SUNY

¥
AA,

Y
‘
See A
f 3 Ng i?

Cha
Nw yay
CONUS

ray

ro, of

PU WR
nical ay
i

Kae
UM ab ed

ian

X:
vy 1 AN i

By
Bue

hat mil
iat

evn
a bayianha sh) Wh
th AY oa =
A at

SR Aa
7 a ‘i Ny A i ea x
in Vali ¥ i a)

Fay th fA th

WN,
‘i uae ae

ip Ra

Bidet
ce
ana
‘th j

? i vv)
ala Ha )
Natty

x tai
wae MEN Ny
te abana iy

oh Gly bas
i 8 APA WA

uh sjonane . y ,

ee i ae

. A pase inh
ies pi ua

. .

hy
an ui
% WA

-

nh aes
soni
oe me a

AN hahy

on
as

at HH AY
i ae
ieee
ah ae uty
in Sas
shi atti :
wis SiN

a)

ona a
Ge FI r Bean hh
aes -

mae a

‘i a9

sai
Rast?
x a HI
3

2
i HIE
Be eee

sah Rie
} PSR i an ‘s
Dy

ey i4

3 i}
att
eats

( shu mt
aye "4
the ih) met oe

Casas
“+4 Wg

7
SF Rola 5 at
op 9 Fite, ase

Eee ri
aN
ye,

TRANSACTIONS w7Ww63

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

OF

SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

Vor. II. 1875—76.

Published by Authority of Law.

MADISON, Wis.:
E. B. BOLENS, STATE PRINTER.

1876.

CONTENTS.

TITLES OF PAPERS PUBLISHED IN THIS VOLUME

DEPARTMENT OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES.

oO fF ww

13.

14.

. Kaolin in Wisconsin. By Roland Irving, A. M. E.M..........
. Oconomowoc and other Small Lakes of Wisconsin. By I.A.Lapham
. Fish Culture. By P. R. Hoy, M. D.....-... eee eee eee eee eee
. Notes on the Geology of Northern Wisconsin. By E. T. Sweet, M.S
. The rapid disappearance of Wisconsin Wild-flowers. By Thure
IRM 6 peo dou oes sooo Osseo Une Od oDOUUO DUONOUOS UP conOoG
. The Ancient Civilization of America. By W. J. L. Nicodemus,
_ Extent of the Wisconsin Fisheries. By P. R. Hoy, M. D.....- °
. Leveling with the Barometer. By John Nader, C. E........--.
. On Kerosene Oil. By E. T. Sweet, M.S. ....---eeeee eee eee
. The Improvement of the Mouth of the Mississippi River. By
John Nader, C. H..... 0. ccc ee cece eee e reece eres eee eee
_ The Catocale of Racine County. By P. R. Hoy, M. 2...
. Copper-tools found in the State of Wisconsin. By J. D. But-
ise, 1U)Up IDs So apnb ode nsoooddeuC bonus ne OUUD OO Qn 0006. nUGb.
Report of Committee on Exploration of Indian Mounds in the Vi-
cinity of Madison. ..... 02.2: eee eee e tenes cere ee eee e eens

TA. Wapham, LE. Di 2.5.2 wees eee es eee eet weno

DEPARTMENT OF LETTERS.

1. Studies in Comparative Grammar. By J. B. Feuling, Ph. D...

DEPARTMENT OF THE SociaAL AND PoLiTicaAL SCIENCES.

1. United States’ Sovereignty: whence derived and when vested.

By Prof. W. F. Allen... 22... 0.2252 esten sere seeceerserecee
_ The Formal Commendation of Government Officials. By J. W.

ww

eo
lon
j=}
Qu.
i=
n
or
4
foe
iS)
=i
leo)
a
oa
ie)
i)
=
ee
[o}
5
ise]
g
ee)
ra)
=
ie]
a
i
jo}
—_
=
i=)
B
Qs

eveecrcpeveperece

‘a
a
_
(42)
rd
@
fo}
uo}
oe
(a)
bs}
j=}
a
+
=a
oO
28)
5
=D
il
°
r=)
Q
ea
ise)
)
8)
(4?)
a
Q
Q
r)
<4
oO
5
l=}
9

Embryonic Development the same in Plants as in Animals. By

37-39
40-55

56-57
58-64
65-67
68-76
7-83

84-95
96-98

99-104
105-109

110-113

117-121

125-132

133-135
136-142
143-150

4 CONTENTS.

- Page.
5. The Boa-Constrictor of Politics. By Rev. F. M. Holland...... 151-160
6. The Revolutionary Movement among Women. By J. W. Hoyt,
INE SAD icc oie othco: Slo'sccle ts Daveraree-o'e wlaielgy oie eis ates ave le cae eee eer 161-176
DEPARTMENT OF SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY.
1. Were the Stoics Utilitarians? By Rev. F. M. Holland..,...... 179-195
2. An Examination of Prof. 8. H. Carpenter’s Theory of Evolution.
By Herbert 22 Hubbel, Wanonali. « < «0. lent teeter 196-202
MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL PAPERS.
- 1 Recent Progress in: Theoretical Physics. By John E. Davies,
J \ap i he Ue ae nOneE ERT coRAGod cock soo wodonds 205-221
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY.
IReportion the) President. << <1 <1.) 21 =\\s elimieltel tei ete ee 225-229
Report of the Secretary =) <j. - « oye = </alclote n'a area ee tte eerste 230
Pifth Reeular/Amnuall Meeting,y.)./j10i)-\1c/elel-lole => eletalsieecielereist steers 231-232
Sixth Regular Annual Meeting..... dw wie bs lia aps ah) CORSE een 233-237
Report of the Librarian....... Weuedpododaeo coosoc ¢ nddooo bor 238-239
© istiof, Officersiand: Members... (1)... «+ « wl. « sislereisfesvoeneletere areas 241-248
CHARTER, CONSTITUTION AND By-Laws.
peg Hartenstein -l-)-1-1-1- Jar aer'a ugyes aie 18 017 Blache OCR ICR Ne aeeeaeae 251-252
Wonstitution sey sicseites choses doen asd So's vie dueleie ls Soo ere Ae oe ee 253-255
BY STAWSo oer oe 15.0, 015. die ee ni ele elaleialca.s 0+ sole Srei ete Se ene eee 255-256
IREPORT OF ‘THE COUNCID: «6.0 ois :..cjcteisidieinc © sieehe eee ae eee 257
Prof.) Peter Englemann. | {By 1: R--belands-)----ere eee eee eee 258-263
Tnerease A. Lapham, bh... .By P:R. Hoy.- steric eee 264-267

Inerease A. Lapham, LL. D. By E.R. Leland...........-..+-- 268-269

GENERAL OFFICERS § ACADEMY.

PRESIDENT:

Dr. P. R. HOY, Racine.

VICE-PRESIDENTS:

Dr. S. H. CARPENTER, - - - - - Madison.
Pror. T. C. CHAMBERLIN. - - - - - Beloit.
Rey. G. M. STEELE, D. D. - - - - - Appleton.
Hon. J. I. CASE, - - - - - - - Racine.
Rey. A. L. CHAPIN, D. D. - - - - - Beloit.
Dre. W.. HOYT, - - - - - - Madison

GENERAL SECRETARY:
Pror. J. KE. DAVIES, M. D., University of Wisconsin. _
TREASURER:
GEO. P. DELAPLAINE, Esq., Madison.
DIRECTOR OF THE MUSEUM:
K. T. SWEET, Esq., Sun Prairie.
LIBRARIAN:
CHARLES N. GREGORY, Madison.
COUNSELORS EX-OFFICIO:

HIS EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR OF THE STATE.

THE LIEUTENANT GOVERNOR.

THE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.

THE PRESIDENT OF THE STATE UNIVERSITY.

THE PRESIDENT OF THE STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.
THE SECRETARY OF THE STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

OFFICERSOF THE DEPARTM ENS

Department of Speculative Philosophy.

President Hx-Oficio—THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

Vice-President.—_S. H. CARPENTER, LL. D., State University.

Secretary. REV. F. M. HOLLAND, Baraboo.

Counselors —PRESIDENT BASCOM, State University, PROF. O. AREY,
Whitewater, and REV. A. O. WRIGHT, Fez Lake.

Department of the Natural Sciences.

President Ex-Oficio.—THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

Vice-President. PROF. T. C. CHAMBERLIN, Beloit.

Secretary. PROF. J. H. EATON, Beloit.

Counselors—PROF. W. W. DANIELLS, State University, PROF. J. C. FOYE,
Appleton, and PROF. THURE KUMLEIN, Albion College.

Department of the Social and Political Sciences.

President Ex-Officio THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

Vice-President—_REV. G. M. STEELE, Appleton.

Secretary.—K. R. LELAND, Haw Claire.

Counselors.—DR. E. B. WOLCOTT, Milwaukee, REV. CHARLES CAVENRO,
Lombard, Ili., and PROF. J. B. PARKINSON, Madison.

Department of the Mechanic Arts

President Lx-Oficico THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

Vice-President —J. 1. CASE, Racine.

Secretary — PROF. W J. lL. NICODEMUS, State University.

Counselors CHAS. H. HASKINS, Milwaukee, HON. J. L. MITCHELL, Mil-
waukee, and CAPT. JOHN NADER, Madison.

Department of Letters.

President Ex-Oficio THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

Vice-President. REV. A. L. CHAPIN, D. D., Beloit.

Secretary.— PROF. J. B. FEULING, State University.

Counselors—PROF. W. F: ALLEN, Madisun, PROF. EMERSON, Beloit, and
HON. L. C. DRAPER, Madison.

Department of the Fine Arts.

President Ex-Oficio THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

Vice-President —DR. J. W. HOYT, Madison.

Secretary.— HON. J. EK. THOMAS, Sheboygan.

Counselore—J. R. STUART, MRS. S. F. DEAN, and MRS. H. M. LEWIS,
Hadison.

=

syr
en,

= c oOo

Cr

DEPARTMENT OF

UREN INGLE AL iSelences.

TITLES OF PAPERS READ BEFORE THIS DEPARTMENT.

. Kaolin in Wisconsin. By Rotanp Irvine, A. M., E. M.

. Oconomowoc and Other Small Lakes of Wisconsin. By I. A. LAPHAM.
. Fish-culture. By P. R. Hoy, M. D.

. Notes on the Geology of Northern Wisconsin. By E. T. SwEeEt, M. S.

. On the Rapid Disappearance of Wisconsin Wild-flowers; a Contrast of the Pres-

ent Time with Thirty Years Ago. By Toure KUMLEIN.

. On the Ancient Civilization of America. By W.J.L. Nicoprmus, A. M.,C. E.

. Extent of Wisconsin Fisheries. By P. R. Hoy, M. D. |
. Leveling with the Barometer. By Jonn Naver, C. E.

. On Kerosene Oil. . By E. T. Sweet, M. S.

. Improvement of the Mouth of the Mississippi River. By Jomn NAveEr, C. E.
. On the Catocale of Racine County. By P. R. Hoy, M. D.

. Copper-tools found in the State of Wisconsin. By Prof. J. D. Burien, LL. D.

. Report of Committee on Exploration of Indian Mounds in Vicinity of Madison.

Department of Natural Sciences.

ON KAOLIN IN WISCONSIN.

BY ROLAND IRVING, A. M., E. M.
Professor of Geology, ete., in the State University.

I.—NATURE, ORIGIN, AND OCCURRENCE OF KAOLIN. :

Origin of the word “ kaolin.’—The word kaolin is a corruption
of the Chinese kao-ling* or kau-ling,’ meaning “ high-ridge,” the
name of a place near Jauchau Fu, in China, where for many centu-
ries the Chinese have obtained the material for the manufacture of
their famous porcelain. According to Von Richthofen,{ however,
the Chinese material is not the same as that to which the term
kaolin is applied in Europe and America, but is on the contrary
a solid rock, which is exported in a pulverized condition under the
name of kao-ling. The application of this name to the European
porcelain-clay by Berzelius, was, according to Von Richthofen, made
on the erroneous supposition that the white powder which he re-
ceived from China occurred naturally in that state.

_ What is kaolin?—However this may be, since Berzelius, the
word has been applied in Hurope to a white clay-like substance which,
from its peculiar composition and freedom from any ingredients
tending to lessen the whiteness of the wares burnt from it, or its
refractoriness to heat, is especially adapted to form the base of the
finer kinds of pottery known as porcelain, whence its name of

* Baron Von Richthofen, American Journal Science, ‘‘ On the Porcelain Rocks
of China,’ III i 179. Comp. also Percy’s Metallurgy, volume on Fuels, p. 92.

7Dana’s “‘ System of Mineralogy,’’ p. 75—S. W. Williams’ ‘‘ Middle Kingdom,”
WO, LOT oe iG.

t Loe: cit.

= WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

“ yorcelain-clay.”” An exact statement of the geological and chem-
ical application of the term is not so easily given. Geologists have
commonly designated as kaolins only those clays resulting directly
from the disintegration of felspar-bearing rocks in place, as distin-
guished from the bedded orsedimentary clays. It is true that most
all of the kaolins used for porcelain making are obtained from de-
posits of the former nature, but it is equally true that beds, or
patches in beds, of sedimentary clays have the same composition
and properties as the ordinary kaolins. It has long been noticed
that clays possessing these properties tend to approach a type com-
position, and that they are frequently separable by a process of ley-
igation into a fine white scaly clay, and a sand composed of parti-
cles of quartz and undecomposed felspar. The white clay thus sep-
arable has always a definite composition, and, as shown by Messrs.
Johnson and Blake,* is seen under the microscope to consist of
translucent or transparent, rhomboidal or hexagonal plates, which
are flexible and inelastic, isolated or aggregated in prismatic, curved,
or fan-shaped bundles, and referable to the orthorhombic system.
The bases of these scales are marked with lines arismg from the
edges of super-imposed laminae. The hardness varies from that
of tale to about midway between that of selenite and calcite.
The mineral whose existence is thus rendered certain, has been
designated as kaolinite by these gentlemen, from the kaolin
in which it is most commonly found. ‘These crystalline scales
are however found to occur, not only in the real kaolins, which
they chiefly make up, but also in small quantities in many ordi-
nary sedimentary fire-clays, or even in common brick-clays. In
these, however, they appear to be associated with other silicates
of alumina, or at least with an excess of silica over the amount
necessary to form kaolinite, which cannot be proved to exist
in the free state. The ordinary clays cannot therefore as yet be re-
garded as having a base of kaolinite. The composition of kaolin-
ite, Messrs. Johnson and Blake showed to be as follows:

a P. cent
MSU GaS reer tetera rete acer eter aise ar Mae ou cocadee cee eet toe ogee 25 46.3
GAL tara TAS eevee Wis eed hatchs, btohe oie. le dees aga eds. RACER 0 ee ane a aL ae ad 39.8
VV ST eer co 2ll, covey see Et ee etiece le 13.9

100.0

*“ On Kaoliniteand Pholerite.’”” Am. Jour. Sci. IT. xliii. p. 391 et seq, as quot-
ed in Percy, p. 92 volume on Fuels ete.

KAOLIN IN WISCONSIN. 5

These figures correspond to the formula Alz Os, 2 Si Oz + 2 He O,
one deduced by Forchhammer for kaolin as long ago as 1830, from
a comparison of a series of analyses of crude and washed articles.

We may then designate as kaolin any native hydrated silicate of
alumina having the above percentage composition, or any native
material composed of a mixture of such a silicate with quartz
fragments, and fragments of undecomposed rock. Some of the
raw kaolins are almost pure kaolinite, whilst others contain as
much as fifty to sixty per cent. of foreign matter.

Origin of Kaolinite—The mineral kaolinite, when considered as
the base of large clay masses, appears always to have resulted from
the decomposition of minerals of the felspar group. In very small
quantities, it is true, the same substance is known to be an altera-
tion product of other minerals than the felspars, e.g. beryl, stauro-
lite, leucite; still all of the large kaolinite masses have originated
by the alteration of some of the felspars. This alteration may have
been caused by several agents, by far the most important of which
has, however, been carbonated water, or water carrying carbonic
acid in solution. ‘The felspars are silicates of alumina with an al-
kaline ingredient, which may be either potash, soda, or lime. Ob-
taining carbonic acid from the atmosphere, and to some slight ex-
tent from direct organic decay, the surface waters, thus reinforced,
infiltrating through the seams of the felspar-bearing rocks, (gran-
ite, gneiss, porphyry,) act gradually upon the alkaline silicates,
forming first carbonate of lime, if lime be present in the rock,
which dissolving as bicarbonate in the carbonated water, is carried
away. Moreslowly are taken up and leeched out the alkalies as car-
bonates, or as silicates, if the amount of carbonic acid is only small,
which will be the more usual case. Part of the silica thus set free
always remains as colloid or hydrated silica, and may be detected
in samples by its solubility in alkali. The amount of colloid sil-
icay remaining will depend directly on the supply of carbonic acid,
being greater as the carbonic acid is more plenty. Still remaining
after the leeching process are now certain proportions of alumina
and silica, to which is added a certain proportion of water. These
three combining and crystallizing, form the hydrated silicate of al-
umina, kaolinite. The theoretical change from orthoclase felspar

* Dana’s Mineralogy—under orthoclase, p. 361.
, 7 Bischof Chem. Geol. Vol. II, p. 183.

6 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

to kaolinite is well shown by the following figures, which are per-
centages by weight, calculated on the original orthoclase:

{ : Fe ET |
Constituents. Orthoclase.} Removed.| Remain. | Added. | Kaolinite.
OUIVCAlRr ue ees Aeros e 64.6 43.1 QED) Oy Pha ee 21.5
Ylhohaan ee) asc ao Soe mec Theses ail feaeheey enc aie bese 9 Mee (eR Eeok ches 18.5
PR Otashimemee tet eines cess 16.9 1 ee ee MIE ocdllia cana daosot
AVG Pe Ty eect oscce: I Sioenul naeterercte ac AIM ic He ic Pree a ae 7.4 eee
Total enlace 100.0 60 40 7.4 AT 4

The last column corresponds to the composition already given
for kaolinite, viz., silica, 43.3; alumina, 39.8; water, 13.9. The
change may also be conveniently indicated from the formulae as
follows:

Orthoclase = ~ = = = 6K,0+6A1,0,7-86510,
Removed - - = - - - 6K,0+ i 24510,
Mer ns ees he May OME 6A1,0,+128i0,
Which corresponds to PON gee fy hi A],0,2810,
Added - - - = = = 2H,0
Resulting Kaolinite - = = = Al,0,,2510,+-2H 0

These calculations are made on the assumption that the alumina
is not removed. It appears however in some cases to be partially
removed.* The soluble substances resulting from this decomposi-
tion, the carbonates and silicates of potash and soda, and the bi-
carbonate of lime, pass off with the infiltrating waters, and reach-
ing the surface again, give rise to mineral springs, or add to the
solid contents of the drainage waters of the region. The felspar
may alter so as to produce certain zeolites when all of the protoxyd
bases are not removed,+ and if the infiltrating waters carry mag-
nesia in traces a steatitic change may result. These are however
much rarer changes, and do not affect the object of the present
paper.

Should the felspathic rock be contaminated with iron pyrites;
its decay may be much hastened.{ This may be in part due to
a direct action upon the silicate by the acid waters resulting from

* Dana, loc. cit.
7 Bischof. Chem. Geol., p. 211—Dana, loc. cit.
{ Dana’s Mineralogy, p. 360. Geology of New Jersey, p. 68.

KAOLIN IN WISCONSIN. ie

oxydation of the sulphid, but is rather due chiefly to the disintegra-
tion of the rock produced by this oxydation, which leaves it more
easily permeable to the carbonated waters.

The felspars which appear especially to have given rise to kao-
lin masses are orthoclase and albite, the potash and soda felspars.
This must be attributed rather to their greater abundance as com-
pared with oligoclase and andesite—the soda-lime felspars—since
these latter change much more easily to kaolin, whilst orthoclase
changes with the least readiness of any of the felspars, being found
often unaltered, when oligoclase occurring in the same rock is com-
pletely kaolinized.* Labradorite does not commonly alter to ka-
olinite.t .

Origin of clay deposits in general.—All clays and indeed most
shales (clay shales) may be said to have resulted primarily from the
alteration more or less completely carried out, of the felspar of
felspar bearing rocks. The disintegrated material resultmg from
this alteration may either have remained where formed, still occu-
pying the position and retaining the lamination of the original
unchanged rock, or may have been subsequently removed by the
ordinary eroding forces and deposited elsewhere as a bedded clay.
This removal, if merely for a short distance, may have been unac-
companied by any assorting of the clay and rocky materials; as for
instance is obseryed in the “kaolin” of the Cretaceous beds of
eastern New Jersey. Such an assorting appears however most
commonly to have taken place, the clay having been washed out
from the quartz and undecomposed rock fragments accompanying
it, having had more or less of foreign material mingled with it
during the process of sedimentation, and having thus resulted in a
bed of ordinary clay. Again in other cases the action of eroding
forces on the unaltered felspathic rocks may have resulted in a sed-
iment of powdered felspathic material which by subsequent altera-
tion has become a clay. In some one of these ways all true clays
would seem to haye been formed. Fragments ‘of felspar still re-
maining in many of them, and the alkaline ingredients shown by
analyses, testifiy to this general origin. Of course bedded clays
may have been again and again removed and redeposited, mingled
with various impurities, or introduced as impurity into other’ sedi-

em aS A align eae EE At eT I A

* Dana, p. 348. 7 Dana, p, 361.

8 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

ments—e. g. limestone—by whose subsequent solution and removal
the clay may be left alone and pure.

Whatever the exact origin, we may then group all clays conven-
iently into the bedded clays, and the clays accurring as disintegrated
rocks in place. In both of these ways kaolin occurs. A brief con-
sideration of each mode of occurrence will be of interest in the
present connection.

Kaolin as a disintegrated rock in place-—Most kaolin of com-
merce comes from this kind of a deposit. Gneissic and other
felspathic rocks, frequently placed with their bedding planes verti-
cal, admit of deep penetration by the surface carbonated waters.
Their felspathic ingredient being thus decomposed, the whole rock
is converted into a soft admixture of kaolinite, quartz fragments,
particles of partly decomposed, and entirely undecomposed felspar,
and more or less altered particles of mica. This alteration has
been noticed to as great a depth as seventy feet and over. The
eneissic rocks of the Blue Ridge in Virginia, North Carolina, and
Georgia, are found altered to this depth over considerable areas, re-
taining still their original lamination and highly inclined position.*
Similar changes and to much greater depth are reported from Bra-
zil.t In such cases the once quartz veins are often seen occupying
their original position as great sheets in the soft clay.

Should now the felspar be a largely predominating constituent
of the rock, or should the mica be present in inconsiderable quan-
tities only, there will result on decomposition a mixture of a very
pure white kaolinite with more or less quartz sand and undecom-
posed felspar fragments, which can readily be removed by leviga-
tion, and a valuable article obtained. Should, on the other hand,
the mica be largely present, or should there be any quantity of
hornblende or pyrite in the rock, the resulting clay will be largely
contaminated with non-separable alkalies from the mica, or oxyd
of iron fromthe mica, hornblende or pyrite, and will be a mere red
brick-clay of no value. Thus it happens that whilst many locali-
ties of disintegrating granite are known, but few of them yield
good kaolin. In the case of much pyrite or other ferruginous con-
stituent in the rock, the weathering and leeching by the carbon-
ated waters, may result in the formation of deposits of the hydrat-
ed sesquioxyd of iron, in the shape of “ bog iron ore.” Such Dr.

* Am. Jour. Sci. III. vii p. 60. 7 Hartt as quoted by Hunt, Loe. cit.

KAOLIN IN WISCONSIN. 9

T. 8. Hunt* regards as having been the origin of some of the bog-
ore deposits in the vicinity of the disintegrating gneissic rocks of
the Southern States. I allude to this here since it is a fact that
bog-ores of considerable value occurs in the Wisconsin kaolin dis-
trict and may be supposed to have had a similar origin.

In as much as the decomposition of the felspar in such a process
is hardly ever so completely carried out as to leave none of it un-
altered, it results that the kaolins used in the arts show either in
their crude or washed state almost always a certain amount of al-
kali on analysis. This alkali may be present partly as entirely un-
decomposed felspar fragments, in which state it can be completely
removed by levigation, and partly as felspar in different degrees of
change. All of the latter cannot be separated.

Many of the best kaolins aspear to have resulted from the decom-
position of a rock consisting chiefly of felspar with as small admix-
ture of quartz and no mica, known as peginatite.y These, from their
great richness in felspar, tend to produced an especially pure kao-
lin. The ordinary gneisses and granites on the other hand, by their
decay yield a very coarse sandy clay, which may be quite impure
from foreign admixtures, or if free from any hurtful impurity, so
largely mingled with quartz, as to be very lean in pure kaolinite.
In some regions it is noticed that those granitic or gneissic layers
more largely composed of felspar than the adjoining beds, tend to
alter whilst the rest stand firm. Since these alternating beds are al-
ways inclined at high angles, their outcropping edges strike across
the country in groups of narrow parallel bands. Thus it comes
that kaolin is sometimes found following long straight lines, hav-
ing aconstant bearing. This fact may be made use of in “ prospect-
ing” for kaolin.

Examples of the occurrence of kaolinized rock.—Most of the
authorities that I have been able to consult agree in describing the
Chinese kaolin. used many centuries before porcelain-making was
introduced into Europe, as a result of the disintegration of a grani-
toid rock, though I have not seen any detailed account. A recent
paper{ by Baron Von Richthroten, as already said, gives a different
account of the nature of the Chinese article. He says: “I visited
* * * * the famous King-te-chin, where the Chinese have
made nearly all their porcelain for almost three thousand years. I

* Loe. cit. + Von Cotta’s Lithology p. 206, English Ed. { Am. Jour. Sci., cit.

10 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.
examined the places from which they take the material. * * *
T have to record the unexpected fact that the material from which
the porcelain of King-te-chin is made, is taken from certain strata
intercalated between these slates, and occurring at several places,
separated ‘from each other laterally, 1. e., at right angles; with the
strike of the rocks. It is a rock of the hardness of felspar (inferior
kinds are not so hard) and of a green color, which gives 1b to some
extent, the appearence of jade to which the Chinese too, compare
it. The rock is reduced by stamping to a white powder, of which
the finest portion is ingeniously and repeatedly separated. ‘This is
then moulded into small bricks. The Chinese distinguish chiefly
two kinds of this material. Hither of them is sold in King-te-chin
in the shape of bricks, and as either is a white earth, they offer no
visible differences. ‘They are made in different places by pounding
hard rock, but the aspect of the rock is alike in both cases. For
one of these two kinds of material, the place “ Kaoling ” was in an-
cient times in high repute, * * * * and the Chinese still
designate by the name “ kaoling” the kind of earth which was for-
merly derived fromthere. * “* * * The second kind of
material bears the name pe-tun-tse, (‘‘ white clay.”) 5S. W Will-
iams, in his “ Middle Kingdom,” speaks* of the kaolin as a dis-
integrated granite, which is almost all felspar—and of the “ pe-
tun-tse "as nearly pure quartz—but his account does not appear to
be based on personal inspection.

One of the most famous kaolin localities of Europe is that at St.
Yrieix-la-perche, near Limoges, in France. Here is obtained the
material for the famous Sevres porcelain manufactory.+ The kaolin
occurs as a result of the disintegration of masses of pegmatite
partly interstratified with the gneiss and partly intersecting it in
cross veins. ‘The gneiss is also decomposed, but to a red clayey
mass of no value. The pegmatite, consisting chiefly of felspar,
wherever decomposed has given rise to an excellent kaolin, moder-
ately free from quartz and rocky particles, these forming only
about ten per cent. of the whole.

Another famous Huropean occurrence of kaolin is that of the
vicinity of St. Austlein Cornwall. This is a weathered mixture of
orthoclase and quartz, chiefly on Tregoning hill near Helstone,{ in

eh Mop Goes
} Dana’s Mineralogy, p.475; Knapp’s ‘Chemis’y Applied to Arts,” vol. fi, p. 230.
{ Wagner's Chem. Technol, Eng. Ed. Sia, »P

KAOLIN IN WISCONSIN. al

various stages of decomposition. The kaolinite portion is removed
from the weathered rock by allowing streams of water to run over
it. The clay thus washed out settles in a series of large catch-pools.
The weathered rock itself is used to a considerable extent in the
ceramic arts in England, under the name of Cornish stone.

At Aue in Saxony the source of the kaolin was a rounded mass
of granite very much decomposed on the surface and surrounded
by the kaolin as by a cap.* The deposit is exhausted. At Mionia
im Saxony, the kaolin is decomposed porphyry, and is used in the
Dresden inanufactories.- At the Hinigheit mine near Freiberg,
Saxony, it is in nests in gneiss.[ The kaolin of La Bresse, France,
is an altered andesite.|| That of Bayonne, France, is a graphic
granite in every stage of decomposition.4{ At Passau the occur-
rence is exactly like that of St. Yrieix in France.§

The following are analyses of crude European kaolins:**

Place. eck | Silica. | Alumina.| Water.
Shin: NCIGISTDS, OSC RCRA Ia Es REN Cet 9.7 41.9 34.6 1G)
Cormac cela iie ose ese ereiaviels 19.6 46.5 24.0 Say
ID CHO MBNC Sig BORGO UMA OS abe ons 4.3 44,1 26.8 19,7
YNDVE Ss det oes I ONTO ORES AE RIES AA 18.0 385.9 34.1 11.0
RAGSAUIEN Ve ree eee a ete 4.5 46.4 BY AA) 12.8
Mort near Hralle............ ba eae 43.8 26.0 Op) 15) Tab

A few occurrences of kaolinized rock are known in the United
States, of such a nature as to supply a good article. An excellent
material is found in the graphic granite of Brunswick, Maine, and
also at Haddam, Connecticut. At each place the rock is a coarse
mixture of very pure quartz and felspar. At the latter locality it
has been of late mined and broken up for making kaolin for white
ware at Williamsburg, N. Y.tr Near Trenton in New Jersey the
gneissic rocks are more felspathic than usual in the region, and the
felspar is entirely changed to kaolin, which is dug to be used in
making fire-brick.j{ This clay contains zirconia.

Kaolin as a bedded clay.—As x bedded clay kaolin is known in

* Knapp, vol. I, p. 230. { Knapp, Loe. cit.

+ Wagner Chem. Technol, p. 230. ? Dana’s Mineralogy, p. 348.

t Percy’s Metallurgy, Vol. on Fuels, p. 96. ** Wagner, Loc. cit. }

|| Ure’s Dictionary, Vol. 1, p. 427. ++ Appleton’s Encyclopedia, Art. Clay.

tt Geology of New Jersey, p. 323.

12 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

two occurrences: (1) as a coarse admixture of felspar, kaolinite ete.
removed but a short distance from where it resulted by disintegra-
tion; and (2) as a fine-grained clay washed from its coarse material,
and not directly traceable to its origin. In New Jersey the great
thicknesses of plastic clays, forming the lowest member of the Cre-
taceous series, stretch in a wide band south westward across the
state from Staten Island Sound to the Delaware River. In places
these clays come into contact with the gneisses of the Archaean
belt crossing the state from northeast to southwest, and have eyi-
dently derived their material from the wear of the previously dis-
integrated gneissic rocks. In these clay beds kaolin-like clays oc-
cur both in the assorted and unassorted conditions. The coarse or
unassorted kaolin * is dug at several places on both the main land
and island sides of Staten Island Sound. The bed is from two to
twelve feet thick, and is composed of coarse angular fragments of
quartz mingled with decomposed felspar and mica scales. It is
interstratified with other clay and sand layers, and lignite. The
finer New Jersey clays of the same series are largely used for mak-
ing fire-brick and the rougher kinds of pottery. Some of them ap-
pear to be sufficiently pure for the manufacture of porcelain. Or-
dinary stoneware, porcelain knobs ete. are extensively manufac™
tured at Trenton.t The purity of these bedded clays as compared
with most others would appear to be directly due to their deriva-
tion from the disintegration of the eneissic rocks of the region, and
deposition near by where first formed.

A recent discovery in Indiana has brought to light what appears
to be a valuable bedded clay, occurring under peculiar circum-
stances. The kaolin bed lies at the base of the coal measure con-
elomerate, in Lawrence county, Indiana, having a thickness of five
to six feet, one of which is pure white kaolin, the remainder being
more or less stained with iron and manganese oxides. Immediate-
ly beneath the clay is a bed of Jimonite iron ore. This clay appears
to replace a bed of limestone which has been dissolved away by
the action of carbonated waters. It has almost exactly the com-
position of kaolinite. With it are found lumps of the mineral
allophane, another hydrated silicate of alumina, with a larger per-
centage of water than kaolinite.

* Geology of New Jersey p. 249. _ +t Geology of New Jersey loc. cit.
t Geology of New Jersey p. 685.

KAOLIN IN WISCONSIN. if

ey)

A similar occurrence to the one just described is mentioned by
Jukes* as existing in the tilted bottom-beds of the Carboniferous
Limestone, on Cork Harbor, Ireland. Here, over a small area, the
limestone has been almost entirely removed, leaving the clay-like
substance behind. This clay has been used considerably in the Eng-
lish potteries. The following are analyses of those of the Indiana
and New Jersey bedded clays, which approach to kaolinite in com-
position:

Constituents. I. Mt. II. IV.

Sle appraiser evr sicosi yates faites cusverous erate alee 43.2 45.30 45.90 47.05
Alumina........ 5 Cone DOMODOUDSdSaOs0000 39.71 37.10 40.34 37.14
\WEMIGE on So pO Cae AOC EORTC aera 14.25 1SR40F | 135260 labo
Otel erotm Wan Sameser tral asaya acini stereo sco jelllece sree heel ysieeigeraieveillnoe are e 0s 0.03
DESUMORV OP OPMMITOME sie < ce wicie a wees ee tele 0.74 Hae alaniae Heal eae
I2GIEREIN. Sone 4 docs BODO OCR eee ees 37 U1 Op tWaccvesson t-te Daley eevege
MPETGNO. 5 6) odO0b OS EOS OO Oe eo Mone barat al lun sia Bee On PBR Nobnlon ood U
TUTTO! sol go OCOD COD CCI CRE ae (erie eee ORL eee { 0.08
PREC OMI 5 ccs.0ie =): APT r eee esi ekeusk oral ate vousvave for oi tus 1.40 MAO lies exctets: sosyliotstatebeyas

MO taller sak Mavscere the wisies eevee susieve tlecaie 99.67 100.19 99.50 99.80

I. is a fine white clay from Burts Creek, near South Amboy, New
Jersey, analysed just as it came from the pit. II. is a kaolin-like
clay analyzed after washing to free from particles of quartz, mica, and
feldspar. It is from Trenton, New Jersey. III. and IV. are the
Lawrence county, Indiana, kaolin, analyzed without washing.

II.—KAOLIN IN WISCONSIN.

Geographical position of the kaolin district—The fact of the exis-
tence of kaolin in Wisconsin has been known for many years.
The material has however only very recently attracted much atten-
tion and become the object of actual exploitation. The first pub-
lished mention I find of it is in the report of Dr. J. G. Norwood in
Owen’s Geological Survey of Minesota, lowa, and Wisconsin.t He
says, in describing the last Archaean exposure seen in descending the
Wisconsin River: “ Above the granite at the old mill-dam,f{ is a
bed of ferruginous argillite four feet thick, succeeded by five feet of
decomposed felspar, above which is a bed two feet thick of well di-
gested kaolin, or porcelain clay, with * * * ™* quartz dissemi-
nated through it in veins and containing a notable quantity of

*Jukes and Geikie’s Manual of Geology, p. 130. ire eels
¢ Near Point Bass, Wood county.

14 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

pyrites. Then succeeds a variegated white and yellow sand-stone
* * * * 77 Th this account Dr. Norwood conveys the erroneous
impression that the kaolin of the Wisconsin occurs as a bedded clay,
which it does not do.

The various localities at which kaolin has been noticed in the state,
so far-as my knowledge extends, all occur in a belt of country about
fifty miles in length and fifteen in breadth, stretching eastward
from Black river in Jackson county to the Wisconsin, in the vicin-
ity of the city of Grand Rapids, in Wood county. This district in-
cludes more or less of townships 21, 22, and 23 north, and ranges
1, 2, 3,4 west, and 1, 2,3, 4, 5, 6, 7 east,“of the meridian. It is
crossed from north to south by three streams of considerable size;
Black River on the west, the Wisconsin on the east, and Yellow
River towards the centre. The kaolin discoveries have, I believe
been made almost entirely in the vicinity of these streams.

Geology of the kaolin district—The district thus described, lies
for most of its extent just south of the main boundary-line between
the Potsdam sandstone, which underlies so large an area to the
south, east, and west, and the Archaean rocks, which form the
sub-structure of all the region to the northward. In places the
boundary, which is a very irregular one, lies within this district.
The country in this part of the state is generally level, with a
gradual rise to the northward. In the more southern portion of
the belt, the sandstone is nearly everywhere the surface rock, ex-
cept along the beds of the rivers, where the strata of Archaean gneiss
granite and diorite are laid bare. The sandstone is therefore, where
it occurs, only a very thin covering over the crystalline rocks, and
indeed these occasionally rise through it in bold isolated bluffs of
eranite and quartzite, which, though sometimes as much as two
hundred feet in height, cover but a small area. Interspersed with
these are other bluffs of similar height and dimensions, of horizon-
tal sandstone, bearing witness to the great thickness of that rock
which has suffered denudation. Further north, the gradual rise of
the country seems to be due in some measure to the shape of the
surface of the underlying Archaean rocks, which finally rise from
beneath the sandstone and become the surface formation. The
boundary between the two terranes is traced with great difficulty.
Barometrical elevations are no guide at all. for the sandstone hay-
ing once covered the region so deeply may be found at the very

KAOLIN IN WISCONSIN. 15

highest levels, whilst the irregular upper surface of the gneissic
rocks is apt to bring them up through the sandstone at any place.
A geological map, including Portage, Wood, Clark, and Jackson
counties, would show on the south the sandstone as the surface
formation, on the north the crystalline rocks, whilst where the
two meet they would be shown dovetailing into each other, the
Archaean extending many miles south in the stream beds, the sand-
stone penetrating as far north on the divides. As we trace the
rivers southward towards where the last crystalline rocks are seen,
these are found confining themselves more and more closely to the
vicinity of the streams until they are finally restricted to their
beds, the sandstone forming the banks. Thus the Wisconsin
River, for ten miles above Point Bass, and the Black for a greater
distance above the falls, present strips of crystalline rocks only
as wide as their own currents.

Another feature in the geology of the kaolin district seems
worthy of notice in the present connection. I refer to the fact that
the boundary line between the ‘“‘driftless”” area of the south west-
ern quarter of the State, and the “ drift-bearing ” area to the north
and east, crosses the district in a nearly east and west line from
Grand Rapids to Black River Station, on Black river.

Nature and mode of occurrence of the Wisconsin kaolin.—The
Wisconsin kaolin occurs entirely as ‘“ kaolinized” rock. As al-
ready stated it has been noticed only in the vicinity of the large
streams. This is so because elsewhere the crystalline rocks are for
the most part covered by the sandstone. Nearly always it occupies
exactly the original position, retaining sometimes even the minute
structure, of the unaltered rock. A few cases were noticed im-
mediately on the river banks, where the structure of the clay
seemed to have been modified slightly by water action. The rocks
from which the kaolin has been formed, and into which it can fre-
quently be traced throush every degree of alteration, are beds inter-
stratified with the series of Archean strata which have over wide
areas a common strike. Only the out-cropping edges of these beds
are decomposed, and as a consequence it follows that the resulting
kaolin forms narrow bands crossing the country in straight lines
parallel to the general strike. It is exceedingly common to find
overlying the kaolin a few layers of sandstone, sometimes a few
inches only, at others, a score or so of feet. In such cases the

16 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

purer kaolin is found immediately below the sandstone, next be-
low a partially kaolinized rock, and next below again the entirely
unaltered rock. Such sections are common in the district.

The kaolin localities appear to be almost entirely within the drift-
less area, or at least where the drift is very thin and the glacial
action has been insignificant, This fact becomes a significant one,
when we consider that over all the great Archaean region of the
north half of the state, which is drift covered, no occurrence of
kaolin is known; all the known occurrences being confined to that
comparatively small district where the Archaean rocks are found
within the driftless area. I am inclined to attribute this absence
of kaolinized rock in the northern portion of the state to the de-
nuding agency of the drift forces, following Dr. T. 5. Hunt, who
has made the same suggestion™ in explanation of the non-disinte-
grated condition of the gneissic rocks of the Blue Ridge in the
northern Atlantic States, the same rocks further south being con-
stantly found decomposed to considerable depths.

Where and how to search for kaolin in Wisconsin.—If it be a fact that
the drift forces have removed all kaolinized rock they have encoun-
tered, then at once we may conclude that search at any considera-
ble distance north of the drift limit is not lkely to be rewarded
with success. An exception to this might be where the kaolin has
been formed underneath protecting masses of sandstone. Within the
thus restricted district, moreover, the labor of the search may be much
lessened by the recognition of a few simple guiding facts. The ex-
plorer should visit the known outcrops of kaolin, note the rock
from which it has decomposed, measure carefully its strike and
then follow the line thus obtained until other patches are found.
Having once noted the kind of rock tending to produce the kaolin,
(in this region usually a pinkish felspathic gneiss or granite,) by
following the strike of any similar bed kaolin will probably sooner
or later be found. The search would be best made with a boring-
tool of some simple kind. Should sandstone be struck in the bor-
ing the kaolin may yet underlie it. The explorer should at
the outset divest himself of the idea that the kaolin occurs in a
continuous horizontal bed.

Kaolin on the Wisconsin River.—The best known kaolin deposits
in Wisconsin are those that occur on and near the Wisconsin Riy-

* Loe. cit.

KAOLIN IN WISCONSIN. IY(

er, in the vicinity of the city of Grand Rapids, in Wood county.
The Archaean gneissic rocks here occur chiefly in the bed of the
stream, which for many miles makes bold rapids over their upturned
edges. Elsewhere they are mostly covered with sandstone. The
predominating gneissic rocks have associated with them both inter-
bedded, and clearly intrusive granite and diorite. Of the gneiss and
granite there are many varieties, according to the predominance
of one or other mineral ingredient, both rocks being formed
sometimes of a largely predominating pinkish felspar. These
beds are the ones most commonly weathered, though some of the
dark micaceous kinds show the same tendency. All of the beds
strike between N. 50° E. and N. 80° K. with a dip of about 50° ei-
ther 8. E. or N. W.

On the southwest quarter of section 5, town 22, range 6
east, on the land of Mr. Garrison, considerable digging has been
done in borrowing for the road-bed of the railroad near by. The
removal of about two feet of earth has exposed the kaolin in a
number of places extending along the railroad for some rods.
The clay is here in some places quite white, in others much
stained with iron sesquixoyd, the stained portions being those
nearest the surface. Much of it appears to have lost all sign of
the original rock structure, whilst in many places the spade
turned up masses as distinctly laminated as any of the gneiss in the
vicinity. All of the kaolin here is quite gritty from the presence
of quartz and undecomposed felspar fragments, a statement which
will apply to all of the Wisconsin kaolins that have come under my
notice. Scales of silvery mica appear to be largely present. Aver-
age samples of the whiter clay, selected by the writer, yielded Mr.
Sweet, of the State Geological Survey, by whom all the analyses
of Wisconsin kaolins quoted in this paper were made, the following
results:

2——W AS

18 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

Constituents. : J. UL, II.

STUTKCR YS BiG od dea Gee OR ECICRDT Ete ETO nee cic ot Orci COloNa.ad.3.c 78.83 | 49.94 92.86
GAVIA EL Penne See DE Rate sc) cn cata Bp, seve revanetete Aa rated eReete retetehetione 13.43 | 36.80 2.08
Sesquiomy@ lof Tron... 2.0.0 ens «ines wie isle mmielalels 0.74 mle 74
A hisa(sveie tere SEER CMRP eae atric St Roin a picket Cit dis ecuintraoce 0.64] trace .96
WEIN as Sage PosaseonEses bor sooocdobdsoeagonan OsO i eies5 oc 5 10
(POtASHRR ees eich viele Sit eee Ree ole eee AGI 51 .28
GO awe ee cneatis, lashes SRO ae Eee aes ac .07 .08 .05
GarbontevAcids:2 fel Saget ee Re eee 201 |. scaler
Water tise oc kaa BUS See eee eer ee 5.45 | 11.62 2.53
EO tall ee Shae er evens avai ARE ee ene eR eae To ea 99.60 | 99.67 99.60
SJAAOUUG Carhniny Aaescodgaooudsobo osaaninoodqoBdono€ Deol || eee 2.749

I. is the clay just as it came from the pit, after drying at 100°
C. If. is the fine or kaolinite portion of I. washed from the
coarse matter by repeated decantation and stirring. The separa-
tion is not perfect, but imitates what would be done in washing on
a large scale. III. is the coarse residue from this washing, its com-
position being calculated from the two preceding analyses after
finding that it constituted 67.1 per cent. of the whole clay. The
carbonic acid remains as a silent witness of the agency by which
the clay was formed. The following show II. and IIL., caleulated
in percentages on the original unwashed clay, and indicate how the
various ingredients distribute themselves between.the fine clay and
coarse residue:

TT. Til. if

RIGA siciate. “or ecyemecievaletd alte wl eeteete ne eae eee 16.33+62 .50=78.83
MUTI AL ae aap ehe Souter EEE A bip\odial oro oo oc 12.03-+ 1.40=13.43
DesQuiox Miron. ih, ak eile Ja dts Weiiee a ee 241 © .50= .74
MGA 7. Jaroiale wee ees b's sve a Keo aot ea Eee .00+ .64= .64
IMAP NESIR Eo Ugare ey selina a done.) ele Caen ee 00+ .07= .07
Tots Ay Siis'e ose Sic ales. ehciask eit agate aie: UE See 12+ .25= .37
OOS sie eter egtere sii) dycsaprieieis: han ne a siento oie ee 038+ .04= .07
WV GET Micrieler ia. siete lois sais evap Gree cohen ee 3.754+. 17.0= 5.45

GUC ENDS Lc OE MNOMP mer hl EN 32.50-1-67.10=99. 60

KAOLIN IN WISCONSIN. 19

The fluxing ingredients, iron oxide, lime, magnesia, potash, soda,
very small in the original clay, have thus been removed largely
(five-sixths) by washing. The following are other determinations
made on saniples from the same locality, all in the raw state:

Constituents. IV. Vv. VI. WAU
Sesquioxyd of limon... ... 6.2.56... 1.69 DinSe esterase ae a ates
TRG Gg dees a ge 0a ea area Cote iW 78 2.14
SOG Es bo SSSI ais OS SIG I RO ETO EAS Arner oar (ape ate .03 330i
NINVERIIGIE, (G6 oso, ch a see Sue a RAS Ce Nes PES SC DO Os ee ee eee 56

IV. is the bright yellowish clay from near the surface; V. is some-
what less yellow but apparently more ferruginous. It is the most
abundant kind. VI. is white clay, still retaining, to a marked de-
gree, the lamination of the original rock. It would appear, how-
ever, to be much more thoroughly decomposed than much of the
more homogeneous clay of the region. VII. is a highly micaceous
weathering granite from the river bank near by the kaolin pits.

On the northwest quarter of the southwest qnarter of section 4,
town 22, range 6 east, on the east side of the Wisconsin river, near
the centre of the section, kaolin occurs overlaid by ten feet of friable
sandstone. Most of it has lost the rock structure, though this ap-
pears very distinctly in places. This clay is one of the whitest
looking noticed. It has been used for making hearth at the Grand
Rapids foundry. The following are Mr. Sweet’s analyses of sam-
ples from this place:

Constituents. VIII. IX. xe XI.
HOEK WECSTIONC Ls ss). 2 elves sees ADRS OM ey atersrresnaea eteyenee trance evel leteneie «axons
PINE PPOLUOM Acs aces Loi ose saith BST Asde ee arta call eta Ag Net ells aon ws esacere os
HES OLAS ie et orcy esos: Se dvajones ale aieconsysl|isiaietetedearete 0.38 1.21 .87
OCP Re elec areola eiaiierore ihe avail ovary yeeros 0.08 0.46 00

VIII. is the raw clay; 1X. the same washed. X. is raw clay taken
from the box at the foundry, and said to come from the same place;
XI is the fine portion of X. The removal of alkalies by washing
is here evident.

20 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

In digging for the turn-table at the Green Bay and Min-
uj nesota depot, at Grand Rapids, a few lay-
I| ers of compact sandstone were first pene-

E Ys au trated, this giving place suddenly to a
J. = ‘ white kaolin through which piles had to
Ne Gi vu be driven five or six feet (?) before becom-
WeYye & & ing firmly placed

ae Ia ing firmly placed.

S Ao Immediately north of the Rablin House,
ae at Grand Rapids, kaolin is exposed in the
a7 ral dss cut made for grading the street, which

re : é here runs immediately along the river bank.

x 3 s e The following section was obtained at this
iS K & me point—Fig. 1—:*
RK Vy The decomposed rock is in most places

3 \{I))) quite firm, though often a soft clay. It is

all whitish, aud without any appearance of
the unaltered rock except the lamination.
= A specimen of the former kind yielded:
XII
S Potash. siaie.s ties ois eeeyeteteleterers leis elec teeter tee Relea 7.56
= Sodas. ccniee gals cand oletsiee wacbeee pel ee eee 5.03
SWIAteD’. Sioteic su sie, olan lercleis slenetace lolehetotelo vers letete lene teneeas 3.55
S The decomposition had not yet removed
= = much of the alkalies, although the rock
=

was quite white.

On lot 5, section 24, town 22,range 5east, onthe westside of the
river, on the land of Mr. L. P. Powers, kaolin occurs in the river bank.

The clay has been dug here to aconsiderableextent. Itshows here
as elsewhere every degree of decomposition. The pure white is of
inconsiderable thickness before a firmer rocky kind is reached. At
the waters edge below are seen ledges of unchanged rock. At the
time of my examination the locality had been less developed than
since that time; but the several outcrops along the river bank in-
dicated a considerable quantity. From this place all of the clay
that has been shipped away from Grand Rapids has been taken.
Places were noticed here where bunches of highly ferruginous clay

*The engraver has omitted the word ‘kaolin,’ in Fig. 1, underneath “ sand-
stone,”? and also the word ‘gneiss ”’ after ‘‘ decomposed.’’? ‘‘ Unaltered gneis”’
should read, “‘ unaltered gneiss.’

KAOLIN IN WISCONSIN. a

occurred in the midst of the whiter kind. The following are analy-
ses of samples from this place:

earthen: XII. | XIV. XY. XVI. | XVIL. | XVITI.} XIX.

ROilGalt. be sveiels as FOE Soe |Pyetare tote rell Moca ahora: Nase lDerelanaiuiceare Tea) i Gomedc 69.34
Alumina ...... SOS A Weeca el els evens s0.heee te wtegiy Sele Wi. GSy \tenoenci < 19,19
Sesquiox. Iron.! 1.24 |........ Boal) IIsadooon Pigses ll se Sco at Hee
1 Dra oa easton UU) lh acti at le Macs oe Deane N83} Wscbosooo 0.44
Magnesia...... @ 02 Iocooncuallooococ dolacouucer INA ON Wee seperevet= 0.31
‘Potash! fas. ose: 2.49 1.22 2.30 1.96 1.69 O) 333) 3.30
Sodantaeseoe 0.10 | trace trace 0.05 0.39 10 2.43
Carbonic acid .. OR OD iy aeeycaiees ON pie Cal aA Oe traces lee ec Aeece | pee evetees
Wraters.o.2..%: 5.45 OAM Pa wrath ota ciel Shere coesve.s SGI leas Neate 2ECT

“WomMlasoese 99.31 10.06 4.60 2.01 99.76 2.43 99.43

XIII. is the raw clay from the exposure furthest down stream.
It was averaged from an apparent thickness of three feet. XIV. is
the fine portion of XIII. XV. is the raw clay from the next ex-
posure above along the river bank. It represents an approximate
thickness of two and a half feet. XVI. is the fine portion of XV.
XVII. and XVIII. are the raw and washed clay from the exposure
furthest up stream, still showing the rock structure. XIX. is only
partly kaolinized rock from thesame place. These analyses nearly
all indicate the material lessening in percentage of the alkalies ef
fected by levigation.

On the west side of the northeast quarter of section 26, town 22,
range 5 east, on Mr. Canning’s land, several pits and a well have
been sunk into kaolinized rock. The decomposition did not appear
to extend to any great depth. The following are analyses:

Constituents. PRONG | RONG |S NENG PRONG
ane F

SHEED. ood 50.5 Sb BE be EE SEU bid UBIGGO ng tian IMnitre iairol Inseclactiercc Iorerscioion 54.87
DARL LITANIA RMA hy Pa te eClub tree ses, alah alle evel a.ajeyaiel|'s: oveleiel'eeleslaysrerate: ele 28 .87
Sesquioxyd of Iron..............- Mesogeon eee alleeG anes bl lgonouaoS 1.54
lPigorenaGl Gr IKON 5 sooneosD boob ovODOUDOCOdOODE oPhe Payer ovepay aval ci cuctejistotare .95
JDINIG.S Song Che eee NS haere ears literati sta tararaves lire eiaterere aleve eveeeverel= 1.62
MIGGRIGSIBS |, 5 so obo ORDA DODD ne OOO ERE e Oe IOC DO Cnn bu oooan Copm Onion .99
TPO EA © cod 5 Sate Bo Eee ODODE pee oa 1.84 2.65 2.95 2.57
SOON 3S BORo io oO OUOS CHEE RS DD De tieioerar 0.27 21 83 07
\AVattigie Ghb.Bs So's Ceara SEO tore Oo Cae ero rol Lao nomic Te QO) lis evarteyotans - 69.48

ANGeallsdoncegadcos aon oSURboREouDOcr 4.06 10.35 3.78 100.56

22 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

XX. and XXI. are crude and washed clay from Mr. Canning’s
well. XXII. and XXIII. are both washed samples, from different
pits. XXIII. was 43.39 per cent. of the unwashed clay. All of
these clays are very white, but appear to be much charged with
alkali even after washing.

On the northwest quarter of section 10, town 21, range 5 east,
on the land of Mr. Moses M. Strong, on the west bank of the river,
kaolin occurs underlying sandstone. ‘The clay shows at a number
of places at different levels above the water, but these do not prob-
ably indicate’ a continuous mass. Two samples were taken from
the opening at this place, one at a higher level than the other.
The following are analyses:

Constituents. XXIV.| XXV. | XXVI.|XXVII.
IROtaSW ere ysialesie wie eats < ein Ree en Cae 1.25 2.18 1.51 1.54
SOU: te vatatels cwiste else asld s bette eine ere ents 0.08 trace. 0.81 0.22

XXIV. and XXV.are the sameclay, before and after washing,
taken from the upper portion of the opening. XX VI. and XXVII.
are crude and washed clay from a lower level. The percentage of
alkalies does not appear to be lessened by washing.

About half a mile below this place the last Archaean rocks are
seen in the bed of the stream, and resting directly upon them the
sandstone. Sections showing the exact junction of the two ter-
ranes are common in this vicinity. A detatied section across the
river was taken at one place, the water being very low. It is an
interesting one, and I have condensed it in Fig. 2.

KAOLIN IN WISCONSIN. 93

Kaolin on Yellow River.—Kaolin is reported in quantity on Yel-
low River. The localities are above Dexterville in Wood county.
The Archaean rocks are exposed finely Si
for many miles along the bed of the |
stream. They show everywhere a ten-
dency to weather, consisting largely

71°

of a pinkish felspar. In places I no-
ticed the weathermg carried to the
condition of clay, but did not see any
of the white clay that is said to exist.

Kaolin on Black River.—On this
stream, in Jackson county, kaolin oc-
curs between Black River Falls and
Black River Station. As on the Wis-
consin, the Archaean rocks are found
here forming the bed of the stream,
the sandstone overlying them in the
banks. In many places the gneissic
rocks are decomposed. At the lower
end of the rapidsat the town of Black
River Falls, the gneisses disappear be-
neath the sandstone. A section very
like that on the Wisconsin, at Point
Bas, occurs here; and exhibits the
mode of formation of the kaolin hand-
somely.

usjony if
“ISUDOIST/| auUOISPURS Ve

AOATY
GC PLT

UID

On the west bank of the river at
Ledyard’s old mill, is a high cliff of
sandstone overlying gneiss, (Fig. 3.,) g
the exposures of both rocks extend- \&
ing seyeral hundred feet. The surface AN
of the gneiss is irregular, its de- N
pressions being filled by the over- e ‘
lymg sandstone. The gneisS is very 3

1)
1°)

/auunya

distinctly seamed—the seams striking
north 37 degrees west, (magnetic,) and
dipping southwest about sixty de-
grees—is moderately coarse, micace-
ous, and has much pinkish orthoclase felspar, which occurs some-

euoIspUuDS —

24 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCHS, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

times in nests of some size. Near the water-level the gneiss is but
little changed, but as as it is traced up to the sandstone it is found
getting more and more decomposed, until it becomes a soft, grey-
ish kaolin, retaining most markedly the laminated structure of the
eneiss.

FTE. 3
Bary j
Sandstone
cliff 20’
J
Conglomerate 8
Kaolinized rock 52

Sa \\\\ \ ne

ANY
ey

&; Quantity of kaolin obtainable in Wisconsin.—Taking the whole
district together, a very large amount of kaolin undoubtedly exists.
There is no reason why what has been seen should he all there is.
It must always however be expected that any one deposit will vary
much in character, both as to purity, and as to thickness. Num-
bers of instances came to my notice where boring showed two
feet of kaolin, and no kaolin at all, within afew feet of one another.
The fact that the kaolin is apt to occur in continuous lines will
however counter-balance the disadvantage of its lack of uniformity,
since it can be searched for with assurance of success. In my
opinion the indications are such as would warrant the outlay of
money in exploitation.

TII.—USES OF KAOLIN.

Having thus shown the existence of kaolin in Wisconsin in
quantity, it becomes pertinent to ask what it is good for. Its chief
4

KAOLIN IN WISCONSIN. BS

use has always been in the ceramic arts. It is also used to make
fire-brick and refractory vessels, and to some extent in making
alum. The two former of these uses are the important ones.

Use of kaolin in the ceramic arts —For making the finer kinds

of pottery the important qualities of the kaolin are its color after
burning; plasticity; and capacity of hardening well under heat
without fusion. The plasticity is necessary for the moulding, the
last named property for the perfect retention of the moulded form.
Pure kaolinite is almost absolutely infusible under heat, simply
losing its water and becoming an anhydrous silicate of alumina.
This refractory property is lessened by the addition of any other
bases; least by magnesia, more by lime, still more by iron oxyds,
and most by the alkalies. The table of analyses of foreign clays
given below, will serve to indicate how the Wisconsin clays rank
in this regard.
% The many kinds of clay-ware may be grouped conveniently into
the dense and porous kinds,* according to the internal texture of
the mass. Certain kinds of the dense wares are the ones for which
kaolin is chiefly used. The ordinary “true” or “hard” porcelain
consists of (1) a body of previously washed kaolin, and (2) a fusi-
ble binding material, which by its fusion fills the pores of the baked
clay and thus renders the ware homogeneous and translucent.
This binding material, or ‘‘ flux,” is composed chiefly of felspar, to
which are added other ingredients, such as quartz, gypsum, ete. In
general, the three ingredients of porcelain are kaolin, felspar and
quartz. ‘True porcelain has usually no external glaze placed upon
it, its glaze being imparted by the flux which renders it translu-
cent. To give an idea of the amount of kaolin needed in making
porcelain, I select the following admixtures used at some of the
famous Huropean manufactories:}

* Wagner’s Chemical Technology. + Knapp. Chem. app. to Arts p. 229,

26 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND.LETTERS.

s
o a g = £0
Hieila]s E
Constituents. S| ae a es 3 2 os
A ie) a 5 mm | 3
eles | 1 4 eels
= 32) - Ss o oe =
el\ei2| 2 | 2/613) 8 | &
ea |] A | Ae (eo aaa
AON 4138. cacys tise eee 7176 |72| 87 | 72 | 48/50 | 65] 40
IRE EVE GaGo Baodocapadooead0s os TUS IT O42 lth OCs eS le 12"). QDiti|sle cake aes
QuieiRid eGgccugaakenos aeoanaso5ce Oe eeallaoas Sie oe Ne piay |) DI 33
1 ihn ae eA ASG Ser oS Noch coe Ibo daloooaltar ot VE ASMA SSB Goal) sacl ose
(End GUSSsboon den odGHus0 Qos allnods\lo0 sollooaclonouce 4 5
Chalk iis 2Obs We ree anal eae dspace) [cues liaise cases 4. ||:siaverell Moneta nls
Broken ware.......... La eieres ae ltomenalnieees 9 Be ea Cm aly 5
Sand separated from kaolin.......|....|.-..|..-.|....04 -.| 48 4
POA vets Saks Geir 100 {100 |100 | 100 {100 |100 /100 |100 | 100

Kaolin is used to a considerable extent also for other dense wares
than true porcelain. In the manufacture of the so called English
or “tender” porcelain are used kaolin, plastic clay, ‘* Cornish stone, ”
burnt bones, and steatite. The ‘*Cornish stone” is the partially
weathered granite, which by its complete kaolinization affords the
famous kaolin of Cornwall.

Preparation of kaolin for porcelain making.—The crude kaolin is
always first washed to free it from quartz and felspar fragments.
This is effected by simply breaking up the clay, stirring in water,
and decanting the suspended matter. The coarse residue from
this washing is frequently of value, since it contains two essential
ingredients of the porcelain, viz. felspar and quartz.

Use of kaolin as a refractory material—As a-fire clay or for
making fire-clay articles, I cannot find that kaolinized rock has
been much used. The chief difficulties in the way of such use ap-
pear to lie in the lack of uniformity so characteristic of this kind
of deposit, and in the fact that where of fine quality the material
is too valuable for other purposes. The use of kaolinized rock from
near Trenton, New Jersey, as an ingredient of fire-bricks, has al-
ready been alluded to. The only other instance I find recorded is
that of the so-called ‘‘ Lee Moor Porcelain Brick,’ made in Deyon-
shire, England, by mixing a small quantity of inferior kaolin with
an excess of the coarse residue obtained from washing the same
kaolm. This residue consists chiefly of angular fragments of

KAOLIN IN WISCONSIN. 27

ho

quartz. The bricks are reported as of extraordinary refractoriness,
and are even compared with the famous Dinas silica bricks.

Practical suggestions as to the use of the Wisconsin kaolin to
make fire-brick.—There appears to be every reason why a kaolin
brick, if properly made, should be of unusual value. A few sug-
gestions are given here as to its manufacture. First, then, the clay
must be selected in the pit, the red and bluish portions being re-
jected. The pure white are the best kinds, whilst some of the yel-
lowish kinds are much better than they appear at first sight. After
selecting, the kaolin should always be washed, to free it from fels-
pathic particles, which contain a large amount of fluxing alkalies.
The raw clay will never prove uniform in its capacity of withstand-
ing heat. This is what theory would teach, and, as [ am informed
by Mr. J. J. Hagerman, of the Milwaukee Iron Works, is found in
practice to be the chief obstacle in the way of using the Wiscon-
sin clay. The fine clay obtained by washing should next be mixed
with a large excess of tolerably coarse angular quartz, for which
might be substituted in part, fragments of fire-brick. The mass
should now be moulded or baked carefully. In this way I am per-
suaded that an unusually good quality of biick might be prepared.
It will not do to make brick from this clay as the ordinary fire-
brick are made, on account of its extraordinary shrinkage on heat-
ing. Prepared in the manner I have suggested the kaolin brick
would far excel: ordinary fire-brick for all purposes, save where
contact with a highly basic slag is necessary, when it would be
inapplicahle on account of its high content of free silica. I might
say in this connection that a number of places exist in Wisconsin
where the quartz for mixing with the kaolin might be obtained.
I am informed that since my examination of the Grand Rapids lo-
calities, a number of fire-brick have been made without great suc-
cess, the clay being used raw and mixed with wood-ashes as a coun-
ter-shrinkage ingredient. No worse admixture, of course, could be
imagined, since the ingredient most desirable to avoid is thus di-
rectly introduced into the clay.

IV.—TABLES OF ANALYSES OF WISCONSIN AND FOREIGN KAOLINS AND
FIRE CLAYS.

These tables are given so that a comparison between the Wis-
consin clays and the already well known clays of Europe and the

28 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

United States may be readily made. The analyses in Table I of
Wisconsin kaolins are those already giyen, and have the same num-
bers as before.

In Table II., analyses J.,1L., U1.,1V., V., VI., and VIL, are taken
from the “ Geology of New Jersey, pp 683-688. J.is the average
composition of the best white clay of the Cretaceous, near South
Amboy, analyzed just as taken from the pit. II. is the clay from
Trenton, New Jersey, analyzed after washing to free from quartz
sand, also Cretaceous. III. and IV. ure clays imported from Coblentz,
Germany, for making glass-pots. V. and VI. are the St. Louis, Mo.,
glass-pot clay, raw and prepared. VII. and VIII. are New Jersey
potters-clays (Cretaceous), and undergo some vitrification on burn-
ing. Analyses IX. to XIX. are taken are taken from Percy’s Metal-
lurgy, Volume on Fuels, p. 99. IX. is a true kaolin from Pool, Dor-
setshire, used in making Cornish crucibles. X.is also a true kaolin,
from Ireland. Small crucibles made from it were kept for
hours with melted steel in them, without changing form. XI. is
also an Irish kaolin. XII. and XIII. are the finest Cornish kaolin;
analyzed by different chemists—washed before analyzing. XIV, is
the best Stourbridge fire-clay; XV. a poorer kind of Stourbridge
clay. XVI. is the best Dowlais clay; XVII. a poorer Dowlais clay.
XVIII. is a greenish kaolin, with red spots, from Neweastle, Dela-
ware; used for making glass-pots and porcelain saggars. Analyses
XIX. to XXV. are from the Indiana Geological Report for 1874.
XIX., XX., and XXT. are the Lawrence county, Indiana, porcelain
clay, analyzed raw. XXII. is from Golconda, Illinois; oceurs in
pockets in the Carboniferous rocks. XXIII, is washed Chinese
kaolin. XXIV. is washed kaolin from St. Yrieix, France. XXV. is
Missouri “ ball clay.” XX VI. and XXVII. are kaolins from Saarau,
Silesia, analysed raw and washed; quoted from the second supple-
ment to Watt’s Chemical Dictionary p. 354. In comparing the
Wisconsin clay with these foreign clays it should be borne in mind
that for porcelain making the qualities desired are whiteness after
burning and refractoriness to heat; and for making firebrick refrac-
toriness only. The coloration will increase directly with the con-
tent of oxyds of iron. The refractoriness will decrease* with the
increase of the ratio of fluxes (iron protoxyd, lime, magnesia, pot-

* Watt’s Chem. Dictionary, Second Supplament, p. 354.

KAOLIN IN WISCONSIN. 29

ash, and soda) to the silica and alumina together, and with the dec-
rease of the proportion of the alumina to the silica. Of the fluxes
the alkalies are the most, the alkaline earths the least harmful.

TasLE I1.—Wéisconsin kaolins.
(Analysed by HE. T. Sweet, M. 8.)

Constituents. Ne JOE, JY Vi. Velie) |) VUES eS TEXe: x.

Sula Revav.cccuceerssoeettesss

IROtaSh rc eeeccleeccsskoe secs

Protoxyd ef Iron.
Carbonic acid.............008

HOLE cone bepeee cere eee

Coarse sand
SHIN =CVAY ta oersis cesses se aces

Constituents. | XI. | XITIT. | XIV. | XV. | XVI. | XVID. |XVIIT.| XIX.
SITING Seasntenoa neh encene aor el nau 70.83 OE2 DY eeeeneeecee 69.3
PAV raniateee: Syicecscsaceucestiel| Covccucasese 18.98 WG Bint esses ees “19.19
Sesquioxyd of Iron........]...........- 1.24 DEB SAE eee. 1.75
Lime 03335 | eae 0.44
Magnesia EAGT |e 0.31
Potash 4 i 1.22 2.30 1.96 1.69 2.33 3.00
Soda es d i Trace | Trace 0.05 0.39 0.10 2.43
Water So OH Eee eeAM loner eepreees OS OLE | eee 2.67
TPRMGOS VG OIE LIRONT ooreiccsten | booSeeocdcos | Au@eeaooecoo| fonccon anc eal laasonoSucken |b" eeobaceces! laagmeecoocdd | |agouocbocees! | socaneinacon
(Obie S@HaI KOR YONG arreeeaoearosseol Aasoup sooo enn 770l lAsanqueoasdal eesaeeped lscddaacaceen MR eEEXeX Sin age eeeeescl debe: Baosteo

eye ei || Miee seers [bosveseeess GOTO ees acteeess 99.42

WowEseySantGicsac.ccenscccecees Sp fc [fee oe a [Reel Pepe ee a ene aie ARE ie ae
TRIG OAC? oleqcacn so W Sie RN eRe RM | ARE Bm a Bee aS een eee eececeeed| |coenoancecea! cboscceaceno) ocde ceca
PROT ch ers eee ee elle eee nal aleaics koa Mc eeat halted | Bene ay, ateal lant. Sycpea lider ctreieoni| eteemeccacrall casleeazetens

TO LOmy Avatar Omen nice in |orececey cenllbaneocve cose neesesv ees SO syoolge! 5. NOMS cl Us toa a | ee
(CRE S@TTING GiGi sen oc oateecol eoaceebeacen | Ceocneen duel leecooeecoec | Isccaaceeonen| |cscca-ecaasal lascect odesoo! esscoceedoolc-rccochec oo
MG talpewaleckse EF Pe FA tes Ee TUOLGGY Nelost ied eau cate | Opes tes | abana
Woarse Sand nee e i csce. sone al. Seal acta Eee ~ 56.61 es Sued. seteae SPA Be Gre aaitca| Deeeeeer eats [pene eees ans:
PHN = Clay, Meee ee ete eal onacesesceoslneStosccests ZIG} a ia ean see InR Ol Beeeecoscecna| lecececicceL ea
ARG alter ates vceee teers llésbasoosveseliuccestedees TUCO 00)" | cet ere aetel (ee eetecoas| UseccBeeeecral lacteooe seca |-cearéeresnd

30

WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND, LETTERS.

Taste IL—VFire-clays and kaolins from various localities.

if,

Constituents.

CoH

eaceodcee tac

Sesquiox
Lime...

why tont to

AYA AIT) Psa: Resaeeeere
Protox. Iron. ...
ZixcCON1a.. ...+-+s.
Sulphur, .........
Phosphoricacid
SMG eee agescess
Combin’d water
Hygros’pic wa’r |...
Organic matter

Total

100.00

100.32

Constituents. Ke BAIT
UMCB cota sssnceces 78 40 74.44
J nile carb eehs Sereercno 12.25 19.04
Sesquiox. [ron.. 1.30 0.61
bynes) Saa-crrcenporro 0.50 0.45
Maegnesia.........]..... 2
Potash
Soda
Wialter eo .ccses
Protox. Iron. ..

Zirconia ..........|..
Sail har ee eseescesceselllecceses
Phosphoricacid |\......::....|/...ccnenese
OATES Bee 2 ae vee it eaareeseae es
Combin’d water 5.20 5.71
ye TrOSADIChWaic las sealenssa|lesceseuesees
Oxeamichma iberiliee veces dee saseece een
Mota cceseee 98.65 | 100.59

SRST. | XSI TSG | EXSY
46.32 46.29 | 65.10
39.74 | 40.09 | 22.22

se weeceer see | weweeeeseeee

Cree

eles

Wali.

59.60
26.41
1.61
1.00
0.07
0,29
0.19
10.36

VEL. || YeEDE |) eee:
71.80 | 65.62 48.99
19.95 | 20,88 32.11

1.31 1.23 2.54
OFS seeaeaeesees 0.34
0.79 0.30 0.22
0.61 1.95 3.3

63
2.33

99.88

KY.

99.95 | 98.08'} 99.36

XVL. | XVUL XV ILE.
67.12 | 44.25 72.23
21,18} 354.75 16.75

1.85 3.41 1,29
0.32 0.34 2.00
0.84 1,18 0.07
2.02 5

Constituents. | XIX. | XX.
SHU rcnncbecs 45.90 47.05
Alumina.......... 40.34 37.14
Sesquiox. Iron..}......... trace

UMN eee coca eee trace
Magnesia.........| .ccccacee ; 0.03
Potashy teense
Soda Mv es Mere ol Neer ters ee es scence noe
IWiaiber is ctectere: sce 13.26 | 15.55
POLO Xe PUOM erase beret altace ol. ceece

Zireouia....
Sulphur...

Phosph’ric acid
Sardseae eee ,
Combin’d water |.
Hygros’pic wa’r |.
Organic matter

99.50

XXII.
47.13 42.28 50.50
36.76 43.05 33.70
traAce:|| Pees 1.80
0,04 | trace 0.80
Peeerrrcel oecelccca 1.90
15.13 14.66 11.22

XXVIJXXVIT

48.37 | 65.69 | 19.99 45.39
34.95 | 24.87 | 17.31 39.34
1.26 2.54 0.56 1.23
DAD ae vasetaaes 0.46 1.04
12.62 | 16.60 5.70 12.95

99.91 | 100.00

SScuxx

——s

LZ cM. & St.P Raitway
e
\
i) y,
? h
a
a, |
& .
Pas) “o }
6 a z j
Abe a 2
ot a : oS
ms
wm adh %6
= \ oO Sir,
N}),
,,
(POLE >
5) \
ae ‘\ ind B
me : A
SP? fs
<a
} PP PSS
=I \ ate aa \
Scale

Two utes to
one jiile

OCONOMOWOC LAKE, ETC. dl

OCONOMOWOC LAKE, AND OTHER SMALL LAKES OF
WISCONSIN, CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO
THEIR CAPACITY FOR FISH-PRODUCTION.

BY I. A. LAPHAM.

The Oconomowoc Lake in Waukesha county, on the line of the
Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway, is one of those beauti-
ful sheets of clear, cold water that may be taken as a type or repre-
sentative of hundreds of others within the State of Wisconsin. A
few facts and observations in regard to this lake may therefore be
of interest to the Fish Commissioners, and to all who desire to en-
courage the increase of fish-production. .

As shown upon the plats of the government land surveys, it has
a length of two miles; breadth, three-fourths of a mile; a shore
line of six and a half miles; covering an area of 830 acres, or one
and three-tenths square miles.

Its elevation above Lake Michigan, as ascertained many years
ago, in making the survey of the Milwaukee and Rock River
Canal, is two hundred and eighty-two feet. Its irregular form ean
best be seen by reference to the accompanying chart.

The Oconomowoc River, a small stream which is the outlet of
several other lakes, enters it on the north shore and leaves it at the
northwest corner. So irregular is the shape of this lake that it
might be taken to illustrate geographical terms, as gulf, bay, point,
cape, promontory, peninsula; it has also straits, channels, bars,
shoals and its coast-line. :

The banks of the lake consist mostly of high grounds which are
selected as sites of beautiful, often costly residences, which, especi-
ally when duplicated by reflection from the smooth surface of the
water, form landscapes worthy of the pencil of the painter.

The lines of figures on the accompanying chart show the depth
of the water as measured in 1875. They indicate three principal
depressions, the deepest being 66 feet,* the mean of all the sound-
ings is 39 feet.

* The greatest depths measured in other lakes in the vicinity were:

Fest. Feet.
Bile ovyic Kieilnaenneteamen cate Out UPS ee sot bay HOOP ilbar ellen ee acer oe code. o ecco varesaranendce 45
Upper Nashotah ...... ney DOM MOU Vex Wal Ovccksssusacascetuwessaccseccoccussecee uence 4)
Lower Nashotah...... 5 HOM We Wiper Geese: src cnsascneecsstcssasneseeesee 39
IPE EUR GT a as pe Mk Sau nies ER re SOM Powers aM aMDIT seta cecsserstereserctceesustnce 3

32 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

e

There are several shoals with from two to six feet depth of water.

There is no deposit of mud or sand brought into the lake by the
river; the water-supply both from the river and from the numerous
springs on the shore, being always clean and pure. One of these
springs on the south shore, known by its Indian name Minnewoe,
(place of waters,) has been analyzed by Mr. G. Bode, of Milwaukee,
Chemist of the Wisconsin Geological Survey, with the following
result:

Chloride of sodiuiinas ci. 0 5 2 ee SR ale ae ate wave ere toieia ie colt cio Sie Se ee ee 0.129
Sulphate;of soda. i. 278. .4) oe, ciyeias Miele isles telbtesete = nis isles ele et Ge 0.627
Bicarbonate of soda, x, 2 0 2i...0 Sakacis tre treo eikonal etoichoee i eee Ee 1.041
Bicarbonate otdime? ce ovacseen eee one Ae Aros Coc 9.638
Bicarbonate of maenesia 5b. o. bse icinielsls wlcseie' © « Fieqere eialsl sein. «cle eee 6.138
Bicarbonate of irom .2 5 ./fs 0s3 gore ys. ces ae Oe ele eile Moiese ene aE EE 0.129
ATMA. 6 ca bree sie avg id A eclosrels Shelton hile Detect Ee Bhat Ac 0.067
Sili Gaeta en Cape ine aoe eee Vic eRe A ee 0.879

Total i(grains in‘one gallom) <2 cams cic ecoye eke elles oe aero eee 18.648

It will be seen that the chief ingredients, asin most Wisconsin
waters, are lime or magnesia, derived doubtless directly from the
magnesian limestone rocks and pebbles buried beneath the soil.
This analysis also shows that the water does not differ essentially
from those having great reputation for their medicinal virtues.

The lime from the springs is deposited, under favorable cireum-
stances, upon the bottom of the lake forming beds of pure white
marl; a process which is materially assisted by the secretions of
mollusks aud aquatic plants, especially the chara and alge.

The temperature of the water, being an important item in fish
culture, was taken at different times near the surface, where it had
considerable depth, with the followiug result: :

Ma NT yeep jotta esses Akt Oe Ok 20 ae a ee 41° Fahr.
ST ra FYING He acssde cE: Need ais 2 sven n wie tn ie oloeeas ee G3
a diallyaeeeei bees cles cette fsck ee a eee decom Gon Poe ee
Tin GAUGUSheN octet ieelete le vest e baie ss s+ ce ete eh eee ener (pay ee
In ‘Septemiber eee sumtin: vo el. aon tan eee cA Ree Marerntee ieee a teiate ater 72

Imt@ctobern Sir eee ee

Or
(Jy)

i ee cy

An attempt was naade to find the temperature at the bottom in
deep water and resulted in showing at some times no differences, at
other times one or two degrees warmer or colder; though the deep

OCONOMOWOC LAKE, ETC. 33

water is popularly believed to be much colder than that at the
surface.

The strong wind blowing over the lake causes a surface current
which must be balanced by a counter current below, and thus by a
constant interchange of water equalizes the temperature. If the
day is warm with but little wind, the surface water will become
the warmest; at night the surface cools down so that in the early
morning it is colder than at the bottom.

The deep-water fishes do not, therefore, seek that locality on ac-
count of diminished temperature.

Mne lake is said to have remained open nearly all winter; the
cold weather having been accompanied by high wind, which pre-
vented the water from freezing.

When the surface is once covered with ice the currents cease,
and ice 1s formed of great depth and of crystal transparency and
purity.

The temperature of the spring-water along the shores remain
nearly uniform throughout the year, varying from 47 to 49 degrees,
which is not far from the mean temperature of this locality.

The currents caused by the wind blowing over the surface of the
lake, act upon the bottom and shores, causing abrasious at some
places and accumulations at others, very much as by the larger
currents of the ocean. This is quite apparent at two points on the
channel between the lake and the large bay at the northeast angle.
The current flowing into the bay from the lake causes an eddy at
these points from which are deposited long narrow bars projecting
from the shore. This channel it will be seen is quite narrow and
the water in it shallow.

These currents also cause accumulations of beach sand and
gravel at certain points along the shore; separating and assorting
the material upon a small scale, precisely as is done on a larger
scale by the currents in the great lakes, and in the ocean.

While white shell marl is accumulating in some portions of the

Sy AS

34 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

lake, soft muck resulting from the annual decay of aquatic vege-
tation is accumulating in others. Some of the lakes, especially
those not connected with a stream of running water, are thus be-
coming rapidly filled with marl and peat, causing changes that be-
come apparent after long intervals of time. Some small shallow
lakes have thus been changed to meadows within the recollection
of the first settlers of the county only 38 years ago.

The government plats represent some lakes in 1835, which are
now only known as marshes or wet meadows. One called “ Soft
Water Lake,” was a clean sheet of water only four years ago, but is
now nearly covered with the leaves of the yellow pond lily (Nu-
phar) and other water plants. Soon if will cease to be known as a
lake.

There are also some changes of the level of some of these lakes,
indicating a less amount of water than formerly. Sand bars for-
merly covered with water are now dry, and in one case the bar extends
quite across the lake, thus dividing it into two. Another proof of
a diminished supply of water is afforded by the occurrence of an-
cient beaver dams in places where no pond could be formed at the
present time, for want of running water.

The time may come when by the use of some simple, easily worked
dredge, the marl, and muck may be removed from the bottom of
some of the more important of these lakes, to be used as a fertilizer
of the neighboring farms; especially as the beauty of the lakes
would be increased by deepening the water, and by the consequent
removal of the unsightly vegetable growth along their shallow
margins.

Ice ridges are formed at certain places around the shore, some of
them double, or triple, and varying in height up to ten feet. These
ridges are formed by the expansion of the ice during the winter,
pushing the materials of the beach in-land. They consist of sand,
gravel, or boulders; in the latter case they constitute the so-called
‘walled lakes.” If the banks are high and steep at the edge of the
water, no ridge can be formed, but wherever low grounds or marshes
approach the lake, they may be looked for. Where springs enter
the lake, no ridges are formed, the water remaining above the freez-
ing point all winter. Trees are often found with their roots crowded
inland by the ice-expansion; their tops leaning over the water.
These ridges make excellent road-beds, and are often used for that
purpose.

OCONOMOWOC LAKE, ETC. 35

The ancient mound-builders, that mysterious people who pre-
ceded the present Indian races, once occupied the banks of these
lakes as is clearly shown by their numerous works; and they prob-
ably derived no inconsiderable portion of their subsistence from fish.
No shell-heaps have been found to indicate their use of the abund-
ance of Unio and Anodons found in these lakes. The works of the
mound-builders are rapidly disappearing, being levelled by the plow
of the farmer.

Besides the Unios, these lakes abound in other bivalve and uni-
valve mollusks; crustaceans and worms, and the larve of insects
appear in wonderful numbers. These, with the innumerable min-
nows found in shallow waters, afford at all times an abundant
supply of food for the larger fishes. Loons, geese. ducks, gulls,
plover, and many other birds swim upon the waters or wade along
the margin.

Among the fishes to be found are the following:

Peroux, Perca flayescens, Cuvier.

WALL-EYED Pixz, Lucoperea americana.

Srrirep Bass, Roccus chrysops, Girary.

Rock Bass.

Stone-Roiuer, Htheostonia.

Brack Bass, Micropluas nigricans, Agassiz.

Sun-FisH, Pomotis.

PUMPKINSEED.

SHINER.

SHEEPHEAD, Haploidonotus grunnieus.

SrickLE-BACK, Applissinconstans, Kirtland.

PICKEREL, Hsox, Lesueur.

Sisco, Argysosomus sisco, Jordan Am. Nat,, 1875, p. 185, Ind.
Geol. rep. 1875, p. 190.

Sucker, Catastomus.

Rep-Horssg, Plychostonus.

Cat-FIsH, Amiurus catus, Cuvier.

Buri-Heap.

Biiu-F isu, Lepidosteus oxyurus, Rafinesque.

The Salmon and Brook-trout are reared artifically, and have been
introduced into some of the lakes.
Young salmon (Salmo salar) and the brook-trout_ (5. fontinalis,)

36 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

have been introduced into this lake, but so far as known they have
not increased. '

From the data given above one will be able to decide whether it
would be advisable for the State to attempt to stock this lake with
fish; and if so, the kinds best adapted to the conditions named.

The natural supply of fish has been drawn upon so heavily that
the present yield is quite small, compared with what it was a dozen
or more years ago; and hence the necessity of some effort for the
restoration of the supply of the better kinds.

oo
co |

FISH-CULTURE.

FISH-CULTURE.
BY P. R. HOY, M. D., RACINE.

Jt is of the first importance to ascertain the nature of the water
which we desire to stock with fish, its depth, temperature and
chemical character; also, the nature of the bottom, and of the shore,
how supplied, and what becomes of the surplus water; what species
of fish, crustacea, mollusks, annelida, and insect larvae are found
in the water and in the mud of the bottom; what ‘aquatic plants
are found growing in the water, and on the margin of the lake,
pond or stream. An intelligent answer to these several interroza~
tiyes would furnish data, that will enable us to escape the danger
of certain failure. For it is evident to the most careless, that these
conditions should agree with the iustincts, habits, and way of life
of the animals to be developed there. The neglect to observe, or
properly appreciate these natural conditions has, in many instances,
been the cause of total failure of fish culture, even when in other
respects, the men have been skillful pisciculturists. All our lakes
should be surveyed in the most careful manner, under the supervis-
ion of men fitted for such investigations. ‘The paper prepared by
the lamented Dr. Lapham, on Lake Oconomowoc, is a model in al-
most all points. It only remains for us to dredge the bottom in
order to secure the lower forms of life, to ascertain their species and
abundance, so that in all future time it can be known to a scientific
certainty what valuable species of fish will thrive in its waters.

What species of fish are best to cultivate in order to stock our
hundreds of small inland lakes? This is a question of great mo-
ment, and one that should be answered with caution in any given
case. I will however in a general way state a few of the species
that will be suitable for many of these charming sheets of water.

W hite-fish.—The genus Coregonus includes the true white-fish of
the great lakes. They may be known by their blunt nose and
short underjaw. These fish are, undoubtedly, superior as an arti-
cle of diet to any other fresh-water fish. They feed on small crus-

38 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

tacea and occasionally on the larve of insects. Whether this fish
will thrive in any of these smaller lakes is still doubtftl. How-
ever, it is worth the trial surely. The genus Argyrosomus includes
those smaller species of whitefish, having a sharp nose and project-
ing underjaw. There are atleast four species known, three of them
are found only in the largest lakes. The fourth, the Sisco, inhab-
its several of the smaller lakes. There is at least one species, the Lake-
herring, a. cluperiformis, that can be transferred to all of those lakes
where the Sisco is now found. All of these small whitefish take the
baited hook at certain seasons of the year. The other two species
inhabit the profound depths of Lakes Michigan and Superior, and will
not flourish if taken from these waters. ‘The Salmon trout—-Sal-
mo namaycush is one of the largest and best of the fresh
water salmon; a species that is one ot the easiest to propagate ar-
tificially, the egg being large and hardy. We have many lakes,
undoubtedly, where this great gamefish would multiply and be at
home. Why should we be running after strange gods, when we
have such a treasure at home? At Racine and Milwaukee the egg
can be procured in any numbers desired.

The so-called brook-trout (Salmo fontinalis) are just the thing
for ponds supplied by free flowing springs of pure cold water. For
this purpose they have no equal, bnt it is probable that it would be
hardly expedient to use this species for stocking public waters.
There is a species of salmon that has lost the instincts of its
distant relation, the salmo salor, so that it has no longer a de-
sire to visit the ocean. The ‘“ land-locked salmon” (Salmo sebago)
is not quite one half as large as the salmon trout, butis an excellent
game fish; one that will thrive inanumber of the lakes. We have quite
a number now in the State of Wisconsin, and hope soon to be able to
stock some of the lakes with this fish. The black bass (Micropterus
nigricans and M. Salmoides), ave excellent fish, but difficult to
propagate in consequence of their eggs having a mucous coat that
causes them to adhere in packets. There is an interesting paper
published in the U. 8. Fish Commissioners Report, for 1872 and
1878, on page 567, by Rudolph Hessel, of Germany, ‘On methods
of treating adhesive eggs of certain fishes in artificial propagation.”
Hessel, it is hoped, has struck the right method, and we hope that
in a short time we shall be able to propagate bass, and especially
the European Carp, (Cyprinus carpio and other species) which de-

FISH-CULTURE. 39

posits her eggs on the underside of submerged aquatic plants, only
an inch or two under the surface of the water. The Carp is extre-
mely tenacious of life, but flourishes in shaliow lakes with muddy
bottom and partly filled with vegetation. We have numerous lakes
of this discription where the bass will not thrive, but where all
the conditions are favorable for the healthy development of the
Carp. I look with great hope in that direction. Prof. Baird will
secure abundance of Carp spawn as soon as it is proven that we can
manage them artificially. When you can go with hook and line
and bag ten pound specimens of that most desirable fish, the carp,
then you will feel like thanking the men who have so persistently
persevered in investigating every condition that can secure benefits
so great. These waters that now produce so slender a supply of
ordinary fish, then will teem with the best; such as but few men
can now afford to eat.

AQ) WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.

BY E. T. SWEET, M. S.
Assistant on the Geological Survey of Wisconsin.

During the summer months of 1873 and 1875, I was occupied,
mainly in northern and northwestern Wisconsin, assisting in the
prosecution of the field-work of the State Geological Survey. The
greater part of the season of 1873 was devoted to an examination of
the Penokie Iron Range, including incidental observations upon the
geology of Ashland county, under the direction of Professor Ir-
ving. Late in the season I received instructions from our la-
mented chief geologist, Dr. Lapham, to examine and report upon
the ‘Copper Ranges ” of Douglas county. My visit to the northern
part of the State during the season of 1875 consisted of a reconnoi-
sance of northern Wisconsin, under the direction of Dr. Wight,
the State Geologist. Canoe-trips were made from St. Croix Falls,
nearly to the source of the St. Croix river; from the head of the
Chippewa river to Chippewa Falls; from Jenny up the Wisconsin
and Pelican Rivers, and from Post Lake down the Wolf River to
Shawano. The total distance traveled by the party, during two
months, mainly upon these streams, was about 700 miles.

The main results obtained in Ashland and Douglas counties the
first season, have already been made public by Professor Irving,
through the second volume of the Transactions of the Academy. I
wish to call particular attention to the Professor’s paper on ‘* Some
Points in the Geology of Northern Wisconsin,” and to the conclu-
sions reached by him; for, in many respects, this paper may be con-
sidered merely a supplement to that. His general conclusions will
be accepted and quoted without reiterating the proof upon which
they are based. Several points alluded to in his paper, I wish to
still further elaborate in connection with the presentation of facts
which were observed for the first time during the reconnoissance.
In this paper I shall especially discuss the main features in the ge-
ology of the region immediately bordering the St. Croix river from
St. Croix Falls to the head of that stream, and shall also frequently

GEOLOGY OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN. 41

refer to other localities in northern Wisconsin and Michigan, in
order to present new facts, or to quote those already known, which
bear upon points in the geology of the above mentioned district.

Four great geological formations are represented in northern
Wisconsin.

1. Granitic and gneissic rocks supposed to be the equivalents of
the Canadian Laurentian.

2. The Huronian magnetic schists, quartzites slates and diorites-

3. A great variety of rocks lithologically distinct, among which
are diabase, melaphyres, porphyries, conglomerates, shales and sand -
stones, known as the Copper Bearing Series.
4. The Lower Silurian Sandstones.

Of these formations, the Laurentian and Huronian are not known
to occur in the vicinity of the St. Croix River. The first proba-
bly will not be found nearer than twenty-five or thirty miles to the
St. Croix, while the existence of the second, as shown below, may
be proven much closer to that stream.

1. Laurentian.—The rocks of this, the most ancient geological
age of which we have any knowledge, although very interesting to
the geologist, are in northern Wisconsin of comparatively little
importance. In this state we have no evidence of the occurrence
of useful minerals in these rocks,in anything like workable quan-
tities. Gold, however, has been reported in very small quantities
from Oconto county. Professor Irving reports traces of gold
and silver in quartz from Clark county, which is probably of this
age. The Laurentian rocks are usually granites, passing tnrough
the fine and medium grained to very coarse grained varieties.
Rocks of this age, with a single exception, were found to occur the
entire distance passed over in the reconnaissance of the Chippewa,
Wisconsin, Pelican and Wolf Rivers. Upon the Chippewa and
and Wisconsin Rivers, numerous exposures of syenitic and horn-
blende rocks occur interstratified with granite aud gneiss rocks.
The bedding of the strata along these streams can usually be deter-
mined with a great degree of certainty. A remarkable uniformity
in the strike of the rocks of this region has been proven to exist.
There is scarcely an exposure along the banks of the Chippewa or
Wisconsin upon which the strike can be made out, that does not
fall within the are included between north sixty degrees east and.

49 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

east and west. The dip is always at a high angle either to the
north or south.

The Laurentian rocks of Wolf River are very uniform in charac-
ter. From Post Lake to Keshena, a distance of about seventy-five
miles, the rocks are all exceedingly coarse grained feldspathic gran-
ite. The erystals of orthoclase are often several inches across.
Biotite, a variety of black mica, appears to be a characteristic of
these rocks. At localities it is the exclusive variety of mica found.
At Post Lake dam, on section 9, town 33, range 12 east, a ledge of
hornblendic schist gives a strike of north, fifty degrees east. With
this exception no undoubted strike or dip was observed in the rocks
in the vicinity of Wolf River. A few miles above Keshena the sur-
face of the granitic fields has been worn by glacial action into
knolls and knobs which present the characteristic appearance of
‘Roches Montonnees.” Large boulders of uniform, coarse grained
granite are of frequent occurrence in the channel of Wolf river
from Post Lake dam to Keshena. Many boulders also, of immense
size have been transported from this region, far to the southward,
aud deposited in Waushara and adjoining counties.

2. Huronian.—Several new and interesting points showing the re-
lationship between the Laurentian and Huronian formations were
observed at Penokie Gap, by Mr. C. E. Wright, of Marquette, Mich-
igan, and myself, during the season of 1875. Wespent nearly three
days at the “ Gap” and succeeded in making several important ad-
ditions to the geological section of the ‘“‘ Range,” taken two years
before at that point, by Professor Irving and myself. The section
referred to accompanies Professor irving’s manuscript report on
the Penokie Range now in the office of the Secretary of State. It
extends from the fine grained white quartz and siliceous slates on
the south to the massive diorites on the north, a distance across the
formation, at right angles to the dip, of about four thousand feet.
Mr. Wright and myseif extended this southward a short distance to
the Laurentian gneiss and granite, and northward over two thou-
sand feet, probably to the lowest member of the Copper-Bearing
Series.

' The juuction between the Laurentian and Huronian isin the
southern part of section 14, town 44, range 3 west. At this point
Bad River passes through a narrow gorge having nearly vertical
walls on either side. In the left or northern wall of the gorge, fine

GEOLOGY OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN. 43

grained white quartz with a vitreous coating and slaty siliceous
schist occur, showing a strike nearly east and west, and dip of sixty-
six degrees to the north. The quartz represents the lowest mem-
ber of the Penokie system examined by the party in 1873. Upon
examining the opposite wall of the gorge siliceous marble was dis-
covered for the first time to be one of the beds of the Penokie sys-
tem, lying below the iron bearing beds.* A similar arrangement
has long been known to exist in the Huronian of the Marquette
district, which has led to the suspicion of its existence in Wiscon-
sin. The thickness of the siliceous marble is about fifty feet. It
is usually fine grained and grayish in color. Small erystals of eal-
cite and dolomite however can be observed irregularly disseminated.
An analysis of a specimen taken from the ledge afforded me the fol-
lowing result:

Percent.

Gampomareno lle muy is recent My ape: avieteveun oksiei eou@ievae slate ace aueteze revere Stay/eneid sya ies 50.52
Se AG OM HUE RO He VIL OMCSIA a ot leleie ey sueve to cl cistelcis/eleleic)c ete/als) oy aio\s eis/ers's sala tip injnels 33.41
insoluble victors orto ytrs ahs elo cctetecetareea cove din ccaletaleralereie dia coy gaatoriocetaes| enavonets 13.85
Oszicle OF Iitarthes Sood cig Hee SO OER EOSIN OCCUR SRR Racha coi cicie penn eae 1.70
IM IGetermiimedyecust cranes tore atuie wih revelomre ale orateveea o:alov ote leva: suecaiclehele) Sieleloieteamrenerneans 52
ANOLE bon eles Site dta Aida Ba Soi Se DEORE ICRC PRO AIO TORO ene RCP eR ea 100.00

The analysis shows that the proper name for the rock is siliceous
dolomitic marble. In the Marquette region the Morgan furnace
limestone but very little purer than this has been extensively used
as a flux. One hundred feet southeast from the exposure of sil-
iceous marble, there is a large ledge of gneissoid granite showing a
well defined dip of seventy-seven degrees to the south, and strike
of north, seventy-five degrees west. In following the strike west,
one passes within twenty-five feet of the outcrop of siliceous mar-
ble which has a northerly dip. Between one and two hundred
feet south, on the line of the railroad, other large exposures of
gneissoid granite are found having essentially the same bedding as
that mentioned above. When the railroad cutis completed at this
locality, the absolute junction of the Laurentian and oyerlying
Huronian will doubtless be exposed. There can be no doubt of the
unconformability of these formations, approaching each other as

* J will say in this connection that the facility for making observations at this lo-
eality have been greatly increased since Professor Irving’s examination of the ‘* Gap.”
Excavations have been made at the gorge for a railroad bridge and the earth and
roots which formerly overhung the face of the wall removed. The rocks are now
plainly exposed aad. are easily accessible.

-

pa WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

they do with a persistent opposite dip and somewhat different strike.
Unconformability has been shown to exist between the Laurentian
and Huronian in Michigan, but this is the first time that it has
been proven in Wisconsin. Northward from the granites the sec-
tion has been completed for over sixteen hundred feet. In this
space are included two ‘magnetic ore” beds, the southern one
hundred and thirty and the northern over five hundred feet thick.
Directly above or north from the northern ‘‘ ore ” bed there isa
space of fourteen hundred feet upon which exposures have not been
found. Above this blank, recent railroad excavations enabled Mr.
Wright and myself to subdivide and extend the belt of four hun-
dred feet, supposed to be the uppermost member of the Penokie sys-
tem, into: a. siliceous schists, one hundred feet; b. blank, (Bad River,)
seventy-five feet; c. contorted black slate, two hundred and fifty feet;
d. diorites, seventy-five feet; and e. black porphyritic slates, fifty feet.

Owing to the heavy deposits of drift we were unable to find expos-
ures for thirteen hundred feet north from the black porphyritic slates.

We then found what are probably the latest beds of the Huronian
formation, g. black slate, forty feet ,h. quartzite, about two hundred
and fifty feet, 1. slaty amygdaloid seventy-five feet.

The thickness of the formation, I estimate at something over five-
thousand feet. The dip is about sixty-six degrees to the north
showing entire conformability throughout.

Tt will be observed from this brief outline of the geological sec-
tion at Penokie Gap, that there are two important belts left blank.
There is no attraction of the needle upon either, which would lead
one to suspect the presence of magnetic deposits. But the red or
hematite ores have no influence on the magnetic needle, they are
soft and easily worn away,and never outcrop naturally in the Mar-
quette region. Consequently although not exposed on the Penokie
range they may yet be found in one of these blank spaces. Represen-
tatives of most of the beds of the Marquette system occur at Penokie
gap. This is a strong argument in favor of the existence of the
soft or hematite ores in the unexplored belts of the Wisconsin Hu-
ronian.

An accurate geological section ought to be constructed entirely
across the Penokie Range at some point fromthe granites on the
south to the undoubted Copper-Bearing Series on the north, even

GEOLOGY OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN. 45

should it be found necessary to do a little testpitting in order to ex-
pose representatives of each member of the system.

A new quartzite locality was discovered on section 6, town 382,
range 6, west, during the descent of the Chippewa. It forms a hill
about three hundred feet in height, and three or four miles in cir-
cumference. The lowest stratum of the formation is reddish met-
amorphic conglomerate, having a thickness of three hundred feet.
The pebbles are seldom over an inch in diameter and are either jas-
per or amorphous quartz. The matrix consists of reddish grains
of quartz. Above the conglomerate is a bed of reddish quartzite
four hundred feet thick. The grains of quartz of which the layers
are composed are much more distinct than in specimens of quartzite
from the Baraboo Hills of Sauk county. Also the rock has a much
deeper red color than most of the Sauk county quartz. A depres-
sion in the side hill one thousand feet across, comes in above this
quartzite upon which exposures were not found. The space is
probably occupied by some softer rock than quartzite. Above this
arises the main hill of quartzite. In every respect the rock is sim-
ilar to that mentioned above. The entire thickness of the forma-
tion is not far from five thousand feet. Both the conglomerate
and quartzite are distinctly and heavily bedded. Thestrike is north
twelve degrees, west, and the dip sixty degrees to the west. Care-
ful observations were taken with the dip compass, and also with
the magnetic needle, with a view to discovering magnetic ore de-
posits. No undue attraction, however, was observed.

One and three-quarters miles from the exposures of quartzite,
syenitic granites which may be assumed Laurentian in age, were
found in the banks of the Chippewa striking north, fifty degrees
east, and dipping high to the north. From the persistency of the
strike here and at Little Falls, two miles below, it may be assumed
that the quartzites and conglomerates unconformably overlie the
Laurentian granites and syenites.

No evidences were observed along the Wolf River, of the crossing
of that stream by the Huronian.

3. Copper-bearing serics—The only examinations upon the
Copper-Bearing Series during the reconnaissance, were made i
the ascent of the St. Croix River. At St. Croix Falls there are sev-
eral well defined ridges of Copper-Bearing rocks trending east north
east. It is not known, however how far to the eastward they ex-

46 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

tend. Neither has their relationship to the Lake Superior Copper-
Bearing System yet been made out. The bedding,if it exists, is
very indistinct. Across the formation at right angles to the ap-
parent strike, the distance is between four and five miles. In lith-
ological character the rock differs from any I have noticed in the
Lake Superior region. lt is usually very fine grained, dark gray
in color, and is apparently made up of feldspar, hornblende and
quartz. Some varieties are porphyritic, other amygdaloidal. At
the falls and dalles of the St. Croix these rocks are largely exposed.
A mine at Taylov’s Falls, near the dalles, has been worked to a con-
siderable extent in this rock for metallic copper. It is said en-
couraging results have been obtained.

After leaving the St. Croix Falls range, nothing more is seen of
the copper-bearing rocks along the river to a point thirty miles
north from the Falls. A short distance north of the mouth of
Snake River Cupriferous rocks again come in. They are mainly
melaphyrs and amygdaloids, and are overlaid by horizontal beds of
light colored Potsdam sandstone. A few miles to the north, con-
glomerates and reddish shales conformably overlie the Cupriferous
strata. The dip, so far as can be made out, is slight, and to the
northwest. The conglomerate is heavily bedded, but does not cover
the melaphyrs and amygdaloids at all points. It appears rather to
fill pockets and depressions in the underlying rocks than to be intr-
stratified with them. The pebbles of the conglomerate are usually
very large, some of them being over a foot in diametor. ‘They
have all evidently been derived from the underlying Cupriferous
rocks. The matrix consists of reddish grains of quartz, similar to
the Lake Superior sandstone. A short distance above the mouth
of Kettle River, the most northern exposure of the Kettle Riyer
range is found. Across the formation at right angles to its trend,
the distance is four and one half miles. Copper has been discovered
and locations have been marked upon this range near the St. Croix
River. The conglomerates and shales associated with the melaphyrs
and amygdaloids of the Kettle River range occupy the same strati-
grapical position, and are in every respect, except in the degree of
inclination, similar to those of the copper range of Ashland county,
exposed on Bad River at the mouth of Tylers’ Fork. On Bad
River the dip is nearly vertical to the northwest, while on the St.
Croix it is but a few degrees in the same direction. Between these

GEOLOGY OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN. 47

localities the upper conglomerates and sandstones accompanying
the Copper-Bearing series have not been seen. For asserting that
they are the representatives of each other—I have among others,
the following reasons:

1. Cupriferous strata have been traced uninterruptedly from the
extreme end of Keweenaw Point to Long Lake in Bayfield county
a distance of over 200 miles. The apparent thickness of the for-
mation is never less than 20,000 feet, and is often even 60,000 feet.
Fifteen miles west from Long Lake, Dr. Wight found the Cuprifer-
ous series represented at the Hau Claire Lakes. From here, in the same
general southwesterly direction, the distance to the out-crops on the
St. Croix is about 60 miles. Exposures of “trap-rocks,” have been re-
ported by explorers at numerous localities between the two points.
There can be no doubt then, that the Kettle River Range is merely
a westward prolongation of, and is directly connected with, the
“mineral range ” ot Keweenaw Point, upon which the most famous
copper mines of the world are located. From facts which have
been obtained mainly from explorers, and also from Dr. Owen’s re-
port, I am satisfied that the range extends forty or fifty miles into
Minnesota before it is covered by later strata.

2. The region has been very little examined, and the conglomer-
ates might escape observation.

3. There is probably a gradual thinning out of the conglomer-
ates towards the west. At the mouth of the Montreal River, the
conglomerates and interstratified sandstones and shales havea thick-
ness of 10,000 feet, while on Bad River, but eighteen miles to the
west, the exposed thickness is but a few hundred feet. On the St.
Croix River the thickness is still less. Owing to this thinning out
they have been largely removed by erosion.

Northeast from the Kettle River range there is a space of forty
miles along the St. Croix River, although only about four miles at
right angles to the trend of the formations, upon which rocks in
place were not observed. At Sawyer’s dam, on section 16, towa
49, range 14, west, southward dipping sandstones and shales were
found. For fourteen miles along the stream, in a southeast direc-
tion, the strike and dip are very persistent. The strike corrected
for variation is north sixty degrees east, and the dip fourteen de-
erees to the southeast. The greatest horizontal distance across the
formation is three miles. A trigonometrical calculation therefore

48 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

gives 3,949 feet for the thickness of the bed. The sandstone is red-
dish, fine grained and argillaceous. Flakes and concretions of in-
durated reddish clay are of frequent occurrence in the layers. The
most northern exposure is near Chase’s dam on section 36, town
44, range 13, west. Above here, on the St. Croix, no rock in place
has been found. Two localities of southward dipping sandstone
are known in Ashland county —the first at Lehigh’s, on Bad
River, where the thickness is 2,000 feet, and the second twelve
miles southwest from Lehigh’s—at Welton’s, on White River—
where only a few huudred feet are exposed. Owen, in an old execu-
tive document, reports southward dipping sandstone, at the head
of White River, twenty miles still farther southwest. From here
it is only 32 miles in the direction of the general trend of the for-
mation to the southward dipping sandstones of the St. Croix, at
Chase’s dam. It is therefore probable that the bed extends entirely
across the State from the St. Croix River to Lake Superior, enter-
ing the Lake at the mouth of the Montreal River. Owen reports
southward dipping sandstones in Minnesota, on Kettle River, six
miles above the falls of that stream. These exposures may be a
westward continuation of the same bed.

The southward dipping sandstones and shales, form with the
northward dipping sandstones, shales and conglomerates, a syncli-
nal extending entirely across the State, the opposite edges of which
approach on the west within four miles of each other, but on the
east are separated by eight or nine miles. From this fact and oth-
ers to be given, the conclusion may be assumed that the northward
and southward dipping beds are the equivalents of each other. As
both are largely represented on Bad River, and, moreover, as it was
upon that stream that the southward dipping bed was first ob-
served, I propose the name of Bad River sandstone for these, the
upper beds of the copper-bearing , Series.

4.Lake Superior sandstone This term is generally employed
to designate the reddish aluminous sandstones which nearly eyery-
where border the south shore of Lake Superior. They also form
the basement rock of the Apostle Islands. They have never been
found in a tilted conditiony The interesting question of their age
has been ably discussed by numerous writers upon the geology of
Lake Superior. Without commenting upon the opinions which
have been advocated upon this subject, some referring them to the

GEOLOGY OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN. 49

‘Triassic, others to the Potsdam, we may regard the question as defi-
nitely settled by the investigations of Dr. Rominger, of the Mich-
igan Geological Survey, and others, that they are the downward
continuation of the light colored Potsdam sandstones of the Mis-
sissippi valiey. No fosils have ever been obtained from these sand-
stones. In the eastern part of the upper peninsula of Michigan
they are found directly underlying light colored sandstones and
Calciferous strata. A large area of Lake Superior sandstone ex-
tends southwesterly from Keweenaw Bay nearly to the Montreal
River. The distance from the western end of this area to the ex-
posures of horizontal red sandstone on the Wisconsin shore of
Lake Superior is about 30 miles. From their proximity to each
other, and also from a similarity in lithological characters,and in
stratigraphical relations to the underlying formations, it may be
asserted that the red sandstones Skirting the lake shore from near
Ashland to the St. Louis River, at the western end of the lake, and
those of the Apostle Islands, are of the same age as those east of
Keweenaw Point.

Upon the St. Croix River the Lake Superior sanestone does not
occur. Only the light colored Potsdam and Bad River sandstones
are represented upon that stream. It has been shown by Professor
Irving that the dipping sandstones, shales, and conglomerates, as-
sociated with the Cupriferous rocks, very much ante-date the hori-
zontal sandstones of Lake Superior in age. This being the case
no satisfactory evidence can be drawn of the age of the horizontal
sandstones from the stratigraphical relations which occur in the
vicinity of the St. Croix River. The conclusions of Dr. Owen
upon the “Age of the Lake Superior Sandstones,” are based mainly
upon the fact that the Bad River sandstones dip beneath, and are
overlaid by light colored Potsdam sandstones. He did not realize that
there is a vast difference in age between these and the true Lake
Superior sandstone. There is no known locality west of Kewee-
naw Point, where the Lake Superior sandstone and Potsdam of the
Mississippi valley are not separated by many miles.

The Lake Superior sandstones usually contain a large per cent., of
alumina and sesquioxide of iron, which it has been observed were
derived from the wearing down of the highly aluminous and ferrug-
inous Copper-Bearing rocks.

4 waAs

50 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

The following analyses, made by me for the State Geological Sur-
vey, show at a glance, the change in chemical composition which
has taken place in the process of the formation of the sandstones
from the Cupriferous rocks:

SSS

CLeAWILY- «ic siabine ae gk Sen ee OER RE MEE oe 2.92 | 12.69 | o7aa0) \ioamie

Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.

Sulicayseiva fawaiceiorehe trohetievarceeeanetate euaveretemierare 48.28 53.69 69.78 87.02
IAD: Se ayaie cates ls to yonele aars o Gustave ese este eaicfel 17.35 22.10 15.43 7.17
Reroxy dyotelmonu ey teenie eee reece 11.43 8.53 198 al
Protoxyd otuliion epic. see eee eee eee 4.02 3.65 |< bth etl eterno
WAlIMe eee s caveicic de isso veanco neve ots lensho rere mmtencer techs 6.27 4.31 .49 11
Weer po onsgosongodenoo od aoddmd obobdeS 6.58 2.09 ea 06
PPOWAGSA iSite satis w peseisilersun le sevoveretetonansleteetele teleneycrere 1.14 1.39 2.64 1.43
Oa Rer reveevereiolsversie lowlls cvetecereteteboroteteketartoteter share 1.83 1.99 2.42 22
TWiaiters. ape dic tere she chs atartereete eterno: Crttetererteiote 2.66 2.61 | Trace | Trace
MD Ota 3s ei5. es wel s- oe ovate statotetaneperenetettereyare 99.56 | 100.36 | 99.86 99.92

No. 1. (239, of the survey collection) is a fine-grained greenish
gray diabase, from the Fond du Lac copper mine, Douglas county.
It contains a trace of metallic copper. No. 2, (40 of the collection),
is brownish-black melaphyre from the Ashland copper mine, near
the mouth of Tyler’s Fork, Ashland county. No. 3, (44) is coarse
grained, reddish, Bad River sandstone, from Lehighs, Bad River.
Crystals of feldspar can easily be distinguished in the specimen.
No.4. Typical Lake Superior sandstone from a large quarry on
Basswood Island, Lake Superior. It is extensively used as a build-
ing stone. The material for the walls of the Milwaukee court-
house was obtained from this quarry.

5. Potsdam sandstone-—At St. Croix Falls, Potsdam sandstones,
characteristic of the light-colored Primordial sandstones of the
Mississippi valley, come in contact with the Cupriferous rocks at
numerous localities. At the Falls they are usually fine-grained,
and are also of ten aluminous and somewhat shaly. The shaly
beds are often highly fossiliferous. Dr. Owen states that at St.
Croix Falls, ‘‘ the oldest Palaeozoic fossils of this continent, if not
of the world, are found.” At the western end of the old St. Croix
dam about one half mile above the village of Taylor’s Falls any
number of shaly slabs may be obtained almost entirely made up of

GHOLOGY OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN. 51

iarge Lingulas. Fossils are also numerous at other localities. At
Osceola, six miles from the Falls, trilobite fragments are especially
abundant. Among others, I was able to detect the following:
Conocephalites binodosus. C. diadematus, Illaenurus quadratus,
Agnostus disparilis, and Dikelocephalites osceola. Associated with
them is a very large gasteropod, believed to be new to science..

Dr. Owen, whose observations only have been published upon
the geology of the St. Croix, considered the crystalline rocks at the
Falls and Dalles of the St. Croix, of igneous origin, and of more
recent age than the contiguous sandstones. I submit the following
reasons for differing with him upon the question of age:

1. So far as can be determined, the sandstones are perfectly hori-
zontal, and show no signs whatever of ever having been subjected
tc igneous or metamorphic action, or even of ever having been in
contact with highly heated rocks.

2. Horizontal layers of fossiliferous sandstone occur a few feet
from Cupriferous rocks, and in two instances perfect specimens of
Obolella polita and Lingulepis pinnaeformis were found in a film of
sandstone, not over one eighth of an inch from the absolute base
of the formation at those points. In other instances shells were
obtained from sandstone largely made up from the unaltered grains
of the underlying formation. ‘These shells certainly would have
been destroyed, thus near highly-heated rocks.

3. Depressions and pockets in the surface of the Copper-Bear-
ing rocks are often found filled or partially filled with horizontal
layers of sandstone.

4, Grains from the crystalline rocks appear in the layers of sand-
stone at a distance of several rods from ledges of the former, thus
showing that part of their material at least was derived from the
Copper-Bearing rocks. The layers of sandstone were deposited
therefore after the Cupriferous strata had assumed nearly their
present condition.

Occasional outcrops of the Potsdam occur along the banks of the
St. Croix for nearly forty miles above the Falls. A short distance
below the mouth of Kettle River, on section 16, town 39, range 19
west, the most northern exposures of light colored sandstone were
found. The outcrops are in the banks of the stream from ten to
forty feet above the surface of the water. They are underlaid by
melaphyrs, amygdaloids, conglomerates and fragments of aluminous

52 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

red sandstone. Owing to the haste with which the expedition
moved, the actual junction was not observed.

The Lake Superior Synclinal.—Foster and Whitney first painted
out the existence of a synclinal between Keweenaw Point and Isle
Royale. Professor Irving has suggested that this extends into
Ashland and Bayfield counties. I think it has been pretty satis-
factorially shown in this paper that it extends uninterruptedly
westward, entirely across the state of Wisconsin, and enters the state
of Minnesota. A general geological section across the formations
represented upon the upper St. Croix, is very similar to onefrom Le-
high’s, on Bad River, extending southeasterly across the formations
to the Penokie Range. Starting from Chase’s dam on the St. Croix,
and from Lehigh’s, on Bad River, the formations to the south are as
follows:

1. A bed of southward dipping sandstones. About four thou-
sand feet are exposed on the St. Croix, and two thousand on Bad
River.

9. Trough of the synclinal; four miles across at the Sb. Croix,
and about nine, in the vicinity of Bad River. Lake Superior sand-
stone may fill the trough of the syuclinal. At present only one
small exposure of horizontal red sandstone is known to occur in it.

3. Northward dipping sandstones, shales and conglomerates. On
the St, Croix they are but a few feet thick; on Bad River probably
1,000 feet are exposed; at the mouth of the Montreal the thickness
is fully 10,000 feet.

4, Amygdaloids, melaphyrs, porphyries. etc. On the St. Croix
the dip is slight to the northwest. Across the belt, the distance is
four and one half miles. At the Montreal River the distance across
the formation is about ten miles, and as the dip is nearly vertical,
the apparent thickness is, in round numbers, 50,000 feet. If the
rocks are of igneous origin, it is not difficult to account for this
seemingly enormous thickness.

In Douglas and Bayfield counties, the Copper-Bearing strata have
a dip to the south, and probably conformably underlie the south-
ward dipping Bad river sandstone. If this is the case they are the
representatives, in the northern edge of the synclinal of the Ashland
and Burnett county copper series. The distance across the forma-
tion in Douglas county is about 30 miles; allowing a dip of fourteen

GEOLOGY OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN. 53

degrees, which is that of the sandstones on the S&. Croix, the thick-
ness is not far from 40,000 feet.

The dimensions of the Lake Superior Synclinal, as thus made out,
are simply enormous. It is over 300 miles in length, and from 30
to 50 miles in width. Over 4,000 square miles of territory are oc-
cupied in Wisconsin alone, by rocks belonging to its northern or
southern edge. It can only be compared to an extensive, inverted
range of mountains.

Westward extension of the Penokie range—TYhe Penokie system
lies directly below, or geographically, south, from the Copper-Bear-
ing series. The two formations are intimately connected, the strike
and dip conforming throughout. The eastern end of the Penolie
Range is near Lake Gogebic, in Michigan, nearly 100 miles from
the famous Marquette iron region. It extends westerly without
break to a point seven miles west from Penokie Gap. In Ashland
county it forms a bold, high ridge, over thirty miles in length, and
never more than two miles in width. In the western part of the
county the range appears to break down and become lost for a dis-
tance of ten miles, when it appears again at two localities near At-
kins Lake. The question of its westward extension from Atkins
Lake, is one of great economic as well as of scientific importance.
The country between the supposed end of the range and the St.
Croix River has never been visited by a geologist. On account of
its poverty in pine, it is comparatively unknown to woodsmen and
explorers. That the formation does extend westward, probably to
the vicinity of the St. Croix, I have strong presumptive evidence,
but of course not absolute proof. I do not intend to assert that the
Huronian belt extends uninterruptedly from the Penokie Range to
the St. Croix. On the contrary, it has doubtless been subjected to
extensive denudation, and large portions of it may no longer re-
main. Large sections of it are probably buried deep beneath accu-
mulations of drift. The space of ten miles between the western
end of the main range and the outcrops near Atkins’ Lake, has
been largely removed by erosion. but it is more than probable that
below the deposits of drift the downward extension of the members
of the system may still be found. The arguments in favor of the
westward continuation of the Huronian schists in a more or less in-
terrupted belt, are the following:

54 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

1. The westward extension, to the St. Croix River, of all the for-
mations found north of the Penokie Range to Lake Superior.

¥. If the iron bearing belt extends westward, it doubtless follows
the southern boundary of the Cupriferous formation. It would
therefore cross the St. Croix River some distance below the mouth
of Snake River. Then, in the neighborhood of a line drawn from
the mouth of Snake River to Penokie Gap, one would expect to
find indications of the Huronian magnetic schists. Iron ore is re-
ported in place, at several localities in the vicinity of this line.
Explorers report its occurrence near the southern end of Long
Lake, also on section 18, town 43, range 19 west, and from the
northern part of Burnett county. On the original survey plat of
town 38, range 19 west, I find on section 19, topographical lines
indicating a ledge, and the words “‘iron ore.” The locality has not
been examined by members of the Geological Survey.

3. The non-occurrence of ranges or marked ridges in the St,
Croix country may be cited in this connection, and reasons given
why they should not be expected. In the eastern part of Ashland
county the high ridge formed by the Penokie range is due to the
nearly vertical dip of the strata. As the formation of northern
Wisconsin extend westward the dip gradually decreases and they
more nearly approach horizontality. Brooks reports the dip of the
Huronian schists in the vicinity of Black River in Michigan, some-
times as great as 90°. At the gorge of Tyler’s Fork I found the dip
75° to the northwest. At Penokie Gap the dip is 66° while at At-
kins Lake the inclination is only 45° tothe northwest. The upper
members of the Copper-Bearing series, which have an almost verti-
cal dip on the Montreal River and at the mouth of Tyler’s Fork,
have only a slight dip to the northwest on the St. Croix River. At
Lehigh’s, on Bad River, the southward dipping sandstones incline
38° to the southeast. At Welton’s the dip is 25°, while on the St.
Croix it is but 14° to the southeast. As the formations approach
the St. Croix they do not form bold ridges, but cover a much wider
extent of territory than in the eastern part of the State, and conse-
quently the opposite edges of the synclinal are found much closer
to each other than farther eastward.

4. The occurrence of small angular boulders of magnetic rock
and iron ore in the drift at numerous localities in Polk and Bur-
nett counties.

GEOLOGY IN NORTHERN WISCONSIN. 55

In Michigan, and in all regions where magnetic ore is found
much reliance in exploring is placed upon magnetic surveys. Val-
uable mines have been discovered by noting the abnormal deflec-
tion of a delicate magnetic needle in crossing the formation at
right angles to its trend. This method often succeeds when the
dip compass fails. Although magnetic surveys have not been made
in the region under consideration, linear surveys have, and the va-
riation at several points upon each section recorded upon the town-
ship plats. In the township through which the Huronian belt is
supposed to pass, the difference between the maximum and mimi,
mum deflection of the needle from the magnetic meridian is much
greater than in townships known to be distant from local magnetic
influences. For instance, in township 37, range 20 west, the dif-
ference is 5 degrees, 30 minutes. Numerous other examples might
be mentioned. The fluctuations of the needle from a fixed point
under ordinary circumstances, and in ordinary townships, is not
usually over one or two degrees. Investigations with a dip com-
pass, and with an instrument for making accurate magnetic sur-
veys, will certainly settle the question of the western prolongation
of the magnetic schists. It will be necessary to go over a consid-
erable portion of Burnett county, the southwest of Ashland, and
southeast of Bayfield, and possibly the northern part of Polk very
earefully. It is an important question, worthy of thorough inves-
tigation, and one which should be definitely decided as soon as pos-
sible by the Geological Corps.

OO ee

56 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

ON THE RAPID DISAPPEARANCE OF WISCONSIN WILD
FLOWERS; A CONTRAST OF THE PRESENT TIME
WITH THIRTY YEARS AGO.

BY THURE KUMLEIN.

For the last thirty-two years | have resided in the vicinity of
Lake Koshkonong, in Jefferson county, Wisconsin, and have dur-
ing that time paid some attention to the Fauna and Flora of that
locality, and have collected somewhat extensively in nearly all the
branches of Natural History, particularly Ornithology and Botany:

When first I came here in 1843, a young and enthusiastic na-
turalist, fresh from the university at Upsala, Sweden, the great
abundance of wild plants, most of them new to me, made a deep
impression on my mind, but during these thirty-two years a large
number of our plants have gradually became rare and some even
completely eradicated.

When first I visited the place where I now live, the grass in the
adjoining low-lands was five and six feet high, and now in the same
locality, the ground is nearly bare, having only a thin sprinkling
of June grass, Juncus tenuis and J. bufonius, Cyperus Castaneus,
here and there a thistle ora patch of mullein and in the lowest with
parts some Carices. As the land gradually became settled, each
settler fencing in his field and his stock increased, some plants be-
came less common, and some few rare ones disappeared; Lupinus
perennis, among the first. But when all the land was taken up
by actual settlers, and each one fenced in all his land and used it as
fields or as pastures for as many cattle, horses, sheep, and hogs as
could live on it without actual starvation, botanizing in this vicin-
ity became comparatively poor.

In the oak openings, besides grasses of several species there were
an abundance of other plants of which I will mention only some
Orchids from a small piece of opening-land near my residence: Pogo-
nia, pendula, Goodyeara pubescens, Corallorhiza odontorhiza, Aplect-
rum hyemale, Liparis lilifolia, Orchis spectabilis and Plalanthera
bracteata, of these only one or two can be found ix the same local-
ity now.

=

DISAPPEARANCE OF WISCONSIN WILD-FLOWERS. 57

In the thick timber along the Koshkonong Creek, there is now
but one lot of about 40 acres where the plants can yet be found
nearly as abundant as formerly. There can yet be had Phlox di-
varicata, Laphami. Allium tricoceum, Erythronium albidum, Den-
taria laciniata, Asarum canadense and many other interesting plants.
A Tamarack marsh held out the longest; it was not visited by cat-
tle till, for want of pasture elswhere they were obliged to cross its
miry borders. In this marsh, or on its borders, were formerly
growing, Microstylis ophioglossoides, Liparis loeselii, Gymnadenia
tridenta, Platanthera leucophoea, lacera and orbiculata, Are-
thusa bulbosa, Pogonia ophioglossoides, Calopogon pulchellus, Cyp-
ripedium pubescens, Parviflorum candidum and spectabile, Tofiel-
dia glutinosa, Drosera linearis, Lobelia kalimi, Ophioglossum vul-
gatum, Schoenus albus, Schenchzeria palustris, Triglochin palustre,
and many Carices among which Carex oligosporma. Now of all
these and many other interesting plants formerly growing in this
marsh or near it some have become very rare and some are totally
eradicated.

On a small prairie, too stoney and gravelly for cultivation, there
can yet be found Geum triflorum, Aster obtusifolius and ptarmi-
coides, Lithospermum hirtum and longiflorum, Castileja sessiiflora,
Linum boothi, Gentiana puberula, Ranunculus rhomboideus, Hier-
acium longipilum, Draba caroliniana, Arubis lyrata, Arenaria,
stricta, Mich. and Diplopappus which on gravel hills grows only
two to three inches high, with leaves very stiff and narrow, but the
flower large, having somewhat the aspect of an Alpine plant. A
list of the plants of this vicinity, giving the plants of to-day, would
be a comparatively meagre one and nearly useless, as their number
is lessening every year, and a list of the plants of thirty years ago
would perhaps have no other than a small historical value.

These observations, though made in only this locality, do prob-
ably apply to all the settled portions of the State.

58 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

ON THE ANCIENT CIVILIZATION OF AMERICA.
BY PROF. W. J. L. NICODEMUS, A. M., C. E.

The ancient works divide themselves into three great geographi-
cal divisions, viz., South America on the west coast between Chili,
and the second degree of north latitude; Central America and Mex-
ico, and the valleys of the Mississippi and Ohio.

The ruins of ancient Peru, which form the first, division, are
found chiefly on the elevated table-lands of the Andes, between
Quito and Lake Titacaca, but they can be traced five hundred miles
further south to Chili and throughout the region connecting these
high plateaus with the Pacific coast. The entire district extends
north and south about two thousand miles.

Before the Spanish conquest the whole country was the seat of a
populous and prosperous empire, rich in its industries and far ad-
vanced in civilization. It is now accepted that the Peruvian an-
tiquities represent two distinct periods in their ancient history, one
being much older than the other, one before and the other after the
first Inca. Among the ruins which belong to the older civiliza-
tion are those of Lake Titicaca, old Huanaco, Tiahuanaco, and
Gran-Chimu, and probably the roads and aqueducts were originated
by it. On Titicaca Island are the ruins of an edifice supposed to
be a palace or temple. It was built of hewn stone, and had doors
and windows, with posts. sills, and thresholds of stone. At Tiah-
uanaco, a few miles from Lake Titicaca are what are supposed to
be the oldest ruins in Peru. They are described by Cieca de Leon,
who accompanied Pizarro. He mentions great edifices “ that were
in ruins,” two stone idols resembling the human figure, and appar-
ently made by skillful artificers.”. These idols were great statues,
ten or twelve feet high. He describes large gateways with hinges,
platforms, and porches, each made of a single stone, some of which
were thirty feet long, fifteen high, and six thick. Along the whole
length of some above the stone ran a cornice covered with sculp-
tured figures. “The whole neighborhood,” says Mr. Squier, “is

ANCIENT CIVILIZATION OF AMERICA. Ao)

strewn with immense blocks of stone, elaborately wrought, equal-
ling, if not surpassing in size, any known to exist in Egypt or
India.”

At Cusco, about two degrees north of Lake Titicaca, are the
ruins of buildings that were occupied until the rule of the Incas
was overthrown. The Temple of the Sun was surrounded by a
great wall built of cut-stone. Near by this is the extensive ruins
of the palace of the Incas. The objective points to notice about
both these periods of ancient civilization are, the absence of in-
scription; little or no decoration; method of building peculiar; their
constructions including cities, temples, palaces, other edifices of
various kinds; fortresses, aqueducts, (one, four hundred and fifty
miles long,) great roads, (extending the whole length of the em-
pire,) and terraces on the sides of mountains, built of cut-
stone laidin mortar or cement, sometimes ornamented, but gener-
ally plain in style and always massive.

The Peruvians were highly skilled in agriculture and in some
Kinds of manufactures. hey excelled in the arts of spinning,
weaving, and dyeing. They had great skill in working metals;
especially gold and silver. They excelled in the manufacture of ar-
ticles of pottery. They had some knowledge of engineering as evi-
denced by their roads and aqueducts. They had some idea of astron-
omy. They divided the year into twelve months; and are sup-
posed to have had something in the form of a telescope for study-
ing the heavens, as a silver figure of a man holding a tube to his
eye, has been discovered in one of the old tombs.

