5s = oa = 3 ean : = Seas Saree i a a =; Ex : See ss = 233 SS Bee = 2 ane 5 3 3 3 a ag Fuk a % =f wu riot: See aero - case SESS : vErerew ace = Sa a eR as ye ns es SosT os BRS pee eee : 2 Sree : = ee < > rs 4 3 > i, oT, reeset = ~ aya SEE ES NSS esac arene ora Ss = > ass 2S amet = * = ae eae > Fae = = Siaiss5 ee ees Faas 3 3. a a Sereed = <— oe oe > : Se Sore torasaease : Noe Sie dten Seese = Sen : = E232 =r : Sas as ese eee eee Co ee Sars eRe hi eee \ = aod aad See ee eee eee = . i Mt} ¢ ae ee by q 4 1} 1? at yam “ ; eae gated = = = oe = a * i if * ae We ra ated ug bea hom : tid fOr at LC es es Sain [ seed re Fy as ‘- Bik PREHEFACH. Tue Editor acknowledges with thanks the assistance he has received from the following gentlemen in revising the proofs of their papers:—yviz., Messrs. Carruthers, J. T, Thom- son, Buller, T. Kirk, Buchanan, and T. W. Kirk. For the Meteorological Statistics, and the illustrations, the thanks of the Board are due to Messrs. Gore and Buchanan respectively, ard to Messrs. McColl and Earle of the lithographic department, who, by permission of the Hon. Colonial Secretary, completed the preparation of the plates. ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA. PacE 82, line 12, for Island read Land. 32, line 7 from bottom, for Peter 1st read Peter’s. 32, lines 3 and 4 from bottom, for Ballemy read Balleny. 33, lines 13 and 15, for Kemp read Kewp. 387, line 5 from bottom, for was read is. 88, line 1, for They read Ships. 39, line 18, for streets read sewers. 51, line 14, for consume read conserve. 134, line 20, after from insert the sum of. 136, line 24, for the read this. 136, lines 5 and 6 from bottom, after + insert a comma, and at end of each line add the minus sign. 137, line 2 from bottom, omit To compute the eye and object corrections. 138, before line 1, insert To compute the eye and object corrections. 139, line 11 from bottom, for verticle read vertical. 229, line 13, for bases read hairs. 229, line 16, for leaves read hairs. 269, bottom line, for duodesma read duodenum. 270, line 19, for species read spines. 354, line 138, for Cucubus read Cuculus. 354, line 12 from bottom, for marginal read margined. 366, In title of Art. XLIX., for September read November. 397, In title of Art. LVI., for 30th October read 9th November. 469, line 14 from bottom, for intro read nitro. 474, line 8 from bottom, for suitable read notable. 536, line 10 from bottom, for mataurienis read matauriensis. PAGES. Art. I. On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. By John ' Carruthers, M. Inst. C.K. fe ane 66 oD 3—31 II. On Antarctic Exploration. By C. W. Purnell 31—38 Ill. On the Cleansing of Towns. By J. Turnbull THOT OR. F.R.G.S., F.R.S.8.A., Surveyor-General of New Zealand . 88—70 IV. The Maori Canoe. By R. C. Barstow .. 4 . 71—76 VY. Contributions towards a better Knowledge of He Maori Reece! By W. Colenso, F.L.S. : O06 ; ‘ 77—106 VI. On the Ignorance of the Ancient New Feateaere of the Use at Projectile Weapons. By W. Colenso . . 106—118 VII. On Temporary and Variable Stars. By Prof. A. W. Bickerton F.C. s., Associate of the Royal School of Mines, London 118—124 VIII. Partial Impact: A possible Explanation of the Origin of the soln System, Comets, and other Phenomena of the Universe. By Prof. A. W. Bickerton AG sae Ob .. 125—1382 IX. On the Calculation of Distances by means of Reciprocal Vertical Angles. By C. W. Adams oe oe 5.9 . 132—140 X. A Description of inexpensive Apparatus for measuring the mete of Position and Distances of Double Stars, and the Method of using it. By James H. Pope .. 141—144 XI. Deflection of Shingle-bearing Currents and Protection of River Bane by Douslins’s Floating Log Dams. By H. P. Macklin . 144—146 XII. On Beach Protection. By W. D. Campbell, A.I.C.E. . 1446—149 XIII. How New Zealand may continue to coe Wheat and other Coens By James C. Crawford . 149—153 XIV. On the Rock Paintings in the Weka Pass. ce A. Ree Cameron. Communicated by Prof. J. von Haast, Ph.D., F.R.S. 154—157 XY. Barat or Barata Fossil Words. By J. Turnbull Thomson, F.R.G.S., F.R.S.8.A., etc. .. 00 86 Be Be -» 157—185 IT.—Zoonoey. XVI. On some Coccide in New Zealand. By W. M. Maskell . 187—228 XVII. On a A Insect ae on Coccide. ee W. M. Maskell 5\0 O06 . 228—230 . XVII. New Zealand Cctien: with Desenptions of new Species By George M. Thomson : 6 : . 230—248 XOX. Description of new Crustacean from the Neila Telanls By George M. Thomson : he . 249—250 XX. Description of anew Species of Tsopodous Crustacean. By George M. Thomson : . 250—251 XXI. On the New Zealand ena aca. By George YM. Toren . 251—263 XXII. On Desis robsoni, a Marine Spider from Cape Campbell. By COONS en nS. eA NaS ASC ONS’ I.—MIscELLANEOUS. Llewellyn Powell, M.D., F.L.8. ,. a0 ae e> 268—268 Contents. Vi PAGES. XXIII. Notes on the Anatomy of sda pacificus, von Haast. By Llewellyn Powell ou ea oc .. 269—270 XXIV. On the Brown Trout introdnesd into Otago. By W. Arthur, C.E. 271—290 XXV. On some new Fishes. By F. EH. Clarke ac oe ». 291—295 XXVI. On a new Fish found at Hokitika. By F. EH. Clarke ae .. 295—297 XXVII. On a new Fish. By W. D. Campbell, C.E., F.G.S. XXVIII. Notes on the Genus Callorhynchus, with a Description of an unde- scribed New Zealand Species. By W. Colenso, F.L.S. -. 298—300 XXIX. Notes on the Metamorphosis of one of our sila Moths, pee selenophora. By W. Colenso is : c -. 300—304 XXX. Further Notes on Danais berenice, in a letter roe Mr. Pr. W. Sturm to the Pong) Daan Hawke Bay Philosophie Institute 30 305 XXXI. Notes on some New ester Hehinsder mata, wins Déseuiptions 5 new Species. By Professor F. W. Hutton .. ls .» 305—308 XXXII. The Sea Anemones of New Zealand. By Professor Hutton .. 308—314 XXXII. Catalogue of the hitherto-described Worms of New Zealand. By \ Professor Hutton .. 314—327 XXXIV. List of the New Zealand Cirripedia i in the Otage Muceaey By Professor Hutton ~ .. 328—330 XXXY. On a new Infusorian patente on Patella aioe By Professor Hutton on one fe S68 : : 330 XXXVI. Description of some new Slugs. By Professor Hutton .. .. 331—332 XXXVII. On Phalacrocorax carunculatus, Gmelin. By Professor Hutton .. 332—3837 XXXVIII. Notes on a Collection from the Auckland Islands and Campbell Island. By Professor Hutton ar aie .. 337—3438 XXXIX. Note accompanying Specimens of the Black Rat (Mus rattus, L.). By Taylor White. Communicated by Professor Hutton .. 343—344 XL. On a new Species of Millepora. By the Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, F.L.S., F.G.8., ete. Communicated by Prof. Hutton -. 345—347 XLI. Notes on the Life History of Charagia virescens. By the Rey. C. H. Gosset. Communicated by Prof. Hutton ... .. 347—348 XLII. Further Notes on the Habits of the Tuatara Lizard. By Walter L. Buller, C.M.G., Se.D., F.L.8. +. 349—351 XLII. On the specific Value of Pri ton erate ‘By Walter L. Buller -. d01—352 XLIV. Remarks on the Long-tailed Cuckoo unas taitensis). By Walter L. Buller 60 os : 50 .. 353—355 XLY. Remarks on a species of Lestris inhabiting our eae BY Walter L. Buller .. 5 oi ne 355—859 XLVI. Note on Mr. Howard Saunders Review of the Larine, or Gulls. By Walter L. Buller a: 5c 56 a6 - 359—360 XLVII. On a further Occurrence of the Australian Tree Swallow ( Hylochen. don nigricans) in New Zealand. By Walter L. Buller bc 360 XLVIII. Additions to List of Species, and Notices of Rare Occurrences, since the publication of ‘The Birds of New Zealand.’ By Walter L. Buller .. a0 c ote -. 361—366 XLIX. Further Contributions to fie Ornithology of ae Zealand. By Walter L. Buller D0 -. 366—376 L. Memorandum of the Kea. By ae Hon, Dr. Menzies, M. L. C. «+ 376—377 LI. Descriptions of three new ve of Opisthobranchiate Mollusca. By T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S. he bo ele -. 378—880 Lit. Our Fish Supply. By P. Toe a0 oo 50 «. 380—386 LIII. The District of Okarita, Westland. By A. Hamilton ne -. 386—391 LIV. Notes on the Breeding Habits of the Katipo (Latrodectus katipo). By C. H. Robson 66 aie is on an 391—392 Contents. Vil ART, PAGES, LY. On Additions to the Carcinological Fauna of New Zealand. By T. W. Kirk, Assistant in the Colonial Museum.. oe .. 392—397 LVI. On some New Zealand Aphrodite, with Descriptions of supposed new Species. By T. W. Kirk aa a: 60 .. 397—400 LYVII. Notes on some New Zealand Crustaceans. By T. W. Kirk .. 401—402 ; III.—Borany. LVIII. Further Observations upon certain Grasses and Fodder Plants. By S. M. Curl, M.D. 6 0 Bo : . 403—411 LIX. On Pituri, a new Vegetable Product that deserves further Investig tion. By 8S. M. Curl, M.D. Be : . 411—415 LX. Notes on Cleistogamic Flowers of the Genus Viola. By George MM. Thomson 9 ake ae a0 . 415—417 LXI. On the Means of Teelieatin among some New Zealatia Or oniae By G. M. Thomson o¢ : -. 418—426 LXII. Description of a new Species of Goon By D. Petrie, M. A. .. 426—427 LXIII. Description of a new Species of Celmisia. By J. Buchanan .. 427—428 LXIV. Notice of a new Species of Pomaderris (P. tainut). By Dr. Hector.. 428—429 LXV. LXVI. LXVII. LXVIII. TDG TON LXXI. LXXI. LXXIII. LXXIV. LXXV. LXXVI. LXXVII. LXXVIII. LXXIx. LXXX, LXXXI, LXXXIl. LXXXIUiI. A Description of two New Zealand Ferns, believed to be new to Science. By W. Colenso ne ae of .. 429—431 On the Occurrence of the Australian Genus Poranthera in New Zea- land. By T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S. es . 432—433 Notice of the Occurrence of Juncus tenwis, Willd., in ree Zealand. By T. F. Cheeseman 50 os ae OC . 433—434 Notice of the Occurrence of the Genus ee ie in New Zealand By T. F. Cheeseman Do - 4384—435 List of Plants collected in the District of Okarita, Weetland: By im Hamilton 20 . 435—438 Notes on Mr. Hamilton’s Gollection of Okarita Plante, By aby Kirk, E.L.S. . 489—444 Notes on the Bene of Waiheke, Rangitoto, ana other Talanaah in the Hauraki Gulf. By T. Kirk . . 444454 On the Export of Fungus from New Zealand. By uN Kirk .. 454—456 Description of a new Species of Lycopodium. By T. Kirk »- 466—457 Description of a new Species of Hymenophyllum. By T. Kirk -. 457—458 Notes and Suggestions on the Utilization of certain neglected New Zealand Timbers. By T. Kirk Ae a 50 -. 458—463 Descriptions of ‘New Plants. By T. Kirk ee a .. 463—466 Notice of the Discovery of Calceolaria repens, Hook. f., and other Plants in the Wellington District. By Harry Borrer Kirk. Communicated by Mr. T. Kirk, F'.L.8. are we .. 466—467 TV.—CHEMISTRY. Preliminary Note on the Presence of one or more Hydrocarbons of the Benzol Series in the American Petroleum, also in our Petroleums. By William aoe a to the recoroeicel ; Survey Department 0 - 469—470 On a Property possessed by Mesential Oils of ECS tee the Pig pitate produced by mixing a Solution of Mercuro-iodide with one of Mercuric-chloride. By William Skey D6 -. 470—471 Preliminary Note on the Production of one or more Alkaloids from Fixed Oils by the Aniline Process. By William Skey . 471—473 On the Cause of the Movements of Camphor when placed upon ae Surface of Water. By William Skey é D0 » 473—485 On Osomose, as the Cause of the persistent Suspension of Gla in Water. By William Skey o¢ 0 . 485—490 On the Nature and Cause of Tomlinson’s Goueson Hibured By William Skey oo eo oo. ee oe Oa 490—493 Vill Contents. V.—GeroLoeY. ART. Paczs. LXXXTY. On the Geological Structure of Banks Peninsula, being an Address by Prof. ‘Julius von Haast, Ph.D., F.R.S., President of the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury oe - 495—512 LXXXY. Notes on a Salt Spring near Hokianga. By J. A. Pond .. .. 512—514 LXXXVI. Notes of a Traditional Change in the Coast-line at Manukau Heads. . By 8. Percy Smith xe ys ac bo .. 514—516 PROCHKEEDINGS. WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. Remarks by the President, T. Kirk, F.L.S. ste ate ae ue 520 On the Production of Platino-iodides of the Alkaloids. By W. Skey AG 523 On some of the Causes which operate in Shingle-bearing Rivers in the Deter- mination of their Courses and in the Formation of Plains. BY da. Lee Maxwell, A.I.C.E. (abstract) a . 524—525 Some Notes on the D’Urville Island Copper Mino. By 8. H. Gos, E.G: s., F.G.S., Assistant Geologist (abstract) .- 525—527 On the Existence of Hydro-carbons in Fats and Oils. By W. Skey . es 527 Some Remarks on Dr. Curl’s ‘‘Notes on Grasses and Fodder Plants, suitable for Introduction to New Zealand.” By Henry Blundell (abstract) -. 528—529 An Account of Improvements on Miramar Peninsula. By J. C. Crawford, F.G.S. (abstract) be oe ae ts ae So G0 530 On a Gas-lamp for equalising Temperature. By J. Kebbell cn 50 532 Note on a curious Duplication of Tusks in the common Wild Pig (Sus scrofa). By A. Hamilton .. 60 535 On the Fossil Flora of New Zeal By De Hector, Director of the Geologie Survey (abstract) . -. 5386—537 On the Fossil Brachiopoda of New Fealantd: By Dr. Heston (abstract) +. 5387—539 Abstract Report of Council ale bo O16 6a a s0 539 Election of Officers for 1879 bc 539 Anniversary Address of the President, T. Kirk, F. L. S., fone on sts Belnion: ship between the Floras of New Zealand and Australia " -- 539—546 AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. . On the Histeride of New Zealand. By Captain T. Broun .. Ze a 547 The New Zealand Anthribide. By Captain T. Broun ie bo So 547 The British Arctic Expedition of 1875-76. By F. G. Ewington ote ste 547 Education as a Science: Part I. By C. A. Robertson 56 50 ste 547 The Cossonide of New Zealand. By Captain T. Broun ee ate a0 547 Education as a Science: Part Il. By C, A. Robertson =f od oo 547 Afolus Vinctus. By J. Adams, B.A. me ae Ae .. 547—548 The New Zealand Anobtide. By Captain T. a 50 a8 60 548 The Establishment of a School of Design 50 20 60 549 The Dascillide of New Zealand. By Captain T. pee ae bs ea 549 High Schools for Girls. By J. Adams, B.A, ae : be 50 549 On the Telephoride of New Zealand. By Captain T. Broun aD 56 549 Notes on the Rising Generation. By D. C. Wilson (abstract) .. oo -. 549—550 Annual Report ne 56 56 50 Ga 30 -- 550—552 Election of Officers for 1879 50 re o¢ 552 PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY. Remarks on Mr. Mackenzie Cameron’s Theory respecting the Kahui Tipua. By J. W. Stack .. ae ere oO fe 36 oe 553 Election of Officers for 1879 te 46 So BG els 50 554 Abstract of Annual Report ae ee as 56 Oi »- 554—555 Contents. 1x PAGES OTAGO INSTITUTE. The Science of the Weather. By D. Petrie, M.A. .. F 556 The Fauna of New Zealand. By Prof. Hutton p 556 A Plea for the Study of Politics. By the Hon. R. Stout, M. . Tio oe oo 557 Deseription of two new Crabs. By Prof. Hutton oe 557 Notes on the New Zealand Shells in the ** Voyage au Péle gud. EB Pr aa Hutton 557 Domestic Aisthetics, and the Higher Education of Women. a the Rev. A. R. Fitchett .. : re 5 Ge ae 558 On Magnetic Dip. By h 13l. ae (abainuen AG se of .. 558—559 The Mechanism of Voice and Speech. By Prof. Scott 50 56 ate 560 On the Scientific Form of Harbours. By W. G. Jenkins oo 50 560 Annual Report of the Council 5 ole he we aie 560 Election of Officers for 1879 fe $e 2.6 ie G6 561 Address by the President, W. N. Blair, C. E. a0 dic eve .. 561—566 HAWKE BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE. A Memorandum of my First Journey to the Ruahine Mountain Range, and of the Flora of that Region: Part I. By W. Colenso, F.L.8. Be 5¢ 567 Election of Officers for 1878-9 .. be 50 go 00 se 567 Abstract of Annual Report a6 50 56 56 vs Oo 567 On the Moa (Dinornis, sp.) By W. Colenso, F.L.5. oe ee ve 568 On the beneficial Raising of Trees suited for Timber and Firewood. By F. W. C. Sturm ae ate 36 Sc 0 be .. 568—570 Memoranda of a Journey in which he succeeded in crossing the Ruahine Mountain Range, with Notes on the local Botany and ‘Topography of that Distrieb: Part II. By W. Colenso, F.L.S. .. 570 On certain New Zealand and Australian Barks useful for ‘Tanning Deo By J. A. Smith do -. 570—571 New Specimens in Natural Fiton Heconea By Ww. Colts a 572 WESTLAND INSTITUTE. Notice oft a Tadpole found in a drain in Hokitika. By F. EH. Clarke ie 573 On the Discovery of Moa Bones near Marsden. By W. D. Campbell oe 574 Hlection of Officers for 1879 56 do oe sve 574 Abstract of Annual Report o9 574 NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. Tenth Annual Report of the Board of Governors 50 she -. 577—578 Museum Oo ee .. 578—581 Meteorology .. ate 50 ou re 5 : 582 Time-ball Observatory .. 50 50 ee : : 582 Laboratory .. Oo 50 do 582 Accounts of the New Zealand Tees 1877- 8 ae 3 582 AGPeP BN Den xw, Meteorological Statistics of New Zealand for 1878 Ae OC a XXI—xxili Earthquakes reported in New Zealand during 1878 _.... fe ac xxiii Comparative Abstract for 1878, and previous years o6 ae O60 XXIV Notes on the Weather during 1878 ae a aie ae XXV—XXVI 2 x Contents. Record of Papers on New Zealand Natural History, 1878-9 Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute Ordinary Members 6b ae 50 50 oD List of Public Institutions and Individuals to whom this Volume is presented Addenda et Corrigenda Contents fie on ie ae we <3 List of Plates oe G0 o6 ay 50 oe Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute Abstracts of Rules and Statutes of the New Zealand Institute List of Incorporated Societies or Bo Officers of Incorporated Societies, and extracts from the rules IDigisyAl (Oia) Ib AN EID) 1S). I. Popz.—Apparatus for measuring Position of Double Stars Il. Macxuin.—River Protective Works Ill. Campprtt.—A Method of Beach Protection IV. J. T. Txomson.—Map showing Distribution of Languages used in India .. V. MaskeLu.—Coccidee VI. A VIL. -* ees DIG Vii. 5 eee aa oe me IX. + Hymenopterous Parasite on Coccidee X. G. M. THomson.—Crustacea 96 XI. - Entomostraca XII. Powrtu.—Desis robsoni , XU. Arnraur.—Salmo fario, S. trutta 36 XIV. Cruarxe.—Lepidopus elongatus, Argentina decagon XGVin es Trypterigium robustum, T. dorsalis, T. decemdigitatus, Acantho- clinus taumaka re XVI. CHrEseman.—Opisthobranchiate Mollusca XVII. Cotenso.—Callorhynchus dasycaudatus XVIII. Bucuanan.—Celmisia cordatifolia ss ere XIX. T. Kirx.—Hymenophyllum rufescens, Lycopodium ramulosum” .. PAGES. XXvii XXVili XXVUI—xxx1x xl—xlii xi xi—xili XIV xiv—xvii TO FACE PAGE. 142 144 148 160 196 204 216 224 228 248 262 268 280 296 292 380 300 428 456 NE AA EAN DOIN SPIT OU Te. ESTABLISHED UNDER AN ACT OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF NEW ZEALAND, INTITULED “THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1867.” BoarpD or GOVERNORS. (EX OFFICIO.) His Excellency the Governor. | The Hon. the Colonial Secretary. (NOMINATED.) The Hon. W. B. D. Mantell, F.G.S., The Hon. G. M. Waterhouse, W. Tf. i. Travers, F..S., James Hector, C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., The Ven. Archdeacon Stock, B.A., Thomas Mason. (ELECTED.) 1878.—James Coutts Crawford, F.G.8., Thomas Kirk, F.L.8., The Bishop of Nelson. 1879.—Thomas Kirk, F.L.8., The Hon. Robert Stout, M.H.R., W. L. Buller, C.M.G., Sc.D., F.L.S. MaNnaGER. James Hector. Honorary TREASURER. The Ven. Archdeacon Stock. SECRETARY. Re Be Gore: Mba AO Ss OH hit Ss AND Sh A UES: GAZETTED IN THE “ New ZEALAND GazettE,” 9 Marcu, 1868. Section I. Incorporation of Societies. 1. No Society shall be incorporated with the Institute under the provisions of ‘‘ The New Zealand Institute Act 1867,” unless such Society shall consist of not less than twenty-five members, subscribing in the aggregate a sum of not less than fifty pounds sterling annually, for the promotion of art, science, or such other branch of knowledge for which it is associated, to be from time to time certified to the satisfaction of the Board of Governors of the Institute by the Chairman for the time being of the Society. 2. Any Society incorporated as aforesaid shall cease to be incorporated with the Institute in case the number of the members of the said Society shall at any time become less than twenty-five, or the amount of money annually subscribed by such members shall at any time be less than £50. 3. The bye-laws of every Society to be incorporated as aforesaid shall provide for the expenditure of not less than one-third of its annual revenue in or towards the formation or support of some local public Museum or Library; or otherwise shall provide for the contribution of not less than one-sixth of its said revenue towards the extension and maintenance of the Museum and Library of the New Zealand Institute. xi New Zealand Institute. 4, Any Society incorporated as aforesaid which shall in any one year fail to expend the proportion of revenue affixed in manner provided by Rule 3 aforesaid, shall from thenceforth cease to be incorporated with the Institute. 5. All papers read before any Society for the time being incorporated with the Institute, shall be deemed to be communications to the Institute, and may then be published as proceedings or transactions of the Institute, subject to the following regula- tions of the Board of the Institute regarding publications :— Regulations regarding Publications. (a.) The publications of the Institute shall consist of a current abstract of the proceedings of the Societies for the time being incorporated with the Institute, to be intituled, ‘‘ Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute,” and of transactions comprising papers read before the Incorporated Societies (subject, however, to selection as hereinafter mentioned), to be intituled, ‘‘ Transactions of the New Zealand Institute.” (b.) The Institute shall have power to reject any papers read before any of the — Incorporated Societies. (c.) Papers so rejected will be returned to the Society before which they were read. (d.) A proportional contribution may be required from each Society towards the cost of publishing the Proceedings and Transactions of the Institute. (e.) Each Incorporated Society will be entitled to receive a proportional number of copies of the Proceedings and Transactions of the Institute, to be from time to time fixed by the Board of Governors. (f.) Extra copies will be issued to any of the members of Incorporated Societies at the cost price of publication. 6. All property accumulated by or with funds derived from Incorporated Societies and placed in the charge of the Institute, shall be vested in the Institute, and be used and applied at the discretion of the Board of Governors for public advantage, in like manner with any other of the property of the Institute. 7. Subject to ‘‘ The New Zealand institute Act, 1867,” and to the foregoing rules, all Societies incorporated with the Institute shall be entitled to retain or alter their own form of constitution and the bye-laws for their own management, and shall conduct their own affairs. 8. Upon application signed by the Chairman and countersigned by the Secretary of any Society, accompanied by the certificate required undex Rule No. 1, a certificate of incorporation will be granted under the Seal of the Institute, and will remain in force as long-as the foregoing rules of the Institute are complied with by the Society. Section II. For the Management of the Property of the Institute. 9. All donations by Societies, Public Departments, or private individuals, to the Museum of the Institute, shall be acknowledged by a printed form of receipt, and shall be duly entered in the books of the Institute provided for that purpese, and shall then be dealt with as the Board of Governors may direct. 10. Deposits of articles for the Museum may be accepted by the Institute, subject to a fortnight’s notice of removal to be given either by the owner of the articles or by the Manager of the Institute, and such deposits shall be duly entered in a separate catalogue. 11. Books relating to Natural Science may be deposited in the Library of the Insti- tute, subject to the following conditions :— (a.) Such books are not to be withdrawn by the owner under six months’ notice, if such notice shall be required by the Board of Governors. Abstracts of Rules and Statutes. xii (b.) Any funds specially expended on binding and preserving such deposited books, at the request of the depositor, shall be charged against the books, and must be refunded to the Institute before their withdrawal, always subject to special arrangements made with the Board of Governors at the time of deposit. (c.) No books deposited in the Library of the Institute shall be removed for temporary use except on the written authority or receipt of the owner, and then only for a period not exceeding seven days at any one time. ‘ 12. All books in the Library of the Institute shall be duly entered in a catalogue which shall be accessible to the public. 13. The public shall be admitted to the use of the Museum and Library, subject to bye-laws to be framed by the Board. Secrion III. 14, The Laboratory shall, for the time being, be and remain under the exclusive management of the Manager of the Institute. Section IV, Or Darr 23RD SepremBeEr, 1870. Honorary Members. Whereas the rules of the Societies incorporated under the New Zealand Institute Act provide for the election of Honorary Members of such Societies; but inasmuch as such Honorary Members would not thereby become members of the New Zealand Institute, and whereas it is expedient to make provision for the election of Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute, it is hereby declared— Ist. Each Incorporated Society may, in the month of November next, nominate for election as Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute three persons, and in the month of November in each succeeding year one person, not residing in the colony. : 2nd. The names, descriptions, and addresses of persons so nominated, together with the grounds on which their election as Honorary Members is recommended, shall be forthwith forwarded to the Manager of the New Zealand Institute, and shall by him be submitted to the Governors at the next succeeding meeting. 3rd. From the persons so nominated, the Governors may select in the first year not more than nine, and in each succeeding year not more than three, who shall from thenceforth be Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute, provided that the total number of Honorary Members shall not exceed thirty. Xiv Incorporated Societies. LIST OF INCORPORATED SOCIETIES. NAME OF SOCIETY. DATE OF INCORPORATION. WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY - ; - 10th June, 1868. AvucCKLAND INSTITUTE - 2 = 3 a - 0th June; 1868. PuriosopHicaL InstituTE oF CANTERBURY - - - 22nd October, 1868. Oraco InstITUTE - - - - ; : - 18th October, 1869. Nexson AssocraTIon FOR THE PRoMOTION oF SCIENCE AnD InpusTRY - - - - . - 28rd Sept., 1870. WeEstTLAND INSTITUTE - - - - = - 21st December, 1874. Hawke Bay Parosoputicat Institute - - - lst March, 18%e: WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. OFFICE-BEARERS FoR 1878:—President—Thomas Kirk, F.L.8.; Vice- presidents—J. Carruthers, M. Inst. C.K., A. K. Newman, M.B., M.R.C.P.; Council—James Hector, C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., J. C. Crawford, F.G.S., W.-L. iL. Travers, F.L.8., Dr. Buller, C.M.G., F.L:S., C.c Rous: Marten: F.R.G.S., F.M.S., F. W. A. Skae, M-D., F.R.C.S.H., Martin Chapman; Auditor—Arthur Baker; Secretary and Treasurer—R. B. Gore. OrFIcE-BEARERS FoR 1879 :—President—A. K. Newman, M.B., M.R.C.P.; Vice-presidents—Dr. Hector, Martin Chapman; Counciti—W. L. Buller, C.M.G., Sc.D., etc., C. R. Marten, F. W. Frankland, §. H. Cox, F.C.5., H.G.S:, Hon. G: Randall: Johnson, W. T: li. Travers} WiG3se" a iake F.L.S.; dAuditor—Arthur Baker; Secretary and Treaswrer—R. B. Gore. Extracts from the Rules of the Wellington Philosophical Society. 5. Every member shall contribute annually to the funds of the Society the sum of one guinea. 6. The annual contribution shall be due on the first day of January in each year. 7. The sum of ten pounds may be paid at any time as a composition for life of the ordinary annual payment. 14. The time and place of the General Meetings of members of the Society shall be fixed by the Council and duly announced by the Secretary. Incorporated Societies. &V AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. OFrFICE-BEARERS FOR 1878 :—President—T. Heale; Council—R. C. Barstow, Rev. J. Bates, J. L. Campbell, M.D., J. C. Firth, His Honour Mr. Justice Gillies, The Hon. Col. Haultain, G. M. Mitford, J. A. Pond, iiiemheve Ae Gs Purchas, MR-C.S:h., J. Stewart, M. Inst. C:Hs. EH. Whitaker ; dAuditor—T. Macffarlane ; Secretary and Treasurer—T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.5S. OFFICE-BEARERS FoR 1879 :— President—Rev. A. G. Purchas, M.R.C.S.E.; Council—R. C. Barstow, Rev. J. Bates, J. L. Campbell, M.D., J. C. Firth, His Honour Mr. Justice Gillies, T. Heale, Hon. Col. Haultain, G. M. Mitford, J. Stewart, M. Inst. C.EK., T. F. S. Tinne, F. Whitaker ; Auditor— T. Macttarlane ; Secretary and Treasurer—'T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S. Extracts from the Rules of the Auckland Institute. 1. Any person desiring to become a member of the Institute, shall be proposed in writing by two members, and shall be ballotted for at the next meeting of the Council. 4, New members on election to pay one guinea entrance fee, in addition to the annual subscription of one guinea, the annual subscriptions being payable in advance on the first day of April for the then current year. 5. Members may at any time become lfe-members by one payment of ten pounds ten shillings, in lieu of future annual subscriptions. 10. Annual General Meeting of the Society on the Third Monday of February in each year. Ordinary Business Meetings are called by the Council from time to time. PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY. OFrFICE-BEARERS FoR 1878 :—President—Professor von Haast, F.R.S. ; Vice-presidents—Rev. J. W. Stack, Professor Cook ; Council—Professor Bickerton, Dr. Powell, W. M. Maskell, R. W. Fereday, Dr. Coward, G. W. Hall ; Hon. Treasurer—John Inglis; Hon. Secretary—J. 5. Guthrie. OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1879 : — President — Professor Bickerton; Vice- presidents—J. Inglis, R. W. Fereday ; Council—Rev. J. W. Stack, Professor Cook, Dr. Powell, Professor von Haast, F.R.S., Dr. Coward, G. W. Hall; Hon. Treasurer—W. M. Maskell; Hon. Secretary—J. §. Guthrie. Extracts from the Rules of the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. 21. The Ordinary Meetings of the Institute shall be held on the first Thursday of each month during the months from March to November inclusive. 85. Members of the Institute shall pay one guinea annually as a subscription to the funds of the Institute. The subscription shall be due on the first of November in every year. Any member whose subscription shall be twelve months in arrear, shall cease to be a member of the Institute, but he may be restored by the Council if it sees fit. 37. Members may compound for all annual subscriptions of the current and future years by paying ten guineas. ‘ XV1 Incorporated Socteties. OTAGO INSTITUTE. OFFICE-BEARERS FoR 1878 :—President—W. N. Blair, C.E.; Vice- _ presidents—Professor Hutton, W. Arthur, C.H.; Council—Professor Shand, G. Joachim, Professor Macgregor, Professor Scott, D. Petrie, E. Elliott, J. C. Thomson ; Hon. Secretary—G. M. Thomson; Hon. Treasurer—H. Skey; Auditor—A. D. Lubecki. OFFICE-BEARERS ror 1879 :—Prestdent—Prof. Hutton ; Vice-presidents— W.N. Blair, C.E., Prof. Scott; Council—W. Arthur, C.E., Robert Gillies, - F.L.S., Dr. Hocken, A. Montgomery, D. Petrie, J. C. Thomson, Prof. Ulrich; Hon. Secretary—Geo M. Thomson; Hon. Treasurer—H. Skey; Auditor—J. 58. Webb. Extracts from the Constitution and Rules of the Otago Institute. 2. Any person desiring to join the Society may be elected by ballot, on being pro- posed in writing at any meeting of the Council or Society by two members, on payment of the annual subscription of one guinea for the year then current. 5. Members may at any time become life-members by one payment of ten pounds and ten shillings, in lieu of future annual subscriptions. 8. An Annual General Meeting of the members of the Society shall be held in January in each year, at which meeting not less than ten members must be present, otherwise the meeting shall be adjourned by the members present from time to time, until the requisite number of members is present. (5.) The session of the Otago Institute shall be during the winter months, from May to October, both inclusive. NELSON ASSOCIATION FOR THE PROMOTION OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. OrFIcE-BEARERS FOR 1879 :—President—The Right Rev. the Bishop of Nelson; Councii—A. §. Atkinson, Leonard. Boor, M.R.C.S., Charles Hunter-Brown, F. W. Irvine, M.D., Joseph Shepherd, Geo. Williams, M.D.; Hon. Treasurer and Hon, Secreta‘y—T. Mackay, C.E. Extracts from the Rules of the Nelson Association for the Promotion of Science and Industry. 2. The Association shall consist of members elected by ballot, who have been pro- posed at a monthly meeting of the Society, and elected at the ensuing meeting. 3. Each member to pay a subscription of not less than one pound per annum, payable half-yearly in advance. 4, Ordinary Meetings held on the first Wednesday in each month. Incorporated Societies. XVil ~ WESTLAND INSTITUTE. OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1878:—President—His Honour Judge Weston; Vice-president—Robert C. Reid ; Cownctl—Rev. Father Martin, Rev. George Morice, Rev. G. W. Russell, Rey. W. H. Elton, John Plaisted, EK. T. Robinson, Dr. James, D. McDonald, R. W. Wade, H. L. Robinson, W. D. Kerr, G. A. Paterson, Robert Walker ; Hon. Treasurer—W. A. Spence; Hon. Secretary—John Anderson. OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1879:—President—His Honour Judge Weston ; Vice-president—R. ©. Reid; Committee—Dr. James, Dr. Giles, James Pearson, R. W. Wade, E. B. Dixon, John Nicholson, H. L. Robinson, D. McDonald, W. D. Campbell, Robert Walker, A. H. King, T. O. W. Croft ; Hon. Treasurer—W. A. Spence; Hon. Secretary—John Anderson. Extracts from the Rules of the Westland Institute. 3. The Institute shall consist:—(1) Of life-members, i.e., persons who have at any one time made a donation to the Institute of ten pounds ten shillings or upwards; or peng in reward of special services rendered to the Institute, have been unani- mously elected as such by the Committee or at the general half yearly meeting. (2) Of members who pay two pounds two shillings each year. (3) Of members paying smaller sums—not less than ten shillings. 5. The Institute shall hold a half-yearly meeting on the third Monday in the months of December and June. HAWKE BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE. OFFICE-BEARERS FoR 1878 :—President—The Hon. J. D. Ormond, M.H.R.; Vice-president—The Right Rev. the Bishop of Waiapu; Council—Messrs. Colenso, Kinross, Locke, Miller, Smith, Spencer, Sturm; Hon. Secretary and Treasurer—W. Colenso; Auditor—T. K. Newton. OFFICE-BEARERS FoR 1879 :—President—The Right Rev. the Bishop of Waiapu; Vice-president—W. I. Spencer; Couwncil—E. H. Bold, W. Colenso, J. G. Kinross, 8. Locke, M. R. Miller, J. A. Smith, F. W. C. Sturm; Hon. Secretary and Treasurer—W. Colenso; duditor—T. K. Newton. Extracts from the Rules of the Hawke Bay Philosophical Institute. 3. The annual subscription for each member shall be one guinea, payable in advance, on the first day of January in every year. 4, Members may at any time become life-members by one payment of ten pounds ten shillings in lieu of future annual subscriptions. (4.) The session of the Hawke Bay Philosophical Institute shall be during the winter months from May to October, both inclusive; and general meetings shall be held on the second Monday in each of those six months, at 8 p.m. eatre Rpsrssen’s TRANSACTIONS. TAN SA Cl 1 ONS OF THE NEW Ze AT AND: ENS TIPULTEH, PBn1O8:. I.— MISCELLANEOUS. Art. I.—On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. By Joun Carrutuers, M.Inst.C.H. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 13th July, 1878.] Poritican Economy has been very unfortunate in its nomenclature, which has been drawn from the vocabulary of the mercantile world, every word of which, besides its direct notation, connotes more or less distinctly some economic doctrine. In spite of definitions, the secondary meanings of the several words have influenced the thoughts and teaching of political economists. The object of this paper is to examine some of the principal terms in general use, and their definitions as given in Mill’s ‘‘ Principles of Political Kconomy,’’ which is almost universally accepted as the best exponent of modern thought on the subject. I hope to be able to suggest others, which will not be so liable as those given by Mill to confuse the thoughts by suggesting a secondary meaning not included in the definition itself. Hven should I not succeed my labour will not be thrown away, as it is always useful to look at scientific problems from more than one point of view. Wealth. Mill defines wealth to be ‘all useful or agreeable things which possess exchangeable value.’”’ To this definition it may fairly be objected that exchangeable value is a merely accidental quality of some things useful or agreeable, and should not, therefore, be treated as essential. Robinson Crusoe’s cave and garden were just as much wealth as if he had been able to exchange them for other things. Exchangeable value is, it is true, a 4 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. very important quality in connection with the distribution of wealth, and should, therefore, be accurately defined and carefully studied, but it should not be treated as a specific distinction of wealth itself. Mill himself says (Book IIT., chap. i.), that ‘‘The conditions and laws of production would be the same as they are if the arrangements of society did not depend on exchange, or did not admit of it.” Here ‘ production’’ means the pro- duction of things which must, by the definition, possess exchangeable value; but if the arrangements of society did not admit of the existence of exchangeable value at all, how could the production of things possessing it be carried on? Again, he says: ‘‘ Exchange is not the fundamental law of the distribution of the produce, no more than roads and carriages are the essential laws of motion, but merely a part of the machinery for effecting it.” A definition, however, of moticn, which made it dependent on the existence of roads and carriages, would be exactly parallel to a definition which makes wealth dependent on exchangeable value. It is always undesirable to use a definition which pointedly draws the attention to any accidental quality of the thing defined, in such a manner that this quality may come to be regarded as essential. More especially is this the case when there already exists a tendency to regard the accidental quality as the only necessary and essential one. There can be no doubt of the existence of such a tendency as regards the exchange value of wealth. How many people look upon a short harvest as a not very great misfortune, because they think the high prices for which it is sold make up for the shortness of the crop? In one of President Grant's annual messages he congratulates his fellow-countrymen on the rise of prices in grain and pork which the Franco-German war had caused, and which he thought must be of great advantage to the United States. He evidently looked upon the rise in the exchange value of these commodities as equivalent to an increase of their utility, and that a scarcity of the necessaries of life was no real mis- fortune to the labouring classes of his country as long as it was accompanied by high prices. Where such opinions are held, even by men of education, it is surely well not to carelessly use a definition which gives a sort of plausibility to the error. I propose to define wealth to be anything which is useful to man, by enabling him to live more comfortably or elegantly than he could with- out it. Of the total wealth existing in a community a part is usually called capital. Unfortunately, this word has several different meanings in com- mon language, and confusion and error have arisen from its being used in one of these instead of in its defined meaning. It sometimes denotes not actual wealth, but a right to a certain share of the wealth of the community. CarrkuTHERS.—On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 5 Mill frequently uses it where it can have no other meaning than this notwithstanding that he has defined it to be ‘‘a stock previously accumu- lated of the product of former labour,’’—a definition which scarcely differs from that given of wealth; for, except land and its natural productions, nothing possesses exchangeable value which is not the product of former labour. Fixed and Circulating Capital. Capital, again, is subdivided into “‘fixed”’ and ‘‘circulating.’”’ Mill’s explanation. of these terms, given in Book I., chap. vi., is too long for quotation, and is very far from being clear or exact. His summation is, however, that the result of a single use of circulating capital must be a reproduction equal to the whole amount of the circulating capital used, and a profit besides; and that with fixed capital, such as machinery, this is not necessary, as it is not wholly consumed by one use. If capital means wealth of any kind, this sentence is absolutely without meaning. How can, for instance, the result of a single use of a sack of coals in a locomotive engine be a reproduction equal to a sack of coals and a profit besides? If, however, capital has the meaning above given, of a right to a share of the wealth of the community, the sentence becomes intelligible. The use of the coals must reproduce to the owner a right to some other wealth which he values more highly ; and if the coals and the other wealth be both compared with a common standard of value, like money, the use of the coals must reproduce to the owner their price and a profit besides. Capital, with this meaning, can have nothing to do with the production of wealth except indirectly, and its subdivision into fixed and circulating does not seem to serve any good purpose in political economy. There is, however, a natural division which cannot be disregarded. Some things, such as bread, wine, dwelling-houses, clothes, etc., etc., are useful for their own sakes ; the production of these is the end and aim of all labour and sacrifice, or at least of all that falls within the province of political economy ; they may be called direct wealth. Others are of no use for their ewn sakes ; they are useful only by co-operating with human labour in the production of direct wealth; they are land, steam-engines, ploughs, coal when used to drive an engine, warehouses, etc., etc.; these may be called implements. Of course, neither direct wealth nor implements, if the pro- duct of human labour, are made complete at one operation ; they first pass through the stage of materials, such as corn, wool, iron, wood, etc. ; but it is not necessary to place materials in a separate class, as they may be classed with the final products of which they eventually form a part. 6 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. Whenever labour is devoted to the production of an implement, there is a sacrifice of present for future advantage. The sacrifice may be slight and the advantage great and almost immediate, but there is always some sacrifice. For instance, olive oil is direct wealth, useful for its own sake ; if, instead of consuming it as food, the owner uses it as an implement to lubricate a steam-engine, he gets, as a reward for his slight sacrifice of present good, a vast return in labour saved. This is an extreme case at one end of the scale; at the other end, are improvements in land, where a sacrifice of the product of a year’s labour of, say, thirty men, may be given in exchange for a future increase of the yearly harvest, equal to the product of one man’s labour. A wealthy landowner in England would probably undertake such a work, as he would make 3 per cent. interest on his out- lay; but it would not follow as a matter beyond dispute, that the employment of the labour in this manner was to the advantage of the community at large, or that, if both the sacrifice and the reward were evenly distributed, it would be worth while to incur the one for the sake of the other. Bearing in mind the division of wealth I have proposed, we may readily test the accuracy of the several statements made by Mill and other writers as to the effect of employing jabour in the production of fixed and circulating capital (or wealth) respectively. It is stated that the increase of fixed, when it takes place at the expense of circulating capital, must be tempo- rarily prejudicial to the interests of the labourers. This is not quite accurate: labourers’ cottages would, under his definition, be fixed capital ; but it would not be prejudicial to the interests of the labourers themselves to employ labour in building them; provided, of course, such employment were judicious—that is, that the cottages were required, and the still more urgent requirements of the labourers, food and clothing for instance, were already provided. The same may be said of workmen’s club-houses, tea- gardens, theatres, taverns, and other places of use or amusement which workmen frequent. It is also stated that ‘there is a great difference between the effects of circulating and fixed capital on the gross produce of the country,’ the context showing that the former is supposed to be the more productive. A steam-engine, for instance, is fixed capital, the coal which is consumed in it is circulating; the coal is, therefore, more productive than the steam- engine. Surely this is equivalent to saying that one shear of a pair of scissors does more work than the other. Although the steam-engine is fixed capital the iron of which it is made is circulating; and it is, therefore, a more productive employment of labour to manufacture unwrought iron than to make that same iron useful by putting it into an engine. The CarruTuEeRs.—On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 7 absurdity goes even one step further; the steam-engine is circulating capital when it is still in the hands of the maker—at least I think Mill’s definition would so classify it. When it is in the hands of the user and in full work it is clearly fixed capital, and therefore less productive than before it came into use. These illustrations show how needless, or even mischievous, is the usual subdivision of wealth into fixed and circulating capital. The division I have indicated of direct wealth and implements is, however, natural and essential to an intelligent study of the laws which govern the production of wealth. The sacrifice which is always made when labour, which would otherwise have been applied to the production of direct wealth, is applied to the pro- duction of implements, is made by the labouring classes. The whole wealth of the community belongs to part only of the individuals composing it. They apply a portion of their wealth to their own use, the rest they give to labourers to induce them to work for them. The reasons which induce them to employ part of their wealth in this manner, are not influenced by a resolve on the part of one of their number to produce new implements. When, therefore, new implements are made, capitalists do not take men away from the production of those commodities which they intend to use themselves ; in other words, they do not lessen their own personal expendi- ture. They take men who would otherwise be engaged in producing com- modities for the labourers, and, of course, less of those commodities are produced. This less quantity becomes the total fund to be divided between the labourers as wages. The owners of wealth as a body, without any personal sacrifice, become the owners of the implement; the sacrifice is made by the labourers alone and at once. Generally, and perhaps always, except in the case of countries, which invest much wealth abroad, like England and Holland, the labourers suffer a further and still greater loss than the first cost of the new implements. The wealth-owners do not act as a body, but each individual acts indepen- dently of the others. Hach man gives, of his own share of the general wealth, a certain portion annually to the labouring classes. When the implement was completed, no one would give more than before, while the man for whom it was made would give less; his gross share of the whole would be less than before by the whole cost of the implement, and he would give less by exactly that amount, as he would not reduce his own personal expenditure. There would thus be a general rise of profits, and a general fall of wages equal to the total cost of the implement, and this would continue for some years until the causes which had before fixed the relative proportions of 8 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. wages and profits had time to bring them back to what they were before the disturbance. New and improved implements always increase the quantity of wealth which can be produced by the labour of the community, and the labourers share more or less in this advantage. Their interest is thus seldom opposed to the construction of new implements, although they bear the whole of the necessary preliminary sacrifice, and even in most cases a great deal more. In new countries, however, like New Zealand, the interests of the labourers and employers of labour are more often in conflict. If, forinstance,amancan . manufacture cloth for a little less than he can import it from England, it is his interest to employ his wealth in erecting buildings and machinery for the purpose. He gets thereby a small increase of his income. The labour- ing classes suffer for several years an annual loss equal to the entire cost of these implements, and derive only a small final benefit, as, by the hypothesis, the cost of manufacturing the cloth is only slightly less than that of importing it. The cry for ‘protection to native industry,’ and consequently for increased expenditure on machinery and buildings, is perfectly rational on the part of colonial employers of labour. They gain, directly, the higher profits, for the sake of which they agitate for protection; and for every pound that is spent on implements, which would otherwise have been spent in producing direct wealth, they, as a body, get a pound a year out of the labourers, unless indeed they curtail their own expenditure, and thus pay for their machinery out of savings from their incomes. This they seldom do; machinery and buildings are generally made with money borrowed or taken out of some other business for the purpose. Unfortunately, the labourers are generally so unskilled in political economy that they are as eager for protection as the employers. They see the employment that is given by a manufacturer, and do not see the much greater employment which would have been given by the same wealth had it been turned to other uses. If they knew their own interests, instead of wishing to have nothing imported which can be manufactured in the colony, they would be loath to see any manufactory started which required expensive implements, if the article to be made could be imported at a cost not much exceeding that of manufacturing it in the colony. We, in New Zealand, are in so happy a position that we need not undergo the privation necessary to procure expensive machinery. The English are ready to do that for us, and are content with a recompense which we, in our more favoured circumstances, would consider inadequate. CarrutHERS.—On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 9 Productive Labour and Capital. The words productive and unproductive play a great role in the works of political economists. Nominally, they mean productive or unproductive of wealth—that is, of things useful or agreeable which possess exchangeable value—but when closely examined they will often be found to refer, not to wealth, but to a right to a share of the wealth produced by others; or, in other words, labour is sometimes said to be productively employed when it produces wealth, and sometimes when it only produces profits to the employer of labour. To distinguish between these two meanings I propose to use the words ‘‘ productive”’ and ‘‘ profitable,” to mark the production of wealth and of profits respectively; and, unless otherwise stated, I shall use “capital”? to denote, not wealth itself, but a right to a certain share of the wealth of the community. ‘A productive labourer is said (Book I., chap. ii., sec. 4) to be one ‘‘ who produces more than he consumes.”’ Let us take for example a navvy, who excayates ten cubic yards of earth and consumes in the same time a certain quantity of beef and beer. Has he produced more or less than he has con- sumed? Is he to be classed as a productive or an unproductive labourer ? and if, instead of ten yards, he had only excavated one yard, would it have any influence on the classification? A shoemaker, again, makes a dozen pairs of shoes, and, while doing so, consumes a certain quantity of food and other things. He has produced the shoes, and must, therefore, be a pro- ductive labourer ; but it is impossible to compare them with the things he has consumed, so as to say that his consumption has been greater or less than his production. ‘There is no difficulty in finding out whether he is a ‘profitable’ labourer or not. If he consumes less commodities than his employer can get in exchange for the shoes he makes, he is profitably, and, if more, then he is unprofitably employed. Mill’s illustration (Book I., chap. ui., sec. 4) of the results of productive and unproductive labour shows clearly that he really means profitable and unprofitable. He says:—‘‘ When a tailor makes a coat and sells it, there is a transfer of the price from the customer to the tailor, and a coat besides which did not previously exist; but what is gained by an actor is a mere transfer from the spectator’s funds to his, leaving no article of wealth for the spectator’s indemnification. Thus the community collectively gains nothing by the actor’s labour.” Here the price of the coat is not wealth, nor anything which benefits the community or any member of it. The customer acquires the coat, giving to the tailor a’piece of metal, useless of itself, but which gives him a right to a certain share of other people’s wealth. This right he exercises, 10 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. perhaps, in buying food for himself. The community is not benefited by the transaction more than in the case of the actor. In that case the customer acquires a seat at the theatre, giving to the actor a similar piece of metal, with which he, like the tailor, buys food. Here, also, the com- munity is not benefited; in both cases the customer alone gets the benefit; he acquires and applies to his own use the product of other people’s labour. A coat is not worn out by one use, and will last some months or years ; but if the customer had, instead of a coat, taken a beef-steak and a bottle of wine, there would have been ‘‘no article of wealth left for his indemnifica- tion,” precisely as would be the case if he went to the theatre. It is stated in Book I., chap. i1., sec. 3, that ‘‘it is essential to the idea of wealth to be susceptible of accumulation; things which cannot, after being produced, be kept for some time before being used, are never, I think, regarded as wealth, since, however much of them be produced and enjoyed, the person benefited by them is no richer, is nowise improved in circum- stances.”’ This limitation of the meaning of wealth would exclude most of the articles used as food. Grain, vegetables, live stock, are not focd; they are only the materials of which food is made. As soon as they are cooked and served for use they become food, but are no longer susceptible of accumulation. To test the value of this definition we may take some examples: A painter is a producer of wealth, as he, with the help of the canvas-maker, produces commodities susceptible of accumulation. A poet, unless his works are printed, is an unproductive labourer; so is a musician. It will, I think, be readily conceded, that any classification is faulty which separates works so allied in generai character as the productions of poets, painters, aud musicians. An actor is emphatically an unproductive work- man, and is always quoted as the example of the class; the dramatic author is also a non-producer ; the theatre-builder is, however, a producer, because his work ‘can be kept for some time before being used.” These three are, however, fellow-labourers, the finished product of their combined labour being an acted play: why should they be, differently classed? If the actor does not produce wealth, the mason and carpenter who build the workshop in which his work is carried on must be also employed in producing some- thing which is not wealth. The physician is a non-producer; but his fellow-labourers, the druggist, instrument maker, hospital builders, etc., are all producers; the labour of all is necessary to the work which they perform in common, and, in any classification, they should all go together. The public singer is at present a non-productive labourer, but if, as seems likely, the phonograph is ever so perfected that sounds may be stored up CarruTHERS.—On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 11 and thus made articles of trade, he will become a productive labourer. Such an improvement in the phonograph would be, of course, a great addition to the wealth of the world. The labour of the singer, stead of adding to the pleasure of hundreds as at present, would give pleasure of a very high order to tens of thousands. The average happiness of man would be increased, but I do not see how the improvement would so change the character of the singer’s labour as to convert it from unproductive to productive. Throughout the whole of his chapter on ‘‘ Unproductive Labour,’ Mill appears to have in mind, production of profits rather than production of wealth. The so-called unproductive labourers—authors, actors, public singers, lawyers, physicians, soldiers, sailors in the navy, civil servants, etc.—are men whose labour is as necessary to the well-being of society as that of any other class, but for the most part they work on their own account and are not dependent on capitalists. The product of their labour cannot be passed from hand to hand, and cannot, therefore, be made the instrument for acquiring a right to a share of the wealth of the community; it is, in short, not productive of profits or of capital. Of all the products of labour, food is the most necessary, and may, therefore, most justly be called wealth. The community at large is not, however, enriched by the labour of the farmer more than by that of the actor or public singer. Without the farmer’s labour the community could not exist at all, but without the actor’s labour it could not maintain that average state of enjoyment in which it lives and to which the labour of both is equally necessary. The product of the labour of both can only be enjoyed once, and when once used is gone for ever. Far too much stress is laid on the accumulation of wealth in most works on political economy, especially when discussing productive labour, and too little on the kind of wealth which can be, or at least should be, accumulated. We are unfortunately obliged to store sufficient grain for one year’s con- sumption, but there would be no use in accumulating a stock sufficient for several years, unless, like Pharaoh, we anticipated a drought. So with clothing and all other forms of direct wealth; there is no advantage in having a large stock of them on hand. ‘The makers and sellers of all kinds of direct wealth always strive to keep the stock in existence, and not in actual use, as small as possible, while the consumers take care that the stock in use shall not be needlessly large. No one has any interest or wish to acquire or keep a stock of commodities which will not be shortly consumed, or put into the consumers’ hands for use. Under the social system prevailing in all civilized countries, everyone 12 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. should in his youth accumulate capital, that is, a right to wealth which he himself has not produced, so that in his old age he may live in comfort without working; this is not, however, accumulating wealth, but only pro- viding that the distribution of future wealth shall be made in a particular manner. The community never grows old; and it would be unreasonable, even if it were possible, that one generation should scrimp and spare so that the next should live without labour. Each generation provides for the future by rearing children. It does not lay aside wealth for future use, but stores it, by using it to feed the young, who in their turn support their fathers when no longer able to work. Unhappily, the machinery by which this is effected is very faulty, and age and want too often go together; but it is still true that all who are too old or too young to work are supported by those in the prime of life. Direct wealth is never saved, but is consumed as fast as it is made, or is stored up so far only as may be necessary to make the stock in hand last until more can be produced. This can not be called saving at all; it is no more than the exercise of sound judgment in the rate of consumption. There is no sacrifice involved, but the reverse. Saving on the part of the whole community can only be made by making implements ; there is in this case a clear sacrifice, for the labour which is de- voted to the work might have been employed in producing direct wealth, which would at once have been useful, while the implement only makes it possible that a larger stock of wealth shall in future be produced with the same labour. The number of implements which can be judiciously made is, of course, limited by the number of men who are at hand to use them; it is also limited by the advantages which would be gained by having them; if a large expenditure would-be incurred in making a new machine, and only a small increase obtained in the production of future wealth, the community would be richer by not making it at all. In a community where education and knowledge of the laws of nature are stationary this latter limit is soon reached, and no further increase of wealth is then possible. There would have been for instance no use, just before the invention of railways, in making more macadamized roads in England, as those already made were sufficient, and any increase in their number, however large, would have been followed by only a small increase of utility. Increased knowledge of the laws of nature, by suggesting that invention, opened out a new way of employing labour in making new implements which would repay their cost. The result was a large increase of the wealth of the world, measured, not by the cost of the railways, but by their efficiency as compared with the roads they superseded. CarruTHEeRs.—On some of the Terms used in Political Hconomy. 18 From the language generally used by writers, it would almost appear as if they thought the usefulness of the ‘accumulated stock of the product of former labour’’ depended on the labour which was spent in producing it, and not on the facility it gives for producing future wealth, and hence too much importance is generally given to the durability of implements. If, in a community, a given number of machines is required to carry on its manufactures, say ten, each of which requires a year’s labour of a hundred men to produce, and will just last ten years: at the end of every year one machine will be thrown aside as used up, and a new one brought into use ; there will always be ten in use, each representing the labour of 100 men, so that the stored-up wealth of the community will be represented by the labour of 1,000 men for one year, and there will always be 100 men employed in making new machines. If, now, a new kind of machine be used, which is equally efficient, but will last only one year, and requires only ten men to construct: At the end of every year the whole ten machines are thrown aside and ten new ones put in their place. The total number of men employed in machine-making is, as before, a hundred. The community is no better off than before, and no worse off; the same number of its members are removed from the business of producing direct wealth. The amount of labour stored up is, however, represented by one year’s labour of a hundred men instead of, as before, of a thousand. ‘The ‘‘accumulated stock of the produce of former labour’’ has been reduced to one-tenth of its former amount without lessening the well-being of the community. There are hundreds of steam-engines now being thrown aside which would last for twenty or thirty years longer, but it is better to make new ones of better design. The old engines cost as much labour to produce as the new ones, so that if the wealth of a community is to be measured by the amount of stored-up labour it possesses, there is no advantage in replacing old-fashioned machinery by new. The exaggerated importance generally given to saving and accumulation in common estimation, and even by political economists, is due to the use of the word capital in a sense not covered by its definition. A capitalist is one who, without labouring himself, has a right to a share of the wealth pro- duced by others. If he exercises his right in acquiring costly food and clothing for himself, and coarser food and clothing to give to servants to induce them to wait on him, his right is satisfied and thereafter ceases. He is said to have lived on his capital. If, instead of doing so, he uses only a part himself and gives the rest to labourers to induce them to work, some to produce articles which he himself will consume, and the rest to produce 14 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. food to maintain both themselves and the other labourers, he is said to invest his capital and to live on the interest. The more he gives to the labourers and the less he uses for himself, the more he is said to save. Of course there can be no limit to the saving of this kind which it is desirable that he shall make, short of his not keeping enough to maintain himself in average comfort. All that he saves is consumed by the workmen, so that the community as a whole stores up nothing. Both capitalist and workmen cannot save at the same time, except, as before said, by making new implements. If they both persist in refusing to consume the wealth produced, their barns would be filled with grain for the benefit of the rats, and their warehouses with cloth and iron for the moth and rust to corrupt; but they could not go on for ever in that way, and would have eventually to cease work. Any indivi- dual workman may save, that is, he may refrain from consuming his share and inyest it, by giving it to his fellow-workmen who would consume it; but the whole body of workmen can only become capitalists by making new implements, unless other capitalists live beyond their incomes. It must not be forgotten that implements are made for the purpose of being at once useful and not for the sake of storing wealth. If one genera- tion gets any advantage from the labour of its predecessor, it is due to the accident that most implements, and some articles of direct wealth, are made of durable materials, and not to any saving made intentionally with the view of benefiting posterity. One generation, however, owes very little to its foregoers of the material wealth it enjoys. The greater part of the wealth of the community was made within the last year, and very little is ten years old. The accumulations we have received from our fathers, and owe to our sons, are knowledge of the laws of nature, good laws, and habits of labour. If these are increased, the means of producing material wealth are also increased; with the same labour our sons will be able to live better than we, unless their numbers increase so much that they cannot produce sufficient food without increasing the proportion of those employed in producing it as compared with the whole community. Capital. This word has not been as closely defined as its importance requires, nor is it uniformly used in its defined meaning. Mill says it is ‘‘a requisite without which no productive operations beyond the rude and scanty beginnings of primitive industry are possible.” His first definition already quoted, makes it equivalent to all exchangeable wealth, except land and its spontaneous productions. With this meaning it is clearly an unnecessary word. Land is simply an implement, and does not require to be classed CarRuraers.—On some of the Terms used in Political Hconomy. 15 separately from other implements ; nor do trees and grass, which have grown without the help of man’s labour, differ from those which man has planted or sown. In Book I., chap. iv., sec. 1, it is thus further defined :—‘‘ What, then, is his (the capitalist’s) capital ? Precisely that part of his possessions, whatever it be, which is to constitute his fund for carrying on fresh production. It is of no consequence that a part, or even the whole of it, is in a form in which it cannot directly supply the wants of labourers.’ And again :—‘* The distinction between capital and Not-capital does not lie in the kind of commodities but in the mind of the capitalist—in his will to employ them for one purpose rather than another; and all property, however ill-adapted in itself for the use of labourers, is a part of capital, so soon as it, or the value to be received from it, is set apart for productive re-investment. The sum of all the values so destined by their respective possessors, compose the capital of the country.” The first objection to these definitions which presents itself, is that they would be unmeaning if there were not two classes in the community, one to whom the whole of its wealth belongs, and who may or may not, as they like, give any of it to the other class, who own no wealth and can only procure any by labouring for the wealthy class. The existing social arrangements under which this state of things almost necessarily exists, are not, however, essential to the production of wealth. The total produce of the labour of the community might be equally the property of all; there would then be no part set aside for productive re-investment. The whole direct wealth would be consumed as it was made, or at least given to the con- sumer to put intouse. While it was being consumed, the community would be at work producing new wealth, which in its turn would be consumed. Can any part of this wealth be marked out and said to be the capital of the community ? the part on which the production of future wealth depends ? Food is, of course, necessary, and if an insufficient quantity were produced the community would starve and produce no more wealth; but if by capital be meant the necessaries of existence, why use so confusing a word when others, about the meaning of which no doubt can arise, are at hand? Except implements none of the other articles which were consumed or used were more necessary than another to production, and all must, therefore, be in the same class, either capital or not- capital. Implements are essential to production, but no political economist has defined capital to be the stock of them in the country; land, the most important of all, is indeed pointedly excluded, obviously because the land- 16 Transaciions.—Miscellaneous. lord’s share of the common stock of wealth depends on different conditions than that of other capitalists. It thus appears that in a communistic society there is no such thing as capital in the sense of a fund for carrying on fresh production, or of a fund set aside for productive re-investment. The material requisites of produc- tion are labourers and implements only. The necessaries of life are required, as are also health, strength and intelligence, to enable labourers to work—but they are connoted by the word labourer, and need not be taken into consideration. There is one immaterial requisite which must, however, be considered, namely, the effective wish that wealth be produced, that is, a wish strong enough to overcome man’s natural repugnance to work. In a rude stage of society this wish is so weak that man will only labour under the immediate spur of hunger; his repugnance to making other people work is not so strong, and he makes his wife and slaves work even where the return from their labour is somewhat distant; the rude beginnings of agriculture are always the result of woman’s labour. It is doubtful whether there is, even now, a society so advanced in civilization that the production of wealth could be safely left to the average forethought of its members without the help derived from the pressure of immediate want. As society is at present organized, the great majority of the people, the labouring classes, are kept to their work by a pressure almost as strong as in the rudest societies; if they do not work to-day they will get no dinner to-morrow. In a commune, the punishment of idleness would be quite as certain but more distant. As long as the past year’s harvest lasted they would be equally well fed whether they worked or not; the results of their idleness or industry would not show themselves until after the following harvest, when it would be too late to make good any past errors. The wish that wealth be produced need not be so strong as in a commune; for wealth will be produced if the capitalists wish it, and they need not themselves labour to carry their wish into effect ; it is sufficient that they induce other people to labour. The requisites of production are the same under present social arrange- ments as they would be in a commune; they are labourers, implements, and the wish to produce. If capital is, as it is stated to be, a requisite of pro- duction, it must be one or more of these, and is a worse than useless word, for it is never, in ordinary conversation, used with a meaning allied to that which would have to be given to it by definition. It is impossible, by reading Mill’s definitions as given in Book I., chap. iv., to get any clear understanding of what he really means by CarRuTHERS.—On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 17 capital; we will therefore examine his four fundamental propositions as given in chap. v., to see whether he means any or all of the three requisites of production above given. His first proposition is, that ‘‘ Industry is limited by capital,” and con- versely, ‘‘ every increase of capital gives, or is capable of giving, additional employment to industry, aud this without assignable limit.”’ The whole wealth produced by the community belongs to the capitalists. The labourers have no share in its ownership. Theoretically, the capitalists could store it in their warehouses and keep it for their own exclusive use, leaving the workmen to starve; practically, they do not, nor would they be allowed to do so. It is their interest to keep only a certain share for them- selves, and to give the balance to the workmen to induce them to work for them and produce new wealth. If they acted together as a class, or if no individual capitalist wanted to get more than the share he was already entitled to of the total product, they need never give the labourers more than the bare necessaries of life. All that could be produced beyond that, they might themselves consume. The labourers would then be divided into two classes ; one engaged in producing the necessaries of life for themselves and for the other class ; the other engaged in producing luxuries for the rich, and new and improved implements, which would still further increase those luxuries. It is obvious that if the wealthy then reduced the share of wealth which they gave to the producers of necessaries, some of the labourers would starve, and industry would thus be lessened as the number of labourers was lessened. The theorem is correct only when the conditions are such as are here indicated, when the labourers get only the bare necessaries of life, and when capital means these necessaries. Industry is then limited by capital, but not otherwise. Fortunately, capitalists do not act together as a class; each individual tries to get more than his allotted share of the wealth of the community, and all try to entice workmen from the others by giving higher rewards, that is, they ‘‘employ more of their capital in reproductive investment.”’ The result is not, however, an increase of industry as stated in the theorem, but higher wages for the labourers. The second theorem is, that ‘‘ Capital is the result of saving.” The meaning of saving in this sentence is not that which it usually bears. It means the saving made by the capitalist, that is, giving to the working classes some of the wealth which the capitalist might, had he so chosen, have consumed himself. He says, by way of illustration of the theorem,— ‘‘ Tf all persons were to expend in personal indulgences all that they pro- duce, and all the income they receive from what is produced by others, B 18 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. capital could not increase.” The community as a whole does, however, practically consume all that it produces. If population is stationary, nothing more is required to increase the average wealth than to replace all worn-out implements with new ones of a more scientific kind. If population is increasing, the number of implements must be increased as well as their quality improved, in order that the larger population may labour more advantageously than the smaller had done. This would not in the ordinary meaning of the word be called saving; if the community increases, it is part of its current expenditure to provide the new members with facilities of producing wealth for their own support. The meaning of ‘‘ capital” in this case appears to be the wealth which the capitalists give to the labouring classes in exchange for their labour ; and the theorem is little more than an identical proposition. The third theorem is, that ‘‘ Capital, although saved and the result of saving, is nevertheless consumed.’’ This follows from what has been already said ; everything which is saved by the capitalist is consumed by the labourers, except new implements, the production of which may be called saving by the whole community, as it implies a sacrifice of present for future advantage. All that Mill deduces from it does not, however, follow. He says: ‘‘ Saving, in short, enriches, and spending impoverishes, the community along with the individual; which is but saying, in other words, that society at large is richer by what it expends in maintain- ing and aiding productive labour, but poorer by what it expends on its enjoyments.” Saving by the capitalist, as has been so often said above, enriches the workman, but saving by the community would enrich no one. The object of labour is the bettering the conditions of life, and the com- munity, therefore, is the richer by what it expends on its enjoyments, and not the poorer ; it is the richer by what the capitalist saves, simply because this kind of saving is only another name for more equal distribution. The community does not require to save ; it requires only that its labour shall be wisely directed, so that the produce shall give the greatest possible comfort and enjoyment. If the necessaries of life are not produced in sufficient quantity it will suffer privation, although every man had been engaged in what is generally called productive labour; no amount of cloth or iron would make good the want of food. The necessaries having been first provided for, the common labour should be devoted to producing those luxuries which all can share. This is the “ productive labour” which it is the interest of society to ‘‘maintain and aid.” An actor or public singer may more properly be called a productive labourer than a velvet- maker or diamond-digger, because the enjoyment which his labour pro- CaRRUTHERS.—On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 19 duces is shared by a larger number. As nothing can be done without implements, the stock of these must be kept up, and whenever increasing population or increasing knowledge makes it possible to do so with advantage, it should be increased. Care must, however, be taken that the future advantage shall not be purchased at the cost of an undue present sacrifice. The fourth theorem is, that ‘‘ What supports and employs productive labour is the capital expended in setting it to work, and not the demand of purchasers for the produce of the labour when completed. Demand for commodities is not demand for labour. * * * * The maintenance or payment of labour depends on the amount of capital or other funds directly devoted to the sustenance and remuneration of labour.’’ The main deduc- tion from this theorem is, that a capitalist, by buying velvet or other commodity for his own use, does not improve the circumstances of the working classes, but that by employing gardeners, grooms, and other retainers, or by giving alms, he does so. The error contained in this deduction unfortunately pervades Mill’s work, and makes that part of it which treats of the production of wealth far less valuable than that which treats of its distribution. If two capitalists, A and B, are entitled to equal shares of the wealth of the community, and both invest their shares from year to year, the working classes will receive the whole product of their own labour; A and B will receive none of it. If they retain for their own use a certain pro- portion which we may call interest, and invest the balance, the labourers will receive, not the whole, but a part only, the part received from A being equal to that received from B. Let us now assume that both resolve to consume the whole themselves ; A deciding to take his share in the form of attendance on himself, while B decides to procure velvet; the wealth which had been produced by the labourers they had previously employed must in both cases be again given to the working classes; in A’s case it goes to grooms and footmen ; in B’s case it goes to velvet weavers. When the wealth is all consumed, the labourers get no more from either A or B; A has received the share of wealth he was entitled to in the form of the services of his attendants, and having done nothing to entitle him to any share of future wealth his right lapses. B gets a certain quantity of velvet which he uses for his own pleasure, the labouring classes get no benefit from it, and, as in the case of A, his right to a share of future wealth also lapses. It is obvious that in both cases the labourers receive precisely the same advantage ; A has done no more good than B. Tf A had not come to the selfish resolve to apply his wealth to his own 20 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. use, until a year after B had done so, he would have invested it, and the working classes would have enjoyed the use of it once more, receiving thereby a further benefit. He would then enjoy the services of his attendants at the same time that B was wearing his velvet, and not, as before, at the time B was manufacturing it. Muiull’s error consists in thinking that, in this latter case, the actions of A and B are parallel, and that both were using contemporaneously their right to the product of the labour of others. A definition of the word ‘‘invest’’ would have prevented this mistake. The capitalists, as a class, have absolute power over future production ; whatever they wish to be produced will be produced; but they have no power over the past; the stock of wealth in existence is the result of their past wishes and actions, and cannot be altered. If any capitalist resolves to ‘invest his wealth,’”’ he means to give it to the working classes, and to continue to give them the result of their labour, keeping for himself only a part, which he calls his interest. He will so dispose the labour over which he has control, that it shall produce for himself the particular commodities which he wishes to use, and for his labourers the particular commodities which they will require. It may be more convenient that he shall arrange to produce for some other capitalist a different commodity, while the other capitalist produces what he requires, and that they shall exchange their respective productions. This would have no influence on the total wealth produced, which will be the sum of all the different kinds of wealth which all the capitalists require. Of course, in a large community there is no previous bargain made as to what each capitalist shall produce. They all anxiously forecast what their fellows will require, and direct the labour under their command accordingly ; the result is, that taking one year with another, everyone gets exactly what he wishes. If any particular capitalist, after he has influenced the disposition of the year’s labour of the com- munity, changes his mind, and wishes to consume, himself, the share of wealth which he had previously determined to give to his labourers, he will be unable to do so. He may, by outbidding a fellow-capitalist, procure for himself what had been manufactured for his colleague, who will thus be deprived of it, but the labourers will be uninfluenced. The capitalist who was outbid will have on his hands, instead of the particular commodity which had been produced to gratify his wishes, a stock of goods suitable for the labourers, which he can only turn to account by giving it to them in exchange for the product of their future labour. If the first capitalist is not prepared to outbid his fellow, he must wait for a year before his new wish can be gratified, and in the mean time his labourers will get the benefit of CaRRUTHERS.