, Apple ton.

A. O. Greason, Appleton.

Y. A. Suydam, Ripon.

Miss Mary Armstrong, Portage.

Miss Gertrude Anthonv, Madison.

Miss F. Belle Stanton, Warren, 111.

The committee further recommended that former president,
C. D wight Marsh, and former secretary, Albert S. Flint, be
elected to life membership in the Academy in view of their
great services to the Academy during their term of office. This
recommendation was unanimously adopted.

The report of the librarian was then read. As this report
contained the statement that the present librarian deemed it
his duty to resign in order that the work could be put into the
hands of some one better versed in library matters and the li-
brary properly cared for, the report was referred to the Council
of the Academy with the request that they formulate some mo-
tion upon the subject in time to be acted upon at the afternoon
session.

The afteiTioon session was called to order at 2 :45 by the
president. The following recommendations presented by the
Council were severally adopted :

Uesolvcd, That the Librarian, Dr. Kahlenberg, be authorized
to delegate to some person selected by himself any of the powers
now' belonging to his office.

Resolved, That tlie books of the Academy when catalogued
shall be given a label of distinctive shape.

Besolved, That a selection of the most important transactions
shall be kept in the room of the Academy at Madison.

The Council further recommend for passage at the next an-
nual meeting the following amendment to the constitution:

Article VI. Section 2 is hereby amended to read as follows: The li-
brary committee shall consist of five members, of which the librarian
shall be ex-offlcio chairman and of which a majority shall not be from
the same city.

It was voted that this amendment be allowed to take its reg-
ular course. F. C. Sharp^

Secretarv.

Secreiai'y's Report. 651

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 1901.

Thirty-second Annual meeting.

Milwaukee, Wis., Dec. 26-27, 1901.
The meetings of the Academy were held in Room B 5 of the
Milwaukee Xormal School Building. The various meetings
were carried out in accordance with the printed progTam with a
few changes in the order of papea's presented and the addition
of four papers, the titles of which reached the secretary too late
for printing. The program was as follows :

THURSDAY MORNING, DEC. 26.

Reports of officers and other general business.
Reading of papers at 10:30 o'clock.

1. The origin of Wisconsin place-names, Henry E. Legler.

2. The economic and social development of Kenosha county. Rob-

ert H. Downes.

3. The economic and social development of LaFayette county.

Katherine P. Regan.

4. A study in longevity. Charles H. Chandler.

5. Language forms known as negative. Edward T. Owen.

6. The problem of interrogation. Edward T. Owen.

THURSDAY AFTEIRNOON.

7. The axial bifurcation of snakes. Roswell H. Johnson.

8. On a new species of Cantho-camptus from Idaho. C. Dioight

Marsh.

9. Further notes on the plankton of Green Lake and Lake Winne-

bago. C. Dioight Marsh.

10. The marching of the young caterpillars of the maia moth, Hemi-

leuca maia. W. S. Marshall.

11. The oak pruner, Elaphidion villosum. W. 8. Marshall.

12. The early prophases of the nuclear division in the pollen of the

mother cells of Larix and Lilium. C. E. Allen.

13. The development and structure of the swarm-spores of Hydrodic-

tion. H. Cr. Timberlake.

14. Cell structure and reproduction in Hymenomycetes. R. A.

Harper.
15

652 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Ai^ts, and Letters.

15. Some fungi parasitic on mushrooms. R. A. Harper.

16. Third supplementary list of parasitic fungi of Wisconsin. J. J,

Davis.

17. Quinhydrones as plant pigments. /. W. Brandel and Edward Kre-

mers.

18. A case of alum poisoning. W. W. Daniells.

19. The records left upon the soil of Wisconsin. Stephen D. Feet.

FRIDAY MORNING.

General business.

Reading of papers at 9:15 o'clock.

20. Migration velocities of the ions in solutions of silver nitrate in

pyridine. Herman Schlu7idt.

21. Nitriles as solvents in molecular weight determinations. Louis

Kahlenberg.

22. Instantaneous chemical reactions and the theory of electrolytic

dissociation. Louis Kahlenterg.

23. A method of analyzing the inorganic acids. W. S. Leavenworth.

24. The action of selenic acid on gold. Yictor Lenher.

25. Natural telluride of gold. Yictor Lenher.

26. The action of tellurium and selenium on gold and silver salts.

Roy D. Hall.

27. Note on the use of the terms "solvent' and "flux" for higher tem-

peratures. A. J. Rogers.

28. Some complex nitro-compounds. H. W. HiUyer.
Memorial addresses:

Edward Orton, - - - Wm. H. Ho'bhs.

Willard H. Chandler, - - C. L. Harper.

Truman H. Safford, - - Ernest B. Skinner.

Charles A. Bacon, - - E. Q. Smith.

FRIDAY AFTERNOON.

29. Evidence of the former extension of the Newark formation on the

Atlantic slope. Wm. H. Hohhs.

30. Boulder trains in the Pomperaug valley, Connecticut. Wm. H.

Hohhs.

31. The erosion history of southwest Wisconsin. Ellwood C. Perisho.

32. The physiographic features of central Wisconsin. Samuel Weid-

man.

33. The manner in which igneous rocks make their way to the sur-

face. C. R. Van Hise.

34. Subterranean rivers. Charles S. Slichter.

35. The status of geological survey work in Missouri. Ernest R.

Buckley.

Secretary's Report. 653

Of the above papers Xos. 2, 3, 7, 8, 16, 21, 28, were read by
title; Xo. 17 was presented by Professor Kremers, ^o. 22 by
Dr. Schlimdt, Xo. 24 by Professor Kremers, and No. 25 by
Professor Van Hise.

Matters of business were transacted at the various sessions
as follows:

Thursday Moe^ing^ Dec. 26.

The Academy was called to order by President Slicbter at
10 :40 a. m. Owing to the fact that Mr. Legier was obliged to
leave early in the forenoon, general business was postponed until
after the reading of his paper. Mr. Legler's paper was dis-
cussed by Professor Chandler, Dr. Davis and others.

The report of the secretary Avas read. This report, besides
giving the minutes of the meeting for 1900, stated that sincd
the last meeting Part I of Vol. XIII of the "Transactions" of
the Academy had been issued and distributed, and Part II is
ready for the press.

The minutes were approved and the report accepted.

The report of the librarian was read by the secretary, the
librarian being absent. The report which appears in full in
another place, was accepted and placed on file.

The secretary read a letter from the Societe Rationale des
Sciences Xaturelles et Mathematiques de Cherbourg, announc-
ing the celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the founding
of the Cherbourg Society. By vote of the Academy the secre-
tary was directed to enter upon the record a minute indicating
that greetings and congratulations had been sent to the Society
at Cherbourg.

A letter addressed to President Slichter by the secretary of
the University Club of Milwaukee, extending the privileges of
the Club to visiting members of the Academy during the meet-
ing, was read by the secretary. The secretary was directed to
reply to the invitation and to thank the Club for its hospitality.

The reading of papers was then resumed. Paper Xo. 4 was
discussed by Professor Slichter. Papers 5 and 6 were discussed
by Messrs. Van Hise, Slichter and others. Seventeen persons
were in attendance at the morning session.

654 Wisco?isin Academy of Sciences, Aris, and Letters.

Thursday Afternoon.

The meetinoj was called to order at 2 :40 bv President Slich-
ter. The reading of papers was taken up immediately and the
transaction of business was postponed till later in the day. Pa-
pers Y to 19 inclusive were read. Papers 9 and IT were dis-
cussed bj Professor Harper.

Mr. Peet's paper was an attempt to interpret certain symbols
found in the Indian mounds of Wisconsin, and he made a strong
plea for the preservation of the records left by the Indians.

The report of E. R. Buckley, treasurer, was read and ac-
cepted. The president appointed Messrs. Hillyer, Chandler and
Kremers as auditing committee.

At the close of the report Dr. Buckley handed in his resigna-
tion as treasurer, a step made necessary by his removal from the
state.

Friday Morning.

Professor Frank C. Sharp, secretary of the Academy, who has
been absent in Europe for some months, handed in his resigna-
tion through President Slichter. This resignation and the res-
ignation of the treasurer received on Thursdav afternoon were
accepted. President Slichter appointed as a committee to nom-
inate officers to fill the vacancies. Professors Van Ilise and
Leavenworth and Dr. Schlundt.

The following amendment proposed at the annual meeting in
December, 1900, was adopted:

Article VI, Section 2, is hereby amended to read as follows: The li-
brary committee shall consist of five members, of which the librarian
shall be ex-ofjlcio chairman, and of which a majority shall not be from
the same city.

The membership committee recommended the following
named persons for active membership :
Paul H. Dernehl, Milwaukee.
Victor Lenher, Madison.
Boy Dykes Hall, Madison.
Boswell Hill Johnson, Madison.
E. C Case, Milwaukee.

Secretary's Report. 655

I. ^. Mitcliell, Milwaukee.

Samuel Edward Sparling, Madison.

William B. Cairns, Madison.

Charles Elmer Allen, Madison.

Andrew Robinson Whitson, Madison.

Alexander Rudolpli Holilfeld, Madison.

EUwood C. Perisho, Platteville.

Irvin W. Brandel, Madison.

Robert Hugh Downes.