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.

We now come to our second geological division, Mexico and
Central America. Here we trace four distinct eras of civilization,
which we will mark by describing a ruin belonging to each era.
In the order of antiquity comes Quirigua. It is situated on the
right bank of the River Motagna, in the State of Guatemala. It
covers a large area of ground. We have described a pyramidal
structure with flichts of steps, and monoliths larger and higher
than those at Copan. Though the sculptures are in the same gen-
eral style, they are in lower relief and hardly so rich in design.
One of the obelisks is twenty feet high, five feet six inches wide,
and two feet eight inches thick. The chief figures carved on it are

60 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

a man and woman on the front and back, while the sides are coy-
ered with inscriptions similar to those at Copan. Other obelisks
are higher than this. The ruins of Copan that mark the second era
are situated in the extreme western end of Honduras. Owing to
the hostility of natives these ruins have not been very carefully ex-
plored. A stone wall from sixty to ninety feet high is described
asrunning along the River Copan six hundred and twenty-four
feet, in some places fallen and in others entire, which supported
the rear side of the elevated foundation of a great edifice. It was
made of blocks of cut stone six feet long, well laid in mortar or ce-
ment. The chief peculiarity of Copan was the namber of sculptured
inscribed pillars. In speaking of these, Mr. Squier says the ruins
of Copan are distinguished by singular and elaborately carved mon-
oliths, which seem to have been replaced at Pelenque by equally elab-
orate basso relievos, belonging, it would seem, to a later and more
advanced period of art. Palacios, who described these ruins three
hundred years ago, speaks of an enormous eagle carved in stone?
which bore a square shield on its breast carved with undecipherable
characters; of a stone giant; a stone cross; a plaza circular in form
surrounded by ranges of steps or seats, as many as eighty ranges
remaining in some places. This plaza was paved with beautiful
stones, all square and well worked.

The next era is represented by the ruins of Palenque situated in the
northern part of the Mexican State of Chiapa. The largest known
building is called the ‘‘ Palace.” I¢ stands near the River Chacamas»
on a terraced pyrmidal foundation, forty feet high and three hundred
and ten feet long, by two hundred and sixty broad at the base. The
edifice itself is two hundred and twenty- eight feet long, one hundred
and eighty wide, and twenty-five feet high. It faces the east, and has
fourteen doorways on each side, with eleven at the ends. It is
buiit of hewn stone laid in mortar of the best quality. It has four
interior courts, the largest being seventy by eighty feetin extent.
These are surrounded by corridors, and the architectural work fac-
ing them is richly dezorated. Within the building were many
rooms. The piers around the courts are covered with figures in
stucco, or plaster. There is evidence of painting being used for
decoration, but the architectural effect of the stone-work and the
beautifully executed sculptures, particularly strike attention. The
walls and piers are covered with ornamentation. Mr. Stephens

ANCIENT CLEYILIZATION OF AMERICA. 61

i

thinks that the sculptured human figures, fragments of which are
found, must have approached in justuess of proportien and sym-
metry, the Greek models.

The ruins of Uxmal represent the fourth and last era of the
ancient civilization of Mexico and Central America. This brings
us down to the time of the Spanish conquest. At that time it had
begun to be a ruin whieh was complete in 1673.

The most important edifice was named by the Spaniards ‘* Casa
del Gobernador.” It is 320 feet long, and was built of hewn stone,
laid in mortar or cement. The faces of the walls are smooth up to
the cornice. There follows on all four sides, one solid mass of rich,
complicated, and elaborately sculptured ornaments, forming a sort
of arabesque.

Before leaving this geological division, mention should be made
of the astronomical monument, described by Captain Dupaix.
In the Mexican State of Oaxaca, near the village of Mecamecan
is an isolated granite rock, which was artificially formed into a
kind of pyramid, with six hewn steps facing the east. The summit
of this structure is a platform, well adapted to observation of the
stars on every side. Ii is supposed that this very ancient monu-
ment was devoted to astronomical observations. On the south side
of the rock are sculptured several hieroglyphical figures, having
relation to astronomy. The most striking figure ia the group isa
man in profile, standing erect, and directing his view to the rising
stars in the sky. He holds to his eye a tube or optical instrument.
Below his feet is a frieze divided into six compartments, with as
many celestial signs carved on its surface.

Our third geographical division, the valleys of the Mississippi
and Ohio Rivers, includes the remains of the ancient people called
the Mound-Builders. Their ruins are the most numerous in the
south, extending from the Gulf of Mexico, to West Virginia, Ohio,
Michigan, Wisconsin, Nebraska, and probably further west. They
consist of mounds and inclosures. In these mounds have been
found ornaments and implements made of copper, silver, obsidean,
porphy, and greenstone, finely wrought. Also, axes, single and
double; adzes, chisels, drills, or gravers, lance-heads, knives, bra-
celets, pendants, beads, and the like, made of copper; articles of
pottery, eleeantly designed and finished; ornaments of bone, mica
from the Alleghanies, and shells from the Gulf of Mexico. Por-

62 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

phyry is a very hard stone and could only have been worked with
tools made of the hardest material. Obsidean is of volcanic origin
and much used by the Peruvians and Mexicans for arms and cutting
instruments. It is found in its natural state no nearer the Missis-
sippi Valley than the Mexican mountains of Cerro Gordo. The
art of spinning and weaving was known to them as evidenced by
the cloth found in the mounds.

Before any evidence of ancient mining was discovered in the
Lake Superior copper region, pieces of copper with blotches of sil-
ver appearing to be welded to it but not alloyed with it, had been
dug from mounds. As this condition is peculiar to the Lake Su-
perior copper, it was supposed that the Mound-Builders were ac-
quainted with the art of mining. This was proven to be so in
1848. The modern mining works are mostly confined to that part
of the copper region known as Keeweenaw Point. This is a pro-
jection of land extending into Lake Superior. It is about eighty
miles in length, and at the point where it joins the main-land,
about forty-five miles in width. All through this district, where-
ever modern miners haye worked, remains of ancient mining works
are abundant; and they are extensive on the adjacent island, known
as Isle Royale.

The area covered by the ancient works 1s greater than that which
includes the modern mines, as they are known to exist in the dense
forests of other district where modern mining has not as yet extend-
ed. Their mining was chiefly surface work; that is, they worked the
surface of the veins in open pits and trenches. The mounds differ
greatly in size. At Grave Creek, West Virginia, there is one 70
feet high and 1,000 feet in circumference. One at Miamisburg,
Ohio, 68 feet high and 852 feet in circumference. Another at Ca-
hokia, Illinois, is 700 feet long, 500 wide, and 90 feet high. They
range generally from 5 to 30 feet in height. It is supposed that
the lower mounds were used for the same purposes as the mounds.
in Mexico and Central America, for the foundation of their princi-
ple buildings. But these buildings, having been built of wood, soon
perished, leaving no trace behind them save this earthen base. The
high mounds are pyramidal in shape and have level summits of
considerable extent, which were reached by stairways on the out-
side as those at Miamisburg, Ohio, and Grave Creek, West Virginia,
which resemble the grext mounds at Chichen, Itza, and Mayapan,

ANCIENT CIVILIZATION OF AMERICA. 63

in Yucatan, the first 75 feet.high and the last two each 60 feet high.
These Yucatan mounds were evidently constructed for religious
uses as upon the summits of the first two are the ruins of stone tem-
ples. On the third the edifice has disappeared, as in all probability
those upon the high mounds in this division, being built of the
same material, wood.

In one of the mounds of the Ohio Valley there were found the
timber-wails of two chambers and arched ceilings, with overlapping
stones, precisely like those in,Central America.

The Natchez Indians, on the lower Mississippi, had temples and
sacred buildings, in which the “perpetual fire” was maintained.
They were sun-worshipers, their chief claiming descent from the
sun. Their traditions connected them with Mexico. By some
they are classed as the Nahuatl, or Toltee race.

According to the Central American books, the Toltees came from
““Huehue Tlapalan,” a distant country in the northeast, long pre-
vious to the Christian era. Here they dwelt in a high state of civ-
ilization for along period, were overthrowu by the Aztecs, who in
turn were conquered by the Spaniards.

All indications aeem to warrant the conclusion that the mound-
builders and the palace-builders, if we may be permitted to use this
term, of Mexico and Central America, belonged to the same race.
They must have left the United States on or before the advent of
the wild Indians. This emigration south may have been voluntary
to seek a more congenial clime, or may have been forced by the sav-
ages from the north. Fragments would seem to have been incorpo-
rated with the Indidns, as for instance the Mandan Indians, a sup-
posed branch of the Dacotahs. They differed im many respects
from the other Indians, being of lighter color and peculiar in man-
ners and customs. We suppose the mound-builders came to the
United States from the south, entering the country near the Gulf
of Mexico, where they were the most populous, and then gradually
throwing out colonies, extended their sway, with sparser population
to the northward.

They were eminently an agricultural people. Maize is supposed
to have been their chief grain. Having fulfilled their mission
here, they returned to Mexico and Central America.

The time of their disappearance is estimated to be about two
thousand years ago. The appearance of the wild Indian is located

64 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

at or after this time. In him we find an original barbarian with
no signs of ever being connected with civilization. Besides, his
traditions connect him with the northwest, from which direction
he is supposed to have entered North America.

A strong fact in support of this view is that there are several
tribes, the nomadic Koraks and Chookchees, found in Eastern Si-
beria, throughout the region that extends to Behring’s Strait, who
have a strong resemblauce to the wild Indian, and may well repre-
sent the common parent stock.

A few words in regard to the points relied upon to establish the
antiquity of the mound-builders.

1. As no mounds are built upon the lowest formed of the river-
terraces, it is presumed the mounds were built prior to their forma-
tion. These rivers show four successive terraces in their subsi-
dence to their present channels. It is not possible to say what an-
tiquity this would indicate, but at least a great one.

2. Sound and well preserved skeletons known to be two thous-
and years old have been taken from burial places in England and
other European countries, less favorable to their preservation than
the burial places of the mound-builders. Hence, it is supposed
that the decayed skeletons taken from the mounds are more than
two thousand years old.

I. The great age of the mounds are shown by their relation to
the forests which must have sprung up after the disappearance of
this eminently agricultural people. In conclusion, I will merely
add that many theories, some plausible and others very absurd, have
been invented as to the origin of the ancient civilization of Central
America, and Peru. Authorities differ as to whether these two are
distinct and if not which is the oldest. The weight of authority
inclines to the opinion that they were originated by the same peo-
ple and that of Central America is the most ancient.

Mr. Baldwin, an eminent writer on Archeology, after reviewing
the principal theories as to the origin of this ancient civilzation, ar-
rives at the conclusion that it was an original civilization. This is
certainly a very safe theory and till more light is thrown upon this
subject, seems to have as much to be said in its favor as any other
hypothesis.

EXTENT OF WISCONSIN FISHERIES. 65

ON THE EXTENT OF THE WISCONSIN FISHERIES.

(An abstract of notes sent by Dr. P. R. Hoy to the President of the Acadamy.)

There are thirty-six locations on Lake Michigan, and two or three
on Lake Superior, which are merely headquarters for the fishermen
for a large extent of shore, inthe vicinity of the Apostle Islands,
and the shore immediately east of Duluth.

In these regions there are employed about 148 pound-nets, 48
bearing gill-net stocks, and 212 lighting gill-net stocks, valued, at a
low estimate, at $200,000.

To carry on fishing, there are proprietors and men, but a small
proportion of the number Of men on wages—about 800 men.

The production of the Wisconsin nets, it would be difficult for
me to separate from the total Michigan, Wisconsin, and Illinois
fisheries; Chicago sales of lake fish amount to over a half million of
dollars, of which, of course, a large quantity come from Wisconsin,
as they recover into Milwaukee dealers, the whole of the Lake Su-
perior catch, on the Wisconsin shores. Milwaukee inspection re-
ports have reached about 17,500 half-barrels of lake-fish, worth
$87,900. Other points in Wisconsin, placing salt-fish on the east-
ern market, would swell the amount to about $40,000 more. The
interest of the fisheries, probably brings into the State every year
about $350,000. These estimates are made with the fizures in my
possession of statistics of the lake receipts of fish, for 1872, includ-
ing the handling of fish in the markets, which has never been com-
piled before.

The evidences are very apparent, and universally acknowledged
by fishermen, that the food fishes of the lakes are decreasing to an
alarming extent.

The purpose of the United States Commission was first to inves-
tigate the decrease, its causes, and the remedies to be applied to
arrest the decrease, and restore the fishes to their former numbers;
in other words, to increase the product of the fisheries of the
United States. |

5——_wWwas

66 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

From careful investigation, itis evident that the first and prin-
cipal means is artificial propagation, with judicious protective laws
as an anxiliary.

The State commissions have given special attention to propaga-
tion, with the most encouraging results. The shad, in the Con-
necticut River, where they had been nearly exterminated, are now
more plentiful than in the period of 70 previous years. Last sea-
son there was a large increase in the Hudson River, the result of
the successful work of Seth Green, three years ago. In Canada,
Samuel Wilmot, the government breeder, has restored the salmon
in large numbers. Kxperiments have been made by three promi-
nent fish culturists in the propagation of the white-fish, and their
efforts are now crowned with complete success. Mr. N. W. Clark,
of Clarkston, has carried three-quarters of a million of eggs be-
yond the stage of danger, and Seth Green has a large quantity
hatched and is distributing them to inland lakes in large numbers.
Seth Green has been equally successful with lake-trout.

The advantage of artificial culture is in the fact, that almost the
entire number of eggs are hatched, while in a state of nature, but a
very small proportion are hatched. This is especiallly true in the
lakes, where there are so many species of fish who make the ova of
fishes their food, and where the continual stormy weather, at cer-
tain seasons, carries the sediment from the clay-banks, outward,
and deposits it on the spawning beds.

A bill has passed in the State of Michigan, providing for a fish
commission and making an appropriation for the expenses of their
work.

The State of Michigan has enacted that:

“It shall be the duty of the governor, to appoint three commis-
sioners of fisheries, whose terms of office shall be, respectively, two
four, and six years, and their successors appointed, two years there-
after.”

(As I cannot follow the detail of the bill, from memory, I will
give the character of the different sections.)

The duties of the commissions were provided for in the second sec-
tion 7. e., to propagate white-fish, and such other food-fishes as they
saw fit,providing for two breeding-establishments, one in the eastern
and one in the western portion of the State.

The third section provides that they should have the privilege of

EXTENT OF WISCONSIN FISHERIES. 67

taking in any manner any fish they choose, for the purposes of
propagation or scientific purposes.

Another section provides that the pay should be three dollars
per day and necessary traveling expenses, for expenses actually in-
curred, and for time actually employed. The pay should be drawn
on a properly sworn voucher, from the auditor of the State. A
clause gives the governor authority for directing concurrent action
with other States. It has been drawn as conciosly as possible, and em-
braces nothing but the provision for commissioners work, as it was
deemed best to let the bill stand on its own merits, and not in-
volve protective legislation or anything else.

68 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

LEVELING, AND USE OF THE BAROMETER.
BY JOHN NADER, C. E.

The term leveling is used to denote the art of determining the
difference of level between two objects or of one object with refer-
ence to some fixed or known object.

Leveling is one of the most difficult branches of surveying, in as
much as it is impossible to detect or correct an error as may be
done insome other branches without again repeating the whole
work.

The term level is also applied to the position of an apparent hor-
izontal plane. The object desired may be attained in various ways
depending upon the purpose of the work and the amount of accur-
acy required, and also upon the instruments which may be avail-
able.

The art of leveling is based upon invariable natural laws, 7. e.,
the horizontality of a body which yields to the fullest extent to the
force of gravity, such as a liquid under favorable circumstances, or
a body freely suspended and submitted to the action of gravity.

It would hence be an easy matter to assume a horizontal plane
and refer objects to the same were it not that a number of influ-
ences come to bear upon the results which often differ widely from
the truth.

‘The principal influences are the following: Mechanical imper-
fections; errors of observation; effects of temperature; curvature
of the earth and atmospheric refraction.

I will here notice the latter. When an object is viewed obliquely
through a transparent medium of any nature whatever, it does not
oceupy the position in which it appears, the rays being bent by re-
fraction. If the medium be of a uniform density throughout the
ray will pass through in a straight line, but if the density of the
medjum is variable, the line will be irregular, and as in the case of
the atmosphere, whose density is as its height, the line of refraction
will be a curve, and since the denser medium will have the greater

LEVELING, AND USE OF BAROMETER. 69

refractive power the rays become bent more and more as they ap-
proach the earth, and the curve as arule will be concave towards
the earth.

it would appear an easy matter to determine this curve, but in
attempting to do so we at once find acomplication and uncertainty
arising from accidental causes; a variation of temperature and of
the amount of moisture held in suspension, will both separately
and combined, cause a variation in the density of the atmosphere,
and especially affect Barometric Leveling and often render the
results uncertain aud unreliable.

According to “ Bessel” the atmospheric refraction amounts to
nearly thirty-five minutes of are at the horizon and diminishes
towards and becomes nil at the zenith.

Cases may occur where the refraction is negative, 7. e., when the
curve is convex towards the earth. This happens when the higher
strata are condensed, while the lower recieve the heat previously ab-
sorbed by the earth or ocean. I have had the opportunity of ob-
serving some remarkable cases of negative refraction. In the one
ease the exhaust of the high-pressure engine of a tug-boat, distant
about two miles, stood up distinctly lke a row of columns from
forty to sixty feet high apparently, at the same time the scragg
cedars four or five miles off appeared like great poplars. In another
ease the full moon, rising from the horizon of the ocean, presented
a remarkable phenomenon; it came up depressed on its upper edge,
and continued to rise with its sides perpendicular until the whole
disc should have been above the horizon, then it began to assume
the form of a balloon until the disc should have been about one-
fourth its diameter above the horizon at which time the lower edge
left the water, and the disc assumed its usual circular form. This
occurred in August, 1867, after a very hot day, the atmosphere, from
some cause or another was very much reduced in temperature in the
evening, while at the same time the sea was giving out the heat ab-
sorbed during the day.

A singular ease occurred to one of the assistants of the Lake
Survey. While engaged in taking soundings with two boats within
speaking distance, his second boat, seen and spoken but shortly be-
fore, suddenly disappeared; upon arising, the boat was plainly visi-
ble, whilst sitting it could not be seen. I will not attempt to ex-
plain this phenomenon, but I have it from a gentleman of veracity

70 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

In leveling operations where great accuracy is required, there is
occasional need of correcting for curvature of the earth and atmo-
spheric refraction. The curvature amounts to about eight inches
per mile, and increases as the square of the distance; the refraction
is dependent on the distance, and, as will appear from previous re-
marks, will vary with different conditions of the atmosphere. Since
refraction as arule makes objects appear higher than they really
are, it serves to reduce the errors due to curvature, and according to
Bessel’s coefficient of 0,0685, it amounts to a little more than one-
seventh of the curvature.

As the earth is not a true sphere its diameter cannot be equal in
all places, yet this will make no practical difference in most opera-
tions, but it would be well in all cases to give the basis upon which
tables are computed. I give the following tables for corrections for
curvature and refraction fora mean diameter of 7925,646 statute
miles, or 41,847,247 feet. The quantities are computed to six and
seven places of decimals and corrected for second differences:

Formula C= 0,4315 e?

y
Distance e. Curvature h.|Refraction f.| —/=C.
Feet. Feet. Feet.

100 yards........ deobomatGoanoodoooDCUNED 0.0021 0.0003 0.0019
QOO) BAAS ie: 5 a cvleteraheiaiere crc leseeorevedonsiale ele letere rats 0.0086 0.0012 0.0074
SOO ards xt: Mic tropipecte emery aloe siete 0.0194 0.0026 0.0167
AO OBA Sa eoysseccentec it creche ute ete terete orators 0.0344 0.0047 0.0297
HOO vards ia ees oat Me aon lic eure ne eiae eae 0.0538 0.0074 0.0464
COO uy ards. ae Cee eeucvthee eine aie see 0.0774 0.0106 0.0668
OOM yards reat. Souk sale abs, ees ve serene ieee einen 0.1054 0.0144 0.0909
SOO Shia hae tate AP NA aS COTA Serie 0.1376 0.0188 0.1188
DOO AROS oie aeed hs LOUR ebe yh ale ceuder tem atlanta 0.1742 0.0238 0.1503
AWOOO ByacU Ss srs lactone + enioe = atte mack die iee ec eierare 0.2151 0.0295 0.1856
AG AUO Oya slers svace's Giaveioteisberci alba touche, olevoke arate eae 0.2602 0.0356 | 0.2146
IOUND: VERO RIE Sopa Ron OOO Geno Same a ard ox 0.3097 Q.0424 0.2673
APSO O By ards cies h cle chaste siete eis een eee e 0.3635 0.0498 0.3137
AP AQ ORY AMC SER ame atti: ie! s\eke cisictots eisuete siete eke oe 0.4215 0.0577 . 8638
1500 pyardstte See t. cee ene eeem 0.4839 0.0663 | 0.4176
ARO) syenlss So cocacbsoddocehucnocosdoodgGes 0.5506 0.0754 0.4752
IL S7OO) SBIR oo odo apanbosenboaeadcoGaaoOOR 0.6215 0.0851 0.5364
A), frre ep ee meee as teneie tacs otis elses arelesasetereuooe 0.6662 0.0913 0.5749
11g males ga oa cisire eiicemcye louie seats araeyae 1.0409 0.1426 0.8983
LDA. smiles ay aiteivors wictoeiee ie le te ler s dees eyoketetel eto 1.4989 0.2053 1.2936
NEA MIME aos Cobos ébunogbe aud UoGobobe aces 2.0402 0.2795 1.7607
De he aMA DT S e eeNN retaaeWee Later Wiel tere exe qnie clevese olor 2.6648 0.3650 2.2997
Baie sc OS aye Cutan atedoueneetcvereietstsaensopeicinle iatevsioraters 5.9957 0.8213 5.1744
7 ee Nl (SGM AIA Ba meals Koco OCG Baca ae cs 10.6591 1.4601 9.1989
Dros SMMALES eich sa ialeiatalcee nee rte eke ls eas ale ets Son6 16.6548 2.2815 | 14.3734
Gl Sect eS Ho aya ihge, anes kare ete cteyais lintels olan kahh ce 24.9829 3.2853 | 20.6976

LEVELING, AND USE OF BAROMETER. 71

The object sought viz: The difference of altitude of objects
may be attained in various ways depending upon the degree of ac-
curacy required and the instruments at hand.

The masons level, the builders level, and the surveyors level al
serve their purpose in their respective places. The construction
and value of these instruments varies with their real worth as com-
pared with their requirements.

The Theodolite and Sextant are sometimes used in leveling, in
such case it is nothing more or less than a vertical triangulation
and is treated and computed as such.

In connection with the sextant there is used an artificial horizon.
This is simply a reflecting liquid by means of which the direct and
reflected images of an object are brought in contact in the horizon
elass of the sextant and the angular distance measured, the angle
as a matter of course is double the angle of elevation above the ap-
parant horizon. Mercury is most generally used, but oxidises rap-
idly when in contact with air, and althoughavery dense substance
is most easily disturbed by the slightes breeze. Ou1, colored with
lamp-black or molasses, are about as convenient and reliable as any-
thing for the purpose, and being inexpensive can be renewed when-
ever desirable.

In measuring great differences of altitude recourse is had to
the barometer. It is not reliable for small differences as its motion
is but one-tenth of an inch for altitudes of from 96 to 110 feet and
1s moreover afiected by every change of temperature and the con-
sequent change of density of the atmosphere.

Operations with the barometer are based upon the principle of
the Torricellian vacuum which is simply a measure of the weight
of the atmosphere. If now according to Marriot’s law “the density
of one and the same quantity of air is proportional to its tension.”
we have at once a means of measuring the difference of heights by
the tension of the atmosphere, for as we ascend, the density de-
creases as the column.

This motion as before stated is so gradual (one inch for 1,000
feet) and affected by so many contingencies that the barometer has
always, and now is, looked upon as a very uncertain and unreliable
leveling instrument.

This, however, will vanish with experience, and with proper care
and application the barometer will be found very useful and quite

72 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

reliable. The distrust generally arises from an insuilicient ac-
quaintance with the instrument and its defects. For instance, a
mercuriat barometer may be taken from one temperature to a
higher, and instead of rising as it should do the mercury may fall;
everything else being correct, the vacuum cannot be perfect, a small
quantity of air is above the mercury which expands according to Gay
Lussac’s law with the increase of temperature and hence instead of
rising, as the mercury should from expansion, it falls.

The barometer consists of two parts;a tube anda basin. The
tube is first filled with mercury and then the open end is inserted
into the basin of mercury, the other, or upper end, being closed in
the manufacture. The mercury in the tube will now descend until
the height of the column measured from one surface to the other,
is just in equilibrium with the weight of the atmosphere. It makes
no difference how long the tube may be, whether three feet or three
hundred, the difference of level will measure the weight of the at-
mosphere. If the tube is inserted deeper into the basin a corres-
ponding rise will take place in the tube. Such being the case, how
does the expansion of the mercury have an influence on the height
of the column as we have seen that the quantity has nothing what-
ever to do with the same; this will be accounted for from the fact
that the mercury has lost in specific weight, in other words, has
breome lighter and the atmosphere is consequently enabled to sup-
port a correspondingly greater column of equal weight. L would
here remark that the greatest distrust to the barometer may prob-
ably arise from too many observations being made indoors, for al-
though the detached thermometer would indicate a dilation of the
atmosphere, yet this local dilation does not affect the tension but
acts merely as a cushion. Cases may occur, however, where the
atmosphere of a room may be in an abnormal condition, that is
when the heat currents are such as to carry small objects as though
supported by a denser medium.

I have under such circumstances found a difference of tempera-
ture between the upper and lower ends of the instrument amount-
ing sometimes to as much as ten degrees. At such times the bar-
ometer is very seriously affected and is entirely unreliable.

In making observations for heights, the same should be made
simultaneously at both stations, as the density sometimes changes
as much as 200 feet in a few hours; the instruments should be care-

LEVELING, AND USE OF BAROMETER. 73

fully compared before starting, one remaining at the lower station
while the other should receive sufficient time to reach the upper,
the observations to begin at a certain time and repeated at inter-
vals previously agreed upon, and continued until it is certain that
the distant party may have had time to make the necessary repeti-
tions. When not too distant a gunshot may answer for signal, if
beyond hearing distance the smoke from a fire may answer the pur-
pose, the signals applicable will generally depend upon the situa-
tion.

Repetitions are necessary for several reasons. An imperfect con-
tact of the vernier scale or local and wave-like disturbances may
all tend to make the observation doubtful unless repeated, or the ap-
paratus may not yet have partaken entirely of the local tempera-
ture. After carefully adjusting the index of the vernier to the top
of the column, the scale shouid be read, recorded, and the yernier
displaced, a second or third reading may verify the first, or one
another. The barometer requires two thermometers, one attached
to show the temperature of the mercury, (it being impossibe to in-
sert the attached thermometer into the mercury, it is only neces-
sary to place the same under as nearly as possible the same condi-
tions,) and one detached which should be moved about to give the
temperature of the atmosphere. Above all it appears necessary to
be well supplied with instruments when starting for a different al-
titude. Assistant Edwards, of the coast survey, started for the top
of a mountain in California with six barometers and arrived at his
station with one, one of the original syphons of which he carried
the mereury in a flask in his pocket.

It may be observed that valleys and abrupt inclinations should
be avoided, and isolated stations chosen where the atmosphere ap-
pears undisturbed.

For reducing the observations the formula published in the
United States Coast Survey reports is most convenient in ordinary
cases, this is arranged for a mean temperature of fifty-five degrees
Fah., and is the product of the constant 55,000 multiplied by the
quotient of the difference of the Barometer readings divided by
their sum, [55000 fant and differs but little from the truth.

When we desire to make more accurate measurements, we find
the matter proportionately complicated. If we assume that the

74 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTs, AND LETTERS.

atmosphere is of a uniform temperature, we may take the difference
of level of any two stations according to the equilibrium of elastic
fluids equal to a constant 60200 (at 32°) multiplied by the difference
of the logarithms of the readings in inches, thus:

(c =k (Log. B. — Log. b);)

Since the height of the mercury is affected by temperature, it is
necessary to reduce the observations to a common temperature.

Mercury expands at 32° Fahr., about .0001 of its bulk for every
degree of heat, the rate of expansion varies, but this will not be
sensibly felt under ordinary circumstances. Itis most easy, and
hence most proper to reduce the temperature of one reading to
that of the other, rather than to reduce both to anormal, and it will
be most convenient to reduce that which has the lowest tempera-
ture, which, as arule, is at the highest station.

The difference of temperature which will affect the height of the
mercury by expausion, will also affect it further by affecting the
density of the atmosphere.

Air expands about .0021 of its bulk for every degree from 32°
Fahr., and although this rate is not regular, it is safe to assume it
as such when applying to mean temperature.

Where the distance between stations is great, or that the lati-
ude differs much from 45%, a correction must be made on account
of the difference of the force of gravity. Taking one practical ex-
ample and applying the two formule before mentioned, the first
gives an altitude of 6143.50 feet, and the second 5960.1622 feet, both
of which are fair approximations.

LHzample.
THERMOMETERS.
Stations. aoa, | ——— Latitude.
Detached. Attached.
N. lower.,..... B=28,94 in. T=760 T’=68 440_A\)/
Vi. tipper. dete b=23,12 in. =A7o io 450-10/
ai +t (2) oO 1 ! ea eQ !
5) O29 99 Dae i 5 ; 2 Lat.—89°.50
B—b
Ist. 55,000 — 6143 50.
: Beeb ;

2d. 60200 (Log. B—log. b)—5960, 1622.

LEVELING, AND USE OF BAROMETER. (6)

Taking the 2d formula and correcting b the upper reading for
difference of temperature of mercury by (1 + 0,0001. 1y—t’,) gives
5831.014 feet, here we have lost, as we have reduced by the differ-
ence of temperature of mercury which was lower at the upper sta-
tion, and consequently indicated a greater altitude.

Tf now acorrection for dilation of atmosphere is made by

2

1 + 0,0021 ie = “22, :

we obtain 6192.21 feet, this correction necessarily increases the dif-
ference of the readings and consequently the altitude. The third
correction of 1—(0.0028 Cos. 2 Lat.) reduces the result only one
hundreth of a foot. This example gives 106.5 feet for every one-
tenth of an inch of difference of barometers, and it will be observed
that the result differs by but 0.78 feet in one hundred from the first
formula, which is arranged for a mean of 55° Fah. and by 3.70 in
one hundred from the second, which is for a mean of 320 Fah.
The complete formula with three corrections reads:

al B T+t
Hes e108 b(+0,0001.(T'—t')) x 1 +(0,0021 (—3-— 82 )) x
1—(0,0028 Cos. 2 Lat.),

The following form is convenient:

B=28 ,94 - - - - - - - log.=1 ,461499
b= 23,13 - : : - : - log=1,363988
1-+(0,0001152)—=1,0015 - 2 - log.=0,000650

Sum—= \ 1 364638

Difterence= 0 ,0096861
Difference=0 ,096861 log—= —-- = 3 “= 2 -. 2,986148
k=60200 lop—= - - = = = - - 4779596
1-1 (0,00215<29,5°)=1 ,06195 log = - : : 5 - 0026102
1—(0 ,0028><Cos. 89° 50’)=0 ,99999 log—= : 3 : T ,999999
z==6196 ,20 feet from sum of logs—= . - - - : 3 , 791844

The aneroid barometer is coming into general favor perhaps
more from convenience than any other reason, as it is imposible to
read as small fraction from the index as from the vernier of the
mercurial barometer.

From observations made in two different rooms at temperatures
of 542 and 65° respectively, a difference was found amounting to
ten feet, but since this was eqnal to the probable error of observa-

76 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

tion of the scale of the instrument used, the result might be taken
as a test of the accuracy of the formula.

Whenever observations are made in a room of moderate tem-
perature, the detached thermometer should be placed in the open
air in a sheltered place, and from the temperature obtained the cor-
rections for dilation may be made with accuracy, for expansion of
mercury, the temperature as shown by the attached thermometer
must necessarily be taken for corrections of the same.

The barometer is subject to regular periodical oscillations in con-
sequence of variable temperature of the earth and the consequent
air currents. A very small diurnal barometric wave exists which
may be traced with great accuracy. The laws which control the
regular motions will soon be thoroughly understood from the re-
sults of a recording apparatus in use for the several years by which
a diagram is photographed which gives an accurate continuous
record day or night.

The thermo-barometer and other useful and interesting matter
is omitted for want of the time necessary to prepare the same.

ON KEROSENE OIL. UG

ON KEROSENE OIL.
BY E. T. SWEET, M. 8.

The introduction of kerosene as an illuminating agent has be-
came so general, that the leading charicteristics of a safe and val-
uable oil, should be well understood by consumers. It was with
this idea in mind that I commenced the preparation of the follow-
ing paper. As the sources of information in regard to the methods
of detecting dangerous burning fluids, are exceedingly limited, I
shall, after briefly referring to the manufacture of kerosene, and
summing up the results of a number of evperiments made at the
University of Wisconsin, in January, 1878, upon different samples
of commercial kerosene, particularly refer to the proper manner of
testing oils. Whiie nothing original is claimed for this article it is
thought that its perusal will give general knowledge of the princi-
ples of testing burning fluids, and may awaken an interest in the
subject, and indirectly lead to the consumption of a higher grade
and safer kerosene than is at present in use.

The fire-test is the only efficient method of distinguishing be-
tween a safe and a dangerous hydro-carbon oil.. Experiment shows
that but very few samples of commercial kerosene will stand the
tests required by law. Consequently instead of perfectly safe burn-
ing fluids, as dealers nearly always represent, immense quantities
of inferior oil are sold, which are liable to become ignited at any
maoment, when heated a few degrees above the temperature of an
ordinary room.

Crude petroleum as it comes from the earth is a dark colored
fluid, consisting of many hydro-carbons, compoundsof hydrogen
and carbon. It has a density of about .880, water being 1,000.

The raw or crude material is placed in immense iron retorts,
holding from fifteent to twenty thousand gallons each, and dis-
tilled. The distillation is eminently destructive, for it “ cracks’
or breaks up the oil into lighter hydro-carbons, which have differ-
ent boiling points, and consequently pass off in vapor at different

78 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

temperatures. The vapors are condensed in an iron coil passing
through water and collected in separate reservoirs. The products.
of the distillation taken in order, as they are driven off, are as fol--
lows:

Name. Grayity. |Boiling point..

| °F.
(Ghicosnenunoucoouncaue 40 oc bolodosocanonoLodoudouD .665 120
IS ROHOR) 5a.60000 00000 00000000009 000800 000005000000IC 709 180
IBANVAINE cabaooddcondcs «| apdssoquopdabooNdoOOKOBOC 721 216
IKigoRaGiaceh acon Gas goodSL bon eododaCoobO DONO ODDS 804 350
Menexrallgsperminoul: tele rtete leet tetcti terettekedelskeleretstetetereteicto= .857 A425
Iuiloricatimaxoul: soi ce emicen teksckek ened terteekcomtactst: F .883 575

Rhigolene is a very volatile hydro-carbon, produced by the re-
peated distillation of gasolene. In consequence of its rapid evapor-
ation, its boiling point being but 65° F., it is used in surgery for
producing ‘* local anzesthesia.” Paraffine, another product of petro-
leum, is a solid. It is used principally in the manufacture of can-
dles, chewing gum, and water-proof cloth.

About ten per cent. of the native petroleum consists of gasolene,
naptha, and benzene. They pass from the still first, and are nearly
valueless, being sold for from five to ten cents per gallon. Allread-
ily ignite at ordinary atmospheric temperature, therefore are highly
dangerous for illuminating purposes. After the light hydro-carbons
have been driven off, the remaining fluid in the still is generally
transferred to smaller retorts, the temperature raised, and safe ker-
osene distilled. A ‘heavy black residue remains, which is prinei-
pally manufactured into paraftine and lubricating oil. On aecount
of the poor market for the light oils, and as they afford even a more
brilliant flame than safe kerosene, there is a strong tendency on the
part of unscrupulous manufacturers to commence the collection of
burning fluid before the less dense oils have entirely passed off. This
is the primary cause of the many fatal accidents that yearly occur
from the use of kerosene.

Kerosene oil has no constant composition. Like petroleum, it
consists of a great number of liquid hydro-carbons. Most of the
higher combinations of these elements found in kerosene, have a
low specific gravity, and are very volatile. They pass off in vapors
at comparatively low temperatures. As a burning fluid contains a
large or asmali proportion of these volatile compounds, it is said

ON KEROSENE OIL. 79

to be alight or a dense oil; those known as light being regarded
dangerous, while the heavy oils are called safe. But the specific
gravity of kerosene, as shown below, is not an invariable indica-
tion of its purity.

Soon after the introduction of kerosene as a burning fluid, a
method called the “ fire-test ’ was devised for the detection of dan-
gerous oils. It consists in determining the temperature at which
an inflamable vapor is evolved, or the “flashing point;” and also
the temperature at which the fluid becomes ignited from the flash
of the vapor and continues to burn, or the “ burning point.” The
flashing point is determined by inserting the bulb of a thermome-
ter half an inch below the surface of the Huid to be tested, and
gradually raising the temperature from sixty or seventy degrees, to
the point at which a pale blue flicker is observed to pass across the
surface upon the approach of a small flame or lighted match. The
burning point is usually from ten to fifteen degrees above the
flashing point.

Tf an oil gives off a combustible vapor, or flashes, at a low tem-
perature, there is danger of forming a very explosive mixture with
about four volumes of atmospheric air, especially in a confined
space. This mixture is often formed in a kerosene lamp, contain-
ing a small quantity of oil, in attempting to refill it while still
burning. It is also formed if the temperature of a partially filled
lamp is suddenly lowered by changing it from a warm to a cool
room, or by allowing a cold draught of air to come in contact with
it. In these cases a part of the vapor above the oil condenses, air
rushes in to fili the partial vacuum, the flame has a tendency to
descend and an explosion is apt to take place. The oil itself never
explodes, it is a mixture of vapor and atmospheric air that bursts
the lamp and kindles the flame, hence the necessity of keeping
lamps well filled and uniform temperatures.

Laws have been enacted by several State legislatures, and a spec-
ial act was passed by congress March 2, 1867, which however, has
since been declared unconstitutional, fixing the temperature at
which hydro-carbon oil may be deemed safe and merchantable, at
not less than one hundred degrees Fahrenheit, for the flashing
point, nor below one hundred and ten degrees Fahrenheit for the
burning point. An oil which will stand these tests may be regard-
ed as perfectly safe. The results of my observations show that

80

WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

such a burning fluid in the ordinary market is of rare occurrence.
Of twenty-seven samples of kerosene collected in this city, and ex-
amined, but two were found to stand the test required by law. The
following are the results of the examinations referred to:

b Ral

Brand.

ANETOSENC.. cee eee errcessecerseaa cretssevere

se

yo onl)
edd hehtrotle ie see enc cise selene eee eee

i

point.

point.

Deg. F.| Deg. F.
71

83

92

Flashing} Burning | Epecific
gravity.

797
-(99
.798
797
797
796
.799

ON KEROSENE OIL. 81

In order to determine the proportion of contaminating fluids
contained in the oils, several samples were subjected to a fractional
distillation, which gave the following important results:

ee) [os

FA Brand. 2s oD

a Lrg =

I og Ss

2 ae

Ai O ca)
I, Oli |) 12, Cb
Pa HPISCETOSE MOV anti eLOEmi AN mM i pa iN ice a Ne 12 88
9 SCG) BBS isha IP Ba ate ig Al a CaS eco a a 5 87
15 (UO SEE IS Ai aici as Okey SRT LA SS ie IE ENS SCL a a 4 96
5Q Sib, OKO) CRSA Role tei rare encanta Hoiclomiae emia mee arc 3 97
SO) i) IMChae ell Syerereitl 6 Se GeechS sage eMicomal ae Sooplooonhode 0 10¢

It will be observed from these results that but two of the twenty
seven samples of kerosene may be regarded as safe burning fluids.
Of seventeen samples of kerosene tested in the city of La Crosse,
by myself, in December, 1873, but one was found to answer the
requirements of law.

Headlight-oil was originally manufactured for lanterns used on
locomotives.

Mineral Sperm oil owes its name te the odor and color of the
fluid. The process of manufactaring it was discovered in 1872, by
Mr. Joshua Merrill, at the Downer Oil-Works, in Boston, Massachu-
setts. In the notice of its discovery Mr. Merrill says: ‘‘ Flames of
considerable size, such as a large ball of wicking yarn saturated
with oil and ignited, when plunged beneath the surface of this oil,
previously heated to the temperature of boiling water are extin-
guished at once.”

It is estimated that about one-fourth of the production of petro-
leum may be manufactured into this beautiful and safe illuminat-
ing agent. No danger, whatever, need be anticipated from mineral
sperm or headlight oil, even though alamp containing either should
be accidentally broken while in use. The flame at the end of the
wick would probably be extinguished, but if circumstances the
most favorable should happen for igniting the oil, fire could not
possibly be communicated to it until the temperature of the sur-
rounding fluid became raised to its vaporizing point. The flame

6 was

82 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

would then gradually spread over the surface of the oil in an en-
larging circle, and no sudden flash would be observed, asin the case
when a lamp is broken containing oil heated above the temperature
at which it evolyes a combnstible vapor. It is certainly to be hop-
ed that these perfectly safe oils will soon come into general use,
The lamp in which kerosene is burned, often has an important bear-
ing upon the temperature of the oil which is contamed init. I
can not better convey an idea of the effect of the lamp upon the
temperature of the oil, than to quote from a reporé upon the sub-
ject, submitted to the Metropolitan Board of Health, in 1870, by
Professor C. ¥. Chandler, of Columbia College, and chemist to the
board. He says, “in continuing the investigation with regard to
dangerous kerosene, it was thought a matter of importance to
ascertain the temperature to which the oil is heated in lamps while
they are burning, as a knowledge of this point is obviously a pre-
liminary to the establishment of a proper standard for sate oil. ‘To
this end twenty-three ordinary lamps were purchased. Kleven were
of metal, mostly brass; twelve were of glass. They were filled
with the same oil and allowed to burn for seven hours; the tem-
perature of the room during the experiment was nearly constant,
varying from 73° to 74° Fah. The temperature in the eleven metal
lamps varied from 76° to 100°, the average being 86° Fah. The
temperature in the twelve glass lamps varied form 76° to 86°, the
average being 81° Fah. The average temperature of all the ob-
servations on all the lamps was 83° Fah.

These experiments show, that an oil which does not give off an
inflammable vapor below 100° F., may be regarded as perfectly
safe. They also show that the average temperature of the oil in
the lamp is about 8 ° above the temperature of the room in which
it is burning, hence if the temperature of a room in which an oil
is burning is 74° , and the flashing point of the oil is 80 °, a vapor
is constantly passing off, and there is danger, upon suddenly cool-
ing the lamp, of an explosion.

Testing the oil is a very simple operation. A rough method of
detecting dangerous kerosene is to pour out a small quantity of the
oil into a saucer, and attempt to ignite it with a lighted match. If
the flame is not at once extinguished, on being plunged beneath the
surface of the fluid, the oil is highly dangerous, and should at once
be consumed. By this means cheap burning fluids, usually bearing

ON KEROSENE OIL. 83

fancy names, as “ Hureka,’ “Sunlight Oil,” ‘“ Danforth’s Fluid,”
‘“ Non-explosive Chemical Spirit,” etc., may easily be detected.
When a thermometer is at hand the temperature of the oil may be
raised by cautiously heating the saucer over a stove, and for every
two or three degrees rise, a lighted match may be passed rapidly
across the saucer, one-fourth of an inch above the surface of the
fluid. Ifthe oil becomes ignited, a slight puff of the breath will
extinguish the flame. Of all the methods devised for testing kero-
sene, the most approved is that used by the British government in
applying the “ fire-test ” to hydro-carbon oil. The only apparatus
required, 1s a tester, thermometer and spirit lamp or candle.

The tester consists of a tin vessel four and one-half inches deep,
with the same diameter. A cover fits this, which supports another
small vessel of tin, two inches in depth and two inches in diameter.
When the cover is placed in position, the small vessel descends into
the larger vessel. The cover also has an elevated rim about the
circumference, one-fourth of an inch in height. Stretching across
the top of the rim is a wire, which passes over the center of the
small vessel containing the fluid to be tested. Water at 60° or
70 ° is placed in the large vessel and slowly warmed from under-
neath by the flame of a lamp or candle. The cover, containing the
small vessel filled with oil,is put on, and the bulb of a thermome-
ter is introduced one-half inch below the surface of the fluid. For
every rise of two or three degrees in the mercury, a minute gas-
flame, or lighted match, is passed along the wire a quarter of an
inch above the surface of the oil, which is repeated until a pale blue
flicker is observed to pass across the surface of the fluid, when the
flashing point is reached. The temperature is then increased until
the oil will take fire from the flash and continue to burn. The
temperature of this is the burning point.

84 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

IMPROVEMENT OF THE MOUTH OF THE MISSISSIPPI
RIVER.

BY JOHN NADER, C. E.

The improvement of the mouth of the Mississippi, the free and
unobstructed outlet of a great national highway equal in extent to
that which forms the subject of this paper, can certainly not be
over-estimated. A number of important producing States depend
mainly upon this highway to dispose of their productions, and aiso
to obtain through the same those imports which are necessary for
manufactures, arts, and comforts of life. The river, very properly
denominated the father of rivers, flows in a north and south line
through a fertile tract of country, partaking of varieties of climate
and embracing the extremes of latitude of ihe United States. Its
tributaries are numerous, and some are ef considerable magnitude;
its productions embrace the extremes, its commerce concerns the
world at large, and the national character of this great highway
demands free and unobstructed passage for the largest ships sailing
the ocean.

Before entering upon any plan of improvement, we will first
examine the physical and hydrological conditions of the river in
question.

The Mississippi River is one of the great working-rivers of the
world, and compares with the ‘“ Nile,” the ‘ Po,” the ‘‘ Rhone,”
the ‘* Danube,” and others. By working-rivers, we understand
those rivers which deposit large quantities of alluvium in deltas at
their outlets to the ocean or seas.

The working of rivers is due only to natural forces, and in order
to remedy any resulting difficulties it 1s necessary to amend these
forces, but in order to master the forces of nature and to use them
to our advantage, the first condition is that we should well under-
stand them.

In examining a map of portions of the Mississippi valley, we can
conclude, by observing the form of sloughs, bayous and annular
lakes, that the river which occupies a very inconsiderable portion
of the valley, has at some time occupied in turn nearly every por-

IMPROVEMENT OF MOUTH OF MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 85

tion of the same. The matter is very plain when we observe the
present working of the river; an abrasion takes place on one side,
while a corresponding accretion takes place on the other, and in
this manner a constant lateral motion takes place which may con-
tinue in one direction for an indefinite period, until from some
cause or other the motion is changed.

Ii is not difficult to comprehend the movement of an island
down stream, or the shifting of the point of bifurcation. The
upper end of the island is worn away by the current, while at the
same time the lower end grows by deposits which take place in the
still water. The movement of berids, on the other hand, partakes
of an entirely different nature; these must be destroyed before they
can reform. The peninsula like portion of land projecting into
the bend is abraded on both the upper and lower side, until it is
finally cut off, the old river bed is abandoned and a new one is
formed; the regimen of the river thus disturbed, at once seeks to
readjust itself and hence the fearful inroads consequent upon a
natural or artificial cut-off. The causes are plain, the absolute
slope, and consequently the velocity is increased, while at the same
time the reciprocity of curves is broken, and a new bend must re-
sult. The remedy in this case is plainly the preservation of the
natural bends.

My object in dwelling upon the foregoing, although foreign to
the subject, was simply to illustrate the source of the material re-
quisite to form the delta. The material which is carried along by
the action of the current, will be found to differ very materially
along the course of the stream, on the upper portions it is com-
posed of sand and gravel, this will be found reduced by attrition as
we descend the river, until it is finally reduced to impalpable mud;
decomposed vegetation is added by the draining of the forests, and
of this composition the delta is formed. I can give no better illus-
tration of the delta than the following from a translation of a
work by ‘“* Reclus.” He says:

“These narrow embankments of mud, brought down into the open
sea by the fresh water, present a striking spectacle. in several
places these banks are only a few yards thick, and during storms
the waves of the sea eurl over the narrow belt of shore, and min-
ele with the river. The soil of the banks becomes perfectly spongy;
it is not firm enough to allow even willows to take root, and the

8&6 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCHS, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

only vegetation is a species of tall reed, the fibrous roots of which
give alittle cohesion to the ooze, and prevent its being dissolved
and washed away by the succession of tides. Farther down the reeds
disappear, and the banks of mud form, are washed away and form
again, wandering, so to speak, between the river and the sea, at the
will of the winds and tide. On the left bank of the southwest pas-
sage, which is used for the largest ships, the plank built huts of a
small pilots village have been fixed asdelicately as possible. These
constructions are so light, and the ground that carries them is so
unstable, that they have been compelled to anchor them like ships,
fearing that a hurricane might blow them away; still, the force of
the wind often makes them drag on their anchors. Below, the
banks of the Mississippi are reduced to a mere belt of reddish mud,
cut through at intervals by wide cross streams; still farther down
even this narrow belt comes to an end, and the banks of the river
are indicated by nothing but islets, which rise at increasing dis-
tances from one another, like the crests of submarine dunes. Soon
the summits of these islets assume the appearance of a thin, yellow
palm floating on the surface of the water. Then all is mud; the
land is so inundated with water that it resembles the sea, and the
seais so saturated with mud that it resembles the land. Finally, all
trace of the banks disappears, and the thick water spreads freely
over the ocean. After getting clear of the bar, the sheet of water
which was the Mississippi preserves, during floods, the yellowish
color by which it can be distinguished for about twenty miles, but
it loses in depth all that it gains in extent, and, gradually deposit-
ing the earthy matter which it holds in suspension, becomes ulti-
mately mingled with the sea.”

This beautiful illustration gives one at once an idea of the diffi-
culties of navigating the Delta, which in storms and dark weather
becomes uncertain and dangerous even with the assistance of expert
pilots. Now, in connection with the above, if we consider the in-
sufficient depth of channel, our problem at once becomes manifest.
Before however entering upon the solution of the problem, we will
examine the working of rivers, and the means applied to remove
the resulting obstruction in the deltas and mouths of rivers.

The amount of alluvion brought down and deposited in the gulf
annually is estimated equal to a mass one mile square and 268 feet
high. The ‘“* Hoangho,” which probably carries more alluvium than

IMPROVEMENT OF MOUTH OF MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 87

any river in the old world, has formed a deta which extends over a
space of over 90,000 square miles, and constitutes one of the most
important provinces of China. It is estimated that the alluvion of
this river would in the course of sixty days, form an island a mile
square and over 100 feet in depth. According to Rennell, the
Ganges conveys from five to six cubic yards per second, or from
forty to fifty thousand cubic yards per day. The Nile, scarcely
comparing with rivers of an inferior class, advances but slowly, yet
its Delta measures nearly 200 miles on its front and increases over
seventy acres in a year.

The “Po” is considered one of the most remarkable working-
rivers in the world, although a constant subsidence is taking place;
the river is nevertheless continually encroaching upon the Adriatic,
its deposits being estimated at over 15 million cubic yards every
year.

The Rhone deposits an estimated mass of 22 million cubic yards
every year.

I have here given a fair idea of the enormous amount of work
done by rivers, in order to show what we have to deal with.

Considering the enormous masses which form the obstructions
which we wish to remedy, it may be well to examine the manner in
which they are disposed of by nature, and how these obstructions,
are formed. I will here return directly to the river in question—
the Mississippi.

It will be observed that two parallel banks, confining the river,
stretch out into the gulf over 60 miles; these finally become irreg-
ular, and the stream is divided into numerous branches and out-
lets. It is asserted that the Delta proper commences only at the
head of the passes. I would, however, consider the entire projec-
tion as belonging to the same. The first formation was on the
shallow coast of the gulf, removed from the destructive force of the
ocean waves; the river here asserted its rights and pushed boldly
on, every freshet increasing and fortifying the narrow causeways
forming its banks, which the waves would, in my estimation, only
tend to solidify by impact and by incorporating denser substances
eroded from the gulf-shores.

The west side of these advancing banks is by some considered
part of the gulf shore, whereas it appears to me to be an accretion,
formed by the littoral current, such as would occur in the case of a

88 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

jettee’. In fact it appears that at one time the Delta was being
forced to the east, as may be observed at Bird Island, where the
motion must at some time have been decidedly east. As soon,
however, as the delta had advanced far enough to stop the erasion
of the shores, the accretion ceased, and the shoals produced by the
previous easterly motion gave a tendency to a contrary motion.
During freshets the alluvion is precipitated on the banks which
thereby continue to rise and to assume a more substantial consist-
ance.

In building a dyke, or causeway of earth, the same is self-sustain-
ing to a considerable height; even in shallow water the same can be
formed, but when the saturated portion becomes considerable, it
finally loses the cohesion necessary to support the superincumbent
weight and partakes of a lateral motion, or in other words, spreads
out, until the submerged portion attains sufficient resistance to pro-
duce an equilibrium.

The alluvion of the delta after reaching deep water, and not being
fortified by any material denser than its own impalpable mud, must
necessarily spread out until the lateral resistance would prevent mo-
tion. The river also would become wider, and lose in depth what
gains in extent. Now, considering the foregoing facts, it is
not at all surprising that the delta of the Mississippi encroaches on
the gulf and presents the difficulties with which we are already fa-
milar.

The estimated discharge of alluvion of the South Pass is about
22,000,000 cubic yards per annum, and the advance of the delta is
put at 100 feet.

As the delta advances, its progress will decrease in proportion as
the depth of the gulf increases; the difficulties of navigation
- would increase in the same ratio in this wide-spread bed of alluvion.
In order to estimate the result of this progressive motion, we must
consider that the discharge of a stream is the product of two
quantities, viz., the cross-section and mean velocity (Q—F. Vo) and
that the latter depends principally upon the absolute slope;

v2
hn3e
hence the lengthening of the river would diminish the slope, and

since the natural supply must of necessity be discharged, the slope
must of necessity adjust itself for the performance of the work.

IMPROVEMENT OF MOUTH OF MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 89

It is for this reason that we find that the Mississippi, which at first
most naturally flowed in the lowest portion of the valley, is now at
places over fifteen feet above the abjacent flood plains. On the im-
provement of the Rhine, the entire river has been lowered as much
as six feet in places by increasing the slope by means of cut-ofls,
and large tracts of land have been reclaimed which had become
entirely worthless.

On the majority of “working-rivers,’ we find very little differ-
ence in the ultimate result, unless they are interfered with by arti-
ficial contrivances, or that the natural forces find a new field of
operations. After what has been observed, I will endeavor to re-
view what has been done up to the present time to remedy the
difficulties arismg from the detritus deposited at the mouths of
rivers.

The first, and most natural conception, was to endeavor to im-
prove the natural outlets of the rivers, but this plan has been at-
tended with varied results, and in some cases the very action of
nature suggested the contrary.

In the case of the Vistula, every attempt to improve the mouth
failed; a new outlet was formed and the old channel was converted
into a canal which gives the necessary water to Dantzic. At the
mouth of the Danube the Jetties gave success, but they were ap-
plied to the “Soulina Pass,’ a comparatively new branch of the
river, far removed from the actual delta. The Jetties were carried
out into the sea to a point where a current passes from north to
south in the Black Sea; this current receives and carries all the
aliuvium brought down by the river, and prevents the formation
of abar. The channel has been deepened from nine feet, to six-
teen and one-half feet by this means, since the works were con-
structed. It is very properly presumed that the encroachment of
the whole delta will have the effect of crowding the current farther
into the sea, and finally a bar will form as heretofore.

The improvement of the mouth of the “Adour ” was accomplished
by means of Jetties, but this river differs very materially from
what we consider ‘ working-rivers.” The difficulty in this case
was, that the obstructions cast up by the Atlantic forced the river
in a direction parallel to the shore until its banks were no longer
able to contain it; at such times the river would break out and
form anew mouth. The mouth below “ Bayonne” was improved

90 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

precisely upon the plan of our own lake shore harbors. Parallel
dykes are carried out to adepth where the action of the waves
cease to disturb the bottom, which is in about eighteen feet, the
channel is cleared by dredging and the natural current of the river
maintains the same, the detsitus moved down by the river is car-
ried off by the littorral current into deep water. The question as
to how long these artificial structures will serve their purpose, is a
matter not yet determined. Operations were carried on for many
years at the mouth of the Rhone by dykes and jetties, which plan
had finally to be abandoned. It was hoped that by closing the
lateral outlets, and by confining the channel between contracted
banks that a sufficient depth might be obtained, but the works
were not carried out to a sufficient depth, and the mass of allu-
vium carried down, left the outlet in about the same condition as it
was before the improvement. Finally, a canal was constructed to
the “Gulf de Fos” so called from a former canal constructed by
Marius. This canal (St. Louis) is entirely sufficient for the require-
ments of commerce. In connection with this canal there is a very
extensive basin to serve the purpose of trans-shipment to the steam-
ers nayagating the shallow portions of the river.

It appears that a system of jettees is the plan that has most gen-
erally been resorted to by engineers for the improvement of the
mouths of rivers. In some cases they have been attended with
partial success, and in others the enormous expense invoived did
not warrant the completion of the experiment.

An attempt was made about 1857 to improve the Southwest
Pass of the Mississippi, but a tempest swept away a jettee of over
a mile in length.

In reviewing the subject, we may safely conclude that the jetty
system would give but temporary relief in working rivers, although
the plan has succeeded admirably in the majority of our inland
harbors where the same was applied.

Returning directly to our own subject, we find the Mississippi
one of the most active working-rivers in the world. The South
Pass increases at the rate of one hundred feet annually, and the
other principal passes even more.

From the manner in which it is brought before the public we
know that it is obstructed to a great degree and requires a remedy.
For years the government has been engaged, and with considerable

IMPROVEMENT OF MOUTH OF MISSISSIPPI RIVER. on

success, in improving the Delta. The method applied has been a
peculiar kind of dredging. Boats of considerable power were pro-
vided with a movable propeller, which could be lowered to the
required depth. The boat was run down stream into the bar, the
excavator was agitated, and the aliuvion was given to the current.
This process most naturally required constant repetition, but on
the whole was not of sufficient capacity to satisfy commerce. I
am reliably informed that the depth of water maintained in the
Southwest Pass at present varies from fourteen to eighteen feet,
rarely, however, less than sixteen feet. But that, on account of
this lack of sufficient water, many of the larger sailing vessels and
steamboats have been withdrawn from the trade, and my informant
says: “I believe that one German line has been discontinued on
account of the difficulties, dangers, and delays at the mouth of the
Mississippi.”

Now, when we consider the foregoing, together with the fact
that for the past twelve months the port of New Orleans reports a
total export in cotton, tobacco, grain in bulk, sugar, and sundries
of $100,000,000, and total imports, foreign and coastwise, of
$60,000,000, notwithstanding the many drawbacks, we no longer
wonder that the nation calls for improvements.

Now, the question arises, as to the kind and extent of improve-
ment to satisfy the requirements of commerce. Although the
Government, with an annual expenditure of about $100,000, has
failed to maintain a reliable 18-feet channel, while commerce de-
mands at least 24 feet, still the problem is one that must and can be
solved. There are however other difficulties of a local nature
which I would wish to exhibit. Captain C. H. Howell, of the
Corps of Engineers, makes the following statement in his report
for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1873:

‘“Hiven the popular prejudice against dredging has been over-
come, and the people of New Orleans most interested to-day ac-
knowledge the good done. So far, so well; but there is a powerful
monopoly, known as the Tow-boat Association, domiciled in New
Orleans, controlling its commerce, opposed to the improvement of
the channels across the bars at the mouth of the Mississippi, and
having in its power at any time to render valueless any improve-
ment attempted. This association has, time and again, willfully

92 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

and maliciously retarded my work, and damaged and destroyed its
fruits.”

This monopoly really forced the dredges from the Southwest
Pass to Pass al’Outre, in April of 1873, according to the engineer's
report. Science may overcome the natural difficulties, but those
just mentioned can only be overcome by prompt and positive legis-
lation.

From what we know of this matter, it appears that the nation
is prepared to do the work; the only question has been as to the
plan which would, with the greatest certainty of success, and at a
warrantable cost, satisfy the wants of commerce, and which could
be maintained with a reasonable expense.

A board of engineers was appointed in compliance with an act
of Congress of June, 1874, to examine and report a plan with esti-
mates for obtaining and maintaining sufficient depth of water to
tne Mississippi for purposes of commerce. The plan to be either a
canal, or the improvement of one or more natural outlets.

The board has completed its labors and has reported in fayor of
the Jetty-system, according to the idea of Captain Hads, (of St.
Louis bridge fame,) with this difference, that they reccommend the
South instead of the Southwest Pass. In this connection I agree
with the committee, as the South Pass is several miles the shortest
and debouches, into deeper water than the others, although some
work will he required at the head of the passes to make a sufficient
depth to the entry of the pass. The committee discussed several
canal plans, the Fort St. Philip plan receiving the preference, but
on account of the greater cost was rejected, and the improvement
of the south pass by means of Jettees and dredging was finally
recommended.

The estimated cost of construction and maintenance of this plan
is $7,942,110, and the estimate for the Southwest Pass is $16,053,124,
and that of the Ft. St. Philip Canal $11,514,200. Now as to the
relative merits of the different plans without regard to cost of con-
struction or maintenance, the improvement of the South Pass would
open the Delta in the middle and vessels going either way would
not be obliged to make a detour, while at the same time it is the
shortest and most direct route to the river; on the other hand Capt.
Kads may have counted on the more stable bottom of the South-
west Pass to support the Jettees. In either case it would require a

IMPROVEMENT OF MOUTH OF MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 93

large annual expenditure to lengthen the Jetiees as the delta ad-
vanced, and to dredge out the bars.

If we should now consider the Jetty-system to succeed, the dan-
ger of entering is still not removed. It will be necessary, in a storm,
to find an entrance to a gap of only 300 yards among mud-lumps
and mud-banks, none of which are more than three feet above still
water, and although the channel may be boyed and marked and
lighted, still more than ordinary skill would be required, while at
the same time the entry would be subjected to the severest storms
and waves of the ocean.

As reported, one member of the board concurred only in so far as
the selection cf the south pass for the trial of the Jetty-system if
that be adopted, as the chances of success of the improvement of
the natural outlets do not in his judgment jastify recommendation;
and since the canal plan offers reasonable chances of success, he
gives this his preference.

New Orleans being the second city for value of her exports and
sixth in the value of her imports in the United States and promises
fair to improve with sufficient navigation, it is important that the
plan offermg the'greatest chances of success should by all means
be the one to be adopted.

From the quotation which I have used to give a general idea of
the appearance and consistence of the delta, and by examining a
map of the same, the difficulties to be encountered are very appar-
ent. Placed, I might say, in an open sea, a hundred feet deep of
mud, of insufficient consistence to sustain itself, ever seeking an
equilibrium, some sinking, some rising, moving, oozing, never at
rest; volumes at times lashed into foam by the fury of the ocean
waves.

Considering the unstable foundation upon which we would have
to construct, and the fact, that the Jetty-plan has been attended
with success in only afew and special cases, it is but proper that
we should adopt some other and more certain method to obtain the
end in view.

The plan known as the Fort St. Philip Canai, has always ap-
peared to me to be most reliable method of opening the Miss. The
river at this point is deep and safe; the banks, although not more
than a few feet above the level of the river, have assumed sufficient
stability to admit of constructions; the whole length between ex-

94 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

tremes of excavtion will be about six miles; the river at this point
never rises more than seven feet above the level of the gulf, and is
seldom lower than the same. The gulf-end is sheltered by the
arms of the delta, and by a number of islands, and will give a safe
outlet of 26 feet, which is sufficient to admit the jiargest class of sea-
going vessels. Several locations of canals have been advanced, but
all seem to be encumbered with the same objections excepting the
Fort St. Philip Canal.

One plan has been to leave the Pass a l’Outre six miles inside of
its bar and reach deep water to the north; another, of leaving the
Southeast Pass about six miles above its bar and make deep water
towards the east. Both these plans have this disadvantage; al-
though the slope is inconsiderate, yet without locks, there is a possi-
bility of the canals becoming a branch of the Delta; on the other
hand, it may be that the stability of the banks is insufficient to sup-
port the construction of locks, or resist the pressure during freshets.

Another plan has been considered, which is the closing of the
head of the South Pass by means of adam, and entermg the Pass
through a channel from the Southwest Pass. In this case the dif-
ficulty would be the keeping open of the mouth of the pass by
dredging away the bar which would be thrown up by the ocean
waves. It appears to me, that the plan of the Fort St. Philip
Canal is the most reliable plan of producing uninterrupted naviga-
tion to the Mississippi, and the only plan which promises positive
success. ‘This canal would be in the extreme six’and one-half miles
long and should be 300 feet wide at the bottom, with sloping banks
of not less than two horizontal to one perpendicular. The lift
to be overcome would never exceed seven feet; the locks should be
of the greatest capacity, say 500 feet long and 80 feet wide, so as to
enable the largest class of vessels to enter without difficulty, or to
pass a fleet of small vessels at the same time. I would recommend
at least two locks, in order not to impede navigation in the leasi
degree; at the same time if one lock should in any manner be im-
paired, commerce would not be impeded.

I have not the slightest doubt that such a canal could be
constructed at a cost not to exceed that estimated for the improve-
ment of the South Pass, say $8,000,000 in round numbers with a
certainty of success which no other plan promises. An annual
expenditure of $25,000 or $30,000 may be required to maintain the

.

IMPROVEMENT OF MOUTH OF MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 95

work, still this is no comparison to the $100,000 or $300,000 re-
quired to extend the jetties per annum, provided that science and
determination should exist in sufficient abundance to produce the
same on the ground which would have to be occupied, and of sufi-
cient stability to escape the fate of the jettee of 1857.

96 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS,

ON THE CATOCALA OF RACINE COUNTY.
BY P. R. HOY, M. D., RACINE.

There is an interesting group of large showy Lepidoptera, be-
longing to the great family of Nocturnidac, included in which is the
genus Catocala. The larve feed on the leaves of various shrnbs
and trees. In the United States this genus is largely represented.
The accomplished entomologist Augustus B. Grote, has catalogued
sixty-four species. Many more undoubtedly remain to be caught
and described. There has not yet been a locality discovered where
Catocalas are so numerous as they are in the vicinity of Racine.
During the summer and fall of 1874, there were taken within a,
space, bounded on the north by Ninth street, on the south by Ever-
green Cemetery, on the east by the Lake shore, and west by College
Avenue, being one and a half miles long by forty rods wide, no.
less than six hundred specimens, belonging to forty species. The
abundance of insects found in the vicinity of Racine College, may
be accounted for by the numerous and great variety of plants,
shrubs, and trees cultivated, as well as the scarcity of summer birds.

The birds have been driven off by the boys belonging to the:
college, who for several years past robbed, indiscriminately, every
birds’ nest found, and their sharp lookout leaves very few undis-
covered.

The consequence of this egging mania has directly diminished
the number of birds, and indirectly vastly multiplied insects.

The following catalogue includes only those taken at Racine, all
captured with two exceptions within the past year, (1874.)

-CatocaLaz, Hpion, Drury.

i insolabilis, Guen.
residna, Grote.
obscura, Streck.

a viduata, Guen.
ji desperata, Guen.
a retecta, Grote.

i Flebilis, Grote.

CATACOLZ OF RACINE COUNTY. 97

CATACOL®, relicta, Walker.

unyuga, Walker.

of Meskei, Grote.

Briseis, Hdw.

parta, Guen.

coccinata, Grote.

ultronia, Hubn.

concubens, Walker.

amatrix, Hubn.

nurus, Walker,

eara, Guen.

ilia, Cramer.

inubens, Guen.

Var. scintillans, Grote and Robison.
cereogama, Guen. f
neogame, Gwen.

subnata, Grote.

platrix, Grote.

“ . palaeogama, Guen.
ie Var. phatanga, Grote.
habilis, Grote.

consors, Abb. and Smith.
ponderosa, Grote and Robison.
badia, Girote and Robison.
antinymptha, Hub.

levettei, Grote.

serena, Hdwards.

nuptialis, Walker.
polygama, Gwen.

grynea, Cramer.

nuptula, Walker.

fratercula, Grote and Robison.
androphila, Guen.

ON A MASTODON FOUND IN RACINE COUNTY.

Everything relating to those great animals that in the distant
past inhabited this country, is of interest. This paper is presented
for the purpose of recording the facts and conditions under which

the bones of a mastodon were found on the farm of H. Hoffman,
7——WaAs

98 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

southwest quarter of section 68, in the town of Dover, Racine county,
Wis., on the 12th day of November, 1874. These remains were
exhumed by F. Wells and F. 8. Perkins, of Burlington. I am in-
debted to Mr. Perkins for a minute account of the soil and condi-
tion in which the bones were found. They excavated a piece of
ground 15x20 feet, to the depth of four feet from the surface. They
passed through first fifteen inches of peat, then through a bed of
yellowish sand quite compact and hard, of a uniform thickness of
six inches, Below this stratum of sand isa bed of light-colored de-
posit, of sticky clay, intermingled with fine sand, all of which was
of the consistency of soft putty. The depth of this deposit was not
ascertained, as they could not reach bottom with an iron rod ten
feet in length.

The most superficial of these bones was found only six inches be-
low the sand—twenty-seven inches from the top af the peat.

The greatest depth at which any were found was four feet from
the surface. They procured many fragments of broken ribs, sey-
eral vertebra, the right scapula, a fibula and two tusks. All the
bones were much decayed, and of little value. However, by the ex-
ercise of great care and skill, one of the tusks was taken out and so
prepared, that it is now the most perfect specimen I ever saw.
There is not a fraction wanting. Even the sharp edge of that por-
tion entering the socket in the jaw is complete.

This tusk is four feet eight inches in length and fitteen inches in
circumference. No teeth were found. All the lower bones were
found in great disorder; the tusks were separated ten feet apart, and
each resting on fragments of ribs.

The peat-swamp, in which the bones were found, is 200 feet wide,
by 800 long, surrounded by high ground with the exception of a
narrow outlet. This marsh was undoubtedly once a small lake,
now filled with the wash from the adjacent elevated grounds.

The scattered condition in which the bones were found may be
accounted for by the agency of ice. The water freezing to the bot-
tom would include the skeleton. Then when the ice broke up it
would transport the bones to various parts of the lake. Possibly,
however, animals, or even man, have had to do with separating the
various parts of the skeleton.

COPPER TOOLS FOUND IN WISCONSIN.

Tos)
re)

COPPER TOOLS FOUND IN THE STATE OF WISCONSIN.
BY PROK. J. D:|/ BUTLER, Lis D

Implements of unalloyed copper are among the most rare and
curious of archeological findings. The exhibit of these articles
now made at the Philadelphia Centennial comprises the largest
collection ever brought together. The copper age proper, in dis-
tinction from the age of bronze, forms a link in the chain of hu-
man development which according to Sir John Lubbock, ‘is scarce-
ly traceable in Europe.” The only European museum known to
that distinguished archeologist which contains any copper tools is
the Royal Academy at Dublin. The number there was thirty till
within a year or two, when five were received from Gunjera—a
provinee in India north of Bombay.

The articles now on view at the Centennial are as follows: In
the Government building, from the Smithsonian Institution, seven_
teen real tools, besides casts of several others, and various copper
trinkets. In the same building two articles, much corroded, owned
in the State of Vermont.

In the mineral annex. [rom Ohio eight implements; from Mich-
igan nineteen, and from Wisconsin, one hundred and sixty four.
The whole number from all quarters is two hundred and ten.

I made notes regarding all the exhibits, but having lost them;
can only describe the show from Wisconsin. But the coppers
from that State are nearly four times as many as all the rest of the
world has sent to Philadelphia, and they surpass others in size, va-
riety, and perfection of preservation, as much as in number. The
only instrument from any other source, not represented among
Wisconsin Coppers, is a crescent about six inches long—perhaps
intended for a knife, though it has no handle.

Among the varieties in the Wisconsin exhibit—which is made
by the State Historical Society—are the following:

Ninety-five spear-heads. Of these the larger number are what
some antiquarians called “ winged,” that is the sides of the base are
rolled up towards each other so as to form asocket to receive a shaft.
Some of these sockets are quite perfect, and all are ingeniously
swaged. Sixteen of them are punched each with a hole, round,

100 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

square, or oblong, for a pin to fasten the shaft, and one of the cop-
per pins still sticks fast in its place. Twenty-three of the spear-
biades swell on one side something like bayonets, the rest are flat.
Three are marked with seven dents apiece, and one with nine; in-
dentatious which have been fancied to indicate the number of
beasts, or men, the weapons had killed. Nine spear-heads have
round tangs which are so long, smooth and sharp, that they may
well have been used as awls and gimlets. The blades of these nine
spears swell in the middle of each side. Their shape is a beautiful
oval. The largest specimen of this class is about a foot in length.
In the middle of its blade there is a hole as large as a pipe-stem,
which may have been drilled for putting in a cord to recover the
spear when it had been thrown into the water. One spear has a
unilateral barb. This, meeting with unequal resistence, will not
go straight in water, so we think it of an absurd pattern. But the
truth is that if aimed at a fish where he looks to be, it will hit him
where he is—though, owing to the refraction of light in water, he
is not where he looks to be. One barb is then better than two, and
we are the fools after all. Spears of asimilar pattern, though of other
material haye been exhumed in France and California, and are still
used in Terra del Fuego. Specimens in bone from Santa Barbara
may be seen in the Smithsonian exhibit. Thirteen spears have flat
tangs to thrust into shafts. Six of these tangs are serrated or
notched like the necks of flint weapous for binding about with sin-
ews. They seem to mark the very point of transition from one
material to another—from mineral to metal.

There are fifteen knives. Most of these were intended to be
stuck in handles, but one of them has a handle rolled out of the
same piece of copper with its blade. Another has its copper han-
dle bent into a hook. There are several gads, or wedges, to be
driven. There are three adzes—tools beyeled only on one side of
their edges, and with broad sockets for handles. There are eleven
chisels, some as heavy as those we now use. There are twelve axes,
one weighing three and three-quarter pounds is exactly the weight
of those common among Wisconsin lumbermen to-day. Another,
which is a pound heavier, is the largest specimen of wrought cop-
per that has ever been brought to light. There is one hook, and
a square rod. There are more than half a dozen borers of various
sizes. One may be called an auger, being sixteen inches long and

COPPER TOOLS FOUND IN WISCONSIN. 101

three in circumference. There is a dagger ten inches long with a
blade an inch wide. These, with various anomalous articles, com-
plete the catalogue.

For the conservation and display of this unique copper treasure
the State of Wisconsin has set apart one of the towers of the Cap-
itol in Madison. There they will be daily open for inspection, and
will no doubt be a magnet attracting to themselves other curios-
ities of like nature.

The question is always asked, “* Where did these coppers come
from?” Jt cannot be so definitely answered as is to be desired.
Nevertheless something is known in respect to the finding of them.
They were all discovered within the limits of Wisconsin—while the
Smithsonian specimens—less than one eighth as many, were
gleaned from eight different States. Nearly all of them have come
to light in eleven southeastern counties of Wisconsin. Only in
those counties has much search becn made.

Most of the Wisconsin coppers were brought together into one
collection by the zeal and perseverance of one single man, Freder-
ick S. Perkins of Racine county. Five years ago this gentleman,
though he had long been forming a museum of stone implements,
had never seen one of copper. On the 25th of November, 1871, he
was first shown such an antique. It was a large spear-head that
had been exhumed three miles north of his residence in Burling-
ton, Wisconsin. That November date marks the birthday of his
interest in copper—or his transition from the stone to the copper
age. His enthusiasm which had been great for the former became
greater for the the latter. He had leisure—or lie made it, to ride
over county after county on every road, waylaying every pedlar,
calling at every school, every store, at almost every house. He
advertised in newspapers, he threw tempting baits abroad on all
waters. He found what he sought, where noone else would have
looked for such a prize, and where many proved to him that it
could not be found. He has recorded the name and residence, by
county and town, of onehundred and twenty-one persons from
whom he obtained pre-historic coppers, as well as of three hun-
dred and twenty-five others who furnished him stone antiques, but
had no coppers to furnish. This record shows how thorough and
wide-spread were his researches. Indeed, although the Wisconsin
Historical Society has bought the bulk of his findings, some of them

102 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

are scattered far and wide. Five of them are in the Central Park
museum, others in the Metropolitan in New York, cthers I think
have enriched the Smithsonian. A further guestion which must
occur to every investigator, is, where were these implements ob-
tained by those from whom Mr. Perkins obtained them? On this
point my information is more scanty than it would be were not
Mr. Perkins now in Europe, and than it will be on his return.
Large numbers of the tools were turned up in plowing or hoeing.
Others at greater depth in digging foundations of houses or sink-
ing wells. Nota few have come to light in burial mounds close
by skeletons. In one such mound at Prairie du Chien an axe weigh-
ing two and seven-sixteenths pounds and eight inches long was
discovered lying ona large flint spade, fourteen feet below the top
of the mound, and seven feet below the level of the earth around,
and among human bones. Another axe, with other coppers, was
taken from a similar mound in Barron county. The only socket
spear-head which shows its rivet still in its place, was found on a
knoll in plowed land by James Driscollin May, 1874, at Lake Five,
Waukesha county. One knife was dug out of a mound by a dog
while hunting, in 1860,in Troy, Waukesha county. One chisel
was met with ten feet below the surface in cutting a road through
a bluff at Cedarburg, Ozaukee county, in 1871. One of the most
remarkable articles, a sort of copper pike, was dug up three feet
under ground on the bank of Pike Lake, Hartford, Washington
county, by Samuel Mowry in 1865. One massive celt, at first
turned up in Merton, Waukesha county, a pedlar had preserved
for twenty years. Several knives and other implements found near
lakes and rivers appear to have been washed out of their banks. A
lance-head found at Rubicon, Dodge county, in 1869, has a lump
or stud of silver on one side of it.

But we cannot fail to ask, ‘‘ who made these copper instruments?
was it Indians or some pre-Indian race?” It has been argued that
they are of pre-Indian origin because the skeletons with which
they are discovered in burial mounds are not of the Indian type,
but of a very different cranial development. Again, as the mounds,
multitudinous and often of vast size, are beyond Indian industry,
so the tools seem beyond Indian ingenuity. Most of them indeed,
are hammered, and so show copper used rather as a mineral than as
ametal. Others of the coppers betray no marks of hammering, no

COPPER TOOLS FOUND IN WISCONSIN. 103

laminations or flaws. Practical foundrymen detect on them mould-
marks where the halves of a flask united, and so declare them
smelted. Others they hold were run in a sand-mold. These indi-
cations of casting are plainest on the largest piercer and on one of
the chisels, except perhaps on certain implements which Mr. Per-
kins has carried abroad for the conversion to his views of trans-
Atlantic skeptics regarding our pre-historic metallurgy. All proofs
that our coppers were cast, tend to show that they are not the
handiwork of Indians.

Our early annals indicate that our copper implements were a pre-
Indian mauufacture. They testify that the earliest travelers in
Wisconsin found the Indians using copper, if at all, only for trin-
kets and totems, but not for implements either of war or of peace.
Thus La Salle on his last expedition through this region, well nigh
two centuries ago, says of the Indians: “The extremity of their
arrows is armed, instead of iron, with a sharp stone or the tooth of
some animal. Their buffalo-arrow is nothing else but a stone or
bone, or sometimes a piece of very hard wood.” Charlevoix, writ-
ing about 1720, mentions Indian “ hatchets of flint which take a
great deal of time to sharpen, as the only mode of cutting down
trees.” “To fix them in the handle,” says he, “they cut off the
head of a young tree, and make a notch in it in which they thrust
the head of the hatchet. After some time the tree by growing to-
gether keeps the hatchet so fixed that it cannot come out. They
then cut the tree to such a length as they would have the handle.”
‘Both their arrows and javelins,” he adds, ‘“‘ are armed with a point
of bone wrought in different shapes.” According to Hennepin
about 1680, (2.103) “the Indians, instead of hatchets and knives,
made use of sharp stones which they fastened in a cleft piece of
wood with leather thongs, and instead of awls they made a certain
sharp bone to serve.” The Jesuit Father Allouez, writing about
1660, says: I have seen in the hands of the savages, pieces of cop-
per weighing from ten to twenty pounds. They esteem them as
divinities or as presents made them by the gods. For this reason
they preserve them wrapped up with the most precious things, and
have sometimes kept them time out of mind.” In none of these
or other early chronicles do I find any mention of any copper tool
whatever. Pre-historic mines about Lake Superior are a proof that
our copper implements are not Indian work. No tradition of such

104 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

mines was brought to light by early adventurers among Indians.
But if excavated by them to such an extent as we see them, and for
ages, how could they have been given up and even forgotten? On
the whole the evidence now before us tends to show that our cop-
per tools are the work of some pre-Indian race. The success of Mr.
Perkins in unearthing coppers in unlooked for numbers should
raise up a legion of copper-hunters. For encouraging such investi-
gators still more, my last words shall be regarding the greater har-
vest than has crowned his labors which seems to me ripe for their
sickles.

Indieations are not wanting that our past prizes in copper-hunts,
are all as nothing to what is in store for us. Pre-historic mining-
pits honeycomb Isle Royal all over. Along the south shore of
Lake Superior they are frequent for a hundred miles. They were
every one rich pockets. Their yield of copper must have been
many times enough for sheathing the British navy. What has be-
come of this copper? It cannot have vanished like iron in oxidiz-
ing rust. 1t must still exist, and lurk all around us. At Assouan
the quarries prove to a stranger that Egypt must be rich in grani-
tic monoliths, for there we see the rock whence they were hewn.
Spanish treasure-ships sunk in the Carribbean ages ago, still teach
divers where to ply their sub-marine machinery for richest spoils.
In Greece, the Styx, and other catabothra, or lost rivers—emptying
into subterranean abysses, suggested to the ancients streams that
girdled the whole undereworld. So our mining shafts sunk time
out of mind are a prophecy and an assurance of copper bon-
anzas for explorers in the future so vast as will make us utterly for-
get whatever has been discovered. All hail such 2 ressurrection of
the copper age. The longer it has been lost the more welcome will
it be when found again.

4p
Ks
:

Ligl

a
@
vg
ro
=
=
=
nC)
nl
ma
Cy
©
q
i)
a
eu

RRA ants LA
AA

\
AN

\

: \ 8

\\\ AS

WS Vs
LAAN

SS \\
SSAA It
a A

d
Ss A PUL) Wy y Lee
: a
\

Raney

My Md Lis
i! Dag FIONA
i Te

HET LID

Scale 20K tol indy

PUL RYOE YS

hos

Zann mn

SPORTY

LLL ROR a

Gf ett) uo

“A “ONT PUDOTA jo UOloo0¢ pue UOTPeADT

OOF =

TASTED (P SUMAPOI ATL Ip MG Paha asay

EXPLORATION OF INDIAN MOUNDS. 105

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON EXPLORATION OF IN-
DIAN MOUNDS.

The committee, on exploration of Indian mounds in the vicinity
of Madison, Wisconsin, have the honor to report, that they have
explored three mounds.

These mounds are situated upon the crest of the peculiar ridge
of glacial drift, which separates Lakes Monona and Wingra, known
as Dead Lake Ridge.

Mound No. 1 is pear-shaped, and runs‘east 30 degrees north, by
west 30 degrees south, being in this direction 78 feet long and
in a line through center, perpendicular to this, 55 feet.

eg at center and proceeding inward, alternate layers of
mould and clay, very dry and compact, were
penetrated to a depth of six feet, then a layer
of gravel, a foot thick in center, gradually re-
deems to four inches in thickness at the base:
having the natural slope of gravel thrown down
at center. ‘To this succeeded alternate layers
of clay and mould to a depth of nine and one-
half feet from the surface to the natural sur-
face, (see Figs. 1 and 2;) a. represents mould,
b. clay, and c. gravel. The penetration was
carried three feet below the natural surface
threngh layers of boulders and coarse gravel.
A fire-place, 2x24 feet, with a layer of charcoal
Nand ashes four inches in thickness, was found
at a depth of five feet. In this was a piece of cloth partially
burnt, which for the most part crumbled to pow-
der on exposure to the air. A small piece was
preserved. Both on the north and south sides, frag-
ments of bones occurred at three to five feet from sur_
face in an advanced stage of decomposition. A chert
arrow-head was found three feet below surface
opposite the center on the north side. In the
center at two feet above natural surface were ob-
tained, nearly broken down by decomposition,
the femurs, tibize and fibule of a single skeleton corresponding to
a height of six and one-half feet in the living subject.

106 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

Mound No. 2, (see Figs. 3 and 4,) is a round mound 40 feet in di-
ameter, and sloping to the base of No.1. The
line joining their centers runs east 30 degrees
south, by west 30 degrees north, and is 64 feet
long. In opening this mound obscure alterna-
tions of mould and clay were pierced to a depth
of 83 feet.

Two fire-places were found, one at 3 feet, and
the other at 5 feet below surface. Dimensions
the same in each, 3 by 6 feet. In the lower one
was partially burnt bone in the ashes. At 6 feet
were found some pieces of pottery and a bundle
of bones, consisting of fragments of four or more
skeletons inatolerably good state of preservation,
corresponding to heights from 5 feet 8 inches to
6 feet 6 inches in the living subject. Photo-
graphs are transmitted herewith, which give
forms of two crania secured.

Mound No. 3 is alow mound about 200 yards
south of No.2, on the same ridge, forming a
mere swell upon the surface. About 2 feet below the surface, in
the center, occurred partially decomposed bones of a single skele-
ton. Below that the mould and clay of natural surface.

Comparative measurement of crania, above referred to, as being
found in Mound No. 2.

Description. No. 1.} No. 2
NGonertucumall diameter). ge mw ale ele nje le cles one)al ayaa letetePereier er gimpsisieye =e Peay | 6.4 6.5
Mantels poamete heal ae tee. yer oie et overe @ «ahs ciel ete he etaie hte UenEI-Ran Stet =f mete atisee b)2) 5.
Acre nella 4 Ue oto it SA EPPA IOD OIE ONS Nobo dc albin as Goma aTOOOIE 5) 6.0
IRON, sdoaccuges COUR OUD Co OMeUUnboS aot adod co sded uo GHomadin 4.2 4.5
Enternaastordanchampnierin ice sceiiatetnegdepaenibtetterete mya iaeln acheter 14.9} 15.0
lintel lmascdo gees sooPeesuen donb eodadAAnogs bode aaerE oc 4.1 4.2
Occipitotrontalgar cl sees eine oleh) o/c a1 sitehe el dette elanteiertensyefe meters 12.0} 12.5
Horizontal periphery........... tana 4 Me ate ierosi ese iaimbncetayan tue fe iors” 19 6 | 20.2
IDEOIL sas 5 aoe Yooduenesbogbooosdoencusoeencdonolddoneas 70° 750

Imternalicapactiye cei m eet: erlecniaci elite ee rirn tet. alter 81 85

Plan. of Mound No. 2,

C

| RON LH ati yyy My
hy H]
Miyyy y

JO tt.

Wiiyy, ww
MOH HANA NHN

ae

\

Seale 20t¢ tolindy

Fig.

Section of Mound No. 2.
om line CD.

: ep oe

Se

Scale 20 tito inch

Sneveged hy WIL Nicodenus CE IST

107

EXPLORATION OF INDIAN MOUNDS.

)

ats

ia No

(Cran

ania No. 1.)

(Cr

108 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

(Crania No, 2.)

EXPLORATION OF INDIAN MOUNDS. 109

The committee have not thought it advisable to do more in this
report than to state the mere facts of the exploration, leaving to
individual members of the academy the opportunity of pointing
out the bearing of these facts.

The thanks of the committee are due Messrs. Delaplaine and
Burdick, on whose lands the explored mounds are located, for per-
mission to open them, to Mr. James KR. Stuart, artist, for assistance
in superintending the exploration, and to Mr. N. B. Van Slyke,
chairman of the executive committee of the Board of Regents of
the State University, for furnishing tools and workmen from the
university farm.

Photographs of the arrow-head, cloth, pottery, and crania, two of
the pottery and three of the others, with four drawings of mounds
Nos. 1 and 2, and an account of expenditures are herewith trans-
mitted, as also the specimens of the first three articles named.

Respectfully submitted.

W. J. L. NICODEMUS,
J. B. FEULING,
ROLAND D. IRVING,
I. A. LAPHAM,

G. P. DELAPLAINE.

M apison, W1s., Nov. 18, 1874.

110 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

THE LAW OF EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT—THE SAME
IN PLANTS AS IN ANIMALS.

BY I. A. LAPHAM, LL.D.

It is now generally admitted that there is a law in the animal
kingdom, that the young or embryonic state of the higher orders,
of animals resemble the full grown animals of the lower orders.

As examples of this law we have the tadpole, which is a young
frog with gills and a tail, resembling the fishes which stand lower
in the scale than the reptiles; and the caterpillar, which has the
characteristics of a worm, but which is the immature state of the
higher class butterflies.

The discovery of this important law, and its application to par-
ticular cases, has been one of the causes of the recent rapid pro-
gress in the study of the animal kingdom; it has enabled natural-
ists to determine the proper place of certain species in the grand
scale of beings, and thus to correct their systems of classification;
it has enabled geologists to decide upon the relative age of rocks in
some otherwise doubtful cases. It has also given occasion for much
speculation, which may have its use in directing the attention of
men to the wonderous works of the Creator.

It is the purpose of this letter to show, as briefly as possible, that
the same law of resemblance between the immature of one order,
and the mature of a lower order of animals,is equally true in the
vegetable kingdom, where its study may hereafter lead to results of
equal importance.

To understand what follows it will be necessary to recall certain
facts respecting the growth, development, organs, etc., of plants of
the higher orders.

They grow from seed planted in the ground, have roots, stem,
branches, leaves; they produce flowers with calyx and corolla, and
the more essential organs—stamens and pistils; they bear fruit with
seed after their kind, which, when planted, swell and become other
plants.

THE LAW OF EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT. 111

The stamens have, at the top, a sack, (the anther,) completely
filled with grains, (Fig. 2,) nicely packed; each of which proves on
examination to be a smaller sack, (the pollen,) filled with a viscous
fluid matter, in which is floating exceedingly small grains, called
fovilla.

These are all essential organs in the re-production of plants, and
must perform their functions before the seed can be matured. We
may increase and multiply plants by layers, cuttings, budding, etc.,
but to re-produce a new plant, the agency of the stamens, pollen,
and fovilla, as well as of the seed, is needed.

Under a good microscope this fovilla may be seen in any ripe
pollen-grains, but the particles are among the most minute things
-we are called upon to examine, requiring the higher powers of the
instrument even to see them; and what seems truly wonderful,
these minute particles are found to have a proper motion of their
own. hey move forward, backward, or side-ways, but never make
much progress in any direction; the motion appears to be object-
less, like that of an animal seeking food.

The cause of this motion is not known; it is called molecular
motion, and may be the effect of some chemical action, but is more
probably due to the mysterious vital force.

From the bottom of ponds of stagnant water, and [from springy
places, we may bring up plants so minute that no unaided human
eye has ever seen them; they consist of a single cell; they are the
smallest and the very lowest grade of plant-life, the Desmidece, and
yet they are full-grown plants. They never grow to be. anything
else; they are only Desmidece, and nothing more. They are true
plants, and not animals, as was once supposed.

These minute, though fuli-grown plants, will be found actually
moving forward and backward and sidewise; making no progress;
appearing to have no aim, no object; precisely like the little par-
ticle of fovilla from the'pollen-grains of the highest orders of plants.

Here, then, we have the first proof of the existence of the law in
the vegetable kingdom; the wonderful motion, both of the full-
crown plant of the lowest vegetable race, and of the particles, which
may be regarded as one of the first steps toward the reproduction
of the plants of the highest type.

Arctic and Alpine travelers report the snow as sometimes red,
and we know that our stagnant waters aresometimes green. These

a2, WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

colors are found, upon close examination, to be owing to other
minute one-celled plants, called Protococcus.

They are little sacks or cells, contaming particles of a brilliant

Se carmine red, or a beautiful green color. Hach particle
within the cell is destined to become a new plant, and then

again to give origin to others.

The analogy between these full-grown plants of an exceedingly
low grade and the pollen-grains of a rose, standing at or near
the head of the plant-kingdom, is at once apparent. They Ei
contain particles (fovilla) destined to the same office of re- @
production. One wood-cut serves to represent both.

The Botrydium (Fig. 3) may be deemed a plant only a little
higher than the Protococcus. It consists like that.
of a single cell; but this cell sends down a tube
which is often branched, extending off in various.
directions, very much lke roots in search of vege-.
~~ table food. The cell proper is filled as usual with.
dA f gi () the reproductive particles, and some of the branches.

4 become enlarged, (as shown in the figure,) develop:
other particles, and soon separate to form new plants of the same:
kind.

In this, and in many similar full-grown plants of the lower orders,
there is a very striking correspondence with the pollen-grains after
they have fallen upon the stigma, and developed the pollen-
tubes, (Fig. 4.) In both cases we have a cell with a tube ex-
tending downwards from one side, with the vegetable par-
ticles and fovilla; and in both, these minute bodies are sup-
posed to pass down the tube to perform their office of origi-
nating a new plant.

Here, again, the full grown Botrydium corresponds with

the embryonic pollen-tubes of higher plants, and we have a
third proof of the existence of the law.
‘| Fungi are plants of a higher grade than the Algz, the Protococcus ,.
and Botrydium. Instead of a single cell, they consist of an aggre-
gation of cells; and they produce a number of little cases or sacks,
filled with grains called spores.

Lr
shatter

Fig. 1. Protococcus. Fig. 2. Pollen-grain.
Fig. 3. Botrydium. Fig. 4. Pollen-tube.

THE LAW OF EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT. ans

Here (Fig. 5) is a figure of the mould that grows upon bread in
adamp cellar. It consists of a single stem, made up

of cells placed one upon another, and a single globu-
lar spore-case at the top.® The spores are liberated when
ripe, and blown to the four quarters of the world,
by the wind. Wherever they ‘alight, (circumstances
_being favorable, as bread in a damp cellar,) they
grow and become mould/again.

Compare this, which is one of the lowest of the
fungi, with a stamen (Fig. 6) growing in one of the most perfect
of flowers. It has its filament (stem) supporting a case or sack (the

anther) filled with pollen-grains, (which I compare with the
2 spores of the fungi,) and which, when fully mature, are liber-
ated and scattered about by the wind, or are carried by in-
6 || sects. Under favorable circumstances (falling upon the stig_

ma) they also grow and become new plants.
These examples are sufficient for the present purpose; they
show clearly the existence of this important law in the vege-

table as well as in the animal kingdom.

Many similar analogies might be found throughout the whole
course of vegetable life, had we time to pursue the subject.

We have here one more connecting link between the two great
kingdoms of organized nature; and another proof of the unity of
design of the Creator.

Fig. 5. Mucor, (mould.)
[SSW AB

en
hy as

Sand as GU ary iatio ss

SPW ts
wa eWARe Fh

DEPARTMENT OF

TTD GE STD Toe

TITLES OF PAPERS READ BEFORE THIS DAPARTMENT

Studies in Comparative Grammar, by J. B. Fruuine, Pu. D., Professor of
Comparative Philology, in the University of Wisconsin.

Department of Letters.

STUDIES IN COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

BY J. B. FEULING, Ph. D.,

Professor of Modern Languages and Comparative Philology, in the University of
Wisconsin.

1.—SOME WEAK VERBS IN THE GERMANIC DIALECTS.

A few weak verbs in the 1st class in ia (j) present some peculi-
arities due to euphonic changes, on account of which most gram-
marians class them with the “irregular” verbs, or place them with
the modal auxiliaries (praeterito-praesentia) in the mixed conjuga-
tion, because “they unite in themselves something of the features
of the strong and weak verbs.” See Earle, Philology of the Eng-
lish Tongue, p. 246. Dr. F. A. March classifies correctly those of
the Anglo-Saxon dialect in his A. 8. Grammar (209), though follow-
ing tradition he mentions them again among the so-called irregular
verbs, (216). They are also correctly classified by Dr. 8. H. Carpen-
ter, in his “Introduction to the Study of the Anglo-Saxon Lan-
guage.” In the “ Transactions of the American Philological Asso-
ciation, 1872, (Article IX, ‘Some irregular verbs in Anglo-Saxon’’)
Dr. March has given an explanation of these verbs. A comparison
with the other dialects shows not only the correctness of Dr.
March’s views, but also the fact that there is nothing anomalous
in the conjugation of these verbs. All dialects have in common
the syncope of the derivative 7 (7, e) in the preterite, and the letter-
changes incident to this syncope are in harmony with the euphoniec
laws of the respective dialects.

In Gothic these verbs are: briggan for braggjan, to bring; brak-
jan, to use, want; bugjan, to buy; katpatjan for katlpatjan;

118 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

varkjan, to work; thagkjan, to think; thuggkjan or thugkjan, videri.
Thed of the preterite-suffix da can only stand after n, 1, / and z, (the
only exceptions are: gahugds, ajukduths); it changes to ¢ after ¢
which becomes s, and after , g which become h, hence gd and
kd—ht, td—=st. The nasal g (n) disappears before h, which causes
the lengthening of the preceding vowel. The preterite of these
verbs is, therefore, as follows: brdhta <braghta <braggda <brag-
gida; brithta <brikta <brikda <brikida; bathta <bugta <bugda
<bugida, short u before h (r) has the breaking aw; katpasta <kat-
patta <katipatda <katpatida; vatrhta; thahta <thdkta <thdkda
<thag(nJkda <thagkida; thahta for thugkida> thugkda, ete. The
consonant-changes are due partly to assimilation, partly to dissimi-
lation. In briggan (root brag, ef. fra-n-go), the 7 is a weakening of
the originala. Inthe other dialects the derivative 7 (7) caused Um-
laut in the present which remained after the j had disappeared
(after stems long by nature or position) by syncope as in Old High
German, or by assimilation as in the Anglo-Saxon. Butin the pre-
terite Riick-umlaut takes place on account of the syncopated 7, which
vowel-change, in addition to the consonant-changes, forms the
peculiar characteristic of these verbs. This vowel-change is not
the Ablaut, as some grammarians teach. ;
Old High German—prenkan (prinkan), pret. prahta, p. p. praht.
This verb belonged originally to the strong conjugation, (Class
XII, Grimm), for we find the following forms: prank, prunkumés,
prunkan; in the Gothic documents strong forms do not oceur. Its
present stem was formed with the infix -na-, shortened -n-, which
was originally a suffix. This verb is an example of a primitive
verb in the transition-period to the weak conjugation, and Language
remained conscious of its primitive character in retaining the strong
form which occurs for the pret. participle in the dialects of New
High German. Denchan (thenkan), pret. ddhta, p. p daht and
denchit; dunchan, dithta, dtht; furhtan or forhtan, forhta, forht
and furhtit; wurchan (wirchan), worhta, worht and wurchit (wurht).
Old High German rejects the Umlaut of «; forhta and worhta have ~
weakened ~ into 0 on account of the following a, but when the
succeeding syllable has 2, the original w reappears in the root, hence
Surhtit and wurchit.
In Middle High German the vowels 7 and w are sheltered by the
liquids m and n, followed by another consonant. While the Um-

STUDIES IN COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 119

laut wis unknown in Old High German, it appears in Middle High
German without excluding entirely « (0); we observe therefore a
fluctuation between w (0) and. Bringen, brdhte, brdht; the strong
forms branq, brungen are occasionally found in documents of the
twelfth century. The strong pret. participle ge-brunge(n) by the
side of gebrocht for gebracht is found in dialects of New High Ger-
man. Denken, ddhte, ge-daht (gedenkt, New High German patois);
dunken, dihte (dunkte). gedtht (gedunket); viirhten, vurhten, vorh-
ten, pret. vorhie, p. p. gevorht, geviirhtet, gevorhten; the o flattened
into d(d), continues in New High German patois. Warken, wurken,
wirken, pret. worhte, (warhte) wurhte, p. p. geworht, gewurht, ge-
wiirket.

In Anglo-Saxon the a has weakened into 2, as in Gothic, e.g.
bringan. The 7, not only original, but also weakened, passes into
e, hence the form brengan, by the side of bringan; the ein brengan
might be considered as the Umlaut of the original a, on account
of the syncopated derivative 7. I prefer, however, to take e asa
weakening of 7, because this verb does not seem to have established
itself entirely as a weal verb, as indicated by the existence of the
strong forms brang, brungon. It forms the preterite bréhte, not
brohte, as the comparison with other dialects shows. Although the
Anglo-Saxon 6 is identical with the Gothic 6, it corresponds here to
the Gothic @; an interchange between 6 and 4 is peculiar to Anglo-
Saxon (Low German.) In bycgan the y is Umlaut of the original
u, which passes into oin the preterite. The consonant combination
eg represents the gemination of g, which takes place before a
syncopated j according to Holtzmann, Altdeutsche Grammatik, p.
919, 5. But it is preferable to assume an assimilation of the deri-
vated j to the preceding g: bygjan> byggan> bycgan. This deri-
vative g (assimilated 7) is dropped before the suffix of the preterite,
which causes the reappearance of the original w—weakened 0:
boc(q )-de> boc-te>boh-te; the sonant d is assimilated to the surd
c, and “when two mutes come together, one of them often becomes
continuous for more easy utterance.” Of hycgan <hygjan we
should expect, after the analogy of bohte, the preterite hohte, but
we find hygde or hogde. It formed the preterite from the unassim-
ilated hyg-jan either without Riick-umlaut hygde, or with Riick-
umlaut hogde (hugde); in either case it dropped the derivative J,
being treated as a stem long by position. If it had formed the pre-

120 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

terite from the assimilated hycgan, we would have hycde> hycte>
hyhte, which could not have been distinguished from hyhte, the
preterite of hyhtan, to hope. It is evident that hogde with the
Riick-umlaut is a later form than hygde, if not, there is no reason
why we should not have hohte. The cognate hogjan (Class II.),
pret. hogéde, may have been the cause, that hygde adopted Riick-
umlaut. In thyncan the y is Umlaut of wu; in the preterite Riick-
umlaut takes place; thahte <thicte <thuncte. In wyrcan the y is
Umlaut of 0, weakened from uw; as y and 7 are interchanged, we
find sometimes wircan, which has the breaking weorcan, but wircan
and weorcan are bad spelling, for while y might always replace 7,
the reverse could happen only after it had been forgotten that y
was the Umlaut of u (0). In the preterite the original vowel reap-
pears regularly, as worcte>worhte; the o is therefore not the effect
of the h, as Dr. March assumes in the article above mentioned, (p.
112, 3); for the original yi would have the breaking eo. The
lecgan and secgan arise through assimilation and umlaut from
lagjan and sagjan. As the derivative j (g), Anglo-Saxon e, disap-
pears in the preterite of stems long by nature or position, which
causes Riick-umlaut,—the preterite of these verbs is “lagede,*sagede
>laegde, saegde, contra., laéde, saéde; ae is the regular weakening
of a. The e in segede, legde is bad spelling for ae.

In Old Norse we observe similar euphonic changes, e. g. sockja
from sékja, oe (ae) being umlaut of ¢, forms the preterite with
Riick-umlaut sétta. We should expect sékta, tor kt never assimi-
lates into tf, as Helfenstein says; but as & represents an original h,
which with ¢ assimilates into tt, the form sdtta is entirely regular.
In Old Swedish we find sékt by the side of sott. In yrkja y is
the umlaut of o (a); its preterite is orta and orkta (varkta). Of
three consonants one is sometimes dropped, cf. mart for margt;
morni for morgni, apni for aptni; thykkja or thykja, kk—nk, pret.
thétta from théhta< tkok(n)hta; thekkja, e is the umlaut of a,
pret. thdtta from thahta<thok(n )hta.

2.—THE USE OF THE INFINITIVE OF MODAL VERBS INSTEAD OF THE
PRETERITE PARTICIPLE IN NEW HIGH GERMAN,

Fred. Miinch, a well known German-American writer, advanced
lately the opinion that it was a blunder to say, “ich habe es tun
konnen,” instead of “ich habe es tun gekonnt.” In reference to

STUDIES IN COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 191

this construction I found in Professor Whitney’s German Grammar,
p. 109, the following note: ‘This is asimple grammatical anomaly,
an original blunder of construction, though now sanctioned by
universal use; it was apparently caused by the influence of the
other neighboring infinitive, which attracted the auxiliary into a
correspondence of form with itself.” It will appear from the fol-
lowing remarks, that the infinitive is not an ‘“‘original blunder of
construction,” but represents the ancient preterite participle.

1. The prefix ge was originally not a necessary element in the
formation of the Germanic preterite participle. Afterwards some
dialects used or omitted it as special prefix to the pret. part. It is
a characteristic feature of the German and English languages, that
Middle German developed the tendency to adopt this prefix, and
Middle English (1100 to about 1250) to drop it, after it had been
weakened to z(y); yet it continued to hold its ground for some
time; cf. Corson’s Note to “The Legende of Goode Women,” Prol. —
v.6. In the Nibelungenlied the participles braht, komen, laszen
(/én) never take ge, so that in M. H. German the context decides,
whether komen, etc., stand in the infinitive or in the pret. parti-
ciple.

2. The verbs diirfen, kénnen, mégen, méiszen, sollen, wollen are
originally strong preterites, but later used as presents, after their
own present had been lost (praeterito-praesentia). The strong pret.
participle took the place of the infinitive and was replaced by the
formation of a weak participle. It is probable, that the dialects,
those faithful wardens of ancient forms of speech, retained the
original participle with the former freedom to omit the prefix ge,
as often as an infinitive preceded it, so that in the sentence, “ich babe
es tun kénnen,” kénnen is not the infinitive, but the old participle.
Cf. Grimm, D. W, vol. v., p. 74.

3. Owing to a false analogy the verbs héren, lehren, lernen, laszen,
heiszen, sehen, employ the infinitive instead of the participle, when
preceded by another infinitive. The last three verbs could easily
be “attracted” by the neighboring infinitive, because their partici-
ple, the prefix ge being omitted, is identical with the infinitive. It
is, however, a better usage, to employ the participle of the verbs
lehren and lernen in such a construction.

{ , ¢ Seis sah T \ f yi :
We f ”
X ; r zt \ A “#4
4 \ i es

as eA cone a ie

v te yw
oad ¥ Merv eet
: a atuahehigett e epvrenany
; pe At, bad ee HOO hi
‘ aaah AM ae PEN NR Sh at BAG
: ~ ’ f
oF ‘ ie
¥
.
aN Uneaes ag
rh erry
y f
Mi tothe
: be gi]
i
\
\
3 vp
ao
yret)
‘
ema Pe

vis

DEPARTMENT OF

mOElOLl Go -OLLELCAL SCLETLCES:

TH oO me ©

TITLES OF PAPERS READ BEFORE THIS DEPARTMENT.

. United States Sovereignty; whence derived and where vested. By W. F. At-

LEN, A. M., Professor of History and Latin in the University of Wisconsin.

. Formal Commendation of Government Officials. By J. W. Hoyt, M. D.

. Industrial Education. By Rey. F. M. Houuanp, Baraboo.

. The People and the Rail Roads. By Rey. C. Caverno, Lombard, Illinois.

. The Boa Constrictor of Politics. By Rev. F. M. HoLtuanp.

. The Revolutionary Movementamong Women. By Dr. J. W. Hoy7, President

of the Academy.

ie |

Department of Social and Political
Science.

UNITED STATES SOVEREIGNTY—WHENCE DERIVED,
AND WHERE VESTED.

BY W.F. ALLEN, A. M.,
Professor of History and Latin in the University of Wisconsin.

The late war brought to an end the long and fierce controversy
as to the nature of the Federal Union. What argumeut had not
been able to decide, was decided by arms; and the United States
are recognized as a Nation, possessed of sovereignty. With the
determination of this controversy, however, another question has
coms into prominence, as to the origin of thissovereignty. Before
the ar it was commonly held that the act which severed the col-
onies from the mother country had as its effect the creation of
thirteen independent and sovereign States; and that it was not
until the formation of the Federal Constitution that sovereignty
was conferred upon the central government. This doctrine, how-
ever, of the original sovereignty of the States, has been thought to
afford some foundation for the doctrine of Secession. Some of the
most ardent advocates, therefore, of the national and sovereign
character of our Union, have, since the war, brought into great
prominence the theory that the Nation was not created by the
States, but the States by the Nation; that the States were never,
in any true sense of the term, sovereign, but that the act of inde-
pendence created at once a sovereign Nation. This view has been
most fully elaborated in a series of articles in the first volume (1865)
of the Nation, by Hon. Geo. P. Marsh, United States minister to
Italy; it is presented also by Professor Pomeroy in his “ Introduc-
tion to Constitutional Law.” In this work the authority of Ham-

126 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS

ilton, Jay, Marshall, Story and Webster is claimed for this theory.
I do not think, however, that Marshall and Webster can fairly be
cited as its adherents. Mr. Pomeroy has given no citations in sup-
port of his view, and on the other hand both these jurists have ex-
pressed themselves unequivocally in favor of the original sovereignty
of the States. Webster says, of the Confederation: “it wasa league,
and nothing but a league.”* Chief Justice Marshalls’ language is:
‘it has been said, that they [the States under the Confederation |
were sovereign, were completely independent, and were connected
with each other only by aleague. This is true.”+

Admitting, therefore, that the one theory has in its behalf the
authority of Jay, Hamilton, Story and Kent, the other has the
equally high authority of Marshall, Madison and Webster. We
may. therefore, where authorities disagree, proceed to examine the
arguments with perfect freedom from bias. The question is emi-
nently an historical one—that is, a question of facts, not of theory,
Sovereignty being the supreme power to command, it is simply a
question of fact what organization was found in possession of
this power, when it ceased to be exercised by Great Britain.

It requires no argument to show that before the Revolution the
colonies were absolutely dependent upon Great Britain; whatever
powers of government they severally possessed was in virtue purely
of sufferance or explicit grant, on the part of the mother country.
It is equally clear that the colonies were connected with one an-
other by no crganic bond. There was no government of the united
colonies; each colony had its own government; and if sometimes,.
for the convenience of administration, two or more colonies were
united under the same royal governor, this was simply an adminis-
trative union—one official managing two independent governments.
at a time, not a single government resulting from the fusion or
union of two individual ones. There were thirteen organized com-.
munities, standing in a condition of coequal dependence upon the
government of Great Britain. This tie of dependence was severed
by the Deciaration of Independence, July 4, 1776, sustained, as this
act was, by armed force.

Two points fall here under consideration: first, the power which
severed the tie; second, the logical effects of the act of severance.

*Speech on ‘ The Constitution not a Compact,’’ Works, iii. 454.
+Ogden vs. Gibbons, 9 Wheaton, 187.

UNITED STATES SOVEREIGNTY. 197

First, the power that performed the act of severance was the
Continental Congress. But by what authority, and in virtue of
what delegation of power did the Continental Congress act? Was
the Congress the organ of the several States, or of the ‘“ people at

large” (to use Mr. Marsh’s expression)?* ‘To answer this question,
which rests at the bottom of the argument, we must trace briefly
the history of this Congress.

In the year 1764, upon motion of James Otis, the General Court
of Massachusetts passed a resolution proposing to the other colo-
nies to form a union for the purpose of resisting the acts of the
British government. This proposition was accepted, first by Vir-
ginia, then by the other colonies. The Congress met the next
year (1765), and shortly afterward, as a result of the spirit thus
manifested, the Stamp Act was repealed. The Second Continental
Congress met in 1774, called in a precisely similar manner. In
both cases the members of the Congress were elected by the several
colonies, and in both cases it was only a portion of the colonies—
nine the first time, twelve the second—that were represented. Now
so long as Georgia staid away, it is clear that not “the people at
large of the United States,” but only the people of twelve colonies,
were engaged in formal acts of resistance. In the assembly thus
composed of delegates from the several colonies, the colonies voted
as such; no measure was adopted by a majority of votes, as would
have been the case if they had been considered to represent the
people at large; a majority of the colonies must always decide. It
was by colonies that the Declaration of Independence was passed,
and in this document the several colonies are declared to be “ free
and independent States.”

Let us pause a moment upon this word “State,” which thus
makes its appearance in our political vocabulary. The great con-
venience of having a different term to denote the units which com-
pose our federal government from that which designates the federal
government itself, has established, in American constitutional law,
a fundamental difference in the meaning of the respective terms.
By State we understand a political organization inferior to the Naticn.
But this distinction is peculiar to American public law. Tie two
terms are originally identical in meaning, or rather in application;
being applied indifferently to the same object, but from different
Rie M INN GSN oerTRONadonl Noles) SOP tay

128 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

points of view. A State is, in public law, a Nation, regarded from
the point of view of its organization; a Nation is a State, regarded
from the point of view of its individuality. We must not, there-
fore, suppose that when the colonies, in 1876, declared themselves
to be free and independent States, they attributed to the word State
the same inferiority which we now associate with the word. They
understood by it, a sovereign political organization. That they
selected this term, rather than Nation, is no doubt partly due to
its expressing more distinctly the idea of organization; partly, I
am ready to admit, to the feeling that Nation was a larger term,
and that a higher organization, which should embrace all these
individuals in one whole, was destined to result. Nay, we meet the
term Nation very early, as applied to the united body.

That the Congress considered itself as acting as the organ of the
colonies or States, and not of the people at large, appears mani-
fest from the language habitually used. On the tenth of May,
1776 Congress resolved to “recommend” to the “respective assemblies
and conventions of the United Colonies,” to form permanent goy-
ernments. August 21, of the same year, it made use of the ex-
pression: ‘‘ All persons not members of, nor owing allegiance to
any of the United States of America,”’—showing that allegiance
was regarded as due to the several States. Its constant title for
itself was “the United States in Congress assembled "—a term
which plainly recognizes that the United States, as an organized
body, has no existence except in the Congress, which Congress, as
we have seen, acted purely as the organ of the several States.

I pass now to the nature and effect of the act of severance.
This act was in the first place purely negative in its intrinsic
character. It simply put an end toa certain previously existing
relation—that by which the colonies individually depended upon
the British sovereignty. The relations of the several colonies to
one another could not be affected by it. If before the act they
formed a united, organized body, this united body, in virtue of the
act of independence, succeeded to the sovereignty surrendered by
the mother country; if they were individual and disconnected be-
fore, they remained so after the act, and each individual passed into
the full enjoyment of sovereignty. :

Now I have shown first, that before the revolution the colonies
had no organic connection with one another, but only with the

UNITED STATES SOVEREIGNTY. 129

mother country; second, that the union which they formed for pur-
poses of resistance professed to be nothing but a voluntary, incom-
plete and temporary association, with only limited and temporary
aims, possessing none of the essentials of a permanent government,
capable, it is true, of developing into a complete sovereignty, but in
all its acts and words appearing as notitself an organic body,
but the representative of certain organie bodies. ‘The United
States in Congress assembled,” made no claim to individual or in-
denendent existence, but acted avowedly asa mere intermediary or
instrument of joint action for organisms which did possess individ-
ual existence. And this practical independence accrued to the se-
veral colonies simply from the fact that. upon the severance of the
tie which connected them severally tothe mother country,each was
left standing legally alone; and, standing alone,having no legal supe-
rior, but possessing a complete and adequate organization of its own,
each colony passed into the undisputed enjoyment of sovereignty.

Neither before nor after the commencement of the revolution,
therefore, did there exist any united organic body which could
supersede the several colonies, and assert a claim to the lapsed sov-
erelgnty of Great Britain. Andif this is true for the per‘od of in-
choate nationality which intervened between the first acts of resist-
ance and the practical establishment of independence, still mere is
it true for the ensuing period of the Confederation. It needs no
argument to show that the States were at this time recognized as
fully and exclusively sovereign; its Articles explicitly provide
‘that each state retains its sovereignty and power which is not by
this Confederation expressly delegated to the United States in Con-
gress assembled.” All that can be said in opposition to this view is
that this was a‘ palpable usurpation,*” set on foot during this
“embryonic or inchoate periody”; and their arguments plainly
imply that they understand the Articles of Confederation
to represent a different phase of national life from the Dee-
laration of Independence, and as regniring therefore to be
construed from a different point of views; they were adopted
by Congress sixteen munths lJat-rthan the other ee‘, (Nov.
15, 1777.) and in this period of time, it is hinted, the ‘flow
of enthusiasm.” nnder which the united act of independ-nce had

* Pomeroy, p. 48. 7~Mr. Marsh, in the Nation, No. 1.

9 WAS

130 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

been accomplished, ‘ receded,” and selfish and local prejudices took
its place. Now, if the Articles of Confederation were:really drawn
up ayear and ahalf after the Declaration of Independence, this
reasoning would have much weight. But the date here given is
only that of the adoption of the articles by Congress. They were
reported to Congress July 1%, 1776, just a week after the Declara-
tion—the preliminary steps, indeed, were taken in June, before the
passage of the act of independence. It is therefore perfectly legit-
imate to interpret the act of independence in the light of the goy-
ernment which was established after it. The two acts were to all
intents and purposes parts of one and the same act. In the very
act of declaring their independence, the States formed themselves
into a Federal Union; and in this Union the several States were ex-
plicitly declared to be independent and sovereign; from which it
necessarily follows that the Union thus formed, was, in Webster's
words, ‘‘a league and nothing but a league.”

Tt will be seen that the whole controversy turns upon the period
between the suspension of the royal authority and the establish-
ment of the confederation. While the royal anthority continued
to be recognized, sovereignty of course belonged to Great Britain;
after the establishment of the Confederation, it as manifestly be-
longed to the several States. Was there an interval during which
it was possessed by the United Colonies? Mr. Marsh says:* * it
was not fora moment imagined that the sovereignty was in the
interim lodged anywhere except in the whole people of the United
Colonies.” But he brings ne facts to prove this assertion.

At the beginning of this discussion it was remarked that the
question was essentially an historical one, and must find its decis-
ion in historical facts—that is, in the series of events by which
the sovereignty was transferred from Great Britain to the United
States; and I think I have shown that, as a matter of fact, this
transfer was not made at one stroke, but that the sovereignty was
actually possesed for a while by the several States, before it was
transferred by a deliberate act to the nation. There remain, how-
ever, some theoretical objections to this view, which it will be ne-
cessary to consider.

Mr. Pomeroy states these theoretical objections in the tollowing
strong terms: “Grant that in the beginning the several states

* The Nation. No. 21.

UNITED STATES SOVEREIGNTY. eel

were, in any true sense independent sovereignties, and I see no
escape from the extreme positions reached by Mr. Calhoun.”* No
arguments are presented in support of this startling assertion, ex-
cept the doctrine that among the attributes of sovereignty, “the
one which underlies all others, and is, in fact, necessarily implied
in the very conception of separate nationality, is that of supreme
continued self-existence. This inherent right can only be destroyed
by overwhelming opposing fore2; it crano$ ba permanently parted
with by any constitution, treaty, league, or bargain, which shall
forever completely resign or essentially limit their sovereignty, and
restrain the people from asserting it.” There is no attempt made
to prove this doctrine; it rests simply npon Mr. Pomeroy’s assertion,
backed by references to the works of half a dozen European pub-
liests. According to this doctrine Texas was never annexed; if the
United States had conquered her, and forced her into the Union,
her status would have been a legal one; but as she came in volun-
tarily, surrendering her sovereignty and individual existence, the act
was null and void. According to this doctrine the act of union by
which, in 1708, England and Scotland surrendered their individual
sovereignty, and united into the new sovereignty of Great Britain,
was an impossible act; and Scotland might now, if she chose, re-es-
tablish her Parliament at Elinburgh, and crown a Presbyterian
King at Scone. Again; on this theory, what are we to do with
Rhode Island and North Carolina in the interval between the es-
tablishment of the Federal Government, and their accession to it?
They were certainly not members of the new Union; which made
no claim to extenl its power over them. The Confederation of
which they had been members, no longer existed. There is but
one answer to the this question. They were indep2ndent, sovereign
States, as independent and as sovereign as Costa Rica, or San Ma-
rino, or the Free City of Hamburg.

In arguing for the original sovereignty of the States, I would not
be understood to advocate the modern doctrine of State Rights. I
hold with Murshall, Webster and Story, with Mr. Marsh and
Mr. Pomeroy, that the United States form a nation, and possess full
powors of sovereignty. But I hold that this sovereignty was formally
and voluntarily conferred upon them by the States in the act of
forming the Federal Constitution. The doctrine advanced by Mr.

*p. 39

1382 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

Pomeroy* as to the relation of the States to the United States,
which is essentially that of Mr. Anstin, I fully accept. ‘ The peo-
ple of the United States, as a nation, is the ultimate source of all
power, both that conferred upon the General Government, that
conferred upon each State as a sepurate political society, and that
retained by themselves.” Oualy, by “ultimate source,’ I do not
understand historical filiation, but legal authority, under the eon-
stitution; the States—meaning by that the people of the several
States—formed themselves, by this act, into “the People of the
United States;” and this sovereign people, as organised in States,

exercises its sovereign powers by the two-fold instrumentality of
the National Government and the States’ Governments, distribut-
in these powers between these two instrument vities as seems most
expedient. Thus the States are as much sovereign as the Nation;
but in truth neither is sovereign. but each is an organization for
the exercise of a certain definite portion of the powers of govern-
meut. The soyereignty is not divided between States and Nation,
because sovereignty is indivisible and absolute; but the functions
of government, in which consists-the exercise of the powers of
sovereignuy, Gan be divided, and are divided between these two or-
ganizations.

* Page 23.

FORMAL COMMENDATION OF OFFICIALS. 133

ON THE FORMAL COMMENDATION OF GOVERNMENT
OFFICIALS.

J. W. HOYT, M. D.

It has been customary in all countries, and in all ages, for both
people and government, in extraordinary cases, to take formal ne-
tice of distinguished services in the publicinterest. Sometimes hy
statue or monument, after death, as a means of perpetuating the
meniory of noble deeds through succeeding generations; sometimes
by commendation of him who rendered the service, through de-
eree of sovereign or vote of parliament, congress, or legislature,
while yet living.

There has been, of course, no prescribed rule of action in any
‘time or country, for the guidance of sovereign or people in such
matters. In general, however, the distinctions have been con-
ferred for cause so patent and so sufficient that the thing done
amounted to a demand that left no room for question.

Commendation of the kinds mentioned have perhaps been more
common under monarchies, where the sovereign is not always free
from the motive of strengthening himself by the accession of
faithful supporters, than in a republic, where titles of nobility are
forbidden and decorations are unknown. But even there, they are
usually confined to cases where the recipient has, in matters of
public moment, transcended the line of mere official duty, doing
more than could of right have been expected, or has made volun-
tary contributions of an important character to the welfare of
his country or the general progress of mankind.

In the early days of American history, there wis a severity of
practice in these regards that comported well with the stern virtues
‘an high moral standards of the heroic people who planted the
colonies, defended them so grandly against foreign encroachments,
and fiaally founted the Republic, now closing its first century.

In the light of more recent times, and at the distance we now
‘stand from the leading actors in those great events of American

134 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

history, one is even ready to wish there had been a less exacting
standard for our early heroes. For, if ever men deserved the for-
mal and cordial commendation of a people by resolutions or other-
wise, it was they who,in the face of so great a personal and
common peril, pledged ‘* their lives, their fortunes, and their sacred
honor” io the establishment. and maintenance of American Inde-
pendence. Nobly in the great drama of the Revolution, and no
less nobly in the founding of the Federal Government, they played
their part. Yet, where are recorded the thanks of the Federal
Congress, or of legislative assemblies in the States whereon they
shed the lustre of their names?

What, then, does it mean that to-day, in face of this example of
the Fathers, ere the close of the first hundred years of our national
existence, and ere the completion of the only national monument
to the Father of his country, we hear of legislative resolutions
thanking the Chief Magistrate of a nation, second in resources and
power to none other on the face of the earth, and his Secretury of
the Treasury, with others of lower official rank, for that,in the
fulness of time—when all honest patriots are alarmed, if not ap-
palled at the corruption seen and suspected on every hand; when
venality, theft, and robbery staik abroad and threaten a universal
disgrace as well as national ruin;—they, the President and a high
cabinet officer of his appointment, have shown a disposition to.
bring the villains to justice? It means a demoralization of the
public sentiment, the cause of which, and the remedy for which
demand a most serious consideration.

A people may very properly, even in the most formal manner, as
by legislative resolution or enactment, express their grateful ap-
preciation of an important public service, when such service illus-
trates a superior wisdom supported by an exalted virtue. An occa-
sion for such expression is furnished when, in the time of public
danger or national trial, an officer charged with discretionary au-
thority, steadily holds his intellectual powers to the forming of just
judgments and lofty purposes, uninfluenced by personal prejudice:
or popular clamor, and bravely leads his countrymen and kind to:
take new steps on the road to a higher civilization. But surely an
sceasion is not furnished when a public officer merely fulfills his
sworn duty as the executor of a plainly written statute of the land,
whether it be a law against frauds on the ballot-box or on the pub—

FORMAL COMMENDATION OF OFFICIALS. 135

lic revenues. A vote of thanks by the representatives of the peo-
ple for such a cause proves one of two things: that the popular
idea of duty has become wofully debased, so that not to wink at
crimes against the general weal is evidence of superior virtue on
the part of the highest officers of the government; or, that the po-
litical parties of the country have grown so corrupt and reckless
that for mere short-lived partisan advantage they are willing to
at once poison the fountains of virtue for the youth of the land,
and put a tarnish upon the national honor.

Accepting either alteraative, there is ground of anxiety for the
future. There is need of a resolute purpose among honest citizens
everywhere to stem the swift current of immorality and to raise up
the old, or yet better, standards of both public and private virtue.

It should be settled at once and forever that no public officer, be
his rank as low as the lowest, should be formally commended by
the people or their representatives for doing, however thoroughly
and well, what was a manifest duty, what not to have done would
have justly subjected him to condemnation and punishment.

And it should also be settled as a principle, and deeply engraven
on the hearts of the people both young and old, that such com-
mendation of an officer whose duties are of so grave a character
that honor is the only secnrity demanded for their fulfiliment, is a
reflection upon those who offer it, and an imputation upon that in-
tegrity and high sense of honor which, in the public mind, should
be inseparable from every public trust.

126 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION.
BY F. M. HOLLAND, BARABOO.

This is a topic peculiarly appropriate here, in an association
wh'c1 is the pinnacle of the State temple of public instruction,
Our public school system is enlarging its field of force so rapidly,
that it is well to enquire if the improvement in quality keeps pace
with that in quantity.

We shall probably soon imitate the example of the States that
have established compulsory, or as it might better be called, guar-
anteed education, a measnre for which there need be given no other
argument than Professor Huxleys, ‘“ If my neighbor brings up his
children untaught and untrained, to earn their living, he is doing
his best to destroy my freedom by increasing the burden of taxa-
tion for the support of jails and work-houses for which I have to
pay.

The force of this argument, however, depends on the extent to
which the children are really trained to earn their living in the
public schools. Andso does much of the force of all arguments
for public schools at which attendance is voluntary. The fact
that we are taxed to keep up these schools gives us a right to re-
quire that the instruction be made as practically useful and gen-
erally valuable as possible.

Of course, the whole aim of the public school should not be to
teach children to earn their living, but this is certainly a part of
the legitimate aim and might be largely developed in harmony with
other parts, as is actually the practice in Hurope.

No knowledge of any kind can be acquired without increasing
all the powers of usefulness, but some kinds of knowledge do im-
mensely more than others to develop particular powers. A law
student would learn more in a theological seminary than in a fac-
tory, but not so much in a year as he would in a law school in a
single month. Neither law school nor theological seminary would
particularly increase the skill of the mechanic. These seem tru-
isms, but just consider how much better fitted our public schools

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 137

are to prepare men to be law and theological students than to be
farmers or mechanics. It is these branches of mannal labor that
most of the boys are to go into, but their schooling does not teach
them how to use their hands and muscles. bunt rather their brains.

Our publie school system would be practically perfect, provided
all the pupils were going to be clergymen, lawyers, doctors, or
teachers. Indeed, the village schools under my own observation
seem to aim mainly at turning ont school teachers. Every girl, at
least, who graduates, tries immediately to get a school, for her
training has exactly fitted her to earn her living in just that and
no other way. No wonder teachers wages are low, when the num-
ber of teachers is thus continually increased.

In view of this lowness of wages. as well as the pressing demand
for skilled workers in many other fields, it seems to me that some-
thing might be done in our public schools to fit pupils to earn
their living in other ways. If our schools are merely going to ed-
ucate teachers, and these to educate still other teachers, the whole
system might be compared to a grist mill. of which the wheel is so
large and the stones so heavy that the foree of the stream is spent
in turning them around, without grinding any grist.

Even if the aims of the public school are legitimate enough, there
seems to me much room for improvement in the choice of means.
Let me quote from Dr. Bartol, who says; “ He that can sketch an
object with a pencil understands it better than he who recites all
its titles in the epoch of every tribe under the sun.