—On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 21 his former determination to invest his wealth. The result of a sudden resolve, on the part of one capitalist, to squander, thus appears to be, to induce another capitalist to save; on the other hand, a sudden resolve to save would in the same way induce an equal expenditure on the part of some one else; in either case the working classes are not affected. A resolve, to have influence on the community at large, must have been made a year beforehand, when it could influence the future supply of commodities. The word year here means, not a solar, but what may be called a manufacturing year; that is, the time which must elapse before the resolve on the part of a capitalist to produce any commodity can bear fruit. In the case of grain, wool, cotton, and other important agricultural products which form the main wealth of the world, it is equal to a solar year ; however much capitalists may wish to increase the total stock of these, they cannot do so before next harvest. For most other things the year is shorter ; if more iron or coal is wanted than has been produced, more men can be employed in producing it, and the stock thus imcreased pretty quickly. There are, however, many practical difficulties in the way of any great and sudden increase of the production of any particular commodity, and the manufacturing year is, perhaps, on the average not less than the solar. To return to our former illustration: When A resolves to employ retainers he can do so at once, because his past resolve, which influenced production, gave him the food and other necessaries which he could give to the labourers to induce them to wait upon him. B could not at once wear velvet, because his past resolve was not that velvet should be produced, but that commodities suitable for workmen should be. These were produced in obedience to his wish, and he can only turn them into velvet by giving them to weavers to induce them to produce the velvet for him. If he does pro- cure velvet at once, as Mill supposes, he can only do so by taking from some one else the share of it, which he had willed to be produced, and by giving him in exchange the commodities suitable for workmen, and these the workmen would in the end receive. In short, a capitalist eapends his wealth whenever he gives it to workmen to produce any commodity which he will himself consume; it does not matter whether the commodity be capable of accumulation, like velvet, or incapable, like a song or the services of a footman. The expenditure begins when the workman begins to labour. He invests his wealth in wages when he gives it to workmen to support them while producing commodities which he neither intends to consume r re OD, Transactions. —Miscellaneous. nor to exchange for others which he will consume. He intends that the work produced shall be consumed by the workmen themselves, and it must therefore be of such description as workmen generally use. The wealth so given to the labourers may be called the ‘‘ invested fund.” He “ invests his wealth in implements’? when he induces labourers to make them. It is absolutely necessary that implements shall be made, and it would therefore be absurd to say that it is any special hardship for the workmen to be obliged to produce them; but there is a good deal of analogy between wealth expended, and wealth invested in implements. In both cases the capitalist becomes the owner of the product of the labour, and the workman does not, as in the case of invested wealth, get any direct benefit from it. He exchanges his wealth when he gives a commodity, or a valid certificate of a right to a share of the common wealth, such as cash, mortgage, book debt, or bank credit, in exchange for another. This form of transaction is generally looked upon as most important, but to the community at large it matters very little whether A owns a ship and B a farm, or B the ship and A the farm. Mill (Book I., chap. v., see. 9) speaks of a capitalist ‘‘ expending his income in buying velvet or lace,” as if this were the same as expending his income in producing it. The confusion between the two expressions has grievously misled him. The mere exchange of gold for velvet is of not the slightest importance to the community. A owned gold and B velvet; they make an exchange, and B then owns gold and A velvet. No one is in the least influenced except themselves. If A produces gold, or B velvet, for his own use, he applies the labour of the community to his personal advantage ; if he is a mere agent, and C or D is the real user, then C or D gets the benefit, and expends his wealth in producing the velvet. The foregoing examination shows that Mill does not use the word capital in any one fixed sense, but glides almost imperceptibly from one meaning to another. It is not, when used with any meaning he gives to it, a requisite of the production of wealth; these are labourers and implements only. Its common meaning is that in which I have used it—the share of the direct wealth produced by the labour of the community, to which any capitalist can make a valid claim. The owner of implements, cash, mort- gages, or any other form of acknowledgment of indebtedness, is called a capitalist, because by means of these he can make good a claim on the common stock of direct wealth, and not because he owns the things them- selves which are not directly useful to him or to anyone else. CarruTHERS.—On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 283 Capital in this meaning is of so much importance that some further examination of it is required. The capitalists, who are the owners of the whole of the wealth of the community, must give some of it to the workmen to induce in them an effective wish to produce a further supply; the wealth so given forms what may be called the wages fund. As it is greater or less compared to the numbers of the workmen, wages will be high or low. The wages fund embraces all wealth which is being “ expended”’ (as before defined), that is, which is being given to labourers, who are employed in producing something which the capitalist will himself consume; as well as that which is being “invested.” ‘The present prosperity of the labourer depends on it alone; but that prosperity will only last the year, unless the ‘“‘invested fund’”’ forms a large proportion of the total wages fund. Next year’s prosperity depends on the ‘‘invested fund,” which will produce the wages fund of next year, since the capitalists have placed all that it is instrumental in producing beyond their own reach, in so far as they have willed that it shall be in the form of those commodities which workmen generally use. Future prosperity will depend on the future actions of the capitalists; if they resolve to expend their wealth for the own eratification, the labouring classes will not suffer during the following year, as they will then be as fully paid for producing commodities for the capitalists’ use as they had been before. Their privations will not begin until the second year, when the capitalists will keep for themselves all the wealth produced by last year’s labour. If an individual capitalist is content not to consume a larger proportion of his share of the common wealth than the average of his fellows, he will be able to enjoy that proportion every year, and still keep good his claim to the proportion of the whole year’s produce to which he was originally entitled. The part he consumes is often called the interest on his capital, and the part he invests, capital. By a false analogy, it is generally supposed that the wealth of the whole community is also divided into capital and interest, and that if the community consumes more than its interest it encroaches on its capital, and is on the downward road to ruin. An article lately appeared in the London Times, which argued from some manipulation of that bugbear of political economists, the returns of exports and imports, that England was “‘ expending its capital,’ and, like a spendthrift squire, would soon be ruined unless she retrenched. Ruin to the squire would mean that in future the poor fellow would have to work for his living, and it would be hard to say when England was not in that unhappy state. QA Transaclions.—Miscellaneous. t is also commonly supposed that a spendthrift who expends his capital in one year, does more direct harm to the working classes than a wealthier man who expends as large a sum out of his interest; there is a feeling that in the one case capital has been destroyed, and that on capital the well- being of the workmen depends, while in the other case the capital which produced the interest is still intact. There is, however, no difference, except indirectly, in the two cases. Both consume certain wealth, which, had they not consumed it, would have gone to the working classes. It makes no difference to the latter whether what they want and would have had, if it had not been taken by some one else, is taken by A or by B; nor is their future stock of wealth at all influenced, for the men who were employed in producing the commodities consumed by prudent B were just as much taken away from the production of goods to be used by workmen, as were those employed in producing for spendthrift A. When a spendthrift squanders his wealth he ceases to be a capitalist, but the others acquire the share which he has lost. The whole class owns between them all the wealth produced. If one of their number falls out of the ranks it is so much the better for the rest; on the other hand, a capitalist who increases his share by saving and investing a larger proportion of his gross share than the average, acquires his right at the expense of the others. He benefits the working classes, not only directly by increasing their wages, but also indirectly, by compelling other capitalists to be more frugal so as to maintain their proportionate share of the future stock ; the spendthrift injures the working classes directly by consuming the wealth which they have produced, and also indirectly, by making it easier for the average man to keep his position as a capitalist, and thus keeping up the rate of interest. It is the interest of the capitalists to give as little as they can to the labourers, and to receive as much from them as possible, consistently with their attaining other objects they have in view. As a rule, while they wish to live comfortably or luxuriously themselves, they also wish to leave to their heirs a right to a share of the common wealth, not less than that which they themselves enjoy. If they live too abstemiously, they increase the share to which they are entitled, but exercise a self-restraint which, under the circumstances, they consider unnecessary ; if they live too well, other more abstemious men will push them from their stools, and acquire, to their loss, a right to the wealth produced by the community. In order to hold their own they must conform their personal expenditure to that of the average of their fellow-capitalists. Capitalists are not necessarily men of more than common intelligence, CarruTHERrs.—On some of the Terms used mm Political Economy. 25 nor more likely than others to take a wide view of their own interests. They do not try to get more profit out of their steam-engines by stinting the supply of coal, or out of their horses or cattle by stinting their food, but they will, if they can, reduce wages to a point at which the labourer can barely live and work. They forget that a real and active desire that wealth shall be produced is one of the requisites of production, and that this cannot be entertained by a spiritless, hopeless drudge, who by hard and continuous labour can scarcely live better than the paupers in the work- house, into whose ranks he must fall as soon as, broken down with rheu- matism and other ailings brought on by insufficient food and shelter, the few best years of his wretched youth are passed. The total wages fund does not depend on the supply of labour, but on the competition between capitalists, and will be the same whether wages are high or low. The rate of wages depends on the numbers of the work- men who share the wages fund. Where the community is divided into capitalists and labourers, the latter have scarcely any inducement to keep down their numbers, or rather, it is not so apparent as in the case of the capitalists, and they are not fitted by education or habits of thought to exercise self-restraint when the reward is distant and not very obvious. They, therefore, tend to multiply until the wages fund is not more than sufficient to give them the bare necessaries of life. If the capitalists avail themselves of the competition of the labourers against one another, they may pay their workmen no more than is just sufficient to keep body and soul together. It is not their real interest to do so; by doubling wages they would induce the men to work so much better, that the produce would be increased in a still higher ratio. They should, even in their own interest, refuse to pay less than a certain liberal rate; the wages fund would then maintain only a comparatively small number of labourers, and an efficient check would be at once placed on undue increase of population. We have a right to expect more from capitalists in return for the immense privileges we grant them, than a simple acquiescence in the course which events are taking. If they cannot prevent a country from falling into the state into which Ireland fell, or even into that in which the south- west of England now is, they are of no use, and the sooner they are abolished the better. No other servants of the State, which capitalists simply are, would be tolerated who were so highly paid, and who performed their work so badly. We leave in their hands the absolute disposal of the labour of the com- munity, and the distribution of the wealth produced by that labour ; we 26 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. allow them, within wide limits, to fix their own wages, only requirmg them in return to conduct their operations so as to give themselves the largest profit they can make. The only argument which can be used to justify such a trust is, that in striving for the interests of themselves, they, if they use thought and self-restraint, are likely to do better for us than we could without their help. The failures they have made would fairly justify the community in trying to do without them ; it is scarcely likely that worse disasters would follow than the Irish famine, or the long years of hopeless misery which preceded it. The subjects of King Tawhiao or Sitting Bull are far better off than the poorest classes of Ireland, or even of England. It is a very important social problem to ascertain what is the rate of wages which would give, in any geographical area, and under existing con- ditions, the largest return to the capitalists (excluding landlords) as a class. If this were known, public opinion among them would probably prevent any- one from offering a lower rate, and it is almost certain that the labourers of all the older countries ‘of the world would be bettered in circumstances by getting this minimum instead of their present wages. Notwithstanding the falling off in the population of Ireland since the famine, and the higher rate of wages now paid, there is no doubt whatever that the capitalist class gets a larger return than they used to when the rate of wages was only from fourpence to sixpence a-day. The number of hours which a man must work during the day in order that the produce shall be a maximum is also unknown. Capitalists would seem, from their actions, to think that it is not less than four- teen or even more. Some information may be gained from the public works carried out 'n New Zealand during the last few years. The average rate of wages for unskilled workmen has not been less than a shilling an hour, the men working eight hours. In England the rate is, or at least was, a few years ago, about threepence an hour, the men working twelve hours; the cost of earthwork should be, if the work done were proportional to the number of hours in a day’s work, four times as high in New Zealand as in England, but it has averaged considerably less than twice. This is a very rough test, but it tends to strengthen the opinion held by many intelligent employers of labour, that a man will do more when working eight than he will when working twelve hours a-day. Interest. As before said, that. part of the national direct wealth which capitalists keep for their own use is called interest ; it is the reward they receive for investing their wealth, instead of expending it. As new men are continually, by frugality, making good a footing in, Carrutuers.—On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 27 and others, the spendthrifts and prodigals, are dropping out of the list of capitalists, the average rate of interest tends, even when the population is stationary, to become lower, to approximate more closely to what will satisfy the more frugal part of the class. As population increases, and it becomes necessary to cultivate inferior land in order to produce a sufficiency of food, the average effectiveness of labour tends to decrease, and the rents of the landlords to increase, the labourers can then, besides making new implements, produce little more than is sufficient to maintain themselves and to pay the landlords. The tempta- tion to expend wealth instead of to invest it becomes greater, and in the struggle for a position the smaller capitalists are gradually pushed out of the ranks by the larger, who can, with less sacrifice, afford to invest a larger proportion of their capital. There is thus a tendency of wealth to fall into the hands of a few, and the extremes both of riches and poverty are generally found in the same community. In an extreme case, the number of capitalists may become so small that a practical combination may occur amongst them to reduce the wages fund; and something like this appears to have taken place in the later years of Rome. Those who share the interest fund are the owners of money and land, the fund-holders, and those whose wealth, invested either in implements or wages, had been instrumental in its production. The owners of that large stock of wealth which is in the hands of the consumer, dwelling houses, furniture, clothes, etc., do not share in it, nor do the owners of goods manufactured for the use of capitalists. The velvet manufacturer, for instance, gets no interest on his velvet; it is the product of ‘‘ expended’ wealth. As a rule, he would not himself be the consumer of his own manufactures; he has only manufactured them so as to procure other goods which he requires ; the velvet was made because other capitalists had so willed it, he knowing from former experience that they had done so, and that, in the same way, whatever he willed to be produced would be duly provided. If he intended to invest his wealth, others would provide the commodities which he requires to give to his workmen, and he will be able to get these in exchange for his velvet. He has, it is true, “expended” his wealth in making a commodity for the use of capitalists, but by so doing has induced those capitalists to ‘‘ invest” theirs in making goods for the future use of his labourers ; by exchange each gets exactly what he wants, more conveniently than he could otherwise have done. If there had not been a prospect amounting to a certainty that this 28 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. exchange would take place, the velvet consumer would have manufactured the velvet he required, and the velvet manufacturer would have made the commodities for workmen which he required. The essential part of invest- ment does not consist in what is actually manufactured by any capitalist, but in what he wills shall be manufactured for him, his will being equivalent to an order given to the makers. As long, however, as the velvet remains in the hands of the maker, he cannot invest it; he must exchange it for other goods, and, when exchanged, it comes into the user’s hands, when it is of just as little use to the working classes as the past services of the same user’s footman. It would be impossible to adjust the claims of the various capitalists without the help of a common measure of value, and throughout the world gold and silver have been adopted for the purpose. The capitalist measures his wealth in money; it is the quantity of gold he has, or which at current rates he could get, for the particular thing on which his claim to a share of future wealth is founded. The only capitalists who help, directly, in producing wealth are those who invest either in wages or implements, and the capital of each individual is measured by the current price of his implements or of the food and other things which he possesses. The money owner, indirectly, facilitates production, and his capital is measured by the gold he owns. The landlord and fund-holder do nothing towards production, but as they share in the product, their pos- sessions have, on that account, exchangeable value and therefore a market price. If the money value of the possessions of these five classes of capitalists were added together, it would form what might be called the capital of the country, if the term were not so likely to suggest other and different meanings. The share of the interest fund which any capitalist could apply to his own uses without lessening his future share bears the same proportion to the whole that his capital bears to the total capital of the country. The expression ‘‘ capital of the country ” is often used to represent that part of the wealth of the community on which its prosperity and well being are supposed peculiarly to depend, but as in all other cases in which the word capital is used, there is great vagueness as to the meaning which is intended to be conveyed. In estimating its value, the price of land and of the national debt is often included, but the interest of these is simply a tax on the community at large, and cannot in any sense be said to further the general prosperity. Money also should not be included. It consists largely, and might consist entirely of paper, which costs nothing. Our just distrust of the CarruTHERS.—On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 29 honesty of governments is the only reason why gold should not be given up as the medium of exchange and bank notes substituted, the number issued to be limited in accordance with a fixed and unvarying rule. The whole of the enormous expense of gold-mining would be saved to the world and the existing stock of gold made available for use in the arts. In any case, whether it consists of metal or paper, money has no intrinsic worth, being a@ mere implement to assist in the distribution of wealth. Implements should also be deducted ; their costliness is not an element of prosperity but only an indication of past privations. Their efficiency does influence production, but cannot be valued in money, as it is the result of thought and knowledge, as well as of labour. The engines of one of the Cunard steamers of the present day cost no more labour to produce than did those of five-and-twenty years ago; they will, however, develope the same horse-power with one-third of the cost of coal and repairs. As far as they are concerned the ‘‘ capital of the country’’ has trebled, but no indica- tion of the increase would appear in a return of the machines in use and their cost. In short, there is no means of comparing the prosperity of two different countries or the same country at different times. Present prosperity depends on the stock of direct wealth in actual use or stored ready for use, and on the number of men, such as actors and singers, employed in producing for the immediate gratification of the community enjoyments not capable of being stored. Future prosperity depends on the number of men who are employed in producing a further stock, and in the efficiency of their labour. The only further requisites are, that the choice of things to be produced shall be judicious and their distribution moderately equal. A large part of capital consists of what is generally called floating capital. Its ownership is attested by bank accounts, promissory notes, and other acknowledgments of indebtedness. At first sight it would appear that this was not included in any of the forms above enumerated, but the owners of floating capital really own a share of the wealth nominally owned by those who are indebted to them ; they do not, as is generally supposed, own money of which the supply in existence is comparatively small. It has been assumed throughout that the owner of capital applies it with average skill and energy, in such way as shall give him a right to share in the future wealth ; the implement-owner must take care that his machines are kept fully employed; the employer of labour must keep his men to their work, and must direct their labour judiciously ; the landlord must find tenants or farm the land himself; the fund-holder has nothing to do but to draw his dividends when they become due—his claim is the reward of 30 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. past services done to the community. The money owner has a very peculiar duty, as he has only to see that he keeps no more of it on hand than is required. Ifa banker keeps a larger reserve than he needs, he will not get the average banker’s interest. He gets no interest, directly, on his gold reserve, but the profit on his other transactions is larger on account of it. Ifit is unnecessarily large, he, of course, loses the interest on all the money he needlessly keeps. This is also true of the merchant and manu- facturer. The consumer who keeps money in hand to meet current expenditure gets no interest for it. A capitalist who uses his capital unskilfully benefits all other capitalists and injures the community at large, except in the case of a money owner, who injures no one, except himself, by mismanagement. If he keeps more on hand than the nature of his business requires, the stock in the hands of others becomes more valuable, by the exact amount of his excess, and the smaller amount in circulation is quite as efficient as the larger would be. Cost of Production. The cost of production of any commodity is simply the labour required to produce it; it does not matter whether the labourer be a Millais or a coal-heaver. Wealth being required, there is only one way of getting it, and that is by labour, and the labour of all is equally necessary to the production of the common stock. The problem to assess the utility of each man’s production would be quite insoluble. There would even be a difficulty m deciding whether a day’s labour of Turner or West, or of Browning or Tupper, were worth most. It would be easier to assess the relative value of two navvies’ work, one of whom could dig ten and the other only five yards of earth in a day. Even in this latter case the labour of both men would be equally requisite to the production of the total stock, if it were necessary to dig fifteen yards a day. A capitalist must take into account not only the labour which was required to produce his wares, but also the rate of wages he was obliged to pay his workmen, and the interest he would be obliged to pay to other capitalists ; from his point of view, therefore, both interest and wages form part of the cost of production. It would be well to keep distinct what is essential under all cir- cumstances from what is due to the accidental conditions under which society may happen to regulate its labour; and as a medium of exchange, like money, is necessary In a community divided into capitalists and labourers, I think the capitalists’ costs of production should be called the ‘* price of production.” The exchange value of wealth tends to be in proportion to its price of production and not to its cost. PuRNELL.—On Antarctic Haploration. 31 [Norz.—Mill makes a note that the reviewer in the Edinburgh Review, (October, 1844), suggested a definition of implements very similar to that which I have proposed, but I have not been able to procure a copy of the review. See Book I., chap. i1., sec. 4.] Art. I].—On Antarctic Exploration. By C. W. Purnetu. [Read before the Otago Institute, 14th May, 1878.] In a presidential address delivered to the members of this Institute, in February, 1875, Mr. J. T. Thomson cursorily alluded to the subject of antarctic exploration. This subject had been under my own notice for some time previously, and I should probably have asked permission to read a paper upon it but for Mr. Thomson’s remarks, which seemed to render it needless for me to do so just then. Other persons, I dare say, have had their attention directed to so fascinating a topic, although, after searching such official records of the proceedings of the different Philoso- phical Societies in the Australian colonies as are available, I have been unable to discover any paper dealing with it, or any allusion whatever to the matter, save that contained in Mr. Thomson’s address. Yet it seems to me that there is no subject better fitted for the consideration of a scientific society in these colonies, and more particularly of the Otago Institute, than the best means of exploring the South Polar Seas. They form a weird and strange region almost unknown to man. ‘They have been unvisited by any exploring expedition since 1848; and no discoveries appear to have been made by whaling vessels, or at all events none have been recorded, to supplement those of Sir James Ross; so that, while during the last five-and-thirty years our knowledge of the North Polar region has been immensely augmented ; while Africa has been crossed and re-crossed ; while the telegraph line has been carried over the then unknown interior of Australia, absolutely nothing has been done towards clearing up the mystery which enshrouds the regions lying within the antarctic circle. It has been estimated that a portion of the globe, three times the area of Kurope, here lies unexplored. The entrance to this field of enterprise, too, is within a few days’ steam of Otago. It is of the highest geographical importance to know whether an antarctic continent exists or not. Cook’s researches in the latter part of the eighteenth century dispelled the old belief in a Terra Australis, but 32 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. subsequent discoveries revived the idea in a modified form, and it is so long since anything was done towards exploring the antarctic regions, that a hazy notion that a mass of land surrounds the South Pole seems again to be diffusing itself, and we frequently find ‘‘ the antarctic continent’’ spoken of as though it were an ascertained fact, whereas its existence is a mere hypothesis, although not a groundless one. -What has really been dis- covered are three large tracts of land, many islands, and two or three pieces of land which may either be islands or the outlying points of a continent. The longest and best known of the three large tracts just mentioned is that lying to the south of Cape Horn, its various parts being named respectively Louis Philippe Land, Palmer Land, Graham Land, and Alexander Island. It is fringed with islands, of which the South Shetlands and the New Orkneys are the principal groups. In the same hemisphere, but due south of port Dunedin, les Victoria Land, discovered by Sir James Ross in 1841, the coast line of which was further explored by him in the following year. This land is remarkable for being the site of an active volcano, 12,367 feet high, named by Ross Mount Erebus. It is situated in the high latitude of 76° 6’ §., and is in the vicinity of an extinct volcano, called by Ross Mount Terror. Ross traced Victoria Land from the 70th degree of latitude to nearly the 79th, the precise latitude attained by his ships being 78° 10’ §., or nearly four degrees higher than any navigator had reached before. It would appear that Victoria Land, to the south of New Zealand, forms a sort of bight; but what checked Ross’s progress, and prevented him ascertaining the precise contour of the land at this latitude, was a solid barrier of ice, without flaw or fissure in its face, from 100 to 3800 feet high, trending to the north and east. He sailed along this barrier for 450 miles, without being able to find an entrance or to see any land rising behind it during a great part of the distance, so that, although Ross himself seems to have been of opinion that the barrier screened a body of land, it cannot be positively asserted that such is the case. Victoria Land, may either at the point where Ross met the barrier, trend to the South Pole, or it may, covered by the ice barrier, stretch away to the east- ward to meet Alexander Land, between which and Victoria Land the only known Land is Peter 1st Island, on the 91st meridian of west longitude, discovered by the Russian navigator, Bellingshausen, in 1821. © Turning now to the westward and south of Australia, we come to the important discoveries of our countryman Ballemy, the Frenchman D’Urville, and the American Wilkes. These consist of the Ballemy Isles, Sabrina Land, and Adelie Land. The two latter form a coast line, if we are to credit Wilkes, extending from 154° 27’ E., to 97° 80’ E. long.; but Wilkes’s Pusneti.—On Antarctic Huploration, Bg authority is not of the best, since he seems to have seen a great deal more than sailors of other nationalities could do. Indeed, Ross actually sailed over one spot where Wilkes affirmed that he had discovered a chain of mountains. Without, however, placing too much reliance upon Wilkes’s alleged discoveries to the westward, we have the concurrent testimony of himself, Balleny, and D’Urville, that an extensive tract of land does exist in this direction; Balleny Isles, lying considerably to the eastward (lat. 66° 44’ §., and long. 163° 11’ E.), and so forming a connecting link between these and Ross’s discoveries. It is noticeable that Cook, on his second voyage, was unable to get so far south as this body of land by four or five degrees, being stopped by the ice, although he was on the right track for its discovery. Still proceeding westward, we next meet with Kemp Land on the 60th, and then with Enderby Land on the 50th meridian. These were discovered by our countryman Biscoe, in 1831-38. Whether Kemp and Enderby Lands are islands, or the outlying parts of a large mass of land, we do not know; but it is noticeable with respect both to them and the discoveries just men- tioned that they all lie adjacent to the antarctic circle. I have now summarised all that is actually known of the so-called ‘‘ antarctic continent,”’ from which you will see that, while there are indica- tions which might lead us to infer a connection between the principal dis- coveries that have been made, it may well be that the most extensive of these lands are only the chief members of an archipelago. Each hemi- sphere offers its special attractions to the explorer. In the western, the vast space between Ross's discoveries and Alexander Land, extending over about 60° of longitude, remains to be examined. Cook tried to penetrate its re- cesses, but could get no farther than 71° 10’ §., which he did on the 107th meridian, when he was beaten back by the ice. Ross made a similar attempt on his second voyage, and actually crossed the antarctic circle in longitude 156° 28’ W., or fourteen hundred miles to the eastward of the place where he crossed it on his first voyage ; but he was afterwards driven to the west by the pack, and reached his lowest latitude in 161° 27’ W. There is next the gap between Louis Phihppe Land and Enderby Land. This has been tried by various navigators. The most successful was Weddell, who, in 1828, got as low down as 74° 15’ §S. on the 35th meridian (W.), and found there a sea clear of ice. Weddell accom- plished this great feat in a brig of 160 tons burthen, accompanied by a cutter of 65 tons. He would have sailed still further south but for the lateness of the season, which rendered it prudent to turn back. D’Urville, however, following on his track, could not attain to even C 84 Transactions.——Miscellanéous. 66°; and Ross, on the same meridian, was stopped by an impenetrable pack at 65° 13’ S. Ross afterwards sailed eastward, and reached the latitude of 71° 80’ §. in 14° 51’ W. Still further eastward, on the second meridian west longitude, Bellingshausen reached 69° 45’ §. None of these navigators met with land at the extreme limits of their voyages, Finally, it is necessary to ascertain whether a connection exists between Victoria Land and Terre Adelie. The practical object which I have in view is to urge that, as soon as circumstances permit, an expedition should be fitted out at the joint expense of the Australian and New Zealand governments for the purpose of follow- ing up Ross’s discoveries, and ascertaining whether land does or does not exist between Victoria and Alexander Land. Such an enterprise would doubtless be outside the routine work of these governments; but is never- theless one to which they might properly devote their attention, unless, indeed, we accept the theory that Englishmen who happen to reside in a colony thereby become emancipated from national duties, and are entitled to consecrate their lives to money-making. The cost would be considerable, but when we reflect how many expeditions, which have made important discoveries in the Arctic Seas, have been despatched from England, the United States, and Germany, at the expense of private persons, it seems absurd to contend that it would be beyond the means of these rich Colonial Governments. What is wanted are two auxiliary steamers, of from 800 to 400 tons burthen, officered and manned from the Royal Navy, and pro- visioned for three years, so that if a harbour could be found the ships might be able to winter in the Antarctic Seas. The natural starting point of such an expedition would be Port Chalmers. The expedition would sail about the middle of November, and would be able to continue its explorations until the end of February, when it must either look for winter quarters or return home. It is possible that the vessels might not be able to winter in the ice, for one of the peculiar difficulties connected with antarctic explorations is that no harbour has yet been found where vessels can go into winter quarters as they are accustomed to do in the arctic regions. Hence Ross, on each of his three voyages, was only able to remain in the Antarctic Seas during the summer season, and could not therefore utilise the winter for land expeditions. He was also compelled to navigate in sailing ships, and without any of the appliances for securing the health of the crews and the safety of the vessels, which have since almost raised Polar exploration to the rank of an exact science. Nevertheless, his discoveries were of a remarkable character, and in reading his narrative one can easily perceive Purneni.—On Antarctic Huploration, 85 how much more he would probably have done had he been aided by steam. On his second voyage, when he attained the highest latitude ever reached, he was 56 days in the pack, which was 1000 miles through, and by the time he had got out of it and reached the ice barrier it was time to return, With steamers he would probably have pierced the pack in two or three weeks. In the event of the expedition being unable to winter in the ice, I should propose that the explorations be renewed in the next and following years, thus making three attempts to accomplish the objects in view. It cannot, however, be denied that the antarctic explorer has a harder task to encounter than his northern comrade. The cold is more intense; storms more frequent; while a constant heavy swell of the sea adds to the dangers of the navigator. Describing the state of the ice barrier on Feb- ruary 9, 1841, Ross says, ‘‘ gigantic icicles depended from every projecting point of its perpendicular cliffs, proving that it sometimes thaws, which otherwise we could not have believed, for at a season of the year equivalent to August in England we have the thermometer at 12°, and at noon not rising above 14°; this severity of temperature is remarkable, also, when compared with our former experience in the Northern Seas, where, from every iceberg you meet with, streams of water are constantly pouring off during the summer.’’ There is not the smallest trace of vegetation visible in these inhospitable regions, even in the middle of summer. The most southerly spot where vegetation has been seen is Cockburn Island, one of the South Shetland Group, situated in latitude 64° 12’ 8.; but it only con- sists of a few mosses, alge and lichens. No land animals have been observed. Whales, seals, penguins, petrels, and skua gulls are the only visible living creatures in the highest latitudes that have been reached. The winter is rather longer and the summer shorter than in the Arctic Seas. These peculiarities would of course prove great hindrances to land explora- tions, which would, even if they could be undertaken at all, have to be made under different and more arduous conditions than those attaching to land journeys in the North Polar regions. The determination of the existence, or non-existence, of an Antarctic Continent is the principal problem to be solved by a South Polar expedi- tion. It must, however, be also borne in mind that the geographical discoveries which have already been made are of the baldest nature. Certain lands are known to exist and that is all. They have never been explored. Louis Philippe Land and the other land to the south of Cape Horn are the only Antarctic Lands of whose geography and productions we have any real knowledge, and that is very limited. But the explorer’s foot has never trodden Victoria Land, Terre Adélie, Sabrina, or Enderby 86 Transactions, —Miscellaneous. Land. Outlying islands alone have been visited, and then for the brief- est period. The main land has been seen from a distance bursting through the antarctic ice-cap and that is all. It is of the utmost interest to know whether all or any of these lands are inhabited by human beings. Their entire separation from the great continents of Asia and America, and the want of even the limited means of subsistence afforded by the North Polar regions for mankind, seem to forbid the supposition but are not conclusive, and nothing but actual research can settle the ques- tion, A knowledge of the geology of those regions would be of deep interest, but it is noticeable that, according to such observations as could be made, the lands visited by Ross’s expedition were wholly volcanic in character. There was an entire absence of sedimentary formations, whose examination in the North Polar regions has yielded such useful fruits to science. Liven in zoology a new expedition could hardly be barren of results, for Ross’s enriched the naturalist’s catalogue considerably. Ice action, too, is playing such an important part in modern geological speculations, that it is a little surprising that such a novel field of study as the Antarctic regions has not been taken up before, inasmuch as ice here assumes highly characteristic forms, quite different from those it presents in the north. Meteorological and magnetic phenomena can also be studied under peculiar advantages. The precise object of Ross’s expedition was to take magnetic observations, and to reach the south magnetic pole. Ross determined the position of the latter, but did not get within 160 miles of it. I could, however, traverse a large part of the domain of physical research, pointing out how it would be enriched by an antarctic expedition, but I have said enough to prove that such an expedition would be likely to produce scientific fruits of the utmost value. Its probable commercial results must also not be overlooked. Ross discovered plentifully-stocked whaling grounds, and a rich bed of guano on Possession Island, situated in lat. 71° 56’ S., and long. 171° 7’ EK. Upon this island there were scaly penguins in myriads, and the same bird was seen in immense numbers in other places. This species of penguin attains a large size, the birds often weighing as much as 60|bs. or 7Olbs. a-piece, and, as they yield a valuable medicinal oil in considerable quantity, their capture ought to be commercially profitable. Seals, too, swarm in the lower latitudes, where they have bred undisturbed during countless ages. Indeed, when we begin to contemplate the vast impetus which might be given to the commerce of New Zealand and the neighbouring colonies by a thorough exploration of the Antarctic Seas, the imagination is apt to wander into boundless regions of potential wealth, only awaiting the enter- Purnetit.—On Antarctic Haploration. ov prise of man to become available for his use. I shall not, however, be tempted into this attractive ground, but shall content myself with pointing to its allurements. I have not entered upon the details of the proposed expedition, because they can be better discussed in a separate paper. My present aim is to direct your attention to an important but neglected subject in which New Zealand is specially concerned. This colony has contributed nothing to the cause of geographical discovery. Australia has done much, and the adventurous feats of travel which have been performed by Eyre, Sturt, Stuart, Leichardt, Burke, and other explorers, are such as to justify the belief that their names will be perpetually preserved, not only in local but in the national memory. It is deeds like these which redeem the colonies from the reproach of being engrossed in the selfish pursuit of wealth; and it is by these means alone that we shall become entitled to rank in the eye of the future historian with our fellow-countrymen in the older parts of the empire. We pride ourselves much upon our industrial successes; upon the vastness of our flocks and herds ; upon the immense crops of grain we raise ; upon our budding manufactures; the roads, railways, and bridges we have built; and all the other manifestations of our material progress ; but these things are for ourselves alone, and can claim no higher praise than appertains to a man who devotes his life solely and successfully to the acquisition of a private fortune. We have as yet done nothing for mankind, nothing for the intellectual advancement of our race; we have laid upon our backs none of those mighty but glorious burdens which fall to the lot of those who occupy the lofty station of citizens of an ancient and illustrious State. : The physical characteristics of New Zealand have virtually shut its set- tlers out from the field of geographical exploration, so far as the country itself is concerned ; but, on the other hand, it is the most convenient base for operations in the noble arena of research which lies open for our enter- prise in the South Polar Seas. No real obstacle stands in the way. Experienced officers and men could be got in plenty from the Royal Navy. The Home Government would no doubt willingly lend their services, and the arctic service is so popular in the navy that we should only have to pick and choose from amongst the volunteers. I propose that the vessels should be manned from the Royal Navy, because it was admitted by all competent authorities on the subject that naval discipline tends materially to the success of polar exploring expeditions, and is a sure safeguard against such misfortunes as those which befel Captain Hall's expedition in the ‘Polaris.’ The scientific staff, however, should consist exclusively of 388 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. colonists. They would, of course, be easily obtainable. The question of money is the real one, but the difficulty there lies not in our want of funds, but in the unwillingness of the Assembly to vote money for any purpose which is not likely to prove of immediate practical utility. The cost, how- ever, when divided between several colonies would fall lightly enough upon. each, and I cannot bring myself to believe that either the colonists of New Zealand as a body, or their representatives in the General Assembly, would begrudge the expenditure of £15,000 or £20,000 (for our share would probably not exceed that sum) upon a scientific work which would shed lasting honour upon the colony. Arr. III.—On the Cleansing of Towns. By J. Turnsutt Txomson, C.E., F.R.G.S., F.R.S.8.A., Surveyor-General of New Zealand. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 30th November, 1878.] An efficient and economical system of town cleansing is a responsibility that soon forces itself on colonial communities; hence its discussion cannot but be fraught with interest. Even in mere camps the subject is of the first importance to the health of armies, to travellers, or to moving tribes and peoples; an early appreciation of which we have in the laws of Moses.* That it is not otherwise in New Zealand is evidenced by the various enquiries that have been instituted from time to time, by the measures of the various town councils, and by the reports and papers of engineers. The earliest Sanitary Commission in New Zealand, that I am aware of, was that of Dunedin, in which city it is stated that the death-rate, in the year 1863-4, was 85°3 per thousand. More recent statistics show great variation in different towns and years, as follows :— Auckland .. in 1875 .. 35°77 in 1877 .. 16°68 per 1,000 Wellington .. 4 van 226501 3 Be ul esi0) ie Nelson oe 3 dian earfoays) so) L696 yy Christchurch . 2. 80°44 5 2» 15-50 a Dunedin .. i. a5 eH! a so aoe Impressed with the weight of the above considerations, during my recent visit to England I took the opportunity of examining the actual state of the sanitary works in several towns either wholly or partially, besides which I obtained personal interviews with the officers of several of the Boards, thus directly obtaining the views that had been arrived at by a full knowledge of * Deut, xxiii., 12, 13. THomson,—On the Cleansing of Towns. ou their local circumstances and wants. These I found, as will be seen in the sequel, to be very various and often discordant. First of importance was the drainage of London, and to this I had free access given me by the officers of the Metropolitan Board of Works, whereby I was enabled to inspect the arterial, side, and house-drains, as well as the outfalls some miles below the city. I had also several papers given me describing the same, and to these I shall now refer, quoting first in order from a paper by their engineer.* Here we are informed that the ‘“ subject of sewerage received the attention of the Legislature at an early date ;” and that ‘‘amongst others, a proposal by Sir Christopher Wren for improved drainage, nearly two hundred years ago, is preserved in M8. in the records of the ancient Westminster Commission.” Again: ‘Up to about the year 1815 it was penal to discharge sewage or other offensive matters into the sewers. Cesspools were regarded as the proper receptacles for house drainage, and sewers as the legitimate channels for carrying off surface waters only ; afterwards it became permissive, and in the year 1847 the first Act was obtained making it compulsory to drain houses into the streets.”’ Again; ‘‘ Prior to the year 1847 sewers were under the management of eight distinct Commissions,’ who ‘carried out (each) its drainage works, frequently regardless of the effect thereby produced upon the neighbouring districts through which the sewage flowed.” Again: ‘‘In the year 1847 these eight Commissions of Sewers were superseded by one Commission termed ‘the Metropolitan Commission of Sewers,”’ who made ‘‘the adoption of the new system of drainage com- pulsory, so that, within a period of six years, thirty thousand cesspools were abolished, and all the house and street refuse was turned into the river.” Again: ‘‘ Similar systems were, about this period, to a large extent adopted in the provificial towns, by which means their drainage has been vastly improved, but the rivers and streams of the country have become very generally and seriously polluted.”’ Again: ‘‘In 1852 the fifth Commission was issued, (when) fresh plans for intercepting the sewage of the metropolis still continued to be heard before the Commission, and were from time to time examined and reported on without any practical result. In 1854 the author (Sir J. W. Bazalgette) was directed to prepare a scheme of intercepting sewers intended to effect the improved drainage of London.” Again: ‘“ The sixth Commission, formed in 1855, continued to discuss the subject, but without coming to a practical result.’ ‘But it was not alone the anomalies of the old Commissions, &c., which compelled the *«« Main Drainage of London,” by Sir J. W. Bazalgette, M. Inst. C,H, 40 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. adoption of a general system of main drainage. The metropolis had suffered severely in the cholera visitation of 1831-2, again in 1848-9, and lastly in 1858-4.” ‘The places formerly most favourable to the spread of the disease became quite free from it when afterwards properly drained.” Again: ‘In designing a system of main drainage these points had to be kept in view—to provide ample means for the discharge of the large and increasing water supply consequent on the universal adoption of water- closets, and of the ordinary rainfall and surface drainage at all times, except during extraordinary storms, and to afford to the low-lying dis- tricts a sufficiently deep outfall to allow of every house being effectually relieved of its fluid refuse.” Again: ‘“ For centuries there had existed Sewers Commissions appointed by the Government, and irresponsible to the ratepayers, upon whom they levied rates.” ‘‘ The author (Sir J. W. Bazalgette) having been appointed engineer to the Metropolitan Board was again instructed to prepare a plan for the drainage of the metropolis ;’’ ‘‘ and it was through the influence of Lord John Manners that the Board was left free to carry out their system of main drainage.” Again: ‘‘The objects sought to be attained in the execution of the main drainage works were——the interception of the sewage (as far as practicable by gravitation), together with so much of the rainfall mixed with it as could be reasonably dealt with, so as to divert it from the river at London; the substitution of a constant, instead of an intermittent flow in the sewers; the abolition of stagnant and tide-locked sewers, with their consequent accumulations of deposit; and the provision of deep and improved outfalls for the extension of the sewage into districts previously, for want of such outfalls, imperfectly drained.”’ Again: ‘ According to the system it was sought to improve; the London main sewers fell into the Thames, and, most of them passing under the low grounds in the margin of the river before they reached it, discharged. their contents into that river at or about the level, and at the time of low water only. As the tide rose it closed the outlets and ponded back the sewage flowing from the high ground.” «The volume of pure water in the river (Thames) being at that time at its minimum rendered it quite incapable of diluting and disinfecting such vast masses of sewage.” - Again: ‘In the system now adopted it has been sought to remove those evils by the construction of new lines of sewers laid at right angles to those existing, and a little below their levels, so as to intercept their contents and convey them to an outfall fourteen miles below London Bridge.’ Tromson.—On the Cleansing of Towns. 41 ‘“‘ By this arrangement the sewage is not only at once diluted by the large volume of water in the Thames at high-water, but is also carried by the ebb tide to a point in the river twenty-six miles below London Bridge, and its return by the following flood tide within the metropolitan area is effectually prevented.”’ Again: ‘‘ At the threshold of my (Sir J. W. Bazalgette’s) enquiry into this subject the following important points required to be solved :— “1st. At what point and state of the tide can the sewage be discharged into the river, so as not to return within the more densely inhabited por- tions of the metropolis ? “Qnd. What is the minimum fall which should be given to the inter- cepting sewers ? «3rd. What is the quantity of sewage to be intercepted, and does it pass off in a uniform flow at all hours of the day and night, and in what manner ? : ‘Ath. Is the rainfall to be mixed with the sewage? In what manner and quantities does it flow into the sewers; and, also, is it to be carried off in the intercepting sewers, and how is it to be provided for ? ‘5th. Having referred to all these poimts, how are the sizes of the intercepting and main drainage sewers to be determined ? “6th. What description of pumping engines and of pumps are best adapted for liftmg the sewage of London at the pumping stations? So comprehensive a subject, involving not only the above but many other important topics, cannot be fully considered within the limits of an ordinary paper, in which these questions can only be briefly touched upon.” Experiments by floats were now made on the river Thames, by which it was found that ‘the excess of the ebbs over the floods was 9 only five miles in four days,” and ‘“‘that a substance in suspension, works ‘up the river about one mile a day at each high water, as the springs strengthen, and down the river two miles a day as they fall off.” Again: that ‘the delivery of the sewage at high water into the river at any point, is equivalent to its discharge at low water at a point twelve miles lower down: the river; therefore the construction of twelve miles of sewer is saved by discharging the sewage at high instead of at low water.” The flow of sewage in the drains was then determined by reference to the data afforded by the works of well-known authorities, and it was con- cluded by the engineer to regard that ‘‘a mean velocity of one-and-a-half miles per hour in a properly protected main sewer, when running half full, is sufficient, more especially when the contents have passed through ® pumping station.” 49, Transactions.—Miscellaneous. In estimating the quantity of sewage to be carried off ‘ provision has been made for an increase of the population up to 30,000 people to the square mile, except over the outlying districts, where provision has been made for a population giving 20,000 to the square mile.’’ ‘‘An improved water supply, equal to five cubic feet, or 814 gallons per head for such contemplated increased population has moreover been anticipated.” Again: ‘‘ How to dispose of the rainfall is a question of considerable difficulty, and has given rise to much diversity of opinion. ‘This arises from the fact that, whilst it is in itself harmless, and even advantageous to the river, it sometimes falls suddenly in large quantities. These considera- tions have induced theorists to advocate that the rainfall should not be allowed to flow off with the sewage, but should be dealt with by a separate system of sewers. This theory however is most impracticable.” Referring to experiments on this subject the result ‘distinctly establishes the fact, that the quantity of rain which flowed off by the sewers was, in all cases, much less than the quantity which fell on the ground,”’ also ‘that 4 of an inch of rainfall will not contribute 4 of an inch to the sewers; nor a fall of 44, of an inch more than } of an inch.” Again: ‘ As it would not have been wise or practicable to have increased the sizes of the intercepting sewers much beyond their present dimensions in order to carry off the rare and excessive thunderstorms, overflow sewers, to act as safety valves in times of storms, have been constructed at the junctions of the intercepting sewers with the main valley lines.”’ Again: ‘“‘ Having determined the quantities of sewage and rainfall to be carried off, and the rate of declivity of the sewer required for the necessary velocity of flow, the sizes of the intercepting sewers were readily determined by the formule of Prony, Hytelwein, and Du Buat.”’ Again: ‘“ A primary object sought to be attained in this scheme was the removing as much of the sewage as practicable by gravitation, so as to reduce the amount of pumping to a minimum.”’ Under this view, on the north side of the Thames, the high level sewer commences at the foot of Hampstead Hill, passing through certain districts of London, draining about ten square miles (shown in the plan), the form of which ‘‘is mostly circular, and it varies in size from 4 feet in diameter to 9 feet 6 inches by 12 feet; its fall is rapid, ranging at the upper end from 1 in 71 to 1 in 876, and from 4 feet to 5 feet per mile at the lower end.” ; The middle level sewer is as near the Thames as the contour of the ground will allow, the area intercepted being 174 square miles. The low level sewer intercepts the sewage from the low level area, which contains 11 square miles. ‘‘Itis also the main outlet for a district of about > Tromson.—On the Cleansing of Towns. 43 143 square miles, forming the western suburb of London, which is so low that its sewage has to be lifted at Chelsea a height of 174 feet into the upper end of the low level sewer. It is tunnelled under the river Lea, on its route to Abbey Mills, where its contents are raised 86 feet by steam power. Again: ‘The northern outfall sewer is a work of peculiar construction ; as, unlike ordinary sewers, it is raised above the level of the surrounding neighbourhood in an embankment, which has the appearance of a railway embankment, and it is carried by aqueducts over rivers, railways, streets and roads.” Again: ‘‘The Barking reservoir is 16} feet in average depth, and is divided by partition walls into four compartments, covering altogether an effective area of 412,384 superficial feet, or about 93 acres. The external and partition walls are of brickwork, and the centre area is covered by brick arches supported upon brick piers, the floor being paved throughout with York stone. The reservoir, being almost entirely above the general surface of the ground, is covered by an embankment of earth, rising about 2 feet above the crown of the arches. The ground over which it is built being unfit to sustain the structure, the foundations of the piers, and of the walls, were carried down in concrete to a depth of nearly 20 feet.” Again: ‘“‘ The Abbey Mills Pumping Station will be the largest establish- ment of the kind in the main drainage works, providing, as it does, engine- power to the extent of 1140 h.p. for the purpose of lifting a minimum quantity of sewage and rainfall of 15,000 cubic feet per minute a height of 36 feet.” The Engineer adds that “It is fortunate that these works were not projected in the year 13806 when coal was first introduced into London, and was regarded as such a nuisance that the resident nobility obtained a royal proclamation to prohibit its use under severe penalties; for this pumping station alone will consume about 9700 tons of coal per annum. The cost of pumping is not, however, actually in excess of the former expenditure upon drainage, for the cost of removing deposit from the tide- locked and stagnated sewers in London, formerly amounted to a sum of about £30,000 per annum, and the substitution of a constant flow through sewers by means of pumping must necessarily reduce the deposit, and consequently the annual cost of cleaning.”’ Again: ‘‘On the south side of the Thames the high-level sewer and its southern branch correspond with the high and middle-level sewers on the north side of the Thames.” ‘‘ Both lines are constructed of sufficient capacity to carry off the flood waters, so that they may be entirely inter- 44 Transactions.— Miscellaneous: cepted from the low and thickly inhabited district, which is tide-locked and subject to floods. The storm-waters will be discharged into Deptford Creek, whilst the sewage and a limited quantity of rain will flow by four iron pipes laid under its bed, each 3 feet 6 inches in diameter, into the outfall sewer.” * Again: ‘‘The main line varies in size from 4 feet 6 inches by 8 feet at the upper end to 10 feet 6 inches, of the same form as the branch by the side of which it is constructed.”’ Again: ‘‘The falls of the main line are at the upper end 53 feet, 26 feet, and 9 feet per mile to the Effra sewer at the Brixton Road, and ~ thence to the outlet, 2} feet per mile. The sewer is erected in brickwork, varying in thickness from 9 inches to 22} inches, that forming the invert being in Portland cement, and the remainder in blue lias mortar.”’ Again: ‘‘ The low-level sewer does not follow the course of the river as on the north side; but commencing at Putney it takes a more direct line through the low ground once forming the bed of the second channel of the Thames, and drains Putney, Battersea, Nine Elms, Lambeth, Newington, Southwark, Bermondsey, Rotherhithe, and Deptford.” The Engineer adds that this district being mostly level was formerly much subject to be overflown, and to stagnation of waters, causing malaria, so much so that ‘the late Mr. R. Stephenson and Sir W. Cubitt forcibly described the effect of artificial draining by pumping as equivalent to raising the surface to the height of 20 feet. The low-level sewer has in fact rendered this district as dry and as healthy as any portion of the metropolis.” Again: “The Deptford pumping station is situated by the side of the Deptford Creek, and close to the Greenwich railway station. The sewage here is lifted from the low-level sewer to a height of 18 feet into the outfall sewer. Four expansive condensing rotative beam engines, each of 125 h.p., and capable together of lifting 10,000 cubic feet of sewage per minute to a height of 18 feet, are here constructed.” Relating to the southern outfall sewer: ‘‘ The large volume of water met with in the marshes rendered the construction of that portion of the work very costly. These marshes originally formed part of the Thames, and were first enclosed, in the reign of Edward I., by the monks of Lesnes Abbey. Two thousand acres were afterwards flooded by the bursting of the river banks in the reign of Henry VIII., and were not again reclaimed until the reign of James I.” Again: ‘‘ The outfall of the sewage at the south side of the Thames is at Crossness reservoir and pumping station. The sewage is discharged into the river at the time of high water only; but the sewer is at such a level * Written in 18665. Tuomson,—On the Cleansing of Towns. Ag that it can discharge its full volume by gravitation about the time of low water.” Again; ‘The maximum quantity of sewage to be lifted by the engines (at Crossness), will ordinarily be 10,000 cubic feet per minute, but during the night that quantity will be considerably reduced—while, on the other hand, it will be nearly doubled on occasions of heavy rainfall. The lift will also vary from 10 to 30 feet, according to the level of the water in the sewer and in the reservoir into which it is lifted.’’ ‘* The reservoir, which is 63 acres in extent, is covered by brick arches, supported on brick piers, and is furnished with weirs for overflows with a flushing culvert.” Again: ‘‘The specifications provide that the whole of the cement shall be Portland cement of the very best quality, ground extremely fine, weigh- ing not less than 100lbs. to the bushel, capable of maintaining a breaking weight of 500lbs. to the bushel on 14 square inch, seven days after being made in an iron mould, and immersed in water during the intervening seven days.”’ Again; ‘The total cost of the main drainage works when completed will have been about £4,100,000.” ‘The sum for defraying the cost of these works is raised by loan, and paid off by a 3d. rate levied in the metropolis, which produces £180,262 per annum, the rateable value being £14,421,011, and the principal and interest of the loan will be paid off in forty years.” ‘‘ There are about 1,300 miles of sewers in London, and 82 miles of main intercepting sewers. 380,000,000 of bricks and 880,000 cubic yards of concrete have been consumed, and 8% million cubic yards of earth have been excavated in the execution of the main drainage works. The total pumping power employed is 2,880 nominal h.p. ; and if at full work night and day 44,000 tons of coals per annum would be consumed, but the average consumption is estimated at 20,000 tons.” ‘‘The sewage of the north side of the Thames at present amounts to 10 million cubic feet per day, and on the south side to 4 million cubic feet per day; but provision is made for an anticipated increase up to 112 millions on the north side, and 52 millions on the south side, in addition to 282 million cubic feet of rainfall per diem on the north side, and 174 mil- lion cubic feet per diem on the south side; or a total of 63 million cubic feet per diem, which is equal to a lake of 482 acres 3 feet deep, or fifteen times as large as the Serpentine in Hyde Park.” Turning now to the labours of a deputation appointed by the Town Council and Board of Police of the city of Glasgow, to enquire ‘into the methods of disposing of sewage adopted in various towns in England*, * Report dated October, 1877. 4d Transactions. —-Miscellaneous, we find it stated in the appendix of their Report that— Leeps has a population of 291,580, covering an area of 21,572 acres. But the town at present sewered covers only about 4,900 acres, with a population of 245,600, thus showing a population of 50 to the acre, while Glasgow has 88°6. The average mortality for the five years—1871 to 1875 inclusive—is 27°4 per 1,000. The number of water-closets in Leeds is 8,500, and of ash-pits and privies 13,000, and about 3,000 of the latter are provided with pails or boxes. Many of the privies have been recently altered into trough water-closets, which are highly approved by Dr. Goldie, the Medical Officer of Health. Originally experimental works were erected to test the efficacy of the A, B, C process, which was in the hands of a Native Guano Company. ‘These works cost about £10,000, and were con- structed to treat 2 million gallons of sewage daily. The success of the experiment, so far as producing an apparently good effluent, induced the Corporation to erect works for the chemical treatment of the entire sewage of the town, amounting to nearly 14 million gallons daily, which cost £50,000 ; but since the works have been in operation practically, it has been found impossible to dispose of the produce in any quantity. As regards undried sludge the farmers in the vicinity refuse to accept it as a gift. Braprorp has a population of 173,000 and covers an area of 7,221 acres, giving a density of population equal to 24 per acre. The average death- rate is 26:1 per 1,000. The number of water-closets is about 2,000, and of dry-closets 8,000. The works for the purification of the sewage are at Manningham, about 1} miles from the town. The sewage amounts on an average to 9 million gallons per day, and the precipitant used is ime. The quantity employed is about 18 cwt. per million gallons of sewage. The works cost £65,000, and cost of working £5,000 per annum. Hatirax, a town of 68,500 inhabitants, occupies an area of 3,768 acres, giving a density of population equal to 18 per acre. The average mortality is 26°6 per 1,000. The town contains 2,000 water-closets and about 8,300 dry-closets. The sewage amounts to 23 millions of gallons (per diem), and is carried in a culvert to a small beck or burn, which runs through the valley in which the town is situated. Formerly lime was used to defecate the sewage, but this attempt at purification has ceased. The Goux system is here adopted for the dry-closets. Once worked by a company, but at a heavy loss, the Corporation now carry on the works. Croypon has a population of 63,000, and occupies a space of 10,000 acres, giving a density of population equal to 6:3 per acre—the average annual mortality being 19 per 1,000.. The sewage in dry weather amounts THomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns. 47 to 24 millions of gallons per diem, and the number of water-closets is about 15,000. The whole sewage is disposed of by irrigation, for which the place is eminently adapted by nature, Crops of rye grass are thus obtained in value £40 per acre. Financially the farm to which the sewage is applied is not a success, the loss per annum varying from £1,012 to £1,700. The Deputation say it is, however, probably the most successful sewage farm in England. Of Lonpon the Deputation remark that the population is 8,500,000; the density per acre being 45-7, and mortality 22-9 (per 1,000). Here also the sewage farms have been unsuccessful, and I need not go over the ground already traversed in the preceding part of this paper. Brruineuam has a population of 875,000, occupying an area of 8,420 acres; density, 44:5 persons to the acre; death-rate, 25-2 per 1,000. The number of water-closets in 1872 was 7,065, but though the population has largety increased since that time, the number of water-closets is now only 7,514. In fact, the use of these is discouraged by the municipal authorities, although not absolutely forbidden. The number of houses in 1871 was. 75,000, and since that time 8,420 have been erected, bringing up the present number to 83,420. The number of pan-closets in use in 1876 was 17,000, all the new houses of the smaller class being fitted with these—one closet serving for not more than two houses. Of ordinary privies, at the same date, there were 27,436, and of ash-pits 19,154. The quantity of sewage is from 12 million to 16 million gallons per day, and before being passed into the River Tame it is treated with lime to cause precipitation. The sludge is also treated by a patented process, the annual expense of which, after deducting income from revenue, is £12,000. The Rochdale system of pails for night-soil, and tubs for ashes is carried out at Birmingham ; about 17,000 pans being now in use. Coventry has a population of 40,000; an average annual mortality of 23°4 per 1,000, and 10 persons to the acre. The water supply is from artesian wells. The present number of water-closets is about 5,000; and privies, 800. The sewage works are about a mile from the town, and the effluent goes into a small stream called the Sherbourne. The sewage is. passed through gravel filters before it is let out in the stream. But the system becoming inefficient, works for purification and utilisation were erected at a cost of £14,000. But the company to whom the sewage was conceded had to suecumb. The Corporation now carries on the works at a yearly expenditure of about £2700. Mancuester has a population of 356,000; the average death-rate being 30 per 1000. The number of persons to the acre is 88. The river Irwell 48 Transactions, — Miscellaneous, separates it from Salford, which has a population of 186,000, and whose death-rate is 29°3 per 1,000, and density per acre, 26:3. There are compara- tively few water-closets in Manchester, and they are discouraged as much as possible, and practically forbidden in houses of a smaller kind. ‘There are 42,000 privies, and these are gradually being altered into pan-closets. Already 24,000 have been thus converted; and Dr. Leigh, the medical officer of health, expects that in three years the whole will have been altered. Dr. Leigh calculates that, when all the privies are converted, 6 million gallons of urine annually will be kept out of the sewers, and consequently out of the Irwell, that were formerly allowed to flow into it. Next, the system of removing is entered into, but we pass over this, and only note that about 8,000 tons of material are dealt with weekly, and these consist of-—-paper, 1 ton; rags, 3 tons; dead animals, 2 tons; stable manure, 2 tons; old iron and tin plate, 33 tons; refuse from slaughter- houses and fish shops, 60 tons; broken pottery, earthenware and glass, 80 tons; vegetable refuse, door-mats, table-covers, floor-cloths, old straw mat- trasses and 100 tons fine ashes, 1,230 tons; cinders, 1,400 tons. These are separated, and specially dealt with; and, I may note here that, amongst these, 400 tons of manure is made weekly, and sold at 12s. 6d. per ton. OxpHAm was the last place visited by the Deputation. It is a purely manufacturing town, having a population of 88,000, and an annual mor- tality of 28°2-per 1,000; the density, per acre, being 18-7. The pail system is in general use, and the contents are taken by the Carbon Fertili- zing Company, who have purchased the patent for absorbing excrementi- tious matter by charcoal. The Deputation add that, unfortunately, this patent does not appear to have had a fair trial, the works being in inextricable confusion. Guascow.—A few statistics of their own city is added, of which the following, as well as the preceding, are extracts. The estimated population in 1875 was 534,564, and the average mortality 29:9. The area of ground occupied is 6,034 acres; giving an average density of 88-6 persons per acre. The number of dwelling-houses in 1874 was 101,368; and of shops, ware- houses, and factories, 16,218. The water-closets nnmbered 31,927 ; sinks, 71,291; fixed basins, 8,865; and urinals, 211. There are, also, at the pre- sent date (1878), 6,751 dry ashpits; 1,395 middins or wet ashpits; 8,816 pan-closets; 94 trough-closets (chiefly in public works); and 18 public con- veniences, 7 of which are fitted with pans, and 6 with Macfarlane’s patent troughs. One hundred and nine manufactories discharge refuse of various kinds into the sewers, And there are 2,304 stables, with 7,024 horses $ THomson,-—-On the Cleansing of Towns, 49 and 811 cow-houses, with 1,850 cows. In addition to the factories, the refuse is conveyed into the drains. Twenty discharge direct into the river. The length of the sewers is about 100 miles. Within the city boundary there are at present 1314 miles of paved streets, 204 miles of statute labour roads, and 10 miles of turnpike roads; in all 162 miles. The estimated volume of discharge into the river daily is 40 millions of gallons, exclusive of rainfall, but including the water of the Molindinar and other burns. The total quantity of sewage in wet weather would be about 74 million gallons per day. The water sent into the city and suburban villages (from the waterworks) averages 33 millions of gallons per day. It is distributed to a population of 710,000, so that the volume of water per head was 464 gallons a day. . From the conclusions arrived at, as set forth in the report of the Deputation, we make the following extracts: The question of conservancy of rivers was constantly pressed on their attention, many of the inland towns being compelled, under heavy penalties, to render their sewage clear, in- odorous, and perfectly colourless, and sometimes under manifest injustice. The necessity of a Conservancy Board to watch over the whole drainage area of the various river-basins was constantly dwelt upon by the various authori- ties, as the only means of solving the important questions which were so intimately connected—the disposal of sewage, and the restoration of rivers to astate of purity. The Deputation state as a fact that the sewage question, in London even, is only partially solved; and in reference to the immediate subject of their attention, viz., Glasgow, the Deputation are of opinion that no sewage works can safely be undertaken till a Conservancy Board has been constituted for the Clyde. They point out at the same time that this city, in respect to area for discharge, is fortunately placed, being into a tidal river, aS contra-distinguished from many of the inland cities of England, whose outfalls are into sluggish rivers of small capacity. They point out that it has never yet been shown that the foul condition of the Clyde is directly injurious to health; and of the mode of dealing with sewage in particular, there are two ways, viz., the dry system, and carriage by water; the first being the most rational as well as consistent with public health and with national prosperity, which, however, has weak points, that while it disposes of excreta, it leaves untouched all other sewage which would still require to be removed by water-carriage, and be purified of course before passing into a river in the same way as if it had contained the whole excreta. While, therefore, they hold that upon economical and sanitary grounds, water-closets in houses—especially in houses of the smaller sort— and in public works, gaols, railway stations, &c., should, as far as possible, be D 50 Transactions,— Miscellaneous. replaced by an efficient dry system, they do not think that the adoption of this course will very much lessen the amount of sewage to be dealt with, or render its purification less imperative. When water-carriage is used, the following methods may be employed :-— 1st. Running into the sea or into a tidal river, under conditions that will prevent its return. 2nd. Irrigation. Brd. Intermittent filtration. 4th. Purification by precipitation— (a) by lime. (b) by sulphate of alumina. (c) by the A, B, C system. The dry method includes-— Ist. Pan closets. 2nd. Earth closets. Brd. Goux system. 4th. Stanford’s system (Carbon Fertilizing Company). 