Katherine P. Regan.

William Christian Sieker, Milwaukee.

Richard C. Hughes, Ripon.

George Ivirkpatrick, Ripon.

William Chase Bennett, Milwaukee.

Charles L. Harper, Madison.

By vote the secretary was instructed to cast the ballot for all
the persons named. The ballot was cast and all were declared
elected.

The committee further recommended that George P. Bacon of
Beloit, a corresponding member who has returned to the state,
be transferred from the list of corresponding members to the
list of active members, and that G. A. Talbert of Oshkosh, for-
merly an active member, and having again taken up his resi-
dence in the state should be restored to active membership with-
out payment of the initiation fee. The recommendations were
adopted and both gentlemen put upon the list of active members.

The nominating committee reported, recommending that

E. B. Skinner be chosen secretary to fill the unexpired term of

F. C. Sharp, resigned, and H. W. Hillyer treasurer to fill the
unexpired term of E. R. Buckley, resigned. The report was
adopted and Messrs. Skinner and Hillyer were declared elected
secretary and treasurer respectively to serve until after the an-
nual meeting in 1902.

The reading of papers was then resumed. In the absence of
the authors paper 22 was read by Dr. Schlundt, paper 24 by
Professor Kremers and paper 25 by Professor Van Hise. ^o.
22 was discussed at som.e len^'th bv Professor Kremers, Dr.
Schlundt and others, and Xo. 25 bv Professors Van Hise and
Hobbs.

656 Wisconsin Academy of ScienceSj, Arts, and Letters.

Owing to lack of time the addresses in memory of W. H.
Chandler, T. H. Safford and C. A. Bacon were omitted with the
statement that they would appear in full in the '"Transactions."

Attendance at morning session, about 45.

Friday Aftekxoon.

The meeting was called to order at 2:15 o'clock by President
Slichter.

The auditing committee reported that they had examined the
treasurer's books and had found them correctly cast and vouched.

President Slichter appointed as additional members to serve
on the library committee, in accordance with the amendment to
Article Yl, Section 2, of the constitution as adopted Dec. 27,
1901, Messrs. Marsh, Jegi and Davis.

The remainder of the session was taken up with the reading
of papers 29 to 35 inclusive. Xo. 31 was discussed at some
length by Professor Van Hise' and others.

The Academy adjourned sine die.

E. B. Skinner,
Acting Secretary.

REPORTS OF THE LIBRARIAN.

EEPORT OF THE LIBKAEIA:N', 1900.

Since tlie last meeting of the Academy about thirty important
serial publications have been added to the list of exchanges.
The receipt of all publications sent to the Academy has been
acknowledged and volume XII, part II, of the Academy's
"Transactions/' has been distributed.

During the month of September the entire library of the
Academy was removed from the Capitol Building to the State
Historical Library Building. The force of men that had just
completed the moving of the library of the State Historical So-
ciety also transferred, the library of the Academy to the new
building. The Academy is greatly indebted to Mr. Reuben G.
Thwaites for thus placing at its disposal the services of these
men, who accomplished the transfer of the whole collection with-
out expense to the Academy. To Mr. W. M. Smith, who su-
pervised the moving of the books and their disposal on the
shelves of the stack room, the Academy also owes a debt of
gratitude.

The Academy is to be congratulated that its valuable collec-
tion of books is now housed in the magnificent fire-proof build-
ing that also contains the libraries of the State Historical So-
ciety and the State University. The volumes of the Academy
are placed in a separate part of the stack room, and they will
henceforth be more secure and more accessible than ever before.

In the past, one of the most important duties of the librarian
has been to endeavor to increase the size of the library by adding
to the number of exchanges ; while this will always remain an
important duty, the number of volume's already in the collec-
tion, and the fact that they are now permanently placed in the

658 Wisconsin Acaderny of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

new building, call for a great deal of work in properly arrang-
ing and cataloguing the books so as to make them readily avail-
able. A good card catalogue should be prepared and kept at the
library, and members should be furnished a new printed list of
exactly what the library contains. Many of the volumes are
still unbound. Before the work of binding can proceed, how-
ever, the numbers that are lacking to complete various sets must
be secured. Besides looking over the entire library carefully,
this will involve considerable work in the way of correspondence.
The effort of the Academy should be to get its library into such
condition that the treasures which it contains may be readily
accessible to all.

To do the work here outlined requires time and skilled help ;
indeed the services of an expert librarian are indispensable for
its accomplishment. Again, to issue promptly at any time such
books as may be required necessitates the presence of the li-
brarian in the library building. An opportunity has now hap-
pily presented itself to accomplish all that ought to be done
with little or no expense to the Academy beyond what has
usually been annually expended for assistance in the library.
Since the books have been moved into the new library building
Mr. W. M. Smith has kindly consented to act as my deputy in
arranging the volumes, acknowledging the receipt of exchanges,
etc. On becoming acquainted with the value of the library and
its actual needs, he has kindly offered to enter into the work of
securing additional exchanges, of completing the sets already
at hand and preparing them for the bindery, and of arranging
the books systematically on the shelves, and cataloguing them in
a proper manner. He has offered further to issue promptly at
all times such books as may be wanted, thus making the volumes
of the Academy properly accessible for the first time. All this
he has offered to do, as already stated, without expense to the
Academy beyond what it has been accustomed to pay for cleri-
cal services. This Vv'ork on the part of Mr. Smith would be
simply a labor of love. The offer has been prompted solely by
a sincere desire to make the librarv of use as it should be.

AVhen I accepted the office of librarian I had but a faint idea
of the true condition of the librarv and of the lareie amount of
expert work that ought to be done upon it. I must confess

Lihrarians Report. 659

that I do not see liow I could possibly give the library the
amount of time that would be necessary to do the required work,
even if I were sufficiently versed in library matters. It there-
fore seems to me that the Academy ought to accept Mr. Smith's
offer gladl}^ and to vest him with full authority to do the work
here detailed. In order that this may be done, I deem it my
duty to hereby tender my resignation as librarian of the Acad-
emy so that Mr. Smith may be elected for the unexpired term
and may at once proceed vigorously with the work.

Louis Kahlenberg,

Librarian.
Madison, Wis., Dec. 27, 1900.

REPOET OF THE LIBKARIAlSr, 1901.

The books constituting the library of the Wisconsin Academy
of Sciences, Arts and Letters are now carefully arranged on the
shelves of stack E of the Historical Library Building. The
work of completing sets and binding volumes is in progress.
About one hundred and fifty volumes have been sent to the
bindery thus far.

Members of the Academy may at any time obtain books from
the library without delay. If requests for books are sent di-
rectly to the office of the Librarian of the University, the desired
volumes will be sent out on the same day that such request is
received.

The Regents of the University have greatly aided the work
connected with the Academy library by placing at the disposal
of the Librarian of the Academy the library staff of the Univer-
sity under the direction of Librarian Smith. To the latter the
Academy is especially indebted for the interest he has taken in
the work.

Louis Kahlei^berg,

Librarian,

Madison, Wis., Dec. 24, 1901.

REPORTS OF THE TREASURER.

EEPOET OF THE TREASUEER

for the year ending December 31, 1900.

The treasurer would respectfully report that the total active
membership of the Academy is 179.

Five members have been dropped from the list by request or
for non-payment of dues. Of the total membership 136 liave
paid dues up to date or beyond; 16 are one year in arrears;
14 are two years in arrears ; 4 are three years in arrears ; 7 aref
four years in arrears; 2 are five years in arrears.

I would respectfully recommend that members now four
years or more in arrears be dropped from the Academy roll in
compliance with the resolution passed by the Academy at its
annual meeting in 1892. If no objections are raised such names
will be stricken from the list of members.

Accompanying this report is a statement of the finances of the
Academy with vouchers for expenditures. There is now in the
treasury one thousand five hundred and thirteen dollars and
eighty-seven cents ($1,513.87). One thousand dollars is in-
vested in a debenture bond bearing 5 per cent interest, payable
January 1st, 1901. Five hundred and thirteen dollars and
eighty-seven cents ($513.87) are in the general fund, an in-
crease of seventy-five dollars and forty-four cents ($75.44) over
the balance of December 28th, 1899.

At the beginning^ of the vear the treasurer was authorized to
purchase a new set of books and transfer all the accounts. This
was done and the books accompany this report for inspection.

Respectfully submitted,

E. R. Buckley,

Treasurer.

Treasurer s Report. 661

Statement, 1809-1900.

Cash.
1899. Dr. Ce.

Dec. 28. To balance on hand $438 43

1900.

Dec. 27. To dues 197 50

Dec. 27. To interest on bond 50 00

Dec. 27. By printing $72 40

(Vouchers Nos. 6, 8, 9, 11, 15, and
16.)
Dec. 27. By clerical services and miscellane-
ous supplies for librarian 33 47

(Vouchers Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 10,
12, 17, 18, 21, 24.)
Dec. 27. By clerical services and miscellane-
ous supplies for secretary 50 56

(Vouchers Nos. 5, 13, 14, 22, and
23.)
Dec. 27. By clerical services and miscellane-
ous supplies for treasurer 15 63

(Vouchers Nos. 19 and 20.)
Dec. 27. Balance 513 87

$685 93 $685 93

The above report of tlie treasurer was duly examined by the
auditing committee appointed by the chair, and found correct.