Possibly we have yet to learn what education is beyond a series
of tasks in sentences and mathematical figures. Was Horatio
Greenough educated, when glued to the bench for a Latin recita-
tion, or loath to demonstrate the sum of degrees in a triangle, and
not when he picked up a piece of plaster in the streets to carve the
head of a Roman Emperor?

Michelet says a man always clears his mind by doing some-
thing with his hands. The poor girl goes to school with the rich,
and learns to scorn her mother who cannot read, to envy her
‘mates’ costlier dress, and to steer for means of like adornment
into temptation in the course of study. The education is a curse
that puts notions into her head but no skill into her hand. Tanght
to create value, she would disown the tempter.” (Rising Faith, p.
iLL)

138 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

The possibility of making Wisconsin a great manufacturing State
gives peculiar importance to the immense results achieved in Ku-
rope by [ndustrial or asit is sometimes called, ** Technical Educa-
tion.” For instance the great iron works of Creuzat. France, which
in 1867 employed 10.000 workmen and turned out $3,000,000 worth
of products annually, rose from small beginnings through the sys-
tematic training of laborers in schools opened for this purpose more
than thirty years ago.

When the first International Exposition was held in London, in
1851, English workmen excelled in ninety departments out of one
hundred; but, in the Paris Exposition of 1867, England
curied off 10 per cent. instead of 90 per cent. of the honors.
The introduction of drawing into the public schools, with the
opening of special schools in all the great centres of industry in
France, Germany, Switzeriand and Austria. had made these coun-
tries equal to Great Britain where she had hitherto reigned su-
preme. The British Government took the alarm, and made gen*
eral inquiries, to which the Birmingham Chamber of Commerce
replied that every trade in Birmingham suffered from lack of tech-
nical education. Similar answers came from Sheffield, Kendall
and Staffordshire, except that the potteries in the last district were
found to be kept up by the importation of properly educated for-
elgners.

Active exertions have since been made in Great Britain to re-
cover the lost sceptre by imitating the course adopted on the conti-
nent, but the Swiss, French and German workman are still supe-
rior in training, not only to the British but to the American ones,
according to the report of the Massachusetts Commissioners of
Education for 1873. These Commissioners report that in Pennsyl-
yania the great body of skilled artisans are foreigners. Mr. Stetson,
in a work on Technical Education, published during the year 1874,
declares “it is not the pauper labor but the educated labor of Hu-
rope which America has good reason to fear.” A eountry, nineteen
twentieths of whose artisans are unable to work from drawings,
has good reason to dread the rivalry of countries where a mechanic
who cannot draw is a rare exception.

When we consider, further, that as good a judge as Mr. Russell,
the builder of the Great Eastern, declares that if in Great Britain,
one-half the laborers were as highly skilled as one-quarter of them

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 139

are at present, the change would be worth 50,000,000 pounds ster-
ling, or onr quarter of a billion dollars a year, as it would enable
the mechanical power of the kingdom to be used to three or four
times as great advantage as at present, we can imagine what a mine
of wealth hes almost unbroken at our feet. And again from the
fact that in this conntry the highly skilled worker earns $3 where
the utterly unskilled laborer earns $1, we can see how immensely
the condition of our laboring classes is capable of being improved
at little cost.

One of the principal means has been already mentioned; this is
drawing, knowledge of which helps a mechanic to work from plans,
and trains eye and hand to actin union. Four or five years ago
this branch was introduced into the public schools of Massachus-
etts, New York and Connecticut, and the example is being gener-
ally followed all over the country. The lack, however, not only of
properly qualified teachers, but of sufficient public interest, often
prevents the instruction from being much better than nominal.
We are very far behind the French practice of teaching every
scholar seven years old, to draw and write simultaneously, so that
each of the twe acquirements may help the other. The Swiss
and German primary schools also give to drawing a prominent
place. So small a part of the primary school session in this coun:
try is spent in actual study, that not only drawing but object les-
sons and Kindergarten exercises, as well as needle work for the
girls, might be introduced for two or three hours a day without
hindrance to the present instruction, and with immense gain not
only to the discipline but to the intellectual spirit of the school.

Enough free hand drawing should be taught in the primary
schools to enable the pupils in the grammar schools to use drawing
instruments, draft plans, and copy geometrical solids, and it is very
important that they should be restricted to these and similar
branches of purely industrial drawing; otherwise the desire to make
@ show at exhibitions, to get something pretty to hang up in the
parlor, and to amuse oneself with little efforts, will tempt both
pupils and teachers into giving their attention almost exclusively
to fancy drawing of too little industrial value to be paid for justly
out of tha school fund. And in the grammar schools might also
be given some knowledge of the practical teachings of chemistry,
such as would be of assistance not only to the bleacher, dyer, foun-

140 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

der, miner, and machinist, but to every farmer and housekeeper.
The high school should continue the instruction in chemistry and
drawing,
mechanical proportion. Of course these high school studies should
be electives, alternatives with Latin and Greek perhaps.

It would also be possible for instruction in one or two trades to
he given to a few of the most skillful pupils in every high school.
One teacher in the girls’ high school of Boston has introduced the
study of photography, mainly at her one expense. Other trades
which might be taught with advantage, are telegraphing, wood-
carving, engraving stenography, dress-making, watch-making,phar-

and add the study of perspective, descriptive geometry and

macy, designing and painting. I mean of course not artistic but
industrial painting; not painting pictures, but furniture and signs,
and I speak particularly of this branch because it might be taught
with advantage to the community in most of the village high
schools.

The industrial course in our public schools would then be: Prim-
ary School, drawing, sewing, and kindergarten lessons; Grammar
School, mechanical drawing and chemistry; High School, chemis-
try, drawing, perspective, geometry. and some special trade.

The papils, who need this teaching most, would not, however,
be able to go through the high school course, and special trade
schools should be opened to allow them to pass through the whole
course in two or three years after leaving the primary school.

The same teachers could carry on the instruction in drawing
and other industrial studies in the common schools and also in the
trade schools, where the training could be made extremely practi-
cal. One of the highest class of trade schools, which might well
be imitated in America, is that for the French watchmakers at
Besancon. The course is three years; first year mechanical draw-
ing and general principles of the trade; the second year adds
geometry, designing various parts of the watch and modelling the
tools used; the third year adds the study of mechanics and practice
in modelling various parts of the watch, mechanical drawing and
designing being continued. Among the industrial schools espec-
ially worthy of note, are those for carpenters and builders held in
the large cities of Germany for four or five months, beginning
with the first of November, and giving instructions in “elements
of physics and knowledge of materials, details of the art of build-

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 141

ing, plotting, geometrical and ornamental drawing and modelling ”
and other practical studies, described at length on page 124 of the
report on education made in 1870 by Dr. Hoyt, who wisely recom-
mends the opening of such schools in all the cities of the United
Ssates. Similar schools might be opened at the same season for
tie improvement of farmers. There are also many laborers who
cannot attend any day school, even an industrial one, but who
would go to an evening school gladly. The workman who is too
tired to study anything else has been found able to learn drawing
in such a school with great advantage.

A State which has so manv Germin and Scandinavian inhabit-
ants as Wisconsin really seems to me also bound to give the men
aad women some such facilities for perfecting their knowledge of
the English language. Allow me to suggest further, that in a
great railroad centre, like Madison, evening schools should be
opened to teach railroad hands, and workers in machine shops, me-
chanical drawing, modelling, the use of every part of the steam en-
gine and all the scientific principles involved in the running of
railway trains and the manufacturing of cars and locomotives.
The gain merely to the morals of the pupils, by removing them
from temptation, would fully justify all the outlay necessary. [
am glad to hear that twenty-nine evening schools for adults are in
successful operation in Philadelphia, and hope the time will come
when similar statistics can be furnished by Chicago, Milwaukee and
Madison,

In one point we are already wiser in Americathan they are in Great
Britain, or on the continent of Europe. Searcely any industrial
schools for women have been opened there, or seem likely to be.
Of what little has been done in the United States, woman has had
her full share. A prominent place in the Boston public school sys-
tem is occupied by wnat are called the “designing voung Jadies;”
and the ph‘lanthropie women in that city are attempting to follow
the examople of their sisters in New York, who have for the last
two years been giving instruction in running sewing machines,
housework, sewing of all kinds, laundry work, cooking, book-keep-
ing. proof-reading and other useful employ ments with great success.

Of the many female colleges springing up all over the land. none
deserve more praise than that already founded by John Simmo:s,
of Boston, who bequeathed $1,400,009 ‘to provide for the teaching

142 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

of medicine, music, drawing. designing, telegraphing and other
branches of art, science and industry best calculated to enable the
scholars to acquire an independent livelihood.”

Among the branchesin which women might engage with advan-
tage are those pursued by decorators of glass, porcelain, and china,
artificial flower makers, feather colorers, retouchers of photographs,
wood carvers, fan and toy makers, watchmakers, jewelers, lapidaries
and cameo cutters, workers in wax, plaster and ivory, glass cutters
and grinders, piano tuners, designers, engravers, telegraph opera-
tors, compositors, druggists, photographers, florists, dentists and
journalists. Indeed all the arts in which a good eye for color is
needed, seem to be especially suited for women.

And let me here suggest that our State University, having shown
its enterprise in establishing departments of law, military science,
agriculture, civil engineering and mining and metallurgy, should
give similar attention to the industrial education of the “ better
half” of its pupils, by opening one or more departments especially
adapted for training women in some of the occupations just men-
tioned. In closing I would say that no industria] training is com-
plete withont artistic culture, which, though never its equivalent,
should always be its inspiration.

THR PEOPLE AND THE RAILROADS. 143

THE PEOPLE AND THE RAILROADS.
kY REV. C. CAVERNO, LOMBARD, ILL.

The following are some views connected with the railway ques-
tion. It is not pretended that there are not other views, but these
lie near the base of the subject, and cannot be disregarded.

The transportation question is one to which we must in the fu-
ture give close attention, if we would properly discharge our duties
as American citizens. Whether we are to exist as a united nation
or not, may depend upon our views and practice respecting rights
and rates of transportation.

Macaulay says that of all modern inventions, those which abridge
distance are of first civil and social import. The South failed to
detach the West from the East in the rebellion because the men of
the West had come from the Hast. But generations are to come
after us who were not born at the East. Whether the sympathies
of the various sections of our country are to flow together in time
to come will depend upon the amount of communication there is
between them. That will depend upon facilities and rates of tran-
sit. Weshall be a united people if we are a traveling people.

It is a patriot’s duty to see that the conditions are supplied which
will create mutual interest and sympathy between all sections of
the Republic. Once there was but one name for stranger and ene-
my. The fact is of deep significance. Given no strangers under
the government flags, and there will be no enemies. Among iso-
lated people springs up the tendency to rebel.

The question then before us touches not alone the pocket; it
touches the heart as well. It is a question not merely of rates on
exchange of produce, but one of rates on svcial exchange—an ex-
change of ideas.

Just now the item of freight is the one uppermost in the public
attention. But if we look deep enough we shall see that the mat-
ter of passenger rates is one of tremendous import.

Just where we are in the whole matter can best be brought out
by the statement of a single fact. A few weeks ago the telegraph

144 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

informed us that the Freight and Passenger Agents of the vamous
main lines of railroad ranning across the country, were in Pitts-
burg in consultation upon the rates of freight and p.issenger tran-
sit over those lines. It was stated that they were sitting with
closed dvors.

That is something which happens once or twice a year. Con-
sidered asa telegraph report that makes but asmail item. But
think what it means. Think of all the vast interests that centre
around the matter of freight and passenger communication be-
tween the Mississippi valley and tide water. It is a matter of as
much concern to the people of the nation as the question of the
currency, or the right to declare war and make peace. In fact the
currency question is one subordinate to the transportation question.

We are interested in the currency only as a subsidiary agent in
transportation. Currency is of value only as it helps persons and
property to change place. Yet the subsidiary question goes to an
open congress of the nation—the main question to irresponsible
corporation clerks wao sit with closed doors.

We convulse the nation in our politics on some issue of tithing
mint, anise and cumin, while we neglect the weightier matters of
the law.

It would seem fair that the public should have some voice in fix-:
ing rates since they are the one factor out of whom rates are to be
raised. A matter of such importance vught to be open for diseus-.
sion and settlement before representative men of the nation.

The men who actually sit upon it are not even the representa-
tive men in their various corporations. They are the mere man--
dataries of the few capitalists who control the corporations. No:
questions of public right or interest are ever submitted to them.
As mathematicians. they cipher in aid of the schemes of the stock
operators who control the roads.

Rates of transportation are a tax upon the people.

Unquestionably the people ought to pry some tax—a righteous:
tax for transportation. But that a body of irresponsible and un-.
known men. the mere agents of a few private capitalists, should
have the right, im secret session, to levy this tax on the whole:
American people is an anomaly in the practice of this nation, be--
fore which, one muy well stand in blank astonishment. !

‘his nation declared its independence and fought to its liberty

THA PEOPLE AND THE RAILROADS. 145

on the foundation. “No taxation without representation.” But
here is taxation, and that too without representative voice in it
before which, that against which the patriots of the Revolution
fought, pales into nothingness.

We never could have come where we are in respect to the mat-
ter of transportation, had we not practically lost sight of one of
the most fundamental principles of common law.

The right of the people to transit was a right that the common
law always asserted and protected. It said the rivers should be the
people’s free highways. It has kept them open up to to-day.

The common law was always a jealous protector of the right
of private property in land. But beyond any right which a man
might have in his acres, it asserted the right of the people some-
how and somewhere to find transit over them as their needs might
require.

Behind every individual mght lay the public right of eminent
domain for the purposes of transit. The river was open to the peo-
ple; any man might put his boat thereon and go up or down the
stream at his pleasure. The road was opei to the people; any man
might put his carriage thereon and go whither he would.

In the development of human industry and art a new method of
transit has come into use which supercedes both the old methods.

The simple question at issue is, whether the people are to preserve
any of their old rights of transit in this new mode of transportation,
or whether they are all to be swallowed up in the private interests of
the capital that built and manages the roads.

Have the masses at large any rights in the new inventions which
revolutionize modes of communication and commerce? Did Watt
think out the steam engine in the interests of capital only? Did
the old vegetation of the coal measures “suck the fire of forgotten
suns’ only to lodge in the hands of a fortunate few the power to
obliterate one of the most cherished rights of the people.

It is no answer to this inquiry to say that the river and the road
are still open to the people, and they can travel on them as of old.
The new mode of transit has rendered the old compartively useless.
The humblest living cannot be earned without making use of the
new system of communication. The right of the people to transit
it a right inhering in them as to all modes of transit.

10 was

146 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

If the river and the road were theirs they have the right to the
new method of accomplishing the ends they executed on river and
road.

The practical point is to find a way of asserting the rights of the
people—to put into practical shape the old right of eminent do-
main for transit under the new. method of locomotion. §o long as
private corporations are concerned with the business of transporta-
tion as they now are, it is hard to see how the public ean realize any of
its ancient right except it have some voice in the determination of
rates of transportation.

From the nature of the new mode of locomotion a man must
travel or put his freight in such vehicles as the companies may
provide and at such times as they may designate. He may not put
his own conveyance upon railway track as he formerly might put
his boat on the stream er his carriage on the road. .

Now if the officers of the corporation may say, “* you may have
transportation but only at such rates as we choose to fix” the old
right of eminent domain which was maintained to secure free com-
munication amoug the people is annihilated.

The people travel no longer on any right of their own but simply
on the mercy of the corporation. The selfishness of corporations
may be enlightened enough not to fix rates that will prohibit travel.
That does not alter the fact thatit is by their will alone, practically,
that travel by the new mode of transportation exists.

If a private corporation makes a railway bed, and puts upon it
rolling stock, itis but just that the people using the method of
conveyance provided should-pay proper chaiges therefor. Bu it is
unjust that in or about the rates coilected there should not be some
element which should represent the old right of the people to locomo-
tion. The right of transit is of as high order as any right of prop-
erty in road-bed or vehicles of transit. The right of thé public to
a voice in respect to the rates of transportation is at least equal to the
right of the corporation for moneys expended.

The recent legislation of the Western States may,in fact, be un-
just. Ii so, it must and it wiil be made just. It would be strange
if the first attempts at regulation in a matter so immense and so
novel, had hit the exact line of justice. But this legislation is cor-
rect in theory. In attempting to regulate rates of transportation,
it asserts, in the only practical way. the people’s right to transpor-

THE PEOPLE AND THE RAILROADS. 147

tation—the right to it in the freest way—in the cheapest way con-
sistent with justice to the capital invested in transportation enter-
prise.

We are in our present imbroglio, in respect to railroads, because:
we have lost sight of the fact that there are two distinct interests.
vested in them.

The people have not heretofore asserted their rights; and, of the
people’s rights, the railroad corporations have been willingly igno-
rant.

The railroad position, at least in the northwest to-day, is that of
denial of all public right in the railways and of defiance of all con-
trol over them.

The open contempt exhibited by the railway companies for the
recent legislation of the people, and the tone and import of the
latest reports of the presidents of the leading railroad companies is
the sufficient evidence of this fact. The issueis joined on this plain
question—whether railroads are a private concern entirely. The
people maintain that the railroad corporations stand in a relation
of trust to themselves to whom they must give account of the deeds
done in their corporate body, as well as the operators who manip-
ulate their stocks. The people maintain that railroad property is
not private property, like a farm or .astock of goods in a store.
Whatever of private property there is in them ¢s property laid down
on the foundation of a public use as no other property.is. tis prop-
erty Jaid down over an old time right of the people—a right that
permeates it every where.

De Witt Clinton’s idea was that transportation was wholly a
public business. It would be instructive to have the history of our
unfortunate departure from the principles and practices of De Witt
Clinton. Our recent legislation is charged in certain quarters with
being an unjustifiable attack on the rights of private property. |

The Hon. David A. Wells says that objection to that legislation
is founded ultimately on the command“ thou shalt not steal.” It
ill becomes those who are attempting to convert an old time com-
mon law right of the people to their own especial use and behoof,
to talk about theft.

As between the obliteration of aright and the reeulation of a
rate it does not require much ability to decide where the most; wan-
ton meddlesomeness lies.

148 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

The people mean no injustice to property invested in railroads.
It is that which is not invested that they desire to make some in-
quiries about. They want to know what the fictitious elements are
which they sustain by taxation levied in the shape of rates. In
Illinois there are roads that cost but $16,000 per mile on which
rates are collected on a basis of cost at $32,000 per mile.

When we want to get to tide water if we go over the New York
Central, or Erie, or the Pennsylvania Central, we have to pay rates
to support stocks tbat represent an average cost of $107,000 per
mile on those roads. It is well enough known that not one-half
of that amount per mile was paid to build and equip those roads.

The people have no desire to convert private property into a pub-
lic use, but they do not want to be taxed from year to year to make
that preperty which is no property.

It is “watered stock,” stock, that represents no money advanced,
that the people are at war with. If a farmer had the privilege of
taxing the community to make up to himself any sum which he
might name, he would only be doing as the railroads have had the
privilege to do in ‘“‘ watering” their stocks and in issuing stock
dividends. No wonder that railroad operators have become rich
men.

It may be difficult even impossible at this date to eliminate tuis
no property element. But that is no reason why we should not
look steadily at it till we know what it is, and till we find out where
it came from. It is an element, that beginning with credit mobil-
ier contracts in the construction of roads, has by various modes of
‘watering’ and mortgage ** loading” increased, till it may be round-
ly stated as constituting half of the burden against which the peo-
ple lift, in the payment of rates of transportation. If the past
cannot be rectified the future can be secured. If it cannot, then,
farewell to the prospects of honest industry.

Everything cannot be swallowed up by the men who do not earn
but invent property.

Besides being property laid down on the foundation of a public
right as no other property is, railroads should be subject to the
public control for the reason that they are supported by public taxa-
tion as no other property is.

The President of one of our railway companies in a recent report
maintains, that the railway companies should have aright to the in-

THE PEOPLE AND THE RAILROADS. 149

creased value of their property. Certainly, if they want to sell it.
But certainly not if they want to make that increased value a basis
for levying rates upon the people. No farmer has the right to tax
the community to make good tu him a dividend on the increased
value of his farm. When holders of other property can have this
right it will be time enough to grant it to the railroad corporations.

If new property appears on a railroad it got there either by the
earnings of the road which have been raised out of rates assessed
upon the people, or it is there because loaned money has put it
there, the interest upon which, and ultimately the principle of
which, is paid by rates assessed upon the people. It is not right
that the people should be again taxed upon property which they
have already paid for. The owners of no other species of prop rt 7
have yet found out a way to derive an increased value of their
property while they themselves retained possession of it.

We cannot build new railroads all over the country to compete
with those which already exist. The people are not driven to that
resort. ‘They have their rights and they should prosecute them in
those roads which already exist.

The farmers movement will not rectify the situation. The
Grange may be of value to the farmer in many directions. Possi-
bly it may be an element helpful in the solution of this problem,
but it can only be subsidiary at best.

New times and new conditions demand new measures. Courts
and legislatures, as now constituted, are inadeqnate to the solution
of the railroad problem. We need commissioners, State and
National, with legislative and law powers ample enough to meet
the demands of the situation. The constant increase of the trans-
portation business will make such commission a permanent
necessity.

Those who control the private interests invested in railroads are
at all times alert to their interests. The people should have what
would be equivalent to an always open court and ever sitting leg-
islature to attend to their interests in the roads. These commis-
sions should have full powers of instant action. We have not ex-
hausted the resources of society in the establishment of a Circuit
Court and a State Legislature. When a new business attains to
such gigantic dimensions as the transportation business has reach-
ed, there ought to spring up a new tribunal to attend to it—a tri-

150 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

bunal that should stand on its own basis, not being the mere crea-
ture of some other department.

Our Comnnissioners onght to be the courts of last resort in rail-
road matters, and no more amenable to the State Legislature than
the judiciary is now. Mr. Windom’s proposition for a Railroad
Bureau is in the right direction, but it is not radical enough as he
has up to this time developed it. The first work of such a commis-
sion would be an investigation of all the elements which figure in
the sums on which it is claimed dividends should be paid out of the
rates assessed, and the remorseless rejection of all the no-property
which is now confounded with property, when such rejection can
with justice be done. ‘Then a proper basis will be laid for a just as-
sessment of rates. We have long been running a reckless race,
careless how we lost our rights, or who picked them up. It will
be a long way back to the correct position. But courage, persist-
ence and honesty will take us there.

THE BOA CONSTRICTOR OF POLITICS. 151

THE BOA CONSTRICTOR OF POLITICS.

BY REY. F. M. HOLLAND, BARABOO.

Recent elections show how generally our polities are believed to
be corrupt. But merely changing the party in power will not pur-
ify them. Great as is the need of civil service reform, we can no
more expect either party to be the first to refuse to favor its fol-
lowers. than we can expect an army to spike its cannon before it
goes into battle.

We may blame the practice of passing by wisdom and purity to
nominate popular mediocrity or unprincipled brilhancy, but it is
plain that the policy of nominating only the most popular candi-
date would have the same advantage over that of preferring men,
whose height of principle and intellect excited enmity, which the
Prussian weedle-gun had over the Austrian musket. And for any
party to dismiss an able and popular leader on account of private
immorality would, to borrow President Grant’s comparison, be
like relieving a general under the fire of the enemy. And so will
a party that forbids any severe criticism on its leaders within the
ranks, meet one that permitsit, just asan army meets a mob. Pop-
ular enthusiasm may give the mob the victory, but only excep-
tionally. On the whole, the more a party is like an army, the
stronger it will be, and therefore party suecess requires that the
management be centralized in a few men of experience, enough to
set up the platform, and candidates most likely to catch votes.
“The ring” has a terrible sound, but a party without a ‘ring ”
would be pretty apt to be beaten by any party with one. Indeed
a party without a “ ring” is like a barrel without a hoop.

These facts are not pleasant ones, but we need to keep them in
mind in order to see that to purify polities we must change our
system so deeply as to lessen the power of parties, and no longer
enable the one, which happens to gain even the smallest majority,
from sweeping all the presidential electors, members of congress,
state legislatures, judges, and county officers into its jaws and swal-

152 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

lowing them as completely as a boa-constrictor engulphs a rabbit.
And, as a rabbit, shut up with two such monsters, can simply flee
from one to the other until it is taken, so third parties have to
choose by which of the two stronger ones they will be devoured,
before the Jarger one shall swallow up the other, or, in other words,
carry the state.

There is only too much evidence to show how far we fall short
of Lincoln’s ideal of a government of the people, by the people,
and for the people. In beth the Forty-second and Forty-third
Congresses, whose successive sesstons extend over the four years
closing March 4, 1875, the Republicans have had more than two-
thirds of the representatives, though they polled but little more
than one-half the votes, so that a majority of 35 or 36 per cent. in
the House has been gained by one of 7 or 8 per cent. at the polls;
and this injustice is not lessened by the fact that no delegates to
the Forty-third Congress were sent by the supporters of the ad-
ministration in Kentucky or Texas, but it is much increased hy the
allotment of not a single delegate to its opponents in Jowa, Kan-
sas, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, South
Carolina and Vermont. This disproportionate strength of the Re-
publican party increases the apparent magnitude of the change in
1874, when no Republicans were elected to the Forty-fourth Con-
gress, either by the Republicans of Arkansas, Georgia, Mary-
land, Missonri, Texas or Western Virginia, who cast 351.764
votes, or by the Democrats of Maine, Rhode Island, Florida and
Minnesota, who cast 104,510; and when of the 255 delegates from
28 states, all then voting except Louisiana and the four one-mem-
ber states, 97 represent 2, 30,300 supporters of the administration,
and 168 represent 8,410,535 of its opponents, whereas the former
are really entitled to 122,and the latter to but 143. The democrats
have thus obtained nearly two-thirds of the House by little more
than one-half the votes, or more exactly, 64 per cent. of these 265
menibers by 59 per cent. of the votes, a majority of 23 per cent. in
the House representing one of 8 per cent at the polls. These esti-
mates are from the Tribune Almanae for 1875, and in some cases
only approximative, though it is sufficiently plain that the mem-
bers of one party or the other in sixteen of these twenty-eight
states will be virtually unrepresented in this Congress, since the Re-
publicans have three members less than their share in Tennessee

-

THE BOA CONSTRICTOR OF POLITICS. 153

and Virginia, two less in Kentucky, North Carolina and Alabama,
besides being wholly unrepresented in the six states above men-
tioned; and their opponents three members less than their share
in Iowa, besides being unrepresented in four states as mentioned.
In a seventeenth state, Wisconsin, the party actually in the major-
ity was able to elect but one third of the State Assembly and but
three out of the eight Congressmen, while the republican minority
claims to have carried the state and may yet succeed in getting a
sixth Congressmen. In Florida, where the parties are almost bal-
anced, the majority gets both the Congressmen, but has a minority
in the state legislature, a double injustice. In New York, Massa-
chusetts and Kansas the assembly men are unfairly distributed, so
there are but two states among the twenty-eight where the elec-
tions did justice to both parties, Vermont and Illinois, in the latter
of which a new system has been introduced as we shall soon see.

Three presidents, Taylor in 1848, Bachanan in 1856, and Lincoln
in 1860, secured large majorities in the electoral college, though
none of them had one half of the popular vote. In 1834, indeed,
Lincoln got a little more than half the votes and this gave him ten-
elevenths of the electors, but if McClellan had received 35,000 of
the votes given to leeeole he might hive gained the majority of
the electors and become president, though he would still have been
in the minority at the polls.

It is plain that the people are very imperfectly represented and
that neither party gets its fair share of the power. It is also plain
that corruption is much facilitated by the extreme difficulty of set-
ting aside the nominations of either party except in favor of those
of the other, perhaps equally bad. Parties would be slow to nom-
inate men who oppose civil service reform or lack character and
ability, or are mere tools of the ring, if such candidates could be de-
feated easily. This can now be done only when the bolters form
the majority of the district, and many a patriotic statesman, who
has friends enough to send him to Washington if they could act
together, stays at home because he cannot carry the district where
he resides. What we want is a system of voting which will give a
fair share of power not only to each party but to every combina-
tion of independent voters, so that, for instance, of the one hundred
members of the assembly, in Wisconsin, forty, fifty, or sixty would
come from each party according as it polls forty, fifty or sixty per

154 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

cent. of the votes, and any independent candidate would be elected
who gets his one per cent.—more indeed than is now requisite, so
that the voting districts must be enlarged greatly to enable any
one to obtainit. This system is ineant to give no special favor to
individuals or minorities, but only such justice to all the candidates,
that its proper name js not Personal or Minority, but Proportional
Representation.

There are several plans for doing this, the best known being the
cumulative, advocated by Horace Greeley twenty years ago, and
now in use in I]linois, as well as in England, where, as the London
Times says, “it has made its way by its inherent justice.” In Ilhi-
nois it was enacted in 1870 that the 153 legislative districts, form-
erly sending each a representative to the legislature, should be con-
solidated into 51, with three memberseach. ach voter casts three
votes, which he can concentrate on one candidate or distribute
among two or three, as he prefers. This plan was first tried in
1872, when, as Mr. Medill stated in the Cincinnati Commercial, of
December 2, 1872, ‘for the first time each party is represented from
every part of the State, and the aggregate representation is exactly
in preportion to the numerical strength of each party. Jor the
first time since the Repnblican party was organized in Illinois
(1854), have the Democrats secured a representation from North-
ern, or the Republicans from Southern, Illinois, with rare excep-
tions. The bitterest Democratic districts down in Egypt now, for
the first time in the history of existing parties, elected Republi-
cans.” The Chicago Tribune adds: ‘On the whole, it has worked
admirably; it has secured the great end sought, and has enabled
the people, in many instances, to defeat the objectionable candi-
date,” which is a fulfillment of the prediction of John Stuart Mill,
that “those who would be favored by the cumulative vote would
generally be the persons of the greatest real or reputed virtue or
talents.” (Thoughts on Parliamentary Reform.)

It was further noticed that in thirty-three of these fifty-one dis-
tricts, the republicans were in the majority, so that by the usnal,
or as the Chicago Times aptly called it, the ‘“‘jug handle” method,
there would have been ninety-nine of one party to fifty-four of the
other, whereas the estimated proportion was eighty-five to sixty-
eight, and the actual result nearly the same, eighty-six to sixty-
seven. At the last-election in 1874, when the old plan would have

THE BOA CONSTRICTOR OF POLITICS. 155

elected fifty-four republicans to ninety-nine of their opponents,
the new one gave seventy of the former to eighty-three of the lat-
ter, of whom indeed there were twenty-seven independents and
fifty-six democrats, almost exactly the allotment justitied by the
vote. ;

Seven of the districts, however failed to get their exact share,
most of these discrepancies being due to the voters scattering their
ballots among too many candidates. In Hngland, however, at an
election of the Birmingham school board, the Liberals, though
slightly in the minority, tried to elect all the fitteen members and
so got in only six, while really entitled to seven. Such failures of
this method can be prevented only by strict party discipline, though
they would be much less frequent if no voter were allowed to vote
for more than the majority of the candidates, or indeed, where their
number is even, for more than one half of them. Thus no voter
in Illinois should be allowed to vote for more than two of his three
representatives, and the one hundred assembly districts in Wiscon-
sin might well be consolidated into ten, in each of which there
would be ten candidates to be elected, and five votes to be distribut-
by each. citizen.

All the essential advantages of the cumulative plan would thus
be preserved, and it would become still better fitted for electing
members of congress than the form recommended by Senator Buck-
alew in 1869, which, for instance, would give each New Yorker
thirty-three votes for representative, whereas he would have exact-
ly as much power if he had but seventeen, and any independent
candidate getting above three per cent. of the vote would be equally
sure of election under either arrangement. It would, however, be
better still to have three districts, each sending eleven delegates
and allowing six votes.

This restriction of the number of votes would lessen immensely
the difficulty of counting them, and the distribution bv the indi-
vidual would b2 much easier when the parties were equally
balanced, while the labor of marshalling the voters of a party large-
ly in the majority, so as to get all the benefit of them, would not
be increased.

Neither form of cumulative vote would be likely to abolish the
eaucus, which indeed can scarcely be spared, but either form would
restrain its abuse, by the facility it would offer for defeating its c.n-

156 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

didates, and electing those nominated by boards of trade or mass
meetings called by leading newspapers. This is most easily done
when the districts are the largest, hence the advantuge of the pro-
posed restriction, which makes the distribution and counting of
vit:s but one-half as laborious as would be the case where the same
number of voters were to choose the same number cf representa-
tives by the ordinary form or the cumulative vote.

A further restriction of each voter to one vote would indeed make
counting them still easier, but render the distribution, when the
number of candidates is large, extremely difficult and precarious.
Hither of these plans might, however, be used in choosing directors
of corporations and stock companies, and thus enable the holders
of a comparatively small quantity of stock to have their own repre-
sentative to protect their interests. In such elections compara-
tively few votes would probably be thrown away; but at the polls
there is great risk, not only of the votes being too much scattered,
but of their being too much concentrated. 7

Thus the Democrats. in two of the Illinois districts in 1874, gave
all their votes to one man when they might have elected two, and
at an election of the Marylebone school board, in England, Miss
Garrett got more than twice as many votes as she needed, and more
than half of them were thrown away. Nowif Miss Garrett’s friends
could have placed her on a ticket with several other of their candi-
dates, and couid have had every vote not needed by her transferred
to her associates, they would have been much more fairly repre-
sented.

A plan which would have done this, and which is known as the
preferential method, has actually been in use for twenty years in
Denmark, and was several times employed in the nomination of over-
seers of Harvard University. Many English liberals favor it, and
John Stuart Mill places it among the very greatest improvements
yet made in the theory and practice of government, “and therefore
of civilization.” Mr. Thomas Hare, after whom this plan 1s often
named, says: ‘In framing this system I have always looked for-
ward to its reception by the American people with an anxious hope.
Surpassing all other people in the arts of peace as they minister to
the universal comfort and well being. attaining a not less distin-
guished though unhappy eminence in the arts of war, a nobler
work remains tothem * * * that they become the leaders® of
mankind in the far greater art of government.” .

THE BOA CONSTRICTOR OF POLITICS. 157

This plan is sometimes called too difficult, but Mr. Mill declared
that it is as easy as the multiplication table. The voting is easy
enough. Miss Garrett's friends would have deposited ballots on
which her name was marked. ‘First choice,’ while those candi-
dates woull be named as second or third choice, ete., to whom that
vote should be transferred if not needed for her election. The votes
are first counted so as to show the ful! number, which divided by
the number of candidates to be elected, gives the quota required
for the election. Then the ballots are recounted for the first choice.
As soon as Miss Garrett had reached her quota, her name would
have been cancelled on all the other ballots of her friends, and these
votes would be counted for the second choice, and if that candidate
aiso gained the quota, for the third. The same process heing applied
to all the ballots, it would have happened in this case as in most
others, that there would be a vacaney or two'left to be filled from
among candidates, none of whom had the quota. Mr. Hare’s last
decision seems to be, that in such cases the name having least votes
be cancelled, and these ballots redistributed until the quota is reach-
ed. Other authorities are in favor of giving the preference in such
eases to the plurality, or of getting a smaller quota by methods, of
which it is enought to say that they would much prolong the labor
of counting the votes, a task already so difficult as to give great
opportunity for fraud.

Indeed there is one case in which dishonesty would be peculiarly
easy and justice almost impossible.

Suppose these Illinois Democrats and Liberals, who elected one
representative when they might have got two, had used Hare’s
plan, and all of them made Brown their first choice, while, for the
second choice, the ballots were divided between Jones and Robin-
son. Now if Jones’ votes were counted first, Brown would be
elected and his name caneelled on a!l other ballots, which would
thus elect Robinson also, whereas if the Robinson ballots were
counted first the choice would be Brown and Jones. Hither Jones
or Robinson coull secure the seat by persuading the inspectors of
the votes to shuffle them, so that his name would be counted last
while if these officers were too honest for this, their decision would
be merely a matter of chance, and either chance or fraud might
elect Jones, when he had less than half as many votes as Robinson.
The Hare plan should not therefore be adopted, if we can find any

158 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

\

other which could not be so perverted, but which would be equally
likely to prevent any vote from being lost.

Ta: teug pli should always mik? as exict an apportionment as
Huire’s can ever do, work as simoly as the cumulative method, and
nave the additional alvantage over both these plans of always ap-
pointing in advance, for every vacancy during the term of office, a
substitute representing the same constituency. Sach a plan was
actually invented in 1866, by M. Morin, of Switzerland, in which
country if is termed the the “‘free list,’ though American writers
eall it the independent or list system. It is really Hare’s pl in sim-
plified. The ballots are very similar, namely, lists of names ar-
ranged in order of preference, but marked list number one, two, 2 e,
according to the order in which they have been recorded. The
quota is obtained in the same way, but there is only one counting
of the vote, of which the number cast for each list is ascertained,
at the same time as the whole numbers of votes polled. I[t is then
only necessary to divide the number east for each list by the quota,
to know how many of the candidates on that list are elected, the
names being taken in order as they stand.

By this system, if the list contuining three names headed by Miss
Garrett had obtaine | three times the quota,all three would have been
elected. In the States of Kentucky and Tennessee, each of which
now has ten representatives in Congress, the quota would be ten
per cent. of the vote polled. Any party would have three, four or
five representatives according as it had thirty, forty or fifty per
cent. of the vote, and any independent candidate would be elected
who got his ten per cent. This way of reckoning would give the
Republicans three from the former and four from the latter State,
instead of one member in each actully electel to the forty-fourth
Congress.

This method favors independent candidiutes even more than the
cumulative, for there is much less danger of votes being thrown
away. Thereis the same probability as under Hare’s plan, that
every baliot wili count, but not the same possibility of tae inter-_
ference of chance or fraud. The imaginary votes for Brown, Jones
and Robinson would be classed as so many for list one, Brown and
Jones, and so many for list two, Brown and Robinsoa, and the sec-
ond man would be taken from the list best supported, while the few
cases of an exact tie could safely be referred to the legislature.

THE BOA CONSTRICTOR OF POLITICS. 159

With this slight exception. the results would be quickly made
known and easily verified. If a member of Congress dies in office
his successor would be the first man left on the list from which he
was taken constituents would continue to be represent-
ed by a candidate of their own choice.

Under the list system the nominating power of the caucus would
be the same as with the cumulative or preferential plan, except
that its advocates have proposed a restriction which might well be
incorporated with any method of election, even the boa-constrictor
one, namely, the condition that all the nominations should be re-
corded and published long enough beforehand. to give the citizens
time for independent action. There is some difference of opinion
as to how long the time should be, and how: great should be the
possibility ot offering and altering lists by individuals. It seems to
me that it would be best to provide that any list, signed by the
secretary of any couvention of delegates or any mass-meeting, or
by one hundred voters individually, and sent at least thirty days
before the election, should be numbered, registered, and published
at once; that lists signed by any citizen and wholly made up of
names already presented should be received, numbered and pub-
lished as above, until fifteen days before the election; and that all
ballots should be counted according to the registered number; al-
terations being disregarded and unregistered lists treated as blanks.
I think such restrictions would simply exclude scattering votes and
chances of mistake in the count. But these details are of little im-
portance and may easily be adjusted.

It will beseen that this method 1s peculiarly adopted to the choice
of members of Congress and presidential electors, while the cumu-
lative plan works best in districts where the number of eandidates
and of votes is small.

Still more complete representation of the whole people than at
present, would be attained, if either system were employed in elect-
ing committees who should take the place of the President’s Cahi-
net, and form, with him, a national council; whose unanimous
vote should be necessary for the appointment of judges, ministers
and heads of departments, while other high officials might be ap-
pointed by a two-thirds vote, which should also be requisite for
vetoes, suspension of the habeas corpus act, etc. It would be easy
to change our civil service from apartisan to a national bulwark, if

160 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS

all minor officials were under the control of supervisors appointed
and retained in office by such a council. while not only the leaders
of both parties, but the great men outside of party lines could
thus take their rightful places beside the President. It will easily
be seen that State and city councils might be formed on the same
plan.

Some may think these changes too radical; but every reader will
see the advantages, in other respects, of the list system over any
other method of proportional representation, though any of these
methods would be an immeasurable improvement over the present
plan, by which a party but slightly in the majority, or perhaps not
having a majority of votes, but only one of districts, can crush and
swallow up its opponents in true boa-constrictor fashion.

Note.—A member of the last Constitutional Convention of Missouri, to whom I

sent a copy of this essay, informs me that its main principles have been ‘‘ adopted
n private corporation elections.”

THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT AMONG WOMEN. 161

ON THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT AMONG
WOMEN.

BY JOHN W. HOYT, A. M., M. D., LL. D., PRESIDENT OF THE
ACADEMY.

ie

The work of civilization is the work of individualization: The
problem of the ages in the interest of mankind is the problem of
the soul at work in its own consciousness. Man’s service to man
in attempt to harmonize universal need is not greater, nor is ib
other than this—the attempt of the individual to find himself his
proper place. The accomplishment of this by the few is that which
makes any advancement possible, and it is the accomplishment of
it by all that must-merge the missicn in the fulfilment of eiviliza-
tion.

But the unit man is able to open the eyes of his fellow men to
this greatening of power and privilege only as he is able to help
them to alike experience of it. Soon it is found that thought-
level and class-level coincide—that one cannot at once get beyond
the charter or the decree, and that progress is chronicled by caste
and special end.

This parcelling out the rights of the individual has had the effect
to make advances slow and partial; for in the same breath that
makes the declaration, “thus far will we come!” there is heard the
limitation, ‘“‘we and no others

y?

There are two thoughts that run along so parallel to any retro-
spect made of the progress of the race that they seem a part of all
other thought upon this subject. They are distinctly these: that

whatever has been gained has been wrung from those withholding
11 WaAs

162 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

as long as it was possible to do so, and that these gains haye been
so generally in the interest of man, that woman has remained out-
side of any considerable advantage. And yet, after all these gener-
ations of steady advancement for man, the burden-bearer of the
world, how little he is advanced, at the best of his aspirations and
means! The marvel that he has not been goaded to a fuller con-
quest of all barring the way to his rights of manhood and possible
achievement stands face to face with that of woman, now moving
in her own interest to the most complete and far-reaching revolu-
tion the world has yet seen.

That man, with his constitutional aggressiveness, his aptness for
organization, the clear field with nothing but himself to oppose,
should up to this hour have missed so much, is not more surpris-
than that woman, unaggressive by nature, unsuited to organization
and with universal history, precedent, and prevailing philosophy
against her, shoul] have undertaken at one move, the sum of all
revolutions. And yet there it stands, the most conspicuous fact
of the times touching either a moral or a political future for so-
ciety.

A demand for rights of one kind and another—in the home, in
the schools, in the occupations and professions, with a more equal
control of property, and lastly, use of the ballot, as covering all
these—has characterized this movement from the beginning. The
wholeness of this demand makes the requisite reconstruction easy.
Could anything be more simple? The haif of society claiming to
speak for the whole population, and hitherto exercising that pre-
rogative have but to draw a pen across a few prescribing words in
statute and constituticn, and there is freedom for the whole people
to be and do, each according to capacity and power. To the
thoughtful and just man, it is strange that in the countries most
enlightened, especially in our own the very essence of whose institu-
tions is freedom without partiality, this sublimest act of emancipa-
tion that history can ever record should beso long delayed. For
what can be more profoundly moving to the justice and sympathy
of the universal mind than the spectacle of one-half of the great
people, through sheer force of muscle and ruder force of brain,
withholding from the other its dearly purchased and most sacred
immunities ?

All things considered, the success of the movement, at last be-

THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT AMONG WOMEN. 163

gun, is next to the fact of it noticeable. It has acquired a re-
spectable, not to say remarkable frontage in literature, on the ros-
trum, and in the halls of legislation. For thirty years, from pul-
pit, press and platform, in club and in social circle, it has had the
benefit and hindrance of approval, protest and discussion; enlisting
the dignity of conversation, the brilliancy of wit, the contempt of
sarcasm, the repartee of humor, and all the vicissitudes of a ques-
tion so much at home among the people as to be equally every-
body's and nobody’s business. And yet, should the history of this.
movement be attempted, the details would be found unsatisfactory,
its methods unattractive and its results vaguely defined.

UE,

Of the causes moving to this unrest and protest among women, the
difficulty of finding suitable and remunerative employment is con-
spicuous. Here, as in the beginning of human effort, the question
for woman is first one of shelter and sustenance, and without. the
world before her, as it has eyer been before man; for the great
highways of occupation are either positively or practically closed
to feminine industry; and in those open to women it is the almost
universal rule that they are met with less wages for the same work.

The best argument tor this inequality of compensation is based
upon the usual responsibility of man for the family maintenance.
This leads to the question, How, then, when a woman receives from
one-fourth to one-half of that paid a man for the same service, is
she to maintain a family left to her care? It seems very unsatis-
factory to be told that such persons are exceptions to the rule of
generally provided-for married women, and the case niust be met
insome other way than that of labor and compensation for it;"* or
that, “women left without natural protectors, must take upon
themselves the pursuits of men in order to live at all,” and that
‘tor these aberrations from general law special arrangements must
be made.” So far from staying this revolt, women are not even
pausing to press the old question, ** Gentlemen, what is this other
way. and when are those special arrangements to take effect?”
but sre moving upon results with the apparent purpose cf makmg
their own arrangements.

_ *“ Social Science and Women Suffiage.’”? By Rev. C. Caverno, Academy Trans-
actions, Vol. I.

164 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

There isnot a more pitiful proposition in the list of social im-
practicabilities than that of a mother turning to the occupations
of men and asking bread and education for her children. So far
as I am aware, the consideration of this struggle for existence
among dependent women has not advanced much beyond the ad-
mission that it is a case to be considered. And { would here sug-
gest, as a step toward something known, if not done, in this re-
gard, that through this organization for the advancement of knowl-
edge and social amelioration the Government be asked at the taking
of the next census, to inquire how many women there are in the
United States dependent upon themselves for support; and how
many, in addition to their own support, are charged with the
maintenance of children, aged parents or family relations dependent
upon their labor, with the occupations followed and the means ac-
cruing therefrom. This, with the number, sex, and age of children
and other statistics relating to the family, and a statement of such
partial means as have been left by deceased or are furnished by
incompetent natural providers, would throw much light upon re-
lated questions, while bringing this one of compensation for labor
with a new significance before the social philosopher who answers
the inquiry, Ought not the compensation of one person to be
equal to that of another for the same work?” by asking, “ Ought
not families to be supported

The question before us is not a divided one, but inseparable by
virtue of a higher law no political economy can permanently re-
sist. That ‘the laborer is worthy of his hire,’ stands denied by
Christian, as by Pagan communities, to the multiplication of poor-
houses and jails under sound of the Sabbath bells of all Christeu-
dom. This is no mere figure of speech; the logic of statistics
proving that in the so-called most Christian nation upon which
the sun shines, the pauper list, because of unremunerated employ-
ment, is greater than that fof any other country in the world.
And what is pauperism? Pauperism is the result of uncompensated
labor; and labor uncompensated is that the wages of which do not
furnish the means of keeping in repair the instruments of it.
Science and experience show that man, as a laborer, must receive
wages in advance of keeping himself in repair, or the instrument
he leaves to take his place must be a deteriorated one. This, be-

911%

* Social Science and Woman Suffrage, by Rey. C. Caverno. Vol. I. Academy
Transactions.

THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT AMONG WOMEN. 165

cause, while he Jabors he also becomes the father of children. This
deterioration, going on with each generation, at last reaches the
point where pauperism becomes a settled condition rather than an
eecasional and temporary result.

This monstrous evil, this unconvyicted crime, of labor without
adequate wages, it is plain to be seen, falls most heavily upon the
laboring woman who, least of all, is responsible for it. The inter-
ests of industry and the instincts of virtue unite in the condemna-
tion of such barbarism.

This question of family maintenance rests upon an arrangement
far below the righteous or unrighteous usages of society. In the
nature of things, the duty of maintenance belongs to that parent,
be it father or mother, best fitted for the fulfilment of it. Shall
the little one of any household in the Kingdom ef Christ go less
suitably fed, clothed and educated because the burden of this pro-
viding falls upon the mother, whose more brooding care and
greater tenderness. more fully symbolize those of the All-Father
for the child Humanity? Not always. Nor need the majority-
man, upon whose shoulders this burden usually falls, fail of cour-
age because ot this concession. He will find the problem most
easily solved by the rule of equal compensation. Women do not
go into the occupations of men, competing for wages, save from
necessity; remaining there the shortest possible time, and finding
themselves, when there, at disadvantage of natural and acquired
unfitness. Nevertheless, it is trae that women, thus thrust out of
their own into new and distasteful occupations, often accomplish as
much and as good work as men trained to its pursuit. This put-
ting of themselves so completely into their work, to secure this
result, must be exhausting beyond that of masculine services of
the same sort. For this reason, and for other very good reasons,
when women do go into the occupations of men for wages, they
ought to have at least as much, since in respect of need they have ,
the same—that of having others to support—and, in addition, this:
the care of the household, in cooking, sewing, nursing, and the
general responsibility of administering the affairs of the home.
This is so much extra burden laid upon the average laboring wom-
an beyond that performed by the average laboring man.

But the great reason, covering ail classes and all conditions of
each class is this—that women are not able to labor so continuously

166 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

as men. The disabilities that cut a man off from compensation for
labor he is not able to perform are possible and occasional; while
those thus hindering a woman are inevitable and periodical. And
this, most certainly, at that period of life when family mainte-
nance, if left to her, would, from the youth of her children, be the
heaviest. That physiology which stands with its protest at the
ballot-box may well take the initiative of protection for woman
against this iniquity of more work for the same wages. Fora
woman to do as much, and as gsod work as a man, at any contin-
uous employment, involves the using of her life-forces at the rate
of self-destruction. And for society to compel, or even permit,
this is to legalize by stronger than statutory provision the abroga-
tion of that law of self-preservation, and that duty of equal pro-
tection, for the enforcement of which society was formed.

Another and most prolific source of discontent is the want of
appreciation which everywhere meets women in the performance
of the ordinary and ever-recurring duties of domestic life.

This want of appreciation is apparently grounded, not so much
upon a depreciation of woman, herself, as of her occupation. It is
as wide-spread as domestic life, and asource of bitterness among
all classes not exempted from personal care in affairs of the house
by exceptional exaltation of rank. It is found equally among the
intelligent and the illiterate—a prevailing low estimate of home
duties. Strange as it may seem, this estimate steadily lowers as
the intelligence and pursuits of class advance; finding its ultimate
in the disdain of gentlemen of the best circles.

The fact that women do not complain of this very much, or
that, to many, if is not distinctly formulated in thought, is all the
more to the argument of its being a great wrong and working ser-
ious injury. Indeed, next to the fact itself, that it finds so little
expression isthe worst of it. It is a skeleton with a shadew for
every homely joy, dragging the body of its death, through the
weary round of woman's life.

The depreciation of whatever industry, art, or gift belongs to the
furtherance of purely domestic ends, such as thrift, organization,
and device in the household, has gone so steadily on since the days
of King Lemuel, that, taking it up as a cause of revolution among
women is, as if in obedience to the command, ‘Open thy mouth

THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT AMONG WOMEN. 167

for the dumb, in the cause of all such as are appointed to destruc-
tion.”

I am not unaware of the speculative nature of the theory that
measures the decay of woman’s interest in home by that of man’s
estimate of business, but I appeal to both to say whether as the
world enlarges to the one the home is not belittled to the other.
The house increases in dimensions, for there must be room for the
conveniences of art and a retinue for the service of means. But
the home atmosphere is dying out. In the language of one whose
celestial philosophy often touches practical life, “it is not known
* What is there in the well-
furnished modern home? Everything to make it comfortable but
comfort, Man, with his energy and skill, brings everything there
but an appreciation of what woman does to convert material into
beauty and use. Ignoring that the home contains in microcosm
every element of power with which he wrested from the world the
right to call it his own, with additional force of finesse and spirit-
uality of which he has little conception, he seats himself so in the
midst as to leave her pretty much out. How to organize the forces,
that there may be ordered without restraint; to harmonize the rest-
lessness of the child with the rest of the adult; to adjust the duties
and privileges of servants, the entertainment of friends, the courte-

any more what it is, or even that it is.’

sies of society, the calls of religion and charity, maintaining
through all her own individuality, «nd things, if possible, more
precious,—the saving from themselves of dearer ones by the con-
servation of all the powers through which the thoughtful woman
knows how to build with stones that need no smiting,—she knows
through what an incarnation of soul and sense these have come.
He does not. So far from this, he really thinks they have cost him
so much money. Are not these the receipts?

There is nothing more common than for the wife to discover that
her husband wonders what has become of her time. The mascu-
line judgment that money and hired service are sufficient to the
results a woman knows have commanded, not her time and _ fresh-
ness only, but as high an order of talent as was ever employed in
money-making or in State administration, is driving the wife of
- price beyond rubies out of the home and out of the world.

There is no mistaking either the fact or the effect of this. In
regard to the highest of these home duties, the care and training of

168 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS |

children, notwithstanding the theoretical value placed thereon, they
fall into the rut of a uniformly low estimate of what is properly
considered a woman’s work. Hvidence of this is found in the fact
of no provision made for the development of any practical efficiency
for their performance in the home, and in the placimg of children
under charge of the most incompetent and poorly paid teachers in
the schools.

Not until the best institutions that can be established make
ready the devoutly impressed and richly furnished young women
to become mothers will women believe there is any honest convic-
tion behind the complimentary speech with which this branch of
home service is taken out of the category of contempt. From the
eridiron and clothes line to the best possible administration oi the
heme, it is against this grinding sense of undervaluation of her
employments that woman makes her way through life.

Of education, as a cause of the present revolutionary movement,
it is more difficult to speak. I refer now to that wrong and inade-
quate education, of which girls get somuch that women find them-
selves practically without any. It commences early and continues
long, in that indirect tutelage found in the home, in institutions,
laws, literature and society, and which, between repression and
stimulation, becomes an almost systematic procedure for baffling
nature and substituting thestandards of art. And what do wesce?
Hearty, happy little girls? We see very little, any more, of that
phase of female loveliness. Preferences and tendencies are no
longer tolerated unless of clear beconiingness, according to esti-
mates as changing as the unreliable qualities they foster. ‘To atone
for this ever present repression in regard to food, frolic and devices
of taste, an eneryation of indulgence sets in, with corresponding
results to body and mind.

The law of nature, which is development and not hindrance, is
thus stimulated to over-activity among boys by the constant as-
sault upon its application to the girls of the household. Thus the
hard and aggressive nature of boys becomes harder and more ag-
gressive than nattre intended, resulting in injury to the female or-
ganism. Reference is had to that sort of imjury upon which the
discovered relations of physiology and psychology begin to throw
some light, and which is due to the more complete whoieness of

THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT AMONG WOMEN. 169

woman's structural development at any given time, and at the ear-
hest time, making the endurance of repression or the excess of stim-
ulation more hurtful to the childhood of girls than of boys.

The pernicious doctrine that women are made for sacrifice, with
the stimulus: of making this saerifice wholly acceptable
thas been the root and front of all falsity in relations . be-
tween the sexes. It begins in the family, teaching to the least
of them that brothers are to become whatever they ‘can make them-
selves through their gifts and opportunities, and that sisters are to
become what is neither in the way of nor unacceptable to their
brothers. ‘This subordination of one sex to the other teaches in-
feriority and breeds the pride of some sort of rivalry. The field of
this is soon found. there being much help to if; and the aim is
fixed to be a pleasure to the brother, as he is a power to her. If
this were all, little harm would come of it; since, at its height of
art and purpose, it is the gift of God—this art of a woman wholly
pleasing aman. But the end being presented, with no incentive
beyond 1t, the aim soon touches its depth of demoralization, through
the notion that methods are of less consequence than results, and
forgetting the purpose of appearing to be what she is not.

There is little room to doubt that this is a legitimate result of
early indirect training, and a fountain of that insincerity which is
so dark a shadow on female character. The affectation, instead of
the cultivation of gracious quality in the plastic years of childhood

ften remains but an affectation, to the wormwoodand gall of other
lives and latest years. It is because of exceptional nurturing of
truth and womanly quality, that society is saved from the full pen-
alty of the teaching that women are bound to please; and, pleas-
ing, it matters but little how. Grave as this charge seems, it is as
true as when made a quarter of a century ago by that illustrious
friend of man, Horace Mann, that, “ Through all time women have
been assiduously taught that the garniture of the body was more
precious than the vesture of the spirit; andin no age nor portion
of an age, in no country nor segment or a country, has woman
ever been elevated for her reflex power of elevating others.”

Under the conditions, it is not surprising that woman should
seize upon material ornamentation as accessory to the purpose of
making the most of herself; or that, as the sense of her moral re-
sponsibility is lowered, she should rely more and more upon these

170 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

allies of personal attractiveness. The surprise is, that, with any
moral sense left, she should not repudiate the putting of things
beautiful and appropriate, as aiding the expression of intrinsic
beauty and worth, in the place of these. Nevertheless, this js
done, and to such an extent that, just as the connection between
taste and morals disappears in modern feminine apparel, it reap-
pears in the spectacle of avery low standard of personal apprecia-
tion, expressing itself in the deformities of fashion. It is not
merely the empty head of the votary of conventional extremes
that measures the folly and wickedness of training up childhood
to such maidenhood; it isin the exhibition of moral unfitness su-
perinduced upon womanhood itself, and finding its moral expres-
sion in her attire, where the womanly art of decoration becomes
artifice. d

As life advances, the position and language of institutions re-
affirm to woman the humiliating proposition of her youth. At
the threshold of all higher power and privilege, she is met with
the denial of right, or the denial of capacity. There is not an in-
stitution, of the highest grade of its kind, in the world where a
woman can go for instruction, upon an equality with man; and in
those approximating this rank, where she finds admission, it 1s also
to find the atmosphere and hindrance of his supercilious toleration.

In the language of the law, she finds herself ranking first in the
list of natural and convicted incapables—‘‘women, children, crimi-
nals, idiots and slaves.’’ Moses placed her in the category of sub-
stance—property—and there she remains. Not long since Isaw in
an American newspaper an advertisement of the escape of a wife
who had been left as security for the payment of money, with no-
tice of penalties for harboring her. The property and the husband
are one, and not the husband and wife; for does not their relation
terminate upon the death of either, while the husband and his
horse go on together beyond the solenim event ?

In regard to the ownership of children, not the slave-mother
alone, but Ceesar’s wife may miss the infant from her side and
Cesar make no answer. Moses inaugurated this also, and time has
meddled but little with the policy.

In literature it is the same, and yet worse of the kind. The
voice of institutions and of law can be somewhat escaped, invading
the home bué occasionally. But literature, which is a woman’s re-

THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT AMONG WOMEN. 171

fuge, with its treasures of new and old, its enchanting fabrications
in story and verse, and its record of all that has been done, and
hoped, and failed,—it is here that woman finds herself in the full
habiliment of her subordination. It is not the bold avowal of her
inferiority and the scorn of her sphere, of which there is no lack;
it is not the meaningless paraded recognition of her charms and
gifts, as the decorator and subserver of his leisure, nor yet the vows
and homage accorded her as ministering angel of the house and
purifier of society; it is that inexpressible tone and spirit pervading
the whole, as she turns its pages, announcing everywhere to woman
the measure of her esteem among men. Out of literature proper
she is eased down into society—where the virus of all takes most
fatal effect—by the newspaper press. There is nothing more offen-
siye, and nothing more damaging to the moral sense of the average
reader, of either sex, than the manner in which woman is distorted
and bemeaned by the newspaper craft. Woman, the scandal of
the double-leaded column, the gist of every well-told tale, the butt
of the best joke, the glint of sarcasm, the ridicule of domestic dis-
content and diabolism, and the unknown quantity of all innuendo
and suspicion. And woman not at her best, or half best of admit-
ted worth, but at her worst of disadvantage.

In society, the attitude and the speech of man to woman is most
decorous; for itis here, in the presence of her physical charms, that
the fascinations of her intellectual and spiritual beauty unite in ap-
peal from the decrees of his calculating intellect. And yet it is
here that woman brings the largess of an unreserved sacrifice—her
time, labor, means, capability, her health, herself.

As a last cause distinctively considered, we have the direct edu-
cation furnished in schouls for girls. And it may be that here
will be found the chief cause of the attempt of women to revolu-
tionize public sentiment in their interest, since the language of
positive education is the plainest possible statement to woman of
the inferiority of her duties and of herself.

The rule of less compensation for labor may come in part from
a mistaken judgment as to the number of dependent women; the
depreciation of home duties from an imperfect knowledge of do-
mestic economy; and much of indirect teaching may be the half
unconscious growth of a belief that, things being as they are, it is

172 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND. LETTERS.

best to make the most of conditions found. Even. the injustice of
her legal status may be glossed over by the assumption that the
responsibilities of equality would overbalance its additional secu-
rity. Such conclusions are compatible with a rather fair estimate
of women taken out of the intricacies of relations which it is diffi-
cult to estimate. But that direct education, which is neither for
public nor professional service, comes to woman with a denial of
the right to it or capacity for it. If one could lay upon the page,
or place before the eye, a picture representing the hemispheres of
time occupied by men and women respectively, and teuch them
with light and shade, according to the measure of education that
has been furnished each, the eye might help the mind in gaining a
conception of the extent to which woman has been denied a know-
ledge of herself and of the world in which she lives. But Art has
not the gift, as eloquence has been in vain, to arouse man to the
wrong of deaying to woman an equal share in whatever education
can give as a preparation for life. Because there is a difference be-
tween the present and the practice of earliest times, 1b 1s not to be
lost sight of that the difference in the opportunities afforded young
men and women respectively, has not been diminished in propor-
tion to general educational advancement; so that it remains, to the
dishonor of all time and countries. Using again the Janguage of
Horace Mann, “In estimating the number of heroic souls who
have languished out their lives in dungeon eells, or fallen beneath
the axe of the oppressor, we count by hundreds and by thousands;
in summing up the multitudes whom conguerors have subjugated
and enslaved, we count by nations and races of men; but, in enu-
merating the women whom man has visited with injustice and per-
sistent wrong in the rights of education, we express ourselves by a
unit, but that unit is the world. And this, notwithstanding that
human reason seeks in vain for a reason why there should be this
difference of education and no education between the sexes.”

Tt is incredible that women have not been taking note of these
things through much time of both experience and retrospect; and
that they are not more moved to protest and revolution to-day, in
the flush of modern enlightment, than when abiding in the thicker
darkness of the past. Nor is it wonderful that this revolution,
having its root and furtherance in the Enghsh-speaking countries,
where progress has done the most for men, should find just here,

x)

a

THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT AMONG WOMEN. ie

where their education has most advanced, most bitter cause of
complaint.

JUOL.

Of the aims and methods there is but time for the most general
mention.

The aim is to take woman out of the condition of subordination
to one of equality with man. As an aim if is all that it could be
—a whole, a wise, and a just one.

Of the methods, it must be said, they have ofteu been mistaken
ones, hindering the eause. But they are explained as being the
only ones turnished as models—the means used by man in further-
ance of similar objects. .

IV.

The supposed results being the hydra-headed confusion and des-
olation of the social scheme, it is well to look a little carefully at
what they would probably be. And, first, they must appear in
woman herself more than in man. The mere fact of equality be-
fore the law wouid vitalize her intellectual being, through an
added sense of power, not likely to awaken at once a correspond-
ing sense of responsibility. This has been the history of all class
advancement, and especially when advancing upon privileges long
withheld, and if cannot be doubted that the entire body of women,!
mean all classes of them, would be thus affected—first by the priv-
ileges, rather than by the duties, of the new position. Nor could
this fail to brmg about great social injury, involving the neglect
of children and homes, domestic industries and charities, differences
between husbands and wives, and disaster to private and public
business. As the direct result of the independence of woman, this
would be bad enough; but it would undoubtedly be followed by the
darker shades of increased licentiousness among both women and
men. Political power, and political power alone, as furnishing the
means of protecting himself against the inflictions which may
come of it, has been the bulwark of man’s prerogative and prac-
tice of vice. It has done more and worse than this; it has com-
pelled, whenever his interests were subserved thereby, a participa-
tion by woman in his vice, while meeting out direst penalties for
tie same when it did not so subserve his purposes.

174 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

The revulsion from all this, with co-ordinate power and privi-
lege, will most assuredly work to the debasement of female char-
acter, checked only by her natural superiority of instinctive virtue,
and by the increased security against temptation found in her en-
larged material independence. The tendency to this growth of
vice among men would also find restraint in their increased respect
for women, because of their independence, and in the elevation of
sentiment inspired by them through better culture and the conse-
quent ability to turn the excess of masculine passion into virtuous
and useful channels.

Another powerful, and, it may be, more immediate check to
either the ordinary or increased licentiousness of men wouid be the
alarm seizing upon all but the most depraved circles of society, at
the spectacle of woman becoming the instrument of so appalling a
measure of retributive justice. Nor can it be doubted that this
spectacle would become a measure of extraordinary enlightenment
to him concerning the whole nature of the sexual passion and of
the non-sexual character of morality tn extenso.

An increase of divorce legitimate to this state of things would
ere long be corrected by enabling women to enter upon marriage
more considerately than uow; while marriage itself would be stead-
ily gaining in digmty and security, as the elevation and responsi-
bility of enfranchised women began to take effect upon the general
quality of men, as well.

This movement, would, however, beyond all question, show itself
to have been a great and just movement in the result of better
educated women. Through the independence of equality in edu-
cation, better women; and after that a better race of men, better
rearing, better society, better government, and a nobler civiliza-
otin. ~

That women desire an equality with men to the end of entrance
upon public life, or of competing with them in the affairs of busi-
ness, is as far as possible from the truth. Thereis much apprehen-
sion as to the subversion of social order, while insisting upon obe-
dience to the law of nature in the parcelling out of duties and
relations between men and women; and yet the entire proceeding
of the civil structure of man in this regard is as if nature had fur-
nished no law not in need of the sanction of hisenforcement. But
if there is one law of the intellectual constitution of sex more clearly

THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT AMONG WOMEN. 175

defined than another, it is this: That man is intended for massing
himself with his fellows in organization, and woman for abiding in
the unity of selfhood. Man for openly aggressive, and woman for
silent, vower is the daw of power; each after its fitness and its des-
tiny. Since the world was, man has appeared best in activity,
woman in repose. Instance the testimony of all marble and can-
vas, as well as of literature, and observe it in the daily round where
the self-blinded eyes of men begin to see this open secret of the
social disorder.

Women do not crave a public career, nor would they remain long
in public life if its paths were fully open to them. They do not
seek the ballot to thisend. Even the majority of the leaders of
this movement desire nothing so much as the protection a domes-
tic sphere and home-life theory promise them. As before the Magi
of the old, a woman stands to-day before the law maker of this new
time questioned as to what most pleases woman. And thus has
she always stood, answering in the language of the myth, ‘To be
loved, to be studied by her husband, and to be mistress of the
house.”

The difference between the women of that and this time is in
the manner of the response. The Persian representative of her
sex stood in the twilight of the world, asking for a veil behind
which to hide from even the gods, who held in their keeping such
precious gifts, her sacred joy in anticipation of their bestowal;
while the representative-movement woman of. to-day stands on
platform and in press in the emphasis of her determination to have
something better than the prom/se of these good things.

To be loved, to be studied, and to be mistress of the home where
strength and henor are her clothing, this has always been and
always will be the joy and crown of woman. By the laws of her
physicat and spiritual being, as well as by intellectual preferences,
she is wedded to her motherhood. But she never has been, and
never can be, true to it under the imposition of conditions depen-
dent upon the will of man.

Ideal freedom, which 1s the birthright of every human soul, is
more necessary and more possible to woman than to man, if any
compurison can be made. Alone with herself, ia the unity of that
mysterious bend which binds a finite to an infinite being, woman
becomes a power for buffling evil and furthering good. But under

176 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

the ban and surveillance of her master, she is not able to realize,
much less to find, her place.

V.

The final cause of this movement is that of all real progress,
and in the nature of things it cannet fail. That women will ac-
cept less than the obliteration of the last jot and title of man’s ungra-
ciousness to her is not possible, as it is not possible for a law to be and
not to be at the same moment. Ways and means ure nothing, as
condition and precedent are nothing. Through folly and through
wisdom, through strength and through weakness, moves on the
perfect plan to perfect ends.

BEFORE THIS DEPARTMENT.

|
hy
S
i
by
G
S
Ry
ns)
by
Ey
by
ies)
&
by

Vv

1. Were the Stoics Uiilitarians? By Rey. F. M. Ho~uanp, Baraboo.
2. ies Examination of Prof. 8. Hf. Carpenter’s Position in regard to Evolution.
By Herserr P. Hupsexty, Winona, Minn.

a
n

AN us "

WERE THE STOICS UTILITARIANS? L79

WERE THE STOICS UTILITARIANS ?
BY F. M. HOLLAND, BARABOO.

The practical value of Stoicism was long ago fully demonstrated
in the energy, justice and philanthropy with which, for more than
eighty years after the death of its worst enemy, Domitian, five of
its pupils successively ruled the Roman Empire. It is well to ask
uf the philosophy, for which Nerva went into exile at the same time
as Epictetus, in which the latter, with Dion Chrysostom and Arrian,
instructed Trajan, Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, and of which
Marcus Aurelius made himself the grandest embodiment, has still a
place among living systems of ethics.

The few writers who have tried to find such a place for the Stoies
differ widely. Mr. Lecky and Miss Cobbe labor to array them among
the transcendentalists, the History of European Morals asserting
that of “the two rival theories, one is generally described as the
stoical. the intuitive, the independent or the sentimental—the other
as the epicureai, the inductive, the utilitarian, the selfish,” (vol. i. p.
3,) while the Hssay on Intuitive Morals frequently appeais to the
authority of the Stoics, in quotations, for the most part mistrans-
lated, as is especially that from Lucan, ix., 573, (Am. Hd., page 120,)
which owes its significance wholly to the words, “inborn precepts,”
which are rightly italicized by Miss Cobbe, tor they are not con-
tained in the original Latin printed beneath them. This liberty,
like the similar ones with Marcus Aurelius, I. 18; and V. 27, was
undoubtedly taken in the firm belief, that the real views of the auth-
ors were thus fully manifested. Even J. S. Mill so far agrees with
his two antagonists, as to speak of ‘‘eyery writer, from Epicurus to
Bentham, who maintained the theory of utility,” and to say “let
utilitarians never cease to claim the morality of self-devotion as a
possession which belongs by as good a right to them, as either to
the Stoic or to the Transcendentalist.” (Utilitarianism, Ch. IT.)
Everybody knows Jeremy Bentham’s hatred of “the sort of trash
which a set of people used to amuse themselves with talking, while
parading backward and forward in colonnades called porches,” but
everybody does not know that Alexander Bain, who is, except Her-
bert Spencer, the ablest living advocate of utilitarianism, declares

180 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

that “* = oicism and Kpicureanism are both included in its compass.”
(Moral Science, Am. Ed., p. 16.) Mr. Bain, however, gives no evi-
dence for this statement, and takes little pains to show the proper
place of the Stoics among the happiness moralists.

These differences of opimon make it necessary to examine care-
fully the statements of Stoicism, made by its principal teachers,
Seneca, Epictetus and Mareus Aurelius, as well as the accounts of
the opinions of still earlier authors by Diogenes Laertius and Cicero
Such an examination will show that the Stoics never were led
by their belief. that every soul isa part of the cupreme and All-
pervading Intelligence, to suppose themselves thus endowed with
an infallible moral guide, and raised ayn necessity of learning
what is right and wrong by observation and experience.

Seneca, in his 120th letter, s * Nature could not teach us the
first ideas of goodness and virtue. She gave us the germs of

knowledge, but not knowledge itself. Our -shilass be holds that
these ideas come by observation and comparison of our daily deeds,
and that goodness and virtue are known by analogy.”

Epictetus devotes the eleventh chapter of the second book of his
Discourses to proying that we are not so well provided with innate
ideas of good and evil, as to be able to distinguish right from
wrong without some rule, balance or standard, such as philosophy
alone can give, the knowledge of which inability he calls “the be-
ginning of Wisdom.” (See pages 124, 5,6 of Higginson’s spirited
translation.”

He complains not only that ‘
man is faithless,” but that pecple no
ignorant of “the essence of good and evil, and act rashly and by
guess;” ‘that contradiction among the generality of mankind. by
which they differ concerning good and evil,’ showing that moral
knowledge can be acquired only by tuition, as was also the opinion
of the earliest Stoics.*

The fundamental distinction, however, between the intuitional-
ists and their rivals. is that the former believe the mural sentiment
to be innate, in lependent and incapable of analysis, while the lat-
ter are satisfied that it can be analyzed into simpler elements, and
therefore claim the title of derivative moralists, a name which the

the governing faculty of a bad
t instructed in philosophy are

* See Higzinson’s Epictetus, pp. 48, 62, 65, 74, 76, $3, 101-2, 145-53, 175-6,
185-6, 208, 224, 245-7, 299, 315, 335, 245, 324. Diogenes Laertius, Zeno LLY, p.
292, Bohn.

WERE THE STOICS UTILITARIANS ? 181

Westminster Review decidedly prefers to that of utilitarian.* In
this respect 16 is very significant that the founder of Stocism intro-
duced a new word for duty, kathekon, containing a preposition de-
noting relation or derivation, and that the last defender of the
Portico gives a similar term, katorthoseis, for those actions ‘* which
proceed by the straight path from a kindred principle to the end
appointed.”*y

Cicero,{ however, considers that the preposition in these terms
for right actions, denotes simply their accordance with nature.

Nature was, indeed, the supreme authority of the Stoics, whose
“follow n: coe did not mean “follow con-
92 asserts on pages 142-3 of Tutuitive Morals,

where she imagines that a proves it by a remarkably incomplete
quotation from Dicgenes Laertius, who makes much more refer-
ence, in her extract,to universal nature, an oracle to which
he Hipicureans appealed as constantly as their stern ee without

ever attempting to receive its revelations intuitively. The philos-

ophers of both schools agreed with most of their contemporaries in
Se acisine as ine ultimate souree of right and wrong in
morals, and therefore in institutions, the imaginary law of the im-

aginary being, Nature.’ (Mill on Comte, p 65.) And this fallacy
was aceepted as the ultimate analysis by nearly every moralist who
oe ae for fifteen centuries after the death of Marcus Aurelius.

i}

Indeed, the error still shows itself in the current.loose talk about
natural rights and desires, unnatural conduct, ete. The fact that
the Stoics lived in what Mull ealls the abstractional, or ontological,

and Comte the metaphysical period of ethics, should not prevent

our recognizing them as faithful followers of the derivation method

ow
according to their light, as is proved by the following quotations,
some of which even show that their authors were in advance of
the age and almost Severe the discoveries of modern Utilitari-
ans, while other passages indicate a habit of estimating the moral-
ity of an action aint to its tendencies and usefulness.

‘In order to distinguish good from evil you should consider not
whence it comes, but whither it tends.

“ Whatever makes life happy is gocd by its own right and can-
not become evil.” (Seneca.Cp.44.section 6.) “Only th at which makes

® See the article on the Natural History of Morals, puvlished October, 1369, in
Vol. XCII, p. 237, 52. Am. Ed.
sce Diogenes Laertius, Zeno LXIL, p. 298, and Marcus Aurelius, V. 14.
Rata phisin. See De Finibus, ILf, 14.

182 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

us happy 1s good.” (do 85, 20 and 115, 15.) “In being useful the
soul moves according to nature.” (do 109, 12.) ‘* Whatever is good
is always profitable. If it be not profitable, it is not good; if it be
it is so.” (do 117, 27.) “Utility is the standard of necessity,” (or
conformity to nature, do 39,6.) ‘“‘Publie and private utility are
inseparable.” (do 16,10.) ‘The only proper aim of the giver is
the advantage of the receiver.” (De Benificiis iv, 9, 1.) “Our duty
certainly is to be useful to other human beings and to as many as
possible, for in doing good to others we perform the common
work.” (De Otio iii, 5.) ‘‘ Punish without anger, not as 1f revenge
were sweet, and only so far as it is useful.” (De Ira, Lib. ii, 33, 1.)
‘‘ All men seek what is useful and according to nature.” (Epictetus,
Discourses, 1.18.) ‘“ No one can thiuk anything really usefui and
not choose it.” (dei, 28.) °**When therefore any one identifies his
interest with those of sanctity, virtue, country, parents, and
friends, all these are secured, but whenever he places his interest
in anything else than friends, country, family, and justice, then
these all give way, borne down by the weight of self-interest. for
wherever I and mine are placed, thither must every living being
eravitate.” do i, 22, Higginson p. 174.) “Why did Agamemnon
and Achilles disagree? Because they did not know what is useful
and what is useless.” (do ii, 24.) ‘Consider the antecedents and
the consequences of every action.” (do ii, 15, alsoin the Eucheir-
idion, xxix.) ‘Every creature is formed by nature for pursuing
and admiring the things which appear beneficial.” (Ench. xxxi.)
When you imagine any pleasure, don’t be carried away by it, but
wait awhile. Then think how you will grieve and blame yourself
for enjoying it, and how you will rejoice and please yourself for
having abstained.” (Ench. xxxiv.) ‘This above all is the busi-
ness of nature, to correct and apply the active powers to what ap-
pears fit and beneficial.” (Fragment lxiv in Higginson’s Epictetus,
lxix in Didot’s, Paris, 1842.) *

Notr.—tThe first ninety-one of these fragments, as Higginson gives them, and
some later ones are from Stobaeus, who lived about 300 years after Epictetus, but
who shared his vsews so far, and has received such general confidence, that I quote
all he furnishes cf importance. Others are from Maximus and contain nothing to
the purpose. The rest are from Antonius Melissa, a work in the dark ages, some
600 or 1000 years later than than the philosopher whom he quotes at second hand,
through the untri stworthy medium of the church fathers. To his extracts I shall
make no further reference except to mention that one passage (Higginson cyv.;) 18
decidedly derivative and may fairly be paired off with another, (Higginson xcii,)

which is the only expresssion of intuitionalism I have found among the sayings
ascribed to Epictetus.

WERE THE STOICS UTILITARIANS? 183

‘Don’t consider what others say, do or think, unless it is very
necessary and for the common good.” (Marcus Aurelius, Commen-
taries, iii, 4.) ‘* Never labor without regard to the general interest.”
(do i, 5.) “Choose the better part. But that which is useful is the
better part.” (do iti, 6.) ‘‘ Let no act be done without a purpose.”
(do vi, 2, Long’s translation.) ‘“ Do only what is useful to men.”
do iv, 12.) ‘* Turn the present to profit by aid of wisdom and jus-
tice.” (do iv, 26.) ‘‘ How cruel it is not to allow men to strive af-
ter what seems to them natural and useful.” (do vi, 27.) “ What-
ever I can do, ought to be directed to this end alone, usefulness to
the community.” (do vii, 5.) ‘A rational nature goes on its way
well when it directs its movements only to actions universally bene-
ficial, ete. (do viii, 7.) ‘Repentance is a kind of self-reproof for
having neglected something useful.” (do viii, 10, Compare Darwin,
Descent of man I, 87.) ‘Let every action be a complete part of
social life. Every act of thine, which has no immediate or ulti-
mate reference to a public end, tears thy lite asunder.” (do ix, 23.)
‘Let there be effort and exertion resulting in acting for the com-
mon good, for this too is according to thy nature.”) do ix, 31.) “HH
I remember that I am a part of the whole I shall do nothing un-
social, but shall turn all my efforts to the commen interest.” (do
x, 6, Long, abridged.) ‘Thy charge is to provide in every way what
is useful to the State.” (do xi,13.) ‘‘ Our object should be the good
of the State, and of mankind also.” (do xi, 21.) ‘ First, do noth-
ing inconsiderately, nor without a purpose; Second, make thy acts
refer to nothing else than a social end.” (do xii, 20, Long.) “And
anything which is useful to the universe, is always good and in
season.” (do xii, 23, Long.)

“The Stoics say that men ave created for the sake of mankind,
to be useful to each other. Thus we are commanded to follow
nature in being mutually and universally useful.” (Cicero de Off-
ciis, i, 1,5.) ‘Those in charge of public business should look at
the advantage of the citizens, and consult that in all they do, for-
getting their own interests. A public trust should be administered
for the benefit of those giving it, not of him to whom it is given.”
(do., i, 25, 1 and 2.) ‘‘True philosophers have not neglected the
advantage and interests of mankind.” (do.,i, 54,1.) “ Nothing
does more to deprave human conduct, than the belief that any-
thing is virtuous which is not virtuous.” (do., ii, 3,3.) “The

184 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS
q 4

Stoies agree that whatever is virtuous is useful, and that nothing
is useful which is not virtuous.” (do., iii, 8,4, and 4,15.) ‘ Pa-
neetius taught that virtue onght to he en P because ib is the
cause of utility, that it is never at variance with real but only with
imaginary utility, that nothing is useful which is not also right, or
right which is not also useful, and that no worse disease has ever
invaded human life, than the theory which disjoined these two
ideas.” (do., ili, 38,5, and 7.6.) ‘The !aw of nature watches over
and holds together the interests of mankind.” (D>»., ii, 6, 14.)
* Duty is always performed when the advantage of mankind is con-
sulted.” (Do., in, 6, 15.) “Although nothing is so contrary to
nature as depravity, yet nothing is so much in accordanee with
nature as utility, and certainly depravity and utility cannot be
found together.” (Do., mi, 8,2.) ‘This is the law of nature which
you should obey and follow, that your interest is the universal, and
the universal one your own.” (Do., i, 12, 7, and 6, 1.) “ Heis a
good man who bene efits as many people as possible and harms no-
body.” (Do., mi, 18, 9.) ‘ Those who separate utility and morality
overthrow ey fu me principles of nature. We all seek ntil-
ity, are carried away by it, and cannot do otherwise. For who
flees away from what is oe Who does not rather pursue ib

most diligently?” (Do., 11, 25. 1,2.) ‘*‘ Whatever is useful is vir-
tuous, though if does not at fis rst seem so.” (Do.; ii, 28, 9, and 30,
10.)

These quotations show how fully the Stoies reeognized utility as
the imseparable and characteristic result of virtue; though their
position cannot be further explained, until we have considered
their language about happiness and pleasure. .

The following passages are in harmony with the two about hap-
piness, already quoted from Seneca.

‘All men wish to live happily bat cannot discern the proper
way.’ (Seneca, De Vita Beata, I. 1.) “To live happily is the
same as to live according to nature.” (do, do, 8, 3, also 3, 3, and
Kp. 124, 7.) ‘“ He has reached the perfection of wisdom, who dees
not place his happiness in another’s power.” (do, Ep. 23, 2.)
‘* Make yourself happy.” (do Ep. 31,9.) ‘‘ All men seek happiness.
In what do they err? In taking its conditions for itself.” (do Ep.
44.7.) “He who is not happy, has not attained the supreme good.”
(do Ep. 71, 18.) What is the business of virtue? A life truly

~

WERE THE STOICS UTILITARIANS? 185

prosperous.” (Hpictetus, Dise. I, 4, Higginson, p. 14) ‘Suppose
then, I should prove to you that you are deficient in what is most
necessary and important to happiness, and that hitherto you haye
taken care ot everything rather than your duty.” (doii, 14, Hig-

bo

einson, p. 137.) “Show me some one who is always happy, for I
long to see a Stoic.” (do 1,19) ‘You were not created to be de-
eraded or miserable with others, but to be happy with them. For
God made all men to enjoy happiness and peace.” (do iii, 24, 1.)
“ Be contented with asound mind and a happy life.” (do ui, 24, 118.)

9

* Our struggle is for prosperity and happiness itself.” (do iii, 25.)
“You have applied yourself to philosophy only in name, and lave
disgraced her principles, as much as you could, by showing that
they are unprofitable and useless to these who study them. You
have never made peace, tranquillity and equanimity the object of
your desires.” (do ii, 26, 13.) * What isthe object you should seek
except a happy life?” (do iv, 4, 4) “ Be mindful, morning, noon
and night, that the only way to happiness is this.” (do iv, 4, 39.)
“Meditate upon your actions. What have [ omitted that is con-
ducive to happiness? What have I done contrary to the interests
of my friends or of my race? (do iv, 6,85.) ‘“ It is better that your
servant should be bad than you unhappy.” (do HEnehiridion xii,

Higeinson, p. 379.) “To be happy is.a good object and in your

.)
own power.” (do Fragment, xix Didot.) ‘It is better to contract
yourself within the compass of asmall fortune and be happy, than
to have a great one and be wretched.” (do Frag. xxiv, Didot, xxi,
Higginson.) |

In the original of the last passage the verb is the one translated
be of good cheer, or be merry, in our Bible, (Acts xxvii, 22 and 25;
James v., 13.) and corresponding to the adverb rendered cheerfully
(Acts xxiv., 10), as well as to the noun selected by Democritus, as
the mark of the system thence called Huthumism by Miss Cuobbe,
(Essay on Intuitive Morals, p. 221.) and signifying “the pursuit
of virtue for its intrinsic 7. e. moral pleasure.” In the other quota-
tion from Stobseus, and in all those from the third book, the terms
are those familiar ones, whose use by the ancient advocates of Util-
itarianism,leads Miss Cobbe to eall thats ystem Hudaimonism, mean-
ing “the pursuit of virtue for the sake of the extrinsic, affectional,
intellectual and sensual pleasure resulting from it’ (do. p. 219).
In other passages, however, isfound a word peculiar to the Stoics,

186 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

who thought so much of happiness that they invented for it a new
term, Huroia. Their yiews of this favorite idea appear nowhere
more clearly than in a long passage of Epictetus (Discourses,
book II, ch. xvii., Higg'nson, p. 151), where the student, who has
learned to desire nothing but freedom from passion and trouble, is
said to have passed through the first class in philosophy, whence
he enters the second class in his desire to know his duties to for-
eigners, his country, his parents and the Gods. Thus the first de-
gree in Stoicism was to make one’s self hsppy, and the second to
be useful to others; which second and higher degree is that mainly
dwelt on by Cicero and Mareus Aurelius, as has been already
shown.

The Tusculan Disputations and De Finibus of Cicero state at
some length, that the Stoics agreed with the Peripatetics, Hpicu-
reans and other acknowledged Utilitarians, in honoring happiness
as the greatest good and highest aim of man, and differed from
them mainly in declaring that the sole and sufficient means of ac-
quiring it was virtue, or, in other words, both active and submis-
sive obedience to the commands, prohibitions and decrees of nature,
their favorite watchword being “ sustine et abstine.”

The peculiar bitterness of the controversy between the Stoics and
Epicureans was partly due to the attempts made by the latter, to
overthrow the established opinions about theology, politics and
metaphysics, and partly to their assertions, that pleasure was not
only the means but the synonyme of happiness, that the virtues are
chosen for the sake of pleasure and not on their own account.*

It does not appear from Lucretius, Diogenes Laertius, or Cicero,
that regard to any happiness but our own was ever inculeated by
the Epicureans, and it is certain that they committed the danger-
ous error of using Greek and Latiu terms for pleasure which have
an extremely sensual signification, hedone being rightly trans-
lated lust in our New Testament, (Titus Iil, 3, James IV, 13,)
and voluptas bemg used in a sense even grosser than that of our
derivative voluptuous. Mr. J. §. Mill does not “‘consider the Hpicu-
reans to have been by any means faultless in drawing out their
scheme of consequences froin the utilitarian principle” (Utilitarian-
ism p. 11;) Professor Bain “* cannot but remark that the title or for-
mula of the theory was ill chosen, and was really a misnomer,”

*See Diogenes Laertius, p. 470—3.

WERE THE STOICS UTILITARIANS? 187

(Moral Science, p. 140.) Bishop Cumberland, one of the earliest
modern advocates of the greatest happiness principle, attacks Kpi-
curus and his followers vigorously, and two of the best known
among the ancient expounders of that principle, Aristotle and
Theophrastus, take similar ground, the former denying that pleasure
is the chief good or synonyme of happiness and warning his disci-
ples against snares, (Hthics I, 9, and X,3,) while the latter speaks so
strongly of the peculiar guilt of sins committed with pleasure, that
his language is quoted with hearty approval by Marcus Aurelius
(Ii, 10.) Weshould not therefore infer that the Stoics were not
Utilitarians, because they opposed Hpicureanism, which system in-
deed had become, before any exposition ot their views now extant
was written, little else than a cloak for indolenee, servility, protl-
gacy, and indifference to the claims of patriotism and philanthropy,
as indeed the lives and writings of the best known of the successors of
Hpicurus prove only too plainly.

Marcus Aurelius, Epictetus and Seneca saw these facts so clearly,
and loved practical morality so faithfully, as often to speak of pleasure
with unqualified aversion. Seneca, however, frequently distinguish-
es the voluptas which is brevis, tenuis, corporalis, vana, nimia,
poenitenda ac in contrarium abitura, from that which is vera, sta-
bilis, naturalis, necessaria, in animo, ete., (De Vita Beata iv, 2; vi,
1; Ep. 18,10: 21, 11; 78, 22;) and Epictetus uses hedone with sim-
ilar caution (Disc. ui, 7.) These two terms are also employed in
some remarkable passages which may be regarded as foreshadowing
the discovery, now the bulwark of utilitarianism, that pains are
the correlatives of actions injurious to the organism, while pleasures
are the correlatives of actions conducive to its welfare. ‘Pleasures
are the incentives to life-supporting acts, and pains the deterrents
from life-destroying acts. (Herbert Spencer’s Psychology, Ed. of
1872, Vol. i, p. 279-284.) With these statements should be care-
fully compared the following:

‘Nature has mingled pleasure with necessary actions, not in or-
der to have us seek after it, but that what we cannot live without
may with this addition, become more attractive.” (Seneca Hp. 116
3.) Pleasure is the companion, though not the leader, of a virtu-
ous will. When virtue leads, pleasure follows like a shadow.” (do,
de Vita Beata, viii, 1 and xiii, 5.) ‘“ Our nature is to be free, noble
and modest. And pleasure should be subjected to these virtues, as

188 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

a servant and assistant, and sustain us in doing what is commanded
by nature.” (Epictetus, Discourses im, 7, 28.) ‘ We do not think
that pleasure is commanded us by ae . but that it is a result of
what is so commanded, namely. justice, temperance, and freedom.”
(do Fragment lu, Didot.)

soe who speak thus cannot be charged with ignoring
the value of pleasure, which indeed they sometimes acknowledge
even more ds

‘Our pleasure is doing good.” (Seneea, De Beneficiis iv, 13, 2.)

* We shall not have any the less pleasure for giving virtue the pre-

oN
cedence, but shall be its masters and governors.” ‘(do De Vita
Beata xiv, 1.) ‘It is a great pleasure for me to think of the charac-
ter of Scipio.” (do Hp. 86,5.) “I permit you to enjoy pleasures,
which will come to you more plentifully if yon rule them than if
you obey them.” (do Ep. 116, 1.)

Usually, however, terms, which denote only mental pleasure,
like gaudium, leetitia and various forms and derivatives of the
verbs chairo and euphraino are preferred, of which common prac-
tice a few instances will be given.

“ He has reached the height of wisdom who knows what to re-
joice in. Learn this, first of all, O Tene (Seneca Ep., 23, 2.)
‘*T am not depriving you of many pleasures” ae ‘but
desiring that joy may never fail you.” (Do. Ep., 23,3.) “ Nothing
which-is not right can please anybody sara (Do. Ep., 20, 5.)
You can see that you are not yet sufficiently wise, for the wise
man is always joyous. Joy belongs to ae alone, and this is the
reason that you should wish for wisdom.” (Do. Ep., 59, see. 2, 14
and 16.) ‘“ The wicked find a fleeting aa eset in what gives the
wise man enduring joy.” (Do. Ep., 59, 24.) “It is right and natu-
al for the good man to be joyful.” (Do. De iis 6.5.) 7% Min=
joy the present and accept all things in their season.” (Epictetus’

night
My Oe

Dise. [V, 4,45.) “ Take continua] pleasure in passing from one
philanthropic action to ae thinking of God.” (Mareus Aure-
lius VI., 7.) ‘* What remains, except to enjoy life by joming one
good thing to another, so as not to leave even the scale interval
between.” (Do., XII, 29. Long. See also VIIT, 26, and X 33.)
The reader may charge the Stoics with self-contradiction in their
language about mental pleasure, but he can find none in their re-
fusal to admit bodily pleasure as a legitimate motive or as any part

WERE THE STOICS UTILITARIANS? 189

of happiness. Here, indeed, they differed from the Epicureans, but
they agreed fully with the keen-signted Peripatetics. The philoso-
phers of both these schools were wise enough to know that the
best way to be happy is to disregard bodily pains and pleasures,
and cultivate ec: kindness of heart, and nobleness of
though. I[é was also characteristic of both Stoics and Peripatetics,
hough no&of the Epicureans, to aim at universal, and not merely
personal happiness, and to believe that virtue should be practised
for its own sake, that is simply on account of its ees with
the laws of nature. Indeed, the Peripateties charged the Stoies
with stealing all their teachings, merely altering the terms, as
thieves do the ear-murks of stolen cattie.*

The position that virtue is su ficient oe happpiness. however, was

7:

further differed from the Peripateties
&

eonfined to the Stoies, who
as did the Epicure sans also, in refusing to accept the judgment of
the wisest as the moral standard, and spa all other ptiloso-
phers. nob only in teaching disinterestedness, but in importing that
regard for all the interests of their race which has Since been called
the enthusiasm of humanity.

Stoicisim is thus seen to have preierred universal to individual
happiness, disregarded bodily pleasures. demurred to accepting even
mental ones as motives. believed in following virtue for her own
sake, and placed morality on a disinterested basis, scarcely any ot
which views would be thought compatible with being utilitarian
by those who, hke Mr. Lecky, consider that term as a synonyme of
selfish. Even he, however, makes some discrimination in favor of
what he calls “the refined sensuality ” of the Mills, Tucker and
Anstin, while Miss Cobbe distinguishes plainly between the two
schools of Private and Public Hudaimonists, as she styles them, in
a description much coufased by her taking, as the representative of
the last named class, Jereny Bentham, who really belongs, with
Paley, the French naturalists of the last century, and the Epicu-
reans, among what we may call the self-regarding or individualistic
Utilitarians, who did not believe in disinterestedness or in caring
for others’ happiness except as a condition of one’s own. No won-
der that Stoicism appeared trash to a man who finaliy discarded
the last four words of his own famous formula, ‘‘ the greatest hap-

* See Ac. Quaest. 115. De Finibus II, 23, 27. ILI, 3. IV, 26, 28: V, 13,
16, 17, 25, 26, 29.

190 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

piness of the greatest number,” and who, if we may trust the Deon-
tology so far, even declared that “‘ A man can no more cast off re-
gard to his own happiness, meaning the happiness of the moment,
than he can cast Off his own skin.”

The progress of psychology is rapidly destroying the arguments
on which these egotists rested, and showing that the real repre-
sentatiyes of Utilitarianism are those who, like Bain, Mill, Spencer
and others of its most recent advocates, plant themselves on disin-
terested social sympathy so firmly, and teach regard to universal
happiness so plainly, that they deserve no worse epithet than that
of humanitarian or philanthropic. Their position is so little un-
derstood, that a few characteristic passages must here be quoted
from the little book, called “ Utilitarianism,” by John Stuart Mill,
published in 1863, and since reprinted among the Dissertations and
Discussions.

‘This it is, which, when once the general happiness is recogniz-
ed as the ethical standard, will constitute the strength ot the utili-
tarian morality. This firm foundation is that of the social feelings
of mankind, the desire to be in unity with our fellow creatures,
&e., (p. 45).

“Rew but those whose mind is a moral blank, could bear to lay
out their course of life on the plan of paying no regard to others
except so far as their own private interests compels” (Do. end ch.
iii., p. 50.) “ The utilitarian standard is not the agent’s own great-
est happiness, but the greatest amount of happiness altogether ”’
(Do. p. 16). The happiness which forms the utilitarian standard
of what is right in conduct, is not the agent’s own happiness, but
that of ail concerned. As between his own happiness and that of
others, utilitarianism requires him to be as strictly impartial as a
disinterested and benevolent specator. In the gelden rule of Jesus
of Nazareth, we read the complete spirit of the ethics of utility,”
(p. 24). “ Utilitarianism could only attain its end by the general
cultivation of nobleness of character” (p. 16). “ It maintains not
only that virtue is to be desired, but that it is to be desired disin-
terestedly, for itself” (p' 53). ‘‘ Readiness to serve the happiness of
others by the absolute sacrifice of his own, is the highest virtue
which can be found in man ” (p. 23), “ Virtue in those who love
t disinterestedly is desired and cherished, not as a means to happi-

WERE THE STOICS UTILITARIANS? 191

ness, but as a part of their happiness” (p. 538-4). “Virtue, above all
things important to the general happiness” (p. 58).

With the above passages should b2 cited these two from the
articles on Comte. “ No one, who understands any morality at all,
would object to the proposition that egoism is bound, and should
always be taught to give way to the well understood interests of
enlarged altruism. It is an error often, but falsely, charged against
the whole class of utilitarian moralists” to require ‘ that the test
of conduct should also be the exclusive motive to it” (p. 125-6 of
the Reprint).

Sir James Mackintosh also maintained (according to Bain’s Moral
Science, p. 264), that ** the utility is the remote and final justifica-
tion of ali actions accounted right, but not the immediate motive
in the mind of the agent.”

These passages give, with but incidental differences, the views
not only of Bain and Spencer, but of Hume, Locke and Cumber-
land, and with these philanthropic utilitarians, the Stoics and Per-
ipatetics would have agreed much more readily than the Hpicure-
ans. ‘The Stoical literature is especially rich in passages honoring
the social feelings and teaching universal philanthropy.

“Nature endears man to man,” (De officiis I. 44.) “ Nothing is
more natural to man than kindness,” (do J, 14,1.) ‘All men are
plainly in union with each other,” (do I, 16, 5.) “Knowledge 1s
empty and isolated, unless accompanied by Jove of all mankind,
and of universal brotherhood,” (do I. 44,8.) ‘The brotherhood of
the whole human race is especially in accordance with nature.”
(do [il. 5, 2.) They say that we should love our fel ow citizens,
but not foreigners, destroy the universal fellowship of mankind,
with which would perish kindness, benovolence and justice,” (do
1il. 6, 6.) “The same law of nature joins us all together,” (do ILI.
6.3) “Care for other men and serve the human brotherhood,”
(do JIL. 12, 7.) ‘‘Nature has inclined us to love our fellow men, and
this is the foundation of the law.” (De Legibus1, 15.) ‘* Nature so
endears us to each other that no man should ever be unfriendly to
another, simply because he is a man,” (De Finibus III. 19.) “Nature
bids us prefer the general advantage to our own; for all the uni-
yerse is one common city of men and gods,” (do do.) ‘ We are im-
pelled by nature to benefit as many people as possible, born for hu-
man brotherhood, and joined together in one great community,”

192 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

(do 20.) “The aim of the Stoic is to be useful. not to himself alone
but to all men, both collectively and individually, (Seneca, De Clem.
Il. 5,3.) “Guard religiously the bond which unites man to man
and establishes the common rights of all the race,” (do ep., 48, 3.)

raphy bilesop ey teaches reverence for the gods and love of man, (do ep.,
90,3.) “This isthe rule of duty. Nature has made us kindred,
implanted in as mutual love, and made us kindly affectioned, so

ful for us to injure than to be injured. She bids

that it is more pain
our heipfui hands be ever ready. Have this verse ever on your lips
and in your heart. ‘lam human, and [think no other maa a
strang ty We are born to live together. Humanity is an areh
which falls unless each part sustaias the rest,” (do ep. 95, 52, 3.)
‘The wise man thinks himself the citizen and soldier of the uni-
verse, and labors as if under orders.” (do ep. 120, 12.) “IT owe
more to the human race than to any individual, (do De Ben., VIL.
19, 9.) **Men by mattis endeared to each other,” (Epictetus Il, 24.
Higginson, p. 266.) ‘“ Man’s nature is to be gentle and sociable,and
to do good,” (do IV. 1, 122, 6.) “U would have death find me doing
something benovelent, public-spirited, noble. (do 1V 10, 12.) “Noth-
a is nobler than magnanimity, meekness, and philanthropy,”

lo Fragment LL.) ‘I would lay aside all self love, (Marcus Au-
oe IL. 5.) “ Rational creatures exist for each other,’ (do IV. 3.)
* The sole fruit of this’earthly life is a pious disposition and philan-
thropie activity, (do VI. 39.) “Oaly what is useful to Rome and
to the universe is useful to me,” (do VL. 44.) “One thing here is of
great worth, to live in fellowship with trath and justice, and yet be
benovelent to Hars and unjust men,” (do VI. 47.) “tis peculiarly
human to love even those who ilo wrong,” (do, Vil. 22.) ‘ Love
mankind,” (do VIL. 31. ‘ Benevolence to our fellow men is peeu-
liarly human,” (VU. 26.) “Itis not fit that I should give my-elf
pain, for I have never given pain intentionally to anyone else,”
(do VILL 42.) “ Among the properties of the rational son! is love
of one’s neighbor,” (do X.1,1.) “Have I done anything for the
general interest? I have had my reward,” (do XI. 4.)

No wonder that J’ S. Mill calls the commentaries of Mareus Au-
relius ‘‘ the highest ethical product of the ancient mind.” Indeed
the writings of these two philosophers are admirably in harmony,
like their lives.

It is true that before the discovery, but little more than a cen-

WERE THE STOICS UTILITARIANS? 193

tury ago, of the doctrine of association of ideas, so liltle was known
of the process by which we rise, from desiring certain qualities, as
means to happiness, to desiring them for their own sake, and rec-
ognizing them as virtuous, that the Stoics were obliged to content
themselves with sometimes enjoining disinterestedness, but not
giving any adequate reason, and sometimes demonstrating the ten-
dency of virtue to produce happiness without showing how knowl-
edge of this is compatible with the duty of being disinterested.
Similar ignorance of the fact, perhaps never yet made sufficiently
prominent, that no happiness can be universal, except that which
consists mostly in the enjoyment of the higher pleasures, because
these are the only ones which can become objects of common de-
sire, without exciting general strife, compelled the defenders of the
Portico to maintain that virtue was the only means of happiness,
though they occasionally admitted that mental pleasure can become
felicity. In the same way their tack of knowledge of the full psy-
chological value of pleasure, as an indication of utility, as well as of
the distinction afterwards made by Mill and Mackintosh, between
taking utility as a test or as a motive, forced them either to deny as
stoutly that it is the best motive as to disparage its value as a test,
or else to use 1: as a test so inconsiderately as almost to sanction it
as a motive. They stated all the facts in turn of the Utilitarian
theory, as held by its most advanced modern advocate, but without
being able to see the relations of these parts so accurately as to
present the whole truth. Their zeal for practical moral culture
and universal progress in virtue was another chief cause of these
inconsistencies, which, indeed, in that age could scarcely be avoided,
except either by the recklessness with which the Epicureans de-
clared pleasure to be the best of motives as well as tests, and even
in its grossest forms the equivalent of happiness, or by the insipid
understatements which prevented the Peripatetics, despite the
consummate genius of their mighty founder, from leaving any deep
imprint, except his own, on either literature or history.

The tact that only one school of ancient philosophy was able to
produce a crowded series of noble patriots and philanthrophists,
among whom Tiberius Gracchus, Cato, Portia, Thrasea, Epictetus,
Dion Chrysostom, the younger Pliny, Trajan, Antoninus Pius, and
Marcus Aurelius are merely the best known instances, shows that

stoicism was able to do the practical work of utilitarianism with a
13 Was

194 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

,
success so peculiar as searcely to be compatible with serious defects
in theory. But these heroes became martyrs so commonly, and
uniformly struggled agamst tyranny and profligacy with such self-
denial and self-devotion, as necessarily gave the Stoics a peculiar
tendency to asceticism, which, indeed, never hindered their being
studious, patriotic and philanthropic beyond comparison, but which
often prevented them from weighing the worth of pleasure with
scientific accuracy.

Of these struggles and martyrdoms, Mr. Lecky has given us so
beautiful, and, despite mistakes, like calling Brutus a Stoic,so val-
uabie a narrative in his History of European Morals, that it is all
the more remarkable that he did not see how completely he has
answered his own arguments against the value of utilitarianism,
which fill a large part of his first volume, by showing, in the re-
muinder of it, what a noble work was done by the obnoxious
theory, in the ethical elevation and influence of the most zealous
of its ancient advocates. Failure to see the resemblance of stoic-
ista to utilitarianismis, however, to be expected from a writer who
so far ignored the position of Mill, Bain, and Spencer, as to call
the system, of which they were the leading expositors, selfish.
And this failure was much more excusable in works written, like
Miss Cobbe’s essay on Intuitive Morals, before the broad school of
happiness moralists had gained its present prominence. How early
in life J. 8. Mill accepted Hpicurus as the first utilitarian in pre-
ference even to Aristotle, we need not inquire, nor how far this
view was imbibed from Jeremy Bentham.

The common misunderstanding of the true relationship of the
Stoies has been much promoted, among other causes, by the fact
that, like other ancient philosophers, they paid such regard to what
they called Nature, as to satisty themselves with appealing to her
fancied authority instead of pushing derivative analysis to the last
results. Hvidence has, however, already been offered to prove that
in following Nature the Stoies not only conformed to the principal
precepts of the most enlightened Utilitarians, but even used their
method, so far as to call only useful qualities and actions natural,
a term by which, indeed, they meant little more than that the origin
of the claims of utility was a sacred mystery. Indeed, modern
science has been obliged to exert all her powers in order to solve
this mystery so far as to show that the enlargement and ennoble-

’

WERE THE STOICS UTILITARIANS ? 195

ment of human happiness is the realization of all our finest im-
pulses, dearest wishes and highest hopes.

Ancient philosophers, however, were so blinded by this illusion,
as Well as so ignorant of the real value of pleasure, that perhaps
none of them can, in strictness, be called utilitarian, and it is

“searcely worth our while to consider whether the title of founder
of the greatest happiness theory should be given, on acount of pri-
ority of time, to Aristotle, rather than to either EKpicurus or Zeno,
or whether his claim also should yield to that of Socrates, whose
regard for utility appears in many passages of the Memorabilia.

It is enough to say that the Stoics, despite their noble inconsist-
ences, maintained the most important principles of Utilitarianism
in such purity and power, that they must hold the highest place
among its forerunners, if not among its originators. Recognition
of this fact would not only encourage the use of their writings as
introductions, and even in some respects as supplements to those
of Mill and Spencer, but would help us value justly the system of
philanthropic Utilitarianism by showing how much was done for
moral culture by one of its rudimentary forms.

196 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

AN EXAMINATION OF PROF. 5. H. CARPENTER’S POSI-
TION IN REGARD TO EVOLUTION.

BY HERBERT P. HUBBELL, WINONA, MINN.

If we were called upon to define the position oceupied by Dr.
Carpenter, in his paper before the February meeting of the Acade-
my of Seience, Arts and Latters, we should say that he was an Evo-
lutionist bub not a Darwinian.

To make this distinction plain, and to show more clearly his po-
sition, we should say that an eyolutionist, as generally understood,
is one- who believes in evolution as taught by Spencer; that is to
say, that matter, inorganic and organic, has arrived at its present
degree of complexity by evolution from a simple state through a
series of differentiations governed by some unknown law. That
countless facts in nature substantiate this position, and that whilst
recognizing the present state of nature as forming one extreme of
the series, it finds, at present at least, in nebulous matter the other
extreme.

Starting as it does with matter in its highest state of complexity it
pursues it, by a process of strict inductive reasoning through its ever-
varying phases of decreasing complexity until the mind loses itself in
an an illimitable expanse of nebulous matter. Darwinism is an at-
tempt to show that in so far as organic nature is concerned, evolution
is dependent upon some occult law of generation co-operating with
those conditions in nature necessary toits developmen. Evolution
and Darwinianism, then, are in one sense materialistic; they deal
wholly with the facts of nature and look to material causes to pro-
duce material effects. But Dr. Carpenter does not de this.
Though he believes that in nature there is an evolution of matter,
the recognition of this fact does not suffice: he goes beyond matter,
beyond its nebulous state and finds there 1 Supreme Intelligence
‘¢ which is the highest generalization of which matter and mind are
capable of.” This Intelligence, like all intelligences, must be, and
is, governed by the laws of rationality, and must in its mental ac-

EXAMINATION OF PROF. CARPENTERS EVOLUTION. 197

tion, proceed either inductively or deductively. Constituting as it
does the highest generalization, it is debarred from mental activity
in the énductive direction, and is, consequently, obliged to manifest
itself deductively. But mind is subjective. 1t can only manifest
itself objectively, and hence, nvitter is such objective manifestation.
Matter, therefore, on this hypothesis becomes nothing
but the symbol of thought. The Supreme mind man-
festing itself according to deductive laws proceeds in a series from
the simple to the complex. Hence, matter symbolizing this thought
will proceed in the same manner. Differentiations then in matter
are not due to generative forces residing in “the organism but to
thought existing in the supreme mind. And thus it is that Dr.
Carpenter is an Evolulionist but not a Darwinian.

The key-stone of Dr. Carpenter’s logic is found in a Supreme In-
telligence,—not the Supreme Intelligence as generally conceived,
but as specially conceived by men, that is to say, as being the high-
est possible generalization—as governed by the same rational laws
that govern us—and as manifesting his thoughts in material forms.
It is evident that the surest way to weaken this logical structure will
be to weaken this conception.

Let us grant that the mind must proceed either deductively or
inductively, the question arises which process has precedence.
Is it possible to reason deductively before we have inductively
arrived at our deductive stand point, or to reason inductively be-
fore we have deductively reached our induction stand point?
or in other words do we reason naturally from the particular to the -
general or from the general to the particular? A moments consid-
eration will inform us that before we can reason deductively, we
must have reasoned inductively. The growth of the child’s mind
is the natural growth, and it is from the individual to the general.
The individual facts begiu to form into groups of animate and in-
animate, and these into subordinate groups, and these into others;
there is in fact a constant sinking of individual characteristics into
those that are specific, and of these latter into those that are gen-
eric, and of these into broader divisions, and thus, step by step,
the highesé generalization of which matter is capable is reached,
which is, as Dr. Carpenter truly says, the highest knowledge. No
deductive standpoint, therefore, can be reached save only through
induction; but once attained through the instrumentality of a few
facts, we may use the deductive method to discover the many.

198 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

_ “Comp*ete generalization is complete knowledge” not because
the generalization contains the potential attributes necessary to
constitute individualities, but because it is the generaliza-
tion stripped of its individualizing attributes. The indi-
vidual must exist before the genus, there can be no generaliza-
tion unless there be a preceding individualization. The individ-
ual is lost in the species, the species in the genus, the genus in the
order, the order in the class, and the class in the kingdom. The
two kingdoms, vegetable and animal, have properties in common
which classify them as organic. Organic and inorganic bedies hav®
elements in common which unite them under the head of matter.
Matter has weight and density and dimension; if we rise in our
generalization we must in some measure eliminate these properties
these individualities. In order to do this we conceive of matter
reduced to a state of the greatest rarity—as filling all space—as be-
ing, in fact, a homogeneous, illimitabie, imponderable. chaotic mass.
But let our conceptions be at their best we must still think of mat-
ter as having limits, elements and adegree of density. Our high-
est generalization is reached when we think of matter as existing

in this nebulous state.

Now, conceive a Supreme Intelligence, and what is the effect in
ourmind? Immediately, our conceptions from being most indis-
tinct and general, are concentrated upon one object having many
attributes. For we cannot think of intelligence apart from mind,
of mind apart from body, of body apart from members and of mem-
bers apart from functions. In what sense then can the Supreme
Intelligence be considered the * highest generalization,” surely not
in a logical one, for instead of widening our generalization it nar-
rows it. Following the strict rules of inductive reasoning we must
stop with nebulous matter. A Supreme Intelligence is not a higher
generalization. Ifsought by reason at all it must be teleologically
and not by the rules of induction.

Assuming, however, that the Supreme Intelligence exists and that
it is absolutely the highest generalizatiou possible, are we to con-
sider it as a generalization containing potential individualizations,
or as a generalization stripped of its individualizing attributes? It
is evident from Dr. Carpenter’s reasoning that he considers it the
former, whereas, if it could be reached by a process of inductive
reasoning, as he assumes, it is equally evident that it would be the

EXAMINATION OF PROF. CARPENTER’S EVOLUTION. 199

latter. Can we conceive of a Supreme intelligence as being sub-
ject to the laws of mental growth—of beiug wiser to-day than yes-
terday? Is not the wisdom infinite, and the same yesterday, to-day.
and forever? How then can we conceive of potentialities? Or on
the other hand can we think of any attributes which could be
added to it? Is net the Divine mind perfect in all things so far as
our conceptions go? How, then, if we can conceive of nothing
which can be added to it, can we conceive of it as existing stripped
- of attributes? The Supreme Intelligence is not a generalization,
but is, on the contrary, so to speak, @ strongly individualized human
intelligence. Vivery mental faculty which we possess we conceive
as being held by the Divine Mind in a perfected state. Wisdom,
knowledge, justice, in infinite c.mpleteness go to make up our con-
ception of God. If we increase in wisdom, knowledge and justice,
we advance towards him; thats to say, the more strongly individu-
alized our minds become, the nearer do we approach in likeness
unto God. But if God were the “highest generalization” the
more individualized we became the farther would we be from Him,
and this is doubtless a result which Dr. Carpenter would be among
the last to desire.

“Tf the Supreme Intelligence is to communicate with man,”
says Dr. Carpenter, “it must be in obedience to the laws which con-
trol onr mental activities. The divine thought must then, like
human conceptions, be communicated by means of physical sym-
bols.” The error, (for we think there is one.) which lurks in this
assumption is the error of all theologians, and forms the basis of
all their reasonings and of all their conceptions; viz: That man is
the object of creation—the end sought through the formation of mat-
ter, and that the Supreme Intelligence is desirous of conveying his
thoughts to the consciousness of man. Dr. Carpenter had just been
speaking of the purely subjective nature of the conceptions of the
artists, and that it was necessary before those conceptions could be
communicated to others, that they should, through the instrumen-
tality of the canvas or the marble, seek an objective expression, and
to follow this remark with-that above quoted is to place the Sup-
preme Intelligence in the artist’s position with conceptions to com-
municate, and implies, before they can be communicated, an object-
ive medium and another consciousness to which the communication
is to be made. If man is the highest product of matter—of creative

200 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

forces—and if we assume a Supreme Intelligence, then the object
of creation, if discoverable at all, is discoverable by man, or at least
it is complete in him. But if, taking the other view, we look upon
man as but a link in the chain of being—if we conceive of the
forces of nature which in the past have evolved a higher type of
matter as working for the same end to-day, our thoughts cease to
dwell upon the present, and project themselves into a distant, but
ever-perfecting future. The imperfections which surround us and
which are the stumbling-blocks in the way to our conception of a
perfect God, fade out, in the evolving ages, and the mind rests in
the thought of a coming time when the divine idea shall be accom-
plished and when the mysteries which now shroud all things shall
have passed away and the “ glory of the Lord” shall be revealed.

Prof. Carpenter admits an evoiucion of matter; he even admits that
man is the highest product of evolution; he believes that the su-
preme intelligence existed alone in his own consciousness, and that
before he could exist in any other consciousness he must seek an
objective material medium through which to express himself. If
the supreme intelligence is purely subjective, as Dr. Carpenter
claims, then anything external to and apart from that intelligence
must be objective. Man, then, whether considered as matter or
mind, is objective. The object of creation, according to Dr. Car-
penter, is to communicate subjectivity to subjectivity through ob-
jectivity, or in other words the divine conceptions to consciousness
through matter. But human consciousness, as we have just seen,
is objective to the divine consciousness; hence, the object of crea-
tion is not to communicate subjectivity to subjectivity, but subjec-
tivity to objectivity through objectivity, which is nothing more
than saying that man is but one of the nicer touches from the hand
of the painter; one of the finishing strokes from the hand of the
sculptor; one of the pages from the book of the thinker. God is
the artist, the universe, the canvas, and man but a pigment which,
with other material, goes to further the divine conception.

If matter is objective and the expression of thought, then man,
being matter, is objective and an expression of thought. If he is
an expression of thought he stands in the same relation to the su-
preme intelligence that any expression of thought stands. Every
ovject in nature, on Dr. Carpenter’s hypothesis, is an expression of
thought. Man, then, bears to the supreme intelligence the same

EXAMINATION OF PROF. CARPENTERS EVOLUTION. 201

relation that any animal or any plant bears. That relation is
inscrutible, aud so is the relation of man.

We believe in a Supreme Intelligence, and we believe in Hvolu-
tion. We also believe that evolution in nature exists because the
Supreme Intelligence has willed that it should exist; but we can-
not believe with Dr. Carpenter that it exists, because there was no
other way by which the Supreme Intelligence could manifest itself.
For this would be to prescribe bounds for that which is infinite. It
is true that we cannot think of God asa rational being without
thinking of him as governed by the laws of rationality, nor can we
think of Him as a just God, without being governed by the laws of
justice, nor can we think of Him as possessing any mental! attribute
without thinking of the law governing the manifestation of it. Yet
these conceptions of God ,are but human, they are efforts of the
finite to measure the Infinite, and taking them at their best, our
reason tells us that they fall far short of God himself. It is true
that in nature there is such an orderly sequence of events, that in
recognizing it, we call it law, but to say that this law-exists because
God designed it, and to say that it exists. becanse a rational God
cannot manifest himself in any other way, are two very different
things. Nor can we see, if the Supreme Intelligence is governed
by the law of rationality, and if it manifest itself in material form,
why there should be such enormous interyals of time between the
different steps in the divine consciousness as is evidenced by the
physical symbols. For if evolution in matter is but the reflection
of evolution in the Divine mind, as Dr. Carpenter teaches, then ev-
olution in both is simultaneous. There could, consequently, have
been no conception of man in the Divine consciousness before his
advent physically—for his advent physically is but the reflection of
an evolved conecpt in the Divine mind. There could, therefore,
have been no plan of creation embracing man, for man is the last of
the series—is the complex as opposed to the simple—the particular
as opposed to the general. But the last term in a deductive series
must be reached by the law of rationality, that is to say, it must be
derived from the first term by a differentiating process, consisting
in the addition af attributes not found in the preceding terms. Ac-
cording to Dr. Carpenter, if man had been conceived by the Divine
consciousness it must have been by some rational process and such
process would have been immediately symbolized in matter. But

202 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

because it was not thus symbolfzed we are bound to believe that no
conception of man existed in the Divine mind until the time of his
physical advent.

But we cannot assent to this conclusion; we prefer to believe
that before the nebulous mist arose, there existed in the Divine
Consciousness a perfect conception of creation—the end to be com-
passed, and the means to accomplish it. That when the fiat went
forth, matter became endowed with certain principles which, act-
ing constantly and uniformly, have evolved the countless forms
that people the universe; and that they will continue to be evolved
until the divine conception is wrought out. We recognize the ge-
netic force as one of those principle; we recognize the tendency of
organisms occasionally to depart slightly from their parent forms
as the natural result of this principle; we can believe a departure
from this departure as natural; and if we recognize two variations,
we can recognize a third—a fourth—and any number. We can
conceive it possible that a departure, and a continnal redeparture
from the parent form might give rise to varieties so different as to
be classed as species; we can conceive of species varying to such a
degree as to constitute genera; and we can conceive of this “ func-
tional impulse” working through countless ages with ever varying
effects, as redounding more to the wisdom and glory of God than
any number of successive creations, be they of the nature of dis-
tinct fiats, or the symbols of evolution in the Divine Conscious-
ness.

SECTION OF THE

Mathematical and Physt-
Cal SCLeTLces.

TITLE OF PAPER READ BEFORE THIS SECTION

Recent Progress in Theoretical Physics. By John E. Davies, A. M., M. D.
Professor of Physics in the University of Wisconsin.

RECENT PROGRESS IN THEORETICAL PHYSICS. - 205

RECENT PROGRESS IN THEORETICAL PHYSICS.

BY JOHN E. DAVIES, A. M., M. D.,

Professor of Physics in the University of Wisconsin.

The present paper is the first of a series intended to give, in a
collected and condensed form, the results of recent theoretical ad-
vances in the Physical Sciences. The researches by which these
advances have been made are partly experimental and partly math-
ematical. Some of them are most lucidly presented by Prof. P. G.
Tait in his ‘Recent Advances in Physical Science,” while those which
I skall present are only briefly mentioned by him, or else are omit-
ted altogether. Prof. Tait, however, alludes to those which he
does mention, in such terms as to imply that he regards them,
nevertheless, as of the greatest importance, and te be omitted
chiefly on account of want of time.

A complete review of these researches would include Clausius'’
remarkable theorems upon the mechanics of a great number of
molecules, and Boltzmann’s results in the same direction, together
with their application to the theory of heat; the studies of Helmholtz
and Thompson upon the vortex motion of fluids and their analogues
among magnetic forces and electric currents; Thompson's ex-
planation of the magnetic rotation of the plane of polarization
of circularly polarized light, first experimentally shown by Fara-
day; the experimental researches of Jamin, Rowland, Stoletow,
Bouty, and others, in magnetism; Rankine’s hypothesis of molecu-
lar vortices; Clerk Maxwell’s wonderful electro-magnetic theory
of light, with the experimental researches thereon by Boltzmann
and others; the explanation of anomalous dispersion by Ketteler
of Bonn; the mathematical relations of vibratory and translatory
motions in fluids, by Challis; the explanation of the blue color
and polarization of the sky by Lord Rayleigh; as also his remarka-
ble results upon Resonance and Sound generally; the mathe-

206 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

matico-physical discoveries of Kirchoff; the Kinetic Theory ot
Diffusion, Conduction and Radiation by Maxwell; the thermo-
electrical researches of ‘Tait; and many other researches as well,
all tending to the simplification and unity of the Physical Sciences,
by showing a probable similarity or identity of cause for the most
diverse phenomena.

In the present paper I shall merely begin with certain remarika-
ble relations between the formule of electro-magnetism and those
of fluid motion, first pointed out, so far as I know, by Helmholtz.*

VORTEX MOTION.

In magnetism we have the following formula for the value of V
the SCALAR POTENTIAL of a magnet of finite dimensions

Dene O 9
VaSf GIS4AS Sf dadyde A.
x,y, and z, being the coordinates of any point of the magnetic

mass,
6, being what is called the surface density of the mag-
netic matter, and,
9, the volume density of the same.

The surface density 6, is the resolved part of the intensity of
magnetization in the direction of anormal to the surface of the
magnet, and the volume-density 9, is what Maxwell has designated
as the ‘‘ convergence ” of the magnetization at a given point within
the magnet.

This expression for V is similar to that for the electric potential
at any point, due to the electrification of a body on whose surface
there is electricity of density 6, and within its substance a bodily
electrification whose density is 9. In both cases, V satisfies La-
place’s equation for points outside of the electrical or magnetic
mass, and Poisson’s equation for points inside of the same. That
is, for the first case,

CV eV, eV 2

de! apt dz

* In the paper as read before the Academy, a somewhat complete synopsis was
given of Thompson’s explanation of Faraday’ 3 experiment on the Magnetic Rotation
of Polarized Light; of Clerk Maxwell’s Electro- -magnetic Theory of. Light; and of
the Hypothesis of Molecular Vortices. Many points, also, only briefly summar-
ized in this printed paper were elaborated by oral explanations and diagrams, and
the terms used in the paper were for the most part carefully defined.

RECENT PROGRESS IN THEORHTICAL PHYSICS. 207

and, for the second case,

= — 4tn*9 C.
The ordinary magnetic and electric forces are derived from these
potentials by the application of Hamilton’s operator,

5 @! NG d
== k 2
Vise pa au! ap =

a

that is, to find the magnetic or electrical attraction or repulsion
along a line, we take the differential coefficient of the potential
(magnetic or electrical) with reference to the direction of that line.
For ordinary magnets the potential V,is single-valued for any

given point of space; for electro-magnets V is many-valued like
—ly

tan having, in fact, an infinite series of values at any given

point; these values differing by 4n*? where? is the intensity, or
strength of the electric current in the electro-magnetic wire.

Carefully to be distinguished from V is another quantity, which.
in the case of solenoidal distributions of magnetism at least, also
fulfills Laplace’s Equation. This quantity may be designated by I.

Lis a quantity so related to the magnetization that, calling the
components of the latter in three directions at right angles to each
other, A, B, and C, we have

ReaD Bay all nal D.
A “Ge” B dy .

I, which determines the magnetization (not the magnetic force )
at any point, is called the Potential of Magnetization.
i» But, besides the scanar (or non-directed) POTENTIAL, V. and the
Potential of Magnetization, I, mentioned above, we have, when con-
sidering not only the magnetic force but likewise also the magnetic
induction, a VECTOR (or directed) POTENTIAL. The magnetic znduction
is derived from this VECTOR POTENTIAL in a precisely similar man-
ner to the derivation of the magnetic force from the SCALAR PO-
TENTIAL, namely: by the application of Hamilton’s operator Vy,

If three quantities /’, G, and H, be regarded as the components,
in three directions, at right angles to each other, of the scalar

*Qwing to the want of Greek type the printer has placed this letter n to represent 3.1416
the ratio of the circumference ofa circle to its diameter.

203 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.
potential V, then these quantities wili satisfy the following con-
ditions:

dH aG dF di dG dF
dx ‘ay

=(. &£.

But if /, G, H, be taken to represent the components of the
vector-potential, they will satisfy the conditions

GBEE NV GON vo oe a dr all fe ge dG dF
dy dz ; dz dx ; dz dy

where a, b, c, are the components of the magnetic induction.
In words, the line integral of the vector-potential round a closed
curve representing any circuit, is numerically equal to the surface-
integral of the magnetic induction over a surface, bounded by the
curve representing the circuit.

We have also, if a, b, ¢, represent components of magnetic force,
and u,v, w, components of electric current,

a de db

4n*u = dy a

; da de

2,

4n*v = om : G.

db da

Si a END ied

Am *y = Te a

as the equations of electric currents: or, in words, the line-integral
of magnetic force round aclosed curve is numerically equal to the
current through the closed curve multiplied by 4*.

The values of I’, G, H, are also given by the following equations

i
1
Gaff f — dz dy dz H.

1 w
Haff f — % dy dz

where xu is the quantity known as the specific inductive capacity of
a medium. or its permeahility to mugnetic lines of force.

*The letter m is put for 3.1416.

RECENT PROGRESS IN THEORETICAL PHYSICS. 209

The components of the vector-potential are related to those of
the sealar- potential as follows:

ET Gan dV
dy dz dz
dF ad dV
2a8 aia a I
dz dx dy
qaG dF VG
dz dy Raa cae i

a, b, ¢, being as before the components of magnetic force, derived
from the scalar-potential V by differentiation along LY, 2

The components of the electric current, w, v,w, are known to
satisfy the condition

The components of magnetic induction a, b, ¢, also satisfy asim-
ilar equation

On a careful study of these formule, which have been deduced
for the potentials and forces of ordinary magnets and electro-
magnets, we are impressed with their similarity to the formule that
express the ordinary motions of an incompressible frictionless fluid.
For example, in fluid motion, where w, v, and 1, represent the
component velocities of an élement of he fluid in Gr ree rectangu-
lar directions, and D represents the density of the fluid, we have
the following so-called ‘“‘ Equation of Continuity” of the fluid:

Gap eh) Gl 10) dD , J.

feds
Digt Bra jtete We v5 oe =0.

This equation is proven for ordinary motions of fluids, in all
works upon the dynamics of fluids. It is merely an analytical
statement that in all motions of fluids, however they may expand
or contract, and move about in currents or otherwise, there is no
change in the mass of the fluid caused by such motions. If the
fluid be incompressible, there can also be no variation in its

14——_w AB

210 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

density, caused either by its own motions or by the lapse of time.
Then, the total differential of D in the preceding equation, will be
zero, and there will be left

du dv dw te K.

dx dig eda: ees
which is the simplified form of the ‘equation of continuity” for in-
incompressible fluids. KHquation (K), is an equation of condition
which all incompressible fluids are required to fulfill.
If u, v, w, be made to depend upon the variations of a quantity
Q, such that

aQ d@ ae 0,

PTE Mag eos altuna 2 Waa
we may call Q the velocity potential of the velocities wu, v, and w; be-
cause it is a quantity the first differential co-efficient of which along
a line, x, y, or 2, gives the velocity of the fluid along that line. This
quantity Y, must, in incompressible fluids, which, since w, v, w, as
has been said, satisfy Equation (K), therefore also give

2 2 2
ds2 dy2 dz2 ;

or, in other words, like the scalar magnetic and electric potential
V,or the potential of magnetization I,it must satisfy Laplace’s
equation.

Returning to magnets, and electro-magnets, we have seen that
the general expression for the value of the potential of any magnet
of finite dimensions, at any point in space whose co-ordinates are
x’, y’, 2’, is, designating the potential by V,

Vi = Sf 2a 84 Pacayaz

where the surface part of the integral extends over the whole sur-
face of the magnet, designated by S, and the solid part of it (every
element of which =dz, dy, dz) extends to all portions within the
surface.
r= the distance from the magnet to the point, x’, y’, 2’, where
the value of VF is taken;
I[=l1A+ mB + nC i. e., the intensity of magnetization normal to
the surface of the magnet; because

RECENT PROGRESS IN THEORETICAL PHYSICS. 211

A, B, and C, represent the intensities of the magnetization, along
the three co-ordinate axes; and

l,m, n, are the direction-cosines with reference to these axes, of.
anormal to the surface.