5th. Lienur’s pneumatic system. In regard to Glasgow, the report notices Messrs. Bateman and Bazal- gette’s scheme to pump the sewage to a high level and then carry it down to the Ayrshire coast. The plan adopted in London of running the unpuri- fied sewage into the river could not be supported owing to the small current of the Clyde tidal waters. If the sewage of Glasgow were taken to Farland Point, or to the lands between Irvine or Saltcoats, the scheme would resemble that carried out by Sir J. Hawkshaw for Brighton, whose outfall sewer is about eight miles long; but efficient ventilation would require to be applied to carry off the noxious gases generated. Of dealing with sewage by irrigation, great hopes were entertained a few years ago that the grand solution had been attained. All this is now changed, owing to general failure. Probably the Beddington Manor Kstate at Croydon is the most successful of sewage farms, and the report states that it is no small matter to say that it disposes of the sewage of a popula- tion of 60,000 persons at an outlay which is now reduced to a little over £1,000 per annum. But the situation of Croydon adapts it in a peculiar degree to the utilization of its sewage by filtration through land. When the Deputation visited this and other sewage farms the weather was cold, so that no odours of a truly offensive nature were observed; but this is not always so; on the contrary, evidence is adduced to the effect that warm weather makes these exceedingly unhealthy, giving off a most odious stench, THomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns. 51 It is right to add, the report continues, that at Edinburgh, Croydon and other places, no evil effects to health have been traced to the influence of the farms irrigated by their sewage; but as to the land itself, sometimes enormous quantities of sewage are applied in season and ont of season, till the surfeited land is sick, and even then it has to take more. If the land were obtainable at an ordinary agricultural value, suitable for the reception and distribution of sewage without pumping, a sewage farm might be made to yield a profit. Regarding chemical treatment, the report states that purification of sewage is possible, and is carried out successfully at Bradford, Leeds, Coventry, Birmingham and other towns, but, so far as the Deputation had been able to ascertain, the sale of the so-called manure appears to have failed of accomplishment, ana this is not to be wondered at, as the processes fail to consume the ammonia and potash salts, which are the most valuable part. As a precipitant, lime appears to be most capable of universal application, especially if supplemented by some form of charcoal. The A, B, C process was examined, but with unfavourable results, and the manure obtained by this process has a very low market value; the manipulations are also attended with a most nauseous odour. Intermittent filtration has been carried out quite successfully at Merthyr Tydvil, but the conditions there are so exceptional that there are very few places where the process could be pursued with equally satisfactory results. It appears to be in operation also at Kendal. Referring to the defects of the water-carriage system, the report points out the decomposition and evolution of sewer-gases, calling for careful ventilation in all cases. Water-closets should be discouraged in small houses owing to the greater likelihood of their getting out of order. Drainage from stables and byres should be absolutely prohibited, and chemical factories should be under close regulation, as, where the disinfectant is cheap, there can be no hard- ship to the proprietors. Coming to the dry system as affecting Glasgow, it is stated that the number of houses is 100,000, water-closets numbering only 32,000, showing that half the population is provided with these, the other half being supplied with other conveniences in one form or another of the dry-closet. This branch has therefore occupied much of the attention of the Deputation. In Leeds the old-fashioned privies are being replaced by trough water-closets ; in Manchester and Birmingham, on the other hand, water-closets are being systematically repressed, and elaborate attention is being paid to the develop- 52 Transactions.—Miscellaneous, ment of dry collection and daily removal. The Deputation strongly com- mend, on sanitary grounds, the tub and pail system, which opinion has already had wide effects in the City of Glasgow, where the gain in health and decency is great and unquestionable. The Goux system was in operation at Halifax, but is not recommended on account of its want of simplicity. The earth-closet is supported as being admirably suited for country houses of the better class, but otherwise it is too costly to work. Lienur’s pneumatic system in operation in Holland, was not inspected by the Deputation, as it had not been adopted in England. However, they advance an opinion that, theoretically, it is perfect, since the whole of the excreta are converted into a highly portable and valuable manure, while all risk of sewer-gases being formed is entirely obviated, and all operations being conducted in vacuo are entirely free from offence. They then quote from a report to the Local Government Board, to wit :—‘‘ As, however, the pneumatic only deals with a small fraction of the refuse to be removed from houses, leaving all other forms to be dealt with in the ordinary way, so Dutch town sewage must flow into the rivers and canals, as now, to pollute the water supply, or else some complicated mode of intercepting it must be provided at an additional cost to the local authorities. The pneumatic system is ingenious, but is complicated in its construction and working arrangements, and is liable to derangements which are sometimes difficult to mend. We do not know one English town in which the appara- tus, if adopted, would be other than a costly toy.”’ The report of the Glasgow Deputation concludes with the following recommendations, viz.:— 1. That the system of having water-closets for public works, factories, gaols, workhouses, infirmaries, and railway stations, should be forbidden, so as to reduce the quantity of water-closet sewage now turned into the river (Clyde) ; water-closets in small houses should also be discouraged. 2. That ordinary privies and ashpits be altered to the tub and pail system, to be cleansed daily, as it has been carried out in Manchester and other important English cities and towns, and that special accommodation be provided for children. ; 8. That all drains, soil and waste-pipes, and all apparatus connected with water-closets, sinks and baths, and their connections, be constructed under public supervision. 4. That a complete system of ventilation of the common sewers throughout their entire length be immediately adopted. 6. That a system of ventilation of the house-drains and soil-pipes, inde- THomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns. - 58 pendent of the common sewers, be immediately adopted and enforced throughout the city. 6. That the use for domestic purposes of water from cisterns supplying water-closets be absolutely forbidden. In the event of it being found necessary to purify the river— 7. That the whole drainage of the city be taken into main intercepting sewers, and conducted to a suitable point; and, after having been rendered clear by precipitation and filtration, passed into the Clyde. 8. That the sludge obtained in the precipitation process be got rid of in the cheapest possible manner. A part of it might be utilized in making up waste land, and a certain quantity might be taken away by farmers, but the greater part would probably require to be disposed of in the same man- ner as the dredgings of the rivers. The report entirely discards the idea of utilization of the sewage itself, or the precipitate obtained by the action of lime or other chemical agents. The sludge obtained by many of the patented processes is dried at such cost, and its value when dry so trifling, that all hopes of disposing of it for manurial purposes—at a price that would be remunerative—is entirely illusory. The report concludes that, while they consider the purification of the Clyde important, yet for the health of the city, the sewage works are of greater consequence, which they hope will be carried out without un- necessary delay. Attached to the Glasgow report are appendices, containing the opinions of the Local Government Board, and the Health and Sewage of Towns Con- ference Committees, which closely coincide with the above in their recom- mendations, and they pointedly insist ‘‘ that no one system for disposing of sewage could be adopted for universal use; that different localities require different methods to suit their special peculiarities ; and also that, as a rule, no profit can be derived at present from sewage utilization, but for health’s sake, without consideration of commercial profit, sewage and excreta must be got rid of at any cost.” “That the pail system, under proper regulations for early and frequent removal, is greatly superior to all privies, cesspools, ashpits, and middens and possesses manifold advantages in regard to health and cleanliness ; whilst its results in economy and facility of utilization often compare favorably with those of water-carried sewage.” ‘‘ That for use within the house no system has been found in practice to. take the place of the water-closet.”’ And that all middens, privies, and cesspools in towns should be 54 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. abolished by law, due regard in point of time being had to the condition of each locality.” By referring to appendix I.,* the cost of the several systems of town- cleansing will be seen at a glance, which will be found to vary from 1d. to 114d. per pound on the rateable value of house property, local peculiarities evidently having influence in this matter. For instance, at Rochdale, scavengering is put down at 83d., Birmingham at 53d., and Leamington at 1d.; while sewage for Rochdale is put down at Od., Birmingham at 44d., and Leamington at 54d.; the totals being 83d., 10d., and 63d. respectively. The highest rated is Blackburn, viz., at 113d. in the pound. Coming to my own observations, I shall first notice Berwick-upon-Tweed, as I had an opportunity of watching the construction of the waterworks and drainage of that town 23 years ago, so I inspected their state lately with more than ordinary interest. This is a town of 20,000 inhabitants, situated on rising ground near the mouth of the Tweed, and where its waters are fully affected by the tide. I ascertained that the drainage on the whole had worked well, excepting when the water-supply ran short, which occurs periodically in the summer. The sewers, constructed about 28 years ago, were well executed; but the engineer had under-estimated the water- supply, which had rendered the working somewhat experimental. The first trouble that was experienced was in the high-pressure mains being con- nected directly with the water-closets ; this, when the supply of water was intermittent, sent the excreta back into the closets, creating great nuisances; this difficulty has now been obviated by each closet being provided with a small cistern filled by the mains, from which the closets are supplied. Before this was done, people, finding the water not on in leaving, tied up the valve, so that it might run when it came on, thus much of the supply was wasted by the water running continuously. The poor classes especially are difficult to manage or to deal with, owing to the practice they are given to of abusing the conveniences, hence this class always demand sharp looking after by the inspector. Ashpits are allowed in this town to a limited extent, but for small houses boxes or pails are used for the removal of rubbish, ashes, &c. The sewage falls into the river Tweed, but to this the Tweed Salmon Commissioners object as it is tending to pollute the stream and destroy fish. When the high-pressure water-supply is good and sufficient, the water- closet and sewage system of the town has worked well, but the entire problem of the removal of house-refuse has not yet been fully solved. It is quite clear that here, as elsewhere, the subject is one for continuous effort, not possible to be settled by spasmodic exertion, and then to be done with. * End of Glasgow Report copied. Txomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns. 55 At the inland town of Dunse, containing about 4,000 inhabitants, and where the water-closet system has been introduced during these last 40 years, I found that, as this was perfected and in operation, new and unan- ticipated difficulties presented themselves. Thus, as the town became satisfactory in its- sanitary condition, the rural districts near and under its level became deteriorated by the nuisances flowing on them. Which cir- cumstance brought about long and expensive law-suits with the proprietors, and especially with the owner of Wedderburn House and Demesne. In the town of Kelso, situated on the banks of the weed, and about 25 miles inland, it was observed here, also, that the increase of sewage, by the introduction of improved water supply and conveniences, was drawing opposition from the owners of the valuable salmon fishing stations. In view of this, the Corporation is now about to try and remedy the evil by carrying their outfall to an extensive shingle bank, where they hope to absorb the objectionable matters. At Edinburgh it was observed that the sewage that used to flow solely over the fields near Holyrood House uninterruptedly, and at least, without active objections, are now not only increased in their area, but the same system of irrigation is being applied to the west suburbs of the city. Hence, no certain action by the population can be anticipated on this subject. At Glasgow, from the report of whose Deputation I have so largely quoted, I found that still no general scheme had been decided on; in fact, that different principles had been found applicable to different parts, and broadly, the water-gravitation system to first and second-class houses, and the pail system to those inferior. ‘The sewage yet falls into the Clyde, and Bazalgette’s recommendations were considered, if not impracticable, and beyond the means of the ratepayers, at least inadvisable. As a better scheme for conveying the offal away, steam barges, proceeding from Glasgow to the sea, were contemplated; as any attempt to utilize sewage is now abandoned. As my time and other engagements enabled me to ascertain, such is the state of town and city cleansing at home; and it will be noted that whilst much difference of opinion in detail exists amongst engineers, yet, to those who are able to bring an unprejudiced judgment to bear on the question, the principles to be adapted to the several and varied circum- stances are not difficult to be laid hold of. Comprehensively speaking, the interest is a growing one, and in this respect it is not an exception from other great interests and expansions of modern civilization and requirements, If its necessities cause it to unduly infringe on other interests, then conflict 56 Transactions. Miscellaneous. takes place, the conflict not anticipated in the early years of its application, but in the course of years becoming palpable. It is no other than the ord- nance versus iron-plate warfare; if the one increases in force and magnitude, so the other must be fortified in ratio. Thus, if ships have to be protected from their assailants, so must the rivers, estates, parks, seats, and castles be protected from the other. Hence Corporations, in initiating sanitary im- provements for themselves, are not justified, as hitherto, in neglecting the interests outside of their precincts; and, as justly observed by the Glasgow Deputation, those cities having a natural outlet apart from all other interests, are fortunate. This latter condition is oftener the case with seabound towns than with inland ones. Certain it is that the idea so often prevailing amongst sanitary engineers that their works are for ever, and all time to come, must be abandoned, and their judgment must be exercised, not as now to create works of magnitude far beyond present wants, but to institute systems to which least objections can be taken ultimately, or for the time being. The wants of the present population must not only be estimated, and of the future, but their capacity to bear the burden of taxation, hence, though working to an end, and on just principles, the consideration should be as to what was actually necessary, and no more, leaving their successors to continue the same. Without being attentive to these facts, the city populations may pay too dearly for the luxury of improvements or quasi improvements, and property may be overburdened by works which could perfectly well be held over. As an example of the conflict between interests, that takes place conse- quent on the modern introduction of town cleansing by water-gravitation, we turn to the greatest city in the world, where it has perforce had largest development. The outfall of the sewage, till recent years, was into the Thames, within the precincts of the city. This created nuisances which it was found desirable to remove; hence those measures were taken which have already been described in the preceding part of this paper. But, besides the Metropolitan Board of Works, there exists a Board of Conser- vators of the River Thames, having other interests than the population of London to take care of, and on which the operations of the former Board were felt to act detrimentally. In consequence of this, Captain Calver, R.N., F.R.S,, was, by the secretary, directed to investigate and report on the subject*. That gentleman acknowledged the receipt of the instructions, to wit; that he should direct his attention to some recent surveys which had been made by the officers of the Board, of that section of the River Thames ~ extending from Woolwich to Erith, as well as to analytical examinations by es “Thames Commission, 6th June, 1877. Tuomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns. 57 Drs: Letheby and Williamson of the soil of its bed, both in Woolwich Reach and near to the sewage outfalls; and to give his consideration to the changes thus shown to have taken place in the channel of the river, and in the character of its bottom, for the purpose of reporting thereon. Captain Calver adds, that from the time of receiving the foregoing instructions, he had been engaged upon the various details of investigation, including, amongst other things, repeated observations upon the movements of the streams in the central section of the Thames, with the collection of such other physical facts as were likely to aid him in arriving at a clear under- standing of this important and interesting case*. - From his report we shall make extracts, noticing the salient points of interest. He states ‘that the general features of Mid-Thames, its sectional capacity, and the various details of increase and decrease, are all brought out very clearly in the surveys made by the order of the Board. This series—the work of the same observers, and all referable to a common standard—has been made between 1861 and 1876.” Again: ‘It having been reported in 1867 that a vessel had unexpectedly touched the ground while passing the southern outfall, a new survey was ordered to be made for the locality.” Again: ‘1832 to 1861, a considerable increase in the general capacity of the channel occurred in the foregoing period—the result of dredging, for the most part.” Again: “18638 and 1864, sewage began to be discharged from the out- falls.” Again: ‘‘ Since the Metropolitan outfalls came into operation, the former deep and free frontage of the southernmost one has lost a quarter part of its low water contents.” Again: ‘that the upper part of the river has been troubled with accumulations, which, as will be shown, must necessarily have been conveyed upwards by the flood-stream.” In the analyses made, “‘ the mud in each case was black and fetid in a state of active putrefactive decomposition, and, when examined under the microscope, it was found to consist of broken-up sewage matter.’ Of the water, when near Woolwich, Greenwich and London Bridge, “ all the samples were black and offensive, and they were found, on examination under the microscope, to consist of amorphous matter of the disintegrated tissue of vegetables, especially of wheat, and swarms of diatomaceous re- mains.”’ Again: in the last test of 1875, ‘‘ most of the samples demonstrated the presence of sewage matter in a state of decomposition.” Those from ‘the Gallion Reach, within the influence of the northern outfall, exhibited organic and other similar matter to those of street-mud, while others in the * Report, 15th October, 1877, 58 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. central track of the river-streams, and acted upon by their scourage, had very little organic matter.”’ Again: ‘The reporters of 1858 estimated that 92,000 tons of solid matter of every description were contained in the sewage passing into the Thames at that time;’’ but it is now estimated, from data supplied by Glasgow, that ‘465,000 tons would represent the annual solid matter contained in Metropolitan sewage.” Again: “The excreta of each person per day having been found by experiment to weigh 24lbs., this, with the population of 3,500,000, in connection with the outfalls, gives 3,900 tons per day, or 1,425,000 tons per annum as the amount of excreta sent into the river from the outfalls.”’ Again: It was found by experiment ‘that matter committed to the water of Mid-Thames would move down seaward about five miles in a fortnight.” Again: ‘‘The daily discharge from the outfalls has been stated as 120 million gallons or 19,246,000 cubic feet, so that 423,412,000 cubic feet or 22 days’ discharge, represents the aggregate amount of sewage in the oscillating section, being about one-fifth part of the whole contents of the river within the same limits below the level of ordinary low-water. This vast mass of polluted water—eight miles long, 750 yards wide, and 43 feet deep, charged with offensive matter, both fluid and solid, moves up and down the channel four times daily, between Gravesend and near to Blackwall, dropping its solid burden wherever a reduction of the rate of current or still water may favour deposit. The purifying change which the putrescent matter may be supposed to undergo, after discharging from the outfalls, is reserved for future consideration.”’ Again: In regard to accretion of the sewage in Woolwich Reach, it is stated that there is ‘‘a complete identity between accreted matter and that in the sewage discharged from the outfalls. There can be little doubt that it has been brought from their neighbourhood by the flood-stream. Most observers of rivers are aware of the disturbing action of the first portion of the flood-set, for, owing to its greater specific gravity, it works its way upwards under the last of the ebb-set, and probably obtaining thereby a strong rotatory or grinding motion, the surface of the bottom is sufti- ciently disturbed to charge the water with its particles.” Again: ‘“‘ Another point which has bearing upon this section of the case is, the superior carrying-power of the flood-stream over the ebb; a fact very distinctly brought out in the Analytical Returns.”’ Again: ‘ The amount of solid matter in the flowing-tide at Greenwich and London Bridge is nearly 21 grains per gallon, while that in the ebb-tide is only 8°2 grains,” TxHomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns. 59 Tn reference to the deleterious effect of sewage discharged into a tidal river, from various experiments, Captain Calver concludes that ‘‘it will be seen that it matters not whether the sewage be sent into the river at low- water at London, or at high-water at Barking Creek and Crossness, for the result is one and the same. The matter from the sewers will work its way upwards, and form accumulations above the outfalls both in the bed and along the sides of the channel.” Again: As to the theory which erroneously assigns deepening to the credit of sewage discharge. This is said to be due ‘‘to two very different causes—viz., to the dredging carried on in the district, and to the scour resulting from the removal of impediments out of the channel in higher portions of the river.’’ Dredging, also, is stated to have removed ‘‘enormous hills of gravel which now disfigure and encumber the banks of the Tyne and Wear.” Another cause stated as tending to increase the depth of Mid-Thames resides in the removal of the old bridge at London, and the dredging that has taken place as high up as Isleworth. Again: ‘‘ As matters now stand, the Metropolitan sewage discharge has reproduced in Mid-Thames, in an aggravated form, a nuisance which was felt to be unbearable in the upper portion of the river. Formerly, the sewers at London discharged their contents into the river at low water, and this, Sir Joseph Bazalgette has pointed out, ‘‘ was most injurious, because it was carried by the rising tide up the river to be brought to London by the following ebb-tide, there to mix with each day’s past supply, the pro- gress of many days’ accumulations towards the sea being almost imper- ceptible.’ This exactly describes the existing state of things in Mid-Thames, both in respect to accumulation of sewage, its daily oscillation, and its slow progress seaward ; the only difference now is, that the nuisance which was formerly brought down to London by the ebb is now carried up to London by the flood.” Again: ‘‘ The evidence of the senses may also be relied on as an important factor for determining the question of purity. While in the neighbourhood of the outfalls, I observed that bubbles of gaseous matter, arising from decomposition, were continually ascending to the surface of the water, reminding me of similar experience in the polluted Clyde. The foul condition of the river was also apparent from the smell caused by the dis- turbance raised by the steamers’ paddles; and the floating abominations by which I was surrounded, when making the test observations, are to be remembered rather than described.”’ Again: ‘Contemporary and reliable opinions are all opposed to the practice of discharging crude sewage into rivers,” 60 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. Again: “Results worked out, and still being worked out in the Thames, by sewage discharge, are evils of great magnitude, and seriously detract from the general value of the Metropolitan sewage arrangements. If certain foul accumulations, formed near to the old sewers at London, led the reporters of 1868 to declare that the evil had attained such proportions as to render it essential to the well-being of the Metropolis that means should be taken for its permanent abatement, what would they say of similar features on a more gigantic scale lower down the river? Observing that the present channel in Mid-Thames is through banks of fetid matter, that the water in the channel is loaded with material in a state of putrescence, and that it daily oscillates within the Metropolitan area, with its teeming population, and contaminates the atmosphere, they would probably admit this to be a state of things altogether detrimental to the public interest. Though it may be very true that the action of land-floods, and the frequent passing to and fro of the steam-traffic of the river, will always maintain a navigable passage through its foul reaches, yet the sides of the channel and the contiguous foreshores must, of necessity, become more foul, and to a greater distance from the outfalls, as the population increases and the water is more highly charged with the accreting matter which sewage contains.”’ Again: ‘‘ Nothing can be possibly more unsatisfactory than the present condition of things.” I may add that no effectual remedy is suggested by Captain Calver, though he anticipates that ‘‘ experimental research and discovery’? may bring about ‘‘ a successful solution of this pressing question.”’ The report concludes a re-iteration of what has already been advanced, to the effect that the ‘foul and offensive accretions have recently formed in the channel of the Thames;”’ and that a ‘‘ material portion of these accu- mulations are in the neighbourhood of the metropolitan sewage outfalls;”’ and he recommends that the Metropolitan Board of Works be called on to dredge away those portions of the accreted matter which interfere with the convenience of navigation, and that they be requested to adopt such arrangements as are calculated to prevent similar accumulations in future.” He further hopes that the ‘‘ noble metropolitan river ’’ may be ‘‘ freed from a drawback which is impairing its commerce and usefulness.” The report of Captain Calver is met by a lively rejoinder from Sir J. W. Bazalgette, C.B., Engineer to the Metropolitan Board of Works, supported by other scientific men, in which he premises that, ‘‘ when it is considered that the report in question purports to be, not the exaggerated statements of an advocate, but the calm and deliberate conclusions of a scientific man, upon a matter involving the most serious and vital interests, adopted and Tuomson,—On the Cleansiny of Towns. 61 circulated with the authority of a responsible public body, it is impossible _ to overrate the grave importance which attaches to such statements” as are contained therein. Again; The Engineer states that, ‘‘in order to simplify the subject as far as possible, we propose to direct our enquiry to the following points, viz. :— ‘1st. Whether there is any evidence that foul and offensive accretions have formed within the channel of the Thames since the metropolitan _ sewage outfalls came into operation. “9nd, Whether careful analyses do show a perfect identity between the constituents of the Thames mud and those of the metropolitan sewage. ‘8rd. Whether it is true that the sewage discharged at Barking and Crossness does work its way upwards, and cause the same pollution of the _ Thames within and about the metropolitan area as formerly existed. “4th, As to the quantity of solid matter contained in the sewage dis- charged into the Thames at Barking and Crossness, and whether it is suffi- cient to produce any sensible deposit in the bed of the river, and as to the real cause of such deposit.’’ As to the recent formation of foul and offensive accretions, the Engineer argues that comparison of the state of the river thirty years previous to 1861, and that in fifteen subsequent years, has ‘no value or significance whatever.’ Further, when it is considered that the traverse sectional areas of the river taken at half-tide off the Crossness outfall have been increased by the removal of shoals,” &c., ‘it would be no matter of surprise if the river in this part of its course should be even more liable to partial deposits forming upon the banks than it was formerly.” He then enters into the subject of the Woolwich shoals, and concludes “that it is obviously impossible to draw the conclusion which Captain Calver suggests, that because mud is found in this part of the river, therefore it comes from the metropolitan sewers.”” Then as to the mud deposits higher up, near Waterloo Bridge, he remarks ‘‘ that it is obvious that the deposits of mud above referred to, and which, it appears, accumulated in a few months time, could not have resulted from the sewage discharged into the river upon the ebb-tide at a point no less than 14} miles lower down the stream.” Next, as to the identity of Thames mud with sewage mud, the Engineer endeavours to show the fallacy of much of Captain Calver’s arguments. This is illustrated by a table, from which he (the Engineer) surmises that “itis perfectly obvious that no conclusion can be possibly true which is _ founded upon the supposed ‘ perfect identity’ of quantities which vary from 0°85 to 40-91,” 62 Transactions,—Miscellaneous. Then, as to the sewage working upwards, the Engineer quotes a previous paper by Captain Calver, where he himself “ proves very distinctly the decided preponderance of the power of the ebb over that of the flood,” and points out that the late theory propounded by Captain Calver, to wit, “ the operation of accretion has been effected by the superior disturbing and trans- porting power of the flood stream,” is ‘diametrically opposite and con- tradictory.” He also calls attention to Captain Calver’s grammar in regard to his introduction into the English language of the new word “stickability.” The amount of solid matter actually contained in the sewage is then discussed, of which 32 examples were taken from different parts of the Thames, which, being analysed, the Engineer proceeds: ‘‘ Then taking the average quantity of sewage discharged in the 24 hours, at 120 million gallons, we have, for the weight of solid matter discharged into the river every year, 64,250 tons.” A different result from Captain Calver’s, which is 465,000 tons. Again; The rejoinder continues, the quantity of solid matter discharged into the river at the outfalls in each tide is 88 tons, or 1,880 million grains; and the quantity of tidal water passing the outfalls in a spring ebb, as stated by Captain Calver is 108,138,140 cubic yards, or 18,248,311,125 gallons ; consequently the amount of solid matter thrown into the river from the outfalls only ‘‘amounts to ‘076, or 7 of a grain per gallon, a quantity far too small to exercise any appreciable influence upon the purity of the water.” Again: ‘‘ That the water in the lower reaches of the river is very much loaded with mud, especially upon flood-tide, is a matter of fact which cannot fail to strike any person observing it; and the reason will be very evident upon examining the state of the river banks.’’ Then alluding to the ‘“ saltings,’”’ that is erosions by waves, having been computed; the cubic contents of the same are estimated, whereby it is found that ‘at least a million tons of soil are washed into this part of the river every year, in addition to that which is brought down from above.” . It is stated that thus the ‘‘ saltings below London, therefore, supply at least 154 times as much solid matter as that discharged by the sewage out- falls.’ This, the Engineer adds, ‘‘is, in fact, the real source of the mud deposit on the banks of the river, which, as we have shown, Captain Calver has erroneously attributed to the metropolitan sewage.”’ The report concludes ‘that there is no documentary evidence to prove that foul and offensive accretions have recently formed within the channel of the Thames;”’ that, ‘‘in fact, the water and mud of the Thames have im- proved greatly in purity;’’ that ‘there is no resemblance between Thames THomson,—On the Cleansing of Towns. 63 mud and sewage mud;” that ‘“‘sewage does not work its way up the river;”’ and, finally, that ‘‘ the muddy condition of the river is caused principally by the unprotected state of its banks,” Here, then, we may pause and exclaim, How doctors differ ! Captain Calver supports his statements by numerous tables and analyses, and Sir J. W. Bazalgette does the same in treble volume, hence his chemical referees quaintly conclude their support of their employer by a remark, viz., conclusions of a few samples only (by Captain Calver’s analysts) must be looked upon with great distrust ! The report of Sir J. W. Bazalgette is accompanied by an appendix con- taining letters and reports of other authorities, besides plans, charts, and sections of the Thames and its estuary. The evidence of Faraday is brought out as to the former foul state of the Thames within the city pre- cincts, and apart from the question before us the charts of the saltings or erosions of the banks of the Thames estuary are interesting to the physical geographer. And here we may take the liberty of pointing out that, as these all take place below the sewage outtfalls, extending for a distance of 20 miles, from which Sir J. W. Bazalgette ascribes the muddy condition of the river above—from this, his own principle, we have a difficulty in clearing him from contradiction, when he ignores Captain Calver’s statement in the same direction, viz., that the filthiness of the river above the outfalls, extending up to London, little more than 10 miles, is due to the sewage deposits of Barking Creek and Crossness, which is but a corollary to his own theory. But, in truth, the controversy is of a kind in which one throws his filth into a neighbour’s bed, so complete equanimity is not to be expected, on the contrary, perturbations from the true mean of sound judgment are to be looked for. It is open, therefore, to the enquirer to suppose, that as the sewage issues from the outlets into the Thames with the ebb, weightier particles will be the first to descend to the bed not far from the outlets; hence, may it not be supposed that, when the advancing flood of the heavier salt water, forcing itself beneath the lighter fresh water, yet ebbing at the surface, arrives at the outlets, these weightier particles will be carried up the river to certain distances? In the notesof experiments, on either side of the question, we do not detect that sufficient investigations have been made on this point. It is, therefore, yet unsettled, and can here only be alluded to. But to the general public this subject carries little interest with it, for to those acquainted with the Thames near London, 25 years ago and now, the enormous improvement in the cleanliness of its waters is palpable, 64 Transactions.—-Miscellaneous, This was so patent to ourselves that we had scarcely anticipated a most distant demur from any quarter. Leaving this portion then, and proceeding to what we suggest as being the vital point of misunderstanding between the Thames Conservancy and Metropolitan Board, viz., the interruption of navi- gation, we will tarry a little to examine it. The official surveys, admitted to be correct by both parties, show changes . going on in the river-bed near Barking Creek and Crossness, but that it has shallowed cannot be stated. The cross-sections at Crossness show a bank as increasing on the Kent side (that is the side at which the sewage falls); and at Barking Creek, a bank increasing on the Hssex side (that is the side on which the sewage there falls). But in both cases a deepening to an equal extent has taken place at the opposite sides of shallowing. The section lines are given for the years 1861, 1867, and 1876. At Crossness the soundings of 1861, on the Kent or outfall side, show a decrease of 10 feet, more or less; but on the Essex side an increase in like quantity. At Barking Creek, similar changes have taken place, but to a less degree. Thus exact data do not indicate danger of closing to the channel of the Thames, but only alteration of its bed. That this alteration is due to the new influence brought to bear on it, viz., the issue of large quantities of drain detritus, we think will be admitted by all unprejudiced persons. But that the navigation of the Thames will be affected from the issue of the drainage of a district at points higher or lower, or the converse, we are not prepared, beyond a certain point, to admit. If the present drainage were not issued at Barking Creek and Crossness, it would have issued above and below London Bridge, carrying with it the same quantity of matter and sediment into the river, and in an equal degree, and no more; depositing the heavier particles in the beds or along the banks continuously; but at the same time continuously acted on by floods and tides, spreading it out from landward to seaward in that equilibrium due to the natural forces at work. Thus, in the interests of Thames navigation, the question of outfall at London, or at Crossness, 14 miles below it, is of very little consequence. If one deteriorate passage of shipping, so would the other; but if either can be proved to do so, then the City of London would be bound to seek another area for the deposit of its offal. This contingency appears not yet to have arisen. In prosecuting my enquiries, on the 2nd August last, I proceeded to Abbey Wood, near to which is the outlet of the South London drainage, on a point of the river called Crossness. I arrived there at about noon, and was taken over the works by the manager. The works are situated on a raised T'nsomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns. 65 mound, close to the south bank of the Thames, and on which are also erected official and workmen’s houses, with a school for the children. The mound is actually a covered tank of six acres in extent, but being covered with earth, and planted with grass, this cannot be detected by a stranger. The engine-house is a spacious erection of the Byzantine style, the chimney-stalk being of elegant proportions. The power of the engines is 500-horse, and is used in pumping the sewage from the main drain into the tank, by means of eight plunge pumps, of about three feet in diameter. The main drain is 80 feet below the surface, and the tank rises above this, haying a depth, when full, of 14 feet. The sewage is only let out at high-water, on its turn to ebb, and it con- tinues to flow till nearly low-water. There are three outlets for the sewage from the tank into the river, constructed of solid brick and cement, leading to the high-water mark, then by open timber ducts to the low-water mark. It was near low-water mark when I visited the place, and I could not markedly detect offensive smell, but the water of the river was exceedingly turbid and discoloured. I also examined the sewage in the tank, through a manhole, and ascer- tained that but slight offensive odours escaped by this aperture. I did not consider it necessary to examine the works on the north side of the river, as the principle is merely repeated, but they are larger, the tank there being equal to 10 acres. The effect of the outfall of city sewage and detritus in a river, then, is similar to what may be readily studied on any goldfield where hydraulic works in simple gold-washings are in force. The sludge does not pen up the rivers of magnitude, but it merely spreads itself out on the banks adjacent to the outfalls, and what it occupies of the original bed, the stream compensates itself by scouring out a deeper channel on the opposite, so that it maintains an equal volume. Limiting the enquiry to navigation, such, in our view, ig the influence on the Thames in this much-vexed question. In regard to its pollution, that is another question. We cannot help opining that Captain Calver is more eloquent on this subject than necessary. That fetid matter is carried up to the metropolitan area, teeming with popula- tton, contaminating its area, is surely their grievance, not his; and so long as they are contented with the smells in their precincts, the Thames Con- Servancy need not disturb themselves, but if they can show that ship and barge crews are struck with gastric fever, or otherwise intolerably discom- posed by the odours, by passing the outfalls, this comes within their functions to remedy. But no statistics are brought forward on this head, hor are complaints from this quarter even alluded to, Looking at the question with a bird's-eye view, in our humble opinion Bi 66 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. there can be no question that London, having adopted the water-gravitation system for cleansing its precincts, within practical distance, no sites could have been better chosen for the outfalls than Barking Creek and Crossness, as here the country around is devoid of population, hence the works, if not altogether inoffensive, are placed where they are in a position to give least offence. Having thus discussed the Home sewage question in its various phases, and noticed the opinions drawn from experimental enquiry, as well as from long experience, we will now turn to the subject as it presents itself in this Colony. Referring to the report published by the Sanitary Commission of Dunedin, dated 25th January, 1865, we find this town principally built of wood, at that time containing 15,037 inhabitants, and whose bad sanitary state was graphically described by the city engineer, the late John Millar, Ksq., F.S.A. The remedies submitted to the Commission by several engineers were as follows:—One assumed, as a matter of course, that the sewage would be ‘hurried into the harbour,” though ultimately the outfall might be on to the ocean beach. Another propounded a scheme of irrigation, conducting the sewage over or through two dividing ranges to the land between Dunedin and Saddle Hill, and in which the Taieri Plain might participate. This was to be effected by a series of pumping engines. Another suggested that the sewage should be discharged at the Lawyers’ Head, by means of hydraulic pressure on the drains. Another scheme was to submit the Forbury Flat to a system of high-class farming by the application of liquid sewage. | From this it may be surmised that there was great diversity of opinion amongst engineers as to the proposed measures; but in saying this, it cannot be said to be more so than is or was existent amongst engineers in England at that date. The fact of the matter is, the subject is a growing one, in which time makes changes, and matured experience, ve have seen, has suggested alterations. In this case of Dunedin, we see one engineer proposing to direct a system of irrigation over a plain, which ten short years have converted into a town. Another proposes to fertilize, by a similar scheme, an agricultural district, separated from the town by two ranges of hills, at ten miles ° distance, a project worthy of the greatest cities in Europe, and only prac- ticable to them. Another proposes to send it into the sea; another into the harbour. It is worthy of note that none proposed a dry system of treatment. Now it would be wrong to infer, from the want of unanimity in the engineers, that they were incompetent professionally. On the contrary, Txomson.—On the Oleansing of Towns. 67 the question was not of a technical nature in the first place, and at that time, but of the power to bear taxation on the part of the citizens, in their anticipated progress and increase, in estimating which (a duty of the statis- tician rather than of the engineer) they may be said to have failed. Study of the various works applied to cities in Hurope will illustrate this fact in every direction; but here, also, the lesson cannot escape us. The practical end of all the professional advice given to the Dunedin Commission has been, that the sewage is carried to the nearest available point; that is, into the harbeur fronting the city, and into which area it will flow till sufficient opposition has been conjured up to prevent it. This is the history of older cities ; so it is the same of younger. And continuing our theme, with Dunedin as our example: This city, like London, having adopted the water-gravitation principle of cleansing, the sewage will flow to its assigned levels, till, as in its great prototype, it becomes an intolerable nuisance. Then the city authorities will have to look abroad for projects in its disposal otherwise ; and to all of them, from local interests, there will be objections. The question in the end resolves itself, not into attaining a project which has no objections attached to it, but to one which has the least. Hence, as we see in the cities of the Home country, the wearied and puzzled municipalities will have to look to the harbour as an easy solution of their difficulties, but to be opposed by the Boards in charge of this interest. Next, they will look to the ocean beach, to be thwarted by the suburban population and pleasure-seekers of that locality. Perchance, then, imitating the Borough of Brighton, they may have power to tunnel to beyond Tomahawk on the one side, or Green Island on the other; or, taking example by the inland cities of England, such as Birmingham, Leeds, or Bradford, they will discourage the water-gravitation system, and, perforce, purify their sewage before delivering it into the subjacent water of their estuary. In Christchurch we also have a recent example in the colony of want of unanimity as to measures, the projected scheme only to be thwarted by the ratepayers; the real difficulty beg, not what should be done, but what the majority of the several interests will allow to be done. From this, it might be inferred, that sanitary engineering is at best experimental. To this it may be answered, that it has hitherto been largely 80, a necessary concomitant of the modern advance of science, the altered conditions of society, and the variety and complicated arrangements of its requirements. In this, it has been no otherwise with other practical and economical branches, such as railroads, steam navigation, manufacturing enterprises, etc. But large data, the result of experiment and observation, are also now known or accessible to the engineer; hence principles for 58 Transactions,— Miscellaneous, guidance under the different difficulties he has to meet, are at hand to support him. Thus in this colony, when principles are sought for, they will be found to be simple in the main, however complicated the details may be. cee Sanitary works resolve themselves into two distinct systems, namely— wet and dry; the former acting by the gravitation of water, the other by manual or machine carriage. The wet system carries its burden to the sea, or to rivers, when it can do this unopposed; to areas for irrigation in the production of crops ; or to waste areas for the purpose of absorption and filtration. The burden may also be brought to tanks for precipitation and the purification of the sewage. The dry system has its burden carried to the sea, whether by boat or carriage; to the fields for direct application to cultivation, or to works of manure manufacture, for all of which the extracts made in the preceding part of this paper give examples. The separate systems, suitable for the respective situations, are not difficult to decide on. Where towns have accessible water-supply and easy exits, the wet system is suitable; where these do not exist, the dry system becomes imperative. We use the word imperative, because it is in human nature for people to divest themselves of that which is disagreeable with the least trouble to themselves, and this, when the conditions are favourable, is most readily effected by water. But it has not in all cases proved economical or efficient in the end where water has been had recourse to, owing to the nuisance being cast on other interests, and for which the law when appealed to has demanded a remedy at great cost. In favour of the dry system one great recommendation is to be said, namely—that it returns to the soil that which man took from it; thus, that it should have a general acceptance by cities in a practical and convenient manner, will always be considered a desideratum. In New Zealand, more than in almost any other country, the wet system is easily available, districts in which a contrary condition exists being limited to Canterbury, Southland, and Auckland. The proportion of human excreta to sewage is an important question to sanitary engineers; and taking the data afforded by London, it will be found that these do not exceed one-hundredth part of the whole sewage. This element makes but a small factor in the whole, and is of very secondary consideration, under the circumstances of the city possessing a full water- supply and a ready place of disposal, such as the sea or a tidal river. But in the case of inland towns, where they are forced to purify the sewage, the matter is different; for though the excreta there may only form a small portion of the whole volume to be dealt with, they perforce form a large Tomson. —On the Cleansing of Towns. 69 part of the nuisances to be got rid of. The proportion of excreta must necessarily vary with the industries and habits of the towns or cities, in manufacturing populations the refuse from factories being great, while with residential populations this must be limited. Hence, in inland towns, we observe the present measures of municipalities discouraging water-closets and promoting some form or other of the dry system. In a colony such as ours, where new municipalities are being annually incorporated, it is desirable that in their varied responsibilities they should not neglect sanitary reform. Though in the early stages of a town cess- pools are not to be avoided, yet in relation to the health of the people these should, as early as possible, be abolished by law, and in the first place the dry system instituted, until they have obtained a water-supply and fully considered their facilities of removal and the permanent sites to which they could conduct the sewage, with the least offence to interests in their neighbourhood. 70 Transactions.——Miscellaneous. APPENDIX, No. 1. Comparison of the Cost of Disrosine of Town Szwacez by different Processzs, in proportion to the Annuat RatEasie Vatug, etc., 1875. Compiled from a Table given in the Report of Committee appointed by the Local Government Board, 1875, page lviil. BY IRRIGATION. Number pines Ot Popula- | Number of Annual RATEABLE VALUE. Name oF Town. tion of Water- | Rateable (about) | Houses. | Closets, Value. Sewage. | Scavenging. £ 1. Banbury .. -- | 12,000 3,485 | 2,485 34,104 ld. — 2. Bedford .. -- | 18,000 8,500 | 3,000 65,000 1d. — 3. Blackburn... -- | 90,000 | 16,700 730 235,127 8d. 34d. 4, Cheltenham .- | 45,000 8,725 | 8,500 217,849 4d. dd. 5. Chorley .. -- | 20,000 4,000 200 54,407 44d. 24d. 6. Doncaster .. -- | 20,000 4,300 — 68,721 34d. — 7. Harrowgate -. | 12,000 | 1,500} 1,620 50,000 53d. — 8. Leamington .. | 24,700 4,500 | 8,370 113,400 54d. ld. | 9. Merthyr-Tydvil .. | 55,000 | 10,778 | 8,000 135,000 74d. — 10. Rugby ie me 8,400 1,700 | 1,400 45,000 1dd. — 11. Tunbridge Wells... | 23,000 5,750 | 5,635 142,914 10d. — 12. Warwick .. -. | 11,000 2,400 | 2,000 43,339 64d. — 13. Wolverhampton .. | 71,000 | 14,000 750 210,000 2d. 14d. 14. West Derby -- | 31,000 — 3,220 163,000 4d. 1}d. BY LAND FILTRATION. 15. Kendal 13,700 2,727 450 £44,600 4d. — BY PRECIPITATION. £ 16. Birmingham .- |350,000 | 83,420 | 8,000 | 1,229,844 44d. 53d. 17. Bolton-le-Moors .. | 93,100 | 18,249 758 311,563 2d. 14d. 18. Leeds Ae .. |285,000 | 57,000 | 8,000 945,141 43d. 44d. 19. Bradford .. .. |173,723 | 34,000 | 4,050 745,671 34d. 23d. BY THE PAIL SYSTEM. | £ 20. Halifax .. -. | 68,000 | 11,218 | 2,600 262,581 — | 4d. 21. Rochdale .. -. | 67,000 | 14,388 350 222,000 — 83d. | Barstow.—On the Maort Canoe. 71 Art. IV.—The Maort Canoe. By R. C. Barstow. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 10th June, 1878.] Tur time is fast approaching when the Maori will hear only of the weapons, garments, and utensils of his ancestors in traditional story—when the tomahawks, spears, paroas will have disappeared—a few meres remaining as decorations or indications of chieftainship—when native kakahus, in all their varieties, having ceased to be manufactured, will have perished, and when the stone toki, or axe, being indestructible, will remain to be wondered at, but not understood. Not only will these matters of every-day use be no more, but the grander works—their pas, their canoes, their ornamented whares will have decayed, and the few surviving fragments of pre-pakeha civilization will have to be sought for in our museums. It is a duty, then, devolving upon us to endeavour to preserve for the _ information of the future races, both white and Maori, such remnants of history as yet exist, and with this object I have persuaded Paora Tuhaere to lodge here some of the carvings belonging to the once well-known canoe, Toki-a-tapiri ; and as canoes of that class are now uncommon, I propose to give a short account of their construction, and a word or two as to their history. Our first accounts of these Islands, resulting from Tasman’s voyage to them, more than two centuries ago, brought into notice the canoes of the people ; and naturally enough, for what the horse is to the Arab, the camel to the dweller in the desert, the canoe was to the inhabitant of New Zealand; a country abounding in bays, harbours, creeks, rivers, and destitute of roads and beasts of burden. Water-carriage was a matter of prime necessity. In addition to which the dearth of quadrupeds caused fish to be much depended upon as an article of food. Our Waitangi treaty shows how highly the Maori prized his fisheries. But in Tasman’s time the canoes he saw were all double ; though Cook, who was so much longer on the coasts, if I remember rightly, much more frequently mentions single canoes than double ones, and this latter class must have gone out of fashion soon after Cook’s time; for I never heard even the oldest natives mention them as used in their own day, save temporarily, when two might be lashed together for the purpose of erecting a fighting-stage on the platform between them, so as to be able to overtop therefrom the stockade of some water- fronting pa. Canoes occupying such a leading position in native estimation, many of their legends and traditions have reference to them—even the mythical Ika-o-Maut, the first drawing up of this island from the ocean, was not to be accomplished without a canoe—the accounts of the seven different canoes 72, Transactions.—Miscellaneous. which brought from Hawaiki to this country the progenitors of the present race of Maoris are familiar to most of us; one only of these—the Tainui— is always mentioned as being double; and as some ships of owr navy have been immortalized by the prowess of their crews in celebrated engagements, so many of the Maori watatas or songs are in honour of their ships—most often in praise of their celerity, by dint of which some enemies’ pa had — been surprised, or their women and children carried away into captivity. Canoes may be divided into four classes—Waka-taua or waka-pitau, war canoes, fully carved; the waka-tetee, which, generally smaller, had a plain figure-head and stern ; waka-tiwat, an ordinary canoe of one piece, and the kopapa or small canoe usually used for fishing, travelling to cultivations, etc. The Yoki-a-tipiri belonged to the waka-pitau, which differed from the waka-taua in having an untatooed figure-head with a protruding tongue, and being less elevated forward. Canoes, being of vital importance, whether for war, or as a means of procuring food, a superstitious race naturally attributed to the tree set apart for the hiwi or hull of the canoe some power over its future fortune; not only was a particular site or aspect in its growth deemed lucky, but it was supposed that incantations by a tohunga or wizard bestowed upon the living tree would increase the virtue of the wood when used. Special trees were sometimes the cause of war between two tribes, were set apart, or made tapu, by a father for an infant son, remained even as an heir-loom for the grandson, and occasionally, in early land sales, were specially reserved. Totara was the tree chiefly prized, on account of its durability. Kauri was next in estimation, and in the north was easier to procure of large size. I have seen a waka-tiwai—that is, a canoe entirely of one piece, carry, beyond its crew, three-and-a-half tons of potatoes ina seaway. Kahikatea was sometimes used; it is light but not lasting, and I have known rimu canoes, but these are too heavy to be popular. When a tree had been selected either by an individual rangatira or by a hapu who had determined to build a war-canoe, it was first necessary that a sufficient stock of food. to supply the workmen employed upon it should be available ; if the tree grew in a place distant from the pa, a special cultiva- tion as near as possible to the locus operandi might be made for the purpose, otherwise a particular patch of kumera, or other esculent, was planted and set aside ; then the future canoe had to be draughted; certain naval archi- tects were the Symonds or Reeds of their day, and were occasionally fetched from far to design a craft which-was required to possess extra speed; many a deliberation of the Kawmatuas or elders took place over the prepared model, ere the shape was finally settled, Barstow.—On the Maori Canoe. 73 The next step was to consult the Tohunga as to the day for commencing the falling; the state of the moon must be considered ; an inauspicious day for beginning would surely cause the canoe to capsize—the tawa or war- party using it to be defeated, or, if not to be a waka-tawa, no fish would be caught therefrom. When stone-axes and fire were the only means of falling the tree, the task of bringing down a totara four or five feet through must have been tedious; the first iron hatchets used were those procured from Captain Cook, and those obtained at Manawaora a century ago, when Marion’s crew were ashore and slaughtered, whilst getting out a spar; probably it was not till thirty years later that iron-axes became sufficiently abundant to super- sede those of stone entirely. Some care was needed that the tree in falling should not be broken nor shaken ; an accident of this kind is by no means uncommon, and many fine spars are now lost in this way. The destruction of a specially large tree, after the labour of falling had been incurred, must indeed have been a calamity. Though when an outlying tree of sufficient scantling could be found, it was preferred to one forest-grown, as our shipwrights considered hedge- erown better than plantation oak; yet, in most instances, the totara or kauri tree stood in a forest miles from the sea-shore, and so far from anahingas or cultivations that relays of women were needed to carry up provisions for the workpeople ; a road for hauling out by would also require preparing ; secrecy, too, was often needed, for a hostile tribe would be only too glad either to attack the pa weakened by the absence of many of its men, or to surround and cut off the party while engaged at work. At last, however, incessant labour has fallen the tree, cross-cut the log, and dubbed down the outside to somewhat near its destined shape, and fire and adze have partially hollowed out the riw, or hold, dry rewarewa wood being used for the charring ; the amount of excavating done at this stage depending upon the distance to which the canoe has to be hauled and the danger of its splitting on its journey. In peaceable times there is a great feast, and all the friendly neighbouring pas contribute hands to haul out, by dint of akas, or vines, over rollers or skids, the still weighty mass. The workmen pull together over the steeps to the songs of the women. It is not always fated to reach the water. At the foot of Wairere Hill, in Whangaroa Harbour, there lay, some years ago, the two sides of a mighty canoe which had been fashioned on the elevated plateau above the bay. Whilst a party of some thirty slaves were engaged in lowering it down the steep hill-side, a vine broke, the canoe rushed headlong to the bottom, and split from end to end; a cry of despair from the awe-stricken slaves brought their rangatiras to the spot, and instant death was the punishment meted out to the unlucky slaves for their neglect or misfortune, oi) a 74 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. But even when the hiwi, or bottom piece, has reached the sea beach or creek in safety, but a small portion of the work has been completed. This piece has to be redubbed and further hollowed; this operation, too, is repeated as the timber seasons after the canoe has been in use. Then trees have to be fallen for the rawawa, or top streak, not much smaller than the one first mentioned. These top streaks in the Toki-a-tapiri are each about seventy feet long, and eighteen or twenty inches deep amidships. These have to be dubbed down to their proper thickness and shape, to be dragged out, and fitted to the hull; holes (puerere) require boring through both, so as to lash them along together—a simple enough business with a brace and bit, but a very different matter when kiripaka or quartz was used, though the natives had learned to construct a drill armed with this pointed stone ; the tete, or figure-head, and rapa, or stern-piece, have to come, and you have only to look at these to form some notion of the time, taste, and skill requisite for their manafacture ; a very slight mistake, an unskilful blow, and the thing is ruined; another seasoned log must be got, and the work be recommenced. It is not everywhere that this carving can be executed. The Arawa and Wakatohea, Bay of Plenty tribes, were long celebrated for their knowledge of designing and carving the ornamental parts of canoes, and their services were obtained by hire, or the requisite carvings (of course I am speaking now of modern days) were procured in exchange for guns, blankets, horses, or European goods. In earlier times raids were made, and men carried as slaves to carve for their masters. Only a small portion of the tracery must be cut out at a time, lest exposure to the sun should cause a crack. A fully ornamented stern-post was months or years even before it received its finishing touch, though the pattern had been sketched from the first. These portions of the craft have to be carefully fitted and bored for seizing on; the tawmanu, or thwarts—frequently of manukau wood—must be cut, worked out, and lashed to the niao, or gunwale. On the proper fitting of these, which took the place of our deck-bearers, much of the strength of the canoe depends, and the women spent days in preparing the muka, or flax for these lashings (kaha). Then along each side of our canoe has to be fitted a batten, called taka, covering the joint of the hiwi and rauawa, and the kaha has again to be carried over this so as to secure this streak firmly to the side. These pieces, too, were of great length, some 30 or 40 feet, so as to have only one joint or splice on each side. Our canoe is now pretty well built, but yet again requires many fittings =the kaiwae, stages or platforms, usually made of small manuka sticks, upon which the kathoe, or paddlers, either sat or knelt, a kind of grated deck, running the length of the craft, with openings here and there to Barstow.—On the Maori Canoe, 76 communicate with the iu, or hold; one or more of these apertures were supplied with a tiheru, or bailer, for toughness’ sake made of mangiao wood; for many a sea in rough weather would break on board, and were it not for the caulking (purupuru) with huni, or flower of raupo, a supply of which the women had gathered in the swamps, much water would have found its way through the joints and holes. The native substitute for oakum is impervious to wet when properly applied. The next process is to paint our vessel; and for the prevailing red colour in fashion, karamea, a species of clay, which needs to be burnt before being applied, is most valued. The parts to be coloured are first cleaned, then sized with juice of sow thistle and the poporo shrub, after which the karamea, mixed with water, is rubbed on; this yields the most brilliant colour, and is very lasting. Hokowaiis a kind of pigment, burnt, dried, and mixed with shark-liver oil. This is a good deal darker than the former. The batten, carved stern, and head, if a wakataua, are usually blackened with powdered charcoal, or lamp-black and oil. The wakatetee has usually ared head. On gala days the taka would be adorned with albatross feathers, ~ and wreathes of pigeon or wild duck feathers flutter upon the stem and stern. 4 The equipments are still to follow. According to size, sixty to a hundred paddles are requisite. One very large canoe, formerly in Taraia’s possession, could seat 140 paddlers ; but the hiwi of this was 96 feet long, the projecting stern and stem adding 14 feet to this huge length. It is said that Toki-a-tapiri could stow fifty on each side, steer-paddles, too, which are much longer than ordinary ones, and usually with carved handles. Then the masts (rewa), steps for which have been left when the riw was hollowed, with the booms, and cordage, and the queer sails, supposing our canoe was made as far back as forty years ago, must not be forgotten. These last, ere the days of duck or calico, were made of long leaves of the raupo, kept in their places by an interlacing of flax-twine (aho) ; the butt or wide part of the leaf was uppermost towards the boom, the small ends of the leaves converging to a point at the tack, making thus a trian- gular sail. Two or three masts were used according to the canoe’s length, and small as the amount of sail appeared to be, I have seen a great pace obtained under raupo alone. We yet want a plaited flax cable, and an anchor. Of these last there were three varieties: an oblong stone, with a hole through the smaller end, a stone enmeshed in a netting of flax or vines; or three or four crooked pieces ef pohutukawa lashed together with a stone between the shanks and the curved points, forming a rude grapnel. Sometimes, though the hull might be new, the carved portions of worn- 76 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. out canoes would be re-used, being renovated for the occasion ; formerly, the stem and stern pieces were detached and stored in sheds when a war- canoe was laid up in ordinary. Our canoe is now at last ready for launching, nearly as much time having been occupied in its building as would in England have turned out an ironclad; a feast marks the event; and though to the rangatiras of the kainga the day was one of rejoicing, fifty years back it would have been a poor hapu that could not afford a slave or two as a kinakt, or relish, for such an occasion. The canoe is run over the skids into the water and anchored; many are the comments on the way she sits; presently another one is launched, crews of young men are found for each; they paddle out some distance quietly, turn and race back, animated by the cries and gesticulations of the assembled spectators. As with us a name is fixed upon as soon as the keel has been laid, so, I think, with the Maori; at a very early stage of the work the appellation is agreed upon. I do not know what led to the name of Toki-a-tapiri being given to the canoe to which these carvings belonged. I had hoped to have interested you with a narration of battles in which she had been engaged— though sea-fights were not common—or voyages she had made, but can only tell you that she was built by the Ngatikahungunu, of Hawke Bay, and given by a chief of that tribe to Hone Ropiha, better known as “John Hobbs,’ during Governor Browne’s administration ; at that time the canoe was not an old one. Hobbs afterwards sold her to Aihepene Kaihau and other Neatiteata chiefs at Waiuku for £700. At the com- mencement of the Waikato war she was seized at Waiuku by a party of volunteers and militia, composed of Messrs. J. C. Firth and others, and brought to Onehunga. She was subsequently conveyed overland to Auck- land, by order of the late Mr. John Williamson, when Superintendent, for the purpose of landing H.R.H. Prince Alfred, on the occasion of his first visit to Auckland, and was used by the natives when the Orakei land claim was investigated. I can only add that her length was some 78 or 80 feet, and beam about 64 feet. In Auckland’s infant days, twenty or twenty-five of these war-canoes rom the Thames alone might be found hauled up in Mechanics’ Bay. Where, alas! are these now ? Conmnso.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 77 Art. V.—Contributions towards a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. By W. Cotenso, F'.L.8. [Read before the Hawke Bay Philosophical Institute, 12th August, 1878.] ——‘ For I, too, agree with Solon, that ‘I would fain grow old learning many things.’ ’”’—Pxiato: Laches. “Though this be madness, yet there is method in’t.”—Hamlet. On tHE Ipgauity oF THE AncteNT New ZEALANDER. Part J.—Lercenps, Myrus, anp Fases. § 1. Introductory. I wave long been desirous of adding what little I may have gleaned on this subject during an extended sojourn in New Zealand; and I feel still the more inclined to do so through (1) it being now evening time with me, and (2) through my having noticed the many crude theories which have been broached concerning the Whence of the Maori, not a few of which, by their several writers, have been laboriously propped and buttressed with all and every item, however insignificant, far-fetched, and vague, they could possibly impress and bring forward, but in which, in my estimation, they have notwithstanding signally failed, because they laboured to build up a pet faney or hobby of their own rather than the truth; some even starting with assuming the very proposition which they had to prove.* For my own part, I altogether disclaim all such; I have no pet theory ; T only seek the truth ; to do what little I may towards establishing it ; firmly believing, as I have already written,+ that in the years to come this, too, will be found out and known. For this purpose, then, I shall bring before you on the present occasion a few, out of the many, curious old legends, myths, and fables of the Maori, preferring those which I have known for many years, which have to do with natural and tangible objects, and which have not been tampered with or added to by Europeans, or by Maoris who had imbibed new and foreign ideas. * Plenty of this will be found in several volumes of the “‘ Transactions N.Z. Inst.,” which, although often attempted to be dressed up in a new fashion, is not new. I append a suitable extract on this subject from an old book, as the work itself is scarce and little known :— **In respect to the New Zealanders, some have imagined that they sprang from Assyria or Egypt. ‘The god Pan,’ says Mr. Kendall to Dr. Waugh, ‘is universally acknowledged. The overflowings of the Nile, and the fertility of the country in con- sequence, are evidently alluded to in their traditions; and I think the Argonautic expedition, Pan’s crook, Pan’s pipes, and Pan’s office in making the earth fertile, are mentioned in their themes. Query—Are not the Malay and the whole of the South Sea Islanders Egyptians ?? To which we reply—When will the spirit of conjecture rest ?”— Beauties, etc., of Nature, by C. Bucke ; new ed., vol. ii., s. 79; London, 1837 (note). + In Essay on The Maori Races; Trans., Vol. I., pp. 61, 62, 1st Hd. 78 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. Here, however, let me pause awhile to explain clearly, yet briefly, what I mean by the term Ideality : I mean that superior faculty—that conception of the natural and beautiful, the truthful and symmetrical, which has ever been found to pertain to the higher races, or varieties of men, and in par- ticular to the more gifted among them. As Cousin says (On the Beautiful) : —‘‘ The Ideal appears as an original conception of the mind. “* * * Nature or experience gives me the occasion for conceiving the ideal, but the ideal is something entirely different from experience or nature, so that if we apply it to natural, or even to artificial figures, they cannot fill up the con- dition of the ideal conception, and we are obliged to imagine them exact.” Kant lays it down—‘ By ideal, I understand the idea, not in conereto but in individuo, as an individual thing, determinable or determined by the idea alone.”’* On this subject, also, Emerson impressively writes :—‘I hasten to state the principle which prescribes, through different means, its firm law to the useful and beautiful arts. The law is this: The universal soul is the alone creator of the useful and the beautiful ; therefore, to make anything useful or beautiful, the individual must be sub- mitted to the universal mind. * * * Beneath a necessity thus almighty, what is artificial in man’s life seems insignificant. He seems to take his task so minutely from intimations of Nature, that his works become, as it were, hers, and he is no longer free. * * * There is but one Reason. The mind that made the world is not one mind, but the mind. Every man is an inlet to the same, and to all of the same. And every work of art is a more or less sure manifestation of the same. * * * We feel, in seeing a noble building, much as we do in hearing a perfect song, that it is spiritually organic; that is, had a necessity in nature for being; was one of the possible forms in the Divine mind, and is now only discovered and executed by the artist, not arbitrarily composed byhim. * * * The highest praise we can attribute to any writer, painter, sculptor, builder, is, that he actually possessed the thought or feeling with which he has inspired us.’ + Thatdelightful writer on Art, J. Ruskin—whether considered as artist or art critic—always in love with the Beautiful, and possessing the wonder- ful power of telling it in such charming language, says :—‘‘I call an idea great in proportion as it is received by a higher faculty of the mind, and as it more fully occupies, and in occupying, exercises and exalts, the faculty by which it is received. * * * He is the greatest artist who has embodied in the sum of his works the greatest number of the greatest ideas.”’ Then Ruskin contrasts the old Venetian worker in glass, with his profusion of design, his personality of purpose, and his love of his art, with the British * Crit. Pure Reason. t+ Essay on Art, Cotenso.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 19 worker with his mechanical accuracy. ‘‘ Everything the old Venetian worker made was a separate thing—a new individual creation ;* but the British worker does things by the gross, and has no personal interest in any one article.’’+ To this, from the Moderns, I would also add two short extracts from the Ancients. According to Cicero, there is nothing of any kind so fair that there may not be a fairer conceived by the mind. He says :—‘‘ We can conceive of statues more perfect than those of Phidias. Nor did the artist, when he made the statue of Jupiter or Minerva, contemplate any one individual from which to take a likeness; but there was in his mind a form of beauty, gazing on which, he guided his hand and skill in imitation of it.” (Orator, c. 2,8.) And Seneca takes the distinction between idéa and é.d0¢ thus :—‘‘ When a painter paints a likeness, the original is his idéa—the likeness is the é:d0c or image. The zidoc is in the work—the idéa is out of the work and before the work.” —/ Epist. 58.) Possibly some one may say, or think: ‘‘ Do you really believe that any thing of that kind, or power, ever appertained to the mind of a New Zealander ?”” And my reply would be: ‘“ Yes, undoubtedly, and that in no small degree.” And here we must be careful in discerning and considering, in order to arrive at a right conclusion. The fragment of brown floating seaweed, when properly examined and considered, shows the hand of the Great Artificer as surely as the superb and symmetrical flower of the garden, the admiration of all beholders. In viewing the colossal architecture of the ancient Egyptians, we must beware how we compare it with that of ancient Greece, especially with the airy and flowery Corinthian Order. So, when we contemplate the modern Greek, untaught and unskilled peasant it may be, sauntering among the marble ruins of the cities and capitals of his forefathers, and thoughtlessly breaking up some exquisite creation of the gifted sculptor of ancient days, and the question of doubt arises in our minds as to the possible oneness of that race, we must not forget how sadly, how greatly, they have degenerated. Just so, then, in my estimation, it has been with the nation of the New Zealanders. They, too, have degenerated—sadly, surely, and quickly— particularly within the last half a century : “°>Tis Greece, but living Greece, no more.” But do not mistake me, as if I meant to assert that they in their Ideality ever approached to that of the great Western nations which have been mentioned. Not so; but speaking comparatively, and in their degree, * Much of this re the old Venetian workman is truly relatively applicable to the old New Zealand worker, + Modern Painters, 80 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. and according to their own national conceptions, and to the circumstances in which they were placed by nature,—without a written language, or the use of metals, or beasts of burden, or any knowledge of, or communication with, the great world of mankind lying around them,—aye, more ;—without teaching or instruction or communication of ideas (even among them- selves !) ;—without the healthy incitement arising from competition with artists of other tribes, and of exhibition, and of praise from afar !—without even a probable certainty of his even completing what he had painfully devised and begun (all such being utterly precluded by their constant wars !); and without the slightest excitement of pay or reward, as things were never made for sale among them; and also with having a share (in common with the other members of his tribe) in the almost daily labours attendant on the cultivating and obtaining his food,—from which exertion no New Zealander in health, whatever might be his rank or intelligence, was ever exempt ;—all these things being fairly weighed and considered,— this, this is the way in which they should be judged by us— “They are —— of the works of the Father, And of the one Mind the Intelligible. For Intellect is not without the Intelligible, And the Intelligible does not subsist apart from Intellect.”—Zoroast. The Maori of to-day is not worthy, in this respect, to carry the shoes of his forefathers. And he knows it; he feels it. Ichabod! or Fuit Iliwm, may well be called upon them. I, who have been, I may be allowed to say, long conversant with them, have no hesitation in stating, that the more I have seen and known of the works of the Ancient New Zealander, the more have I been struck with the many indications of their superior mind,—of their fine perception of the beautiful, the regular, and symmetrical ; of their desire and labour after the beautiful ; of their prompt and genuine, open and fearless criticisms,—in a word, of their great Ideality. And this high faculty of theirs which they possessed in an eminent degree, will probably be better known and under- stood hereafter than itis at present. It was their possession of that faculty, even in more modern times, which enabled them at a glance, and, as if by inspiration,* to detect inaccuracy or want of esthetic conformity and exact precision in the skilled performances of their European visitors, and as quickly to declare it ;—as in the martial exercises of the military (regulars), in the want of exact time in the rowing of boats by the most skilful seamen of H.M. navy ;—and, in all their own works, to perceive instantaneously all such want of symmetry if present. * T use this word here in the Socratic sense, as by him in Plato, Jon. CoLEnso.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 81 That faculty was exhibited in many ways, e.g. :-— In the building of their war-canoes with all their carving and many adornments; and that without plan, pattern, or tools. The exquisite re- eularity and symmetry of both sides of the vessel, including even that difficult one of carved concentric circles worked in filagree, were astonishing ; and, as such, borne ample testimony to by all their first visitors.* In the building of the highly ornamented houses of their chiefs. Tn all their better carvings, with which every article of wood, of bone, of shell, or of stone, was profusely and boldly adorned—from the handle of a working-axe, or spade, to the baler for their canoes. Horace truly says— “ Pictoribus atque poetis Quidlibet audendi semper fuit equa potestas,” to which, however, I would also add, sculptoribus; unless such may be considered as included in poetis ; for Plantus affirms, ‘‘ Poeta ad eam rem.’’+ In their tattooing. In their weaving, plain and ornamental, of many kinds and patterns (more than 200) of textile fabrics; and all simply done by hand! In their chequered dogs’-skin, and liwi-feathered, and red parrots’- feathered, cloaks. In their making and twisting of threads, cords, lines, and ropes; many varieties of each. In their ornaments—of feathers,} of greenstone, and of sharks’ teeth. * Vide Cook, Forster, Parkinson, and others, passim; also, Nicholas’ ‘‘ New Zealand,’’, Vol. I., p. 48; I1., p. 49. t ‘One of the arts in which the New Zealanders excel is that of carving in wood. They often display both a taste and ingenuity, which, especially when we consider their miserably imperfect tools, it is impossible to behold without admiration. The N. Z. artist has no lathe to compete with, neither has he even those ordinary hand tools which every civilized country has always afforded. The only instruments he has to cut with are rudely fashioned of stone or bone. Yet even with these his skill and patient perseverance contrive to grave the wood into any forms which his fancy may suggest. Many of the carvings thus produced are distinguished by both a grace and richness of design that would do no discredit even to Huropean art. Their war-canoes have their heads and sterns elaborately carved. On their musical instruments much time and labour is bestowed in the shaping, carving, and inlaying.”