Eknest Beuncken^
W. S. Leavenworth^
Albert S. Flint^

Auditing Committee.

EEPORT OF THE TEEASUEER

for the year ending Decemher 21 , 1901.

During the last two years there has been a total of 219 names
on the roll of active members. Eight of these are names of per-
sons who were elected to membership but failed to qualify.
Omitting this number^ leaves a total of 211 active members
during the years 1900 and 1901. Of this number one has died ;

662 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

two have been elected life members ; two have been elected cor-
responding members ; five have been dropped bv request, dues
having been paid up to current year; two have been dropped
by request, dues having not been paid ; and fourteen have been
dropped for non-payment of dues for four consecutive years.

This makes a total of twentv-four names removed from the
roll of active members, leaving a net active membership of one
hundred and eighty-five (185).

Of the 185 active members there are thirty that are in ar-
rears for payment of dues, as follows:

1 for 5 years $5 00

5 for 3 years 15 00

4 for 2 years 8 00

19 for 1 year ' 19 00

1 for 1/2 year '50

30 Total $47 50

Of the 155 membei's whose dues are paid to date, five, namely,
the president, secretary, acting secretary, librarian and treas-
urer have had their dues remitted according to the by-laws of
the Academy. This leaves a net total of 150 members paying
dues for the year 1901. One of this numl:>er paid dues for five
years ; one for four years ; six for three years ; thirty-four for
two vears, and one hundred and eiffht for one vear.

E. B. Copeland, S. A. Hooper and E. D. Jones are at present
non-residents of Wisconsin and I would reconunend that they
be transferred to the list of corresponding members with the
remission of such dues as may now be unpaid.

At the meetins: of the Academv last vear it w^js voted to trans-
fer $500.00 from the general to the permanent fund. The
bonds, in which the $1,000 permanent fund of the Academy
were invested, became due January 1st, 1902. These bonds had
been paying 5 per cent, interest, but owing to a reduction in
interest rates, re-investment in the same bonds would now only
return 4 per cent. The treasurer was instructed to reinvest in
bonds the $1,000, and also the $500 transferred from the gen-
eral to the permanent fund.

In accordance with these instructions application was made
to the Clerk of the City of Madison for 15 street improvement

Treasurer s Bepoi^t, 663

bonds. These bonds, which bear 6 per cent, interest, were
obtained about the middle of May at a small premium. The
treasurer invested $1,508.00 in fourteen bonds, there not being
sufficient money on hand to purchase the fifteenth. The addi-
tional bond, however, Avas taken up by President C. S. Slichter
and will be turned over to the Academy as soon as there are
sufficient funds to pay the same. These are long term bonds,
extending from six to ten years, three being payable the first
year and four each succeedins; year. Thev will net the Academy
a little over five per cent.

I would recommend that all moneys invested in these bonds,
not already part of the permanent fund, be transferred to such
fund : that hereafter all interest accruinsj from the investment

' CD

of the permanent fund be added to the permanent fund and
invested from time to time as directed by the council.

The following is a recapitulation of the financial transactions
of the Academy for the year 1900, and an itemized statement
of the receipts and expenditures for the year 1901.

Statement, 1899-1900.

RECEIPTS.

1899.
Dec. 28. Balance on hand in general fund $438 00

1900.

Dec. 27. Receipts from dues for year 1900 197 00

Dec. 27. Interest on permanent fund, 1900 50 00

Total $685 00

EXPENDITURES.

1900.
Dec. 27. General and incidental expenses for 1900 $171 13

Balance on hand in general fund Dec. 27, 1900 $513 87

Permanent fund 1,000 00

Grand total $1,513 87

664 Yt'^isconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Statement, 1900-1901.

RECEIPTS.

1900.

Dec. 27. Balance on hand in general fund $513 ST

1901.

Dec. 26. Receipts from dues for 1901 206 00^

Interest on permanent fund 6 mo. to Jan. 1, 1901. . 25 00

Interest on $1,000 deposited in bank for 4 mo.
at 27o 6 67

Total receipts $751 54

1901.
May 31. Transferred to permanent fund $5(T8 00

Balance in general fund $243 54

No. of

suh-

voucher.

1.

Dec.

31.

2.

Jan.

15.

3.

Jan.

23.

4.

Jan.

14.

5.

Jan.

14.

6.

Jan.

15.

7.

Feb.

4.

8.

Mch.

4.

9.

Mch.

16.

10.

Mch.

18.

11.

Feb.

4.

12.

Feb.

4.

13.

Maj^

23.

14.

June

i 15.

15.

Aug.

20.

16.

Nov.

11.

17.

Dec.

8.

18.

July

o

19.

Aug.

20.

Aug.

6.

21.

Oct.

25.

22.

Oct.

25.

23.

Dec.

5.

24.

Dec.

5.

25.

Dec.

5.

EXPENDITL'KES.

Anna L. Moore $1 00'

Stamps (Treasurer) 4 00

Schwab Stamp Co 1 60

Miss Beecroft 8 29

Miss Beecroft 1 75

Dr. Hobbs 2 00

G. A. Mowry 4 10

Wm. J. Park & Co 8 50

Miss Beecroft 30-

L. C. Burke 35 50

H. C. Johnson 5 40

Stamps 1 00

Schwab Stamp & Seal Co 2 05

W. Leonard 14 00-

Stamps (Secretary) 2 00

Stamps (Treasurer) 2 00

Stamps ( Secretary) 6 00

M. E. Yager 11 55

Haswell & Scholl 40 75

L. C. Burke 26 25

Democrat Ptg. Co 19 50

Tracy, Gibbs & Co 17 60

E. D. Lorigan 2 00

Herman Schlundt 80»

F. C. Sharp 1 10

Treasurer s Report, 665

26. Dec, 5. Menges' Pharmacy 80

27. Dec. 5. Capital City Paper Co 3 00

28. Dec. 5. Philip Gross Hardware Co 3 50

$226 34
Net receipts $243 54

Balance in general fund $17 20

Balance in permanent fund $1,508 00

Grand total $1,525 20

In conclusion, I desire to express to tlie members my appre-
ciation of their promptness in meeting the financial obligations
which they have had toward the Academy. I regret exceedingly
that it becomes necessary for me, at this time, to tender you my
resignation as treasurer.

Respectfully submitted,

E. R. Buckley,

Treasurer.

The Committee appointed to audit the accounts of the Treas-
urer of Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters re-
port that they have examined his accounts and find them cor-
rectly cast and vouched.

H. W. HlLLYEE^

Edwaed Kremers^

Chas. H. Chaistdler,

Auditing Committee.
Milwaukee, Wis., Dec. 27, 1901.

EXTRACTS FROM IHE CHARTER.

An Act to incorporate the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and

Letters.

The people of the state of Wisconsin, represented in senate and assem-
bly, do enact as follows:

Section 1. Lucius Fairchild, Nelson Dewey, John W. Hoyt, Increase
A. Lapham, * * *i at present being members and officers of an
association known the "The Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and
Letters," located at the city of Madison, together with their future as-
sociates and successors forever, are hereby created a body corporate
by the name and style of the "Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts,
and Letters," and by that name shall have perpetual succession; shall
be capable in law of contracting and being contracted with, of suing
and being sued, of pleading and being impleaded in all courts of com-
petent jurisdiction; and may do and perform such acts as are usually
performed by like corporate bodies.

Section 2. The general objects of the Academy shall be to encour-
age investigation and disseminate correct views in the various depart-
ments of science, literature, and the arts. Among the specific objects
of the Academy shall be embraced the following:

1. Researches and investigations in the various departments of the
material, metaphysical, ethical, ethnological, and social sciences.

2. A progressive and thorough scientific survey of the state with a
view of determining its mineral, agricultural, and other resources.

3. The advancement of the useful arts, through the applications of
science, and by the encouragement of original invention.

4. The encouragement of the fine arts, by means of honors and prizes
awarded to artists for original works of superior merit.

5. The formation of scientific, economic, and art museums.

6. The encouragement of philological and historical research, the
collection and preservation of historic records, and the formation of a
general library.

7. The diffusion of knowledge by the publication of original con-
tributions to science, literature, and the arts.

1 Here follow the names of forty others. Sections 5, 6, 8, and 9 are omitted here as of
no present interest. For the charter in full see Transadiona, vol. viii, p xi, or earlier
volumes.

Extracts from the Charter. 667

Section 3. Said Academy may have a common seal and alter the
same at pleasure; may ordain and enforce such constitution, regula-
tions, and by-laws as may be necessary, and alter the same at pleasure;
may receive and hold real and personal property, and may use and
dispose of the same at pleasure; provided, that it shall not divert any
donation or bequest from the uses and objects proposed by the donor,
and that none of the property acquired by it shall, in any manner, be
alienated other than in the way of exchange of duplicate specimens,
books, and other effects, with similar institutions and in the manner
specified in the next section of this act, without the consent of the
legislature.

Sectiox 4, It shall be the duty of the said Academy, so far as the
same may be done without detriment to its own collections, to furnish,
at the discretion of its officers, duplicate typical specimens of objects
in natural history to the University of Wisconsin, and to the other
schools and colleges of the state.