6 is often called, as was said betore, the surface-density of the
magnetic matter; and

9=interior-density of magnetic matter;—9 is also

@A @B dC
See ay ae 0,

when the magnetization is solenoidal.
Now, since A, B, C, are the components of the magnetization of the
magnet, if we take a quantity J such that

dl dl dl
—— : n= JR 8 —— = (CO).
dx # dy

then, also, as was said before, I may be called the potential of mag-

netization, and it is evident that when the magnetization is sole-

noidal, we shali here also have the condition
(a a
dx? ' dy?" dz? —

as in the case given above, [Hquation (M)], of the velocity potential

of fluid flow.

Hence the velocities «, v, w, in the case of fluid flow in incompres-
sible fluids, are the analogues of the electric and magnetic
forces in free space, and of the components of magnetization in the
case of solenoidal magnets. At least, all three sets of quantities
are subject to the same analytical conditions. I the Potential of
Magnetization gives,

Ul Soe
dx2 dy2 dz

N.

Q, the Velocity Potential of an incompressible fluid, gives

HQ PQ ql a2O Vn.
dz? ee dy? a az 9.

V, the electric potential gives
dV , d#V, d?V
aa" age ae — ©
In magnetic and electric distributions, the rate at which V varies
along a line, determines the electric or magnetic force in free space
along that line.

J12 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

In magnetization, the rate at which I varies along a line, determ-
ines the intensity of the magnetization, at any given point
within the magnet, in the direction of that line.

In fluid motion, the rate at which Q varies along a line, determ-
ines the velocity of the fluid, at any given point, in the direction
of that line.

In the case of ordinary fluid motion, moreover, if the conditions

d¢ d d
Fi paige penne. pees. O
Ep dz

an. had uin Vn diei dies dg ines yh da ae ee
as 1s well known.

We have seen [| Eqs. (D) and (E] that precisely similar conditions
obtain in the case cf ordinary distributions of electricity and mag-
netism, so long as we confine ourselves to the space outside of that
which contains the so-called magnetic or electric matter.

The motions of fluids heretofore discussed in treatises on the
dynamics of fluids are such as fulfill the conditions imposed by
equations (O) and(P.) They are motions of translation, or of expansion
and contraction; oscillatory movements being merely periodic
movements of translation, of greater or less extent. All such mo-
tions have assumed for them a velocity potential, the differential coef-
ficients of which with reference to the coordinates, are the com-
ponent velocities of the fluid in the direction of the zoordinates.

The assumption of a velocity potential necessitates the set of
conditions given above in equations (OQ) and (P.)

But Helmholtz in a remarkable memoir on “ Integrals Express-
ing Vortex Motion” to be found translated by Prof. Tait, in the
Philosophical Mag., for 1887, has shown that these conditions do not
hold if there be some of the elements of the fluid in rotation. In such
cases if w', w”, w*, represent the angular velocities of the rotating
fluid element about the coordinate axes, then we have

du au, ae A

i 2w

dw du

dz dz 0 Q
dv d

— — — = Dy}

RECENT PROGRESS IN THEORETICAL PHYSICS. 213

For these cases there is no velocity potential. ‘It is only when
there is no velocity potential that some fluid elements can rotate
and that others can move round along a closed curve in a simply-
connected space.”

Helmholtz calls the motions that have no velocity potential,
generally, vortex motions.

He shows that in a frictionless fluid, these vortices when once
instituted in the fluid, have a wonderful tenacity of existence;
that they may go on widening, changing their form under
the influence of other vortices, moving about, attracting and re-
pelling each other in consequence of combining their motions; and
that they may play amongst themselves all sorts of fantastic eames,
yet preserve unchanged their identity and living force (i. e. their
kinetic energy) so as to be the very types of the unchanging atoms
of matter, which are never destroyed.

One simple instance of Helmholtz’ results I will state, to make
the matter plain. If there be, for example, a single circular vortex
ring set up in an indefinitely extended fluid, the center of gravity of
the section of the ring (section supposed small) will have from the
commencement an approximately constant and very great velocity
parallel to the axis of the ring, and this will be directed toward
the side to which the fluid flows through the ring.

Two ring-formed vortex-filaments having the same axis would
mutually affect each other, since each, in addition to its own proper
motion has that of its elements of fluid as produced by the other.
If they have the same direction of rotation, they travel in the same
direction; the foremost ring widens and travels more slowly, the
pursuer shrinks and travels faster, till finally, if their velocities are
not too different, it overtakes the first and penetrates it. Then the
same game goes on in the opposite order, so that the rings pass
through each other alternately. If they have equal radii and equal
and opposite angular velocities, they will approach each other and
widen oue another. So also one will widen on coming to a fixed
wall. ‘The motions of circular vortex rings can be studied by
drawing rapidly for a short space along the surface of a fluid a
half immersed circular disk, or the nearly semi-circular point of a
spoon, and quickly withdrawing it. There remain in the fluid
half-vortex rings whose axis isin the free surface. These vortex
rings travel and widen when they come to a wall, and are widened

214 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

or contracted by other vortex rings exactly as deduced from
theory.”*

In this memoir it is also demonstrated that the product of the ve-
locity of rotation into the cross section of a vortex-filament is constant
throughout the whole length of the filament. Moreover, that a
vortex-filament can never end within a fluid, but must either re-
turn ring shaped into itself within the fluid, or reach to the bound-
aries of the fluid.

Precisely similar theorems had been announced by Sir Wm.
Thompson in a paper on the Mathematical Theory of Electro-
Magnetism in 1847. Thompson, in this paper, designates the
strength of an electric current by ({, and then says: “In a con-
tinuous current this quantity is of course the same for every section;
and, as it is impossible that a continuons stream of electricity can
emanate from one body, and be discharged into another, the current
must be 7¢e-entering, or every continuous current must form what
is called ‘*a closed circuit.” It is found by experiment that what-
ever be the dimensions or material of the different parts of the
conductor along which the current flows, provided always the di-
mensions of the section be sma!l compared with the distances
through which the electro-magnetic action is observed, the quan-
tity ( has the same value for all parts of it; and even in the
places where the electro-motive force operates, as has been shown
by Faraday, as in the liquid of any ordinary galvanic battery, or
in a conductor in motion in the neighborhood of a magnet, the
electro-magnetic effects are observable, and, probably to exactly the
same degree; so that it would probably be found that a galvanic
circuit, consisting of a battery of small cells, arranged in a cireu-
Jar arc, and a wire completing the circuit by joining the poles,
would produce the same electro-magnetic effects at all points sym-
metrically situated with reference to the circle, irrespectively of the
part of the circuit, wnether the cells or the wire; provided always,
that the distanees considered be great, compared with either the
dimensions of a,section of the wire, or of any of the cells made by
planes perpendicular to the plane of the circle, through its cen ter.”’

* Professor Tait’s book on ‘‘ The Recent Advances in Physical Science’? has two
figures, one showing how these vortex rings can be produced, and the other what
he direztions of rotation anl move n2at will be in a ring once formal.

+ See Thompson’s ‘‘ Reprint of Papers on Electro-Statics and Magnetism’’—p.
409 et seq.

{For current strength Thompson uses the Greek letter gamma.

RECENT PROGRESS IN THEORETICAL PHYSICS. 215

The precise character of the movement within the wire, is also
shown to be entirely irrelevant in this estimate of the current
strength. For “in the theory of electro-magnetism it is unnecessary
to adopt any such hypothesis as this [ that the electric current consists
of matter flowing, | however probable or improbable it may be as an
ulterior theory; and all that we could introduce as depending up-
on it is that, for a linear circuit of varying section or material, the
quantity () is the same throughout the circuit, and that all finite
circuits possessing continuous currents are necessarily closed; two
facts which cannot be assumed a priori, but which are in reality
established by satisfactory experimental evidence.’’*

{, the current strength here alluded to, is the product of the so
ealled intensity of the current, into the area of the cross-section of
the conductor. It may be measured of course by the work it will
do in a definite time, either as electrolysis, heat, or other form of
work. Helmholtz’ angular velocity of the vortex-filament in a
fluid, affords a means of forming a mental conception of intensity
of current, in electricity. by assimilating it to the rotatory energy
in a vortex-filament, which is far superior to any of the illustra-
tions ordinarily used; and this without in any way necessarily
implying that the electric current actually involves such rotating
elements, although this may really be.

As a linear electro-magnet is com pletely specified when the form
of the closed curve of the current, and , the strength, are given;
so also a vortex filament is completely specified when the form of
its axis and the product of its angular velocity into the area of its
cross section are given.

In electro-magnetism we have 7A=7'A’ for the same circuit. In
vortex filaments qA=q'A' for the same filament; g being the an-
gular velocity; A, A,’ areas of cross sections; 7,2’, current intensi-
ties. In electricity, magnets are known to circulate around cur-
rent-conducting wires, and wires reciprocally around magnets. In
fluids, vortex-filaments that are straight circulate around each other
and their mutual center of gravity; vortex filaments that are cir-
cular also revolve around each other, as is shown by the peculiar
action described above where the rings alternately pass through
each other, by contracting and accelerating their speed, and then wid-
ening and moving slower, while the one following contracts and
passes throngh in turn.

* Reprint—p. 410

216 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

Helmholtz further shows, in the memoir above alluded to, how
to find the velocities, w, v, w, of any portion or element of the fluid
when we know w’, w’, w*, the angular velocities of a vortex-fila-
ment established in it, by the following method:

Let there be given within a mass of fluid which includes the
space §, the values of w’, w’, w*, satisfying the “equation of conti-
nuity ”

dw} dw2 dw
a =e a ail: (1)

Also, u, v, and 2, must satisfy a similar equation,

du dv dw és
Wea dy dee (2)

And likewise also, these conditions,

dv dw j dw du cares du dita aut
SSS SE dye tute (ae (3)

== 74!

dz Per idipena 2? ide dz

The conditions for the bounding surface S are supposed to be
given according to the particular problem. a, b, c, can be taken as
the three angles made with a normal to the surface S; q as the re-
sultant angular velocity of the three components ww’, w*, w®; 7, the
angle between the normalsto the surface S and the axis of the ro-
tating filament; then we shall have

wl cos a + w? cos b + w cos c = q cos. T= 0.

over the whole of this surface S, or if this surface S cuts any of
he vortex-filaments, over the whole of some larger surface S', which
includes all the filaments, and their continuations, if there be any»
in the first surface S.

Now we can find values of w, v, and w, satisfying equations (2)

and (8), if

ge ec ec (4)

RECENT PROGRESS IN THEORETICAL PHYSICS. DT

and if the functions L, MW, N, and P, be taken so as to satisfy also
within the larger space 8’, the couditions

7L Ly 2L

il
du? a dy? a dz= ~~ aw
d?M d? AL d?M a
=v gp oo te
(5)

aN dN d2N 2
— ZW

dx? a dy? a dz? 2

@P @P a2P
aah Srey an ap
dx dy dz

The analogy of these equations (5) to Poisson’s equation (C) is at
once apparent if

wi w2 w?

Qny Qn? 2m’

be each taken equal to 9. L,M, N, are quantities which satisfy the
same equations as the vector potentials of electric currents. They stand
in the same relation, in vortex fluid motion, to the angular velocities
of the core of the vortex filament, as do in electricity the vector-
potentials of electric currents, to what might guardedly be called
the mass of the currents which give rise to these potentials; thus
again showing the help we may derive in our notions of electrical
strength, mass, density, or whatever we choose to call it, by com-
paring the ‘‘current-penetrated space,” to the core of a vortex fila-
ment. It moreover prominently calls our altention to what may
be going on in the space outside the wire, as well as in the sub-
stance of the wire itself. Indeed, if + be the distance of a point
a, b, c, from a point x, y, 2, on the axis of a vortex-filament; andif
wi, w2, w, be the values which w!, w?, w*, have at this point, a, 0, c,
then we will have

| 1 AoE
Le Ml dadbde
1, » Wa 6
Ma — 1 * yp “edadbac (6)

N SE ig dbde
P54) ¢ Rs

—_———

* n represents the ratio 3.1416.

218 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.
Equations which are analogous to equations init which suggest

1
that, since Tina here takes the place of ame % in those equations,

Fe
M, or the magnetic permeability, may be equal to w* wu’, divided
by 9, generally, while here definitely equal to the fi 2

That equation (2) is satished by the values of w, v, and w given
above in equations (4) is shown by differentiating equations (4) and
adding; we thus get

Ghiy | GRIP Oy CVE dw dP
first ee a aaa ay oe an = eauame
dx dx dy dy dz dz" 1

then, on adding

dz dy dz
That equations (3) are likewise satisfied, 1s also shown by differen-
tiating equations (4), and then making the necessary subtractions;
noticing the values Qu”, 2w*, 2w*, given by equations (5).
We thus get:

do_dw oa 4 [ab aM, aw

2 ahi dz | dx dy dz }
Cian Ny a Ae raee ania (7)
dz” dz dy | dx dy dz J

du _W@ os d (dL , dM, dN)

Se ee — +

dy dz dy |\dx — dy dy J

which, if the second terms of the second members are zero, show
equations (3), and likewise equations (Q), to be completely satisfied.

That these second terms are zero is shown by first differentiating
equations (6) with respect to x, y, and 2 successively; thus getting
results of the form

1 —
hi See da db de

for each coordinate. And then, on integrating these latter results
by parts, we get the following three equations:

w 1 dw3
en gal Bae MY Ge 88

dM 1 we dwz
ayer 2 da ade — fff —. 8 dadb de (8)

aN a apes i ie
dz 27 iL Tr dadb — on SIF ai See db de

Paces eee eer ean ee eS eS ee

*The letter n represents the ratio 3.1416.

RECENT PROGRESS IN THEORETICAL PHYSICS. 219

which, if added, and dS be put for the element of surface, give

1
es Sh \w8 cos. 1+ w2 cos. b+ wa cos. ¢ dS
=== fiir = [e xg Le Bae dwwa va Ala, 6b lp.
In the second member of this last equation the factors in paren-

theses in each of the two terms, are known to be equal to zero; con-
sequently,

dL dM
dx a dy dz = 0.

Therefore the equations
dv dw z dw du eat du dv

— —— = 2; SS SSS = SSS SSS SP

dz Dyn ee ea, ieee sa Gent eh et we

give correctly the relations between the angular velocities of the
core of a vortex-filament, and the velocities in the fluid at points
outside of, but surrounding the core.

The values of L, M. N, taken from equations (6), being substitut-
ed in equations (4), give certain results, the interpretation of which
will appear from the next paragraph. These results are

Au(zt—a)+ Av (y—b)+ Av (2—e) =0, (9)
indicative of a right angle with 7’;
waht + warv-+ waav=0, (10)

indicative of aright angle with the axis of the rotating filament;

and
gr. cosV = (x —a)wa + (y—b)wg + (2 —c) wg (12)

Where q is the resultant of wa, 2, Wa, and V the angle which q
makes with the radius-vector 1.

Now it is proven in works on electricity and magnetism* that “the
vector-potential at a given point, due to a magnetized particle placed
at the origin of co-ordinates, is numerically equal to the magnetic
moment of the particle, divided by the square of the radius vector
to the point, and multiplied by the sine of the angle between the

* Clerk Maxwell’s ‘‘Electricity and Magnetism,’ Vol. i1., p. 28.

220 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

axis of magnetization and the radius vector; and the direction of
the vector-potential is perpendicular to the plane of the axis of
magnetization and the radius-vector, and is such that to an eye
looking in the positive direction along the axis of magnetization,
the vector-potential will be drawn in the direction of rotation of the
hands of a watch.’ The results just referred to above, show
that the distance-action of vortex-filaments is similar to the electro-
magnetic action of current-conducting wires; for they prove that
“each rotating element of fluid (a) implies in each other element (b)
of the same fluid mass, a velocity whose direction is perpendicular to
the plane through (b) and the axis of rotation (a). The magnitude
of this velocity is directly proportional to the volume of (a), iis angu-
lar velocity. and the sine of the angle between the line (a) (b) and that
axis of rotation, and inversely proportional to the square of the dis-
tance between (a) and (b).”

Thus the vector-potential of the electric-current, in free space
surrounding the wire, has for its analogue the velocity of the fluid
element, due to a vortex-filament supposed to occupy the place of
the current.

Many other curious analogies between vortex-motions in fluids
and the action of magnets and electric currents have been pointed
cut by Sir Wm. Thompson.*

Of course it_is possible that these analogies may be merely for-
mal, and that they arise from the fulfillment of similar mathematical
conditions by both the electric current and vortex-motion in fluids.

But whether the relationship shall or shall not ultimately be
found to consist in a closer connection than mere formal analogy,
one thing is certain. The discoyery of the laws governing vortex-
motion in fluids constitutes an era in physical science. The differen-
tial equations of the motions of fluids although*handled by such
masters as LaGrange, LaPlace, Euler, and Green, had only been in-
tegrated on the special assumption of a velocity-potential; which
condition we have seen to hold only in the space outside of those
portions ot the fluid which are in rotation. It remained for Helmholtz
to make the next great step by integrating these equations under the
supposition that no velocity-potential exists; and to show that while
the establishment of vertex-motion in fluids, is, on the one hand,
a consequence of fluid friction, on the other.that when vortex-fila-

* Sir Wm. Thompson’s “Papers on Electrostatics and Magnetism.’

RECENT PROGRESS IN THEORETICAL PHYSICS. 991

ments are once set up in a frictionless fluid they are absolutely in-
destructible save by the power that originated them. Only an in-
finite power can set up vortex movement in a perfect fluid without
friction,and only an infinite power can destroy such motion when once
set up. On this idea Sir Wm. Thompson has based his famous spec-
ulation that the atoms of matter are merely so many vortex-rings of
variable but definite shape for each elementary kind of matter. Such
rings possess all the qualities usually attributed to the atoms of.
matter, being absolutely impenetrable, and possessing when set in
vibration that characteristic periodicity of vibration which the spec-
troscope shows to be the case with the atoms of the elements of matter,
As Professor Tait says, ‘* not only can these vortex-rings in a perfect
fluid not be cut, but we cannot even so much as get at them, to try
to cut them.” They rebound from the sharpest edge.

Thus it will be seen that there is at least an analogy between vor-
tex-filaments in a perfect fluid and magnetism caused by electric
currents. The equations of the electro-magnetic field show this,
when compared with the equations of vortex filaments. But this
is by no means all.

In Faraday’s beautiful experiment of the rotation of the plane of
polarized light when passing through a medium which is under the
influence of magnetic strain, we have a means of testing whether any-
thing of the nature of rotation of small elements, either of gross mat-
ter or of some incompressible frictionless fluid be going on in the
magnetic field. For, if the magnetic force be in any way the con-
sequence of such minute rotations, we might expect a@ priori that
the minute motions which cause light, at least those circular oscil-
lations that constitute circularly polarized light, could in some way
be compounded with the minute rotations involved in magnetic
phenomena, and be influenced by them. And thus, although we
could not directly observe these vortex movements by the senses,
we yet might have the means of exploring the magnetic field, by
an agent of almost superhuman delicacy in the shape of the oscilla-
tions of light. The possibility of the compounding of the mag-
netic rotations with those of circularly polarized light, which con-
stitutes the explanation Thompson gives of the Magnetic Rotation
of Polarized Light, I will take up next.*

* This subject was fully treated in the paper as read before the Academy, but its

publication is delayed until cuts can be prepared to illustrate it, and Greek type
obtained for the formulz.

nd Be

re

mh
me

3 h a
with

1 Ue

sige
ae -

PROCHEDINGS

OF THE

OLA 1G NEW

SINCE

FEBRUARY, 1874.

Report of the President.

His Excertency Harrison Lupineron,

Governor of Wisconsin:

SIR:—Since the date of my last report, the Wisconsin Academy
of Sciences, Arts, and Letters has steadily advanced in prosperity.
It has not made large additions to its permanent fund, nor greatly
increased the list of its working members. But the very consid-
erable number of scholars and scientists holding memberships, have
devoted themselves with increased zeal to the work of the work of
the Academy in original investigation, and have produced payers
embodying the results of their inquiries which are of cons:derable
value, and must yet more favorably commend the Academy to the
respect and confidence of the literary and scientific public.

The Academy is no longer an experiment. The past six years
have demonstrated; first, that Wisconsin embraces a large number
of persons both competent and experienced as laborers in various
fields of research and investigation; and secondly, that it is posible
and easy, through such an organization as this, to hold them to-
gether in systematic and profitable oc-operation, for the advance-
ment of the arts and sciences. as well as for the intellectual and
social progress of the commonwealth.

The present volume of transactions will be found to consist
largely of papers in the Department of the Natural Sciences.
While all are interesting and valuable, it will appear upon exami-
nation that some of these are the fruit of extensive observations in
the field, as well as of laborious investigations in the laboratory.
Since it is this department which so directly touches the material
progress of the State, and which would also especially contribute
to the establishment of advantageous relations with kindred organ-
izations in all parts of the world, it will be to the friends and pat-

15——-w as

226 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

rons of the academy a ground of satisfaction that its development
has been characterized by so strong a bent in this particular direc-
tion.

In the other departments there have been fewer laborers. Still,
it will not escape observation that many of the best thinkers and
investigators of the State have given to the Academy the results of
careful and protracted inquiry in the several feids embraced within
the broad domain of the Academy.

In this country, Speculative Philosophy finds comparatively lit-
tle recognition as a means of scientific progress, and is therefore
without the cultivation it merits. Nevertheless, it is not without
creditable representation in this, as it was not in our last volume ~
of Transactions.

The Department of Social and Political Sciences embraces so vast
a range of subjects for inquiry, and appeals so directly and strongly
tothe public mind that a more rapid growth of it might reasonably
have been expected. It is not wanting in activity, however, and
gives promise of more substantial progress in the future, through
the reinforcements hkely to come to it from the learned professions
and from special students of Social Philosophy, and of statesman-
ship.

The Department of Letters is also in need of reinforcements.
The contributions heretofore made have been both interesting and
valuable, however; some of them justly insuring commendation
from distinguished European savans.

At the late annual meeting, the department of the arts was di-
vided into the ** Department of Practical Arts” and the ‘“* Depart-
ment of the Fine Arts.” Neither of these has yet received much
development. Still itis believed that the creation of separate de-
partments will prove advantageous. ‘There are numerous invent-
ors, scientific artizans and practical observers and experimenters in
Wisconsin, who, if brought together within the pale of. a depart-
ment of the Academy exclusively devoted to the progress of the
useful arts, would make it eminently successful. So, too, there are
artists and cultivators of art in sufficient number, if united, to make
the Department of the Fine Arts at once a means of mutual advan-
tage, and of increasing art culture in the State, as well as of initia-
ting the formation at the seat of the Academy, and in joint con-
nection with it and the State University, of a alley of Art, coupled
with an Academy of Design.

REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT. _ 997

Leaving out of view the present paucity of artists within our
own State, and the difficulty, supposed to be necessary, of finding
adequate patronage outside of the cities, there could hardly be
found anywhere in this country, a more suitable or more desira-
ble spot for an institution of the kind suggested. And even the
objection alluded to would affect only such artists as are limited to
one or two of the several branches of art. The landscape painter,
the historic artist, and the idealist in either painting or sculpture,
wouldeach find themselves happily placed here, in an exception-
ally pure atmosphere, in a region remarkable for its healthfulness,
and in the midst of scenery unparalled for beauty. As this is a
matter in which the Academy, the State University, artists of the
Northwest, and the friends of Art generally, must all feel an inter-
est, we are not without hope that practical results of some im-
portance will follow the effort thus systematically begun.

The Library of the Academy is under the management of a com-
petent and zealous librarian, through whose efforts it must make
steady, if not rapid growth. As was stated in my first report (for
1870-72) it has not been, and is not now, the purpose of the
Academy to build up a general Jibrary, separate and distinct from
that of the State Historical Society, which is fast hecoming the
great general library of the State, but rather to supplement the
forces therein at work by efforts to make collections especially rich
in the publications of learned, scientific and other kindred socie-
ties and associations of all countries, and in works generally which
properly belong to the several departments embraced within the
Academy, and which are not likely to be supplied otherwise.
Large results in this direction have not been accomplished, but the
agencies are at work, and will yield fruits more abundant as the
years goon. Regarding the Academy from this standpoint, it is
quite desirable that its Transactions should be published annually,
instead of biennially; for such more frequent publication would
render it-easier to effect exchanges with other institutions of like
character, as well as with the periodical press of the world.

The Museum of the Academy is making more growth than out-
wardly appears. For, owing to the connection of several of the
members most active in making collections, with the Geological
Survey, now in progress, much of the material which would other-
wise have come directly to the Museum, has very naturally and

228 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

properly gone to the State Geologist, for classification, and has not
as yet reached its final destination under the law creating the sur-
vey, which provides that specimens of all the material collected
during its progress shall be deposited with the Academy. It may
also be remarked that the officers of the Academy are yet expect-
ing that large contributions will soon be made to the Museum from
the considerable number of private collections heretofore formed
within this State.

The report of the treasurer, herewith incorporated, sets forth
the financial transactions of the Academy for the years 1875 and
1876, together with the condition of its funds ut the date of the
last annual meeting, just concluded:

WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCE, ARTS AND LETTERS,
TREASURER’S OFFICE,

Maopison, February 13, 1877.
Hon. J. W. Hoyt, President:

I haye the honor to report the financial condition of the Academy, as follows:

Total amount of fees and dues received from 58 members............. $778 25
Total fees received from 10 life members........00scsececereecccreee 1,000 00
liienesrOnlipiesapdopoccasdoncqossnd 24 770g ooougdos0ecos coer. < 370 00
2,148 25

Total amount disbursed in payment of warrants to date............--- 177 97
Balancerimh treasury. aie cietei\e orelers sinker toa ioleuetei= ie eotereiers here aaa 1,370 28

GEO. P. DELAPLAINE,
Treasurer.

The following is a list of the papers read since the date or our
last publication:

‘Views connected with the Railroad Question,” by Rey. Chas.
Caverno.

“On Industrial Education,” by Rev. F. M. Holland.
“ \ Mastodon found in Racine County,” by Dr. P. R. Hoy.
‘* A Turtle Mound found in Beloit,” by Prof. Eaton.

“The Improvement of the Mouth of the Mississippi River,” by
~ Capt. John Nader.

The * Elementary Stratification of the Lower Silurian Rocks in
South-Central Wisconsin,” by Prof. R. D. Irving.

The ‘* Hibernation of the Striped Gopher,” by Dr. P. R. Hoy.

“The Law of Embryonic Development the same in Plants as in
Animals,” by Dr. I. A. Lapham.

“Were the Stoics Utilitarians?” by Rev. F. M. Holiand.
“On the Ancient Civilization of America,” by Prof. Nicodemus.

REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT. 429

* An Account of Recent Examinations of the Ancient Earthworks
in Rock county, Wis.,” by W. P. Clark, Esq.

* Drift-notes,” by Prof. Eaton.

*Minority or Proportional Representation,” by Rev. F. M. Hol-
land.

“On the Fishes best suited to stock the small lakes of Wisconsin,"
ley LDre, TRE Tite Lalo

“ Oconomowoc Lake,” by the late Dr. I. A. Lapham.

“On United States’ Sovereignty; whence derived and when vested,”
by Pref. Alien.

“The Barometer in Leveling.” by Capt. Nader.

“On River Engineering,’ by Capt. Nader.

“The instrument of Exchange,” by President G. M. Steele.

“The Inter-convertible Note Scheme,” by EK. R. Leland, Esq.

“ The Kaolin of Wisconsin,’ by Professor Irving.

“The Revolutionary Movement Among Women,” by Dr. J. W.
Hoyt.

**An Account of the Aid Rendered by Various Governments
to Science and Eilucation,’ by James D. Batler, LL. D.
“Geological Reconnoisances in Northern Wisconsin,” E, T. Sweet,

M.S.

“The Encouragement of Art Culture by the State,” by Dr. J. W.
Hoyt.

“Some new and Remarkable Features of the Lower Magnesian
Limestone, and St. Peter Sandstone in Eastern Wisconsin,”
by Prof. T. C. Chamberlain.

“ The Origin of the Present-Infinitive-Passive in Latin and Greek,”
by Prof. Feuling.

“The Significance of Faraday’s Experiment upon the Magnetic
Rotatory Polarization of Light; and upon Helmholtz Paper on
the Integrals of Vortex Motion; also upon the Theory of Mag-
netism,” by Prof. Davies.

“On Duplex Telegraphy,” by Chas. H. Haskins.

In the confident belief that the Academy has before it a career
of great usefulness. and that to this end it will be more and more
encouraged by an intelligent public, as well as liberally fostered by
the State, I have the honor to be, in its behalf,

Very respectfully,
TOHIN: Wa, ELON

: President.
Madison, February, 1876.

Report ot the Sechetame

SPECIAL MEETING OF THE ACADEMY.

SEPTEMBER 16, 1874.

The members of the Academy met in their rooms at Ty P. M.
The following resolutions were passed:

Resolved, That we sincerely lament the death of John Y. Smith,
in whom our Society has lost an active and honored member, and
the science of political economy one of its most devoted and useful
followers.

Resolved, That the President of the Academy be requested to
appoint a member of the Academy to prepare a sketch of his lite
and works

Resolved, That these resolutions be published in each of the
daily papers of this city, and that the General Secretary be re-
quested to forward a copy of these proceedings to the family of
the deceased.

The President of the Academy eulogised highly the meee of
the deceased member.

The death of Prof. Peter Engelman, of Milwaukee, was an-
nounced by Dr. I. A. Lapham, who pronounced a high elogium
upon the scientific character of the deceased.

The following resolutions were also passed:

Resolved, That in the death of Prof. Peter Engleman the Acade-
my has lost a valued member, and the cause of education one of its
most active promoters.

Resolved, That the President of this Academy is hereby requested
to appoint some member to prepare, for the next regular meeting
of the Academy, a memoir of his life and labors.

Resolved, That these resolutions be published in ie Ee geese
of the Academy.

The Treasurer of the Academy, G. P. Delaplaine, Esq., aes
the attention of members to a remarkable mound, supposed to be
very ancient, in the vicinity of the city of Madison.

Prof. Nicodemus, of the State University of Wisconsin, Dr. I.
A. Lapham, of Milwaukee, Geo. P. Delaplaine, Esq., of Madison,

REPORT OF-THE SECRETARY. 931

and Prof. Irving, of the University, were appointed a committee to
investigate the mound and furnish to the Academy a report there-
on, at an expense to the Academy not exceeding $25.00.
JouHn EK. Davtss,
General Secretary.

FIFTH REGULAR ANNUAL MERTING.
First Session.

Acaprmy Rooms, Feb. 9, 1875, 74, Pp. u.

The fifth annual meeting of the Academy was commenced in
their rooms ou Tuesday evening, February 9, 1875, at 74 o'clock;
there being a large attendance of members and citizens; the Presi-
dent, Dr. J. W. Hoyt, in the chair; the Secretary, Prof. J. H. Davies.
absent by reason of severe illness.

In the absence of the secretary, Prof. James Haton, of Beloit
College, was appointed secretary pro. tem.

The treasurer's report was read and referred to an auditing com-
mittee consisting of Prof. Nicodemus, Dr. Hoy, and Hiisha Bur-
dick, Esq.

The librarian’s report was read and accepted.

The rules were suspended and Messrs. H. T. Sweet, R. H. Brown,
J.T. Dodge, and Charles N. Gregory were elected annual mem-
bers.

The first paper of the meeting was read by the Rev. Charles
Cav yerno, on ‘* Views connected with the Railroad Questicn.”

Twenty-three members were present at this meeting of the
Academy.

Second Session.

FEBRUARY 10, 9.45 A. w.
During the absence of the President, the chair was occupied by
I. A. Lapham, Vice-President of the Academy.
The report of the secretary was read.
The following papers were read and discussed:

On “ Industrial Education,” by Rev. F. M. Holland, of Baraboo.

232 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

“A Mastodon found in Racine County,” by Dr. P. R. Hoy, of
Raeine.

Dr. Holland called attention to a number of bones of a Mastodon
found in Baraboo thirty years ago.

A paper was read on “A Turtle Mound in Beloit,” by Prof. Haton
of Beloit.

E. R. Leland, of Kau Claire, read a memoir upon the late Peter
Engelman, of Milwaukee, a member of this Academy.

Adjourned till 2:30, p. m.

Third Session.

Frpruary 10, 2:30, Pp. mu.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment, with a large attend-
ance.

Dr. I. A. Lapham, Vice-President, in the chair.

Papers were read as follows:

On the “Improvement of the Mouth of the Mississippi River,”
by Capt. Nader.

On * The Elementary Stratification of the Lower Silurian Rocks
in South-Central Wisconsin,” by Prof. Irving.

On “The Hibernation of the Striped Gopher,” and on “The Cato-
calue of Racine County,” by Dr. Hoy, of Racine.

On “The Law of Embryonic Development, the same in Plants
as in Animals,’ by Dr. I. A. Lapham, of Milwaukee.

The committee appointed to audit the Treasurer’s Report gave
in their report, which was read and accepted. '

The meeting then adjourned till 7:30, p. o.

Fourth Session.

Frsrvary 10, 7:30 Pp. 1.
The Academy met pursuant to adjournment; with a full attend-
ance.
Prof. 5S. H. Carpenter, Vice President in the chair. Papers were
read as follows:
* Were the Stoics Utiliturians?” by Rev. F. M. Holland of Bar-
aboc.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 933

On “ The Ancient Civilization of America,” by Professor Nico-
demus, of the University of Wisconsin.

“An account of Recent Examinations of the Ancient Earthworks
in Rock county, Wisconsin,” by W. B. Clark Esq.

* Drift notes” by Prof. James Eaton.

SIXTH ANNUAL MEETING.
First Session.

Acanemuy Rooms, Feb. 8, 1876, 7:30 P. mu.

The sixth annual meeting of the Academy was convened in their
rooms on Tuesday evening February 8th, 1876, at 74 o'clock; there
being a large attendance of members and citizens of Madison; the
President, Dr. J. W. Hoyt, in the chair.

The minutes of the last previous meeting were read by the Sec-
retury and approved.

After a few remarks by the President of the Academy, on the
general progress and success of the Academy during the year, the
reports of the Secretary, Treasurer, and Librarian of the Academy
were read, accepted and referred to appropriate committees.

The President of the Academy announced that the Hon. George
H. Paul, of Milwaukee, Railroad Commissioner for Wisconsin had
consented to donate $100 to the Academy, and thereby become a
Life Member.

The following gentlemen were elected members.

For Corresponding Members.—Dr. Joseph Buchanan of Louis-
ville, Ky., and 8. W. Burnham Esq., Chicago, F. R. A. 8. London.

For Annual Members.—K. i. Woodman, Esq., of Baraboo, Wis.;
Prof. W. C. Sawyer, of Appleton, Wis.; Hon. Peter Doyle, Secre-
tary of State for Wisconsin; C. H. Haskins, Esq., of Milwaukee,
Gen'l. Supt. Northwestern Telegraph Co.; Right Rev. H. R. Welles
of Milwaukee, Protestant Episcopal Bishop of Wisconsin; Hon.
Harlow 8. Orton, of Madison; Gen. Hi. E. Bryant, of Madison; Hon.
S. U. Pinney, of Madison; Hon. J. C. Gregory, of Madison; Rev.
John Wilkinson, of Madiscn; Sumuel Shaw, Esq., Principal of
High Schoo!, Madison; J. W. Wood, Esq., Baraboo; J. O. Culver,
Esq., Madison; S. G. Lapham, Esq., of Milwaukee; E. 8. Searing,

234 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

Esq.,0f Madison; Hon. I ©. Sloan, of Madison; Josiah E. Cass,
Esq., of Eau Claire; HE. A. Birge, State University; T. G. Atwood,
Esq., Albion, Wis; J. W. Stuart, Esq., of Madison.

Dr. P. R. Hoy, of Racine, Chairman of the committee appointed
to prepare a sketch of the life and character of Hon. I. A. Lapham,
LL. D., late Vice President of the Academy, read an exceedingly
interesting paper upon the general life and scientific labors of Dr.
Lapham. Dr. Hoy feelingly referred to a friendship prolonged for
Over thirty years. He summed up the important labors of Dr.
Lapham by reading the following letter from Prof. Joseph Henry:
SMITHSONION INSTITUTE, U

Washington, feb. 3, 1876. §

Dr. P. R. Hoy, Raciae, Wis.: :

Dear Sir: Your letter was received during a great pressure of business, and 1
now embrace the first opportunity to give ita reply.

The action of Congress in regard to the signal service was due to the immediate
exertions of Mr. Lapham through the member of Congress from his district, Gen-
eral Payne, in setting forth the advantages of the system to the ee inter-

ests of the great lakes.

Yours very truly,
[ Signed. ] JOSEPH HENRY.
Secretary.

E. R. Leland, Hsq., of Eau Claire, spoke very eloquently of the
virtues, public and private, of the deceased Vice- Been whom
he had known intimately for many years.

Remarks were also made by Prof. T. C. Chamberlain, of Beloit,

Dr. Lapham’s successor as Director of the Geological Survey, of
the State, and R. D. Irving, Professor of Geology in the University
of Wisconsin.
. Dr. S. H. Carpenter, Professor of Logie and English Literature
im the University of Wisconsin, read an admirable review of the
life, mental characteristics, and writings of the late Hon. John Y.
Smith. Dr. Carpenter showed him to be a man of unusual power
of mind and great clearness of thought. Prof. W. F. Allen, Pro-
fessor of Latin and History in the University of Wisconsin, also
added his testimony to the statements made in Dr. Carpenter’s pa-
per. tes
A paper upon “ Minority or Proportional Representation,” by
Rev. F. M. Holland, of Baraboo, was then read by Prof. Allen.

Adjourned till Wednesday morning, 9 a. m.

-REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 935
Second Session.

WEDNESDAY Morninag, 94, o'clock, February 9, 1876.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment; the President Dr.
J. W. Hoyt in the chair. The following papers were then read:

“On the Pre-Historic Copper Implements found in Wisconsin,”
by James D. Butler, LL. D., of Madison.” This paper was read by
Professor W. W. Daniells, of the State University of Wisconsin.

“On the Fishes best suited to stock the small lakes of Wisconsin,
by Dr. P. R. Hoy, of Racine. Dr. Hoy also read a paper on the
Oconomowoe Lakes,” prepared by Dr. I. A. Lapham, just before his
death.

“United States Sovereignty—wheunce derived and where vested,”
by Professor W. F. Allen, of the State University.”

“The Barometer in Leveling,” by Captain John Nader.

“On River Hngineering,” a translation from the German, by
Captain John Nader, of Madison.

Adjourned till 25 P. M.

Third Session.

Wepnespay AFrrernoon, 24 P. M.—Feb. 9, 1876.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment, the President Dr.
J. W. Hoyt in the chair. The following papers were then read
and discussed:

‘‘On the Instrument of Exchange,” by G. M. Steele, DD.,
President of Lawrence University.

“The Interconvertible Note Scheme,” by E. R. Leland, Esq., of
Eau Claire.

“On Kaolin in Wisconsin,” by Professor R. D. Irving, of the
University of Wisconsin.

The Academy then adjourned until 7 o’clock P. M.

Fourth Session.

Frsruary 7th, 74 o'clock P. M.
The Academy met pursuant to adjournment, the president Dr.
J. W. Hoyt in the chair.
Dr. P. R. Hoy then made some popular remarks on the ‘* General
Classification of Animals.”

236 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

Dr. J. W. Hoyt then read a carefully prepared paper on “ The
Revolutionary Movement among Women.”

Adjourned 9 A. M.

Fifth Session.

TuurspDay, February 10, 9 A. M.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment. The President Dr.
J. W. Hoyt in the chair. The tollowing papers were then read and
discussed.

“An Account of the aid rendered by Various Governments to Sci-
ence and Education,’ by James D. Butler, LL. D.

* Geological Reconnoisances in Northern Wisconsin,” by Mr. E.
T. Sweet, Assistant on the Geological Survey.

“The Encouragement of Art Culture by the State,” by Dr. J.
W. Hoyt.

‘*On some new and remarkable features of the Lower Magnesian
Limestone, and St. Peter’s Sandstone in Eastern Wisconsin, by Prof.
T. C. Chamberlin, Director of the Geological Survey.

Adjourned till 2 o’clock P. M.

Sizth Session.

Monpay, February 10, 2 o’clock P. M.

Academy met pursuant to adjournment. President J. W. Hoyt
in the chair. The following papers were then read and discussed.

“The origin of the Present-Infinitve-Passive in Latin and Greek.”
by Prof. J. B. Feuling Ph. D., of the University of Wisconsin.

“The Significance of Faraday’s Experiment upon the Magnetic
Rotatory Polarization of Light,” by Prof. J. EH. Davies, M. D., of
the State University.

“ Helmholtz’ Paper upon the Integrals of Vortex Motion; and
the significance of these Integrals in the theory of Magnetism,” by
Prof. Davies.

“On Duplex Telegraphy,” by Charles H. Haskins, General
Superintendent of the Northwestern Telegraph Company, Milwau-

kee.

The reading of the papers prepared for this meeting having been
concluded, the Academy prepared to ballot for the election of offi-
cers for the next three years.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 937

The following gentlemen were unanimously elected.

For President, P. R. Hoy, M. D. Racine.

For General Secretary, J. HE. Davies, M. D., Madison.

For Vice President of Department of Speculative Philosophy,
8. H. Carpenter, LL. D., Madison.

For Vice President of Department of Natural Science, Prof. T.
C. Chamberlin, Beloit.

For Vice President of the Department of Social and Political Sci-
ences, Rev. G. M. Steele, D. D. Appleton.

For Vice Presidentof the Department of the Mechanic Arts, Hon.
J. I. Case Racine.

For Vice President of the Department of Letters, Rev. A. L. Cha-
pin, D. D. Beloit.

For Vice President of the Department of the Fine Arts, Dr. J. W.
Hoyt, Madison.

For Treasurer Geo. P. Delaplaine, Esq., Madison.

For Director of Museum E. T. Sweet, M.E., Sun Prairie.

For Librarian, Charles N. Gregory, M. S., Madison.

After the transaction of other minor business, the Academy ad~
journed sine die. .

JouNn EK. Davirs,
General Secretary.

| Report of the Librarian.

To the President of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and
Letters:

Srr:—I have the honor to report the receipt of the following
contributions to the library of the Academy, which have been for-
warded by the courtesy of the Smithsonian Institute, Washington
IDB Oe

Bremen Natural Science Society.—Vol. 3, parts 1 and 2, 1872.
Vol. 4, part 4, 1875. Vol. 4, part 1, 1876. Supplement No. 4, 1874-5,
Supplement No. 5, 1876.

Amiens Linnean Society of the North of France—Monthly bul-
letins from May, 1875 to June, 1876, inclusive. .

Munich Royal Bavarian Academy of Science.—Transactions for
1875, parts 1 and 2. Two pamphlets on Chemistry. One pamphlet
on Schelling. i

Harlem Netherlands Society for the Fostering of Industry.—
Transactions for 1474, transactions for 1875, and six pamphlets.

Lyons Academy of Science, Belles-Letters and Arts——Memoirs
Volume 16, for 1874-5.

Dresden Society of Natural History.—Transactions for 1875.

Vienna Imperial Royal Zoological and Botanical Society.—Trans- _
actions Volume 25, for 1876.

Brunn Natural Historical Society —Proceedings Volume 13, 1875.
Catalogue of Library 1874.

Halle Journal of the Natural Sciences by Dr. Giebel.—Volumes
11 and 12, 1875. :

Bern, Swiss Society of Natural History.—Proceedings for 1876.
Menaoirs.

Bern, Society of Natural Science at Bern.—Transactions 1874,
1875.

London Royal Society.—Volume 23, of Proceedings. Nos. 153
to 163 inclusive. ‘On the Tides of the Arctic Seas,” from Philo-
sophical Transactions of Royal Society.

Neuchatel, Society of Natural Science.—Bulletin received March

REPORT OF THE LIBRARIAN. 939

Natural Historical Society of Prussian Rhineland and Westpha-
lia.—Transactions for 30th year 1874, aad 31st year 1875.

Konigsberg. Publications of Society of Physical Heconomy.—
Parts one and two, 1873 and 1874.

Gottingen, Royal Society of Learning etc.—Transactions for
1875.

Harlem, Archives of the, “* Musee Teyler’—Vol. 1, 2 and 3, and
1st part of vol. 4.

Amsterdam, Royal Academy of Science—Publications from 1865
to 1876 iueclusive, in 2! pamphlets.

Belgium, Royal Society of Botany—History of Roses, by Francis
Crepin; extract from Bulletin.

Danzig, Natural Historical Society; Transactions—Vol. 3, part 4.

Freiburg, Society of Natural History; Transactions—V ol. 6, part 4.

St. Petersburg, Physical Central Observatory—Annals for, 1874.

Instructions for Meteorological stations, by H. Wilde.

Andennatt, Swiss Society of Natural Philosophy—Report 1874
and 1875.

Bamberg, Society of ‘Natural Philosophy—Tenth report, 1874
and 1874.

Stockholm, The Royal Swedish Academy of Science—Memoir by
S. Loren on ‘* Hchinoidea,”’ 1875. Transactions for 1872. t1th
volume of Synopsis of Transactions, 1875 and 1876. Appendix to
Transactions, volume 3, part 1. List of Swedish and Norse mem-
bers May, 1876.

I haye also received, by the kindness of Professor Alexander
Agassiz,

Cambridge, Mass., Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard
College—Bulletin Volume 3, Nos. 11 to 16; volume 4, No. 10.

Also from the State Library of New York,

87th Report of the Regents of the State of New York.

Report of New York State Library for 1875.

Report of New York State Museum of Natural History.

Biographical sketch of Increase A. Lapham, read before the Old
Settlers Club; by the kindness of Mr. Seneca Lapham, of Milwaukee.

All of which is most respectfully submitted.

With great respect,
CHARLES N. GREGORY,

Librarian.

no
ya

List of Officers and Members

OF THE

ACADEMY, 1876.

16——_ was

GENERAL OFFICERS § ACADEMY.

PRESIDENT:
Dr. P. R. HOY, Racine.

VICE-PRESIDENTS:

Dr. S. H. CARPENTER, - - < = = Madison.
Pror. T. C. CHAMBERLIN. - - - - - - Beloit.
Rey. G. M. STEELE, D. D. - - - - - Appleton.
Hon. J. I. CASE, - - - - = - - Racine.
REywA. Ll. CHAPIN, D. D.. - - = = - Belvit.
Dr. J. W. HOYT, - - = s : - Madison.

GENERAL SECRETARY:
Pror. J. . DAVIES, M. D., University of Wisconsin.
TREASURER:

GEO. P. DELAPLAINE, Esq., Madison.
DIRECTOR OF THE MUSEUM:
KE. T. SWEET, Esq., Sun Prairie.
LIBRARIAN: |

CHARLES N. GREGORY, Madison.
COUNSELORS EX-OFFICIO:

HIS EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR OF THE STATE.

THE LIEUTENANT GOVERNOR.

THE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.

THE PRESIDENT OF THE STATE UNIVERSITY.

THE PRESIDENT OF THE STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.
THE SECRETARY OF THE STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

OF FICERSOF THE DEPART Mia

DEPARTMENT OF SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY.

President.—S. H. Carpenter, LL. D., Madison.

Seeretary.—Rev. F. M. Holland, Baraboo.

Counsellors.—Dr. John Bascom, President University of Wiscon-
sin; President Oliver Arey, Whitewater, and Rev. A. O. Wright,
Fox Lake.

DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL SCIENCES.

President.—Prof. T. C. Chamberlin. Beloit.

Secretary.—Prot. James H. Haton. Beloit.

Counsellors.—Prof. W. W. Daniells. of the University of Wis-
consin; Prof. Foye, of Appleton, and Prof. Thure Kumilein, of
Albion.

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SCIENCES.

President.—Rev. G. M. Steele, D. D. Appleton.

Secretary.—H. R. Leland, Esq., of Han Claire.

Counsellors.—Dr. HE. B. Wolcott, Milwaukee; Rev. Charles Ca-
verno, Lombard, Ill., and J. B. Parkinson, of Madison.

DEPARTMENT OF THE MECHANIC ARTS.

President.—Hon. J. I. Case, Racine.

Secretary.—Prof. W. J. L. Nicodemus, of the University of Wis-
consin.

Counsellors.—Charles H. Haskins, of Milwankee; Hon. J.
Mitchell, of Milwaukee, and Capt. John Nader, of Madison.

DEPARTMENT Of THE FINE ARTS.

President.—Dr. J. W. Hoyt, Madison.

Secretary.—Hon. J. EK. Thomas, of Sheboygan.

Counsellors.—Mrs. S. F. Dean, Madison; J. R. Stuart Esq., Mad-
ison, and Mrs. H. M. Lewis, Madison.

DEPARTMENT OF LETTERS.

President.—Rev. A. L. Chapin. D. D., Beloit.

Secretary.—Prof. J. B. Feuling, of the University of Wisconsin.

Counsellers.—Prof. W. I*. Allen, of the University of Wisconsin:
Piof. Emerson, Beloit College, and Hon. L. C. Draper, Madison.

MEMBERS OF THE ACADEMY.

ANNUAL MEMBERS.

Allen, W. F., A. M., Professor of Latin and History in tne University of Wis-
consin.

Arey, Oliver, A. M., President State Normal School, Whitewater, Wis.

Atwood, T. G., Esq., Albion. Wis.

Bascom, John, LL. D., President of the University of Wisconsin.

Bashford, R. Mo) A. M. , Madison, Wis.

Ballentine, W. G. , Ripon, Wis.

Butler, J. B., Die Dy. Madison, Wis.

Bryant, KE. D.. Hon., Madison, Wis.

Birge, EH. A., A. M., Instructor in Zoology in the University of Wisconsin.

Carpenter, s. JElS5 ite D., Professor of English Literature and Logic, in the Uni-
versity of Wi isconsin.

Chamberlin, T. C., A. M.. Professor of Natural History Beloit College, and Di-
rector of the Geological Survey of Wisconsin.

Caverno, Charles, Rev.. Lombard, Ll.

Chapin, A. L., D. D., President Beloit College, Beloit, Wis.

Charlton, E. A., A. M., President State Normal School, Platteville, Wis.

Cole, Theo. L., M. S., LaCrosse, Wis.

Copeland, H. E., Whitewater.

Conover, O. M., A. M., Madison, Wis.

Cass, Josiah E., Eau Ch: aire, Wis.

Daniells, W. W., Wile Shoe IP rof. of Chemistry in the University of Wiscousin.

Davies, a Ky., A. M. M. D., Prof. of Astronomy and Physics in the University
of Wisconsin.

Delaplaine, Geo. P., Madison, Wis.

De La Matyr, W. A., Mazomanie, Wis.

Dudley, Wm, Madison, Wis.,

Durrie, D. S., Librarian Wisconsin State Historical Society.

Doyle, Peter Hon. ., Secretary of the State of Wisconsin.

Eaton, James H., Ph. D., Prof. Chemistry Beloit College, Beloit, Wis.

Feuling, J. B., bh. D., Prof. Comparative Philology and Modern Languages in
the University of Wisconsin.

Foye, J. C., A. M., Prof. Physics, Lawrence University, Appleton, Wis.

Gregory, J. C., Madison, Wis.

Gregory, Chas. N. A. M., Madison, Wis.

Holland, Ph. M. Reyv., A. M., Baraboo, Wis.

Hauser, igs Rey., A.M. , Milwaukee, Wis.

Hawley, C T., Milwaukee, Wis.

Holton, E. D. ‘Hon., Milwaukee, Wis.

Hoy, P. BK. MoD. President Wisconsin Academy Sciences, Arts, and Letters,
Racine, Wis.

Hoyt, J. W., M. D., Madison, Wis.

Haskins, C. nae General Superintendent Northwestern Telegraph Company,
Milwaukee, Wis.

246 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

Irving, R. D., A. M.M.E., Prof. of Geology and Mining in the University of Wis-
consin.

Kumlein, Thure, Prof. Albion College, Albion, Wis.

Kingston, J. T., Necedah, Wis.

Kerr, Alex., A. M., Prof. Greek in the University of Wisconsin.

Leland, 1B Late Ean Claire, Wis.

Lapham, Se Milwaukee, Wis.

Marks, Solon, M. D., Milwaukee, Wis.

Mason, R. Z., LL. D., Appleton, Wis.

Nicod emus, W.J.L.,C. i., Prof. of Civil and Mechanical Engineering in the
University of Wisconsin.

Nader, John, C. E., Madison, Wis.

Orton, Harlow Ss Hon. ss Madison, Wis.

Parkinson, J. By oA: ii tah Madison, Wis.

Pradt, J. B. Rey., A. M., Madison, Wis.

Preusser, Charles, President Natural History Society, Milwaukee, Wis.

Pinney, 8. U, Fon. , Madison, Wis.

Reed, Geo. ; Hon. ., Manitowoe, Wis.

Roby, H. W., Milwaukee, Wis.

Reade, E. D., C. E., Milwaukee, Wis.

Steele, Rev. Geo., M., D.D., President of Lawrence University, Appleton, Wis.

Shipman, S. V., Chicago, lil.

Smith, Wm. E. Hon., Milwaukee, Wis.

Searing, Edward, A, M., Superintendent of Public Instruction for the State of
Wisconsin.

Sawyer, W. C., Prof. Lawrence University, Appleton, Wis.

Shaw, Samuel, "A. M., Principal of High School and City Superintendent of Pub-
lie Schools ,M adison, Wis.

Stuart, J. R.A. M. Madison, Wis.

Sloan, iC! Hon., Madison, Wis.

Whitford, Wei. AC Me, President of Milton College, Milton, Wis.

Wright, A. O. Rev.. Fox Lake, Wis.

Welles, E. R., Rt. Rev. S. T. D., Episcopal Bishop of Wisconsin.

Wilkinson, John. Rev. A. M., Madison, Wis.

Wood, J. W., Barahoo, Wis.

Woodman, E. K., Bar aboo, Wis.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Andrews, E. B., LL. D., Prof. Marietta College, Ohio.

Andrews, dmund, A.M. M. D., Prof. Chicago 1 Medical College, Chicago, 11.
Biossom, T., M. E., School of Mines, Columbia College, New York.

Bridge, Norman, M. D., Chicago, Ill.

Brinton, JG M. 1D Philadelphia, Par

Buchanan, Joseph, M_D., Louisville, Kentucky.

Burnham, 8. W., F. R. A. S., Chicage, Ill.

Carr, E. S., M. D., Superintendent Public Instruction, California.

Ebener, F., Ph. D., Baltimore, Md.

Freer, J. C., M. D., President Rush Medical College, Chicago, Ill.

Gatechell, H. P., M. D., Kenosha, Wis.

Gilman, D. C., President John Hopkins’ University.

Gill, Theo., M D. , Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.

Hopkins, KF. Was M. D., Baton Rouge, La.

Haldeman. 8. Se LL. D., Prof. University of Pennsylvania, Chickis, Pa.
Horr, Asa, M. Da President Iowa Institute of Arts and Sciences, Dubuque, I iowa.
Harris, WT, iGiUID. , st. Louis, Mo.

MEMBERS OF THE ACADEMY. IAT

Hubbell, H. P., Winona, Minn.
Jewell, J. S., A. M. M. D., Evanston, Il.
Morgan, L. H., LL. D., Rochester, Il.
Marcy, Oliver, LL. D., Prof. Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill.
McCabe, L. D., D. D., Prof. Wesleyan University, Delaware, Ohio.
McAllister, J. H., Philadelphia, Pa.
Newberry, J. S., LL. D., Prof. Columbia College, New York.
Orton, E., A. M., Prestdent Antioch College, Yellow Springs, Ohio.
Porter, W. B., Prof., St. Louis. Mo.
Le Barron, Wm., State Entomologist, Geneva, New York.
ao T. H., Director of the Astronomical Observatory of the University of
nicago.
Shaler, N. S., A. M., Professor Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.
Schele, De Vere M., LL. D., Prof. University of Virginia, Charlotteville, Va.
Thornton, J. Wingate, Boston, Mass.
Trumbull, J. H., LL. D., Hartford, Conn.
Verrill, A. E., A. M., Prof. Yale College, New Haven, Conn.
Van De Warker, Eli, M. D., Syracuse, N. Y.
Seon: James, A. M., Director of the Astronomical Observatory at Ann Arbor,
Tichigan.
Whitney, W. D , Prof. Yale College, New Haven, Conn.
Winchell, Alex. LL. D. Chancelor Syracuse University, Syracuse, N. Y.

LIFE MEMBERS.

Case, J. I., Hon., Racine, Wis.

Dewey, Nelson, Ex-Governor of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
Hagerman, J. J. Esq. Milwaukee, Wis.
Hoyt, J. W., M. D., Madison Wis.

* Lapham, I. A. LL. D, Milwaukee, Wis.
Lawler, John, Esq , Prairie du Chien, Wis.
Mitchel!, J. L., Hon., Milwaukee, Wis.
Noonan, J. A. Esq., Milwaukee, Wis.
Paul, G. H., Hon., Milwaukee, Wis.
Thomas, J. E., Hon. Sheboygan Falls, Wis.
Thorpe, J. G., Hon., Eau Claire, Wis.
White, S. A., Hon., Whitewater, Wis.

MEMBERS DECEASED SINCE THE ORGANIZATION OF THE ACADEMY IN 1870.

Rt. Rev. Wm. E. Armitage, 8. T. D., Bishop of Wisconsin, and late Vice-Presi-
dent of the Academy of Sciences, died December 7, 1873.

Prof. Peter Engelmann, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. : :

J. W. Foster, LL. D., late Professor in the University of Chicago, Chicago, Il.

J. A. Lapham, LL. D., Milwaukee, Wisconsin, First Secretary Wisconsim
Academy Science Arts and Letters. j ; t

Wm. Stimpson, M. D., late Secretary Chicago Academy of Sciences, Chicago,
Illinois.

Hon. John Y. Smith, Madison, Wisconsin.

Hon. A. S. McDill, M. D., Madison, Wisconsin.
RRR aber arian Wi ea ks el

* Deceased.

Za

CHARTER, CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS

. OF THE

Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters,

OP WISCONSIN

With the Amendments thereto, up to February, 1876.

CHARTER:

AN ACT TO INCORPORATE THE “WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF
SCIENCES ARTS AND LETTERS.

The people of the State of Wisconsin, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact
as follows:

Section. 1 Lucius Fairchild, Nelson Dewey, John W. Hoyt, Increase A. Lap-
ham, Alexander Mitchell, Wm. Pitt Lynde, Joseph Hobbins, 4. B. Wolcott, Solon
Marks, R. Z. Mason, G. M. Steele, T. C Chamberlin, James H. Eaton, A. L.
Chapin, Samuel Fallows, Charles Preuser, Wm. E. Smith, J. C. Foye, Wm. Dud-
ley, P. Englemann, A. 8. MeDill, John Murrish, Geo. P. Delaplaine, J. G. Knapp,
8. V. Shipman, #&dward D. Holton, P. R. Hoy, Thaddeus C. Pound, Charles E.
Bross, Lyman C. Draper, John A. Byrne, O. R. Smith, J. M. Bingham, Henry
Betz, Li. Breese, Thos. S. Allen, S.S. Barlow, Chas. R. Gill,C. L. Harris,
George Reed, J. G. Thorp, William Wilson, Samuel D. Hastings, and D. A. Bald-
win, at present being members and officers of an association known as ‘‘ The Wis-
consin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,’”? located at the city of Madison, to-
gether with their future associates and successors forever, are hereby created a body
corporate by the name and style of the ‘- Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and
Letters,’’ and by that name shall have perpetual succession; shall be capable in law
of contracting and being contracted with, of suing and being sued, of pleading and
being impleaded in all courts of competent jurisdiction; and may do and perform
such acts as are usually performed by like corporate bodies.

SectTron 2. The general objects of the Academy shall be to encourage investiga-
tion and disseminate correct views in the various departments of science, literature
and the arts. Among the specific objects of the academy shall be embraced the
following:

1. Researches and investigations in the various departments of the material, meta-
physical, ethical, ethnological and social sciences.

2. A progressive and thorough scientific survey of the State, with a view of determ-
ining its mineral, agricultural and other resources.

3. The advancement of the useful arts, through the applications of science, and
by the encouragement of original invention.

4. The encouragement of the fine arts, by means of honors and prizes awarded to
artists for original works of superior merit.

5. The formation of scientific, economical and art museums.

6. fhe encouragement of philological and historical research, the collection and
preservation of historic records, and the formation of a general library.

7. The diffusion of knowledge by the publication of original contributions to
science, literature and the arts.

Suction 3, Said Academy may have 2 common seal and alter the same at pleas-
ure; may ordain and enforce such constitution, regulations and by-laws as may be
necessary, and alter the same at pleasure; may receive and hold real and personal
property, and may use and dispose of the same at pleasuty; provided, that it shall
not divert any donation or bequest from the uses and objects proposed by the donor,
and that none of the property acquired hy it shall, in any manner, be alienated other
than in the way of an exchange of duplicate specimens, books, and other effects, with
similar institutions and in the manner specified in the next section of this act, with-
out the consent of the legislature.

252 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

Section 4. It shall be the duty of the said Academy, so far as the same may be
done without detriment to its own collections, to furnish, at the discretion of its offi-
cers, duplicate typical specimens of objects in natural history to the University of
Wisconsin, and to the other schools and colleges of the State.

Ssecrion 5. It shall be the duty of said Academy to keep a careful record of all
its financial and other transactions, and, at the close of each fiscal year, the Presi-
dent thereof shall report the same to the Governor of the State, to be by him laid
before the Legislature.

Sec7ion 6. The constitution and by-laws cf said Academy now in force shall
govern the corporation hereby created, until regularly altered or repealed; and the
present officers of said Academy shall be officers of the corporation hereby created,
until their respective terms of oflico shall regularly expire, or until their places
shall be otherwise vacated. “

Secrion 7. Any existing society or institution having like objects embraced by
said Academy, may be constituted a departinent thereof, or be otherwise connected
therewith, on terms mutually s»tisfactory to the governing bodies of the said Acade-
my and such other society or institution.

Section 8. For the proper preservation of such scientific specimens, books and
other collections as suid Academy may make, the Governor shall prepare such
apartment or apartment in the Capitol as may be so occupied without inconveni-
ence to the State. :

Secrion 9. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its passage.

Approved March 16, 1870.

CONS TLV RIO:

NAME AND LOCATION.

SecTION 1. This association shall be called ‘“‘ The Wisconsin Academy of
Sciences, Arts and Letters,’’ and shall be located at the city of Madison.

GENERAL OBJECTS.

Section 2. The general object of the Academy shall be to enconrage investiga-
tions and disseminate correct views in the various departments of Science, Litera-
ture and the Arts.

DEPARTMENTS.

Section 38. The Academy shall comprise separate Departments, not less than
three in number, of which those first organized shall be:

Ist. The Department of Speculative Philosophy—

Embracing:
Metaphysics;
Ethics.

2@. The Department of the Social and Political Sciences—

Embracing:
Jurisprudence;
Political Science;
Education;
Public Health;

Social Economy.
3d. The Department of the Natural Sciences—

Embracing:
The Mathematical and Physical Sciences;
Natural History;
The Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences,

4th. The Department of the Arts—

Embracing:
The Practical Arts;
The Fine Arts. -

5th. The Department of Letters—

Embracing:
Language;
Literature;
Criticism ;
History.

254 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LEITERS.

Section 4. Any branch of these Departments may be constituted a section; and
any section or groupe of sections may be expanded into a full department, whenever
such expansion shall be deemed important.

Section 5. Any existing society or institution may be constituted a Department,
on terms approved by two-thirds of the voting members present at two successive
regular meetings of the Academy.

SPECIAL OBJECTS OF THE DEPARTMENTS.

Section 6. The specific objects of the Department of Sciences shall be:

1. General Scientific Research.

2. A progressive and thorough Scientific Survey of the State, under the direction
of the Officers of the Academy.

3. The formation of a Scientific Museum.

4. The Diffusion of Knowledge by the publication of Original Contributions to
Science

The objects of the Department of the Arts shall be:

1. The Advancement of the Useful Arts, through the Applications of Science
and the Kncouragement of Original Invention.

2. The Encouragement of the Fine Arts and the Improvement of the Public
Taste, by means of Honors and Prizes awarded to Works of Superior Merit, by
Original Contributions to Art, and the formation of an Art Museum.

The objects of the Department of Letters, shall be:

The Encouragement of Philological and Historical Research.
The Improvement of the English Language.

The Collection and Preservation of Historic Records.

The Formation of a General Library.

LCOS

MEMBERSHIP. ‘

Section 7. The Academy shall embrace four classes of governing members who
shall be admitted by vote ot the Academy, in the manner to be prescribed in the
By-Laws:

Ist. Annual Members, who shall pay an initiation fee of five dollars, and there- °
after an annual fee of two dollars.

2d. Members for Life, who shall pay a fee of one hundred dollars.

3d. Patrons, whose contributions shall not be less than five hundred dollars.

Ath. Founders, whose contributions shall not be less than the sum of one thous-
and dollars.

Provision may also be made for the election of Honorary and Corresponding
Members,*as may be directed in the By-Laws of the Academy.

MANAGEMENT.

Srection 8. The management of the Academy shall be entrusted to a General
Council; the immediate control of each Department to a Department Council.
The General Council shall consist of the officers of the Academy, the officers of the
Departments, the Governor and Lieutenant Governor, the Superintendent of Public
Instruction, and the President of the State University, the President and Secretary
of the State Agricultural Society, the President and Secretary of the State Histori-
cal Society, Counselors ez-officiis, and three Counselors to be eleccted for each De-
partment. The Department Councils shall consist of the President and Secretary
of the Academy, the officers of the Department, and three Counselors to be chosen
by the Department.

OFFICERS.

Srcrion 9. The officers of the Academy shall be: a President, who shall be ez-
officio President of each of the Departments; one Vice-President for each Depart-
ment; a Geneial Secretary; a General Treasurer; a Director of the Museum, and a
General Librarian.

Srcrron 10. The officers of each Department shall be a Vice-President, who
shall be ex-officio a Vice-President of the Academy; a Secretary and such other offi-
cers as may be created by the General Council.

CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS. 255

Section 11. The officers of the Academy and the Departments shall hold their
respective offices for the term of three vears and until their successors are elected.

Secrion 12. The first election of officers under this Constitution shall be by its
members at the first meeting of the Academy.

Section 13. The duties of the officers and the mode of their election, after the
first election, as likewise the frequency, place and date of all meetings, shall be pre-
scribed in the By-Laws of the Academy, which shall be framed and adopted by the
General Council.

Suction 14. No compensation shall be paid to any person whatever, and no ex-
pence ocurred for any person or object whatever, except under the authority of the

ouncil.

RELATING TO AMENDMENTS.
Srcrion 15. Every proposition to aiter or amend this constitution shall be sub-
mittted in writing at a regular meeting; and if two thirds of the members present at
the next regular meeting vote in the affirmative, it shall be adopted.

AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION.

Amendment to Section 8: ‘‘ The Department of the Arts shall be hereafter di-
vided into the Department of the Mechanic Arts and the Department of the Fine
Arts.’? i Passed February 14, 1876.

BY-LAWS.

ELECTION OF MEMPERS.

1. Candidates for membership must be proposed in writing, by a member, to the
General Council and referred to a Committee on Nominations, which Committee
may nominate to the Academy. A majority vote shall elect. Honorary and cor-
responding members must be persons who have rendered some marked service to
Science, the Arts, or Letters, or to the Academy.

ELECTION OF OFFICERS.
2. All officers of the Academy shall be elected by ballot.
MEETINGS.

3. The regular meetings of the Academy shall be held as follows:

On the 2d Tuesday in February, at the seat of the Academy; and in July, at
such place and exact date as shall be fixed by the Council; the first named to be
the Annual Meeting. The hour shall be designated by the Secretary in the notice
of the meeting. At any regular meeting, ten membersshall constitute a quorum for
the transaction of business. Special meetings may be called by the President at his
discretion, or by request of any five members of the General Council.

DUTIES OF OFFICERS.

4. The President, Vice-President, Secretaries, Treasurer, Director of the Museum
and Librarian shall perform the duties usually appertaining to their respective of-
fices, or such as shall be required by the Council. The Treasurer shall give such
security as shall be satisfactory to the Council, and pay such rate of intere-t on finds
held by him as the Council shall determine. Five members of the General Council
shall constitute a quorum.

256 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

COMMITTEES.

5. There shall be the following Standing Committees, to consist of three members
each, when no other nu.nber is specified:

On Nominations.

On Papers presented to the Academy.

On Finance.

On the Museum.

On the Library.

On the Scientific Survey of the State; which Commiitee shall consist
of the Governor, the President of the State University, and the
President of this Academy.

On Publication; which Committee shall consist of the President of the.
Academy, the Vice-Presidents, and the General Secretary.

MUSEUM AND LIBRARY.

6. No books shall be taken from the Library, or works or specimens from the:
Museum, except by authority of the General Council; but it shall be the duty of
said Council to provide for the distribution to the State University and to the Colleges
and public Schools of the State, of such duplicates of typical specimens in Natural:
History as the Academy may be able to supply without detriment to its collections.

ORDER OF BUSINESS.

7. The order of business at all regular meetings of the Academy or of any Depart-
ment, shall be as follows:
Reading minutes of previous meeting.
Reception of donations.
Reports of officers and cemunittees.
Deferred business.
New business.
Reading and discussion of papers.

SUSPENSION AND AMENDMENT OF BY-LAWS.
8 The By-Laws may be suspended by a unanimous vote, and in case of the order

of business a majority miy snspend. They may be amended in the same manner ag.
is provided for in the Constitution, for its amendment.

Report of the Council.

Since the last Report of the Council on February 11, 1874, the
Academy has lost by death three of its most active members: Hon.
I. A. Lapham, LL D., of Milwaukee, late Chief Geolegist of Wis-
consin, Prof. Peter Engelman of Milwaukee, and Hon. John Y.
Smith of Madison, the latter noted for his sound views and able
writings in Political Economy.

A short account of the life and character of Dr. Lapham, by E.
R. Leland, Esq., of Hau Claire, also one by P. R. Hoy, M. D. Presi-
dent elect of the Academy will be found at the end of this volume.

A sketch of Prof. Peter Engelmann, by Mr. Leland will also be
found in the same place.

An account of the life of Hon. John Y. Smith. will be found in
the Wisconsin State Historical Society’s Report for 187¢.

17———-w as

IN MEMORIAM.

PROF. PETER ENGELMANN.

oY E. R. LELAND, EsSQ., OF EAU CLAIRE.

Peter Engelmann was born on the 24th of January, 1823, and on the 17th of May,
1874, the died, before he had conipleted his fifty-second year. The object of this
memoir is to give aslight sketch of this existence which was so suddenly cut short
at the moment of bearing its best fruit.

It is due to his memory that [should disclaim my fitness for this task, which
was only undertaken upon the assurance that else it would remain undone. With-
out other qualification than the admiration and respect resulting from a rather lim-
ited acquaintance—with but meagre details of his life at my command, I shall at-
tempt no adequate biographical sketch, but simply try to declare what the man was.

Hlis birthplace was the village of Argenthal, in Rhenish-Prussia. His parents
were farmers, as were his elder brothers, and of him they desired to make a farmer
also; but in farm life he felt little interest even in boyhood, while, as soon as he
could read, he was hungry for books, and eager in his search of knowledge. But
social lines are drawn with rigor in Germany, and distinctions of caste observed al-
most as scrupuously as they are in India, and it was only through the intervention
of a fortunate circumstance that he was enabled to escape from the irksome pursuit
‘of the plow and follow his natural bent for learning. The Protestant clergyman of
the village, and the superintendent, interested in the boy, on account of his rapid
progress under inferior instruction, pursuaded his parents to send hina to a better
school. To this they finally consented, in the hope to see their son gain the pulpit—
than which they had for him no higher ambition—and he was sent to the ‘*Hochere
Buergerschule’’ at Simmern. He went there from his ninth to his fifteenth year,
walking a distance of four miles each way every day. When he reached home
after his four-mile walk he had his ‘‘ chores’’ to do, and then to get his lessons.
But he had energy and dilligence enough to overcome these disadvantages, and he
received the highest certificates as to his proficiency.

At this time he had no other aim than to gratify the piousambition of his parents;
but this was not to remain the case very long. In 1838 he was—thanks to the aid
of his teachers at Simmer, of whom he always spoke with tenderuess and gratitude
—fitted to be received in the secunda of the gymnasium, at Kreuznach. It was

wwhile here, although all his surroundings were calculated to impress his mind with

PROF. PETER ENGELMANN. 259

re igious faith, that he felt constrained io give up the plan of becominz a pastor; the
critical bias of his intellect constantly prompting him to question theologians and de-
man | explanation of the contradictions in their teachings, until finally the old mys-
tic creed of his fathers, lost every title of its influence and authority, and he ceased
then, and forever after, to be swayed by its absurd hopes or childish fears.

After studying at Kreuznach for the four years necessary to go through the Secunda
and Prima, he passed a successful examination in 1842. The study of history and
the natural sciences only served to strengthen his convictions, and, ever frank and
outspoken, he found himself in antagouism to his bound-to-be-pious teachers. They
could not, howeyer, help giving him in his certificate the most excellent notes in re-
gard to diligence, progress, moral character and good nature. The theologian, in-
serted the admonition that “he must not forget that nature and her laws are not
higher than their Creator.?’

He went away to the Universities. Of his life there I know little. He joined a
secret revolutionary society; but neither revolutionary zeal nor the temptations of
student life diverted him from his work. There is evidence that his course was
marked by the same good conduct and steadfast industry; for there, as at Kreuznach
he was the object of high praise. ‘The certificate given him at Berlin where he
studied three years, after one year at Heidelberg, contains twenty notes from various
professors, among them Encke, Poggendorf, Dove, Ehrenberg, and Dirichlet, all
unanimous in commendation.

On leaving the University there were two courses open to him. One was to choose
Astronomy as his calling, which he had studied theoretically and practically under
Encke, but this he had not the means to pursue without aid, and he would not as
he wrote in his journal “‘ beg protection.”? The other was to become a teacher at
some gymnasium. He decided to apply for a State teacher’s examination and passed
successfully, though he looked forward to it with apprehension, several of bis friends
haying failed but a short time previously. The theologianamong the examiners, to
whom he frankly confessed his unbelief, while giving him credit for his knowledge,
decided that ‘‘ he could not teach religiun because he did not accept the bible as the
source of truth. Royal commissioners in Prussia are very anxious to see that the
youth are not misled by unbelieving teachers. Fortunately the result depended,
not upon the theologian, Mr. Teressen, but mainly upon Schellbach, Rose, and Ehren-
berg, and so he was granted the “ facultus docenti.’’

He then went to the Kreuznach Gymnasium, where he taught for a year anda half
with marked success. Here again his frankness stood in the way of his preferment
—his vutspoken declarations for republicanism preventing him from being regularly
installed as a teacher.

When in February 1848 the revolntion broke out in France, he hailed it with en-
thusiasm, and with all the fervent zeal and energy of his nature agitated for the re-
publican idea among the people of Kreuznach. Jvintly with some friends he found-
ed a Turn-verein (gymnastic society) and a Buergen-verein (citizens’ society) and
wrought a radical change in the public opinion. He was given to understan | that
if he would “hush” he should have a desirable situation, and the Chief Director of
Education of the Rhenish Provinces summoned him to an interview and advised
him to desist. His answer was an increased revolutionary activity. With a few

230 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

friends of the cause he founded a democratic club and began publishing a reyolu-
tionary paper. The first editor was soon compelled to flee. Engelman succeeded
him in Febiuary 1849 and conducted the paper till May, when he too, had to leave
his Fatherland to escape the dungeon. Another of the friends then continued the
paper until it was suppressed by Prussian soldiery.

In Augnst, 1849, Englemann reached New York in a destitute condition. He
joined an acquaintance to try ‘Latin farming’? near Marshall, Michigan. The re-
sult was as discouraging as might have been expected. One of his first acts was to
take out his naturalization papers, for he burned with impatience to “renounce for-
ever his allegiance to the King of Prussia,’’? and to become a citizen of the Re-
public. After working for awhile as a furm-hand. he went to Milwaukee, and
thence to Oshkosh. At the latter place he was taken sick, and lay prostrate for
eight weeks, without friend or farthing. Returning to Milwaukee, he was again
taken sick; and without money for support, or a single acquaintance, his situation
and frame of mind may be more easily imagined than described.

Whea partially restored, he was engaged by a farmer, three miles from Milwau-
kee, to instruct two boys for his board. Soon after, he was engaged as teacher for a
district school. His success as a teacher soon became manifest, so that children
were sent from the city to partake of his instrnctiou. After the close of the term,
although the district sought to retain him at double his former salary, he went back
to Milwaukee to seck a more extended field for his educational woik. Then it was
that the German and English Academy was founded. It commenced school July 1,
1851, giving its director a salary of $25 per month. Tere he reinained nntil death
closed his arduous and unselfish duties.

His plans were far more comprehensive than his achievements. He was not to
be permitted to carry them out, but he lived to see his academy advance in mem-
bers and eduzational results until it gained the reputation of being one of the best
schools of its grade in the Union, a result which it is no exaggeration to say was
due to his labors. Engleman was one of the pioneers in the United States cf mod-
ern rational pedzgogy, as opposed to the old school routine of memorizing and recit-
Ing; his aim was more to edueate and train the young mind for self-instruction, than
to cram with undigested knowledge. His methods were based upon the ideas of
Pestalozzie and Froebel—though he was a routine follower of no man’s lead. It
had Jong been his intention to publish a number of hand-bouks for the use of
sohools, among them one of Universal History, and he was about to prepare a
teachers manual for mathematics. In this respect his premature death is a serious
loss to the cause of education, for his metnod, based upon his rational views, have
proved highly satisfactory and successful. In mora! teachings he avoided making
them repugnant to the pupils by dry catechism, but taught them to love virtue by
examples taken from history which were emphasized by his own excellent example.

He introduced natural sciences more largely than is conimon, that his scholars
might learn how t» observe—how to read and question the works of nature for
themselves, and to apply the scientific methods of investigation to all things; and
lastly, he ever songht to transplant his own humane sentim n‘s; his own chivalrous
love for liberty and justice into the minds of the embryo citizens entruste! to his
care. One of the good results of hisschool was the elevation—by a spirit of emu-

PROF. PETER ENGELMANN. 261

lation—of the standard of the public schools of Milwaukee, to a much higher level
than they would have otherwise attained.

But the care of this Academy, absorbing as it was, by no means bounded the
sphere of his activity. He and his friend Dr. A. Luning, were the principal found-
ers ot the Natural History Society of Wisconsin, and he the Curator of its now very
valuable museum from the beginning. He bestowed a great amount of labor upon
it; zoalously collecting himself, and inciting others to follow his example. Who-
ever might be lukewarm; he was not. He never wearied of the work; he shrank
from no dru:lgery connected with it. Much, perhaps most of his leisure was given
to the work of determining, labeling and arranging specimens. Nor was he niggardly
of his precious time to either the mere curiosity gazer, the inquiring voung student,
or the amateur dabbler in science. The courtesy and kindly interest with which he
welcomed all comers, I have occasion to gratefully remember. Since his death, the
museum bears his name.

In spite of this exhausting and absorbing professional work, he found time to
write many articles for liberal papers, and to give numerous lectures before radica
and scientific societies, always withort pay, and often illustrated by experiments at
his own expense. In short, he sought knowledge, not for the personal gratification
which it affords, but to the end that he might aid in its general diffusion, or make
some practical application of it for the good of his fellows, and he carried these dis-
interested labors to an extreme that many of his thrifty countrymen could not un-
derstand, and they were, some of them, inclined to call him visionary and a fanatic.
Te was neither. Je had sterling good sense, and he rode no hobbies. His mo-
tives lay upon the surface, and if men could not read them aright it was their own
oblique vision that was at fault. Tis whole life was given to the advaneement of
the race, to liberty of thought, of speech, of life—with a devotion that most men
will admire and few have the courage to imitate.

His last illness was a sharp attack of congestion of the lungs, under which hesank
very rapidly, retaining consciousness to the last. He died, as he had lived, bravely
and calmly; without fear or regret. With characteristic modesty he directed that
his funeral should be free from formal obsequies. There were none of the conven-
tional forms, but hundreds followed him to his grave and hid it with flowers as a
last feeble tribute to his worth, and, few indeed are the men who havea place in
the tender memories of so many hearts as this self-sacrificing teacher. The future
of his beloved enterprises—concerning which he had many and ambitious hopes—is
now in other hands. They may not suffer, but it will be a long search to find one
man who can fill his place.

This, in brief, and most imperfect outline. was the life of Peter Engelmann. It
was not, as we have seen an eventful one. Jlis name never became famons, for his
were not the qualities which gain fame—as the world goes. Self abnegation, honest
steadfastness of purpose, devotion to principal, are prized and valued but are not
loudly praised. it is the bold dogmatist, the skilled rhetorician, the sagacious trim-
mer of sails to the breeze of public opinion, that wins applause.

This modest pedagogue knew none of these tricks of success. With rare rectitude

‘he, in early manhood, put aside a brilliant scientific career, because he prized inde-
pendence, self-respect, the approval of his conscience, more highly than place and

262 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

profit and fame; and from his devotion to principle the very nature of his religious
belief, removed all taint or suspicion of selfishness, even of the most refined and
spiritual sort, for he was an uncompromising materialist.

Forced to the conclusion, that so far as human reason, arguing from the facts of
life, can form any judgment on the subject, a self-conscious existence hereafter is
an impossibility; he declined to follow these who assume that there is a higher
mode of apprehending these facts than reason supplies. He would allow no attri-
butes—cherish no hopes that demanded the sanction of something higher than his
understanding; and whatever may be our private beliefs, it is difficult to see how
the logical soundness of this position can be assailed.

His belief gives the clue to his aims und his labors. Feeling that the assump-
tions of the so-called, higher modes of cognition were gratuitous and mischievous, he
wotked so far as he could for their downfall—but he did not stop here, he was not
a mere iconoclast. He saw, what all must see, that there is a growing disposition
to question these assumptions, and he was not blind to the dangers of states of trans-
ition. He could use no other than the materialistic formula, but with that he did
what in him Jay to revolutionize and humanize political and social life, so as to fit
it toa higher creed. Ile worked tothe end that when men should no longer obey,
through fear or hope, the mystical, external commands, that they should already
be, through a love of goodness for itself, obedient to the higher, internal commands.

Ge apprehended no danger to morality, for he well knew that morality is not the
fruit of any creed, but the sum of human experience. His last work in this direc-
tion, was an answer to an attempt, by one Pastor Streissguth, to prove that material-
ism was error and tended to immorality. The pamphlet has been published since
his death, by the Wisconsin Union of Liberal Societies; he therein refutes by unan-
swerable arguments, as he had by his piure and blameless life, the silly and inecon-
sequent slander, that the morality which flows from scientific materialism can be
comprehended in the words, “Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow wedie.”’ Ifa
man believes that his sentient existence is restricted to the three-score years on
earth, will he therefore anticipate the nothingness of the future by becoming a sot
in the present? or will he use his best endeavor to husband this handful of years
and make them yield to him the greatest measure of spiritual life?

To say nothing of the many good and able men who cannot base their theory of
life upon a belief in a future individuality; there are outside the limits of Christen-
dom millions of human beings who look forward to forgetfulness, and whose lives are
by no means marked by a devotion to the grosser pleasures of the world. The as-
sertion, or rather the inference—for it oftenest comes in that shape—that a man will
be good only in proportion as he has a lively sense cf the pleasures of a coming
heaven, or the pains of an inevitable hell, is a rank calumny upon our moral nature.
It is safe to assert that no man of noble instincts, pure aspirations, or high moral
principle will be demoralized by the contemplation of a limited existence; nor will
the brute be ennobled by the prospect which the church presents to his debased im-
agination.

I will make no apology for thus lamely intruding these truisms. There is need of
their occasional reiteration.

PROF. PETER ENGELMANN. 263

No good and pure man lives without divinities—and Engleman’s were; humanity,
progress, a realization of the high ideals to which his philosophy pointed. Brave
an{ outspoken in uttering his convictions when need was, he was never dogmatic.
He did his work in a spirit of true humanity—a humanity that was content cheer-
fully to accept the place which he believed he held in nature, that of a stepping-
stone—one of the myriads by which the race is to gain a glorious future. But he
had none of the assumed, servile, oriental abjectures that leads man to revile him-
self as a worthless worm of the dust, and in the same breath demand, with sublime
egotism, why he was created, with his lofty purposes and high aspirations, if he is
to have a glorious and an undying future? That leads him to deem himself defrauded
if, with his matchless intellect, he is not to know a state of being far transcending
anything which earth affords, more or less ineffable and gorgeous as his ideas are
spiritual and his imagination vivid.

The man who holds and promulgates ideas that are in opposition to the popular
beliefs of his age, can scarcely live a bright and cheerful life; but it may contain
much of nobleness that compensates for the loss of worldly pleasures. Engelmann
was aserious but nota sad man. He bore a burden common to many, but he stood
upright under it. He answered the question which man is ever asking ‘* What am
1?”) by saying ‘‘ my consciousness isa mere resultant of force acting upon matter
and at the death of the fiesh it will revert to its former conditions,.as sounds revert
back to the air in which they were born.’’?’ We may answer it differently, but we
cannot demonstrate that he was mistaken; and we must admire his attitude when
brought face to face with a great problem.

Tt was with eyes open and head erect—true to his creed to the last—hugging ng
delusive dreams—his highest conception of truth upon his lips. No man can meet
death better!

He is at peace, and if it be that the universe holds greater possibilities than were
acknowledged in his philosophy, we may be sure, as has beon said of one whom in
many things he resembled:

‘Wherever there is knowledge,
Wherever there is virtue,
Wherever there is beauty,

Ife will find a home.”’

INCREASE A. LAPHAM, LL. D.

BY P. R. HOY, M. D., RACINE.
PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

It becomes my duty, as chairman of the committee appointed for the purpose, ot -
report on the life and labors of I. A. Lapham, LL. D., one of the organic members
and the first Secretary of our Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

I perform this duty with greater willingness, and, indeed, with a mournful pleasure,
yemembering Dr. Lapham as a long and well-tried friend. Engaged in similar sci-
entific pursuits, there sprang up between us a close friendship, cemented by sympa-
thy, which lasted nearly thirty years, until his death.

IT shall not attempt a complete chronological history of his life, as that has already
been so well done by S. S. Sherman for the Old Settlers’ Club of Milwaukee, but
shall speak principally from personal knowledge, merely introducing a short sketch
of his early life by way of preface.

Increase Allen Lapham, whose memory we wish to bonor. was born of Quaker
parents, in Palmyra, Wayne Co., N. Y., on the 7th of March, 1811. After receiv-
ing a common school training he began the study of Engineering under his father’s
instructions. ;

When but sixteen years of age he went to Louisville and was employed on the
ship canal around the Falls of the Ohio.

At this early date he began the study of Botany, Conchology, and Geology, which
he prosecuted as a youthful lover of nature with the enthusiastic zeal which charac-
terized his work during all the years that followed, up to the hour of his death.

While in Louisville he wrote his first scientific paper entitled, ‘‘ A Notice of the
Louisville and Shipping-Port Canal, and the Geology of the Vicinity,’? which was
published in the American Journal of Science and Arts.

This first offering contained many new facts and was highly eommended by the
elder Silliman as a valuable contribution, coming as it did froma mere boy, what
might not be expected from the pen of riper years, wider experience and greater
knowledge?

When the canal was completed, young Lapham became assistant engineer of the
Ohio canal, which position he held until his appointment in 1833 as Secretary of
the State Canal Board of Commissioners, when he moved to Columbns. Here he
found time to devote to his specialty, Botany, and formed the acquaintance of many
eminent scientific men, among them Prof. J. B. Kirtland.

In the spring of I836 he landed at the straggling village of Milwaukee, in the
then Territory of Michigan, where he continued to live and study for the remaining
thirty-nine years of his active and useful life.

INCREASE A. LAPHAM, LL. D. 265

My first acqnaintance with Dr. Lapham was in 1846, when one morning there
Janded from the steamer Sultana a small man witha huge collecting box hanging at
his side.

{Te came from Milwaukee and intended returning on foot along the lake-shore
in order to collect plants and shelis, no easy journey, encumbered, as he soon
would be, with a well filled specimen box He spoke lightly of the undertaking,
saying he had performed similar feats befure Truly where the heart is in the woik
and the mind is fully occupied, labor becomes mere play, and what otherwise
would seem drudgery is performed with ease and pleasure.

In after years we were often together, studying the mounds, quarries, forest trees
etc., near Racine, and my first impressions of his energy, persevorance, enthusiasm,
accuracy and extent of information were all deepened by our subsequent meetings.

He was a quiet unassuming gentleman, benevolent and most hospitable, as both
strangers and friends can abundantly testify. He had not the advantages of com-
manding presence, and was not gifted in public speaking, and being modest toa
fiualt, always inclined to underrate his own abilities and labors. he often did not re-
ceive that recognition which his knowledge demanded and which would have been
quickly yielded had he possessed more self-assertion or a more combative temper-
ament. Yet, his hight could not be hidden, though he succeeded sometimes in
shadowiny it, and he soon became ¢he authority on all scientific subjects, and was
eften appealed to from city, state and country for information which he alone could
furnish.

His politeness and patience under the infliction of ignorant question-askers who
often trespassed upon his valuable time with matters of little importance, and his
rule of always answering letters asking information, no matter how trifling, show his
kind heartedness and unselfishness.

No one could doubt his industry who saw his large, valuable, and well used li-
brary, and his extensive and systematically arranged collection of minerals, fossils,
shells and antiquities; or who examined his Herbarium of three thousand spect-
mens—the finest in the Northwest—and thea remembered in connection with all
this his work in other directions. Iis idea of rest was characteristically shown by
his once cataloguing my hundreds of insects for future use in some publication, at
atime when he visited me under his physicians’ orders to take a needed rest and
abstain from business.

He was no politician and never sought office. Such offices as he held sought him.

Among the many services he has rendered to science not the least, is his work in
establishing the Signal Service, which has already worked such good in saving
wealth and precious lives. As his connection with this enterprise seems to have
been enveloped in doubt with some, I wrote to Prof. Henry, Secretary of the Smith-
sonian for information. In reply I received the following:

"The action of Congress in securing the Signal Service was due to the immediate
exertions of Dr. Lapham through the member of Congress from his district, Gen.
Payne, in setting forth the advantage of the system in the commervial interest of the
Great Lakes.” So this matter is settled as Prof. Henry is the end of the law in
meteorological affairs,

Was Lapham a self-made man?

266 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

Yes, all men are self-made, in one sense, for there can be no unusual attainments
without close and persistent study. Lapham, however, never had the advantages of
a college education. But was not the book of nature ever open to impart instruction
to this student who knew how to read its pages with delight and profit? To his ex-
tensive reading and close observation of nature we must not omit to add as an educa-
tional element in iis life, scarcely to he overestimated, his long continued correspond-
ence with such men as Henry, Baird, Leidy, LeConte, Haldeman, Cassin, Hall,
Morton, Kirtland, Agassiz, Gray, Eaton, Silliman, Rogers, Hitchcock, Torrey, Harris
and a host of others eminent in science and arts. Another means of improvement, not
neglected by Dr. Lapham, was attendance of meetings of societies devoted to the dis-
cussion of his loved studies, and where mind comes in contact with mind, with mutual
benefit. He was a member of most of the scientific associations of the country, and gave
them many valuable written contributions. Some of his articles are published by
the Wisconsin Academy, in the Wisconsin and Illinois Agricultural Reports, Agri-
cultural Department of the Patent Office, Historical publications, Smithsonian Con-
tributions to Knowledge, Proceedings of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, American Naturalist, Geological Reports, ete., ete. Besides,
he published many pamphlets and maps, both topographical and geological. His
writings were brief, clear and devoid of high-sounding words used for effect—he was
above such trickery.

In order to judge correctly of men, we must know them under those circum-
stances and in that place where nature and education have best fitted them to act.
To know Dr. Lapham, we must go with him to his workshop—the great out-doors.
We stroll out on the prairies. He pulls up the grass and discourses familiarly of
the spikes and spikelets, the rachis and glume, inspects the roots, digs down and ex-
amines the soil from which they spring. His tongue is unloosed, and: he becomes
eloquent in spite of himseif. We go into the forest. He talks of the various spe-
cies of trees, the vines that clamber up their trunks and nestle in their branches.
He inspects the lichens that grow on the rough bark, examines the moss that ad-
heres to the roots, and unearths a tiny helix that has found a home there. We go
to the rapids, and he immediately interests himself in the rare ferns that festoon the
rocks with their graceful fronds; or clambers among the quarries, marks the strati-
fication of the Silurian rocks, and chips out rare forms of Crinoids and Trilobites—
those wonderful representations of the ocean fauna of the dim past. We seek the
mounds—those records of a pre-historic race—dig beneath their foundations and
wrest from them their secrets. The position of the bones is carefully noted, their
rude pottery restored, the curious stone implements treasured up, and 128 mounds
are surveyed and mapped. We stand upon our lake shore and he discourses of the
force of the waves, and describes the ingenious contrivance by which he detected
the lake’s minature lunarwaves. He talks of the force of the winds and their
velocity and direction and then looks up the clouds and iells their indications, and
speaks of the annual rainfall and of the average temperature of the seasons for the
last thirty years, during which time he had kept a faithful record of these phenom-
ena.

His last paper, ‘‘ Oconomowoc and the Small Lakes of Wisconsin,’’ was prepared
for me. The ink was scarcely dry before his soul passed over to the ‘‘ Shining

INCREASE A. LAPHAM, LL. D. 267

Shore,’ that lovely day, September 14, 1875, was the last of earth to Dr. I. A. Lap-
ham.

The State has Jost the service of one who knew more of her Geology, Topography
and Botany than any man living, and one who contributed largely to her early pros-
perity. Milwaukee has lost one of her oldest and best cltizens, an upright and hon-
est man. His children have lost a luving father end his accquaintances a devoted
friend.

ADDITIONAL TRIBUTE TO THE MEMORY OF DR. LAPHAM.

BY E. R. LELAND, ESQ., EAU CLAIRE, WIS.

Mr. Presiprnt:—I cannot let this oceasion go by without trying to pay some
tribute to the memory of our lamented and revered fellow-member, whom it was
tong my privilege to call a friend.

Known to the world as an able scientist; to the many who casually met him, as a
modest, manly, cultured gentleman; by the few he was honored and beloved as it
falls to the lot of few men to be, fur virtues that were not worn upon his sleeve—for
# nobility that intimacy alone could reveal.

I do not, however stand here as his eulogist. I should feel that to be a sort of im-
pertinence in me—even if the work had not already been done far better than I
could hope to do it.

I desire only to make some acknowledgement of the obligation—now never to be
discharged— which Dr. Lapham has laid upon me by many acts of kindness and as-
sistance through all the years since I first knew him. An obligation which, I think
many others must share with me, for he was ever ready with kind and helpful sym-
pathy for all. The merest tyro in natural history was sure of warm welcome and
encouragement at his hands, and his collection, his library, and above all his valua-
ble time and experience were placed freely at the disposal of the seeker for knowl-
edge.

And he taught wisely; for his nature had nothing of the pedant, his spirit nothing
of dogmatism. His was the open mind; ready to learn from all sources, not prone
to theorizing nor swift to draw conclusions. He had learned to wait—and there was
in his attitude no posturing, nor bidding for popular applause in anything which he
did. He toiled for science, from a love of Science, but with a thorough and intelli-
gent comprehension of the great possibilities that lie in this field of research.

And it has always seemed tu me that when he came to die, the manner of his
death was a serene and most fit ending of a life thus spent. No prolonged, distress-
ful struggle, no whispering, crowded room; there were bending over him no beloved
faces, agonized with a grief which he could do nothing to assuage. Nodoctor came,

““With phrase and fame,
To shake his sapient head and give
The ill he could not name;
* * € * * *
No brother doctor of the soul,
To canvass with official breath,
The future and the viewless things,
Which one whofe Is death’s winnowing wings,
Must needs read clearer, sure, than hel’

TRIBUTE TO DR. LAPHAM. 269

He was alone and face to face wit Nature, whose life-long lover he had been.
Fanned by her softest airs, lulled by her gentlest song, his last conscious act, per-
haps, a fresh effort to trace her endless clue, and he passed on, with swift and pang-
less transition, to the solution of the wonderful mystery which enyelups all.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

OF

SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

Vou. IV. 1876-77.

=
“ MATOS
Oo NE OA
Po oe A ~
a S* ‘< a™
hy

Le : ON
\ AA A R 8 1889 : ws
Nag Re ee ,
NY yn Soh

Published by Authority of Law.

MADISON, WIS.:
DAVID ATWOOD, STATE PRINTER,

CONTENTS.

TITLES OF PAPERS PUBLISHED IN THIS VOLUME.

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL AND PoLiTICAL SCIENCES. Page.
1. Peasant Communities in France. By Wm. F. Allen, A. M... 1-6
2. The Abolition of the Jury System. By Rev. Chas. Caverno.. 7-18
3. The Origin of the Freeholders. By Wm. F. Allen, A. M.... 19-24
4. The Duty of the State in its Treatment of the Deaf and Dumb,
the Blind, the Idiotic, the Crippled and Deformed, and the
Imsanes > yz kr Ze Mason Le Denies nssaccjeic tiers cists c sistcrers 25-30
DEPARTMENT OF ARTS.
1. Art as Education. By Alford Payne, S. T.D...... Saqbobood 31-43
2. The Harmonic Method in Greek Art. By J. R.Stuart, A.M. 44-49
DEPARTMENT OF LETTERS. :
1. Letters an Embarrassment to Literature. By Prof. W. C.
SEMAVGEo Oca OE ooodoDOORS ofelereassett wrcrohelsieleisieveusceinye-elteeveneterores 50-55
DEPARTMENT OF SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY.
1. Mr. Spencer’s Social Anatomy. By Rev. H. M.Simmons.... 56-61
2. Nature and Freedom. By J.J. Elmendorf, S.T.D.......... 62-76
DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL SCIENCES.
1. Notes on Cladocera. By Edward A. Birge, Ph. D........... V7-112
2. On the Fauna of the Niagara and Upper Silurian Rocks, as
Exhibited in Milwaukee county, Wisconsin, and in Counties
Contiguous thereto. By Fs oH. Day, M.Di oo ay nse e ee 113-125
3. Discoveries Illustrating the Literature and Religion of the
Mound Builders. By Edmund Andrews, 4. M.,M.D...... 126-131
4. How Did the Aborigines of this Country Fabricate Copper
implements? By PR. Hoy, Mie Deo.) 2 cine oe Ssoa8e 132-137

5. Remarks on the Descent of Animals. By Prof. H. Oldenhage. 138-146

6. Why are there no Upper Incisors in the Ruminantia? By P.

LES Lovee Mami eater atata\leia!s, wvoic'-: cial a Wetyel seevotare theisies) s\clsielt @) so) .»-. 147-150
ipoler Explosions.. By Chas..l) Kings saes kos. loess ao ces .. 151-168
8. Mind in the Lower Animals. By J.S. Jewell, M. D........ 164-187
9. The Antiquities and Platycnemism of the Mound Builders of

Wasconsin) eByJIN De Hart, My Ds. s 2). 5.2 sss. ctctesse 188-200

10. On the Extent and Significance of the Wisconsin Kettle Mo-
raine: By T CuChambpberliny AVM, 2.5 5. <i. sicle. s aeeisew cle 201-234

4 Contents.

DEPARTMENT OF THE MATHEMATICAL AND PuysicaL SCIENCES. Page. .
1. Rotation as a Factor of Motion. By Prof. J. G. McMurphy. 2385-240
9, Recent Progress in Theoretical Physics. Part II— Magnetic
Rotatory Polarization of Light. By J. E. Davies, A. M.,
DM Dee ce dee Meeialene b/sietoinle rm slege wietelahersercistofatals BDIIOnGCG co 241-264

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY.

REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT ..--eseeeeeceeceees cleciets wes Risener 267-268
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
Seventh Regular Annual Meeting. Held at Madison ........ .- 269- 71
Seventh Regular Semi-annual Meeting. Held at Racine....... 271-275
Eighth Regular Annual Meeting. Held at Madison .........+- 276-277

Hightn Regular Semi-annual Meeting. Held at Milwaukee.... 277-280

REPORT OF THE LIBRARIAN.
Catalogue of Books in the Library......--. ale leleiele state intern eoseee 201-289

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL ...----++--e+ee NNT |e en ap ak etaney Miele eterna : 290

LIST OF OFFICERS AND MEMBERS.

General Officers of the Academy, 1875-8...... sje pelea eee 293
Officers of the Departments, 1875-8..........--.- Layeleleyetepotereelens 295
General Officers of the Academy, 1878-81 ......-2ee-e-eeeerees 294
Members of the Academy ..-..--seecececnececcceecseeeeerees 296
Members Deceased since the Organization of the Academy .... 301
Members of Standing Committees.......- .sseeee eeeeseeees 302

CHARTER, CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS.

Charters cs cic selec cc o.oo oe + bee o 0 eine on ae ce nlnele eGjnrsies mnieisin oleieieiis 305
Constitution .....-ceccecccccceccessc rs ccecerersecssces a Sisbeiorens 307
WSyelbaws erence ee ete BLM aates Hee Lobb he ge oiats eal eae dis 310

IN MEMORIAM.

James H. Eaton, Ph.D. By T. C. Chamberlin........-.-+++- abe 314
John B, Feuling, Ph. D. By 8S. H. Carpenter......----+-++-+-- 316
Stephen H. Carpenter, LL.D. From Wisconsin State Journal. 318

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SCIENCES.

PEASANT COMMUNITIES IN FRANCE.

By WILLIAM F. ALLEN,

Professor of Latin and History in the Uuiversity of Wisconsin.

The investigations into the system of collective property in land,
which have recently thrown so much light upon the early history
of institutions, have been for the most part confined to the Teu-
tonic and Slavonic nations of Hurope. Among these nations, col-
lective property in land has been found to have been nearly uni-
versal in early times, and in many of these, clear traces of it exist
to the present day. In regard to the nations of southern Europe,
the field has hardly been explored at all. Mr. Maine, in his last
work, ‘‘The Early History of Institutions,” says, in relation to
France, that ‘this darkness has recently given signs of lfting”’
(p. 5), and that ‘‘M. Le Play and others have come upon plain
traces of such communities in several parts of France.’ Bonne-
mere, in his ‘Histoire des Paysans,”’ devotes a chapter to these
communities; La Chavanne, in his “ Histoire des classes agri-
coles,” discusses them at some length; and Laveleye, in his
“Primitive Property,’ describes them in two or three very inter-
esting chapters. Nevertheless, there has been no systematic and
exhaustive examination of this subject for France, such as the
works of von Maurer and Thudichum for Germany, and of Nasse
for England.

Some light may perhaps be thrown upon this inquiry by an ex-
amination of such registers of seignorial estates as are accessible,
to ascertain whether any traces are discernible in them of a sys-
tematic organization of the peasantry, such as is manifest to the most

superficial glancein England. I have, in former years, read to this
il

2 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

society the results of an examination of such English documents of
this class as I had within reach, from which it appeared that the peas-
antry, down to the fourteenth century, fell into regular organized
classes, holding their lands in a precise manner and in uniform
parcels. As a modest contribution to the investigation, I propose
to present the results of a similar examination into such French
documents as have come within my reach.

It should be remarked at the outset, that the probabilities are
against any such uniformity, whether in France or in any other of
the countries occupied by the so-called Latin nations. The Teu-
tonic and Slavonic nations are on the whole homogeneous in race,
and as arule have occupied the territories where they are now
found from the very beginning of our historical knowledge of
them. The population of France, on the other hand, is not only
mixed, but has been subjected at several times to violent and
sweeping revolutions. It was, no doubt, practically a homogene-
ous people when conquered by the Romans 2,000 years ago.
The Gauls, a Celtic nation cognate to thé Gaels of Scotland, are
found in clans somewhat similar to those of Scotland— clans
which appear to rest upon a common origin, either real or as-
sumed, like the original subdivisions of most primitive peoples.
But this primitive and homogeneous people, with its primitive
and uniform institutions, has been at different times subdued by
at least two great conquests: first by the Romans, then by the
German tribes. It has changed its language, its religion and its
customs, and it is fair to assume that it has modified its internal
organization and its mode of holding land as well. Assuming,
as we are perhaps entitled to do, that the Gallic tribes in Czesar’s
time held their land in common, it is still probable, first: that this
tenure of land was not held in village communities, like the Ger-
mans and Slavonians, but in clans, like the Celts of Britain; and
secondly, that even this degree of community of tenure was
broken up in a large degree by the shock of successive conquests.
Wherever, on the soil of France, we find a Germanic colonization
on a large scale, we may expect to find village communities; else-
where, we may expect an irregular and unorganized peasantry,
the result of disturbing influences from without— precisely as |

Peasant Communities in France. 8

similar cases have now at leneth brought about a similar irregu-
larity and unorganized tenure of the soil in Germanic countries.
Tt confirms this expectation, that the greater part of the village
communities, described by Bonnemere and La Chavanne, as exist-
ing in France, are found in the essentially Teutonic portions of
France, like Franche Comté; but it would not militate with this
view if such communities were found sporadically in every part
of France, because there were, as a matter of fact, extensive set-
tlements of Germans scattered all over France.

The documents which I have been able to examine in this in-
vestigation belong entirely to the ninth, tenth and eleventh
centuries: toa period, that is, before the full establishment of
feudalism, and in which, therefore, we may expect, if anywhere,
to find the primitive organization of the community.

Of these documents, the first is the most important and instruc-
tive for my point of view. It is the Polyptichum of the Abbot
Irmino; a register of the estates belonging to the Abbey of St.
Germain des Pres in the time of Charlemagne. In the fullness
and minutetness of this survey, we are reminded of the greatest
medieval work of this character, the Domesday Book of William
the Conqueror; but this Polyptichum is confined to only a small
part of France, all within forty leaguesof Paris. Moreover, Dom-
esday Book isa public document, drawn up for the use of the
government, while this is a private register of the estates belong-
ing to a religious corporation.

The first point that strikes one on examining this register is
that the estates are not enumerated according ta public divisions
of the territory, but are grouped into what are called /iscs : in this
grouping, there is the greatest irregaiarity,* bits of land scattered
here and therein different villages, being combined merely for
purposes of administration. Now, in English documents of this
nature, we find the public divisions uniformely observed, even
in reference to private estates. What is of even more importance,
is that tenures of land in England are always given in hydes or
aliquot parts of the hyde — the hyde being the part of land fall-
ing to a full member of an organized community; in the French

- *Prolegomena, p. 30.

4 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

documents, on the other hand, estates are given by their dimen-
sions, which vary very greatly.

For example:* Hrlenteus and his wife Hildegarde hold one
mansus (peasant’s holding) containing six bunuaria about [five
acres] of arable land, three aripenni [thirty-six rods] of vineyard,
and two and one half of meadow;; besides this, he has of allodial
property three bunwaria of arable land, and one aripennus of
meadow. And so throughout: land is held not in uniform and
equal portions, but always in specified and varying amounts.
In ten holdings, for example, in Vheodaxium,t the bunuaria of
arable land range from two to twelve; the aripenni of vineyard
from two and one half to four and one half the artpenni of
meadow from one and one half to two and one half.

Nearly contemporary with this document in date, is the Polyp-
tichum of the Abbey of St. Remi, at Rheims. In this register we
find a totally different system. Hach estate is given under the
term mansus, and the size of the mansus is not described. Itisa
natural inference, therefore, that that mans? were of uniform ex-
tent, corresponding, therefore, to the Mnelish hyde. Now these
lands, being in the neighborhood of Rheims, at a considerable dis-
tance to the east of Paris, may very easily have been settled un-
der a different system. Moreover, being near the German fron-
tier, there was in all likelihood a larger proportion of German
population than in the neighborhood of Paris. However this may
be, we find, in the dissimilarity of. these nearly contemporaneous
records, a confirmation of the a priort probability that the tenure
of land in France would be irregular or heterogeneous.

Appended to the Polyptichum of St. Remi are fragments of
a rather later date, of the description of some estates in the neigh-
borhood of Treves, still further east, and in a country of nearly
pure German population. Here, as might be expected, we find a
complete uniformity in the tenures, so far as the incompleteness
of the documents permits us toform a judgment. The mansz are
spoken of as being themselves definite and uniform quantities of
land, like the English hyde; and their extent, in acres, bunuaria
or aripenni, is not alluded to.

*Book XXV. 8. +Book XIV.

Peasant Communities in France. 5

There remain two documents considerably later and far less ;
complete in this respect than the two Polypticha, but which com-
pletely support the view already taken, that there is not likely to
be found any near approach to uniformity in the peasants’ hold-
ings. In the Cartulary of the Abbey of St. Pere de Chartres
there is a complete lack of uniformity. Grants of land are, to be
sure, usually stated in mansz; but mansus has not necessarily, like
hyde, the meaning of a definite share in a village community, but
means a peasant’s property of whatever extent. And when we
come to the detailed description of estates, there is hardly a ves-
tige of uniformity as between the several estates. This descrip-
tion is very meagre in amount, and is copied into the Cartulary
from some old papers, the copyist himself professing himself unable
wholly to understand them. The date of these document is as-
signed by the learned editor, Guérard, to some time before A. D.,
1000.

In one or two of the estates there are to be sure some indica-
tions of uniformity in the condition of the peasants of the same
estate: e. g., in Cavanuis Vilia (p. 87), are given the names of
twenty-one peasants (agricol«), all of whom paid the same dues
to the convent; nothing is said as to the size of their holdings.
In Cipedum there are ten peasants, all paying the same dues.
But next follows Comonis Villa, with four peasants, two holding
five bunuaria and paying three measures of corn; two holding six
bunwaria and paying four measures. On the next page, Abbonis
Villa has thirty-three peasants; twenty-one of these paid one
shilling, and the rest sums varying from six pence to three shil-
ings. On page 40 begins the enumeration of seventeen holdings,
paying ten different sums, varying from six pence to fifteen shil-
lings. Only two of these, to be sure, are called mansz, but these
two pay respectively two and five shillings, and one mansellus
three shillings.

There remains the Cartulary of the Monastery of St. Bertin
at St. Omer, in the extreme north of France, therefore in a terri-
tory largely settled by Germans. The date of these registers is
about the middle of the ninth century. Here we find, as might
be expected, a uniformity almost as great as in England. The

6 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

estates are regularly stated in some such manner as this: “d/ansa
XV per bunaria XI, et ille dimidius per bunaria VI” —“ fifteen
mansi of twelve bunuaria each, and a half one of six bunuaria.”’
The size of the mansus varies exactly as that of the virgate in
English manors*; that is, it is generally uniform in the same
villa, but ranges in the different villas from ten to twenty-four
bunuaria, with sometimes, however, two or three different stand-
ards in the same villa. For example, in Pupurninga there are ten
manst of twenty-four bunuaria; ten of twenty; ten of fifteen ;
seventeen of thirteen, and one-half mans? of eight. We find also
a large number of peasants with independent holdings, not given
as mansa, and very irregular in amount; like the freeholders of
England.

The result of this inquiry, which embraces all the documents
relating to France which I have been able to examine, is com-
pletely to confirm the expectations which appeared probable on
general grounds. We find here and there, especially in those
provinces which had a considerable German element in the popu-
lation, decided indications of uniformity in single villages or
estates, sometimes even on a larger scale. But as a whole, uni-
formity is not the rule but the exception; the communities, if
they were such, appear to have been isolated and scattered amid
a population which was prevailingly irregular and heterogeneous.

*See Transactions, Vol. I, p. 223.

The Abolition of the Jury System. 7

THE ABOLITION OF THE JURY SYSTEM.

BY CHARLES CAVERNO.
Lombard, Du Page County, Ill.

It may seem a bold project to advocate the abolition of the jury
system. We have been taught to regard the writ of habeas cor-
pus and the trial by jury, as little less than gifts of Divine inspira-
tion. The writ of habeas corpus may stillstand. The TimeSpirit
has not passed adversely upon that, and is not likely to.

But candid examination will hardly be able to resist the con-
clusion that, in this country, trial by jury has outlived its use-
fulness.

The history of trial by jury will here be treated of only incidental -
ly. Sources of information respecting the history of the jury system
are in the hands of the legal profession, and lie open to all. Few
other institutions have undergone so many changes as this. To
speak of trial by jury is to speak of something whose content of
meaning depends upon time. The institution has taken on a new
phase and parted with an old one, in almost every century since
the Norman conquest.

Jurors were originally summoned to aid a court in a matter of
dispute, by a declaration of facts within their own knowledge.
Now it is legally a disqualification fora man to know anything
about the case in hand — practically, a disqualification for him to
know anything else. When the court could put men of the vi-
cinage on oath, to help it with a statement of the facts they knew,
there was life and health in the jury system. Later, when this
group of witnesses took on the further function (that out of which
the grand jury grew), of suggesting to the court matters in their
vicinage, connected with the public weal or the public peace, which
they thought the court should look after, there was life and health
in the system.

But when now the court has to inform the jury of the facts, and

§ Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

then tell them substantially what facts they shall hand back to it,
as found by them, it is apparent that we have an institution which
has little setting in reason and, as matter of fact, has little respect
with those familiar with it in practice.

In trial by jury to-day we have a marked instance of an insti-
tution, sapped of its strength by the growth about it of a multitude
of petty restrictive details. Force that does not go to stalk, goes
to shoot, till life is smothered by its own abaormities.

IN CIVIL CASKS.

That trial by jury in civil cases is not an essential element of
civilization, and is not necessary to industry and commerce, is appar-
ent when the fact is known that jury trial in such cases has never had
place on the continent of Kurope, was not in fact introduced into
Scotland till a period within the memory of men still living.

Lord Mansfield, toward the close of his illustrious career at the
end of the last century, advised against the introduction of the
jury in civil cases into Scotland.

Lord Campbell said that the principles underlying Mansfield’s
objections were unfortunately overlooked when jury trial in civil
cases, in 1807, was introduced into Scotland. He further adds,
“The experiment, [am afraid, has proved a failure, and Lord Mans-
field’s objections been fatally verified.”

While as much as this would not beallowed by all Scotch law-
yers to-day, yet the claim is distinctly made, that all the advan-
tages which have arisen in Scotland with the introduction of the
Jury system are not due to that system at all, but are due to a con-
temporaneous rectification of the Scotch system of pleadings.

Trial by jury in civil cases is distinctively English in origin and
limited in practice to England and the colonies — Scotland being
allowed for as above stated.

Great Britain and America do not transact all the business of
the world. There has been done and is doing a vast deal of busi-
ness on the continent of Europe. Ifall this business has been
transacted without the jury system in legal matters, we may at
least conclude that that system is no social necessity.

If there has been and is no call for the establishment of the

The Abslition of the Jury System. 9
system on the continent, by the commerce there located, then we
may judge that the system, in such cases, is not even of apparent
social convenience. But the argument against the system is only
partially made when you look at continental commerce. In Hn-
gland itself the tendency has been, in the growth of legal practice
to wrest department after department from under the incubus of
the jury system. Just think how much business is covered by
equity, probate, and admiralty. Yet they are exempted from the
jury system.

Lord Mansfield said that equity grew up in England to rectify
abuses resulting from the jury system. This statement at once
explains why it is that England and her colonies are the only
countries where law and equity have been divided and assigned to
separate courts. The jury system was only adapted to coarse,
crude business. Anything requiring care or nice discrimination
had to be sent to another court, which, significantly enough, was
called a court of equity, as though something like even justice
might be there expected. How important the equity side of law
is, lawyers understand. The stretch of equity over legal business
must increase more and more with the growing complexity of civ-
ilization.

Take probate business; as a rule, that is exempt from the jury
system. The statutes sometimes commit special matters to juries,
or they are found by way of appeals to other courts. But what
a reach there is to probate business. All the property of a coun-
try passes through probate, generation by generation. Yet the
difficulties of this huge business are normally met without the
intervention of a jury. The value at stake in matters passed upon
in common law actions cannot compare with the values that are
adjusted in probate, nor do such common law actions present
problems of greater interest or intricacy.

To admiralty in England, and usually in this country, the jury
system is not applied. ‘ Britannia rules the waves.” The jury
system is peculiarly a British institution, yet Britain has taken
good care that the right arm of her power and prosperity should
not be fettered by the jury system. She has followed the adage,
“ Ne entor ultra crepidam.”

10+ Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letlers.

Trial by jury may be a palladium of British liberty, but Brit-
ain has had wit enough not to trust her invaluable marine inter-
ests to landlubber juries. It is readily apparent why this excep-
tion is made. The ordinary citizen cannot pass understandingly
upon matters so technical and peculiar as maritime business in-
volves.

But then, is it not apparent that all business is rapidly tending
to infold the same difficulty? Can marine affairs present any
greater difficulties to an ordinary jury than arise out of the in-
dustries we are now plying on land? If it is undesirable to have
juries pass upon shipping interests, how comes it desirable to
have them pass upon cases which spring out of railway business,
out of manufacturing, patents, telezraphy, banking?

Is not commerce by land becoming as technical and peculiar as
commerce by sea?

If there were no objections to the character of juries as ordi-
narily raised, yet the tendency of all business to what Herbert
Spencer would call greater ‘ heterogeneity,” is reason enough for
the abolition of the jury system in all civil cases.

The lot cannot any longer be expected to select a man fora
juror who can in any wise be of any assistance to a court or to
parties litigant. Originally the jury was called not only to aid
the court with information which they possessed, instead of being
instructed by the court, as now, by the impartation of both fact
and law, but for generations it was only upon one kind of matter
of dispute that the aid of a jury was sought.

(Questions respecting titles to land called into existence the in-
stitution of the jury. The expression, “a jury of the vicinage,”
preserves to us a reminiscence of the day when the sole business
of a jury was to give the court information in respect to posses-
sion and reputed title to land in their vicinage.

In the commotions consequent upon the Norman conquest,
questions of this kind were frequent.

Titles rested not in record but in possession. Twelve men
from the vicinage could tell the court who had been in pos-
session of a certain piece of land, or along what line of de-

scent ib was reputed among them that possession came. That

The Abolition of the Jury System. 41

was a simple office, easily discharged. In Hngland, and in this
country, wherever the old common law forms are used, the
writs summoning juries still preserve the direction to summon
men from the vicinage, when knowledge of matters naturally con-
sequent upon being of the vicinage disqualifies the juror for the
very service to which he is impliedly called, and sends him from
the jury panel to the witness box. It isa long tale to tell how
legal practice wandered from that to this. Is it to severe too say
that there was sense in that, but that reason has dropped out by
the way to this ?

But the argument against juries in civil cases can be strength-
ened by still other considerations.

There is a constant endeavor to escape them by trials by the
court alone or by references-from the court. Generally, it may
be stated that a jury is the terror of a good cause and the hope
ofa bad one. A case that wantsa jury usually has an eye to pos-
sible aid from that peculiar character— the twelfth juryman.
Arbitration is growing more and more frequent as a means of
escape from the jury system. Various guilds and associations in
the industries and in commerce, make as part of their constitu-
tion, provision for the settlement of disputes that may arise among
their members. With higher moral culture, more and more will
be made of the principle and practice of arbitration. Where
juries are preserved, ultimate confidence in no case is placed in
them. Provision is always made to review their work by another
tribunal. It is not worth while for society in any civil matters to
preserve so cumbrous and expensive a system in which after all
it puts so little trust.

It is good theory to say that the province of the court is to pass
on law and that of the jury on fact. But it is often a question
of law what facts shall be taken into consideration, and often a
question of fact what the law is.

This division between fact and law is one which can rarely be
clearly made in practice.

Alexander Hamilton says: “Though the true province of
juries be to determine matters of fact, yet in most cases legal con-
sequences are complicated with fact in such a manner as to render

12 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Leiters.

a separation impracticable.” When the court gives the law tothe
jury, the court has already inferentially found the facts, and when
the jury find the facts they inferentially apply the law. uct and
law are so involved that they belong to one mind.

There is a constant tendency for fact to pass up into the order
of law. A few facts make a custom, and custom is law. It is
hard to say where fact leaves off and law begins. The tendency
of civilization is to make law at the expense of fact.
In the subdivision of labor in law, lawyers do not attempt to
cover all the realm included in their profession. One devotes him-
self to the law of Patents, another to the law of Railways, another
to the law of Real Estate. Yet we take indiscrimiuately from the
mass of the people juries to sit indifferently, now on the delicate
interests involved in one of these great departments, and the next
moment on those of another. We seta hod-carrier to pass upon
facts (as, for instance, upon those which constitute negligence)
upon which a lawyer would give no opinion unless he had made
them a life study.

We have no need here to discuss the character of our jury ser-
vice. The service itself, as we practice it in civil cases, is inher-
ently absurd.

IN CRIMINAL GASES.

Trial by jury in criminal cases, at various dates within a cen-
tury, has been introduced into many of the ations on the conti-
nent of Europe. It caine in, in several instances, as a result of
the political commotions of 1848.

The popularity of trial by jury is in its application to criminal
eases. But a little study detects the fact, that this popularity has
arisen out of one peculiar class of cases.

When Hallam eulogizes Magna Charta, especially the clause
which is supposed to establish the right of trial by jury, he lets
us see from what quarter the popularity of this institution has
come. He calls it “The Keystone of English Liberty,” and says
that it is one of “the bold features which distinguish a free from
a despotic monarchy.”

It is because of its political service in monarchical or aristo-

The Abolition of the Jury System. 15

cratic governments that the jury system has come by its high
reputation.

Tocqueville sees this and says, that ‘trial by jury is emphatic-
ally a political institution.”

You detect the ring of political intent in the speeches of the
continental orators advocating the introduction of trial by jury
into their several countries.

It is easy to see how this comes about. Monarchies and aris-
tocracies often make political crimes out of what men of progres-
sive and democratic tendencies consider the liberties of the citi-
zen.

The jury becomes popular because, taken from the people, it
naturally will be a defense against conviction of these political
crimes.

But in this country, we are expected yet to glorify an institu-
tion which has lost all significance and appreciation as a protection
of liberty. We have no monarch to declare the liberties of the
citizen political crimes. We have no ranks in society who can
make crimes out of encroachments by the lower orders upon the
claims of privilege. The ballot has taken the wind from the sails
of trial by jury as a defense of liberty, and left it as

“ Tdle as a painted ship
Upon a painted ocean.”

Trial by jury has not had a cargo to carry in the interest of
liberty since the government was founded, and it cannot get one.

The social conditions in this country are such that trials like
the famous state trials in England — Horne Tooke’s and Hone’s
for example —can never arise; and if they should, the ballot will
always be the swiftest instrument to cut the knot which they pre-
sent. Political rights with us find their solution in suffrage, not
in jury trials. Politics settles political rights, courts assenting or
dissenting. As long as the courts are in the hands of the people,
politics may be trusted to take care of political rights. If it could
be shown that courts have stood in the breach for hberty, it will
be found that any effective service has been rendered by courts
of last resort, where juries never come.

14 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

In this country, then, trial by jury, considered as a bulwark of
political liberty, is serviceless. The only remaining function of
the jury is to do justice in cases of accusation of universally ac-
knowledged crime. Weare to inquire whether itis fulfilling that
office. Itis high time we looked this institution straight in the
face—high time that we stripped it of the glamour in which it
is clothed, brought from other ages and other circumstances.
There is one plain question to beasked of it, ts tt protecting society
in cases of crime? Ifit is not doing that, its sole occupation is
gone.

We have few statistics to help us to a judgment on this matter,
and from the nature of the case, if we had, they could never be
conclusive. ‘There must be a problematical element in all our
judgments on the subject.

Quetelet gives us one set, however, that are very suggestive.

In 1880, on the introduction of trial by jury into Belgium, the
ratio of acquitted to accused in that country was found to be just
‘doubled. Now no mancan demonstrate that this result madea gainst
social protection, and did not make in favor of protection of inno-
cence; but one familiar with the history of criminal trials in this
country for the last quarter of a century will judge that this re-
sult did make against social protection and in the interest of crime.

Common fame may be trusted for the assertion that for a gener-
ation there has been a substantial failure of justice in this country
in criminal trials. The rule is that great criminals escape.

Jury trial has come to protect criminals and not society. Ifa
criminal fails to be protected, it is simply because the resources
offered by the jury system have not been well worked —wit and
money fail him, not opportunities for their successful use.

Look along the line on which the criminal can operate. If we
had arranged it with special eye to the disaster of society and the
defense of crime, we could scarcely have done better. Juries take
their rise in boards which, in the large cities, have been delivered
to ‘‘the bondage of corruption.”

Out of the same board of supervisors came forth the Tweed
frauds and juries. In such extremity of virtue, if crime does
not find its opportunity, it is modest. When we are star-gazing,

The Abolition of the Jury System. 15

we bring up in pit-falls at our feet. We can see jobbery in con-
gress, but we stumble heedlessly over it in our primary represen-
tative bodies. The original constitution of the jury in the great
centres of population is in low, bad hands. Judges have been
found with self respect enough to dismiss whole panels as unfit
and unsafe for public service. The whole list often fills Horne
Tooke’s bill against a jury list in his day —‘“‘a basket of rotten
oranges from which one has his choice.” No rational account can
be given of some juries, but that they are of the criminal class,
put in by the criminal class, for the benefit of the criminal class.

Then comes the facility of tampering with juries through the-
sherift’s office. The reputation of that office is not immaculate.
No office in the gift of the people lies so open to temptation from:
rascality. Itis a place of peculiar attraction to the “ rough” ele-.
ment. They furnish more candidates for this office than for any
other, and succeed usually in having some representative in it.
That element will serve itself and its own. A great outlay of
effort is not required. A shrug of the shoulder or a wink, and
there is a dead lock in the jury.

Then society breaks its own center in the provision for sum-
moning talesmen. ‘The men who are anxious to serve somebody
are always on hand. The old jury soldier is a well known char-
acter. Whether he is one of the devil’s poor or a poor devil, he
is equally open to the use of artful crime.

Finally, add the technics of judicial procedure, especially as
they find expression in the ignorance and indifference, (qualifica-
tions in some states now abolished by express statute), by which
jurymen are secured who are too ignorant to know of crimes com-
mitted about them in society, and too callous, morally, to express
any opinion concerniug them if they do, and there seems to be no
special reason why crime should not secure immunity and society
fail to be protected. The system, as we have it, is a standing
peril to society. _

If it be said that the service must be reformed, the reply is that
all attempts at reform will necessarily be partial, spasmodic. The
line is too long to guaad, and then it isnot worth guarding. Soci-
ety has lost interest in the institution. The attitude of business

16 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

men toward jury service plainly shows that the system has out-
lived its usefulness. Judges scold and fine, yet business men
slip through their fingers, and the old soldiers take their accus-
tomed seats. It is not worth while to try to reform an institution
whose service is so universally distasteful to men of character and
occupation. The only question deserving consideration is, whether
practical injustice would be likely to result to those accused of
crime from the abolition of the trial by jury.

Presentment by grand jury was once thought to be as essential
to the protection of thoge accused of crime as final trial by petit
jury. Yet the grand jury has gone by the board in many states,
to nobody’s damage. ‘The petit jury might follow it with as little
injury. Any man accused of crime could find security enough
in the ordinary course of law without the jury system. He can
have as many new trials as he can show reason for. If capital
punishment were abolished in all of the states, as it is in many?
then we could say that in all cases, as long as natural lfe might
last, courts would be open to applfcation for new trial on the
eround of newly discovered evidence.

Granting these privileges, society would be likely to mete jus-
tice as evenly and unerringly as is possible to man.

Why should everything about crime be adapted to and man-
aged in the interest of criminals? Is not society’s right to protec-
tion as high as the individual’s right to protection ?

An individual has no right as against society to that which prac-
tically leaves it defenseless. It is an incidental matter but I can-
not forbear to mention the probable influence on the bar of the
abolition of jury trials.

The morals and manners of equity practice are certainly heaven-
high over those nist prius or of criminal courts. There is no rea-
son why theattempt to get at facts in cases civiland criminal cases
should corrupt the manners and morals of the bar any more than
the attempt to get at law, and yet every body knows that it does.
The cause of it is in the standing temptation there is in the jury.

A good illustration of the nature of this temptation and of what
it can lead lawyers to do is well set forth, in a few words of Sir
Nicholas Throckmorton, who was tried for high treason in 1554.

The Abolition of the Jury System. 17

‘ MASTER SERJEANT, I know how by persuasions, enforcements
presumptions, applying, implying, inferring, conjecturing, dedu-’
cing of arguments, wresting and exceeding the law, the circum-
stances, the depositions, and confessions, unlearned men may be
enchanted to think and judge those that be things indifferent or
at the worst oversights, may be great treasons. Such power, ora-
tors have, and such ignorance the unlearned have.”

But the processes that win with a jury are powerless with the
court. It would be a happy result for the bar if all possible
temptation to such processes were removed.