—The New Zealanders, pp. 129, 131. t Of their taste in feathers for decoration of the head, we have notable instances recorded. It is well known that the national taste in this respect was severely simple yet eracetful. * Sumplex mondittis Hort oa Plain in thy neatness.”—MitTon, The New Zealanders preferring the snowy-white plumes of three birds in particular—the White stork, the albatross, and the gannet, and the black feathers, tipped with white, of the Huia (Heteralocha gouldi);—nothing gaudy or of strong glittering colours was approved of by them; otherwise they could easily have manufactured such feathers from seyeral of their indigenous birds. All this we have in the voyages of their earliest Visitors, and in We plaice But in the principal plate (or the one ostentatiously intended G 82 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. In their ornamented staffs of rank, carved and inlaid with mother-of- pearl, and decorated with quillets of flowing dog’s hair, and red feathers. In their symmetrical planting of their food, with faultless regularity, and all done ‘‘ by the eye.” In their language; hence its great grammatical precision, its double duals and double plurals, its euphony, its rhythm, and its brevity, and its many exquisite particles and reduplications, both sineular and plural, all highly pregnant with meaning, which almost defy translation into Hinglish. In many of their songs and recitations; some plaintive and mild and full of love, others bold and martial; all natural and sympathetic. Tn their possessing diesic modulations, or quarter-tones, in their airs and music.* In their proverbs and sayings, and quaint laconic effusions; often abounding with wit and beauty of expression and depth of meaning. In their legends, myths, tales, and fables. In the regular sequence of their peculiar mythology, and of the begin- ning and formation of all things; all natural orders of living things having each a separate creator or progenitor. - In their polite and courteous behaviour, and true, open and free hospi- tality, often exhibiting the true gentleman.+ In their knowledge of many of the operations of nature, including the periodic return of the moon and stars, and the seasons. In the faultless precision of bodies of them moving together, as if it were but one man! as in their paddling and dancing and in several games. Now in all these matters, and more might be adduced, they ever showed their innate national taste, in which they were vastly in advance of our own British forefathers when first visited by Ceasar; although the Britons had many natural advantages, of which the New Zealander had never dreamed. To return from our earliest intercourse with the Maori, two or three peculiar and strange traits and circumstances highly characteristic of him have been known. I allude to those respecting his belief in, and fear of, animals of the Saurian or Lizard kind. Settlers and colonists of to-day can form no correct idea of how a bold and daring New Zealand warrior, who feared not to meet his fellow foe in a stern hand-to-hand deadly fight, would blanch and run away in horror from a little harmless lizard! yet to be such—the frontispiece) to Hochstetter’s work on New Zealand (English edition), we have a Maori Chief with three peacock’s feathers stuck in his hair!! a proof of their dege- neracy in taste; or, as I believe, of the baser (inferior) taste of the English artist, who had merely learnt by rule, and who had no conception of the superior faculty. * See Appendix to this paper; one highly interesting to trained musicians. + Vide Nicholas’ ‘New Zealand,” Vol. I., pp. 24, 25, Conznso.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 83 this I have often seen. Why was this? was it that he really feared that little harmless animal ? or was it that that tiny creature was to him the form and representation of a great, fearful, mischievous, and mysterious power, the deadly foe of man, ever hated and dreaded by all New Zea- landers, and called an Atua, or demon ? of which it was said—aye, and firmly believed—that it often gnawed the internal part of diseased folks, and so surely caused their death; or was it through their belief in those cherished legends of the olden time, that had been strictly handed down through many generations from father to son, containing the history of some dreadful monsters of the Saurian order, and which the prowess of their ancestors, aided by the charms and spells of their priests (mark this), had enabled them to vanquish and to overcome ? Animals of such a huge and monstrous size as would comparatively leave the Megatherium and Mammoth far behind in the place of kittens! And here I cannot help calling your particular attention to a very curious feature, which will prominently appear in the relations I shall have to give you—yiz., that while the utmost exactitude is preserved in those strange stories—of time, and place, and persons, and of a certain amount of strong natural reality, yet not a single vestige of any osteological remains of any animal of the Saurian kind has ever yet been discovered! While, on the other hand, the fossil remains of many large and extinct Struthious birds of several genera and species, and commonly known in the lump by | the name of Moa, are to be met with in great abundance; and yet, of these realities, there are neither credible history, nor curious legendary tale, nor myth nor fable, that I have ever been able to lay hold of. Captain Cook heard something of those large Saurians on his third voyage _ while at anchor in the Straits which bear his name; which, being but brief, _ I will give in his own words :—‘‘ We had another piece of intellicence from g g |. this chief, that there are lizards there of an enormous size. He described | them as being eight feet in length, and as big round as a man’s body. He said they sometimes seize and devour men; that they burrow in the ground; and that they are killed by making fires at the mouth of the holes. We | could not be mistaken as to the animal, for, with his own hand, he drew a very good representation of a lizard on a piece of paper, in order to show | what he meant.”’ And this statement was further confirmed by Mr. Ander- son, the surgeon to the ship, as appears from a note appended to that | voyage, viz. :—‘‘In a separate memorandum book, Mr. Anderson mentions the monstrous animal of the lizard kind, described by the two young New | Gealanders they had on board, after they had left the island.”’* * 3rd Voyage, Vol. I., pp. 142, 153, ral i AY ~ " 84 Transactions.— Miscellaneous, Mr. Nicholas, who accompanied Mr. Marsden on his first visit to New Zealand in 1814, says :—‘‘ While in the forests at the Bay of Islands, observing a hole at the foot of one of the trees, which evidently appeared to have been burrowed by some quadruped, we inquired of Kena what animal he supposed it was ; and from his description of it, we had reason to believe that it must be the Guana. Wishing to know how far our surmise was correct, we desired our friend to thrust a stick into the hole, and endeavour to worry the animal out of it; but this he tried with no effect, for either it was not in the hole at the time, or, if there, not to be dislodged by such means. Kena, however, was rather well pleased than otherwise at not meeting with this animal; for his dread of it was so great, that he shrunk back with terror at the time he thought it would come out, nor did he examine the hole but with very great reluctance. This we thought very strange, for the Guana (the animal we took it for) is perfectly harmless. * % = The chief, Ruatara, however, informed us that a most destructive animal was found in the interior of the country, which made great havoc among the children, carrying them off and devouring them, whenever they came its way. The description he gave of it corresponded exactly with that of the alligator. * * * The chief had never seen the animal himself, but received his accounts from others; and hence it appears to me very probable that his credulity might have been imposed upon.’’* Captain Cruise, of the 84th Regiment, who came to New Zealand in H.M.S. ‘Dromedary’ five years after Mr. Nicholas, and who resided in this country ten months, gives in a few words an interesting notice of the abject fear exhibited by the Maori at the mere sight of a small lizard! which, as it is (or was) so truthful—as I have too often myself witnessed— T also quote :—‘‘ A man who has arrived at a certain stage of an incurable illness, is under the influence of the Atwa, who has taken possession of him, and who, inthe shape of a lizard, is devouring his intestines ; after which no human assistance or comfort can be given to the sufferer, and he is carried out of the village and left to die. * * * This curious hypothesis was accidentally discovered by one of the gentlemen, who, having found a lizard, carried it to a native woman to ask the name of it. She shrunk from him in a state of terror that exceeded description, and conjured him not to approach her, as it was in the shape of the animal he held in his hand that the Atwa was wont to take possession of the dying, and to devour their bowels.” + In various parts of this island, but all to the north of Napier, I have had shown me when travelling (1834-1844), many spots where it was said monsters of the Saurian Order had formerly dwelt. * Narrative, Vol. I1., pp. 124, 126. + Journal, pp. 283, 320. Coumnso,—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 85 Thirty-five years ago, when journeying along the Kast Coast, between Cape Kidnappers and Castle Point, on reaching the top of the high hill or range situated between Waimarama and Te Apiti, named Marokotia, my attention was called to a remarkable rift or chasm at the head of the glen just below me, on the east or sea side of the old Maori track or pathway. This, I was told by the old chiefs of the coast who were with me, was in ancient times the dwelling of a monster Saurian, named Hinehuarau ; that it burst away from this place, tearmg and rending all before it, and so went on south until it reached Wairarapa, where it was subsequently killed by a chief of note of ancient days, named Tara, whose name he gave to the lake near Te Aute, ‘“‘ Te Roto-a-tara.”’ Some time after I was again in the Wairarapa Valley, and hearing so much of the ‘‘bones,’’ or, as some said, ‘‘ the head,”’ of this monster being yet to be seen in the place where it was slain, away among the hills, I purposely walked thither from a village called Hurunuiorangi to see them. Tt was rather a long and rough walk to the place among the hills on the other side of the Ruamahanga river. Arriving there, I found the said ‘“‘bones”’ to be a heap or knob of yellowish, friable, glittering, quartz-like stone (calcite), which cropped out from the hill-side and lay in large lumps. I remember well how angry one old Maori became, who was of the party with me, on my asserting that the pile before us was not bone at all but stone. Very likely those natives had never seen any other stone like it (up to that time I had not). It bore, at first sight, a resemblance to the yellow decaying bones of a whale. I think the spot was called Tupurupuru, and that it is not very far from the head waters of the river Taueru. Such places, however—caves, rifts, chasms, and strange-looking stones —are by no means unfrequently met with in travelling in New Zealand, especially when journeying (as I was obliged to do) along the old foot-paths, which mostly led over ridges of hills; and there are plenty of such stories concerning them, each spot having its own peculiar myth or legend, which was once most certainly believed. I have also more than once seen another curious spot in this neighbour- hood (Hawke Bay), which deserves recording, the more so, perhaps, from the fact of its being no longer to be seen as I saw it. It was on the low undulating grassy banks of the river Waitio. There, at that time, was a huge earthwork representation of a ngarara, or tka, te, a lizard, or crocodile, which, several generations back, had been cut and dug and formed in the ground by a chief of that time named Rangitauira, wh, in doing so, had also dexterously availed himself of the natural formation of the low alluvial undulations in the earth. It had the rude appearance of a huge Saurian extended, with its four legs and claws and tail, but crooked, 86 Transactions, — Miscellaneous. not straight, as if to represent it wriggling or living, and not dead. It was many yards in length, and of corresponding width and thickness, and by no means badly executed. On two occasions, in particular, in travelling that way, as we generally rested there on the banks of the stream, the old Maori chiefs with me would diligently use their tomahawks and wooden spades in clearing away the coarse grass and low bushes growing on it in its more salient parts, so as to keep its outline tolerably clear, reminding me of what has been said of the periodical scouring in the Vale of the White Horse. The natural vegetation of the place was well suited for the purpose of pre- serving it, being mostly composed of our (Hawke Bay) common carpet or mat grass (Microlena stipoides) and a low-growing Muhlenbeckia (M. awillaris)*, but in those days no foot of man trod on it, and of beasts there were none ! This curious earth-work was called Te Ika-a-Rangitauira, that is, that that Saurian outline was made or formed by a chief whose name was Rangitauira. He was an ancestor of the chief Karaitiana (M.H.R.), and of several other chiefs and sub-tribes now living here in Hawke Bay; he lived nineteen generations back; one of his residences was a large pa called Te Mingi, on the Tutaekuri river. He formed this design, or earth-work (which originally consisted of three Saurian outlines) in remembrance of his having returned from that spot with his fighting party. They had left their own pa to attack another on the east side of the Tukituki river, but being here overtaken by daylight abandoned their design. First, however, forming and leaving there those three monsters, to indicate to the people of the pa they had set out to attack, how they had intended to serve (t.e. devour) them. This chief subsequently met with his death in returning from the Patea country in the interior, through being overtaken by a violent snow- storm, and taking refuge in a cave called Te Reporoa (on the lower passes of the Ruahine mountain range) where he and those with him miserably perished in the snow! His younger brother, who persevered and kept on his journey, escaped. Consequently for many years this chief’s huge earth- work was attended to and kept clear of coarse weeds by his descendants in commemoration of him. I now proceed to give you some of those old legendary tales, for which I have been preparing the way, premising that these are all fair translations from the original Maori as I received them, and without any addition. Like most translations, however, they lose much of their striking original character and beauty in attempting to clothe them in a foreign dress. * Tt was here that I discovered that pretty little and very scarce plant, Stackhousia minima. CotEnso.—On a better Knowledye of the Maori Race. 87 § 2.—Tales. Tur Story or tHe Destruction or Monsters. 1. The Slaying of Hotupuku. Here is the tale of the valiant deeds of certain men of old, the ancestors of the chiefs of Rotorua. Their names were Purahokura, Reretai, Rongohaua, Rongohape, and Pitaka; they were all the children of one father, whose name was Tamaihutoroa. As they grew up to manhood they heard of several persons who had been killed in journeying over the roads leading by Tauhunui and Tuporo, and Tikitapu,—all places of that district. People of Rotorua who had travelled to Taupo, or who went into the hill country to meet their relations, were never again heard of; while the folks of the villages who were expecting them were thinking all manner of things about their long absence, concluding that they were still at their respective places of abode; but, as it afterwards turned out, they were all dead in the wilderness ! At last a party left Taupo on a visit to Rotorua, to travel thither by those same roads where those former travelling parties had been consumed. | Their friends at Taupo thought that they had arrived at Rotorua, and were prolonging their stay there; but no, they, too, were all dead, lying in heaps in that very place in the wilderness! Afterwards another travelling party started from Rotorua to Taupo; this party went by the lakes Tarawera and Rotomahana, and they all arrived safe at Taupo. On their arrival there many questions were asked on both sides respecting the people of Taupo who had gone to Rotorua, but nothing whatever could be learned of them. On hearing this the people of Taupo earnestly enquired of the newly-arrived party from Rotorua, by what road they came? ‘They replied, ‘‘We came by the open plain of Kaingaroa, by the road to Tauhunui.” Then it was that the people of Taupo and the party from Rotorua put their heads together, and talked, and deeply con- sidered, and said, ‘‘ Surely those missing travellers must have fallen in with a marauding party of the enemy, for we all well know they have no kins- folk in those parts.” Upon this the Taupo people determined on revenge, and so they proceeded to get together an army for that purpose, visiting the several villages of Taupo to arouse the people. All being ready, they commenced their march. They travelled all day, and slept at night by the road-side; and the next morning, at daylight, they crossed the river Waikato. Then they travelled on over the open plain of Kaingaroa until they came to a place called Kapenga, where dwelt a noxious monster, whose name was Hotupuku. When that monster smelt the odour of men, which had been wafted towards him from the army by the wind, it came out of its cave. At this time the band of men were travelling onwards in the 88 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. direction of that cave, but were unseen by that monster ; while that monster . was also coming on towards them unseen bythe party. Suddenly, however, the men looked up, and, lo! the monster was close upon them; on which, they immediately retreated in confusion. In appearance, it was like a moving hill of earth! Then the fear-awakening cry was heard, ‘‘ Who is straggling behind? Look out, there! A monster, a monster, is. coming upon you!’’ Then the whole army fled in all directions in dire dismay and confusion at seeing the dreadful spines and spear-like crest of the creature, all moving and brandishing in anger, resembling the gathering together of the spines, and spears, and spiny crests, and ridges of the dreadful marine monsters of the ocean. In the utter rout of the army, they fell foul of each other through fear, but, owing to their number, some escaped alive, though some were wounded and died. Then, alas! it was surely known that it was this evil monster which had completely destroyed all the people who had formerly travelled by this way. The news of this was soon carried to all parts of the Rotorua district, and the brave warriors of the several tribes heard of it. _ They soon assembled together, 170 all told, took up their arms, and marched even until they came to Kapenga in the plain, and there they pitched their camp. Immediately they set to work, some to pull the leaves of the cabbage-tree (Cordyline australis), others to twist them into ropes; then it was that all the various arts of rope-making were seen and developed !—the round rope, the flat rope, the double-twisted rope, the three-strand rope, and the four-sided rope* ; at last the rope-making was ended. Then the several chiefs arose to make orations and speeches, encouraging each other to be brave, to go carefully to work, to be on the alert, and to be circumspect, and so to perform all the duties of the warrior. All this they did according to the old and established custom when going to fight the enemy. One in particular of those chiefs said—Listen to me, let us go gently to work; let us not go too near to the monster, but stay ata distance from it, and when we perceive the wind blowing towards us over it, then we will get up closer, for if the wind should blow from us to the monster, and it smells us, it will suddenly rush out of its cave, and our work and schemes will be all upset.’’ To this advice the chiefs all assented, and then the men were all properly arranged for each and every side of the big rope snare they had contrived and made, so that they might all be ready to pull and haul away on the ropes when the proper time should come. * This was still the custom in late years; their strongest common ropes were made from the leaves of the cabbage-tree, after steeping them in water, and a strong and very peculiar kind of 4-sided rope was made by them of it, I have had such made for me, but I almost fear the art is lost. Flax (or Phormium) leaves would not be suitable, Cotenso.—On a better Knowledye of the Maori Race. 89 Then they told off a certain number to go to the entrance of the cave where the monster dwelt, while others were well armed with hard-wood digging spades* and clubs, with long spears, and rib-bones of whales, and with short wooden cleavers or halberts. Last of all, they carefully placed and laid their ropes and nooses, so that the monster should be completely taken and snared in them; and then, when all was ready, the men who had been appointed to go up to the mouth of the cave to entice and provoke the creature to come forth, went forwards ; but, lo! before they had got near to the cave, the monster had already smelt the odour of men. Then it arose within its cave. And the men who had gone forth to provoke it heard the rumbling of its awful tread within the cave, resembling the grating noise of thunder. Notwithstanding, they courageously enticed it forwards by exposing themselves to danger and running towards it, that it might come well away from its cave ; and when the monster saw the food for its maw by which it lived, it came forth from its den ramping with joy. Now this monster had come fearlessly on with open mouth, and with its tongue darting forth after those men ; but in the meanwhile they had them- selves entered into the snares of ropes, and had passed on and through them, and were now got beyond the set snares—the ropes, and nooses, and snares, all lying in their proper positions on the level ground. At this time those men were all standing around below when the huge head of the beast appeared on the top of the little hill, and the other men were also ascending that hill and closing in gradually all around ; the monster lowered his head awhile and then came on, and then the men, the little party of provokers, moved further away on to the top of another hillock, and the monster following them entered the snaves! At this the men on that little hill stood still, then the monster moved on further and further towards them, climbing up that ascent also, so that when its head appeared on the top of that second hillock its fore legs were also within the set loops of the big snare. Then it was that the simultaneous cry arose from the party who were standing on the top of the little hill watching intently, ‘ Good! capital ! it has entered! it is enclosed! pull! haul away!’ And that other party, who were all holding on to the several ropes, anxiously waiting for the word of command, hearing this, pulled away heartily. And, lo! it came to pass exactly as they all had planned and wished for—the monster was caught fast in the very middle of its belly. * This implement (called a ko) might be just as well termed a lance, or pick; it was narrow, pointed, and 6-7 feet long, and uscd for digging fern-root, &c., and sometimes, as here, as an offensive weapon. H 90 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. Now it began to lash about furiously with its tail, feeling more and more the pain arising from the severe constriction of its stomach by the ropes. Then the bearers of arms leaped forth. A wonderful sight! The monster’s tail was vigorously assaulted by them ; they stabbed it over and over with their hardwood digging picks and their long spears, and pounded it with their clubs, so that even its head felt the great amount of pain inflicted on its tail, together with that arising from the severe constriction of the ropes on its softer parts. Now the monster began to rear and to knock about dreadfully with its head; on seeing this, the enticing band of pro- vokers, who had still kept their position in front, again began to entice it to make straight forward after them, by going up close to it and then running away from it, when, on its attempting to stretch out after them, they suddenly faced about in a twinkling, and began to play away upon the monster’s head with very good effect. Oh! it was truly wonderful to behold! By this time, too, the party of rope-pullers had succeeded in making fast all their ropes to the several posts they had fixed in the earth all round about for that purpose; this done, they also seized their weapons and rushed forward to assist their comrades in beating the monster’s head— this being now the part of it which reared and knocked about the most violently. Now, the assault on its head was carried on alternately by those men, combined with the others who began it, and who for that purpose divided themselves into two parties, when one party rushed forward and delivered their blows, and the hideous head was turned towards them, and they fell back a bit, the other band came on on the other side and delivered — their battery, either party always beating in the same place. After a while the monster became less vigorous, although it still raged, for its whole body was fast becoming one vast mass of bruises through the incessant and hearty beating it was receiving. Still the fight was prolonged ; prodigies of strength and valour, ability, and nimbleness were shown that day by that valiant band of 170, whose repeated blows were rained upon the monster. At last the monster yielded quietly, and there it lay extended at full length on the ground, stretched out like an immense white larva* of the rotten white pine wood, quite dead. By this time it was quite dark ; indeed, night. So they left it until the morning. When the sun appeared they all arose to cut up this big fish. t There it lay, dead! Looking at it as it lay extended, it resembled a very * The word is huhu. I suppose this large grub has been selected for a comparison owing to its dying helplessly extended, and its plump, fat appearance. + I have translated this word (ika), wherever it occurs in the story, by ‘‘fish,” this being one of its principal meanings; but it would carry a very different one to a New Zealander, Here it would be just synonymous with whale, or large marine animal, Cotunso.—On a beiler Knowledge of the Maori Race, 91 large whale,* but its general form or appearance was that of the great lizard,+ with rigid spiny crest, while the head, the legs, feet, and claws, the tail, the scales, the skin, and the general spiny ridges, all these resembled those of the more common lizards (tuatara). Its size was that of the sperm whale (paraoa). Then this man-devouring monster was closely looked at and examined for the first time—the wretch, the monster, that had destroyed so many persons, so many bands of armed men and travelling parties! Long, indeed, was the gazing; great was the astonishment expressed. At last, one of the many chiefs said, ‘Let us throw off our clothing, and all hands turn to cut up this fish, that we may also see its stomach, which has swallowed so many of the children of men.} | Then they began to cut it open, using obsidian and pitch-stone knives, and saws for cutting up flesh made of sharks’ teeth, and the shells of sea and of fresh-water mussels (Unio). On the outside, beneath its skin, were enormous layers of belly fat (suet), thick and in many folds. Cutting still deeper into its great stomach or maw, there was an amazing sight. Lying in heaps were the whole bodies of men, of women, and of children! Some other bodies were severed in the middle, while some had their heads off, and some their arms, and some their legs; no doubt occasioned through the working of the monster’s jaws and the forcible muscular action of its enormous throat in-swallowig, when the strong blasts of its breath were emitted from its capacious and cavernous belly. And with them were also swallowed all that appertained to them—their greenstone war-clubs, their short-knobbed clubs of hardwood, their weapons of whales’ ribs both long and short, their travelling staves of rank, their halbert-shaped weapons, their staffs and spears—there they all were within the bowels of the monster, as if the place was a reeular stored armoury of war. Here, also, were found their various ornaments of greenstone for both neck and ears, and sharks’ teeth, too, in abundance (mako). Besides all those there were a great variety of garments found in its maw: fine bordered flax-mats; thick impervious war-mats, some with ornamented borders ; chiefs’ woven garments made of dogs’ tails, of albatross feathers, of kiwi feathers, of red (parrot) feathers, and of seals’ skin, and of white dogs’ skin ; also, white, black, and chequered mats made of woven flax, and garments of undressed flax (Phormium), and the long-leaved kahakaha (Astelia, species), and of many other kinds. * Nui tohora. + Tuatete, the angry, frightful lizard, now extinct. ¢ Uri-o-Tiki: literally, descendants of Tiki: Tiki being, in their mythology, the creator or progenitor of man. 92 Transactions,— Miscellaneous, All the dead bodies, and parts of bodies, the conquerors scooped out and threw into a heap, and buried in a pit which they dug there, And that work over they proceeded to cut up the fish into pieces; and when they had examined its fat and suet, they expressed its oil by clarifying it with heat, which was eaten by the tribe; and so they devoured and consumed in their own stomachs their implacable foe. This done, they all returned to Rotorua and dwelt there. 2. The Killing of Pekehaua. After the destruction of the monster Hotupuku, the fame of that exploit was heard by all the many tribes of the district of Rotorua. Then a messenger was sent to those heroes by Hororita, or by some other chief, to inform them that another man-eating monster dwelt at a place called Te Awahou, and that the existence of this monster was known, just as in the former case of the one that dwelt in the plain at Kaingaroa. The travelling companies of the districts of Waikato and of Patetere were never heard of; and so the travelling companies of the Rotorua district, which left for Waikato, were also somehow lost, being never again heard of. When the people of Rotorua heard this news, those same 170 heroes arose, from out of many warriors, and set forth for Te Awahou. Arriving there, they sought for information, and gained all they could. Then they asked, ‘‘ Where does this monster dwell?’ The people of the place rephed, ‘“ It dwells in the water, or it dwells on the dry land, who should certainly know ; according to our supposition, no doubt it is much like that one which was killed.” Hearing this, they went to the woods, and brought thence a large quantity of supplejacks (Fhipogonum scandens), with which to make water- traps of basket-work.. Those they interlaced, and bound firmly together with a strong trailing plant (Muhlenbeckia complexa), so that when they were finished the traps consisted of two or even three layers of canes or supple- jacks. Then they twisted ropes wherewith to set and fix the water-traps, in order to snare the monster, and these were all done. Then they made similar plans and arrangements for themselves, as on the former occasion when the first one was killed. All being ready, the band of heroes set out, reciting their forms of spell, or charms, as they went along; those were of various kinds and potencies, but all having one tendency, to enable them to overcome the monster. Onwards they went, and after travelling some distance, they neared the place, or water-hole, where it was said the monster lived; the name of that deep pool is Te Warouri (t.e., the Black Chasm). They travelled on until they gained the high edge of the river’s side, where they again recited their charms and spells, which done, the 170 proceeded to encamp on that very spot. Corenso.—On a better Knowledye of the Maori Lace, 93 Then they diligently sought out among themselves a fearless and courageous man, when a chief named Pikata presented himself and was selected. He seized the water-trap, which was decorated on the top and sides and below with bunches of pigeons’ feathers; the ropes, also, were all fastened around the trap, to which stones were also made fast all round it, to make it heavy and to act as an anchor and to keep it steady; and, having seized it, he plunged into the water with his companions, when they bold:y dived down into the spring which gushed up with a roaring noise from beneath the earth. While these were diving below the others above were diligently employed in performing their several works, viz., of reciting powerful charms and spells,* of which they uttered all they knew of various kinds and powers, for the purpose of overcoming the monster, Now it came to pass that, when the spines and spear-like crest of the monster had become soft and flaccid, through the power of those spells and charms, for they had been all erect and alive in full expectation of a rare cannibal feast, Pitaka and his chosen companions descended to the very bottom of the chasm; there they found the monster dwelling in its own nice home > then the brave Pitaka went forwards, quite up to it, coax- ing and enticing, and bound the rope firmly around the monster ; which having done, lo! in a twinkling, he (Pitaka) had clean escaped behind it! Then his companions pulled the rope, and those at the top knew the sign, and hauled away, and drew up to the top their companions, together with the monster, so that they all came up at one time. Nevertheless, those above had also recited all manner of charms for the purposes of raising, lifting, and upbearing of heavy weights, otherwise they could not have hauled them all up, owing to their very great weight. For a while, however, they were all below; then they came upwards by degrees, and at last they floated all together on the surface. Ere long they had dragged the monster on shore on to the dry land, where it lay extended; then they hastened to hit and beat with their clubs the jaws of this immense fish. Now this monster had the nearer resemblance to a fish, because it had its habitation in the water. * Upwards of ten kinds of spells are here, and in other parts of these stories, parti- cularly mentioned by name; but as we have nothing synonymous in Hnelish, their nwmes cannot be well translated, and it would take as many pages of MS. to explain them. Among them were spells causing weariness to the foe, spells for the spearing of taniwhas (monsters), spells for the warding off attack, and for the protection of the men from the enemy; spells for causing bravery, for returning like-for-like in attack, for uplifting feet from ground, for making powerless, etc., etc., all more or less curious, but mostly very simple in terms. Of spells and charms, exorcisms and incantations—for good or for ill- luck, for blessing and cursing—the ancient New Zealander possessed hundreds, ingeniously contrived for almost every purpose; few, however, if any, of them could be termed prayers, Such form a bulky history of themselves, 94, Transactions, —Miscellaneous. So then went forth the loud pealing call to all the towns and villages of the Rotorua district. And the tribes assembled on the spot to look at and examine their implacable foe. There it lay dragged on to the dry land on the river’s side, in appearance very much like a big, common whale. Yet it was not exactly like a full-erown old whale ; it was more, in bulk, as the calf of a big whale as it there lay. They then commenced cutting-up that fish as food for themselves; on laying its huge belly wide open there, everything was seen at one glance, all in confusion, as if it were the centre of a dense forest.* For, going down- wards into its vast stomach, there lay the dead, just as if it were an old bone-cave with piles of skeletons and bones—bones of those it had swallowed in former days. Yes, swallowed down with all their garments about them, women and children and men! ‘There was to be seen the enormous heap of clothing of all kinds; chiefs’ mats of dogs’ tails and of dogs’ skins—white, black, and chequered—with the beautiful woven flax-mats adorned with ornamental borders, and garments of all kinds. There were also arms and implements of all kinds+; clubs, spears, staves, thin hardwood chopping knives, white whalebone clubs, carved staffs of rank, and many others, including even darts and barbed spears, which the monster had carried off with its food. There these arms and implements all were, as if the place were a store-house of weapons or an armoury ! Then they proceeded to roast and to broil, and to set aside of its flesh and fat in large preserving calabashes, for food and for oil ; and so they devoured their deadly enemy all within their own stomachs; but all the dead they buried in a pit. Then every one of those valiant warriors returned to their own homes. The name of that village, where they were for a while encamped, was Mangungu (i.e., broken bones). So much for thy victorious work! O thou all-devouring throat of man, that thou shouldest even seek to eat and to hunt after the flesh of monsters as food for thee ! 3. The Killing of Kataore. When the fame of those victors who had killed the monster Pekehaua reached the various towns and villages of Tarawera, of Rotokakahi, and of Okataina, the people there were filled with wonder at the bravery of those men who had essayed to destroy that terrible and malicious man-devourer. Then they began to think, very likely there is also a monster in the road to Tikitapu, because the travelling companies going by that place to Rotorua * The words are: ‘‘ Koteriu o Tane-Mahuta;” lit., the hollow stomach, or centre of Tane-Mahuta—i.e., the god of forests; Tane-Mahuta being the god of forests. {+ Ten kinds are here enumerated, all of hardwood and hard white whale’s-bone, CotEenso.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 95 are never once heard of; their relations are continually enquiring, ‘‘ Have they arrived at the place to which they went?” but there is no response ; therefore they are dead. Hence it follows that the sad thought arises within, were they killed by some monster? or, by some travelling man like themselves ? or, by some armed marauding party of the enemy ? But the chief of Tikitapu and of Okareka, whose name was Tangaroa- mihi, knew very well all along that there was a monstrous beast at Tikitapu, although he did not know that the beast there residing ate up men; the chief always believed that it dwelt quietly, for it assumed the very air of peace and quietness whenever the chief and his men went to the spot where it dwelt to give it food; and that beast also knew very well all its feeders, and all those who used it tenderly and kindly. Nevertheless, when they had returned from feeding it to their village, and any other persons appeared there going by that way, then that monster came down and pursued those persons and devoured them as food. Now the manner of acting of this ugly beast was very much like that of a (bad) dog which has to be tied to a stick (or clog). For its knowledge of its own masters was great; whenever its master, Tangaroamihi, went there to see it, its demeanour was wholly quiet and tractable, but when people belonging to another and strange tribe went along by that road, then it arose to bark and growl at them; so that, what with the loud and fearful noise of its mouth, and the sharp rattlings of its rings and leg-circlets, great fear came upon them, and then he fell on them and ate them up. Now when the multitude everywhere heard of the great valour of those men, the tribes all greatly extolled them, and wondered exceedingly at the prodigious powers of those four chiefs. Then it was that the chiefs of Rotokakahi, of Tarawera, of Okataina, and of Rotorua began to understand the matter, and to say, ‘‘Oh! there is - perhaps a monster also dwelling in the road to Tikitapu, because the travel- ling parties going from those parts to Rotorua, as well as those coming from Rotorua to these five lakes, are never heard of.” For when the travellers went to Rotorua by the road of Okareka they safely arrived thither; and so when they returned by that same way of Okareka they reached their homes in safety;—but if the travellers went from Tarawera to Rotorua by the road of Tikitapu, they néver reached Rotorua at all; somehow they always got lost by that road. And so again it was with the people from Rotokakahi, travelling thence to Rotorua; if they went by the road leading by Pareuru, they safely arrived at Rotorua, and also in returning from Rotorua; if they came back by that same road, they reached their villages at Rotokakahi in safety ; somehow, there was something or other in that road by Tikitapu which 96 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. caused men’s hearts to dislike greatly that way, because those who travelled by it were lost and never heard of. Therefore, the hearts of those who remained alive began to stir within them, so that some even went as far as to say—‘‘ Perhaps that chief Tangaroamihi has killed and destroyed both the travelling parties and the armed parties who travelled by the way of Tikitapu.” But that chief Tangaroamihi had shown his hospitality and expressed his kindly feeling to the enquirers who went to his town to seek after those who were missing. Now, however, when the suffering people heard of the exceeding great valour of those four chiefs in their slaying of monsters, then they con- sidered how best to fetch them to come and to have a look at Tikitapu. So their messenger was sent to those brave heroes, and when they heard from him the message, they all bestirred themselves, that same 170, for they were greatly delighted to hear of more work for them in the line of slaying monsters. So they immediately commenced preparations for their journey to Tikitapu, some in pounding fernroot, some in digging-up convolvulus roots, some in taking whitebait (Galavias aitenuatus), and some in dredging freshwater mussels, all to be used as food on their journey to Taiapu, to the mount at Moerangi, for Moerangi was the place where that noxious beast called Kataore dwelt. In the morning, at break of day, they arose and started, taking their first meal far away on the great plain, at a nice kind of stopping-place. When they had scarcely finished their meal they commenced conversation with the usual talk of warriors on an expedition ; for at this time they did not exactly know whether it was really by a monster, or by the people who dwelt thereabouts, that all those who had travelled by that road, whether armed parties or whether singly, had been destroyed. When this armed party took their journey, they also brought away with them the necessary ropes and such things, which had been previously made and got ready. They knew that such (as they had heard) was the evil state of all the roads and ways of that place, therefore they sat awhile and considered, knowing very well the work they had in hand. However, when the eating and talking were ended, they again arose and recommenced their march. They entered the forest and traversed it, quitting it on the other side. Then the priests went before the party to scatter abroad their spells and charms, that is to say, their Maori recitations. But they acted just the same on this as on former occasions already related. They recited all the charms and spells they had used against both Hotopuku* and Pekehaua, going on and reciting as they went; at last * Though not once mentioned or alluded to in that story. Conenso.—On a better Knowledye of the Maort Race. 97 they made up their minds to halt, so they sat down. Then it was that the people in the villages, under the chief Tangaroamihi, gazed watchfully upon that armed party there encamped, thinking it was a party of their enemies coming to fight and to kill; but in this they were deceived, it being altogether a different party. A long time the party remained there, watching and waiting, but nothing came. At last one of the chiefs got up and said—‘* Where- abouts does this noxious beast that destroys men dwell ?”’ Then another of those chiefs replied—* Who knows where, in the water, or in the stony cliff that overhangs yonder 2”? On this they set to work, and closely examined that lake; but alas! the monster was not to be found there ; nevertheless, the appearance of that water was of a forbidding fearful character, that is to say, the fear was caused by the peculiar glitter of the water, as if strangely and darkly shaded, having the appearance of the water whence the greenstone is obtained. But notwithstanding all that, they could not detect any kind of chasm or deep dark hole in all that lake, like the hole in which Pekehaua was found. Then certain of the chiefs.said to the priests, ‘‘ Begin, go to work; select some of your potent charms and spells.’ So those were chosen and used ; the priests recited their charms, causing stinging like nettles, and their charms of stitching together, so that the bubbles might speedily arise to the surface of the lake, if so be that the monster they sought was there in the water. At this time one of the priests arose, upon the word spoken forth by one of the chiefs of the party, and said, ‘‘ It is all to no purpose; not a single burst, or rising, or bubble has arisen in the water of Tikitapu.”’ Then they turned their attention upwards to the stony cliff which stood before them ; when, before they had quite finished their spell, causing nettle- stinging, and were reciting their lifting and raisimg charms, a voice was heard roaring downwards from the overhanging precipice at Moerangi, as if it were the creaking of trees in the forest when violently agitated by the gale; then they knew and said, ‘‘ Alas! the monster’s home is in the cave in the stony cliff.’’ Upon this the whole body of 170 arose and stood ready for action: for glad they also were that they had found food for their inner man. In their uprising, however, they were not forgetful, for they immediately commenced reciting their powerful charms and spells; all were used, of each and every kind—none were left unsaid; the several priests made use of all,* that being their peculiar work. They now set to work, and soon they got near to the entrance of the * Seven or eight kinds of charms and spells are here also particularized, and then the remainder given in a lump, i 98 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. cave in the rock where this noxious cannibal beast dwelt. At last they got up to the cave, where the whole band quietly arranged themselves, and took a long time to consider how to act. At length the valiant, fearless men arose—men who had already bound monsters fast—and, seizing the ropes, went forward into the cave. There they saw that noxious beast sitting, and staring full at them; but, oh! such fearful eyes! Who can describe them? In appearance like the full moon rising up over the distant dark mountain range; and when gazed at by the band, those hideous eyes glared forth upon them like strong daylight suddenly flashing into the dark recesses of the forest. And, anon, lo! they were in colour as if clear shining greenstone were gleaming and scintillating in the midst of the black eye-balls! But that was really all that gave rise to the appearance of fear, because the creature’s spines and crest of living spears had become quite flaccid and powerless, through the potent operations of the many weakening spells which had been used by those numerous warriors, that is to say, priests. Then they managed to put forth their hands stealthily over its huge head, gently stroking it at the same time. At length the rope was got round the monster’s neck and made secure ; another rope was also slided further on below its fore-legs, and that was firmly fixed; twice did those brave men carry ropes into the cave. Having done all this they came out to their friends, those of the 170 warriors who had been anxiously waiting their return, and who, when they saw them emerge, enquired, ‘‘ Are your ropes made fast ?’’ They replied, ‘Yes; the ropes are fastened to the monster ; one round the neck and one round the middle.’’ Then the enquiry arose, ‘‘ How shall the dragging of it forth from its cave, and its destruction, be accomplished ?’”’ When some of the chiefs replied, ‘‘ Let us carry the ropes outside of the trees which grow around, so that, when the monster begins to lash and bound about, we shall be the better able to make them fast to their trunks.’’ Then others said, ‘‘ All that is very good, but how shall we manage to kill it ?’’ Some replied, ‘‘ Why should we trouble ourselves about killing it ? Is it not so fastened with ropes that it cannot get away? Just leave it to itself; its own great strength will cause it to jump violently about, and jerk, and knock, and beat itself; after that, we having made the ropes fast to the trees, the destroyers can easily run in on it and kill it; or, if not, let us just leave it alone to strangle itself in the ropes.” So all this was carried out by those 170 brave warriors. Then the several men having been all properly placed, so as to hold and handle and drag the ropes effectually ; the word of command was given, ‘* Haul away!’ and then they all hauled with a will! But, wonderful to behold, entirely owing to the cave being in the face of the perpendicular Corenso.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 99 cliff, almost simultaneously with the first pull, lo! the monster was already ontside of the entrance to the cave. But then, in so saying, the potent | work of the priests in reciting their raising and uplifting charms must be | also included in the cause of the easy accomplishment. The moment that the monster’s great tail was outside clear of the cave, then its head began to rear and toss and plunge, frightful to behold! On seeing this, they loosened a little the rope that held it by its middle; when, lo! its head was close to the trees, against which it began to lean, while it knocked about its tail prodigiously. The men, however, were on the watch, and soon the two ropes were hauled tightly up around the trees, notwithstanding the | jerkings and writhings of its huge tail. There, at last, it was, lashed fast close to the trees, so that it could only wriggle a little that is to say its tail. Then the armed men came on; they banged and beat and clubbed away at the monster, which now lay like a rat caught in the snare of a trap; and it was not long before it was quite dead, partly through the blows and bruises, and partly through the ropes ; and so it came to pass that it was kalled. The fame of this great exploit was soon carried to all those tribes who had fetched and sent Purahokura on his errand to Tikitapu. Then they assembled at the place, and saw with astonishment their deadly foe lying on the ground, just like a stranded whale on the sea-shore, even so this noxious monster now lay extended before them. Then arose the mighty shout of derision from all both great and small, the noise was truly deafen- ing, loud sounding, like that arising from the meeting together of the strong currents of many waters ! Early the next morning the people arose to their work to cut up their fish ; then was to be seen with admiration the dexterous use of the various sharp-cutting instruments—of the saw made of sharks’ teeth, of the sea mussel-shells, of the sharp pitch-stone knives, of the freshwater mussel- shells, and of the flints. Truly wonderful it was to behold, such loads of fat! such thick collops! This was owing to the cannibal monster con- tinually devouring men for its common food at all times and seasons ; it never knew a time of want or a season of scarcity ; it never had any winter, it was always a jolly harvest time with it! How, indeed, should it have been otherwise ? when the companies of travellers from this place and from that place were continually passing and repassing to and fro; therefore it came to pass that its huge maw was satiated with food—not including the food given to it by its master Tangaroamihi—and therefore it came to be so very fat. So the big fish was cut up. As they went on with their work, and got 100 Transactions,— Miscellaneous. at length into its stomach, there the cannibal food which it had devoured was seen! there it lay—women, children, men—with their garments and their weapons. Some were found chopped in two, both men and weapons; no doubt through the action of its terrible lips in seizing them! others were swallowed whole, very likely through its capacious motith being kept open, when the strong internal blasts from its great gullet drew down the men into its stomach! For you must also know, that this cave is situated near to the water, so that whenever a party came by water paddling in their canoe to Tikitapu, and the canoe came on to the landing place, this monster, Kataore, seeing this, came out of its cave, and, jumping into the water, took the canoe with the men in it into its stomach, so that both men and canoe were devoured instantaneously ! The victors worked away until they had taken everything out of its big maw, both the goods (of clothing and instruments as before) and the dead; the dead they buried in a pit. Then they finished cutting up that big fish; some of it they roasted and broiled; and some they rendered down in its own fat, and preserved in calabashes; and so it came to pass that it was all eaten up, as good food for the stomach of man. But when the news of this killing was carried to the chief Tangaroamihi, to whom this pet Saurian belonged, and he heard it said to him,—‘* What is this they have done; thy pet has been killed?” The chief enquired, ‘‘ By whom?’ and they answered, ‘‘By the tribe of Tama” (Ngatitama). On hearing this the heart of Tangaroamihi became overcast with gloom, on account of his dear pet which had been killed; and this deed of theirs was a cause of enmity and war between Tangaroamihi and those who had destroyed his pet; and it remained and grew to be a root of evil for all the tribes. Thus the story ends. It should be briefly noticed, in conclusion, that the name of this chief (Tangaroamihi), is one highly suited to the event; or it may have been given to him at an earlier date, through his having a pet reptile. Tangaroa is the name of the god, or creator or father and ruler, of all fishes and reptiles; (though Punga is sometimes spoken of as a god possessing similar powers, but perhaps over only a certain natural section of those animals ;*) and miht means, to show affection for, or to lament and sigh over, any one,—present or absent, living or dead ;—so that Tangaroamihi might mean, (1) that this chief lamented over the death of one of Tangaroa’s family, or tribe; or (2) that he ever liked and showed great affection towards one of them. * Vide the beginning of the following fable,—‘‘ The Shark and the large Lizard,” and the note there, Corenso.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race, 101 § 3.— Fables. 1.—The Fable of the Shark and the Large Lizard—(Guana). In days of yore the large lizard and the shark lived together in the sea, for they were brothers, both being of the children of Punga.* The lizard was the elder and the shark the younger. After some time they fell out, and as the quarrel was great and protracted, the lizard, vexed at the conduct of his younger brother, determined to leave off dwelling in the sea, and to reside on the dry land, so he leit the water.| But just as he had got on the shore, his brother the shark swam up to where he was on a rock, and wished him to return, saying—‘ Let you and I go out to sea, to the deep water.”’ The lizard replied, with a bitter curse, sayimg—‘‘ Go thou to the sea, that thou mayst become a relish of fish for the basket of cooked roots. On this, the shark retorted with another curse, saying—‘ Go thou on shore that thou mayst be smothered with the smoke of the fire of green fern.”’|| Then the lizard replied, with a laugh, ‘‘ Indeed, I will go on shore, away up to the dry land, where I shall be looked upon as the personification of the demon-god Tu,§ with my spines and ridgy crest causing fear and affright, so that all will gladly get out of my way, hurrah !”’ 2. The Battle of the Birds.—(A Fable of the Olden Time.) In ancient days, two shags met on the seaside. One was a salt-water bird and the other was a fresh-water bird; nevertheless, they were both shags, living alike on fish which they caught in the water, although they differed a little in the colour of their feathers. The river-bird, seeing the sea-bird go into the sea for the purpose of fishing food for itself, did the * According to the Maori mythology (in which each portion, or kingdom, of Nature had a different origin or progenitor), Punga was the father, or former, of fishes and reptiles. + Darwin, in his ‘‘ Naturalist’s Voyage” (ch xvii.), writing of the large aquatic lizard (Amblyrhynchus cristatus), has some curious remarks very applicable here. + “Roots” is not in the original, which has merely ‘‘ kete maoa”’—basket of cooked (food, understood); but the meaning is fernroot, or sweet potatoes. Our common potatoes were not then known to the New Zealander, otherwise I should have preferred that word, ‘‘Sweet potatoes” (or kwmara) would not answer well, as this food was not in use all the yearronnd; and ‘“‘ vegetables” would mislead, as such were never alone cooked save in times of great scarcity. The allusion is as to the Maori manner of serving-up and setting food before men, each basket having a bit of fish or flesh, as a savour, placed on the top. || I had often heard of the old mode of capturing this (the edible) lizard, which lived in holes (burrows) at the foot of trees, and was made to appear by smoking them out ; forty years ago this animal was still being eaten by an inland tribe named Rangitane. (Vide ante, extract from Cook, p. 83, and from Nicholas, p. 84. § Tw was the name of the New Zealand god of war, 102 Transactions, —Miscellaneous, same. They both dived repeatedly, seeking food for themselves, for they were hungry ; indeed, the river-bird dived ten times, and caught nothing, Then the river-bird said to his companion, ‘If it were but my own home, I should just pop under water and find food directly ; there never could be a single diving there without finding food.” To which remark his com- panion simply said, “Just so.’’ Then the river-bird said to the other, “Yes, thy home here in the sea is one without any food.’”’ To this insulting observation the sea-bird made no reply. Then the river-bird said to the other, ‘‘ Come along with me to my home; you and I fly together.” On this both birds flew off, and kept flying till they got to a river, where they dropped. Both dived, and both rose, having each a fish in its bill; then they dived together ten times, and every time they rose together with a fish in their bills. This done the sea-bird flew away back to its own home. Arriving there it immediately sent heralds in all directions to all the birds of the ocean, to lose no time but to assemble and kill all the fresh-water birds, and all the birds of the dry land and the forests. The sea-birds hearing this assented, and were soon gathered together for the fray. In the meanwhile, the river-birds and the land and forest birds were not idle ; they also assembled from ali quarters, and were preparing to repel their foes. Ere long the immense army of the sea-birds appeared, sweeping along grandly from one side of the heavens to the other, making such a terrible noise with their wings and cries. On their first appearing, the long-tail fly- catcher (Rhipidura flabellifera) got into a towering passion, being desirous of spearing the foe, and danced about presenting his spear on all sides, crying “‘ Ti! #?"* Then the furious charge was made by the sea-birds. In the first rank came, swooping down with their mighty wings, the albatross, the gannet, and the big brown gull (ngotro), with many others closely following ; indeed, all the birds of the sea. Then they charged at close quarters, and fought bird with bird. How the blood flowed and the feathers flew! The river-birds came on in close phalanx, and dashed bravely right into their foes. They all stood to it for a long time, fighting desperately. Sucha sight! At last the sea-birds gave way, and fled in confusion. Then it was that the hawk soared down upon them, pursuing and killing; and the fleet sparrow-hawk darted in and out among the fugitives, tearing and ripping; while the owl, who could not fly by day, encouraged, by hooting derisively, ‘Thou art brave! thou art victor!” ;t and the big parrot screamed, ‘‘Remember! remember! Be you ever remembering your thrashing !’’} * Tts faint little note, uttered as it hops, and twirls, and opens its tail. + “ Tot koé ! tod koé !” was the owl’s cry, which the words a little resemble, + “ Kia ivo! kia iro koe !” was the cry of the parrot, CotEnso.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 103 In that great battle, those two birds, the tiitti (Haladroma urinatriv= petrel), and the taiko,* were made prisoners by the river-birds; and hence it is that these two birds always lay their eges and rear their young in the woods among the land-birds. The tittw (petrel) goes to sea, and stays away there for a whole moon (lunar month), and when she is full of oil, for her young in the forests, she returns to feed them, which is once every moon. From this circumstance arose with our ancestors the old adage, which has come down to us, ‘‘ He titix whangainga tahi;’ literally, A tit of one feeding ; meaning, Even as a wii bird gets fat though only fed well once now and then.t Apprnpix.— Note to p. 82. This is an astonishing fact, but it is strictly true, though, I believe, scarcely known. 1, therefore, with great pleasure, give in a note an extract or two from an interesting letter ‘‘ On the Native Songs of New Zealand,” written nearly twenty-five years ago, by a talented musician and author of several works on music (Mr. J. H. Davies, of Trinity College, Cambridge), which letter was printed as an appendix to one of Sir G. Grey’s works on New Zealand; and though highly worthy of being read and of being deeply studied—especially by a trained musician—it is, I fear, but very little known among us. * Of this bird, the Taiko, I have formerly often heard, particularly at the northern parts of the North Island, but have never seen one. It is scarcely known here in Hawke Bay, save by name to a few of the oldest natives. An old chief at Te Wairoa told me that he had known of two which were seen together on the shore of Portland Island (Hawke Bay), many years ago, one of which was snared and eaten. From another very old chief I had heard of two having been once cooked in a Maori earth-oven as a savoury mess for a travelling party of rank; and from his story it would appear as if the bird could have been easily taken in its habitat, at the will of the lord of the manor; for, on that travelling party arriving at the pa, one of the chiefs’ wives remarked, ** Alas! whatever shall I do for a tit-bit to set before our guests ?” The chief said, ‘‘T’ll get you some.” He then went out and soon returned with two Taikos, which were cooked and greatly relished. This bird is said to have been large, plump, and fat, and highly prized for food, and only to be obtained on exposed oceanic headlands and islets. (There are small rocky islets called by its name, Motutaiko.) Possibly it may be a large species of petrel or puffin; although, if the imperfect Maori relation is to be depended on, its beak was more that of an albatross. + This proverb would be used by the New Zealanders on various occasions; such as (1) When chiefs of lower rank would bring a present (annual, perhaps, as of sweet potatoes [kumara} at harvest-time), to their superior chief: (2) When a travelling party arrives at a village, and something particularly good, or extra, which perhaps had been stored up or set by, or just obtained with difficulty or labour, should be given to the party; on such occasions the proverb might be used. Much like (here) our sayings of, “We don’t kill a pig every day;” ‘‘In luck to-day ;” ‘Just in time,” &c. 104 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. First, Mr. Davies writes of ‘‘the enharmonic scale of the ancient Greeks’? (which has long been lost, and which, indeed, has been disputed), that ‘‘it consisted of a quarter-tone, a quarter-tone and an interval of two tones, an interval somewhat greater than our third major ;’’ and that this long-lost ancient scale has been found to exist among the Arabians, the Chinese, and the New Zealanders. ‘‘ As the highest art is to conceal the art and to imitate nature, that mighty nation the Greeks, with an art almost peculiarly their own, having observed these expressions of natural sentiment,’ stated fully in the pre- ceding paragraph, ‘thence deduced certain laws of interval, by which, while they kept within the limits of art, they took care not to transgress those of nature, but judiciously to adopt, and as nearly as possible to define, with mathematical exactness, those intervals which the uncultured only approach by the irregular modulation of natural impulses) * * * Hence, I conceive the reason of the remnant of that scale being found among most of those nations who have been left to the impulses of a ‘nature- taught’ song rather than been cramped by the trammels of a conventional system—the result of education and of civilization.” ‘“* Plutarch remarks, that the most beautiful of the musical genera is the enharmonic, on account of its grave and solemn character, and that it was formerly most in esteem. Aristides Quintilian tells us it was the most diffi- cult of all, and required a most excellent ear. Avistoxenus observes that it was so difficult that no one could ‘sing more than two dieses consecutively, and yet the perceptions of a Greek audience were fully awake to, and their judgment could appreciate, a want of exactness in execution.” “Mr. Lay Tradescant, speaking of the Chinese intervals, says that ‘it is impossible to obtain the intervals of their scale on our keyed instruments, but they may be perfectly effected on the violin; * * * and our own ears attest that, universally, in the modulations of the voice of the so-called savage tribes, and in the refined and anomalously studied Chinese, there are intervals which do not correspond to any notes on our keyed instru- ments, and which to an untrained ear appear almost monotonous.”’ ‘‘ Suffice it to say that many Chinese airs, of which I have two, show the diesic modulation and the saltus combined; but the majority of the New Zealand airs which I have heard are softer and more ‘ligate,’ and have a great predominance of the diesic element.’’ “ One thing, however, is certain, that, as Aristoxenus tell us, no perfect ear could modulate more than two dieses at a time, and then there was a ‘saltus ’ or interval of two tones, and as the New Zealand songs frequently exhibit more than two close intervals together, it is more than probable that many of these songs are a chromatic,” Cotenso.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 105 “Tn proof that a system of modulation like the above still survives, Ll shall produce as nearly as my ear could discern, the modulation of some of the New Zealand melodies. * * * “‘T here beg to state, that though with great care and the assistance of a graduated monochord, and an instrument divided like the intervals of the Chinese kin, I have endeavoured to give an idea of those airs of New Zealand which I heard, yet so difficult is it to discover the exact interval, that I will not vouch for the mathematical exactness. * * * I must also, in justice to myself, add, that the singer did not always repeat the musical phrase with precisely the same modulation, though without a very severe test this would not have been discernible, nor then to many ears, the general effect being to an Kuropean ear very monotonous. But I may say that, when I sang them from my notation, they were recognised ‘and approved of by competent judges, and that the New Zealander himself said, ‘ he should soon make a singer of me.’’’* Mr. Davies has also, in his letter, given some of our Maori New Zealand songs, set by him to music, as examples. I may here also mention, that one of the earliest scientific visitors to New Zealand, Dr. Forster, who accompanied Captain Cook on his second voyage, has left a statement on record of a similar kind. Here is a short quotation from it, given, partly on account of the learned German’s feeling and truthful deduction therefrom, and partly because his valuable work is scarcely known in the Colony. (And, to the everlasting honour of the good Doctor, it is to be further noted, that he does this immediately after relating several acts of killmg and cannibalism perpetrated by the New Zealanders on Europeans, among which was the very recent one, in which ten seamen belonging to Captain Cook’s expedition were killed, ete., so that Dr. Forster did not allow his reason to be carried away by his feelings.) He says,— ‘««The music of the New Zealanders is far superior in variety to that of the Society and Friendly Islands. * * * The same intelligent friend who favoured me with a specimen of the songs at Tongatapu, has likewise given me another of the New Zealand music; and has also assured me that there appeared to be some display of genius in the New Zealand tunes, which soared very far above the wretched humming of the Tahitian, or even the four notes of the people at the Friendly Islands.”” (Two specimens of their tunes set to musical notes are then given.) ‘The same gentleman likewise took notice of a kind of dirge-like melancholy song, relating to the death of Tupaea.” (The musical notes of this, with the words, are also given.) * (Norn.—See ‘‘ Polynesian Mythology and Ancient Traditional History of the New Zealand Race, as furnished by their Priests and Chiefs.” Appendix, p, 313. By Sir George Grey ; Murray: London, 1855,—Ep.] 106 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. “They descend at the close from c to the octave below in a fall, resembling the sliding of a finger along the finger-board of a violin. I shall now dis- miss this subject with the following observation,—that the taste for music of the New Zealanders, and their superiority in this respect to other nations in the South Seas, are to me stronger proofs in favour of their heart, than all the idle eloquence of philosophers in their cabinets can invalidate.’’— Forster’s Voyage, vol. II., pp. 476-478. Art. VI.—On the Ignorance of the Ancient New Zealander of the Use of Projectile Weapons. By W. Cousnso, F.L.S. [Read before the Hawke Bay Philosophical Institute, 9th September, 1878.] I wave read Mr. C. Phillips’ paper “On a peculiar Method of Arrow Propulsion amongst the Maoris,’’* and as Mr. Phillips has referred to a very brief remark made by me in my essay ‘‘ On the Maori Races,” + and is evidently unacquainted with the old state of things which obtained in this country with regard to missiles, I have thought it right to say a few words on this subject in this paper. First, however, I would briefly remark, that in my writing that essay I appended thereto a quantity of ‘‘ Notes,” all elucidatory of many of the statements I had made therein. Somehow those ‘Notes’? were not printed with the essay—a matter I have greatly deplored, for it was wholly incomplete without them. Had they been printed with it, then Mr. Phillips would have found related the circumstance which gave rise to my remark quoted by him, of the New Zealanders ‘throwing fiery-headed darts at a pa (or fort) when attacking it.” That note I shall give in this paper further on. . It should be perfectly well known to us all that the first European visitors to New Zealand found the people utterly without the bow and arrow, and the sling, and, indeed, the common frequent use of the small dart or javelin, as an offensive projectile weapon. And all of those early visitors had ample opportunities of knowing this, for they were often attacked themselves by the New Zealanders, both on land and on water, when such missile weapons were never once used. At the same time it should be observed, that whenever a canoe, or a body of natives, came up with Cook, whether at sea or on land, and were for fighting, a single spear was invariably thrown ; this, however, was by way of challenge /taki), and was in accordance with their national custom ; just equal to the old Huropean one of throwing down the gage. This non-use of prepared missiles appeared the more strange to the - Europeans, from the fact of such weapons (slings and darts) being com- * Trans, N. 4, Inst., Vol. X.n9i7. + Trans. N, Z. Inst., Vol. L, p. 15 of the essay; 2nd ed., p; 852, Cotenso,—Iynorance of Ancient New Zealander of Use of Projectiles, 107 monly used as weapons of attack in the South Sea Islands, which Cook and his companions had but lately left. While the use of the bow and arrow, for sport, was also known to some,of those islanders. Captain Wallis, who discovered Tahiti in 1767 (two years before Cook first visited it and New Zealand), was fiercely attacked by the Tahitians, who surrounded his ship with “a fleet of more than 800 canoes, carrying 2,000 men.” On that occasion (when Wallis was in danger, and only saved by his big guns), the islanders commonly used powerful slings, with which they did some execution even in a ship of war. Captain Wallis says :— ‘The canoes pulled towards the ship’s stern, and began again to throw stones with great force and dexterity, by the help of slings, from a considerable dis- tance; each of these stones weighed about 2lbs., and many of them wounded the people on board, who would have suffered much more if an awning had not been spread over the whole deck to keep out the sun, and the hammocks placed in the nettings.” Their bows and arrows, however, they did not use on that occasion during the fight. Further on Captain Wallis adds :—‘ Their principal weapons are stones, thrown either with the hand or sling, and bludgeons ; for though they have bows and arrows, the arrows are only fit to knock down a bird, none of them being pointed, but headed only with a round stone.’’* Sydney Parkinson, who was with Cook on his first voyage, gives a drawing of the Tahitian sling (Pl. 13, fig. 1), and a description of it. He says :—‘‘ Their sling is about four feet long, made of plaited twine, formed from the fibres of the bark of a tree; the part which holds the stone is woven very close, and looks like cloth, from which the string gradually tapers to a point.’’+ Captain Cook, in 1769, thus speaks of the use of the bow and arrow by those Tahitians :—‘‘ Their bows and arrows have not been mentioned before, nor were they often brought down to the fort. This day, however, Tupurahi Tamaiti brought down his, in consequence of a challenge he had received from My. Gore. The chief supposed it was to try who could send the arrow farthest; Mr. Gore, who best could hit a mark, and as Mr. Gore did not value himself upon shooting to a great distance, nor the chief upon hittmg a mark, there was no trial of skill between them. Tupurahi, however, to show us what he could do, drew his bow and sent an arrow, none of which are feathered, 274 yards, which is something more than a seventh and something less than a sixth part of a mile. Their manner of shooting is somewhat singular; they kneel down, and the moment the arrow is discharged drop the bow.” } * Wallis’s Voyage; Cook’s Voyages, Vol, L., pp. 444-448. t+ Journal, p. 75. t Cook’s Voyages, Vol. II., p. 147, 108 Transactions, —Miscellaneous, And this is what he says respecting the New Zealanders, after having been some time among them :—‘‘ The perpetual hostility in which these poor savages live has necessarily caused them to make every village a fort. * * These people have neither sling nor bow. They throw the dart by hand, and so they do stones; but darts and stones are seldom used except in defending their forts. * * * But itis very strange that the same invention and diligence which have been used in the construction of places so admirably adapted to defence, almost without tools, should not, when urged by the same necessity, have furnished them with a single missile weapon, except the lance, which is thrown by hand; they have no con- trivance like a bow to discharge a dart, nor anything like a sling to assist them in throwing a stone, which is the more surprising, as the invention of slings, and bows and arrows, is much more obvious than of the works which these people construct, and both these weapons are found among much ruder nations, and in almost every other part of the world. The points of their long lances are barbed, and they handle them with such. :trength and agility that we can match them with no weapon but a loaded musquet.’’* Sydney Parkinson has an excellent remark on this subject (excellent in more ways than one), which I also quote, in the hope that future writers on ‘the whence of the Maori,” will take a note of it. He says—“ Something has already been mentioned respecting the language of the New Zealanders,’ and of its affinity with that of the people of Tahiti, which is a very extraordinary circumstance, and leads us to conclude that one place was originally peopled from the other, though they are at near 2000 miles distance. * * * The migration was probably from New Zealand to Tahiti, as the inhabitants of New Zealand were totally unacquainted with the use of bows and arrows till we first taught them, whereas the people of Tahiti use them with great dexterity, having, doubtless, discovered the use of them by some accident after their separation ; end it cannot be sup- posed that the New Zealanders would have lost so beneficial an acquisition if they had ever been acquainted with it.’’+ It must not be overlooked that two Tahitians (Tupaea and his son Taiota) were with them on this occasion. Tupaea not only aided the English considerably as interpreter, but was often facile princeps during the whole of their long stay among the New Zealanders. So, again, on Cook’s second voyage from Tahiti to New Zealand, he had on board a native of Porapora (one of the Society Isles), named Mahine, who came on with him to New Zealand. * Cook’s Voyages, Vol. Il. p. 345; III. 466, + Parkingson’s Journal, p. 75. Coumnso,—ILynorance of Ancient New Zealander of Use of Projectiles. 109 Dr. Forster, who accompanied Cook on his second voyage round the world, has given us a full account of the weapons of the people of Tanna, an island they discovered and spent-some time at on their third voyage from Tahiti to New Zealand. There, at Tanna, not only darts and slings were used in warfare, but also bows and arrows. And, again, subsequently, when at New Caledonia (which island Cook also discovered during that voyage), Dr. Forster gives another interesting account of the very peculiar manner in which those natives threw their darts, and, also, their prepared stones from slings.* Mr. Nicholas, who was in New Zealand with Mr. Marsden in 1814, and who spent several months in the country travelling about, and seeing all that was to be seen, saw no projectile weapon used by the natives save their common hand spears. And Major Cruise, during his ten months’ residence, is also equally silent about any missiles used by them in their warfare, although as a military officer, in command of soldiers, anything of that kind would be sure to have attracted his notice. We gather the same from Rutherford’s Journal. This witness had ample opportunities during his long sojourn of ten years among the New Zealanders, during which time he got fully tattooed and lived wholly d-la- Maori, in his frequent travellings with the Maoris from place to place in the interlor, and from his having been a witness of several severe and bloody battles. Curiously enough, Rutherford was at the great battle fought at Kaipara between the Neatiwhatua and the Ngapuhi tribes, in which the savage and murderous chief Hongi was present, commanding the Ngapuhi, and in which fierce battle Hongi’s son, Hare, was slain, and his head, with others, carried off in triumph by Rutherford’s Maori party from the East Coast; that battle was fought in the year 1825. Rutherford is in many respects a truthful witness, as I have good reasons for saying, having formerly traced out not a few of his statements. To the above I might add the uniform testimony of all the first missionaries, who saw quite enough of bloody work ; and of Polack,+ who resided a few years in New Zealand; * See appendix A for these extracts which I make, as Forster’s Voyage is a scarce work; and, also, believing they may be of service hereafter. + Polack says:—‘‘ The weapons employed in the native warfare were not remarkable for beauty or variety, and are now entirely laid aside. The bow and arrow found among all savage nations were unknown in the country, where numerous woods exist admirably fitted for the formation of such universally known weapons. Slings, another implement that did much execution, were also unknown.” (Vol. II., pp. 28-29). Polack is a writer whom I should scarcely ever think of quoting, not merely on account of his being com- paratively modern (in my writing of the ancient New Zealander) but owing to his many errors; had he contented himself with giving us plainly what he saw, without colouring (for he travelled a little while in New Zealand), and without attempting anything of science or history, theology or language, or the drawing of deductions,(!) for all which he was totally unfitted, then his observations would have been of real service, 110 Transactions. — Miscellaneous, but I will here close with my own, and that for two reasons: 1. That I had early travelled more than any one in New Zealand (the North Island), leaving few spots unvisited, and had used my eyes and ears in so travelling; and that I had also witnessed their manner of fighting and of attack; 2. That it was our custom at an early date (1834-1840), seeing we were but few then in number in the land, and could not possibly go everywhere—to collect young Maoris from all parts, and to teach them at our principal mission stations in the Bay of Islands, and then, when taught, return them to their homes and tribes; and that many of our Maori servants and labourers, amounting to some scores, or hundreds, were from those who had been taken young in war (of whom a large number we got liberated and returned to their homes), and from them I had often their vivid and interesting recitals of those battles and sieges, with every minutiz ; and my own testi- mony is this (the same indeed ae that of Cook and others) that the New Zealander never knew the use of the bow and arrow, nor of the sling proper, as used, for instance, by the natives of Tahiti. As to the use of the little instrument called a kotaha (sometimes a kopere, though, more properly speaking, the kopere was that by which the kotaha was thrown.’’) I have ever had very grave doubts of its being a true New Zealand implement ; for the endeavonr to learn something about it (when first prosecuting my enquiries 40-45 years ago) always ended in disappoint- ment. On this head I could say a good deal, but for the present I forbear. Here, however, are a few things that should not be lost sight of in this investigation: 1. That in all those old Maori tales of fightings and battles and sieges, and especially the killing of monsters (taniwhas, some of which I have lately translated),, while every possible weapon known to the old Maori, both of offence and defence, including even walking-sticks, is always carefully noticed, nothing of the kind in question (missiles) save plain common hand-spears, are ever mentioned ;* and yet, for those very purposes, no other weapon would have been so useful. 