Section 7. Any existing society or institution having like objects
embraced by said Academy, may be constituted a department thereof,
or be otherwise connected therewith, on terms mutually satisfactory to
the governing bodies of the said Academy and such other society or
institution.

Approved Morch 16, 1870.

16

EXTRACTS FROM THE WISCONSIN STATUTES.

STATUTES OF 1S98.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ACADEMY.

Section 341. There shall be printed by the state printer biennially
in pamphlet form two thousand copies of the transactions of the Wis-
consin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters, uniform in style with
the volumes heretofore printed for said society.

CHAPTER 22.
OF the distribution of public documents.

Section 365. The transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sci-
ences, Arts, and Letters shall be distributed as follows: One copy to
each member of the legislature, one copy to the librarian of each state
institution; one hundred copies to the State Agricultural Society; one
hundred copies to the State Historical Society; one hundred copies to
the State University, and the remainder to said Academy.

Section 366. In the distribution of books or other packages, if such
packages are too large or would cost too much to be sent by mail, they
shall be sent by express or freight, and the accounts for such express
or freight charges, properly certified to, shall be paid out of the state
treasury.

STATUTES OF 190L
CHAPTER 447.

BINDING OF EXCHANGES.

Section 1. Section 341 of the revised statutes of 1898 is hereby
amended by adding thereto the following: The secretary of state may
authorize the state printer to bind in suitable binding all periodicals
and other exchanges which the Society shall hereafter receive, at a
cost not exceeding one hundred and fifty dollars per annum. The
secretary of state shall audit the accounts for such binding.

Note. — The Academy allows each author one hundred separates of
his paper from the Transactions without expense to the author, except
a small charge for printed covers when desired. — Editor.

CONSTITUTION

OF THE WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS, AND

LETTERS.

[As amended in Articles V, VI andIX at the regular meetings of Decem-
ber, 1899 and December, 1901.]

Article I. — Name and Location.

This association shall be known as the Wisconsin Academy of Sci-
ences, Arts, and Letters, and shall be located at the city of Madison.

Article II. — Object.

The object of the Academy shall be the promotion of sciences, arts,
and letters in the state of Wisconsin. Among the special objects shall
be the publication of the results of investigation and the formation of
a library.

Article III. — Membership.

The Academy shall include four classes of members, viz.: life mem-
bers, honorary members, corresponding members, and active members,
to be elected by ballot.

1. Life members shall be elected on account of special services ren-
dered the Academy. Life membership in the Academy may also be
obtained by the payment of one hundred dollars and election by the
Academy. Life members shall be allowed to vote and to hold oflBce.

2. Honorary members shall be elected by the Academy and shall be
men who have rendered conspicuous services to science, arts, or letters.

3. Corresponding members shall be elected from those who have been
active members of the Academy, but have removed from the state. By
special vote of the Academy men of attainments in science or letters
may be elected corresponding members. They shall have no vote in
the meetings of the Academy.

4. Active members shall be elected by the Academy and shall enter
upon membership on the payment of an initiation fee of two dollars
which shall include the first annual assessment of one dollar. The an-
nual assessment shall be omitted for the president, secretar:/, treasurer,,
and librarian during their term of office.

670 Wiscoiisin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Article IV. — Officers.

The officers of the Academy shall he a president, a vice-president for
each of the three departments, sciences, arts, and letters, a secretary, a
librarian, a treasurer, and a custodian. These officers shall be chosen
by ballot, on recommendation of the committee on nomination of offi-
cers, by the Academy at an annual meeting and shall hold office for
three years. Their duties shall be those usually performed by officers
thus named in scientific societies. It shall be one of the duties of the
president to prepare an address which shall be delivered before the
Academy at the annual meeting at which his term of office expires.

Article V. — Council.

The council of the Academy shall be entrusted with the manage-
ment of its affairs during the intervals between regular meetings, and
shall consist of the president, the three vice-presidents, the secretary,
the treasurer, the librarian, and the past presidents who retain their
residence in Wisconsin. Three members of the council shall constitute
a quorum for the transaction of business, provided the secretary and
one of the presiding officers be included in the number.

Article VI. — Committees.

The standing committees of the Academy shall be a committee on
publication, a library committee, and a committee on the nomination
of members. These committees shall be elected at the annual meeting
of the Academy in the same manner as the other officers of the Acad-
emy, and shall hold office for the same term.

1. The committee on publication shall consist of the president and
secretary and a third member elected by the Academy. They shall de-
termine the matter which shall be printed in the publications of the
Academy. They may at their discretion refer papers of a doubtful
character to specialists for their opinion as to scientific value and
relevancy.

2. The library committee shall consist of five members, of which the
librarian shall be ex officio chairman, and of which a majority shall
not be from the same city.

3. The committee on nomination of members shall consist of five
members, one of whom shall be the secretary of the Academy.

Article VII. — Meetings.

The annual meetings of the Academy shall be held between Christ-
mas and New Year, at such place as the council may designate; but all
regular meetings for the election of the board of officers shall be held
at Madison. Summer field meetings shall be held at such times and
places as the Academy or the council may decide. Special meetings
may be called by the council.

Constitution, 671

Article VIII. — Puhlications.

The regular publication of the Academy shall be known as its
Transactions, and shall include suitable papers, a record of its pro-
ceedings, and any other matter pertaining to the Academy. This shall
be printed by the state as provided in the statutes of Wisconsin. All
members of the Academy shall receive gratis the current issues of its
Transactions.

Article IX. — Amendments.

Amendments to this constitution may be made at any annual meet-
ing by a vote of three-fourths of all the members present; provided,
that the amendment has been proposed by five members, and that no-
tice has been sent to all the members at least one month before the
meeting.

RESOLUTIONS

REGULATIVE OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY.

THE TRAXSACTIONS OF THE ACADEMY.

[By the Academy, December 2S, 1882. Transactions, Tol. VI, p. 350.'\

2. The secretary of the Academy shall be charged -with the special
duty of overseeing and editing the publication of future volumes of the
Transactions.

3. The Transactions of the Academy hereafter published shall con-
tain: (a) a list of officers and members of the Academy; (b) the char-
ter, by-laws and constitution of the Academy as amended to date; (c)
the proceedings of the meetings; and (d) such papers as are duly cer-
tified in writing to the secretary as accepted for publication in accord-
ance with the following regulations, and no other.

6. In deciding as to the papers to be selected for publication, the
committee shall have special regard to their value as genuine, original
contributions to the knowledge of the subject discussed.

9. The Sub-Committee on Publication shall be charged with insisting
upon the correction of errors in grammar, phraseology, etc., on the part
of authors, and shall call the attention of authors to any other points
in their papers, which in their judgment appear to need revision.

[By the Academy, June 2, 1892, Vol. IX, p. ii.]
The secretary was given authority to allow as much as ten dollars
for the illustrations of a paper when the contribution was of sufficient
value to warrant it. A larger amount than this might be allowed by
the Committee on Publication.

[By the Academy, Decemler 29, 1896, Vol. XI, p. 558.]

The secretary was directed to add to the date of publication as
printed on the outside of author's separates the words, "Issued in ad-
vance of general publication."

ResolvMons Relating to the Academy. 673

FEES OF LIFE MEMBERS.

XBy the Academy, July 19, 1870, Vol. I, p. 187.]

Resolved, That the fees from memTjers for life be set apart as a per-
manent endowment fund to be invested in Wisconsin state bonds, or
other equally safe securities, and that the proceeds of said fund, only,
be used for the general purposes of the Academy.

ANNUAL DUES.

[By the Academy, Decemher 29, 1892, Vol. IX, p. vi.}

Resolved, That the secretary and treasurer be instructed to strike
from the list of active members of the Academy the names of all who
are in arrears in the payment of annual dues, except in those cases
where, in their judgment, it is desirable to retain such members for a
longer time.

ARREARS OF ANNUAL DUES.

[By the Council, Deeem'ber 29, 1897.1

Resolved, That the treasurer be requested to send out the notices of
annual dues as soon as possible after each annual meeting and to ex-
tend the notice to the second or third time within a period of four
months where required.

Note. — The Printing Commissioners of the State of Wisconsin now
require all copy to be at hand ready for the printer before the permit
for printing shall be issued by the Secretary of State. But, under a
ruling of the Commissioners, made in response to a presentation by the
Committee of the Academy appointed December 29, 1897, each volume of
the Transactions may be issued in two consecutive parts; so that a
publication may thus be issued each year covering the papers accepted
after the previous annual meeting.

GENERAL INDE.X, VOLUME XIII, FARTS I AND II.

Aarestad, on liquor problem in Norway,
cited, 410. 415.

Absolute words, 13.

Abyssal fauna. 181, 182, 183, 184.

Abyssal regions of lakes, 179, 180.

Addresses, memorial, 610.

Admirala, 330; lepida, 330, 358; regia,
331, 358. ' y .

Algae, green, 486 ; Golenkin's work on,
488.

Aliocausate words, 12.

American Revolution, pseudo histories
of, O. G. Libby, 419.

Amitotic neuclear division in Talonia
487.

Anacatadidyma. 532.

Anadidyma, 532.

Ancistrodon piscirorus, 525, 532.

Andrews. Prof., 164.

Anunciative office of "he," 24.

Antherozoids, 488.

Apartment, names derived from. 369.