We have instances enough to show that a master of rhetoric can
convince a jury that it is perfectly natural for men to unjoint
their heads and carry them under their arms during a shower.
But whether it is worth while for society to tax itself heavily to
support an institution for the sake of giving such rhetoricians ex.
ercise, 1s or is not much of a question, according as it is viewed.

The jury system has indeed such age as it has to recom-
mend it.

But, as Forsyth well says: ‘‘ A better reason for the continu.
ance of an institution must be given than that it has been handed
down to us by our forefathers.”

Professor Christian has expressed the opinion that the rule of
unanimity in verdicts could not have been introduced in any age
by deliberate act of the legislature.

If it were an original question with us, whether to introduce
jury trial as we have it, either in civil or criminal cases, the propo-
sition would fail to find respectable support.

POSTSCRIPT.

The abolition of term sentences in criminal cases, recommended.
by the governor of Wisconsin, Hon. W. E. Smith, in his first an-
nual message, has a bearing upon the abolition of the jury system
in such cases, to which attention is invited.

The board having the charge of criminals must always have be-
fore them the question of the actual guilt of a prisoner, as well

as the equities existing in case of clearly ascertained crime. Such
2

18 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

board would always be in position to pass upon a question upon
which a jury can pass only once, and at once.

Those accused of crime, and against whom a prima facie case is
made out before a judge, have in such a board the benefit of a
standing jury.

The abolition of term sentences is a step in the right direction ;
but, once taken, it reduces the jury system to the position of the
fifth wheel to the social coach.

Jan’y 21, 1878. C.,C.

The Origin of the Freeholders. 19

THE ORIGIN OF THE FREEHOLDERS.

BY WILLIAM F. ALLEN,

Professor of Latin and History in the University of Wisconsin.

{This is a portion of a paper read at Racine, July 11, 1877, revised and enlarged. ]

The accepted view at present as to the origin of the class of free-
holders is, that they represented the old viliage community, and
that their court, the Court Baron, represented the old village as-
sembly. Sir Henry Maine says (Village Communities, p. 187):
“We cannot doubt that the freeholders of the Tenemental lands
correspond in the main to the free heads of households composing
the old village community.” Prof. Stubbs speaks (Constitution-
al History, Vol. I, p. 899) of the “court baron, the ancient gemot —
of the township.” And Mr. Digby says (Introduction to the His-
tory oi the Law of Real Property, p. 38): ‘There can be little
doubt that tenure in socage [that is, freehold] is the successor of
the allodial proprietorship of early times.” And again (p. 48):
‘The manor court is the successor of the ancient assembly of the
village or township.” :

In opposition to this view, I undertook to show in a previous
paper * that the so-called customary tenants, who were as a rule
serfs, were the representatives of the old village community ; and
suggested that the tenants in socage, or freeholders, were
“specially privileged villanz.” I propose at present to develop
this last point further, and show that free socage was in its nature
a feudal tenure and that the freeholders as a class had a feudal
origin.

First, it should be noted that free tenure was of two kinds: by
chivalry or knight’s service, and by socage or agricultural service;
and that the two classes of tenants, although differing widely in
the form of their services andin social position, formed neverthe-

* See Transactions of the Academy, Vol. II, p. 220.

20 Wssconsin Academy of Sciennes, Arts, and Letters.

less legally one class. The lists of free tenants, libere tenentes, al-
ways begin, as is natural, with the most honorable class, the ten-
ants by knights’ service, and then continue without a break with
the tenants by socage. And all the freeholders, omnes libere ten-
entes, comp sed the court baron of the manor, and owed suit to
the court of the hundred and the shire. Now, as the two catego-
ries of freeholders composed but one class in law, it is natural to
suppose that they had the same origin. ‘The tenants by chivalry
were of course a purely feudal class, holding their estates by the
strictly feudal tenure of military service. The tenants by socage,
it is natural to suppose, may have had a similar origin.

As a matter of fact, the two classes came into existence at the
same time. Tenur? by chivalry was, as a matter of course, intro-
duced when the feudal system was introduced. The precise time
and manner of this is still a matter of uncertainty. What is cer-
tain is that feudalism, in its complete form, did not exist in Hng-
land at the time of the Norman Conquest (1066), but that it is
found completely developed at the accession of the House of
Anjou (Henry IL), in 1154. Now this interval of about a hun-
dred years is precisely the time in which the tenure by free socage
and the class of tenants by socage made their appearance.

Even as late as Domesday Book (1086) there was no freehold
(except by military tenure), and no class of rural freeholders.
But the Boldon Book (1183), and the Abingdon Cartulary, of
about the same time, contain lists of freeholders of both the mili-
tary and the agricultural class, and standing above the mass of
servile tenants. It is therefore a priory probable that the tenure
by free socage and the class of free socagers came into existence in
connection with the establishment of feudalism, and as a part of
this process. It is true, as I pointed out in a former paper,* that
there is a large class of sochemanni enumerated in Domesday Book ;
but, first, this class is confined to a few counties in the east of
England; and, secondly, it appears to have been a class of per-
sons, not a category of tenure;——there were sochemanni, but no
socagium. There was likewise found in the eastern counties a
class of freemen, liberi homines; but they appear to have been

*Transactions, Voi. I, p. 167.

The Origin of the Freeholders. 21

allodial proprietors, not free tenants.* Whatever, therefore, the
origin and status of these two classes may have been, they could
have had no Azstorical connection with the later freeholders. Even
the county of Kent, where villenage in its proper form is said
never to have existed, had neither liber? homines nor sochemanni
in Domesday Book.

I will now take up in succession the several features in which
the free socagers stood related to the manor and its lord.

Hirst, their tenure was in its form strictly feudal. They were
formally enfeoffed with their lands, by “livery of seisin,” were
subject to most of the feudal incidents, and were regarded as hav-
ing a definite legal interest; while the serfs or customary tenants
held their lands by prescriptive title, and were in strictness of
law only tenants at will, not being “ regarded as having any legal
interest in the land at all.” Their estates, as I have shown on
another occasion, were exceedingly variable in size and nature;
but often they were regular portions of the customary lands,
which they held upon the performance of the customary services,
or a part of them.t It was not uncommon for one of the cus-
tomary tenants to have also a freehold. ¢

Next to the tenure of land comes the manorial court, in which
the jurisdiction of the manor was exercised. This was known as
the Court Baron, and its judges were the free tenants of the man-
or, whether by chivalry or by socage. The constitution of the
court was strictly feudal.§ Every feudal lord had his feudal
court, composed of his immediate vassals, those, that is, who were
peers of one another. ‘The feudal court required, for its mainten-

*“Tt is characteristic of the growth of tenure that in Domesday (if the in-
dex is correct) we hear of different classes of tenants, but not of different
species of tenure; of lzberz homines, but not of ldberum tenementum,; of mili-
tes, but not of tenure per militiam,; of sochemanni, but not of socagium; of
villanz, but not of villenagium.” Digby, p. 40, n. 1.

+“ The tenure of a certain number of these fields is freehold.’’— Maine,
Vill. Comm., p. 187.

¢ In the manor of Ledene, out of nine customary tenants, each holding a
virgate of fifty acres, six also had freeholds, varying from one to thirteen
acres.— Gloucester Cartulary, iii, 126.

§ The lzbert homines are almost confined to Norfolk and Suffolk; the soche-
manné to these counties and Nottingham, Northampton, Leicester and Lin-
coln.

22 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ance, a minimum of tenants. Now the Court Baron of the Hng-
lish manor fell if there were not at least two freeholders to take
part in it. It followed, moreover, the feudal rule, that the judg-
ment, both as tu law and to fact, was given by the tenants, the suitors
or peersof the court—the lord or his steward only presiding. The
name, moreover, Court Baron, is hard to explain by English
etymology ; but, as the French manorial court was called Cour
de Baronnie, it is easy to suppose that the name was introduced
along with the feudal system itself. On the other hand the cus-
tomary tenants, the compact and organic body of the peasantry,
had no function in this court, except that of lookers-on. They
had their own court—the Customary Court — whose powers
were “administrative rather than judicial,” + in which, therefore,
they had no real power, such as the freeholders had in the Court
Baron, being hardly more than witnesses.

This was, in short, such an assembly as that of the members of
a corporation might be expected to be after the corporation had
lost its effective powers; we may, therefore, consider it to repre-
sent the assembly of the mark or village community, reduced to a
servile status. The freeholders, it should be remarked, “ are not,
generally speaking, suitors at the Customary Court,” from which it
follows, almost of necessity, that they did not, as freeholders, have
any shere in the administration of the community, but only in so
far as they held customary lands.

In the next place, the rights of the two classes in the waste dif-
fered : each had the right of common appendant to his arable land,
but that of the copyholder or customary tenant was by the cus-
tom of the manor, while that of the freeholder was “ by virtue of
his individual grant, and as incident thereto.”* This would show
that here too the customary tenants represented immemorial anti-
quity, the freeholders a special and recent grant.

It remains to supplement these general arguments by special
examples of the genesis of freehold. This is not easy to do, inas-
muchas the period of the development of this class, the cen-
tury following the Norman Conquest—is very barren in docu-

¢ Digby, p. 216.
*Digby, p. 215. Williams, Law of Real Property, 467, compare, 485.

The Origin of the Freeholders. 23

ments of the required character. When we begin to meet with
rent-rolls and other records of the manors, the freeholders are al-
ready a large and recognized class. There are, nevertheless, a
few statistics which appear fully to prove the point in question.

The manor of Beauchamp, in Hssex, was the property of the
Chapter of St. Panl. At the time of the Exchequer Domesday
(1086) it contatned twenty-four villani, ten bordari and five servi ;
no freeholders. In 1222, in the document known as the Domes-
day of St. Paul, there were thirty-four libere tenentes. This class,
therefore, had come into existence in this interval. Now it so
happens that for this manor we have the fragment of a record,
of the year 1181, known as the Domesday of Ralph of Diceto.
Its importance can be judged from the fact that this is the only
manor I have been able to find, of which there is a rent-roll in ex-
istence at two different periods; by means of this we are able to
compare the condition of the manor at an interval of forty-one
years. Unfortunately the list of the operarz (as the customary
tenants are here called) is incomplete; the ibere tenentes are eighteen
in number. From this it appears that the class of freeholders was
not merely a new class, originating in the century after the Nor-
man Conquest, but that it was a class that was steadily added to,
having more than doubled its numbers in less than fifty years.
Nor was this wholly by dividing the estates; for the lands held by
them were, during this period, increased from 667 acres to 744.

The continuousness of the tenures is shown very clearly by
these lists; more than half of the estates of both classes can be
traced from father to son, or other relative, even after the long
space of forty-one years. In only one case isthe same tenant found.
Robert, son of Wlurun, a customary tenant, held, in 1181, an en-
tire virgate of land. In 1222, he appears as holding only a half
virgate of customary land; but his name stands also in the list of
new freeholders, as holding another half virgate. Hvidently be-
ing one of the richest and most prominent of the serfs, he had
been converted into a freeman and a freeholder by being enfeoffed
with half of his customary estate, the other half remaining in
villenage. Lambert Gross, in 1181, held two half virgates of cus-
tomary land. In 1222, his widow, Alice, held one half virgate by

24 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

the same tenure, and his son William the other half, asa freehold.
Here are twoclear cases of the conversion of serfs into freemen,
and of customary tenure into freehold.

It would appear, therefore, to be proved that the freeholders,
or tenants by free socage, were, as a class, the creation of feudal-
ism; that the feudalization of England was accompanied, or rather
accomplished in detail, by the creation of a body of immediate
tenants to the lords of the manors, who, without these, would have
had no complete jurisdiction. The tenure itself would appear to be
simply the French censzve, or agricultural fief, which is in its nature .
and form wholly analogous with the fief proper; it may also have
had some analogy to the tenure by which the sochemanni of the
eastern counties held their land, and from this to hayereceived the
name socagium. If this view is correct, it would follow that the
feudalization of the township, its conversion into the manor, con-
sisted in the introduction of this new class of tenants, holding by
anew tenure. For this purpose leading villeins would naturally
be selected, and the cases of Robert son of Wlurund and Lambert
Gross show very clearly the process. That this class, new and
of foreign and feudal origin, became the most valuable and char-
acteristic of the English institutions, is due to the strong vitality
and power of assimilation of the English constitution, whose trial
by jury was also of foreign origin, and which even turned an ex-
ceptionally despotic royalty into an instrument of freedom.

The Duty of the State to the Insane, etc. 25

THE DUTY OF THE STATE IN ITS TREATMENT OF
THE DEAF AND DUMB, THE BLIND, THE IDIOTIC,
THE CRIPPLED AND DEFORMED, AND THE IN-
SANE.

BY R. Z. MASON.

In the progress of modern civilization, the state has come slowly
to a recognition of certain duties and obligations to these unfor-
tunate classes. At present we take up the subject in the interests
not only of humanity and of sound political philosophy, but also
in the interests and light of modern science. Perhaps we shall
commit a grave mistake in venturing to draw our conclusions
solely from the cold suggestions which the teachings of the most
advanced investigators in science might supply. Humanity cer-
tainly has claims upon us which the dictates of our spiritual na-
tures must respect. Shall we adopt the modern theories of evo-
lution and the language of Herbert Spencer, “ the fittest shail
survive,” and be induced thereby to turn out the unfortunate idiot,
the insane or the deformed cripple, with nothing but his own
resources to depend upon, to compel him to struggle for a precari-
ous existence by battling with the relentless forces of nature, and
sharp competition with the fierce selfishness of individual life?
Would this course be in accordance with the instincts of man’s
better and higher nature? Whatever theories we may adopt as
to our origin, we cannot ignore the fact that we belong now to
a cultured race, to those whose gentle humanities are to be as
much regarded as the mere elements of physical strength or intel-
lectual acumen. If we did spring from the brute, we cannot
afford to act quite like him. But the subject has another phase
which it is proper we should carefully examine. The question
arises, whether the state shall expend its hundreds of thousands
of dollars per annum in the almost hopeless effort to correct con-
genital malformations, to subdue the frantic manifestations of in-

26 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

sanity, to counteract the subtle forms of organic disease, and to
educate the feeble-minded and still allow these pre-natal and con-
stitutional disorders to flow on through countless generations of
the unborn. Of course we assume in our argument, that it is the
province of the state, acting from considerations of the highest
political economy, to care by systematized and organized effort, for
such of the unfortunate as cannot care for themselves, or whose
wants friends cannot supply. The insane can, not unfrequently
be rendered happy and useful, but even sane. The idiotic can, by
skillful treatment of the educator be developed into the self-re-
liant, self-sustaining intelligent being. The orthopedic surgeon can
bring beauty out of deformity, and can so change those flexures
that deform and weaken the physical anatomy, as to bring nature
to her true and original lines, and impart a new strength and yi-
tality.

But the prosecution of all these lines of experiment and modes
of rendering the combined skill of the civilized world available,
require large outlays of time and money. And is it not vastly
better that the state, acting in her organic capacity as the agent of
human society, should encourage and aid by her own means, the
foundation of institutions for such purposes, rather than to leave
the large numbers of these unfortunate people to the ill-directed
and uncertain efforts of poor, and often unintelligent families, to ~
get along with their herculean difficulties as best they may? is
it not better, therefore, that the state should tax herself a little to
help the blind to become an intelligent, self-sustaining member
of society, or to cure achild of some dwarfing deformity or seme
smiting paralytic stroke, rather than tax herself much by and by
in maintaining these victims of relentless misfortune in poor-
houses in the long years of their future? Such a question can, I
apprehend, have but one answer.

But above and beyond all this, the state has another and more
important duty to perform. to society, than that of merely taking
care of such as have come into the world under the blight of some
terrible misfortune. This other and higher duty is so to modify
its legislation as to prevent the propagation of congenital idiocy,
deformipg insanity and organic disease. I know that in venturing

The Duty of the State to the Insane, ete. 27

to discuss this subject by treating it asa function properly belong-
ing to the state, I may be assuming what will not be readily
conceded. ‘T'o prevent, if possible, these serious misfortunes, is
unquestionably the duty of somebody. Or must we admit that
man, intelligent and immortal, is such a creature of blind and
reckless passion, that he must be permitted to go on through the
vast ceons of the future as he has done in the past, reproducing
himself, depraved and demoralized as he is, transmitting his ana-
tomical defects, his physiological zdiosyncrasies, his organic imper-
fections, in the most marked manner, in order that posterity may
have the opportunity to cultivate the moral virtues by taking hu-
mane care of the insane, the blind, the deformed and the idiotic.
It is not too early in the history of man, I more fear it is too late,
to ask the question, should a radically defective organization be
allowed to perpetuate itself by reproduction? ‘To this I would
answer, that for the good of the race it should not. ‘This must be
our conclusion unless we are prepared to adopt the modern school
of Euthanasists, who take the ground, that when a human being
cannot live and be happy, he has the right to claim of society the
boon of death, legally administered. I would modify the proposi-
tion by saying rather, that such an unfortunate had a right not to
be born; yet, having been born, perhaps the Huthanasist may say
that he has the right to ask the privilege of an early, painless
death. Yet the original question still recurs, What is the duty of
the state towards this large and constantly increasing class of in-
curables and unfortunates ?

First, I answer as to those in existence. Let them be taken
care of in the most economical and best systematized way which
science, art and experience can devise. let alms-houses, the in-
sane hospital, the.deaf and dumb, and blind asylums, still stand as
monuments of the generous and humane spirit of the age. Let
the crippled and deformed have ready access, if need be, by pub-
lic charity, to all sources of relief which the world’s best wisdom
can supply. It is better that the state pay the expense of putting
a man in a condition so that he can take care of himself, than to
tax the public through an entire generation for the support of a
cripple in the poor house. But secondly, I propose to show a

28 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

rational answer, it may be imperfectly and impractically, to the
second branch of this question, to wit: the duty of the state to the
unborn generations, with which our successors will have to deal

The state establishes a state board of health, to whom it commits
the various questions concerning the public health. It requires
the individual to conform to such sanitary regulations as are
found necessary to protect life, health and property. But is there
any more reason why the state should see that offensive and me-
phitic vapors and gases should be promptly neutralized by chemi-
cal agents, why nuisances should be abated or removed from civ-
ilized communities, than there is why the state should interfere to
arrest the descent, through long lines of generations, of the germs
of incurable diseases, which are sure to become the object of the
world’s pity when allowed to develop into the full proportions
which we witness in our hospitals and public alms houses?
Should it be the province of a state board of health to tell me that
my sewers need chloride of lime or carbolic acid, and not be their
function to tell me that my posterity will be smitten with incur-
able insanity, provided a contemplated marriage is consummated ?
Should he be allowed to intrude into my back yards and order
me to remove the offal, which carries on its wings the pestilence
and plague, and yet must not be allowed to have at least some
voice in arresting, by counsel or by law, the descent of those con-
genital disorders, that prey at an earlier or later date on half the
population of the civilized world.

We take remarkable pains in selecting and crossing breeds of
the domestic animals. Here at least we try to study and harmo-
nize with the laws of nature. The royal and aristocratic families
of Kurope are very strict in the marriages of their sons and daugh-
ters. We recognize the universal Jaw that physical qualities,
character, breeding and education begin long anterior to birth.
But junfortunately for the ruling classes of Kurope, the primary
principle on which their intermarriages are based, is not in respect
to the laws of nature. Their idea isa purely conventional one,
and their society is purely artificial, where nature and her economy
in the processes of reproduction, are as much ignored as with the
bulk of mankind elsewhere. Their intermarraiges come from

The Duty of the State to the Insane, ete. 29

rank, based on wealth, and on freedom from the restraints of law
and labor; a condition of things best calculated to deteriorate what
there is good in any generation of men. If the doctrine is true,
that the fittest only should live, then it follows as a rational corol-
lary that, in a society of rational men, where the interests of a race
capable of indefinite development are blended, that “ the fittest
only should be born.” ‘'T’o reproduce and fill the world with pos-
terity is not always aduty. Certainly not always a privilege.
The law makes it a crime where the parties have not taken the
legal steps to provide, as far as may be for the protection, the edu-
cation and general wellbeing of future offspring. Why should
not the law adopt the sound maxim, that no person has the right
to throw upon the charities of the world, his diseased, deformed
and insane offspring.

The laws of generation are now sufficiently well established so
that good scientific and medical authority can determine with
tolerable certainty the probable issue of a given marriage, so far
as health isconcerned. Yet, even this generation continues to in-
troduce into the world, children marked with these congenitial
defects, as if it were a matter of the slightest concern whether
children were well or ill born. Society should here erect an im-
passable barrier, so that no person, man or woman, who failed to
present the requisite credentials of a sound mind in a sound body,
free from all forms of congenital and organic disease, no matter
what social standing or wealth might distinguish them, should
become the head of a family of children. This is the aristocracy
of nature. No man is well born who inherits the appetite of a
drunkard or the feebleness and frailties of a consumptive. No
person is ill born who comes into the world with all his mental
and physical faculties bright with the bloom of health and vigor.
All theories of progress and true social development are useless
and abortive unless these ends are first secured.

But should our legislators see practical difficulties in the way
of a system of legislation so radical and revolutionary in the so-
cial life and economy of the people as the above programme would
indicate, still the least it can do is to introduce these biological
remedies to the attention of the public, in the education of the

30 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Leilers.

young. It is ignorance that has destroyed us in generations past.
It is ignorance of the functions of life and of the laws of repro-
duction that destroys us to-day. We cultivate with more skill
even the grapes and grains than we do the propagation and re-
production of our own species. Marriage is a hap-hazard affair,
the result of caprice or fancy, instead of being the result of judg-
ment and knowledge of the fundamental laws of being. Science
and the public law, are alone, perhaps insufficient to do justice to
this noble cause. They invoke the aid and co-operation of the
pulpit and of the public teacher. A wise supervision of this sub-
ject is indispensable to the future wellbeing of the race. False
standards of delicacy must be set aside. Morbid sentimentalism
must give way to the suggestions of common sense and a rational
philosophy.

DEPARTMENT OF ARTS.

ART AS EDUCATION.

BY ALFORD PAYNE.

INTRODUCTION.

Having been asked to prepare a paper for this scientific assem-
blage, I have chosen as a subject, Art asa means of Education.
But why comes one, unpractical, unscientific, into this learned
body? The answer is, he comes in all sincerity to commend to .
popular notice, through the prestige given by your academy, a
class of truths, as educational, which he thinks are not valued as
they should be.

Are we not generally liable, if not to overestimate our own
special lines of study, at least to undervalue the departments of
knowledge which we have not much considered? Rare is the
man, who, with Lord Bacon can make all departments of knowl-
edge his province. The clergyman is thought to live too exclu-
sively in dogmatic theology; the lawyer sees this, and listens with
a critical sharpness based on a conviction of the immense value
of a knowledge of jurisprudence, coupled with thorough legal
training ; and he may, perchance, undervalue theology, for, lke
the physician in Chaucer, his study may be ‘but little in the
Bible.” We may trace this tendency in all classes of men, even,
it may be, amongst students of physics and artists, and so on till
we find it illustrated in the shoemaker who knew there was noth-
wg lke leather. Realizing this tendency in myself, but earnestly
desiring to value every department of knowledge justly, and feel -

oz Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ing that in this regard, I could ask no better or fitter audience, I
ask your attention to Art as a means of Hducation.

Of the mechanic arts, admirable as are their results, we do not
now speak. But our concern on this occasion is with those arts
which are called par eminence Fine Arts, or more commonly “ Art.”
These serve not for mere material uses, for our comfort, or con-
venience, or for the facilitation of business; not to sustain the nat-
ural life, or even to promote in any way mere physical well-being;
but they speak directly to the intellectual and moral nature of
man, adding to his stock of knowledge, educating or leading forth
his noblest powers, conducting him both onward and upward, by
inciting to love and delight in the beautiful and good. How nec-
essary is this moral elevation, we realize from the words of the
poet, ‘‘unless above himself he can erect himself, how mean a
thing is man!” Art, so understood, is the embodiment or utter-
ance of those ideas modified by the imagination, whose nature it
is to awaken sensibility or emotion.

Then how widethe realm of art! Hvery object in nature, every
fact in history, every truth in science, and nearly al! such have
their poetic aspects, whose tendency it is to awaken feeling, may
become the subject of art. Nay, the realm of art extends above
and beyond nature; every thought and imagination concerning
the mind of man, and its relations; concerning the supernatural ;
concerning other states of existence; concerning God himself, is
the legitimate subject of art. Still more, every influence given to
these thoughts and imaginations by our moods and feelings be-
comes in itself poetic.

The chief elements of art are the sublime, the beautiful, the
characteristic, the humorous, the fantastic and the grotesque.

The particular modes of manifestation of art-feeling, or language
of art, are poetry, painting, statuary, music, and architecture.

Poetry is art in articulate language; painting, in color, form,
light and shadow; statuary, in form only; music, in sound; and
architecture is art in the application of beautiful and grand forms
to uses, in the construction of buildings.

Having defined art generally, let us now look more particularly
-at art-ideas as differenced in kind from truths of science. Scien-

Art as Hducation. 33

tific truth is statement of that which zs ; it derives its character as
truth by virtue of its agreement with things as they really exist.

Art-truth is statement always with regard to these qualities of
things, which have power to move our affiections. Scientific truth
is the actual food of the mind. Being appropriated and assimi-
lated, it becomes actually a part of our intellectual being. By it
we grow. By it we advance. By it the world indeed moves.
Nearly all scientific truths, have, as before said, their poetic side,
and, so considered, become art truths.

The function of truths, of art, is especially to elevate the mind
and to develop or educate its powers. But the value of art gen-
erally, and of art ideas particularly, can only be properly estimated
by those who have the noblest and most exalted conception of the
human’soul and its interests. We wish to be in the highest de
gree practical; and to be so, we must exalt those truths which
tend to the greatest good. Alas! many, who are often considered
practical, value those truths only which serve merely as the means
of life, and entirely ignore or despise that higher class of truths
- which concern intimately the objects of life, the very purpose of
existence. ‘T'hese men speak,’ as Ruskin says, “ when they
speak from their hearts, as if houses, and food, and raiment, were
alone useful, and as if sight, and thought, and admiration were
all profitless; men who insolently cal! themselves utilitarians, and,
if they had their way, would turn themselves and their race into
vegetables; men who think, as far as such can be said to think—
that the meat is more than life, and the raiment than the body;
who look to the earth as a stable, and to its fruit as fodder; and
so comes upon us that woe of the preacher, that though God hath
made everything beautiful in his time, also he hath set the world
in their hearts so that no man can find out the work that God
maketh from the beginning to the end.”

Now, that is most practical, which is most useful; and that is
most useful, which best serves the purposes of existence; and all
admit that those purposes are best served by the most perfect
education. This most perfect education is the leading forth, the
fullest development of all our powers, and pre-eminently of the
noblest powers of our whole nature.

3

o4 Wisconsin Academy of Sctences, Arts, and Letters.

This education, art claims as its direct function. To man alone,
of created beings, does art speak.

“Tn industry thou’rt mastered by the bee;

The worm more skillfulness than thine hath shown;
Thy knowledge, all high spirits share with thee,

But Art, Oh! man, hast thou alone.”

Man has the mind possessed by the animals, and he has more.
He has powers far removed from theirs and different in kind. He
has an understanding trammeled and limited by the senses, as
they have; and he has a judgment which uses the senses for its
expression, which is not limited by them, but which makes its
affirmations positively, independently, and often in opposition to
their dictation.

Sharing the judgment in common with the lower animals, where
shall we find the distinction between usand them? Shall we not
find it in this, that we possess a moral sense, or the power of con-
ceiving right and wrong abstractly as principles; that we possess —
imagination, that high imagination which “ bodies forth the forms
of things unknown,” as essential to the man of science as to the
poet, to a Lord Bacon, as to John Milton; and above all, that
power of affirming principles or laws, so surely that we never
question them; principles which are the grounds of all mathe-
matical, metaphysical and ethical science; that power whose as-
sertions are as postive and undeniable as that ‘ God liveth.”

These faculties we know we possess, and we have as yet no
reasons for supposing they pertain to inferior creatures.

Plato taught that in the mind of the Creator, there existed ideas
which were the types or patterns of all his creations. Also that
human souls are so formed in the Divine image, and so partake of
his nature, that they also perceive and delight in these divine
forms. Here we have the source of all transcendental philosophy.
It accords also with scriptural teaching, for we are told that man
was made in the image of God, and this image must have been of
the Divine mind. The adoption of this conception underlies the
philosophy of a majority of the greatest minds which have been
vouchsafed to us. That this faculty of intuition, or direct behold-

Art as Education. 35

ing of essential truth, does exist in us, was ‘held also by Lord
Bacon, Dr. Ralph Cudworth, Kepler, Luther, Hooker, Pascal,
Leibnitz, Fenelon, Immanuel Kant, Sir Wni. Hamilton, Cousin,
Wordsworth, Coleridge, Mrs. Browning, and a host of other minds
most influential. Coleridge says, “it is evident that there is an
intuition, or immediate beholding, accompanied by a conviction
of the necessity and, universality of the truth so beholden, not
derived from the senses, which intuition gives birth to the science
of mathematics; and when applied to objects supersensuous or
spiritual, is the organ of theology and philosophy.

This higher power is the source of all art; and to this faculty
all art is addressed. So, the radical meaning of the word poet is,
maker, and the art faculty is universally called the creative faculty.
Goethe sings—

“ Oh that the true creative power
Through all my sense were ringing,

Like juices ready for the fiower,
From out my fingers springing.”

It is apparent that all the forms of musical art, all the sublime
conceptions of the great masters, are purely creations. They seem
the most spiritual of all the forms of art; there is in them no fit-
ness to awaken emotions either painful or unpleasant; they serve
only to elevate and delight us. This is indeed the true end of all
art. It may be depraved, as may all things pure; it may even
be forced into the service of vice; but the associati :n is so incon-
gruous, that to the reflecting mind, evil is made only the more
revolting. Itis a question whether any subject which is toa
greater extent painful than otherwise, should ever be embodied
in art; for example, Landseer’s ‘Death of the Stag,” and the
group of the Laocoon, and only the beauties developed in their
treatment can reconcile us to them.

The scientific man compares truth with truth, fact with fact,
and, by a process of induction, arrives at general propositions, or
laws; he uses the judgment in accordance with sense, in observ-
ing and comparing, and he uses the higher faculty of his reason,
in establishing principles. The artist observes particular objects

36 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letiers.

in nature, forms in*his mind a general conception of his proposed
subject, selects, arranges, modifies, and refers all to the standard
in his mind, which is his ideal of beauty, or grace, or power, or
whatever quality he may require, and so forms a perfect whole,
based indeed on nature, conforming Jo it, but which is not nature,
not imitation, not reproduction, but, as far as it is art at all, as his
creation. Intimately concerned in this creation is the principle
we call taste. Taste is the power of perception of those qualities,
which, inhering in thoughts and things, render them fit subjects
for art. This taste is not judgment, we must carefully avoid this
notion, but by it the mind affirms directly and positively. It is
to the mind in regard to qualities in truths, what the bodily senses
are in regard to sensidle qualities of material things, such as flay-
ors, odors, and the like.

We pronounce as positively and independently of judgment,
concerning the beauty of a flower, the grace of a musical melody,
or the grandeur of a thought, as concerning the sweetness of su-
gar, or the sourness of vinegar.

To all it is not given to perceive these qualities in the same
variety, and with equal accuracy ; just as we may vary in per-
ceiving sensible qualities. Yet, these qualities remain, and do not
vary ; sweet is sweet, and sour is sour; and hence, from the un-
varying nature of these qualities, arises truth or untruth in the
expression of them. Hence, we have truth of beauty, of humor,
of power, or of any other element of art.

Possessed with this thought, hear Schiller—

The truth which had for Centuries to wait,

The truth which reason had grown old to find,
Lay in the symbol of the fazr and great,

Felt from the first by every child-like mind.

T’ was virtue’s beauty made her honored so:

A finer instinct shrunk back, when it saw,
The ugliness of sin, ere Solon made the law,
- Forcing the plant unwillingly to grow.

Long ere the thinker’s intellect severe
The notion of eternal space could win,

Whoever gazed up at yon starry sphere,
That did not feel it prophesied within!

Art as Education. 3t

A glory of Orion round her head,
Behold her in her majesty!

Her keen glance all but purer Demons dread,
Consuming where she looks, she rides on high.

Above the stars, upon her sunny throne,
Urania — the stately, the severe!

But she has laid aside her blazing crown,
And stands — in Beauty’s form, before us here.

She puts on loveliness’ enchanted belt,
Becomes a child, is hailed by simplest youth.
What here as Peauty we have felt,
Shall one day come to us as 7’ruth.

Now let us consider briefly, the influence of art in educating
and elevating the mind. An artist, gifted with a soul alive to all
the influences of sight, and sound, and thought, around and within
him, produces a work: it may be an Oratorio; Handel’s Messiah ;
a statue, The Night, or the Day, of Michael Angelo; a painting,
The Last Supper, by Da Vinci; a temple, The Parthenon; a poem,
or any one of the myriad works which make up the true wealth
of the world! In the production of such a work, the artist, by
his innate love for, and sympathy with the elements of which we
have spoken, perceives them intuitively in objects of nature or in
thought, or from his own mind creating these qualities, clothes
the thoughts he presents with them, and thus we, who of our-
selves might not perceive these poetic qualities, or create them,
have them forced upon us, and the art faculty is gradually awak-
ened and developed within us.

And the great art-work which has served us, once created, lives
forever. Lives to delight and quicken the souls through all the
ages. .

That the art sense is so gradually produced, that this is the
general process of art-education is I think, the experience of all
artists, and we have upon it the testimony of so consummate an
artist as Goethe, who gives as his own experience

“ For when I think how, year by year,
This sense hath kept unfolding;

Where once the barren heath spread drear,
Now springs of joy beholding.”’

38 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

This sense, he speaks of in the verse just preceding, as the
“Creative power.” And this sense is not unfolded, and these
springs of joy are not disclosed, except to the earnest humble vo-
tary who waits upon the oracle within. This also, Goethe shows

in his enigmatic —
PARABLE.

Poems are colored window-glasses!
Look iuto the church from the market-square:
Nothing but gloom and darkness there!
Shrewd Sir Philistine sees things so:
Well may he narrow and captious grow,

Who all his life on the outside passes.

But come, now, and inside we'll go!
Now round the holy chapel gaze;
Tis all one many colored blaze;
Story and emblem, a pictured maze,

Flash by you: —’tis a noble show.

Here feel as sons of God baptized,
With hearts exalted and surprised.

Art does not only awaken this art-power, but with this awaken-
ing comes constantly delight, admiration, love, and all the nobler
emotions, purifying and li‘ting the whole being. Coleridge says
of poetry (and what is true of poetry is true of all forms of art),
‘poetry has been to me its own exceeding great reward; it has
multiplied my enjoyments, it has soothed my affections, it has en-
deared solitude, and it has given me the habit of wishing to dis-
cover the good and beautiful in all that meets and surrounds me.”

De Quincy divides all literature into two classes; one is of 7n-
formation, the other is of power. The one speaks to the under-
standing; the other, to the higher faculty we have been consider-
ing, and always through affections of pleasure and sympathy.
‘Remotely it may travel towards objects in the Lumen Siccum,
a phrase of Lord Bacon for the pure reason, but proximately, it
must act, or it loses its character as literature of power, in and
through that humid light, which illuminates the mists, the irrides-
cent hues, and the glittering points of human passions, desires,

and genial emotions,”

Art as Education. 39

Lord Bacon speaks thus of the influence of poetry: ‘“ Poetry
serveth and conferreth to magnanimity, and therefore it was ever
thought to have some participation of divineness, because it doth
raise and erect the mind, by submitting the shows of things, to
the desires of the mind. Milton speaks of, ‘‘our sage and serious
poet Spencer, whom, he adds, ‘I dare be known to think a better
teacher than Scotus and Aquinas.’”

Nothing has yet been said of the extent of the influence; its na-
ture only has been notived; but where does it not extend, it is
every where; we cannot excuse art’s influence. It is in our books,
our periodical literature, the ornamentation of clothing and furni-
ture, the decoration and refinements of our homes, in music, all
rural adornments, in the beautiful commingling of exquisite build-
ings and gardens, with natural scenery in the suburbs of cities.
It is in all architecture, from the most primitive, through the sim-
ple but sublime forms of Egyptian art, the chaste and classic ele-
gance of Grecian, to the wonderful variety and exquisite beauty
of the finest Gothic cathedrals.

Even the art of past ages, which has been long buried, is being
constantly exhumed for us; and as the Palimpsest, or old parch-
ment, from which the original treatise has been obliterated to give
place to the chronicles of after times, and to which, art can restore
the original writing, so almost all the habitable earth has in it,
concealed by the deposition of ages, the life and art of a by-gone
world. And these are being constantly revealed to us by exhu-
mation, in Rome, in Greece, in Pompeii, in Egypt, in Assyria, etc.,
and most recently on the site of ancient Troy, by the wonderful
“finds” of Dr. Schlieman.

All this influence is education. The perception of truth in the
simplest forms of art always gives enjoyment, and the realization
of the various truths of beanty, grace, and power, which combine
in any perfect work, carries the mind beyond delight, to gratitude,
admiration, and even adoration. And the “human soul is in the
most exalted position, when it reverences; when it adores.” This
is the education art accomplishes for us; what do we for art ?

How long has it, or any branch of it been considered an essen-
tial part of an educational course? ‘Thirty years ago, the most

40 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

done in this direction was through the professorship of Belles
lettres in our colleges. This comprised instruction in Rhetoric,
and on English authors of all classes; but without any consider-
ation of literature as educational, or any recognition of the value
of art in mental development. In the English universities, there
was a professorship of poetry, but regarded mostly as a sinecure.
In some select schools, young ladies seminaries, etc. claim was
made to an art department, because young ladies were there misled
and corrupted in their natural feeling for art, by exercises in
water-colors, Grecian painting, scratching off marble dust, and
other puerile quackeries. In our cities the rudiments and practice
of vocal music have been not uncommon; but there never yet has
‘been, and there is not now, any practice or teaching of the princi-
ples and value of any form of art, in our common schools, in any
part of this land, except in a very few instances, which shall soon
be noticed. More than this, the most astonishing ignorance pre-
vails generally, not only with the advanced scholars, but among
the teachers. It is frequently the experience of artists, that visi-
tors to their studios, occupying high place in the professions, show
a wise modesty in the expression of judgment, or show that mod-
esty would have been wise. Critics generally get no farther than
to think close imitation the best art: and tell of the birds pluck-
ing at painted grapes. Yet this proves not that the art was good;
“but,” says Goethe, “that the critics were only poor birds.”

Too often our critics look into the church from the market-
square; they do not step within.

With the teaching of Ruskin a ‘‘new departure” is taking
place. Schools of design, with special reference to art in manu-
factures, and ornamentation have been put in operation in several
English cities. A professorship of art has been established in
Oxford, which is filled by Mr. Ruskin; who teaches the cultured
young men of England, the supreme value of the arts in all the
refinements of life, and in that development of the intellect and
the moral natnre, for which alone life is given, as has never before
been done in the history of the world.

In this country, three or four years ago, Walter Smith from
London, England, was appointed ‘state director of art-education

Art as Education. A}

for maps, in the common schools of the state.” A manual of his
system has been published, which consists of graded exercises in
ornamental and symmetrical forms. These forms are to a great
extent idealized forms of natural objects, or as he calls them, con-
ventionalized forms. He has taught many of the teachers, and is
still directing thezr teaching. Some of his pupils are now engaged
in introducing his system in the larger cities of the Union, when
they can find favor in the eyes of boards of education, as lately in
the city of Chicago.

This teaching, as a beginning, I regard as of inestimable value
in disciplining the hand and eye, and awakening the mind to the
perception of beauty in line and form. Yet in this system, the
‘picture element” is almost entirely excluded. Light and shadow
color, composition, expression and most of the essentials of picto-
rial art are not at all studied. All this must follow, and this
leads me to consider lastly the best means of bringing this wealth
of knowledge and feeling home to the minds and hearts of the
people; and in this connection, the universality of the faculty to
receive it.

Time was, when all science was mystery, and secret guilds mo-
nopolized the arts. The philosopher was in league with the
evil one. The church said, “thus far shalt thou go, and no far-
ther.” All research was unpractical.. ‘‘What nature hides with-
in,” O thou philistine! No finite mind can know.

“Now that for sixty years I’ve heard repeated,
And oft’ as heard, with silent curses greeted,
I whisper o’er and o’er this truth eternal :—
Nature doth freely all things tell;
Nature hath neither shell nor kernel.
Whole everywhere, at each point thou canst learn all ;
Only examine thine own heart,
Whether thou shell or kernel art.”

Where is the kernel of nature? say, but in man’s heart.

This element of sincerity with one’s self is the first requisite
for progress, either in science or art.

Not long since, no one could sing without some special gift.

42 Wisconsin Acudemy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Now, all can learn to sing, except some rare individual with im-
perfect organ of hearing or voice. Not long since, no one could
learn to draw, without a special gift, and now, if a boy shows some
aptitude to imitate nature, the fond parents and friends say,
“what a gift the boy has!” Whata genius he is! Because, per-
haps he has drawn a cat or a candlestick so that one may almost
immediately say that it was not intended for either a cow or a cap-
stan. A few years back, John. 8. Chapman, artist, uttered the
truth, that ‘‘any one who can learn to write, can learn to draw.”
And this we now begin to understand. Of course we require
eifts; and thank God we have, all of us; and one of the best
gifts we have, is the love of beauty, beauty in all its manifesta-
tions, in flowers, animal life, in trees and rocks, in streams and
skies, in form, and sound, and thought, and Jie 2s full of it. And
the power of enjoyment — which means the art-faculty is as uni-
versal as the material provided for it.

‘“T know I could never be an artist.” No, sir, you do not. “I
know I have not the gift.” Dear Madam, you are full of gifts.
You do not know what gifts you have; and your knowledge of
them can come only by your development of them.

Of course, these gifts vary in power, as do other gifts, which
are presumed to exist in all; the judgment, memory, power of
comparison, etc. It often happens, however, that the person most
gifted, your genius, will be satisfied with mediocrity, and the
humble, slow, but earnest seeker for excellence will go far be-
yond him. “Nothing” says Sir Joshua Reynolds, is ever denied
to well directed effort. When Domenichino was called ‘ the ox,”
by his fellow students, for his slowness and lack of gifts, his mas-
ter, Aunibal Carracci said, “he isan ox who will till well the
field he plows,” and he surpassed them all.

What is needed, in my judgment, to make our system of edu-
cation more complete, so that we may be less onesided, and our
powers may be symmetrically developed, so that, as men and
women, we m y be rich with wealth, which long lay in us all un-
consciously is, 1. To introduce generally in our primary and
graded schools, such system of drawing, as that of Mr. Walter
Smith, supplemented by simple picturesque designs, with some

Art as Hducation. , 43

effect of light and shadow; slight artistic sketches of natural ob-
jects. 2. In higher schools, practice on more complex designs
from nature, and on good copies from antique and modern statu-
ary; this should be accompanied by some instruction in the first
principles of art, and the connection between the arts in their na-
ture and influence. 38. Connected with every state system of edu-
cation, should be an art professorship. The incumbent should
devote all his time to the duties of his office, instructing teachers
in the cities, and students in the normal schools, visiting them
periodically, lecturing on the elements of art, and directing them
in their practice. He should also attend all educational conven-
tions within the limits of his state, and create and continue an
interest on this important matter; and, 4. In each of our colleges
and universities, should be an Art Department, supplied with a
museum of works of art, of all kinds; these should be added to
constantly, by gifts from all sides, and the collection would grow
with the institution. Hach institution should support a professor
of the history and principles of art; and lectures and systematic
teaching of the history of schools and styles should be given, and
of the philosophy of all the arts, illustrated by specimens always
af hand, in the museum.

When this state of things exists, the reproach of such general
ignorance will pass away; and this will be the smallest gain.
Then love of art will be sincere, and intelligent; and love of na-
ture also will increase. Then will beauty come to us as truth.
Then will we feel and know the truth, that —

“Freely through Beauty’s morning gate,
Canst thou to knowledge penetrate ;

The mind, to face truth’s higher glances,

Must swim sometime in Beauty’s trances ;
The heavenly harping of the muses,

Whose sweetest trembling through thee rings
A higher life into the soul infuses,

And wings the upward to thee soul of things.”’

44 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

THE HARMONIC METHOD IN GREEK ART.
BY MR. J. R. STUART.

A great deal is said in a vague way of the ideal in Greek art,
as if that ideal were a fixed form or pattern, by which the artist
worked out his statues. Were this possible, the art would become
a manufacture and we should have statues turned out by the lot,
like so much furniture, of the correct pattern. Whereas, the work
of the Greek sculptors was the result of constant, earnest study
and observation. A lifetime was sometimes devoted to a single
work, and, among the thousands of statues produced, there was an
infinite variety in the model. The massive muscle of Hercules,
the superhuman grace and greatness of Apollo, the matronly Juno
and lovely Venus are each a distinctive type. ‘To combine these
types, to place the head of Hercules on the body of Apollo, for
instance, we feel at once would produce a monster. Hach statue
must be in harmony with itself, and this leads us to what Walker,
in his ‘ Analysis of Beauty,’ has called the “harmonic method” of
the Greeks.

There are certain general, proportional measures used by artists
in constructing their figures, such as eight heads to the whole
height, which was sometimes varied as low as seven and a half
heads. Six feet (lengths of the foot) to the height, as Vituvius
tells us, was the practice of ancient artists. A man standing with
arms extended; the extreme extent of his arms is equal to his
height. So, also, the measure from the centre of one mamma to
the centre of the other, equal to the distance from each to the pit
above the breastbone.

There is something needed, however, beyond these rules of gen-
eral application, and we now approach the chief difficulty, which evi-
dently found a stumbling block to even Leonardo da Vina. That
harmonic method which, strange as it may appear, will be found ~
to afford rules that are at once perfectly precise and infinitely vari-
able. Says Walker. The harmonic method of the Greeks — that

The Harmonic Method in Greek Art. 45

measure which Leonardo called ‘the true proportion ;” “ the pro-
portion of an individual in regard to himself. ;” “which should
be different in all the individuals of a species,” but in which “all
the parts of any animal should be compared to the whole;” and
which, as Bossi adds, “‘ Varies in every figure, according to the
age, circumstances and particular character of each.” In short,
this method for the harmony of parts in each distinct individual ;
this method, presenting rules perfectly precise, yet infinitely vari-
able, has, in all its elements, been clearly laid down before the
reader (though not enunciated as a rule) in the locomotive, nutritive
and thinking systems, or, generally speaking, of the limbs, the
trunk and the head, and in the three species of beauty founded on
them.

These, it is evident, present to the philosophic observer, the sole
means of judging beauty by harmonic rule, the great object of
Leonardo da Vinci's desires and regrets. They present the great
features of the Greek method, if that method conformed to truth
and nature, as it undoubtedly did. This will be rendered clearer
by a single example.

Thus, if any individual be characterized by the development of
the nutritive system, this harmonic rule of nature demands, not
only that, as in the Saxon English, the Dutch and many Germans,
the trunk shall be large, but consequently that the other two por-
tions, the head and the limbs shall be relatively small. That the
calvarium shall be small and round and the intellectual powers
restricted ; that the head shall nevertheless be broad, because the
vital cavities of the head are large, and because large jaws and
muscles of mastication are necessary to the supply of such a sys-
tem; that the neck shall be short, because the locomotive system
is little developed; that it shall be thick, because the vessels
which connect the head to the trunk are large and full, the former
being only an appendage to the latter. That the lower limbs
shall be both short and slender; that the calves of the legs shall
be small and high; that the feet shall be little turned out, ete.
So, also, if any individual be characterized by the locomotive
system, the harmonic rule demands not only that the limbs shall
be large, but consequently that the other two portions, the head

46 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

and trunk, shall be relatively small; that the calvarium shall be
small and long, and the intellectual powers limited; that the head
shall be long, because the jaws and the muscles are extended.

Again, likewise, if any individual be characterized by the de-
velopment of the thinking system, the harmonic rule demands,
not only that the head shall be large, but consequently that the
other two portions, the trunk and limbs, shall be relatively small ;
that the head shall not only be large, but that the upper part, the
calvarium, shall be largest, giving a pyramidal appearance to the
head; that the trunk and limbs, however elegantly formed, shall
be relatively feeble, the former often lable to disease, the latter to
accident.

It must be borne in mind, however, that there may be innu-
merable combinations and modifications of these characteristics,
certain greater ones, nevertheless, generally predominating.

The following are some of the principal rules, which, either by
intuition or distinctly defined, guided the practice of the ancient
Greeks :

First, in regard to the thinking system. In the head, in partic-
ular, may be observed character, or a permanent and invariable
form, which defines its capabilities and expression or temporary
and variable forms, which indicate its actual functions. As char-
acter is permanent and invariable, it depends fundamentally on
permanent and invariable parts, the Jones. And as expression is
temporary and variable, it depends-on the shifting and vital parts,
the muscles.

The suggestion of the bony structure, then, giving character,
and of the action of the muscles, giving expression, we find al-
ways represented in a masterly manner by the Greeks, minuter
forms which are universal, and without which nature is imper-
fectly represented. These are details of the highest order, because
the means of expressing intellect, emotion or passion. Between
these intellectual means, these higher details and those of a lower
order, the great artists of Greece distinguished. The lower details,
such as wrinkles and folds of the skin, projecting veins, peculiari-
ties of the hair, beard, ete, these have always characterized in-
ferior artists and decadent art.

The Harmonic Method in Greek Art. 47

‘When the ancient artists increased the facial angle beyond eighty
degrees, they believed that an increase of intelligence corresponded
to that conformation. By increasing the angle beyond eighty-five
degrees they impressed upon their figures the grandest character,
as in the Apollo, Venus and others, whose facial angle extends to

or exceeds ninety degrees.

Observing the nature of the angle, we perceive that it tended
in no way to raise the forehead, but to throw it forward or to
lengthen it. Whence the expression of long head for wise head,
which has not yet given place to broad head, preferred by German
craniologists in compliment to their own organization. The gen-
eral rule was, that the forehead’s height should equal the space
from the forehead to the bottom of the nose, or from the nose to
the bottom of the chin.

The next rule is in regard to the form of the nose, in nearly the
same line with the forehead, and with very little indentation be-
tween the parts.

The nose is the inlet of vital emotion or pleasure, the eye of
mental emotion, while the passions depend on the mouth and
ear. The emotional, the higher faculties, were expanded by this
raising of the junction of the forehead and nose, while the lower
faculties of passion, the mouth and ear were relatively decreased.
While developing the higher organs of emotion all impassioned
expression was suppressed, and thence the bestowal of that calm-
ness and simple grace, which is the highest quality in all repre-
sentation. In inferior beings, however, when passion is expressed,
the features are varied by the Greek artists, as they are in na-
ture. Such are the great ideal rules for the head and functions
of thought.

As regards the nutritive system, the vital and reproductive, the
Greeks similarily idealize. The Venus of Milo may be taken as
the type of this system. The head and torso are all that is visible
of the body. The head presents ali the loftier qualities already
discribed in the intellectual and emotional, but calm, sweet and
self-poised, while in the torso, the nutritive system is perfectly
developed in the full expansive forms and exquisitely rounded
costumes. A representation of eternal perfected womanhood and
feminine loveliness. |

48 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Next of the locomotive system and the ideal rules for zts treat-
ment by the Greeks.

Of the works of ancient art which have been preserved, the
Apollo Belvidere is conceded to possess the highest qualities. In
this statue we find all of these principles developed and combined.
The full intellectual brow, the thin, quivering nostril and fine yet
sensitive lips, the column-like throat, the well developed limbs
and trunk, but the last subordinated to the first, the higher facul-
ties of the intellect.

The Antinous is unsurpassed among ancient statues for grace
and beauty. But in comparing the Antinous with the Apollo we
find, that, when the former fills us with admiration only, the Apollo
strikes us with surprise. ‘To, at least, as much grace and beauty
as is found in the former, there is a superaddition of greatness, an
appearance of something more than human, which one is at a loss
to describe. This is the more surprising when we find, that the
legs and thighs are too long and too large for the upper parts.

Now, Hogarth suggests that this has been done with a purpose,
and that this greatness is really owing to what has been considered
a blemish. The Apollo is greater in size than the Antinous, but
if we consider a moment, we feel that were the Antinous enlarged
to the Apollo’s height, this would not produce the superiority of
effect. Says Hogarth: ‘The Antinous being allowed to have the
" justest proportion possible, let us see what addition, upon the prin-
ciple of quantity can be made to it, without taking away any of
its beauty. If we imagine an addition of dimension to the head,
we shall immediately conceive, that it would only deform. If to
the hands or feet we are sensible of something gross and ungen-
teel. If to the whole length of the arms, they would be dangling
and awkward. If by an addition of length or breadth to the
body, we know it would appear heavy and clumsy. ‘There re-
mains then only the neck with the legs and thighs to speak of To
these, we find, that not only certain additions may be admitted
without causing any disagreeable effect, but that thereby, great-
ness, the last perfection as to proportion is given to the human
form, as is evidently expressed in the Apollo.”

This is well done by Hogarth (says Walker). It requires but
little anatomical knowledge to see the reason of this. The length

The Harmonic Method in Greek Art. 49

of the neck, by which the head is further detached from the trunk,
shows the independence of the higher intellectual system upon
the lower one of mere nutrition and the length of the limbs shows,
that the mind had ready obedience in locomotive power. Here
again we find the expansion of the higher faculties and the sub-
ordination of the lower.

This principle that all the parts of any animal should corre-
spond to the whole, is the same adopted by comparative anato-
mists in their constructions. But in representing the human form,
the Greeks had an insuperable advantage over the modern. Now
only were the opportunities for observation and comparison in-
finitely better, from the habits and costume of the people, but the
Greek man himself was undoubtedly developed to a far higher
state of perfection, than has been done either before or since by
any other people. Jaine has given in his art in Greece a very ex-
haustive treatise on the mode of life and training which produced
such results, the perfect model and thence the perfect statue. It
is probable that we can never equal them in their particular
branch of sculpture, but by following the method practiced by
them, our own work will certainly be more perfect.

We have something analogous to it in the training and improve-
ment in the breeding of horses. The heavy Clydesdale or Nor-
man horse with massive limbs and muscles, at once suggests his
fitness for the laborers of Hercules, to whom he is analogous in
form, while the lithe form, clean limbs, broad front and quivering
nostrils of the Knglish thoroughbred, or the Arab of the Nedjid,
suggests the warrior and hunter, the very Apollo of horses. With-
out doubt, as our jockeys are connoisseurs in the points of horse
flesh, so were the ancient Greeks in the points of man flesh, and
the method of their artists was based upon such knowledge, cul-
tivated by centuries of observation and experience.

4

DEPARTMENT OF LETTERS.

LETTERS AN EMBARRASSMENT TO LITERATURE.

By PROF. W. C. SAWYER, of Lawrence University.

Without letters there could be no literature; but with them,
its development must be in proportion to the facility with which
they symbolize and record our thoughts. Intellectual activity is
stimulated through the eye quite as readily as through the ear, and
recorded thought stirs the soul only less potently than the human
voice.

The utterances of the tongue — not the traces of the pen and
the impressions of the types — constitute language. Speech is
made up of the symbols of thought; literature, of the symbols
of speech, and is, accordingly, two removes from the energies of
the soul itself. The tones of the voice, however, travel but a short
way and perish before they have reached more than a few thousand
ears — not allowing for the possibilities of the telephone — while
the recorded words and deeds of buried generations will perpet-
uate their memory, in many lands and literatures, to the end of
time.

There are some reasons for supposing that the present advant-
age of writing, over speech, may be increased tenfold with the in-
creasing facilities for the production, distribution, and consump-
tion of literature. The chief obstacle to the growth and perfec-
tion of our literature is in the mechanical difficulty of writing,
together with the consequent evil effects upon reading and general
culture.

Leibnitz has said, “ Give me a good alphabet and I will show
you a good language.’’ The world has been suffering for cen-
turies from the vain endeavor to form good languages — or litera-

Letters an Embarrassment to Literature. 51

tures rather, for the languages have almost formed themselves —
without the least regard to the sort of alphabet used. A single
language exhausts our score and six letters, and the next is forced
to fit this same garment to its altered proportions.

Human speech is made up of the various phonetic effects of
the air passing through the mouth and nose, as modified by the
tongue, the teeth, the lips, the uvula, and the vocal chords. We
know, by the physical laws of phonetic change, that every modi-
fication of these physiological organs must produce a distinct
sound. No language uses nearly all the possible voice modifica-
tions; but each one employs a certain definite number of them —
our own using about forty —and makes up for the deficiency of
symbols by arbitrarily assigning some group of letters to represent
the phonetic elements of each word of the language. One result
of this practice is, that in different languages, different powers are
given to the same letter. This is rapidly becoming a greater and
greater evil, as the study of the languages, especially the modern,
becomes more general and more necessary. It is not easy to over-
come the power of a fixed habit and give a new sound to a famil-
iar letter. specially is this difficult when the new power of the
letter differs but little from the old, as when, for instance, we learn
the continental o — a simple sound — or when a student from the
Continent learns our o—a diphthong. I set this fault of the al-
phatet among the chief reasons why we come so far short of
mastering the orthoépy of foreign languages. The importance
of this feature of linguistic study cannot well be overestimated.

The fact that there are less letters in the alphabet than there are
elementary sounds in our language leads to the fatal necessity of
employing the same letter in different capacities. This unsettles
the powers of the alphabet, and disturbs the logical order of edu-
cation, even for the children in our common schools. Unfortu-
nately the confusion thus necessitated does not stop with the limit
of the necessity. The demoralization consequent upon the un-
systematic use of letters with variable powers has greatly increased
the burden of a common education. The first letter of the alpha-
bet is given, by some careful orthoépists, nine distinct sounds, as
in ale, any, care, pan, pass, arm, idea, what and all. The same

52 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

uncertainty attends all the vowels, though the variations are most
numerous in the case cited. This leads to the extraordinary phe-
nomenon of representing about fifteen elementary vowel sounds
in about forty-seven different ways in the same language. The
consonants afford but little relief, the simple surd palatal sibilant
being represented in twenty-two ways, requiring in all forty-seven
letters. The language affords many examples of sounds variously
represented by dissimilar characters, among both vowels and con-
sonants. The habit of representing simple sounds by digraphs
like ph, sh, th, ng, wh, ah, aw, etc., 1s very expensive and by no
means luxurious. ‘The various spellings of the same syllables, as
in tion, sion, con and shun ; the various pronunciation of the same
combinations of letter, as ough in though, through, bought, plough,
cough and enough ; and the hundred and twenty-four silent letters
out of every thousand in an average book, constitute a material
and moral burden that the age can ill afford to carry.

Our alphabet could be employed to far better advantage than
at present; but its erudeness discourages all refinement in its use.
It is barbarous in both its origin and its character. It mingles
surds, sonants, gutterals, dentals, labials, and vowels and conson-
ants in such perfect confusion that to inquire for their principle of
arrangement could be understood only as a jest.

A startling statement has been made by Mr. James W. Shearer,
that only five words in the English language are pronounced as
they are spelled. The word ois among the number. It hasa
consonant that is nearly, though not quite, uniform in its use.
But the vowel o as heard in this word, represents two elementary
vowel sounds —the first being the exact contenental o and the
other a short vanishing w, like the vowel of moon. This combi-
nation corresponds with the name of the letter and its popular
“long” sound.

In this word, the sound of 0, which Mr. Shearer, in all proba-
bility, has set down as the proper sound occurs, according to Pro-
fessor Whitney’s table of frequency, only one hundred and sey-
enty-six times in ten thousand words, while ‘short 0,” as in not,
occurs two hundred and fifty-nine times. Strictly speaking, there
isno knowing when a word 7s “‘ pronounced as spelled” in our

Letters an Hmbarrassment to Literature. 53

lancuage, though we can generally be sure that our words are not
pronounced as spelled.

One of the chief elements of elocution is orthoépy. A careful
and correct articulation marks refinement and scholarship every-
where. Nothing is better established in philology than the unti-
versal indolence of the organs of speech. ‘This is attested by all
forms of assimilation, as well as by the dropped syllables of all
the uncuitivated Teutonic and other dialects. It is not for eu-
phony that we say collateral for con-lateral, but for economy of ar-
ticulation. The » contact, of the whole tongue with the hard
palate, completely obstructing the passage of the breath by the
mouth, is unlike that of 7 by only a part of the contact, the sides
of the tongue being withdrawn from the palate or teeth, while the
lips remain as before. ‘I'o save the effort of this slight variation
of the position of the tongue, we assimilate the n to the. This
disintegrat.ng tendency is a force that operates perpetually against |
the correctness of our pronunciation. Some of the corruptions of
utterance are attended with corresponding changes of orthography ;
but these changes have been capricious, and spelling and pronun-
ciation have become so completely divorced that no rules can
longer account for all the disagreements between orthography and
orthoépy.

If the symbols of our writing were exact, all the tendency of
reading would be toward purifying, instead of corrupting, our
utterances. A distinct symbol for every sound in our speech,
with its power fully described and thoroughly practiced in con-
nection with learning the forms of the letters, would correct every
error of pronunciation Hvery written or printed word would then
suggest and impress its proper sounds, and reading and elocution
could not fail to make the most rapid advance. The orthoépy of
our language is demoralized by its barbarous alphabet, and, till
that is reformed, it cannot expect to recover any fair standing.

One of our literary disabilities which we charge, with some as-
perity of feeling, to our orthography, is the difficulty of rapidly
reading, or skimming, books to gain their leading thoughts, or to
discover their views upon some special subject. Even under its

54° Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

present difficulties, this method enables a student to make a far
wider acquaintance with literature, and to give a better authority
to his authorship, than if he should read altogether by the delib-
erate examination of every page and word.

The mechanical difficulty of rapid writing also, troublesome in
every literary pursuit, is peculiarly so in the higher education.
The use of lectures, in university instruction, is embarrassed so
much by the necessarily slow and burdensome process of writing
out the lectures of the professors that we cannot afford to make
that use of lectures which is so popular in Germany, and which,
but for this obstacle, might be very useful in our own educational
methods.

Only five or ten years ago, spelling reform was looked upon as
the impracticable notion of a few dreamers. At present, it has
the support of the leading philologists of England and America.
Indeed, the only work in this interest which is likely to abide, has
been done by our foremost linguistic scholars. Reports very fa-
vorable to this reform have been made by committees of both the
American Philological Association and the National Educational As-
sociation. Some special organizations have been formed, both in
this country and in England, to promote this same end. The
Germans also have taken active measures to correct the compara-
tively few and slight orthographic defects of their language. The
Royal Commission, appointed by Minister Falk, reported such
modifications as violate the historic spelling just about as often as
they violate phonetic principles. Such a compromise, though now
the law of the Empire, could not hope for great popularity; but
it is noteworthy that the complaint that reaches our ears is chiefly
on account of the half-way character of the reform, rather than
because the sacred order of the letters has been disturbed. Under
such sentiments, a Reform League has been formed in Germany
aiming to complete the reform, and introduce it into common use.
They make a forcible showing of some of the advantages of the
reform, in the following mathematical fashion :

‘Tf, after the adoption of phonetic spelling, each child at school
were to save only one lesson in spelling every week, that, for sixty
millions of Germans, would amount to a saving of five million

Letters an Hinbarrassment to Interature. 5d

years. Hach child would save forty-eight hours in a year, which,
if we reckon each day as consisting of twelve working hours,
would give four days in a year, or thirty-two days during the eight |
years spent at school. ach child would therefore save about one
month at school, twelve children one year, sixty millions of Ger-
man children five millions of years. These might be applied to
some better purposes than to find out whether we should write
libe or liebe.”

These same considerations apply in English with tenfold more
force. If, therefore, the Germans will not tolerate even a moiety
of the few phonetic defects of their orthography, what satisfaction
can we expect from a half-and-half reform of our own? But our
reformers are inquiring not how little change will satisfy the peo-
ple, but how much they will suffer. They put too low an esti-
mate upon the public intelligence, and are far too sensitive about
being compared with Josh. Billings and other gentlemen who spell
better in jest than other people in earnest. Fortunately the pub-
le is conservative enough to cling to the old system till a better
one is found. A reform that needs reforming must always be un-
satisfactory. Several systems of spelling by the aid of the old
alphabet, with or without modifications, are now before the public.
They exhibit evidence of careful study and economy almost he-
roic. But economy, carried to the pitch of saving a few new
symbols at the expense of saddling upon unborn generations
another irrational method of writing, becomes a groveling parsi-
mony.

Mr. Bell’s system of “ Visible Speech” is the most thorough-
going attempt yet made to form a simple, exact, and universal
system of phonetic rotation. This was never intended for general
use, and, as Prof. W. D. Whitney has shown, is not perfectly
adapted to replace the alphabet; but it has demonstrated the grand
possibilities of phonetic symbolism.

Thanks to such men as Mr. Bell, Mr. Ellis, and Profs. Halde-
mann, March, and Whitney, we have at last a rapidly maturing
phonetic science, which is both the indispensable sone nie, and
the sure promise, of a rational alphabet.

DEPARTMENT OF SPECULATIVE PHILOSOREie

MR. SPENCER'S SOCIAL ANATOMY.
By H. M. SIMMONS, of Kenosha.

The ancient and hackneyed simile comparing social to animal
structure, at length assumes scientific form in Herbert Spencer’s
last volume (‘‘ Principles of Sociology”). His comparison is very
ingenious. Individuals are the cells of the social structure ;
although not in physical contact like animal cells, still through
language and various influences they become virtually in contact.
The earlest social organizations are small and loose groups where
each individual retains a large measure of independence; like a
cluster of vorticellae or a sponge, where each cell retains its sep-
arate life. But with advancing society the organizations grow
larger, population like animal tissue grows denser, and the indi-
vidual like the cell becomes more dependent on the aggregate, as
the differentiation of structure and function advances. A savage

tribe, like a rhizopod, is homogeneous, each part serving for any kind
of work at demand. But with advance society separates into
classes, with increasing division of labor, just as rising animal
structure shows its increase of organs.

The first differentiation in Mr. Spencer's analysis is between out-
side and inside. In the animal, outside hardens and assumes
organs of defense and attack, while inside becomes stomach and
varied alimentary system. So society separates into an outer
class of masters, warriors, and rulers for protection, and an inner
class of slaves and laborers for procuring and preparing sustenance.
Between inside and outside must be another system to distribute
the sustenance when prepared. This becomes circulation in the
animal and commerce in the state. Finally in the outer layer of

7

Mr. Spencer's Social Anatomy. 57
the animal arises a varied nervous system, with organs of sense
and will for the regulation of the whole; so in the dominant class
in the state arises government with its varied means for obtaining
information and executing orders for the regulation of the whole.
So in social as in animal structure, Mr. Spencer traces three sys-
tems: first, the inner sustaining system, — alimentation in the ani-
mal, and productive industries in the state; second, the distributing
system, —circulation in the animal and commerce ia the state ;
third, the regulating system, — the nervous structure of the animal
and the government in the state.

Mr. Spencer traces the analogies in detail. As the simple al-
imentary canal becomes divided into organs for mastication, disin-
tegration and the various processes of digestion; so the rude in-
dustries of a savage tribe grow diverse in the arts of civilization,
with the same method. As for instance, the liver originating in
separate bile-secreting cells scattered along the intestine, becomes
at length concentrated in a viscus with direct and ramifying
branches; so an industry commencing with separate workmen
scattered through the community, gradually becomes concentrated
in factories and a great manufacturing center.

The distributing system shows still more remarkable parallels.
Commerce commences with shifting paths through forests and
prairies, like the unwalled and changing lacunee in animal tissue.
But with advance the paths grow straight, and fixed in fenced
roads, like the walled blood vessels; and culminate in the double-
tracked railroads separating the outgoing and incoming currents, —
the arteries and veins of the social structure. These great chan-
nels of distribution in their ever-ramifying divisons grow smaller
in roads and lanes, and end in unfenced cart-tracks across the fields,
—the capillaries of commerce. As circulation commences in the
lower animals feeble and irregular, but culminates in the steady
pulse of the mammal; so commerce commences in feeble barter,
and rising through the irregular fair, comes at last to the steady
pulse of the daily market. Here and there a manufacture, like a
secreting gland, draws from the current the crude material, which
it works over into more refined products and then returns to the
circulation. So in the animal and social economy alike, the sus-
tenance is carried where needed.

58 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Leters.

The regulating system shows a like parallel in details. The
lowest tribes are nearly without government, as the lowest animals
without nerves. Then comes the rude chief, like a simple gan-
glion. Then comes the union of tribes, with one and its chief
raised to a kind of leadership, like the lower articulate with seg-
ments partially subordinate to the head. Then comes monarchy,
with its king controlling all subordinate rulers and members, like
a vertebrate with its nervous system fully centered in the brain.
But, as in the rising nervous structure, cerebrum and cerebellum,
the deliberative centers, imperceptibly arising, come to over-
shadow and control the sensory centers; so in the state, delibera-
tive assembiies, imperceptibly arising, come to overshadow and
control the personal will of the monarch, and government becomes
constitutional instead of autocratic, reasonable instead of impul-
sive and passionate. Jinally, as in the animal, the internal func-
tions are regulated by the sympathetic and vaso-motor systems
acting automatically; so the internal functions of the state, its
industry and commerce, come to be self-regulating, and need no in-
terference from the government.

These comparisons, doubtless, seem fanciful to many. But if
life is one, as we are learning, then such resemblances are natural.
Of course such parallelisms must not be pressed to details of
structure ; but in functions, they are not only natural but neces-
sary. - Society, like any other living thing, must have its suste-
nance and distribution, and its organs for these functions; and Mr.
Spencer’s analysis seems in general not only ingenious but true.

But, on a few points, Mr. Spencer seems open to criticism. ‘The
animal digestive system seems to correspond not to all the pro-
ductive industries of tne state, but only to the manufacturing in-
dustries. Digestion, like manufacture, takes the raw materials of
nature second-hand and prepares them for use. Hence digestion
is only part of the sustaining function. Beyond the secondary
process of preparing the sustenance lies the primary process of
getting it. Outside the animal digestive system are organs for
gathering food for digestion; and outside of manufactures are the
various agricultural, mining, lumbering, and other industries, for
gathering from nature the material for manufacture. All these
processes, of course, belong to the sustaining system. So the sus”

a

Mr. Spencer's Social Anatonry. 59

taining system is not all inside, as Mr. Spencer makes it, but
partly outside. It is outside before it isinside. The protozoon
is sustained by absorption through the surface, before stomach
cavity arises; and a savage tribe is sustained by the external in-
dustries of fishing and hunting before manufactures arise.

- This criticism does not injure the parallel, but helps it.» In this
external part of the sustaining system, we may also trace the an-
alogies between the animal and social structures. As the sustain-
ing system of the rhizopod is a mere surface folding around the
food coming in its way; so the lowest savages merely absorb the
uncooked roots, berries and molluscs that chance brings them.
But with the beginnings of stomach come cilia to entrap and ab-
sorb food, and tentacles to range through the water at random and
capture prey; so with the beginning of domestic life and the arts,
some men become hunters and fishers, the tentacles of the tribe
roving at random to entrap and capture game. With advance in
the animal, the external organs become fierce with appendages for
fichting; so advancing society produces its warrior class to win
sustenance by attack and plunder, —the claws and fangs of the
social body, growing more deadly as they become pointed with
bronze and steel. But asin the rising animal scale, fierce claws
at length give way to supple hands and cunning fingers, gathering
a better sustenance; so in the social body, the military class in
time give place to the industrial, and what was once the claws of
the state become the productive hand of civilization, peacefully
gathering from field, forest, earth and sea a far richer sustenance
than war can steal.

Again, one is forced to ask why Mr. Spencer has said nothing
of the respiratory system. Respiration is the function most char-
acteristic of and most essential to animal life. The sustaining
and distributing systems of which he says so much are purely
vegetative, — belong toa tree as much as to a man. But one
of the chief differences separating the animal from the vegetable
is respiration. ‘The animal absorbs oxygen, and the higher he is
in the scale, the more perfect his organs for absorbing it. In the
lowest animal the oxygen is absorbed from the water through the
general surface of the body; then through specialized places on

60 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

the surface, which in time fold and branch into gills; finally it is
absorbed more rapidly from the air through the perfect lung of
bird and mammal. Respiration seems the special mark of the
rising animal, and comes to be the most important function of
all. Hating may be omitted and the sustaining system lie idle
for days; but not breathing. Consciousness may be suspended
and the regulating system deranged: but the respiration must
goon. From respiration, too, come the warmth and energy of
higher life. The contrast between the torpid reptile and the
frigate bird which, as Michelet says, “ takes his breakfast on the
Senegal and dines in America,” comes largely from the contrast
in breathing powers. Even that higher life we call spiritual is as
closely linked with the breath as its name imphes. Foul air dulls
and fresh air quickens the thought. Even moral excellence seems
somewhat dependent on good breath. “Let everythiog that hath
breath praise the Lord,” says the Psalmist, and probably nothing
else will. The old fabulists were wise to figure Satan as a dragon,
— a poor-lunged creature, perhaps one of ‘the extinct gilled hali-
saurians. High life comes with breathing. To the sustaining
and distributing systems of the vegetable, must be added a re-
spiratory to make the animal; and it seems strange that Mr. Spen-
cer should have omitted this from his parallel.

We may not be able to trace the social gills and lungs or any
details of the respiratory structure, but the respiratory function is
plain in society. Respiration means consumption. Breathing is
burning, and the different methods are only so many ways of
keeping the fire. Gills furnish a poor draft; perfect lunes show
pipes, chimney, and heaving bellows at the bottom, and keep the
animal well burnt out. Stomach and lungs balance each other.
Stomach feeds and lungs eat; stomach accumulates and lungs con-
sume. The tree gathers and keeps, and so grows bigger every
year; the animal gathers and spends itself, turns its fiber into
force, warmth and action, and so after a little does not grow big-
ger, but grows better, ever burning out the old and keeping
itself renewed. Respiration means consumption of old tissue.

Society shows this process,— not the mere consum ption of which
the political economist speak, but the deeper consumption of the

Mr. Spencer's Social Anatomy. 61

social tissue itself. Men whose work is done are removed like
worn-out cells from the body. As even the older and solider
framework of the body is slowly removed, and our very bones
change; so even the older and more fundamental institutions are
slowly consumed and renovated in a healthy state that breathes
and lives. As this process of consumption works in nerve and
brain more rapidly than anywhere else; so in a healthy so-
ciety, thought and opinion show still more rapid change, as old
errors are abandoned and new knowledge gained. ‘This respira-
tion in society as in the animal, brings higher life by removing
the effete and poisonous elements from our institutions. Buckle
said the best work of legislators had been in undoing the work
of their predecessors. Advancing knowledge and thought do, in-
deed, eat away old opinions as oxygen consumes the brain, but
like that, for good. No need to restrict thought. There may, in-
deed, be social stages to which knowledge is fatal, as free air is to
fish. But we need not on that account restrict thought, any more
than we enact laws to keep fish in the water. Few men are too eager
to come out into the higher air, and whoever will, let him. Some
think this is the way lungs have come. It is safe for society to
absorb its gills and develop lungs as fast as it will. Knowledge
and thought do indeed, like oxygen, burn out old errors; but like
that, respect life, and harm nothing good. In state and body
alike the organism’s own vitality is ever renewing the wasted tissue,
and giving us better than we lost. The respiration which con-
sumes is yet the breath of life.

With all these parallels between the animal and social struc-
ture, we should note one contrast, to which Mr. Spencer refers.
Consciousness does not become centralized io the state. There is
no social sensorium. In the social body, unlike the animal, con-
sciousness is retained in each individual cell. So much does in-
dividualization seem to be one of the ends of nature. Constitut-
ing one body, we yet remain separate persons. Growing ever more
organized in one social structure, we become ever more personal too.
These two processes go on side by side, — the organization of the
whole and the perfection of the parts.

62 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

NATURE AND FREEDOM.

BY JOHN J. ELMENDORYF, S. T. D.,

Professor in Racine College.

Problems which concern the will have always been favorite
questions with American psychologists. There has seemed to be
a special fascination in the problem of reconciling the thought
of an infinite, omnipotent Being with what men know, or think
that they know of freedom in themselves? I do not hope to
add anything towards the solution of the question; on the con-
trary, I only allude to it because I desire, as far as possible, to
exclude it, in order to consider the relations of man to nature, of
the free thinker to that phenomenal world which is one of the
most attractive objects of his contemplation and study.

I notice at present a wide divergence between philosophy in its
strictest sense, as based on analysis of the necessary thought of
the free ego, and sciences of nature; 1. e., of the world of phenom-
ena which are observed, classified, aud made the objects of induc-
tion, along with an attempt at founding a philosophy upon them
exclusively.

The spheres of the two seem to me to be far apart, and their
methods, though each involving the other, essentialiy different.
On the one side is the domain of intelligence, freedom, wiil, con-
sciousness, morality, duty, activity. Here is an intelligence so
absolute that it hardly seems to be individual, because its note is
an absolute oneness in all men; here is a will, an activity, which
is identified with our own personality which attends to and observes
all outward phenomena, all inward states, seeks to find their unity
and their laws, and demands the how and the why in all things.
It criticises itself, and sits in judgment on its own faculties. ‘To
understand it, our method is necessarily introspective, and ana-
lytic of any concrete act of volition or of intelligence.

On the other side isa world of phenomena in which apparently
rule blind necessity, unvarying, inflexible order. We are sensi-

Nature and Freedom. 63

tive, but passive beings in their presence. It is the realm of
effects which we are regarding, effects transferred, transmuted,
but, so far as we can discover, unalterable. We see how, condi-
tions varying, the consequent varies, and therefore can conceive of
unlimited change. But because nothing is self-moved, we must
regard this phenomenal world as passive. (If we apply to it the
term activity, we merely mean the transfer of an impulse received,
not self-produced, and measure the result by the antecedent.) Its
characteristic note is individuality; generality, law, is the mind’s
discovery, and what the mind reads on that printed page of na-
ture. If we seem to find intelligent will any where, there we know
or assume a second ego like ourself.

Our method is inductive from these phenomena. Analysis, if
employed, is for reducing the complex to the simple, nothing more;
we group and classify, and, by induction, construct our chain of
antecedents and consequents. Further than this we cannot go,
and even the very validity of our inductive process itself car-
ries us out of this phenomenal sphere into the other on which it
rests.

Here then are these two spheres so unlike to be received. What
is their unity? How shall the man who is exclusively devoted to
one of them ‘“‘s’ orienter,” by getting a fairer and fuller view of
the truth. Can the scientist reconcile himself with the philoso-
pher; the believer in human freedom, morality, divine law of
conscience, intelligence, obligation, the student of metaphysics,
the ‘‘science of the sciences,’ with the strictly scientific observer
whose mind looks outward at phenomena reflected in impressions
on himself? The problem opened isa wide one. I desire to offer
only a few matters of thought.

But, as preliminary to the discussion, it may be well to notice
the wide difference in the very nature and habits of men them-
selves, in the tendency of different eras. One man; and such will
be a leading representative of our own age, is a most acute ob-
server of natural phenomena; from earliest childhood he has
been observing, collecting, comparing, trying experiments; and
his whole end is given to his noble work. Bring before him a
new fact, a trifling variation in a familiar species, the prospect of

64 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

some new discovery in nature, and to the eagerness of a child is
added the prompt grasp, the far-reaching vision of the scientist of
our day. But try him with some philosophical theorem, the very
one, it may be, which he himself is unconsciously assuming; it
elides off from the surface of his mind, making no impression
there; or, if he venture on philosophical statement at all, it is of
the crudest, most disjointed, or even inconsistent nature. He
would not be the true scientist, which he is, if he were equally
prompt and clear in the sphere of metaphysics. On the other
hand, there have been certain periods when men would haye found
these remarkable facts about the moons of Mars, or the fossils of
the far West, the most barren or trifling topics for a rational man’s
interest, and viewed with a smile or with pity the busy triflers who
so wasted their time. Instead of the fact, they could have de-
manded the universal, the idea. Until they had found that, they
would seem to themselves to have no place on which to plant
their feet, and would totter as on quicksands. We must willingly
accept these differences, cheerfully grant to each class its sphere
and only desire that each should kindly recognize the other. Let
the scientist, like the shoemaker, “stick to his last,” see where
the limits of his science are, wide enough, indeed, for any mortal
man, but that outside of them lies a “science of the sciences,”
which criticises, regulates, judges his conclusions, so far as they
can be abstracted from the particular facts where he alone is su-
preme.
I begin with a brief

HISTORICAL RETROSPECT.

In the Nicomachean ethics the profoundest thinker of antiquity
only incidentally touches the question before us, while seeking to
ground the principles of virtue and vice, of responsibility, of re-
wards and punishments, on the free, active principles in man,
because the passive, 1. e., impressions, sensitiveness, ‘‘ nervous
shocks,” as Spencer calls them, are not in our own power, and
they therefore contain no foundation for responsibility. With
his strong, good sense, Aristotle simply regards as voluntary what
we know in consciousness to have an intrinsic principle of action,

Nature and Freedom. 65

and consciousness is accepted as an ultimate criterion in all knowl-
edge, without any attempt to discriminate between the conceivable,
and the objectively true. We originate our own neutral action
or energy. Whatever be the motives, or “con-causes,” the mind
is known in consciousness to be active; and not, as it might ap-
pear from another point of view, the merely passive recipient of
impressions coming from without, which it in turn communicates,
as a sort of electric telegraph.

The involuntary is found where the passive predominates, i. e.,
where the principle of motion is from without. Aristotle also
makes a distinction, instructive enough, between (1) will, as above
described, seeking an end prescribed by nature, an end necessarily
sought, 1. e., a will, “determined ;” (2) will, Bovdjorc, which adds
hope of obtaining that end, (8) deliberate preferences zpoatoeacc,
which is the intelligent choice of particular means for getting
that end, the intelligent action of a rational man knowing what
he wills, ana selecting the means, which can be clearly distin-
guished from irrational desire in man and brute, which pushes
equally both of them towards an end, with apparently the same
determined necessity as the unknown force by which a crystal is
shaped into one form end cannot take another.

This being the free man, as Aristotle views him, his reason
which is hardly personal and individual in his proper self, dis-
cerns certain necessary principles, apodeictic truths, no matter
how he got them, assumed in every thought. They are not de-
rived from any special science, but underlie all sciences. They
admit of investigation, analysis, rigid statement not of proof.
They constitute the first philosophy.

In Aristotle’s physical treatises, we find the objective world, as
far as the thinking mind, had then explored it. Thus, the prob-
lem is opened; Epicurean and Stoical morals, necessarily touched
the question before us; I am not aware that any step further was
made towards an answer.

Christian dogmas necessarily give an added importance to the
question, and it is prominent enough, from St. Augustine’s time,
through the middle ages; but the aim was, not to reconcile free-
dom and nature, but to find how the infinite and absolute stand,

66 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

towards the finite and relative. The question of determinism and
liberty, of indifference, which I have said is not before us, other-
wise Aristotle’s analysis of will, rules eighteen centuries; to
move voluntarily, is to move, a principio intrinsico ; man judges
of the means to attain ends, which he understands, and selects
those means.

But when the tendency of thought began to desert the ‘‘ Gnothi
seauton”’ the one aim of so many ages, and to attend to the phe-
nomena of an outer world, revealed in consciousness through our
senses, phenomena, so strangely undervalued, by many leading
minds before; then necessarily arose a new impulse to thought,
concerning nature and freedom. I regard Hobbes, as the repre-
sentative thinker of the newera. It is well to place him with
reference to his age and circumstances. He is secretary to the
Lord Chaucellor, who collects ‘‘centuries” of observations on
sounds, fruits, plants, etc., and who without discovery or original
thought, gives a new impulse to empirical science, showing us the
‘promised land,” which he did not enter, and calls metaphysics,
a spinning of spiders’ webs out of the thinker’s brain. Kepler
was dead only some ten years. Galileo, was just buried. The
Royal Society, itself, just founded, along with other such societies
throughout Europe, is the clearest indication of men’s minds, out-
ward to the phenomena of nature. A philosophy for their science
was indispensable, and Hobbes provided it, the “‘ patriarch of pos-
itive philosophy,” as Comte calls him. We know only, says he.
phenomena and tieir chain of sequences. Contrast this, with the
previous philosophy of which Dante is the popular representative.
Proceeding to nature from what is known in consciousness of the
active ego, and reasoning by analogy, there would be nothing un-
philosophical in the assumption, that natural phenomena are caused
by the active and productive power of spirits like us; and this is
Dante’s theory. How different with Hobbes! The phenomena
of the active ego, are by him, little regarded. The mind is almost
or altogether a passive thing, moved as other passive things are
moved. So it takes its place in nature’s chain of many links, pull
on any one, the whole is moved; or rather, this chain pulls itself ;
freedom has disappeared.

Nature and Freedom. 67

And yet the opposite aspect of the truth obtrudes itself once
more, under the name of “ force,” only there is no honest analysis
of the meaning of that convenient symbol; no strict interrogation
of consciousness, no straightforward endeavor to ascertain what it
is, of which we are conscious; what phenomena, what processes,
what results. The belief that our thought, our mental act, the
force we exert is free, is itself a phenomenon the most constant of
all phenomena ; it requires to be accounted for. If our conscious-
ness is false here, it may be false in any thing. ‘I will,” “I will
not,’ a child’s word, clearly distinguishable from, ‘‘ I want to ete,”
‘“T do not want to, etc.,” raises three questions to which Hobbes,
gives no answer. 1. What doesit mean? 2. Where did the reality
it expresses begin? 3. How, by introspection, do we become
aware of it, and try to account forit? While Hobbes fails us
here, it may be doubtful whether his method, though developed,
has since yielded a better or a different result.

Locke, with his analysis of power, as ‘“‘a simple mode, whose
idea is derived from choice or determination,” evidently seems to
be reinstating freedom once more. But the mind is regarded as
passive in the formation of ideas, and Hume’s subtile criticism
causes it to disappear altogether. So the question of its freedom
necessarily vanishes with it; and as for metaphysics, the best
synonym for them, is a want of common sense. We owe to two
men, it seems to me, deliverance from this excessive preponderance
of the phenomenal, the passive, as a factor in thought —to Reid
and Kant. ‘The latter, perhaps will give an impulse to thought,
in which objective nature will once more disappear, remaining
only as modes of the ego, so that we shall merge the objective in
an extreme idealism; but the sharp distinction in self, of desire,
from rational will, the clear discrimination of the empirical, both
as object and as method, the domain of the sciences, from the uni-
versal; the domain of philosophy with its own special method of
analysis, of institutions and interrogation of consciousness, these,
if once grasped, are an anchorage amid these fluctuating waves of
thought.

But to Reid’s strong Scotch common sense, albeit somewhat
superficial, we owe some principles which we are not likely to lose:

68 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

1. Already intimidated by Locke, that active power is conceiv-
able only in a being possessed of will and intelligence. Whence
came the ready inferences; a, that sciences of practice, deal only
with a series of consecutive phenomena ; 8, that cause, either effi-
cient or final, is not an element of those sciences; c, that in such
sciences, force is a mere abstraction, an unknown, undiscoverable ;
force necessarily assumed throughout, since we are studying its
effects, but left as an unknown quantity without inquiring what
more it means than what we see; andd, that Prof. Tyndall, has -
made a mistake when he wandered from heat, sound and glaciers,
which he understands, to dabble in philosophy, and will prove
himself a true scientist by confining himself to his proper work,
where he will have all the honor and success which he so justly
deserves.

2. We have learned through Kant and Reid, that law or will
in nature, is fundamentally different from cause or force; the one, .
which J. S. Mill has so well analyzed, the invariable sequence of
phenomena; the other, a thing incapable of definition, perhaps,
as being an ultimate principle, yet, found everywhere in language,
because, in its concrete reality, it is in all men’s thoughts and ex-
perience. ;

8. That free choice is directed to an action willed, being the
choice of means to an end, while desire is of an end.

4, That will, by repeated actions, creates habits, not instinct,
which is a name for another unknown ~ in the sphere of nature,
not of consciousness. I mean that a certain series of effects are
seen in brutes, and something like them in men. Not knowing
any more, we group them and then call their unknown cause in-
stinct. :

5. As the result of all these, that metaphysics, philosophy,
has its own sphere, as the sciences have theirs, and we shall do
well to separate them.

Finally, to conclude our historical retrospect, we have Spencer,
with his American disciple, Fiske, endeavoring once more to con-
struct a philosophy of the phenomenal in aid of contemporary
science. That both of these writers fail te give an account of the
phenomena of consciousness is a verdict which cannot here be

Nature and Freedom. 69

justified. That the problem of nature and conscious freedom is
not to be solved by annihilating one of its factors, I will not re-
peat; but will only ask that an analysis of mind, whose ultimate
point, is element of mind equals nervous shock, even if it allow Mr.
Fiske to substitute “psychical shock” must necessarily fail to satisfy
many who earnestly seek for truth. For it leads us to ask,

1. What are elements of mind in me, whose self is kuown, if
known at all, as an enduring, invisible unit; at least that is what
I mean when I say “J,” and you must first prove that Iam
wrong; and in doing it, you also will use the same word, and I
shall understand the same enduring, indivisible unit in you.

2. What one-sided tendency led a writer on psychology to
employ nervous shock as the ultimate element of mind?

8. Call it psychical shock, and what is the thing that is
shocked, notknown apart from its shocks ; but known as shocked?
Or, if the question be relegated to the unknowable, how is a -
shock of self related to a perceived shock of the air, or the in-
ferred shock of an electrified body? A figure of speech settles
nothing in philosophy or science. One of the above is a fact of
consciousness referred to self; the other, to something outside of
ego; the air, when the brain is shocked.

4. Granting that Spencer and Fiske have rendered some ac-
count of the passive factor in phenomena, what is to be said of
the active, which our consciousness reveals and Mr. S., we pre-
sume, employed in finding out his explanation ?

An historical retrospect is instructive as showing the tendencies
of thought, and giving some account of opinions now prevailing.
I come to the

PRESENT STATE OF THE QUESTION,

Is any reconciliation possible where there is such wide diverg-
ence? Only, I maintain, when we acknowledge and keep steaidly
in view the dual aspect of the truth. This is not by any means
a fundamental dualism, from the metaphysical point of view.
But sciences of phenomena, as the accidents of true being, may be
separated by their objects and methods, from the science of true
being with its proper method; whether we are dualists or monists,

70 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Ledters.

while we still recognize the mutual dependence of the two spheres
of knowledge which necessarily involve one another. Entire disre-
gard of either side, subjective, or objective, active or passive, phe-
nominal or real, material or formal, to employ the old phraseology,
widens the gulf of separation. Frank acceptance of different
methods in different spheres for different ends may aid both par-
ties in reaching the common meeting place.

Nature is all around us, and reflected within us, inviting us to
investigate, to master it. Phenomena are to be carefully observed,
experimentally produced, classified, and referred to general laws.
This is the objective, the passive, which the free conscious thought
of man is reducing to order within him by discerning the order
in it, and without him. Thence come to us the notions of con-
straint, of necessity, of energy communicated to something which
is passively removed, and of invariable sequence. And this is all
that the mind thus knows. It knows no power, no cause; but
only a transfer, merely of sensible effects, whose resultant always
remains the same, and it arrives at that consumation of physical
discovery, the conservation of energy. Thus far I believe all are
agreed, for the analysis of the empiricist himself finds nothing
more than this in cause or force. The mind indeed requires an
attraction called “force” to account for these effects, because the
free soul demands that they shall be accounted for. But it will
only confuse language and thought, to confound such an assump-
tion, giving unity to sensible results, with intellicent will in our-
self as a name for our spontaneous activity’ which we know in
exercising it, or with cause as expressing a notion derived from
our own spontaneous and productive activity; which also we
know in exercising it.

Let one travel on the road of the senses as far as he may, he is
still at an infinite distance from the infinite form which christians
call God, and from his own free self. For no agerecate of phe-
nomena is any more than an aggregate, even when it vanishes in
the indefinite, which we are so apt to confound with the infinite ;
this indefinite sam of phenomena has not led usa step towards

active being, finite or infinite.

Beside nature, then, is this active ego of ours, attending by

Nature and Freedom. 71

its intelligent will, to this wonderful world of phenomena; con-
scious that itself chooses to regard, now this one, now that one of
its own passive sensations and feelings; that it actively moves
from within to meet influences which ié does not produces, and in-
telligently applying rational laws to their investigation. The free
soul is conscious, indeed, of motives to ends which it cannot help
desiring ; but it intelligently chooses means to reach those ends.
In concrete application, it were folly to deny this. It is only
the abstract and universal form of it which the student of nature
may ignore or oppose. Here there are facts of a different order
from those phenomena, from even those phenomena of sensibility,
which also consciouness reveals to the attending mind for its scien-
tific inductions, inductions which themselves are based on those
higher truths.

To develop this point may delay usa moment. And avoiding
as far as I may, any metaphysical question connected with the
will, I offer, as a test of the distinction between nature and self-
freedom, our intelligent consciousness of motives and of purposes
in our mental action. It is evidently possible to overlook the
very starting point of investigation, which is that, in mind, as a
unit are the willing, the motive, and the purpose. While even
so subtle a thinker as Edwards, analyzing what is essentially one,
may put metives on the one side, the eyo on the other, and calcu-
late the force which one part of an indivisible entity exerts on
another, as if he had a problem in mechanics to solve, and may
easily prove that the movable part is moved in the direction of
least resistance, or strongest repulsive force. But “ determin-
ism’’ is not our subject. The facts given in consciousness are
these. We know what end we seek, i. e., we know our motive;
we choose the means with deliberation, in our own purposes look
forward to the future, and determine our future acts. Language
informs us that other men do the same.

But pass to the sphere of nature, of objective phenomena, and
internal, passive states. It is necessarily present. Its past is in
memory,in our mind. Its future only prophetically there. There
is no possible induction which can put motives or purposes there,
until we introduce the notion of an intelligent being ruling na-

72 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ture. Anthropomorphically, poetically, or philosophically, if you
will, it may be affirmed, but no inductive science can inclose con-
scious intelligence within a crystal or an art, as certainly as we
know our own in considering our motives. For who pretends
that when a Colorado beetle lays its eggs on a potato leaf, it has
in view the prospective comfort of future larvae?

Motives, then, may be regarded as “‘ con-causes,” as conditions
of natural action, for this intelligent ego of ours acting, but not
acting towards anything or for anything, is inconceivable; it is
nonsense. And we know also that we do not create the ends
which we seek. But, on the other hand, to consider motives with-
out regarding the mind’s assent would contradict our continual
experience. We may, if we will, ask what causes the assent;
but we shall find no answer. To transfer physical associations to
the facts of self-consciousness would be unscientific. We can
have no induction from phenomena, because the very concept of
power of cause is notin them. Experience simply tells us that
we will, assent, move mentally, and then something outward
follows. But it is a universal experience that when we do not
assent, we do respect, when we assent, it is mental motion, when we
energetically assent, we act energetically.

I work, finally, to obviate some possible misapprehension, and
anticipate some objections. In the appeal to consciousness, noth-
ing is said of the sphere of the unconscious in its relations to
mind, because the question belongs to philosophy; the inductive
sciences as such have nothing to do with it. Neither is a dual-
ism in the sphere of being either maintained or denied, but only
the contrast between inductive sciences based on a series of con-
secutive, and, so far as we see, inseparable phenomena, and the
philosophy of the free self, its thought, its intelligence, its rela-
tions to nature on the one side, and the Infinite and Absolute on
the other.

1. We hear much of the universality | of law. But, on find-
ing by our analysis, as an ultimate factor of consciousness a free
self, energizing from within, we do not find its freedom to be an
exemption from law. Biichner, in his “ Matter and Force,”’ most
unjustifiably assumes this. The error is like that in theology of

Nature and Freedom. 73

assuming that the miracle is a violation of Jaw. If this were the
case, then the contrast between the free subject, and the passive
object in which we always discover law, would be greater. But
exemption from law would be irrational, immoral, blind chance,
precisely what the soul is not. But this freedom is consciously
and intelligently taking to one’s self a law which, as the “ catego-
rical imperative,” is reason’s universal law, this free self-discovery.
It is by this that we are brought into due relation to the world
of rational beings, and freely take our place among them, citizens,
not slaves, in that illustrious commonwealth.

It is ego, also, which discerns law in nature, and, by assenting
puts its free self under that, using nature’s laws for its own ends
and purposes. Because freedom is not iti nature, we could not

think of advising crystals how to form, nor of counseling the so-
ciety of bees, nor of exhorting the birds; though we may sepa-
rate and combine the energies of these slaves of nature to serve
our plans. But because we believe that other men also have self-
freedom, and language utters free thought, we speak of nights,
justice, counsel, advice for free men. If sciences of nature have
no place for these, and Ido not see that consistently they have
any, then empirical, inductive sciences are not exhaustive of truth;
and, instead of awkward attempts to insert them where they do
not belong, it would be better frankly to acknowledge the two-
sided aspect of the truth.

2. It may be objected that if a man’s character, if all his ante-
cedents, circumstances, motives, were known, his actions could be
infallibly predicted, and, consequently, he is a part of nature, and
his mind wholly an object of scientific induction.

But I reply:

1. That this proposition itself is nota scientific induction from
observed facts. For these are only of the present; the past is re-
tained by mind; the future is not given at all. Neither in this
case can we verify our prophecies, and so confirm our hypothesis,

‘since all turns upon an 7. ‘The subjective sphere to which the
objector refers is only known in our own consciousness; so he
either begs the question, or asserts only that self, under these con-
ditions can predict its own acts.

74. Wisconsin Academy of Sctences, Arts, and Letters.

2. If the objection states a fact, it means only that self-free-
dom is moral and rational, logical and orderly, and so ego freely
assents to and follows its own laws. If we knew the order, and
could look forward through the aims and intentions, i. e., if we
were the very individual in question, we could predict his course,
presuming him to be as rational as ourself. How this resembles
the prediction of an eclipse, where the phenomena are objective,
are before the eyes of all, I fail to see.

3. Lastly, it may be said that, after all, the problem is not
solved. I do not say that from the metaphysical standpoint, con-
sciousness spans the gulf between mind and matter; between sub-
ject and object. It is sufficient for my purpose, in pointing out
the limits of the sciences of nature, that those sciences being
purely inductive from phenomena, whether of external sense, or
of internal sensibility, raust regulate these critical questions to
philosophy as being out of their sphere. The moment we regard
the results of will in our own limits, we have passed into the
sphere of nature aud the sciences; we are to search for the invari-
able antecedents of the lifting of our arm, and may, possibly have
a regret ad inf. in the transmutatious of energy. We find no pro-
duction; action and reaction are equal. Perhaps a molecular vi-
bration in the brain is transmitted into motion in the fingers,
which vibration has also its antecedent, loosely called, its cause.
But what we know in the mental spheres, is pure and true activ-
ity. We not only desired to move our arm for rational ends, we
willed it. Experience only has shown its result in the outward
sphere, etc., that the arm moved. We might have willed and no
such result have followed. But, the antecedents being there, we
expect the consequent, and even introduce that strange word
necessity, the consequents must follow, which surely the experi-
ence does not contain.

Consciousness does not span this gulf; the objection is ad-
mitted; yet as a known fact, the free self directs its act towards
this other phenomenal world, even in examining it, classifying its
phenomena, and reasoning upon them. How, then, can he who
explores the heavens, ignore the existence of his telescope? In
other words, how can the devotee of nature ignore his own men-

Nature and Freedom. 75

tal existence, while in every word, he is declring his own spir-
itual activity and freedom ?

Consciousness may not tell us how we pass from subject to
spirit ; from mind to matter, though it may clearly reveal the fact ;
but to make the ego convertible with a nervous shock or any
part, or the whole sum of sensible or conceivably sensible phe-
nomena is spanning the gulf by ignoring one side of it. Spencer
and Fiske try to translate the force, the active, into the passive,
the externally necessitated; une proportion, I act, I am acted
upon; and so thought becomes confusion, language, empty bab-
ble. We know not how to argue with certain thinkers; for we
find ourselves carried back to the premises which we, with the
rest of mankind, have assumed as not needing proof. Premises
are treated as assumptions, till finally nothing remains admissible
except individual impressions, ‘‘ psychical shocks,” and we do not
know why we shouid admit these, since there is nothing left to be
shocked, or what to infer from them, since we ourselves, the ob-
server and the reasoner, are only a series of these shocks.

In summing up then, I find the position of Reid, for the scient-
ist, a sufficient and practical foundation. In nature, causes so
called, J. S. Mill, has well enough analyzed, as invariable se-
quences. I see no occasion for controversey, if we understand
our terms. But the constant use of such words as “causes,”
“force,” in different sense, seems to me to aid the old logomachy.
Causes, in the sense of efficient and productive power, or purposes
intelligently aimed at @ ¢., final causes we see not in nature. But
consciousness goes along with our observations; consciousness of
voluntary attending, generalizing, inferring; ego a mirror reflect-
ing the objective, but arriving at results in another sphere than
that of images, and attaining ends which we aim at or produce.
Hrom language we cannot elminate this side of the truth; “TI
make,” ‘I produce,” “I cause.” - Something sensible, indeed
may follow, but “I will this volition” is an ultimate fact, admit-
ting of no further analysis, except it be that of Des cartes’ “ cogzto.”
If it be itself, an effect, no consciousness declares it to be so,
therefore we have no object of scientific inductions, the subject-
matter belongs to philosophy. Motions are not causes; neither

76 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

of them are invariable sequences. The two former are in the ~
mind, as aspects of the active self, and by its own laws referred
to other beings, es similar activities: the latter are in the mind
as observers of passive results which it only observes.

As there has been a senseless irrational antagonism between
science and the christian faith, whose methods and spheres differ
so widely, so these may seem to be between the empirical road,
the broad high-way of the science, and the narrow, difficult path
of metaphysics. But the antagonism is not real. The aims are
different, the mental powers employed are distinct, the method,
consequently, is different. The instrument of the one is induc-
tion, of the other analysis. The scientist has sometimes vexed
us, sometimes provoked a smile, by the assumption that all things
in heaven and earth are subject to him. But we have looked
again, and there was speaking another free, proud self, like us;
he has been taking for granted what we wished to understand, or,
at least, to investigate more closely by asking, how he knew, and
with what, and by what does he know anything, and so we only
smiled at him, and said, let us both go our several ways, and do
the best we can for the truth.

DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL SCIENCES:

NOTES ON CLADOCERA.

By EDWARD A. BIRGE, Pu. D.

During the past three years I have collected Cladocera at inter-
vals. The group has been little studied in this country, though
thoroughly worked up in Hurope. I have found several new
forms, including one new genus, and now publish a synopsis of
the work hitherto done by me.

I give only the more important references under the synonymy

The works most useful for reference on this group are:

O. F. Miller, Zoologize Danicee Prodromus. 1776.
st Entomostraca. 1785.
Jurine, Hist. d. Monocles qui se trouvent aux environs de Geneve. 1820.
Liéven, Branchiopoden der Danziger Gegend. 1818.
Baird, Natural History of the British Entromostraca. 1850.
Fischer, Ueber die Crustaceen aus den Ordnungen der Branch. und Ento-
mos. 1851.
“ Erganzungen, Berichtigungen und Fortsetzung zu der Abhi. ii. d. in
der Umg. von St. Petersburg vorkommenden Crustaceen. 1854.
Liljeborg, De Crustaceis ex ordinibus tribus; Cladocera, etc. 1853.
Koch, Deutschlands Crustaceen, etc. 1835.
Schédier, Neue Beitrage zur Naturgeschichte der Cladoceren. 1863.
oe Die Cladoceren des frischen Hafts. 1863.
a Zur Naturgeschichte der Daphniden. 1877.
Leydig, Naturgeschichte der Daphniden. 1860.
P. E. Miiller, Danmarks Cladocera, 1868..
Kurz, Dodekas neuer Cladoceren. 1874.
Weissman is now contributing some very valuable papers on structure and
physiology to the Zeitschrift fiir Wissenschaftliche Zoologie.

In my notes, all the above papers are cited by the name of the
author, or, if necessary, by adding to his name a single word.

78 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

SECTION 1. CALYPTOMERA. Sars.
Family 1. Sidide.

CENUS: i

SIDA. Strauss, 1820.
Srpa, Strauss, 1820. (Mem. sur les Daph. Mem. Nat. Hist., VI, 157.)

Liéven, Liljeborg, Leydig, Baird, Schédler, Sars, P. E. Miller, Kurz.
Spa, Fischer. :

SPECIES 1.

SIDA CRYSTALLINA. O. F. Miiller.

Dapune Crystatiina, O. F. M. Zool. Dan. Prod., 2405.
For the long synonymy of this species, see P. E. Miiller, Danmarks Clado-
cera, p. 101-2.

There appears to be no well marked difference between our
species and that of EKurope. I wish to notice only one or two
points with regard to it. Claus (Zeit. Wiss. Zool. Vol. XX Va
asserts that he has seen a second maxilla in Sida. I have looked
for it carefully, and under most favorable circumstances, but have
failed to find it. I am inclined to question its existence. The
appendage has been seen by no other observer, not even G. O,
Sars.

The projection on the inside of the basal joint of the legs
(“processus maxillaris,” Sars), is triangular in shape, with ten
stout spines and a large number of sete. This may be homolo-
gous to the “appendix interior” (P. E. Miiller) in Pollyphemus.

Cambridge and Southampton, Mass.; Madison, Wis. Quite
plenty everywhere.

GENUS 2.

DAPHNELLA. Baird, 1850.

DaPuHNELLA, Baird, Schédler, Sars, P. L. Miiller, Kurz.
DrarHaNosoma, Fischer.

Notes on Cladocera. 79

SPECIES 1.
Plate II. Figs. 1-4.

DAPHNELLA EXSPINOSA. sp. Nov.

Length, circ. 0.85. mm.; height, 0.4 mm.
Length of head, 0.25 mm.; of valves, 0.60 mm.
Diameter of eye, 0.07 mm.

Length of head less than half that of the valves. Antennz
reaching only about two-thirds the length of the valves when
bent backward. Post-abdomen without caudal teeth. Hye large.

The valves are marked only by the ends of the “‘stutz-balken.”
Their edges bear numerous small, movable spines (0.0018 mm.
long). The shape and general proportions resembles those of D.
brachyura (Liéven). There are, however, marked differences in
details.

The indentation between head and body is greater than in D.
brachyura. ‘The post-abdomen has no caudal teeth. The termi-
nal claws have three teeth and are not serrate. The appendages
of the male, in which the vasa deferentia open, do not reach so
far as the base of the terminal claws. In D. brachyura they reach
beyond the claws. The vas deferens opens, not near the heel of
the foot-shaped termination, but below the instep. The anten-
nules of the male are longer proportionately.

Southampton, Mass., 1878. Common.

Family 2. Daphnide.
GENUS 1.
Morna. Baird, 1850.
SPECIES 1.
Moinsa BRACHIATA. Jurine.

For synonymy of genus and species, see P. E. Miiller, pp. 1382-133.

Pool beside railroad, near Yahara river, Madison, Wis., July,
1877. Present in immense numbers.

80 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
5

GENUS 2.

CERIODAPHNIA. Dana.

CERIODAPHNIA, Dana. U.S. Expl. Ex. Crustacea, Vol. II, p. 1265.
ss Sars, P. E. Miller, Kurz.

SPECIES 1.
PlateI. Figs. 1-2.

CERIODAPHNIA DENTATA. sp. nov.

Head angulated in front of antennules. Shell reticulated with
hexagonal meshes. Terminal claws with a row of teeth on out-
side and finely serrate inside.

The head is prolonged, and is distinctly angulated in front of
the antennules. The shell of the head and body is reticulated
with hexagonal meshes. The lines of reticulation vary from al-
most imperceptible to very strongly marked, in different speci-
mens. ‘The shell may be transparent or opaque. ‘There is a dis-
tinct projection at the junction of the dorsal and posterior mar-
gins, almost aspine. The fornices are broad and projecting, but
are smoothly rounded over and have no angular projection. The
post-abdomen is of moderate size, truncate, with seven or eight
caudal teeth on each size, and with scattered, very fine hairs. The
terminal claws are armed with from 0 to 8 (usually 6) teeth on
the outer side. The teeth vary much in size, are often exceed-
ingly fine, and rarely altogether absent. There is also a row of
very fine teeth extending to the tip of the claw. This is only to
be seen in good specimens and with a high power (4 Wales), and
sometimes, though rarely, cannot be seen at all. The abdominal
process is rather blunt, and has fine hairs scattered upon its sur-
face, as has also that part of the abdomen behind it. Cambridge.
Southampton and vicinity, Mass.; Madison, Wis. Male not geen.
C. reticulata (Jurine) has the terminal claws provided with teeth,
but in this species the fornices are “permagnee et valide promi-
nentes ” (P. H. M.), and have a sort-of triangular projection in front.
The fornices in this species are of medium size, and have no such

Notes on Cladocera. 81

projection. C. reticulata has the head “obscure angulatum” in
front of the antennules; this is manifestly so. Finally, C. reticu-
lata has no fine teeth on the terminal claw. C. nitida (Schédler)
(= quadrangula, Leydig) has the armature of the terminal claws,
but is reticulated with quadrangular meshes. The name is given
on account of the teeth on the terminal claws.

SPECIES 2.
Plate I. Figs. 3-4.

CERIODAPHNIA CONSORS. sp. nov.

Length cire. 0.5 mm.

The head is prolonged, rounded at the apex, not angulated in
front of the antennules. The shell of the body is large, round, or
square with rounded angles, but with a more or less prominent
angle behind, as in the preceding species. The shell is strongly
marked with a reticulation of hexagonal meshes. ‘he fornices
project moderately, but are rounded and smooth. The post-ab-
domen is broad, not narrowed toward the apex, but is obliquely
truncated, so that the caudal teeth lie on the lower margins. There
are about eight of these moderately large, recurved teeth on each
side. ‘The terminal claws are large and smooth. ‘The color is
transparent or opaque, passing through a reddish brown to nearly
black. A variety has the areas of the meshes marked by little
rounded prominences. Male not seen. Madison, 1877, with the
preceding species, in pools of tolerably clear water; not common.

The shape of the post-abdomen distinguishes this species from
all but C. rotunda, Straus. It is plainly not that species, as that
has the shell of the head bent into a right angle below the eye,
and ornamented with spines. The specific name is given from its
habit of associating with the preceding species. I have never

found it alone.
6

82 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letlers.

SPECIES 3.
Plate II. Figs. 8, 9.

CERIODAPHNIA CRISTATA. sp. nov.

Length, circ. 0.7 mm.

Head not angulated in front of antennules. Post-abdomen
with a dorsal row of teeth. Valves with irregular meshes around
the edges and perpendicular striz across the middle, as in Simo-
cephalus.

In general shape this species resembles C. dentata. The head
is rounded regularly over in front, not angulated in front of the
antennules. ‘The valves are marked much as in Simocephalus.

The post-abdomen is broad, somewhat truncate below, with
large, smooth terminal claws, and four teeth on each side of the
arms. ‘T’he dorsal margin of the post-abdomen is produced into a
crest which bears eight or nine teeth, largest at the distal end of
the row. The apices of these teeth are directed upward. ‘This
feature curiously recalls the teeth of the post-abdomen in Hury-
cercus.

The eye is very large; the macula nigra is of moderate size,
and is angular.

The name is given on account of the crest on the post-abdomen.

Southampton, Mass., 1878. Rare.

GENUS 3.

SIMOCEPHALUS. Schédler, 1858.

SIMOCEPHALUS, Schédler, Branch. der Umg. von Berlin, p: 17.
ut Sars, P. E. Miiller, Kurz. .

SPECIES 1.
Plate I. Fig. 6.

SIMOCEPHALUS AMERICANUS. sp. nov.
Length, 1.5-2.5 or 3.5 mm.

Head angulated in front, with three or more teeth at the angle.

+

Notes on Cladocera. 83

Terminal claws long and slender, with a row of fine teeth on each
side. Teeth of equal size in each row. Macula nigra rhom-
boidal.

The head is separated from the body by an obvious depression.
Its upper margin curves pretty regularly downward to the point
where the fornices approach it more closely, where it bends down-
ward abruptly, and after a short distance is bent again, so as to
form almost anacute angle with the front margin. At this angle
are three or more short teeth. The fornices project considerably.
The superior margin of the valves is arched, serrate, and produced
into a short spine behind. In old animals the back is so much
arched as to bring the spine near the middle of the hinder edge.
In the young it is near the top of the hinder edge. The posterior
and part of the ventral margins are serrate. The anterior margin
is concave. ‘The valves have the markings characteristic of the
genus. ‘The abdomen has two blunt, weak processes.

The post-abdomen is broad, compressed and truncate. Its
greatest width at the top is often greater than its length to the in-
sertion of the terminal claws. These are long and slender, with a
row of fine teeth on each side. The teeth are of equal size in both
rows, and are about 0.01 mm. long. There are eight or nine cau-
dal teeth in each row, geniculate, and bearing a row of fine sete.
Besides these, there are often five or six other very fine teeth,
completing the row across the post-abdomen. .

The antennules are freely movable, shehtly curved, shaped like
a truncated cone, and ornamented with several short cross rows
of fine teeth. The antennze and their branches bear the same or-
nament, and on the basal joint are a pair of short, two jointed
set, projecting upward from a slight elevation, and a similar seta
near the insertion of the branches.

The macula nigra, as seen from the side, is rhomboidal, with
the upper angle sometimes a little prolonged.

A rudimentary haft-organ is found in young animals, but dis-
appears in the adults.

The male resembles in general the young female. The testicle
is very large, extending the whole length of the body. The vasa
deferentia open on both sides of the post-abdomen, at the angle

84 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

opposite the insertion of the terminal claws. They thus cross
the intestine in their course. .

Color, corneous to opaque yellow. Calcareous concretions are
sometimes, though rarely, found in the valves.

Everywhere common.

This species combines the characteristics of several Huropean
species. In general appearance it resembles S. serrulatus (Koch).
The post-abdomen is more like that of S. exspinosus (Koch), as
is also the macula nigra. The serration of the terminal claws re-
sembles that of S. vetulus (O. F. Miiller). It thus differs from
S. serrulatus in two of its characteristic peculiarities — the shape
of the macula nigra and the serration of the terminal claws.

SPECIES 2.
SIMOCEPHALUS VeETULUS.. O. F. Miiller.

DAPHNE VETULA. O.F. Miiller, Zod]. Dan. Prod., N. 2399.
DAPHNIA SIMA. Liéven, Fischer, Liljeborg, Leydig.
¢ VETULA. Baird, 1. c., p. 95, P. X, fig. I.
SIMOCEPHALUS VETULUS. Schdédler, Branch, p. 18.
Dace ac P. E. Miiller, 1. c., p. 122, Pl. I, figs. 26-27.
ce a Kurz iver) p. 29)

Very common everywhere, with the preceding species. Both
species are almost always taken at the same time, but the number
of individuals of S. Americanus is usually greater.

GENUS 4.
SCAPHOLEBERIS. Schédler, 1858.
SPECIES 1.
Plates: nario igs
SCAPHOLEBERIS Mucronata (?) O. F. Miiller.

DAPHNE MucRONATA, O. F. Miller. Zool. Dan. Prod. WNo. 2404.

Monocutus & Jurine. Monocles, etc., p. 137.
DAPHNIA cf Ineven=) lye.) pp. 30) a avalide opines
a tf Liljeborg. 1.c., p. 44, T. IIT, fig. 6.
SCAPHOLEBERIS “ Schodler. 1c, pee:
DAPHNIA ss Leydig. 1. c., p. 187.
BS P. HE. Miller. 1. c., p. 124.
“ Kurz. 1. c¢., p. 28.

Length, 0.7-0.8 mm.
I give references for the variety “fronte leyi” only, since

Notes on Cladocera. 85

Schédler (Zur Naturgeschichte der Daphniden, 1877, p. 24) is
very positive in his statements that the variety ‘‘ fronte cornuto”’
is a distinct species. All the specimens which I have seen want
the horn.

P. H. Miiller says of the genus, of which he has seen only this
species, “‘ Antennz: immobiles.” So Liéven, ‘ Die Tastantennen
kommen mit denen dieser Art. (D. pulex) tiberein.” Other au-
thors are silent on the subject, though it might possibly be in-
ferred from Fischer’s figures that he considered the antennules to
be movable. They are always free in the specimens which I
have seen. he correspondence in other respects with 8S. mucro-
nata is so great that I do not like to make this a new species. It
is, at least, a marked variety, to which the name “fusca” might
be appropriately applied.

My specimens have all the different markings which, in differ-
ent Huropean localities, are considered characteristic of the spe-
cies. Thus Miller says, “ Areis hexagonalibus reticulata.”
Schédler says: ‘‘ Hine reticulirte Cuticula ist nur auf dem Kopfe,
-namentlich um den Riisse] herum, deutlich wahrzunehmen: der
Schalenklappen entbehren derselben, sind aber in der vorderen
Partie leistenartig gestreift. Diese Leisten verlaufen in ziemlich
gleicher Richtung mit dem Vorderande, und gehen, namentlich
gegen den Unterrand, mehrfach in einander iiber. Die Mitte der
Schalenklappen aber liasst nur eine feinkérnige Cuticula unter-
scheiden.” I have seen specimens from the same pool which ex-
hibited markings agreeing with both these descriptions, and other
specimens which showed still other variations.

SPECIES 2.
Plate I. Figs. 8, 9, 10, 10a.

SCAPHOLEBERIS NASUTA. sp. nov.
Length, circ. 1 mm.
Rostrum pointed, antennules large and movable. Shell of
valves covered with pointed elevations.
The head is separated from the body by a marked depression.
The lower margin of the head is slightly concave. The rostrum

86 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letiers.

is prolonged into a rather sharp beak, at whose apex the continu-
ations of the fornices unite. The beak does not project down-
ward, as in S. mucronata, but backward, and in its natural posi-
tion lies between the valves. The valves closely resemble in
shape those of S. mucronata. The shell of the head is reticu-
lated, as is also that of the area a (Plate I, Fig. 9). The area d
has a few strong strize and a few cross markings connecting these.
There are only one or two strizw parallel to the lower edge of the
shell, and occasionally, in large specimens, two or three parallel
to the hinder edge. The rest of the valves bear numerous small
pointed projections. The “ mucro” is short and blunt. The an-
tennules are much larger than in S. mucronata, thongh they do
not project beyond the rostrum. They have a flagellum and a
cluster of knobbed sense hairs, and are freely movable. The
rami of the antenne are never opaque. The macula nigra is long
and large, and somewhat resembles that of Simocephalus vetulus.
The post-abdomen has the same general shape as that of the pre:
ceding species, but is not opaque. The terminal claws have sev-
eral fine teeth on their outer sides.

The male has the continuation of the fornices prolonged into a
rounded projection on each side of the rostrum. These protect
the large curved antennules, which are abundantly provided with
sense hairs. The vas deferens opens close behind the terminal
claws.

Color greenish white, varying to opaque, but usually quite
transparent.

In antennules and macula nigra this species resembles Simo-
cephalus much more closely than does the preceding species.
Hmbryos very closely resemble those of Simocephalus.

GENUS 5.

DAPHNIA. Schédler, 1858.

Dapunta, Schédler. Branch. der Umg. von Berlin, p. 10.
ae Sars, P. E. Miiller, Kurz.
s and HyaLopapunra, Schédler. Cladoceren des frischen Haffs,
p. 16.

Daphnia, as thus limited, forms a very natural group. It con-

Notes on Cladocera. 87

tains the crested forms of the Daphninz, and thus recalls the
genera Acroperus and Camptocercus, among the Lynceide. Like
those genera, too, the members of this group are transparent, and
their post-abdomen is narrow and elongated, although by no
means to so great an extent as in the Lynceid genera.

No subsequent writer has agreed with Schédler in distinguish-
ing Hyalodaphnia from Daphnia. And with good reason, since
the sole characteristic of the genus is the absence of the macula
nigra ; and as this structure is small or rudimentary in all the spe-
cies of Daphnia, its absence does not form a generic difference.

Daphnia is not a genus typical of the sub-family Daphnine,
but is rather an extreme form. Moina is the least specialized.

SPECIES 1.
late plc bes mele

DAPHNIA PuLEX. De Geer, var. denticulata. var. nov.

For the long synonymy of this oldest and best known of Clado-
cera, see Baird, British Entomostraca, and P. E. Miller, Dan-
mark’s Cladocera, p. 110.

In size, shape and markings, this animal agrees with D. pulex.
There are, however, some differences. The lower margin of the
head is not so convex as in D. pulex. The abdominal processes
are very slightly hairy, or not at all so, instead of being covered
with hairs. The terminal claws, lke those of D. pulex, are
armed with teeth at their base, but have besides a row of very
fine teeth extending along the whole length of the claw. The
number of abdominal teeth is greater than has been noted in
D. pulex, being 18-20 instead of 15, the highest number noted in
D. pulex (P. EH. Miller, T. I, fig. 4). On these grounds I make
it a distinct variety, named from the teeth on the terminal claw.

Cambridge, Mass.; Madison, Wis.

I have seen a blind specimen of this species. The eye-capsule
was ruptured, and the lenses and pigment scattered in the cavity
of the head. The optic muscles and ganglion were in great
part absorbed. It was a large and healthy animal and lived
nearly a week in captivity, when it was eaten by a neuropterous

88 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

larva accidentally put into its glass. It had a marked peculiarity
in its motion. It frequently turned four or five somersaults in
rapid succession, and invariably went through similar gyrations
on coming in contact with any object. The eye was probably
ruptured while moulting, as deformities of the head from this
source are not uncommon. I have seen a deformed Simoceph-
alus, in which the eye had evidently been destroyed by the same
cause, which had elongated and compressed the head.

This is perhaps the species found in Lake Superior, and noted
by S. L Smith (Fish Commission Report, 1872-38, p. 696).

SPECIES 2.
Plate II. Figs. 5-7.

DapHniA L&VIS. sp. nov.

Length, 2-3 mm, exclusive of spine.

Transparent, crested, head rounded in front, not prolonged into
an angle. Terminal claws smooth. Abdominal processes sepa-
rate. Macula nigra present.

The spine may be as long as the body in young animals, or
short and blunt in old individuals. The outline of the head is
angular in embryos and young animals, but is regularly curved
in adult specimens. A marked crest, more prominent in young
than in old animals, runs along the front and top of the head.
Below, the outline of the head is nearly straight, sometimes a lt-
tle concave in the middle, prolonged behind into a sharp rostrum,
whose apex lies close to the edge of the valves. The outline of
the valves is on the whole elliptical, nearly resembling that of
the preceding species. The spine, however, is attached at about
the middle of the distance from the dorsal to the ventral edges.
The spine has two rows of teeth, one above and one below. Ex-
ceptionally, there may be also a row on each side. The lower
margin has a row of short spines. The markings of the valves,
the antennules, antennee and post abdomen, resemble the corre-
sponding parts of D. pulex. There are about nine caudal
teeth in each row. The terminal claws are smooth. The abdom-
inal processes are not united. The macula nigra is small. The

Notes on Cladocera. 89

hepatic coeca are quite small, often rudimentary, being greatly
reduced in size, their cavity obliterated and their tissue degen-
erated. Specimens of-every age, except very young, may show
this peculiarity. The “ haft-organ”’ is wanting in adults, though
found in embryos.

The male resembles in shape the new born female. The an-
tennules are movable, short and stout, with a flagellum, and a
cluster of sense-hairs, not on the end of the antennule, but a ht-
tle proximad. The “ haft-organ”’ is present.

So far as I know, this is the only crested species with a macula
nigra in which the terminal claws are smooth. The name is
given on account of this peculiarity.

I found this very beautiful species only in a small, muddy pool
near Mt. Auburn Station, Watertown, Mass. 1875. It was pres-
ent in great numbers, and with a copepod formed the entire crus-
tacean life of the pool.

Sub-family 2. Lyncodaphnine.

GENUS 1.
LATHONURA. Liljeborg, 1858.

Latuonura, Liljeborg. 1. c., p. 55.

a Schédler, Sars, P. E. Miller.
PasirHeEa, Koch, Leydig, Liéven.
Daruni4,e.p. O. F. Miiller.

SPECIES 1.
LATHONURA ReEcTIROsTRIS. O. F. Miller.

DAPHNIA RECTIROSTRIS, O. F. Miller. Entomostraca, p. 92, Tab. XII, fig.

1-3.
PASITHEA « Koch? (li cyiiiyo;ylaby SX.
se ‘S Liéven. 1. c., p. 42, Tab. XI, fig. 1-3.
LATHONURA us Liljeborg. 1. c., p. 57, Tab. IV, fig. 8-11; V, 2;

XXIII, 12-18.
. a P. EK. Miiller. 1. c., p. 189.

The male of this species I have once seen. It is smaller than
the female, being about 0.5 mm. in length, while the female may

90 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

be 0.8 mm. Its back is less arched than that of the female and
its ventral margin more convex. The valves gape widely below.
The testicle has a thick coat of muscular fibres, both circular and
longitudinal, and the vas deferens opens just in front of the anus.
The antennules of the male resemble those of the other sex, and
the feet of the first pair have a moderately large hook, but no

flagellum or a rudimentary one.
Cambridge, Mass., 1876. Rare.

GENUS 2.
Macrorurix. Baird, 1848.

MAcroTHRIx, Baird. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Vol. XI, p. 87, 1843.
‘ Liljeborg, SchGdler, et al.
CHINISCA, Liéven.
SPECIES 1.
Plate I. Figs. 12-13.

MAcRoTHRIX ROSEA. Jurine.

MoNOcULUS ROSEUS, Jurine. 1. c., p. 150, Tab. XV.
EcHINISCA ROSEA, Liéven l.c., p. 31, Tab. VIII, figs. 3-7.

MacroTurix “ Baird. Brit. Ent., p. 104.
fe “ Liljeborg. 1. c., p. 4%, Tab. IV, figs. 1-2; Tab. V,
fig. 1. ;

“Pf. E. Miiller, p. 186, Tab. ITI, figs. 1-4.

My specimens agree closely with Miiller’s description. He
says, however, “Der findes et lidet udviklet Hefteapparat paa
samme sted og af samme Bygning som hos Eurycercus.” In
these specimens it is considerably larger than in Hurycercus, and
lies decidedly further back.

I have seen one male of this species. It is about 0.38 mm. long.
The antennules are curved as in the female, and besides, curved
outward toward the base, and again inward toward the apex, so
as to appear somewhat bow-shaped, as seen from the front. They
have five cross-rows of stout, short, black hairs on the outside of
each antennule, and a rather long flagellum near the base. The
sense-hairs are short and curved inward. The first feet have a
very long hook, stout at the base, its apex projecting from be-

Notes on Cladocera. 91

tween the valves and bent inward toward the median line, so that
the ends of the two hooks are almost in contact when at rest.
The ends are covered with fine teeth. The post-abdomen has the
same general shape as that of the female. The hairs on it are
finer, hardly perceptible. There are no terminal claws, and the
post-abdomen is prolonged into an elevation about 0.05 mm.
long, on whose summit the vas deferens opens.

Madison, Wis., 1877. Not rare in shallow and weedy water.

Sub-family 3. Bosminine.
GENUS 1.
Bosmina. Baird, 1850.
SPECIES 1. |
Bosmina Lonerrostris. O. F. Miller.

LYNCEUS LONGIROSTRIS, O. F, Miiller. Entomostraca, p. 76, Tab. X, figs. 7-8.

BosMINA “ Sars, 1. c., p. 1538.
‘¢ Schédler. Cladoceren des frischen Haffs. p. 45, figs.
16-17.

ce a P. HE. Miller. 1. c., p. 146, Tab. III, figs. 8-9.
ce “ Kurz. l.c., p. 29.
Length, circ. 0.39 mm.

These specimens agree with Bosmina longirostris in all respects
except size, which is considerably greater in our form.
Cambridge and Southampton, Mass.; Madison, Wis. Rather

rare.
SPECIES 2.

BosMINA CORNUTA. Jurine.
Plate 11. Fig. 10.

MonocuLus cornutus, Jurine. 1. c., p. 142, Tab. 14, figs. 8-10.
EKUNICA LONGIROSTRIS, Koch. 1. c., H. 35, Tab. XXIII.
BOSMINA CORNUTA, Sars. 1, c., p. 280.
wegiie: « Schédler. Clad. fr. Haffs. p. 49, Tab. III, figs. 18-22.
* cs P. E. Miller, 1. c., p. 147.

Specimens belonging to this species were found at Hasthamp-
ton, Mass., Aug., 1878. Length, 0.8 mm.

92 | Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

FAMILY 3. LYNCEIDA.
Sub-family 1. Eurycercine.
Sole genus and species.

Kurycercus LAMELLATUS. O. F. Miller.

For the synonymy of this species, see P. EH. Miiller, 1. c. p. 162.
Fischer’s L. laticaudatus is the only instance where the animal
has been described under a specific name different from Miiller’s.

I wish to note only a few points in the anatomy of this species.
The ventral margin of the valves is set with short, stout, movable
spines. These bear near near the base a row of backward pro-
jecting hairs. ‘The antennules have a crown of long teeth around
the apex, from within which rise the sense-hairs. On the basal
joint of the antennz, about the middle of its hinder side, is a
large tubercle, covered with short, stout, black spines. The an-
terior margin of the valves is strongly convex, and the lower
loop of the shell-gland is prolonged into the convexity, thus mak-
ing an open loop, whose long axis is parallel to that of the body.
Leydig’s figure of the animal is quite incorrect in this particular,
and indeed, his figures in general, so excellent in other respects,
are little to be trusted in this. His figure of the legs of this spe-
cies is very accurate.