2. That just-as the old New Zealanders were early taught how to use the bow and arrow (and, no doubt, the slug also, by Tupaea and Taiota), as Parkinson says, so were they in after years taught how to make and use the bow and arrow, by myself and other of the early missionaries, as implements of sport for the boys, both of the mission families and of the Maori familes living with us. I have made several for them, but the young Maoris of that day never took to it, from the fact of its not being a national weapon, and not falling in -with the genius of the Maori. 38. That from the beginning of this century, or even earlier, the New Zealanders went often abroad in ships as visitors, * And even these darts, it should be observed, are not spoken of as thrown at the tuniwhas. CoLtEenso.—Ilgnorance of Ancient New Zealander of Use of Projectiles. 111 especially to New South Wales; indeed, a very extensive intercourse was then and for many years carried on between Port Jackson and New Zea- land, partly owing to the whale and seal fishery.* 4. That on Mr. Mars- den’s visit (1814) several foreigners were residing in New Zealand; mention is particularly made, among others, of a Tahitian,+ and a Hindoo, who were dwelling with the Maoris as Maoris, and who had quite made this country their home, without a wish to leave it; Major Cruise also, in 1819, found a native of the Marquesas { Islands fairly settled among them ; and that for many years convicts from the neighbouring penal colonies were continually escaping thence to New Zealand. 5. That from 1820-1840 young New Zealanders were frequently entering whale-ships and other vessels, to serve on cruises in the South Seas, several of whom returned to their native country and settled. 6. That during several years, after the arrival of the missionaries and before the formation of the colony, many harbours in New Zealand, and the Bay of Islands in particular, were the common resort of American, Colonial, and other whalers, whose crews were composed of men of many nations and of all colours; and among them were often natives from the Kast, including China and the South Sea Islands, some of whom settled in New Zealand, and no doubt many of them taught the New Zealander not a few novel things. 7. Two old sayings of the Maoris bearing on this subject I would also adduce:—1. Their terse old proverb, ‘‘ He tao rakau ka taea te pare, he tao kiiekore e taea’’—a wooden spear can be parried,|| a slanderous word§ cannot be parried. Now, if any other more destructive missile were known and in use among them, than the common hand-spear, surely such would have been preferred here. 2. Their saying, on the introduction of fire-arms, and for a long time after, that the only thing they disliked them for was, that by them the warrior fell as well as the slave at a distance,@ before that the hand-to-hand fight begun :** another proof that deadly missiles acting at a distance were not known. (8) Further, in all their very many proverbs and sayings there is no allusion to any such thing. My own opinion has long been, that the old New Zealanders (ever quick and able imitators, especially in any matter connected with warfare), having early had lessons from the Tahitian, Tupaea (whom they all but adored) and his son, Taiota, and also on Cook’s second voyage from Tahiti to New Zealand, from Mahine, the native of Porapora, in the arts of fashioning and using projectiles, perhaps endeavoured to adopt them, and * See appendix B. + Nicholas’ ‘‘ New Zealand,” Vol. I., p. 92. + Cruise’s Journal, p. 198. || Lit., a spoken spear. § See appendix, note B, for an illustration, J Lit., died like a nobody—a fool. ** The chiefs and the principal men urged onward the rush of the vanguard, but were ‘wot in it; they followed. ae, Transactions. —Miscellaneous. possibly did so to a certain poor extent; but the great facility with which they very soon acquired firearms caused them to set those missiles aside. What they might have done and perfected, having once been put into the way, had they remained isolated and not obtained muskets, is another matter. I have been led to make all these almost extra remarks through noticing what was said by a Mr. Grace at the time of the reading of Mr. Phillips’ paper, as reported (I am sorry to find) in the ‘‘ Proceedings” (Vol. X., p. 527). Mr. Grace might equally as well have said, that because he had always seen the Maoris playing at draughts, or growing and eating melons, peaches, and potatoes, eryo, such were indigenous! Such observations tend to mislead (being wholly erroneous), and will mislead still more in the future unless refuted ; hence, in great measure, I now write to such an extent. It is from such superficial remarks that the works of Tylor, Lubbock, and Herbert Spencer, and others, become of less value than they would otherwise be, through everything being gathered and admitted as of equal authority! And just so it is (I regret to say) with some of the remarks made by Mr. Phillips himself in this very paper; i.e, im my estimation they are deceiving, because they assume the very thing we are in search of—‘‘ the whence of the Maori?’’—a problem by no means yet proved. Yet Mr. Phillips says:—‘‘I have often wondered how it is that the aborigines of New Zealand should have made so little use of the bow and arrow, this being a weapon peculiarly suited to savage tribes, and, moreover, the familiar one of their ancestors.’ (Where did Mr. Phillips get this ?) Again, speaking of the toy-arrow he had been describing, he says :—‘‘ In itself it is a harmless weapon, and how it happens that the Maoris, a section of the Polynesian race, should have thus allowed so useful a weapon as the South Sea bow and arrow to degenerate into a mere toy,* is to me a curious circum- stance.’ (S. Parkinson’s remark on this very pomt, already quoted by me * at p. 108, made a hundred years ago, is far more rational every way; but then Parkinson, although he had seen more, had no preconception, no pet hobby to support!) Further, Mr. Phillips says:—‘‘It is well-known (?) that in olden days the Maoris launched their spears against a hostile fort by means of a whip, similar to the one above described, and they were even able to hurl stones a long distance.’’ (Whence, too, is this derived?) Lastly, Mr. Phillips winds up his paper by saying:—‘‘ All these weapons, however, fell into disuse after the introduction of fire-arms some sixty years ago, which may account for the disappearance of the bow and arrow.” To which statement, I trust, this paper will be found a complete answer. * Vide post ‘‘ Proceedings H. B. P. Institute, ordinary meeting, September 9, 1878,” for an interesting account of the introduction into New Zealand of this ‘ toy arrow,” by a _living witness, Cotenso.—T/gnorance of Ancient New Zealander of Use of Projectiles. 118 9 Mr. Phillips also gives an account of a ‘‘ pigeon spear,” made out of a rough unworked piece of a “‘raataa vine.’’(!) Just so; that is the poor modern spear, hastily put together by the lazy, loquacious, itinerating Maori of modern days! but such make-shifts were not (commonly) used by his forefathers, although I have seen them* stored up in the mountain forests ; they were far above it.| And then follows the novel idea of “trapping the brown parrot by means of a shorter hand-spear.’’(!) As if parrots were ever caught in that way! ‘The Maoris had but one general mode of taking the parrot (kaakaa), which was admirably adapted and serviceable, and is still in use in the dense forests of the interior. My Note, referred to at p. 106, is as follows :—‘‘ Note 7, par. 15, § 2. —Travelling beyond the Kast Cape in January, 1838, I arrived at Waipiro (Open Bay), and striking inland over high hills reached a place called Tapa- tahi, where were the remains of a famous stronghold or pa of the olden time. This fort is strongly situated on the abrupt precipitous end of a high hilly yet narrow range, and made impregnable by art; the only possible way of access leading from the top of the ridge, but this the Maoris had completely secured by cutting a deep fosse across it. The Ngatimaru tribe, arriving in their canoes from the North, well armed with muskets for the purpose of slaughter, the people of this neighbourhood took refuge in their stronghold on the crag, where they were regularly besieged. Several hundreds of Maoris were cooped up in it, and for some time the place was closely invested; and though provisions fell short among them there was no outlet of escape. The besiegers getting both tired and hungry (!)—for the entrance end of the fort was made so high above the deep-cut fosse that musketry could effect nothing, unless any one of the besieged wilfully exposed him- self—at last the besiegers hit upon a mode of attack and assault which proved successful; they prepared sticks with dry combustibles fastened to one of their ends, while to the other was tied a strip of flax-leaf, and the wind being favourable, they set fire to them, and then whirled and flung those flaming darts across the ditch into the pa, where, alighting on the dry thatch roofs of the houses and sheds, the whole was soon on fire; then, in the confusion, the assault was made, under cover of their muskets, and the slaughter was very great, even for a successful Maori attack! Many of the unfortunate besieged threw themselves down the precipice in sheer despera- tion, and only a very small number escaped with their lives. There is a -small moat or pool of deep water close to the base of the precipice on one * That is, a spear-head, fitted on to the rough stem of a large creeper (vine): but hever on a raataa ( Metrosideros robusta). + If Imistake not there will be a full description of a ‘‘ pigeon spear,” and how it was made, one of the wondrous works of old! in those Notes of mine; x 114 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. side, and possibly a lucky few might have fallen into it, and so broke the force of their fall. The whole spot is a most romantic one naturally, and at the time of my visit it was desolate and bare—a sad and striking memento of the horrid past !”’ The Editor of the ‘‘ Transactions,” in a note of his own appended to Mr. Phillips’ paper, refers us to three works, viz. :— 1. Sir G. Grey’s ‘ Polynesian Mythology,” p. 157. The single case there mentioned is said to have taken place in the very beginniny of Maori history, and was just simply the whirling of a fire-brand on to a thatched roof, much the same as the circumstance above related from my Notes. 2. Dr. Thomson’s ‘Story of New Zealand,” Vol. 1., chap. 7. In this relation (as well as in several other places in his book) there is much of error, as must always be the case with all modern compilers who may follow in the Doctor’s wake; for (1) Dr. Thomson has completely ignored all that was written by Cook and others,* although he has given a list of their works, and the question has often arisen in my mind, did Dr. Thomson ever read them ? (2) Knowing nothing himself personally of the matters in question, he copied freely, and picked up and set down all that he heard, too often hastily drawing conclusions. Hence it was that he says of their pro- jectiles—‘‘ Occasionally red hot stones were thrown from slings in the hope of setting pas on fire; so were slight javelins, sharp and jagged at the point; occasionally they were pointed with bone, or the barb of the stingray ; these were discharged by slings from elevated platforms, etc. Bows and arrows were not unknown, though never used in war.” (Vol. L., eh.) 8. Mr. White’s new work, ‘‘ Te Rou,’ is one of fiction, and his long note, referred to by the Editor, is suited to it; it is of no use here. Apprnpix A.—(See p. 109). Dr. Forster says :—‘‘ The weapons which the men of Tanna constantly » carry are bows and arrows, clubs, darts, and slings. Their young men are * In addition to what we have on record (already referred to) by Cook and others, there are a few early celebrated known engagements, attacks on Maori forts by Huropeans, when, if ever, the Maoris would have used such projectiles, viz :—(1) That by the French under Crozet, in revenge for the death of their commander (Marion) and his men, when they attacked and took their stronghold or fort in the Bay of Islands. See App. C. (2) That of the combined crews of five whalers on the pa in the islet in Whangaroa harbour in revenge for the taking and burning of the ‘‘ Boyd,” and the killing of the captain, passengers, and crew. (3) That of the soldiers and sailors of H.M.S. ‘ Alligator” on the pa at W.a mate, near Cape Egmont, in revenge for their having plundered Guard’s ship, &c. In all these cases the Maori pas, or forts, securely fenced and well situated (after the old custom) and almost inaccessible, were attacked and taken; and yet, while the Maoris defended them- selves well and long, nothing was seen, or shown, or used, in the shape of ‘‘slings” and * hot stones,” ‘ bows and arrows, jagged darts, and poisoned kotahas!” (Jam satis !) Cotznso.—Ignorance of Ancient New Zealander of Use of Projectiles. 115 commonly slingers and archers, but those of a more advanced age make use of clubs or darts, The bows are made of the best club-wood (casuarina), very strong and elastic. They polish them very highly, and perhaps rub them with oil from time to time, in order to keep them in repair. Their arrows are of reed, near four feet long. The same black wood which the Mallicollese employ for the point is hkewise made use of at Tanna; but the whole point which is frequently above a foot long, is jagged or bearded on two or three sides, They have likewise arrows with three points, but these are chiefly intended to kill birds and fish. Their slings are made of cocoa- nut fibres, and worn round the arm or waist; they have a broad part for the reception of the stone, of which the people carry with them several in a leaf. The darts or spears are the third sort of missile weapons at Tanna. They are commonly made of a thin, knotty, and ill-shaped stick, not exceed- ing half-an-inch in diameter, but nine or ten feet long. At the thickest end they are shaped into a triangular point, six or eight inches long, and on each corner there is a row of eight or ten beards or hooks. These darts they throw with great accuracy, at a short distance, by the help of a piece of | plaited cord, four or five inches long, which has a knob at one end, and an eye at the other. They hold the dart between the thumb and forefinger, having previously placed the latter in the eye of the rope, the remaining part of which is slung round the dart, above the hand, and forms a kind of noose round it, serving to guide and confine the dart in its proper direction, when it is once projected. I have seen one of these darts thrown, at the distance of ten or twelve yards, into a stake four inches in diameter, with such violence that the jagged point was forced quite through it. The same thing may be said of their arrows; at eight or ten yards distance they shoot them very accurately and with great force ; but as they are cautious of breaking their bows, they seldom draw them to the full stretch, and there- , fore, at twenty-five or thirty yards, their arrows have little effect, and are not to be dreaded.”’ «The arms of the natives of New Caledonia were clubs, spears, and slings. * *« * Their spears are fifteen or twenty feet long, and black. They throw them by the assistance of such short cords, knobbed at one end and looped at the other, as are usual at Tanna, and which seamen call beckets. Those of New Caiedonia were of superior workmanship, and contained a quantity of red wool, which we should have taken for the covering of a new sort of animal, if we had not formerly seen the Vampyre or great Indian bat, from whence it was taken. Their last weapons were slings, for bows and arrows were wholly unknown tothem. These slings consisted of a slender round cord no thicker than a pack-thread, which hada tassel at one end anda loop at the other end and in the middle. The stones which they used were 116 Transactions, —Miscellaneous, oblong and pointed at each end, being made of a soft and unctuous soap- rock (simectites ), which could easily be rubbedinto that shape. These exactly fitted the loop in the middle of the sling, and were kept in a wallet or pocket of coarse cloth, strongly woven of a kind of grass, which was tied on about the middle. Their shape gives them a striking resemblance to the glandes plumbee of the Romans.’’—Forster’s Voyage, Vol, II., pp. 278, 279, 885. Appenpix B.—(See p. 111). fT here give an interesting extract from ‘ Turnbull’s Voyage Round the World ’’ (1801-4), as it bears a little on the subject before us :— “A chief of note named Te Pahi, with five of his sons, who resided at the Bay of Islands, wished to see Port Jackson. They were taken by Captain Stewart in his ship to Norfolk Island, where they received every attention from the commandant and inhabitants; and after remaining there some time they were received on board H.M.S. ‘ Buffalo,’ to be conveyed to Port Jackson. On their arrival, Te Pahi was introduced by Captain Houstin to His Excellency and the officers at the Government House, where he con- tinued to reside during his stay in the colony. ‘“‘ Shortly after his arrival, a number of the natives assembled in the vicinity of Sydney for the interment of Carrawaye (whose death was occasioned by a spear wound in the knee), who the night before was con- veyed here in a shell composed of strips of bark ; and the funeral obsequies being over, a war spectacle ensued, when an intended sacrifice to vengeance (known by the name of Blewit) was singled out to answer for the desperate wound inflicted by him upon young Baker. The animosity of his assailants was uncommonly remarkable; their party was far the more powerful, and, confident of their superiority, took every advantage of their numbers. The flight of spears was seldom less than six, and managed with a precision that seemed to promise certain fatality. After 179 had been thus thrown, ten . of the most powerful stationed themselves so as nearly to encircle the cul- prit, and front and rear darted their weapons at the same instant. His activity and strong presence of mind increased with the danger ; five he dexterously caught with his feeble target, and the others he miracnlously managed to parry off. One of his friends, enraged at the proceedings, threw & spear, and received ten in return. Blewit turned one of his assailant’s spears, and passed it through the body of old Whittaker; the affray then became general, but terminated without further mischief. ‘Te Pahi, who with several of his sons was present, regarded their war- fare with contempt; he frequently discovered much impatience at the length of intervals between the flights, and by signs exhorted them to dispatch ; Cotmnso,—Ignorance of Ancient New Zealander of Use of Projectiles, 117 he considered the heclaman, or shield, an unnecessary appendage, as the hand was sufficient to turn aside and alter the direction of any number of spears. He, nevertheless, highly praised the woomera, or throwing-stick, as, from its elasticity, he acknowledged the weapon to receive much additional velocity. He was visibly chagrined when he saw the old man wounded through the body, and would certainly have executed vengeance upon its author, had he not been restrained by the solicitations of the spectators,’’— Nicholas’ ‘‘ New Zealand,” Vol. IL., p. 869. Apprenpix C.—(See p. 114). M. Crozet’s description of this attack is so graphic, and at the same time so much in keeping with what I have known to take place among the New Zealanders in their old sieges, that 1am tempted to give an extract, as I believe his work is not commonly known in the colony :—M. Crozet com- manded the King’s sloop of war, the ‘Mascarin,’ under M. Marion, and put into the Bay of Islands in distress, having lost his masts. With great diffi- culty they cut down fit trees, some three or four miles off in the woods, and — to get them out had to make a road! They had now been here at anchor thirty-three days, when the Maoris suddenly rose against the French, and Iilled Marion, with twenty-eight men! and it was with extreme difficulty that Crozet managed to get on board the ship those left on shore. After this the New Zealanders made several attempts to take even the ships, which they fiercely attacked in a hundred large canoes. At last Crozet, seeing it impossible to supply the ships with masts, unless he could drive the natives from the neighbourhood, went to attack their pa, which was one of the greatest and strongest. He put the carpenters in front to cut down the palisadoes, behind which the natives stood in great numbers on their fighting stages, from which they threw down stones and darts.* His people drove the natives from these stages by keeping up a regular fire, which did “some execution. The carpenters could now approach without danger, and in a few moments cut a breach in the fortification. A chief instantly stepped into it with along spear in his hand. He was shot dead by Crozet’s marksmen, and presently another occupied his place, stepping on the dead body. He likewise fell a victim to his intrepid courage, and in the same manner eight chiefs successively defended the post of honour. ‘The rest, seeing their leaders dead, took flight, and the French pursued and killed numbers of them. M. Crozet offered fifty dollars to any person who should take a New Zealander alive, but this was absolutely impracticable. A soldier seized an old man and began to drag him towards his Captain, but the savage, being unarmed, bit into the fleshy part of the Frenchman’s hand, * As described in Cook’s Voyages, Vol. II., p. 342-344. 118 Transactions, — Miscellaneous, of which the exquisite pain so enraged him that he ran the New Zealander through with the bayonet. M. Crozet found great quantities of dresses, arms, tools, and raw flax in this pa, together with a prodigious store of dried fish androots. He completed the repairs in his ship without interruption after accomplishing this enterprise, and prosecuted his voyage after a stay of sixty-four days in the Bay of Islands.—Forster’s Voyaye, Vol. Il., pp. 461-465, Art. VII.—On Temporary and Variable Stars. By Professor A. W. Bickerton, F'.C.S., Associate of the Royal School cf Mines, London. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 4th July, 1878.] Tue sudden appearances of stars in various regions of the sky have been recorded from very early dates. Some of these stars have had an intensity of light greater than any of the fixed stars, and in some cases have remained visible for a year or more, the intensity of light all the while gradually diminishing. Two considerable stars of this kind have appeared within the last twelve years, and in both cases they have been examined with the spectroscope. Unfortunately the results have not been so satisfactory as could be desired. The spectrum of the star of 1866 appears to have been continuous, with bright lines. The lines diminished in number and intensity until they finally disappeared, leaving only a feeble continuous spectrum. The light of the star of 1877 at first appeared yellowish, and when five or six days afterwards it was examined with the spectroscope, a line spectrum was seen. The number of lines gradually lessened until only one was left, and that the same line as is seen in some nebule. A few considerations will show the stupendous nature of these pheno- mena. Temporary stars have all appeared to be fixed in the heavens, this fact showing them to be at true stellar distances, and consequently, like the fixed stars, their luminosity 1s comparable to that of our sun. The sun may be roughly classed as a star of the second magnitude ; its intensity is approximately one four-hundredth that of Sirius, which is a very short distance from us relatively to the size of the universe, therefore it is not improbable that these temporary stars should be, on an average, at least as far away as he is. We may therefore safely assume that most of the temporary stars whose appearance has been recorded, have had an intensity of light as great as the sun, and probably in some cases many times greater. The amount of heat Bickrrtan.—On Temporary and Variable Stars. 119 radiated from each square yard of our sun’s surface is estimated to be equal to the combustion of ten cubie yards of coal in every hour, while the sun’s disc has four times the area enclosed by the orbit of the moon, The star of 1866 when first seen was of the second magnitude, and its spectrum shows that it consisted of a nucleus of compressed gas, or of liquid or of solid matter. This was surrounded by an atmosphere of heated gas, having a greater monochromatic light than the nucleus; or it might have been simply a small permanent star in the same line of vision as the gaseous temporary star. I cannot say if this suggestion agrees with the present condition of the star. This star diminished from a star of the second magnitude to the tenth in about a fortnight. The spectroscope showed the star of 1877 to be ignited gas only, and from the number of the lines diminishing the tempera- ture and pressure probably did so likewise. The intensity diminished in four months from the third magnitude to the ninth. | Many hypotheses have been formed to account for the nature of these stars, of which the following appear to be the most noteworthy :— 1. Zoolner imagines a sun in which spots have covered the whole surface, the temporary stars being produced by the breaking of such a surface. 2. Vogel assumes a volcanic bursting-out on a dead sun. In both of these hypotheses a decomposition and combustion of hydrogen and other elements is also assumed to account for the great intensity. 3. Meyer and Klein suppose that a similar dark body is suddenly raised to incandescence by the projection of a planet or other body upon its surface. 4. Proctor supposes that the atmosphere of a dead sun is suddenly brought to a high degree of luminosity by the passage of a meteoric train through it. In examining these hypotheses, we find that there is one thing in common, namely, the assumption of the existence of large dark bodies in space. The first two of them also depend on the existence of internal com- motion, attended with combustion. The last two depend upon the energy developed by gravitation. A little consideration will be sufficient to show that, on grounds of intensity alone, Zoolner’s and Vogel’s—in fact, any hypothesis not dependent upon gravitation—is improbable. Is it conceivable that a dark body should suddenly change its surface by voleanic or other internal action in such a manner as to heat gases to a pitch of luminosity as high as our sun’s, especially when it is considered that if a gas and solid be at the same temperature, the solid is much the more luminous of the two; nor would combustion or decomposition help it; generally the latter would take 120 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. place, but would tend to diminish rather than increase the intensity. How inadequate combustion would be is shown by the fact that a pound weight would develope about forty million units of heat in falling upon the sun, and the combustion of a pound of mixed oxygen and hydrogen would only develope about 4000 units. And again, in either case the chief luminosity must be from the fused material; a continuous spectrum would then result, which in the last star at least is altogether contrary to observation. The precipitation of a body upon the surface of a dead sun is much more probable; so likewise is the meteoric theory; but in the former case if sufficient heat could be developed a fused mass would almost certainly result, and in the latter case nothing short of a marvellous combination would prevent its resulting. The latter hypothesis Proctor bases on the bright momentary light once observed on the face of the sun; he assumes that the gaseous photosphere was temporarily raised to a high luminosity by meteors. I think this of itself is very improbable. I cannot conceive how it is possible that if the atmosphere were raised to incandescence it could cool again in so short a time as two minutes. I think it far more probable that that most wonderful phenomenon (affecting as it did the entire earth) was due to the collision of two bodies revolving in approxi- mately opposite directions around the sun. Such a pair of bodies would have their temperature raised to about one hundred million degrees Centigrade. T need not say that such a temperature would quickly volatilize such small bodies and produce an intense light, the phenomenon is in this way explained without any assumption other than known laws. The basis of the meteoric hypothesis is thus shown to be in the highest degree improbable, and even if it were admitted it would require an inconceivable number of meteors to raise the atmosphere of a dark body to such a temperature as to produce a luminosity as great as our sun’s and of some months’ duration. Still more inconceivable does it appear that the body upon which they impinge should only have its atmosphere raised to such a luminosity, whilst the body itself remained non-luminous. Altogether the theory of Meyer and Klein appears the only possible one, but it is oniy when both bodies are of such stupendous dimensions as to produce complete volatilization that the hypothesis agrees with spectroscopic observation ; and such a case does not appear to be contemplated by the authors or they would scarcely have suggested a planet. Complete dissipation into space could not take place by the entire coalescence of two bodies however large, unless they had a higher initial velocity than observations of the proper motion of stars render probable. No one of these hypotheses, therefore, appears to be a satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon. An hypothesis that agrees better with observation would be one of partial impact. if two immense bodies moving in space come well within Bickrerton.—On Temporary and Variable Stars. 121 the influence of each other’s gravitation, they would be attracted out of their path with a constantly increasing velocity. Three possibilities present themselves: the first, the most general one, of passing each other and ultimately attaining their original velocity in space; the second would be that of imperfect impact; and “third, as an extreme case, we should have complete impact when the centre of each mass would have, except for the collision, occupied the same point at the same time. It is reasonable to assume that in impact the case of partial collision would be more probable than complete impact. And it is this imperfect impact that is the basis of the present hypothesis. In this case a piece will be struck off each colliding body ; these two pieces would to a greater or less degree coalesce, developing at the same time a high degree of heat, whilst the remainder of the two bodies would pass on in space. What would finally happen to the two retreating bodies depends on the original proper motion and the masses of the coalesced piece. If the origimal proper motions were large and the piece cut off small, one or both of the two bodies would most likely pass entirely away from the other bodies and travel on independently ~ in space. If, on the other hand, the original proper motion were small and the piece struck off large, then it would be most probable that they would be once more attracted back and collide again and again until complete coalescence took place ; or, as I shall show further, it is possible that they may form a system similar to our solar system. ‘The size of the bodies will also have an influence in the escape or otherwise of the pieces. Other things being equal, the larger the body the greater the probability of escape, as the distance between the centres will be greater and consequently the attraction will be less. Partial impact appears competent to explain the occurrence of temporary, double, and variable stars, nebule of various kinds (the kind depending on the nature of the impact), comets, and finally stars or suns accompanied by bodies of smaller size. The third case, that of complete coalescence, is pro- bable only in the collision of very large bodies, and offers an explanation of the existence of large spherical nebule with a general condensation towards the centre. (We will consider the hypotheses somewhat in detail.) In order to render the conception of the hypothesis as simple as possible, I shall all through keep as far as I can to a direct conception of energy, as in this way most questions may be reduced to ordinary arithmetical series. Thus, if the two approaching bodies be equal to each other (at the same distance), the attracting force acting on each unit of mass will be propor- tional to the total mass of either ; now in a force acting through space, the work equals the force multiplied by the space through which it acts, and the work is equal to the heat, i, 192 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. The sun, by attracting a body from infinite space, would give it a velocity of 878 miles a second, or each unit of mass would develope about forty million units of heat. If we suppose two bodies, each half the size of the sun, to come together by mutual attraction alone, then each unit of mass would develope about twenty million units of heat. If, on the other hand, two bodies twice the mass of the sun come together, each unit of mass would have four times the force acting upon it through equal spaces, and each unit of mass would consequently develope four times as much heat. If the impact of such bodies were imperfect, as we have seen the general case would be, a piece of each would be cut off, and these two pieces would coalesce. Suppose a quarter of each be struck off, a body of the mass of the sun would be produced, but it would have four times the temperature the sun would have, assuming the sun to have been formed by direct impact and complete coalescence. Each unit of mass in this case would have approximately eighty million units of heat; and the temperature will depend upon the specific heat of the material, and may be much higher than this. I will now show, in the case of partial collision, how small relatively the work of cutting off the piece is compared to the energy available. It appears to me that in all cases the energy needed for shearing force has its superior limit in the latent heat of fusion. This, in the case of ice, is about one-fiftieth that of combustion, and combustion is about one twenty- thousandth part that of percussion, in the case we have been considering. The work of shearing would consequently not be greater than one millionth that of the energy ot velocity, and soit appears it may safely be disregarded. Thus in the case of such a partial collision it may certainly be accepted that those parts not in the line of motion of the other body will not coalesce with the other body, but will pass on in space. In the piece struck off we shall have partial destruction of motion in space, with development of heat; many pieces will fly off, and a rotary motion of the whole will ensue. There will be a slight pause from inertia, then the powerful outward pressure due to the expansion by heat will overcome all resistance, and will expand the whole into gas, much of it certainly passing beyond the limits of effective attraction, and away into distant space. Let us pause for an instant to examine a little more fully what has happened. Two pieces of different bodies, each with a velocity of about 500 miles a second, have coalesced, but although the motion of translation is destroyed the larger part of each side of the mass is made up chiefly of one of the two different bodies: as these are moving in opposite directions, there is con- sequently a couple acting on the mass, and this couple spins the mass on its centre. Consequently many pieces fly off, and are followed by the mass of gas, being impeiled outward by the energy of heat and centrifugal foree ; Bickerton,—Ow Temporary and Variable Stars, 123 whilst, on the other hand, we have inertia and gravity tending to keep the mass together. The centrifugal force acts only in one plane, whilst the re- pellent force of heat acts in every plane; a bun-shaped mass must result, with a number of distinct pieces, which at first at least are in advance of the general mass. Follow it on in time and we get the ring nebule, with or without a luminous centre; in the latter case, with a dark circle dividing those parts whose velocity has carried them beyond the powers of the attractive force, from those parts held prisoner by it. These parts, as they gradually radiate heat into space, are once more slowly attracted to the centre by gravitation. If the piece struck off from each body were very small; then complete dissipation of the whole into space would result, Clearly such collisions as I have described would be competent to produce every variety of temporary stars that has appeared. Applying the spectro- scope to such a star, we get at first a continuous spectrum; then black lines, quickly followed by bright lines and spectrum; then bright lines alone. Again, if the colliding bodies were of very different size, or if the heat were not great enough to entirely volatilize the star, we should have lines and spectrum. Lastly, as heat and pressure diminish by the dissipa- tion of the body into space, we get fewer and fewer lines, until only those substances in greatest quantity, or of greatest power in giving lines at lowest temperature and pressure, remain luminous, and we haye a nebulx left; or in the case of total dissipation of the gaseous mass all evidence of its existence will disappear. It will be seen how exactly the above hypothesis agrees with the spectroscopic observation of temporary stars ; and I have showa as fully as perhaps it is wise to do in this paper, that the hypothesis of partial impact is competent to account for every variety of these bodies, and also for their intensity and short duration. We must now return to the parent bodies which we left travelling on in space. A cylindrical or curved slice has been cut out of each ; sometimes that is the chief thing that will happen. But on the other hand we may have the molten interior of the body exposed to view. If there were atmospheres on the two colliding bodies, a very great heating of the surface of the section would result, and when both causes are acting in unison a stupendous lake of fire must be formed. Let such a body rotate on its axis, alternately the light and dark sides are shown, and we get a variable star. May not Mira in this way be attempting to tell us her autobiography ; how she is a dark body, with a molten lake of fire, 80 degrees of are, a lake as big as our sun, and how she rotates about an axis in a little less than a year? If it be so, she tells us of a dark body almost as large as Sirius, or how would 80 degrees of arc produce a star of the first magnitude? Algol appears to tell us that itis a dark and gloomy parent, with a brilliant son who periodically passes 124 Transactions. —Miscellaneous, partly behind his dusky parent’s body, and in this way suffers partial eclipse. But the autobiographies of these bodies must not detain us; we must discuss the existence of such gigantic feebly-luminous or non-luminous bodies as our hypothesis demands. The existence of variable stars seems sufficient to prove there are such bodies, and, as I have shown, all the hypotheses offered in explanation of temporary stars assume their existence. The high temperature and small relative light of celestial radiation points to the same conclusion, or to non-luminous gas. It might be asked, if there are dark bodies, why not stellar eclipse. I do not know if such have been observed; it would be wonderful if any had been, for they must be very rare, probably as rare as temporary stars; for, although we have all the depths of space in which eclipses are possible, on the other hand with temporary stars we have attraction bringing very distant bodies together. Further, the points of light of the fixed stars form but a small area in space, and, lastly, if eclipses occurred they would probably not be recorded, as small black patches of cloud so often obscure a portion of the sky that such an occurrence would scarcely attract attention. But why should there not be large dark bodies? lLaplace’s theory of a universal nebule may be assumed to be against it; but did Laplace assume that it was contem- poraneous ? if not, then even that theory does not interfere. All our con- ceptions seem to agree more with a rhythmic cycle than with any definite beginning or end. If we assume this hypothesis, then the period of dissipa- tion of energy seems indefinitely projected into futurity ; for all radiation falling on the matter in space, must prevent its temperature from falling so low as without this radiation, and when at a subsequent date a collision occurs, this heat must exalt the final temperature. Nor does it appear that we need look forward to a gigantic dead sun as the final condition of this universe ; for doubtless our universe has its own proper motion in space, which may bring us into collision with other universes. This shows that gravitation may be as competent to multiply worlds as to absorb them one into another. But after all our hypothesis only takes us a step back in time, and our imaginations a step forward into the future, thus removing further than ever from our conceptions every trace of a beginning or pro- mise of an end. RK 2) BroxErton.—On Partial Linpact. 12 Ast, VIIL,—Partial Impact: a possible Haplanation of the Origin of the Solar System, Comets, and other Phenomena of the Universe. By Professor A. W. Bicxsrton, F.C.S., Associate Royal School of Mines, London, [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 1st August, 1878.] In the last paper which I submitted to the Institute, I gave a short sketch of some hypothetical cases of partial collisions, and suggested that such cases might possibly be of frequent occurrence throughout space, and might offer an explanation of many phenomena of the universe. I especially showed the application of the hypothesis to temporary and variable stars. To-night I intend to show that_it appears competent to explain the formation of the solar system, of comets, of meteors, and of some variety of nebule. I shall, however, in the first place point out the very great dif- ference which exists in the capabilities of cases of partial and complete collision, the first offering a field of possibilities of cosmical phenomena which is really surprising, the latter being probably confined to but a few rare cases. In the last paper I assumed that the partial collision of two attracting bodies having an original proper motion in space, would be much more likely than entire coalescence. It appeared, however, to be a very general idea, that if the bodies struck at all, it must be that their mutual attraction would certainly produce complete coalescence. On the other hand, it was generally admitted that two bodies when attracted by each other would seldom come into contact, but would in most cases be carried by their original velocity away once more from each other’s influence. It is only necessary to assume that the size of the bodies has increased enormously without increase of mass for a case of mere disturbance to become one of partial collision; the generality of the case is thus practically demonstrated. As cases of partial collisions may be of infinite variety, for the sake of simplicity I have in this paper (except where stated to the contrary) assumed that all the colliding bodies are of the same size; composed of the same chemical elements ; with the same initial proper motions, the velocity of which is small compared with that developed by attraction; also that the mass of each of the two bodies of any one pair is the same. If two bodies come into direct collision from rest, a definite energy of velocity will be acquired at the moment of contact, depending solely on the mass. After coalescence, if a single particle were attracted from infinite space, the particle being attracted by the whole coalesced mass, and this mass not appreciably moving towards the particle, twice the force would act through twice the space, and would develope twice the velocity, or four times the energy. Hence, also, a particle to leave the body must have this double velocity. Therefore, as it does not appear reasonable to expect that 126 Transactions, —Miscellaneoua, after collision any portion will acquire much greater energy than before, we may reasonably assume that no part will acquire four times the energy of motion, and be thrown off into space. On the other hand, if two bodies come into partial collision, a piece of each would coalesce, and the rest would pass on into space. If the motion be entirely destroyed, the temperature developed by coalescence will be the same, no matter what proportion be struck off; whilst, if the pieces struck off be very small, the coalesced mass will have but little attractive power to keep the body together, and hence the velocity of each particle may be great enough to project the whole into space ; whereas we have seen, in the case of complete coalescence, none would be able to be thus projected. ‘his is a most important distinction between partial and complete collision. Influence of Chemical Composition. If two bodies, each a mixture of chemical elements, meet and destroy their motion of translation, then a molecular motion of identically the same energy must be developed (a small part will be converted into some form of potential energy, but this we will disregard). If a mass of small bodies have the same energy as an equal single mass, the velocity is also equal. Whence we must also assume that the velocity of the molecules, no matter what may be their respective weights, is not greater than the velocity of the whole body was before impact. Therefore, from what has been stated, in direct impact no particle will have sufficient velocity to leave the mass iminediately after impact. But different elements having the same velocity are at different temperatures, inversely proportional to their mole- cular weight; the heavy atoms are therefore very much hotter than the light ones. We know by the laws of heat that these unequal temperatures will tend to equality; but it is worth while looking at this a little in detail. Let us suppose a hydrogen and a mercury particle to meet. The mercury is one hundred times as heavy as hydrogen, but the velocity of both is the same. The collision cannot produce heat, as it is heat motion already. The principle of energy at once tells us that the mercury will lose a part of its velocity, and the velocity of the hydrogen will be increased. . Let this happen many times, and the temperature will become equal; in other | words, the hydrogen will be moving ten times as fast as the mercury. Let | both of these particles come to the surface of the body; their molecular | motion will cause them to leave it; the hydrogen will probably have velocity . sufficient to carry it away from effective attraction, which is impossible | with the mercury, as initially its velocity was insufficient, and now it is less than before. Thus we see that at the surface of a mixed gaseous atmo- | sphere there is a tendency the opposite to that of the diffusion of gases; | probably the hydrogen and lighter atomic weight elements will be on the out- , Bickxerton.—On Partial Impact. 127 side, and the heavier on the inside of bodies... Hence, the chief elements of the surface of bodies may reasonably be expected to be hydrogen, lithium, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, magnesium, sodium, and sulphur. All these elements, except lithium (which may consequently be assumed to be universally rare), are the common elements of the surface of bodies; and hydrogen, the highest of all known bodies, is the most common of all. Is not the element of 1474 line, which is found outside of hydrogen on the sun, an element of still less atomic weight than hydrogen? If this hypothesis be true, then it is reasonable to assume that diffused hydrogen must fill space. This would account for the retardation of comets and planets without the assumption of an ether resistance. It thus appears that the molecular motion of gases may become one of mere translation. There is accordingly a continuity of heat and mechanical motion. It is reasonable to suppose, that at a certain height above the sun the general motion of the particles of hydrogen may become more or less parallel; there would be no collisions of molecules, and consequently no luminosity would be then produced, and an apparent dissipation of the protuberances would occur. I have now shown the most striking points in the contrast of the energy of different cases of collision. I have also shown a possible reason why the small atomic weight elements are common on the surface of bodies ; why we should expect to find hydrogen on the surface of all bodies, such as the sun and stars ; lastly, that hydrogen, and probably the unknown element of the sun, may be the resisting substance which retards the motion of bodies in space. On the Rotation of Systems. It does not seem reasonable to expect rapid rotation in the case of entire ‘coalescence of two bodies, as only the resultant of the two original rotations will tend to develope this motion. But, in the case of partial collision, we must have a rapid rotation of the mass, as each of the two bodies from which it was formed occupy chiefly one side of the new body, and as the velocity of each of the two bodies was originally opposite to that of the other, rotation is a necessary consequence. There are two chief reasons for the inequality of the balance of mo- mentum at the two sides of the coalesced mass: Ist. The piece cut off will be much thicker towards the middle of the original mass than at the out- side. 2nd. The density of the inside is much greater than that of the outside, in consequence of the greater pressure, and also from the fact that it is probable the heavier elements are towards the centre of the mass. It may easily be seen that the resultant momentum on the two opposite sides are in opposite directions, consequently tending to rotation, 128 Transactions,— Miscellaneous. Comets and Solar System. It is almost certain that the initially irregular shape of the two coalesced pieces would cause many smaller masses to fly off into space, producing possible visitants to other worlds, but in most cases the heat would be sufficient to cause all these masses to be converted into gas. When two bodies of different size attract each other, the velocity : acquired by the smaller body will be greater than that of the larger one (as an apple falling to the earth does not give the earth the same velocity as the apple itself acquires). With unequal bodies therefore, when collision occurs, the larger piece will have a smaller velocity than the smaller, hence there will be two orders of fragments. First, from the small piece, the high velocity of which may make comets and shooting stars of them. Planets. Secondly, the fragments of the larger piece, whose small velocity may not take these bodies away from effective attraction, and they may thus become planets. But the large mass of our sun shows that if the planets of our system have been formed in this way, one of two things must have occurred, either the original proper motion of the bodies must have been very much greater than the average is at present, or the bodies themselves must have been very large, so that even at impact the centres were a long distance from each other. There is, however, another reason why at impact the centres may have been at a distance from each other—namely, the great distortion of the bodies which must take place immediately before impact, in conse- quence of their mutual attraction. It is impossible to give even an approxi- mate idea of how much this may influence the result. Generally, it is easy to see that the problems offered by partial impact are of extreme difficulty, the data being of necessity of infinite variety. It is shown further on, that there is another partial impact hypothesis which may possibly explain the origin of our system. All the following remarks apply equally to that hypothesis :— At first the orbits of these bodies would be extraordinarily eccentric ; on passing away on this first journey they would be in advance of the expelled gas, but would meet it on returning. This would tend to neutralise the force of attraction, and the orbit would become much more circular. Again, the passage of the planet through the gas would retard it. And lastly, on each of its orbits the attraction of gravitation would be greater on its outward journey than on its return, in consequence of the expelled matter passing outside its orbit into space. This fact would both tend to render the orbit more circular, and also tend to neutralise the action of the gaseous resistance in causing the body to approach the sun. It Bickerton. On Partial [mpact. 129 is a well-known fact, that if a projectile revolves on one axis at right angles to the line of motion, there is a tendency to move in a curve. (The full discussion of this phenomenon would occupy much time.) It is possible to show that this force at first would have considerable effect in rendering the orbits circular, but finally with the planets near the sun its effect may be to render the orbits more elliptical. All these forces, there- fore, tend to render the orbits more circular, but not as an average result to alter their mean distance from the sun. The larger masses would suffer less resistance in proportion than the smaller ones, and the general result would be, that if all started at the same distance the smaller bodies would be brought nearer the sun. It is easy to see that the centrifugal force and the attraction of nebulous mass would cause all the planets to travel approximately in the plane of the ecliptic, also why the sun’s equator so nearly approaches it, and generally, why the rotations of the planets on their axes should bein the same direction. On the other hand, the pressure due to heat, the extreme want of symmetry of such a case of partial impact, combined with the original motion of rotation of the colliding bodies, if they had any, must all tell in the ultimate resultant motion, both orbital and axial. Almost certainly these forces would produce slightly inclined orbital planes, inclination of polar axes to these planes, and may as an extreme case produce a retrograde motion. It is also easy to see that the enormous atmospheres of those early days would effectually clear the bodies of all but very large masses of cosmical dust. The Asteroids. This fact appears of itself sufficient to show that the production of the asteroids must have been a subsequent event to the formation of the solar system. With respect to the asteroids, itis conceivable that the destruction of the planet which formed them may have been produced by a large meteoric visitant, with a high velocity. This hypothesis shows that such bodies may exist in considerable numbers. Such a mass might conceivably bury itself in another body, and when its motion of mass was stopped, its heat might be sufficient to produce a pressure of many thousand atmo- spheres. Such an explosion of developed gas might reasonably be expected to blow the body to pieces. It is generally considered that if the asteroids had been produced by the destruction of a planet, the fragments would have the same mean distance from the sun, and would pass the same points in their orbits where the destruction occurred ; which is contrary to the observed motions of these bodies. The hypothesis that they are picces of a p'anet is therefore not generally accepted ; but these assumptions are only true if the velocity remain the same, the eccentricity of the orbit the same, and there is no resisting atmosphere. The first of these assumptions is M 130 Transactions.—Aiscellancous. clearly not admissible in such a case as I have suggested, and the relative positions of the planets would influence the second. Or if this be con- sidered to be insufficient, it is only necessary to assume that the destruction took place before the whole of the gas had been absorbed by the sun. Altogether, I think from the great eccentricity of the orbits of these bodies, from their positions, from the varying inclinations of the planes of their several ecliptics, from their varying intensity, and their small size, the only conceivable explanation of their formation is by a violent explosion. This would account for all their peculiarities. I am unacquainted with any force in nature that could produce such an explosion except the one here suggested. Saturn’s Rings. Tt would appear also that the rings of Saturn cannot be considered to be a primary phenomenon ; they may have been developed by the blowing to pieces of a moon, or by Saturn's atmosphere entrapping a train of meteors. This latter suggestion hardly appears so reasonable as the former. If the destroyed moon was brought to a very high temperature, mere liquid spray might have been produced, which would quickly cool and become a mass of solid particles revolving around in all eccentricities. Comets and Meteors. It is a necessity of this hypothesis that there should be large numbers of bodies travelling in space. Groups of these bodies may frequently have a common direction. Of these bodies it is probable that some may be very large, and even come within the solar system, yet remain invisible except as meteors. But it is conceivable that in some cases of collision bodies may leave, consisting chiefly of carbonic acid; which at certain stages of a body’s heat, may form an important part of its atmosphere. ~ It is not difficult to imagine that a portion of the atmosphere of such a body may have taken a common direction in space, and in its path become attracted by our system. Ifits nucleus, when near the sun, were volatilized carbon, and its atmosphere carbonic acid, the result of the sun’s radiation on such an athermic sub- stance as carbonic acid might certainly decompose it. Might it not be the case that the temperature of dissociation of carbonic acid may be lower than the temperature of the volatilization of carbon? There are certain peculiarities in the electric ight supporting this. Thus the carbon might be liberated as a sublimate away from the sun, but in the direction towards the sun, the temperature may be sufficiently high to volatilize the carbon. This, or some other radiation theory, as Tyndall has suggested, seems the only one possible to explain the stupendous velocity of the growth of the tails, amounting in some cases to as much as 5,000 miles a second, a velocity which the energy of the sun would be incompetent to give to matter, Again, Bicxerton,—On Partial lmpact, 181 this hypothesis agrees with some of the spectroscopic observations of comets, in which the tail gave a feebly continuous spectrum, showing it to be solid, and the nucleus a banded spectrum, showing it to be gaseous. It may be possible that there are other gases whose temperature of decomposition is lower than the temperature of volatilization of one of their constituents, such as fluoride of silicon and generally halogen compounds of infusible bases. The Sun. I shall now attempt to show that there may be agencies at work which may cause a great difference of temperature between the poles of the sun and its equator. This may give us an insivht into the cause of the tremen- dous cyclones of the meeting solar trades, and these cyclones are possibly the cause of such spots. If this hypothesis really represents the formation of the solar system, then it is probable that radiation is greater in a direction perpendicular to the ecliptic than in its plane. Again, the combined energy of gravitation and centrifugal force would cause most of the absorbed matter to fall upon the sun about the equator; both of these causes may produce a great difference of temperature between the poles and the equator of the sun, sufficient, perhaps, to produce cyclonic spots. The projection of bodies upon the surface of the sun, bodies trapped by the sun itself, might probably produce the sea of flame which surrounds it, and the protuberances so often seen upon its limbs. The precipitation of bodies upon its surface appears to me to offer the only conceivable explanation of the high velocity which the hydrogen on the surface of the sun sometimes possesses. The speed of some comets proves that bodies in space may have a velocity of many hundred miles per second, and we know that a body at rest would acquire nearly 400 miles a second by the sun’s attraction alone. Therefore many bodies may fall upon the sun with a velocity of 500 miles a second or more. Such a body would bury itself far down in the sun, clearing the gas by pressing it down before it and in a few minutes it would be many thousand miles into*the sun, and, its motion of mass destroyed, a temperature of 100,000,000 might readily be developed, which, even if the density of the body were no higher than air, would amount to a pressure of 400,000 atmospheres, and would most likely be much ereater than this. Here are all the conditions for a most powerful explosion, amply sufficient for all that-has been observed of the prominences. Itis quite evident that if there are trains of bodies, which have been brought into the orbits around the sun, most of the phenomena of periodical variations of spots aud protuber- ances may be explained on the assumption that these bodies plunge obliquely into the body of the sun. On Double and Multiple Stars. When the original proper motion is small, and the proportions struck off large, after partial coalescence the greatly increased attraction acting on 132 Transactions.—Aliscellancous, the two retreating bodies will in many cases cause one or both of them to be attracted back to the coalesced mass; but as the foree which produces this return is partially due to the other retreating body, and for reasons already mentioned, the returning body will not necessarily come into collision with the coalesced mass, but may revolve around it producing double stars, or, if both bodies returned, triple stars, and in many cases the coalesced mass would also separate and produce even quadruple, or still higher multiple stars. I need not say that many thousands of multiple stars exist. Generally the returning stars, although sometimes of greater magnitude, would be of less luminosity, but this body would collect much of the matter revolving around the more luminous body, and so have its own temperature raised. In the case of nearly complete collision, the two pieces leaving the coalesced mass might reasonably be expected to break into pieces. It is possible to show that the rotation of each of these pieces must generally be in the same direction as the rotation of the coalesced mass, and that most of the forces acting would tend to produce a system resembling the solar system. Nebula. I have already shown how a ring nebule may be produced by a case of partial collision. The cometic nebule would be produced when a high resultant velocity was produced in the coalesced mass. It is not difficult to conceive that in the collisions of approximately equal bodies the coalesced mass might separate chiefly into two other larger masses, and produce double nebule, and ultimately double stars revolving around each other. Again, a case of almost complete coalescence appears competent to give rise to the conditions we observe in the spiral nebule, as it will be seen that rotation will be very slow in this case, and the expulsion of matter irregular, although it must be confessed that it seems probable that generally a large nucleus of continuous nebule would be produced. At the same time possibly higher power observations may show this to be the case. Art. IX.—On the Calculation of Distances by means of Reciprocal Vertical Angles. By C. W. Apams. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 12th September, 1878.] Tne distance between any two points on the earth’s surface may be found, if the angle subtended by those points at the c2ntre of the earth is known, Avaws.—Ta Caleulate Distances by Reciprocal Vertical Angles, 183 as itis then only necessary to multiply the number of units in the given angle by the value of one unit at the earth’s surface, in order to find the distance, or ‘‘ Contained Are,” as it is generally called. The method of deducing the subtended angle, or rather the length of the “ Contained Are,’ when the vertical angle from each station to the other is given, may be shown as follows, dividing the problem into two cases—first, when one angle is an elevation ; and, secondly, when both are depressions. Casz 1.—When one angle is an elevation, and the other a Cepression. To investigate a method of ascertaining distances by means of reciprocal vertical angles:—Let 4 and 6b in fie. 1 represent the two statious, and C the centre of the earth. Draw A F a horizontal line at d, and Bb G a horizontal line at B, and B H parallel to A F. Then 4A B Gis the true angle of depression at B, and BA F'is the true angle of elevation at 4, and G B A — HB A(or B AP) =C (the contained arc). Thus we see that the difference between the true angles of 1 elevation and depression is equal to the ‘‘contained oO: arc,” and taking the mean value of 1” on the earth’s surface = 101-4 feet pues or 153°6 links, we could thus obtain the distance between the two stiutions in feet or links. | But the observed angles are not the true angles, as they are both affected with refraction. Let 4 K and B K represent the apparent direction of each station from the other. Let D represent the true angle of depression, G B 4. Let / represent the true angle of elevation Bb A PF. Let C represent the angle 4 C B or contained arc; and Let R represent the angle of refraction = K A Bb or K B A. G B K will be the apparent angle of depression = D — Rh. And K A F' will be the apparent ang'e of elevation = # + R, and the difference between the observed angles of depression and elevation willbe (D — R) — (E+ R) = D-— E — 2R=C — 2h. Now, assuming £& to be 4; of the contained arc, C — 2h willbe C — 2 C =10. Therefore the difference between the observed angles of elevation and depression will be 12 C; so, by multiplying the number of seconds in 13 CU by 12 x 158-6, we shall get the number of links in the contained are, or the distance between d and B. (Note $3 x 153°6 = 177°3). If the dis- tance between 4 and B is required in feet instead of links, then multiply by 18 x 101-4 = 117. 184 Tyansactions,— Miscellaneous, Cass 2.—When both angles are depressions. Using the same notation as before, except that D and d represent the true angles of depression, and D — R, d — R the observed angles of depression ; then D+d44+ F = 2 right angles, alsoC + F = 2 right angles .. D+ d= C;andD—R+d—R = C—2R.- That is, the sum of both angles of de- pression = C—~2R=C—~C=412C, andi? C x +3 x 153°6 (or sum of observed depressions in seconds multiplied by 177°3) = distance in links between 4 and B. If the distance between 4 and B is required in feet, then multiply by 117 instead of 177:3. The above results expressed in words give the following Practical Rute. Take the sum of the observed vertical angles when both are depressions ; or their difference when one is an elevation, and reduce this sum or differ- ence to seconds; multiply by 177-3, and the result will be the approximate distance between the two stations in links. Norz.—lIf the distance be required in feet, then multiply by 117. « Or the following general rule will apply to all cases :—Subtract 180° from the observed zenith distances, reduce the remainder to seconds, and multiply by 177-3, the result will be the approximate distance between the two stations in links. In the preceding investigation, I have assumed the mean value of 1” on the earth’s surface = 101°4 feet, and I shall now show what is the greatest error that can be introduced in any case by this assumption. The radius of curvature on the meridian varies with the latitude from a Ceo 2 . 2 minimum at the Equator (=2,) toa maximum at the Pole (2). P And the radius of curvatare of the Prime Vertical also varies with the latitude from a minimum at the Equator (= HE.) to a maximum at the Pole 2 =.) Gar Also, the radius of curvature in any latitude varies with the Azimuth from a minimum on the meridian to a maximum on the prime vertical. Still the limits of variation are so small, compared with the ordinary errors of observation, that in general practice it is sufficient to assume 101°4 feet as the mean value of 1” on the surface of the earth for New Zealand. The following are the precise values for latitudes 39° and 44°, taking 89° as the mean latitude of the North Island of New Zealand, and 44° as the mean latitude of the South Island, Apvams.—To Calculate Distances by Reciprocal Vertical Angles. 135 FELT. Taking Bessel’s value of the equatorial radius (E) = 20923597 And Bessel’s value of the polar semi-axis (P) = 20853654 The value of 1” on the meridian at lat. 39° = 101-164 The value of 1” on the prime vertical at lat. 39° = 101°575 .. The mean value of 1” at all azimuths in lat. 39° = 101:370 Again, the value of 1” on the meridian at lat. 44° = 101°252 And the value of 1” on the prime vertical at lat. 44° = 101-604 .. Lhe mean value of 1” at all azimuths at lat. 44° = 101:428 And the mean value of 1” at all azimuths at lat. 39° = 101-370 .. The mean value of 1” at all azimuths for both Islands of N.Z. = 101°399 Or say, 101-4 feet. Tt will thus be seen that, by using this mean value, the results would be sometimes slightly in excess of the true values, and sometimes slightly in defect ; but in any case the difference would only amount to about } per cent., and may therefore in ordinary practice be neglected. With regard to the co-efficient of refraction which I have adopted, it may be thought that is too small, as in most works on surveying it is stated to be from +, to 74. The reason I have used +; is because I find it more in accordance with actual observations in hilly country in New Zealand. The factor 177°3, as stated above, is obtained by taking the value of 1” on the earth’s surface as 153°6 links, and the refraction as ;!, of the con- tained arc; but if it is required to obtain the distance in any other denomination, such as feet, metres, miles, etc., for any other values of ter-' restrial curvature and refraction, this may easily be done by means of the following formula :— Let v =value of 1” on the earth’s surface, in the given denomination ,, m=co-efficient of refraction ,, =the factor required ;~ then 7 Vv P= Tom Example. Suppose v=80°89 metres and m=:071 then a = 36, the factor required. It must be borne in mind that this method is only approximate, as the observed vertical angles are liable to an error of 2" or 3’ even when an 8-inch theodolite is used, and a mean of several observations taken. Supposing the average error of each double observation to be 5” or 6” then the error in the calculated distance would be 5 or 6 times 177 links, say about 10 chains. This would be 1 per cent. in a distance of 1000 chains, which is the usual distance between geodesical stations in New Zealand. The chief advantage of this method is that the observations are not subject to a ratio of error in proportion to the distance. Most approximate methods, by telemeters, etc., although tolerably correct for short distances, fail altogether when applied to long distances; but this method gives pro- 186 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. portionately better results, the longer the distance, as I estimate it as subject to an average error of 5” or 6” which is equivalent to about 10 chains, and this error is the same for all distances. Thus, in finding the distance between two hills 50 miles apart, this would only introduce an error of 2% links per 10 chains, thus nearly approaching in accuracy to a chained measurement, besides being free from accidental errors and omissions which all chained measurements are liable to. But although the errors of observation do not affect the results in pro- portion to the distance, still, any error in the estimated refraction will do so; therefore this method is only suitable for hilly country, where other methods are not available; as, whenever the line of sight between the two stations passes for any considerable distance close to the surface of water or level land, the refraction is generally very variable and uncertain, and the results obtained by this method will then be unreliable. In my own practice, using an 8-inch transit theodolite, reading to 10", and noting the level readings at each observation, the distances found by this method have an average error of half-a-chain to the mile. For instance, in a circuit of 50 miles between two known points, average distance of stations 10 miles apart, the error was found to be 23 chains, or less than half-a-chain per mile. In another case, there was an error of 31 chains in 60 miles, or about half-a-chain per mile. It is requisite, in this method, to use only the corrected vertical angles, that is, they must be corrected for the height of the eye and object. Rules for calculating the correction are given in most books on survey- ing, but the following blank form will be convenient when the difference of heights of the eye and object is given in feet and inches, and the distance between the stations in links :— Blank Form. Difference of height of eye and object in inches log . * Distance between stations in links (fol KO ySor set AH G2 Gc Colog tang 1”—log 7:92 = constant log 40+ 415 G0 Correction in seconds of are = log Note.—When the height of the eye exceeds the fhereitt of ie object, the correction is to be added to an elevation or subtracted from a depression. When the height of the object exceeds the height of the cye, the cor- rection is to be added to a depression, or subtracted from an elevation ; Or the rule for applying the corrections may be simplified thus: Mark angles of elevation -+ mark angles of depression. Mark height of eye + mark height of object. Then take the algebraical sum of the heights of the eye and object, to com- pute the correction, to which prefix the same sign; then the algebraical sum of this correction, and the observed vertical angle, will give the true vertical angle, Apams.—To calculate Distances by Reciprocal Vertical Angles. 137 In order to compute this correction by the above rules, the distance between the stations is required to be known; but as in all cases where this method is used the distance between the stations is not known, we must proceed as follows :— With the observed vertical angles, as they stand in the field-book, compute the distance between the stations; and with this approximate dis- tance, compute the eye and object correction. Then, with the corrected angles, again compute the distance, and in most cases no further calcula- tion will be required; but in cases where the second calculation gives a result differing greatly from the first approximation, it may be advisable to repeat the calculation. Instead, however, of neglecting the eye and object correction altogether, in calculating the first approximation, it will be sometimes advantageous to ascertain the correction roughly, and take it into account. This may be done as follows :— As 1 inch subtends 1” at 26044 links or 3} miles nearly, we can easily ascertain the angle subtended by any number of inches, at any number of miles distance, by the following rule :— Multiply the inches by 3} and divide the product by the number of miles, the quotient will be the number of seconds subtended. The distance in miles can generally be estimated to within 10 per cent. or so, and calcu- lating the first approximate correction in this way will often save time. Example. Bryant’s Hill to Barker’s Hill. Elev. 1°14 13” Barker’s Hill to Bryant’s Hill. Dep. 1° 22’ 50” Fr. Ln, Bryant’s Hill to Barker’s Hill. Height of eye Ss By all ” object — 0 0 In. Hye exceeds object 3 1 = 387 34 Distance, say 10 miles 10) 120 12:0’ ; Hr. IN, Barker’s Hill to Bryant’s Hill. Height of eye jun | pg object = 7 In; Hye exceeds object = 19 = 21 3g 10 ) 68 6:8” Bryant’s Hill to Barker’s Hill. Elev., 1° 14’ 13” + 12” — 1° 14’ 25” Barker's Hill to Bryant’s Hill. Dep., 1° 22’ 50” — 6:8 = 1 22 43-2 8 18:2 = 4987-2 3771 49820 34874 3487 To compute the eye and object corrections 149 First approximation == 88330 138 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. INCHES. 37 = log 1:56820 88330 = colog 5:05389 constant log 4-41570 Correction 10-’9 = log. 1.03779 INCHES. 21 = log 1:32222 88330 = ecolog 5‘053889 constant log 4:41570 Correcition 6°°2 = log 0-79181 Corrected Angles. Eley. 1°14 13” + 10’.9 = 1°14’ 237-9 Dep. 1° 22’50°— 6°2 = 1 22 43°8 8199 = 499-9 3771 49996 34993 3499 150 ,°, Distance from Bryant's Hill to Barker’s Hill = 88632 links True distance as found by Triangulation = 89197 be Difference 565 i Which is about half a chain per mile. Having found the contained arc, or distance between the stations, in links, by the rules given above, the difference in altitude may be obtained in the usual way, viz., by converting the links into feet and then multiplying the distance in feet between the stations by the tangent of the true angle of elevation or depression. (Norz.—The irue angle of elevation or depression is half the sum of the observed reciprocal angles, when one is an elevation; or half the difference when both are depressions; or, generally, if zenith distances are used, the true vertical angle is equal to . half the difference of the reciprocal zenith distances;—of course sup- posing the eye and object corrections to have been applied.) But instead of finding the distance between the stations in links, and then converting it into feet, it would be more simple to find the distance in feet at once, by using the factor 117 instead of 177°3, as before explained :— Example. Bryant’s Hill to Barker’s Hill. Corrected Elev. 1° 14’ 237-9 Barker’s Hill to Bryant’s Hill. Pe Deps 181207438 Diff. 8199 == 499-9 Sums) 2037207027 4Sum. 1°18 338 4999 = log 2-698883 117 = constantlog 2-068186 LBC co0O ne — tangent 8-359040 1337°0 feet = 3°126109 es AvAmus.—1'o caleulate Distances by Heciprocal Vertical Angles, 159 Tf no logarithmic or trigonometrical tables are at hand, the difference of altitude may be found as follows :— As :00000485 represents the value of sin 1” arc 1" or tang 1" (true to the last figure), and as the tangents of small angles vary very neatly as the number of seconds contained in the angle, we may substitute for the tangent of the angle the number of seconds multipled by -00000485. In practice, the operation may be shortened by combining the two multipliers together ; thus, ‘00000485 x 117 = -0005675. (Norz.—In order to show how very nearly the sines, arcs, and tangents agree for the first two degrees, their values at two degrees are given, for the sake of comparison. Diff. Thus sin 2° = -0348995) Laven ae oo = 030068) oe tang2° = -0349208| 142 — 3” ) Therefore, the arc of 2° = sin 2° 00’ 012’, and the tangent of Zee are of 27 00" 03:. _ Also, in obtaining the tangent of 2° by multiplyimg 00000485 x 60 x 60 x 2, the result is 0349200, or just 1 of a second below the true value. Similarly the tangent of 1°, found in the same manner, is ‘0174600, or just 1’ above its true value; but the value used for tang 1”, viz., °(00000485, is slightly in excess of its true value, which is ‘0000048481368, etc.) Then the difference of altitude may be found by the following rules :— Case 1.—When one angle is in an elevation. Ruie.—Take the difference of the observed vertical angles, and also half the sum, both reduced to seconds ; multiply them together, and their product by :0005675; the result will be the difference of altitude between the two stations in feet. Cast 2.—When both angles are depressions. Rutz.—Take the sum of the observed verticle angles, and also half the difference, both reduced to seconds, multiply them together, and their pro- duct by 0005675 ; the result will be the difference of altitude between the two stations in feet. Or, if zenith distances are used, the following general rule will apply in all cases :— =: Ruitze.—Subtract 180° from the sum of the observed zenith distances and reduce the remainder to seconds; then take half the difference of the observed zenith distances and reduce it to seconds; multiply the two quantities together, and the product by :0005675, and the result will be the difference of altitude between the two stations in feet, 140 Transactions,— Miscellaneous, Example as before. 4713:8 4 Sum. ‘ 499-9 9994 = 499-9 reversed Diff. 191863358 Bel 9i-9 18855 4242 424 42 2356300 °0005675 5765000 = 0005675 reversed Diff. of altitude = 1837°3 feet Even when a book of logarithms is available, the calculation by logs will be more expeditiously performed by using the logs of the above quantities than by using the log tangent. Example. LP 183358 = 4713°8 log 3°673371 Sy gh: ae) = 499:9 log 2-698883 Constant log -+0005675 = 6°753966 1337:3 feet == 3:126220 With regard to the actual results obtained by this method, I may mention that in the circuit of 50 miles previously referred to, the altitudes closed to 18 feet, and in the circuit of 60 miles, the error in closing was only 2 feet. Tt is thus evident that this method is quite capable of giving reliable results in hilly country, and is well adapted for the topographical survey of a new country. A line of stations might be selected in the most accessible positions, and each line used as a base from which to extend triangles on either side, and as every line is determined independently, there would be no accumulation of error. On the contrary, by observing to distant hills on either side, the distances found would check each other, and any erroneous result could be rejected. In very level country, where the refraction is too uncertain to give reliable results by this method, other methods may be employed, such as chained lines, or triangulation from a measured base, ete. Popz,-——1 Methad of measyring Position of Double Stars, 141 Art. X.