Apsteix, on distribution of plankton,
177.

Arachn. de I'Ameriqne Centrale et des
Antilles, cited, 337.

Arc, transition from logarithm to, 460.

Artari, work of, on cleavage, 491, 492.

"As," use of, as relative, 71, 72.

Association, words differentiated bv, 3.

Attidae of Central America, cited 300,
302. 309 : of Central America,' 334 ;
of North America, 283, 284.

Augmentive use of vicarious words, 26.

AusTrx, L. W., 648.

Austin, L. W.. and C. W. Eastman — ^On
the relation between heat conductiv-
ity and density in woods, 539-546.

Avitus diolenii, 313. 319.

Axial bifurcation in snakes, R. H. John-
son, 523 ; bibliography of, 535.

Babel, grammar's second, 6.

Bad Ax, battle of. 191.

Bangs, Outram, 528. 535.

Banks, Nathan, 282 — Arachnida from
Ba.ier. California, cited, 283, 301,
302, 315.

Barber, W. H., 648.

Bascanium constrictor, 524, 527, 530.
531, 532.

Blepharoplast. 188 : of Pteridophvtes
and Gymnosperms, 515.

Bergen, liquor traffic in, 395, 396.

Bifurcation in snakes, angle of, 533 : ax-
ial. 523 : caudal. 532 : cephalic,
532 ; degree of. 533 ; type of, 532.

Binomial coefficient, 436.

BiRGE, E. A., on movement of the water
in lakes, 180 ; on vertical distribu-
tion of Crustacea. 173.

Black Hawk War, 191, 197, 224.

Blatchford^ 164.

Brandel. I. W., and Edward Kremers —
Quinhydrones as plant pigments,
652.

Braun. work of. on Hiidrodicti/on, cited,
489, 490, 491, 492. 493, 506.

Bremiker, six place tables of. 427.

Briggs logarithms, equations for errors
connected with, 430.

Buckley, E. R. — Clay and cement in-
dustry in Wisconsin, 648 ; Geologi-
cal survey work in Missouri, 652 ;
Ice ramparts. 141-162 ; treasurer,
reports, 649, 660, 661 ; resignation,
654.

Bullen, John, 551.

Burr, Rev. C. H., list of T. H. Safford's
writings prepared by. 623.

Butler, J. D. — Household words : Their
etymology. 366-383 ; Personal
names : Their etymology, 647 ; Per-
sonal names : Their significance and
historical origin, 475-485.

Cassels. G. S.. 648.

Catadidyma, 532.

Caverno, Charles — Determinism. de-
crees and immutable law, 649.

Cell, protoplasmic contents of, in Hy-
drodictiion, 489.

Cell wall, lavers of, in Hydrodwtyon,
490. _

Census reports from 1850 to 1870, cor-
rections in, 566.

Centrosomes. 487, 500.

Chandler. C. H. — Problem of longevity.
384-386 : A study in longevity, 651,

Chandler.. E. F., translator — Bremiker's
paper on errors in logarithmic com-
putation. 427.

Chandler. W. H. — Address in memory
of, 617.

Cham, 170.

Chlamydomodiveae, 188.

Chlorine in natural waters, E. G. Smith
on the determination of, 359-365 ;
methods of estimating, 359 ; sani-
tary significance of, 364.

C7ilorophyceae. 170.

Christiania, liquor traffic in, 396, 397,
398.

Chromatin in Hydrodictyon, arrange-
ment of. 498.

Chromatophore. in Hydrodictyon, struc-
ture of, 491. 492.

Chromosomes, 487. 500.

Cilia in Hydrodictyon. 510 : special in
Gvmnosperms and Pterodophytes,
448.

Cladophora. cell division of, 509, 514 ;
neuclei of, 487 ; swarm spores of,
489, 515.

676 ^Y^sconsi7l Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Clark, S. F., 529.

Coenocvtic fungi, spore formation of,

486.
Coherent thought, expression of, 44.
Coherent thought units have a common

factor. 47.
CoHN, work of. on Hydrodictyon, cited,

491.
Coinstative words, 20.
Combinations, formula expressing num-
ber of, within certain limits, 438.
Common factor of coherent thought

units, 47.
Computations, logarithmic, 429.
Conductivity and density of woods, ta-
ble for, 544.
Conjunctions, confused with prepositions

and adverbs, 29 ; vicarious use of,

32.
COPELAND — The Cornish in southwest

Wisconsin, cited. 217, note.
Cormophytes. cell division of. 513.
Cornish miners in lead region of Illinois,

211, 217.
Council Hill Diggings. 213.
Corydalis, 507.

Cracks in ice. formation of. 152-155.
Crustacea of lakes in U. S., 166, 170,

171.
Crustal deformation of the earth, 158,

160, 162.
CuRTirs, cited. 377.
Cyaiwphyceae, 170.
Cyclops, 166, 167. 168, 171, 175; hrevis-

pinosiis, 172.
Cytoplasm, chlorophyl containing, 491.

Chlarnydomodineae, 488,
W. — A case of alum pois-

D.ANGEARD, OU

489.
Daniells, W.

oning. 652.
Daphnia, 166. 167 : lougiremis, 174 ; put

icaria, 172. 174.
Davenport. C. B., 535.
DAVIE.S, John Eugene, address in mem

ory of, 614.
Davis. J. J. — I'arasitic

sin, 652.
DeCandolle on heat conductivity,

542.
Definites, a division of initiatives,

differentiation of, 10.
De la Rive on heat conductivity,

542.
Demonstratives, 128-134 : categories

fungi

of Wiscon-

539,

10;

539,

of.

128 ; non-pronominality of, 133
sentimental rank of. 131.

Dendryphantts, 309 ; albopilosus, 316 ;
nrizoniennis, 326: cuprinus, 320:
faustuft, 318 ; fclLr, 313 : fortuna-
tu8, 325; limhatus, Banks. 315;
Manii, 326 : odioaus, 324 ; pcrfectus,
323; pernix, 321: prosper, 314;
proxima, 327; Smithii, 328; tropi-
cus, 319 ; regetus, 323 ; vigens, 317 ;
Vitus Cockerell. see Icius.

Density in common woods, relation be-
tween heat conductivity and. 539.

Desmond, H. J. — A campaign cry of
1844, 647.

Determination of chlorine in natural
waters, its accuracy and signifi-
cance. E. G. Smith, 359-365.

Development and structure of swarm
spores of Hydrodictyon, H. G. Tim-
berlake, 486.

DeVries, tonoplast of, 492.

Diagrams for grammatical classification
of words 5, 6. 14.

D-iaptomus, 169, 171, 175,

Diatoms, growth of. in limnetic plank-
ton, 175 ; midwinter growth of, 176.

Dicephali. 533.

Dipropri, 533.

Double function, indication of, 56.

DouDNA, P. E., translator — Bremiker's
paper on errors in logarithmic com-
putations, 427.

DowNES, R. H., 651 ; and Katherine, P.
Regan — Economic and social devel-
opmeut of Kenosha and LaFayette
counties, 543.

Draparnaldia. 491.

Dredging expedition on Lake Michigan,
163.

Drunkenness, causes of, 394 ; in Bergen,
395. 396; in Christiania. 396, 398';
in Gothenburg, 391, 392 ; in Nor-
way, 395. 398. 399 ; in Stockholm,
391, 392 ; in Sweden, 393.

Dubuque, Julien, 210 ; mining opera-
tions of. 223 ; receives confirmation
of title to lands, 223.

Dubuque, incorporation of, 224 ; tempor-
ary government of, 223.

Dubuque County, early settlement of,
226 ; lead-producing townships of,
225 ; lead region of, by A. J. Smith,
222-230, appendix. 268-281 ; politi-
cal parties in, 228, 229 ; population
per sq. mi. of. 226 ; property valua-
tions in, 228 ; statistical tables for,
268-281 : topography of, 225.

Dubuque mines, 224.

Dyiiainius, 337; hlandus. 338; fimbria-
tus, 340; grains, 342; opimus, 352;
parvus, 340 ; placatus, 339.

Earth, crustal deformation of, 158, 160,
162.

Eastma.v. C. W., 648 ; and L. W. Aus-
tin— On the relation between heat
conductivity and density of woods,
539-546.

Echinoderm. eggs of. 496.

Economic and social development of
Kenosha and La Fayette counties,
with an introduction by O. G. Libby,
R. H. Downes and Katherine P. Re-
gan, 54.3-609.

Economic and social study of the lead
region in Iowa, Illinois and Wiscon-
sin. <.'. (;. Libl.\-an(l others, 188-281.

Egocentric ideas, 11, 114, 128.

Egocentrics. 13.

EiSEN, formula for iridium-chlorlde-
acetic acid mixture. 494.

Elaphidion villosum, 651.

Emertox, .T. II., drawings of spiders by,
282 ; New England Attidae, cited,
284. 311.

Entire angles, functions of, 470.

Epischiira, 175.

Error, equation for probability of, 450;
expression for probability of, 438 ;
of computation, limits of, 432 ; of
sum of logarithms, 441.

Errors by which logarithmic computa-
tions are affected, translated by
P. E. Doudna and E. F. Chandler,
427-474.

Escnmbia. 334; electa, 336; valida, 336.

Eulahes. 306.