Sub-family Lynceinaz.
GENUS 1.
PLEURoXxUS. P. KE. Miller, 1868.

LYNCEUS. e. p. autorum.
PLEUROXUS ET PERACANTHA. Baird.
a : ET RayPoPHinus. Schédler.
‘ e Sars, Kurz.
SPECIES 1.
Plate I. Figs. 19-20.
PLEUROXUS PRocURVUS. sp. nov.
Length, 0.5 mm.
Rostrum bent forward and upward at tip. Hinder margin and
anterior margin armed with teeth. Walves striate around edges.

Notes on Cladocera. 93

The shape in general is oval. The dorsal margin is high,
arched, sloping steeply toward the posterior margin, with which it
forms a sharp angle, almost a tooth. The posterior margin is
short, straight, and has seven or eight teeth. Of these, the first
uppsr tooth points obliquely upwards, the succeeding two also
upwards, though less steeply, and the rest either outward or
slightly downwards. ‘The posterior margin joins the ventral in a
rounded angle. The ventral margin is concave, and has some-
what sparse, abundantly plumose, sete. The forward margin is
strongly convex, and has numerous small teeth on its lower half.
These point downward or backward. The valves are marked
by strize, which are very plain around the edges. At the upper
part of the posterior margin they are parallel to the back, grad-
ually changing their course so as to become perpendicular to the
ventral margin about its center. The succeeding striz incline
backward, and become at last parallel to the anterior margin.
There is an area in the center of the valves which is either ob-
securely reticulated or smooth. The rostrum is long, stout, and
abruptly bent outwards into a hook at its tip. The post-abdo-
men is long, laterally compressed, truncated, with a dorsal row of
teeth, consisting of a cluster of four or five stout and long spines
at the lower corner, and eight or ten teeth following these, ar-
ranged somewhat in pairs. In this and all other cases of a dorsal
row ot teeth, which I have seen, except in Hurycercus, the teeth are
not exactly on the dorsal margin of the post-abdomen, but are
set on the sides, usually each alternate tooth on the same side, so
that there are really two rows of teeth. The keel of the labrum
is somewhat tongue-shaped, running into a long, rounded projec-
tion behind. The ephippium forms on the rear upper part of the
shell. It contains one egg. ‘Two summer eggs are produced at
one time. The color is yellowish, but remarkably transparent.
‘The male was not seen.

Glacialis, Cambridge, Mass., two specimens, 1875. Southamp-
ton, Mass., 1878; common. Madison, Wis. July and August,
1877; common.

The teeth on the posterior and anterior margins of shell at once
distinguish this species from all others with recurved rostrum. It

94 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

combines the general appearance of Pleuroxus with the rostrum
of Rhypophilus, and the anterior and posterior marginal teeth of
_Peracantha. The name is given from the shape of the rostrum.

SPECIES 2.
Piate II. Fig. 11.

PLEUROXUS STRAMINIUS. sp. nov.

Length, circ. 0.6.mm. Height, 0.85 mm.

Post-abdomen slender, its dorsal side concave. Valves marked
by hexagonal meshes.

The dorsal margin is not greatly arched. It forms a short but
well marked projection at its junction with the posterior margin.
A similar projection, not a tooth, is seen at the junction of the
posterior and ventral margins. Rarely, a very small tooth is
present there. The valves are marked by elongated, hexagonal
or irregular meshes. The rows run obliquely downward and back-
ward. The surface is also marked by the “ stiitz-balken” and by
minute striz. These last are coifined to the meshes and do not
cross the lines of reticulation. The post-abdomen is long, slen-
der, somewhat curved, truncated at the end, with a large number
of fine, slender teeth on the dorsal row. The terminal claws
have the usual two spines, and are serrate. This last character-
istic is not always to be seen. The antennules have six or eight
sense-hairs besides the flagellum. The eye is much larger than
the macula nigra.

The rostrum of the male is much shorter than that of the fe-
male, the post-abdomen is more slender, and the terminal claws
are very slightly removed from its ventral edge. The vas defe-
rens thus opens between or slightly above the terminal claws.
Except for the regular sexual difference, it otherwise resembles
the female. Color, straw-yellow, opaque.

P. straminius is most nearly allied to P. hastatus (Sars). The
females are nearly the same. They differ in proportions, hastatus
being higher proportionately. The lines of reticulation are hori-
zontal in P. hastatus, oblique in straminius. The former is “ eine
der durchsichtigsten Species’ (Kurz), while the latter is just the

Notes on Caldocera. 95:

reverse. The valves differ widely. In P. hastatus the head is.
very small, the rostrum slender and strongly curved, and the
post-abdomen tapers gradually to a point. In P. straminius the
head is longer, the rostrum short, blunt, not much curved, and the
abdomen shorter and truncated at the end.

Cambridge, Mass., 1875; common. Not found in Madison,
Wis., where its place seems to be taken by P. procurvus and P.
denticulatus, which are far more common there than in Cam-
bridge.

The name is given on account of the color.

SPECIES 3.
Plater Heide.

- PLEUROXUS INSCULPTUS. sp. nov.
Length, cire.0.27 mm. Height, 0.18 mm.

Valves strongly marked by hexagonal reticulations. One tooth:
at lower posterior angle of valves.

This is by far the smallest species that I have seen. The dor--
sal margin is little arched, so that the hinder margin is not much
shorter than the height of the valves. At the junction of the
posterior and ventral margins, there is a strong tooth formed by a
semi-circular incision in the posterior margin. Sometimes there-
is a second very small tooth above it. The ventral margin of
the female is very slightly concave, the concavity lying in the
rear half of the margin. The shell is marked as in the pre-
ceding species, but the lines are much more distinct. At first.
sight only the diagonal strize are manifest. Closer inspection dis-
closes the true nature of the sculpture. The rostrum is rather:
short, the fornices quite broad. The post-abdomen is short, broad,.
truncated, with a dorsal row of eight or ten teeth. The ter-
minal claws are serrated and have the usual two basal spines.
The last (eighth) seta of the antennze is not always to be found..
The eye is quite large; the macula nigra much smaller. The
male is narrower proportionately. Its rostrum is short and
‘‘stumpy.” The post-abdomen is strongly concave below, dorsally;
with about the same number of teeth as in the female. The end:

96 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Leilers.

is somewhat rounded. The terminal claws have very small basal
spines and no serration.
The name is given on account of the deeply cut reticulations.
Cambridge, Mass. Glacialis, 1876. Rather scarce. Southamp-
ton, Mass., 1878. Not uncommon.

SPECIES 4.
Plate I. Fig, 21.

PLEUROXUS DENTICULATUS. sp. nov.
Length, 0.5-0.6 mm. Height, 0.35-0.45 mm.

Anterior margin of valves armed with small, backwardly pro-
jecting teeth. Rostrum not bent forward.

The dorsal margin is very convex, descending rapidly to the
posterior margin, which is consequently relatively short. At the
- junction of the posterior and ventral margins, there are two, three
or (usually) four teeth, or in young specimens none. Of these, the
upper tooth curves upward, the others outward, or the lowest a
little downward. ‘There is a series of fine teeth on the lower part
of the anterior margin, directed downward or backward. These
lie inside the row of setze. The shell is marked as in P. procur-
vus. There are also strize on the head, of which the lower run
parallel to the edge of the fornix, the upper parallel to the outline
of head. The rostrum is long, pointed, and curves backward. The
post-abdomen resembles almost exactly that of P. procurvus.
There is often a black pigment deposited in its lower part. The
male has a shorter rostrum, hairs instead of teeth on the post-ab-
domen, whose lower angle is rounded. Color, greenish or yellow-
ish. |

Glacialis, Cambridge, 1876. In muddy or clear water. Madi-
ison, 1877. Common.

This species is allied to P. trigonellus (O. F. Miller), from
which it differs in shell markings, and very greatly in the male.
(Vid Kurz, Pl. III, fig. 2.) P. Bairdii, Schédler (= P. trigonel-
lus, Baird) has the strize all parallel and extending over the shell,
a rounded and gibbous post-abdomen, and other differences. It
differs from these and all other species of Pleuroxus, in its lim-

Notes on Cladocera. 97

ited sense, by the possession of teeth on the anterior margin.
From this fact, I have named the species P. denticulatus.

SPECIES 5.
Plate I. Fig. 22.

PLEUROXUS UNIDENS. sp. noy.
Length, 0.85 mm. Height, 0.46 mm.

Shell little arched on dorsal margin. Lower posterior corner
of valves rounded. A tooth justin frontof the corner. Valves
marked by striz.

In its proportions, this species approaches P. straminius, the
back being comparatively little arched, so that the height is about
one-half the length. In the shape of the front part of the ani-
mal, there is also a close resemblance to P. straminius, and in the
relative length of the post-abdomen. ‘There are, however, great
differences. The upper posterior angle is prolonged into a
projection, quite characteristic, seen, I believe, in no other species.
The lower corner is rounded, not angulated. Some distance be-
fore it is placed a single minute tooth. From this peculiarity, the
species has received its name. The bristies of the lower edge are
much larger in front. They become very small behind, and
seem to be smooth there instead of plumose. The valves are
marked by striz. One set occupies the upper half of the valves
and runs approximately parallel to the back. A second set runs
nearly parallel to the lower edge. The upper striaof this set is com-
plete, and those of the upper set run into it where their curvature
will not permit them to reach the posterior margin without meeting
it. At the front part of the valve is a set parallel to the forward
edge. ‘These meet the second set in an area which is irregularly .
reticulated. The striation is very plainly marked. The post-ab-
domen is long and stout. The hinder end is truncated, but the
corner is slightly rounded off. There are two rows of 18 or 20
pointed, rather long, caudal teeth. The terminal claws have the
usual two basal spines, and are serrate. There are two small pro-
jections (one of which is shown in the figure) on the abdomen,

ii

98 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

which can hardly be anything else than a rudimentary sixth pair
of legs, although they are situated some way back of the fifth
pair. It was wanting in one of the dozen specimens which I ex-
amined, or at least I could not find it. If it is a rudimentary
sixth leg, this is the first case in which this structure has been
found in the Lynceine. It confirms the opinion which I had
formed on other grounds, that Pleuroxus is the genus which
stands as the most generalized type of this sub-faumily. Color,
yellowish, transparent. Male not seen. y

Lake Wingra, Madison, Wis., Sept, 1877. Rare, only about
fifteen specimens found.

This is the largest species of Pleuroxus yet seen, and P. stra-
minius seems to be the next in size.

SPECIES 6.
Plate II. Figs. 18, 14.

PLEUROXUS HAMATUS. sp. nov.
Length, 0.4-0.45 mm. Height, 0.21-0.25 mm.

General shape like that of P. unidens. Valves marked by
oblique strize, and by short, irregular, horizontal striz.

In general shape this species approaches closely to P. unidens,
though the back is somewhat more arched. The posterior mar-
gin of the valves is concave, the lower angle rounded, and en-
tirely without teeth. The valves are marked by striz running as
in P. denticulatus, and by short, faintly marked striee, which run
nearly horizontally. These cross the oblique strize, and are found
all over the shelt of valves and head. The species is, in mark-
ings, the third of a series. P. unidens has only striz, and those
continued quite across the valves. P. denticulatus and P. pro-
curvus have strize at the edges and irregular markings in center,
while the present species has strie around the edges of valves,
and also the short markings all over them.

The post-abdomen closely resembles that of P. denticulatus.

The feet of the first pair in the female are furnished with a tol-
erably stout hook, of which a sketch is given in PI. II, fig. 14.

Notes on Cladocera. 99

This is, I think, the only case where this distinctively male ap-
pendage is found in the female.
Southampton, Mass., Aug., 1877. Not rare.

SPECIES 7.
Plate II. Fig. 15.

PLEUROXUS ACUTIROSTRIS. sp. nov.
Length, 0.35 mm. Height, 0.22 mm.

Beak, long, pointed, and bent backward at the tip. Teeth of
post-abdomen very fine. Bristles of lower margin of valves stout
and plumose.

In general shape this species closely recalls P. hamatus. It is
readily distinguished by the long, pointed rostrum, whose apex
nearly meets the valves when in its natural position. ‘The valves
are reticulated as in P. insculptus, although not so plainly. There
are no teeth on their ventral margin.

The post-abdomen is broad, compressed, truncated, with numer-
ous fine caudal teeth. The terminal claws have only one basal
spine.

In rostrum this species closely approaches Harporhynchus
(Sars), as also in the single basal spine of the terminal claws. In
general, however, the species is so thoroughly Pleuroxus-like in
appearance, that I keep it under that genus for the present.

Southampton, Mass., July, 1878. Very rare.

GENUS 2.

Cuyporus. Leach. 1816.

Cuyporvs, Leach. Sup. Brit. Encyc., Art. Annulosa.*
6 Baird, Schodler, Sars, Kurz, P. E. Miiller.

SPECIES I.
Plate Ii (Biss 19:

Cuyporus SpH#ricus. O. F. Miiller.

One of the oldest and best known species of Cladocera For

* Teste P. E. Miiller.

100 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

synonymy, see Kurz (1. c.,"p. 77). The mandibles are articulated,
not where the fornix joins the valve, but behind this point. This
fact is noted by Kurz in C. ovalis, and his figures show that the
same is true of CO. globosus; although his description of C. glo-
bosus would imply otherwise. A chitinous ridge runs from the
the point of articulation of the mandible, above the junction of
the fornix and the valve, along the under side of the fornix to the
rostrum. It does not stop at the junction of fornix and valve, as
figured by Kurz in C. ovalis. ;

This species is common wherever I have collected, and is pres-
ent in dense swarms near the surface of the water on bright,
warm, calm days. It is one of the earliest of the Lyncein to ap-
pear in the spring.

SPECIES 2.
CHuypborus GuLososus. Baird.

For synonymy, see Kurz (1. «, p. 18).
One specimen from Lake Wingra, Madison, Wis., Sept., 1877.

GENUS 3.
CREPIDOCERCUs. gen. nov.*

The head is immovable. The rostrum is sharp, but does not
extend downward for more than half the distance between the ar-
ticulation of the mandible and the ventral edge. The dorsal
margin is much arched, and rounds evenly over, terminating be-
hind iu a somewhat sharp angle. ‘he posterior margin is sinu-
ate, concave above, then convex. Just in front of the junction of
the posterior and ventral margins is a single strong, recurved
tooth. The ventral margin is slightly concave and the anterior
margin strongly convex. The valves are marked by the “ stiitz-
balken,” as in all Cladocera, and by an obscure reticulation of ir-
regular hexagonal meshes, most clearly marked in the hinder
portion of the valves, where the longer axis of the meshes runs
obliquely downward and backward.

% y hon 3
* From 4077(¢, shoe, and *€x0¢, iail.

Notes on Cladocera. 101

The upper part of the dorsal margin of the post-abdomen is
prolonged, and runs nearly parallel to the posterior margin of the
valves, while the lower part is parallel to the ventral margin, and
makes nearly aright angle with the upper part. The apex is
rounded and bears two small! terminal claws, each of which has a
small basal spine.

The general shape of the post-abdomen is like that of a shoe,
whence the generic name. It is much compressed laterally, and
its armature consists of numerous bristles scattered somewhat ir-
regularly over its surface.

The usual pair of setze project backward from the post-abdo-
men; and the ventral margin of the valves is fringed with some-
what long, plumose setze.

The antennules are of moderate size, do not reach to the end of
the rostrum, and have a flagellum and eight to nine sense-hairs.
The antennz are about as large as in Pleuroxus, and bear eight
setze (32°) and three spines (424), The keel of the labrum is some-
what prolonged backward, as in Pleuroxus, but not to so great an
extent.

The eye, macula nigra, intestine, anal coecum and shell-gland
present no points of especial interest.

The shape from above is an elongated oval, broadest through
tne fornices. ‘The valves gape considerably below.

The animal moves by strong and sudden blows of the anten-
ne. With a single stroke it darts for a short distance, and then
returns to rest, ordinarily not moving again until disturbed. It
may, however, swim for a considerable distance by repeated
strokes of the antennx, but on the whole is decidedly sluggish,
remaining for hours at rest. The extreme suddenness with which
it starts into motion is very remarkable. The antennz are ordi-
narily bent downward along the anterior margin of the valves,
and I have never been able to see them raised preparatory to a
saart. It passes instantaneously from rest to motion, and, with-
out any warning, is gone from the field of view in the microscope.
It can aiso move slowly, as I have noticed, by strokes of the ab-
dominal feet upon the cover of the live box in which it is kept.
The post-abdomen does not seem to be employed as an aid to lo-
comotion.

102 Wssconsin Academy of Sciennes, Arts, and Letters.

SPECIES I.
Plate.) Bie. 118)

CREPIDOCERCUS SETIGER. sp. nov.
Length, 0.4-0.5 mm. Height, 0.27-0.32 mm.

Measurements from one specimen.

Length, 0.87 mm. Height, 0.25 mm. Length of hind margin,
0.12 mm. Leneth of spine of ventral margin, 0.017 mm. Length
of sete of ventral margin, 0.02-0.04 mm. Diameter of eye,
0.028 mm. Diameter of macula nigra, 0.01. Length of anten-
nule, 0.044 mm. Length of post-abdomen from “ heel” to “toe,”
0.11 mm. Length of terminal claw, 0.016 mm. This specimen
was rather below the average in size.

The color is yellow, rather opaque. The specific name is taken
from the sete: with which the post-abdomen is armed. Mad-
ison, Wis. Rare. Male not seen.

This species is to some degree intermediate between Alona and
Pleuroxus. It resembles the first in the size of the rostrum and
the single basal spine of the terminal claws. In general shape
and markings it recalls Pleuroxus. Graptoleberis is the only
form whose post-abdomen at all resembles that of Crepidocereus.
The mode of motion is quite peculiar.

GENUS 4.

GRAPTOLEBERIS. Sars, 1867.

GRAPTOLEBERIS. Kurz.
ALONA,e. p. Baird, Schédler, P. E. Miiller.
Lyncevs, e.p. Leydig, Liljeborg, Fischer et al.

SPECIES 1.
Plate Bier alae

GRAPTOLEBERIS INERMIS. sp. nov.
Length, 0.6-0.8 mm. Height, 0.30-0.35 mm.

There is no indentation at the junction of head and thorax, but
the dorsal margin rounds regularly over from the point of the

Notes on Cladocera. 103

rostrum to the posterior margin. The junction here is not well
marked, and at the lower corner the posterior margin does not
form a sharp angle. with the ventral. The corner is rounded, but
on it are two strong teeth like those of G. testudinarius (Fscher).
The ventral margin is straight. The front half bears long, straight,
closely set, plumose setze, while those on the hinder part are shorter
and more scattered. The meshes of the reticulation are mostly
hexagonal on the head, quadrangnlar or irregular on the body.
The lines of the network in the front and lower part of the valves
radiate from the junction of valve and fornix. The first few rows
run to the ventral margin. The succeeding rows bend and run
parallel to that edge. Those on the upper half of the valyes are
parallel to the dorsal margin, and there are one or two imperfect
rows in the middle of the valves where the two sets meet. The
upper set are continued on to the head, running around parallel
to the edge of the fornix. The lower, dorsal, margin of the post-
abdomen bends upwards just below the anus, and thus makes the
apex pointed. There are about eight clusters of three or four
hairs each, on each side. The terminal claws are small and un-
armed. ‘The eye is only of moderate size, smaller proportionally
than in Alona. While in Alona the diameter of the eye, in an
average specimen may equal +4, of the total length, in G. inermis, it ~
equals only 34-5, of the length. The macula nigra is about
two-thirds as large as the eye, a little smaller than in Alona.
Male not seen.

This species resembles G. testudinarius in most particulars (see
the excellent description of this species, Kurz, 1. ¢, pp. 50-53).
The differences are, the eye in this species is small instead of
large ; its shape is rounded, not “ nearly triangular ;” the macula
nigra is not greatly smaller than the eye; the terminal claws are
smooth and not “ornamented with teeth;” there is no trace
of an elevation on the back, where the outline of the head meets
that of the back; the posterior lower corner is rounded, though
armed with teeth, and not prolonged into a sharp angle.

The outline in general more closely resembles that of G. reticu-
latus than that of G. testudinarius. In most respects, however, it
more closely approaches the latter species.

104 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Cambridge, Mass., 1876, two specimens.
Madison, Wis., Sept., 1877, Third Lake. Rare.
Southampton, Mass., 1878. Rare.

GENUS 5.
ALONA. Sars, 1862.

This genus was first established by Baird, 1850, but was lim-
ited to a small portion of its former extent by Sars. I am not
sure that Alonella should have been separated from Alona, but
on the whole, prefer to keep the genus as Sars left it.

SPECIES 1.
Plate TI. “Pig. 16.

ALONA ANGULATA. sp. nov.
Length, 04mm. Height, 0.25 m.

Shell marked by rectangular meshes.

The dorsal margin is considerably arched, terminating in a ©
more or less obvious angle at the hinder corner. The hinder edge
is convex, as is also the front margin, The ventral margin is
provided with plumose sets. The rostrum is pointed, as seen
from the side, and extends down nearly to the ventral edge of the
shell. The fornices are broad, the distance between their edges
being nearly equal to the greatest distance between the valves.
They are extended forward to the end of the rostrum. The shelt
is obviously striated, the strize running obliquely downward and
backward. Close inspection discloses a set of cross markings,
making the shell reticulated with oblong meshes. The post-abdo-
men is broad, and truncated at the end. It has a row of about
twelve teeth on each side, inserted a little way from its lower, dor-
sal, edge, and their points project behind it. Along the middle
of the post-abdomen, on each side, runs a row of very small
scales furnished with clusters of short hairs. The antennules are
rounded at the end, and the sense-hairs are set-around the end, not
uponit. They have besides a flagellum. The basal joint of the an-
tennze reaches about to the edge of the fornix, the branches nearly

Notes on Cladocera. 105

to the lower edge of the shell. They have 39° seta and 48° spines.
The last seta is, as usual, very much smaller than the others. The
macula nigra is much smaller than the eye, about one-third as .
large in diameter. Two young are produced at once. A very
young specimen showed no striz. In the adult, these are about
0.025 mm. apart.

The male is somewhat smaller than the female and of slightly
different proportions. It is 0.85 mm. long and 0.2 mm. bigh.
The rostrum projects farther forward and not so far down-
wards. The post-abdomen is rounded at the end, without teeth,
but with a row of fine hairs. The vas deferens opens below the
terminal claws. ‘The body behind the heart rises up to the top
of the cavity of the valves. This position makes the abdomen
hang down nearly perpendicularly when at rest. Thecoils of the
intestine are larger than in the female, and the testicle lies imme-
diately on them. The front legs have the usual hook. The
cross markings of the sculpture are scarcely to be seen; otherwise
it resembles the female.

The reticulation of this species excludes it from all others of this
genus except A. guttata (Sars, Crust. Clad. i Omen. of Christiania,
p. 287). In that species, however, the rostrum is shorter, the ma-
cula nigra much larger (” oculo parvo minor,” Miiller), the post-
abdomen “‘apice rotundato,’ and its teeth much smaller. The
general outline, too, is different, and the reticulation, instead of
running obliquely across the valves, is horizontal. It is also one-
fourth larger: 0.5 mm. instead of 0.4. A. reticulata (Schédler,
Neue Beitr., etc., p. 25), if not identical with A. guttata, is even
more unlike the present species.

Cambridge, Mass., 1876. Not rare.

SPECIES 2.
Plate I. Fig. 16.

ALONA PORRECTA. sp. nov.
Length, 0.34mm, Height, 0.19 mm.

Anterior portion of valve with a sinus. Lower angle of post-
abdomen acute. Shell striated with horizontal lines.

106 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

This and the following species will be more briefly described.
‘There is no evident angle at the junction of the ‘dorsal and pos-
terior margins. The lower edge bears sete and has no sinns.
The front edge has a very slight sinus, or none at all. The
valves are marked by faint horizontal strize. The rostrum does
not extend so far downwards as in the preceding species. The
post-abdomen has its usual claws, each with its basal spine, which
is not serrate. The teeth of the post-abdomen are about twelve
tm each row; three or four at the end are larger than the rest.
There is besides, a row of hairs above the row of teeth. The
lower angle of the post-abdomen is not rounded. The male is of
the same general shape as the female. Length, 0.34, height,
0.18 mm. In the armature of the post-abdomen this species ap-
proaches nearest to A. tenuicaudis (Sars); but in other respects,
e. g. shape of shell, and especially of post-abdomen, is quite dif-
ferent.

Cambridge, Mass., 1876.; Madison, Wis., July, 1877. Not com-
mon.

SPECIES 3.

ALONA GLACIALIS. sp. nov.
Length, 0.3mm. Height, 0.19 mm.

Anterior margin of valves without sinus. Valves horizontally
striated. Lower corner of post-abdomen rounded.

This species differs from the preceding chiefly in the post-ab-
domen. This is rounded at the lower angle, and the teeth, about
fourteen in number, are of equal size. There is also a second row
of hairs.) The forward edge of vaive is strongly convex, other-
wise much like A. porrecta. This species approaches perhaps most
nearly to A. lineata (Fischer). There are, however, great dif-
ferences. The size of A. lineata is nearly twice as great. The
post-abdomen has, according to Miiller and Schédler, only one
row of teeth and no hairs. According to Kurz, it has hairs, but a
deep incision in the lower end. In either case the dtfference is
well marked. The shape is also different. A. glacialis is rela-
tively much broader behind than A. lineata (vid. Schédler).

Notes on Claclocera. 107

Glacialis, Cambridge, Mass., 1876.; rare. Male not seen. The
“specific name is taken from the pond in which it was chiefly
found.

SPECIES 4.

ALONA SPINIFERA. Schédler.
ALONA SPINIFERA. Schédler (Neue Beitriige, p. 18, Pl. I, fig. 17-22).

Specimens belonging to this species were scantily found in
Madison, Wis., and were quite common in Southampton, Mass.

SPECIES 5.
ALoNA Oxptonca. P. EH. Miller.
ALONA OBLONGA. P. E. Miiller, 1. c., p. 175, Pl. IIT, fig. 22-28.

Length, 0.9 mm.

One specimen, closely agreeing with Miller’s description, was
found in Merrill’s Springs, near Lake Mendota, Madison, Wis.,
Sept., 1877.

On the front side of the second joint of the outer antennary
branch was a cluster of spines. In this it differed from Miller's
description.

SPECIES 6.

ALONA T'UBERCULATA. Kurz.
ALONA TUBERCULATA. Kurz, l.c., p. 51, Tab. II, fig. 3.

The chief difference between my specimens and Kurz’s, seems
to be that mine have a greater number of rounded elevations
than his.

The shape of the post-abdomen does not appear to be identical,
but so brief is his description that I am not sure of any differ-
ence. I therefore prefer to leave it under that species for the
present.

Southampton, Mass., 1878. Rather common.

108 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Leiters.

GENUS 6.

ALONOPSIS. Sars, 1862.

ACROPERUS, e. p. Schédler.
Atonopsis. P. E. Miiller, Kurz.

SPECIES I.
Plate I. Fig. 14-15.

ALONOPSIS MEDIA. sp. nov.

Length, 0.55 mm. Height, 0.85 mm.
Length of male, 0.4 mm.

Rostrum prolonged and shell sharp, somewhat quadrangular
in shape, marked by strize.

The dorsal margin is convex, the hinder margin nearly straight.
Its lower angle is rounded and without teeth. The lower margin
is concave, and has long, plumose sete. The front margin is
strongly convex. The post-abdomen is long and slender, resem-
bling that of Camptocercus, and is notched at the distal extremity.
It has two rows of fine teeth and some small scales above them.
The terminal claws are long, slender, with a basal spine, a spine
in the middle, and are serrated. The antennules are long and
slender, but do not reach to the end of the rostrum. They have
each a flagellum and sense-hairs. The antennze are small and
have eight ($22) setze and two (42°) spines. The labrum resem-
bles that of A. leucocephalus, but is slightly prolonged at its
apex. The intestine, coecum, and color resemble those of Acro-
perus. There is a trace of .a keel present on the back.

This species is in some retpects intermediate between A. elon-
gata (Sars) and A. latissima (Kurz). In general shape, rostrum
and marking of valves, it most nearly approaches the former,
while it approaches the latter in the post-abdomen, its shape, teeth

and armature of terutinal claws. Hence I call the species A. me-
dia.

Notes on Cladocera. 109

GENUS 7.

ACROPERUS. Baird, 1850.

ACROPERUS, e. p. Schodler.
AcrorERus. Miiller, Sars, Kurz.

SPECIES 1.
AGROPERUS LEUSOCEPHALUS. Koch.

LYNCEUS LEUCOCEPHALUS, Koch. 1. c., H. 36, Pl. X.

2A. HARP. Baird, 1. c., p. 129, Pl. XVI, fig. 5.

L. LEUcocEPHALUS. Fischer, Ergainzung, u. s. w., 1854, p. 11, Pl. ITI,
fig. 6-9.

A. LEUCOCEPHALUS. Schédler, Miller, Kurz.

Cambridge, Mass., Madison, Wis. Common.

Kurz says: ‘‘ Die Acroperus-arten sind die besten Schwimmer
unter den Lynceiden.” This is not true of our species, which is
far inferior in strength and rapidity of motion to both Crepido-
cercus and Pleuroxus. The same is true of Alonopsis and Alona.

The last genus, indeed, is given to haunting the bottom of the
water, and often is found resting among the debris at the bottom
of the jar in which it is kept.

GENUS 9.

CAMPTOCERCUS. Baird, 1851.

CamptTocEercus. Baird, Sars, Schédler, P. E. Miiller, Kurz.

SPECIES 1.
Camptocercus Macrurus. O. F. Miiller.
Length, about 1 mm.

LyNcEUs MAcRURUS. O. F. Miiller, Prod. No. 2897.
ee Liljeborg, 1. c., p. 89, Pl. VII, figs. 2, 3.
CAMPTOCERCUS “ Schédler, Neue Beitr., p. 35, Pl. II, figs. 39-41.
ob & P. E. Miller, 1. c., p. 164, Pl. III, fig. 12.

Cambridge, Mass., Madison, Wis. Not common.

SECTION II. GYMNOMERA. Sars.
PoLYyPHEMUS PeEpicuLtus. De Geer.

One specimen only. Cambridge, Mass., Oct., 1876.

EXPLANATION OF PLATH &

Fig. 1. Ceriodaphnia dentata, fem. Head x 80.
2 se . Post-abdomen x 180.
3 consors, ‘ Head x 80.
4, cs <r “ Post-abdomen X 1380.
5. Simocephalusvetulus, “ | Macula nigra x 260.
6 i Americanus, fem. Macula nigra x 260.
7%. Scapholeberis mucronata, fem. Head from below x 160.
8 s nasuta, male. Head seen obliquely from below x 260.
9. re “fem. Head xX 80.
LOMO ae cs “fem. Macula nigra from side and from be-
low X 260.

11. Daphnia pulex. Terminal claw.
12. Macrothrix rosea, male. Post-abdomen > 260.

13. i " “ Antennule x 260.
14. Alonopsis media, “ Post-abdomen x 160.
15. e “fem. ac x 150.

16. Alona porrecta, male. x 150.

1%. -Graptoleberis inermis, fem. Post-abdomen x 150.

18. Crepidocercus setiger, fem. X 148.

19. Pleuroxus procurvus, fem. Front part of animal x 150.

20. oy rf fem. Hind part of valve x 150.

ila ameta * denticulatus, fem. Post-abdomen x 150. -

22. a unidens, fem. Hind part of body and valves « 95.

THE HELIOTYPE PRITING CO. 220 DEvoNsHIRE Sr. Boston

ian wep Metctrooig

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IL

Fig. 1. Daphnella exspinosa, fem. Antennule x 140.
9. 66 cc male. «“ 66

3. s 6 s Post-abdomen x 140.

4, 66 (79 ce a (73

5. Daphnia levis, fem. “ a
Giekipers cS ee Embryo, outline of head.
6b, b’. “ “ « Young, «

6c. S a “ Adult, ec

Te ss “ male. Antennule x 140.

8. Ceriodaphnia cristata, fem. Head x 130.

9. i “ “ Post-abdomen X 180.

10. Bosmina cornuta, fem. Head, etc., x 150.
11. Plevroxus straminius, fem. Post-abdomen x 140.

12. cc insculptus, ‘“ Details of marking.
18. se hamatus, “ “

14. € fe sf First foot « 148.
15. ec acutirostris ‘* < 1385.

16. Aloma angulata, fem. x 1385.

17. “ tuberculata, fem. x 135.

18. st male. Post-abdomen x 140.

19. Chydorus sphericus, male. x 150.

Plate I.

THE HELIOTYPE PRINTING CO. 220 DEVONSHIRE ST. Boston.

Ihe, es
TAT Haves ox

t

Fauna of the Magara and Upper Silurian focks. 118

ve

ON THE FAUNA OF THE NIAGARA AND UPPER
SILURIAN ROCKS AS EXHIBITED IN MILWAU-
KEE COUNTY, WISCONSIN, AND IN COUNTIES
CONTIGUOUS THERETO.

BY F. H. DAY, M. D.

Wauwatosa, Wis., Dec. 27, 1877.

It is stated as an axiom by high paleontological authority,—
that ‘‘Since rocks are identified more by their fossil contents, than
by their lithological character, a name descriptive of the latter
is of less importance than formerly, when fossils were the sub-
ordinate characters of a mass;” and although paleozoic char-
acters have assumed the supremacy over all others in distinguish-
ing sedimentary strata, “still the lithological terms must not be
overlooked; for if properly understood, they will be unerring
cuides in tracing the condition of the surface, for more than hun-
dreds of miles in extent.”

Changes in the lithological features of a rock which may render
observations unsatisfactory, are accompanied by greater or less
variation in the nature of the fossils. It is therefore of the high-
est importance in the examination of sedimentary rocks to be gov-
erned by three essential facts, which are:

1st. The lithological character.

2d. The order of the superposition.

3d. The contained characteristic fossils.

By an observance of such precepts geologists have been enabled
to forma reliable anda systematic geological history, which is ar-
ranged into natural distinctions of ages, periods, epochs, and eras,
with the capability to trace from one portion of country to another,
through all intricate phases, types and characters, the rocks con-
taining remains, images or casts of paleozoic life.

It is thus we determine the first appearance in the world’s his-

tory of organized beings, as exemplified in thecommencement of
8

114 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

the Silurian age— usually termed the Lower Silurian, where by
successive layers or strata of calcareous or siliceous sedimentary
* matter, we trace each order of life through distinctive periods, and
epochs, until progressive organization culminated in the era of
man. :

The nomenclature adopted by tacit consent of paleontologists,
to be applied to rocks, is that of the locality where the exposure of
a specified rock exists in its best state of preservation and can be
carefully examined and studied.

In this manner are the terms derived, Canadian, Trenton, Nia-
gara, Salina, Lower and Upper Helderberg and Hamilton, with
the subdivisions of Quebec, Galena, Waukesha, Racine and St.
Claire.

But it is the three principal periods: the Trenton, Niagara and
Salina which particularly interest a paleontologist when making
collections of paleozoic remains from the eastern portions of Wis-
consin, and therefore the foregoing explanatory observations
seemed to be necessary to elucidate what seemed to befog or de:
ter some of our leading state geologists in arriving at definite sat-
isfactory conclusions.

For if you examine the strata of rocks, with their fossiliferous
contents, as exhibited in various exposures by quarrying or from
other causes in Milwaukee county within a radius of twenty miles,
it is difficult to apply the foregoing mentioned, or geological ax-
ioms. In a single quarry containing a coralline limestone near
Wauwatosa I have obtained several thousand specimens within the
past twenty years, and from among them I can show you repre-
sentative fossils delineated and described as belonging to the com-
mencement of the primordial time or Lower Silurian age, intermin-
gled with many fossils characteristic of the Upper Silurian, the
Guelph and the beginning of the Devonian age. However, ‘Prof.
Dana asserts that there is no evidence that a species existed in
the latter half of the Upper Silurian, that was alive in the latter
half of the Lower Silurian.” The fossils of the Niagara fauna
being mostly casts of the interior, it is more of an exception to
- find the shell or testaceous covering in a perfect state of preser-
vation thereby making our investigations accompanied with many

Fauna of the Niagara and Upper Silurian Rocks. 115

difficulties, nevertheless Hastern Wisconsin has a fauna which in
variety, beauty, perfection and numbers cannot be excelled by
a similar collection, within the same extent of country on either
hemisphere. :

Could the distinguished Prof. L. Aggasiz have examined our
corals, Hchinoderms, Brachiopoda, Lamellibranchs, Gasteropoda,
Cephalopoda and Trilobita, no doubt he would have exclaimed,
‘why sir, the sight of this display would make an eastern natur-
alist crazy.”

On one occasion after arecent excavation by blasting at Schoon-
macker’s quarry, | measured a coral disk about twenty feet in
diameter, three feet in height, and more than sixty feet in circum-
ference. The surface was made up of beautiful concentric layers,
like the flattened whorls of a gasteropod, and were covered by very
pretty Heleolites.

Cruising around such coral eminences, were the “lords of the
invertebrates,” the Orthoceratites, the straight variety of Cephalo-
poda, measuring over twelve feet in length and twenty inches in
circumference, and having siphuneles so peculiar in shape and ex-
pansion, that Prof. H. A. Ward, notwithstanding his large ex-
perience and observation, declared these different from any species
he had seen in the old or new world, because the pyrimidal-cone-
shaped siphuncle of the base, or last chamber, resembled much
the contour of a Belemnite. ;

Here also was the gigantic Phragmoceras having a base twenty
one inches ir circumference, six inches deep, and a seven inches lat-
itudinal aperture, and extremely macrochcilus or long lip, for per-
fect specimens collected of five species of Phragmoceras make Prof.
Hall’s description of a single specimen of our species, compara-
tively a myth, and his Phragmoceras nestor is simply a descrip-
tion of a mutilated specimen of a Phragmoceras macrocheilus.
Prof. Hall’s Gomphoceras septoris has the curvilinear figure of a
Phragmoceras, er Cyrtoceras, and in general aspect much resem-
bles a Phragmoceras callistoma (Barrande), delineated in Wood-
ward’s Modern and Fossil Shells. Of the four varieties of Gompho-
ceras, one may prove to be G. serinvum or G. Marcyi of Winchell.

The gasteropoda of the Lower and Upper Silurian and Hamilton

116 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

cementare found much larger and in a more perfect condition than
those pictured and described in reports of previous geological sur-
veys. A magnificent and perfect Plewrotomaria perlaia five inches
in diameter, found in the Niagara shale, and also in the Guelph
or Gault, a Zrochoceras, Gebhardit, six inches in diameter, from the
cement rocks, besides many others, claim honorable mention. In
no other place are such unique lamellibranchiata to be found,
particularly the Moceraunas and Amphicelia, Ambonychia, and
Paleocardia. Ihave quite a number of perfect specimens, retain-
ing the whole or parts of their beautiful striated shells.

It is in Schoonmaker’s Quarry that several distinct species of
trilobites belong which are not found elsewhere—in any fossilifer-
ous formation.

Prof. J. Hall, in his description of the fauna of Wisconsin, was
often obliged to make use of imperfect material, and in resorting
to the very unsatisfactory mode of delineating restored parts, or
“supposed differences,” he would naturally be much disappointed
and mortified to find his opinions erroneous upon the subsequent
discovery of perfect specimens, which were heretofore entirely
new, or but little known. On this account it is questionable
whether Hall’s synonyms for fossils like the Jdlenus, Spherexo-
chus, Phragmoceras, et cetera, when perfect specimens prove them
to be so radically different from Hall’s descriptions, should be
‘saddled ” with the names he intended should be applied to them,
especially when his opinions are based upon a single part or frag-
ment of a perfect specimen, and also when the synonym is foreign
to the idea suggestive of its character. or example, the pygidium
of the Jllenus cuniculus is confounded with the Bridgeport and
Waukesha Jllenus armatus, which is probably an adult speci-
men of Illenus insignis, or Illenus Worthmanus of Winchell, or
Llloenus Springfieldensis, of Meek. There are other species of
the Lllenus, or Asaphus, to which the glabella has a slight re-
semblance to Hall’s description, but otherwise are totally different.

The pygidium of Hall’s Sphoerexochus Romingert is simply a
mutilated specimen of a pygidium of S& mirus of Beyrich. I
am induced to make these assertions after a careful comparison
with perfect specimens in my cabinet. Allow me, also, to state

Fauna of the Niagara and Upper Silurian Rocks. 117

that I have never seen a single specimen of Jlloenus roxus, found
in Schoonmaker’s Quarry, notwithstanding Prof. Hall’s mention
that it is of frequent occurrence, and Prof. T. C. Chamberlaiu
identifies it as belonging to this quarry.

A nearly perfect head and pygidium of an Aczdaspis Danat
make the specimen quite different from Winchell’s Acidaspis Jda.

Extraordinary sized Ceraurus insignis are occasionally found
and well marked parts of Brontews Acmas, Harpes, Lichas, Dalma-
nia, wew species of Lllenus, Asaphus, besides quite a number of
as yet undetermined varieties of trilobites, which are “new or but
little known.”

Fine specimens of //loenus ioxus are found in Waukesha and
and Greenfield, but it is in the Racine quarries that the grand pa-
triarchial zovus assumed his supremacy. Specimens of heads
over five inches wide and three inches deep, and joined to thoracic
segments, and pygidium will make full-sized specimens, more
than one foot in length. The Acidaspis and several other very re-
markable varieties of trilobites are also found, beautiful as well as
unique, and unsurpassed. But it is in the the Wauwatosa quar-
ries that the best documents are produced to illustrate the com-
parative anatomy and physiology of the trilobite. A critical ex-
amination of fossil specimens of this invertebrate animal reveals
a bundle of contradictions on account of its possessing many at-
tributes belonging to several orders, which cause the trilobite to
assume as uncertain a position among the invertebrates as a Chei-
roptera does among vertebrates ‘“‘ which can claim a habitation
neither with birds or beasts.”’

All the parts of the trilobite, as found at Wauwatosa, béing
‘casts of the interior,’ reveal an internal mechanism which re-
quires no more stretch of the imagination to localize and impute cer-
tain actions to different parts, than for an anatomist to explain
definitely and intelligently the properties and powers pertaining
to the skeleton of a vertebrate.

Precisely in similar manner do the casts of the trilobite illus-
trate its organism, habits and locomotion. Like some species of
Entromostracans, it was capable of being dismembered into sev-
eral parts and had the attributes of Crustaceans, Mollusks and
Worms. Its ambulatory movements were performed in a similar

118 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

manner to the larvze of insects, but its exterior covering of crusta-
ceous segments, united by chitine, enabled it to move rapidly in
the water similar to the molluscan Chiton. It also possessed the
same natatory powers as the Crustacean Macrurans. or it could
assume a spherical form like an Isopod, or lepidoptera hairy larva.
By the action of its extension or flexor muscles, the trilobite was
enabled to elongate or contract its size from several inches in
length to one-third its longitudinal extension capacity, and did
not possess a single attribute of an arachnoid. If a name were
required for such an organization, it would be one suggestive of
three orders of genera, combined in one, indicative of an annelid,
a Mollusk, and a Crustacean. Such a proposition is the result of
a careful examination of many thousand specimens of several
genera and species of trilobites, and I am induced to believe that
this peculiar invertebrate lived, at certain distinct periods of time,
so well defined, as to indicate a sufficient reason for making a
change in the ages of Geological History. For instead of classi-
fying the Silurian age as one of Mollusks, and the Devonian as
Fone of Fishes, substitute a Trilobite age. For Mollusks existed
through all ages, and fishes first appeared in the later part of the
Silurian, and assumed a prominence in subsequent ages, like the
Devonian, Carboniferous, etcetera, but the Trilobite is identified at
the commencement, and became extinct at the close of paleozoic
life. In a paper like this, treating: of a miscellaneous fauna, I can
only thus give a brief synopsis of the component parts of Trilo-
_ bite, which, like the Crustacea, by aid of muscular action could
be ‘sessile or stalked eyed,” and its having a chitine carapace
nnited by sutures, was provided with processes, and sinuses for
the attachment and action of muscles, and it could be readily dis-
membered at its dissolution into cheeks, glabellz, hypostoma,
thoracic segments and pygidium, that were held in proper posi-
tion by a chitinous bond of union, which enabled the trilobite to
perform its wormlike motions by expansion, adhesion and contrac-
tions, or to fold its extremities together as the caterpillar larva, or
wood louse when alarmed, or if attacked as a means of defense, or
could move swiftly through the water, like the Molluscous Ohiton
or Crustacean crawfish.
After many years of patient research and with the aid of

Fauna of the Niagara and Upper Silurian Rocks. 119

largely magnifying optical instruments, I have been unable with
the single exception of the seta filaments at the extremities of the
thoracic segments of Culymene — to discover any apppearance
having the slightest resemblance to the strong jointed legs; char-
acteristic of the limulus group.

Since preparing this society paper, I have received from Mr.
C. D. Walcott, Curator State Museum Natural History, Albany,
N. Y., two pamphlets on the organism of the trilobite, entitled “a
preliminary notice of the discovery of the natatory and branchial
appendages of the trilobite,” also an explanatory letter from the
author respecting the uncertanty of his discoveries, but hopeful
of a final satisfactory result.

A copy of the twenty-eighth Regents’ New York Report by Prof. ©
Hall, with reference to plate 34, fig. 14, illustrating points of at-
tachment for supposed natatory organs, also fig. 13, which might
be a sub-section in conjunction with other parts of a folded speci-
men, could be readily construed into a semblance of strong
jointed legs, resembling the limuloid species. Mr. Wélcott’s theo-
ries are formed from incised specimens of ‘‘casts of the exterior,”
while my conclusions are the result of examinations made of ‘‘casts
of the interior.”

In our investigations, Mr. Wolcott and myself may be ina
chameleon sense, right or wrong, as to the opinions we may
form, being largely influenced by the circumstances which govern
our actions in a similar manner —as several years ago — adiver-
sity of opinion existed between Professors Billings, Woodward,
Verrill and Dana. -

Permit me to simply state that I think I have conclusive a
dence, that “ trilobites did not swim on their backs,” they did not
have stout jointed legs, they did not rest with their dorsal surface
downwards, and they did not belong to the higher order of entro-
mostracans. But more extended and fully explanatory views
concerning the trilobite, will appear in a work I am now prepar-
ing for the press.

But whatever the result may be of our persevering labors, nat-
ural science will no doubt be benefited by our efforts to solve
what have been so long problematical statements.

120 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

It is said to be a trite saying of the Icelander, that the “sun
shines on no country equal to his own.” In like manner we may
boast or as Virgil, “sing praises,” not of “men and arms,” but
of the richness and variety of the “paleozoic treasures of Mil-
waukee County, and other counties contiguous thereto,” fora nat-
uralist will examine with ecstatic delight, the unexcelled crinoids,
as found in the quarries of Raeine, Waukesha, Bridgeport and
Greenville. Probably in no other fossiliferous localities are there
to be found such rich collections of Silurian echinodermata. Quite
a number of them are delineated and described in part 8 of Hall’s
Paleontology of Wisconsin, 1871. ;

But since the publication of that work, more perfect specimens
and new genera and species have been added to private collec-
tions, like that of our worthy president, Dr. P. R. Hoy.

If I claim.to have unravelled some of the many perplexing and
doubtful theories concerning the organism of the trilobite, Presi-
dent Hoy can claim equal success as regards the habits and inter-
nal structures of Wisconsin Niagara Echinoderms.

Although a large proportion of the crinoidea may be found at
Racine, a majority of the Cystidea are found in Waukesha and
Milwaukee counties.

For Racine, besides her unsurpassed Echinoderms, has a won-
derful genera, and species of other paleozoic fossils, trilobite heads
and pygidia, equal to the largest size yet published or described.
Specimens are found of the very peculiar Acidaspis, Dalmanites,
Bronteus, Lichas, Spheroxochus, Lilenus, Calymene and Asaphus
Flarpes.

Exquisitively beautiful is the internal structure of several vari-
ties of Cephalopods, that of the Orthoceras abnorme, with a si-
phuncle, having a central siphuncle, composed of minute cyclindri-
cal ramifications which reach to the outer walls of the siphon.
Also several varities of the Orthocerta, like the O. angulatum,
O. columnnre, O. crebescens, O. Laphami, on account of their pecu-
liarly constructed chambers, bases or siphuncles, have some re-
semblance to Hndoceras.

Quite a number of the Gasteropods claim our attention, as the
_Pleurotomaria occidens, Trochoceras costatum, Tremanotus, Tremano-
tus alphenus, Pleurotomarial Hoyt and P. Halli.

Fauna of the Niagara and Upper Silurian Rocks. 121

Principal among the Brachiopods are the Osotus conradt,
Spirifer nobilis, Spirifer plicatella, Strophodonta pavfunda, Pen-
tamarella ventrecosus, Pentamarus oblongus. In an inspection
of the fossils of Hastern Wisconsin, it is naturally expected by
every votary of natural science, that an identity of fossiliferous
bearing rocks should be established with some age or period.

' But it appears from the published expressed opinions of those
appointed to execute the geological state surveys, that there are
many complications and difficulties intervening, in localizing, in
accordance with established rules and methods, definite ages and
periods, for the strata of rocks as exhibited in Hastern Wisconsin.

In 1862, the first plausible or rational theories were published
by Wisconsin legislative enactments concerning the parallelism of
New York paleontology, with the same fossiliferous bearing rocks
of the northwestern states, — more particularly the eastern por-
tions of Wisconsin, ——especially Milwaukee, Racine and Wauke-
sha counties.

Notwithstanding the conclusions reached were far from satis-
factory, still some system was established, which enabled the
student of Paleontology to profit by his investigations, and may
have been the means of stimulating such inquiries and experi-
ments, as resulted in establishing a great commercial and profita-
ble branch of industry, which may give to Milwaukee a reputa-
tion for hydraulic cement products, second to none in the Union,
and eventually first in the world.

No doubt this most gratifying success was accomplished through
the suggestions and persevering investigations of the late Dr. I. A.
Lapham, one of the chief pioneers of natural history.

SCIENCE IN WISCONSIN.

Yet, a certain amount of credit is due to the Superintendent of
the Geological Survey of Wisconsin (Prof. James Hall) of 1862,
for the opinions he expressed in that work, and also for the theo-
ries similarly advanced in Vol. III, Paleontology of New York,
and part 3d, Paleontology of Wisconsin, 171, in the introductory
chapters, having reference to the hydraulic cement character, of

122 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Leiters.

the calciferous formations of the Upper Silurian age of rocks, as
exhibited in the vicinity of Milwaukee.

Prof. Hall, also in his statements in Vol. I, Geology of Wiscon-
sin, represents the strata of rocks lying above the Niagara, as the
equivalent of the Salina or Onondaga Salt group of New York,
or the Guelph, or Gault, of Canada, and the Le Claire, of Iowa.
Notwithstanding, he was unable to trace the characteristic fossil,
Hurypterus remipes of the Water-Lime Group. Similar views are
expressed by him in his prefatory remarks in his paleontology of
Wisconsin, also see Paleontology of New York, Vol. III Like-
wise what are called, on page 72, Vol. I, Geology of Wisconsin, the
upper Helderberg. and Hamilton groups, have proved to be what is
‘Geolocy-of ithe- Hamilton cement, of 8 ase, in Vok-ti-ot
now termed’ Wiseonsing elit, 4 otelogy 05 1200 Cane

An analytical examination of the pies sentiments of the
authorsin Volumes first and second of Geology of Wisconsin, con-
cerning the lithological character of the rocks containing the fauna
of Wisconsin, especially its eastern portion, shows no very marked
distinction or discrepancy, for their final summation respecting
the area, the age, and periods, embracing the characteristic epochs,
as generally admitted in American Geology.

To the general student of Natural History, the previous class-
ification established by Hall, on 447 page, of Vol. I, of Geology
of Wisconsin, comprehensively covers the synonymous terms of
Mayville and Byron beds, and upper and lower coral beds, lying
below the Waukesha limestone. For the Hamilton cement, the
Le Claire, the Racine and Waukesha limestones, embrace all the
fauna belonging to that portion of the Upper Silurian, equivalent
to the Salina, Lower Helderberg and Hamilton.

Such an increase of synonyms has a tendency to embarrass
the student in his study of paleozoic life, notwithstanding. Prof.
Chamberlin, while reiterating the ideas advanced by Prof. Hall, has
invested them, in a fuller and more interesting phraseology. But
some facts concerning the quarries in Milwaukee county do not sub-
stantiate the correctness of Prof. Chamberlin’s views, that the three
classes of limestone, Mayville, Waukesha and Racine, lying above
the Trenton period of rocks, were formed simultaneously.

Fauna of the Niagara and Upper Silurian Rocks. 128

If we examine the lowest depths of the sole of Schoonmaker’s
quarry, we find the same characteristic rock, containing the Zere-
bratulous fossil, Gypidean occidentalis, belonging to the Byron
division of the Mayville bed. This formation was quarried to
some extent, and formed dressed stones, for bases to grave-stones,
and window caps and sills.

This stratum terminated abruptly in an ancient river bed, the bot-
tom of which is smooth and polished, grooved and scratched by
the drift of the glacial action or era, for huge granite boulders were
excavated during the process of quarrying.

Above this stratum, are regular even layers of a glazed, compact,
metalic ringing, cherty limestone, of several inches in thickness,
which is quarried in regular rectangular forms, and is utilized as a
durable pavement on the side walks, or macadamized streets of
Milwaukee and Waukesha. This formation was covered with ani-
mal life, similar to that, so extensively intermixed in the strata or '
groups overlying it, and is well exhibited at every exposure of
this rock, in all the quarries in Milwaukee, Racine and Wauke-
sha counties. But the fauna which covered the surface of the
Waukesha limestone, at Cook’s, Hadfield’s and Pelton’s, in Wau-
kesha county, or Trimbone’s, Swan’s, Busack’s, Schwackhart’s
and Story’s in Milwaukee county; or Ives’, Horlick’s and others,
in Racine county; or Cook and Mc’Henry counties in Illinois,
are in an exceedingly compressed stratum, and in many instances
the fossils are in such a state as to be but little better defined, than
well marked outlines of the original plant or invertebrate animal.
In several of the quarries, as Story’s, Schewickhart’s, Busack’s
and Cook’s, the Bryozoa, Cephalopoda, Gasteropoda, Brachiopoda
and Crustacea, are so intensely compressed and distorted and glaz-
ened as often to give the appearance of different genera or species.

In seeking an elucidation of the age and character of the dolo-
mitic formations in eastern Wisconsin, and in taking into consid-
eration the totality of their surroundings, a plausible, perhaps a
correct theory is established from these facts. Adopting the axi-
oms, that the predominating fossil contents of rocks determine
their age and character, we find lying above the regular strati-
fied rocks of the Niagara period, and termed the Waukesha lime-

\
124 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

stone, soft, porous, and in places, easily disintegrated coral form-
ations, termed by Profs. Hall and Chamberlin, coral reefs, which
were formed on the top of sedimentary rocks, less than one hun-
dred feet deep, in an ancient sea.

That these coral reefs extended from the south of Kewaunee,
Wisconsin, in a southerly direction, below Bridgport, Illinois; a
distance of more than two hundred miles, and westerly, to Le
Claire, Towa. . |

That at certain points in Milwaukee, Waukesha, and Racine,
these coral reefs became more prominent and formed, as termed
by Prof. J. Dana, atolls, bordering on lagoons, which upon the
receding of the ancient sea, formed the fiords vallies, now occu-
pied by the numerous rivers of Wisconsin.

Subsequently in the vicinity or same direction of these fiord
vallies, glacial vallies were formed at frequent intervals for long
lines of granitic boulders, of the Archean age are found, some
measuring many tons, in size and weight; they no doubt had
an agency in producing the grooves, scratches and polished sur-
face, exhibited on the tops and sides of the ledges of the com-
pact and fine grained limestone. The compressed condition of the
fossils appears to be due to an upward pressure from an upheaval
at the era of Silurian eruption, from which the same cause may
have changed portions of the sedimentary dolomitic strata,
either by igneous action or by solution into metamorphic beauti-
ful calcite, or strontianite. Such a theory would account for
the extraordinary compressed condition of fossil Cephalopoda,
and other genera, and calcite crystals in the Waukesha lime-
stone, and at the quarries in Wauwatosa, Racine and elsewhere
in the state. An equally plausible theory is, that by a grad-
ual submergence, or subsidence; and also from erosion, by the
waves and currents of the ancient sea upon portions of the found-
ation or base of the coral reefs, certain parts were undermined, caus-
ing the superior portion of the rocks to tilt over and slide down
in huge blocks, which give the appearance, upon exposure by
quarrying, of an upheaval of the strata. Such causes, explain
somewhat, the deep vertical fissures and seams, which permeate
every portion of the Wauwatosa reefs, and this situation is taken

Fauna of the Niagara and Upper Silurian Rocks. 125

advantage of by workmen, in the process of quarrying, by blast-
ing and excavating. ;

In certain parts of the reefs are coves, or pockets, which contain
remains of distinct colonies of paleozoic life. For in one cove,
you will chiefly find Foraminifera and Zoophyta. In another
cove, the Brachiopoda; in another the Crustacea, and so on with
each class and species of fossils. A similar state exists in other
of the coral reefs; for the trilobites of Wauwatosa are not found
at Waukesha. ‘The magnificent and peculiar Echinoderms of
Racine, are not found in other reef formations; and the trilobite
species, [llenus imperator, Illenus armatus, are found in the
southerly reefs of Burlington, Bridgeport and Algonquin.

From the foregoing considerations, aided by geological axioms
and other published opinions of accepted paleontological authority,
we offer these suggestions, as an effort to supply the “ missing
links” in our research, as to the age, period and epoch, wherein
once lived, moved and had a being, “the fauna of Niagara and
Upper Silurian rocks, as exhibited in Milwaukee county, Wiscon-
sin, and ijn counties contiguous thereto.”’

126 Wisconsin Academy of Sctences, Arts, and Letters.

DISCOVERIES ILLUSTRATING THE LITERATURE
AND RELIGION OF THE MOUND BUILDERS.

BY EDMUND ANDREWS, A. M.. M. D.,

Prof. of Surgery in Chicago Medical College.

Looking back into the dawn of American history, we see certain
figures stalking dim and phanton-like across the horizon. So
unreal do they appear, that were it not for the massive earthworks
they have left behind them, we might well disbelieve their ex-
istence.

Little by little we have gained information respecting them.
They were miners and coppersmiths of considerable skill, but
apparently wrought their metal solely by hammering, yet they
occasionally had molten bronze chisels, which they probably im-
ported from Mexico. They possessed shells from the sea, plates
of mica from the Alleghanies, and Obsidian from the Rocky Moun-
tains. They probably sent copper to Mexico, and in the graves of
Yucatan have been found heads of their Lake Superior chloras-
tralite. They were farmers, and cultivated broad fields with hoes
and spades made of flint and wood. They wove cloth, made pot-
tery, and erected earthworks of such enormous size and number
as to astonish even the white men who now occupy their deserted
cities. Their skeletons often exceed six feet in height, their skulls,
which are generally brachycephalic, are flattened at the occupit
like those of the modern Indians, but enclosed a large sized brain.
This comprises nearly all that we have hitherto known about the
vanished races.

The exploration of the interiors of their mounds has generally
been conducted in a very slovenly and inefficient way. It would
seem that in sacrificial mounds, the builders were accustomed to
deposit sacred records inscribed on stone, but so incomplete have
been our examinations, that hitherto only a few of them have been
_disinterred, and these more by accident than by any real skill of
the discoverers.

Literature and Religion of the Mound Builder's. 127

The first one that came to my knowledge was found in a town-
ship called Savannah, on the Tennessee river, in the state of Ten-
nessee. A mound existed here so broad that a company of cav-
alry and all their horses, in the late war, encamped on its summit.
Subsequently the men removed their tents from it and systemati-
cally dug away the whole structure. A small slab of stone was
found with a drawing upon it representing an altar with the body
of some animal upon it enveloped in flames, while the sun was
depicted above. It evidently represented a sacrifice to the deity
residing in that luminacy. I have not yet succeeded in securing
a copy of this stone.

The second was near Rockford, Illinois. A large mound was
examined there, and yielded a small stone of crystalline marble
containing a figure of the sun supported as if on a pedestal, with
a column of hieroglyphics on either side consisting of twelve char-
acters, in all. A fac similie marked No. one, is transmitted with
this paper. The left hand column shows at the top a segment of
acircle. Next below is a trianyle, next a snake, a lizard, and last
a flower. The right hand column consists of a sigmoid line, a
line like the letter U, a minute cross, head of a rabbit, two objects
whose significance I am unable to make out, anda fish. The
disk of the sun has a human face drawn on it, and on the fore-
head of the face is the disk of a crescent moon, with as much of
an imitation of a face on the latter as there was room to portray.
It may be remarked here that the Aztecs, according to Prescott,
(Conquest of Mexico, vol. 1, p. 122), understood the agency of
the moon in producing eclipses, and portrayed these events by
drawing a moon on the disk of the sun. ‘This stone, therefore,
may be the record of an eclipse. It is not possible yet to translate
the twelve hieroglyphic signs upon it.

The third discovery of this sort also occurred near Rockford.
There were hieroglyphics found on some stones excavated from a
mound, but I have not yet succeeded in obtaining a copy.

The fourth inscribed object was an ornament of shell found in
a Mound Builder's grave, near Hast St. Louis. It contained only
four characters.

The fifth discovery was made last month at Davenport, Iowa,

128 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts,\and Letlers.

by the Rey. Mr. Gass, a trustworthy Lutheran clergyman, with
his friends. Fac similes hae been sent me by Mr. Pratt, Secre-
tary of the Davenport Academy of Sciences, and copies are sent
herewith, numbered two, three and four. Numbers two and three
are on opposite sides of the same stone. The drawing is exces-
sively rude and far inferior to the work of some modern Indians.
It is a sacrificial scene, taking place on the summit of a mound.
At the bottom is the mound itself, on it blazes a large fire, and
near it lie the bodies of three human victims. Around it standa
circle of worshipers clasping each others hands, while the smoke
curls upward from the flame. Above at the right hand is the
sun; at the left hand is the moon, with a human face portrayed
on its disk, and between are the stars, over all arches the sky. On
the upper part of the slab are about one hundred characters, which
are evidently a record of something which we at present cannot
read. (The irregular line from the top to the bottom represents
only a fracture in the stone).

The opposite side of the same slab seems to be a rude repre-
sentation of a wooded country, full of game of every description,
which a few lucky hunters are killing with the greatest ease.
There are deer, bears, buffaloes, fish, birds, and nondescript ani-
mals, possibly intended for a musk ox and a turtle. As the op-
posite side was a sacred scene, this side is probably a religious
delineation also, and may, perhaps, represent the famous “ happy
hunting grounds” of departed souls. Two-thirds of the way up
the slab, a line of hieroglyphics runs across it containing, like the
Rockford stone, twelve characters, four of which are identical
with those on the Rockford stone. It is to be observed, also, that
the two lines of characters carried along the arch of the sky on
the other side of the slab, each contain twice twelve characters,
and in fac similie number four, we again find twelve hieroglyphics,
so that this number seems to have some special significance in their
system.

Number four shows a central round spot, surrounded by four
concentric circles. Between the two outer circles are ranged
very regularly the twelve hieroglyphic characters just mentioned.
They are very hastily drawn as if the priests had long been fa-

Interature and Religion of the Mound Builders. 129

miliar with them and only felt it necessary to slightly imitate the
forms. Above are two round spots, intended, perhaps, to signify
the sun and the moon. It seems difficult to avoid the impression
that this inscription is some sort of a calendar. The stones lay
one on the top of the other at the bottom of the mound, on the
original surface of the ground, and were surrounded by a circle
of small rounded stones, each about four inches in diameter.

No one can inspect these fac similies without the conviction
that we have before us rude specimens of literature, which some
future investigation may yet translate. Meantime the sacrificial
mounds should be ransacked in every part, instead of being care-
lessly dug into, for the only hope of being able to translate these
inscriptions rests on the discovery of more of them for compari-
son and study.

In concluding this paper I desire to call attention to some neg-
lected evidences, which seem to indicate that the Mound Builders
are not extinct, as popularly supposed, but still exist among our
Indian tribes.

Squier, after investigating carefully the mounds of western New
York, found himself driven very unexpectedly to the conclusion
that ‘‘ they were erected by the Iroquois, or their western neigh-
bors.”

Purchens, writing two hundred and fifty vears ago, said “The
Troquois have no Townes: their dwellings and Forts are three or
foure stories high, as in New Mexico.”’

Greenhalgh, one hundred years ago, made a statement about
the commercial houses of the Senecas, which shows them to haye
been somewhat like those of New Mexico in plan.

Foster is of the opinion that the mounds thirty miles south-
west of Natchez, were erected, by the Natchez Indians, and states
that the trees on them were younger than on the adjacent grounds.

Lasalle, nearly two hundred years ago, visited the Natchez In-
dians, and his companion, Touty, says their town was surrounded
by a strong earthwork, defended by stakes, on which were stuck
the skulls of enemies ‘sacrificed to the sun. They also kept a
perpetual fire burning on a mound forty-five feet high. They,
therefore, made use of mounds and earth fortifications and sacri-

9

130 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ficed human victims to the sun, like the Mound Builders of Daven-
port. In fact they were Mound Builders themselves.

The Smithsonian Reports state that at the bottom of a mound,
near Savannah, an iron sword was found with an oak handle, in-
dicating communication with white men.

Bartram (Antiq. Southr. Indians, p. 131), says that in his day
the Choctaws erected mounds over the collected bones of their
dead, and that the chief, To-mo-chi-chi, pointed out the large
mound in which were the bones of a chief who had entertained
a great white man with a red beard, who came into Savannah river
in a ship.

It is well proved that the southern Indians, like the Mound
Buiiders, possessed the art of weaving cloth, which Foster erro-
neously attributes to the Mound Builders alone.

I have just received a letter from the Rey. A. L. Riggs, a mis-
sionary among the Nebraska Indians, respecting the use of earth-
works among the western tribes. He says:

“ Along the Missouri river, at least from Sioux City to its head,
are many remains of villages and fortifications. They are all
traceable to tribes now in existence, chiefly to Poncas, Rees, and
Mandans, and were built within two hundred and fifty years. The
large circular dirt houses still to be seen at Fort Berthold, among
the Mandans and Gros-ventres, were once built by the Poneas, also.

‘“‘T remember the site of an old fort on the Minnesota river, near
the Yellow Medicine. It was on the edge of the western bluffs.
Three sides had been protected by a ditch, and probably by palis-
ades. It enclosed, as I remember, an acre. This fort was said to
have been built by the Pawnees, or else the Omahas. This was
before the Dakotas occupied the country.”

It appears, therefore, that a considerable number of tribes still
exist, and some of them are now well civilized, who were Mound
Builders when the white men first met them. These facts may
destroy some of the poetry of the mounds, but we must look
at things as they are. The theories of ethnology have grown too
much under blue glass, swelling to an unhealthy size, which can-
not be maintained under white sunlight. We shall get on faster,
if we move slower.

Interature and Religion of the Mound Builders. 131

The next grand effort should be to disinter more of this buried
literature, and see whether by the study of it, some genuine
knowledge of the past can be made to rise from these tombs.
It is also necessary to make a thorough study of the dialects of
those tribes, who seem to be descended from the Mound Builders,
for they will furnish a necessary stepping stone to the interpreta-

tion of the inscriptions, just as the study of Coptic was an essential
pre-requisite to the translation of the Egyptian hieroglyphics.

No. 6, Sixteenth street, Chicago, Feb. 8, 1877.

182 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

HOW DID THE ABORIGINES OF THIS COUNTRY
FABRICATE COPPER IMPLEMENTS.

BY P. R. HOY, M.D., President Wisconsin Academy of Sciences.

I propose to consider the manner in which the ancient inhabitants
of this country fabricated those curious copper implements which
the plow and spade turn up all over Wisconsin and the adjacent
states. These copper tools are objects of great interest to the
archaeologist, and it is a matter of pride that the Wisconsin His-
torical Suciety has the largest and best collection to be found in
any state.

A few of the specimens, upon a superficial examination, seem
to be cast. This point will first be considered: Did these pre-
historic people possess the skill and intelligence requisite to cast
articles of pure copper ?

Before a cast can be made, it is necessary to have an exact copy
moulded, either in sand, plaster, clay, metal, or other suitable
substance. The formation of sand moulds is by no means so
simple an affair as it seems at first thought. It requires long
practical experience to overcome the disadvantages attendant upon
the materials used. The moulds must be sufficiently strong to
withstand the action of the fluid metal perfectly, and at the same
time to permit the egress of the gases formed by the action of the
metal on the sand. If the material is air-tight, then danger would
come from pressure, arising from the rapidity of the generating
of the gases, and the casting would be spoiled, and probably the
operator injured. If the gases are locked up within the mould,
the general result is what moulders term blown casting, that is, the
surface becomes filled with bubbles of air. The preparation of
sand and loam used in forming the mould must be carefully con-
sidered. The greater the quantity of sand the more easily will
the gases escape and the less liability is there of fracture of the
casting. On the other hand, if the loam predominate, the im-
pression of the pattern will be better, but a far greater liability of
injury to the casting will be incurred from the impermeable na-
ture of the moulding material. In moulding an accurate pattern

Copper Implements. 133

must be made, generally in two or more parts. Pattern making
involyes much knowledge and skill.

I enumerate these difficulties in order to show that it was not
likely that 2 rude people possessed that amount of knowledge and
skill adequate to overcome these obstacles.

I pass over all other modes of forming moulds, and speak only
of those formed in stone. Almost all savage tribes possess the
skill to fashion stone into various tools, and we are forced to ad-
mire the workmanship displayed in working the hardest materials,
such as flint, quartz, granite, greenstone, etc. In contemplating
these evidences of patient toil, we are assured that they could
readily work out suitable moulds in stone in which castings might
be made.

Copper is a refractory metal, which melts at from 2200 to 2600
degrees, a temperature that can be reached only ina furnace, as-
sisted by some form of coal and an artificial blast. We must
have good evidence before we assert that these dwellers by the
lake possessed these indispensable auxiliaries to successful work-
ing in metals. ‘Copper, when melted, is thick and pasty, and
without the addition of some other metal, will not run into the
cavities and sinuosities of the mould.”

In consulting with an intelligent and skillful brass-founder, I
was shown a hammer weighing three pounds, cast of pure copper,
and was assured that this was the smallest casting he could make
of this metal. The addition of one pound of zine to ten of cop-
per makes an alloy that will melt at less than half the tempera-
ture of copper, and will flow freely.

In casting im copper it is positively necessary to put the ma-
terials in a crucible, and that the surface of the melting mass be
covered with a flux in order to effectually defend the melting
metal from the action of the atmosphere.

A word about crucibles. The manufacturing of good crucibles,
such as will withstand the heat necessary to melt the more re-
fractory metals, involves such a degree of knowledge, that for
many generations the entire civilized world was dependent on a
small section of Germany; and even now Hessian crucibles are
unsurpassed. In England there are now several manufactories

184 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

which turn out excellent articles, one in London which makes
the celebrated Plumbago crucible. It will sufficiently indieate
the difficulties involved, when I state that America, to-day, is de-
pendent upon Europe for the immense number of crucibles used
in this country. Iam aware there is a manufactory established
in Connecticut, but the quality is so inferior that they are only
used for the more easily fused metals. I experimented with frag-
ments of pottery taken from the ancient mounds near Racine, in
order to determine the degree of heat they would stand. The
result was they were melted long before the copper was —
fused.

A majority of copper implements found have specks or points
of pure silver scattered over their services. I am prepared to
prove by the best authority in America, James ©. Booth, and
Thomas H. Garrett, U. S. assayers at Philadelphia, that one sin-
gle speck of pure silver, visible even with the microscope, is
positive evidence that the specimen was never melted.

Copper unites intimately with nearly all metals, thus form-
ing homogeneous alloys — with zine forming brass, with tin,
bronze, and so on. The only apparent exception to this law is
where large masses are fused and at rest fora long time. In these
cases the heavier metals gravitate and separate more or less, but
never perfectly. When large brass cannon are cast, in consequence
of the great quantity of metal fused, together with the additional
circumstance that the mould is made in the earth and hence re-
quires days to cool, “blotches of lighter color are occasionally:
found on the surface of the guns, indicating a segregation of the
metals. A fibrous texture is another evidence that these imple-
ments were hammered or rolled out. This (brous quality is well
exhibited by the action of strong acids on the Specimens. On
articles that are cast, the acid acts in a uniform manner, revealing
no striae or hard bands. The absence of the slightest indication
of a sprue—the opening where the metal is poured — is also, to
say the least, suggestive. We certainly would expect to find in-
dications of this necessary blemish in specimens so carelessly fin-
ished that the mould marks remain conspicuous. If these pro-
jections are the remains of the imprint of the mould, the specimen

Copper Implements. Dies

is of recent casting, for it is evident that these delicate marks
would be the first to be corroded by the tooth of time.

I make a short extract from a paper entitled “The Ancient
Men of the Great Lakes,’ read by Henry Gilman at the Detroit
meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science. Mr. Gilman isa close observer, and an accomplished
archaeologist, and has made the ancient mines of Lake Superior
aspecialty. He says: ‘I cannot close, however, without express-
ing my wondering admiration of a relic, which, taken in connec-
tion with our former discoveries, affords some of the most import-
ant evidences of the character of the ancient miners, the nature
of their work, and the richness of the mineral field selected for
their labors, at Isle Royale. On cleaning out of the pit the ac-
cumulated debris, this mass was found at the bottom, at the depth
of sixteen and one-half feet. Itis of a crescent-like shape and
weighs nearly three tons, or exactly 5,720 pounds. Such a huge
mass was evidently beyond the ability of those ancient men to
remove. They could only deal with it as best they knew how.
And as to their mode of procedure, the surroundings in the pit,
and the corrugated surface of the mass itself, bear ample testi-
mony. The large quantities of ashes and charcoal lying round it
show that the action of fire had been brought to bear onit. A
| great number of the stone hammers, or mauls, were also found
near by, many of them fractured from use. With these the sur-
face of the mass had evidently been beaten up into projecting
ridges and broken off. The entire upper face and sides of the
relic present repeated instances of this; the depressions, several
inches deep, and the intervening elevations with their fractured
summits covering every foot of the exposed superficies. How
much of the original mass was removed in the manner described,
it is of course impossible to say. But from appearances, in all
probability it had at least been one third larger. Innumerable
fragments of copper chips lay strewn on all sides, and even the
scales of fish, evidently the remnants of the meals of the miners,
were recovered from the pit.”

Mr. Gilman was asked if there were in or about any of these
ancient mines any indications of the copper having been melted.

He replied: ‘Not the least.” And now, were not these innumer-

136 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

able copper chips that were strewn on every side additional evi-
dence that these ancient men know nothing about casting in
copper? ‘Those fragments would have been the most suitable to
melt, as in all metals the smaller the fragments the more easily
they melt. It is evident that those chips, being too small to
make any form of their implements, were abandoned as useless.
Finally, How were they made if not cast? I believe that I
have the key, and can fabricate any form of these ancient imple-
ments so exactly as to deceive even my learned friend, Dr. Butler.*
These ancient Indians, for I believe they were Indians, used fire
in their mining operations. The vein-rock was made hot by
building a fire on or against it; then, by dashing on water, the
rock would not only be fractured, but the exposed pieces of copper
be softened, so that it could be beaten into shape. Then the metal
became hard, in consequence of its being pounded; it was again
heated and plunged into cold water; for copper is, in this respect,
the opposite of steel; the one is softened, while the other is render-
ed hard. In this way copper was fashioned simply by pounding.
' In addition to the hammering process, cylindrical articles were
evidently rolled between two flat rocks, which is the manner in
which several of the articles in the historical collection might be
made. Some of those implements that have been supposed to be
cast, were, I think, swedged; that is, a matrix was excavated in
stone, into which the rudely fashioned copper was placed, and
then by repeated blows the article would be made to assume the
exact shape of the mould. Nearly all those plano-convex arti-
cles could be made in thismanner. Of twenty axes taken from
mounds near Davenport nearly three-fourths were of this pattern.
I will repeat a few lines of an interesting paper read at the De
troit meeting of the American Association, by R. H. Farquharson,
on “ Recent Explorations of Mounds near Davenport, Iowa.”
“The Davenport collection of copper implements consists, at
present, of twenty axes, six of which were more or less covered
with cloth, four copper awls or borers, over one hundred beads,
and a curiously spoon-shaped implement. The axes are all of
two forms, one plano-convex, the other with flat sides. They are

*Dr. Butler, who was present, has held strongly for the casting of these copper tools.— ED

Copper Implements. 137

all cold-wrought by hammering. Some retaining the original
scales or lamina on the surface; none of them show signs of use,
and are notably harder on the edge than elsewhere.”

All of these interesting implements are figured in the proceed-
ings of the American Association at the Detroit meeting, page 304.

We can learn more from this Davenport collection than from
any other, because of the perfect condition of The specimens, be-
ing unused and in some degree protected by their coverings.

Besides this half swedging process, I am persuaded that, in a
few instances at least, there was a complete mould worked out in
halves, on the face of two flat stones, so that by placing a suitable
piece of copper between them and giving it repeared heavy blows
the copper was made to fill the mould accurately.

Last September, while watching some workmen engaged in fill-
ing the cribs of the harbor pier with stone, my attention was
directed to a slight excavation on the face of a large granite
boulder. On careful inspection I found that it was undoubtedly
the work of man; although but a partof the excavation was left,
the rock having suffered fractures, there was enough, neverthe-
less, to enable me to make out the original form. We attempted
to chip off the specimen with a heavy stone hammer, but failed,
as the cleavage was in the wrong direction, and the mould was
obliterated. I however worked out a pattern as nearly accurate
as I could, representing the excavation. I took this pattera to a
stone cutter, for the purpose of having a mould cut in granite.
Upon consultation it was decided that the mould would have to
be cut in halves in large granite boulders in order to insure suc-
cess, which would be costly and incoavenient, and for the pur-
pose of illustrating the subject it would be as well to havea
mould cast in iron. This was done, and a beautiful ax swedged
out of cold native copper was the result. This cylindrical speci-
men* was made out of a piece of float copper, hammered with a
stone ax into partial shape, and then finished by rolling between
heavy flat stones.

(The author exhibited plain convex and double convex hatchets,
as well as a long cylindrical implement tapering regularly from
the centre to the point, that were fabricated by him in the man- —

ner stated). ©The specimens referred to was exhibited to the Academy.

188. Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

REMARKS ON THE DESCENT OF ANIMALS.

BY PROF. H. OLDENHAGE, MitwavKkezez.

Whether species ‘are constant and have been created with the
same specific characteristics they now possess, or whether they are
variable and have desended from common ancestors, is the point
at issue between the defendants of special creation and the evolu-
tionists. Since Linne first introduced the idea of species into
Botany and Zoology, many attempts have been made to define in
an exact mauner, what we are to understand by the term species;
but when a systematizer underakes to apply these definitions, it is
at once seen that they are either glittering generalities, or unmean-
ing phrases. Among the most recent, and no doubt the ablest of
these attempts, is Agassiz’s ‘‘ Hssay on Classification,” the dogmat-
ism and fulitity of which, Heckel has so thoroughly exposed in
his “ Generelle Morphologie.”

‘ven before the appearance of Darwin’s work on the ‘Origin
of Species,’” says Oscar Schmidt, “‘ Carpenter, in the course of his
researches on the Foraminifera, arrived at the conclusion, proved
in special instances, that in this group of low organisms, which
secrete the most delicate calcareous shells, there could be no ques-
tion of “species,” but only of “series of forms.” Forms which
the systematizer, had reduced to different genera and families, he
beheld developing themselves from one another” (Descent and
Darwinism., p. 92). But as these Foraminifera are “‘so simple in
structure, and so little is known of their individual development,
the defenders of the persistency of species might claim, that
Carpenter's series of forms are mere varieties, and only prove that

the true ‘species’ have not yet been found.” To determine this.

point, however, the researches of Oscar Schmidt and Heeckel, on
sponges, have been of the greatest importance. Oscar Schmidt
shows, that “ we arrive gradually at the conviction, that no rea-
sonable dependence can be placed on any ‘characteristic;’ that
with a certain constancy in microscopic constituents, the outward

-

Remarks on the Descent of Animals. 139

bodily form, with its coarser distinctive marks, varies beyond the
limits of the so called species and genera; and that, with like
external habits, the internal particles which we looked upon as
specific, are transformed into others, as it were under our hands.”
“ Any one,” thus concludes this section of Schmidt’s work on the
Fauna of the Atlantic Sponges, ‘who with regard to sponges,
makes his chief business the manufacture of species and genera,
is reduced ad absurdum, as Heeckel has shown with exquisite irony
in his Prodrome to the Monograph in the Calcareous Sponges.”’

‘In my specific researches,’’ continues Schmidt, “I confined
myself essentially to the siliceous sponges, and by thousands of
microscropic observations, by measurements, by drawings, by
facts and inferences, have produced evidences, which acute oppo-
~nents of the immutability of species had not brought forward
before me, that in these sponges, species and genera, and conse-
quently fixed systematic unities in general have no existence.
The other division of the same class, the calcareous sponges, had
been treated with unrivaled mastery by Haeckel in his mono-
graph.”

Heckel was not only able to confirm Oscar Schmidt’s state-
ments, ‘‘ but, owing to the smaller compass and the greater facil-
ity of observing the groups selected for study, to advance with
more sequence and continuity, from the observation of details to
the whole, to portray its morphology, physiology, and evolution-
ary history, with the utmost completeness.’”” He sums up his. con-
clusions as follows: (Preface to American Hdition of History of
Creation, p, 15.) ‘ For five consecutive years I have investigated
this small but highly instructive group of animals in all its forms
in the most careful manner, and I venture to maintain that the
monograph, which is the result of these studies, is the most com-
plete and accurate morphological analysis of an entire organic
group, which has up to this time been made. Provided with the
whole of the material for study, as yet brought together, and as-
sisted by numerous contributions from all parts of the world, I
was able to work over the whole group of organic forms, known
as the Calcareous Sponges, in the greatest possible degree of full-
ness, which appeared indispensable for the proof of the common

140 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

origin of its species. This particular animal group is especially
fitted for the analytical solution of the species problem, because
it presents exceedingly simple conditions of organization ; because
in it, the morphological conditions possess a greatly superior, and
the physiological conditions are inferior, in part, and because all
species of the Calcispongiz are remarkable for the fluidity and
plasticity of their form. With a view to these facts, I made two
journeys to the sea-coast (1869 to Norway; 1871 to Dalmatia),
in order to study as large a number of individuals as possible, in
their natural circumstances, and to collect specimens for compari-
sons. Of many species, I compared several hundred individuals
in the most careful way. I examined with the microscope, and
measured in the most accurate manner, the details of form of all the
species. As the final result of these exhaustive and almost end-
less examinations and measurements, it appeared that ‘good
species,’ in the ordinary dogmatic sense of the systematists, have
no existence at all among the Calcareous Sponges; that the most
different forms are connected, one with another,-by numberless
gradational transition forms; and that all the different species of
Calcareous Sponges are derived from a single exceedingly simple
ancestral form, the Olynthus. If we take for the limitation of
genera and species, an average standard, derived from the actual
practice of naturalists, and apply this to the whole of the Calcare-
ous Sponges at present known, we can distinguish about 21 genera
with 111 species. [I have however, shown that we may draw up,
in addition to this, another systematic arrangement, which gives
29 genera and 289 species. A systematist, who givesa more lim-
ited extension to the ideal species, might arrange the same series
of forms in 43 genera, and 381 species, or even in 113 genera and
590 species ; another systematist, on the other hand, who takes a
wider limit for the abstract ‘‘ species,” would use in arranging the
same series of forms, only 3 genera, with 21 species, or might even
satisfy himself with 2 genera and 7 species. This appears to be
so arbitrary a matter, on account of endless varieties and transi-
tional forms in this group, that their number is entirely left to the
subjective taste of the individual systematist.”

“In point of fact,” he continues, “I haye a right to expect of

Remarks on the Descent of Animals. 141

my opponents, that they shall carefully consider the exact ‘em-
pirical proof’ here brought forward for them, as they have so
eagerly demanded. May they, however, spare me the empty,
though by even respectable naturalists the oft repeated phrase,
that the monistic nature-philosophy, as expounded in the ‘Gen-
eral Morphology,’ and in the‘ History of Creation,’ is wanting in
actual proof. Precisely that exact form of analytical proof, which
the opponents of the direct theory demand is to be found, by any-
body who wishes to find it, in the ‘ Monograph of the Caleareous
Sponges.’”” “This mutability of the Spongiadee”’ adds Oscar
Schmidt, “affords the extremely important evidence that, so to
speak, an entire class has even now, not attained a state of com-
parative repose.” But to prove the variability of species satisfac-
torily, ‘‘the transition of the forms succeeding one another his-
torically in the strata of the earth” must be shown.

The researches of Waagen, Zittel, Neumayr and Wiirtenberger
have proven, in the most conclusive manner, “at least with
respect to the important division of the Ammonites, the utter im-
possibility of separating them into species.” ‘“ Neumayr is such a
cool and cautious observer, that he allows nothing to pass current,
but that which is absolutely certain.”’ It is trne he holds it to be
‘extraordinarily probable, that in al] forms these gradual trans-
itious have taken place, yet in one case only does he demand un-
qualified assent; namely, that he has proven ‘that Perisphinctes
aurigerus of the Bathoniaus, and Perisphinctes curvirostris of
the zone of the Cosmoceras Jason, are connected in such a man-
ner by intermediate occurrences that it is impossible to draw a
limit.’ ”

Wiirtenberger’s studies were applied to thousands of specimens
from the groups of the Planulate Ammonites, with ribbed shells,
and of the Armate Ammonites with prickly shells. In summing
up his results he says: ‘‘In groups of fossil organisms, in which,
as in the present case, so many connecting links between the most
extreme forms are actually before us, that the transition is regu-

larly carried on, the species is far less susceptible of apprehension
than in the organic forrus of the present world, which at least de-
note the existing limits of the great pedigree of the organic world.

142 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

With respect to these fossil forms, it is fundamentally indifferent
whether a very short, or a somewhat longer portion of any branch
be honored by a special name, and looked upon asa species. The
prickly Ammonites, classified under the name Armata, are so in-
trinsically connected, that it becomes an impossibility to separate
sharply, the accepted species from one another. The same obser-
vation applies also to the group of which the manifold forms are
distinguished by their ribbed shells, and termed Planulata.

This is sufficient to show why modern inquiry “sets aside the
phantom of ‘species,’ and to judge what series of observations are
opposed to the assertion, that in no single case has evidence been
given of the transition of one species into another.” ‘ The fact
is,’ says Huxley, “that if the objections which are raised to the
general doctrine of evolution were not theological objections, their
utter childishness would be manifest even to the most childlike
of believers.’ ”

“Scarcely a single fact,” says that most careful observer Neu-
mayr, ‘‘speaks more decisively in favor of the correctness of the
theory of descent, than the existence of series of forms in the man-
ner in which they have already been proved in many cases, and
will, no doubt, be now found more frequently, since attention has
been called to this point.’ ”’

But it is not only among the lower animals that these transition
forms have been found. Even among vertebrates, and what is the
more important, between those classes, orders and families, which
at present are separated very widely from one another, these con-
necting links multiply almost daily, bearing in mind, of course,
the great imperfection of the geological record.

“The class of birds and reptiles as now living,” says Prof.
Marsh, of Yale College, to whom paleontology owes so many im-
portant discoveries, “are separated by a gulf so profound, that a
few years since it was cited by the opponents of evolution as the
most important break in the animal series, and one which that
doctrine could not bridge over. Since then, as Huxley has clearly
shown, this gap has been virtually filled by the discovery of bird-
like reptiles and reptilian birds.’ ”’

In 1860, shortly after the appearance of Darwin's “ Origin of

Remarks on the Descent of Animals. 148

Species,” a remarkable bird was found in the lithographic slates of
Solenhofen, Bavaria, the head of which was unfortunately crushed
beyond recognition. Recently, however, another specimen has
been found in the same formation, at Hichstadt, Bavaria, with a
well preserved head. The celebrated comparative anatomist,
Owen, of London, described this bird and called it Archaeopteryx.
“There is this wonderful peculiarity about this creature, that so
far as its feet are known, it has all the characters of a bird, all
those peculiarities by which a bird is distinguished from a reptile.
Nevertheless, in other respects, it is unlike a bird and like a rep-
tile. There is a long series of caudal vertebrae. The wing differs
in some very remarkable respects from the structure it presents in
a true bird. In a true bird the wing answers to the thumb and
two fingers of the hand, the metacarpal bones are pressed together
into one mass, and the whole apparatus, except the thumb, is
bound up in a sheath of integument, and the edge of the hand
carries the principal quill feathers. It isin that way that the
bird’s wing becomes the instrument of flight. In the archaeop-
teryx, the upper arm bone is like that of a bird; the two forearm
bones are more or less like those of a bird, but the fingers are not
bound together — they are free, and they are all terminated
by strong claws, not like such as are sometimes found in birds,
but by such as reptiles possess; so that in the archaeopteryx we
have an animal which, to a certain extent, occupies a place mid-
way between a bird and areptile. It isa bird so far as its foot
and sundry other parts of its skeleton are concerned ; it is essen-
tially and thoroughly a bird, in the fact that it possesses feathers ;
but it is much more properly a reptile, in the fact that what rep-
resents the hand has separate bones resembling that which termi-
nate the fore-limb of a reptile. Moreover, it had a long tail with
a fringe of feathers on each side. From this description it is seen
that the archaeopteryx is about three-fourths bird and one-fourth
reptile.”

Prof. Marsh has found during the last few years very remark-
able forms of birds in the Chalk of Kansas. In the Hesperornis,
‘says Marsh,” “we have a large aquatic bird, nearly six feet in
length, with a strange combination of characters. The jaws are pro-

144 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Leilers.

vided with teeth set in grooves; the wings were rudimentary and
useless, while the legs were very similar to those of modern diy-
ing birds. Ichthyornis, a small flying bird, was stranger still, as
the teeth were in sockets, and the vertebrae biconcave, as in fishes
and a few reptiles.”

“Tt is obvious,” says Huxley, “that the contrast between the
crocodile’s leg on the one hand, and the bird’s leg on the cther,
is very striking. But this interval is completely filled up when
you study the character of the hinder extremities of those ancient
reptiles which are called the Dinosauria. In some of these, the
bones of the pelvis, and those of the hind limb, became extraordi-
narily similar to birds, especially to those of young or foetal birds.
Furthermore, in some of these reptiles, the fore-limbs become
smaller and smaller, and thus the suspicion naturally arises, that
they may have assumed the erect position. That view was en-
tertained by Mantel, and was also demonstrated to be probable
by your own distinguished anatomist, Leidy, but the discoveries of
late years show that in some of these forms the fact was actually
so; that reptiles once existed which walked upon their hind-legs as
birds now do. The Compsognathus longipes (Wagner) must as-
suredly have walked about upon its hind-legs, bird’fashion. Add
to this feathers, and the transition would be complete.”

It is now generally admitted by biologists “‘ who have made a
study of the vertebrates,” continues Marsh, “that birds have come
down to us through the Dinosaurs, and the close affinity of the
latter with recent struthious birds will hardly be questioned. The
case amounts almost to a demonstration, if we compare with Di-
nosaurs, their contemporaries, the Mezozoic birds. Compsognathus
and Archaeopteryx of the old world, and Ichthyornis and Hes-
perornis of the new, are the stepping-stones by which the evolu-
tionist of to-day leads the doubting brother across the shallow
remnant of the gulf, once thought impossible.”

Although this kind of evidence is far weightier than that upon
which men generally base their conclusions regarding important
propositions, it is not that kind of evidence which might be called
demonstrative. That is to say, it might be demanded “ that we
should find the series of gradations between one group of animals

Remarks on the Descent of Animals. 145

and another in such order as they must have followed if they had
constituted a succession of stages, in time of the development of
the form at which they ultimately arrive.” In short, it would
have to be shown, that, with reference to birds and reptiles, for
instance, ‘‘that in some ancient formation reptiles alone should
be found; in some later formations birds should first be met with;
and in the intermediate strata we should discover in regular suc-
cession the forms which are intermediate between reptiles and
birds.” .

Precisely this kind of evidence has of late years been accumu-
lating rapidly respecting many groups of the animal kingdom.
The development of the horse offers us, perhaps, the best illustra-
tion of this kind of evidence, and J give the substance of “ these
thoroughly and patiently worked-out investigations of Prof.
Marsh,” in his own words. Hesays: ‘I have unearthed with
my own hands not less than thirty distinct species of the horse
tribe, in the tertiary deposits of the west alone.

“The oldest representation of the horse at present known is the
diminutive Hohippus, from the lower Kocene. Several species
have been found, all about the size of a fox. Like most of the
early mammals, the ungulates had forty-four teeth, the molars with
short crowns, and quite distinct in form from the premolars. The
ulna and the fibula were entire and distinct, and there were four
well-developed toes, and the rudiment of another on the fore-feet,
and three toes behind. In the structure of the feet and in the
teeth, the Hohippus indicates unmistakably that the direct ances-
tral line to the modern horse has already separated from the other
perissodactyles. In the next higher division of the Hocene, an-
other genus (Orohippus) makes its appearance, replacing Hohip-
pus, and showing a greater, although still distant, resemblance to
the equine type. The rudimentary first digit of the fore-foot has
disappeared, and the last premolar has gone over to the molar
series. Orohippus was but little larger than Hohippus; in most
other respects very similar. Near the base of the Miocene, we
find a third: closely allied species, Mesohippus, which is about
as large as a sheep, and one stage nearer the horse. There are
only three toes and a rudimentary splint bone on the fore-leg, and

10

146 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

three toes behind. ‘Two of the premolar teeth are quite like the
molars. The ulna is no longer distinct, or the fibula entire, and
other characters show clearly that the transition is advancing. In
the upper Miocene Mesohippus is not found, but in its place a
fourth form, Miohippus, continues the line. The three toes in
each foot are more nearly of a size, and a rudiment of the fifth
metacarpal bone is retained. All the known species of this genus
are larger than those of Mesohippus, and none pass above the
Miocene.”’

“The genus Protohippus of the lower Pliocene is far more
equine, and some of its species equalled the assin size. There
are still three toes on each foot, but only the middle one, corre-
sponding to the single toe of the horse, comes to the ground. In
the Pliocene we have the last stage of the series before reaching
the horse, in the genus Pliohippus, which has lost the small hoof-
‘lets, and in other respects is very equine. Only in the upper
Pliocene does the true Equus (horse) appear and complete the
genealogy of the horse, which in the post-tertiary roamed over
the whole of South and North America, and soon after became
extinct. Besides the characters I have mentioned there are many
others in the skeleton, skull, teeth, and brain of the forty or more
intermediate species, which show that the transition from the
Kocene Eohippus to the modern horse has taken place in the
order indicated, and I believe the specimens now at New Haven
will demonstrate the fact to any anatomist. ‘They certainly car-
ried prompt conviction to the first of anatomists (Huxley), whose
genius had already indicated the later genealogy of the horse in
Europe, and whose own researches so well qualified him to appre-
ciate the evidence here laid before him.”

Basing his conclusion on these facts, Huxley says: ‘‘ The
doctrine of Evolution at the present time rests upon exactly as
secure a foundation as the Copernican theory of the motion of
the heavenly bodies. In fact, the whole evidence is in favor of
Evolution, and there is none against it.”

Another class of facts, considered equally conclusive in favor
of the Theory of Descent, are the results of Embryology.

Norz.— Prof. Oldenhage had only written thus far when he was seized with an illness
which speedily terminated a most promising life.

Why Are There No Upper Incisors in the Ruminatia? 147

WHY ARE THERE NO UPPER INCISORS IN THE
RUMINANTIA ?

BY P. 2. HOY, M. D., PREST. ACADEMY.

In studying the anatomy and physiology of animals, we become
intensely interested in the various modifications of parts, so as to
exactly fit them, to perform the office assigned them. In other
words, the structures are so altered as to correspond to the mode
of life which the animal pursues.

Perhaps no part of vertebrates is as significant as the apparatus
of the mouth, for obvious reasons, as it performs an important
part in nutrition, the function which strikes at the very founda-
tion of life.

Every vertebrate has his 67 of fure written in indelible charac-
ters on his teeth. They not only indicate the food on which the
animal subsists, but with few exceptions, the mode of procuring
that food, as well.

All those animals having no incisors in the upper jaw, and pro-
vided with eight placed obliquely outward in the lower jaw, have
evenly divided hoofs, complicated stomachs, and chew the cud.
I am satisfied that there isa deep meaning conveyed in the absence
of upper incisors in ruminantia, if the fact is correctly interpreted.

In the first place, all true ruminants have a prehensile tongue.
We will take one of the most familiar examples, the cow, and
what is true of this domestic animal, will apply equally well, not
only to the entire boss family, but with slight modification, to the
entire ruminantia. The tongue is large and muscular, weighing
from three to five pounds, the upper surface, dorsum, is covered
with a dense, almost horny skin, especially at the point; the
mucous coat, covering the tongue and lingual glands, pours out an
abundance of mucus and saliva to keep the organ moist and plia-
ble. itis capable of being thrust out beyond the lips to the dis-
tance of from six to eight inches. In protruding the tongue it Is
pressed firmly against the hardened gum of the upper jaw, then it

148 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

is coiled around the morsel, the tongue curves upwards bringing
the food into the mouth rasping, as it were, the upper jaw.

In grazing, the tongue is lapped around a wisp of grass, which
is brought into the front of the mouth, and held in its grasp
against the upper jaw, when by a quick motion of the head, the
sharp chisel-teeth in the under jaw, clip off the herbage. In these
motions we see the great advantage of the outer direction of the
under incisors.

In studying these movements of the tongue, we become con-
vinced that upper front teeth would not only seriously interfere
with its motion in protrusion by lacerating its upper surface, but
would positively arrest the morsel against the upper incisors, if
there were any, and thus impose a barrier against the use of the
tongue in prehension.

In the deer tribe, cervidae, the tongue is longer in proportion to
its weight, than in the ox. Deer are mostly browsing animals,
feeding on leavesand branches of shrubs and small trees; for this
purpose the long flexible tongue is especially well adapted. Deer
have the longest tongue of any of the ruminants, if we except the
giraffe, whose tongue is simply enormous. With its extensive
tongue, and long neck, this singular animal is enabled to reach
branches of considerable elevation.

Antelopes, for the most part, have moderately sized tongues,
yet not a few have the organ largely developed ; in fact the tongues
vary nearly as much as do these ill-assorted animals themselves.
For the genus antelope is a kind of zoological retreat for the re-
ception of those outcast hollow-horned ruminants which do not
belong, either to the ox, sheep, or goat species.

Goats have a moderately developed tongue, fully capable, how-
ever, of procuring food in the same manner as the preceding tribes.

Sheep have this organ less developed than in any other of the
true ruminants. It is capable of being protruded not over three
inches beyond the lips. In grazing on short pasturage, the point
of the tongue is only used to fix the short grass to the upper gum,
while the under teeth are made to sever the herbage. In our wild
sheep of the Rocky mountains, ovis montana, the tongue is more
developed than in the domestic animal. Is it not more than prob-

Why Are There No Upper Incisors in the Ruminantia? 149

able that the domestic sheep, having been confined to short past-
ure for a long series of generations, have lost, in length, a portion
of their tongues ?

In the camels, including the lamas, there is a wide departure
from the typical ruminants. In fact anatomically, the camel fami-
ly show a marked affinity to the pachyderms. They stand on the
border line of the ruminants where they join the pachydermata,
possessing characteristics of each. Their lips are large and fleshy,
the upper one cleft. ‘Their dentition is peculiar, the young pos-
sessing a full set of incisors in the upper jaw, which fall out as the
animal approaches maturity, save the two latter ones, which are
permanent.

We have here perfect corresponding relations between the im-
perfect set of upper front-teeth and the partly prehensile tongue
which they possess. The lips and tongue are nearly equally use-
ful in seizing and conveying food to the mouth.

On the lowest round looking up towards the ruminants, stand
the kangaroos. These herbivorous marsupials do chew the cud,
though imperfectly, as they possess saculated stomachs approach-
ing the multiple condition of the typical ruminants. It is inter-
esting to find that these wonderful animals, of a wonderful country,
do not possess a prehensile tongue, but have instead, a full, strong
set of incisors in the upper jaw. Here we have then, one of the
best proofs that the use of the tongue regulates the presence of
incisors.

Insectivorous edentata, embracing the armadillos, and ant-eaters
of South America, and the Panoglins and Ard-vark of India and
Africa — in these quadrupeds, the tongue is long and cylindrical,
and is protruded directly forwards, so that front teeth in either
jaw, would interfere with the necessary rapid motions of the
tongue in feeding. Hence, the total absence of front teeth in
either jaw, and in fact the ant-eaters have no teeth whatever,
being strictly edentate. These animals furnish us with another
proof that prehensile tongues are antagonistic to front teeth.

Tf a prehensile tongue be cylindrical, then we will have a total
absence of front teeth; if flat and coiled upward in using, then
we will find incisors only in the under jaw.

150 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

§ [May it not be true that the absence of upper incisors in the ru-
minants, and the total want of front teeth in the edentata, are the
result of long ages of disuse, accompanied with the almost con-
stant friction and presure against them, which might injure and
ultimately destroy the germs of the useless teeth, until their
absence becomes an hereditary peculiarity, as a final result?

Boiler Haplosions. 151

BOILER EXPLOSIONS.

BY CHAS. I. KING,

Szaperintendent University Machine Shop.

In considering the subject of Boiler Explosions, I am aware
that it has heretofore received the attention of many able theorists
and mechanical engineers who do not agree in their conclusions.
That such diversity of opinion exists, is natural from the various
conditions of the matter discussed.

What is here prepared may not be new, but the subject is of
such vast importance, that even repetition may be pardonabie.

If we fora moment consider the field, we find that its extension
precludes comprehending the whole in one short paper, which
covers thé subject proportionally, as the hand might cover a
table. That the astonishing developments, attained by the use of
steam in the various industries throughout the country, must be
ascribed to its universal success as a moderately cheap prime
mover none can deny; and the facility with which it can be em-
ployed in any section of the land enables the manufacturer to locate
his mills wherever desirable, and then transport to them the mo
tive power.

Without it, he must be content with the water courses wherever
they may be found, and ever after transport the material of man-
ufacture to and from the market.

Without it many of our large cities and manufacturing centers
could not exist to-day. Only while it is considered less danger-
ous or less expensive than other agents, can steam maintain its
now prominent position of principal motive power for nearly all
branches of manufacture, transportation, ete.

There are considerations in connection with the present methods
of utilizing steam, which, looked upon from every point, would
indicate clearly that we are justified by no means in accepting it
as the most economical prime mover obtainable. Many unsuc-

152 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Leiters.

cessful attempts have been made to discover a substitute for steam
as a source of power, there always having been found insurmount-
able obstacles, inseparably connected with the use of all other
agents; difficulties which science and the best mechanical skill
have failed to overcome. Quite a number of years will probably
yet elapse, ere these hindrances are pushed aside by the spirit of
investigation and invention which pervades the age in all civilized
countries. But supposing the successful employment of a more
suitable and economical motor might be rendered practicable,
during the coming week, month or year, the expense necessary to
secure the change would preclude its rapid adoption by many
using the present devices. It would in fact be so long before the
present arrangements could be superseded that it must still be
worth our time to strive for improvements in the manner of em-
ploying the power we now have, and to gain some knowledge in
which direction, further improvement in its safe and economical
use may tend.

Practical experience has taught us, in the past twenty-five years,
that there was no economy in the “old time practice” of using
steam at a low temperature and pressure for all purposes. The
direct advantages accruing from its use at high pressure, securing
high piston speeds, and expanding the steam to nearly zero, have
been very large. This change came gradually. Many improve-
ments were necessitated, but now the six to fifteen pound pres-
sures of forty-five years ago, and large unsightly engines are sup-
planted by pressures of fifty to two hundred pounds, and engines
of half the size which give the same equivalent of work. As the
economy of the higher temperatures becomes generally appreci-
ated, the greater the demand will be for them.

The principal impediment still existing to progress in this di-
rection is due to the limited strength of the present forms of the
steam generators. The boilers of the future must be improved
so that safety may be insured, being either constructed in sec-
tions, or of material with greater strength, also not complicated
in design and of moderate cost. That the most important of
these requirements have not been realized, is only too apparent
from the many accidents continually occurring in different sec-

Boiler Eeplosions. 158

tions of the country. That some boilers will explode is perhaps
inevitable. The increase in the number of those accidents is, in
a measure, owing to the increase of the number of boilers in use,
and to the greater demand made of them in sustaining high pres-
sure. The inference is plain, that improvements in manufacture
have not kept pace with this demand. That all boiler explosions
are due directly to the inability of the vessel to retain the enor-
mous pressure generated just prior to the rupture, all will admit,
but indirectly there are many primary causes traceable. Of the
vast number of boilers in use, but comparatively few explode; for-
tunately they are the exceptions. Something certainly enters
into the conditions where explosions oceur different from those in
which they do not. Boilers are in use under so many varying
circumstances, that two explosions are seldom traceable to exactly
the same causes. Instances are known where boilers have been
in constant use tor twenty years, and almost without repairs,
while others fail in as many weeks or months. This difference
must be due to material, workmanship, quality of water, and the
attention they receive. We know that certain causes produce
certain effects, and that neglect and carelessness have no business
in mechanical matters at all, much less should they be seen about
our steam generators. It is simply astounding to know the extent
to which ignorance and incapacity are placed in charge of these
agents of the public service, which, in the hands of incom-
petent men, are about as dangerous as a package of dynamite.
That all boiler explosions are due to carelessness and ignorance
we do not mean to assert, but that about nine-tenths of them are,
is beyond question.

People are accustomed to think i any thing constructed of
iron should “‘endure forever,” merely because made of iron. Well,
such an hypothesis may answer in some cases. Experience in the
past year alone, however, has taught us, that it is an exceeding
unsafe one in connection with steam boilers. That so many in-
competent men are found in charge of so many boilers and en-
gines, is principally owing to the fact that they are cheap. Cheap-
ness seems to be the only required qualification. The scale bal-
ances up and down like the beam of a steelyard, intelligence and

154 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

suitable compensation usually being found at the upper end. Pos-
sibly some employers prefer this class of help lest they might
learn some disagreeable truths concerning their steam generators.
There is, however, one very important point in this connection
which is usually lost sight of. There seems to be an inexorable
law in force in these cases as in many others. There is a mini-
mum cost in the management of machinery, which cannot be re-
duced even by machinery. And if the steam user will employ
incompetent labor because it is cheap, then the difference between
its cost and that of a higher grade of intelligence must certainly
be given to the boiler-maker and machinist by way of repairs,
and to the coal dealer for extra fuel, as a skillful fireman will
save from five to twenty per cent. over an untrained one. I call
to mind a striking illustration of the case, that of a manufacturer
in an eastern state, who, though a most successful business man
otherwise, possessed a remarkable faculty for utilizing every piece
of old iron he could obtain, and the extra work on which, in put-
ting it in suitable condition, always cost him more than the new
material. His annual loss from breakage and wear, making no
account of time when the machinery was idle, due to the employ-
ing of a one dollar man where a two dollar one was required, was at
least three times the difference in cost of one or two reliable men.
A very common practice, and one most reprehensible withal, is
that of employers compelling their engineers and firemen (often
these consist of but one man) to do their legitimate work and that
of two or three others, frequently being called to distant parts of
the building. No man can attend to too many duties well; it is
in the nature of things that some will be forgotten, and under
these circumstances it is just as likely to be the most important as
any other.

Boilers are constructed from a great variety of designs. Those
found in more common use are of the locomotive type, and the
plain cylinder with closed ends. The material usually is from
1-4 to 8-8 inches thick. As a conductor of heat, iron stands low in
the scale, gold being as 1000, copper 898, and iron but 347. Now
with iron but 1-4 inch in thickness, a great amount of heat is lost
in boilers, owing to the inability to transfer all the heat produced

Boiler Haplosions. : 155

to the water. Hence it is seen we cannot gain security by use

of heavier material without a sacrifice of fuel. Small boilers,

as a rule, are safer than large ones, 1f builtin proportion, as they

have a less number of square inches exposed to pressure. ‘Tak-

ing a hasty glance at some of the practices in vogue in the construc-

tion of boilers, one of the most objectionable features in this asin

many other things, is the too general tendency to obtain our

goods at a price below a fair market value, and the custom of let-

lng these contracts to the lowest bidder often works to the disad-
vantage of both parties. In this business, of all others, the cus-

tom should be discontinued. It is fair toassume that boiler mak-

ers are as fallible as any other class of business men. Men do
not do business for nothing, asa rule, neither for pleasure. ‘“Hach°
trade has its trick,”’ and the purchasing party who obtains his boiler
for less than the market rate, may seek consolation in the fact
that he has been ‘“‘sold’’ somewhere in his purchase.

In my own experience, I have known boilers constructed under
these conditions of so poor material, that the plates did not have
the manufacturers’ brand on their surface. It may not be out of
place to add that the builders of those boilers have had no less
than four explosions of boilers of their construction in the past
five years. From the time the boiler material is placed in the
hands of the workman, it is constantly growing weaker, until
thrown aside as old iron. The width of the iron in common use
is three feet. Along each edge and across the ends, holes are cut
or punched for rivets, after which the sheets are rolled to an ap-
proximation of a cylinder. When these cylinders are slipped to-
gether, all of the rivet holes should coincide. That they do not
is a source of much trouble. The positions of these holes are
marked through a wooden templet, which will be about three
inches wide by 1-2 in thickness, and of such length as each par-
ticular case may require. Along theedges of this templet holes
are bored, one set answering for the inside cylinder and the other
for the outside. In spacing these holes, about six times the
thickness of iron is allowed for difference in length, and the
same number of holes must appear in each sheet, only in the short
ones they are nearer together. The operation of punching the

156 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

holes is a rather haphazard one at best, so far as accuracy iscon-
cerned.

There are two chances for error by the time the plates are
rolled. First. The holes will not all be made exactly where
marked; if one whole is punched slightly one side of its mark,
and the one which it should match the other way, the error is

Fig. 1.

multiplied. Moreover, it is quite impossible to produce these
plates and have them perfectly homogeneous. There will be hard
and soft places. The great pressure from the rolls in making the
plates cylindrical will cause changes in distance between some
of the holes, as the temper of the plate varies. When the cylin-
ders are placed together for riveting, many holes will shut past

Fig. 2. Fig. 8. Fig. 4.

one another from 1-16 of an inch to 1-2 or 2-3 their diameter.
This, in itself, is objectionable enough, but the case is aggravated.
The overlapping metal should all be removed by the reamer and
the hole filled by a suitable rivet. If the overlapping of the holes
is not such as to compel the use of the reamer, a most objection-
able resort is the tool known in shop parlance as a “ drift pin,”
which is nothing more than a steel pin, slightly tapering, and when
well oiled can be driven in with such force that the solid iron is

Boiler Explosions. 157

often compressed and cracked, and pieces of the plate may be
forced out. Fig. 1 is intended to illustrate the overlapping holes,
and figs, 2, 3 and 4 the effects of the use of the ‘drift pin.” An-
other difficulty here presents itself, arising chiefly from careless-
ness and poor workmanship. Often the sheets do not come in
contact, and especially at the heads or ends of the boilers, on which
the flanges are turned, is this the case, and also on internal fire-box
work. When the rivets are driven, the iron acts as a spring, and
vibrates back and forth from the blows of the hammer. The riv-
ets too, will ‘ upset” in between the plates if much apart.

Rivets driven in this way can never be made tight, neither will

Fig. 5. the caulking chisel
remedy the defect
for when the caulk.
ing is done, the iron
is driven back be-
tween the plates
forming a thin nar-
row ridge under
which the pressure
will soon force the
water or steam, Fig. 5, is a fair illustration of the case.

To this defect are due, many of the mysterious leaks in new
boilers, when but a short time in use. Often rivets are improp-
erly supported or “ backed” when being riveted, which causes
leaks; or riveted when too cold, causing crystalization to such an
extent that often a slight jar will cause the heads to drop off.
The outer corner of the outside cylinder must be chamfered to an
angle of about fifteen degrees, thus leaving a sharp edge where
the cylinders join, for caulking. In many large shops this is
done by machinery before the plates are rolled, in others before
the cylinders are placed together. In many, it is done after the
riveting, and thus the lower sheet is more or less cut by the corner
of the chisel, the greatest care cannot prevent it. With many
boiler-makers, this is of minor consideration, but the fact that
many exploded boilers have given way at this point should draw
attention toit. The following account of an experiment made at

158 Wisconsin Academy of Sctences, Arts, and Lelters.

the University machine shop shows well the effect of cutting
through the outside of the iron. A piece of common five-eighths
square iron was cut on the four sides with a cold chisel, so that it
was well marked. A slight blow from the hammer caused it to
break, the ends showing crystalization. A second piece was
marked on but one side, which on being broken, was crystalized
about half through, the rest showing the fibre undisturbed, and
tearing out toe iron for half an inch up the bar. It has been
claimed that the principal strength of iron is destroyed by cutting
through the “skin,” yet, a piece of this same bar marked as in the
first instance, was placed in the lathe and the marks turned out,
after which it was bent to more than ninety degrees before break-
ing.

It is estimated that about forty-four per cent. of the original
strength of the material has been destroyed by the time a boiler
is ready for riveting. Theaxiom that the “strength of any struct-
ure must be estimated from the weakest point,” isa good one.
By these various operations, six per cent. more will be of ques-
tionable value. Repeat them at every joint in a boiler twelve to
twenty-four feet long, and who will tell where the weakest point
may be? Imagine if you can a boiler so constructed of any flexi-
ble material, it would contain more kinks and puckers and gath-
ers than a fashionable dress. New boilers are often submitted to
the hydraulic test, which consists of forcing in cold water to a cer-
tain pressure, and then assuming it safe to carry one-third or two-
thirds as much steam pressure. I believe it a questionable method
and an unsafe assumption. If there are blisters or imperfect.
_ welds in the plates it may develop them. A careful inspection
would probably accomplish the same result. But in these tests
the boiler is subjected to strains under conditions which do not
occur in actual use. The water and iron are both cold, stay rods
and braces are loosened which do not again come tight of their
own accord. Further, most boiler iron, as demonstrated by the
experiments of the Franklin Institute Committee and Fairbairn, a
noted English mechanical engineer, has a greater tensile strength
with an elevation of temperature, some proving stronger at 600°
Fahrenheit, than at any lower point. Now it is quite certain that

Boiler Explosions. 159

testing with cold water has not rendered the weakest point of the
vessel much stronger. .

As soon as a boiler is in use, the agents of destruction incident
thereto begin their work. Probably chief among these, is the
steam itself, The unit of elasticity, by which the expansive force
of elastic fluids is measured, is for popular use, one pound on one
square inch of surface. We glance at a steam guage and the little
hand may indicate fifty. Let us ascertain what that means. If
a boiler is twelve feet long and three feet in diameter (very com-
mon dimensions) and contains thirty-four three inch tubes, the
two heads with tube surface deducted have remaining 1,864
square inches. The cylinder of the boiler contains 16,280, equal-
ing in all 18,150 square inches which, multiplied by fifty pounds
pressure, give a total of nearly one million pounds, or a fraction
over 450 tons, continually tending to rend the cylinder. Boilers
are made round or approximately so, for two reasons. It is the
cheaper form and one naturally self-supporting. I say approxi-
mately round, for they are not a true circle and cannot be made
so owing to the lap of the longitudinal seams. Now this enorm-
ous pressure, tends to force the shell of the boiler to a true circle.
The pressure is never constant. Great and unequal strains are pro-
duced along the under edge of the lap, which vary from time to
time according to the different degree of pressure. In effect it is
similar to bending a piece of iron back and forth in the hands,
only on amore minute scale. In time the same result will be
effected, destruction of the fibre of the iron.

Many purchasers of these steam generators commit the serious
mistake of selecting boilers of insufficient capacity, simply because
one or two hundred dollars cheaper. In so doing, the door is
opened through which many dollars will pass in the way of fuel
without an adequate return. But when a boiler has just the ca-
pacity to supply the demand by forcing the fires, a nearly full
opening of all passages to the engine will result. The steam flows
rapidly through them, twice at every revolution of the engine,
this flow is suddenly and positively checked. While so checked,
there is a rapid accumulation of steam from the forced fires. The
boiler expands to the greatest limit in retaining the increasing

160 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

pressure. The opening of the passage way again affords a tempo-
rary relief. Thus the boiler dilates and contracts to such an ex-
tent that the movements are sometimes visible to the eye, and they
have been compared to the breathing of some large animal.

With this slow and continuous change, there is no wonder that
boilers eventually “give out.’’ If there is any mystery in the
case, it is that they last so long and serve so well as they dv.

That steam and water in pipes not properly drained have great
percussive action, may be readily seen from the jumping and
snapping of the pipes under these conditions, and many serious
accidents have occured from pipes and fittings bursting, even loss
of life resulting in some cases. With these facts before us, great
care should be exercised, not to open the steam passages from the
boiler, too suddenly, on account of the danger arising from re-
lieving the pressure on the water.

What effect might be caused by such lack of care, may be seen
in the following deduction.

The heat required to raise one pound of water through one de-
gree of temperature is termed a unit of heat, or its equivalent,
100 pounds of water through one-tenth of a degree, or one-tenth
of a pound through 100 degrees. ‘This quantity of heat possesses
the same amount of power as would be required to raise 772
pounds, one foot, or one pound 772 feet. This is termed the
mechanical equivalent of heat. Now if the addition of one de-
gree of heat to one pound of water, be such an accession of force,
the addition of 100 degrees to 500 pounds of water is an equiva-
lent of a half million times that force. In practice, the combus-
tion of a pound of coal imparts to the water in a good boiler
about 10,000 units of heat, and evaporates eight or nine pounds
of water of usual temperature. With all the losses and disad-
vantages considered, a pound of coal exerts about one-fourth of
a horse power per hour, fifteen horse power for a minute or 900
for one second. The heat absorbed by 5,000 pounds of water in
raising it through 100 degrees, is really twelve and a half horse
power for an hour, 750 for a minute or 45,000 horse power for a
second. The amount of heat absorbed by 5,000 pounds of water
in raising it through 100 degrees, is but a small portion of the

Bowler Hxplosions. 161

quantity in any boiler in common use, yet fifty pounds of coal
are required to cause it, and the imparted heat is equal to the
amount expended to convert about 430 pounds of water at common
temperature to steam. By a too sudden release of pressure, this
latent heat might all be released in one or two seconds, and there-
by cause an explosion. The idea quite generally prevails that all
boiler explosions are due to low water. ‘That might cause such
a disaster, but that alone I think seldom does. Often, no doubt,
boilers are seriously injured by the plates being burned. Burned
plates lose about one-half their strength. Repeat the operation
often enough and it is only a question of time, and a rather lim-
ited time, too, when the boiler will be ruined.

Several years since, the United States government squandered
about $100,000 at Sandy Hook and Pittsburg, trying to determine
the cause of boiler explosions. ‘The experiments were under con-
ditions which were almost totally different from those under which
boilers are used. Hence, practically, they were nearly failures.
Two things were discovered, however; one, that a boiler will not
explode when you want it to, and that water, pumped in on plates
red hot, would all run out through the seams, which were caused
to open from the rapid contraction, or else escape through the
safety valve as steam. This operation was repeated three times
to produce an explosion.

Boiler plates are burned oftener from incrustation than from low
water. Wherever this formation is thick enough to prevent the
water from coming in close contact with the iron, that must be
the result, and if from this cause the plates when in use become

Fig. 6. sufficiently hot to weaken the ten-
sile strength in a place of any large
area, a rupture will surely follow.
Fig. 6 shows a section of a feed
pipe filled with lime in the short
space of three months. A few years
since I had an opportunity to exam-
ine a case of this kind. The boiler

was of the locomotive type, and

was not under cover. The plate over the fire had been forced
1

162 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

down gradually, and in shape like the bottom of a wash-bowl,
becoming thinner at the lowest point until finally breaking open,
it left rough, ragged edges and a hole about eight inches in diame-
ter. The whole weight of three and a half tons was raised about
thirty feet and thrown over back, striking the ground at an
angle of about thirty degrees, and sliding along, tore off every
particle of the engine.

These deposits in boilers are the most difficult matters steam
users have to contend with, but its formation to a dangerous thick-
ness can be prevented by frequent cleaning out, also by frequently
letting out a little water through the day when the boiler is under
pressure. It is a bad practice, and, of course, a common one, to
let the water all blow out of the boiler, after the fires are out and
before sufficiently cooled. The heat retained in the metal and

iS

‘vinsly)
ZY

a=

COS FEE
surrounding walls will cause the deposit to bake to the iron so
that nothing less than a hammer and chisel will remove it. Gare
should be exercised in setting boilers so that they may be examined
at different times, and to keep them in places as dry as possible.
Tron wastes away fast enough at best, and if leaks occur where
the boiler is in contact with brick and mortar, corrosion goes on
so rapidly that the best boilers may be rendered unsafe in a year
or two. When leaks are discovered they should be considered
signs of wearing out, and should receive attention at once. Usu-
ally, however, because it is small or does not let out the water faster
than it can be replaced, it is allowed to go. It is treading ona
dangerous path.

Bowler Explosions. 163

Often, when very impure water is used, boil-
ers are attacked by internal corrosion. Usually
it is found at the edge of the sheets, along the
seams and around the rivet heads. Sometimes
different plates in the boiler will be corroded,
while others will be found in good condition.

With all this evidence of the dangerous pro-
cesses going on both without and within a boil-
er, 1t seems very plainly indicated, that too
much eare and attention cannot be given them.
Marine boilers are of the most dangerous class,
but they seldom explode. The reason is evi-
dent. First-class men, and none others, are
placed in charge of them. The statistics show
that in the decade from 1865 to 1875, there

was an average of about one explosion every
i three days, and it would seem that the public
ff had the right to demand some system whereby
‘i a little higher grade of intelligence could be
! placed in charge of these, now, indispensable

agents of the public service.

From the use of impure water results a pro-
cess called “ pitting.’ Small holes quite near
together are eaten into the plates, and often a
pitted plate and a sound one will be found side
by side. This is probabiy due to a chemical
difference in the iron, and the pitting may be
caused by galvanic action. Pitted plates re-
semble very much the partly consumed zines
from a battery. Hxperiments were made with
pieces of iron cut from pitted plates, and
those which were not, taken from the same boiler and placed ina
bath of acidulated water, when connected with a galvanometer,
the pieces excited sufficient action to sensibly deflect the needle.

Fig. 7 * shows a case of pitting, and fig. 8 represents a corroded
brace or stay rod, so much of which is destroyed that it became
entirely useless.

* Figs, 7 and 8 are taken from’ Reports of Hariford Boiler Insurance Company.

e

164 Wisconsin Academy of Sctences, Arts, and Letters.

MIND IN THE LOWER ANIMALS.

BY J. S. JEWELL, M. D.,

Professor of Mental and Nervous Diseases in the Chicago Medical Coliege, and Correspond-
ing Member of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

My subject is that of “ the evidences of mind in the lower ani-
mals.” ‘The first thing to be done, in a case like the present,
is to define the meaning of the leading terms. This is one of
the golden rules of discussion. Then, what is mind? Before
trying to answer this question, which, by the way, is not a new
one, I should tell you that it was not my plan to determine, ex-
cept in a superficial sort of way, what mind really is. It would
require more than one lecture to deal adequately with that
question. or my present purpose, it is sufficient to assume the
existence of something, which may be called mind, whether mo-
tional or immotional, the presence and action of which is known
usually by certain signs, by which beings possessed of mind are
commonly distinguished from those that do not have it. It is
with these signs, rather than the mind itself, that I am to deal.
But once again, what is mind? It is much easier to ask this
question than it is to answer it. You all know it has been, and
at this hour it would be answered very differently by various
persons, who have given themselves (following different methods)
to its study. .

But taking all these answers together, aside from unessential
particulars, they may be divided into two principal classes, which
are susceptible again of division into sub-classes. But I am to
call your attention to the two principal classes mentioned. They
may be described as follows:

In the one case, the phenomena called mental are not attributed
to any other agent or source than the material organism itself.
In this view there is no such being as a mind numerically differ-
ent from the body of the animal, neither before nor after death.
The word mind is simply a name for the aggregate of functions
of the nervous system, at any rate of its higher functions. There
is no actual proof of the existence of any such immaterial, immor-
tal entity, as that usually designated by the terms, mind, soul,

Mind in the Lower Animals. 165

spirit. Mind is simply brain action. When the brain is disor-
dered, mind is disordered. When the brain is healthy, the mind
is healthy. When the brain is imperfect in its development and
structure, as it 1s in idiots, then the action of the mind is hope-
lessly imperfect. But when, on the contrary, its development
and structure are the most perfect, uniformly its action is the
most perfect.

Moreover, when the brain perishes as it does after death, all
mental action ceases, or at least all evidences of it. In short, all
that we knew as mind before the death of the individual, perishes
with the brain. Any opinion that there is a being so distinct
from the body, as to continue to survive after its death, is a mere
creation of the fancy, at the dictates of the baseless aspirations or
traditions of mankind.

Mind is, hence, absolutely dependent on the body, and without
it has no existence. It is simply a combination of physical forces,
which return to their primitive condition after death, ready to
enter into new combinations of any or all kinds. Such, in outline,
is one class of opinions as to mind. ‘They are what have been
called matervalistic. If this class of opinions were true, there could
hardly be any difference among thinking people as to whether the
lower animals are possessed of minds, as well as man. In point
of fact, persons who hold to the view just described, generally
admit that animals share in the possession of mind with men.

By the other class, mind is regarded as something substantially
different from the physical organism, or body, though closely as-
sociated with it during the corporeal life of the individual, from
which, however, it becomes separated in what is called death, of
which this supposed separation is held to be the principal event.
After this, the organization of the body indeed perishes, but not
so the mind; for the latter is believed to continue to exist, as
mind, in some other state. It is farther conceived, that the mind
is an imperishable existence, possessed always of the same facul-
ties of knowledge which distinguished it while yet connected with
the body, but deprived, perhaps, of the means of mechanism furn-
ished by the latter for obtaining a knowledge of the physical
world, as well as for manifesting its own existence, or its invisible

166 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

states or acts, as depicted or represented in the changes of the
body. It is also held to be not simply numerically different from
the body, but radically different in substance. The body is said
to be material, the mind immaterial. It cannot, therefore, possess
the properties of matter. If not, then it cannot, by the terms of
the case, be made cognizable by the senses, since they appear to
be fitted to reach only to material impressions. Mind therefore,
as mind, cannot be submitted to physical tests or examination,
though the body can be. Its acts and states cannot be directly
made known by such means. They can only be made known to
other minds by certain signs, or in other words, certain acts and
states of the body which is regarded in a certain sense as an in-
strument of the mind. But these signs would be without any
significance whatever, if it was not for certain modes of interpre-
tation possessed by animals, and in various degrees of perfection.

The only way, so far as is known, that they have for finding out
the meaning of these signs, is by their own experience. They
find by observation that the mutual acts and states are more or
less invariably associated with certain states or acts of the body.
So when they observe other animals in the same bodily states, or
performing the same acts, they infer the corresponding mutual
states that they have found connected therewith, in their own ex-
perience. In this indirect way alone can they discover the men-
tal condition of other animals.

One mind cannot, so far as we know, commune directly, unless
under rare circumstances, with another, during the continuance of
physical life. But ordinarily, each individual mind may know
directly, without the intervention of such signs, many, if not most,
of its own states and acts. They take place in what is called self-con-
scvousness, which is, in my opinion, the chief, if not the only kind of
consciousness we have. These mutual states and acts then, though
they cannot be directly reached by physical tests, and are not
open to sense observations as physical objects are, may neverthe-
less be submitted to the tests of immediaté self-observation. We
can secretly know often what passes in our own minds, and with
the utmost clearness, while the observer, who looks upon our
bodies from without, cannot many times so much as suspect what

Mind tn the Lower Animals. L67

is passing within us. ‘There are two ways then of studying mind.
One of them is applicable to ourselves alone, and is confined to
the states and acts of our own mind. This is the method of in-
trospection, or of looking within our own minds, to directly ob-
serve our own mental acts and states, and not the signs of them.
The other method is also in a measure applicable to our own
bodies. Itis the objective method. Itis from first to last di-
rectly compared with the signs of mental states and acts. It is the
only method by which we can study the mental states and acts
of other individuals, whether man or animals. And the only way
in which we can make our observations useful or intelligible is,
by a recurrence to our own internal experience, our self observa-
tions, which have taught us in various degrees of fullness and per-
fection, that certain internal, and hence invisible, mental states
and acts, are either preceded or followed by certain bodily condi-
tions and signs. The key of the interpretation lies within. If
this is true, then it may happen that we would be lable to be
deceived by persons who in some way exhibit the signs of
thought or feeling, and yet do not truly experience the states or
the mental acts, which in a truthful experience the signs represent.
And this is sadly too true, as nearly all can testify. Hence, it
happens that a mask, a statue, a picture, may exhibit the szgns of
feeling, for example, so perfectly as to excite the same state in
ourselves, notwithstanding the object has only the signs, and not
the fact of thought or feeling. This, I say, is the only method ap-
plicable directly to the study of tne minds of other beings. It is
the one that must therefore be applied to the study of animals.
All we can do is to observe them, under varying conditions, and
see how they act, or what they do, and then interpret their actions
by appeals to our own personal experience in similar conditions.
And this, as I have said, is the way in which one must study
other men.