—A Description of inexpensive Apparatus for measuring the Angles of Position and Distances of Double Stars, and the Method of using tt. By James H. Pops. Plate I. [Read before the Otago Institute, 13th August, 1878:] UnpovusTEDLY anyone who wishes to make observations of double stars should provide himself with a first-class telescope equatorially mounted, having an aperture of from eight to ten inches; he should place this telescope in a commodious and well built observatory and should procure a first-class filar micrometer and a galvanic chronograph. He should have perfect illuminating apparatus, so that the micrometer wires may appear as bright lmes on a dark field or as dark lines on a bright field, and he should be able at will to employ whatever tint he wishes to give to his field or his wires. Besides all this, his telescope should be accurately driven by clock- work, so that he may keep a star in one part of the field of view as long as he wishes to do so, and may have both hands at perfect liberty to take angles of position and to measure the distances between the components of double stars. But, unfortunately, this apparatus is extremely expensive. Cooke of York will provide every requisite for some £1200; it is not every one that can quite see his way to spend such a sum. There are many enthusiastic students of astronomy who are anxious to engage in this kind of work, but think it quite out of their power to do so on account of these same pecuniary difficulties. The following paper attempts to show how good work in this department of astronomy may be done at a very trifling expense, and to make it evident that the possessor of a good telescope may, with a small expenditure of trouble and a still smaller expenditure of money, hope to be in a position to take measures of double stars, that will be worth preserving in the scientific records of the day. Here I would say, once for all, that the methods described in this paper are, many of them, not new. Some of them were invented by Sir John Herschell, some by other astronomers. For many of the details the writer alone isresponsible. For working out the mechanical construction, and for many most valuable improvements in the water-clock used in the method, the writer has to thank Mr. Forsyth, station-master, Caversham. All that the writer claims to have done is to have worked out a complete system (the materials for which have been derived from various sources), by means of which double star observation is placed within the reach of a large class of students of the starry heavens, who are debarred from pursuing this fascinating branch of astronomy by the great expense involved in procuring the imstruments ordinarily used in it, 142 Yransactions,—Miscellaneous, Fig. 1 represents the field of view of a positive eye-piece of high mag- nifying power. In this are arranged, in the manner shown in the figure, images of wires for ordinary use and of webs for more delicate observations. Fig, 2 is the position circle. This is made of very stout block-tin, and is wired at the back to prevent its warping. Its circumference is divided into degrees (the minutes are to be estimated). ‘The circle is fastened on a central cap, like that which is used for a sun-shade, so that the circle can be screwed on to the eye-piece with facility. Hvery care must be taken to set the plane of the circle at right angles to the axis of the telescope. Before the circle is put on the eye-piece, the index I, fig. 3, is placed on the telescope, tube T", and temporarily secured by means of the clamp: and screw Cs. Then the circle is put on, and the apparatus will be in the condition represented in fig. 8. If the telescope used is equatorially mounted and properly adjusted, it may be now turned on a double star in any part of the heavens; if it is an alt. azimuth, a star must be chosen on or near the meridian, the nearer the better. The star, or rather one of the component stars, is now made to run along between the wires TT, fig.1, by turning the eye-piece tube of the telescope round until ij does so. Then the index I, fig. 3, must be made to point accurately to the zero of the position circle, and be firmly secured there by means of the clamp. Next the eye-piece tube is turned round until the line joining the centres of the two stars is exactly parallel to the two wires. Then the circle indication is read off, and, if necessary, 180° must be added to the angle so obtained. Then, evidently, the angle of position with the meridian has been obtained. Several observations of the same star on different nights should be taken. It is'advantageous, too, to use different parts of the circle as the zero point. If this be done, the mean of all the observations will be a very close approximation to the truth. Having found the angle of position, we next proceed to obtain the distance. This operation should be attempted only in the very finest weather. The writer always measures distances either in morning or evening twilight, or in full moonlight when the moon is near the meridian. Thus the illumination difficulty is avoided. The clepsydra, the use and construction of which will easily be under- stood from the section of it given in fig. 4, is placed in a convenient position near the telescope. The tanks T and T” are filled with water, the eyepiece tube is turned round as in the previous operation. until one of the com- ponents of the double star runs along the wire TT or the web w.w. Then the star is recalled and raised in the field a litttle, so that it may transit the oblique wire TW, or the oblique web w.T. The instant that the first star is bisected by the wire or web, the lever is pressed sharply down to the peg P TRANS. NZ INSTITUTE. VOLXLPLT Fig.2. Lo Wlustrate paper by we LL ope. SH Pope, del, . tae ea e's EXPLANATION OF PLATE I. RouagHo Puans or Position CircneE, ETC. Fig. I.—lield of Oblique Transit Eye-piece. M M TT ww TW Tw Meridian transit wire. Declination parallel wire. Declination parallel web. 20° oblique transit wire. 10° oblique transit web. Fig. I1.—Posittion Circle. E Hye-hole C Cap for fastening circle to tube of telescope. Fig. IlI.—Vertical Section. Cc E WwW Position circle. Hye lens. Wires. Field lens. Eye-piece tube. Telescope tube. Clamp and screw for index. Index. RovuGH SECTION OF CLEPSYDRA. Fig. IV. Upper tank. Lower tank. Upper valve. Lower valve. Brass rods connecting valves. Brass pipe. Glass pipe. Waste tap. Waste saucer. Excess bucket. Graduated scale. Bars, supports. Lever. Fulcrum. Spring. Peg to limit movement of lever. Fastening of spring. Tron arm. Waste pipe. Stand. Spring to keep valve shut. ¥ 7 ~ On , A , ae : ae eaiely ry at : a ’ ea) cs 4 2 i = 4 ps Bi , m ak OOS, : . ait A ws OR Oo. j - / . F; m ie a 3 5 ie ; ; } ‘ F - me Jae AG er X fs : ws ; b F ad AFB i cy 1 . * " 4 ¢ + Phe ‘ ¥ i . 7 t a nae pe ‘ vod ey tt Ate Pee ths ron ay th ey ; Vane fa cere ADS cmPRE RNA 4 a yet e Taw ma ; Piel 5S pe Rey aviay qavit GiGi : ‘ A i ig ' wat ifs ep i Pore.—A Method of measuring Position of Double Stars. 143 and firmly held there, this raises the valves VV’, and water flows up the glass tube G, which has previously been filled up to the zero point of the seale. The instant that the second star is bisected by the wire or web the lever is released, the valves are immediately closed, and the flow of water ceases. The height of the column of water is then accurately measured by means of the graduated scale. Then the water is allowed to escape through the waste-tap T’, and the operation is repeated. A mean of all the observa- tions gives the quantity of water that flows into the glass-tube during the interval between the transits of the two stars. Let this quantity be 2°25 inches. Then an observation is made, by means of a watch, of the time required to fill the tube, that is to say for 30 inches of water to run into it; let this time be 21°5 seconds. A rule of three sum shows us the time elapsing between the transits of the two stars :— inches. inches. secs. secs. SO} Suen ah2 Owen os 2159.5 L612 1°612 seconds of time is, therefore, the interval between the transits of the two stars. Having found this interval, a simple trigonometrical calculation gives us the distance between the two stars :— Let p = the North Polar distance of the star. a = angle of position of the wire; and = augle of position of the line joining the stars. T = interval between the two transits in seconds of time. A= distance in seconds of are between the two stars. T xX 15 .sinp. cosa: enti) Nee sin (a — @)- These calculations are not very troublesome. A very little practice enables one to do them very rapidly. Jt may be as well, in conclusion, to give an example just to show how very little labour is really involved in this process. On April 5th, 1876, twelve oblique transits were taken of the star 4768 (of Brisbane’s catalogue), R.A. 14h. Om., Decl. 58° 6’ 8. The average duration of time between the transits of the component stars of the double over a wire inclined 78° 5’ to the meridian, was 9°61 secs. The angle of position had been found to be 22° 0’, Then— 9°61 secs. X 15 = 144:16 Log 2°158814 sin P (36° 54’) 9°778455 cos a 78° 5’ 9:314897 cosec (a-@) 56° 5’ 10:081000 1-333166 The natural number corresponding to this is 21°53. Hence the distance between the stars is 211 seconds of are. This measure was taken before apparatus described in this paper had beén made as perfect as it is at 144 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. present. It is probable that measures taken now with the improved position circle and the clepsydra, will at all events approach in accuracy the best measures taken with perfect appliances. If mercury could be used instead of water with similar apparatus, still better results would be obtained, but as the object has been to incur as little expense as possible, it has been thought advisable to adapt the arrangements to the use of water. : It is obvious that this method is available for measuring the diameter of planets, sun-spots, etc., and also for selenographical observations. Art. X1.—Deflection of Shingle-bearing Currents and Protection of River Banks by Druslin’s Floating Log Dams. By H. P. Macxuin. Plate IT. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 17th August, 1878.} Tue plain of the Wairau in the Province of Marlborough is a tract of flat alluvial country, averaging about ten miles by seventy, and has been formed on the channel of an ancient iceberg (mer-de-glace), by the streams from the surrounding hills and the Wairau River, which traverses its entire length, rising on Mount Mackay, and debouching mm Cloudy Bay, a portion of Cook Strait. Geologically the plain is of post-pliocene formation, surrounded towards the north and west by mountains of metamorphic and paleozoic origin, and on the south by low hills of marine tertiary drift. The Wairau River has evidently formed the greater portion of the plain, and carries with it immense quantities of shingle, of which it is made the receptacle, by the rivulets from the hills. *The district is a prosperous farming one; and from its first settlement, has been liable to considerable damage, not only from the flood-water itself, but also from the shifting of the river-bed, and the deposit of shingle on the adjacent lands. The town of Blenheim is situated on the middle of the plain, and unfortunately, its site is lower by several feet than the surrounding country. LHvery year its danger is becoming more imminent, as the beds of the river and its branch, the Opawa, are gradually rising, from these rivers being compelled to deposit the drift on their banks and beds by lateral embankments. The late Provincial Government, under the direction of eminent engineers, has tried in vain many devices to direct the stream from the town. All were unavailing, as the rapidity of the current undermined cratings, tanks, and wing-walls, while the enormous quantities of shingle deposited defied all control. Not a wreck remains of all the works thus erected, costing some £15,000. On plan No. I will be seen, at the point X, the lowest point in the river bank, whence the town gets flooded by overflow, and where the | TRANS. NZ INSTITUTE, VOL.XI.PLIL GO) River Bee SECTION A.A. ) 9 ¢ ¢ 99% » si ae 7 q) my - ) F ND 3 Siawtht Babnik vot lever, ° 99 ‘) 0) 9 9 , 9 io} ¢ v f 9 To wlustraie paper by AE Macklin. Macxiin.—Protection of River Banks. 145 river threatens to form a new channel, leading directly through the town, as the lowest portion of the plain. The construction called a “dam” was erected some two years ago, at the point 7, (plan No. 1) and has not only diverted the stream into the ‘“‘new”’ channel, but raised the bank of shingle behind and below it. The old bed is gradually silting up. Had solid planking been put in to divert the current, it would have got undermined almost immediately, and the shingle been carried on and deposited where it would do harm. The theorem is as follows:—If a current will carry shingle, when travelling at the rate of six or seven miles per hour, but will not, if the velocity is decreased to say four, then, anything so decreasing it, will force it to drop the shingle; and, what is of more importance, at the point where it is so decreased. The invention I have to describe was suggested to Mr. Druslin, by observing and experimenting on the action of one log floating and:moored diagonally across a current, by which it was seen that the surface current was deflected. It then became clear that a series of logs moored at certain distances from the bottom above one another, and so fixed — to upright posts that they would float or rise with the flood, would not only divert the current by producing a resultant between the downward velocity and the resistance, but by forming eddies below the logs, and decreasing the velocity, cause the deposit of all the shingle. The water here in flood time is about twelve feet deep, and there is a series of frame- works of five logs each, averaging twenty-eight inches in diameter, placed diagonally across the stream, sloping from the bank at an angle of 18 degrees down stream. It will be seen that these logs, fixed in the following manner, check about half the volume of current and divert the remainder. Piles of very heavy timber are driven into the bed of the river; the first horizontal log lies on the bottom, the next about a foot above it, and so on to the surface; the whole series is so arranged that the top log always floats; in fact the structure is so buoyed that it rises on the piers with the flood. The accompanying plans will show the construction. Reference to plan No. 8 will show how the stones and sand get piled up during a flood, so high as to reach within a short distance of the surface, while in front of the logs there is araging torrent. There is one defect about this invention, which led many people to condemn it at first. During flood-time a bank of shingle is raised, averaging eight feet (see along the line m n on plan No. 1), but during its subsidence, and until the next flood occurs, the river is acting on it, and cutting it away. But plans are now devised for placing a wing-wall of planks, perpendicularly to the horizon, in a frame in such a manner that they will drop into any holes made beneath them by the water, thus keeping the bank of shingle intact. There is no doubt in my mind 2) 146 Transactions.—Miscellaneoiis. that the town of Blenheim has been saved by this invention. Of all the money spent in conservation and attempts to divert the stream, these log- dams only remain, and when thrown up shingle can be retained, no danger need be feared for the future. It will thus be seen that the great problem of how to divert the current and make a bank of shingle where it can be utilised, has been solved in one of the most dangerous and rapid rivers in New Zealand. Unfortunately the conservation of rivers here is in the hands of a Board elected by the settlers from among themselves, and such bodies are not only slow to see, but timid in admitting the merits of a new idea. To make the matter clearer than can be done by written description I forward 2 small model of the invention. Art. XIT.—On Beach Protection. By W. D. Campsziu, Ass. Inst. C:E. Plate ITI. [Read before the Westland Institute, 15th July, 1878.} Tue encroachments of the sea on the sandy ridge upon which a portion of the town of Hokitika is built, have often been very considerable during tempestuous weather, and at times have created no unusual amount of alarm among the inhabitants of Revell Street. The subject of beach pro- tection will therefore be of interest and importance to many present, and I propose to briefly discuss it, prefacing my remarks by a glance at the conditions presented by waves in accumulating and removing beaches. The movements of shingle and sand along the coast are due to the waves, whose direction is determined by the prevailing wind, but tidal currents sometimes indirectly affect their action by subduing or increasing the waves according as they may be with or against their direction. The action of the waves may be taken to be of three kinds :*—1st. The accumulative action, which heaps up the particles against the shore. 2nd. The destructive action, which breaks down the accumulations pre- viously made. 8rd. The progressive action, which carries forward the pebbles and sand in a horizontal direction. The difference between the first and second actions is determined by the rate of succession of the waves ; for when they break upon the shore so rapidly as to over-ride each other, a continuous downward under-current is produced and the destructive action commences. The progressive action takes place when the waves impinge obliquely upon the shore. * See ‘Observations on the Motions of Shingle Beaches,” by H. R. Palmer, C.E., F,R.S., Phil. Trans. Royal Society, 1834, Part I. Camppety.—On Beach Protection, 147 Works, having for their object the protection of the sea-beach, should divide the destructive and progressive actions of the waves. This require- ment is fulfilled by piled and planked groynes, constructed at right angles to the shore line, their tendency being to collect and retain the sand and shingle. When the waves approach the shore exactly at right angles, the groynes will have their minimum effect, as no progressive action exists. The constant shifting of the beach, however, at Hokitika, either to the north or south, shows that an oblique direction usually prevails. Groynes have been found to be most successful in similar cases of encroachment on the coasts of Great Britain. In the Baltic, a double row of piles has been found to succeed; while on the Dutch coast groynes are constructed of fascines, where the dykes are more than usually exposed to the waves. The English practice is to drive the piles from one-half to two-thirds of their length in the sand or shingle, either in pairs, placing planking between them, or to have a pile on alternate sides of the planking. Sheet-piling would be particularly advantageous, and is shown in figs. 1 and 2, which closely | resembles a design by Mr. R. Pickwell, A.I.C.E. With main piles 27 feet long, and sheet piles 15 feet long, the rate per yard run would be 16 lin. feet main piles, 3 CBM timber in planking, sheet piles, and waling, 51lbs. ironwork in bolts and 30lbs. in shoes. With planking only, the quantity per yard run would be 15 lin. feet main piles, 1 CBM timber in planking and 40lbs. ironwork in bolts and 8lbs. in shoes. 1G protect the beach from opposite Camp Street to Hampden Street, a distance of 770 yards, six groynes, each 66 lin. yards in length, might be placed every 154 yards. Their cost would be about £3,000. With the foreshore thus protected a line of scrub and saplings could be placed with advantage along the beach. The cost would be about £500. As instances of the successful conservation of foreshores by groynes, it may be mentioned that, at Spurn Point in Yorkshire,* piled and planked groynes were used by Sir John Coode, and in four years the line of bent grass had extended 200 feet to seaward, covering many drift banks; also at Withernsea,} in the same neighbourhood, some groynes 300 to 850 feet long were constructed 200 yards apart by Mr.-Pickwell; the piles at first stood ten feet above the beach at the land end and six feet at the sea end, the upper five planks were added as the beach accumulated, and in four years the groynes were nearly covered; at Eastbourne and Folkestone groynes of similar construction have been successfully used; at the former place they were constructed 150 yards apart, the piles were driven in pairs with two walings and a centre row of closely driven sheet-piles six inches *Proc. Inst. C.H., Vol. XXVIII., p. 503. t Proc. Inst. C.H., Vol. Li., p. 206, 148 Transactions, Miscellaneous. thick. At Cranz, on the Baltic, rows of piles 8 x 8 inches and 10 to 12 feet long, spaced 13 inches apart, have been successful, with a breastwork of piles and fascines. Breastworks are often required in cases of low foreshore or where a cliff is exposed to rapid erosion by the sea. Beaches have also been successfully formed along the sea barriers of recla- mation works by means of groynes, At Sunderland, successive additions were made to the reclaimed area as the beach formed. In 1874-5 the author had -charge of similar works at Ayr; a reclamation of 24 acres of foreshore for a dock was made, and six groynes with stone filling, each 150 feet in length and 250 feet apart (see figs. 8 and 4), were constructed along the line of sea barrier in order to collect a beach in front of it. In the first year after their erection a rise of two to three feet took place. With main piles, having a nett length of 81 lin. feet, the rate per yard run with scrub and stone filling, instead of wholly stone as shown in the drawing, would be 18,% lin. feet main piles, 23 CBM timber in way-balks, walings, cross-ties, and planking, and 50 lbs. iron work in bolts, 82 lbs. spikes’ and 21 lbs. in shoes; serub and stone filling 174 cubic yards. The cost of 6 groynes, each 66 lin. yards, would be about £5,300. ; On spits and low beaches exposed to encroachment, groynes require to be constructed first, and then rows of fascines and scrub can be placed with advantage along the crest of the beach. The scrub placed along the beach at Hokitika probably assisted the accumulation of sand behind it; but without groynes it cannot affect the action of the sea at the foot of the beach where the erosion is greatest, and encroachment proceeds until the scrub is undermined. The rough eribwork groynes that Mr. Rochfort placed on the beach in 1867 and 1868* were efforts in the right direction, but a much greater length would be required for efficient protection. The formation of a broad beach upon which the waves can expend their force is of far greater importance than a high narrow ridge which must always be liable to be washed down by heavy seas. ; The fetch or reach of open sea is considerably greater here than at those places that I have mentioned, and the waves from that cause must be larger ; but the depth of water off Hokitika at } mile and 1 mile distance is 26 and 42 feet, at Sunderland it is 27 and 52 feet; while the range of spring tides at Hokitika is 9 feet, and at Sunderland it is 14 feet 6 inches; and it must follow that the power of the waves are more broken here, having to pass over shallower water. I believe the design shown in figs. 1 and 2 would be efficacious, and it-has the merit of presenting the minimum amount of surface to the seas. * See Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1871, Vol. IV., p. 299. ELEVATION Seale 37 % IIrech Pa Re a ee SEA BARRIER Seale Skiat 7 nee TRANS NZ INSTITUTE VOLAL PIL Big t Wa rface ¥ Clay SECTION A-B Shewing Stone Pilling _ Crawrorp.—Growth of Cereals in New Zealand. 149 The snags cast up after every flood will no doubt dangerously affect the groynes when first constructed, as they would then have a large portion above the surface of the beach, but such risks must be unavoidably encountered, Hurriedly constructed works such as have hitherto been in vogue are seldom satisfactory, for permanent results can only be obtained by a system of management pursued when opportunity favours, the best time for constructing the groynes being at the period of extension of beach. Ast, XIII.—How New Zealand may continue to grow Wheat and other Cereals. By James C. Crawrorp. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 3rd August, 1878.] We have all heard of the exhaustion of soils i new countries from the system of taking crop after crop of the same grain off the land year after year without manure, so that eventually the richest soils have been reduced to a barren state, and have refused any longer to yield returns to the husbandman. Thus the fertile bottoms of Virginia were impoverished—although, I believe, it was by tobacco and not by grain—and thus the former wheat- growing lands of Campbeltown and Appin, to the southward of Sydney, now refuse to grow wheat, and are only used for the growth of oaten hay, which, the grain not being ripened, takes little out of the soil. The immense wheat-fields of South Australia, which now give so large an export to that colony, must, in course of time, share the same fate, if continued on the same system, and even now the yield per acre is very small. Wheat-growing has become an important industry in New Zealand, and the returns from the provincial districts of Canterbury and Otago have for several years past been very large. New Zealand soils will not long, however, stand the system of cropping above described, for a very few years will exhaust the constituents required for a grain crop. Let us consider, however, how grain-cropping in this colony can be put upon a permanent footing. We must not be too hard upon the farmers who exhaust their soils, and supply no manure to make up the waste, because, from the system of farming necessary in a new country, it is not easy, perhaps it is impossible, to obtain the required supply of manure. In Great Britain and other thickly-peopled countries, the farmer lays his plans to provide a supply of manure for himself, He has either a dairy, or he stall-feeds oxen, or he 140 Transactions, Miscellaneous, keeps a flock of sheep to feed off his turnips. He has probably, also, a town or large village in his vicinity, from which he can purchase house-manure ; and, under the system of high farming, other manures are brought to him from all parts of the world. It probably would not pay in a new country to go into the elaborate system of farming which is practised in an old one. Much may, however, be done in this direction ; and if we contrast the farm work of Otago with that of the rest of the colony, we will see that it can be done to advantage. It may be that most of the wheat crops now grown in New Zealand are only preparatory to laying the land down in grass. In that case there is little harm done. The land is not exhausted, and after being for some years under grass, may be again broken up and cropped; but what I propose to consider is whether we can hit upon an economical plan of continuing grain-cropping without a rest under grass. There is nothing new in what I propose to state. It is only a reitera- tion of well-known facts, but facts which, strange to say, are seldom known to the farmer. He knows that his land is liable to exhaustion, but of the constituents which’ are taken away in the grain removed, or of how to replace them, he is generally ignorant. The chief constituents of a grain crop which are carried away with the grain are only three in number—viz., phosphate of lime, potash, and nitrogen. The two former, when once exhausted, cannot be replaced except by carrying them to the ground, or by the slow process of the land lying fallow, or in grass, until fresh supplies which may still remain in the soil shall be released, and put in a condition to furnish food to plants. With regard to nitrogen, there is an ample supply in the atmosphere, and, if I remember right, Liebig originally held that no nitrogenous man res were necessary, but afterwards, considering the effect of guano and of muck, changed his views on this point, and came to the conclusion that the nitrogen of the atmosphere in, I suppose, the form of ammonia, did not assimilate with sufficient rapidity to obviate the necessity for nitrogenous manures, aud that therefore these manures must be provided. Now, leaving aside for the time the question of the supply of phosphate of lime and of potash, let us consider how the supply of nitrogen may be most readily brought about. No doubt the simplest plan would be to pur- chase and apply Peruvian guano, but I wish to arrive at the result without an outlay of money. If we go back to the time of the Romans we find that they supplied nitrogen by growing and ploughing in lupins. Now any of the bean tribe will answer for the purpose, these plants being rich in nitrogen, and, when ploughed in, the decomposition which is set up places the nitrogen in a state to be assimilated by plants, Crawrorp.—Growth of Cereals in New Zealand. 151 Can we in the climate of New Zealand grow a crop of some plant of the bean tribe, after the grain crop has been harvested, so as to be ready to be ploughed in before the next year’s grain crop is sown? If we can do this, then, with a supply of phosphate of lime and of potash when required, we might grow wheat every year. I think this might be done in the North Island, but as regards the wheat-growing districts of the South, it may be doubtful. However, I suppose the plan would be to grow and plough in a bean crop whenever it should be thought necessary, if a crop of turnips, or vetches, fed off by sheep, should not be found equally satisfactory. The main point, however, is the supply of phosphate of ime. Asa rule, the soils of the colony are deficient in this mineral, and every effort of the farmer should go to increase it in quantity. As the best supply of nitrogen would be derived from Peruvian guano, so probably the readiest supply of phosphate of lime would be from the phosphatic guanos. But we have a grand supply of phosphate of lime within the colony without going abroad to look for it. We have over 12,000,000 sheep, and a corresponding number of great cattle. We have a large supply of bones every year, much of which is exported. Not a pound of bones ought to leave new Zealand, but, on the contrary, they should be imported from Australia or elsewhere. We have plenty of sulphur. The manufacture of sulphuric acid should be commenced. Bones treated with sulphuric acid in a state of readiness for use, and other manures, such as nitrate of soda, can be manufactured when sulphuric acid is procurable. A country which contains a liberal supply of sulphur, and in which the inhabitants are intelligent enough to understand the uses of sulphuric acid, is placed at an immense advantage over countries deficient in this mineral. Both in agriculture and in manufacture the uses of sulphuric acid are manifold, and perhaps it is only second to coal in productive economy. How much more is the presence of sulphur a God- send in a country so remote from the rest of the world as is New Zea- land, because sulphuric acid is a dangerous commodity to send by sea, and in consequence, when brought from Europe, is very expensive. It is to be hoped, therefore, that the manufacture of sulphuric acid within the colony may be soon commenced, and then the farmers may be supplied with a liberal quantity of superphosphates. An excellent example of the use of supplying phosphate of lime may be seen in the treatment of the clay soils near Auckland. These soils appear to be in their natural state entirely devoid of this mineral, and are in con- sequence extremely sterile. A liberal dose of crushed bones makes them productive, and without this supply their cultivation is useless, as they will give no returns, 152 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. It might have been of advantage to the farmers of the hills near Wellington and other parts of New Zealand, if the phosphates there had also been entirely wanting, because by this time they would have learnt the | necessity of applying them. As the case stands the phosphates are merely deficient in quantity, not absent altogether, and thus the farmers have been able to get along somehow. A liberal dose of bone-dust, repeated when required, would vastly increase the produce of their soils. IT am inclined to suppose that there is generally a sufficient supply of potash in the soils of this Colony, but no doubt the quantity is constantly subjected to diminution. On grazing lands a considerable portion is an- nually removed in the wool, and sent to England, and in cultivated land it is carried away as a constituent of the crop, and if not restored in manure is lost to the soil. I suppose fresh supplies of potash might be procured by taking more care of our waste timber—by saving ashes from timber land when cleared, and from the toppings of branches at the saw mills, and also from sea- weeds. Growing continuous grain crops is not confined to new countries but has been tried in England—of course in that country with the use of manure. I think that Mr. Dawes, the celebrated agriculturist, first tried the system, and I have come across an account of some experiments in the same direction, conducted at Paxton in Berwickshire. These experiments seem to have extended over seven years, and a statement of the results may _ prove of interest. I therefore give it :— Four-Acre Field. Value of Crop Year. Kind of Crop. Kind of Manure and quantity per Acre. per acre with Straw. 1870 ..|Turnips, after) | Portion of turnips eaten on ground by : 17 Barley s2n\V|SERseep ay aly. sie 56 : i 1871 Sol Jee ar .. |2ewt. nitrate of soda... as as 1113 4 OT uaeee ss |KO atSHe: Iss -. | licwt. guano” .. Ae a oe OO) 18a. 3. ||| Beans): .. | 2 ewt. dissolved bones .. 1410 0 1874 .. | Wheat <: -. | 20 tons farmyard dung .. 10 0 0 1875 .. | Barley .. .. | 14 ewt. nitrate of soda, and 1 owt. super phosphate of lime age =) Ne) 1876 .. | Barley .. -» | 14 ewt. nitrate of soda, and 1 owt. super ) phosphate of lime bce eal) eyo 1877 -- | Barley .. -- | 24 ewt. nitrate of soda, and 2 cwt. - super phosphate of lime : } Oa bai8 Crawrorp.—Growth of Cereals in New Zealand. 1538 Seven-Acre Field. Value of Crop Year. Kind of Crop. Kind of Manure and Quantity per Acre. per acre with Straw. 1870 een _ : ; fe fe Gb >» | Turnips .. |14 tons farmyard dung, and 38 -cwt.) | 6 0 0 guano .. 3c 1871 se|| Barley). O0 Turnips eaten on ground by sheep Bad Srilds 8 1872 oo Isley Ge .. | 2 ewt. nitrate of soda Sis 8) 9 @ ets) 1873 56 || Outs 9&6 .. | No manure. ue 46 oye ys ANS) 1874 ..|Beans .. +. | 2 owt. bones Me IO) 1875 ee ebarleye.. .. | 14 ewt. nitrate of soda, “and ae owt. | 10 3 4 superphosphate of lime : a) 1876 .. | Barley .. .. | 1d ewt. nitrate of soda, and 1 ewt. super ) 817.1 phosphate of lime : -| 1877 .. | Barley .. .. | 24 ewt. nitrate of soda, and 2 a. super- I 7 00 phosphate of lime 5 | I should be inclined to think that continuous corn-growing in Great Britain could hardly come into competition with a rotation of crops, for one reason in particular,—-viz., the want of provision for destruction of weeds. This is a difficulty which would also occur in New Zealand, where, from the moisture of the climate, weeds are very difficult to be kept under. If a good payable system of rotation for this colony could be hit upon, I am inclined to think it would beat the continuous corn-growing system. If, however, farmers will continue to work their land on the latter pian, I will again reiterate that they cannot continue to do so for many years without giving and keeping up a supply of phosphate of lime, of potash, and of nitrogen. I have seen it stated, on excellent authority, that pastures which are deficient in phosphate of lime in the soil ought never to be used for breed- ing sheep; for the lambs on such pastures scour, get pot-bellied, are deficient in size, and many of them die. This seems according to reason, for if there is an insufficient supply of mineral to form the bones, the animal must probably also suffer in other ways. Possibly, when the sheep has attained full growth, and his bones are fully formed, these pastures may do for fattening him; or, if it will pay, the land may be treated with bone-dust, but it would be absurd to suppose that this could be done with profit on a large sheep- run and with stock at present prices. 154 Transacttons.—Miscellancous. Art, XIV.—-On the Rock Paintings in the Weka Pass. By A. Mackenzie Cameron. Communicated by Pror. J. von Haast, Ph.D., F.R.S. (Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 4th April, 1878.] ‘““1, Cascade Terrace, Cascade Street, Paddington, “ Sydney, 9th February, 1878. ‘‘To Professor Julius von Haast, President Philosophical Institute, Christchurch, Canterbury, New Zealand. ‘My Dear Sir,—You have already received my hurried acknowledgment of the receipt of your kind communication enclosing photographs of the newly- discovered rock paintings in New Zealand, with notes on them supplied by yourself and the Rev. Mr. Stack.* I now proceed to offer some suggestions on the figures, premising that being connected with the Society of Biblical Archeology of London, and having in the course of extensive travels in old Asiatic countries come across and studied many very ancient remains (some fully 3000 years old), and further, having made early alphabets and symbols special studies, I was entrusted lately in London for elucidation, by my very old friend, Dr. Thomas Allan Wise, M.D., F.R.S. Edin., with drawings of rock sculptures and figures which he (delighting in antiquarian researches) had at considerable labour and expense made in various parts of the kingdom of Scotland, and which may be seen on Plates in the ‘Transactions of the Royal Society,’ Vol. XXI. Ihave thus materials at hand for comparison besides my own studies and experience. I may add that I am pleased to see Mr. Stack’s name, as I happened in England to be well-known to, and sometimes associated in work with, his venerable and respected father, the Rev. James Stack. “To proceed to the figures, 1 have to state—(1.) That such ancient remains are to be found in such distant parts of the globe as Ireland, Scot- land, India, and Borneo, and the distance from the last to New Zealand is not so great as the distance of Ireland or Scotland from India. (2.). In the western countries there are two sets of figures—one Eastern in origin and pre-Christian, and the other Native, and post-Christian. They are easily distinguishable. (8.) The pre-Christian figures were made by Phenician traders and Buddhist missionaries from India. Both were of the same age of the world’s history. The first were well known for maritime enterprise, and if they made for one extremity of the world in Cornwall for tin, and down south-east to Taprobane and the Awrea Chersonesus for other mer- chandise and gold, why should it be improbable that they visited the ‘ Isles of the Sea’ expressly mentioned by Ezekiel, and reach to the end of the chain which begins with Sumatra and ends with New Zealand? We have ———— * Vol. X., p. 44, et seq.; pl. I. Cameron.—On Hock Paintings in Weka Pass, 155 clear philological testimony that the serpent-race of India in early times obtained a foothold in New Zealand. This will be further brought out below. Again, as to the Buddhist missionaries, they were noted for their enterprise and travels for their faith. They carried their faith, doctrines, aud symbols to the extreme east, north, and south of the great continent of Asia ; over seas, deserts, and extended barriers of eternal snow, and all through to the extreme west of Kurope. Is it improbable that, whether with the serpent-race from India, or in Phoenician vessels, they arrived in New Zealand? The association of the Buddhist cross with Phoenician letters on inscriptions in the west is a fact. «These observations will serve to clear up the following romain on the figures transmitted by you :—First, I may say that the figures strike me as divisible into pre-Christian, Indian, symbolic, and later native. The pre- Christian are generally the hieroglyphics, while most of the drawings of men with marine monsters appear to be later native. This may be a mere supposition, but you have other circumstances to decide this point. Secondly, figures 2, 6, 18, 21, 21a, and, perhaps, 24, constitute, along with, very probably, 15, 16, 18, one group—the Trinity symbol—and are pre-Christian. I can only briefly explain here this symbol. It may suffice to state that spirit, matter, and organised life, as the result of the action of the first on the second, are supposed to form the pan-theo-cosmical (if I may coin such a word) nature or universe of the ancient religious creed of India, and which was carried by the Buddhist missionaries over the world. The symbol of this cardinal and esoteric doctrine of religion was three circles near each other, and, in my opinion, also two joined circles, crossed with the zig-zag figure (supposed by some to be also a Masonic symbol) usually called the ‘spectacle ornament,’ the crossing zig-zag figure representing probably spirit. We find these symbols alike on great Buddhist temples in India, on the Bhilsa ‘topes,’ on the standing stone in Aberdeen, and on the Dingwall stone in North Britain. The figures composing the symbol are either plain or ornamented, and disposed in various ways. The variations are remarkable, and give a clue, as I believe, to the true signification of figures 2, 6, 13, 15, 16, 18, 21, and 21a. In all these, the three parts are distinctly made out, especially in figures of 2, 6, 21, 21a. In my opinion, figures 13, 15, 16, 18 are similar to the ‘spectacle ornament’ of North Britain. Figure 14 may be a representation of the same symbol, or of a Buddhist temple, the form of which figures in North Britain, explaining unmistakably the zig-zag line, and the sacred nature of the Trinity symbol. ‘¢T make no observations on fig. 17, of which there are several similar representations in other parts of the world. Figs. 4, 9, 22, and perhaps 24, also have counterparts elsewhere. The Buddhist cross (and Phenician 156 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. tau) is probably intended in figs. 5 and 12, though the execution is very degenerate. (The same may be said of all the other symbols), The very remarkable figure 23 probably represents the early Phoenician and Hindoo Fish-god. I have certainly seen it before somewhere in India. This establishes the early age of the drawings, the race of workmen, and the sacred character of the drawings. (Sce also the philological notes lower down.) You will perceive that I have not noticed the theory of figs. 2, 6, 18, 21, 21a, renresenting any oriental characters, ancient or modern, for this reason: that amid the numerous and complicated alphabetical forms of various Hastern languages some resemblance is sure to be found. In this view I might recognise fig. 2 as Arabic, figs. 13 and 21 as Sanscrit, and fig. 24 actually as the Hebrew aleph. Fig. 2, to me, is conclusively a Buddhist symbol. Fortunately, however, your communication encloses several notes furnished by Mr. Stack, and I find there abundant phiiological proof that New Zealand had early intercourse witn India. “* Te kahut tipwa—the definite particle (Greek to, English the, Malay itu, etc., etc.), limiting, indicating ; kahui tipuu, the deceitful, wicked dog-race (Malay tipu, deceitful, and kuh, the dog-race), remnants of whom are still to be found in the north-west of Burmah. Of course I may be mistaken in this interpretation, and I should wish to know which is the adjective. “ Aoain: Ngapuhi—nya puhi, the serpent-race. This race is to be found in parts of India, and plays an important part in early Indian history. My Hindoo mythology is rather dull at present, but, if remembrance serves me, I believe the Aryan race had a long and desperate contest with the earlier serpent-race, and, succeeding, drove these last into hills and moun- tains, and beyond the: seas. Sanscrit naga, great serpent; and puh, race, descendants. ‘“‘T may be tempted on to great length with these and other words furnished in Mr. Stack’s letters, and therefore shall conclude here, only adding that should any portion of the observations 1 have made require further explanations I shall be happy to give them to you.—I remain, &c., ‘A, Mackenzie Cameron.” * P.S.—With reference to some of your own remarks, made in your last, annual speech, I should state that figure 15 resembles an Indian bow and arrow; figure 18, a war conch; and figure 14, a broad-brimmed hat, nearly similar in shape to those used in Malayan countries. Notwithstanding all these resemblances, I still adhere to the opinion that they represent Buddhist symbols. The P.S. of your own speech would appear to dash my theory to the ground, but what is the meaning of your own words, ‘they are of a more primitive nature ’? and of Mr. Stack’s assigning them to ‘the oldest inhabitants of this island—somewhat mythical people—of whom there are any J. Tl, Taomson.—On Barat or Barata Fossil Words. 157 traditions.’ If furnished with the necessary philological and ethnological materials I might be able to indicate the early history of your island.” Postscript By Proressor von Haast. It is scarcely necessary to point out the important nature of this communication, which opens up quite a new field for research into the early history of these islands, and goes far to prove the great antiquity of the paintings in question. In reference to Mr. Cameron’s views, I may, however, be allowed to observe that these red paintings have evidently all been executed at the same time, and cannot therefore represent two distinct periods, or have been the work of two distinct races. In stating in the post- script to my address that when speaking of the great antiquity of these paintings, I did not do so in the Kuropean sense, but only as far as there were existing reliable traditions of the present Native inhabitants of these islands, I did not wish to give any expression as to my views of what the real age of these paintings might be. Before doing so I wished to obtain more material. However, anybody acquainted with my own views in regard to the great number of years these islands have been inhabited, and the long period of time since the Moa has become extinct through the agency of man, of which we have ample geological evidence (the only one to be trusted), will easily understand that I can only coincide with Mr. Cameron’s opinion as to the great antiquity of the paintings in question, even in the Kuropean sense. Art. XV.—Barat or Barata Fossil Words. By J. Turnsutt Tuomson, Tee Grasigy Inbliiebiecauns Gen Plate IV. (Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, February, 1879.] Tuts continues the subject of three preceding papers*, and the heading requires some explanation. Barat is the Malay traditional and poetical name for Hindustan, and to this day they speak of the angin Barat—that is, westerly, or wind of Barat; as they do of the angin Jawa—that is, the southerly, or wind of Java. Barata, or Bharata, is the ancient term for their country by the natives of Hindustan. In the language of Madagascar, allowing for difference of phonology, precisely the same word is used for the North, viz., avaratra, whose winds waited commerce from the parent country, viz., South India. We use the term parent on the force of the facts elicited in our preceding investigations. * Whence of the Maori, Trans. N. Z. Inst., Vol. IV.; Barata Numerals, Vol. V.; Philological Considerations on the Whence of the Maori, Vol. VI. 158 Transactions. —Miscellaneous, The term ‘‘fossil words” signifies words embedded in a language, or which have not been eradicated by foreign influences—such as the Saxon words in the modern English language. The roots of the language will be found to consist of these; hence they remain as witnesses of derivative, national or tribal connection with the parent region, however remote in time or distant in space. Fossil words, then, furnish as certain a clue to connection of races as either idiomatic or phonetic similarity,* though this opinion is disputed. Root or fossil words, it has been shown in previous papers, are only to be eradicated with the extinction of the race, and to this branch we at present address ourselves. The previous papers on this subject, whose first object was to investigate the whence of the Maori, 7.e., the tribe that inhabits New Zealand, confined their scope to the Malayan, Malagasi, and Polynesian dialects. In the present paper I have prosecuted my enquiries far beyond into the regions of Asia, Africa, and Australia, in which labour I was assisted by the works noted below.t The basis of my investigations have been the Malayan Language, with which my long sojourn in the Far Hast made me familiar, but the present work has led me into a scrutiny of over four hundred languages and dialects. The conclusion that I was brought to previously, viz., that, counter to popular opinion, the Maori and hence Polynesian race, was not originally from the Malay (though it might be through or with them), but from a race or races which in pre-historic times mhabited Hindustan, seemed to claim further demonstration than my materials could at that time afford. In my recent visit to England, therefore, I collected all the works bearing on the subject that I could obtain. * For instance, Malay has a compounding construction, Malagasi an inflecting, though both are admitted to be originally one. + Non-Aryan Languages of India and High Asia, by W. W. Hunter; Languages of India, by G. Campbell; Polvglotta Africana, by 8. W. Koelle; Australian Languages, by William Ridley; Mosambique Latiguages, by W. H. J. Bleek; Malagasi, by Julius Kessler ; Kafir Language, by John Ayliff; Swahili Handbook, Shambala Language, Yao Language, all by Edward Steere; Malagasi Grammar, by David Griffiths ; Enguduk Iloigob Vocabu- lary, by J. Erhardt; Dictionary of Tshi, Akra, &c., by Christaller, Locher and Zimmer- mann; Vocabulary, Haussa Language, by J. F. Schon; Languages of Sierra Leone (anonymous); Bullom Grammar, by G. R. Nylander; Western and Central African Vocabulary (anonymous); Dialects in Africa, by John Clark; Bornu and Kanuri Languages, by Edwin Norris; Dialects of Nicobar and Andaman Islands, by F. A. de Roepstorff; Fijian Dictionary, by D. Hazlewood; Samoan Grammar and Dictionary, by - George Pratt; New Zealand Language, by William Williams; Hawaiian Dictionary, by Lorrin Andrews; Japanese Dictionary, by J. C. Hepburn; Comparative Vocabulary, Malay Archipelago, by Wallace, &., &c, J. T. THomson.—On Barat or Barata Fossil Words. 159 The present paper is thus principally devoted to the following question, viz., by analogy in fossil words or radicals, how far are we justified in denoting Hindustan as the original seat of the Malagas-malayo-polynesian race, which, for the sake of brevity and distinction, I have taken the liberty to term Barata. In attempting to solve this question, we must have regard to other theories that have been propounded by various authors. The most generally accepted theory, viz., that the Malagaso-polynesians were of Malay origin, I have already dealt with in my previous essays. Another theory I have since observed to be that the Malayo-malagasi had sprung from the Polynesian, the supporters averring that as the Polynesian was the more primitive and ancient section, he must have been the progenitor. To this the following considerations suggest themselves: ist. Admitted that the Polynesian is the most primitive and ancient section, this only denotes that he was the first to migrate from his original seat, when that seat—whether in Africa, Asia, America, or Australia—was in possession of @ primitive and ancient ancestry ; and as there have been waves of migra- tion from time to time, the most primitive have stretched out furthest.* Qnd. The over-running of skilled populous and armed nations by the simple weak and defenceless, is contrary to all experience, ancient or modern. 8rd. Another theory has been suggested, that Africa was the original seat of the race, another that it was in Egypt; but as these have had little acceptation, I merely notice the same. Before entering into the comparison of words in different dialects or languages, in order to judge of the connection of race we must hold in view this fact, that the radicals bear but a small proportion to the whole, thus in an English dictionary of 90,000 words, not more than 4000 or 54, part are Saxon. Hence, amongst the races whose languages we are about to consider, and whose dictionaries do not count over 5000 to 6000 words, we must be prepared to find not over 300 words more or less which can come under the denomination of radical terms or fossil words. This fact at the same time facilitates the investigation, making it less laborious. The number of works that can be compared are further curtailed by the subject or object being only known in portions of the regions inhabited. Thus while I have gone over many full vocabularies, I have been forced to strike out many of the words from the above cause. For instance, the cocoa-nut well known to the Malay is not known to the Maori. In a similar manner the deer, elephant, plantain, rice, &c., are well known in some regions but not in others—hence, though they come under the designation of radical terms, they are inapplicable in our enquiry. * See Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. IV., 1871, p. 47. 160 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. We must again guard against the error of accepting all radical terms as proving affinity of race; the terms most certain are those which are con- nected with immediate surroundings or events, such as for parts of the body, head, mouth, feet, &c., the principal physical objects—sun, moon, stars, earth, &c.; articles of food—water, rice, fruit, &c.; calls to companions as come, go, give, &c. If the terms be not connected with immediate surroundings then they become less valuable in support of proof of racial affinity, as for example :— In Gite Malay Archipelago. Sari, Dog .. | asu, gaso, kaso, aso| tasu Angami Naga, azz Nowgong Naga, East of Bengal. ELOESe, a. kuda ghoda, Kiranti, Nepal; ghora, Nepal; kodo, kudata, Central India; kudre, Southern India. Crow)... gaga gagah’-po, Kiranti, Nepal; gugga, Central India; kakka, Southern India. Buffalo .. kurbaw krebo, Teressa, Nicobar Islands; kla-ow booh, Talain, Pegu. Cocoa-nut nior nio, Malagasi; nazi, Swahili; nyw, nut, niwi, nua, niula, lwen, nuim, ete., Malay Archipelago; niu, Samoa and Hawaii. Here the words dog, horse, crow and buffalo being similar, or nearly so, in Malay and several races of Asia, do not indicate aflinity, but only that such animals had been derived from thence. On the contrary the radical Malay word nior, having wide similarity from Africa to Polynesia, may be taken to indicate affinity of race, for as the cocoa-nut grows on the sea-shore, letting its fruit fall to float and be carried to all tropical regions, it may be supposed to have preceded the emigrant tribes; thus, as they approached each island or shore, they carried the fossil word and applied it to the same species of tree, in whichever parts of their vast regions it had drifted and germinated, or they may have carried, exceptionally, the fruit with them. Again, in the following examples :— _ In Malagasi. — IDYoy#2 Se amboa imbua, Inhambane; imbua, Sofala; wmboa, Cap Delgado. Cattle .. ombt ngombe, Tette, Sena, Quellimane, Mosambique, Cap Delgado, etc. The dog and the crow are not indigenous words of Malagasi, but derivative from Africa, the designations having been imported with the animals themselves. Hence, in choosing words found in the various dictionaries for compari- son, I have had the above considerations in view, and have adopted only such as can be held as radical, indigenous, or truly fossil. By this means the racial affinities of the separate and far distant tribes can be indicated in the Barata of the tropics as in the Gypsies of Europe or the Portuguese in TRANS. NZINSTITUTE, VOL XT PLIV. Sketch Map of INDIA Shewing the Distribution of LANCGUACES, by JBeames, MPAS.. As " Sire 7 Ee ie a emer, “s ie os Sas ut Dialect. Rehed ; Flee aval : H Marwart <3 , ¢ eHardardsad are He be Akngedaha x 3 KE R 4 a yay ir: Barcda 7 < MeBiwar, owe) at z f rae i By 2 aciee avons ‘x Reference. CO Lrdo-Cermanie L aruguages ) Frdic Class (Hindi Bengali, Faryabe. ete.) Il,—ZOOLOGY, Art, XVI,—On some Coccide in New Zealand. By W. M. Masxet, [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 6th June, 1878.] Plates V., VI., VII. and VIII. Tur Coccidee—Scale or Gale insects—are a family of the order Homoptera. They are exceedingly common in all parts of the world, and I may say that in New Zealand I have scarcely come across a single plant or tree that is not in some way attacked by them. In many instances plants are found with several species of Coccide living on them together, and sometimes the number of insects on a leaf is so great as entirely to cover the surface, rendering the plant very unsightly. Notwithstanding, however, the enormous number of these insects and the undoubted damage which they do, there is not much known about them. I believe I am correct in stating that in this colony nobody has yet attempted to study them: probably the very great incentives to research in other branches of natural history have diverted attention from these little pests. It is, however, curious that in older countries scarcely more know- ledge has been attained regarding the Coccide. Books and papers respect- ing them are certainly not few in number. I have a list of more than a hundred authors who have written something upon the subject. But, with the exception of the insects yielding cochineal, gum-lac, and other articles of commercial value, and a few whose peculiarities of form attracted special notice, hardly any of the genera or species have, until lately, been satisfac- torily described. Most of the authors referred to seem to have contented themselves either with indefinite accounts or with copying the phrases of those who preceded them. An application to the Librarian of the British Museum, last year, made known to me a work by M. V. Signoret, a member of the Entomological Society of France, giving a monographical account of the known species of Coccide. After some months’ delay I have succeeded in procuring this work, and I have to express my thanks to Dr. von Haast and to Professor Milne-Edwards of Paris, the former of whom wrote for, the latter of whom forwarded, a copy of M. Signoret’s book to me, 188 Transactions,—Z oology. The chief difficulty under which I have laboured has been that of being unable to compare my specimens of New Zealand scale-insects with those of other countries. The work just mentioned has, therefore, come most opportunely to me as a text-book. Not professing any degree of entomological science, I may, perhaps, in my descriptions of these insects, fail sometimes in properly expressing myself. I must take my chance of this, declaring myself quite open to correction. The Coccide are, as I said, a family of insects of the order Homoptera. The chief distinguishing features dividing them from all the other families are, Ist, the absence of wings or elytra in the females, and, 2nd, the absence of a mouth or rostrum in the males. The damage done by these insects, wnich attach themselves to different trees, is very great. Hverybody must know the scale on the apple and pear trees, which covers the trunk and branches and eventually kills the tree. Every gardener knows how destructive they are to his flowers and choice plants, whether in the open air or in green-houses. It is stated that, in France, different species of Coccus and Lecanium have destroyed whole forests of almond, orange, and olive trees; in Mauritius and in Brazil the sugar-cane, and in Ceylon the coffee-plant, has been ravaged by them. Sir Wyville Thomson, in the volumes just published of the voyage of the ‘‘Challenger,”’ states that in the Azores the cultivation of oranges was for a time almost stopped by a small species of Coccus; and we all know how the oranges and lemons which come to us from Sydney are covered with innumerable insects of the same family. In Christchurch a good example of their work may be seen in the holly hedge round the Christchurch Club, where Lecanium hesperidum reduced the plants a few years ago to a miser- able state. In Auckland, I saw a month or two ago a fine hedge of the kangaroo Acacia being rapidly destroyed by colonies of an inseet which appears to be a new species of Coccus, allied to Icerya. There is an immense variety in the appearance of the different species of Coccide, and this variety is rendered still greater by the fact that the insects themselves are by no means the same as a rule in all the stages of their existence; and by the difference between the sexes. There are, how- ever, certain characters which belong to all the species, and with which I may fitly begin my description of those that I have observed :— 1st. In the first stave, after leaving the egg, there is no appreciable difference between the male and the female. The change in form does not take place until the insect discards its second pellicle. Qnd. The males of all species have two wings, six legs, two antenne (generally pretty long), two proper eyes, and in some species two other eyes placed further back on the head, Masxett.—On some Coccids in New Zealand. 189 8rd. The males, in their perfect state, are absolutely destitute of mouth or beak, the place of this organ being apparently taken by the two last eyes just mentionod. 4th. The females of all species are wingless. 5th. The mouth of the female, in all species, consists of a beak or rostrum, usually jointed, from which start long tubular sete or bristles, apparently retractile, sometimes longer than the insect itself. Westwood, and after him Signoret, says that there are four of these sete. This is certainly the case in some species, but in many instances I have been unable, though carefully watching, to see more than three, and in some specimens there would seem to be no doubt on the matter. The above characters are constant in all the species. The differences observable will be noticed as I go on. I may say here that, in the majority of instances, the males are extremely rare and difficult to find; in fact, for some species, such as Mytilaspis pomorum (the common apple scale), I believe that the male insect has never been found. The whole family may be divided, according to Signoret, into four great groups :— 1. The Diaspide, of which we may take as the type the apple scale, Mytilaspis pomorum. 2. The Brachyscelide: these appear to be chiefly Australian species, and have been described by M. Schrader, in the Proceedings of the Zoologico-Botanical Society of Vienna for 1868. 8. The Lecanide, type L. hesperidum, common on our hollies. 4, The Coccide: our type for this will be an insect found on the Norfolk Island pine and on native trees in Riccarton Bush. The species which I shall have to describe as being, in my opinion, new, will not, as far as I know at present, require the creation of a new eroup.* I propose to take the above groups in order, and for the present shall confine myself to the first. I shall begin by giving an account of the features characteristic of the whole group; then pass on to the distinguish- ing features of the various genera, and lastly describe the species which I have observed. 1. Diaspip. This group includes those scale insects which cover themselves with separate shields, composed partly of the discarded pellicles of the earlier stages, partly of a fibrous secretion more or less independent of the body of the insect. * Powellia (vide post) seems to belong to none of the above groups, but I have not yet been able to make out where to place it, 190 Transactions.—Zoology. We are all familiar with the appearance of the outer shell or shield of the apple scale. The shield varies considerably in different genera; some- times it is round, sometimes long, sometimes white, sometimes brown, but it invariably exhibits, in some part or other of its extent, when taken from the adult female insect, the two pellicles which she has discharged in her earlier transformations. In my plate V., fig, la, is shown part of the shield of the apple scale, mounted to show the pellicles. In the shield of the male insect, in certain species, only one pellicle appears, the insect undergoing only one transformation before the pupa stage. The female insect, having arrived at her full growth, fills her shield with eggs. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, Tth November, 1878.] Plate XII. In the tenth volume of the Transactions, p. 299, is a short description of a spider, discovered inhabiting old Lithodomus holes, beneath the surface of tidal pools, by Mr. C. H. Robson, at Cape Campbell. Dr. Hector in a note states that this spider is allied to the genus dArgyroneta, and proposes for it the name Argyroneta marina. 264 Transactions.—Zoology. It scarcely needs more than a glance, however, at the lip and maxille to decide that this interesting spider does not belong to Argyroneta, but, indeed, that in the form of these appendages it differs very strikingly from that genus. Dr. L. Koch describes two closely allied species (Arachniden Australiens, p. 845-351, plate xxix., figs. 1 and 2) referring them to the genus Desis, founded by Walckenaer on a single species, Desis dysderotdes from New Guinea. The following are the characters of the genus Desis, as given by Walckenaer.* ‘«‘Hyes eight, in two lines, the anterior very close to the anterior margin of the cephalothorax, curved backwards, and forming an open crescent; the eyes forming the intermediate square, larger than the lateral eyes, which are situated on a slightly raised tubercle. ‘“‘ Lip elongated, with parallel sides, deeply notched at its extremity. “Maxille straight, diverging, dilated at their base, pointed at their extremity. ‘«« Legs strong, suited for running; the anterior longer than the posterior ; the first pair the longest, the second next, the third pair the shortest.” The above characters are supplemented in the description of the species Desis dysderoides, which I subjoin. ‘Abdomen oval, convex above and below, of a uniform pale grey. Cepha- lothorax, mandibles, sternum, legs and palpi coral red. Mandibles long and strong, directed forwards. ‘‘New Guinea. Quoy and Gaimard. “Aspect of Dysdera erythrina. Cephalothorax as long and as large as the abdomen, sides almost parallel, scarcely at all narrowed anteriorly, flattened. Sternum without spots, without eminences, and clothed at the insertion of the legs with yellow hair. The mandibles are very strong, directed forwards as in Dysdera, as long as the cepthalothorax, cylindroid, with the claws of a red brown, elongated, half opened and not completely folded back in the groove, which last is toothed. ‘The teeth are prominent and number eight or nine as in Dysdera erythrina. The legs have the tarsus provided with three claws, of which one is very short and almost hidden in the hairs.” + The agreement of our spider with the above characters is so close that there can be no doubt as to the propriety of placing it in this genus. Desis robsoni, Nov. sp. - Male.—Cephalothorax moderately dark mahogany brown, darkening towards the facial border, paling towards the sides and posterior border of the thorax, sparingly clothed with short hairs. Angles of the caput bor- dered with black. * Histoire des Aptéres, Vol. I, p. 610, plate iv., figs. 15 a and b. + Histoire des Aptéres, Vol. I., p, 611. PowrEuu.—On Desis robsoni. 265 Falces a rich red brown, glabrous above, hairy beneath, inner and upper border fringed with long coarse dark hairs. Fangs very dark red brown, nearly black proximally. Sternum yellowish brown, with a dark edge, clothed with yellowish white hairs. Lip and maxille reddish brown, both with a pale border anteriorly, clothed with yellowish white hairs, inner border of maxille fringed with long coarse dark hairs. ' Abdomen greenish grey, in some specimens yellowish grey, paler beneath, thickly clothed with yellowish white and dark hairs intermixed. Coxal joints of legs yellowish brown. Legs otherwise same colour as abdomen but yellower, anterior pair inclining to brown, in some specimens much browner than in others. Palpi yellowish brown. Cephalothorax nearly one and two-thirds longer than broad, sides nearly parcllel, scarcely contracted anteriorly, and cut off nearly square, sides of thorax only slightly rounded; longitudinally a very flat uniform convexity above, becoming somewhat more abrupt anteriorly, transversely only moderately convex. Normal grooves of thorax feebly indicated by darkish lines. A short deep median groove to thorax. Mandibles equalling the cephalothorax in length, directed nearly straight forwards, cylindroid and robust, immediately beyond their origin on upper and outer side is a small prominent ovoid boss. F Upper border of groove for fang, armed with six teeth, the first small and rather remote from extremity, the second the largest of all, the other four smaller and regularly diminishing. Lower border armed with two teeth, the first close to the insertion of the fang, moderately large, the second quite small and on a level with the first of the upper border. Fang long, rather straight. Eyes of very uniform size, the posterior middle pair being the smallest; disposed in two rows, the anterior straight or curved very slightly indeed, the opening of the curve being forward. The posterior row nearly straight, but in consequence of the small size of the middle pair a line touching their posterior margins would be slightly concave backwards. Anterior middles less than own breadth from border of face, lateral middles almost on border. Anterior middles separated from one another by own diameter, and from laterals by more than twice own diameter. Posterior middles more than own distance from anterior middles and nearly four times own diameter apart, the same distance from posterior laterals, Lateral eyes barely their own diameter apart. Anterior middles situated on a slight common eminence, they look directly forwards; anterior laterals a4 266 Transactions. —Z oology. situated on a very slight eminence common to them with the posterior laterals, they look forward and shghtly outwards. Posterior middles look upwards, posterior laterals upwards and outwards. Sternum a long heart-shape, flat, with concave emarginations opposite the coxe. Lip twice as long as broad, tongue-shaped, sides nearly parallel, but narrowing somewhat anteriorly, towards its origin it is pinched in and then widens to its insertion. Its anterior border is notched. Maxille cut obliquely away from the lip and running to a sharp point anteriorly, outer border rounded, pinched in anteriorly to the insertion of the palpi, flattish, but becoming more convex towards their insertion. Abdomen ovoid. Spinnerets short, diverging, the upper and lower pair rather longer than the middle pair. Legs long, slender, clothed with yellowish white hairs intermingled with bristles at distal end of third and fourth tibial joints. Tarsi have three claws, the two principal claws deeply combed, the posterior claw small, inconspicuous, not combed, and abruptly bent just beyond its origin. Male palpi long, slender. The radial joimt has on its outer side a bifurcate process, the lower segment thin, broad, and flattened, yellowish, with the upper border thickened, and dark brown, the upper segment thick, very much narrower than the lower segment, from which it is slightly turned away, blunt at its point, dark brown. The digital joint ovoid, pro- longed, and tapering distally, and provided at its extremity with short, stout spines; the palpal organ has a coiled cirrhus about three-fourths the cir- cumference of the organ in length. The palpi are clothed with abundant long hairs. MEASUREMENTS, M. Totallength .. 56 Se UO HESS Cephalothorax .. ae -. 0:0042 Falces .. ae os .» 0:0042 Abdomen ae ys sem Os00o Leg of 1st pair se »- 0:0145 DG scene ie me A eatisal cory tn 6) cena specimen, omnsra tt J) 20-009 we V4thop fe ene 10-0105 Male palpus .. a wa 050075 Female. — Colouring as male. Cephalothorax more convex above. Falces slightly shorter but more massive. Fang thicker and stronger. Epigyne pale-yellowish. A small concavity with a denticle on either side pointing inwards, posteriorly a short blunt process directed backwards. Desis robsoni is excedingly like Desis martensti (Koch, Arachn. Austral.), which it also resembles in its marine habits. This is so interesting that I] make no apology for quoting Dr, Koch’s remarks in full :— Powrtu.—On Desis robsoni, 267 “‘T received from Dr. HE. v. Martens, of Berlin, a third species of this interesting genus (Desis martensii). It was collected by him on coral reefs at Singapore, and kindly given to me for examination. This species is remarkable in that it has established itself in these reefs which are only temporarily uncovered by the sea; Herr v. Martens has found many speci- ste ste ale ste st. ale ale mens of the spider in this locality. » x é zs mt i * * %* That the species discovered by Dr. E. v. Martens and Dr, Johswick,* ean really, like our indigenous Aryyroneta aquatica, Cl., live under water, is to me doubtful in the highest degree, for it is wanting in the outward visible signs of the breathing apparatus which corresponds to such sub- marine mode of lfe, and which has been anatomically demonstrated in Argyroneta aquaticat. It also speaks against it that yet another species of spider, an Atta, was found on the same coral reefs, and we may assume with all certainty that this is a true terrestrial form. I opine that these spiders, perhaps, in former times, were floated in an accidental manner from the land to these reefs, and now live in the holes of the coral bank, within which they withdraw at the time of flood, and which they close against the entrance of the water with a thick web. * * When once both sexes had been transferred to the coral reefs, Desis martensti would increase and form a colony there.”’ I take the liberty of quoting a further valuable communication from Dr. EH. v. Martens on the discovery of this interesting spider, as follows :— “During my residence at Singapore, in October, 1861, I repeatedly visited a coral bank in the neighbourhood of New Harbour, of which large tracts were exposed above water during the ebb, at the times of new and full moon. My attention was chiefly directed to Crustacea and Mollusca; I tore off pieces of coral and broke them up to get at the creatures hidden within. To my astonishment I several times observed spiders hurriedly escaping, the idea occurred to me at first that we ourselves had brought them from the shore in our clothing. I generally went with the late staff-surgeon, Dr. Johswick, in a little skiff pulled by a Chinese from the frigate ‘Thetis ’ which lay in the roadstead, or from the town, distant about half-a-league from the coral reef. This suspicion was rendered unlikely by the frequent repetition of the event, and conclusively disproved, as Dr. Johswick found a web of undoubtedly one of these spiders in an old dead mussel shell, between the coral, stretched sheet-like in the cavity of the shell.’ } * Sitzungsbericht der Gesellschaft Naturforschender Freunde zu Berlin vom Mai 24, ~ 1864, p. 10. t Grube ‘“‘ Hinige Resultate aus Untersuchungen tiber die Anatomie der Spinnen,” in Miiller’s “‘ Archiv. fiir Anat. und Physiologie,” 1842, p. 300; und Menge ‘Ueber die Lebensweise der Arachniden,” ‘“‘Neueste Schriften der Naturhistorischen Gesellschaft,” in Danzig, IV. Band Hit. i, p. 23. t Koch, Arach. Austr., pp. 349, 350, 268 Transactions. —Z voloyy. The discovery of Desis robsoni, and its highly aquatic and marine habits, clear up Dr. Koch’s doubts as to the voluntarily aquatic habitat of Desis martensit. In reply to some enquiries of mine, Mr. Robson gives the following additional information as to the mode of life of this interesting spider :— ‘«The nests of this spider do not, in my opinion, occur below low water; but it is difficult to state positively. The mouth of the Lithodomus hole in which the nest is made is often, if not always, under low water in a tidal pool, and the nest is only to be got at by breaking up the rock with a heavy hammer. The spider, when going to the bottom of a pool, on being dis- turbed, does not take down an air-bubble so far as I could see, and is able to live a considerable time without air or only the small amount to be found in sea-water. I have kept them alive for several days in a bottle quite full. The cocoons of eggs are found at the end of the hole and always quite dry. T have not seen these spiders at any place but Cape Campbell, and there not far above low-water mark, there being many feet of water over the rocks in which they live at high tide.” Further observations on the habits of this spider are desirable. An examination of their nests might disclose the nature of their food. Also, if Mr. Robson is correct in stating that the mouths of the holes in which they live are always below low water, how are they supplied with air? A careful comparison of Desis robsont with Koch’s description and figures of Desis martensit, shows that these two spiders differ very slightly. The posterior pair of legs are much shorter relatively in Desis robsont. The posterior row of eyes in Desis martensti are concave anteriorly, in D. robsont very slightly concave posteriorly. The process on the radial joint of the male palpus differs in form in the two species, and there are only six teeth to the upper border of the fang groove in Desis robsoni, there being seven in Desis martensti. Walckenaer’s diagnosis of the genus founded on a single species needs revision now that three more species have been discovered. The arrangement and relative proportionate size of the eyes and the length of the legs vary from the characters as laid down by him in the Histoire des Apteres. DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XI. Desis robsont. . Male, showing form and relative proportions of cephalothorax and falces. . Lateral view to show elevation of cephalathorax, female. . Anterior view of caput showing arrangement of eyes. . Sternum, lip, maxille, and falx, female. . Epigyue, female. . Radial and digital joints of palpus, male, as from beneath, b from outer side, ¢ Qn PP wd extremity of radial joint. INOSEOY S1S7T7 [sil PowsLit.—On Anatomy of Regalecus pacificus, 269 Art, XXIII.—Notes on the Anatomy of Regalecus pacificus, von Haast. By Liewruuyn Powsun, M.D., F.L.S. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 21st February, 1878.] Dr. Haast, in the description of Reyalecus pacificus,* speaks of the silvery, or rather, to my eye, steely coating which contributes so great:y to the beauty of this splendid fish. It is impossible to reproduce it either in a drawing or to perpetuate it by any mode of preservation, as it is detached by the slightest touch, leaving a slimy, silvery patch on the finger. This coating has been described as consisting of minute scales by one observer, and by another as scales resembling those on a butterfly’s wing. Such is not, however, the case. It is evidently a secretion similar to the slimy mucus which many other fishes secrete so copiously.. The microscope resolves the steely layer into myriads of exceedingly minute crystalline needles, or elongated tabular prisms with oblique ends. The largest have a length of +4, inch by spy inch in breadth. These crystals show a beautiful metallic lustre, are not perishable, do not polarize light, are ~ immediately dissolved in liq. potass., but are insoluble in strong acetic acid. I cannot ascertain the nature of the silvery coating found in the swim-bladder of certain fishes, such as Atherina, which was formerly used in the manufacture of artificial pearls. It is not improbably of a similar nature. The scales of the lateral line are peculiarly formed, being very long in proportion to their breadth. Their length slightly exceeds 4 inch, while their breadth does not exceed =; inch; one extremity is slightly expanded or spoon-shaped, the other extremity contracting abruptly to a point which articulates firmly with the dilated extremity of the following scale. These scales appear to me to be tubular, but I cannot be certain of this as they shrivelled in drying. I noted a few points in the internal anatomy. I regret that as daylight was closing, and it was necessary from the extremely soft and watery nature of the integument and the flesh to use despatch in order to save the skin in good condition, I was unable to make a more thorough examination of this interesting fish. The gullet terminated at 2ft. 7in. from the snout in a remarkably elongated muscular stomach, prolonged backward as a kind of cecum to a length of 4ft. and about 2in., extending 2ft. Tin. beyond the vent in a diverticulum from the peritoneal cavity, and becoming narrower and more and more attenuated until it becomes so exceedingly thin and delicate that, with the utmost care in dissection, the extremity was torn and imperfect. The pylorus was seated immediately by the side of the cardiac orifice, being provided with a strong muscular ring, the duodesma, if one may so * Trans. N.Z. Inst. X., 246-250, pl. vu. 270 Transactions. —Z ooloyy. speak of the commencement of the intestine, passed directly forwards, plunged immediately into a cylindrical mass of densely packed pyloric pancreatic ceca. These were short, adherent to one another, and so closely massed that the intestine appeared to have no proper wall, appearing more like a broad glandular duct; on cutting into the pancreatic mass, a white chylous fluid exuded abundantly. The glandular mass was 15in. long by more than 3in. broad. At its extremity the thin-walled intestine emerged from the pancreatic mass and turned abruptly backwards, passing without any convolution to the vent. It was full of a gruelly fluid. The stomach exhibited, in its anterior part, strong longitudinal muscular bundles becoming more and more attenuated as they proceeded backwards. It was empty, being merely coated with a layer of mucus, stained of a pinkish hue, with dark red particles here and there. A microscopic examination of this mucus made with the object of detetmining the nature of the food of this deep-sea fish, discovered myriads of minute conical calcareous bodies, some of them perforated longitudinally, having a very uniform size of about +; inch by +255 inch broad at the base. I do not know what these may be, but am inclined to think that they are the cutaneous species of some echinoderm. The fish was a female, the ova exceedingly minute and undeveloped. A single oviduct, divided 12 inches anteriorly to the vent into two cylindrical ovaries, these ran forward to a point 17 inches posteriorly to the snout, the right being somewhat smaller than the left, they each terminated in a strong suspensary ligament. The large liver, of a most beautiful vivid orange tint, weighed 4ib. 12402. Tt was cleft into two longitudinal lobes posteriorly; there was also some minor lobation, one smaller lobe overlappmeg the large gall bladder which was full of dirty watery fluid. The liver overlapped the pyloric mass which was entered by the ductus choledocus. The kidneys had the usual situation and appearance ; their length was 2ft. Gin. There was no swim-bladder, and of the dorsal bladders spoken of by Mr. Travers I need hardly say there was no trace. It is evident that the curious spaces left by the detachment of the strong longitudinal intermuscular septa were mistaken for bladders by that gentleman. The skeleton consisted of the softest cartilage ; it would have been a matter of the greatest difficulty to isolate and preserve it. Arruur.—On the Brown Trout introduced into Otago. 271 Arr. XXIV.