Eutainia sirtalis. 526, 527, 532 ; sirtalis
lineolata, 532.

"Exceeds,"' use of, 2. note.

Expression, limitations of continuous,
44 ; of coherent thought, 44 ; of in-
coherent thought, 43.

General Index.

677

Fjidrelandarennen, quoted from, 402,
Fairchild's work on Valonia, 487.
Faults in ice, 155. 160.
Fauna of fresh water lakes. 165.
Pish in Wisconsin lakes, 166 ; relation

of, to plankton, 186.
Fisher on type of bifurcation in snakes,

Flemming, chromo-osmo-acetic acid mix-
ture of, 494 ; triple stain of, 4y4,
49o.

Flint, a. S. — Example of a theoretical
system of weight factors of ready
application in the solution of ob-
servation equations, 647.

Folds, ice, 146-149, 158-160; on Unlver-
sity Bay, table for, 148.

Foodstuffs, etymology of names of. 376.

Forbes, Prof., work of, on fresh-waTer
animals, 167.

FOREL — La faune profonde des lacs Suis-
ses, cited. 163.

Fox Indians. 22-1; treatv with, 197.

French traders at Peoria. 208.

Fresh water lakes, plankton of. lG.3-187

Fuchsin-iodine green of Zimmerman, 494'

Fuligo, 486.

Function, as a basis of grammatical
classification, 2 ; convenience of in-
dicating, .52 ; indication of, by in-
flection, 53 ; see also double func-
tion.

Function signs, 55, 60.

Galena. 210, 211. 212. 213; 214 note

215 ; incorporated, 223.
Gametes in Sporodivia, 514
Garjian. Samuel. 529^ 535
Gaussian equations, 468.
GoLEXKix on neuclei of green algae. 4^8
Gordon, Wm.— History of the American

Revolution, cited. 419
Gothenburg. 387, 394 ; alcoholic diseases

in, 391 : statistics on sales of spirit-

uous liquors in, 391.
Gothenburg liquor system, bibliography

of, 417.
■Gothenburg method of regulating the

o^-^^J-io*^**®^' George Thompson,
^■^7-418 ; Gould's discussion of re-
viewed, 387; promoter of philan-
thropy, 388.

Go^'^'i^V^- ^- ^•' Quoted, 387, 389, 393,

Grammatical classification of words di-
agrams for, 5, 6. 14.

Grant county, density of population of,
201 ; lead producing towns of, 192,
198; soil of, 200; statistical tables
for. 201-205, 231-249.

Gratiot's Fort, 583.

Gratiot's Grove, 582.

Gravimetric method for estimating chlor-
ine, 359.

Great Lakes, fauna of, 181, 183.

Green Lake, biological survey of, 167 ;
development of diatoms in. 176 ;
Mijsis found in, 164 ; thermocline of,
174.

Gregory, .7. G. — Early political plat-
forms in Wisconsin. 647.

Gymnosperms. special cilia in, 488 ; cili-
ated cells in, 514 ; blepharoplast of,
515.

Ball, R. D. — Action of tellurium and
selenium on gold and silver salts,
652.

Hannibal, 552.

Harper^ C. L. — Address in memory of
W. H. Chandler, 617.

Harper. R. A. — Cell structure and re-
production in Humenomycetes, 651 ;
Fungi parasitic on mushrooms, 652 ;
Researches on Synchitriutn, Pilobu-
lus, Sporodinia, and Fuligo, cited,
486.

"He," use and classification of, 4, 7, 8,
9, 18, 23, 24, 25. 117, 118, 130,
note.

Heat conductivity and density in com-
mon woods, relation between, 539-
542.

Hemilenca viaia, 651.

Hensen, on distribution, measurement
and production of plankton, 177,
178.

Hentz — North American spiders, cited,
284, 310.

Heterodon simus, 527, 532.

Hillyer, H. \y., elected treasurer, 655 ;
Complex nitro-compounds, 652.

"Himself," coinstative use of, 20.

HOBBS, W. H. — Address in memory of
Edward Orton, 610 ; Boulder trains
in the Pomperaug Valley. 652 ; New-
ark formation on the Atlantic slope,
652 ; Orientation of stream chan-
nels. 648 ; Tungsten mine at Trum-
bull. Ct., 648.

Hook, E. A. — Repeating decimals, 648;
stereograms drawn by, 648.

Household words : their etymology ; J. D.
Butler, 366-383 ; whose etymology
is indicated, list of, 382-383.

Hoy, p. R.. on deep water fauna of
lakes, 163.

Hudrie, Ernst, quoted, 394.

Hi/flrodicti/on, swarm spores of, 486.

HyUm, 305.

"I," use and classification of, 1, 32, 114,
116, 118-123.

Ice, expansion of, 145, 150, 153.

Ice ramparts, E. R. Buckley, 141-162 ;
cause of, 149 ; changes Involved in
formation of, 156 ; forms of, 144.

Icius, 310.

Idea-forerunners, 40.

Idea-repeaters, 39. 40.

Imperialis Rossi, 308.

Inaugurative use of "he" and "his," 24.

Incoherent thought, expression of, 43.

Indefinites, a division of initiatives, 10 ;
differentiation of. 13 ; nonpronomi-
nality of, 139 ; number of, 135 ; sen-
timental rank of, 137 ; variety of,
135.

Inflection, function indication by, 53 ;
history of, 54 ; isolated, 56.

Initiatives, subdivided into definites and
indefinites. 10 ; words known as, 8.

Interjections, 29. 32.

Iowa county, 582, 583 ; lead-producing
townships of, 192 ; statistical tables
for, 231-236.

"It," use of, 25, 26, 69, 137.

Jo Daviess county, see also. Lead region
of Illinois ; admission of negrj)es in-
to, 219 ; agriculture in, 220 ; boun-
dary changes in, 250 ; geology of,
212 : lead mines in, 212 ; precincts
of, 250 : records of, 214 : statistical
tables for, 252-267 ; township or-
ganization of, 250.

Johnson, James, 210.

678 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

JOHXSOX, R. H., 651 — Axial bifurcation

in snakes, 523-538.
Joins, 331; arcii pluvii, 333; Frostii,

332.
Journal Asiatic See. of Bengal, cited,

302.

Kahlexberg, L. — An improved method
of determining latent heat of vapor-
ization. 647 : Instantaneous chemicaj
reactions and the theory of electro-
lytic dissociation. 652 : Nitriles as
solvents in molecular weight deter-
minations, 652 ; librarian, reports,
657, 659.

Karyokinesis in Hiulrodictijon, 500.

Kenosha, 554, 555. 556, 557.

Slenosha County, economic and social de-
velopment of. 545-581 : density of
population of. 559 : foreign born
population. 557 ; formation of, 545 :
geology of, 547; nativity o^_popula-
tion of, 553. 557, 503. 572. 573. 574 ;
peopling of, 550 ; products of, 578,
580 ; soils and topography of. 547 :
statistical tables for, 557-580 ;
towns of, 546 ; valuations per capita
in, 560, 576 ; wealth of population
in. 564.

Kettle Range, Moraine Karnes. 548.

Keysei:i>ixg. see Koch and Keyserling.

KixGSLEY, Dr. J. S.. in American Nat-
uralist, cited. o29.

Klebahx. on cleavage in Sphaeroploea
anniilina, 487.

Klebs. on cleavage in Hifdrodictyon, 486,
492. 493. 499. 504, 509.

Koch, C, 283, 284.

Koch and Keyserling — Arachniden
Australiens. cited, 302, 303, 305,
331. 334, 345.

Kremers. Edward, and I. W. Rrandel —
Quinhydrones as plant pigments.
652.

Lnchesis lanccolatus, 530, 532.

"Ladde" traffic. 400, 401.

La Fayette county, oconomic and social
development, 582 ; area of towns of
609 ; election districts of, 5S3 ; lluc-
tuation of population in. 589. 591 :
lead producing towns of, 192, 198 ;
organization of. 583 ; soils and to-
pographv of, 200. 584 : statistical ta-
bles for,* 201-205, 231-249, 593-609 ;
towns of, 583.

Langworthy, J. L., 222.

Lapham, I. A.. 163.

Lead, discovery of. in Wisconoin. 191 ;
maximum produc'tion of, 198.

Lead and shot trade of Wisconsin. 192.

Lead industry, effect of, upon locality,
213.

Lead mining in the Northwest, begin-
ning of, 210.

Lead mining in Wisconsin, with map,
192

Lead Resion of Dubuque County, by A.
J. Smith, 222-230; Appendix, 268-
281.

Lead Region of Grant and La Fayette
Counties, F. Belle Stanton. 197-
207 ; Appendix. 237-249 ; geology,
199; map. PI. XX: population. 201;
products, 203. 204. 205 ; topography,
199 ; towns belonging to, 198 ; soils,
PI. XX.

Lead region of Illinois, B. M. Palmer,
208-221 : Appendix, 250-267 ;
changes in population of, 215 ; con-
trol of mines of. 208, 210 ; discovery
of, 208 ; early development of, 208 ;
first railroad into. 211 ; geology of,
211 : laws governing rental of lands
of, 209 : lead producing townships
of. 213. 214 ; leasing system in,
209 : local government in, 218 ; lo-
cation of mines of. 213 ; map of,
Plate XXI ; political tendencies in,
217 : pro-slavery feeling in, 219 ;
statistical tables for. 215-220.