But to return from this partial discussion. By persons of this
second class, mind is held to be the invisible, intelligent energy,
with which, in connection with the body, we truly feel, will, and
think, and which permeates the body, possibly only the brain, and
uses it, for sake of illustration, as the invisible magnet force, which

168 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letlers.

inheres in a visible portion of magnetic ore, or of steel, causes
movements of the same. In short, mind is the immaterial, imper-
ishable, sensitive, intelligent being, which feels, and wills, and
thinks, suffers and enjoys, within the body, which though living,
would be an unintelligent, or unthinking, possibly unfeeling
organism without it.

Now in the sense that it is held and understood by this class,
do the lower animals have minds? In relation to this question,
and for various reasons, persons differ widely in opinion. Some
think they have, others think they have not. And itis to the
possession of mind, at any rate, or rather the signs of it in this
sense, by the lower animals, that I wish to call your attention this
evening.

IT know as well as I can ever know, that it is a serious question
with many, whether even man possesses mind in the sense just
indicated. But I wish for the time, to assume without contro-
versy, as a hypothesis, if you please, that they do, and my present
inquiry, I repeat, is whether the lower animals show clear signs of
having the same; and if this is refused, I wish to inquire what we
are to include as to the mental natures of the lower animals, or
how we can explain the phenomena which they present to any in-
telligent observer. By the phrase “ lower animals” I should say,
in passing, I mean the whole animal kingdom. I do not include
simply the higher vertebrates, but the entire class. For, as we
shall see perhaps, even the humbler types of the animal kingdom
present us with striking exhibitions of intelligence.

In dealing with this matter, it might be expected that I would
lay out some division of the faculties of the mind, as a scheme
under which examples from among the lower animals might be
ranged. But it is deemed the best way to proceed at once to
adduce suitable and well authenticated instances of phenomena,
which show in fair measure whether or not animals do possess
minds. In doing this, the trouble is not to find such examples,
but out of the mass of such cases to make a selection. I have
collected from various works under my hands many hundreds,
and I might truthfully say, thousands of cases of interest. I might
occupy hours detailing and discussing my own personal observa-

Mind in the Lower Animals. 169

tions. But I do not have time to do either the one or the
other.

But to begin, take this case: A naturalist friend of mine was
one day walking along a road, and saw as he walked one of those
familar road beetles, rolling its ball of compost. He stopped and
watched it for a few moments, and then with a pin, made the ball
fast to the ground. The beetle seemed surprised at this turn in
its affairs, but soon recovered itself, and endeavored as before to
push its ball; but it was not able todoso. It crawled over and
round it, and appeared to carefully inspect the situation, and at
the same time made strenuous efforts from all points to move its
ball; still it could not move it. It then climed up on its ball,
and sat there for a few moments, quietly moving its antennz as
if in a sort of reverie, and then rose on its wings and flew away.
The gentleman much interested in what he saw, thought he would
tarry a while and see what would come to pass. He had not
waited many minutes, until he heard the familiar hum of two
beetles. They circled about, as is their custom, and finally they
both alighted near the ball. One of them was recognized as being
the same beetle that had been first observed. It was known by
a speck on one of its wing cases. The two immediately went to
the ball and united their efforts to move it, the one pushing, and
the other pulling, But after various trials, they ceased, and ht-
erally putting their heads together, they seemed to be in consul-
tation. During this time the gentleman quietly removed the pin
and left the ball free. They at last went back to the ball, and
tried to move it, and of course succeeded. Whereupon beetle
number two rose up on its wings and disappeared, while beetle
number one rolled its bal! along without farther interruption.
Now Iam quite well aware that this is a simple story, but it is
none the less interesting to one who will consent to think on it
without prejudice. A hundred histories of this kind would really
not be any better than one.

Let us examine this case a little more closely. It might be said,
with more or less propriety, that the beetle formed its ball as a
nidus for its young, and then sought a proper place in which to
bury it away, guided solely by instinct. But I do not think it

170 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

could be maintained successfully that many of the later perform-
ances of the creature were in the proper sense of the word in-
stinctive. It seemed as if, when it found itself unable to move
its ball, —I say it seemed to stop and deliberate as to what should
be done. It seemed to have found a place of securing aid from
some other beetle. For, after a short absence, it returned with a
companion. It seemed to have gone purposely to find it. It must
have communicated in some way a knowledge of its wants, for the
other beetle seemed to understand the case. They had a common
purpose, as was evidenced by their united action toward the same
end. They seemed to consult, when they found themselves unable
to move the ball. They seemed by common consent to conclude
to make another effort. When the ball was found movable again,
beetle number two seemed to know that it was needed no longer,
and probably returned to its own occupations. Certainly this
cannot have been all due to instinct. It has the plain mark of
the presence and action of mind, no less so because the signs of
purposive acts were done by beetles instead of men. The signs
cf mind are much the same as they would have been under simi-
lar circumstances among men.

As has been already intimated, one case well studied is as good
asa hundred. But though this is so, I shall now proceed to ad-
vance other examples from the animal kingdom, apparently in-
volving mental action.

For example, let us consider points in the history and doings
of ants, as we have given much observation and study to these
most singular little creatures. On one occasion, as I was passing
along a road, my attention was attracted by a company of large,
pale red ants hurrying across the way, the whole company follow-
ing what seemed to be a leader, who was much in the advance. I
stopped and followed them through the grass and weeds for full
fifty yards, when they suddenly came to a halt, and collected in a
circle in the space beneath the bending spires of grass. mmedi-
ately one of the ants disappeared in a hole in the ground, only to
be followed with every appearance of precipitation by one after
another of the company. At this moment a smaller ant, but of a
similar color, entered on the scene, and rushed for the hole in the

Mind in the Lower Animals. 171

ground, but it was instantly seized by one of the marauders, and
a fierce struggle ensued, which was not terminated while I watched
them. But in a few seconds, as I watched the hole down which
most of the company had disappeared one by one, I saw an ant
come strugeling out, in a state of great excitement. It was of a
smaller kind than those which I had watched cross the road. Pres-
ently it was foilowed by another of the same kind, in (as I was
about to say) much the same excited state, and as time passed
on these two were joined by others. The place evidently belonged
to them. They ran violently about the hole, and even up to the
top of the blades of grass, and then jumped off to the ground ina
distracted and reckless manner. At times two of them would meet
and, apparently, stop fora hurried exchange of ideas, and then they
would run about in the same frantic manner. Meantime all the
larger ants had gone down into the hole. Ina few moments, how-
ever, these latter ants began to reappear, one by one, each bearing
a white ege not far from hatching, as the outline of the young ant
could be seen through the cuticle. But no sooner had these latter
ants reached the open day with their booty than they were fero-
ciously attacked by the smaller ones, to whom the eggs properly
belonged. And here began a series of struggles of the most ani-
mated and interesting character— one set of ants striving, by
might and main, to get away with their booty, the other set strilk-
ing for their altars and fires. But aftersome time had been spent
in this way, the larger and stronger got away, each one, on his
own hook, traveling with great speed, on the back track, bear-
ing an egg in its jaws. But now began a scene of evident
distress among the smaller ants whose home had just been
robbed in so miserable a manner. They ran round and round, in
helpless bewilderment, meeting and consulting (apparently) and
passing each other, and diving into their den, and then out
again. And in this distressing condition I left them. [I fol-
lowed on after the marauders, and found most of them already
across the road. At last, fully sixty yards from the scene of
the robbery, they came to their own den, and carried the eggs
down into a special chamber, as I afterwards found. After the
eggs had been deposited below, the ants of the expedition came

172 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

up, and with a seeming air of satisfaction at their exploit, passed
their time in rubbing off their bodies, cleaning and polishing their
limbs and mandibles. ‘This was an instance of the doings of slave-
making ants.

In this case, there can be no reasonable doubt but that one of
the party which composed the expedition had made a discovery
of the colony that was to be raided. The ant returned to its com-
panions, reported its discovery, a party was organized, led by the
discoverer, the colony was robbed, a conflict ensued, and finally
the spoils were carried home.

This whole performance looks very like what men have done
in all ages. But when done by men such actions are not ascribed
to instinct, but to mind. But let them be done by even one of
the higher animals, not to say an ant, and they are loosely at-
tributed to instinct. But why so, where the signs are essentially
the same ?

But I have not done with the history of the singular doings of
ants, which seem to indicate the presence of mind. ‘To do this
fully would require several lectures. I have watched ants on the
hunt for colonies of aphides or plant lice. I have watched them
after discovering such a colony. They station guards over them,
to dispute the entrance of any other ants, on theirdomain. They
carefully tend the aphides, as a shepherd would his flock. If one
of the clumsy creatures of their charge gets off its plumb, and
is in danger of falling, a guardian ant takes and tenderly places
it in position. The ants step around, among and over the mem-
bers of their flock with every sign of care. But why? Let any
one see. They do not do that to feed on them, but they use them
in a sense asmen usecows. An ant will stand astride of, or behind
the plant louse, and with its pointed feet will seize the little aphid
underneath tbe abdomen, and by a motion of combined pressure
and tickling, induces it to issue amethystine drops from its
back, from a little bag. The ant watches for this, and when it
appears, stoops and drinks it with apparent gusto, and then goes
his way. The only ants that have this privilege are those which
belong to the colony — they alone have the passport.

Ants have armies, commanded, it seems, by officers who seem-

Mind tin the Lower Animals. 173

ingly issue their orders, insist upon obedience, and will not permit
any of the privates to stray from the ranks. There are some
ants which till the ground, plant the particular grain on which
they feed, cut it when ripe, and store it away in subterranean
granaries. ‘I'here are ants which bury their dead. There are ants
who have slaves, as already intimated, and compel them to labor
while their masters live on its proceeds, just as we have known
of man. How can we attribute all these things to instinct? If
so, let us call the whole thing instinct, and so end it.

Take the case of the bee. It has required a small volume in
which to record the doings of these little creatures, which, to say
the least, are curious. Take the case of weak hives, which on
that account are hable to the incursions of more powerful neigh-
bors, who are ever ready to appropriate the works of the thrift of
their less powerful neighbors. In such cases, it has been fre-
quently observed that the weaker colony casts up a cross within
the entrance or hallyport to their hive, a wall of wax, etc., called,
I believe, a traverse, in engineering parlance. Upon entering, the
bee is at once confronted by this traverse, and is obliged to turn
either to the right or left to enter the hive proper. But in so doing
it must pass a very narrow way at either end of the traverse. By
this means a few bees can defend a hive against the assault of a
very large number of marauding bees. Butall hives donot have
this traverse, and why not? Is it made in obedience to a blind
tendency, such as an instinct is ordinarily held to be? If so, why
do not all hives have the traverse? It seems to me, the only
natural way is to admit that such doings are an evidence of the
possession of mind.

Sometime since a gentleman was struck by a happy thought,
viz.: one in which he could utilize bees. He formed the design
of exporting a number of hives to the island of Hawaii, where
there are flowers all the year round. His thought appears to have
been that, as bees gather honey guided solely by a blind tendency
or an instinct, that they would work all the year round, and hence
make honey all the year, and if so, become a source of no small
profit. If they gathered honey wholly from a mere blind im-
pulse, his expectations would have been fulfilled. But in the

174 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Leilers.

course of a few years the bees learned somehow that it was un-
necessary to lay up honey as in climates where flowering plants
exist only a part of the year, and they became valueless from an
economical point of view. Was this due to instinct, or to educa-
tion? If to the latter, is mind involved in the case? I must
confess, it seems so to me.

Take the following anecdote from many hundreds of others
of various kinds, in respect to dogs :

‘There is a water mill on the Tweed in Scotland called Max-
wellhaugh, by the road between Kelso and Trovist. It is driven
by a sluice of water from the Trovist, just before it joins the
Tweed, and consists of two flats. The upper flat, or story, is on
a level with the public road, and is called the “ upper mill,” while
entrance to the lower story was reached by a lath road descending
from the highway. The first thing the miller did in the morning
was to unchain the dog. The dog immediately placed himself
across the upper doorway, while the miller proceeded with his
work in the lower mill. As soon asthe miller had finished his
work there, and removed to the upper mill, the dog, without being
told, set off to the milier’s house, and in two journeys brought his
master’s breakfast, — namely, milk in a pitcher and porridge in a
‘bicker,’ tied up in a towel.

‘On one occasion, when the Trovist and the Tweed were in a
flood, a little dog ventured incautiously into the Tweed, and was
carried rapidly down the stream, struggling and yelping as it was
hurried along. It so happened that the miller’s dog, while carry-
ing his master’s breakfast to him, saw the little dog in distress.
He immediately put down his burden, and set off at full gallop
down the stream. When he had got well below the drowning
dog, he sprung into the river, swam across, and so exactly had he
calculated the rapidity of the river and his own speed, that he in.
tercepted the little dog as it was being helplessly swept down the
current, and brought it safely to land.

‘‘ When he got his burden safely on shore, the dog, instead of
displaying the least affection for it, cuffed it, first with one paw
and then with the other, and returned to the spot where he had
deposited his master’s breakfast and carried it to him, as usual.

Mind in the Lower Animals. 175

“ How is it possible,” says the author of the anecdote, to ‘ re-
fer the proceedings of this animal to mere instinct? Had anegro
slave performed them, we should have used them (and with per-
fect justice) as arguments, that so intellectual and trustworthy a
man ought not to be the property of an irresponsible master.’

“The whole behavior of the dog is exactly like that of a burly,
kindly and rugged barger, possessed of cool judgment and rapid
action, willing to risk his life for another, and then to make light
of the whole business.

‘The process of reasoning that took place in the dog’s mind is
as evident as if the brain had been that of a man and not a dog.
The animal exhibited self-denial, presence of mind, and fore-
thought. Had he jumped into the water at once, he could not
have caught the little dog; but by galloping down the stream,
getting ahead of the drowning animal, and then stemming the cur-
rent until it was swept within his reach, he made sure of his ob-
ject; and no man could have done better if he had tried to save
a drowning child ?”

There are hundreds of cases, from among not only the almost
innumerable species of lower animals, but also, so to speak, of the
higher, such as birds of many kinds, cats, dogs, horses, elephants,
and monkeys. But, manifestly, I cannot refer to them to-night;
nor, indeed, is it necessary to do so after what has been said, and
when it is remembered that it is probably true that there is not
one person present but has had opportunities for making interest-
ing personal observations bearing on this question.

Contenting myself, therefore, I will pass at once to a discussion
of the subject in various of its aspects. Tor my own part, I am
led to hold to the position provisionally, that the lower animals are
possessed of minds, the same in kind as those of men. I haye
said, this is my provisional opinion, for it has become, after much
endeavor, a habit of mine to adopt opinions with care, and if
not well founded, to try and remember that they are not well
founded. Such opinions I try to be ready to drop at the first
occasion which seems truly to require me to do so, even if I am left
without opinions, as, indeed, I have come to be, in relation to
many things. I will now proceed to give you some of the rea-

176 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

sons which seem to me to justify me in adopting the opinion to
which I have here given expression.

i, One strong proof of this position is to be gained from such
facts as I have been relating in your hearing. An unprejudiced
and attentive examination of the mental phenomena of lower
animals, shows them to have in some measure most, if not all, the
mental capacities or faculties which distinguish men. But let us
for a moment go even back of this. The nervous system, the ad-
mitted instrument of mind, in its intimate structure, is essentially
the same ; even the drain of man and the lower animals agree so
closely as to render all but futile the elaborate attempt of Prof.
Owen to establish a separate class, the archencephale, of which man
is held to be the sole member. The agreements in general, and
even in details, are surprisingly close, whether in gross form or
in minute texture, between the brains of men and the anthropoid
apes. Then the lower animals have the same extrinsic means
for acquiring a knowledge of the outer world that man has. But
why have they the sense apparatuses of vision, hearing, touch,
taste, smell, the muscular sense, etc., unless for the same purposes
that they subserve in men? But to come nearer. The lower
animals experience sensations both agreeable and the contrary,
they enjoy sense-perception, and in many cases far beyond what
is true for man. They have frequently as perfect, and often a
more elaborate muscular system than man, which is exercised and
controlled by means of the same kind of nervous mechanism, and
is devoted to similar purposes. They have often well marked
and very tenacious memories, so far as we can tell, the same as
that which belongs to man. They can reason also, or compare
the perceptions they have or have had, and many times in a surpris-
ing degree. They have most certainly a will, and hence power
to choose from among alternatives, the story of Buridan’s ass to
the contrary notwithstanding. They display all the principal quali-
ties and passions which belong to man, such as parental affection,
jealousy, anger, fear, courage, constancy, fidelity, friendship, ill-
temper, hope, despair (for animals have been known to commit
suicide), pride, self-importance, caution, trickery, maliciousness, ete.
examples of all of which it would be easy to give and of many

Mind in the Lower Animals. aber

of them to multiply. They can certainly learn and improve, even
in many such actions as have been called instructive. They even
show abuse of humor and fun, some appreciation of the beautiful,
and would appear in some instances to have a knowledge of right
and wrong. It is admitted that the moral sense, if developed at
all in the lower animals, is very rudimentary. But the same may
be said with some degree of seriousness of many human beings,
especially of young children and idiots. A young child, if arrest-
ed in its moral development at an early period, would, so far as
signs can show, be a mere human animal, not equal perhaps to
an intelligent monkey. It might be expected a prior, that if the
lower animals should fail anywhere in a comparison with man, it
would be in respect to the higher faculties. And this is found
to be actually true. Butif the lower animals show but little, if
any evidence of possessing a moral and especially a religious sense
and capacity, let it be remembered, as already said, that some
time elapses in the human being before the conscience is developed
so as to beget what is called accountability. A young child is not
held to be accountable for its acts, when they lead to bad conse-
quences, any more than isa mere animal. So after all, it would
seem from the confessedly superficial view of the case, we cannot
refuse to admit that the lower animals have minds similar to men,
at least in kind, on the score of radical difference in their mental
phenomena.

2. Then to what shall we ascribe the mental phenomena ex-
hibited by the lower animals, if not to mind? It has been the
custom to refer them to what has been called mstinct. But what is
instinct? When an act is performed by an animal without hav-
ing learned to perform it, as when a bird builds a nest without
ever having learned to do it, or when a bee builds its cell of a cer-
tain geometrical figure without any previous instruction or de-
monstrable plan to follow, or when a pig will begin twenty-four
hours before an approaching storm to gather materials for a bed,
and in making which, it will heap them up on the side from which
the storm is to approach, etc., such actions are called enstinctive or
automatic. The animal does them without purpose or design.

Many such actions are performed like the leaping of a headless
12

178 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

frog, when, according to ordinary experience, the mind would
seem to have been removed. But take the case of a bird build-
ing its nest. This is said to be instinctive. If this means any-
thing, it means that the animal is fitted prior to experience, and
independently of all knowledge, to build its nest. It is created
from the start with a nest-building tendency, which is the soul so
to speak, of a nest-building mechanism, which at some peculiar
conjunction in its affairs impels and guides the bird, it knows not
how or why, to build the nest, which it is under the necessity of
building on account of the fixed conditions and modes of action
of its nest-building apparatus, and in a certain way and none
other. Hence the individual members of the same species will
build their nests after a peculiar pattern or of peculiar materials,
so much so, that it is enough for the observant naturalist simply
to see the nest, in many cases, to name the bird. But the case is,
or seems to be different, with the architect who plans and builds
a house, as every one knows. But let us look more closely at
this instinctive act of nest building. One thing is certain, there
must be a plan somewhere, consciously or unconsciously followed,
for the nests of the same species are made alike, or after a common
type or plan. The only possible places (so to speak) in which
the plan can inhere, are either just in the mechanism or organism
of the bird itself, in which case it would have to be assumed that
it was constructed to work of itself, in the absence of a mind. It
would work then, for example, like a watch, or better yet, if you
please, like a pin or match machine, which is fitted to take the
raw material at one end, and give out at the other the finished
product. It cannot in the nature of its case make anything but
tacks. Any power which can set it in motion, no matter from
what source, may, through the agency of the mechanism, bring
about the result; or the plan may inhere in the mind of the ani-
mal, as well asthe apparatus to which the mechanism corresponds.
Why should wz deny the presence of mind, in a given case, be-
cause it works through an apparatus, even if the latter is auto-
matically perfect from the outset? Can mind not work through
such mechanism as well as through one which for certain reasons
is imperfect at the start, and has to be developed by purposive

Mind in the Lower Animals. 179

use? In the latter case the evidence of mind may be clearer, but
in the other, is it absent? Or, finally, the act called instinctive
may be attributed to the immediate presence and action of the
Divine mind. But in some form or other, mind must be present,
and we cannot escape it, as some seem to imagine they do by call-
ing certain cases in which it seems to be present, instinctive. The
bird must choose a place in which to build her nest. Is this in-
stinctive? Think of it a moment. How should a bird be pre-
arranged to select, from thousands of places in which her nest
might be securely built, the one she does select? Does she
not look about, and aiter considerable search and consideration,
at last fix upon the spot which, upon the whole, she likes best.
Then again, is her search for and choice of materials a blind
one, in which she follows, mechanically, the unvarying condi-
tions of a fated or at any rate a fixed mechanism? No, it must
be that however perfectly the material organism is prearranged
for action, under favoring conditions, that it has within it a mind,
which, it is true, has a less sphere of spontaneity than belongs
to man, and which works therefore under more rigid condi-
tions than in man; but still mind isthere. By the limitations
of its automatic organism, it 1s made unnecessary for it to go the
round of experience to learn, for it begins where man ends, or
tends to end; that is, with an organism, embodying an organized
experience prior to the fact. By this means, the lower animals
whose lives are short, are enabled to begin their life-work at once,
and from the first to avoid mistakes asa rule. But coupled with
this freedom from errors in their acts, is the corresponding inabil-
ity to perceive or correct them when they have been made. Just
in proportion as automatic action prevails, does spontaneity and
inventive capacity and adaptability disappear. Hence, these lat-
ter elements are found in the greatest measure in man, and in the
least in the lower animals. But this is to be remembered, that
by attributing the actions of the lower animals to instinct, we do
not therefore exclude the mind, though this is commonly sup-
posed to have been done in such acase. LHven in view of those
actions, then, which are most clearly automatic, mind is probably
present, and hence by this mode of reasoning we cannot exclude
the lower animals from participating in it, in common with man.

180 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Leiters.

Then again there is the question of the ¢mmortality of the minds
of the lower animals. It has been thought if the admission is
made that the lower animals have minds, that this will oblige us
to concede to them immortality, equally with man. But why not
do this? What harm could come of such an admission? What
forbids it? Would it be contrary to scripture, to reason, to the
true interests of men present or to come, or would it conflict with
any well authenticated facts? Would it be degrading to men,
or cheapen future existence? But if we refuse it, what shall we
do with the intelligent principle, whatever it may be, which feels,
and thinks, and wills, and suffers, and enjoys, and remembers, in
the lower animals? What is it in them that appeals in hunger
and distress, or is the spring of pride or joy, or satisfaction, or
fidelity, that devises expedients, draws conclusions, etc.? If it
perishes with the body, on what logical grounds can we refuse to
surrender the mind of man toa similar fate? If we can do all
the things done by the animals by means of a perishable combina-
tion of physical and vital forces, why not join in with the so-called
muterialists, and do the same for mind in man? If. not, why not?

But suppose the ground is taken, that we must attribute all the
phenomena bearing the marks of mind exhibited by the lower
animals to the immediate presence and action of the Divine mind,
how shall we reclaim the human mind from being swallowed up
in the Divine mind, thus destroying all except the shadow or pre-
tense of individuality ? Hence, on such grounds as these, it
seems hardly possible to refuse to the lower animals the pos-
session of mind in the same sense, but not necessarily in the same
degree as in man.

Of course there are many other reasons which may be used in
support of the position that the lower animals have minds, but I
cannot refer toall of them, or indeed to any, except in a brief way.

But I will call your attention to two or three of the stronger
reasons that may be urged against this view. I will state and
briefly discuss them before I close.

One of the objections which may be raised is to this effect:

1. That there is no real proof that animals possess immortal
spirits, or minds. Without a revelation we could not really know,
except on the grounds of a frail inference, that the mind of ani-

Mind in the Lower Animals. L81

mals survives the destruction of their bodies. But we have no
clear revelation on this subject. The Bible, the only pretended
source of authority on such subjects, so far as revelation is con-
cerned in them, makes no statement bearing on it, at least none
equaling in clearness those made in respect to the future existence
of the spirits of men. It would seem not unreasonable, that if the
spirits or minds of the lower animals are endowed with immor-
tality, that it would have been for some purpose, probably a
moral one. And since men and the lower animals sustain to each
other such close relations in this life, the purpose in conferring
immortality on the souls of the beasts would probably have some
relation to man, and hence, would naturally find some expression
in the Bible, which has so much to say of the hereafter of men.
But no such statements occur. Bya mere observation of animals,
and a simple scientific study of the phenomena they present, it is
not possible to arrive at clear and logical conclusions on this sub-
ject, unless, perhaps of a kind unfavorable to the view which
affirms their immortality. It is true, such modes of reasoning do
not prove that animals do not have immortal souls, but it at least
raises a reasonable presumption against such a view.

2. Again it is said, that the mental phenomena of lower animals
do not require the agency of mind to explain them, for they have
been referred almost by common consent, from the earliest times,
to instinct. Men and animals differ, as regards their actions and
their knowledge, chiefly in this: Animals do not as a rule
learn to do, or to know what their modes of existence require
them to know, or do what they need to do, and their actions there-
fore are usually as well performed at first as at last. Their actions
are automatic, or they are done without purpose or foresight of the
animal. Itis thus with the walking of animals when first born,
with their breathing or their sucking. A chicken, not yet out of
its shell, will peck at, and swallow a fly; a serpent, when it first
escapes from its egg, will on the instant, seek a retreat under a
stone, or stick, or clod, if there is any show of violence or danger.

The bee builds its cel], the bird its nest, the spider weaves its
web, just as perfectly at first as at last. All these things and
thousands more are done by these and other animals prior to ex-

182 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

perience. They were never learned. In one sense the animal
does not know how to do them, viz.: in the sense of having learned
to do them. It does them moved by an zmpulse, rather than de-
terminate thought. It obeys a mere blind, but cogent propensity,
rather than a rational conclusion, viz.: one deduced by logical
processes from ascertained and definite premises. These mere
propensities arise in, and then reach on, are apparatus, or mechan-
ism, which is often perfect at birth, or before it. In such cases as
those, in which the animal does not begin the performance of cer-
tain acts or to manifest certain tendencies until late in life, the
reason is to be found in the lateness of development of the ap-
propriate mechanism through which the acts in question are ac-
complished. The case is in nowise different from that in which the
apparatus is perfect at birth. No matter how late in life it is that
the animal begins to do what it does, this much is clear, that the
apparatus was not developed by educative processes, as is so gen-
erally the case in man. To all appearances the development is
spontaneous. The animal seems to acquiesce, without purpose, and
hence unconsciously its capacities to do. It does whatever it does
as a rule, from the first, with automatic precision. But while this
is the rule with the lower animals, the contrary is true of man.
He has the smallest possible stock of instinctive or automatic
acts to begin with, and those few of the lowest and simplest kind.
Whatever he does or knows he has to learn to do or know as a
rule, by or through slow, educative processes.

The point in this case is as follows: As respects the lower ani-
mals, they are provided by their Creator from the first with com-
plete mechanisms, fitted to reach in a determinate way to various
stimuli, external and internal, while the development and perfec-
tion in structure and working of the nervous mechanisms in man
are conditional on their determinate purposive use or education. If
not so used, or, in other words, educated, they are never devel-
oped. Hence we may have ignorant and incapable men, as com-
pared with each other, but not ignorant and incapable animals, as
compared with their kind. Hence arises a duty on the part of men
to develop themselves, and if they do not discharge that duty we
blame them, as in the scripture parable of the talents. But not

Mind in the Lower Animals. 183

so in the lower animals. But why these remarkable differences
between men and animals if they both have minds of the same
kind? Te only way in which they may be explained is to ad-
mit that in the one case there is a rational mind or spirit, which
can feel and know, and can use the mechanisms with which it
stands connected, so as to lead to their development in many ways
and degrees, and in varying propertions to each other, while in the
lower animals, the nervous and other mechanisms are developed
as a rule in some other way than by their use. They are devel

oped prior to or independently of use, but not so in man, as a rule.
In the one case there is a mind to use the imperfect apparatus, and,
according to the degree and kind of the use, to develop it in
various ways and degrees; but in beasts this is not so, only ina
low degree. Hence animals of the same kind are more nearly
equal in their development, and men less so. Hence man is ina
measure the master of his own higher development, and is, there-
fore, charged with a duty in this connection; but not so the ani-
mals below him. Out of such considerations, if time permitted,
it would seem that quite a presumption could be raised up in favor
of the view that the lower animals do not have minds as men do.
But to pass on, it may be urged,

3. That any necessity which might seem to arise for admit-
ting the lower animals to have mind with man, may be met,
or at least justly avoided, by certain ‘distinctions which have
been long recognized by many writers. It has been maintained
by many, from the time of Aristotle, that in man we may discern
at least two forms of mind. The one is conveyed with the objects
of sense, and our relations in space and time. To it belongs the
sense of perception, the capacity for comparing sense perceptions, or
to think on them, and also our nerve propensities, and certain emo-
tions not ordinarily classed with propensities or appetites. ‘This,
it is admitted, is possessed in kind by animalsas well as men. It
has been called the psyche. The other is superior to the psyche, and
has relations not only to the psyche, but also to the body. It is that
form of mind by which we become related to God, and which is
the seat of conscience.. By it we are enabled to discern right from
wrong, good from evil, the beautiful from its contrary, and by this

184 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

we obtain motives to action, not only for the present but the dis-
tant future, not only in accordance with, but often in opposition
to the mere teachings of sense, or the mere impulses of appetite
or of the bodily passions, in obedience to which the lower animals
act. This is the home of the reason, of even the ‘ Pure Reason”
of Kant, of the moral sense, and the true seat of the religious life,
to all of which the lower animals are strangers. This form or
part of mind is called the pneuma. It is the possession of this
part which chiefly distinguishes men from the lower animals. It
is this part which it may be most truly offered is immortal, with-
out contesting for the immortality of the psyche, which the lower
animals possess in common with man. This latter part may
perish possibly, and if so, we need not trouble ourselves about
the question as to whether the mind of animals may continue to
survive after the death of their bodies. But that these two forms of
mind may be separable from each other would seem to be possi-
ble from the fact, as they may be assumed to be, that the lower
animals have what corresponds to the psyche without the pneuma
in man, and from the fact, that forms of mind seem to relate to:
wholly different objects, and from the further fact, as it seems to:
be in the moral and religious history of mankind, that the pneuma
may be either dead or alive to the proper moral and spiritual ob-
jects and relations, without involving any corresponding or other
change in the psyche. This is the part of a man’s nature which
seems of all others the most susceptible of cultivation and ex-
pansion, and which the advance of age, which seems to involve
so serlously the body and the psyche, does not often affect. It is
par excellence, the progressive part of man, the most human-like,
nay, God-like, part of man; that it is within its domain that
these aspirations take their origin, which at once imply and de-
mand a life hereafter, as the only one which does not mark them,
and in which alone it would seem possible for them to find satis-
fying objects. By making some such distinction as has been
hinted at, it would seem possible to admit a form of mind as
common to man and animals, the admission of which would be
perfectly compatible with a denial of its immortality, or at least
with a doubt on this subject, and also with a claim for man of a

Mind in the Lower Animals. 185

form of mind which, so far as the signs go, may be denied to the
lower animals.

4, But finally, it may objected that it cannot be sustained on
the score of utility. Of what use would a hereafter be to crea-
tures who do not show any signs of needing or wanting it, and
who show so little capacity for improving it, to be of any good
end? Notwithstanding the acknowledged possibility of educating
certain animals, yet the great fact remains, that the lives of all
the lower animals are almost wholly automatic. Their lives are
not spent in struggles after the practical attainments of ideals,
and in an apparent sacrifice of the present for the future, in a pur-
posive exercise of will, to the end of the chastening and subjection
of their sensual natures, and the elevation, expansion, unlimited
refinement and development of their higher faculties — faculties
which, indeed, they do not have as compared with men—in the
pursuit of moral and esthetic good, which often have their final
object concealed, either in the immediate future or even in another
state of existence, and in a rational sacrifice of self for others.
I say the great fact remains, that the lives of beasts are not open
to any such way, but in following out the dictates of mere pro-
pensities, and these are usually, though not always, selfish. Their
lives and faculties are developed for them, rather than by them.
Of what use would a future life be to such creatures? It is true
there may be a use for them hereafter which we do know of,
but we are not permitted to go outside of our knowledge for pos-
itive purposes. We should never permit ourselves to use a mere
negation in a positive manner; we cannot properly use our ignor-
ance as against our knowledge, however imperiect that knowledge
may be. We do not know, ascompared with men, that the lower
animals show no signs of desiring a future life, only at best a de-
sire for a continuance of the present one, and they do not show
any considerable capacities for improvement or rational enjoy-
ment. But it has been and is different with men in all ages.
We all have, I hope, a desire to live hereafter, that is, after
death ; and as arule men have in their average estate shown capaci-
ties for the acquisition and use of knowledge and for enjoyment
which are too vast for the short and uncertain measure of this life.

186 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

But why, if there is no hereafter? This desire which men have
for immortality, which is shown in so many ways, and which must
have an object somewhere, has its birth in the pnewma rather than
the psyche; and hence, if the distinction between these two forms
of mind is admissible, and men and animals participate in the
psyche, but notin the pneuma, we can see why animals should not
have this desire.

Such are a few among the many reasons which may be offered for
refusing to admit the view that the lower animals have minds the
same in kind as men, differing only in degree of development.

The reasons that have been given have been selected rather than
-others, because it was supposed their discussion would prove the
most suggestive. I say suggestive, because my opinion is, that if
what is said on such an occasion as this is said only to convey

mere information, rather than to provoke and direct thought, we
come together for little purpose.

But it is impossible in one short discourse to adequately state,
much less discuss, in a satisfactory manner, such a theme as this.

As a result of my studies, which have been long turned in this
‘direction, I have been led to admit that the lower animals, even
the lowest, have minds generally the same in kind as men, but
with important differences.

In the lower animals, the mental faculties involved in percep-
‘tion and memory, and the instincts and propensities, and the lower
phases of moral sentiment, may be compared with men, in
the natural state, viz.: with the savages. But in the higher prov-
inces of mind, especially those which are the seats of the esthetic,
moral and religious activities, the lower animals are separated
from man by a vast difference in degree of development, if not of
kind. It is on these latter grounds that the distinction is the
most profound as between men and the lower animals when com-
pared mutually.

Why should we deny that animals have minds? Why deny
that they are immortal? By admitting these positions no harm
is done, so far as I can see, and we avoid thereby a host of un-
-co mfortable questions and inferences, which we can neither an-
‘wer nor parry in a rational manner, and many of which strike at

Mind in the Lower Animals. 187

the heart of the immortality of the human soul. Whether the
spirits of animals, if they are immortal, will be with us hereaiter
as at present, or will be somewhere else, is a question about which
no one knows anything, and about which no one need concern
himself. It may be thatthe old and yet living doctrine of the
transmigration of the spirits of animals points to the true solution
of this question.

188 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

THE ANTIQUITIES AND PLATYCNEMISM OF THE
MOUND BUILDERS OF WISCONSIN.

BY J. M. De HART, M. D.

The vast difference that has been found to exist between the
mounds of Wisconsin and those of other parts of the United
States, both in their form and variety of structure, have led many
archeologists to infer that they were constructed by a different
race; but such eminent authority as the late Dr. Lapham, has
dispelled these views, and finds in them sufficient evidence to
prove that they are of a common origin. The animal mounds,
located a few miles west of the four lakes, near Madison, were
first described by Squier and Davis, in their contributions to the
Smithsonian Institution, in 1848, and also by R. C. Taylor, in
Siuliman’s Journal.

Dr. Locke, in the Geological Report of Iowa and Wisconsin,
furnished information which greatly increased our knowledge of
these structures; but Dr. Lapham, in his contributions to the
Smithsonian Institution and American Antiquarian Society, has
done more than any other writer, in furnishing evidence of their
conformation and general character.

Most of these mounds consist of imitations, on a gigantic scale,
of animate objects, which were characteristic of the region, such
as the bear, buffalo and deer, among the mammals; of the turtle
and lizard, among the reptiles, and the night hawk and eagle,
among the birds; and, in a few instances, of the human form.
The animal mounds seldom exceed five feet in height, while some
of them were only one or two feet high, above the surrounding
ground. From the fact that the mounds were nearly always
located near the great rivers, and in the vicinity of the lakes, we
are led to infer that the mound-builders availed themselves of the
natural advantages of the country — ready access to living water,
natural highways, streams abounding with fish, and the adjacent
forests with game.

Antiquities and Platycnemism. 189

Many of the mounds are built on high bluffs, from which an
extensive view may be obtained of the surrounding country,
diversified by wooded steeps and rolling prairies, with, in many
instances, a broad river meandering through the landscape, or a
beautiful lake, with its placid waters ever abounding with fish in

great quantity.

Peschel of Leipsic, in his “‘ Races of Man,” says that in North

Fg. 1.

|

R
oie

It has a

Fig. I represents an eagle, with a body 100 ft. long, and winga cxpanded 300 {t. on either side of it.

well-defined beak, and a tail 40 ft. wide.

America the aborigines made dome
shaped tumuli, round, flat topped
mounds and circular earth works;
some of them contain graves and
covered passages. ‘T'hese are very
scarce in the New England states,
and are rarely found west of the
Mississippi, but extend from the up-
per course of the Missouri and the
great lakes, to the south, on both
slopes of the Alleghanies, as far as
Florida. Most archeologists have
ascribed them to an extinct race of
Mound-builders, who are supposed
to have migrated from Mexico. The
builders of these mounds were, there-
fore, the predecessors of the Indians,
and these latter were supplanted by
Kuropeans. Wisconsin furnishes
many evidences of the existence up-
on its soil of a prehistoric race,
known as the Mound-builder. Along
the northern shore of Lake Mendota,
many mounds may be (found. The
animal mounds found in this vicinity
represent a bear, deer, squirrel, and
other mammals now extinct; while
a few of the mounds are made in

the form of birds, some of which are very large, and three of
them are located in close proximity to one another, and resemble

190 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letlers.

an eagle with expanded wings. The largest of these birds has a
body 100 ft. long, whose expanded wings measure 300 feet on
either side of his body, while the tail is 40 ft. wide. The head is
quite perfectly formed, so that the outline of the beak is 15 ft.
in length. [#%g. 1.] The form of a deer, about three feet high, is
found near the left wing of the gigantic bird. The body of the

deer measures 65 ft. Fig. 2.
and the legs are 14 f} f

/
measures 12 ft. from Ye

ft. long; the head Y,

the tip of the nose Hy CA
ee

to the origin of the ~~ \
antlers. These lat- A
ter are each 10 ft

Jong, and have a ro.
branch extending at BRS
KY
right angles from xs
their center. [ Lig. BRON
CORED
2.| Near the left
wing of the other BS SS NN
bird there is the Fig. 2. represents a deer, whose body measures 65 ft., with
legs 14 ft. long. The antlers are each 10 ft. long, with branches

form of a bear, with from each.

a well defined body, head and legs. [ig. aes
Fig. 3.

Near Grand river, in Green Lake
county, there is a collection of about
fy one hundred mounds, mostly of a

conical or circular form. One of
these resembles the form of a man,

S with arms of an unequal length.

WON " The head points to the south, and
towards a high hill, called Mt. Moriah. As these mounds are
composed of a sandy soil, they do not preserve their form as well
as the mounds in other localities, which are composed of adjacent
soil and clay.

In the vicinity of Fox river there are several mounds, some of
which resemble racoons and bears, while the remainder are ob-

Antiquities and Platycnemism. 194

long and circular mounds. One mound in this vicinity represents
an animal whose genus and species could not be ascertained.

Fig. 4. While many animal mounds.
are found near Lake Mendota,
there are also circular and ob-
long mounds. On the follow-
ing page there is a diagrara
showing the location and ele-
vation of eight ancient mounds.
on the northern shores of this
lake. Their elevation varies
from 93 to 96 feet above the
lake, and on some of them
trees are growing, measuring”
five and a half feet in circum-
ference. [Mg. 5.] The larg-
est circular mound of this
group measures 188 feet in
circumference, and 85 feet
from the base to its summit’
It is the highest mound in this group, and from its elevated posi-
tion, could have been used for observation, and as a means of com-
munication by signal with other mounds in the adjacent country.
From its summit you have an extended view of the surrounding:

country for many miles in all directions.

This mound was the first one of the series explored, and on the
following page a diagram of the manner of exploration is given,
together with the location of the skeletons and other relics found
therein. [ig. 6.]

In commencing the work, it was thought best to sink a perpen-
dicular shaft, about six feet square, through the centre of the
mound, from the apex to the bottom of the tumulus. After re-
moving the surface, a black earth, similar to what is found on the:
shore of the lake when muck accumulates, or on the prairie bot-
tom, was removed to the depth of five feet. At this depth, and
on the western side of the shaft, a group of stones, consisting of
magnesia limestone, yellow und red sandstone were found. Some

192 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

of these stones were flat, while others were irregular in shape, and
bear indications of having been obtained from the limestone
quarry along the shore of the lake, where the water had worn
away portions of them. Underneath this course of earth there
was a layer of yellow clay, about four feet in depth, through
which a similar course of stones, arranged in a semi-circular man- ~
ner, and passing off to the opposite side of the shaft, were en-
countered. Another layer of black earth was found underneath
this course of yellow clay, about five and a half feet in depth,
after removing two feet of this deposit, ashes, charcoal, and de-
cayed wood, with small pieces of flint were discovered. A few
stones were removed directly below these, and the earth under-
neath was so hard and dry, that it had the appearance of having
been baked, another foot of earth was then removed, when the
skeleton of an adult mound-builder was discovered in a sitting
posture, at the southeastern corner of the shaft, several pieces
of the cranium, vertebra, the body of the inferior maxillary,
with the alveolar process quite complete, ribs, and bones of the
extremeties were found, but none of them were wholly perfect.

Where the cranium had lain, there was a perfectly formed
mould, but only a few pieces of the bones were found. Had I
thought to measure this mould I could have obtained some idea
of the dimensions of the skull. The vertebra were very large
and indicated the existence of a race larger than the Indian; of
the bones of the upper extremity that were found, that of the
humerus presented a feature which is regarded as characteristic of
the ancient Mound-builder. There was a perforation through its
inferior extremity, as shown in the accompanying illustration. In
all instances where the inferior extremity of the humerus has
been found in mounds, this perforation has been observed to exist,
and hence it may be called a natural communication existing
between the olecranon depression on the one side and the coronal
and radial depression on the opposite side, in the humerus of the
Mound-builder. This perforation is found to exist in the chim-
panzee, ape and other animals, who go about on all four of their
extremities.

As shown in the accompanying illustration, the specimen found

Fig. 5.
a) FPA Ga Ae

SHOWING THE

LOCATION AND ELEVATION OF THE MOUNDS AND THEIR ELEVATION
ABOVE LAKE. :

No.1. The Mound first examined Xx 96 above the Lake.

No. 2. The second Mound examined X 95 above the Lake.
The other six Mounds have not been examined.

No. 4. Represents an animal of some kind, probably a Turtle.

Lf,
WwW,

to Represent Magnesian Limestone.
Bae Rcearies Represent a bed of gravel.

Rs)
GS @ Represent a few trees on the Mounds and bot})m. No Mounds and Lake.

ee ge
These marks the elevation above the Lake.

9909 ©0999 890 90900G i

Vee aa” IK OP OC
7. fp 4] Leary | ley 227 9
$$ A) or LT e rx

13

194 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

in this mound, presents on
its anterior surface a per-
foration, which is sur-
HES) rounded by a gradually
eH) receding margin, which is
not so great as that sur-
rounding the perforation
on the opposite or poste-
rior surface, of the same
bone. In the human sub-
ject, the anterior surface
of the inferior extremity
of the humerus presents
a ridge of bones, which
separates the coronal and

Sie
<>
255
=

=
are,

ae

=

==.

as
—

=<
raw
rae;

ery
So
—e-
——*
ae,

Zz
as

go
aaa

=
=.

Zs

a,

ZZ
ZZ

a aa

Lo

a

ae
——

—
rar

radial depressions.

This bone is, no doubt,
of great antiquity and-was
very much decayed, the
superior extremity having
disappeared. In no case
did I find any of the long
bones of the extremities
wholly perfect, but all of
them were broken near
the center of the shaft, the
other extremity not being

Lf
=

an,
ZI>

ZeS
7

ee hee

Pare
So

MAE oh I

to some superstitious rite or custom, connected with the sepulture
of the dead, among the ancient Mound-builders,

This was the only humerus found, with either extremity nearly
perfect.

The shafts of two tibias, found in this mound presented another
characteristic of the Mound-builder. They were both remark-
ably flat, and this peculiarity is termed Platycnemism. In the
Smithsonian Annual Report of 1873, Mr. H. Gilman, of Michi-

Antiquities and Platycnemeism. 195

gan, furnishes six comparative tables, which give the dimensions
of some forty specimens of Platycnemism, and in these tables the
tibias found in the mound near Rogue river, Michigan, present
the greatest amount of flatness. In comparing the specimens
found in this mound near Lake Mendota, with those reported by
Mr. Gilman, I find that while his measure forty-eighth one hun-
dredths of an inch in comparing their antero-posterior diameter
with the transverse diameter, my specimens measure fifty-two one-
hundredths and fifty-four one-hundredths of an inch respectively,
in comparing the same diameters. This flatness of the tibia has
been recognized in the skeletons found in many ancient mounds,
not only in this country but also in England and Wales, and
might, therefore, be justly regarded as another characteristic feature
of the osteology of the Mound-builder.

Prof. Buck regards Platyenemism as being characteristic of re-
mote antiquity.

Prof. Gilman says further, that it is impossible to give the cor-
rect age of the mounds in Michigan, but from an examination of
the trees growing on them, it was evident that they were either
planted, or had taken root there, from 750 to 1,000 years ago. It
was, therefore, beyond his observation to give anything like an
aproximate age of the mounds, because they existed before the
trees grew.

Beneath the skeleton of this Mound-builder, there was a few
inches of earth, and then a course of stones similar to those pre-
viously described, resting upon a bed of yellow clay. As there
were no evidences that this had ever been disturbed, and it being
one and a half feet below the level of the surface, it was not thought
best to sink the shaft any deeper.

As shown in fig. 6, a drift was then made into the side of this
mound, three feet above the level of the surface, and about eight
feet wide. After the removal of several feet of earth, a similar
course of stones, was found, which could be traced to the group
of stones on the west side of the shaft. These were removed, and
large quantities of ashes, charcoal, and pieces of flint were found
near them. Qn continuing the drift towards the center of the
tumulus, and near the shaft, the skeleton of a young Mound-

196 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Lelters.

builder, was discovered in a sitting posture. He was probably
not more than six years of age, judging from the condition of the
bones, a few pieces of the cranium, several vertebra, portions of
the long bones of the extremities, and the superior and inferior
maxillary were removed; several teeth were still in the alercolar
process of the superior maxillary, several pieces of flintshell beads,
two large teeth, of some animal, and small arrow heads were found
in close proximity. Quite near these remains, three pieces of
ancient pottery were discovered ; the largest piece measuring four
and a half or five and a half inches, and about a quarter of an
inch in thickness. It was smooth on its internal surface, and
marked externally by raised lines running obliquely across it,
such as are frequently seen upon ancient pottery found in

drug. 8. mounds. I give
NM = VFL Muastration
CRO SS EN Rai
We ; LEVER RM i Of this piece of

YW, He :
er sp Dp 4
=a Gj. er with a stone

LL = i
KOK pA, SY OY ie sen eile:
WG) Ze ea
4 UM) / \ 7 YY it
AGG: 4, Yf
SY

SAY fp Eek LESS
d Gy, WUE SS implement, re-
7 => y Prez: = :

SESS pe SS sembling a ham-

mer, found in this mound. The drift was carried forward as far
as the shaft, and then downwards to the natural bed of yellow
clay. Just before striking the shaft, and near the bottom of the
tumulus, the skeleton of a second adult was found, only a very
few pieces of the cranium and two pieces of the femur were dis-
covered. After removing some very dry and hard earth another
course of stones were removed, which bore evidences of having
been exposed to fire. Ashes, charcoal, and decayed wood in quite
large pieces, one foot long by four inches thick, and plants were
found quite near the stones. Many of the stones crumbled to
pieces on handling. On removing the pillar of earth formed by
the junction of the drift with the perpendicular shaft, a flat dise
of stone, quarter of an inch in thickness and four inches in diam-
eter was, found. Similar stone dics were found by Squier and
Davis, and were called by them discoidal stones. They have
been found in the other parts of the northwest, and were sup-

posed by them to have been used by the Mound-builders in play-
ing games,

Antiquities and Platycnemism. 197

Another mound circular in form, and located a few yards from
number one, and marked number two in the diagram, on page
Fig. 9. 7, was that examined.

This mound was about
five feet high and 125
feet in circumference. A
drift was made into the
side of this mound on a

IS

level with the surround-
ing ground, and six feet
yin width. <A section of
this mound, with the

eee
TLS =
lH-—fL,

mode of exploration is
given on the opposite
page. After removing
the surface a layer of gravel one foot in depth, and on the sum-
mit a course of sand dipping downwards into the layer of earth
beneath it, was found. The Jayer of black earth was three feet
deep, and this was followed by another course of gravel and then
a layer of earth one foot deep. A thin stratum of gravel was
removed, which was followed by finding ashes, charcoal, decayed
wood, and flint. These lay upon an altar of stones, composed of
limestone, yellow and red sandstone, resting upon a bed of yellow
clay. This altar was about one anda half feet below the sur-
rounding surface, and measured three and a half feet in length
by one and a half feet in height and two feet in width. The ex-
cavation was continued downwards to the depth of three feet, but
nothing was found.

Li

Two feet from the summit of this mound, there was a tree
growing which measured five feet in circumference. In the side

of this tree, and fastened in the back, was a stone pestle, which
had undoubtedly been carried upward through the mound, during
the growth of this tree. This pestle was composed of granite,
with a layer of quartz running through it. It measured six by
eight inches.

Owing tothe approach of winter no further explorations were
made of these mounds, but next spring it is my intention to con-

“

WX

Y

Antiquities and Platyenemism. 199

tinue the examination of them, and hope to find on them more

evidences of the Prehistoric race, known as the Mound-builder.
Fig. 11.

aR Re: VNC SSO ERR
RPO
Fs SEAS IRR KI .:
y Nobo NON

Netopia

The question has, no doubt, occurred to many archeologists and
antiquarians, who have examined these ancient land-marks, as to
who were the people, or what race, built them; but, so far, no
possible knowledge has been obtained as to their origin. The
Indian tribes, who have lived in the vicinity of them for the past
few centuries, know nothing of them.

The Winnebagos, who were the
last Indian occupants of the Ancient
Works at Aztalan, in Jefferson county,
would always answer in the negatives
by a significant shake of the head,
when asked if they could tell who
erected them.

TAIN { While Nott and Glidden, in their

<>
SS | work, the ‘“ Indigenous* Races of the
IT ST Karth,”’ refer to the Mound-builders,

~UTTTITNSy : as belonging to a race far higher in
civilization than the hunting tribes of America.” They call them
Mound-builders, from the regular fortifications, which they have
erected, in several of the Western and Southern States. The
Natchez, destroyed by the French of Louisiana, in the last cen-
tnry, seem, in fact, to have belonged to them.

200 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Among the many relics of this ancient race, which were found
by Squier, during his explorations of the valley of the Missis-
sippi, was a most characteristic head, made of red pipe clay, the
workmanship of these unknown builders, which exhibits the pecu-
liar Indian features.

He says further, “‘ that this discovery proves that these ‘ Mound-
builders’ were American Indians, or type; that time has not.
changed the type of this indigenous group of races; and that the
‘Mound-builders’ were probably acquainted with no other race,
but themselves. In every way proving the views of author of

Crania Americans.”
Fig. 12 represents above overturned head, formed by squares.

DIAGRAM

showing
Glacial Movements

tre

a
N
og &
iS
(ples One 1S
le
Bpies
wees
won
foo
m HY
< SY
Nn tal

4

fz]

FOTHOTW tex ¥

wte p
“porphyry ~

es
5

B. Aizob of Ortare

~

A.. Kn06b of Quan

Tue Muwarcer Intu,.<.Exen Co,

DEPARTMENT

OF THE MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.

ON. THE EXTENT AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE WIS.-
CONSIN KETTLE MORAINE.

By T. C. CHAMBERLIN, A. M.,

State Geologist, and Professor of Geolcgy in Beloit College !

At the meeting of the Academy, three years since, I took the
liberty of occupying the attention of the members by the presen-
tation of some observations and conclusions in reference to a pe-
culiar series of drift hills and ridges in eastern Wisconsin, known
as the Kettle range, and the views then advanced afterwards found
a place in my report on the geology of eastern Wisconsin.” Sim-
ilar observations were subsequently made by Professor Roland
D. Irving, of the Wisconsin survey, and his conclusions are in per-
fect agreement with my own.®

‘In neither case, however, was any attempt made to show the
full extent of the formation outside of the districts reported upon, or
to point out its theoretical significance, the chapters being intended
only as contributions to local geology, made under somewhat se-
vere limitations as to space.

It is not now possible to map, or even safely conjecture, the
complete extent and limitations of the formation; but it is the
purpose of this article to add such trustworthy observations as
have since been made, and to gather such evidence as may justify
a provisional mapping of the range, where it has not been actually

1] have taken advantage of the interval between the date of reading and the printing to
introduce new matter. T.C.C.

2 Geology of Wis., Vol. II, 1877 (revised edition 1878), pp. 205-215.

3 Geology of Wis., Vol. II, 1877 (revised edition 1878), pp. 608-635.

202 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

traced. A portion of the paper will, therefore, relate to well as-
certained facts, while other portions will be in various degrees
hypothetical. If care is taken to distinguish between these por-
tions, no harm can arise from their association; while the provis-
ional mapping will, it is hoped, prove of service in both stimu-
lating and guiding further investigation. The extent of the range
is likely to prove too great for the immediate time and means of
a single observer; while the broad and irregular, and sometimes
obscure, character of the belt is such that it is likely to be over-
looked, as a continuous range, as experience has shown, unless at-
tention be called to it, or the observer be keenly alive to distinc-
tions in drift topography. It is believed, therefore, that the pre-
sentation of some things that are only probable, not certain, will
not be without value. %

It will be advisable to consider first, somewhat critically, the char-
acter of the formation. The following description, which is based
upon careful observation, relates more specifically to the moraine
in Wisconsin, where it is usually well developed, and may require
some modification in its application to the range where sub-aque-
ous deposits overlap or encroach upon it, and in other special sit-
uations.

Surface Features.— The superficial aspect of the formation is
that of an irregular, intricate series of drift ridges and hills
of rapidly, but often very gracefully, undulating contour, consist-
ing of rounded domes, conical peaks, winding and, occasionally,
geniculated ridges, short, sharp spurs, mounds, knolls and hum-
mocks, promiscuously arranged, accompanied by corresponding
depressions, that are even more striking in character. These
depressions, which, to casual observation, constitute the most pe-
culiar and obtrusive feature of the range, and give rise to its de-
seriptive name in Wisconsin, are variously known as “ Potash
kettles,” ‘“ Pot holes,” ‘‘ Pots and kettles,” “Sinks,” etc. Those
that have most arrested popular attention are circular in outline
and symmetrical in form, not unlike the homely utensils that
have given them names. But it is important to observe that
the most of these depressions are not so symmetrical as to merit
the application of these terms. Occasionally, they approach the

Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. 203

form of a funnel, or of an inverted bell, while the shallow ones
are mere saucer-like hollows, and others are rudely oval, oblong,
elliptical, or are extended into trough-like, or even winding hol-
lows, while irregular departures from all these forms are most
common. In depth, these cavities vary from the merest indenta-
tion of the surface to bowls sixty feet or more deep, while in the
irregular forms the descent is not unfrequently one hundred feet
or more. The slope of the sides varies greatly, but in the deeper
ones it very often reaches an angle of 80° or 35° with the horizon,
or, in other words, is about as steep as the material will lic. In
horizontal dimensions, those that are popularly recognized as
“ kettles” seldom exceed 500 feet in diameter, but, structurally
considered, they cannot be limited to this dimension, and it may
be difficult to assign definite limits to them. One of the peculiar-
ities of the range is the large number of small lakes, without inlet
or outlet, that dot its course. Some of these are mere ponds of
water at the bottom of typical kettles, and, from this, they gradu-
ate by imperceptible degrees into lakes of two or three miles in
diameter. These are simply kettles on a large scale.

Next to the depressions themselves, the most striking feature of
this singular formation is their counterpart in the form of rounded
hills and hillocks, that may, not inaptly, be styled invezted ket-
tles. These give to the surface an irregularity sometimes fittingly
designated “knobby drift.” The trough-like, winding hollows
have their correlatives in sharp serpentine ridges. The combined
effect of these elevations and depressions is to give to the surface
an entirely distinctive character.

These features may be regarded, however, as subordinate ele-
ments of the main range, since these hillocks and hollows are
variously distributed over its surface. They are usually most
abundant upon the more abrupt face of the range, but occur, in
greater or less degree, on all sides of it, and in various situations.
Not unfrequently, they occur distributed over comparatively level
areas, adjacent tothe range. Sometimes the kettles prevail in the
valleys, the adjacent ridges being free from them; and, again, the
reverse is the case, or they are promiscuously distributed over
both. These facts are important in considering the question of
their origin.

204 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letlers.

The range itself is of composite character, being made up of a
series of rudely parallel ridges, that unite, interlock, separate,
appear and disappear in an eccentric and intricate manner.
Several of these subordinate ridges are often clearly discernible.
It is usually between the component ridges, and occupying de-
pressions, evidently caused by their divergence, that most of the
larger lakes associated with the rangearefound. Ridges, running
acro:s the trend of the range, as well as traverse spurs extending
out from it, are not uncommon features. The component ridges
are themselves exceedingly irregular in height and breadth, being
often much broken and interrupted. The united effect of all the
foregoing features 1s to give to the formation a strikingly irregular
and complicated aspect.

This peculiar topography, however, finds a miniature represen-
tative in the terminal moraines of certain Alpine glaciers. Most
of the glaciers of Switzerland, at present, terminate in narrow
valleys, on very steep slopes, and leave their debris in the form of
lateral ridges, or a torrentially washed valley deposit. A portion
of them, however, in their recently advanced state, descended into
comparatively open valleys of gentle decline, and left typical, ter-
minal moraines, formed from the ground moraines of the glaciers,
and only slightly obscured by the medial and lateral morainic
products, which have little or no representative in the Quaternary
formations. The Rhone glacier has left three such ridges, sepa-
rated by a few rods interval, that are strikingly similar in topo-
graphical eccentricities to the formation under discussion, save in
their diminutive size. ‘The two outer ones have been modified
by the action of the elements, and covered by grass and shrubs,
while the inner one remains still largely bare, and, as they have
been cut across by the outflowing glacial streams, they are exceed-
ingly instructive as to glacial action under these circumstances.
The inner one graduates in an interesting way into the wide-
spread ground moraine, which occupies the interval between it and
the retreating glacier, where not swept by floods, and which pre-
sents a different surface contour, illustrative of Till topography.
The two Grindelwald glaciers have left similar moraines; those of
the upper one, being the more massive, and being driven closer to-
gether, present an almost perfect analogy to the Kettle ranges.

Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. 205

The Glacier du Bois, the terminal portion of the Mer de Glace,
the Argentiére, and, less obviously, the Findelen, and others, so
far as their situation favored, have developed similar moraines,
and indicate that this is tae usual method of deposit under these
conditions. Reference is here made only to the terminal deposit
of the ground moraine, eliminating, as it is quite possible to do,
for the most part, the material borne on the suriace of the glacier.

The Material of the Formation. —This topic, which is one of
primary importance in determining the origin of the deposit,
readily divides itself into three subordinate ones, all of which
need discriminative attention; (1) the form of the constituents, (2)
their arrangement as deposited, and (8) their sowrce.

(1) Premising that the Kames, and those deposits which have
been associated with them in the literature of the subject, are
described as composed mainly of sand and gravel, it is to be
remarked, in distinction, that a// the four forms of material com-
mon to drift, viz.: clay, sand, gravel, and boulders, enter largely
into the constitution of the Kettle range, in its typical develop-
ment. Of these, gravel is the most conspicuous element, exposed
to observation. This qualification is an important one in forming
an adequate conception of the true structure of the formation.
It is to be noticed that the belt, at many points, exhibits two dis-
tinct formations. The uppermost —but not occupying the heights
of the range — consists almost wholly of sand and gravel, and
lies, like an irregular, undulating sheet, over portions of the true
original deposit. This superficial formation is confined mainly to
the slopes and flanks of the range, and to depressed areas between
its constituent ridges ; though, when the whole belt is low, it often
spreads extensively over it, so as sometimes to be quite deceptive.
But, where the range is developed in force, this superficial deposit
is so limited and interrupted, as to be quite insignificant, and not
at all misleading; and, at some points, where it is more widely
developed, excavations reveal unequivocally its relationship to
the subjacent accumulations. In such cases, the lower formation
shows a more uneven surface than the upper one, indicating
that the effect of the latter is to mask the irregular contour of
the lower and main formation. Notwithstanding this, the upper

206 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

sands and gravels are often undulatory, and even strongly bil-
lowy, and the bowls and basins in it commonly have more than
usual symmetry. A not uncommon arrangement of this stratum
is found in an undulating margin on the flank of a ridge of the
main formation, from which it stretches away into a sand flat or a
gravel plain.

Setting aside this, which is manifestly a secondary formation,
it is still true that gravel forms a large constituent of the forma-
tion. Some of the minor knolls and ridges are almost wholly
composed of sand and gravel, the elements of which are usually
very irregular in size, frequently including many boulders. But,
notwithstanding these qualifications, the great core of the range, as
shown by the deeper excavations, and by the prominent hills and
ridges, that have not been masked by superficial modifications,
consists of a confused commingling of clay, sand, gravel, and boulders,
of the most pronounced type. ‘There is every gradation of material,
from boulders several feet in diameter, down to the finest rock
flour. The erratics present all degrees of angularity, from those
that are scarcely abraded at all, to thoroughly rounded boulders.
The cobble stones are spherically rounded, rather than flat, as is
common with beach gravel, where the attrition is produced largely
by sliding, rather than rolling.

Stratification. — As indicated above, the heart of the range is
essentially unstratified. There is, however, much stratified ma-
terial intimately associated with it, a part of which, if my dis-
criminations are correct, was formed simultaneously with the pro-
duction of the unstratified portion, and the rest is due to subse-
quent modification. The local overlying beds, previously men-
tioned, are obviously stratified, the bedding lines being often
inclined, rather than horizontal, and frequently discordant, undu-
latory or irregular.

The Source of the Material. — This, so far as the range in Wis-
consin is concerned, admits of the most unequivocal demonstra-
tion. The large amount of coarse rock present renders identifica-
tion easy, and the average abrasion that has been suffered indicates,
measurably, the relative distance that has been traveled. The
range winds over the rock formations in a peculiar manner, so as

Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. 207

to furnish fine opportunities for decisive investigation. Of the
many details collected, there is room here for a single illustrative
case only. The Green Bay loop of the range surrounds on all
sides, save the north, several scattered knobs of quartzite, por-
phyry and granite, that protrude through the prevailing lime-
stones and sandstones of the region. These make their several
contributions to the material of the range, but only to a limited
section of wt, and that invariably in the direction of glacial striation.
Any given segment of the range shows a notable proportion of
material derived from the formation adjacent to it, in the direc-
tion of striation; and a less proportion, generally speaking, from
the succeeding formations that lie beyond it, backward along the
line of glacial movement for three hundred miles or more. It is
undeniable, that the agency, which produced the range, gathered its
material all along its course for at lewst three hundred miles to the
northward, and its largest accumulations were in the immediate
vicinity of the deposit. For this reason, as the range is traced along
its course, its material is found to change, both lithologically and
physically, corresponding to the formation from which it was
derived.

These facts find ample parallel in the moraines of Switzerland.
The marginal portion of the great moraine of the ancient expanded
glaciers, on the flanks of the Juras, is composed, very largely, of
boulder clay, derived from the limestones that lie in its vicinity,
while the quantity of material derived from the more distant for-
mations of the Alps is quite subordinate. Of the more recently
formed moraines, those derived from the Bois, Viesch, Rhone,
Aar, and other glaciers, which pass over granitic rocks, consist
quite largely of sand, gravel, and boulders, clay being subordinate,
while those glaciers of the Zermatt region, that pass mainly over
schistose rocks, and the Grindelwald glaciers, that, in the lower
part of their course, traverse limestone, give rise to a decided
amount of clay. The moraines, previously referred to as minia-
ture kettle ridges, are composed of commingled unstratified debris,
in the main, but there are instances of assorted and strat'fied
material. The inner moraine of the upper Grindelwald gl cier
presents much fine assorted gravel and coarse sand, heaped up,

208 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

very curiously, into peaks and ridges, in various attitudes on the
summit and sides of the moraine. |
Relations to Drift Movements. — This is manifestly of most vital
consideration. The course of drift movement may be determined,
(1) by the grooving of the rock surface, (2) by the direction in
which the material has been transported, (8) by the abrasion which
rock prominences have suffered, (4) by the trend of elongated
domes of polished rock, and, (5) less decisively, by the arrange-
ment of the deposited material and the resulting topography.
Recourse has been had to all these means of determination, in
that portion of the range that has been carefully investigated, and
their individual testimony is entirely harmonious, and their com-
bined force is overwhelming. Hxceptional opportunity for positive
determination is afforded by the protruding knobs of Archzean
rocks before alluded to, from which trains of erratics stretch away
in definite lines, continuous with the striation on the parent knobs,
and parallel to that of the region, as well as concordant with the
general system. The united import of all observations, in eastern
Wisconsin, testifies to the following remarkable movements, which
may be taken as typical, and which are here given, because they
have been determined with much care. Between Lake Michigan
and the adjacent Kettle range, the direction was obliquely up the
slope, as now situated, southwestward, towards the range. On
the opposite side, between the Green Bay valley and the range, the
course was, after surmounting the cliff bordering the valley, ob-
liquely down the slope, southeastward, toward the range. In the
Gren Bay trough, the ice stream moved up the valley to its
watershed, and then descended divergingly the Rock river valley.
Between the Green Bay valley and the Kettle belt on the west,
the course was up the slope, westward, or southwestward, accord-
ing to position. These movements, which are imperfectly shown
on the diagram, exhibit a remarkable divergence from the main
channel toward the margin of the striated area, marked by the
Kettle range.
Much of the data relating to the movements, outside of Wis-
consin, has been derived from a study of publications relating to
the geology of the several states, to whose authors I am indebted,

MAG BNW EMALO) VO) Aah
Aq,
41 OL ASIN SAVO LVHL
SALN HI OAOIW TVIOV'TO
ey} JO urersetq pue
ANIVYOW AlLLay
2240
AVW AYUMVNINVISN Ad

Tite Mawarikne Lrrni.s Exon,

Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. 209

but who should not be held responsible for the special collocation
presented in the accompanying diagram, which, in some of its
details, may prudently be held as somewhat tentative, until more
rigorously verified. But the grand features of these movements,
which may be confidently accepted, are very striking, and are
very singularly related to the great basins of the lake region.
The three main channels were the troughs of the great lakes,
Superior, Michigan, and the couplet, Erie and Ontario, while be-
tween these lay three subordinate ones in the basins of the great
bays, Saginaw, Green and Keweenaw.

The divergence of the striations from the main channels toward
the range, in the case of the Green Bay valley, and, so far as the
evidence goes, in other troughs, was an unexpected result, developed
by combining individual observations; but, when the method of
wasting and disappearance of a glacier is studiously considered,
appears not only intelligible, but a necessary result, and one which
finds partial illustration among existing glaciers.

Topographical Relations and Distribution. —The topographical
relations of the formation are an essential consideration, but may
be best apprehended in connection with its geographical exten-
sion, which now claims our attention. If westart with the north-
ern extremity of the long known Potash Kettle Range, in Wis-
consin, we find ourselves about midway between the southern
extremity of Green Bay and Lake Michigan, and on an eastward
sloping, rocky incline. The base of the range is here less than
200 feet above Lake Michigan, and is flanked on either side by
the lacustrine red clays of the region; and seems, in some measure,
to be obscured by them. From this point, it stretches away in a
general south-southwestward direction, for about 185 miles, as-
cending gradually, and obliquely, the rocky slope, until it rests
directly on its crest.

When within about twenty miles of the Illinois line, zt divides,
one portion passing southward into that state, and the other,
which we will follow, curves tothe westward, and crosses the Rock
river valley. A profile of the rock surface across this valley,
beneath the range, would show a downward curve of more than

300 feet. The range should not, perhaps, be regarded as sagging
14

210 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

more than half that amount, however, in crossing the valley, as
the canon-like channel of the pre-glacial river, seems to have
been filled without much affecting the surface contour of the
drift. But the fact of undulation to conform to an irregular sur-
face, produced by erosion, and not by flexure of the strata, is a
point to be noted, as it is a serious obstacle in the way of any ex-
planation that is only applicable on the supposition that the for-
mation was in a horizontal position when formed, es the view that.
it was produced by beach action, or the stranding of icebergs.

After crossing Rock river, the range curves gradually to the
northward, passing over the watershed between the Rock and
Wisconsin rivers, ‘“ descends abruptly 200 feet into the low ground
of the valley of the Wisconsin,”! crosses the great bend of the
river, sweeping directly over the quartzite ranges, according to
Prof. Irving, with a vertical undulation of over 700 feet, after
which it gradually ascends the watershed between the Mississippi
and St. Lawrence drainage systems, until its base reaches an esti-
mated elevation of 700 to 800 feet above Lake Michigan.- From
thence it has been traced across the headwaters of the Wisconsin
river, by Mr. A. Clark, under my direction.”

Within the Chippewa valley, it has been observed by Prof. F.
H. King, of the Wisconsin Survey, and I have observed it in the
vicinity of the Wisconsin Central railroad. This region is cov-
ered by an immense forest, mainly unsettled and untraversed, even
by foot paths, so that geological exploration is difficult and ex-
pensive, and, as no industrial importance attaches to it, and the rock
below is deeply concealed by it, I have not deemed it sufficiently
important to trace the belt continuously to justify the large ex-
penditure of time and means requisite, especially as I entertain
no serious doubts as to its continuity and general position. The
observations tnade, indicate that it descends obliquely the east-

1 Prof. Irving, Geol. of Wis., Vo}. II, 1877, page 616.

2To the eastward of the range, as thus traced, Col. Whittlesey describes (Smithsonian
Contributions, 1866) a similar formation in Oconto county. I have observed the same at
several points. Mr. EH. E. Breed informs me that it occurs on the watershed between the
Wolf and Oconto rivers, but it has‘not yet been traced through the wilderness, to any
connection with the main range, and it is uncertain whether it Is so connected or constitutes
a later formation, as such later moraines have been observed at other points.

Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. pala

ern slope of the Chippewa valley, and crosses the river below the
great bend (T' 32, R. Gand 7), near which the Flambeau, Jump,
and several smaller streams gather themselves together, in a man-
ner very similar to that of the branches of the Rock and Upper
Wisconsin rivers, just above the point where they are crossed by
the range. From this point the belt appears to curve rapidly to
the northward, forming the western watershed of the Chippewa.
It is joined in eastern Burnett county by a portion of the
range coming up from the southwest, the two uniting to form a
common range, analogous to that of eastern Wisconsin. The
conjoint range thus formed, extends along the watershed of the
Chippewa and Nemakagon rivers, to the vicinity of Long and
Nemakagon lakes, on the watershed of Lake Superior. This part
is given mainly on the authority of Mr. D. A. Caneday, who vis-
ited a portion of the formation with me, and whose discrimina-
tion can, I think, be trusted. Mr. EH. T. Sweet, of the Wisconsin
Survey, describes! a kettle range as lying along the axis of the
Bayfield peninsula, but it has not been ascertained that this is
connected with the belt under consideration.

Returning to the junction of the two ranges in eastern Burnett
county, I have traced the belt thence southwestward through Polk
and St. Croix counties to St. Croix lake, on the boundary of the
state. The lower portion of this has also been studied by Prof.
L. C. Wooster, of the Wisconsin Survey. Thesoutheastern range
of the belt may be conveniently seen on the: North Wisconsin rail-
road, near Deer Park, and on the Chicago, St. Paul & Minneap-
olis line, to the west of the station Turner, but only in moderate
force.

If a good surface map of Minnesota be consulted, it will be
seen that there liesalong the watershed, between the Upper Mis-
sissippi and the conjoint valleys of the Minnesota and Red rivers,
a remarkable curving belt of small lakes. Along this line, lies a
chain of drift hills, known m its northwestern extension as the
Leaf hills) Inthe Sixth Annual Report of the Geological Survey
of Minnesota, received just as this article is going to the printer,

1 Manascript report on Douglas and Bayfield counties, to form a part of Vol. III, Geol. of
Wis.

212 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Prof. N. H. Winchell, speaking of the great moraines of the north-
west, says: ‘ There are two such that cross Minnesota, the older
being the Coteau and the younger, the Leaf nills. Corresponding to
the latter, the Kettle Range in Wisconsin seems a parallel phe-
nomenon.’ I have seen this belt, west of Minneapolis, and concur
in Prof. Winchell’s opinion. I have also observed, hastily, what
I regard as portions of it — dissevered by the river channels—on
the peninsula formed by the bend of the Mississippi and the Min-
nesota, south of St. Paul, and on the similar peninsula between
the Mississippi and Lake St. Croix; and this seems to be the line
of connection between the Wisconsin and Minnesota ranges. It
appears to me, therefore, well nigh certain, that the Leaf hills of
Minnesota are not only analogous to the Wisconsin Kettle range,
but are portions of the same linear formation.

The multitude of small lakes, found in Wisconsin, lie almost
exclusively either along the Kettle belt itself, or in the area
within, or north of it. The surface outside has a much more per-
fect system of drainage, and is almost entirely free from lakelets.
The Kettle range constitutes the margin of the lakedistrict. But
in Minnesota, south of the Leaf hills, there is an extensive lake
region stretching southward in a broad tongue, nearly to the
center of Iowa, though the lakes are not very numerous in the
latter state. The question naturally arises, whether this lake dis-
trict is likewise bordered by similar drift accumulations, and this
question, though not essential to the present discussion, has much
interest in connection with it. In respect to this, I can only give
some detached observations and quotations. As already stated,
accumulations of this character oceur south of St. Paul. Still
further to the southward, in the town of Aurora, Steel county,
there is a moderate exhibition of gravelly boulder-bearing hill-
ocks and ridges, accompanied by shallow basins and irregular
marshes, much after the manner of the formation in question.
From the descriptions of Prof. Harrington,* these features appear

1 Sixth Annual Rept. Geol. & Nat. Hist. Sur. Minn., p. 106. The R. R. profiles crossing
this belt furnish valuable data. See Ann. Rept. for 1872, pp. 53 and 57, and Sixth Aun. Rept.,
pp. 47 and 156.

? Geol. and Nat. Hist. Sur. Minn., Ann. Rept. 1875, pp. 103 e¢ seq.

Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. 213

to characterize the county somewhat widely, especially in the
southern part. Near Albert Lea, in the adjoining county, on the
south, and only a few miles from the Iowa line, there is a more
prominent development of similar features, the ridges having a
southwestward trend. Dr. C. A. White, in the Geology of Iowa,.
describes a terrace in the northern part of the state, which, in its
eastern extension, ‘‘ becomes broken up into a well marked strip
of ‘knobby country.’ Here it consists of elevated knobs and
short, ridges, wholly composed of drift, and usually containing
more than an average proportion of gravel and boulders. Inter-
spersed among these knobs.and ridges, are many of the peat
marshes of the region.”? One knob he estimates as rising 300
feet above the stream at its base. This area lies in the line of the
preceding localities, and near the Minnesota border. Between
this “knobby country” and the Algoma branch of the C., M. &
St. P. R. R., and stretching southwestward from the latter, there isa
broad belt of low mounds and ridges, some of which show the
structure and composition common to the Kettle moraine,
while others present externally only a pebble clay, similar to that
which characterizes the level country to the west of it. The
whole presents the appearance of a low range modified by lacus-
trine deposits.

Near the center of the state, Dr. White describes a second range
under the name of ‘“ Mineral Ridge,”*as consisting, ‘‘ to a consid-
erable extent, of a collection of slightly raised ridges and knolls,
sometimes interspersed with small, shallow ponds, the whole
having an elevation, probably, nowhere exceeding 50 feet above
the general surface, but, being in an open prairie region, it attracts
attention at a considerable distance.” Both these ridges, Dr.
White classes as probable moraines.

This Mineral ridge lies south of the lake district, and may be
regarded as forming its margin in that direction. On the western
border, Dr. White describes ‘‘ knobby drift,” in Dickinson county,
which, however, is ‘“‘ without perceptible order or system of ar-
rangement.’’? To the northwest from this, we soon encounter the

1 Geol. of Iowa, 1870, p. 99. 2 Loc. cit. 3 Geol. of Iowa, Vol. II, p. 221.

214 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

morainic accumulations of the ‘‘Coteac de Prairie,” * and the
“Cobble Knolls” and “ Antelope Hills.”

These observations do not indicate a continuous, well defined
range, but seem rather to point to a half-buried moraine, that
only here and there, along its course, protrudes conspicuously, and
this is the impression gained from an inspection of the formation.
It is to be noted, as supporting this view, that, at least so far as’
the eastern side is concerned, this supposed moraine is flanked on
the exterior by level plains, of smooth surface, often underlaid by
sand and gravel, that seemingly owe their origin to broad rivers
or lakes that fringed the border of the glacier, in its advanced
state, when it probably discharged its waters over the moraine at
numerous points, rather than at one, or a few, selected points, as
would more likely be the case during its retreat, when accumula-
tions of water could gather along its foot, within the moraine, and
large areas be discharged at some single favorable point. But
on the inner side of the moraine, the surface, although nearly
level, in its general aspect, undulates in minor swells and sags, and
the drainage is imperfect. The substratum, instead of being gravel,
sand, or laminated clay, is generally a pebble or boulder clay.
Outside of the moraine, the existing surface contour was formed in
the presence, and, to some extent, under the modifying influence,
of a fairly established drainage system. But on the znterior, the
drainage system has not, even yet, become fully established, much
less impressed itself upon the surface configuration, except in the
vicinity of the main rivers.

The terrace-like ridge mentioned by Dr. White, and some of
the lines of hills described by Prof. Winchell in Minnesota, as
running in a similar direction, may be perhaps regarded as minor
morainic lines, stretching across the glacial pathway and marking
oscillations in its retreat, analogous to some quite clearly made
out in Wisconsin.?

This southern morainic loop is, of course, presumed to be older
than the Kettle range, and is here discussed because of the inter-

1 See note of Prof. Mather, Nat. Hist. Sur. 1st Dist. N. Y., p. 193. See also 2d Annual Re-

port Geol. and Nat. His. Sur. Minnesota, by N. H. Winchell, pp.193 to 195; also loc cit., ante.
2 Geol. of Wis., Vol. II, 1876, p. 215 ef seg.

Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. 215

esting way in which it is associated with the latter formation, and
the suggestions it may contribute to the final solution of the main
problem, to which the special one under discussion is only a trib-
utary, viz.: the definite history of the Quatenary formations.

Returning to the branching of the range in southeastern Wis-
consin, we find the left arm, or that nearest Lake Michigan, strik-
ing southward into Illinois. If we lay before us Prof. Worthen’s
geological map of that state, and attentively observe its topo-
graphical features and its drainage systems, it will be observed
that nearly all the lakelets, the greater part of the marshes, and
most of the region of abnormal drainage may be included in a
curving line, rudely concentric with the shore of Lake Michigan,
starting near the center of McHenry county, on the} Wiscon-
sin line, and ending in Vermillion county, on the Indiana border.
It may also be observed, on a similar inspection of Indiana, that
nearly all the lake district lies north of the Wabash.

In Wiseonsin, as already stated, we have found this area bor-
dered by the Kettle range, which is itself notably lake-bearing.
The range continues to sustain this relationship in Illinois, so far
as I know it to be directly continuous. It exhibits a progressive
broadening, and flattening, as it enters upon the level country
that encompasses the head of Lake Michigan. The pebble clay
deposit — not coarse boulder clay —that characterizes the flat
couatry, and which, to the north, has been separated from the
range by a belt of coarse boulder clay, here approaches, and ap-
pears, to some extent, to overlap the range, and to be one cause of
its less conspicuous character. From what I have seen of the
region south of Lake Michigan, and from all I can find in geologi-
cal reports relating to the region, I gather that the range, so far
as it escaped the destructive action of the floods issuing from the
Lake Michigan basin, both while occupied by ice, and subse-
quently, is, to a large extent, buried beneath later deposits, or so
modified as to be inconspicuous. Whatever the correct interpre-
tation, it remains a fact beyond question, that the belt becomes
very obscure, compared with its development to the northward.
Dr. E. Andrews says: ‘As we trace it southward, the material
‘becomes finer, and the hills lower, until they shade off impercepti-

216 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

bly into the drift clay, of the Illinois prairies.” The members
of the geological corps of Illinois did not recognize it distinctively,
in the sense in which it is now considered, but Dr. Bannister, in
his report on Lake county, says: “ In the western part of the
county, near the Fox river, we find the ridges, in some places, to
be largely composed of rolled limestone boulders. The same
character has been observed further south along the same stream
and remarked upon in the chapter on Cook county.”* In respect
to McHenry county he says: “In the vicinity of the Fox river,
the same kind of gravel ridges are met with as those which have
been described as occurring in the western part of Lake county.” ®
This lies in the belt identified by me, from personal observation,
as belonging to the Kettle range.

Concerning the district farther south, he says: ‘‘ Boulders of
granite, quartzite, greenstone, and various other rocks are abund-
ant in various localities on the surface of the ground, and are
frequently met with in excavations for wells, etc., and large de-
posits of rolled boulders, chiefly of limestone from the under-
lying Niagara beds, similar to those already described in the
report on Cook county, occur in the drift deposits of the adjoin-
ing portions of Kane and Du Page counties.”* Concerning the
topography, the same writer says: ‘ Along some of the prin-
cipal streams, and especially the Fox river in Kane county, the
country is more roughly broken, and can, in some parts, even be
called hilly, although the more abrupt elevations seldom exceed
eighty or one hundred feet above their immediate base.”° This
broken country, if we may judge from what is true of the rough
country along the same river to the north of this, it not due so
much to the drainage erosion of the river as to the original depo-
sition of the drift. The same features are said to continue into
Kendall county, next south, which brings us to the vicinity of
the ancient outlet of Lake Michigan, where, of course, the mo-
raine is locally swept away. Still farther south, in Livingston
county, Mr. H. C. Freeman mentions a ridge running southeast-

* On Western Boulder Drift, Am. Jour. Sci., Sept., 1869, p. 176.
peel: Sur. of Ill., Vol. IV, p. 130. 4Geol. Surv. of Ill., Part IV, p. 113.
Loc. cit., p. 131. *Geol. Sury. of I., Part TV, p. 112.

Wisconsin Keitle Moraine. ONG

erly from a point in La Salle county, to near Chatsworth, a dis-
tance of about forty miles. ‘This is gravelly and sandy, giving
it a distinctive character as compared with the adjacent prairie.” *
This is quite too meager to base an identification upon, but I have
thought it worthy of quotation here. At Odell, which lies near
this ridge, the drift is said to be 350 feet deep.”

On the railroad line from Chicago to Kankakee, there is no
recognizable indication of the formation under consideration.
Southwestward from Kankakee, on the line to La Fayette, Ind.,
there are a few mounds and ridges that bear a somewhat mo-
rainic aspect, but they are isolated in a generally level tract of
lacustrine, rather than glacial, topography. They are, perhaps,
remnants of a formation that has been largely eroded or buried.
Near Fowler, in Benton county, Indiana, there isa belt of low
mounds and ridges, accompanied by shallow depressions, that
quite closely resemble the Kettle range in its more modified
phases. Boulders appear upon the surface, and, in the more im-
mediate vicinity of the village, are large and numerous. ‘This is
probably a portion of the “stream of boulders two miles wide,”
which Mr. F. H. Bradley mentions as extending through the
eastern part of Iroquois county, Illinois, and the central part of
Benton county, Indiana,? and which he attributes to floating ice.
He does not, however, mention the associated topography or un-
derlying drift formation. South of this low range, the country
again becomeslevel, or gently undwiiting, as far as the Wabash.”

The Indiana geologists have not yet critically examined the
heavy drift region in the northern part of the state, through
which the moraine might be supposed to pass, but in such prelim-
inary inspection as has been made, they have not recognized any
prominent moraine-like accumulation. The superficial expres-
sion of the region is quite monotonous, and presents to view de-
posits cf sand, gravel, lacustrine or pebble clays, but more
rarely the coarse boulder clay or mixed material, that I regard as
the unmodified ground moraine. The modifying agencies which
produced this phase of the deposits, would be antagonistic to

1Geol. Surv. of Ill., Vol. IV, p. 227. 2.Geo]. Surv. of Ill., Vol. VI, p. 237.
$Geol. Surv of Ill., Vol. VI, p. 236.

218 Wisconsin Acudemy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ridge-like morainic accumulations, and their presence, in sharp
outline, is not to be expected. Inthe vicinity of Ligonier, in
Noble county, there is a feeble, butsomewhat characteristic devel-
opment of some of the features of the formation. So also, in
the vicinity of Rome and La Grange tothe northeast. Between
La Port and Otis there isa kindred, though somewhat peculiar
formation, but I am in doubt as to its true character.

On entering Michigan, we find the formation more unequivo-
cally developed. Just north of Sturgis, which is near the south-
ern line of the state, the formation appears in marked develop-
ment. It does not attain a great altitude, but presents the
peculiar strongly undulating and hummocky contour, and the
coarse, mingled material, characteristic of the deposit. It may
be seen to advantage on the line of the Grand Rapids & Indiana
R. R. To the northeast in the vicinity of Albion, it may beseen
from Springport on the north, to Condit on the south. It is here
broad and flat, and superficially composed of gravel, for the
greater part, but some of the deeper excavations reveal the char-
acteristic coarser material. Onthe Michigan Central R. R., the
formation may be observed between Jackson and Dexter, the
most prominent portion being between the stations Francisco and
Chelsea. It isnot very prominent on the immediate line of the
road, which was doubtless selected to avoid it, butin the vicinity
it rises into prominent hills and ridges. Some of these, on the
north, are conspicuous objects at considerable distances. Still
farther to the northeast, my friend, Dr. D. F. Boughton, whose
identifications I have elsewhere verified, informs me that the
range is well developed in Oakland county, and is finely exhib-
ited near the line of the Flint & Pere Marquette R. R., between
Plymouth and Holly. Still farther to the northeast, it may be
seen at great convenience and advantage, along the Detroit &
Milwaukee R. R. from Birmingham, below Pontiac, to Holly. On
the flanks, its features are subdued, the hills and ridges being
rather low, with more or less level surface between them, and the
superficial sands and gravels are prevalent; but from Waterford
to beyond Clarkston, the range has a fine, though irregular devel-
opment. ‘The hills rise with characteristic contours, to an esti-

ed

Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. 219

mated altitude of 200 feet or more above the surface of the beau-
tiful lakelets embosomed at their base. The deep cuts near the
latter station, amply exhibit the coarse, commingled material,
characteristic of the core of the range.

Putting the foregoing observations together, they seem to es-
tablish beyond reasonable doubt the existence of a broad, massive
belt stretching northeastward on the highland between the Sagi-
naw and Hrie basins.

If we return again to the southwestern part of the state, we
are informed by Dr. Boughton that we shall find a similar accu-
mulation at, and in the vicinity of, Kalamazoo. To the north-
northeast, in Barry county, the Thorn Apple river cuts across this
range between Sheridan and Middleville. This belt here, though
broad, presents a more prominent and ridge-like aspect, with bet-
ter defined limits than elsewhere observed in Michigan. ‘To the
north of this, opposite Saginaw bay, there occurs, near Farwell,
broken, rough country and abundant coarse drift, that probably
belongs to the belt in question, but my opportunity for observa-
tion was unsatisfactory. Beyond this point, I have no definite
information, but I deem it highly probable that the moraine will
be found extending some distance farther, on the highlands of the
Peninsula. _

The lake survey charts show that Grand Traverse bay has the
remarkable depth of over 600 feet. This great depth, together
with its linear character, and the form and arrangement of the
associated inlets and lakes, has suggested that it may have been
the channel of a separate minor glacier, analogous to that of
Green Bay on the opposite side of the great lake, but I have no
direct evidence that such was the fact.

In the reports of the geological survey of Ohio, a formation of
nearly, or quite, identical characteristics is carefully described by
the several writers whose districts embraced it. In the second
volume,’ Dr. Newberry gives, under the name of “ Kames,” an
excellent summary of its leading features. These harmonize very
nearly with those of the Kettle belt. The main points of differ-

1Pages 41-47. See also ‘“‘Surface Geology of Northwestern Ohio,” Proc. Am. Assoc. Ad.
Sci., 1872, by Prof. N. H. Winchell, under heads of St. Johns and Wabash Ridges.

220 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Leiters.

ence are the less conspicuous character and massiveness of the
Ohio range, and the greater prevalence of :ssorted and stratified
material; in other words, its features are the same that the Kettle
range presents in its more subdued aspects, especially where it is
formed in a comparatively smooth country, and is flanked by
pebble clays, with level surface, instead of coarse boulder clay,
with ridged, or mammillary, contour. I cannot turn aside, here,
to define, with sufficient cireumspection, the distinction between
these clays, further than to indicate my belief that the former are
sub-aqueous, and the latter sub-erial, or, if you please, sub-
glacial, deposits."

Where I have seen the Ohio formation, it presents almost pre-
cisely the characteristics that are exhibited by the Kettle range
in northern Illinois, where it is similarly related to plane topog-
raphy and pebble clays, and it is also very similar to the same
formation opposite Green Bay, where it is bordered on both sides
by red lacustrine clays of later date. Dr. Newberry quite clearly
recognizes the parallelism, but perhaps not the identity, of the
formations. Col. C. Whittlesey, in his article on the ‘“‘ Fresh
Water Glacial Drift of the Northwestern States,’? classes the
formations together as identical in character, though he does not
seem to have considered them members of a continuous forma-
tion, and could not well do so with the prevalent view, which he
somewhat emphasizes, that it is peculiarly a summzt formation. It
very often does occupy the summit of a rock terrane, and it some-
times forms a watershed by its own massiveness, but it likewise
occupies slopes and crosses valleys, as shown in detail in the Wis-
consin report. Prof. Andrews of the Ohio survey, in a personal
communication, adds his conviction that the Ohio and Wisconsin
deposits are parallel formations. It would seem, then, that the
only question relates to the continiity of the belts. Unfortunately
there intervenes the Wabash valley, the ancient drainage channel

1T have mapped these formations separately in Eastern Wisconsin. See Atlas accompa-
nying Vol. II, Geol. of Wis., 1877, {Plate III, Map of Quaternary formations. See, also,
p. 225 of the volume.

* Geol. Surv. of Ohio, Vol. II, pp. 4. 5, and 43. Dr. Newberry’s views as to the origin of
the Ohio ‘‘ Kame” belt are ct variance with those here presented.

3 Smithsonian Contributions, 1866.

Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. 221

of the Erie basin. Absolute continuity undoubtedly does not
exist. Jf my views are correct, this was the great —not exclu-
sive — channel of discharge of the glacial floods, at the very time
the moraine was being formed, where it could be formed, and, for
that reason, the debris was swept away or leveled. In addition to
this, the region has been subjected to the vicissitudes of erosion, of
a reversal of drainage systems, and of lacustrine and fluviatile accu-
mulation. Itis to be presumed, therefore, that a portion of the
range, where once formed, has been lost, leveled, or buried. Some
remnant indications of the range, on the upper slopes, might,
however, rationally be presumed to exist. But, awaiting a criti-
cal examination of the region, we must confess a want of direct
evidence. The belt stretches entirely across Ohio and enters In-
diana, but has not been traced farther.

In the line of indirect testimony, however, some facts may be
noticed. Prof. N. H. Winchell describes in the Ohio reports! six
ridges running parallel to Lake Hrie, and Mr. G. K. Gilbert has
described that portion of these which lie in the more immediate
Maumee valley.” -T'wo of the inner ones are conceded to be lake
beaches. ‘The two outer ones are members of the ‘‘ Kame,” or Ket-
tle belt, according to Dr. Newberry.* The one next within, the
St. Mary’s ridge, Prof. Newberry distinguishes, apparently, with
justness, from both the other classes. Mr. Gilbert gives a clear
and discriminating description of this, and expresses the convic-
tion that it is ‘‘ the superficial representation of a terminal glacial
moraine, that rests directly on the rock bed and is covered by a
heavy sheet of Hrie clay, a subsequent aqueous and iceberg de-
posit.”* The views of Professors Newberry and Winchell, while
they each differ somewhat, agree with this in the only point essen-
tial to the present discussion, viz.: that this ridge represents the mar-
gin of the glacier at the time tt was formed. This shows the glacier
to havebeen a tongue or lobe of ice, differentiated from the sup-
posed continental glacier, and having its axis coincident with the
Maumee valley, and, withal, capable of forming a morainic ac-
cumulation on both sides. The St. Mary’s ridge crosses the

1 See also Proc. Am. Assoc. Ad. Sci., 1872. 2 Geol. Surv. Ohio, Yol. I, pp. 537 ef seq.
3 Geol. Sur. Ohio, Yol. II, pp. 56 and 57. * Loe. cit.

222 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences,“Arts, and Letters.

Maumee - Wabash valley — the glacial trough — and, recurving
upon itself, bears away to the northeast, approximately parallel
to the Kettle belt already described in southeastern Michigan.
This wing of the St. Mary’s ridge bears the same relation to the
Kettle belt bordering the Erie basin on the Michigan side, that
the opposite wing does to the “‘ Kame” belt on the south side. The
force of this relationship is not easily escaped.

If my viewsare correct, that this Michigan belt was formed
along the right hand margin of the Erie glacier (conjointly with
the Saginaw glacier), just as the “ Kame” belt was formed on the
left hand margin, then its composition should give evidence of
the fact. In the case of the Green Bay glacier, I have shown
that the lines of striation and transportation diverge from the
main axis toward the margin,’ and, so far as the paths of other
glaciers lie within Wisconsin, the observations made upon them,
imply the same method of movement, and this habit finds partial
exemplification among the glaciers of the Alps— partial, be-
cause their contracted valleys and steep slopes afford little oppor-
tunity to deploy in this fashion. If this manner of movement
holds true with the Hrie glacier, material from its trough will be
found to have been transported westward and northwestward
toward the moraine. Thirteen years ago, in an article in the
American Journal of Science, entitled, ‘‘ Some Indications of a
Northward Transportation of Drift Material in the Lower Penin-
sular of Michigan,”’® Professor Alexander Winchell called atten-
tion, with much detail and precision, to a large mass of evidence,
which finds, for the first time, so farasI am aware, satisfactory
explanation in the view now presented, and, in return, has
the force of confirmatory evidence. It appears that immense,
and often but slightly eroded masses of Corniferous limestone,
have been borne in the direction indicated, and scattered over the
areas of the Hamilton group, the Marshall sandstone, and the
Subcarboniferous limestone; that similar blocks of Hamilton rock
have been deposited over the two last named formations and even
beyond ; that the Marshall sandstone has likewise been borne on
to the Carboniferous limestone, and that this transportation has

1Geol. of Wis., Vol. Il, pp. 199 et seq. 2 Am. Jour. of Sci., Vol. XL, Noy., 1865,

Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. 223

been from lower to higher levels, as the strata now lie, and are
presumed to have lain, since the basin is one of excavation and
not of flexure. These phenomena, in all their details, are pre-
cisely what we should expect from the action of a glacier advane-
ing through the Hrie valley, and moving in a manner analogous
to that of the Green Bay glacier. That a glacier moved through
this valley has been abundantly shown by the Ohio geologists.
The only labor of this article is to show that it was an individual-
ized stream, forming the Ohio ‘‘ Kame” beit on one side, and the
Michigan on the other, simultaneously, and that they are collat-
eral members of a common moraine.

Eastward from Ohio, there has been, so far as I am aware, no
definite attempt to trace out the extent of the belt. In western
New York, Prof. Hall mentions, as one of the three general as-
pects of the superficial deposits, a surface “ broken into irregular
hills or ridges, with deep bow]l-shaped depressions, or long valleys,
which often communicate in more extensive ones, or are enclosed
on all sides by drift,” * but he does not definitely locate the forma-
tion, or indicate whether it assumes the form of a belt, or other-
wise. In central New York, Prof. Vanuxem says: “There is
another class of deposits, well defined as to position, but irreg-
ular as to composition, which ure worthy of note. They occur in
the north and south valleys, which are on the south of the Mo-
hawk river, or the great level.” “The whole of these deposits
have a common character. They are in short hills, quite high for
their base and are usually in considerable numbers.” “ They con-
sist of gravel, of stones also of greater size, sand and earth.’’2
These, he says, greatly resemble the “ deluvial elevations” no-
ticed in the survey of Massachusetts,’ the dezeription of which is
perfectly applicable to the formation under consideration. Fur-
thermore, Prof. F. H. King, of the Wisconsin survey, has exam-
ined the same deposits in the vicinity of Ithaca, and recognizes
their identity in kind. Neither of these observers, however, dis-
cern a definite belt, although Prof. Vanuxem destroys the force
of his apparent limitation of the formation to the valleys, by stat-

1 Nat. Hist. Surv. 4th Dist., Geol., Pt. LV, pp. 320, 321.
2Nat. Hist. Surv. N. Y., 3d Dist., p. 218. 5 Geol. of Mass., E. Hitchcock, 1833, p. 144,

224 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ing that there are numerous points where it has formed over the
hill sides, and by associating in mention with it accumulations
on the “heights, apparently in no regular order.” * As these are
deep, canon-like valleys, they would probably modify in some de-
gree, the comparatively thin margin of the glacier, giving it a
somewhat digitate outline, and the greatest accumulations would
take place near the extremities of the tongues, in the valleys, so
far as drainave permitted; while the connecting chains would
form retreating lines, and be less conspicuous, and might, there-
fore, escape observation not definitely turned to the subject. This,
at least, is suggested by some observations of my own in similar
situations. Such valley accumulations, however, do occur at the
extremities of linear glacial lakes that are unconnected witha
definite belt, as in the case of Green Lake, Wisconsin.”

On the line of the Erie R. R., along the small tributary of the
Delaware river that is followed up, westward, from Deposit, I
have observed winding Osar-like ridges, parallel to the valley,
and Kame-like hills upon the slope, up to the watershed of the
Delaware and Susquehanna; likewise in the valley of the latter,
at and near the village of Susquehanna, but I have no knowledge
of their intimate structure, extent, or relations.

In the southeastern district of New York, Prof. Mather recog-
nizes the distinctive aspect of this class of accumulations.® He
cites several instances of its occurrence on the east side of the
Hudson, leaving the impression that they are local features. But
on Long Island, it forms ‘‘an elevated ridge, called by some,
‘Green Mountains,’ and by others, the ‘ Backbone’ of theisland.” 4

This he describes in detail and maps, showing thatit branches at
the east, one chain extending along the southern peninsula to
Montauk Point, and the other, along the northern to its extremity,
and, theoretically, to the islands beyond.

Professors Cook and Smock have recently examined this, and
have shown its connection with a similar moraine, that stretches
across the northern part of New Jersey, from Perth Amboy to

1 Loe. cit., p. 219. 2 Geol. of Wis., 1877, Vol. IT, p. 138.
3 Nat. Hist. Surv. N, Y., Ist Dist., Pt. LV, p. 212. 4 Loc. cit., p. 161.

Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. 295

the Delaware river, below Belvidere. The descriptions of this
range tally quite perfectly with that of the Kettle moraine. This
range, however, lies on the margin of the area of northern drift,
while the western one is medial in position, and at some points is
quite distant from the margin. It will be observed, nevertheless,
that this distance is greatest, in general, at the west, and that in
‘Ohio it becomes very greatly reduced, so that the fact of coinci-
dence on the Atlantic coast, presents no reason for supposing the
ranges to be distinct. But, whether distinct or not, is a matter
to be settled by observation, and it is to be hoped that it will not
- long remain undecided for want of it. The extension of the New
Jersey moraine westward has not, so far as I can learn, yet been
traced, but the survey of Pennsylvania, in progress, will, doubt-
less, soon leave nothing to be desired, so far as that State is in-
volved.

To the eastward, Mr. Warren Upham has recently been en-
gaged in studying its probable continuation in southeastern Mas-
sachusetts. In a personal communication he writes: ‘ A very
clear line of terminal moraine extends along the chain of the
Elizabeth islands southeast of Buzzard’s Bay ; thence it bends to
the northeast and north as far as to North Sandwich, when 7 turns
at a right angle to the east, and extends through Barnstable and
other towns to Orleans, running along the east and west portion
of Cape Cod, and terminating at its east shore.’ ‘This terminal
moraine, like the ‘ Kettle moraine’, is not at the outmost limit
reached ‘by the ice-sheet; for hills, in series nearly parallel to the
moraine. already described, and similarly composed of glacial
drift with many boulders, occur on Martha’s Vineyard and Nan-
tucket islands, corresponding, perhaps, to the terminal moraine
which forms the ‘backbone’ of Long Island. * * The moraine
of the Elizabeth islands and Cape Cod has a length of about 65
miles.” It may be suggested that the range along the Hlizabeth
islands may correspond to the northern branch of the Long Island
moraine described by Prof. Mather, and that, as Mr. Upham sug-
gests, that of Martha’s Vineyard and Nantucket corresponds to
the southern.

1 Ann. Rept. of State Geologist, N. J., 1377, pp. 9¢t seq.
15

226 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Dr. E. Hitchcock refers to these accumulations in his report on
the geology of Massachusetts,’ and classes with them “diluvial
elevations and depressions,” occurring at other points in that and.
adjoining States. It would appear, from the geological reports of
the Eastern States that analogous, though not certainly identical
formations, occur locally, more frequently than in the interior,
and this, from the mountainous nature of the country, is not
strange; but no continuous massive range seems to have been
discerned, except the southern one already described.

In the interior, so far as yet ascertained, the drift limit is not
marked by any such persistent ridge-like accumulation, but grad-
ually dies away or is buried by later deposits, so that the precise
limit of glacial advance is not easily determined. The only ap-
proach to an exception to this, known to me, is the case of the
Kettle moraine in Central Wisconsin, where it lies near the border
of the driftless area. Elsewhere around that area, the drift thins
out very gradually, so as to render the mapping of its margin a
work of close inspection ; and, as the region presents no evidence
of subsequent submersion, or any other special modifying agency,
except the usual meteorological forces, this would seem to repre-
sent approximately the original form of deposit.

It is evident from the foregoing sketch that much observation
remains to be made before the complete geography of this forma-
tion is determined. The conjectural lines on the map are only
theoretical suggestions, preliminary to observation.

Summary.— It may be helpful at this point to summarize, and
bring into close juxtaposition, in thought, the leading characteristics
of this remarkable formation.

1. Its linear extent is very great, whatever its final limits may
be found to be.

2. It has a width of from one to thirty miles.

3. Its average vertical thickness can only be very roughly esti-
mated, but may, very prudently, be placed at 200 or 300 feet.

4. Its surface configuration is peculiarly irregular, and denotes
an extraordinary origin.

1Geol. of Mass. 1833, pp. 144 ed seq.

Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. : PAT]

5. It is a complex range, the component ridges being often ar-
ranged in rude parallelism.

6. A distinction is usually to be observed between the super-
ficial and lateral portions of the deposit on the one hand, and the
central, underlying one on the other, the former being chiefly
sand and gravel, the latter complex commingled debris.

7. The superficial sands and gravels are usually stratified in
various attitudes, but the core of the range is mainly unstratified.

8. The irregularities of the range are most conspicuous where
the superficial sands and gravels are least abundant.

9. The material was derived, in part, conspicuously so, from
the vicinity of the range, and, in part, from the formations lying
backward along the line of drift movement for at least 300 miles.

10. A portion of the material is spherically rounded, a part is
scratched and polished, and some is little affected, though some-
times soft or friable, the latter being usually from adjacent for-
mations.

11. The range is tortuous in its course, but sustains a remark-
able and significant relationship to the great lake basins.

12. It undulates over the face of the country, varying at least
800 feet in its vertical oscillations.

13. It does not sustain any uniform relation to present, or what
are presumed to have been, preglacial drainage systems in their
details. In some portions, it occupies water-partings; in others,
lies on slopes; and in still others, stretches across valleys.

14. It crosses, in its course, all the indurated formations, from
the Laurentian to the Coal measures, but exhibits no specific rela-
tion to their strike or dip.

15. It sustains a definite and most important relationship to the
lines of general drift movement.

16. The range is frequently flanked on its southern, or outer
edge, by level areas of sand aiid gravel, of greater or less extent.
These also occur between the component ridges of the belt, and
on the inner flank, but less frequently.

17. The surface contour of the adjacent region within, or north
of, the belt, usually, though not invariably, has a less perfect
drainage system, and exhibits less noticeably the effects of super-
ficial modification, than the outer side.

228 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Origin.-— Waiving, for the present, some further generalizations,
it is thought that the foregoing phenomena present a specific com-
bination which points unequivocally to a morainic origin. ‘To the
writer, familiar with the multitudinous details, that cannot here
find a place, and having studied recent moraines with special refer-
ence to this formation, they have a force little less then demon-
strative. The range is confidently regarded as a moraine formed
at the margin of a group of glaciers — which may be regarded as
a single lobate one —and marking a definite stage of their history.
A more vivid and graphic view of the outline and movements of
these glaciers, than can be given in words, may be obtained from
Ahe accompanying map, from which it will appear that through
each of the great lake troughs there poured an ice stream, at-
tended by minor currents through the lesser channels.

Its Medial Position.— It has already been remarked that, in the
interior, this moraine does not mark the extreme limit of glacial
advance. Numerous striations, and other evidences of glaciation,
occur on the south side of it. A line has been drawn on the inap
intended to indicate the approximate limit of northern drift, based
on several authorities! How nearly this shows the limit of actual
glacial progress, in distinction from other means of transportation, is
not, I think, as yet definitely ascertained, but the general fact of
progress, to a considerable distance beyond the Kettle moraine, is
sufficiently established. 'The moraine was, therefore, formed after
the retreat of the glacier had commenced, and marks a certain stage of
ats subsequent history.

Glacial Movements before the Formation of the Moraine.—It be-—
comes an interesting question to ascertain whether the glacial
movements were the same before the formation of the moraine, as
afterwards. Fortunately, in southern Wisconsin, we have very
definite and specific evidence bearing on this question. In the
towns of Portland and Waterloo, which lie within the area of
the Green Bay glacier, and from twenty-five to thirty miles distant.
from the moraine, there are several domes of quartzite that rise
through the horizontal sandstones and limestones, which occupy
the surrounding region. These domes are glacially abraded and
grooved in a direction S. 80° W., and trains of quartzite boulders

1Tesiey, Newberry, Cox, and assistants, Worthen, Swallow, and Mudge.

Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. 229

stretch away in that direction to the moraine, and, mingling with
it, pass onward to an equal distance beyond. At the same time
there is abundant evidence from the material of the drift, from the
surface contour and from striation, recently observed by Mr. I. M.
Buell, that the westerly movement of the Lake Michigan glacier,
near the Illinois line, extended to the west side of Rock River,
and that the line of junction of the two glaciers was on the west
sideof thatstream. It appears then, that in this region, the move-
ments were in the same general direction before and after the
formation of the moraine, but that there were changes in the de-
tails, and that the relative size and position of the glaciers were
somewhat different, the Green Bay glacier being relatively smaller
in the earlier epoch. ‘Testimony of similar general import, but
less specific, may be gleamed from the reports of the other states
involved.

Method of Formation.— Tf, then, the glacial movements were the
same, in general, before and after the formation of the moraine,
and yet the minor movements and relative size of the glaciers
somewhat different, how was the moraine formed? A halt in the
retreat of the glaciers, by which their confluent margin should re-
main stationary for a period, would doubtless cause an unusual
accumulation of debris, but this would fail to aecount for the
varying width or irregularities of the moraine. The structure of
the range seems to indicate an alternating retreat and advance of
the ice mass. During the former, debris was thrust out at the
foot of the melting mass, which, when the glacier advanced, was
plowed up into immense ridges. If this process be repeated
several times paralled ranges will be accounted for, and the irreg-
ularities incident to such advance and retreat will explain the
complexity of the range. Where the later advances were equal
to the earlier ones, the accumulation of drift material would be
forced into a single massive ridge. Where any advance failed to
equal a former one, an interval between the accumulations of the
two would result, giving rise toa depression whose form would
depend upon the relations of the two accumulations, but would in.
general be more or less trough-like in character. Where tongues
of ice were thrust into the accumulated material an irregular or

230 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

broken outline would be the result. If masses of the ice becama
incorporated in the drift, as has been suggested, their melting
would give rise to depressions, constituting one form of the kettles
that characterize the range. The suggestion Just made, with ref-
erence to the irregular advance of the ice mass, accounts for other
forms, and, at the same time, for the irregular hills, mounds, and
hillocks. Certain of the kettles may be due to underdrainage,
through the action of strong underground streams that occasion-
ally flow, as full brooklets, from its base. The drainage of the
glacier, while it was advancing and pushing the debris betore it,
was probably quite general and promiscuous over the moraine, and
this would give rise to the stratified sands or gravels, and other
evidences of the action of water, among which may perhaps, be
reckoned some of the minor mounds, ridges and depressions.
The changing attitudes, which the debris would be likely to as-
sume, as it was forced along, would, perhaps, give peculiar force
to torrential effects.

The gaps in the range, attended by plains, or long streams
of gravel and sand, appear to represent the more considerable
points of discharge of the glacial floods. When the surface
about the margin of the glacier permitted the accumulation of
water, the moraine would doubtless be much modified by it and
present a subdued aspect.

The Alpine moraines, above referred to, are regarded as minia-
ture exemplifications of the process by which the Kettle moraine
was formed.

Bet, in addition to the structure of the range, the change in the
relative position of the Green Bay and Lake Michigan glaciers,
already alluded to, affords evidence of an exceedingly interesting
character, which has a significance much beyond what can be here
indicated. It appears that the junction between the Green Bay
and Lake Michigan glaciers at the last observable stage, preceding
the formation of the Kettle moraine, was about twenty-five miles
farther west, than at the time of the latter’s formation, or, in other
words, there is an abrupt easterly shift of the line of junction. It
appears, also, that the width of the ante-morainic Green Bay
glacier, measured just south of the Kettle moraine, was only half

Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. © 231

that of the post-morainic glacier, north of it, measured at a dis-
tance just far enough to escape the terminal curvature. An in-
spection of the outline of the Green Bay glacier shows that this
eastward shift of the junction of the two glaciers was not due
simply to encroachment on the Lake Michigan stream, nor to a
common movement of both in that direction, for the opposite
margin of the Green Bay glacier lay close upon the borders of
the driftless region, demonstrating that there was no eastward
swaying on that side. Indeed, the indenture of the outline of
the driftless area strongly suggests actual encroachment on that
side also, and this view is not without independent support.

In harmony with these phenomena are the fiords of the Green
Bay perinsula, which indicate that the Green Bay ice stream over-
flowed into the basin of Lake Michigan. These facts, taken al-
together, seem to warrant the belief that both glaciers retreated
sufficiently far to the northward, and within their respective
basins, to allow time and opportunity for the change in the rela-
tive size and position of the two ice streams, and that, under
slightly changed conditions that favored the Green Bay glacier,
they advanced to the position of the Kettle moraine, and, after a
series of oscillations, retreated permanently. This view seems
also to be demanded by certain details in the distribution of the
drift material that are otherwise enigmatical, but whose discussion
would too much extend this article.

Significance.—As forty-five years have passed since Dr. Hitch-
cock called attention to some of the phenomena under consider-
ation, or, at least, to some distinctly related to it, and yet, the matter
has received so little consideration, that our present knowledge is
limited to such a degree, that I lay myself liable to the charge of
undue temerity in attempting to correlate the observations, | may
be pardoned in attempting to indicate, briefly, something of the
significance and importance the foregoing conclusions, if sus-
tained, have in relation to the Quaternary history of the region
involved. The moraine constitutes a definite historical datum line,
in the midst of the glacial epoch, and becomes a basis of reference
and correlation for adjacent formations. It isan historicalrampart,
outlining the great dynamic agency of the period, at an important

232 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

stage of its activity, and separating the formations on either hand
by a chronological barrier. It is manifest that the true Boulder
Clay, or ground moraine, south of the belt, must have been formed
earlier than that north of it, and that the two portions are not at
all synchronous. In sedimentary formations synchronism is found
in horizontal strata, but in glacial deposits it is to be sought in
linear belts, concentric with the margin of the glacier. This fact
finds illustration, and emphasis, in the demarcation introduced by
this singular corrugation of the wide-spread glacial sheet. It is
difficult to limit the value of such a determinate line, in the midst
of the complex drift formations, if fully established, and should
similar belts be found to mark other steges of glaciation, there
would be opened a definite line of investigation that promises
much assistance in unraveling the gnarled skein of Quaternary
history.

While it does not follow, necessarily, that all formations over-
laying the true glacial clay, south of the Kettle moraine, are older:
than those occupying similar relations to the newer Till, north of
it, it is clear, that similarity of stratigraphical sequence is not, by
any means, sufficient ground for assuming chronological equiva-
lence. It is evident, that all endeavors at correlation between the:
superficial deposits, on the opposite sides of the moraine, should
be attempted with much cireumspection.

These suggestions have especial application to the discussion of
the vegetal deposits, so frequently found in the later Quaternary
formations. By many writers, the various deposits of this kind,
in the Mississippi basin, have been, very naturally, in the present.
state of our knowledge, grouped together without reference to the
necessary discriminations above indicated, and, as a result, beds.
of diverse age are referred to a common stratum. A general dis-
cussion of these deposits is not sufficiently germane to our sub-
ject to be fittingly introduced here, but it is appropriate to point.
out the fact that some of the vegetal strata sustain such a relation
to the Kettle moraine, that they must be widely separated from
others, in the date of their accumulation and burial. Some of
these organic strata lie at the immediate foot of the moraine, be-
neath fluviatile and lacustrine deposits that, I am confident, began

Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. 233

to be accumulated during the accumulation of the moraine, and
through the agency of glacial floods; while it is even more cer-
tain, that other vegetal deposits accumulated much subsequently,
as those found in the red clays of Wisconsin, which are lacustrine
deposits of the great lakes formed after the recession of the glacier.
It would be too much to assume that all plant remains, found
south of the moraine, antedate its formation, but it is safe to
affirm that, with only phenomenal exceptions, e. g., such as escaped
glacial abrasion, all north of it are more recent.

The bearing of these definite determinations of the glacial outlines
and movements upon the question of the origin of the remarkable
driftless area of Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa and Illinois (see map)
was early perceived, and it was clearly foreseen that this line of
investigation promised a demonstrative solution of the problem.
The driftless area manifestly owes its origin to the divergence of
the glaciers through the Lake Superior channel, on the one hand,
and that of Green Bay and Lake Michigan, on the other, and to
the obstacle presented by the highlands of northern Wisconsin
and Michigan. This obstacle the glacier surmounted, and passed
some distance down the southern slope, but apparently not in
sufficient thickness to overcome the melting and wasting to which
it was subjected, and so it terminated midway the slope. But
the deep, massive ice currents of the great channels pushed far
on to the south, converging toward each other; and, if they did
not actually unite, at least commingled their debris south of the
driftless area.’ An instance closely similar to this, considered
from a dynamical point of view, may be seen, at the present
termination of the Viesch glacier, and illustrations of the general
principles involved in the explanation may be seen in connection
with several other Alpine glaciers.

If the evidence adduced to show that the Kettle moraine was
due to an advance of the glaciers be trustworthy, then, to the
extent of that advance, whether much or little, the moraine marks
a secondary period of glaciation, with an interval of deglaciation

1Compare N. H. Winchell in An. Rep., Geol. of Minn., 1876, and R. D. Irving, Geol. of
Wis., Vol. II, 1877, whose views are closely analogous to the above and each to the other but,
are not strictly identical. See, alzo, J. D. Dana, Am. Jour. Sci., April, 1878.

234 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

between it and the epoch of extreme advance. Its great extent
indicates that whatever agency caused the advance was very wide
spread, if not continental in its influence. The moraine, there-
fore, may be worthy of study in its bearings upon the interesting
question of glacial and interglacial periods.

It will also furnish definite data bearing upon the somewhat
mooted question of the origin of the Great Lakes, as well as other
questions involving both perglacial and postglacial topography.

DEPARTMENT

OF THE

MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.

ROTATION AS A FACTOR OF MOTION.

By PRoFessor J. G. MCMURPHY, KEnosHa.

When an elastic ball is thrown against a plane surface it re-
bounds from that-surface according to certain fixed laws. Its
position at any moment will depend on certain conditions. The
elasticity of the ball, the angle of projection, the rotation of the
ball on its own axis, the velocity, will all of them affect the re-
bounding of the ball. Velocity and elasticity affect the distance
to which it will rebound; the angle of projection and angular mo-
tion will affect the direction of rebounding.

A ball projected perpendicularly against a plane surface will re-
bound in the same line, making due allowance for the attraction
of gravitation, which finally comes and controls its motion. The
resistance of the air is no inconsiderable factor. (In point of fact,
it is the latter only which is opposed to the force with which the
ball rebounds, for gravity acts at right angles to this force and is
not opposed to it.)

Tf the ball, without rotation, is projected against the plane sur-
face at any angle, excepting ninety degrees, it will rebound so
that the- angle of reflection shall be equal to the angle of inci-
dence ; modified, of course, by gravitation and the resistance of
the air.

Let us add another factor and examine the result. Given a hori-
zontal plane surface in front of the vertical plane. Let the ball

236 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

be placed upon it and propelled perpendicularly against the ver-
trical plane by a blow, which takes effect above its center of grav-
ity. Such a blow will impart to the ball a rotary motion, together
with an onward motion or translation. When the ball reaches
the vertical plane its rebounding force, due to translation, will tend
to make it retrace its path, while the force due to its rotation will
tend to make it climb the vertical plane. It is actuated by the
resultant of these two forces, and rebounds through the air, in
the plane of those forces following the diagonal of the rectangle
of forces,

The following diagram* may serve to make the explanation more
apparent: Let A, B, C, D, be the vertical plane; C, D, H, F, the
horizontal plane ;
_ Let a be the point
from which the
ball d is propelled
on a-b; the ball es we,
having a forward DS eS a ee
rotary motion; b-d del
the distance the ve
ball would re- One
bound by virtue ®

A B

F

of its rectilinear motion; 0-c the distance it would climb by vir-
tue of its angular motion. Then will it be found somewhere on
the line b-e. Being a rectangle of forces, the resultant may be
expressed by the formula b-e = /(-c)+(6-d).

If the ball is propelled from a point to the right of its center
of gravity, and constrained to keep the same perpendicular course,
it will have a negative or left-hand rotation ; when it strikes the
vertical plane it will not return in the same path, but will be re-
flected to the right, so that the angle of reflection is not equal to
the angle of incidence. But just as before, the path of the re-
turning ball is the resultant of two forces acting at right angles —
to each other. If the angular velocity is very great, compared

*No cuts having been furnished by the author, the printer has been obliged to construct the
accompanying figures, which are necessarily very imperfect.

Rotation as a Factor of Motion. 237

with the velocity of translation the deflection from a perpendicu-
lar will be very great and vice versa.

When the ball is propelled against the vertical plane at any
other angle than a right angle with a rotary motion besides, the
problem becomes somewhat more complicated. Let the ball
be propelled from a Es Blau ool sens) Cah 9 aa
with a positive rota-
tion. By its motion of
translation it ought
to rebound in the

path which makes it : + c
the angle of reflec- ae | ~

tion, equal to the. salt is, Soo

angle of incidence oa

But by its rotation » a

against the fixed point, 6, it would tend toward c; hence it
will take the direction b-e, and be measured by the diagonal
parallelogram of forces, represented by b-a@ and 6c. Here it is
plain that the angle of reflection is much less than the angle of
incidence. If the rotation be a negative or left-hand rotation
from the same point, a, following the same path, a-d, the result-
ant will be nearer a perpendicular — that is, the angle of reflec-
tion will be greater than the angle of incidence.

If a ball be thrown perpendicularly against a vertical plane sur-
face with a positive rotation it will rebound to the left, if the rota-
tion be negative it will rebound to the right, if the rotation be for-
ward the ball will rise, if backward it will fall. If the ball be
thrown obliquely to the left, with positive rotation, the angle of
reflection will be less than that of incidence. If thrown obliquely
to the right, with same rotation, the angle of reflection will be
greater than that of incidence. The combinations are almost in-
finite, and afford a variety of valuable observations.

There are some very curious and interesting experiments in
compound direct motion. If a ball lying upon a plane surface be
struck by a mallet so as to produce translation with forward rota-
tion on its horizontal transverse axis, and at the same time a ro-
tation about a vertical axis, the ball will neither rotate upon the

238 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

one nor the other, but upon a new axis intermediate between the
vertical and horizontal axes, pointed out by the resultant of the
parallelogram of angular forces. This is the principle illustrated
by the Gyroscope. The ball will describe a curve upon the plane
in the same way that a truck rolled upon the ground when the
axes cease to be level, begins to curveits path; of course the two
cases are quite different, because the curve made by a ball is much
less marked than that made by a truck or wheel. |

There is something of a similar nature seen when a ball is pro-
jected from a gun or cast from the hand. Since the middle of
the sixteenth century, it has been known that the path of a pro-
jectile is a parabola, if no account is taken of the resistance of the
air. Templehoff was the first to take into consideration this ele-
ment in calculating for projectiles. ‘The resistance of the air in-
creases with the square of the velocity until the velocity exceeds
1,300 feet per second, when the resistance is much greater.

In experimenting with smooth-bored guns, it was found that
rotation had much to do with the motion of the projectile from
the muzzle. The only rotation which aided in aiming the gun,
and in making calculations reliable, was the axial rotation, which
was attained by grooving the interior of the barrel. .

In the practice of gunnery with a smooth-bored gun there was
allowed enough space around the ball for free and easy motion. It
was called windage. This windage allowed the ball to ballot
slightly from side to side as it passed through the barrel. At
each point of balloting the ball received a rotary motion by being
retarded on that side next the tangent barrel. The last touch
imparted the final rotation, or that which continued through the
space traversed by the ball. If the last ballot was upon the right
side of the barrel the ball received a right hand rotation. Italso
received an impulse toward the left of the mark aimed at by the
touch on the right side. But while the left side of the ball is
moving forward at a much greater velocity than the center on ac-
count of the right hand rotation, the right side is moving much
slower than the center on account of the same rotation. The left
side, therefore, encounters a greater resistance than the right side.
The air in front and to the left is compressed, and accumulated

Rotation as a Factor of Motion. 239

resistance finally throws the ball to the right. If the ball had
balloted on the left side last, in leaving the muzzle, it would have
been deflected to the right by touch and afterwards to the left by
resistance and reaction of the compressed air. Thus it is possible
with a smooth-bored gun to “shoot round” a nearer object in
direct line and hit a more remote object behind it.

I wish to give but one more instance of the effect of rotation
on direct motion. It is vulgarly called ‘curved ball.” It may
be witnessed in any good base-ball match. The pitcher desires
to elude the strokes of the batter; after delivering a few balls in
simple parabolic curves or with axial rotations, he will deliver the
ball from the hand in such a way that when the ball leaves the
hand the fingers touch it from below, causing the underside to be
retarded while the upperside moves forward. Then the ball ro-
tates upon a horizontal transverse axis, relative to its motion of
translation. The greatest resistance from compressed air is in
front and above the moving ball. The ball seeks a path of less
resistance, preserving its plane of rotation and drops enough to
form a depressed curve. By a skillful adjustment of rotation and
translation, the pitcher is able to produce about such 9 curve as
he wishes. ‘To the batter the ball seems coming toward a point
it is destined to fall short of. Again, by delivering the ball from
the hand with the fingers touching above, a backward rotation is
produced on the top of the ball and a forward motion to the under
side. Such a ball continues its course until accumulated resist-
ance of air from ahead and below throws it upward. So the
batter sees the ball coming toward a point it is destined to pass
clearly above. By skillful manipulation the right side of the de-
liverer the ball may be retarded, and the ball will curve to the
right, and by retarding the left side it will curve to the left. The
amount of curvature is variously estimated by different persons.
With the rotation or twist of the best pitcher, it is no uncommon
thing to make a ball curve a yard from its direct path, while many
cannot effect any curve.

This purports to be only the outline of a subject worthy of
much greater investigation, in its relation to great scientific prob-
lems.

240 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Mr. President, members of the academy and others, my subject
does not admit of a brilliant introduction nor of a grand perora-
tion. It is the simple statement of the effect of rotation as an
element of curvelinear and rectilinear motion.

recent Progress in Theoretical Physics. 241

REPORT ON RECENT PROGRESS IN THEORETICAL
PHYSICS.

By J. EK. DAVIES, A. M., M. D.,

Professor of Physics in the University of Wisconsin.
PART Die

THE MAGNETIC ROTATORY POLARIZATION OF LIGHT.

It is a well known fact that a ray of plane polarized light,
vibrating in any azimuth, will, on passing through a lamina of
quartz, have the azimuth of that vibration changed by an amount
depending upon the thickness of the lamina, and the wave length
of the particular kind of light employed. The direction, right or
left, of this rotation of the plane of vibration depends upon the

———

Nore To PREvIouS PAPER On “ VoRTEX Morton.”

For the production of large-sized vortex rings, the device shown in Fig. 1
is used by Prof. Tait. It isan ordinary wooden box, with a large circular
hole cut out of one end, and the other covered tightly with elastic cloth. It

can be filled with
smoke from a
@ ,. couple of retorts,

@ @ one containing
@) Ammonia and the

other Hydrochlor-
ic Acid. This will
give copious
clouds of chloride
of Ammonium,
which are driven
outjin vortex rings, on striking the elastic cloth. It has been objected that
the rings thus produced do not behave as Helmholtz’ mathematical results
imply. It is not to be expected that they should; for Helmholtz’ investiga-
tion upon vortex motion expressly assumes that the medium in which the
rings are formed is a fréctdonless fluid, which air is not. The rings are truly
air rings, the accompanying smoke merely serving to make them visible.
This is finely shown by sending air rings from a second box against the
smoke rings already formed. The invisible air rings are made manifest by
the jostling of the smoke rings as they are struck by them. The suddenness
of this movement is often very striking.

16

as.

I DU OA

Tl

\ \
eww

Fig.

242 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

quartz employed, some being right-handed and some left-handed.
Certain substances such as quinine, turpentine, tartaric acid, cane

——

Fig. 2, shows the direction of the motion at each point around and close to
the core, or circular axis of a vortex ring.
Fig. 3, shows the relation between the di-
rection of motion of the entire ring and
the direction of
rotation around
the core. It is
seen to be in a
direction “ per-
pendicular to
the plane of the
ring, towards
the side towards
Fig. 2. which the ro- Fig. 3.
tatory motion carries the znner parts of the ring.” The direction of the motion
of the fluid in which the vortex ring exists, at different distances from the
axis of the ring, both within the ring and without it, corresponds to the dzrec-
tion of the lines of magnetic
force around a circular con
ductor in which an electrical
current is maintained, (like
the ring of a tangent galvan-
ometer, for example,) and the
velocities of the fluid in va-
rious parts, will be in propor-
tion to the ¢ntensitées of the

I
magnetic forces around this Ce |

circular conductor, in va-
rious parts of the magnetic Vie =

field, which is due to the elec. M, ie
tric current passing through

\\|

7 || Sh
the conductor, WG : SO? Wy Ly / as
The directions of these WSS LIK |

, SS

YOSSEES Z ‘
lines of magnetic force, sur. ieee? SX. LX
rounding a circular conduct. iS Seee Oe \ \
or are shown in Fig. 4, taken HH [acs \ \ "
from Prof. Clerk Maxwell's cal \ \
admirable treatise upon Elec- Fig. 4.

tricity and Magnetism. The small circle represents a section of the circular
conductor conveying the electric current, while the oval lines represent the
lines of magnetic force surrounding it. Were the conductor merely a
Straight wire, the lines of magnetic force would be circles surrounding it.

recent Progress in Theoretical Physics. 243

and other sugars, are also known to possess this property to a
greater or less degree.