—On the Brown Trout introduced into Otago. By W. Arruur,C.E. [Read before the Otago Institute, 9th July, 1878.] Plate XIII. Tus principal object of this paper is to put on record those facts which have been ascertained, connected with the acclimatization of trout in Otago. The present time is in many respects peculiarly suitable for observing how exotic plants and animals adapt themselves to the conditions of life in New Zealand, into which they have been recently introduced. It is equally true, and has been advocated before now, that observations constant and careful should be undertaken by all the friends of science, on the effects of colonization upon the native flora and fauna; because the existing circumstances under which these are placed are in a state of progression and change, while the old conditions will soon be things of the past. So also with our trout, for in twenty years hence the banks of many streams, which at present in a state of nature supply certain food, will be cultivated and probably yield a totally different description of food, while the trout themselves will be much more numerous and, I am afraid, of a smaller average weight. The opportunity can only occur once, of observing the immediate results of stocking any stream with trout. Therefore it seems to me a reasonable precaution to publish periodically an account of the progress of our know- ledge, and as a contribution towards this object I have selected the special subject of this paper, beimg one in which I have always taken much interest. 1. Distribution and Growth of Trout in Otago. The first successful hatching of trout (Salmo fario) in Otago was in October, 1868. ‘This was achieved by Mr. Clifford, then Curator to our Acclimatization Society, who went to Tasmania, and got from the natural spawning-beds at the breeding-ponds of the Plenty, 800 ova, whereof 720 were hatched out as above at our Opoho breeding-ponds. Part of this lot was sent to Lake Wakatipu, but all the young fish died on the road. The remainder seem to have been sent to Mr. Young, at Palmerston, and were turned out in the mill-race on that gentleman’s property. A year after- wards one of these fish was caught, and found to be seven inches in length. In October, 1869, the second shipment of 1,000 trout ova was brought from Tasmania by Mr. Clifford, and placed in the breeding-boxes at Opoho, the water having a temperature of 44° Fah. The fish from these two lots of trout ova form the original stock, which were liberated in our streams in November, 1869, and from these and their descendants the ova for stocking the rivers in Otago have been obtained. I append a table published by our Acclimatization Society, showing the rivers into which young trout 272 Transactions.—-Zoology. have been put, their number, and the years in which this was done. Altogether, 64,810 young trout have been liberated in 184 rivers and streams in Otago up to December, 1877. As showing how soon and easily confusion may arise for want of a few precautions, | may here mention that beyond the general fact that our breed of trout is believed to be from a Thames tributary, we really do not know much about them. It is true that the trout in Tasmania, whence ours were brought here as their ova, were got from England, but what particular stream to trace them to seems from all I can learn to be now impossible. From notes kindly given me by Mr. Howard, of the Wallacetown salmon-ponds, it appears that three lots were sent to Tasma- nia, which turned out more or less successful. Of these, Mr. Francis Francis sent one from the Weycombe, Bucks, and another from the Wey at Alton, Hants, and Mr. Buckland sent one lot from Alresford, on the Itchen, Hants. If I am not able to say, therefore, to which place the descent of our trout is to be traced, or if each of the places named has not a joint honour in their parentage, I think you will agree that we have got a very handsome and valuable variety of Salmo fario. Growth of the Trowt.—I will now proceed to lay before you such facts as I have been able to collect, tending to show the probable rate of growth of trout in our rivers, under the conditions of the state of nature which existed when these fish were first turned out and which still hold good for most of our streams, and particularly that no trout are ever known to have pre- viously inhabited these waters. The rivers that I shall refer to are the Shag, Water of Leith, Lee Stream, Deep Stream and Upper Taieri, not because we have not information of the success of trout in other streams, but because such information is as yet rather general and indefinite. Shag River.—In the year 1868, young trout, 75 in number, appear to have been put in Mr. Young’s mill-race at Palmerston, as already men- tioned, and in 1869 there were 53 liberated in Shag River. The mill-race has communication with the river. After this, the first specimens I am aware of, caught in this river, are those taken in 1874, and which are now preserved in the Otago Museum. ‘The male fish (one of these) was taken in June of that year, and weighed 14ibs. The female (the other) was taken in July, and weighed 163ibs. Now, comparing the above dates, we find that the greatest possible age of these fish could not exceed six years. This indicates an average growth for the male fish of 241bs. a year, and of 23Ibs. a year for the female. But I am inclined to believe that for the first year or eighteen months trout do not attain that average in our streams, or at all events in the Shag River. A certain amount of corroboration arises from the fact I have alluded to above, of Mr. Clifford catching one of the 1868 Artuur.—On the Brown Trout introduced into Otayo. 273 trout in 1869, and finding it measure seven inches, which would represent a weight under half a pound. If we say then that the above two trout attained a weight in the first year of even one pound, then their subsequent average growth must have been 23ibs. and ;°,lbs. respectively, yearly. Water of Leith.—In 1869 the first trout were put in this stream, 75 in number, and additions have from year to year been made to this and other rivers to keep up the stock. In the end of 1874 and beginning of 1875 the Leith was opened for angling, when the largest trout caught weighed 3lbs. In August, 1875, among a number of spawning fish taken, I saw one which must have weighed 7lbs. Mr. Deans, the curator of our Acclimatiza- tiou Society, informs me of a male trout taken in the Leith, in 1877, which weighed 123]bs.; and in February of this year a gentleman caught a female, while fishing with artificial minnow, which weighed 10lbs. This latter fish I saw; it was a very well-shaped specimen and in excellent condition. It is certainly astonishing that trouts can attain such weights in so small a stream running through a city like Dunedin! The average yearly growth of the largest of these trout—viz., the male fish—is a little over 131bs.—on the same supposition as I used regarding the Shag River fish—viz., that it was one of the fish put in in 1869. Any other theory will, of course, give a more rapid growth, but I do not consider it safe to err in that direction. Lee Stream.-—-Trout were, to the number of 98, put into this (which has become the favourite angling stream of Otago) in the year 1869. No other lot of trout has ever been added, yet these 98 young fish have stocked the stream throughout its whole course of some twenty miles from near the Lammerlaw mountains to the Taieri River into which it flows. It was open for angling in 1875. In October of that year a well-known angler killed some very fine fish with fly. The heaviest of these weighed 5lbs.—this is equal to a yearly growth of 3 of a lb., or say Ib. Deep Stream.—In 1869 there were 100 young trout turned out in this stream. ‘This is the only lot ever put into the Deep Stream, where fish are now plentiful. It was opened for angling in 1875, but no fish over 2 to 4lbs. was taken till 1876, when one of 8lbs. was caught with grasshopper. This gives 14]bs. as the known yearly growth, on an average, of the trout in the Deep Stream. Upper Taieri.—In 1870 a few dozen young trout were put into this river at the Styx, and in 1875 there were 425 more turned in. At the beginning of this year it was fished for the first time, when several large trout were taken, weighing from 8 to 6ibs., the largest which was caught with the fly being 6lbs. Gozs. in weight. This gives the greatest possible yearly growth at 18 ozs., or say 1b. Of other streams we have not so much information; but I may mention that large trout have been seen in the Kakanui, Waitati, Lovell’s Creek, Ad 274 Transactions.—Zoology,. Fulton’s Creek, Waipahu River, Mimihau, and some of about 10ibs. in weight in the Wakatipu Lake at Queenstown. In the Kuriwao a trout 641s. was killed in the beginning of this year. Trout were first put in this stream in 1874, but into the Waiwera, into which the Kuriwao runs, in 1873. So that the average yearly growth may be taken at about 1iibs. As regards the Waikouaiti River, I have had, from two different sources, tolerably reliable evidence that the trout put into it have lived and thrived, but this requires confirmation. In the above I have, as explained, regarded the average weight on the theory (which is a safe one), that the fish actually caught and weighed, may have been individuals of the first stock put into each stream. Of course there still remains another, but more laborious, method for the future, of determin- ing the rate of growth, viz., marking young fish when caught, and returning them to the river for future observations. Two summers ago I began this plan in the Lee Stream, by removing the posterior half of the adipose fin ; but as yet I have not been fortunate enough to recapture any of those so marked. These fish would run from four to seven inches in length, and in number about one dozen. In the Southland rivers young trout were turned out from 1870 to 1877, as shown by a list appended, which Mr. Howard has sent me. As yet, however, I have not been able to get any positive information as to how they have succeeded. Comparing now the growth of our trout with river trout of England and Scotland, I find that Stoddart, in his Lochs and Rivers of Scotland, gives the following as his opinion. The fry are hatched out in April, and by the month of October stop growing for that season, having attained a length of six or seven inches, and weighing a quarter of a pound. There is no perceptible growth till the following spring, when food again becomes plentiful. They then resume growing, and before winter have increased in length by two inches, and in weight up to half a pound, by which time a certain number are in spawning condition. It is four years before these fish reach one pound weight, when many cease growing, but some from favouring conditions of locality and feed reach a greater weight. These latter live almost entirely upon ground and surface food—not minnows. In well sheltered waters and when the feed is particularly good, as in the Leet and Eden, in the course of five or six years trout have reached two pounds weight and upwards. * Again, Yarrel, in his British Fishes, says:—‘‘ An acutely observing friend of mine * * * has for years kept trout in a kind of store stream, and having fed them with every kind of food, has had some of them increase * Stoddart says that in South of England an experiment with trout in three tanks fed respectively with worms, minnows, and large water-flies, was tried, when those fed on flies attained twice the weight of the others, Arrnur.—On the Brown Trout introduced into Otago. 275 from 1tb. to 10Ibs. in four years. I found, says he, that one of the trout I had fed and weighed regularly for the last six years was not improving in size and colour. I therefore killed it. The fish is a female and weighed exactly seven pounds. The accompanying schedule will show its gradual increase ;— Date of weighing .. .. 1835 1836 1837 1838 1839 1840 Ibsoz5)) pi lbio7. ilbsoz., lbs) 07.1 0) Ib: 103) > 7 biz: Biorilsce ee eNONTD PUN TS IS ray ue kN Oe ig id October Ist. .. .. 1 4 2 0 5 0 5 12 8} (0) Littlecot, October, 1840.” This latter experiment shows, under careful artificial feeding, that trout are capable in England of a growth, according to this gentleman, of 1? lbs. yearly to 23]bs. when they have reached their full growth. But trout, in a state of nature, as described by Stoddart, may more properly be compared with the results I have given of our Otago trout. Stoddart’s remarks therefore amount to this, that under the most favourable circumstances at home, river trout will attain up to maturity, a yearly average increase in weight of 41b., while our experience here shows they have reached an average yearly increase of from 116 to 23ibs! In no river of Otago have these fish grown so rapidly, are so fat, or have become so heavy as in the Shag, some individuals having been seen in Mr. Rich’s property supposed to be 20lbs in weight. They abound from the estuary to the ‘‘second gorge,” a distance I should think of 15 miles by the river. The banks of the Shag are partly cultivated and partly covered with native grass and flax. Surface food cannot therefore be plentiful, but at all seasons there are in the pools and shallows numbers of Galawias or native minnows, bullheads, and during summer immense shoals of smelts and silverfish.* On one occasion I killed a trout below Palmerston, 61]bs. weight, in the stomach of which I found about three dozen smelts. It is rather against the trout, that during summer the Shag River runs low and clear, so low as to be easily crossed in the fords with watertight boots without the feet getting wet. The growth of trout in the Leith may also be attributed chiefly to the great numbers of smelt which frequent its lower waters. But it is different with the Lee, Deep Stream, and Upper Taieri rivers, where the great staple of food is made up of flies, gnats, grass- hoppers, cadis-bait, fresh-water shell-fish, beetles and cray-fish—the small kinds of native fish are not very numerous in these streams. Before leaving this part of my subject, I may mention a curious circumstance regarding the Lee Stream which anglers have discovered. Painfully lean trout have been caught there, which took the fly or grasshopper greedily * This fish is called Silverfish by Mr. Powell, but Smelt (Retropinna richardsoni) by Dr. Hector; it is a true salmonoid, which the fish I have called a smelt is not, but is also known as whitebait. 276 Transactions. —Zvology. and were apparently in good enough health. In December, 1875, I killed one of these which, though about 24 inches in length, only weighed 4tbs. It ought if in good condition to have been about 7 ibs. Several other similar or worse-conditioned trout have since then been taken. But the worst speci- men I have seen was caught at the beginning of this year, in a feeder of the Lee, the Broad Creek, which surpassed all others in its poverty. It was about twenty inches long and weighed only 1b. or thereby. There was really no substance on its body, it was literally a skeleton. It is difficult to account for such a phenomenon, particularly when equally large trout have been killed in the Lee, which were in excellent condition, 2. Habits of the Trout. In dealing with this part of my subject, [ propose to offer a few remarks under the heads of Spawning Season, Differences of External Appearance, and the Habits of our Trout as observed during the open season. Spawning Season.—From actual observations, trout are known to have spawned in the several streams named as follows :— Shag River Be ie ae from June 20th to July 31st Water of Leith » dune 20th ,, Aug. 4th Lee Stream ran ae se » June 1ldth _,, July 25th Lovell’s Creek ie 5% ai » dune 6th ,, July 31st Fulton’s Creek .. A : fs during July, &e. In Silverstream, a man of Mr. McGregor’s saw trout engaged, as he thought, spawning from June 20th to July 20th.* As regards Southland, propagation of trout has been carried on there solely with fish kept constantly confined to small ponds at Wallacetown by or under charge of Mr. Howard. This gentleman’s experience of this method has proved it to be a mistake. Spawning is late and prolonged and the breed- ing fish do not thrive. He found that they lived well enough throughout the year, but were lable to attacks of fungus, which killed them in fourteen days. This fungus he cured repeatedly by washing or dipping the fish in salt water; but it invariably returned, and eventually the trout succumbed. With us, Mr. Deans has followed a more natural plan, that of catching the fish when ripe, stripping the females of their ova, and impreenating these with the milt of the male. The milt of young or mature males does equally well, and one male is sufficient to fructify the ova of several females. The trout in the Leith will average 800 ova to the 16. weight of the fish itself. A female 416. weight has yielded about 400, and one of the largest caught, being a healthy fish of about 7Ibs., gave close on 6000 ova. In our breeding boxes at Opoho, we have found the time the ova take to hatch to be 78 days; but this is modified to some * This period is later than the corresponding time at home, which is in October and November, by about six weeks, Artuur.—On the Brown Trout introduced into Otago, 277 extent by the temperature of the water. During the winter: months the temperature of the water averages about 42°F.; and during the period of hatching it ranges from 42° to 52°. The strongest and healthiest fish are those which are hatched out in water at 48°. After birth the young trout are ready for turning out in from 30 to 50 days, but will carry best whenever they begin to feed, which is at an age of 25 to 28 days. When the young fish are about 6 weeks old and well fed, they average, in our ponds, 14 inches in length, and at 100 days measure 8 inches, being distinguished by dark bands like the fry of the salmon. In transporting the trout fry from the ponds to the rivers in which they are liberated, it has been most successfully done with fish about 1 inch to 14 inches long, the can of water having a sufficient quantity of watercress put into it carefully to prevent the consequences of shaking in transit. In this manner Mr, Deans has conveyed many supplies to our streams without losing a single trout. It has been observed with us, that in spawning, when the female has selected her male companion, she proceeds to a suitable gravel bed, where she prepares the ridd with her tail, the action of the stream assisting. She frequently rolls on her side and lashes the water with her tail, the ova being passed and impregnated from time to time, until the whole operation is completed. When confined they have been seen to take 8 to 10 days or more in spawning; but as yet I have not ascertained how long they naturally take in our rivers ; probably, however, not more than a week. Differences in Eaternal Appearance.—The differences in the external appearance of our trout are corroborative of all previous experience of these fish in home waters. Here, as there, these are due to various causes, such as age, sex, abundance or scarcity and also quality of food, range and colour of water, geological character of formation over which the river flows, and the season of the year. My own observations here, enable me to say that our trout are finest in appearances at the height of summer. By autumn they begin to get darker, some even I have caught were black- looking and lean, though all originally from the same stock. Already the various streams have stamped the trout with local peculiarities of some interest. Thus for example, in summer, trout which I have seen taken out of Shag River were remarkable for plumpness and good condition almost to deformity. They were all very bright silvery on the sides running into pure white on the belly, the back being grey or very light olive. Spots sometimes numerous and mostly of large size and black in colour, red spots are awanting or rare. The heads are small, even in the males, those of the females being beautifully shaped. The extreme fatness of form and bright silvery colour, I have no doubt are due to the river bottom being fine sand and gravel, the water clear, and the great bulk of the food being the small 278 Transactions.—Zoology, fish already mentioned. This agrees with the opinion expressed by Sir Humphrey Davy, as mentioned in Dr. Hamilton’s British Fishes, which is, that when trout ‘‘ feed much on hard substances, such as larve and their cases, and the ova of other fish, they have more red spots and redder fins, and that when they feed most on small fish and on flies, they have more tendency to be spotted with small black spots and are generally more silvery.” In the Water of Leith, when first opened for fishing, the trout were of a fine appearance, colours being bright and the red spots large, but there is a falling off in this respect, at least as regards average-sized fish, and during spawning they all assume a darker or greyish hue. This water flows through bush, and its bed is one mass of trap rock, boulders, and small stones. No doubt a large amount of the feed is in flies, caterpillars, and slugs, and also, in the lower pools, smelts. The trout in the Lee Stream also, when it was opened for fishing in 1875, were, as a rule, of a handsomer shape and colour than they noware. The females, of 2 Ibs. and upwards, were silvery on their sides, very fat, and had small well-formed heads, a few red spots also along the sides. The males were dark olive brown on the back, golden yellow on the sides, and pure white on the belly. They had, and still have, numerous black spots, and large red or crimson spots on the sides and below the lateralline. The adipose fin in these and the trout in the other rivers is tinged with red, and is distinguished by two or three dark brown spots. The tail also has a few dark spots, generally confined to the upper margin. The males in this stream, when in good condition, are very handsome fish, the head though large is not unusually so. The bed of this river is mostly rocky, but in the upper water it is more gravelly than below the Accommodation House. Some of the pools towards the end of summer get very much over- crown with water plants. The feed consists of the native life from the tussock- covered banks, flies, beetles, spiders, and numerous grasshoppers, while the bed of the stream contains small shell-fish, larve, and crayfish. The native minnows and small fish are not plentiful. The Lee rises near the Lammerlaws, at a height of about 1,500 feet above the sea, and joins the Taieri River at about 40 feet. The Deep Stream trout have a tendency to be more silvery in colour than those of the Lee. Still, the males are very much alike, with numerous large black spots, the usual number of large red ones, and a rich golden tinge over their sides. In February of this year I saw three very fine trout caught by Mr. Pillansin the Deep Stream, with minnow. In weight they were from 2itibs. to 23ibs.; they were females. ‘Two of them were olive brown on back, silvery on sides and belly, the spots large and dark, but not ArtHur.—On the Brown Trout introduced into Otago. 279 numerous, and a few red ones as usual. The third fish differed in a marked degree from these, though all three were fat and in good condition. Its back was olive colour like the others, but its sides were of that rich golden hue, so pleasing in an angler’s eyes, while the black spots were exceedingly numerous, only about an eighth of an inch apart. I have not in New Zealand seen another case of such a difference in external colour and markings in trout of the same sex taken under such exactly similar conditions. In waters I have fished in Scotland, however, I must admit I have seen more remarkable differences, and where least to be expected. The character of the bed of this stream is generally rocky, but it has many more gravel-beds than the Lee, particularly for two miles above and below Walsh’s Accommodation House, where anglers usually put up. The banks of the stream, like those of the Lee, are all in a state of nature—all native tussocks and rushes, with a few veronicas in places—the feed also is the same. In its course from the Lammerlaws to the Taieri, it will cover a distance of 80 or 40 miles, and, being snow-fed in early summer, is rather later as an angling stream than the Lee. : As regards the Upper Taieri, the fish, so far as I have seen them, are similar to those of the two last streams described; but my acquaintance is as yet too limited with the trout there, to warrant me saying more about them as to appearance. The capabilities of this river for producing large well-conditioned trout, consist in the immense ranges of water, or reaches, free from any obstructions which characterise it, and a considerable supply of bottom feed, abundance of insect life, and rich loamy banks. The course of the stream is also marked by abundance of gravel, suited for spawning beds. In no stream here have I as yet seen trout of mature size, marked with distinct bands of dark colour transversely to the length of their bodies. This is a common mark in British streams, but the colour is evanescent, and will disappear in a short time if a trout goes under a stone or bank. When fishing clear reaches of water at home, I have frequently noticed this peculiarity. These bands are only assumed by the fish when the river is clear. JI have never seen them when the water was discoloured, nor in lake fish. It is well known at the same time that trout can alter their colour to suit that of the water for the time being; they are much lighter when the water is clear than during floods. 3. Habits of the Trout, as observed by Anglers. Undoubtedly the trout here are more bold, when feeding, than at home, possibly because as yet our streams are not so much fished.* The time * They always feed with their heads up stream, seize their prey by the head, and bolt it or suck if into the gullet, 280 Transactions. —Z oology. of day also when they appear to feed most, differs in some of our waters fished by me from all previous experience. Thus in the Lee and Deep Streams, every angler has remarked that they are more on the feed during the middle of the day, from spring to autumn, than either in the morning or evening ;* while in the Shag River and Leith they are found to feed when the water is low and clear, almost entirely at night. In the Shag River, there can be no doubt, this is owing to the fineness and transparency of the water. There, during the day, a few fish only are seen; but from dusk, all through the night until dawn, they are more or less on the move, while at times the water seems alive with large fish, which throw themselves out of the water, tumble along the surface, or pursue the whitebait and minnows right into the shallows. ‘Then is the time when the fish are nearly all caught, that being done by the use of natural or artificial minnows. A fresh in this river operates similarly to nightfall, and large takes have been often made on such an occasion. In the Leith good fishings have been got in the morning, but the best at night.+ In all these streams of Otago the meteorological conditions of the atmosphere seem to have a marked effect on the movements of the trout. Thus, with a falling barometer and the approach of rain, particu-' larly if the air is at the same time getting colder, I have noticed that the trout invariably cease feeding. It is only rarely I have caught trout, and never more than a solitary one, under these circumstances. Llectricity also, when approaching in the form of thunder clouds or otherwise, has the same effect. But when the storm actually bursts over the stream, as a rule I have found the fish begin to take once more. I have seen the very same thing occur on Scotch waters. As a rule here, it is found far more trout are caught when an east wind blows than when it comes from any other direction ; the temperature of this favourable wind has a good deal to do with this result. Although no experiments as yet have been made here to test the theory, yet I believe that, as regards temperature, trout will take surface food as long as the air is warmer than the water, and at times when colder, but only within certain limits. Not only do my own observations lead to this conclusion, but I may mention here a corroborative fact which came to my knowledge some years ago. Then being in Scotland, I had the good fortune to be permitted the perusal of a register of the temperature of the air and water at Loch Tay, which was shown me by a gentleman who had been residing there as factor to the Karl of Breadalbane, to whom the fishings belong. By comparing the readings of the thermometers for air ~ * T have killed good fish in the morning on one or two occasions, but rarely any fish at all at night, and never large ones. + In British rivers, under ordinary weather, evening and night are the times when _ trout feed most, unless in spring, when this is confined to the middle of the day. TRANS. NZ INSTITUTE, VOLXLPUXIL. ag. J. 1.2. Salmo lario 34.8 Salmo trutia. Artuur.—On the Brown Trout introduced into Otago. 281 and water during each day of the fishing season, it was found that most salmon were killed with the rod on Loch Tay when the difference in tem- perature did not exceed 2° Fah.; but when it became as much as 5°, the fish ceased to take altogether. Although fish are cold-blooded animals, this would appear to indicate a certain degree of sensitiveness to variations in temperature. It is not so easy to account for trout and other species of the Salmonide being aware (to use a common expression) when the baro- meter is falling before rain, as I have stated already. But one thing I am convinced of is that they do feel when the atmospheric pressure on the water alters to an appreciable extent. They get sluggish, and will not move to feed when the air becomes rarefied. But when the weather begins to change and clear up they soon move about again and resume feeding. I explain this on the supposition that, in the first instance, the fish feel their bodies sensibly heavier, so as to indispose them to move; but when the atmosphere regains its normal pressure, they are relieved from the, sensation of weight, and their ordinary lively habits are resumed. Other animals— human beings included—are affected by the very same cause. This is, no doubt, rather a speculative part of my subject, and I could easily enlarge my remarks on it, but probably I have said enough for the present. 4, Distinguishing Marks of Trout. This brings me to the concluding and more technical portion of my paper, but before going into that I think it will be better to record my examina- tions of a number of specimens of S. fario, which were caught in some of those rivers which I have already frequently referred to. From various causes my notes are not so complete as they should be, but still I give them just as they are. They may be useful for comparison and reference. Specimens of Salmo fario examined in Otago. a.—1877, Nov. 30th.—Male trout caught in Lee Stream—the gorge water—with grasshopper, the river being very low. Condition thin, head long, and lower jaw hooked; colour, brown on back, golden on sides, numerous black spots and large red ones, a few being beneath the lateral line. Dimensions: Weight, 6lbs.; length, 25 in.; depth, 6 in.; head, 64 in.; maxillary bone projecting } in. behind the vertical from posterior margin of orbit; sixteen round black spots on gill-cover, one side. Teeth, vomer three firm five loose, palatines each well armed with teeth, tongue also, and with two small teeth loose near the tip. Fin Rays: P.14 on each fin; C.21 (doubtful). Scales: 16 in trans- verse row from adipose fin backwards to lateral line. Pyl. ceca: 54, Contents of stomach: crayfish, 2 in. long, and remains of larger one; three legs of a grasshopper and part of a black beetle, AG 982, Transactions.—-Zoology. b.—Dec. 7th.—Male trout, taken at night in Shag River with natural minnow, water very low; colour silvery white, back light olive, spots black and numerous; condition very fat; head ordinary size, lower jaw hooked, maxillary projecting + in. behind posterior margin of orbit; body of vomer, 5 teeth firm, 2 awanting; palatine left, 13 firm, 8 gone; right palatine, 10 firm, 4 gone. Dimensions: Weight, 5 lbs. 2 oz. ; length, 23 in.; depth, 53 in.; girth, 132in.; head, 54 1. Fin Rays: P.18 on each. Scales: 15 on one side, 16 on other, in transverse rows from dead fin backwards to lateral line. Pyl. ceca: 48. Contents of stomach: remains of one or two small minnows. c.—Dec. 19th.—Male trout, taken in Shag River at night with natural minnow; water low; colour, silvery sides, back, light olive ; spots black and numerous, some on upper margin of tail, lower margin gone, probably bitten off by a shag; condition fat; head ordinary size, lower jaw hooked, maxillary projecting } in. behind the posterior margin of orbit ; head of vomer, 3 teeth; palatine a row each. Dimensions: Weight, 5 lbs. 5 oz. ; length, 234 in.; depth, 6 in.; girth, 184 in.; head, 6 in. Fin Rays: D.18, P43 Specie, V-9, A.12, 0.22. Scales: 14 in trans- verse row from adipose fin backwards to lateral line. Pyl. ceca: (not taken). Contents of stomach: part of one small minnow. d.—1878, Jan. 19th.—Female trout taken with grasshopper in Lee Stream in the Ledge pool; colour, back brown, sides olive colour, belly white, black spots plentiful, red ones very large; tail slightly forked; head small, maxillary within vertical from posterior margin of orbit; head of vomer, 2 teeth and 2 gone; body of vomer, double row ; palatines, one row of teeth on each. Dimensions: Weight, 2 Ibs.; length, 16 in.; depth, 84 in.; girth, 8} in.; head, 3} in. Fin Rays: D.18, P.14, V.9, A.11, C.19. Scales: 15 in transverse row from adipose fin backwards to lateral line. Pyl. ceca: 54. Contents of stomach: shell-fish and cadis-bait numerous, leg of crayfish, two small stones. e.—F'eb. 8th.—Male trout caught in Deep Stream with grasshopper ; water low and clear; colour, back brown, sides and belly, golden tinge, black spots very numerous and large, red spots large, a few black spots on adipose fin and upper margin of tail; head ordinary size, maxillary project« ing }in. behind vertical from posterior margin of orbit; head of vomer, 3 teeth and 1 gone; body of vomer, double row, some missing; palatines, 1 row on each. Dimensions: Weight, 341bs.; length, 19 in,; depth, 5in.; girth, 11} in. ; "head, 43 in, Anravr.—On the Brown Trout tntroduced into Otago. 283 Fin Rays: D.11, P.12, V.9, A.10, Scales: 15 in transverse row, from adipose fin backwards to lateral line, Pyl, eaca; 46, Contents of stomach: crayfish, beetles, flies. f.—Feb. 8th.—Female trout taken in Deep Stream, with grasshopper. Colour, back olive brown, silvery towards belly, black spots ordinary number and large, red ones not very distinct, on gill-cover six distinct large black spots; head small; maxillary projecting }in. behind vertical from posterior margin of orbit; teeth, double row on vomer, some awanting ; one row oneach palatine bone. This fish was in excellent condition ; roe well developed, When cooked was found of first-rate quality; the flesh was very red, Dimensions: Weight, 4 Ibs. 10 oz.; length, 22 in.; depth, 5 in.; girth, 123 in.; head, 4.4 in. Fin Rays: D.18, P.12, V.9, A.11. Scales: 17 in transverse row from adipose fin backwards to lateral lime. Pyl. ceca; 47. Contents of stomach: crayfish, green beetles, and flies. g.—March 2nd.—Female trout, taken in Broad Creek, with grasshopper. Colour, back olive brown, sides and belly silvery, black spots ordinary number, red ditto all large; six black spots on left side of head and five on right; tail large, forked and handsomely shaped; it and adipose without spots; head very small; right maxillary projecting }in. behind vertical from posterior margin of orbit; left maxillary awanting, excepting small portion of posterior end, evidently lost by some accident; fish fat and in good condition. Dimensions : Weight, 23 lbs.; length, 172 in.; depth, 43 in.; girth, 103 in.; head, 33 in. ijeeais Dlg, P13, Vi9, AO C.19: “Scales: “16 in) row “from adipose fin backwards to lateral line. Pyl. ceca: 47, surrounded by unusual quantity of fat. Contents of stomach: cadis-bait, larve, grass, rushes, and one small shell-fish. h.—March 6th.—Male trout taken in Shag River at night with natural minnow. Colour, back light olive, sides and belly silvery, black spots numerous and large, no red ones, black spots on adipose fin but none on tail, tail square; head small, maxillary projecting }in. behind vertical from posterior margin of orbit; fish fat, short and thick, back arched; teeth, two on head and usual rows on body of vomer and on palatine. Dimensions: Weight, 521bs.; length, 212in.; depth, 6in.; girth, 144in. ; head, 42in. Fin Rays: D.11, P.18, V.10, A.10, C.19. Scales: 16 in transverse row from adipose fin back to lateral line. Pyl. ceca: 47, doubtful number, some being cut in removing stomach. Contents of stomach: not examined, 284, Transactions.-~Z oology. The following two specimens described are the stuffed ones in the Otago Museum already referred to under the heading Distribution and Growth of Trout, and the natural colours of which cannot now be given. i.—Male trout taken in Shag River, June, 1874. Present colour brown on back and dark grey on sides; head large; mandible terminating in very long hook; tail square; black spots numerous. Dimensions: Weight, 14lbs.; length, 298in.; depth, 7in.; head, Tin. Min Rays: DAO, P13, V9, 4.10, C219. Scales: 15 in transverse row from adipose fin back to later al line. j.—Female trout, taken in Shag River, July, 1874. Present colour brown on back and dark grey on sides; head short and blunt; tail square ; black spots plentiful but not numerous. Dimensions : Weight, 1631bs. ; length, 29§in.; depth, 6% in. ; head, 5hin. ; Fin Rays: D.11, P.18, V.9, A.10, C.19. Scales: 16 in transverse row from adipose fin backwards to lateral line. Collecting now the results together of my ecaremation of the various specimens above detailed, I find, that as regards the colour and spots, these vary in the different rivers from which the respective individuals were taken. The Shag River fish are all silvery, and, as a rule, have numerous black spots, red spots awanting or rare. The other trout, furthest removed in appearance from these, are those of the Lee and Deep Streams, which are golden on the sides; in the males black spots numerous; the females are mostly silvery, the spots being less plentiful, and both have red spots, the male most. The fin rays vary more or less; they are in the specimens examined by me dorsal, 10 to 13; pectoral, 12 to 14; V. 9 to 10, A.10 to 12, C.19. Of these, the most constant is the caudal fin, which never seems to vary from 19. Intwo specimens where I found more than this number, I am inclined to think I must have made a mistake in counting them. Next in invariability are the ventrals; seven individuals I found had each 9 rays in these fins, and only one had 10. The anal fin rays are tolerably constant, but the pectoral and dorsal fins vary a good deal. The scales I found, reckoning from the adipose fin backwards to the lateral line, to range from 14 to 17, and the pyloric ceca from 43 to 54.* Now, if we compare these results with the numbers given by three authorities, Giinther, Hamilton, and Yarrell, we find they give the following :—D.13 to 14, P.14., V.9., A.11 to 12, C.19, scales 15, and pyloric ceca, 83 to 46. That is, with the exception of the ventral and caudal fins, a higher number of fin rays than I find; scales fewer in a * The head of vomer carries 2 to 4 teeth, and body of vomer teeth all the way. Palatines, tongue, and mandible all armed with teeth, Artuur.—On the Brown Trout introduced into Otago. 285 transverse row, according to Giinther, and the pyloric ceca fewer on an average by 9. As yet, I have made no examination of the number of vertebrae, so my comparison in that and one or two other particulars is incomplete. With regard to the features of the head, as to structure, my remarks will refer to two heads, both of females—one of a fish, 431bs. in weight, taken in the Lee in October, 1877; and the other of a fish over 6ibs. in weight, caught in the Upper Taieri River in March, 1878. F'ac-similes* of these are represented on pl. XIII, fig. 1 and fig. 2 (S. fario) accompanying this paper. In fig. 1 the posterior end of maxillary is 2,% inches from the snout, and at its greatest width measures 7g of an inch. The lower limb is strong and prominent, and the whole bone characteristically coarse and large.t Of the gill-covers, the posterior margin of the operculum forms nearly a right-angle with the junc- tion line of the operculum and suboperculum. This junction or joint of the operculum and suboperculum forms an angle of nearly 23° with the axis of the body of the fish. The suboperculum in shape roughly resembles or approaches a rectangle, the posterior lower margin forming a blunt rounded angle. The average length, or middle length of this bone, is 1,8, inches, and the middle width % of an inch. The interoperculum forms rather less than a right angle at its junction with the suboperculum, this line making with the axis of the body of the fish an angle of 47°. The lower margin is flatly rounded and continuous, nearly in line with lower margin of suboperculum, and the anterior extremity nearly semi-circular. The preoperculum is sinuously rounded in margin, and covers about one half of the surface of the interoperculum. In the case of fig. 2, the posterior end of maxillary measures 213 inches from the snout, and the body of the bone very nearly } an inch at its greatest width. It is approximately similar to the maxillary of fig. 1, the Lee Stream trout, only the posterior extremity is much more rounded, this fish being evidently an older individual. The end projects ,% in. behind vertical, from posterior margin of orbit. The posterior margin of the operculum forms nearly a right-angle with the junction of the operculum and suboperculum. This line or joint of operculum aud suboperculum forms an angle with the axis of the body of the fish of nearly 26°. The suboperculum in shape roughly approaches a four-sided fieure, almost a rectangle, the posterior lower margin forming a blunt angle with a sharp curve at the apex. The middle length of this bone is 1,5, inches, and its middle width § inch. The interoperculum forms at its junction with the * (Reduced one-half from author's original drawings. | t It projects 25 in. behind the vertical, from posterior margin of orbit. 286 Transactions. —Z oology. suboperculum rather less than a right-angle, this line of junction making with the axis of the fish an angle of 50°, The lower margin is flatly rounded, and is a general continuation of lower margin of suboperculum. The anterior end is semi-circular, or nearly so, The preoperculum has its margin rounded, and not so sinuous as in that of fig, 1; it covers fully the half surface of interoperculum, The gill-ecvers, when examined from the outside, appear to be divided as shown by hatched lines on the diagrams, which traverse the body of the suboperculum. These lines, however, are only the margin of an integument or skin, covering a series of spines. They do not represent the true articulation of the bones, which can only be correctly seen by dividing the head in two, and examining the gill-covers from the inside. When this is done there is no difficulty, as the jomts are marked by distinct ridges or lines of thickened bone. Dr. Gunther lays some stress on the presence or absence of a lower limb to the preoperculum in salmonoids, and says of that of S. fario, it ‘is without or with a very indistinct lower limb.’ At the same time he makes no reference to the interoperculum, so far as I have been able to find. Now the lower limb referred to is not by any means a very distinct mark, but the interoperculum is a well-defined bone. There is only one general remark I need add here, which is, that the specimens of trout from our Otago stock examined are representatives of only one variety, while those available to the authorities I have named are of many varieties. As an article of food, when our trout are taken from 2lbs. to dlbs., in good condition, and at the proper season, they cut up pink or red, and if properly cooked are excellent. Those from the Lee and Deep Stream are the best I have eaten. The Shag River fish are rather earthy in taste, but this flavour almost disappears if they be cut across in thin steaks and fried. Salmo trutta. Having now concluded all I have to communicate for the present of the erowth, habits, and characteristics of our brown trout, I should like, before closing this paper, to give you, for comparison, the results of such limited observations as I have been enabled to make on the sea trout (S. trutta) introduced into Otago. In 1871, Mr. Young, of Palmerston, put 1384 young sea trout into Shag River. In November, 1875, a fish 10ilbs. weight was netted near Quarantine Island, Otago Harbour, which was declared on good authority to be a true sea trout. I saw this fish, and have no doubt as to its identity, though I had no opportunity of making an examination. Since then they have been taken in the salt water, in the harbour at Blueskin and at Moeraki, but not as yet in any river. A considerable number of these I saw; they ranged in weight from 1 Ib. to 15 Ibs., and I believe them to have been sea trout. As this is questioned, however, by some, I have Artuur.—On the Brown Trout introduced into Otago. 287 made diagrams of the heads of three sea trout (being the only ones I can get), two of which are at present in my possession, and one belongs to our Museum. They were caught in Otago harbour. These are placed beside the diagrams of S. fario to facilitate comparison. By this means some characteristic distinctions are at once apparent. In each head the lower jaw is rather longer than the upper. The maxillary does not project beyond a vertical line drawn from the posterior margin of orbit. The lower limb is narrower and the upper broader relatively than in the two heads of 8. fario, and the whole bone is finer and more delicate. Of the gill-covers, the greatest difference is manifest in the suboperculum, which roughly approaches a sector of a circle in outline, its lower free margin being nearly semi-circular. The outline of integument on surface of this bone has a great similarity in the three specimens, and differs decidedly from that on the same bone on the trout heads. The spots on the gill-covers are from three to four, while in the trout they are from seven to eleven; while of the more general features the heads are short and deep, and fine at the snout, that of the Museum specimen being only one- — fifth of the whole length of the fish. This fish measures—length, 16 in. ; depth, 32 in.; head, 22 in.; and scales 16 in transverse row from adipose fin backwards. And lastly, these three fish have the distinct coating of bright silvery scales all over their bodies. The description of the head (S. trutta), given by Ginther and Yarrell, agrees very well with the above three specimens. DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XIII. [Norz.—Reduced one-half from the author’s original drawings. } Salmo fario. Fig. 1. Fac-simile head of female trout, taken in Lee Stream, Oct., 1877; weight, 44 Ibs. 2. Fac-simile of dried head of female trout taken in Upper Taieri, Mar. 1878; weight 6 lbs. 6 ozs. [Notze.—The numbers represent the following bones: 1, pre-maxillary or inter- maxillary; 2, maxillary; 3, mandible; 4, operculum; 5, suboperculum; 6, interoperculum ; 7, preoperculum. Salmo trutta. 3. Fac-simile head of female, 7 Ibs. weight, got in harbour, Nov. 6, 1877. 4, Do. do. dried specimen, 1 lb. weight, got in Otago Harbour, March, 1878. 6. Hand-sketch head of specimen, 14lbs. weight, in Otago Museum; caught at Otago Heads, April, 1874: 288 Transactions.—Zooloqy. List oF YounG TROUT DISTRIBUTED SINCE 1869. (From the Report of the Otago Acclimatization Society for the Years 1876 and 1877.) NAME oF RIVER. Abbott’s Creek .. Ahuviri (Waitaki) Ahuriri (Glenoamaru) .. Akatore Creek ae Awahokoma (Waitaki) .. Awamoka 3 Back Creek (Cly devale) Beaumont Beck’s Creek (Mamuheribia) Benger Burn Black Burn Boat-harbour Creek Branch (Waipahi) . Boundary Creek (Waihola) AS » (Kaitangata . » (Oamaru) Bullock Creek ral Catlin’s River Clifton (Kaibikn) Clutha (Albertown) Clydevale Station Creek Crookston Burn .. ; Creek at Gore Deep Stream Eearnscleugh .. Fall’s Creek (Kaitangata) Fern Burn $ Flagstaff Creek . Flag Swamp Creek Flodden .. Fraser’s Creek Fruid ae a Fulton’s Creek (West Taieri) oe Glenoamaru Hakateramea .. Halfway Creek oe and a Pillar) Hawea River Hawke Bay Hillend (F. 8. Pillans) .. Island Stream Jack Hall’s Creek (Wanaka) Kakanui .. Kaihiku .. Kaikorai .. Kaiwera .. pe Kaitangata Creek ste Kilmog Creek, or Waihemo aia Ss 5 Kurow . Lake Ohou ae i Lauder .. i ie ae Lees Canal Lee Stream Lindis River Linn Burn Leithan .. Carried forward .. sie * All died on journey, 1869. “80 100 "6 “48 "53 1 "98 1870. : Details have not been kept. : 1871. : Details have not beenkept.: : i: i 2: | | 1872.|} 1873, "50 200 : No trout hatched this year. : ise oO 109 Ae. (Alyse) 1874. 200 150 101 "BO “60 300 295 950 200 100 204 100 1,940 500 ‘100 200 500 200 7 es 5,512 1876. 286 120 700 105 50 305 300 1877. 520 270 *400 100 +520 oe 2,321 + All died on journey but 60, Artuur.—On the Brown Trout introduced into Otago. 289 List or Youna Trout—continued. NAME OF RIVER. 1869. | 1870. | 1871. | 1872.) 1873. | 1874. | 1875. | 1876. | 1877. Brought forward 506 1,579) 1,940) 5,512) 4,485) 2,321 Lovyell’s Creek a6 42) 300; 500) .. ot Luggat Burn ne ss &% 250 Manor Burn Se 00 PSO Wer Manuherikia (Upper) .. 242) .. we Marshall’s Creek (Clinton) A6 aye Ol aver Matatapu 60 : 30 144 M:Pherson’s Creek (Waipor Lake) 50} .. ho Matukituki oo a 5c ne 122 Mataura .. ; Ole ae Megeat Burn (Waihola) a ae 390 Merton Creek ae ae 50 ae Mimihou.. : 300 Oamaru Creek an CA! Von Okapua (Mataura) : ab 200 Oamarama (Waitaki) a 200) 200 Otakaike i 122} 165) 950 Otama (Mataura) oD we 200 Otaria Dee es or 600) .. Otamaite ,, ae 536 Otematata (Waitaki) ue 320 Otepopo River 101 oe os Owake (Upper) .. se 290) 800 », (Lower si we 600} .. Owiho (} (N. E. Valley) : 50} .. MOON oe Peat Bog Creek ae) a0 a5 HO 86 Pleasant River .. 400] .. oi a as Pomahaka 125} 200] 1,720) 1,250} 2,000 Pomahi ae OOM Se ae ae Puerua 100} 800} 1,000} 1,162} 700 Pukerau . a6 S¢ as PAO AG Quail Burn (Waitaki) 100; 100 Quartz Creek (Wanaka) S60 252 Rankle Burn... a OO Se Ronald’s Creek (Pomahaka) OO} ai tere ae Rumbling Burn (Wanaka) te 202 Sawyer’s Bay Creek 66 ao) f MOD ae eye oe Silver Stream 55 100} 200; 652) .. 620 Sheepwash Creek : a ar 56 ye 40; .. Shag Creek (Akatore) .. 36 100 bc Shag River ue 53 oe Young’ s Ponds .. 3 75 , 3 ae Station Creek (Benmore) ae de 170} 110 Stoney Creek aa ao BO Gi Swift Creek Ne 50 0 j Swinburn we as ave 2OOW iecs 6 St. Leonards .. 66 Ao dé ve GON é Taieri (Upper) 25 O6 425 Talla Ne é 225) 120 ae Tautuku (Wpper)_ : Sra iliters a0 220 Teviot .. uh ae Oe ace go ie Tokomairiro : G2i\aee ee 500) .. 600 Trotter’s Ck. & Hampden Str’ms.) .. : 1,000 +. ‘ oe Trumble’s Creek : ea 6 Be 100) . Tuapeka sia we a ANS PERE 39 400 Waikoikoi ce i PHaligiae : 150) .. Waikouaiti River Gil be Carried forward .«. na GHB BBL 5 4,095) 3,947/18,649)11,663) 7,651 AT 290 Transactions.—Z oology. List oF Youna Trour—continued. NAME OF RIVER. | 1869. 1870. | 1871, 1872.) 1873. | 1874. | 1875, 1876. Brought forward .. 913 .. | ...|4,095) 3,947/18,649/11,663 Waitapeka Ne a fs De elabescoe (teers OO 38 50 Waihemo, or Kilmog O a oe 500 Wairuna.. . aban allisisie 125} 500 Waitahuna ; Menleg oe 500 Waireka .. a6 2 |S ee 500 Waitati (Upper).. ioe ME) Al sci TOO a. a », (lower).. St ae 57| 3 a Z| Me 250} 500 Water of Leith .. ae 15 Ales 450] .. Waterworks Reservoir 40} 45 as d Ate ats Be Waikaka.. See A cet ae Tae Qe uel sean lee Waikouaiti ae © Oo) ics : SO 350 ies Waimea .. th . uly cilia | oleae aaa 300 Top waters .. eevee is Oa fee a “3 Waipahi | Trumble’s Fel Mase euetalt eae af eet0))| al nO | (Lower a $ oy MS) 76) 401 700 Waiwera. ie a sel lee A | A |4 | 150] 450) 900 (top) ee an Sc : ae ae Me Wyndham 50 : ee ae 500 Washpool and other Creeks : TO} rer a Mr. Clark (Wairuna) a Br LOO ree », Larnach (Peninsula) UXO ee ae 150 », Reid (Elderslie) A 200; .. 1,000 », Menlove (Windsor Park) . ns re 150 », McGregor,C. H. .. oe 125 500 et wakus Howden : as os 500 » Wheatley (Kakanui) 800 Fotals \:. oo 1,085 1,000 |2,000) .. |4,841 | 6,228 |19,799)15,626 1877. 14,231 List or Younc TROUT DISTRIBUTED FROM THE WALLACETOWN SALMON Ponps, SoUTHLAND sy Mr. Howarp. Sa aa se eee ee a ST aT TI ee eT NAME oF RIVER, Benmore Creek Centre Creek .. Clutha River .. Eyre Creek Makarewa (Upper) (Lower) Mataura (Upper) Mimihou River Morley Creek .. Omut A Orawia Oreti River Otamaite Creek 0 Otipiri (Upper Makarewa) . Puni Creek .. ae Titiroa : Waiau River .. Wakatipu Lake Waikaka River ale Waikivi ,, Ab Waihopai ,, ie Waimatuku River Winton Creek Wyndham River .. ” 1870. 1871. FOP a TOM eae 350 ss 82 "60 100 “AT 100 117 100] . 1872. 210 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. Safa eee : 9204 500 125 41a, 32 6a, 110 460/\-}7, cae eee ene ee a ee 00 iS edo! (sooulmens ho Wgoonl me ‘| 450 | 1,000 | 1,500 ean ost ls: Palins eae 250 | 17-600 _ eed 5 350 147 A500 B05 Lice. basal Glee oe lies a al age eal COO a, yearlings ; 0, old fish, some 10lbs, weight. 1877. Cary ° oo eo ee oo eo oe 75 eo 8 6 Coe Car eet CuARKE,—On some new Fishes. 291 Azt, XXV.—On some new Fishes. By F. BH. Carne. Plates XIV. and XV. | Read before the Westland Institute, 16th July, 1878.] Trypterigium dorsalis. Pl. XV. B.6, D.4-19-12, P. 8 branched, 7 simple, V.2, A.25, C.13. Head is to total length as 4 is to 19. Total length, 5-1 inches; length of caudal fin, °65 inch; length of head, 1:1 inch. Length of 1st portion dorsal, ‘6 inch—extreme height, 3rd ray, °35 inch 6 PRaKE) pe op Onan A ppl a day! tant (6) vs 4 oxaines 49 BD en ” pp Gavel ieee VBI a Bh anal ,, SARS Oe its fi Tae OC see Ouelss i pectoral, 9thray 1°15 ,, "6 ventrals, Istray °55.,, Longest diameter orbit of eye ‘3 ,, Shortest do. Tiss Distance from commencement ventrals to do. anal, 1:2 in. Termination of bases 8rd portion of dorsal and anal fins in same vertical, and 0:4 in. from commencement of caudal fin; commencement of Ist portion of dorsal fin slightly behind vertical from posterior margin of pre- operculum, at terminal portion fin-membrane connected half-way up 1st ray of 2nd dorsal; fin-membrane at termination of second dorsal connected with 1st ray of 3rd dorsal; gill openings very large, branchiostegous rays very strong; rays of ventral exceedingly fleshy; lower simple rays of pectorals also strong and fleshy ; body covered with small ctenoidal scales, arranged in well-marked transverse series; lateral line running low down on side with concavity towards dorsal aspect, plainly marked from commencement to caudal fin. Head, throat, base of pectorals, gill-covers, and cheeks scaleless. Summit of head dotted with numerous papilla ; portion of back, of a breadth of 0-1 in. on each side of and along base of dorsal fins, devoid of scales, division between scaled and scaleless portion being very harshly marked; eyes, oval medium, with strong supra- orbicular ridges ; portion of forehead between eyes, narrow and grooved ; profile almost vertical, cheeks wide and deep, and slightly flattened; body broad, rounded, thick, and fleshy, but elongate; mouth small, underhung, with fleshy lips, upper protruding beyond lower; nostrils single, very minute, close below eye, and with tubular orifice; no crests; tongue fleshy. Female fish, ova fully developed. Ground colour of body, head and fins, brownish; and sides with yel- lowish tinge, mottled and spotted with darker, verging into banded appear- ance near tail; pupil of eye black, iris brown, with yellow ring round pupil. Captured at mouth of Hokitika, 26th January, 1871, and presented by Mr, Moss Levy. 292 Transactions.—Zoology, Trypterigium decemdigitatus. Pl. XV. B.6, D.8-19-14, P.38-6-9, V.2, A.29, 0.13, Scales: lin. lat., 48; lin. trans. 4. Lateral line, convex, very prominent and plainly marked to near caudal (over 84 scales), when it ends abruptly, it follows general slope of dorsal aspect, high up on body; head is to total length as 1 1s to 5; depth is to body and tail as 5 is to 27. Teeth recurved, small, with row of larger (cardiform) outside on upper and lower jaws; teeth on vomer; tongue thin, sharp-pointed; caudal fin large, rounded; scales large, ctenoid, continuous to base of dorsal fins ; none on head, cheeks, gill-covers, bases of pectorals or throat; eyes large and round; orbicular ridges hidden in substance ; a supra-orbital fringed palmiform, tentacle—decemfid—on simple base stalk; trifid tentacle at nostril; upper jaw protrudes slightly beyond lower when mouth is closed— when open, lower jaw is longest; head small, profile sharp and sloping, top of head and snout very much rounded, muzzle pointed ; commencement of first portion of dorsal fin in vertical with margin of pre-operculum and base of ventrals, terminating membrane of same joins with second portion at base of first ray; commencement of second portion in vertical with base of pectoral fins, terminating membrane of same joins first ray of third portion a little distance up ray; ventral fin rays slight but long; a strong papilla at anus; bases of rays of first portion of dorsal fin very close together, and far separate from the commencement of second portion of dorsal ; termination of third portion of dorsal in vertical with termination of anal fin; head and gill-covers with numerous pores ; nostrils double, one close to edge of orbit, the second lower and with tentacle; back and belly rounded, sides and tail flattened. Total length, 3:2 inches; depth, -42 inches; length of head, ‘65 inches; diameter - of eye, -15 inches. Length of Ist portion of dorsal +35 inch—extreme height of 3rd ray 45 inch x PRAXSL es Pe ei! SU ia i a (fslae BS on ip STraue. . “Oomues Fe * Athi ;, SA ‘i anal 1:35: is bel 24th ,, BNR. 5 caudal °A5 distance from snout to ventral fins °5 ,, A pectorals (12th ray) 65 ditto from ventrals to anal OTe Moe ditto from end of anal and dorsal a ventrals (2nd do.) ‘5 fins to the commencement a DD ie caudal Colour (preserved in carbolic solution), sooty black; tips of anal fin rays and membranes between (central) caudal fin rays, almost immaculate. Collected by Mr. Wm. Docherty, Dusky Sound, March 1877. Trypterigium robustum. Pl. XV. B.6, D.6-20-14, P.1-9-7, V.2, A. 28, C. 16. Head is to total length as 1 is to 4, XV 1 TRANS.NZINSTITUTEVOLLAF T. Robustum. Acanthoclinus Taumaka. ea A sat f TERA SSS 6 z 3 T. Decemadigitatus . Trypterigium Dorsalis . SS ad ) ay R S S RS Re CruarKE,—On some new Fishes. 293 Scales large, ctenoidal ; head, cheeks, gill-covers, scaleless ; eyes, large, oval; with trifid supra-orbital tentacle ; nostrils double, one close in front of eye, simple, the other lower down, tubular ; lips fleshy; profile of head high, but round; top of head round, nose round, blunt; supra-orbital ridges not very prominent, but fleshy; lateral line prominent, following dorsal profile, high up on sides, and terminating suddenly under last third of 2nd portion of dorsal; 1st portion of dorsal, very low; bases of 1st and 2nd rays close together, terminating portion of membrane joins 1st ray of 2nd portion of dorsal a little above base; 2nd portion of dorsal high anteriorly ; membrane at termination does not reach to commencement of 8rd portion of dorsal; 8rd portion of dorsal high ; belly tumid; body, thick fleshy, sharp on back, rounded below :— Total length, 3:35 inches ; length of head, ‘8 inch. Length, Ist part dorsal, -45 inch—extreme height, 4th ray, -25 inch, 0 andi. seal LED Dara, = Ms 2nd eae vy, oF STduias is OBIS) ye Bs a STO Maes ae ” anal, wieght s ; 3 IUGAH, Gy) BBY oe. ve caudal, ,, 45 ,, ext. ht. of pectoral, llth,, -76 ,, Longest diameter eye, ‘2 ,, Shortest = FeO eines Distance from snout to ventral fin, ‘55 inch = 5, ventral fin to anal fin, ‘8 inch ‘ ,, end of anal (in vertical with end of dorsal) to beginning of caudal fin, ‘27 inch. iS between 2nd and 3rd portion of dorsal fin, :05 inch. Ground colour (preserved in carbolic solution) brownish, with dark brown blotches on back, surrounding seven light patches or spots, four of which run up on to base of second portion of dorsal; upper part of first portion of dorsal very dark, anal fin greyish, with dark brown free margin; belly grey; pupil of eye black, iris brown. Collected at Jackson’s Bay, December, 1874, and presented by J. S. Browning, Esq. Acanthoclinus taumaka. Pl. XY. B.6, D.20-4, P.1-17, V. 1-2, A.9-4, C.19. Head is to total leneth as 5 is to 21. Total length, 4:3 inches; length of head, 1 inch; depth of body, ‘8 inch Length of dorsal, 2:3 inches—extreme height, 21st ray, ‘55 inch he anal, OSs 55 mn 7a Mikey yh = GS. 5s 3 pectoral, O55 ie Bi ventral (2nd ray) 65 % caudal, = Guliene Teeth on tongue, vomer, palatines upper and lower jaws. Lateral lines as in generic distinctions. Head small and pointed, but with nose (in profile) slightly truncated, rounded above, flattish below; 294 Transactions.—Zoology. sides very flat; tail compressed flat; caudal fin large, rounded; eyes round; lips very thick and fleshy; cheeks fleshy; head, cheeks, gill-covers and throat, scaleless; body, sides and belly covered with small, smooth, close-set scales; fins thick; terminating membranes of spinous rays of dorsal and anal fins slightly produced in fleshy appendages; pectorals small, round; no simple rays to pectorals; anal with one spine and two rays only. Ground colour, brownish-grey, mottled with black; dorsal and anal fins with large black spot on rayed portion; base of spinous portion of dorsal with irregular blackish bands, and both dorsal and anal margined with black; summits of spinous appendages pink, with lower membrane imma- culate ; two black streaks on cheeks. Collected and presented (with 5 of the same species) by Mr. J, N. Smyth, Jackson’s Bay, December, 1874. Lepidopus elongatus. Pl. XIV. B67). 165.P.12)-V). Perrone eee le A.25, C.18. Total length, 27:6 inches; greatest depth, ‘7 inch; width (at vent), ‘2 inch; vent, 9°6 inches from tip of snout; 6:5 inches from end of head; diameter of eye, ‘5 inch. Body scaleless, but covered with a delicate, deciduous, silvery pigment, adhering to fingers on handling; length of gape 1 in.; body long, narrow, and compressed ; cheeks flat; dorsal fin long and low, extends from top of head above gill-opening to half an inch from base of caudal fin; extreme height, near termination, almost equals half the depth of body; pectoral fins with lower rays longest, length 1 in,; ventral fins, mimute rudimentary, placed in vertical with posterior termination base of pectorals ; length of anal 4:5 in., equals height of dorsal and terminates in vertical with end of same; caudal fin deeply forked; tail, before commencement of caudal, very slender and slightly carinated ; nostrils situate -2 in. in front of orbit, simple and single; gill-openings large ; mouth large, gape extends to under nostril; teeth in single row (eight in number) on each intermaxillary bone (lancet-shaped and inclined slightly forwards), five long recurved fangs at extreme end of upper jaw, two on each side and one at symphysis; on lower jaws, single row of incurved lancet-shaped teeth (eleven in number on each side) with two small recurved fangs at end of jaw; no teeth on tongue palate or vomer; pharyngeal teeth very fine, brush-like; lower jaw (at symphysis) produced in a strong conical point, or quasi-barbel, 5 in. in length; lateral line strongly but evenly marked—yellow. Colour, a uniform bright metallic silver; fins, yellowish; caudal with pinkish hue. Collected by self, Hokitika beach, 12th October, 1874, and the only perfect specimen of some eight or ten which have come under my observa- Crarke.—On a new Fish found at Hokitika. 295 tion. All were in the same proportion as the one above described, and varied but little in size; but were generally much mutilated by attrition on the sand and shingly beach. Art. XXVI.—On a new Fish found at Hokitika. By F. H. Cuarxs. Plate XIV. [Read before the Westland Institute, 8th January, 1879. ] Tue fish, hereafter degcribed, and the occurrence of which on the West Coast of New Zealand I have the honour to bring under your notice this evening, is interesting on account of its being the first of its genus dis- covered in the seas of the southern hemisphere, or, in fact, in any other but European waters. Hitherto they have been found off the coasts of Norway, Scotland and islands (very rarely), and the Mediterranean, in which sea a common variety occurs, which is notable as affording the silvery pigment formerly | used in the manufacture of artificial pearls. The first British specimen was noted by Yarrell in 1837, and was caught off Rothsay in the Isle of Bute, and British specimens have been but few in number since then. It is stated that all specimens obtained there, and off the coast of Norway, occur usually after severe and cold wintry weather, and this kind of weather ushered in the arrival of our species which was found washed on shore on the South Spit, Hokitika, 6th August, 1878, by W. Duncan, waterman, and was kindly brought under my notice by Capt. Turnbull, harbour master, under the impression that it was one of the young Californian salmon lately liberated in the river. It turned out to be one of the Salmonide, though not the one wished for. As far as can be arrived at, by comparison with descriptions, etc., our Specimen agrees very well, except some ill-defined peculiarities, with the Hebrides variety, and it would be of excessive interest to have more proof than mere imagination, that our antipodean species had gradually worked its way ‘“‘sub mare”’ in those cold lower strata of water to our coasts. The specimen has been forwarded as a ‘‘type”’ to the Colonial Museum, Wellington. Argentina. Scales rather large; cleft of mouth small; intermaxillaries and maxillaries very short, not extending to below the orbit; eye large; jaws without teeth, an arched series of minute teeth across the head of the vomer, and on the fore part of the palatines; tongue armed with a series of small curved teeth on each side (except in one species); dorsal fin short, in advance of the yentrals; caudal deeply forked, 296 Transactions.—Zoology. Pseudo-branchiz well-developed. Pyloric appendages in moderate num- bers; ova small. Marine fish which never enter fresh waters, and hitherto found only in some parts of Kuropean waters, i.c., coasts of Norway, rarely coasts of Scotland and islands and the Mediterranean. Argentina decagon, nov. sp. D.10; 2nd adipose; P14; V.12; A.11; C.19); Bib eiirans: Mateo; First dorsal situated in depression on back; adipose dorsal high; pectorals small, fragile; ventrals rather large, fragile, large axillary scale; caudal large, deeply forked; eye large, round; mouth very small, and protractile to some extent ; anal fin very high anteriorly (this fin and adipose dorsal placed close to caudal; cheeks and head scaleless, top of head flat, head small, snout pointed; operculum, suboperculum and preoperculum covered with thick transparent (immaculate) glossy flesh (showing colouring pig- ment on bony plates in a very beautiful manner) ; lower angle of preoper- culum and interoperculum free from fleshy substance; nostrils small, double, one placed before vertical of front of orbit, the other near tip of snout; back, belly and sides rather flattened, but body thick. 4. aly 4 No teeth on superior or intermaxillaries or on inferior maxillaries, but the front edge of vomer is produced and bare and crenulated, forming dental apparatus ; edges of palatines bared, forming cutting apparatus; tongue long, thin, narrow, and round, with four long recurved fangs at tip; gill- arches armed with long rakers; gills four and one pseudo-gill; upper jaw projects slightly over lower. Head rounded under throat; eye large; gill-opening large, section through body shows same to be an irregular decagon in shape. Scales (in beautifully arranged series) very large, thin, and covered with silvery pigment on lateral band, very bright, duller on series superior and inferior to same. Scales along lateral line high and narrow, with large core, the opening of which is directed towards head. Atthe angles of the irregular decagon the scales are large, squared in front, rounded at back, and bent in an angular form with an opening or slit extending some distance into scale. These scales overlap in the centres of the facets of the decagon, and over these, and extending nearly from angle to angle, are, on the dorsal, second, third lateral band and ventral facets superposed, large deep rounded scales filling up intervals between angles of decagon, and causing the ribbed appearance of body; the depression at lateral line is alse caused by these large scales overlapping in unbroken marginal line, above and below same. ba des | 5 TP PYLND Ti —— Oe ——— —=—~ 7 . Sr ~ \ wD) ia a) za P -— = iS S— ~ — ar. = a LEED | 0 EP LT i on Se i TIPS OSD TFT IITIIITTL TTL LLL LLL TLL DTI EG ADCTEDCTOA TENUISNI ZN SNYUL | | Camppentn.—On a new Kish. 297 The substance of back and top of head, when first out of water, quite transparent; belly white; iris of eye silvery, pupil black, upper and lower sides silvery, but lateral band bright polished metallic silver. Totallength .. is Saya a he -. 6:9 inches. Length of head Pac if ai ah Renee Gases Length of head, body and tail (exclusive of caudal fin) ad rn ODO Mss Distance from snout to commencement of dorsal ie heh ahs)” eras A a - 5 ventrals Ae Bere eae LA Mle 5 i a os anal He oO RO unas Width of eye, horizontal diameter, -45 inch; vertical diameter, :4 inch Greatest depth of body (under commencement Ist dorsal) bios lO) 5 Length, base, 1st dorsal, ‘5 inch; height, 1 inch Bs ventrals, OTS) os % pectorals, ‘75 ,, Re base of anal,-55 ,, height, -55 inch Distance between commencement 1st dorsal and adipose Be MA OO Ties, a5 Af A ventrals and anal a ene Onesie, ae Fe adipose dorsal and commencement caudal Eire ay) Be 3 commencement anal and commencement caudal 1:18 Short diameter of eye (vertical), + length of head Length of head is to body and tail as 16 is to 61 a », is to total length as 16 is to 69 Greatest depth of body is to total length as 10 is to 69 ‘ 4 » is to total length of head, body, and tail, as 10 is to 61 Distance from snout to commencement ventrals, 3:1 inches ys 5, commencement anal to end of tail, 3-1 inches. Art. XXVII.—On a new Fish. By W. D. Campsett, C.E., F.G.S. (Read before the Westland Institute, 8th January, 1879.] Tue following description is of a new genus of fish, four specimens of which were obtained by myself on the 18th of May last, on the Hokitika beach. It has very marked peculiarities. The single dorsal, and the stout spinous rays in both it and the anal, connected by a perforated membrane, presents entirely distinct characters from any previously described genus. The most nearly allied appears to be the genus Brama. There is a possibility that the specimens obtained are young, but the characteristic points described below appear uniformly in them all. Fam. Scompripa. Group 5. Coryphenina, Genus noy. Discus. Body compressed and elevated ; general form circular-pointed at snout and tail, Head and lower portion of body scaleless, minute scales on A8 298 Transactions. Zoology. upper portion of body and tail; cleft of mouth very oblique. A single dorsal, which, like the anal, is composed of stotit spinous rays connected at their mid-leneth by a membrane having a breadth of one-third of their length, leaving apertures between the base of the rays. Caudal forked, ventrals slender; a single series of minute teeth in the jaws, finely pectinate ; branchiostegals four; air-bladder large. Discus aureus, sp. nov. B.4, D.26, A.21, V.7, C.3/16/3, P.17. The greatest height of body is two-thirds of length, and is vertical to the origin of the dorsal and ventrals; head equal to half height; snout equal to - half, and interorbital space equal to one quarter greatest diameter of orbit, which is equal to half length of head; a depression extends down the snout; greatest thickness of body above the pectorals, and equal to greatest diameter of orbit; the upper maxillary extends to the vertical, below the centre of the eye; colour silvery, with minute bronze spots, with a dorsal margin of a similar colour, extending from behind the orbit, where the depth equals half orbit, to the caudal; pectorals yellowish brown, others dirty white. Total length, 23in. Four specimens cast up on Hokitika beach. Art. XXVIII.—Notes on the Genus Callorhynchus, with a Description of an undescribed New Zealand Species. By W. Cotenso, F.L.S. Plate XVII. [Read before the Hawke Bay Philosophical Institute, 12th August, 1878.] In a ‘‘Catalogue of the Fishes of New Zealand witn Diagnoses of the Species,” compiled by Captain Hutton and printed for the Colonial Museum in 1872, only one species of the genus Callurhynchus is mentioned as belong- ing to our seas—C. antarcticus ; but, as I take it, there are several other species, two of which I have seen, viz., C. australis, Hobson, and an undescribed one, which I believe to be a species nova (C. dasycaudatus, mihi), of which I shall give a fair diagnostic and specific outline in this paper. It was in December, 1844, that I first saw this fish. I was leaving Poverty Bay in a brig, bound for this place, when, on passing the heads, we saw some Maori canoes fishing, one of which paddled alongside and sold us some of their fish they had just taken ; among them was one that I had Cotmnso,—On the Genus Callorhynchus. 299 never seen before; I knew it was of the genus Callorhynchus, and, as I thought, distinct from C. antarcticus (the only species of that genus then known to me), so I took a sketch drawing of it, with notes of its dimensions, etc., which I now give, Callorhynchus dasycaudatus, mihi. Total length, ft. 3in.; girth, (belly) 1ft. 5in.; length of pectoral fin, 9in.; first dorsal fin, 5in.; of attached bony ray, 7in.; length of tail, from angle in upper surface, 12in.; length from snout to anterior base of first dorsal fin., 9}in.; the bony ray in front of the first dorsal fin is partly separated from that fin, it is a little curved, and barbed slightly on the posterior edge; the extremity of the tail is free and feathered, which, being such a great peculiarity and so very characteristic of this species, has given rise to its pecific name. Whole fish silvery white, but highly iridescent; the fins of dark grey colour. It had no teeth, only palatal bones; a crayfish was found in its maw. In its produced whip-like tail and barbed dorsal spine this species approaches more nearly toits northern congener, Chimera arctica, Linn., formerly the type of the genus, before that Callorhynchus was separated from it by Cuvier. Captain Hutton, in the work above cited (p. 74), gives as a character of this genus, ‘extremity of the tail distinctly turned upwards :” I scarcely understand this; such is certainly not the case in the one species mentioned by him as belonging to these seas, C. antarcticus; neither does any such char- acter belong to C. australis,—another of our species, which I have also seen, Both of those species also differ widely from C. dasycaudatus, in the very large size of their pectorals, which overlap the base of their ventrals. Drawings of the tails of those two species I also give in the subjoined plate. T also note that Dr. Richardson, in a paper on some new Tasmanian fishes, read before the Zoological Society in 1839, has another new species, C. tasmanius, which may also be found here in our seas; I have, however, never seen it. It differs from those two species last mentioned in the size of its pectorals; in which respect it approaches to C. dasycaudatus. Dr. Richardson gives the following characters to distinguish it from C. antarcticus (probably at that time C. australis was unknown to him)—‘ pinnis pectoralibus ad ventrales haud attingentibus; pinnd dorsi secunda pone ventrales incipientt, ante lobum anteriorem inferiorem pinne caude@ desinenti.”” And then he adds : “This species agrees with the Callorhynchus smythi of Benne, figured in Beechy’s Zoological Appendix, in the distance between the pectorals and ventrals, but is so unlike that figure in other respects that it is impossible to assign it to that species.’ Of this last mentioned species (C. smythi), I know no more than what I have here quoted; should it be found in our seas, then, we may probably count on having five species of this genus, 300 Transactions.—-Z oology. Dr. Hobson, of Tasmania, has given an admirable description of C. australis, which he dissected and described in 1840 (Tasmanian Journal of Natural Science, Vol. I.) This species is near to C. antareticus in the size of its pectorals, etc., but widely different in the shape of its tail. Its length is said to be 2 feet 6 inches. His whole paper is replete with valuable and interesting information relative to the viscera, and other organs and parts of this peculiar fish. One short sentence only can I quote:—“ The inferior extremity is especially interesting from its quadruped-like form; here is, in reality, the pelvis of the fish.” I quote this the more willingly in hopes that some of our young anatomists (to whom that circumstance quoted may be unknown), may also be led to dissect and describe other species of this curious genus; seeing, too, that they are not uncommon here on our shores during the summer. DESCRIPTION OF PLATE. XVII, 1. Callorhynchus dasycaudatus, Col. 2. Callorhynchus antareticus, Cuv. (tail only). 8. Callorhynchus australis, Hobson (tail only). (N.B.—The figures are drawa to one scale). Art. XXIX.—WNotes on the Metamorphosis of one of our largest Moths— Dasypodia selenophora. By W. Cotenso. [Read before the Hawke Bay Philosophical Institute, 10th June, 1878.] On the 21st January, 1878, my attention was called to an unusually large caterpillar, apparently asleep on the trunk of an Acacia tree (silver wattle). At first sight, it seemed so much like the bark of the tree in hue, that it was not readily distinguished from it. The larva was stretched out to its full length, nearly 3" 6”; it was elongate, and of the ordinary form, pretty evenly cylindrical throughout, though thickest in the middle and tapering towards its head and tail, and skin smooth. In colour, it was peculiarly mottled or finely speckled (irrorated) with very minute points of black, red (carmine), and ash colours—the latter predominating—which, combined, and at a little distance gave it the colour of the reddish-grey bark of the tree above-mentioned. It had two minute bright red (carmine) spots close together on its back, near the tail, and when in motion two large triangular dark splashes were displayed on its back ; the colour of the belly of the larva was pale (dull white), with several round olive spots in pairs, corresponding to its belly feet. Its head was small, of a pale Indian- yellow colour ; its hind feet were large, and it had also two broad anal feet, 78P ‘OS 2UI7O 79 M ads on ygnVvOASK SIHINAHYOTIVI TTC TIC VON AUNT ZN SNL 302, Transactions.—Z oology. knew that it belonged to the Noctuina group, but that was all. So I sent an outline of its appearance to Mr. Fereday, the celebrated entomologist residing at Christchurch, enquiring if there were any such specimens in the Museum there, or if he knew of such a moth. From Mr, Fereday I received a very kind and full reply, that, while there were no specimens of this moth in the Canterbury Museum, he had one (a female) in his own possession, which had been taken some years ago at Nelson; and that, though rare, the perfect insect had been described, and was the Dasypodia sclenophora of Guenee.* And now for a brief description of the perfect insect. Its size across, with wings extended, is 3’ 8”; length of body, 1’ 8’; the body thick, with 7 segments, but tapering downwards rapidly from its second segment almost to a point at the tail (not unlike, in this respect, those well-known British species of the Sphingide family, Smerinthus tilie, and Charocampa porcellus), and densely covered with very long down. Antenne, nearly 1" long, slender and evenly attenuated, but not smooth, being apparently very finely and regularly ringed and serrulated ; legs, large and stout. Its colour, on the other side, when living, was a sooty black ; but after death it changed to a dark umber colour, with dark zig-zag and other markings on its wings (somewhat resembling those on the wings of the Emperor Moth, Saturnia pavonia-minor), and with a peculiar large and lustrous ocellated spot on each fore wing near the costa—in a line with the anal angle; all the wings are ciliated, bearing minute whitish dots at the extremities of the nerves or rays just within the margin. Its colour on the under side was ochrous or fulvous; the legs, amber-coloured below the knee, but its thighs were ochrous, and thickly covered with excessively long and waving down; its horns also were ochrous coloured but darker at their bases. While living, it was a truly superb, rich, velvety-looking creature ; presenting, too, when at rest, such a regular and graceful equi-triangular outline. The eyes on its wings had (if I may so express myself) a living look, much as the irises of the eyes of men and animals are sometimes drawn when represented under bright light. Those spots, or eyes, were all alike, black, but the two circular rims round each, and the lunate or triangular iris-pupil-lke part within were shining lustrous and waxy, or as if strongly gummed. What with its fine moony eyes on its wings, and its long wavy down on its thighs, it well deserved its expressive name, both generic and specific. I could not help thanking its describer, for it is not often that we find so fit and distinguishing a name given in these modern * In Spéciés Général des Lépidoptéres Nocturnes. Cotrnso.—On the Metamorphosis of Dasypodia selenophora. 308 times, either to an animal or to a plant. Much, however, of its surpassing beauty quickly faded after death, which I attributed to the fumes of the sulphur I had used in killing it, not having any chloroform at hand, and leaving home on that very day by train to visit the country schools. The pupa-case (after the moth had emerged) is nearly cylindrical, very obtuse at the head, and tapering regularly downwards from end of folded wings at 4th segment, and pointed conical at the tail; length, 1” 3’, and diameter in thickest part 6” ; suspended slightly by tail; well-marked in front with folds of wings and antenne, eyes and head of imago, and very strongly with 7-ringed segments, each having two long spiracle marks, one on each side. Colour dark red (garnet), with a blueish or violet bloom (dust), but smooth and shining on its prominent parts. Cocoon very small, white and coarse, almost woolly; just sufficient to hold the edges of the leaf down to paper, where, however, it was strongly fastened ; fecal pellets emitted after enclosure. The imago had made its exit by a small round hole at the top of pupa- case, back of the head, the case having also slightly given way down the costal marking of the wings on each side. Nors.—Dr. Dieffenbach saw the moth I had raised from the larve referred to (in the note, p 801), at my house in the Bay of Islands, where he was a frequent visitor during his stay there in the summer of 1840-1841; and from me the doctor obtained not a few specimens and much information (like many other visitors of that early period), which, however, he never ~ acknowledged. As it may be of some little interest I will just quote what I then wrote about that larva and imago, in a letter to Si W. Hooker, dated ‘July, 1841,” and published by him in the London Journal of Botany (1842), vol. I, pp. 3804, 805. ‘In a phial you will find specimens of what I believe to be the true larve of Sphaeria robertsii.