Lead region of Wisconsin, study of. by
O. G. Libbv. 191-196 ; opening of,
191 : population of. 192. 193 ; prod-
ucts of. 191. 194 ; relation to south,
191 : relation of Mississippi River
to, 191 ; valuation of farms of, 194.

Leasing svstem, U. S., for mineral lands,
209. 210. note.

Leavexworth, W. S. — Method of ana-
lyzing the organic acids. 652.

Legler. H. E. — Wisconsin place-names,
651.

Leitk. C. K. — Cleavage in rocks, 648.

Leman. Lake, plankton in. 176, 179.

Lexher. V. — Action of selenic acid on
gold, 652 ; Natural telluride of gold,
652.

Leptodora, 173.

LiBBY. O. G.. 586; Greenback movement,
cited. 195. note ; Economic and so-
cial development of Kenosha and
La Favette counties, introduction,
54:V544 : Lead reion of Grant,
Iowa and La Fayette counties in
Wisconsin. 191-196 ; Significance of
the lead and shot trade in early
Wisconsin history, cited. 198. note;
cited. 208. note ; Some pseudo his-
tories of the American Revolution,
419-425 : and others. Ec<inomiC^and
social studv of the lead region in
Iowa, Illinois and Wisconsin, 188-
281.

Librarian's reports. 657 ; 659.

Limnetic fauna. 168, 170, 171, 172, 183.

Limnetic flora. 170, 183.

JJmuoraUinuM. 172, 174, 175.

Limnology. 164.

Lincuacausate words. 12.

Linguistic method of different minds, 6.

LiXTOX. Euwix. 535.

Linus. 342; fimbrialus, 352.

Liquor, statistics for sales of, in Nor-
wav. 411-413.

Liquor traffic. Gothenburg method of reg-
ulating' the. 387-418.

Littoral fauna. 169. 170. 183 ; flora, 183.

Logarithm, transition from number to,
457.

Logarithmic computation, erroys by
which affected, 429; general nature
of. 457.

Longevitv. problem of, C. H. Chandler,
^384-386.

Macria. 343 ; Poitltonii, 344 ; vittata,
352.

Marriage names, 372.

Marsh. C. D. — A new species of Cantho-
camptus, 651 ; The plankton of fresh
water lakes. 163-187; Plankton of
Green Lake and Lake Winnebago,
64'', 651.

General Index.

679

Maeshall, W. S. — The oak pruner, 657;
The maia moth, 657.

Mean error, approximate value of, 456 ;
example of, 463 ; expressions for,
444, 453.

Medusa, 184.

Megatimus, 282, 283, 284.

Members of the Academy : active, 629 :
corresponding, 642 ; deceased. 646 :
elect, 649. 654 : honorary. 628 ; life,
628 ; number of, 660. 661.

Memorial addresses. 610-625.

Mendota Lake, ice ramparts on, 141. 144,
146, 15.3, 156 ; Plates I, III, VI, VII,
VIII, X, XI.

MEP.KEL, formula for mixture of plati-
num chloride and chromic acid, 494.

Michigan. Lake, temperature at bottom
of, 174.

Mineral lands of the V. S.. 209.

Mitotic division in Yalonia, 487.

Mixer, F. K., 535.

Mohr's method for estimating chlorine,
359 ; used by water analysts, 360.

Mollika, 303: metalescens. 303, 332; mi-
cropthalmus, 303, 331.

Monona, Lake, ice ramparts on. 141,
142, 144. 145, 146 : Plates I. IX.

Moore, Thomas, quoted from, 379.

Mountain ranges, formation of, 162.

Multiple thinking, 42.

Murray. Rev. James, History of Rev-
olution, discussed, 422-425.

"My,"' grammatical use of, 123.

Mysis, 164, 180.

Natural waters, apparatus required for
analysis of. 361 ; chlorine in, 359 ;
ditficuities in analysis of, 360 ; pro-
cedure for analysis of, 362 ; solu-
tions required for analysis of. 361.

"Neither," use of as an exclusive, 27.

Nemec, production of artificial vacuoles
by, 497.

Neuclear division in Hydrodictyon, 513 ;
time of, 503.

Neuclei, spherical, 498 ; distribution of,
499.

New California mines, 213.

Nicholson. D. P. — Gevser activity in
Yellowstone Park, 648.

Northwestern Gazette and Galena Ad-
vertiser, cited, 211, note.

Norway, 388 : consumption of spirituous
liquors in, 395 : liquor problem of,
394. 416 ; prohibition in, 399 ; ta-
bles giving votes on Gothenburg sys-
tem, 403-405.

Number, transition from logarithm to
457, 460.

Occupations, personal names, descrip-
tive of, 477.

OedoQonmm, 489, 515.

Ophiholns getulns, 525, 526, 532.

Opifitlioncns, 345 : reritnilis, 346.

Orton, Edward, Memorial address by W.
H. Hobbs. 610.

Ostracod, 166.

Overturning of the lakes. 175.

Owex. E. T. — ^Language forms known as
negative. 651 : Problem of interroga-
tion, 657 ; Revision of pronouns, 1.

OwEX. R. D. — Report on Lead Region,

cited. 225.
Palestrtna. 303, 304 ; varlegata. 304, 354.
Palmer, B. M. — Lead region of Illinois,

208-221 : thesis cited, 583.
Pardessiis, 302.
Parkixsox. J. B. — Address in memory

of J. E. Davies, 614, 647.
Parnitenm, 283. 300. 307; junehris, 306;

griseus, 301, 354.
Patronomatology, 475.
Patronymics. 478.
Peckham. — Attidse of Central America,

cited, 300. 309,

Attidas of Cen-

tral America and Mexico, cited, 334

Peckham, G. W. & E. G. — Attida? of
North America, cited, 283, 284 ; Spi-
ders of the Phidippas group of the
family Attidse, 282-358.

Peclet on heat conductivity, 541.

Peet, S. D. — Records left on Wisconsin
soil, 652.

Pelamis hicolor, 531. 532.

Pelins hcnis, 531. 532.

Peosta, wife of J. Dubuque, 222.

Perisho, E. C. — Erosion history of
southwest Wisconsin, 652.

Personal characteristics, names derived
from, 416.

Personal names, J. D. Butler, 475-485 ;
alluding to exploits. 479 ; Christian,
481 : connected with trees, 480 ; de-
noting location, 479 ; derived from
fathers' names, 478 : description of
occupation. 477, 480 : given in view
of some characteristic, 476 ; indi-
cative of mental qualities, 477 ; sug-
gested by temperament, 479 ; re-
ferring to water. 480 ; taken from
calendars of saints, 482.

Personals, 114-127 ; differ' from one
another, 114 : differ from other
words, 114 : how far pronominal,
126 ; sense in which personal, 125 ;
sentimental rank of, 121 ; so-called
plurals of, 118.

Pfeffer, production of artificial vacu-
oles by, 497.

Phidippus group of the family Attidse,
spiders of the. G. W. & E. G. Peck-
ham, 282-358.

Phidippus, 282 ; ardens, 284 ; hardus,

290 ; californicus. 284 ; comatus

291 ; Hoirardii, 348 ; ineertus, 292
montiragiis. 293; morsitans, 348
obsciirus. 294 ; Rauterhergii, 295
severus, 34:8; translat us. 298 ; Tyr-
relUi, 296 ; variegatus, 348 ; Work-
manii, 297.

Philaeus, 298 ; hicolor, 298 ; chrysops,
299, 350.

PilohoJus, 486, 508.

Pirithous, 306.

Pisidium, 180.

Plankton, distribution of. 173-179 ; mi-
gi'ation of. 173 : need of a manual
on. 185 ; relation of, to fish, 186.

Plankton of fresh water lakes, C. D.
Marsh. 16:3-187.

"Plankton-poor"' and "plankton-rich"
lakes, 171.

Plexlppus. 344; mimicus, 302.

PL orichalceus, 299.

Plon. Lake, development of plankton in,
176.

Polytoma v.rcUa. 489.

Pott. A. F. — Die personennamen, cited,
475.

Prairie du Chien, 222.

Prairie region of southwestern Wiscon-
sin, 200.

680 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Prepositions, 31.

Principal and proxy, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23,
25.

Probable error, 443 ; example of, 463.

Probability of error, formulas for, 438,
4C6.

Problem of longevity, C. H. Chandler,
384-386.

Pronomen, 3.

Pronominal medley, 1.

Pronoun, a proxy, 4, 7.

Pronouns, criteria for admission to class
of, 3 ; true, 16 ; revision of, E. T.
Owen, 1-140.

Protoplasmic contents of cell in Hydro-
(lictyon, 489.

Protospores in Synchitrium. 508.

Proxy, pronoun a sort of, 4 ; 7, 18, 19,
20, 21, 24.

Pseudo histories of the American Revo-
lution, O. G. Libby, 419-425.

Pseudopronouns. 10.

Pterodophytes, special cilia in, 488; cili-
ated cells in, 514 ; blepharoplast of,
515.

Public lands. Congressional Act for the
disposal of, cited, 200.

Pyrenoids. 490, 492, 511, 512.

Pityophis catenifer, 526, 532 ; sayi, 527,
532.