Here the conductor is supposed to be bent in a ring placed vertically, and the
plane of the paper, a section through it. The section and lines of one side
only are shown. These lines would therefore represent the directions of the lines
of flow in the fluid surrounding a vortex ring of which the small circle is a
section of the core. The intensity of the magnetic force at any point of one of
these lines would also be proportional to the velocity of the fluid at a corres-

ponding point around the vortex.
= Perhaps Figs. 5 and 6

will help to a better under
standing of the relations
contemplated.

DirectionofE lectrie

Carrent

Direction of
"xyz Maguctic Force,

F%g. 5. Fig. 6

The behaviour of two vortex rings gyrating in the same or in opposite di-
rections, in a frictionless fluid, are shown for rings gyrating in the same
direction by Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4 of Fig. 7;

AWD Hod

B
Fig. 7.

and for rings gyrating in opposite directions by Nos. 1, 2 and 3 of Fig. 8.

A N03

p

!

| LLt/f

244 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Faraday, in 1845, showed that this rotation of the azimuth of
vibration could also be produced in substances not otherwise pos-
sessing it, by subjecting them to strong electro-magnetic influence,
something after the manner shown in Fig. 9, where N is the polar-

Fig. 9.

izer which reduces the vibrations to a definite azimuth; G is the
substance subjected to electro-magnetic strain; a and 0 are the

“ Where the rings have equal radii and equal and opposite angular velocities,
they will approach each other and widen one another; so that finally when they
are very near each other, their velocity of approach becomes continually small-
er and smaller, and their rates of widening faster and faster.. If they are per-
fectly symmetrical, the velocity of fluid elements midway between them,
parallel to the axis, is zero, and here we might imagine a rigid plane to be in-
serted, which would not disturb the motion, and so obtain the case of a vortex
ring which encounters a fixed obstacle. If the rings have the same direc-
tion of rotation, they travel in the same direction; the foremost widens and
travels more slowly, the pursuer shrinks and travels faster, till finally, if their
velocities are not too different, it overtakes the first and penetrates it. So the
rings pass through each other alternately.”

In Fig. 7, No. 1 represents the rings rotating in the same direction at start
ing; No. 2 shows the forward ring, A, slackening itsspeed and dilating; No.
3, the B ring contracting, accelerating its speed and passing through. Ring
£ then slackens its speed, and dilates in turn, while A contracts.

In Fig. 8, the gradual approach of the rings gyrating oppositely is not well
shown. The long arrows are intended to show the direction in which the rings
would move, in virtue of their respective rotations, were they not influenced by
each other.

The motions of the fluids at,various points surrounding a vortex filament
in the shape of aring, are best traced by means of Elliptic Integrals of the

Recent Progress in Theoretical Physics. 245

two poles of the electro-magnet, bored through for the reception
of the substance and the passage of the light, and N, is the anal-
yzer by which the position of the azimuth of the light reaching
it is determined. When G is a determinate length of ‘heavy
class” (a silico-borate of lead), the analyzer requires a rotation of
6° on producing the electro-magnetism, in order to be placed in
the same relation to the azimuth of vibration of the light reaching
it, as it was in, before the circuit was closed. That is, if the posi-
tion of the analyzer is such before the electro-magnetic circuit is
closed, that the field is dark, on closing the circuit, and thus plac-
ing the glass in a strong field of magnetic force, the azimuth of
the polarized light is so changed that a perceptible amount gets
through, and the analyzer must be rotated 6° in order to again cut
it off and render the field dark as before. This angle through
which the light is turned, is, however, in addition to the length of
the stratum of the medium through which it is compelled to pass,
directly proportional to the strength of the current producing the
magnetism (or rather to that resolved part of the magnetic force
produced by the current, which is in the direction of the ray).
The amount of the rotation also depends upon the refractive
energy of the medium subjected to the magnetic strain. The rela-
tion is sometimes stated thus: “ The angular rotation of the plane
of polarization is numerically equal to the amount by which the
magnetic potential increases from the point at which the ray enters
the medium to that at which it leaves it, multiplied by a coéffi-
cient, which, for diamagnetic media (like glass), is generally posi-
tive.” — Maxwell. 3

first and second kind. An elementary discussion of the principal features of
vortex motion, involving only the simplest Quarternion notions, is given in
Prof. Clifford’s recently published ‘ Elements of Dynamics — Part I,” page
191, et seg. Sir Wm. Thompson has also published an extensive paper in the
Trans. of the Royal Soc., Edin. Vol. 8 for 1869, in which many new theories
are established and many illustrations of vortex motions in fluids are given,
by means of real or or ideal electro-magnets variously arranged. A sum-
mary of several of these theories and analogies will be found in Thompson’s
“Reprint of Papers on Electro-statics, and Magnetism.’’— London, 1872. An
earlier ‘paper, suggesting the idea of vortex atoms, was published in Vol. 34,
p. 15, of the Phil. Mag., 1867. London, Dublin and Edinburgh.

246 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Lelters.

Under the same circumstances, where “heavy glass” would
produce a rotation of 6°, Bisulphide of Carbon would produce a
rotation of 8°; flint glass, 2° 8’; rock salt, 2° 2’; water, 1°.

The behavior of a large number of substances under the simul-
taneous influence of magnetism and circularly polarized light of
different colors was examined by Verdet in 1863. He found the
results of his experiment to agree very well with the formula:

G = mer ci ( 1—A =) Moe) eee (1.)
7?

where @ is the angular rotation of the plane of polarization; ma
constant (the coéfficient of magnetic rotation of the medium); 7
the intensity of the magnetic force resolved in the direction of the
ray; cthe length of the ray within the medium ; / the wave length
in air, of the particular kind of light employed; 7 its index of
refraction in the medium. /

For Creosote there was considerable deviation from the formula.
On account of the mixed nature of Creosote, being an aggregate of
Carbolic Acid and several other substances, this might have been
expected, even if the above were the true formula representing
the relation between the rotation, magnetic force, wave length,
and refractive index.

Verdet has summed up his results as follows:

Ist. ““The magnetic rotations of the planes of polarization for
light of different colors are approximately as the inverse square
of the wave length of the light employed.

2nd. “The exact law is that the product of the rotation of the
square of the wave length, increases from the least refrangible to
the most refrangible end of the spectrum.”

ord. “The substances for which this increase is most sensible
are also those which have the greatest dispersive power.”

The formula (1) may be derived from the following more gen-

eral formula
1

d 4x eae: i \=——
f) SS cal coast ES CIES ae ( paves a ) —— Iz ©: ere (OF
cy & ie c / BM = l—2rCy 2 (2.)

vor
which Prof. Clerk Maxwell has shown to be a consequence of Sir
Wm. Thompson’s assumption that the only dynamical explana-

Recent Progress in Theoretical Physics. 247

tion possible for the magnetic rotation of the plane of polarized
light is that, in magnetization there must be molecular electrical
currents, and that the components of these currentscan bedynam-
ically compounded with the angular velocity acquired by an ele-
ment of the medium, during the passage through itof a ray of
circularly-polarized light.

:2

4 C

?

and neglecting 220; —— :
vo

On making in formula (2), m =

because it is very small, being essentially the amount of the rota-
tion of the plane of polarization after passing through a thickness
of the medium only equal to half a wave length of the light em-
ployed, we have formula (1).

Before showing the manner in which formula (2) is eaonaed by
Maxwell, from Thompson's explanation of the magnetic rotation
of the plane of polarized hght, it may be best to recall one or two
elementary propositions relating to polarized light, and also to
circular motion. In the first place, experiment shows that two
rays of light circularly polarized in opposite directions, and
of the same intensity, become, when united, a plane polarized
ray, the plane of polarization of which will depend upon whether
the periods of the component circular vibrations are the same or
not. If, from any cause, the phase of one of the circularly-polar-
ized rays is accelerated, then the plane of polarization of the re-
sultant ray, is turned round through an angle equal to half the
angle of acceleration of the phase.

So also in certain cases, such as reflection from metallic sur-
faces, or total reflection in glass at certain angles, as in Fresnel’s
rhombs, or in the passage of light through thin laminz of double
refracting crystals, as in quarter-wave laminz of mica, two plane
vibrations may give rise to one circular one, right handed or left-
handed, according as one or the other plane component is ad-
vanced in phase by a quarter of a complete oscillation.

This is only what might be expected from the well-known
theorem in pure motion, that ‘two uniform circular vibrations of
the same amplitude, having the same periodic time and in the
same plane, but revolving in opposite directions, are equivalent,

248 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

when compounded together, to a rectilinear vibration. The peri-
odic time of this plane vibration is equal to that of the circular
vibrations, its amplitude is double, and its direction is in the line
joining the points at which two particles describing the circular
vibrations, in opposite directions round the same circle, would
meet.”
The theorem may be illustrated as follows:
Tf, in any space like that represented in Fig. 10, we have a great
Fig. 10. number of spins, more or less
completely filling the space en-
closed by the larger circle, and
about axes perpendicular to the
plane of the paper, the resultant
will be equivalent to a spin of
' definite magnitude about some
single axis likewise perpendic-
ular,to the to the plane of the
paper; the magnitude of this
resultant spin being determined
by the intensity, relative dis-
tances, and number, of the component spins which go to make it
up. Regarding this resultant spin only, the velocity of a particle

at any distance from the axis can be decomposed into component
F%g. 11.

velocities, asin Fig, 11, where
the uniform circular motion Y
of I’, from X to Y, can be de-
composed into =r. cos dand
7=r. sin #,in such a man-
ner that the motion of D, to
and fro on the line X, and
the motion of E to and fro on
on the line Y, correspond
constantly in position to the
motion of F around the cir-
cle. In such a case, we say

that the circular harmonic
motion of F is compounded of two rectilinear harmonic motions
along X and Y, of equal periods and amplitude, but differing by

Recent Progress in Theoretical Physics. 249

a quarter of a complete oscillation. If there be two equal and op-
posite tendencies operating upon F, one to carry it toward Y,
and the other toward X, the result will be, that the tangential
tendencies at I’ will neutralize each other, while the normal com-
ponents will coincide and carry the particle towards C along r (Fig.
11), and a rectilinear motion Fig. 13.
will be the result, as in Fig.
12 or Fig. 13. Thus two tend-
encies to gyrate in opposite
directions may result in mere
rectilinear vibrations. Ifone
Hig. 12. of these
tenden-
cies be
stronger
than the
other, so
that of it-
self it would produce a more rapid rotation in zs direction, than
the other component in its, then the motion will be elliptical in an
orbit of which the major axis changes at each complete oscillation
Hig. 15. by some angle @, the magnitude
of which will depend upon the
excess of velocity in one direc-
tion over that in the opposite.
This is easily seen by reference
to Figs. 14 or
15, where the
motion would
be along ad, /
were both cir- |

Fig. 142
a

cular compo- \
me nents equal,
| we)
Ved Loy whereas the b
'The engraver has very imperfectly copied the original drawings for this
& §
as for some of the other figures.

*For c in the figure, read f, and for a and 6 at the extremities of one of the
diameters, read a’ and 0’, respectively.

250 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

excess of that towards a’ carries towards a’ during the first part of
the virtual motion along ab, and towards 0’ during the part from 8
to b; that is, on account of the shorter time required to complete
an oscillation in the direction from a’ to U’, around the circle, than
in the opposite direction, there is an acceleration of phase in that
direction. Hence, aslong as the tendency to increased rapidity of
one component over that of the other continues, so long will there
be a change in the position of the line ab.

The application of these principles to the rotation of the plane of
polarization as it occurs in quartz, will be clearly shown by the
following extract and diagram, taken from Prest. Barnard’s excel-
lent “Lectures on the Undulatory Theory of Light,” Smithsonian
Annual Report for 1862.

After a general discussion of circular and elliptical polenta ta
by reflection, Prest. Barnard says:

‘“‘ We are now perhaps prepared to understand the reason of the
rotation of the plane of polarization of a ray transmitted along the
axis of a crystal of quartz. We have seen that Fresnel, by an in-
genious combination of prisms, succeeded in demonstrating the
existence within the crystal of two circularly polarized rays, gyrat-

rig. 16. ing in opposite directions. And we have
seen that the resultant effect of two oppo-
site gyrations, is to produce a movement
in a plane. The gyratory movements
within the crystal are then not actual but
virtual —in other words, there are forces
constantly tending to produce these gyra-

tions, which hold each other im equilibrio,
or at least nearly so. We must consider
these forces as successively traversing
all azimuths within the length of each un-
dulation. If the wave were of the same
length in both gyrations, the forces being
presumed equal, the molecular move-
ment would be constantly rectilinear, and

the plane of polarization would not
change. But, as the plane does in fact change, we are led to infer

Recent Progress in Theoretical Physics. Z2o1

that the undulation lengths for the two rays are not equal. The
annexed figure may serve to illustrate the mutual action of these
rays. Suppose M A D B, to be the orbit in which a force P tends
to urge a molecule M, to revolve around the center C, to which it
is drawn by the force MC. Suppose the equal force Q to urge
the same molecule to describe the same orbit in the opposite
direction. These forces holding each other 7n equilibrio, the mole-
cule will follow the direction of the third force, M C.

Now suppose the force Q suspended, the molecule will take
the direction of the circle A D B, and will continue to revolve in
it so long as the force P (supposed always tangential) continues
to act. But its movemehts will impart to the molecule next
below it a similar motion, and that to the next, and so on; so that,
as these successive molecules take up their movements later and
later, there will be a series in different degrees of advancement in
their several circles, forming a spiral; and when the molecule M
shall have returned to its original position, the series will occupy
a position like the curve MF L N’OR. If, now, P besupposed
to be in turn suspended, while the force Q continues to act, the
effect of Q will be to produce a contrary spiral, which may be
represented by MS KTV. If{MD bea diameter of the circle
M A DB, drawn from M, and DH N’ bea line parallel to the
axis OC G of the cylindrical surface, which is the locus of the
spirals, then, if the undulating lengths are the same for both
movements, the two spirals will intersect D H in the same point,
the intersection marking the completions of a half undulation for
each. But if these lengths be unequal, the intersection with D H
will take place at different points as N and N’.

Let now a plane intersect the cylinder at any distance below
M A DB, as at H, parallel to M A DB. It is conceivable that
this plane may be made to pass through the point where the
spirals intersect each other. Jf I mark the point of intersection,
and we draw the tangents I P’ and I Q’ in the plane of the circle
E HI, then there will be a molecule at the point I which wiil be
in the circumstances of the molecule in [Fig. 12 at the point a] —
that is to say, solicited by three forces, of which two, I P’ and I Q’
are equal and opposite, and the third is directed in the ine 1G

252 Wisconsin Acadetay of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

towards the center. The molecule will, therefore move in this
line, and not in a circle; and if the plane of the circle H H I H’
be the bounding surface of the crystal, or the surface of emer-
gence of the light, 1 G will mark the azimuth of the molecular
movements of the emergent ray.

But if the planes of EH H I H do not pass through the point of
intersection of the spirals it must cut each spiral in a different
point. The figure is drawn to represent this more general case,
the points of intersection with the spirals being severally L and K.

By joining L K and drawing the radius G I perpendicular to it,
G I will bisect the angle G L K and M’, at the intersection of G
JT and L K will be the position of the molecule in the plane H H
LIK, which, if the tangential force P only were acting, would be
at L, and if the tangential force Q only were acting, would be at
K. The tangential forces acting at the moment on this molecule
will not be represented by I P’ and I Q’, but will be tangents at K
and L.

Now, as D H, the distance between the planes AD B and EH H
J, is a larger part of the length of an entire turn of the spiral MS
N K than of the spiral M F L N’, the line G I will fall on the
right of G H, the position it would occupy if the two undulations
were equal in length. We may therefore say, as before, that if
the plane EK H I were the surface of emergence of a ray from a
erystal, in which it had been subject to the action of the forces
supposed, its plane of polarization, G I, would be turned towards
the right from its original azimuth. The plane of polarization
turns, therefore, in the direction of the winding of the closest spi-
ral, or of the ray of shortest undulation; but it turns in the direc
tion of the gyration of the ray of longest undulation.

This rotation of the plane, thus demonstrates that the two rays
advance with unequal velocities in the axis of quartz —a remark-
able fact which is not true of any crystal which produces plane
polarization only. It also enables us to determine the relative
velocities, or to ascertain the index of rotatory polarization. For
since G I bisects the angle between the points K and L, which
mark the relative degrees of advancement of the two rays in their
respective rotations, if we take a thickness 6, which produces a

Recent Progress in Theoretical Physics. 253

rotation of 90°, we know that the difference of phase is then one-
halfan undulation. If A£ denote the length of the longer undula-
tion, and 1, that of the shorter, then ——
uns
G=mi= (m+ $)X; or as = ae 2a
A m 2m

6

As — = m,and 4 may be determined by experiments in refrac-

‘

tion, the value of m is known when @ is measured. By pursuing
this method, Mr. Babinet found the value of 7 = 1.00008; a

‘S

value which, small as it is, is the largest known for [non-magnetic]
rotatory polarization.”
The first mathematical explanation of rotatory polarization as it
occurs in quartz, appears to have been given by MacCullagh, in
1836 (Trans. R. Irish Acad., XVII). He succeeded perfectly in
explaining the phenomena as they occur in uniaxial crystals, by
introducing into the ordinary equations of vibratory motion in

o-
fluids, terms of the form c es So that the equations become:

z

ae are a*y ,
muita Seer Rope

DE ree

ay may dn A OFS

Gio dz dz

Cauchy also appears to have furnished similar equations to M.
Jamin, at the request of the latter, who compared them carefully
with experiments, and found a perfect agreement so far as uniaxial
crystals are concerned (Verdet—Lecons D’Optique Physique, Vol.
IT, p. 323). For biaxial erystals Verdet says: ‘Za methode de
MacCullagh est tres-remarquable : c'est un bel exemple de ce qu’ on
peut faire quand on est réduit a de simples conjectures.”

The matter has since been treated by M. Briot in an “ Mssud
sur la theorie mathematique dela lumiere.” He supposes a forced
distribution of the ether in rotatory crystals, so that the lines of
ethereal molecules are arranged in elliptic helices. This supposi-
tion introduces into the differential equations of vibratory move
ment, differential coefficients of odd orders, the presence of which
indicates the rotatory power.

Airy has suggested similar equations for the rotation produced

}

254. Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

by magnetism, “not as giving a mechanical explanation of the phe-
nomena, but as showing that the phenomena may be explained
by equations, which equations appear to be such as might possi-
bly be deduced frem some plausible mechanical assumption,
although no such assumption has been made.”

This explanation of what rotatory polarization is, as it occurs in
bodies which of themselves rotate the plane of polarization, may

Fig. 16. help to an understanding of Fig. it.

the manner in which an |

electric current, circulating the

around a medium through

which circularly polarized

light is passing, may possi-

bly affect the velocity of

either circular component of the polarized light, and thus, accord-

ing as the direction of the current is with a circular component,

as in Fig. 16, or against it, as in Fig. 17, produce a right-handed

or a left-handed rotation, according to the direction in which the
current circulates around the medium.

Of this latter, Sir Wm. Thompson, in 1856, made the important

observation,’ which Prof. Clerk Maxwell has elaborated into the

“The magnetic influence on light, discovered by Faraday, depends on the
direction of motion of moving particles. For instance, in a medium possess-
ing it, particles in a straight line parallel to the lines of magnetic force, dis-
placed to a helix round this line ag axis, and then projected tangentially with
such velocities as to describe circles, will have different velocities, according
as their motions are round in one direction (the same as the nominal direc-
tion of the galvanic current in the magnetizing coil) or in the contrary direc-
tion. But the elastic reaction of the medium must be the same for the same
displacements, whatever be the velocities and directions of the particles; that
is to say, the forces which are balanced by centrifugal force of the cireular
motions are equal, while the luminiferous motions are unequal. The absolute
circular motions being therefore either equal or such as to transmit equal cen.
trifugal forces to the particles initially considered, it follows that the lumi-
niferous motions are only components of the whole motion; and that a less
luminiferous component in one direction, compounded with a motion ex-
isting in the medium when transmitting no light, gives an equal resultant to
that of a greater luminiferous motion in the contrary direction compounded
With the same non-luminous motion. I think it is not only impossible to
conceive any other than this dynamical explanation of the fact that circularly-

\

Recent Progress in Theoretical Physics. _ 250

fundamental equation with which we began this article, and
which the experiments of Verdet so remarkably corroborate.

“he disturbance which constitutes ght, whatever its physical
nature may be, is of the nature of a vector, perpendicular to the
direction of the ray. This is proved from the fact of the interfer-
ence of two rays of light, which, under certain conditions, pro-
duces darkness, combined with the fact of the non-interference of
two rays polarized in planes perpendicular to to each other. For,
since the interference depends on the angular position of the planes
of polarization, the disturbance must be a directed quantity or
vector, and since the interference ceases when the planes of polar-
ization are at right angles, the vector representing the disturbance
must be perpendicular to the line of intersection of these planes,
that is, to the direction of the ray.

The disturbance, being a vector, can be resolved into compo-
nents parallel to x and y, the axis of z being parallel to the direc-
tion of theray. Let and 7 be these components; then, in the case
of a ray of homogeneous circularly-polarized light,

€ =7rcos G, f= ew (1)
where @=nt —qz +a. (2)

In these expressions, 7 denotes the magnitude of the vector, and
@ the angle which it makes with the direction of the axis of x.

The periodic time, t, of the disturbance is such that

(Ne = 2s: (3)
The wave-length, A, of the disturbance is such that
Mh eg. (4)

The velocity of propagation is ~

The phase of the disturbance when ¢ and z are both zero is a.

The circularly-polarized light is right-handed or left-handed
according as q is negative or positive.

polarized light transmitted through magnetized glass, parallel to the lines
of magnetizing force, with the same quality, right-handed always or left-
handed always, is propagated at different rates, according as its course is in
the direction or is contrary to the direction in which a north magnetic pole
is drawn; but I believe it can be demonstrated that no other explanation of
that fact is possible. Hence it appears that Faraday’s optical discovery
affords a demonstration of the reality of Ampere’s explanation of the ulti-
mate nature of magnetism.” — Srr Wa. THOMPSON.

256 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Its vibrations are in the positive or the negative direction of rota-
tion in the plane of (a, y), according as n is positive or negative.

The light is propagated in the positive or the negative direction
of the axis of z, according as n and g are of the same or of oppo-
site signs.

In all media n varies when qg varies, and i is always of the

. . n
same sign with —.

Hence, if for a given numerical value of n, the value of —

is greater when 7 is positive than when 7 is negative, it rollers
that for a given value of g, given both in magnitude and sign, the
positive value of m will be greater than the negative value.

Now this is what is observed in a diamagnetic medium, acted
on by a magnetic force, 7, in the direction of z. Of the two cir-
cularly-polarized rays of a given period, that is accelerated of
which the direction of rotation in the plane of (a, y) is positive.
Hence, of two circularly polarized rays, both left-handed, whose
wave-length within the medium is the same, that has the shortest
period whose direction of rotation in the plane of (a, y) is positive,
that is, the ray which is propagated in the positive direction of z
from south to north. We have, therefore, to account for the fact
that when in the equations of the system g and r are given, two -
values of 2 will satisfy the equations, one positive and the other
negative, the positive value being numerically greater than the
negative.

We may obtain the equations of motion from a consideration of
the potential and kinetic energies of the medium. The potential
energy, V, of the system, depends on its configuration, that is, on
the relative position of its parts. In so far as it depends on the
disturbance due to circularly-polarized light, it must be a a func-
tion of 7, the amplitude, and gq, the coefficient of torsion, only. It
may be different for positive and negative values of qg of equal
numerical value, and it probably is so in the case of media, which
of themselves rotate the plane of polarization.

The kinetic energy, Z, of the system, is a homogeneous function
of the second degree of the velocities of thesystem, the coefficients
of the different terms being functions of the coordinates.

Recent Progress in Theoretical Physics. 257

Let us consider the dynamical condition that the ray may be of
constant intensity, that is, that 7 may be constant.
Lagrange’s equation for the force in r becomes
Oh GHE CLT OV
Gi INO nat Cp
Since 7 is constant the first term vanishes. We have therefore
the equation

0. (5)

ie Pa 9) (6)
dr dr

in which g is supposed to be given, and we are to determine the
value of the angular velocity 0, which we may denote by its actual
value, n.

The kinetic energy, 7, contains one term involving n*; other
terms may contain products of n with other velocities, and the
rest of the terms are independent of n. The potential energy, V,
is entirely independent of n. ‘The equation is, therefore of the
form

Alig ae Jey se (GSU) (7)

This being a quadratic equation, gives two values of x. It ap-
pears from experiment that both values are real, that one is posi-
tive and the other negative, and that the positive value is numeri-
cally the greater. Hence, if A is positive, both Band C are neg-
ative ; for, if n, and m, are the roots of the equation,

A(n, + m) + B= 0. (8)

The coefficient B, therefore, is not zero, at least when magnetic
force acts on the medium. We have, therefore, to consider the
expression Bn, which is the part of the kinetic energy involving
the first power of n, the angular velocity of the disturbance.

Every term of 7’ is of two dimensions as regards velocity.
Hence the terms involving n must involve some other velocity.
This velocity cannot be r or g, because, in the case we consider,
y and g are constant. Hence it is a velocity which exists in the
medium independently of that motion which constitutes light. It
must also be a velocity related to n in such way that when it is
multiplied by » the result is a scalar quantity, for only scalar
quantities can occur as terms in the value of 7, which is itself

1”

258 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

scalar. Hence this velocity must be in the same direction as n, or
in the opposite direction, that is, it must be an angular velocity
about the axis of z.

Again, this velocity cannot be independent of the magnetic
force, for if it were related to a direction fixed in the medium, the
phenomenon would be different if we turned the medium end for
end, which is not the case.

We are therefore led to the conclusion that this velocity is an
invariable accompaniment of the magnetic force in those media
which exhibit the magnetic rotation of the plane of polarization.

We have been hitherto obliged to use language which is, per-
haps, too suggestive of the ordinary hypothesis of motion in the
undulatory theory. It is easy, however, to state our result ina
form free from this hypothesis.

Whatever light is, at each point of space there is something
going on, whether displacement or rotation, or something not yet.
imagined, which is certainly of the nature of a vector or directed
quantity, the direction of which is normal to the direction of the
ray. This is completely proved by the phenomenon of inter-
ference.

In the case of circuilarly-polarized light, the magnitude of this
vector remains always the same, but its direction rotates round
the direction of the ray so as to complete a revolution in the peri-
odic time of the wave. The uncertainty which exists as to whether
this vector is in the plane of polarization or perpendicular to it,
does not extend to our knowledge of the direction in which it rotates
in right handed and left: handed circularly-polarized light respee-
tively. The direction and the angular velocity of this vector are
perfectly known, though the physical nature of the vector and
its absolute direction at a given instant are uncertain.

When a ray of cireularly-polarized light falls on a medium un-
der the action of magnetic force, its propagation within the me-
dium is affected by the relation of the direction of rotation of the
light to the direction of the magnetic force. From this we conclude
that in the medium, when under the action of magnetic force, some
rotatory motion is going on, the axis of rotation being in the direc-
tion of the magnetic forces; and that the rate of propagation of cir-

Recent Progress in Theoretical Physics. 259

cularly-polarized light, when the direction of its vibratory rotation
and the direction of the magnetic rotation of the medium are the
same, is different from the rate of propagation when these direc
tions are opposite.

The only resemblance which we can trace between a medium
through which circularly-polarized light is propagated, and a me-
dium through which lines of magnetic force pass, is that in both there
is a motion of rotation about an axis. But here the resemblance
stops, for the rotation in the optical phenomenon is that of the
vector which represents the disturbance. This vector is always
perpendicular to the direction of the ray, and rotates about ita
known number of times in a second. In the magnetic phenome-
non, that which rotates has no properties by which its sides
can be distinguished, so that we cannot determine how many
times it rotates in a second.

There is nothing, therefore, in the magnetic phenomenon which
corresponds to the wave-lensth and the wave-propagation in the
optical phenomenon. A medium in which a constant magnetic
force is acting, is not, in consequence of that force, filled with
waves traveling in one direction, as when light is propagated
through it.

The only resemblance between the optical and the magnetic
phenomenon is, that at each point of the medium something exists
of the nature of an angular velocity about an axis in the direction
of the magnetic force.

ON THE HYPOTHESIS OF MOLECULAR VORTICES.

The consideration of the action of magnetism upon polarized
light leads, as we have seen, to the conclusion that in a medium
under the action of magnetic force something belonging to the same
mathematical class as an angular velocity, whose axis is in the
direction of the magnetic force, forms a part of the phenomenon.

This angular velocity cannot be that of any portion of the me-
dium of sensible dimensions rotating as a whole. We must,
therefore, conceive the rotation to be that of very small portions
of the medium, each rotating on its own axis. This is the hypoth-
esis of molecular vortices.

CS A i

260 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

The motion of these vortices, though, as we have shown, it does
not sensibly affect the visible motions of large bodies, may be such
as to affect that vibratory motion on which the propagation of
light, according to the undulatory theory, depends. The dis-
placements of the medium, during the propagation of leht, will
produce a disturbance of the vortices, and the vortices, when so
disturbed, may re-act on the medium so as to affect the mode of
propagation of the ray.

It is impossible, in our present state of ignorance as to the na-
ture of the vortices, to assign the form of the law which connects
the displacement of the medium with the variation of the vortices.
We shall therefore assume that the variation of the vortices,
caused by the displacement of the medium, is subject to the same
conditions which Helmholtz, in his great memoir on Vortex-mo-
tion, has shown to regulate the variation of the vortices of a per-

fect liquid.

Helmholtz’s law may be stated as

, follows: — Let P and @ be two neigh-

i boring particles in the axis of a vortex,

EG then, if in consequence of the motion

of the fluid these particles arrive at

the points P’ Y, the line P’ Y will rep-

resent the new direction of the axis of the vortex, and its streneth
will be altered in the ratio of P’ Y to P Q.

Hence if a, 8, 7 denote the components of the strength of the

vortex, and if €, 7, € denote the displacements of the medium, the

value of a will become

a=a4 pes | ie 7 a&

da: dy dz

dy d: di

(me ( aynaeedl es eel ed
ene aie da dy USE (1)

, dt ag de

=rtaS 4 pte 4,7

aes! ” des ; dy de

We now assume that the same condition is satisfied during the
small displacements of a medium in which a, f, 7 represent, not

Recent Progress of Theoretical Physics. 261

the components of the strength of an ordinary vortex, but the
components of magnetic force.

The components of the angular velocity of an element of the
medium are

(2)

dt \ dz dc
mn d i sui dé }
ae \ ag dy

The next step in our hypothesis is the assumption that the

kinetic energy of the medium contains a term of the form:
2 C(aw, + Bo, + 703). (38)

This is equivalent to supposing that the angular velocity ac-
quired by the element of the medium during the propagation of
light is a quantity which may enter into combination with that
motion by which magnetic phenomena are explained.

In order to form the equations of motion of the medium, we
must express its kinetic energy in terms of the velocity of its

parts, the components of which are = - = We therefore

integrate by parts, and find

2 0 J. We - (Gah Ae Clas ck any) Oe Gh ee
=0f f(r; ABS) dy e+ Off (a8 —7E) dea
ae of] (8 oa ae dy + CLL, : — =)

dy

a dy — fi) in de ( me da th ay ob (4)
dt \ dz da aD Neier SCO)

' The double integrals refer to the bounding surface, which may

be supposed at an infinite distance. We may, therefore, while

investigating what takes p'ace in the interior of the medium, con-

fine our attention to the triple integral.

262 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, und Letters.

The part of the kinetic energy in unit of volume, expressed by
this triple integral, may be written
4x0 (& eae 6)
dt
where u, v, w are the components of the Be current.

It appears from this that our hypothesis is equivalent to the as-
sumption that the velocity of the particle of the ‘medium whose
dé oy dé
di? dt’ dt’
combination with the electric current whose components are w, ©

components are , is a quantity which may enter into

v, W.
Returning to the expression under the sign of triple integration
in (4), substituting for the value of a, 8,7, those of a’, f, 7’, as
given by equation (1), and writing
d d d d
see SHORE (= a en 6
a eR ce (6)
the expression under the sign of integration becomes
Ges (a a) + dt - =)
(dt dh\dy — dz didh\dz dz dt dh \dx
In the case of waves in planes normal to the axis of z the dis-
placements are functions of 2 and ¢ only so that & = _ and
Z

this expression is reduced to
US dn in Oy as
C | Py Oe)
"leu ea 8)

The kinetic energy per unit of volume, so far as it depends on
the velocities of displacement, may now be written

at dé Ge dnl Gane
T= = +t A C i eae fo
hee e TAO Cr | a eae ae

where p is the density of the medium.
The components, X and Y, of the impressed force, referred to
unit of volume, may be deduced from this by Lagrange’s equations

aE a?
xe Ley ae
p dt r dz2-dt u
a? ae
V = 92 Oe
lim au FREE a)

Recent Progress in Theoretical Physics. 263

These forces arise from the action of the remainder of the
medium on the element under consideration, and must in the case
of an isotropic medium be of the form indicated by Cauchy,

X A, So + AS 1 Bie (12)
Viz ye coe cic (13)
If we now take the case of a circularly-polarized ray for which
E = reos (nt — qz), 7 =r sin (nt—qz), (14)
we find for the kinetic energy in unit of volume
hi 5) Onn CO rieg 7. (15)
and for the potential energy in unit of volume
VS PAW = 4uG 2 aie) =a (16)

where @ is a function of q’.

The condition of free propagation of the ray given in equation

(6), is

ian Ve
xesins gy —— eI lf
dr dr ae
which gives
on? — 2Cr7n = Q, (18)

whence the value of n may be found in terms of ¢.
But in the case of a ray of given wave-period, acted on by mag-

ene de
netic force, what we want to determine is the value of oe when n

is constant, in terms of — when; is constant. Differentiating (18)

{20n — 2Cyrq") dn — ee + 4Crqn op Gornene == 0), «(AIG
q

d Cyn d
e thus fin e is Chae Gl (20)

If 2 is the wave-length in air, and 7 the corresponding index of
refraction in the medium
Gh = Diet nA = Div:
The change in the value of g, due to magnetic action is in every
case an exceedingly small fraction of its own value, so that we
may write

dq
Y= + ay”

264 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

where g, is the value of g when the magetic force is zero. The
angle, 0, through which the plane of polarization is turned in pass-
ing through a thickness, c, of the medium, is half the sum of the
positive and negative values of q c, the sign of the result being
changed, because the sign of ¢ is negative in equations (14). We
thus obtain

1

2
Tame gee ole) ART 1 — any
which is the complete form of the equation for determining the
angle, through which the plane of polarization has been turned
by the magnetic force while passing through a thickness of the
medium equal to ¢, and is, in its modified form the one with which
Verdet’s results have been compared. From this comparison of
the consequences of assuming the motions of light to be capable
of composition with the motions caused by electric currents, with
what experiment shows to be true of bodies conveying circularly
polarized light when also placed under magnetic strain, we have
probably good evidence for the opinion that some phenomenon of
rotation is going on in the magnetic field, that this rotation is per-
formed by a great number of very small portions of matter each
rotating on its own axis, this axis being parallel to the direction
of the magnetic force, and that the rotations of these different.
vortices are made to depend on one another by means of some
kind of mechanism connecting them. The problem of determining
the mechanism required to establish a given species of connection
between the motions of the parts of a system always admits of
an infinite number of solutions. Of these some may be more
clumsy than others, but all must satisfy the conditions of mechan-
ism in general.” — MAxweLL — Electricity and Magnetism, Chap.
>O-dh

clip EO i)

Norr.— On page 246 the radical sign (¥v) should be the Greek letter
gamma Ga in formula No. (2).

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY

SINCE FEBRUARY, 1876.

REPORI OF THE PRESIDENT.

To His Excellency, WILLIAM KH. SMITH,
Governor of the State of Wisconsin:

Sir :—It affords me great pleasure to be able to report that the
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters is in a flourish-
ing condition, steadily gaining in membership and usefulness. |

Every college and educational institution of high grade in the
state is now represented in the Academy; thus bringing together
many of the ablest men in science, literature and art. The sum-
mer meetings held ia Racine and Milwaukee were well attended
and were instrumental in exciting a lively interest in the society
and its aims. We are satisfied that in inaugurating this summer
migratory meeting, the society acted wisely, and that these ses-
sions will be productive of good.

At the Milwaukee meeting, a number of ladies were elected
members, several of whom are not unknown to science and litera-
ture. In electing these ladies, tae Academy has gained valuable
working members and hasadded nota little to its well-being, intel-
. lectually as well as socially. The society acted on the broad prin-
ciple that science and letters, have neither country, color or sex:
The straight-jacket of superstition and bigotry no longer cramps
and cripples investigation in any department of kaowledge.

The report of the librarian shows the extent and value of our
exchanges from this and foreign countries.

We have already formed the nucleus of a valuable library.
The finances are in a healthy condition, the funds are not large, but
sufficient for the workings of the society, aside from the publish-
ing of the proceedings, which is justly done by the state.

268 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

We are in need of suitable rooms to accommodate the society,
We want space sufficient to display and securely keep a cabinet
such as will certainly come into our possession as soon as we have
permanent accommodations. ;

The usefulness of the Academy will be greatly enhanced by
the possession of suitable rooms for cabinet and library.

Very respectfully,
P. BR. HOY, Presedent.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY.

[Since February, 1876.]

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Rooms oF WIsconsIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, ARTS AND LETTERS,
CaPiToL, Maptson, WISCONSIN.

SEVENTH ANNUAL MEETING.

Held at Madison, Wisconsin.

FIRST SESSION.
February 13, 1877.

Academy met at 7:30 P. M. Usual routine of business. Prof. Davies,
General Secretary, called attention to the many valuable exchanges received
from foreign and American societies, and the urgent necessity of providing
proper rooms and cases for them. Prof. Allen, Prof. Chamberlin and Gen.
Delaplaine were appointed a committee for such purpose.

Remarks were made by Prof. Carpenter upon the death of Prof. J. H. Eaton,
of Beloit, and a committee consisting of Dr. Chapin, Prof. Chamberlin, of
Beloit and Dr. 8. H. Carpenter, of Madison, were appointed to draw up an
account of the life and work of Prof. Eaton.

A very interesting paper on a wmode of illustrating Phylotaxis, by means
of a model, was read by E. A. Birge, Hsq., of the University of Wisconsin.

Dr. P. R. Hoy, President of the Academy, read a paper upon an elephant’s
tooth containing an iron bullet. He explained how the bullet sank into the
pulp and appeared in another part of the tooth three feet off.

Profs. Chamberlin and Allen, and Gen. Delaplaine were appointed a com-
mittee to memorialize the Governor in regard to more ample room for the
accommodation of the books and specimens of the Academy.

SECOND SESSION.
February 14, 1877.
Academy met at 9:30 A. M., President Hoy in the chair. On account of

the unavoidable absence of the secretary, Hon. E, E. Woodman, of Baraboo,

was chosen Secretary pro tem.

|

270 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Leiters.

On motion of Prof. Davies, the following gentlemen were chosen annual

members:
Dr. Clark Gapen, of Madison, Wis.
Mr. W. A. P. Morris, of Madison, Wis.
Dr. BE. W. Bartlett, of Milwaukee, Wis.

W. F. Bundy, Esq., of Sauk City, read a paper on the “ Crustacea of Wis-
consin.” Mr. James R. Stuart, of Madison, read a paper on “ Art Instruc-
tion.”’

Prof. Davies showed the ‘‘ Application of Fourier’s Theorem to the Phe-
nomena of Composite Sounds.”

Adjournment, to meet at 2:30 P. M.

THIRD SESSION.
February 14, 2:30 P. M.
Gen. Ed. E. Bryant read a paper on the “ Cost of Government.” Dr. Clark
Gapen read one on “Hereditary Insanity,” which was discussed at great
length by President Bascom, Prof. S. H. Carpenter and Dr. Gapen.
Prof. Wright, of Fox Lake, read a paper on “ The Philosophy of History.”

FOURTH SESSION.
300s Me

Mr. E. A. Birge read a finely illustrated paper upon the the habits and
structure of the ‘Cladocera, a minute crustacean of our fresh water lakes.’”
Many points of its structure were shown to be exceedingly curious.

Hon. E. E. Woodman, of Baraboo, read a valuable paper on “The Pipe-
stone of Devil’s Juake.”

Dr. E. Andrews being detained at Chicago by important surgical cases, his
paper was read by Prof. Davies. It gave a history of the present descendants
of the mound-builders, considering the latter as still not entirely extinct. The
paper elicited a great deal of discussion by Dr. Hoy, Prof. Butler, Mr. Wood_

man éf al.
FIFTH SESSION.

February 15, 9:30 A. M.
Mr. E. T. Sweet read a valuable paper containing results of analysis of the
Milwaukee brick clay.
The following business was then transacted: First, the summer meeting
for July, 1877, was appointed to be held at Racine on the third Tuesday of
July; the autumn meeting being entirely set aside for the future.

F. H. Day, M. D., of Wauwatosa, Wis.
Prof. George W. Peckham, of Milwaukee,
Prof. W. Bundy, of Sauk City,

Hon. W.C. Allen, of Racine,

Rey. H. M. Simmons, of Kenosha,

were elected as annual members. :

John W. Barrow, of No. 313 E. Seventeenth street New York city was
elected a corresponding member.

The following amendments to the By-laws were offered for one year’s con-
sideration, according to the provisions of the constitution. By-law No. II to
be amended so as to read as follows: “The regular annual meeting to take

Proceedings of the Academy. 271

place herexfter on the last Wednesday and Thursday of December, at Madison
and the summer annual meeting to be held on the third Tuesday in July,
at such place as shall be fixed upon at the regular annual meeting in De-
cember.

Special meetings may be called by the President at his discretion, or by
request of any five members of the council.

By-law, Art. I, sec. 7, to be amended to make the fee of annual members
three dollars in place of two. '

The resignation of the Librarian was accepted, and the Secretary was re-
quested to act as Librarian until the next election of officers.

The Department of Fine Arts was regularly organized.

Hon. Joseph Hamilton, of Milwaukee, was elected an Honorary member of
the Academy. Hon. J.C. Ford, of Madison, an annual member.

The report of the treasurer was then read as follows:

WIsconsIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, ARTS AND LETTERS,
TREASURER’S OFFICE, Madison, Dec. 18, 1877.
Hon. P. R. Hoy, President :
I have the honor to report the financial condition of the Academy as fol-
lows:

Total amount of fees and dues received from 58 members........ $778 25
Total fees received from 10 life members....... MN atePaloparwistotersts; serene 1,000 00
MT ERES TOM OI secret Sete Tiere ei cre hale & eicmmiea tele eae aieie sala oa ea eyichees 370 00
Total amoant disbursed in payment of warrants, to date.......... ae OF
a DIeuU CMEC AGU: efotaseinisieycieve sis orefaninfetnfsteieiniets\cie nfeesla/elnyalere laren teiars 1,370 28
Signed, GEORGE P. DELAPLAINE,
Treasurer.

The Academy then adjourned. to meet at Racine upon the 10th of July
following.

FIRST SUMMER MEETING.

Held at Racine, Wisconsin.

First Semi-ANNUAL MEETING.

July 10, 11 and 12, 1877.
W. A. Germain, Acting Secretary.

FIRST SESSION.
Racine, July 10, 7:30 P. M.

The Academy met at 7: 30, P M., President Hoy in the chair.

Dr. Meachem, mayor of the city, delivered an address of welcome. Rev
Dr. Steele, of Appleton, responded.

Prof. Chamberlin then read a Eulozy on the late Prof. James Eaton, of
Beloit, which was ordered printed in the transactions.

Rev. Dr. James DeKoven, Pres’t Racine Coilege, then read a paper on “ Re-
ligion as an Element in Education.”

The Academy adjourned to meet next morning at nine o’clock.

272 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

SECOND SESSION.
July 11,9:00 A. M.
Academy met pursuant to adjournment. Minutes of the last annual meet-
ing read.
Prof. Butler called attention to the fact that notice of Prof. Wright’s paper
on “ Philosophy of History,” had been omitted. Correction was made by the

Acting Secretary.
Attention was called by President Hoy to the amendments offered at the

last regular meeting.

-To amend sec. 3 of the by-laws so as to read:

1. The regular annual meeting to take place on the last Wednesday and
Thursday of December, at Madison, and the summer annual meeting to be
held on the third Tuesday of July at such place as shall be fixed at the reg-
ular annual meeting in December.

2. Special meetings may be called by the President at his discretion, or by
the request of any five members of the council.

3. Article I of sec. 7 of the constitution to be amended to make the fee of
annual members three dollars in place of two dollars.

Prof. Allen moved the adoption of the amendments.

Dr. Steele moved to amend so as to read, in place of “the regular annual
meeting shall take place, etc.,” the following:

“The reguiar annual meeting shall take place during the last week of De-
cember, the days to be appointed by the council.”

Amendment carried.

The resolutions were then adopted unanimously as amendments to the

by-laws.
The following persons were then elected as annual members:

Rev. J. L. Jones, Janesville, Wis.
Rev. 8. A. Griffith, Milwaukee.
Rev. A. P. Meade, Racine.

Rey. Dr. James DeKoven, Racine.
Prof. J. J. Elmendorf, Racine.
Prof. H. F. Oldenbage, Milwaukee.
Prof. F. W. Falk, Ph. D., Racine.
Dr. E. H. Merrell, Ripon.

Rev. G. E. Gordon, Milwaukee.
Hon. Edward Martin, Kenosha.
Prof. G. D. Swezey, A. M., Beloit.
Prof. Peter Henrickson, Beloit.
Prof. G. R. Kleeberger, Whitewater.
R. W. Reynolds, La Crosse

W. A. Germain, Delafield.

Prof. C. A. Kenaston, Ripon.

Prof. W. M. Hailman, Milwaukee.
Prof. G. W. Gerry, Ripon.

Prof. J. McMurphy, Kenosha.
Frank Head, Esq., Kenosha.

Prof. J. P. Marriett, Kenosha.
Hon. J. H. Howe, Kenosha.

Dr. J. G@. Meachem, Racine.

Dr. J. G. Meachem, Jr., Racine.

Proceedings of the Academy. 273

As Corresponding members:

Dr. C. C. Abbott, Trenton, New Jersey.
Alford Paine, 8. T. D., of Hinsdale, I11.

As Honorary member,

Prof. Spencer Baird, M. D., LL. D., of Washington, D. C.

Prof. Alien, chairman of the committee appointed to see about securing
rooms for the Academy, reported that the rooms of the Railroad Commis-
sioners could be secured in December. The report accepted, and the com-
mittee continued. Prof. Allen then read a paper on “Early Form of Land
Tenure.”

Dr. Falk made extended remarks on Prof. Allen’s paper, and gave a review
ef the feudal relations in Germany.

Prof. McMurphy read a paper on “ Rotation as a Factor of Motion.”

The President then read the following communication from Captain
Nader, C. E., on “The Balloon in Meteorology.”

Mapison, Wis., June 20, 1877.
Dr. P. R. Hoy, Racine, Wis.:

DEAR AND ReEspEcTED Str: Your very kind note of invitation of
the 7th instant was duly received, and while I regret very much
that I shall be unable to partake of the proffered hospitality of the
people of Racine, I feel very thankful for your kind remembrance.

My duties here render my time uncertain, and occupy my atten-
tion so much that I shall not be able to attend the meeting, which
no doubt will be pleasant and instructive. I shall be unable to
produce anything in time. I was preparing a letter to you, when I
received your note, on a subject which may be interesting, and
which I will now give you as briefly as possible.

It is but a short time since an idea occurred to me which I be-
lieve to be novel, and perhaps of scientific import, and should you
consider it of sufficient importance, I beg you would please present
the same for discussion at the meeting.

The object is to explore the atmosphere, so far as may be prac-
ticable, without the risk of life and limb. This I propose to do in
the following manner: In the first place, I resort to a gas balloon
to carry up my apparatus, and since there is no danger of any irre-
parable damage, the same may be constructed as light as possible,
even frail, | may say; and since the charge is not required to endure
very long, small ieaks need not be noticed, and I believe such a
balloon may be constructed at a nominal cost.

Kach cubic foot of gas of specific gravity, say 0.6, will displace
about 530 grains of air, and deducting its weight, 32 grains, will

18

274 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

support a weight of 498 grains, so that 1,000 cubic feet will carry
about 70 pounds weight, which is the displacement of a balloon of
less than 13 feet diameter.

The balloon is allowed to rise at pleasure by means of a cord of
sufficient strength to support considerable more than its own weight,
of the desired length or height. The lateral motion, while rising,
will indicate the direction of the currents; the height is computed
at any time by its position.

The principal apparatus will be that for recording the tempera-
ture and barometrical changes. This is done by a clock-work ar-
rangement carrying a strip of highly sensitised paper, with a regular
motion, so that. the condition of both instruments is photographed
at each instant of time. The observation having commenced, it is
only necessary to note the time and corresponding altitude, and ob-
tain the corresponding phenomena when the apparatus is recovered.
Under favorable circumstances, the balloon may be brought to rest
at different altitudes, in order to give the instruments time to as-
sume local conditions. To the apparatus is attached a parachute,
so that the same may be recovered in case of collapse or other acci-
dent. I have thought some of adding a magnetic apparatus, but
have not had time to develop the idea.

This might possibly throw some light on the possibility of aerial
navigation, and also be worthy of consideration in other respects.

Hoping you will have an interesting and pleasant meeting, I
remain, most respectfully, your obedient servant,

JOHN NADER.

THIRD SESSION.
July 11, 2.30 P. M.
Rev. H. M. Simmons read a paper on “ The Social Organism.”
Prof. Hailman delivered a lecture on “The Kindergartens.”
Judge Allen then read a paper prepared by Dr. Mason, on the “ Duty of the
State to its Unfortunate Classes.”
Prof. Butler read a paper on “ American Pre-Revolutionary Bibliography.”’

FOURTH SESSION.
7.30 P. M.
Prof. Jewell, of Chicago, read a paper on “ Mind in the Inferior Animals.”
Academy adjourned to attend a reception given by Mayor Meacham in
honor of the members.

Proceedings of the Academy. 275

FIFTH SESSION.
9:30 A. M.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment.

Prof. Luther, of Racine, was elected an annual member.

Dr. Hoy, President of the Academy, delivered a lecture on the “ Disappear
ance of Large Animals in Wisconsin.’

Rev. C. Caverno read a paper on “ Abolition of the Jury System.”

Dr. Elmendorf read a paper on “ Nature and Freedom.’’

SIXTH SESSION.
2:30 P. M.

Prof. Stuart read a paper on “ Harmonic Method in Greek Art.”

Prof. Butler then read a paper on “ The Mosque of Omar at Jerusalem.”

Mr. A. Paine, read a paper on “ Art as Education.”

The following resolutions were then proposed by Prof. Butler, and seconded
by Prof. Caverno, and unanimously adopted:

“ Resolved, That the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters begs
to tender its grateful acknowledgments te the mayor of Racine for his cor-
dial greeting in the Court House, and reception at his mansion, as well as to
the citizens of the city for their generous huspitalities, and for their attendance
on the sessions.

“Resolved, That the Wisconsin Central,and Western Union railroads, which
have facilitated our convening in the ,interest of science, are hereby thanked
for their kind courtesies.

“ Resolved, That the sheriff and county commissioners, by placing at our
disposal their new and noble court house, have done a service to science and
shall be remembered by us with gratitude.

“ Resolved, That the hearty thanks of the Academy are hereby presented
to Dr. DeKoven, as well as the Professors of Racine College and other gen-
tlemen for their able lectures, with which they have honored, entertained and
instructed our Association.

“ Resolved, That these resolutions be presented to the newspapers of this
city for publication.”

Prof. Perkins, in behalf of the Association, expressed the sincere thanks
of the Academy to Dr. Hoy, President, for his earnest efforts to promote its
interests.

The Academy then adjourned to meet in Madison on the 26th of December
following, according to the change in the by-law regulating the time of the
Regular Annual Meetings.

276 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

EIGHTH REGULAR ANNUAL MEETING,

Held at Madison, Wisconsin, December 26th, 27th and 28th, 1877.

WEDNESDAY, Dec. 16, 1877.
The Eighth Regular Annual Meeting was opened at 2:30 P. M., there being
a Jarge attendance.
Dr. Hoy, President of the Academy, in the chair.

The minutes of the Racine Semi-annual Meeting were read, and the amend-
ments to the Constitution and the By-laws then made, commented upon and
formally ratified.

The Secretary gave notice that a complete catalogue of all books and
pamphlets thus far received by the Academy was completed, and would be
published in the forthcoming Vol. IV of the Transactions.

The Treasurer made the following report:

TREASURER’S OFFICH,
Wisconsin Academy of Sciencies, Arts and Letters, .
Mapison, Dec. 26, 1877.

P. R. Hoy, M. D., President of the Wisconsin Academy of Scionces, Arts and
Letters:
I have the honor to report the financial condition of the Academy, as fol-

lows:
Total amount of fees and dues from 62 members................. $817 25
Total feesttromil. OlifetmMennib ersey crap selslcietiefetelaleeteleie hehe lot eletle nate 1,000 00
Total interest on loan ....-..... ialopeldicaiets decraleve a eee more RS ct, 440 00
$2,259 25
Total amount disbursed in payment of warrants to date.......... $855 17
Balan Cemimitneasumiyye rr) oie rereieret eetelots) tel elelerel etic) eiette elie r ieee $1, 402 08
(Signed) G.P. DELAPLAINHE, Treasurer.

The Treasurer urged greater promptitude on the part of members in the
payment of their dues. Only 62 members out of about 200 have paid any dues
whatsoever thus far.

The following papers were read and dicussed during the session:

How Did the Aborigines of this Country Fabricate the Copper Implements ?
By P. R. Hoy, M. D., President of the Academy.

Some Remarks on the Descent of Animals. By Prof. Oldenhage, of Mil-
waukee.

Why Have the Ruminants no Upper Incisors. By P. R. Hoy, M. D., Pres-
ident of the Academy.

Boiler Explosions. By Chas. I. King, Superintendent University Machine
Shop.

Proceedings of the Academy. 277

Antiquities and Platycnemism of the Mound Builders. By J. N. De Hart
M. D.

Extent and Significance of the Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. By T. C. Cham-
berlin, A. M., State Geologist.

The German, French, English and American Press. By Hon. Joseph
Hamilton, of Milwaukee, Honorary Member of the Academy.

The Ethical Bearings of the Doctrine of Evolution. By Rev. Jenk. Ll.
Jones.

Mr. C. H. Haskins, of Milwaukee, gave a very interesting description of
the Bell Speaking Telephone, illustrating his remarks by experimental dem-
onstrations.

A paper on the Fauna of the Niagara and Upper Silurian rocks in Milwau-
kee county, by F. H. Day, M. D., was read by title only, not being received in
time to be read in full.

The death of Prof. Oldenhage of Milwaukee was announced and his paper
read by Prof. Peckham.

Profs. Peckham, Rogers and McAllister, of Milwaukee, were appointed a
committee to presenta memoir of Prof. Oldenhage, for publication in Vol.
IV of the Transactions of the Academy.

The following gentlemen and ladies were elected annual members of the
Academy:

J. 8. Westcott, Superintendent of City Schools, Racine.
J.T. Lovewell, Female College, Milwaukee.
Albert Hardy, Principal High School, Milwaukee.
Rufus B. Smith, Madison.

Willett S. Main, Madison.

Geo. B. Smith, Madison.

P. B. Parsons, Madison.

B. EH. Hutchinson, Madison.

Mrs. 8. F. Dean, Madison.

Mrs. H. M. Lewis, Madison.

Miss Ella Giles, Madison.

J. N. DeHart, M. D., Madison.

J.J. Saylor of Cleveland, Ohio, was elected a corresponding member of
the Academy.

Academy adjourned to meet in Milwaukee, at a time to be specified by the
President of the Academy after consultation with the officers of the Scientific
Club.

SECOND SEMI-ANNUAL MEETING,

Held at Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

FEMALE COLLEGE,
MILWAUKEE, July 23, 1878.
Pursuant to a notice given by the Milwaukee Scientific Club, the second
semi-annual (or summer) meeting of the Wisconsin Academy of Science,
Arts and Letters was convened in the Female College, Milwaukee, at 7:30
o’clock, P.M. President P. R. Hoy, of Racine, in the chair. Hon. Har-

978 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

rison ©. Hobart, acting mayor of the city of Milwaukee, delivered an address
of welcome. P.R. Hoy responded.

Prof. J.J. Elmendorf, 8. T. D., of Racine, then read a paper on the “ Popular
Epics of the Middle Ages as Aids to Historic Study.”

TuurspDay, July 24, 1878.

Academy met at9o’clock A. M. President P. R. Hoy in the chair, Prof.
J..E. Davies, acting as Recording Secretary.

The following persons were elected annual members of the Academy. The
president of the academy prefacing the ballot with the remark that “ science
knows no distinction of race, color, or sex: ”’

Mrs. Laura J. Wolcott, M. D., 471 Milwaukee St., Milwaukee, Wis.
Mrs. Charles Farrar, 614 Milwaukee St., Milwaukee, Wis.

Miss Brooks, 614 Milwaukee St., Milwaukee, Wis.

Miss Marion Stewart, 469 Marshall St., Milwaukee, Wis.

Mrs. Emery McClintock, 507 Astor St., Milwaukee, Wis.

Mrs. George Gordon, Humboldt Av., Milwaukee, Wis.

Miss Frank Whitnall, Humbolt Av., Milwaukee, Wis.

Mrs. A. M. Thomson, 459 Cass St., Milwaukee, Wis.

Mrs. A. W. Bate, 320 Terrace Av., Milwaukee, Wis.

Mrs. Celia C. Wooley, Sec. Philosophical Society, Chicago, Ill.
Mrs. P. Abboit, cor. Jackson and Division Sts., Milwaukee, Wis.
Mrs. Lewis Sherman, 171 Wisconsin St., Milwaukee, Wis.
Mrs. Dr. Marks, Prospect Av., Milwaukee, Wis.

Mrs. Carl Deerflinger, 707 Jefferson St., Milwaukee, Wis.
Mrs. Matilda F. Anneke, 269 Ninth St., Milwaukee, Wis.
Mrs. Julia Ford, 375 Greenbush St., Milwaukee, Wis.
Mrs. N. H. Adsit, 268 Knapp St., Milwaukee, Wis.

Mrs. R. C. Spencer, 275 Prospect Av., Milwaukee, Wis.
Mrs. Edward P. Allis, 381 Prospect Av., Milwaukee, Wis.
Mrs. D. A. Olin, Racine, Wis.

Mrs. Frackleton, 469 Marshall St., Milwaukee, Wis.

Mrs. Olympia Brown Willis, Racine, Wis.

Mrs. J.G. McMurphy, Racine, Wis.

Mi s Jeuny Hoy, Racine, Wis.

Miss Mary J. Lapham, Summit, Wis.

Prof. Robert C. Hindley, Racine College, Wis.

Mr. Eugene B. Winship, Racine College, Wis.

Mr. Charles Mann, Milwaukee, Wis.

Mr. Wm. P. Merrill, Milwaukee, Wis.

Dr. G. A. Stark, Milwaukee, Wis.

Mr. James S. Buck, Milwaukee, Wis.

Mr. George Gordon, Milwaukee, Wis.

Dr. Thomas A. Green, 146 Martin St., Milwaukee, Wis.
Prof. Charles A. Farrar, Milwaukee College, Wis.

Mr. H.S. Durand, Racine, Wis.

Mrs. H. 8. Durand, Racine, Wis.

Miss Frankie Durand, Racine, Wis.

Rev. F. 8. Luther, Racine Ccllege, Wis.

Dr. R. M. Byraness, Cincinnati, O., was elected corresponding member.

At the suggestion of Prof. J. J. Elmendorf, a resolution was framed and
adopted to the effect, that all books that are now in the possession of the Aca-
demy, may be loaned, for one year, to any of the members desiring them.

A request was a'so made by Prof, J. E: Davies, that all members contem-

Proceedings of the Academy. 279

piating readiny papers notify him of the same, for the purpose of facilitating
the arrangement for the annual meeting.

An invitation was received from Dr. Day, soliciting the members to visit
his cabinet at Wauwatosa.

A committee, consisting of Prof. S. H. Carpenter, Prof. Ailen, and Prof.
J. E. Davies, was appointed, to report, at the next meeting, a suitable memoir
of the late Dr. Feuling.

Judge W.C. Allen, of Racine, then read a paper entitled, “ The Accounta-
bility of Public Officials.”

President Chapin, of Beloit College, read a paper on the “Nature and
Functions of Credit.”

This was followed by an extempore history of credit in Wisconsin, by Mr.
Chapman.

At the afternoon session, the following papers were read:

“ Drinking Water,” by Dr J. G. Meacham, of Racine.

‘‘ Mental Hospitality,’ by Miss Ella Giles, of Madison.

“Scientific Housekeeping,” by Mrs. A. W. Bate, of Milwaukee.

“The Origin of Certain Constellations,” by the Rev. H. M. Simmons, of
Kenosha.

The Academy then adjourned to attendat the invitation of the resident
members and committee of arrangements, a banquet given in the evening at
the Plankington House. ‘

The following account of the banquet is taken from the Milwaukee News,
of Thursday, July 25th, 1878:

“ By invitation of the committee of arrangements, W. P. McLaren acted as
President of the evening. At his right, sat President Chapin, of Beloit Col-
lege, and at his left Dr. Hoy, president of the Academy. President Chapin
asked Divine blessing on the gathering, after which an unusually long time
was spent in disposing of the long and palatable list of dishes on the bill of
fare. Mr. McLaren finally called the gathering to order and, in a neat and
well-timed speech, introduced the first sentiment on the programme, “The
State of Wisconsin.” It was expected that the Hon. George H. Paul would
respond to this, but,in Mr. Paul’s absence, Judge Allen, of Racine, was
called. The Judge gave a highly interesting account of the growth and pro-
gress of the state from the small beginnings of forty years ago, when he first
came into this section of the country.

To the second toast, “The City of Milwaukee,” the Hon. E. D. Holton re-
sponded, drawing parallels from history and from the present condition of
cities in other parts of the world, to show the great advantages which Milwau-
kee possesses and the magnificent promises of the future. Dr. Hoy responded
for “The Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Art and Letters,’? very briefly
sketching the objects and work of the society. To the fifth sentiment, ““Amer-
ican Science,” it was expected that Dr. Kempster would respond. But that
gentleman was not present, and Prof. Davies, of our State University was
called upon. Prof. Davies’ speech was short, but full of the most interesting
matter, and clothed in well-chosen words.

280 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Leiters.

One of the best speeches of the evening was that of ex-Superintendent
MacAllister, who answered for ‘Our Public Schoals.” President Chapin
responded in an eloquent and logical manner to the seventh toast, ‘‘ Arts and
Letters.” M.Almy Aldrich spoke for “The Press,” and the regular senti-
ments closed with “‘Our New Associate Members,” to which Mrs. Amelia
Bate responded in a manner that elicited the heartiest applause and warmest
commendations on all sides. Brief speeches followed by the Rey. Messrs.
Gordon and Livermore, Dr. Wight, Dr. Elmendorf, Mr. Buck and others; and
the gathering broke up about 11 o’clock.

Fourth Session, Jory 25, 1878.

Academy met at 9 o’clock A. M. President P. R. Hoy in the chair, Dr. J.
E. Davies acting as recording secretary. :

A resolution offered by Prof. Elmendorf, that in the appendix of the trans-
actions shall be printed a list of the public and private collections of books
within the state, as available for the use of members, to aid in the work of the
society, was referred to Prof. Elmendorf and Prof. W. C. Allen, for further
consideration.

A motion made by Mr. Peckham, that the secretary of the society be allowed
to expend one hundred dollars ($100) for binding pamphlets belonging to the
academy, was unanimously carried.

Dr. J. N. De Hart, of Madison insane asylum, then read a paper on the
” Microscope and its Benefits to Science.”

Rev. C. Caverno, of Lombard, Ill., read a paper entitled ‘“ Savings Banks
and the Industrial Classes.”’

A paper entitled “ The Relics of a Prehistoric Race,” prepared by Dr. De
Hart, was read by Rey. G. E. Gordon, as Dr. De Hart was suffering from a
severe cold.

Mr. A. R. Sprague, of Evansville, Wisconsin.
Mr. W. P. McLaren, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
Dr. D. W. Perkins, Milwaukee, Wisconsin,

Were elected annual members of the Academy.

After the morning session the members adjourned to meet at the Planking-
ton House at 3 o’clock P. M., where the resident members of the Academy
and citizens of Milwaukee nad provided carriages for a drive around the
city. The members were taken through the handsomest residence streets of
Milwaukee, were shown the elegant grounds and conservatory of Mr. Alex.
Mitchell, and then taken to the National Soldier’s Home near the city, where
they were introduced to Genl. E. W. Hincks, commandant of the Home, who
gave them a most cordial welcome. They were then returned to the Plank-
ington House, having spent a most enjoyable afternoon.

Academy adjourned, to meet in Madison on the 26th and 27th of December,

1878,
J. E. DAVIES,

General Secretary-

REPORT OF THE LIBRARIAN.

To the President of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters:

Sir: At the suggestion of the General Secretary, Dr. Davies, I have made
a complete revision of the library of the Academy. This work has been of
considerable difficulty, owing to the fact that the bulk of the library consists
of pamphlets, and the unbound publications of the various scientific associ-
ations in our own and foreign countries. Many of these are exceedingly
valuable. Many of them contain the summation of the life-long investiga-
tions of specialists in their particular department of the vast field of science.
Owing to their not being sufficiently well bound, few of these are at present
available to the members of the Academy —a thing to be deeply regretted,
since these publications are to be found in no other library of the State, that
of the Academy filling a distinct and separate purpose, being, to a large
extent, supplementary to the State Historical Library. Taking these things
into consideration, it seems advisable that a certain sum should be set aside
annually for the purpose of preserving these various publications in a more
substantial binding,

The library of the Academy contains seven hundred and forty-four volumes,
including pamphlets. Under the present system of exchange, it is rapidly
growing. I herewith transmit a complete catalogue, embracing all publica-
tions received up to the present time (June 15th, 1878). The greater part of
those from foreign societies have been forwarded by the courtesy of the Smith-
sonian Institute, at Washington, D. C.

W. A. GERMAIN, Acting Librarian. .

PUBLICATIONS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

Now inthe library of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

EUROPEAN.

BELGIUM,
Musee Teyler — Archives —

Vol. I, Pts. 1, 2,38 and 4.
Vol IT, Pts. 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Vol. III, Pts. 1,2, 3 and 4.
Vol. IV, Pts. 1 and 2.

Hainaut Academy of Science, Arts and Letters —
Memoirs for 1871, 1872, 1873, 1874, 1875, 1876 and 1877.

282 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

FRANCE.
National Academy of Caen ,—
Memoirs, Vols. I, II, III, IV, V, VI and VII — 1871-6.

Academy of Bordeaux —
Acts de L’Academie, 8d Series, 1872-3.
Acts de L’Academie, 3d Series, i872.

Academy of Lyons —
Memoirs, Vols. XV, XVI, XVIII, XIX — 1870-75.

Academy of Metz —
Memoirs — 1871-2, 1872-3, 1874-5, 1875-6.
Tables Generales de |’ Academie, 1819-71.

Montpellier Academy of Science, Arts and Letters —
Transactions, Vols. IV, V, VI, VII and VIII — 1868-76.

Agricultural and Scientific Society of the Sarthe —
Bulletins, Vol. XIII, Parts 1,2 and 3, 18%1—2;
“ Se SVE Ape oss
So) EXERT Sa:
ie ee OGL SIGE

Amiens Linnean Society of the North of France —
Monthly Bulletins, from May, 1875, to December, 1877,

ITALY.

Royal Instetute of Lombardy —
Transactions for 1873, Vol. VI; 1874, Vol. VII; 1875, Vol. VII; Memoirs |
Vols. XIII, XIV and Xy.

Academy of Modena —
Memoirs, Vol. XVI.

Royal Geological Commission of I taly —
Bulletines, Nos. 1 to 12, 1874.
Publication of 1875.

NETHERLANDS,

Nederlandsch Meteorologroca.

id Jaarboeck, 1868.
id Jaarboeck, 1871.
Royal Academy of Amsterdam —

Transactions, Vol. I, P’ts 1, 2,3 and 4, 1865-7; Vol. II, P’ts 1, 2 and 3
1867-8; Vol. III, P’ts 1, 2 and 3, 1868-9; Vol. EV Pts 1 2 eand 2
1869-70; Vol. V, 1871: Vol. VI, 1871-2; Vol. VII, 1873; Vol. VIII,
1874; Vol. IX, 1875: Vol. XIII, 1874; Vol. XIV, 1875; Vol. XV, 1875.

Year Book, 1873 and 1874.

Catalogue of the library of the Academy, 1877.

Proceedings of the Academy. 288

Netherland Society for the Encouragement of Industry —
Records, 1873, 1874, 1875 and 1876.
Proceedings, 1874, 1875 and 1876.

Amsterdam Royal Society of Physical Science —
Transactions, Vols. I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VII, IX, 1868-76.

Holland Society of Scvence —
Transactions, 1873, 1874, 1875, 1876 and 1877.
Catalogue of members, 1877.

Provincial Society of Arts and Scvences —
Publications, 1872, 1878, 1874, 1875 and 1876.

Royal Netherland Meteorological Institute —
Meteorological Observations, 1873.
Year Books for 1868, 1871 and 1874.

RUSSIA.

Royal Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburgh —
Repertorium of Meteorology, 1874, 1875 and 1876.

Royal Academy of Finland —
Natur och Folk, 1871, 1872, 1878, 1874 and 1875.

Imperial Physical Observatory —
Dorput Publications, Vols. I, II and III.
Annalen, 1875 and 1876.

SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

Kongliga Swenska Vetanschaps Academensis.

The Royal Swedish Academy —
Transactions, Vol. III, 1874.
Memoirs, 1875, 1876 and 1877.
University of Upsala —
Meteorological Observations, Vols. IV, V and VI.
Royal Society of Upsala —
Transactions for 1874, 1875 and 1876.
Royal Academy of Science of Christiana —
Enumeratio Insectorium Norvyicorum, 1874, 1875, 1876 and 1877.

University of Christiana —
Publications for 1873, 1874, 1875 and 1876.
Physiological Studies, by J. W. Muller.
Researches in Egyptian Chronology.
Official Statistics of Norway, 1870, 1871, 1872.

284 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

GERMANY.

Academy of Natural Sctences of Munich —
Transactions for 1871, 1872, 1873, 1874, 1875 and 1876.

Gottingen Royal Society —
Transactions for 1875, 1876 and 1877.

Royal Observatory, near Munich —
Annals, XX. Vol.

Mannheim Academy of Natural Sciences —
Transactions for 1870, 1871, 1872, 1873 and 1874.

Academy of Sciences of Heidelberg —
Transactions for 1874, 1875, 1876 and 1877.

Silesian Society, Breslau —
Transactions for 1873 and 1874.
dist Annual Report, 1873.
o2d Annual Report, 1874.
53d Annual Report, 1875.
o4th Annual Report, 1876.

Academy of Natural Science— Bremen —
Transactions for 1872-1873 and 1874,

Tables, etc., 1873, Parts I and II ; 1874, Parts I and II, Vol. IV.

ings, Part I, 1876.
Supplement to same, 1876.

Rhenish Prussia and Westphalia Soctety of Sciences —
Transactions — 9th year, 1872.

a 10th “ Part I, 1873; Part II, 1878.
“ Part I, 1874; Part II, 1874,
sh Part I, 1875; Part IT, 1875.

- Part I, 1876.
Giessen Society of Science, Arts and Letters —
Transactions for 1876 and 1877.
Halle Journal of Natural Science — Berlin—
Transactions — Vols. IX to XIV, 1874-5 and 6.
Natural History Society of Dresden —
Transactions for 1876,
Isis Academy of Natural Science — Dresden —
Transactions for 1874, 1875, 1876 and 1877.
Polytechnic School at Hi anover —
Programme for 1874, 1875, 1876 and 1877.

Natural Science Society of Freiburg —
Transactions, 1874, 1875 and 1876. .

Proceed-

Proceedings of the Academy. 285

Academy of Eldena —
Transactions for 1870.

Royal Phys.-Heon. Society of Konigsberg —
Publications for 1878, 1874, 1875 and 1876.

Natural Science Society of Gorlitz —
Transactions, XV. Vol., 1875.
Society of Naturalists, Dantzig—
Publications for 1872, 1873, 1874, 1875 and 1876.

Munich Royal Bavarian Academy of Science —
Transactions for 1875, Parts I and II.; 1876, Part I.

SWITZERLAND.

Zurich Academy of Natural Science —
Transactions for 1873-1874, and 1875.
St. Galle Natural Science Society —
Transactions for 1874 and 1875.
Natural Science Society of Buasel—
Transactions for 1874, 1875, 1876, 1877 and 1878.
Natural Science Society, Neuchatel —
Transactions for 1875, 1876 and 1877.
Natural Science Society of Berne —
Transactions for 1873, 1874, 1875, 1876 and 1877.
Natural Science Society of Schaffenhausen —
Transactions for 1872 and 1873.
Natural Science Society of Chur —
Transactions for 1873 and 1874.

Natural Science Society of Luzerne —
Transactions for 1576.

Academy of Vaudoise —
Transactions, Vols. XIV and XV, 1877-8.
Bulletin for 1877.
ENGLAND.

Philosophical Society of Manchester —
' Memoirs, Vols. XII, XIII, XIN, XV — 1872-6.
Catalogue, 1875.

London Royal Society — Proceedings —
Vol. XXII, Nos. 158-155; Vol. XXIII, Nos. 156-163; Vol. XXIV, Nos-
164-170; Vol. XXV, Nos. 171-179; Vol. XXVI, Nos. 179-183.

286 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

DENMARK.
Royal Society of Denmark —
Transactions for 1874, 1875, 1876 and 1877.
Bulletin for 1877, No. I.

Royal Academy of Copenhagen —
Bulletins for 1876, Nos. I and II.

AUSTRALIA.

Public Library of Melbourne —
Mines and Min. Statistics of New South Wales.
Treatise on New South Wales.
Nat. Industrial Resources of New South Wales.
Ann. Rept. of the Dept. of Mines.

MEXICO.

Natural Museum of Mexico —
Annals, Vol. I, 1877.

SPAIN 4 ND PORTUGAL.

Royal Academy of Lisbon —
Transactions for 1875.
SOUTH AMERICA.

Venezuela Monthly Gazette for 1877 and 1878.
ISLAND OF MAURITIUS.
Academy of Mauritius —
Transactions, Vol. IX, 1876.
IRELAND.
Royal Dublin Society —

Journal for 1870-1875.
AUSTRIA.

Academy of Natural Sciences of Vienna—
Transactions, 1872, 1878, 1874, 1875 and 1876.

Royal Zoological and Botanical Society of Vienna—
Publications, 1872, 1873, 1874, 1875, 1876 and 1877.
Hmden Natural-Philosophy Society —
Transactions for 1872, 1878, 1874, 1875, 1876 and 1877.

Society of Natural History, Brunn—
Transactions, Vols. XII and XIII, 1873.
Catalogue of the Library, 1874.

Proceedings of the Academy. 287

AMERICAN SOCIETIES.

Boston Society of Natural History —
Proceedings — Vol. 17, Parts II, III and IV, 1874.
Vol. 18, Parts I, II, III and IV, 1875-6.
Vol. 19, Parts I and II, 1877.

Buffalo Academy of Natural Science—
Bulletin — Vol. I, No. I, 1873.
Vol. I, Nos. II, III and IV, 1874.
Vol. II, Nos. I, II and ITI, 1874.

Huseum of Comparative Zodlogy — Harvard University —
Bulletin— Vol. II, Nos. 1-10, 1876.
Vol. III, Nos. 11-14, 1876.
Vol. III, Nos. 15-16, 1876.
Annual Report of Trustees, 1874.
Annual Report of Trustees, 1874.

St. Louis Academy of Science —
Vol. III. Nos. I, If, I1f, LV, 1873-1875-1876-1878.

Quarterly Journal of Conchology —
For 1874, 1875 and 1876.

Philadelphia Academy of Natural Science —
Proceedings. Parts I and [I, 1877.

New York State Museum of Natural History —-
Twenty-fifth Annual Report of Regents.

American Academy of Science — Proceedings —
Vol. IV, from May, 1876, to May, 1877.

Kansas Academy of Science—
Vol. IV, 1875.
Vol. V, 1876, Birds of Kansas (Snow), 1875.
American Association for the Advancement of Scieace — Proceedings —
Buffalo, 1876.

Cleveland Academy of Science —
Proceeedings, 1845-1859.

288 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

BOUND VOLUMES AND MISCELLANEOUS PAMPHLETS.

Wells, Walter, Water Power of Maine.

Durrie, D. §., Cat. State Hist. Society, Vol. I, 1873.

Durrie, D. S., Cat. State Hist. Society, Vol. II, 1873.
Driunellette, P. S., Epistola.

Museum of Natural History of New York.

Munsel, J., Chronology of Paper Making,

Dudley Observatory, Annals of, Vol. II .

Cabinet of Natural History, New York.

Munsel, J. Manual of the Lutheran Church.

University of the State of New York, 85th Rep’t, 1872.
Noye, W. Maxims of the Laws of England.

Ill. R. R. Commissioner’s Rep’t, 1871.

Department of Agriculture, Washington, Report, 1871.
Smithsonian Report, 1871.

Land Office Report, 1870.

DeCosta, B. F., Hudson’s Sailing Directions.
Tophographic Survey of Adriondic Wilderness.

Natural History and Geology of Maine for 1863.

University of State of New York, 1873.

R. R. Commissioner’s Report, Ill., 1872.

Same for 1873.
Transactions of the Wisconsin Agricu'tural Society, 1869.
Transactions of the Wisconsin Agricultural Society, 1870.
Transactions of the Wisconsin Agricultural Society, 1871.
Transactions of the Wisconsin Agricultural Society, 1872-3.
Transactions of the Wisconsin Agricultural Society, 1873-4.
Transactions of the Wisconsin Agricultural Society, 1874-5.
Transactions of the Wisconsin Agricultural Society, 1875-6.
Public Libraries of the United States, Part I, 1876.

Report Speciale Sur Immigration, 1872. :
Raymond — Min. Resources West of the Rocky Mountains, 1872.
Raymoad — Min. Resources West of the Rocky Mountains, 1878.
Finance Report of 1876. -
Compendium of the United States Census, 1870.

Memoirs Manchester Phil. Society, Vol. V.

Mines and River Resources of New South Wales, 1875.
Report of the Chief of Statistics, Washington, 1876.
Commerce and Navigation, Washington, 1876.

Proceedings of the Academy, 289

Wisconsin Agriculture, 1876-7.

Hayden — U. 8. Geological Survey, Washington, 1877.

Birds of the Northwest — Qoues.

Museum of Natural History, New York, 1872.

New York State Library, 57th Report.

Patent Office Report, Vol. I, 1869.

Patent Office Report, Vol. II, 1869.

Patent Office Report, Vol III, 1869.

Report of Commissioner of Education, Washington, 1871.

Explorations in Nevada and Arizona.

Ninth Census of the U. S.

Hayden, F. V., Geological Survey, Vol. II, 1875.

Hayden, F. V., Geological Survey, 1867-8-9.

Hayden, F. V., Geological Survey, 1870.

Hayden, F. V., Geological Survey, 1871.

Hayden, F. V., Geological Survey, 1872.

Hayden, F. V., Geological Survey, 1873.

Hayden, F. V., Geological Survey, 1874.

International Exhibition, London, 1862

Powell. B. P., Geology of the Uinta Mts.

Hayden., U.S. Geol. Survey, 1874.

Hayden, U.S Geol. Survey, 1876.

Hayden, U.S. Geol. Survey, 1876.

Powell, B. P., Colorado River Exploraitions, 1873.

Memoriam — Increase A. Lapham.

New England and the English Commowealth.

Fur-bearing Animals of the Northwest — Cowes.

Powell, J. W., American Ethnology.

Hayden, F. V., U.S. Geol. Survey, ,Vol. XI.

Hayden, F. V., U.S. Geol. Survey of 1875.

Memoirs, Vol. I, 1875.

Memoirs, Vol. II, 1875.

U.S. Geol. Exploration of 9th Par., C. King, 1875.

Department of Agriculture, 1875.

Department of Agriculture, 1876.

Commercial Relations, 1875.

Messages and Documen's U. S., 1871.

Commerce and Navigation, Part I, 1876.

Commerce and Navigation, Part II, 1876.

The Electoral Count of 1876.

Leading Cases in International Law (Digest).

Western Review of Science and Industry. Theo. 8. Case, Kansas City,
Mo. Vols. I and II.

Medical Investigator, 1878 to 1878.

19

290 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Aris, and Letters.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

Since the last report of the Council, on February 138, 1876, the Academy
has lost by death the following members:

James H. Eaton, Ph. D.,,for many years Professor of Chemistry in Beloit
College, and one of the most valuable contributors to the Transactions of the
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. A memoir of Professor
Eaton, contributed by his colleague, Professor T. C. Chamberlin, will be

found at the end of this volume.

H. E. Copeland, A. M., Professor of Natural Sciences in the Whitewater
State Normal School. No memoir of Professor Copeland has yet been pre-
sented.

John B. Feuling, Ph. D., Professor of Comparative Philology and Modern
Languages in the University of Wisconsin, a memoir of whom, by his col-
league, Professor 8. H. Carpenter, will be found at the end of this volume.

Stephen H. Carpenter, LL. D., Professor of Logic and English Literature
in the University of Wisconsin, whose sudden death has taken place while
the last pages of this volume were in press. A brief sketch of his life, taken
from the Wisconsin State Journal, will be found at the end of this volume.

J. E. DAVIES,
General Secretary.

LIST OF OFFICERS AND MEMBERS

OF THE

ACADEMY, 1878,

GENERAL OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY,

(Term expires Dec. 27, 1878.)

PRESIDENT:
Dr. P. R. HOY, Racine.

VICE-PRESIDENTS :

Dr. 5S. H. CARPENTER, - : - - - MAnDISoN.
Pror. T.C. CHAMBERLIN, - - - - BELOIT.
Rey. G. M. STEELE, D. D., - - - - APPLETON.
How. J. I. CASE, = - = - - RACINE.
Rey. A. L. CHAPIN, D. D., - - - - BEnorr.
Dr. J. W. HOYT, - - - - - MADISON.

GENERAL SECRETARY:
Pror. J. E. DAVIES, M. D., Untversity or WISCONSIN.

TREASURER:
GEO. P. DELAPLAINE, Esq., Mapison.

DIRECTOR OF THE MUSEUM:

LIBRARIAN:

MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE EX-OFFICIO:

HIS EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR OF THE STATE.

THE LIEUTENANT GOVERNOR.

THE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.

THE PRESIDENT OF THE STATH UNIVERSITY.

THE PRESIDENT OF THE STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.
THE SECRETARY OF THE STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.
THE PRESIDENT OF THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY.
THE SECRETARY OF THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY.

294 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

GENERAL OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY.

* Term expires Dec. 27, 1881.

PRESIDENT:

A. L. CHAPIN, Benorr.

VICE PRESIDENTS:

Pror. R. D. IRVING, A. M., M. E., = - Mapison.
Hon. G. H. PAUL, - = - - MILWAUKEE.
G. M. STEELE, D. D.,_ - 2 - - APPLETON.

GENERAL SECRETARY:
Pror. J. E. DAVIES, A. M., M. D.,

University otf Wisconsin.

TREASURER:
Hon. 8. D. HASTINGS, Manison.

DIRECTOR OF THE MUSEUM:
Pror. G. W. PECKHAM, M. D., MinwavuKeEr.

LIBRARIAN:
E. A. BIRGE, Pu. D., Manison.

* Owing to the unusual delay in the publication of the present yolume of Transactions, it
was thought advisable to print the above list ot General Officers of the Academy, who were
elected at the Regular Annual Meeting, held at Madison, Dec. 27, 1878.

Officers of the Departments. 295

OFFICERS OF THE DEPARTMENTS.

Department of Speculative Philosophy.

President Ex-Oficio—THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

Vice-President —S. H. CARPENTER, LL. D., State University.

Secretary — REY. F. M. HOLLAND, Baraboo

Counselors — PRESIDENT BASCOM, State University, PROF. O. AREY,
Whitewater, and REV. A. O. WRIGHT, Hox Lake.

Depariment of the Natural Sciences.

President Hx-Oficio— THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

Vice-President — PROF. T. C. CHAMBERLIN, Belozt.

Secretary — PROF. J. H. EATON, Beloit.

Counselors —PROF. W. W. DANIELLS, State University, PROF. J. C..
FOYE, Appleton, and PROF. THURE KUMLEIN, Albion College.

Department of the Social and Political Sciences.

President Hx-Oficio —THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.
Vice-President — REV. G. M. STEELE, Appleton.
re — a LELAND, Hau Claire.
ounselors — DR. E. B. WOLCOTT, Milwaukee, REV. CHAS. CA
Lombard, Ili., and PROF. J. B. PARKINSON, Madison. Mes

Department of the Mechanic Arts,

President Hz-Oficio —THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY

Vice-President — J. 1. CASE, Racine. 3

Secretary — PROF. W. J. L. NICODEMUS, State University.

Counselors — CHAS. H. HASKINS, Milhoaukee, HON. J. L. MITCHELL
Milwaukee, and CAPT. JOHN NADER, Madison.

Department of Letters.

President Ex-Officio —THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.
Vice-President — REY. A. L. CHAPIN, D. D., Belozt.
Bee — eee FUNG: State University.
ounselors — . W. F. ALLEN, Madison, PROF. EMER‘ }
PLO. LC! DRAPHR aici veo) mie ee

Department of the Fine Arts.

President Hz-Oficio—THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

Vice-President — DR. J. W. HOYT, Madison.

Secretary — HON. J. E. THOMAS, Sheboygan.

POU a R. STUART, MRS. 8S. F. DEAN, and MRS. H. M. LEWIS
adison. ;

296 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

MEMBERS OF THE ACADEMY.

LIFE MEMBERS.

Case, J. I., Hon., Racine, Wis.

Dewey, Nelson, Ex-Governor of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
Hagerman, J. J., Esq., Milwaukee, Wis.

Hoyt, J. W., M. D., Governor of Wyoming Territory.
Lawler, John, Esq., Prairie du Chien, Wis.

Mitchell, J. L., Hon., Milwaukee, Wis.

Noonan, J. A., Esq., Milwaukee, Wis.

_ Paul, G. H., Hon., Milwaukee, Wis.

Thomas, J. E., Hon., Sheboygan Falls, Wis.

Thorpe, J. G., Hon., Hau Claire, Wis.

White, 8. A., Hon., Whitewater, Wis.

ANNUAL MEMBERS.

Adsit, N. H., Mrs., Milwaukee, Wis.

Allen, W. C., Hon., Racine, Wis.

Alien, W. F., A. M., Professor of Latin and History in the University of Wis-
consin.

Bartlett, E. W., M. D., Milwaukee, Wis.

' Bascom, John, LL. D., President of the University of Wisconsin.

Bashford, R. M., A. M., Madison, Wis.

Bate, A. W., Mrs., Milwaukee, Wis.

Birge, E. A., Ph. D., Instructor in Zoology in the University of Wisconsin.

Bryant, Ed. H., Hon., Madison, Wis.

Buck, James 8., Milwaukee, Wis.

Bundy, W. F., A. M., Sauk City, Wis.

Butler, J. D., LL. D., Madison, Wis.

Cass, Josiah E., Eau Claire, Wis.

Caverno, Chas., Rev., Lombard, III.

Chamberlin, T. C., A. M., Professor of Natural History in Beloit College, and
Director of the Geological Survey of Wisconsin.

Chapin, A. L., D. D., President of Beloit College, Beloit, Wis.

Conover, O. M., A. M., Madison Wis.

Daniells, W. W., M. S., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Wis-
consin.

Members of the Academy. 297

Davies, J. E., A. M., M. D., Professor of Physics in the University of Wisconsin.
Day, F. H., M. D., Wauwatosa, Wis.
Dean, 8. F., Mrs., Madison. Wis.
DeHart, J.N., M D., Madison, Wis.
De Koven, James, Rev. Dr., Racine, Wis.
De La Matyr, W. A., Spring Green, Wis.
Delaplaine, Geo. P., Madison, Wis.
Doerflinger, Carl, Mrs., Milwaukee, Wis.
Doyle, Peter, Hon., Secretary of State of Wisconsin.
Draper, L. C., Hon., Madison, Wis.
Dudley, Wm., Madison, Wis.
Durand, H.S8., Racine, Wis.
Durand, H.S8., Mrs., Racine, Wis. 6
Durand, Frankie, Miss, Racine, Wis.
Durrie, D. 8., Librarian Wisconsin State Histurical Society, Madison, Wis.
Elmendorf, J. J., 8. T. D., Professor in Racine College.
Emerson, Prof., Beloit College, ‘Wis.
Falk, F. W., Ph. D., Professor in Racine College, Racine, Wis.
Farrar, Chas. A., Prest. Milwaukee College, Milwaukee Wis.
Farrar, Chas., Mrs., Milwaukee, Wis.
Ford, J. C., Hon., Madison, Wis.
Ford, Julia, Mrs., Milwaukee, Wis.
Foye, J. C., A. M., Professor of Physics in Lawrence University, Appleton,
Wis.
Frackleton, Mrs., Milwaukee, Wis.
Gapen, Clark, M. D., Madison, Wis.
Germain, W. A., Delafield, Wis.
Giles, Elia, Miss, Madison, Wis.
Gordon, Geo., Milwaukee, Wis.
Gordon, Geo., Mrs., Milwaukee, Wis.
Gordon, G. E., Rev., Milwaukee, Wis.
Gregory, Chas. N., A. M., Madison, Wis.
Hailman, W. M., Milwaukee, Wis.
Hardy, Albert, Principal High School, Milwaukee, Wis.
Haskins, C. H., General Superintendent Northwestern Telegraph Company,
Milwaukee, Wis.
Hastings, 8. D., Hen., Madison, Wis.
Hawley, C. T., Milwaukee, Wis.
Henrickson, Peter, Prof., Beloit College, Beloit, Wis.
Holland, F. M., Rev., A. M., Baraboo, Wis.
Holton, HE. D., Hon., Milwaukee, Wis.
Hoy, P. R., M. D., Racine, Wis.
Hoy, Jenny, Miss, Racine, Wis.
Hutchinson, B. E., Hon., Madison, Wis.
Irving, R. D., A. M., M. E., Professor of Geology and Mining Engineering
. in the University ef Wisconsin.

298 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Jones, Jenk. Ll., Rev., Janesville, Wis.

Kenaston, C. A., Ripon, Wis.

Kerr, Alex., A. M., Professor of Greek in the University of Wisconsin.

King, Chas. I., Superintendent Machine Shop, University of Wisconsin.

Kingston, J. P., Necedah, Wis.

Kleeberger, G. R., Whitewater, Wis.

Kumlein, Thure, Prof., Albion College, Albany, Wis.

Lapham, Mary J., Miss, Summit, Wis.

Lapham, 8. G., Milwaukee, Wis.

Leland, E. R., Eau Claire, Wis.

Lewis, H. M., Mrs., Madison, Wis.

Lovewell, J. T., Professor in Female College, Milwaukee, Wis.

Luther, F.S., Rev., Racine College, Racine, Wis.

Mann, Chas., Milwaukee, Wis.

Marks, Solon, M. D., Milwaukee, Wis.

Mason, R. Z., LL. D., Appleton, Wis.

McLaren, W. P., Milwaukee, Wis.

McMurphy, J. G., Prof., Racine, Wis.

Meacham, J. G., M. D., Racine, Wis.

Meacham, J. G., Jr., M. D., Racine, Wis.

Merrill, Wm. P., Hon., Milwaukee, Wis.

Morris, W. A. P., Hon., Madison, Wis.

Nader, John, C. E., Madison, Wis.

Nicodemus, W. J. L., A. M., C. E., Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engin-.
eering in the University of Wisconsin.

Olin, D. A., Mrs., Racine, Wis.

Orton, Harlow S., Hon., Judge of Supreme Court of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.

Parkinson, J. B., A. M., Professor of Civil Polity and Political Economy in
the University of Wisconsin.

Parsons, P. B,, Madison, Wis.

Peckham, Geo. W., Professor of Natural Science in the Milwaukee High
School, Milwaukee, Wis.

Perkins, D. W., M. D., Milwaukee, Wis.

Pinney, S. U., Hon., Madison, Wis.

Pradt, J. B., Rev., A. M., Madison, Wis.

Preusser, Chas., President of Natural History Society, Milwaukee, Wis.

Sawyer, W. C., Professor, in Lawrence University, Appleton, Wis.

Shaw, Samuel, A. M., Principal High School, and City Superintendent of
Public Schools, Madison, Wis.

Shipman, 8. V., Chicago, Il.

Simmons, H. M., Rev., Kenosha, Wis.

Sloan, I. C., Hon., Madison, Wis.

Smith, R. B., Attorney at Law, Madison, Wis.

Smith, Wm. E., Governor of Wisconsin.

Sprague, A. R., Evansville, Wis.

Stark, G. A., M. D., Milwaukee, Wis.

Members of the Academy. 299

Steele, Geo. M., Rev., D. D., President of Lawrence University, Appleton,
Wis.

Stuart, J. R., A. M., Madison, Wis.

Swezey, G. D., A. M., Professor in Beloit College, Beloit, Wis.

Whitford, W. C., A. M., Superintendent of Public Instruction of the State_of
Wisconsin.

Wilkinson, John, Rev., A. M., Madison, Wis.

Willis, Olympia Brown, Mrs., Racine, Wis.

Winship, Eugene B., Racine College, Racine, Wis.

Wolcott, E. B., M. D., Milwaukee, Wis.

Wolcott, Laura J., Mrs., Milwaukee, Wis.

Wood, J. W., Baraboo, Wis.

Woodman, E. E., Baraboo, Wis.

Wright, A. O., Rev., Fox Lake, Wis.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Abbett, C. C., M. D., Trenton, New Jersey.

Andrews, Edmund, A. M., M. D., Professor in Chicago Medical College,
Chicago, I11.

Barrow, John W., No. 313 East Seventeenth street, New York city.

Bridge, Norman, M. D., Chicago, Ill.

Brinton, J. G., M. D., Philadelphia, Pa.

Buchanan, Joseph, M. D., Louisville, Ky.

Burnham, S. W., F. R. A. S., Chicago, Ill.

Byrness, R. M., M. D., Cincinnati, Ohio.

Carr, E. 8., M. D., Superintendent Public Instruction, California.

Ebener, F., Ph. D., Baltimore, Md.

Gatchell, H. P., M. D., Kenosha, Wis.

Gill, Theo., M. D., Smithsonian Institute, Washington, 1D. Ce

Gilman, D. C., President John Hopkins’ University.

Haldeman, 8. 8., LL. D., Professor in University of Pennsylvania, Chickis,
Penn.

Harris, W. T., LL. D., St. Louis, Mo.

Hopkins, F. V., M. D., Baton Rouge, La.

‘Horr, Asa, M. D., President Iowa Institute of Arts and Sciences, Dubuque,
Towa.

Hubbell, H. P., Winona, Minn.

Jewell, J.S.,A. M., M. D., Professor in Chicago Medical College, Chicago, Ill.

Le Barron, Wm., State Entomologist, Geneva, New York.

Marcy, Oliver, LL. D., Prof., Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill.

Morgan, L. H., LL. D., Rochester, Ill.

Newberry, J. S., LL. D., Prof., Columbia College, New York.

Orton, E., A. M,, President Antioch College, Yellow Springs, Ohio.
Paine, Alford, 8. T. D., Hinsdale, Ill.

800 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Porter, W. B., Prof., St. Louis,Mo.

Safford, T. H., Director of the Astronomical Observatory of Williams College,
Williamstown, Mass.

Schele, De Vere M., L. L. D., Prof. University of Viriginia, Charlotteville,
Va.

Shaler, N.S., A. M., Prof. Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.

Trumbull, J. H., LL. D., Hartford, Conn.

Verrill, A. E., A. M., Prof. Yale College, New Haven, Conn.

Van DeWarker, Eli, M. D., Syracuse, New York.

Watson, James C., A. M., Director of the Washburn Astronomical Observa-
tory at Madison, Wis.

Whitney, W. D., Prof. Yale College, New Haven, Conn.

Winchell, Alex., LL. D., Chancelor of Syracuse University, Syracuse, N. Y.

HONORARY MEMBERS.

Baird, Spencer, F. M. D., LL. D., Washington, D. C.
Hamilton, Joseph, Hon., Milwaukee, Wis.

NotE— Members of the Academy will confer a favor upon the secretary by communicating
to him their full postoffice address, and by giving him timely notice of any permanent
change of residence on their part; also by pointing out any corrections needed in the fore-
going listz of members.

a

Members Deceased. 3801

MEMBERS DECEASED

Since the Organization of the Academy in 1870.

Wm. Stimpson, M. D., Late Secretary Chicago Academy of Sciences, Chi-
cago, Ill.

J. W. Foster, LL. D., late Professor in the University of Chicago, Chicago
il. Died June 29, 1878.

Rt. Rev. Wm. E. Armitage, 8. T. D., Bishop of Wisconsin, and for a term
Vice President of the Academy of Sciences. Died Dec. %, 1873.

Hon. John Y. Smith, Madison, Wis. Died May 5, 1874.

Prof. Peter Englemann, Milwaukee, Wis. Died May 17, 1874.

I. A. Lapham, LL. D., Milwaukee, Wis. First Secretary of the Wisconsin
Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. Died Sept. 14, 1875.

Hon. A. 8. McDill, M. D., Madison, Wis. Died Nov. 12, 1875.

Prof. H. E. Copeland, Whitewater State Normal School, Whitewater, Wis.

James H. Eaton, late Professor of Chemistry in Beloit College, Beloit, Wis.
Died Jan. 5, 1877.

J. C. Freer, late President Rush Medical College, Chicago, Ill. Died April
12, 1877.

Thos. Blossom, M. E., School of Mines, Columbia College, New York. Cor-
responding member of the Academy.

Prof. H. F. Oldenhage, Milwaukee High School, Milwaukee, Wis.

J. B. Feuling, Ph. D., late Professor of Modern Languages and Comparatiye
Philology in the University of Wisconsin. Died March 10, 1878.

J. Wingate Thornton, Boston, Mass. Corresponding member of the Acad-

emy. Died June 6, 1878.

8. H. Carpenter, LL. D., late Professor of Logic and English Literature in
the University of Wisconsin. Died Dec. 7, 1878.

302 = Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

COMMITTEES OF THE ACADEMY.

By-law No. 5, states that there shall be the following Standing Commit.
tees, to consist of three members each, when ne other number is specified:

1. On Nominations.

2. On Papers presented to the Academy.

3. On Finance.

4. On the Museum.

5. On the Library.

6. On the Scientific Survey of the State; which committee shall consist of
the Governor, the President of the State University, and the President of this
Academy.

7. On Publication; which committee shall consist of the President of the
Academy, the Vice-Presidents, and the Genera] Secretary.

Under this by-law it has been customary to appoint, on the first committee,
three members of the Academy present at the beginning of the regular meet-
ing, at which the nominations are made.

The President and General Secretary of the Academy constitute the second.

The committee on Finance, to whom is referred the report of the Treasurer,
Consists of three members of the Academy, appointed by the President at
the regular annual meeting in February or December.

The committee on the Museum at present consists of Professors T. C.
Chamberlin, R. D. Irving and J. OC. Foye.

The committee on the Library consists of Prof. W. F. Allen, Gen. Geo. B.
Delaplaine and Gen. Ed. E. Bryant.

CHARTER, CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS

OF THE

ACADEMY OF

SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS,

OF WISCONSIN

With the Amendments thereto, up to February, 1878.

CHARTER.

AN ACT TO INCORPORATE THE “WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF
SCIENCKHS, ARTS AND LETTERS,

The people of the State of Wisconsin, represented in Senate and Assembly, do
enact as foliows :

Section 1. Lucius Fairchild, Nelson Dewey, Jchn W. Hoyt, Increase A.
Lapham, Alexander Mitchell, Wm. Pitt Lynde, Joseph Hobbins, E. B. Wol-
cott, Solon Marks, R. Z. Mason, G. M. Steele, T. C. Chamberlin, James H.
Eaton, A. L. Chapin, Samuel Fallows, Charles Preuser, Wm. KE. Smith, J. C.
Foye, Wm. Dudley, P. Englemann, A. 8S. McDill, John Murrish, Geo. P. Del-
aplaine, J. G. Knapp, 8. V. Shipman, Edward D. Holton, P. R. Hoy, Thaddeus
C. Pound, Charles E. Bross, Lyman C. Draper, John A. Byrne, O. R. Smith,
J.M. Bingham, Henry Betz, Ll. Breese, Thos. 8. Allen, 8. S. Barlow, Chas.
R. Gill, C. L. Harris, George Reed, J. G. Thorp, William Wilson, Samuel D.
Ilastings, and D. A. Baldwin, at present being members and officers of an
association known as “The Wlsconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Let-
ters,” located at the city of Madison, together with their future associates and
successors forever, are hereby created a body corporate by the name and style
ot “The Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters,” and by that
name shall have perpetual succession; shall be capable in law of contracting
and being contracted with, of suing and being sued, of pleading and being
impleaded in all courts of competent jurisdiction; and may do and perform
such acts as are usually performed by like corporate bodies.

SEcTION 2. The general objects of the Academy shall be to encourage
investigation and disseminate correct views in the various departments of
science, literature and the arts. Among the specific objects of the academy
shall be embraced the following: ~

1. Researches and investigations in the various departments of the material,
metaphysical, ethical, ethnological and social science.

2. A progressive and thorough scientific survey of the state, with a view of
determining its mineral, agricultural and other resources.

3. The advancement of the useful arts, through the applications of science,
and by the encouragement of original invention.

4. The encouragement of the fine arts, by means of honors and prizes
awarded to artists for original works of superior merit

5. The formation of scientific, economical and art museums.

6. The encouragement of philological and historical research, the collec-
tion and preservation of historic records, and the formation of a general
library.

SECON 3. Said Academy may have acommon seal and alter the same at
pleasure; may ordain and euforce such constitution, regulations and by-laws
as may be necessary, and alter the same at pleasure; may receive and hold
real and personal property, and may use and dispose of the same at pleasure ;
provided, that it shall not divert any donation or bequest from the uses and
objects proposed by the donor, and that none of the property acquired by it
shall, in any manner, be alienated other than in the way of an exchange of
duplicate specimens, books, and other effects, with similar institutions and
in the manner specified in the next section of this act, without the consent ot
the legislature.

20

806 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Section 4. It shall be the duty of said Academy, so far as the same may

be done without detriment to its own collections, to furnish, at the discretion
of its officers, duplicate typical specimens of its objects in natural history to
the University of Wisconsin, and to the other schools and colleges of the
state. :
Sxctron 5. It shall be the duty of said Academy to keep a careful record
of allits financial and other transactions, and, at the close of each fiscal.
year, the president thereof shall report the same to the governor of the state,
to be by him laid before the legislature.

Sxcrion 6. The constitution and by-laws of said Academy now in force
shall govern the corporation hereby created, until regularly altered or re-
pealed; and the present officers of said Academy shall be officers of the cor-
poration hereby created until their respective terms of office shall regularly
expire, or until their places shall be otherwise vacated.

Section 7. Any existing society or institution having like objects em-
braced by said Academy, may be constituted a department thereof, or be
otherwise connected therewith, on terms mutually satisfactory to the govern-
ing bodies of the said Academy and such other society or institution.

Section 8. For the proper preservation of such scientific specimens,
books and other collections as said Academy may make, the governor shall
prepare such apartment or apartments in the capitol as may be so occupied
without inconvenience to the state.

SEcTIon 9. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its
passage.

Approved March 16, 1870.

Constitution. 307

CONSTITUTION.

NAME AND LOCATION.

Snorron 1. This association shall be called “The Wisconsin Academy of
Sciences, Arts and Letters,” and shall be located at the city of Madison.

GENERAL OBJECTS,

Section 2. The general object of the Academy shall be to encourage in-.
vestigations and disseminate correct views in the various departments of Sci-.
ence, Literature and the Arts.

DEPARTMENTS.

Section 8. The Academy shall comprise separate Departments, not less;
than three in number, of which those first organized shall be:

1st. The Department of Speculative Philosphy —

Embracing:
Metaphysics;
Ethics.

2d. The Department of the Social and Political Sciences —

Embracing:
Jurisprudence;
Political Science;
Education ;
Public Health;
Social Economy. -

3d. The Department of Natural Sciences —

Embracing:
The Mathematical and Physical Sciences:
Natural History ;
The Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences.

4th. The Department of Arts —
Embracing:

The Practical Arts;
The Fine Arts.

oth. The Department of Letters —

Embracing:
Language;
Literature ;
Criticism;
History.

Srction 4. Any branch of these Departments may be consti
‘ y ) ituted a sec-
tion; and any section or group of sections may be deennded into a full De
partment, whenever such expansion shall be deemed important.

308 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Section 6. Any existing society or institution mey be constituted a De-
partment, on terms approved by two-thirds of the voting members present at
two successive regular meetings of the Academy.

SPECIAL OBJECTS OF THE DEPARTMENTS.

Sxction 6. The specific objects of the Department of Sciences shall be:

1. General Scientific Research.

2. A progressive and thorough Scientific Survey of the State, under the di-
rection of the Officers of the Academy.

3. The formation of.a Scientific Museum.

4, The Diffusion of Knowledge by the publication of Original Contribu-
tions to Science.

The object of the Department of the Arts shall be:

1. The Advancement of the Useful Arts, through the Application of Sci-
ence and the Encouragement of Original Invention.

2. The Encouragement of the Fine Arts and the Iinprovement of the Public
Taste, by means of Honors and Prizes awarded to Works of Superior Merit,
by Original Contributions to Art, and the Formation of an Art Museum.

The objects of the Department of Letters, shall be:

1, The Encouragement of Philological and Historical Research.

2. The Improvement of the English Language.

3. The Collection and Preservation of Historic Records.

4, The Formation of a General Library.

MEMBERSHIP.

Srctron 7. The Academy shall embrace four classes of governing mem-
‘pers who shall be admitted by vote of the Academy, in the manner to be
prescribed in the By-Laws:

1st. Annual Members, who shall pay an initiation fee of five dollars, and
thereafter'an annual fee of two dollars.

2d. Members for Life, who shall pay a fee of one hundred dollars.

3d. Patrons, whose contributions shall not be less than five hundred dollars.

4th. Founders, whose contributions shall not be less than the sum of one
thousand dollars.

Provisions may also be made for the election of honorary and correspond-
ing members, as may be directed by the by-laws of the Academy.

MANAGEMENT.

Srcrion 8. The management of the Academy shall be intrusted to a gen-
eral council; the immediate control of each Department to a Department
Council. The General Council shall cons'st of the officers of the Academy,
the officers of the Departments, the Governor and Lieutenant Governor, the
Superintendent of Public Instruction, and the President of the State Univer-
sity, the President and Secretary of the State Agricultural Society, the Presi-
dent and Secretary of the State Historical Society. Counselors ew-officids, and
three Counselors to be elected for each Department. The Department Coun-
cils shall consist of the President and Secretary of the Academy, the officers
of the Department, and three Counselors to be chosen by the Department.

OFFICERS.

Section 9. The officers of the Academy shall be: a President, who shall
be ew-officto President of each of the Departments; one Vice-President for
each Department; a General Secretary; a General Treasurer; a Director of
the Museum, and a Genera] Librarian.

Section 10. The officers of each Department shall be a Vice-President,
who shall be ev-officio a Vice-President of the Academy; a Secretary and such
other officers as may be created by the General Council.

Constitution. 3809

SEcTION 11. The officers of the Academy and the Departments shall hold
their respective offices for the term of three years and until their successors
are elected.

SecTion 12. The first election of officers under this Constitution shall be
by its members at the first meeting of the Academy.

Section 13. The duties of the officers and the mode of their election,
after the first election, as likewise the frequency, place and date of all meet-
ings, shall be prescribed in the By-Laws of the Academy, which shall be
framed and adopted by the General Council.

SEcTION 14. No compensation shall be paid to any person whatever, and
no expenses incurred for any person or object whatever, except under the
authority of the Council.

RELATING TO AMENDMENTS.

Section 15. Every proposition to alter or amend this constitution shall
be submitted in writing at a regular meeting; and if two-thirds of the mem-
bers present at the next regular meeting vote in the affirmative, it shall be
adopted.

AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION.

Amendment to Section 3: “ The Department of the Arts shall be hereafter
divided into the Department of the Mechanic Arts and the Department of
the Fine Arts,” Passed February 14, 1876.

810 Wrsconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

DB WSEAN iS:

ELECTION OF MEMBERS.

1. Candidates for membership must be proposed in writing, by a member,
to the General Council and referred to the committee on Nominations, which
committee may nominate to the Academy. A majority vote shall elect. Hon-
orary and corresponding members must be persons who have rendered some
marked service to Science, the Arts, or Letters, or to the Academy.

ELECTION OF OFFICERS.
2. All officers of the Academy shall be elected by ballot.
MEETINGS.

3. The regular meetings of the Academy shall be as follows:

On the 2d Tuesday in February, at the seat of the Academy; and in July,
at such place and exact date as shall be fixed by the Council; the first named
to be the Annual Meeting. The hour shall be designated by the Secretary in’
the notice of the meeting.- At any regular meeting, ten members shall con-
stitute a quorum for the transaction of business. Special meetings may be
called by the President at his discretion, or by request of any five members of
the General Council.

Amended at Racine, July 10, 1878, as follows:

The regular Annual Meeting of the Academy, shall be held as follows:

On the last Wednesday and Thursday in December, at the seat of the Acad-
emy; and the regular Semd-annual Meeting shall be held in July, at such time
and place as shall be determined upon at the previous regular Annual Meet-
ing in December. The hour shall be designated by the Secretary in the no-
tice of the meeting.

Special meetings may be called by the President or the General Secretary,
at their discretion or by request of any five members of the General Council.

DUTIES OF OFFICERS.

4. The President, Vice-President, Secretaries, Treasurer, Director of the
M useum and Librarian shall perform the duties usually appertaining to their
respective offices, or such as shal? be required by the Council. The Treas.
urer shall give such security as shall be satisfactory to the Council, and pay
such rete of interest on funds held by him as the Council shall determine.
Five members of the General Council shall constitute a quorum.

COMMITTERS.

5, There shall be the following Standing Committees, to consist of three
members each, when no other number is specified:

On Nominations.

On Papers presented to the Academy.
On Finance.

By-Laws. 311

On the Museum.

On the Library.

On the Scientific Survey of the State; which Committee shall
consist of the Governor, the President of the State University
and the President of this Academy.

On Publication; which Committee shall consist of the President
of the Academy, the Vice-Presidents, and the General Sec- _
retary.

MUSEUM AND LIBRARY.

6. No books shall be taken from the Library, or works or specimens from
the Museum, except by authority of the General Council; but it shall be the
duty of said Council, to provide for the distribution to the State University
and to the Colleges and public Schools of the State, of such duplicates of
typical specimens in Natural History as the Academy may be able to supply
without detriment to its collections.

ORDER OF BUSINESS.

%. The order of business at all regular meetings of the Academy or of any
Department, shall be as follows:

Reading minutes of previous meeting.
Reception of conations.
Reports of officers and committees.
Deferred business.

New business.

Reading and discussion of papers.

SUSPENSION AND AMENDMENT OF BY-LAWS.
8. The By-Laws may be suspended by a unanimous vote, and in case of the

order of business a majority may suspend. They may be amended in the
same manner as is provided for in the Constitution, for its amendment.

° . pa i

4
<i

IN MEMORIAM.

IN MEMORIAM.

PROF. JAMES. H. EATON, Pa D.

Late Professor of Chemistry and Physics in Beloit College.

By T. C. CHAMBERLIN.

Once and again, a seventh time and an eighth, has our Society been called
upon to lament the departure of an esteemed and honored member.

An Armitage, an Engleman, a Foster, a Lapham, a Stimpson, a Smith, and
a McDill have passed in turn from our number and have left vacancies we
may not hope to fill, losses we may not hope to repair. Esteemed and
mourned, as these have been, the more esteemed and the more lamented as
we have known them the more intimately, our sorrow is no less profound,
our bereavement is even yet sadder, as we realize the loss of a younger and
no less earnest co-laborer, the devoted Eaton.

The 21st of June, 1842, marked the beginning, and the morning of the 5th
of January, 1877, beheld the close of the life of Prof. James H. Eaton, a
span of thirty-four years — twenty-five years of preparation, nine years of
work, -

To his father, at once a scholar, a teacher and an author, he owed much of
that firm intellectual foundation upon which he erected so true and trust-
worthy a scholarship. His early training was received in earth’s best and
truest university, the home, a cultured, Christian home. To this was added
the vigorous discipline of Phillip’s Academy, the wider culture of Amherst
College and the technical training of Géttingen University. The fruitage of
these rare opportunities was everywhere manifest in the ‘mental acquisitions
of Prof. Eaton. His academic scholarship was thorough and accurate, firm
and solid. There was no weakness or unsoundness in the foundation, We
could admire the symmetrical shaft, the ornate capital, and the chaste en-
tablature of the intellectual column, with no misgiving lest a weak or
crumbling pedestal should work its ruin.

His culture was broad and catholic. Because he was a chemist, he did not
find it necessary tu despise the linguist. Because he traced and taught the
history of an atom, he did not deprecate the merits of those who taught the
history of man, or of his institutions. Because he could give visible demon-
stration of the laws of the physical elements, he did not disparage the more
occult sanctions of civil, moral and religious laws. Because he dealt with
the material, he did not scorn the spiritual.

In Memoriam. 315

While pot an omniverous student, the bounds of his special investigations
did not constitute for him the horizon of truth. He believed in the rotundity
of the intellectual world; that, to whatever eminence, as an explorer of truth,
he might climb, and however much his vision might thereby be amplified,
there was yet beyond a wider circumference, and, however antipodal some
phenomena might seem, they were still embraced in the sphericity of truth.
How often in our judgment of truth do we forget that the completeness and
perfection of the whole involves contrast and antagonism of the parts.

These enlarged views found expression in the opinions and efforts of Prof.
Eaton as an educator. While an enthusiastic devotee of science, thoroughly
impressed with its value as an educational agency, he at the same time fully
recognized the importance of co-ordinate literary, ethical, and esthetical cul-
ture. He extended neither sympathy nor fellowship toward the educational.
one-ideaism that finds expression in tke average scientific course. It was
largely due to his influence that the so-called Scientific course of Beloit Col-
lege was abolished, while he gave a hearty support to the broader and more
symmetrical Philosophical course, which is producing so much richer fruit.
As an educator he despised narrowness, whetber it were vertical or horizontal
whether it arose from building upon a constricted foundation or from the
tenuity of superficial diffuseness, and so he stood opposed alike to efforts to
confine education to a single or a few lines of thought, on the one hand, and
attempts, on the other hand, to spread the curriculum over the whole surface
of knowledge without giving thorough or adequate instruction in any
department of it.

One of the most prominent characteristics of Prof. Eaton, as a scientist
and as a man, was his perfect sincerity and scrupulous conscientiousness.
A worshiper of the truth, he spurned hypocrisy. A firm believer in the
potency and permanence of truth, he scorned to erect a fabric of fallacy for
personal or politic purposes. If error marked his views, it was the error of
mistake, and not the aberration of guile. If, as all original investigators do,
he gathered misconceptions, mingled with his gathering of facts, they were
no sooner discovered than cast aside, however much they may have been
interwoven with the fabric of his thought, and however much his personal
feelings may lave been involved by their publication. It requires courage
and a conscience to do this.

His mental vision was marked by clearness and accuracy, the outgrowth in
part of native endowments, and in no small part, we judge, of that consci
entiousness we so much admired. How easy it is to deflect our intellectual
sight and warp the native integrity of our judgment. The rays of truth
have come to few through purer and clearer lens or one kept more perfect by
conscientious care.

Patient industry marked all his endeavors and secured for him honors as a
student, respect and confidence as a teacher, and esteem as a scientist.
Painstaking preparation for every undertaking was a conspicuous trait. The
summation of his life is but a type of his daily habit — twenty-five years of
preparation, nine years of work.

316 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

To these mental and moral characters there was added religious belief and
religious culture. He seemed to us to exemplify in an e ninent degree the
true attitude of faith and science. They appeared the right hand and the
left hand of his being; set over against each other, indeed, antagonizing
each other’s action in a sense, yet both working together in mutual confi-
dence and love for the good of the whole being.

His religious views never seemed to hamper his scientific conceptions, nor
his science circumscribe the domain of his faith. He never seemed to hope
or fear that his crucible would analyze the human soul, but in quiet and
courageous trust he lived a true scientist and a true Christian.

His scientific labors have been so interwoven with the history of this
Society that they do not need formal memorial here. We but repeat the
spontaneous judgment of those most intimately associated with his investi-
gations, as well as those who have listened to his productions, when we
characterize them in terms of high esteem and admiration.

JOHN BAPTIST PRWLEING.. bb)

BY STEPHEN H. CARPENTER, LL. D.

Professor of Logn and English Liierature in the University of Wisconsin.

Dr. Joun Baptist Freurrne, Professor of Modern Languages and Compar-
ative Philology in the University of Wisconsin, died at Fayette, lowa, March
10, 1878, after a lingering illness of more than six months.

Dr. Feuling was born ia the classic city of Worms, Germany, February 12th,
1838. He attended the public schoo} until his tenth year. In 1848 he entered
the Gymnasium, from which he graduated nine years after, in 1857, with a
first degree, and entered the University at Giessen to study Philology. His
studies at the University were interrupted by being called to serve in the
army, but after two months’ service, he returned, and passed his public exami-
nation in 1860. While at the University he gave private instruction, and after
leaving, he accepted a position in the Institute of St. Gowishausen, on the
Rhine, as teacher of Latin and Greek. During 1861 he spent six months at
the Bibliotheque Imperiale, at Paris, mainly in the study of Philology, and in
acquiring a conversational mastery of the French language.

He came to this country in 1865, landing at Portland, Maine, April 14th. He
went directly to New York, where he remained some time. He then spent a
year at Toledo, Ohio, where he opened a French and German Academy. Not
succeeding in this enterprise, he came west, and was employed for a time at
Racine College in giving instruction in the classic languages, from which
place he was called by President Chadbourne to the chair of Modern Lan-
guages and Comparative Philology, at the University of Wisconsin, in the
spring of 1868 — which position he filled at the time of his death. Shortly
after his accession to his professorship here, he was invited to the Professor-

In Memoriam. 3817

ship of Ancient Languages in the University of Louisiana, at Baton Rouge,
and visited that place on a tour of inspection. The position was held open
for him one year, when he finally declined it, preferring to remain here, al-
though his preference was for the chair of Ancient Languages.

Dr. Fueling was married November 21st, 1868, to Miss Laura H. Aldrich,
whose care and devotion have smoothed his dying pillow, and ministered to
every want.

In 1876 he visited his old world home on a brief tour, but returned heartily
in sympathy with American ways, and our systems of education, after having
had the opportunity of comparing the two systems with his matured judg-
ment. Indeei, he remarked to the writer of this sketch that his views as to
the expediency of adopting the German method in this country had undergone
a complete change — that while the German system carried a few students
further, the American system carried the mass of students to a practical edu-
cation unknown to the German system. The word “ university ”’ not desig-
nating the same grade of institution here as in Germany, it took him some
time to adjust himself to the wants of the students that he here met, but dur-
ing the last years of his life he was thoroughly in sympathy with his work
and with the students under nis charge.

The published works of Dr. Feuling are few. Shortly after coming to Madi-
son he published an edition of the Poems Admoniturium of Phocylides, pre-
facing the Greek text with an introduction written in fluent Latin. This was
dedicated to the American Philological Association, of which he was an
active member, and before which he read several papers. He was also a mem-
ber of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, and contributed
several philological papers to its transactions. He has left several works in
manuscript — “ The Homeric Hymns,” with notes; Montesquieu’s “ Consider-
ations,’ with notes and a glossary, intended as a French Reading Book, which
is nearly ready for the press; also “An Historical Outline of Germanic Ac-
cidence,” which was nearly completed at his death. All these works show
on every page his profound and thorough scholarship, and leave no room for
doubt that had he lived he would have gained a lasting reputation in his
chosen field of study. With him, teaching was not a drudgery; he felt proud
of his profession, and discharged his duty with a conscientious fidelity.

As a man, he was genial, companionable and trustful. With an ardent
temperament, his likes and dislikes were strong, and sometimes strongly ex-
pressed, but withal, he was free from baseless prejudices. He wasas prompt
to acknowledge a fault as to forgive a wrong. He had warm friends, and this
is one of the best tests of manhood.

As a Christian, he kept the taith. He was brought upin the Roman Catho-
lic Church, but on coming to this country he identified himself with the
Episcopal Church, of which he was a constant communicant until his death,
He died in Christian charity towards all, and let the living exercise the same
charity towards whatever faults in human fraility,he may have had. He died
in the Christian’s hope of a blessed immortality.

318 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

In the summer of 1877 he felt the premonitions of the fatal disease to which
he finally succumbed. It appeared first as a paralysis of the right hand,
which he naturally attributed to excessive use of his arm in writing, but the
steady advance of the paralysis soon left no doubt that the disease was seated
in the brain, and that no human agency could arrest its progress. For some
three weeks he attempted to carry on his work, but was then forced to cease
his labor in the hope that rest and quiet would restore his health; but disease
had too firm a hold upon his system, and he steadily failed. In January he
was removed to Fayette, lowa, the residence of his wife’s parents, in the faint
hope that a removal from the scene of his labor would lessen the irritation
that a man of his active temperament must. have felt at being laid aside from
duty; and, that care and quiet and the constant medical attendance of his
wife’s father might have a beneficial effect. But all was in vain, he failed ;
struggled with disease, and rallied, only to fall back beaten by his powerful
antagonist. The disease of the brain steadily progressed, extinguishing one
after another of his faculties; his speech gradually failed; then his sight;
and at last he gave no signs of consciousness; and so life ebbed away, and
death baffled all human effort. Love could not hold him, but Love can cher-
ish the memory of his life.

His remains were brought for interment to Madison, where he wished to be
buried. On abright spring-like day a large concourse of mourners, composed
of the Faculty and students of the University, and a large number of personal
friends, gathered at his late residence, and followed his remains to the Epis-
copal church, where the solemn but hopeful and impressive service cf the
churce he so loved was held by Rev. Mr. Wilkinson, assisted by Rev. J. B.
Pradt, after which his body was laid to rest in Forest Hill Cemetery, in sight
of the city that he loved as his earthly home, and of the University, the scene
of the labors of his active life; and there he rests, awaiting the resurrection of
the just. Regudescat in pace!

Nore. — It was Prof. Carpenter’s intention to have completely re-written and extended the
above notice of the life and death of Dr. Feuling, and he had promised the Secretary of the
Academy to do s0, only a few days before he was nimeelf seized with the illness which so :
suddenly terminated his own life. ‘‘In the midst of life we are in Geath.”’

DEATH OF PROFESSOR 8S. H. CARPENTER.

[Prom the State Journal (Madison) of Dec. %, 1878.]

Professor Stephen Haskins Carpenter, of the University of Wisconsin, died
at half-past five o’clock on the morning of December 7, 1878, at Geneva, N.
Y., of diphtheria, which had already proved fatal to his brother and nephew,
a few days before.

Professor Carpenter’s death is one of the saddest events we have ever been
called on to chronicle. He was widely and favorably known, not only in

In Memoriam. 819

this state, where he had devoted the best part of his life to the State Uni-
versity, but throughout the literary and educational circles of the country.
As an educator he stood among the foremost, and in all matters pertaining
to that avocation, his large experience and sound judgment stamped his
opinions with unquestioned authority. He was devoted to the University,
and rejected many tempting offers from other colleges, that he might retain
his chair in her Faculty avd continue to labor for her. He had seen the
University grow from a mere academy to a great and prosperous institution,
and this growth was due in a large part to his devotion to her, and to his zeal
in her behalf. The institution with which he, with others, had so long been
identified, is a memorial of his and their services and devotion. In every-
day life, Professor Carpenter took a busy part; his acquaintance was large,
and he was connected with other interests than the University. He was
esteemed by all who met and knew him in these outside interests. But by
the hundreds of students whom he has taught for so many years past, he was
peculiarly loved. His associates have not failed to receive the respect of the
students, bul perhaps none have ever attained that position in their affection
which Professor Carpenter has always held; and the announcement of his
sudden death was received with exquisite sorrow by the alumni of the Uni-
versity, who had learned to love him while under his instruction, and by the
undergraduate students from whom he parted but a week before his death.

Professor Carpenter was born August 7, 1831, at Little Falls, Herkimer
county, N. Y., and his early education was obtained at his own home, his
preparation for college being obtained at Munro Academy, Elbridge, N. Y.
In 1848, he entered the Freshman class of the Madison University, at Hamil-
ton, N. Y., where he remained two years, when he entered the University of
Rochester, from which. he took the degree of A. B. in 1852; A. M. in 1855,
and in 1872, the degree of LL. D. was conferred upon him by his alma mater.
He came to Wisconsin in 1852, and held the office of tutor for two years in
its University. From 1858 to 1860 he was Assistant Superintendent of Public
Instruction, and did much towards systematizing that office. In 1860, he was
elected Professor of Ancient Languages in St. Paul’s College, Palmyra, Mo.
which position he held until the rebellion broke up the institution. He
then returned north, taught select schoo: one winter, and afterward worked
at the printer’s trade, devoting his spare time to literary pursuits. He held
the office of city clerk of Madison from 1864 to 1868, but was all the time en-
gaged in educational enterprises, as County Superintendent of Schools and
member of the City Board of Education. In 1866, he’ was appointed by the
Regents of the University to the chair vacated by Prof. Read, who had been
called to the presidency of the Missouri University; in 1868, he was elected
Professor of Rhetoric and English Literature, since which time his connec-
tion with the University has been continuous, but the title of his professor-
ship was changed to that of Logic and English Literature. In 1875, he was
elected President of Kansas University, but declined.

As a writer, he has contributed very largely to the religious and educa-

320 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

tional periodicals of the country. Ten of his educational addresses have been
published and highly commended by literary authorities. His lectures»
twelve in number, on the evidence of Christianity, were published a few years
since, and have been well received. He has also been quite a translator from
the French language, of which he was master. His articles on metaphysical
subjects published in the Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences,
Arts and Letters, have attracted a good ‘deal of attention, and been favorably
reviewed in the periodical reviews of the country. But what has contributed
most to his fame as a scholar and an educationist, is his proficiency in tha
Anglo-Saxon and early English languages. In 1872, he published a book, en-
titled “ English of the Fourteenth Century,” containing a critical examination
of the English of Chaucer. In 1875, he published “An Introduction to the
Study of the Anglo-Saxon,” as a text-book, which has passed through several
editions, and which the London School Board Chronicle has noticed in the
most complimentary terms. His“ Klements of English Analysis” published
in 1877, is already in its second edition. His literary and scholarly abilities
were of constant growth, and his fame was far from having reached its zenith.

The loss to the Wisconsin University, in his death, is an irreparable one,
and the world of letters has been bereft of one of its most brilliant writers and
thinkers. No words are adequate to offer solace to the bereaved wife — the
balm of a religious hope, the consolations of a gospel, which he sincerely be*
lieved and ably defended, and the hope of a blessed reunion in n brighter and
better world, must supply what nothing earthly can do.

eo.

ERRATA.

Page 188, for “J. M. De Hart,” read “ J. N. De Hart.”
190, 14th line from bottom, for “[ Fig. 3-4]” read “| F7g. 3.]”
193, under the figure insert:
A. Shaft six feet square.
B. E. Groups of stones.
C. Drift into side of the tumulus.
D. Bottom of tumulus.
F. Skeletons of adults.
G. Skeleton of child.
H. Fragment of pottery.
K. Surface of adjoining ground.
196, 5th line from top, for “ alercolar” read “ alveolar.”
196, 5th line from bottom, for “dics” read “ discs.”
197, 2d-3d line from top, for ‘on page 7” read “opposite page 192.”
197, 3d line from top, for “ that ” read “ then.”
197, 3rd line from bottom, after “ inches,” insert “ (#%g. 11).”
198, under the figure insert:
. Layer of gravel one foot thick.
. Course of dark loam three feet thick
. Layer of gravel.
. Loam.
. Gravel.
. Stone altar three feet high.
. Tree growing from the mound.
200, 2d line from bottom, for ‘‘ Americans” read “ Americana.”
200, last line, for “ above overturned” read “ cast of,” and for “ formed
by squares” read “‘ found by Squier.”
201, heading— “ Department of the Mathematical and Physical Sci-
ences,”’ — should be omitted.
_ 235, after name of author, for “Kenosha” read “ Racine.”
246, 7th line from top, for ‘experiment ”’ read “ experiments,”

QHAvonP

9088