Redifferentiation of words used as pro-
nouns, 7.

Reductive words. 26.

Reflexives, 20. 21.

Regan, Kathekixe P., and R. H. Downes.
— Economic and social development
of Kenosha and LaFayette counties,
543, 651.

Reinstatives, words known as. 19.

Relative clause, compared with tanta-
mount expressions, 104 : informa-
tional, 86 ; restrictive, 86.

Relative clauses, 80-113.

Relative terminology. 78.

Relative words, 42-79.

Relatives, degraded, 63 ; latent. 70 ; lin-
guistic rank of. 78 : misinterpreted,
69 ; promoted, 63 : pseudo, 67 ; sub-
sidiary values of, 62.

Restrictive relative clause, 92-104 ; its
function, 102 ; its opportunity, 92 ;
its procedure, 95 ; its purpose, 94 ;
its warrant, 92.

Retrospectives, words known as, 8.

Revision of pronouns, E. T. Owen, 1-140.

Ridge of LaFayette county, 582.

Risor. agitation in, regarding samlags,
402.

RiTTEK, W. E., 535.

ROGEKS, A. J. — The use of terms "sol-
vent"' and "flux" for higher temper-
atures. 652.

Russell. W. M. — History of America,
cited. 419.

Russell^ on North American lakes, cited,
165.

Sac Indians, 224.

Safford, T. II., address in memory of,
620.

St. Pantaleon. a patron saint of the Ve-
netians, 371.

Samlags of Norway, relation of, to liquor
traffic 395.

Say, on Crustacea of the U. S., cited, 166.

Scandinavia. 394 vohime of liquor traf-
fic in country districts of, 399, 400.

SCHLUNDT, 11. — Migration velocities of

the ions in solutions of silver nitrate

in pyridine, 652.
Secretary's reports, 647, 651.
ISelimus, 329; vcnustus, 329, 358.
Series of values of errors connected with

Briggs logarithms, 433.
Scrvaca, 299, 302, 304 ; vcstita, 303, 352.
Shakespeare, quoted from, 370, 371,

374, 375. 381.
Sharp, F. C, secretary, report, 647 ;

resignation, 654 ; Shakespeare's

knowledge of criminal psychology,

647.
"She," use of. 25, 27.
Simaetha, 306 ; secera, 307 ; vestita, 352.
Simon, Eugene, 282.
Simultaneous thought common factor,

49 ; double function of, 52, 99, 107,

note.
Single thinking. 43.
Skiagraphy in study of double-headed

snakes. 523.
Skinnek, E. B. — Address in memory oT

T. II. Safford, 620 ; secretary, report,
o7.
Slavery in the lead region of Illinois,

211.
Slighter, C. S.. 428 ; Harmonic curves

of three frequencies, 648 ; Subterran-
ean rivers, 652.
Smith, I'rof. — Invertebrate Fauna of

Lake Superior, cited. 1(J4.
Smith, A. J. — Lead Region of Dubuque

county, Iowa, 222-230 ; Appendix,

208-281.
Smith, E. G. — On the determination of

chlorine in natural waters, its ac-
curacy and significance. 359-365.
Snakes, axial bifurcation in, 523.
"Some." pronominal use of, 1, 3, 136,

138.
Spanish mines. 223, 224.
Spherical triangle, equation connecting

sides and angles. 431.
Spermatozoon, development of, 514 ; and

swarm-spore, comparison between,

51. J.
Sphacroploca, cleavage in, 487 ; Golenk-

in's work on, 488 ; Klebahn's figures

of. 488.
Spherical neuclei. 498.
Spiders of the Phidippus group of the

family Attidae, G. W. & E. G. Peck-
ham, 282-358.
Spindle formation in Hydrodictyon, 501.
iipitoyyya. 486. 494.
Sporadiuia. 486, 514.
SXANGEL. C. G.. on heat conductivity,

cited. 539, 541.
Staunton, F. Belle. — Lead Region of

Grant and LaFa.vette counties. 197-

207. 237-249 ; thesis, cfted, 586.
Stimpson, Prof.. 163.
Stockholm, alcoholic diseases in. 392 ;

statistics on sale of spiiituous

liquors in. 391.
Strasbukoer. 489. 493, 507, 515.
Stresses, in ice sheet, compressive, 152,

153, 156, 157, 160 ; tensile, 151, 152,

156, 157.
Struve. on expansion of ice, cited, 150,

note.
Subsidiary values of relatives, 62.
Successive thought common factor, 48.
"Such." vicarious use of. 33. 34.
Superior, Lake. Smith on fauna of. 164.
Swarm-spores of Huflrodicti/on, 486.
Sweden. 387. 388. 389 ; prohibTtion in,

399 : statistics on liquor consumed

in, 399.

General Index,

681

Swedish Samlag system, 389.
Synchitrium, 486, 495, 508, 513.

Taming of the Shrew, cited, 370.

Tanganyika, Lake, fauna and flora of,
184.

Temperature of lakes, 173, 174 ; at Madi-
son, table giving. 143.

ThaUop'hytes, cell division of, 513.

Thamnophis elegans Uneolata, 526.

"That," pronominal use of. 12, 13. 26,
28, 29, 36, 37, 63. 67, 75. 114. 133.

"Them," use of, 75, 76 ; augmentive use
of, 26.

Thermocline, 174.

Thinking, multiple, 42 : single, 43-

Thompson, George. — GotheiTburg meth-
od of regulating flie liquor traffic,
387-418.

Thoracia, 306.

"Thou," ranked as personal, 26.

Thought connective. 35 ; expressfon, 43 ;
installments, bulk of, 45 ; measure-
ment, unit of. 46 ; phenomena, 16 ;
units, 80.

Thwaites, R. G., 586 — Early lead min-
ing in Illinois and Wisconsin, cited,
198, note ; Early lead mining in the
Fever River region, cited. 208, note ;
Story of Wisconsin, cited, 198, note.

Thija, see Thyene.

Thyene 307 : imperialis, 307, 352 : vari-
ans, 308.

TiMBEKLAKE, H. G. — Development and
structure of swarm-spores of Hydro-
diciyon. 486.

Tonoplast of De Vries. 492.

Treasurer's reports, 660, 661.

Triglopsis, 164.

Trigonometric function, logarithm of,
461.

Tropidonotus fasciata fasciata, 523,
532 ; faficiata sipedon, 528, 529, 530,
531 ;natriir, 531, 532.

True. F. W.. 535.

Two-headed snakes, see Axial bifurcation
in snakes.

Ttndall, on propagation of the heat
wave, 539.

Upsala amount of liquor consOSied in,
394.

Vacuoles in Hydrodictyon. 492. 494, 496,
508, 512 ; intraplasmic. 506.

Valonia. amitotic and mitotic division in,
487.

Vaucheria, 489, 494.

Van Hise. C. R. — Discussion of Buck-
ley's Ice ramparts, 158-162 ; Man-
ner in which igneous rocks make
their way to the surface. 652.

Vega's seven place tables, 442.

Vestita, see Scrvaea vestita.

Vicarious words, 9 ; thought phenomena
in which they enter, 16-41.

Vinegar Hill Diggings, 213.

Viroqua, 331, 334.

VoiGT, ou heat conductivity, 539.

VoLHARD's method for estimating chlo-
rine, 359.

Vollzellbildung of Strasburger, 492.

Volumetric methods for estimating chlo-
rine. 359.

Walckenaer, cited, 284.

Washburn Observatory, records of tem-
perature changes at, 142, 143.

"Water bloom" on lakes, 176.

Waupaca lakes, thermocline of, 174.

"We," uses of, 18, 119, 120.

Weidman, Samuel. — Physiographic feat-
ures of central Wisconsin, 652.

Western Emigration Company, 551.

"Where," relative use of, 13, 70, 100.

"Which," pronominal use of, 100, 108.

Whiteaves, J. F., 525. 535.

WHurNEi", .1. D., on lead regions, ouoted,
211, 212.

"Who," uses of. 1, 3, 6, 7. 69.

WiESELGREN, SiGFRIED, Cited, 393.

Wilson, researches on Echinoderm eggs,
cited, 496.

WiNKENWERDER. H. A. — Observations on
the migration of birds, 647.

Winnebago Lake, fauna of, 181.

Winnebago War, 583.

WiNsoR, Justin, on jNIurray's History of
the American Revolution. 423.

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts,
and Letters, binding of exchanges,
668 ; committees, 627 ; constitution,
669 ; council, 626 : extracts from
charter. 666 ; extracts from Wiscon-
sin statutes relating to, 668 ; list of
members, 628 ; officers, 626 ; past
presidents. 627 ; proceedings, 647-
665 ; resolutions regulating proceed-
ings, 672.

WooDiN. Peter, 557.

Woodworth, W. McM., 535.

Yarrow, H. C, in American Naturalist,

Yellow snake of "Barbadoes. 530, 532.
"Yes " and "no," vicarious function of,

37, 38.
"You," idea named by, 12.

Zenodorus. 299, 300, 303, 307; d'Urvil-

lei, 352.
ZiM:*rERMAN, fuchsin-iodine green of, 494,

495.
Zinc mining in Wisconsin, 198.
Zygohallus, 322,

New York Botanical Garden Librar

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