« These larve are abundant in their season on the foliage of Batatas edulis (?) t, the kumara of the New Zealanders; to the great distress of the natives, who cultivate this root as a main article of their food, and whose occupation, at such times, is to collect and destroy them, which they do in great numbers. They vary a little in colour, as may be observed inthe specimens sent. The New Zealanders call them Hotete and Anuhe (the same names which they apply to the Spheria robertsit itself), and always speak of them as identical with that Fungus. The common belief is, that both (those living on the kumara and those which bear the Fungi) alike descend from the clouds! this opinion doubtless arising from their sudden appearance and countless numbers. * Cordiceps robertsii,i—Hand-Book, Fl, N.Z. } Ipomea chryssorhiza.—Hand-Book, Fl. N.Z, 304 Transactions.—Zvology. ‘A moth from the larve also accompanies the above, for I have fully satisfied myself of their identity. In 1836 I kept the larvee under glasses, and fed them with the leaves of kwnara (much to the annoyance of the natives), until the perfect insect was produced. There cannot reasonably exist a doubt that this insect deposits or drops some of her eggs on the branches of the raataa ( Metrosideros robusta, A.C.), beneath which tree alone the Spheria robertsii has hitherto been found, when they (the larva) fall to the earth beneath, die, and the Spheria is produced. ‘JT think I can offer a fact for consideration relative to their being only (or chiefly) found beneath Metrosideros robusta. One fine evening last summer, when enjoying, as usual, a promenade in my garden, just as the sun had set, I was admiring the splendour of some plants of Mirabilis, which had just unfolded their scarlet petals. Suddenly several of these moths made their appearance, darting about the plants im every direction, pursuing one another, and eagerly striving to obtain the honey which lay at the bottom of the perianths of the Mirabilis. From this plant they flew upwards to the flowers of a stately Agave (A. americana), where, being joined by other moths, their congeners, their numbers soon increased ; and thus they continued to enjoy themselves every evening during the whole season. The inference I deduce is this, that the M. robusta, blooming at this season, having scarlet flowers which abound in honey, becomes the centre of attraction of these insects—increased, too, by its densely crowded coma of inflorescence, more particularly so from the blossoms being always at the extremity of its branches; by which, and by their colour, this tree may at once be distinguished from the other denizens of the forest, even at a great distance. | ‘*The larva whereon the Spheria is found, when first taken out of the earth, is white internally, and appears soud and succulent. A finely-cut slice, when held against the light, presents a beautiful appearance.” I may further add that, 25-80 years back, I had a honeysuckle (Lonicera periclymenum) trained round the doorway of a house in my garden. This plant flowered abundantly in the summer, and it was interesting and curious of an evening to sit on the step (as I have often done) and watch those large moths (Hepialus); they would visit the plant in great numbers, and unrolling their long probosces, probe the flowers to get at the honey, pass- ing quickly from flower to flower, and continually coiling and uncoiling their long trunks with great rapidity; they never lighted on the plant, and all the time kept up a tolerably loud humming noise from the quick and incessant vibrations of their wings, which, indeed, drew the attention of the cats, who often, in consequence, captured them. Srurm.—Lurther Notes on Danais berenice. 305 Art. XXX.—Further Notes on Danais berenice, in a letter from Mr. F. W. C. Sturm to the Honorary Secretary, Hawke Bay Philosophical Institute. [Read before the Hawke Bay Philosophical Institute, 9th September, 1878.] ‘“ Hawke Bay Nurseries, 17th February, 1878. “Dear Sir,—In regard to the butterfly, Danais berenice, or a closely-allied species (as per your paper on the same),* the first time I saw it was at the Reinga, up the Wairoa River, in Hawke Bay, in December, 1840, or January, 1841. In 1848, I captured a number at the Waiau, a tributary to that river, the Wairoa; I cannot recollect how many, but it must have been eight or nine at least, as I sent some small collections of insects to several of my friends and correspondents in Europe, and all, or nearly so, had one or two of the Danais included. Again, in 1861, I captured three on the Rangitikei River (near to the Messrs. Birch’s sheep-run), one of which I have still in my collection, although in a very imperfect state. About twelve years ago Mr. Brathwaite captured one in his garden at Napier; this he sent to England, and it came into the hands of the Rev. H. Clarke, who mentioned it to me in a letter, as we corresponded. Four years back I saw three or four in my garden here, and two years ago there were a great number in my gardens, always keeping about the Lombardy poplars and Houheria populnea. Mr. Duff, of Kereru, also informed me that he had captured one pretty high up on the east side of the Ruahine range, about ten years ago. I certainly believe the butterfly to be indigenous and not introduced; and my observations of it fully comeide with yours, that while, in certain years, it is plentiful, in other years it is not to be seen.—I am, dear sir, yours, etc., F. W. Sturm.” Art. XXXI.—WNotes on some New Zealand Echinodermata, with Descriptions of new Species. By Prof. F. W. Hurton. [Read before the Otago Institute, 8th October, 1878.] Amphiura parva, sp. nov. Small, dise pentagonal, covered with rather large imbricating scales, and a pair of large, nearly semi-circular, radial shields at each corner. Rays two or three times as long as the disc, tapering; upper plates broader than long with the outer edge convex; under plates laterally constricted, with a blunt tooth on each latero-anterior margin, and with the outer edge slightly emarginate. A single broad tentacle scale. Side plates with a row of three or four nearly equal spines, which are almost as long as the breadth * Trans. N. Z, Inst., Vol. X., p. 276, AQ 306 Transactions.—-Zoology. of the ray. Mouth shields triangular. The whole animal is of a pale brown colour. The distance between the tips of the rays is about three quarters of an inch. Dunedin Harbour. Asteracanihion graniferus, Lam. A specimen of what I take to be this species is in the Otago Museum. It was found in Dunedin Harbour. Asterias rupicola, Verrill, Bull. U.S. Nat. Museum, No. 3, 1876, p. 71. A specimen of this species, found near Dunedin, has been presented to the Museum by Mr. A. Montgomery. | Echinaster fallax, Mull. and Troch.= Othilia luzonica, Gray. The Henricia occulata of my Catalogue of the Echinodermata of New Zealand (1872) is the same as this species. Echinaster (?) sp. Rays seven; five and a half times as long as the diameter of the disc. A specimen 18in. in diameter from Waikouaiti, presented by Mr. Orbell. I cannot identify it. Chetaster maculatus, Gray (Nepanthia). I have placed with great doubt under this species a starfish that I have received from Wellington. , Pentagonaster dilatatus, Perrier, Arch. Zool. Exper. 1876, v., p. 33. Asterina nove-zealandia, Perrier, l.c., p. 228. I have not seen any description of either this species or the last. Asterina regularis, Vervill. IT have a variety of this species, from Dunedin, with six rays, which can hardly be distinguished from A. australis. Gontocidaris canaliculata, A. Ag. During a late visit to Sydney I was able to examine specimens of both G. tubaria and G. geranioides, and found that our species differed from both. It is, however, I think, identical with G. canaliculata ; but the ocular pores are at the external angle of the plates, and Mr. Agassiz does not mention the trumpet-shaped secondaries surrounding the abactinial system. It has ten primary tubercles in a row. Norr.—Since reading this paper, I have seen the figure of Goniocidaris canaliculata in Sir Wyville Thomson’s “ Atlantic,” and find that it is not our species. Our species may be called Goniocidaris umbraculum. Salmacis globator. Specimens sent to the Otago Museum, by Mr. C. Traill, from Stewart Island, appear to belong to this species. But there are eight or nine tubercles on a plate of the interambulacral system at the ambitus. The Hurton,—On some New Zealand Echinodermata. 807 test is white with pink tubercles; the integument a pale brownish yellow. The spines on the upper portion are reddish purple with white tips ; on the lower portion they are white, getting yellow towards the base. Diameter 2 inches. Height 1:4 inches. Echinocardium australe. A specimen of this species, presented to the Museum by G, Joachim, Hisq., from Northport, Chalky Inlet, measures 24 inches in length. Molpadia coriacea, Hutton. This is evidently not a true Molpadia. Itis probably a Caudina or an Echinosama, but as the type is in the Wellington Museum, I cannot re-examine it, Cucumaria thomsont, sp. Nov. Body fusiform, scarcely subpentagonal. Skin rough, wrinkled. Ambu- lacra with the tubercles densely crowded in about 5 or 6 rows. No feet on the interambulacral areas. Tentacles—? Rich brown, the white tips to the feet giving the ambulacral areas a spotted appearance. Length, 13 inches. Stewart Island. Presented to the Museum by G. M. Thomson, Hsq., after whom I name it. A single specimen in spirit. Echinocucumis alba, Hutton. The receipt of another specimen of the Chirodota (?) alba of my catalogue has enabled me to dissect it, and I find that it has five well-marked ambulacra, and should be placed in the genus Hchinocucumis. Labidodesmus turbinatus, sp. nov. Body rounded, suddenly contracted posteriorly into a short-pointed tail, and anteriorly into a rather long cylindrical neck; skin smooth, slightly transversely wrinkled; the two dorsal ambulacra, with two rows each of rather distant feet; the three ventral ambulacra either like the dorsal or with more crowded feet in several rows. Tentacles—. Body white, covered with a brown epidermis, which easily peals off, except round the ambulacral feet. Length, 23 or 3 inches. Stewart Island. Presented to the Museum by G. M. Thomson, Esq. Two specimens in spirits. PENTADACTYLA, gen. NOV. Feet evenly spread over the greater part of the body. Tentacles five, pedunculated, frondose; dental apparatus very large. Pentadactyla longidentis, Hutton. In the Catalogue of the Echinodermata of New Zealand (1872), p. 16, I described a Holothurian under the name of Thyone longidentis, It is, how- 808 Transactions.—Z oology. ever, evident that it is not a Thyone, but belongs to the family Aspidochirota, and must form the type of a new genus, distinguished by having only five tentacles and scattered foot-papille. I therefore propose the name Penta- dactyla for it. Holothuria mollis, Hutton. This species in many respects approaches Stichopus. I have had no specimens for dissection, and cannot therefore say whether the reproductive organs are in one or two bunches. A knowledge of this will settle to which genus it should be referred. Holothuria robsoni, sp. nov. Elongated, rather slender. Skin, smooth. Feet, scattered sporadically over the ventral surface, apparently none on the back. Pentacles, 20. Anus, round. Back, pale purplish brown; ventral surface, dirty white, with scattered brown spots. Length, 44 inches. Cape Campbell. Presented to the Museum by Mr. C. H. Robson, to whom I have much pleasure in dedicating it. Art. XXXIT.—The Sea Anemones of New Zealand. By Prof. Hutton. [Read before the Otago Institute, 11th June, 1877.] I sHoutp not have chosen such a pretentious title for this paper, but that I wished to include in it descriptions of the three New Zealand sea anemones that have not been found near Dunedin. The sea anemones are animals that can only be described from living specimens; they must be collected, brought home alive, and placed in water before their structure and colour can be seen, and when they are dead there is no known means of presery- ing them so as to be of any use. To enable observers, therefore, in any part of the colony away from libraries, to describe these animals, I have included in this paper not only descriptions of all the New Zealand species not described in our Transactions, but also an analysis of all the known genera. ZOANTHARIA-MALACODERMATA. Analysis of the Families. Base adherent at pleasure. Tentacles allcompound ... aye hls .. Thalassianthide, Tentacles both compound and simple est .- Phyllactide, Tentacles all sumple Hutron,—On the Sea Anemones of New Zealand. Column pierced with loopholes Column imperforate. Column smooth Margin simple Margin beaded Column warted Base non-adherent. Lower extremity rounded, simple ... Lower extremity enclosing an air-chamber THALASSIANTHIDA. 309 Sagartiade, Antheade. Actiniade. Bunodide. Llyanthide. Minyadide, Analysis of the genera (after Milne-Kdwards). The tentacles of one kind only. The trunk ramified. The branches long and four-fingered ... i The branches inflated and with scattered papilla The trunk simple. The trunk with scattered branched filaments The trunk with groups of rounded papille The tentacles of two kinds. The internal with globular papille, the external laciniated aby The internal laciniated, the oral er ee PHYLLACTIDE. Thalassianthus. Actinodendron. Actinaria. Phymanthus. Sarcophianthus. Heterodactyla. Analysis of the genera (after Milne-Edwards). Compound tentacles on the margin of the disc. Column smooth Column warty ... a cP Compound tentacles on the disc, en two aineles of simple tentacles SAGARTIADE.* Analysis of the genera (after Gosse). Tentacles moderately long, slender. Disc perfectly retractile. Column destitute of suckers Column furnished with suckers Column clothed with a rough epidermis Disc imperfectly retractile. Base annular, parasitic on shells Base entire, not parasitic Tentacles mere warts; set in radiating bands ... Phyllactis. Oulactis. Rhodactis. Actinoloba, Sagartia. Phellia. Adamsia. Gregoria. Discosoma, * Nemactis (Actiniade) has also the column pierced. 310 Transactions.—Z cology. ANTHEADA, Analyis of the genera. Mouth normal. Tentacles not fully retractile. Column long, trumpet-shaped... Column normal. Tentacles conical Tentacles fusiform i Se Tentacles retractile. Tentacles subulate. Tentacles sub-equal ae Tentacles very unequal ... Si Tentacles not subulate. Tentacles club-shaped Mouth elevated are a Mouth depressed Tentacles moniliform AcTINIADE. Analysis of the genera. Tentacles not retractile. Column short and cylindrical Column long and conical a AY Tentacles retractile. Skin smooth. Column pierced Column imperforate Skin warted Bunopip#.* Analysis of the genera (after Gosse). Tubercles conspicuous. Dise and tentacles retractile. Tubercles of one kind only. In the form of rounded warts. Trregularly scattered Arranged in vertical lines Arranged in wavy horizontal lines ... Arranged in a single horizontal line In the form of pointed blisters ... Tubercles of two kinds, viz., rounded warts and erectile pointed papille Disc and tentacles not retractile Tubercles obsolete Aiptasia, Anthea, Humenides, Paractis. Dysactis, Melactis Corynactis. Heteractis, Comactts. Ceratactis. Nemactis. Actinia. Phymactis. Tealia. Bunodes. Cereus. Hormathia. Cystactis. Echinactis. Bolocera. Stomphia. * Phymactis (Actiniade) has also the column warted. Hurton.—On the Sea Anemones of New Zealand. 311 ILYANTHIDE. Analysis of the genera (after Gosse). Tentacles of one kind; marginal Column thick, pear-shaped. Mouth with a papillate gonidial tube eee ePeachia. Mouth simple Ss Ilyanthus. Column slender, long, worm-shaped Invested with an epidermis ... os ... LHdwardsia, Without an epidermis Ses ne a Elalcamnar Tentacles of two kinds; marginal and gular. Naked ; freely swimming Arachnactis. Dwelling in a membranous tube; sedentary Column inferiorly perforate ... .. Cerianthus. Column inferiorly imperforate ... Saccanthus. Minyapip#. Analysis of the genera (after Milne-Edwards.) Tentacles simple. Column smooth eats ae aoe ise eslovactisy Column warty sr ses mh ». | Minyas, Tentacles compound... se Bee bi .... Nautactis, Descriptions of the New Zealand Species. PHYLLACTIDE. Tentacles of two kinds ; simple and compound. Oulactis (M. Edwards). Column with warts. Compound tentacles placed round the margin of the disc, and outside the simple tentacles. Oulactis plicatus, sp. nov. Column cylindrical, not much expanded at the base, about as high as broad; warts arranged vertically in numerous (80 or 100) rows. Brownish yellow, with the warts dirty white. Disc circular, concave; the margin, when expanded, thrown into five deep folds. Crimson, radiately streaked with yellow near the margin. The simple tentacles are conical, about two- thirds of an inch in length, and arranged in two rows. They are trans- parent, of a violet or greenish colour, and often with opaque whitish transverse bands on the interior aspect. ‘The compound tentacles are in a single row, and about two-thirds the length of the simple tentacles. They are white, and multi-lobed, the lobes being subcylindrical and rounded at the ends. Height about 2} in. when extended. In rock-pools on the coast, near Dunedin. 312 Transactions.—Z oology. The animal fastens pieces of broken shells, small stones, etc., to its column, and when retracted looks like a small heap of gravel. The com- pound tentacles are not sensitive. Its nearest ally is Metridium muscosum Drayton, from New South Wales, which Milne-Edwards and Haime have placed in their genus Oulactis. Occasionally some of the lobes of the compound tentacles are pink or orange. SAGARTIADA. All the tentacles simple. Column pierced with loop-holes. Gregoria, Gosse. Disc imperfectly retractile ; column smooth, without suckers, perforated by a few large loop-holes. Gregoria albocincta, sp. nov. . Column cylindrical, broader than high; yellowish-orange, vertically striped with yellowish-green, each band having a central line of darker green. Disc circular ; reddish orange or brick red, radially streaked with darker; margin not beaded ; mouth elevated, round; throat ribbed. Tentacles in four indistinct rows round the disc, short, about half the diameter of the disc, conical with blunt points, and often much swollen at the base. Their colour is opaque white. Diameter, about °3 or :4 of an inch. Common in rock-pools near Dunedin. Sometimes the column is vertically streaked with red and white. ANTHEADE. All the tentacles simple. Column imperforate, and smooth. Margin of disc not beaded. Paractis, M. Edwards. Colunn naked. Tentacles retractile, subulate, sub-equal. Paractis monilifera. Actinia monilifera, Drayton in Dana Expl. Exp., Zooph., p. 136. Paractis monilifera, M. Hid., Corall. I., p. 248. Column broader than high, dilated at both extremities, where the exterior surface has moniliform rugosities, of a pale brown with deeper lines. Tentacles longer than the disc, in three rows ; ringed with brown and white. Dise yellowish. Bay of Islands. Anthea, Johnstone. Column short, expanded at the base, surface wrinkled. No suckers, warts, nor loop-holes. Tentacles numerous, submarginal, scarcely retractile. Anthea olivacea, sp. nov. Column short, broad, and expanded at the base, slightly horizontally wrinkled; of an olive green colour down to the base. Disc circular, concave, ‘with the mouth slightly raised; of a darker green than the column and Hurron.—On the Sea Anemones of New Zealand. 513 tentacles ; mouth plaited, pink inside. Tentacles in four rows, much longer than the disc, tapering, not perfectly retractile, of the same colour as the column. Diameter, about half an inch. In rock pools near Dunedin. In small specimens the tentacles are quite retractile. There is also a variety in which the column is longitudinally streakec with yellow. AcTINIADE. All the tentacles simple. Column imperforate, smooth. Margin of the disc beaded. Actinia, Linn. Column short, much expanded at both ends, the margin separated by a broad but shallow fosse from the tentacles. Tentacles subequal, retractile. Actinia (?) thomsont. Actinia thomsoni, Coughtrey, Trans. N.Z. Inst. VII., p. 280. Port Chalmers. IT have not seen this species, and as Dr. Coughtrey has not mentioned any marginal beads, I doubt its being a true Actinia. Actinia (?) striata. Actinia striata, Quoy and Gaim., Voy. Astrol., IV., p. 164. “Small, cylindrical, elongated ; pale blue striated with reddish ; tentacles numerous, acute, yellowish ; mouth brownish yellow. Height, half an inch. Bay of Islands.”’ I have not seen this species, and cannot say to what genus it should be referred. Phymactis, M. Edwards. Column with suckers, but no loop-holes ; margin of disc beaded. Phymactis polydactyla, sp. nov. Column short, cylindrical; suckers raised on warts, crowded at the upper part of the column, but arranged in vertical rows lower down; whitish, with the warts olivaceous brown. Disc circular, concave, of a deep crimson ; a row of round white beads round the margin. Tentacles numerous, in three rows, conical, much shorter than the diameter of the disc; the exterior rows generally pink, the interior yellowish, or whitish, or greenish ; sometimes with opaque white transverse bands interiorly. Diameter, about one inch. In rock pools near Dunedin. Phymactis inconspicua, sp. nov. Column cylindrical, as long or longer than broad, with vertical rows of suckers on warts, Olive brown above, passing into yellowish white below; Al0 314 Transactions.— Zoology. the warts brown, often pale-centred. Disc round, concave, olive brown, sometimes marked with grey, marginal row of beads white. Tentacles moderate, nearly or quite equal to the diameter of the disc, quite retractile; olive brown margined with white, and often white-spotted. Diameter about °8 of an inch. In rock pools near Dunedin, abundant. In some the warts are obsolete near the base, owing to the animal having lived in a narrow crack in the rocks. There is also a variety in which the tentacles are purplish grey, and the disc even is sometimes the same colour. Minyapipa. Base not adherent; lower extremity enclosing an air-chamber. Floating on the ocean. Minyas, Cuvier. Tentacles simple ; column warty. Minyas (?) viridula. Actinia viridula, Quoy and Gaim., Voy. Astrol., IV., p. 161., pl. 13, f. 15-21. Minyas ? viridula, M.Kd., Corall. I., p. 229. Shape variable, discoid or elongated, longitudinally ribbed. Ribs twenty, tuberculated, and with a median row of white suckers. Mouth plicated. Greenish, mixed with bistre upon the ribs, and of a deeper green in the intervals. Pacific Ocean, between New Zealand and the Friendly Islands. Arr, XXXIII.—Catalogue of the hitherto described Worms of New Zealand. By Prof. F. W. Hurton. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 10th January 1879.] Class 'TuRBELLARIA. Unjointed, ciliated, leaf- or ribbon-like worms. Order Reappocana. Intestine a simple pouch ; pharynx protrusible or not; usually one sex- opening. Genus Chonostomum, Schmarda. Mouth central; pharynx infundibuliform ; eyes two. C. crenutatum, Schmarda, Neue Wirbelloser Thiere (1861). Body oblong, subrounded, green. The two eyes purple. Pharynz infundibuliform, margin crenulated. Penis cirriform. In still fresh water near Auckland. Order Denproca:na. Intestine tree-like, aproctous; pharynx protrusible; body broad and flat; sex-openings double. Hourron.—Catalogue of the Worms of New Zealand. 315 Genus Polycelis, Hemp, and Ehr. Mouth subcentral ; pharynx cylindrical. Eyes numerous, occasionally in a heap on the neck, also in lines on the margin, P, ausrrauis, Schmarda, Body flat, oblong-oval, brown; eye-clusters irregularly surrounded by a halo, Auckland, and New South Wales. Marine. Genus Centrostomum, Schmarda. Mouth central, orbicular ; pharynx multilobed, divided or crenated. C. potysorum, Schmarda. Body oblongo-oval, truncated anteriorly ; light brown; eye-clusters many, Auckland. Genus Thysanozoon, Grube. With frontal pseudo-tentacles, Back with numerous papille. LHyes numerous. T, cruciatum, Schmarda. Body flat, elliptical. Papille conical. Two bands at right-angles to each other, destitute of papilla. Hye-clusters cervical; two semi-circular. Port Jackson and Auckland. Marine. Genus Geoplana, Schultze. Body long; mouth central; eyes numerous, anterior, and marginal. Terrestrial, G. TRaversi, Moseley. @Q.J. of Micros. Science, Vol. XVII., p. 284. Body elongate, flat beneath, slightly convex above, bluntly-pointed posteriorly, more gradually attenuated anteriorly ; broadest in the centre; generative aperture a little less than half the distance between the mouth and posterior extremity; ambulacral line absent, the whole under-surface acting as a sole; eye-spots forming a single row of ten or so on the front of the anterior extremity, and an elongate patch composed of two or three rows on the lateral margin of the body, just behind the anterior extremity ; also present, sparsely scattered, on the lateral margins of the body for its entire length ; body of a pale yellow on its lateral margins, with a broad mesial stripe on the dorsal surface, extending for its entire length, of a dark chocolate colour; and four narrow, ill-defined, and somewhat irregular similarly coloured stripes on either side of it, extending to the lateral margins of the body; under-surface, pale yellow. Wellington. Order Nemertipga. Long worm-like, mostly marine, diccious, proboscis-bearing; body sometimes transversely striped. 316 Transactions.—Zoology. Genus Ommatoplea, Ehrenberg. Abranchiate; head entire; eyes many; proboscis terminal; mouth, subterminal; appendix none. O. HETEROPHTHALMA, Schmarda. Body depressed, tape-worm-like. Median line white, rest of the body red. Head indistinct, apex acuminate. Hyes in transverse lines, Under stones on the shore, Auckland. Genus Meckelia, Leuckart. Respiratory fissures two, longitudinal. HKyes none. Proboscis terminal. Mouth subterminal. M. macrostoma, Schmarda. Body depressed, greenish blue. Head attenuated. Fissures sub- terminal, short. Proboscis subterminal. Mouth oblongo-ovai, very broad. Auckland. M. macrorruocuma, Schmarda. Body rather flat, brownish olive. Head distinct, oblongo-lanceolate. Respiratory fissures as long as the mouth. Shores of New Zealand. Class GEPHYREA. Body cylindrical, with a thick coriaceous skin, often indistinctly ringed. Head not distinct from the body, often produced into a proboscis. Family Sipunculide, Cylindrical, mouth at the tip of a retractile proboscis, surrounded with tentacles, and often with hooks; anus dorsal; teeth none. Genus Sipunculus, Linneus. Skin netted with anastomosing muscular fibres; proboscis short, with simple tentacles. §. anEvs, Baird, P.Z.S8., 1868, p. 81. Body cylindrical, slender, attenuated anteriorly, posteriorly thick, fusi- form, reticulated, in the anterior portion corrugated, then smoother and minutely granulated ; caudal apex oval, smooth, shining; proboscis short, smooth, the anterior portion thicker than the body; colour white, shining bronze. Length, 63 in.; thickness of anterior part, 14 lines; of posterior part, 4 lines; length of proboscis, 6 lines; thickness, 2 lines. New Zea- land (Mr. Cuming). Class ANNELIDA. Body composed of numerous, more or less similar, segments; limbs none, or rudimentary ; skin generally with chitinous bristles. Order OxicgocHETA. Head rudimentary; to branchie ; hermaphrodite ; mostly land or fresh water, Hurron.—Catalogue of the Worms of New Zealand, 317 Genus Lumbricus, Linneeus. Sete in four double rows.* Li. uLteinosus, Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1X., p. 851, pl. VIL., f. A. Cephalic lobe large and rounded, completely dividing the buccal segment superiorly into two parts, and with a transverse sulcus on the posterior superior portion, between the divided halves of the buccal segment ; anterior margin of buccal segment deeply emarginate inferiorly. Colour, reddish. Length, eight or nine inches. Li. campestris, Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1X., p. 351, pl. VIL., f. B. Cephalic lobe large, subconical, completely dividing the buccal segment superiorly into two parts; anterior margin of buccal segment entire, or slightly eroded inferiorly. Colour reddish, or olivaceous green, paler below. Length, two or three inches. livcuvisw Hutton, Rrans. N.Z: Inst. YX.; p. 851., pl., Vil, f. C. Cephalic lobe small, conical, simple ; anterior border of buccal segment slightly emarginate superiorly, entire inferiorly. Pale flesh colour or greenish. Length, three to four inches. Li. annunatus, Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., TX., p. 852, pl. VII. f. D. Cephalic lobe small and flattened, divided into anterior and posterior divisions inferiorly ; anterior border of buccal segment emarginate superiorly, entire inferiorly; colour pale brownish-red, each segment with a dark reddish-brown transverse band in the centre, paler below. Length, about three inches. : Genus Megasolew. Setee in numerous rows all round the body. M. antarctica, Baird, P.L.S., XI., p. 96. Body consisting of about 180 rings ; sete surrounding the body, short, black, rather distant; rings not keeled, larger and more distinct at the anterior extremity, closer at the posterior end, and all smooth. Length, seven inches. M. sytvestris, Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst. IX., p. 352., pl. VII., 7. HE. Cephalic lobe small flattened, with a deep transverse groove superiorly, and divided into anterior and posterior portions inferiorly; anterior border of buccal segment deeply excavated superiorly, entire inferiorly ; sete in about 80 double rows. Colour dark red-brown. Length, one and a-half to two inches. M. urneatus, Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1X., p. 352, pl. VIIL., 7. F. Cephalic lobe small, rounded, completely dividing the buccal segment superiorly into two parts; anterior border of buccal segment slightly * L. orthostichon Schmarda, is stated to come from New Zealand by mistake ; its proper habitat is Tasmania, 318 Transactions,—Z oology. emarginate inferiorly ; sete minute in single rows; colour reddish-brown, finely longitudinally striated with lighter ; length two inches. Order Cumtopopa. Body not presenting distinct regions ; branchiz dorsal; sexes distinct ; limbs tubular, setigerous. Marine. Family ApHRopitip&. Segments unequal, with dorsal, shield-like elytra ; head lobes developed, with a single tentacle and lateral antenne and palpi; eyes sessile or stalked ; gills small, simple; epipharynx generally with two upper and two lower teeth and jaws. Genus Aphrodita, Linnzus. Head with three antennex, two eyes, and a median caruncle or tubercle; buccal segment rudimentary without appendix; all the feet more or less covered with hairs, no barbed bristles ; elytra 12-15 pairs alternating with the superior cirri; proboscis unarmed, or with rudimentary cartilaginous teeth. A. Taupa, Quatrefages, Hist. Nat. des Annelés, I., p. 196, pl. 6, f. 2. Median tentacle very short, laterals long; body of 82 segments; feet enveloped in hairs; elytra 30, rounded, small; the whole back covered with dirty, brown hairs. A. squamosa, Quatrefages, l.c. I.,.p. 201. Head small, distinct, hidden by the prominent elytra; median antenna short, thick, truncated (?); laterals twice as long, slender ; tentacles short ; body of 27 segments, moderate, elongated; feet apparently one-oared, prominent; elytra 24, large, rugose, robust, covering the whole body ; superior cirri longish, on a thick, compressed, swelling; hairs short, not covering the elytra; branchie more or less conical, and separated tubercles. Genus Polynoe, Savigny. Head distinct with 3 antennz and 4 eyes; buceal ring indicated by the presence of two pairs of tentacles, the superior of which are bifureate ; the inferior longer, thicker, and simple. Feet more or less evidently biramous ; the setigerous tubercles on a common pedunele; elytra alternating with the superior cirri of the feet, covering the whole length of the back; pro- boscis with two pairs of horny jaws. P. avoxtanpica, Schnarda, Neue Wirbelloser Thiere, p. 158. Body long, greyish-yellow ; segments 60; tentacles 7; elytra oblique, oval. Auckland. P. macrouepipata, Schmarda, l.c., p. 155, pl. 36, f. 806. Body flat, brown; elytra 15 pairs, large, oval, or suboval, greyish- Hurron.—Catalogue of the Worms of New Zealand. 319 yellow, spotted with brown, margin fimbriated with conical spines. Ten- tacles smooth; dorsal cirri spinulose. Auckland. This species belongs to the genus Antinoe of Kinberg, in which the bases of the antenne are fixed under the margin of the emarginated cephalic lobe, close to the tentacle. P. potycuroma, Schmarda, l.c., p. 158, pl. 36, f. 807. Body flat, yellowish-red; elytra 12 pairs, oval, yellowish, spotted with greyish-blue or greyish-red on the inferior external margin. Tentacles and cirri smooth. This species, and the next, belong to the genus Lepidonotus of Leach, in which the bases of the antenne are produced from the anterior margin of the cephalic lobe. P. stncuarri, Baird, P.L.S., Zoology, VIIIL., p. 184. Head lobe rather small; palpi stout white, setaceous, smooth; elytra 12 pairs, pale coloured, mottled with black ; rounded, thin, covered all over with minute points, with some larger raised and rounded puxctations intermixed ; ciliated on outer margin. Back completely covered. Feet biramous; ventral branch the larger, with a fascicle of yellow bristles, stout, slightly curved at the point, and serrated a short distance below the apex. Dorsal branch small; bristles short, slender, sharp-pomted, and minutely serrated nearly their whole length. Dorsal cirri conical, setaceous, smooth; anal cirri rudimentary. Length, about 9 lines; breadth, 2 lines. Genus Pelogenia, Schmarda. Body vermiform, long; elytra in all the segments. Suctorial feet in the back and abdomen; oars biramous. Tentacles seven, their external bases coalescing. P. antipopa, Schmarda, l. c., p. 160. Back convex, blackish in front, reddish-yellow behind. Abdomen ferruginous, with a deep median sulcus. Suctorial feet disposed in four systems on the abdomen ; two at the margins of the sulcus, the others at the bases of the ventral cirri. Dorsal suctorial feet behind and between the elytra. Dorsal elytra hardly covering, brownish-red, the margins undulating. Sete golden, articulated, the superior part longer than the inferior, thin ; superiorly short and broad. | Family Hunicem&. Rounded, long, flattened ventrally ; head lobes notched in front, with 1-5 tentacles ; several separate upper, and two, often united, lower jaws ; feet simple with acicula, Living in sand-burrows. 320 Transactions.—Zoology. Genus Eunice, Cuvier. Head with two eyes, and five antenne placed in a single transverse row; buccal segment with two tentacles; branchiz pectinate, or laciniate, on one side; sete composite, with short spoon-shaped appendage. E. camarnpt, Quatrefages, lc. I., p. 821. ‘ Head moderately notched ; antenne apparently moniliform ; buccal segment rather long; tentacles moderate, subarticulated ; upper jaws slender, lower six-toothed; border of denticule undulated ; labrum narrow, slightly notched; body composed of 120 segments.; upper cirri of feet thick longish, the lower smaller; branchiew 6-fimbriate. E. australis, Quatrefages, l.c. I., p. 821. Head short, broad, deeply notched ; antenne long, moniliform ; buccal segment long. Tentacles longish, subarticulated. Upper jaws robust; lower 10-dentate ; denticule toothed ; body of 120-130 segments ; upper cirri of feet thick and longish, the lower small, fixed to a thick base; branchie 7-fimbriate. Genus Notocirrhus, Schmarda. No eyes nor antenne ; feet with a superior cirrus and simple sete, or the sete simple and composite. N, spHmrocepHaus, Schmarda, l.c., p. 116. Head globose. Body rounded, ochraceous. Branchie (dorsal cirri) sub- cylindrical. Sete few, two-haired, border frmged, apex short and with five uncinate spinules. Family AMpHINoMIDa!. Angular or flat; segments equal, few; head small, usually with five tentacles; toothless; branchize dorsal comb- or tree-like ; bristles hair-like serrate, not acicular; head lobes often compressed. Genus Chloéia, Savigny. Head with three antennz, two eyes, and a caruncle; buccal segment with two tentacles. Body more or less oval, with two thick, short, cylindrical cirri at the posterior extremity. Feet biramous, the branches distinct. Branchie bipinnate, two on each segment, remote from the feet. C. iermis, Quatrefages, l.c., 1., p. 889. C. gegena (?), Grube Beschr., new. od. Wen. bek. ann., p. 91. Head small. Lateral antenne about equal to the tentacles, median larger. Caruncle crested, broad, and with a narrow margin. Body oval, elongate. Sete of both feet simple; branchiz small. C. sprotapiuis, Baird, P.L.S., X., p. 234. Body rounded-fusiform, attenuated at each end, of about 34 segments. Colour pale, dotted all over with numerous small white round spots varying Hurron.—Catalogue of the Worms of New Zealand. O21 in size. Caruncle long, narrow, extending over 4 or 5 segments. Ventral cirri white; dorsal cirri long and subulate, of a beautiful purple colour. Branchie simply branched. Bristles of both feet capillary, slender, and simple, those of the dorsal tuft longer and stouter than the ventral. Family Nupuruyipm. Body long, many-jointed; lateral feelers small; peristome without cirri, but with parapodia and papille in place of teeth. Genus Nephtys, Cuvier. Head small, with four small antenne. Body terminated by one anal cirrus. Branches of feet separated; the superior carrying a cirriform branchia on its inferior border. N. macroura Schmarda, l.c., p. 91. Quat., I, p. 480. Body prismatico-cylindrical, greyish-yellow. Head trapezoidal. Hyes large. Tentacles four, distinct; jaws two on a horny base. Branchie short ; inferior lamellar process large. Ventral cirrus obsolete. Caudal cirrus filiform long. Family Nerrws. Body long, with two anal cirri; head flat, small, with four eyes, two small middle and two large outer antenne ; peristome with eight feelers ; epipharynx protrusible, with two large horizontally moveable jaws, armed with denticles; parapodia double, with acicula, and no hair-like bristles. Genus Nereis, Lamarck. Head with four eyes and four antenne; latero-external antenne very thick terminated by a small distinct joint ; buccal segment very distinct with 4 pairs of subulate tentacles; proboscis short, divided into 3 regions, of which two are exsertile, always armed with two strong curved jaws, and generally with very small and numerous denticles ; feet biramous ; superior branch with two tongue-like accessory branchie, inferior branch with a single similar one ; both branches with bristles and a cirrus. N. rozusta, Quatrefages, l.c. 1., p. 544, not of Kinberg. Head broad, elongated, anterior sulcus apparently bipartite; lateral antenne very thick, broad, shorter than the head; the median small, conical; buccal segment short. Tentacles shorter than the head; jaws broad, internal margin straight, 5-6-dentate. Denticles numerous, large, disposed in balls ; body broad, of 107 segments ; feet very short, appendices rounded, each with a short cirrus. N. pacirica, Schmarda, l.c., p. 107, pl. XXXL, f. 246. Quat.,lc., I., p. 546, not N. pacifica, Quat., from Peru. Back obscure green; belly greenish-yellow; segments 180; head rounded; external tentacles rounded, short; branchie# and ventral cirri All 322 Transactions. —Zoology. shorter than the feet; jaws with short apices; teeth five, rounded, irregular. Auckland. Genus Heteronereis, Girsted. Head, body, and anterior feet like Nereis; posterior feet very different from the others, carrying a foliaceous lobe, and the bristles sometimes single, sometimes mixed. H. austrawis, Schmarda, l.c., p. 101, pl. XXXI., f. 242. Quat. L., p. 577. Body flat, 96-ringed; jaws tridentate ; appendices of the feet tongue- shaped and leaf-like; branchie (dorsal cirri) longer than the feet; upper tubercle subglobose ; green in front, yellow behind. Family Guycrripa. Segments many-ringed; proboscis club-shaped, protrusible; bristles with acicula; branchie short or none. Genus Glycera, Savigny. Head small, conical. Branches of the feet approximated, on a common peduncle, bristles simple and composite, with two acicula in each branch. Proboscis with four hooked teeth, with no points. G. ovicERA, Schmarda, l.c., p. 95, pl. 80, f. 289. Quat. IT., p. 188. Body yellowish or brownish-green; bipartite segments of the jaws with a broad base, external process quadrangular, pedicelled ; proboscis ringed at the base, with a double series of papillze ; branchie (dorsal cirri) short, conical; feet notched; pectiniform ovaria at the base of the feet. The body of this species is greenish, the feet yellow. Family Puytiopociws. Body long, many-jointed; head lobes small; antenne 4 or 5; eyes 2-4; epipharynx with papille; ventral cirri leaf-like. Genus Eulalia, Savigny. Head with five antenne and two or four eyes; buccal segment simple, double or triple, with four pairs of tentacles; body long, linear, narrow, always composed of a large number of rings; feet one-branched, armed with composite bristles, generally with a leaf-like cirrus. EK. cmoa, Quatrefages, l.c., II., p. 128. Head small, rounded; antennz small, the median behind; eyes none (?); buccal segment triple; tentacles very short, thick, disposed 1,2,1 on each side; body roundish, of 250-270 segments ; feet small, exposed; upper cirri thick, hardly leaf-like, small, lanceolate; lower small mamilleform ; bristles simple, short, straight, deciduous. This very common species is of a dark green colour—(F.W.H.) Hurton,—Catalogue of the Worms af New Zealand. 323 Genus Porroa, Quatrefages. Head with five antenne ; buccal segment with only two tentacles. P. micropuynua, Schmarda, l.c., p. 86, pl. 29, f. 530. Quat. IL., p. 128. Back very convex, blackish green; branchiw rich green, small, ovalo- cordate ; eyes four. Tentacles (antenne) two frontal, two lateral, dissimilar, cervical. Tentacles two; ventral cirri tubercular. Family SyLuipa. Body elongated; head with tentacles, often with eyes; peristome with 2-4 cirri, often united to the prostomium; pharynx not protrusible, some- times toothed, or with a chitinous tube, which bears a boring spine; feet one-branched, with two aciculate bristle clusters ; ventral cirri short or none, Genus Sph rosyllis, Quatrefages. Head not distinct from the buccal segment, with two frontal lobes, five antenne or tentacles, and eyes. S. macrura, Schmarda, l.c., p. 70 (Syllis). Quat., t.c. Il., p. 53. Body yellowish, convex above; below flat; frontal lobes conical ; eyes four, disposed in a trapezium; branchie (upper cirri) short ; 80 articulated. Family CrrrHatuLipa&. Body rounded, fusiform; head with no teeth, antenne, nor tentacles ; feet in two series, on the lower hooks; thread-like gills on many of the segments. Genus Cirratulus, Lamarck. Head conic, mouth inferior; body cylindrical; first and last segments only without branchie. C. ancuyLocuatus, Schmurda, l.c., p. 58. Quat., I., p. 458. Body ochraceous; branchie red; back convex, belly flat; sides narrow, angulated. Order CEPHALOBRANCHIATA. Worm-like marine auimals, mostly protected by atube; body presenting distinct regions; respiration by branchie placed near or on the head. Sexes distinct ; no teeth, nor epipharynx. Family Purervusip&. Free; peristome without bristles; branchiee of simple threads surrounded by a girdle of long, yellow, thick bristles; segments not ringed; feet with upper linear and lower hook-like bristles; sometimes with terminal suckers. : Genus Chlorema, Dujardin. Mouth subterminal, placed between the two antenne ; body elongated, fusiform, covered with long hairs, B24 Transactions.—Zoology. C. sicotor, Schmarda, l.c., p. 21, pl. 20, f. 169. Quat., Lc., I, p. 477. Segments 50; body rounded, attenuated behind, greyish-yellow, anterior portion blue; the whole surface covered with a hyaline jelly ; upper bundles of bristles 4-haired ; the lower with hooked sete. Genus Siphonostomum, Grube. Head distinct; body naked, attenuated behind ; feet with simple bristles on both feet. §. antarcticum, Baird, P.L.S., X1., p. 95. Sete surrounding the head numerous, very short and fine; branchia short, numerous ; body covered with an enveloping substance like that of most of the known species (shaggy). Sete of the inferior ramus of feet single, crooked or hooked at the point, and of nearly a black colour. Colour of body varying from a very dark to a light brown, and of a trans- parent look. Length of longest specimen nearly three inches. Family Hermeiuip”. Tubiculous; segments of two or three kinds, the hinder thread-like with no appendages ; head lobes fleshy, with a circlet of yellow palez on the prostomial border, which acts as an operculum; tube built up of cemented shells. Genus Pallasia, Quatrefages. Tentacles joined upon the upper face; operculum formed by two con- centric rows of sete ; body divided into three regions. P. quapricornis, Schmarda, l.c., p. 25, pl. 20, f.174 (Hermella). Quai, l.c., II., p. 824. Body reddish-yellow; head and branchie violet ; dorsal branchie blue ; papille short; external palez aculeate at the sides; internal geniculate, aculeate ; occipital spines four. Family TrereseLuipa. Inhabiting soft, fragile tubes; body with two distinct regions; head without palez and lobes, but with large, moveable, ciliated, branchie, serving as touch- and prehensile-organs. Genus Terebella, Linneus. Three pairs of arborescent branchie. T. puactostoma, Schmarda, l.c., p. 41, pl. 24, f. 196. Quat., l.c., IL, p. 866. Body reddish-yellow ; cephalic branchie pale, short ; laterals cinnabar- red, short; pinnule in the last seement ; mouth transverse. T. HETEROBRANCHIA, Schmarda, l.c., p.42, pl. 24, 7.197. Quat.,l.c., II., p. 366. Body yellowish-grey ; cephalic branchie clear; first lateral branchia, consisting of many equal branches, the others with one branch longer ; mouth obsolete quadrangular ; pinnule, Hurron,—-Cataloque of the Worms of New Zealand, 325 Family Sapeiuipm. Tubiculous; body with two distinct regions; cephalic branchice pinnate, in two circlets or spirals, one of which may be rudimentary. Genus Sabella, Savigny. Head indistinct; branchie equal, more or less fan-shaped; anterior region not very distinct, scarcely broader than the posterior region; tubes membranous, open at one end only. S. armata, Quatrefayes, l.c., IL., p. 458. Head indistinct; branchiew short, base produced into 22 free cirri; antenne two pairs; collar dilated, six-lobed; anterior body segments light; setee dissimilar, uncinate and crested. S. ceratopaura, Schmarda, l.c., p. 33, pl. 22, f. 186. Quat., i.c., II., p. 459. Branchie hardly one-fourth the length of the body, striped with yellow and brown ; body brownish-yellow. S. eranpis, Baird, P.L.S., XIIT., p. 160. Collar rather broad, and deeply bilobed; thoracic feet seven pairs ; segments belonging to them smooth, not grooved on the upper dorsal surface; back dark brown, rather yellow underneath; feet numerous, about 100. Pedunceles large, well developed; anterior and posterior divisions separated by a groove, in the centre of which are situated the feet; a deep groove along the dorsal surface, except the seven thoracic segments; sete short, slender, smooth, setaceous, sharp-pointed. Length, without branchiee 63 inches. Case, a leathery-looking tube, covered externally with a thin coat of mud. Family Ssrpuniwa. Tubiculous; two ciliated skin-folds on the front segments; branchin with a spiral basis, with one or two opercula with chitinous or calcareous discs. Tubes calcareous, attached to stones, etc., or free. Genus Serpula, Linneus. A single cartilaginous or horny operculum; base of ue branchiz circular. Tube calcareous, fixed. oS. antTarctica, Quatrefayes, l.c., I1., p. 503 (1865). Branchie short, cirri 24-25. Operculum infundibuliform, sub-concave, margin denticulated ; body of 70-80 segments, anteriorly 7; anterior sete filiform, rounded; laminew denticulated; tube like that of 9. vermicularis, S. zeananpica, Baird, P.L.S., X1., p. 21, pl. IL, f. 9 (1864). Animal unknown; operculum white, small, sub-concave, margin with 20 denticulations ; tube slender, white, creeping, nearly round, longitudinal, dorsal keel small, transversely flexuously striated. Probably the same as the last (F.W.H.) 326 Transactions,—Zvoloqy. S. (Evpomatus) poutont, Baird, P.L.S8., X1., p. 12, pl. L, f. 2. Animal unknown. Operculum horny, infundibuliform, external margin densely crenated, internally with 20 calcareous pointed teeth. Tube red, three-angled, adherent, transversely rugose, back canaliculated. Genus Vermilia, Lamarck. A single operculum terminated by a calcareous plate, conical, or with various appendages ; base of the branchie circular; tube calcareous, fixed. Sub-genus Placostegus, Philippi. Operculum terminated by a calcareous, disc-like plate, with an entire margin. V. caninirerus, Gray. Dieffenbach’s New Zealand, IL., p, 242. (Vermitus), Baird, P.L.S., XI, p. 12. Tube thick, irregularly twisted, opaque white, with a high compressed wavy keel along the upper edge; mouth orbicular, with a tooth above it, formed by the keel; operculum orbicular, horny. (Gray). The whole animal is of a fine blue colour, and the elegant tuft of branchial filaments intensely azure, banded with white. (Baird). V. cmruutea, Schmarda, l.c., p. 29, pl. 21, f. 178. Quat., l.c., IL, p. 512. Tube trigonal, blueish ; operculum clavate, border smooth. Peduneles short, irregularly three-sided. New Zealand and the Cape of Good Hope. No doubt the same as the last (F.W.H.) V. Grey, Quatrefages, l.c., IL, p. 510. Branchiz short, cirri 24-26; operculum sub-infundibuliform, flat, roughish ; body 70-80-ringed ; anterior sete rather short, curved, slightly margined; lamine striate ; tube rough, keeled; aperture wide and obtusely dentated. Sub-genus Podioceros, Quatrefages. Operculum terminated by a flat surface, calcareous or cartilaginous, carrying a large number of short thick spine’. V. manorta, Quatrefagyes, l.c. II., p. 520. Branchie very short; cirri 20; operculum margined, bidentate behind ; body of 50-60 rings, anteriorly 7; anterior sete curved, fringed; lamine obtusely denticulated. Tube like that of V. greyi. V. stricicers, Morch, Rev. Serp., p. 66. Quat. lc. IL., p. 521. Operculum orbicular, flat; tube agglomerated, creeping, trigonal ; dorsal keel compressed, acute, laciniated, beaked, with a series of punctiform. impressions on either side; laterally convex; lines of growth often lami- nated, crowded. North Australia and New Zealand. Hurron.—Catalogue of the Worms of New Zealand. 327 Sub-genus Vermilia, Lamarck. Operculum terminated by a calcareous prolongment, generally in the form ofa simple cone, entire or truncated. VY. HomBront, Quatrefages, lc. IL., p. 527. Branchie short, cirri 28 ; apex of the operculum irregularly spirceform ; body of 40-50 rings, anteriorly 7; sete elongated, curved, fringed ; lamine serrated. Tube unknown. Sub-genus Galeolaria, Lamarck. Operculum terminated by a calcareous plate more or less flat, often composed of several juxtaposed pieces, carrying a large number of variously shaped spines, delicate, and elongate, disposed either on the circumference or on a more or less considerable tract of the operculum. VY. uystrix, Morch, Rev. Serp., p. 24, pl. 21, f. 3,4. Quat., l.c., IL, p. 584. Bottom of operculum excentric, anterior border sloping, composed of eleven diverging pieces, posterior border erect, composed of hexagonal pieces, bearing externally a long spine, from whence the surface of the operculum is hidden by crowded prostrate spies. Spines subulate, the upper layer ornamented with about 20 scales. The rest naked, apices slightly bent. Tube sub-solitary, creeping, above with two approximated keels, often vanishing towards the aperture; lines of growth strong, unequal; aperture circular, entire. Genus Cymospira, Blainville. Operculum single, corneo-caicareous, more or less complicated ; base of the branchie spiral; horny lamine instead of uncini. C. 1ncomPLETA, Quatrefages, lc., II., p. 5438. Head indistinct ; branchial cirri very numerous, on a quinquespiral base; operculum (?); collar large, trilobed; body with about 100 rings, anteriorly seven; anterior sete large, fringed, curved; lamine finely crenulated. Genus Spirorbis, Daudin. Basal leaves of the branchie rolled in a cirele or semi-circle; one or two opercula, not united together when two; tubes generally isolated, entirely attached, twisted into a flat or nearly flat spiral. S. zevanpica, Gray. Dieffenbach’s New Zealand, II., p. 295. Tube reversed, whorls two or three, rapidly enlarging; the last with three spiral ridges, the middle rib most prominent. 328 Transactions.—~Zoology. Art. XXXIV.—List of the New Zealand Cirripedia in the Otago Museum. By Prof. F. W. Hurron. [Read before the Otago Institute, 8th October, 1878.] 1. Batanus pecorus, Darwin, Monograph of the sub-class Cirripedia, Balanide, p. 212, pl. 2, f. 6. Dunedin, generaliy attached to the peduncle of Boltenia. The Museum also contains specimens from South Australia. 2. BaLANUS AMPHITRITE, var. variegatus, Darwin, l.c., p. 240, pl. 5, f. 2. Dunedin, on seaweed and shells. 3. Batanus porcatus, Da Costa. Darwin, l.c., p. 256, pl. 6, f. 4. Campbell Island, ov rocks. 4, Bavanus vestitus, Darwin, l.c., p. 286, pl. 8, f. 3. Stewart Island, on shells. 5. Terracuita purPuRASCENS, Wood. Dana, Lc., p. 387, pl. 11, f. 10. Wellington and The Bluff, on rocks. All the New Zealand specimens that I have seen are like fig. 1b of Darwin, which is probably the Conia depressa of Gray (Dieffenbach’s New Zealand, I1., p. 269). The Museum also contains specimens from Sydney, which are like fig. la of Darwin, as well as some like fig. 10. 6. Exminius mopestus, Darwin, l.c., p. 350, pl. 12, f. 1. Auckland, on rocks, abundant. 7. ELMINIUS SINUATUS, Sp. nov. Smooth, conical or depressed; parietes of each valve with two broad rounded folds, and faint transverse striations; white; sutures always distinctly defined. Scuta with the occludent margin smooth; ) adductor ridge obsolete; basal margin longer than the tergal margin. Terga with a long spur continuous with the scutal margin; crest for depressor muscle prominent and rounded. Wellington, on shells. Although the opercular valves are almost identical with those of LE. modestus, the wall valves are so different and so constant that I cannot doubt the distinctness of the two species. 8, Eumintus pricatus, Gray. Dieffenbach’s New Zealand, II., p. 269; Darwin, l.c., p. 351, pl. 12, £2. Auckland and Dunedin, on rocks, abundant. 9. Exmrnius RuGosus, sp. nov. Rugged, deeply folded, the folds of the parietes often meeting and growing together, conical, sutures only distinct in young shells, Hurron.—List of N.Z. Cirripedia in the Otago Museum. 829 Dirty white or greyish. Scuta with a prominent adductor ridge; the articular furrow deep and strongly grooved; basal margin larger than the tergal margin. Terga stout, the articular ridge straight ; carinal and basal margins confluent; spur short and broad. The bluff, on rocks, not common. Distinguished from all varieties of #. plicatus by the straight arti. cular ridge. 10. Coronuna piapema, L. Darwin, l.c., p. 417, pl. 15, f. 8. Watkouaiti, on a whale. There are also in the Museum specimens from South Australia and Sydney. 11. CuamzsipHo cotumna, Spengler. Darwin, l.c., p. 470, pl. 19, f. 3. Dunedin, on rocks and shells, abundant. There are also in the Museum specimens from Sydney. 12. Lepas nituu, Leach. Darwin, l.c., Lepadide, p. 77, pl. 1, f. 2. Wellington and Dunedin, on floating timber. 18. Lepas pectinata, Spengler. Darwin, l.c., p. 85, pl. 1, f. 8. Auckland, on Sptrula levis, common. 14. Lepas austrauis, Darwin, l.c., p. 89, pl. 1, f. 5. Dunedin, on sea-weed. 15. Lepas rascicunaris, Ellis and Solander. Darwin l.c., p. 92, pl. 1, f. 6. Dunedin, on seaweed, North Cape on Velella pacifica. 16. Scanrettum vittosum, Leach. Darwin, l.c., p. 274, pl. 6, f. 8. Dunedin, on rocks. Mr. KR. Gillies. Mr. Darwin gives no certain habitat for this species. 17. PoxuicieEs spinosus, Quoy and Gaimard. Darwin, l.c., p. 824, pl. 7, f. 4. Wellington and Dunedin, on rocks. 18, PoLtigePrs DARWINI, sp. NOY. Capitulum with one or more whorls of valves under the rostrum. Scuta triangular, as broad as high, not reaching half-way up the terga. Terya oval, elongated, more than twice as long as broad. conyex. Carina curved, internally deeply concave, reaching more than two-thirds of the length of the terga, and with its apex close to the terga. Rostrum short and broad, much less than half the length of the carina. Scales of the peduncle unequal and unsym- metrically arranged. Dunedin, on rocks. Myr. A. Montgomery. Hasily distinguished from P. spinosus by the projection of the terga beyond the scuta, and from P. sertus by the short rostrum, and the short rostrum and the apex of the carina not projecting. ed AlZ 830 Transactions.— Zoology. "APPENDIX. The following additional species are said to occur in New Zealand:— Balanus trigonus, Darwin, l.c., p. 228. Coronula balenaris, Ginl. L. balenaris, Gray, in Dieffenbach’s New Zealand, Te pa 269) Tubicinella trachealis, Shaw. Gray, in Dieffenbach’s New Zealand, II., p. 269. Anatifa elongata, Quoy and Gaimard, Voy. Astrol. III., p. 685, pl. 93, f. 6. Darwin, l.c., p. 874. Bay of Islands. Anatifa tubulosa, Quoy and Gaimard, l.c., III., p. 648, pl. 98, f. 5. Alepas tubulosa, Darwin, l.c., p. 169. Tolaga Bay, attached to a living Palinurus. Pollicipes sertus, Darwin, l.c., p. 327. Art XXXV.—On a new Infusorian parasitic on Patella argentea. By Prof. F. W. Hurron. [Read before the Otago Institute, 8th October, 1878.] Last month, while investigating the structure of Patella argentea, Quoy and Gaimard, I discovered numerous specimens of an infusorian attached to the branchie, of which the following is a description :— Body campanulate, naked, devoid of cilia, hyaline, highly contractile ; sessile or subsessile; mouth surrounded by a spiral ring of rather coarse cilia, which are capable of being moved or held motionless at the will of the animal. Length, 34, inch. These little animals were attached to all parts of the branchie, and closed up suddenly, in the manner of Vorticella, when touched by any foreign body. The absence of a carapace and of a stalk would appear to put this species into Trichoda, Ehr., but the disposition of the cilia round the mouth precludes this; and I am inclined to regard it as a Cothurnia, in which the lorica has become obsolete owing to its commensual habits. propose to call it Cothurnia patella. I therefore Hurron,—Description of some new Slugs, 831 Art. XXXVI.—Description of some new Slugs, By Prof. F. W. Hurton. (tead before the Otago Institute, 26th November, 1878.] Limax MoLEstUvs, Mantle short and flatly rounded behind, smooth and sub-concentrically wrinkled when alive, rugose and not wrinkled in spirit. Pulmonary opening in the posterior third of the mantle; back rounded behind the mantle, pointed and keeled posteriorly; body with irregular longitudinal rib-like protuberances; colour variable—greyish or reddish-brown variously marbled with dusky. Tentacles of the same colour as the back; foot yellowish-white. Length, about 14 inches, Shell slightly concave. A rather common variety is quite black. Dunedin, Wellington, ete. Abundant everywhere. The radula has 83 rows of rachis teeth, and about 20 on each side of lateral teeth. This species is closely allied to L. agrestis of Europe, but is larger, the keel is not oblique, the pulmonary opening is placed more posteriorly, and the ovo-testis is more elongated. In Dr. Knight’s paper on the Bitenta- culate Slug of New Zealand (Trans. Lin. Soc. XXII., p. 881) figures 8, 11, 12, and 15 belong to this species. Minax EMARGINATUS. Mantle slightly shagreened, short and emarginate behind; pulmonary opening a little behind the centre. A depressed line runs from this opening forward over the back, and backward again to a point on the left side opposite the pulmonary opening. Back sharply keeled up to the mantle ; body smooth, with depressed lines radiating from the mantle. Colour dark grey or olive above; foot and lower sides of the body yellowish-white. Length 1 inch. Shell small, nearly flat; length :08 inch. Dunedin ; common in gardens, ete. Distinguished from M. antipodarum by the shape of the mantle and smooth body. I have M. antipodarum from Wellington. The radula has 27 rows of rachis teeth, and about 25 on each side of lateral teeth. The transverse rows are curved, the convexity being in the direction of the apices of the teeth. ARION INCOMMODUS. Mantle rugose, short and rounded behind; pulmonary opening in front of the middle; back rounded, not pointed posteriorly; colour dark lead- grey, a lateral stripe on the mantle, and a longitudinal band on each side, black; sometimes the whole upper part of the body greyish black; foot yellow. Length 1 inch; shell rudimentary. Dunedin. Not uncommon in gardens, ete, 382 Transactions.—Z oology. This species has the form of Geomalcus, but the genital organs open below the pulmonary opening; the ovotestis is small and globular, the albumen gland very large; the penis is long, and, when retracted, lies across the renal organ; the spermatheca is large and flask-shaped; there is no prostate gland, and the retractor of the penis is attached to its anterior end. The retractor muscles of the tentacles are two—one on each side, and the retractor of the buccal mass is quite distinct from them, and originates much further back, on the right side. The teeth are arranged in slightly arched transverse rows; they are 82°1:32 on cach row. The central tooth has a cusp on each side; the other rachis-teeth a cusp only on the outer side; the laterals decrease in size outwards. The laterals change gradually into the rachis-teeth, but there are about 10 rachis and 22 lateral teeth on each side. JANELLA PAPILLATA. Like J. bitentaculata, but with small papille on the back, between the oblique grooves. Wellington and Dunedin. On trees. Konophora, gen. noy. Like Janella, but the eye peduncles short and conical. KoNnoPHORA MARMOREA. ‘ Body smooth, rounded above, scarcely distinct from the foot; tail rounded; back with a central groove with lateral branches sloping obliquely backward ; colour blackish, marbled with pale brown on the back; an indistinct black lateral line; region round the pulmonary opening yellowish. Leneth, 1 inch. Dunedin. In the bush. I have only seen a single specimen, which was collected by Mr. F. J. Browne, Articulator to the Museum. [Nore.—Both Lima cinereus and L. flavus have been introduced into Dunedin, but at present they are rare.] Art. XXXVII.—On Phalacrocorax carunculatus, Gmelin. By Prof. F. W. Hurron. [Read before the Otago Institute, 10th September, 1878.] Durine his voyage with Captain Cook, in 1778, J. R. Forster described a shag, which he said was found in New Zealand and Terra del Fuego, under Hurron,—On Phalacrocorax carunculatus. 338 the name of Pelecanus carunculatus, distinguished, among other things, by having red caruncles, or elevated papille, behind the nostrils. Dr. Latham in his ‘“‘ General Synopsis of Birds,’’* (1878), using the unpublished manuscripts and drawings of the Forsters, appears to have divided this species into two, which he called the carunculated shag and the tufted shag respectively. Subsequently (1788) Gmelin, in editing Linneus’ “ Systema Natura” took these two species out of Latham and named them Pelecanus caruncu- latus and Pelecanus cirrata, the last being Latham’s ‘‘tufted shag.”” Both are said to come from New Zealand only. P. carwnculatus is said to have the face naked and ‘carunculated red,’’ and to be about 20 inches in ength.t P. cirratus is said to have the crown crested, the tail composed of fourteen feathers, and in length to be about 34 inches. In 1828 Latham published his ‘‘ General History of Birds,” in which he adopts Gmelin’s scientific names. Graculus carunculatus is said to be about 380 inches in length, and to have the space between the bill and the eye much carunculated, and over the eye a tubercle much larger than the rest. It is said to be rare in Queen Char- lotte Sound (New Zealand) and abundant in Staaten Land. Graculus ctrrhatus is said to be 84 inches in leneth; no caruncles are mentioned, but the skin round the eye is said to be bare. Evidently following Gmelin doubtfully, he remarks—“ tail rounded and said to have fourteen feathers.” Queen Charlotte Sound is given as the only habitat. : Captain King, R.N., described in 1830 (P.Z.S., Part I., p. 80) under the name of Phalacrocorax imperialis, a shag, from the Straits of Magellan, which has the head crested. No mention is made of any caruncles, but the tail-feathers are said to be twelve in number. Brandt (Bull. Sci. Acad., Petersburg, 1837{) not only gives all these three species, but adds another, Carbo purpurascens, from Chili and the Falkland Islands, characterised by the absence of any white on the wing-coverts. | Mr. G. Gray in the “ Zoology of the Voyage of the Erebus and Terror”’ (1844) united Gmelin’s two species under the name of G. cirrhatus, and said that G. carunculatus was the young, ‘‘ wanting the crest, the long linear feathers over each eye, and the oblong spot on each wing.” He gives P. imperialis, King, as a synonym of P. cirrhatus, Gmel. Bonaparte in his ‘‘ Conspectus Generum Avium’’ (1857) separates cirrhatus from carunculatus, and puts them in different genera, on account of the supposed difference in the number of the tail-feathers. Hypoleucus : * This book I have not seen. + I take these from the edition of 1806. The length is probably a mistake for 30 inches. t This publication I have not seen. 834 Transactions.— Zoology, ciyrhatus is said to come from Chili, to be 27 in. in length, and to have 14 feathers in the tail. Leucocarbo carunculatus is also said to come from Chili and the Straits of Magellan. The base of the bill is said to be carunculated, and in the breeding season the bird is said to be crested, and to have a broad band of white on the back. He gives P. imperialis, King, as a synonym of L. carunculatus. Dr, Finsch says in 1870 (Jour. fiir Ornith., p. 875) that he has compared a specimen of G., carunculatus, Gm. from the Crozet Islands with those from the Straits of Magellan in the Leyden Museum, and finds them to belong to the same species. Dr. Buller in his Birds of New Zealand (1873) keeps both species together and gives Carbo purpurascens, Brandt, as another synonym. In 1874 Dr. Finsch (Jour. fir Ornith., p. 218) having received a specimen from the Chatham Islands, again separates P. carunculatus from P. cirrhatus, pointing out that the South American birds have the gular and chin regions totally naked, while in the Chatham Island bird there is a central feathered strip, and the sides of the head and neck are dark. He considers the Chatham Island bird to be G. carunculatus, Gmel., and the Magellan Strait bird to be G. cirrhatus, Gmel. Mr. R. B. Sharpe, in the appendix to the Birds of the ‘“ Zoology of the ‘Erebus’ and ‘Terror’’’ (1875), accepts Dr. Finsch’s views; but in the same year Dr. Coues (Bull. U.S. National Museum, No. 2) identifies the shag from Kerguelen’s Land as G. carunculatus, although pointing out that it has no white band on the wing, and considers G. cirrhatus as a synonym. Dr. Kidder, in the same publication, remarks that in this bird the caruneles at the base of the bill are brilliant yellow. Such, in short, is the history of the nomenclature of these birds. The first statement (Forster) was that there is one species found both in New Zealand and South America. Then (Gmelin) that there are two species, both found in New Zealand. Then (Latham) that there are two species, both found in New Zealand, and one of them (carunculatus; in South America also. Then (Gray) there is said to be only one species, inhabiting both places. Then (Bonaparte) there are said to be three species, all inhabiting South America. Then Dr. Buller again considers them all as one species, inhabiting both places. Then Dr. Finsch and Mr. Sharpe consider that there are two species—G. carunculatus, inhabiting New Zea- land and the Chatham Islands, and G. cirrhatus inhabiting the Straits of Magellan and the Crozet Islands; at the same time Dr. Coues, who has probably never seen a specimen from New Zealand, thinks that there is only one species. During a late visit to Melbourne I had, through the kindness of Prof. McCoy, the opportunity of examining a specimen in the Museum, named P. cirrhatus, from the Falkland Islands, and of comparing it with specimens Hutron.—-On Phalacrocorax carunculatus. 885 from Kerguelen’s Land, the Chatham Islands, and New Zealand, in the Otago Museum, and I have no hesitation in confirming Dr. Finschi’s opinion ' that there are two quite distinct species. The Falkland Islands and the Kerguelen’s Land birds have the gular pouch naked ; the white of the throat extends over the sides of the upper part of the neck, and the carunceles at the base of the bill are large, project- ing considerably above the line of the front, the two meeting, or nearly meeting, in the median line above the bill. In the Chatham Island and New Zealand birds, there is a band of white feathers along the centre of the gular pouch; the sides of the upper neck are dark, and the caruncles are reduced to small papilla, which do not project above the line of the front, and are divided by the feathers of the front. But, although it is easy to show that there are at least two species, it is not easy to say which name should be applied to each. Forster, no doubt, first described the New Zealand bird, and afterwards erroneously identified the South American bird with it, but it is doubtful whether he had applied the name carunculatus to the New Zealand bird before he had examined those ~ in Terra del Fuego, and as his manuscripts were not published until 1844, it is immaterial for the present enquiry whether he did or not. Gmelin was the first to name the birds, and he gave the name carwnculatus to the smaller carunculated bird without a crest, and cirrhatus to the larger and crested bird.* Gmelin says that both birds come from New Zealand only, but he took his birds from Latham, and Latham says that cirrhatus occurs in New Zealand only, while carunculatus is rare in New Zealand, and common in South America. The smaller size, the caruncles, and the locality would all point to carunculatus as the South American bird, but, on the other hand, the New Zealand bird appears never to get a crest. Dr. Kidder gives the length of a Kerguelen’s Land bird at 233 in.; the specimen in the Otago Museum is rather larger. Dr. Buller gives the length of birds from New Zealand as 82 in., and of birds from the Chatham Islands at 26 in. (Trans. N.Z. Inst., IX., p. 339). The Chatham Island birds are evidently smaller than those from New Zealand, but neither Latham, Gmelin, Brandt, nor Bonaparte had seen birds from the Chatham Islands. Brandt or Bonaparte appear to be the first to state that both species came from South America, and when Dr. Finsch had to transfer one back again to New Zealand, he took carunculatus. The evidence is, how ever, I think, in favour of the New Zealand bird being cirrhatus; and, as the Magellan Straits bird truly merits the name carunculatus, while the New Zealand bird does not, I think it would be better to change Dr. Finsch’s nomenclature. * The number of tail-feathers can be omitted, as both species have 12 tail-feathers, 336 Transactions.— Zoology. The idea that the South American bird is P. cirrhatus was probably stated by Mr. Gray, who no doubt had seen Captain King’s specimens, giving P. imperialis, King, as a synonym of P. cirrhatus, Gml.; but Mr. Gray included P. carunculatus with P. cirrhatus, and Bonaparte gives impertalis as a synonym of P. carunculatus, Gmail. The synonomy will therefore be as follows :— PHALACROCORAX CARUNCULATUS. Carunculated Shag, Latham (1775). Pelecanus carunculatus, Gmelin (1778). Habitat wrong. Graculus carunculatus, Latham (1828). Phalacrocorax imperialis, King (1830). Carbo carunculatus, Brandt (1837). Carbo purpurascens, Brandt (1837). Leucocarbo carunculatus, Bonaparte (1857). Leucocarbo purpurascens, Bonaparte (1857). Graculus carunculatus, Finsch (1870). Graculus carunculatus, Hutton (Cat. Birds of New Zealand, 1872, ex Layard) Hab. wrong. Graculus cirrhatus, Finsch (1874). Graculus carunculatus, Coues (1875). Hab.: Straits of Magellan, Falkland Islands, Crozet Islands, Kerguelen’s Land. PHALACROCORAX CIRRHATUS. Tufted Shag, Latham (1775), Pelecanus cirrhatus, Gmelin (1778). Graculus cirrhatus, Latham (1828). Carbo cirrhatus, Brandt (1837). Graculus cirrhatus, Gray (1844). Hypoleucus cirrhatus, Bonaparte (1857). Habitat wrong. Phalacrocorax carunculatus, Buller (1873). Graculus carunculatus, Finsch (1874). Graculus carunculatus, Sharpe (1875). Hab.: New Zealand and the Chatham Islands. The next question is, are there more than two species? The Kerguelen’s Land birds differ from those of South America in having no white bar on the wing, and in the caruncle being yellow instead of crimson. If constant these differences are sufficient to distinguish the Kerguelen’s Land species, to which the name of P. purpurascens, Brandt, should be applied, unless that is only the immature P. carunculatus, which is most likely. Dr. Buller has also suggested (Trans. N.Z. Inst. IX., p. 838) that P. cirrhatus may possibly include two species, the birds of the Chatham Islands being distinguished from those of New Zealand by being smaller and crested, and he formerly proposed to call the New Zealand bird P. finsehi, but found that that name had been appropriated by Mr. Sharpe, Hurron.—On Collections from the Auckland and Campbell Islands. 887 The statement that the Chatham Island birds are crested, while the New Zealand birds are not, must be taken with caution. I have certainly never seen a crested bird from New Zealand myself, but they are very rare, and I have not seen many; and P. cirrhatus appears to have been founded on a crested bird from New Zealand. The bird also appears to be scarce in the Chatham Islands, for although Dr. Buller quotes Mr. H. Travers as saying that “he met with P. carunculatus in large numbers in the Chatham Islands” (l.c., IX., p. 339), Mr. Travers himself states that it is ‘ not common” (l.c., V., p. 221), and the specimen sent to Dr. Finsch from the Chatham Islands was not crested. Consequently the question as to the erest must be considered as unsettled. However, it appears that the Chatham Island birds are decidedly smaller than those from New Zealand ; but if Dr. Buller decides on considering this difference as of specific value, it is to the Chatham Island bird that he must apply the new name, and not as he supposes to the New Zealand bird. DIMENSIONS OF THE THREE SPECIMENS IN THE OTaco Musrum. Kerguelen’s Land.| Chatham Islands. Otago. Crested. Crested. Not crested. Vitae ue i ue 115 11°5 12°5 Tail a We sig a 5:5 5:5 6:0 Bill (culmen) .. aC O60. 2:25 2°5 2°8 Tarsus .. a ors ae 2-0 2:0 24 Outer toeandclaw .. =e 4-25 4:3 50 Art. XXXVIII.—Notes on a Collection from the Auckland islands and Campbell Island. By Prof. F. W. Hutton. [Read before the Otago Institute, 10th Septenber, 1878.] Last June, Captain Townsend, R.N., was kind enough to agree to take Mr. EK, Jennings, taxidermist to the Museum, to the Auckland and Campbell Islands in H.M.S. Nymphe, in order that he might collect specimens of natural history for the Museum. The Nymphe arrived at Port Ross on 13th June, 1878, and left again on the 17th, but as the 16th was Sunday, Mr. Jennings only had two days and a half for collecting. On the 19th they arrived at Campbell Island and left again the same day, Mr. Jennings going on shore for an hour and a half only. It was during these short times that the collections referred to in these notes were made. No seals were seen during the trip. al3 338 Transactions.—Z oology. BIRDS. Anthornis melanura, Sparrm. A single male individual from the Auckland Islands, which in colour quite resembles specimens from New Zealand. The following are its dimensions in inches :—Length 8°5, wing 3°6, tail 8-5, culmen ‘57, tarsus 1:3, outer toe (without claw) °55, middle toe ‘7, inner toe 45, hind toe -47. Phalacrocorax magellanicus, Gual. Head, neck, back, rump, thighs and upper tail-coverts blue-black ; shoulders, scapulars and wing-coverts green-black, except a very narrow bar of white formed by some of the upper wing-coverts; chin, throat, and whole under surface of body, except the neck, white, wings and tail brownish-black. Head crested, a few linear white feathers above the eye and on the upper part of the neck. Irides brown. Skin in front of the eyes dark blue, the minute papille crimson, sparingly clothed with small feathers. Bill dark brown passing into orange at the base of both man- dibles, gular skin bright orange. Legs and feet flesh-colour, with the soles and the joints on the upper surface black; webs flesh-colour shading into black towards the margin. A narrow strip of white feathers runs along the centre of the chin pouch. Immnature.—The whole of the upper surface, neck, wings and tail dark brown, in places glossed with greenish, no white alar bar; chin, throat and belly white. Skin before the eye dull orange with crimson spots; bill brown passing into orange at the base of the mandibles, gular pouch orange. Feet as in the adult, but not so pink. Length 28 inches, extent 39, wing 10:5, tail 6, culmen 2:2, bill to gape 3-1, depth at nostrils -52, breadth -43, tarsus 2:4; outer toe (without claw) 3°8, middle toe 2°85, inner toe 1°85, hind toe 1:25. Two individuals, both females, from Campbell Island. This species is allied to P. carunculatus, but is at once recognised by its black neck. The white alar band is also much smaller. Stercorarius antarcticus, Lesson. A single female from Campbell Island. Larus dominicanus, Licht. A young female from Campbell Island. Lavus scopulinus, Forster. Three specimens from the Auckland Islands and three from Campbell Island. Five of these birds are adult (four males and one female) and all have the breast beautifully tinged with rose colour, as is often the case with Sterna frontalis, I have never seen this colouring in the New Zealand gulls, Hurroy,—On Collections from the Auckland and Campbell Islands, 889 FIsHes, Notothenia angustata, Hutton, T.N.Z.I., 1875, p. 213. Five specimens of this fish were brought from the Auckland Islands. It may be identical with N, maoriensis Haast, T.N.Z.I., 1872, p. 276; but that species is said to have only three spines in the first dorsal, and to have scales below the eyes, It is no doubt the same as N. corticeps of the ‘‘ Fishes of New Zealand” (1872), and most probably Sir J. Richardson confused it with his N, corticeps in the Ichthyology of the Voyage of the “Hirebus’”’ and “Terror,” The type of N, coriiveps, according to Dr. Giinther, comes from Kerguelen’s Land, Notothenia arguta, sp. nov. B.5; D. 4 | 80; A. 24; L. lat. 52. Height of the body goes 43 times into the total length; leneth of the head four times ; posterior limb of the preoperculum perpendicular; top of the head flat, not concave, scaleless, roughened with small rounded papille; above purplish black, lighter and pinkish below; gill membrane marked with orange. A single specimen 7} inches in length from Campbell Island. In general shape it approaches N. microlepidota, but is easily distinguished by the fin formula, Notothenia microlepidota, Hutton, T.N.Z.1., 1875, p. 218. Dat, | 27 is A22. Two specimens from the Auckland Islands. Notothenia parva, sp. nov. B.6; D. 6 | 28-29; A. 238-25; L. lat. 62. Height of the body goes 53 times into the total length; length of the head five times; top of the head scaleless, flat, with scattered papille. Colour, greenish-black, belly white, vertical fins black. Four specimens from the Auckland Islands; 8 to 34 inches in length, This species approaches N. sima, but has no scales on the top of the head, and differs in its fin formula. Tripterygium jenningst. sp. Nov. D. 6 | 20-21 | 15-16; A. 28. A simple tentacle above the orbit, and another at the nostril; teeth on the yomer, none on the palate. Colour, very variable; greenish-brown, reddish-brown, or black, marbled with darker. Sixteen specimens from the Auckland Islands, the largest 34 inches in length. The lateral line is as in 7. nigripenne, to which species it is closely allied, but differs in having constantly 28 rays in the anal fin. Norze.—Notothenia arguta, N. parva and Tripterygium jenningst were taken 340 Transactions.—Zuvlogy. in rock pools, N. angustata and N. microlepidota ina net. Nota single fish was caught with a hook. Most of the fish at the Auckland Islands are attacked by parasites in a most remarkable way; in some cases the whole of the lateral muscles being full of a round worm about an inch in length, So bad are they that nothing but sheer necessity would induce any one to eat fish at these islands, CRUSTACEA, Prionorhynchus edwardsti, Jacq. and Lucas. Six specimens from the Auckland Islands, all male, Nectocarcinus antarcticus, Jacq. and Lucas. Six specimens from the Auckland Islands, of which five were obtained from the stomach of a large specimen of Notothenia microlepidota. Halicarcinus planatus, Fabr. A great many specimens from both the Auckland and Campbell Islands. Munidia subrugosa, List. Three specimens from the Auckland Islands; two adult and one young. The young specimen is quite as small or smaller than Grimothea gregaria, so abundant round the South Island in March, and yet it does not show the shghtest approach to the foliaceous maxillipeds of Grimothea. The habits of the two species are also quite different. Grimothea is pelagic and floats on the surface of the sea, while Munidia lives at the bottom. Mr Jennings caught these specimens in a baited net. Squilla levis, sp. nov. Rostral-plate semi-lanceolate, acute ; carapace smooth, without crests, slightly expanded and rounded behind; inner antenne reaching nearly as far as the outer, second joint extending as far as the eye, third joint as long as the second. Prehensile finger with 12 teeth (exclusive of the extremity) ; penultimate finely toothed internally and with three spines at the base; externally quite smooth ; abdomen smooth, without longitudinal ridges, scarcely broader than the carapace, without lateral spines except on the penultimate segment; last segment with about 10 spines alternately large and small, while on each side of the central line there are six very small spines; internal lateral caudal plates oval, not passing the marginal spine of the basal jomt. Length, 13 inch. A sinele specimen taken from the stomach of a specimen of Notothenia microlepidota, caught at the Auckland Islands. Ctrolana rossii, List. Many specimens from the Auckland Islands. Spharoma gigas, Leach. Several specimens from the Auckland Islands. Hurton.—On Collections from the Auckland and Campbell Islands. 841 Spheroma obtusa, Dana. A few specimens from Campbell Island, and two from the Auckland Islands. Actacia aucklandia, G. M. Thomson, For a description of this species see Mr, Thomson’s paper in the present volume of Transactions. (Ante p, 249.) Mot.usca, Euthria lineata, Chemnitz. Many specimens from the Auckland Islands, Euthria Uttorinoides, Reeve. Two specimens from Campbell Island. Polytropa striata, Martyn. A single specimen from the Auckland Islands. Diloma, sp. Two specimens from the Auckland Islands. There are specimens of this species in the Museum from Campbell Island, presented by Dr. H. Filhol, who will doubtless describe it. It is something like D. nigerrima, but smaller, bluer, and not so depressed. Cantharidus episcopus, Hombron and Jacquinot. Several dead shells from the Auckland Islands. It is also in the Museum from Campbell Island. Tectura pileopsis, Quoy and Gaimard. Several specimens from the Auckland Islands. Patella mayellanica. Several specimens from the Auckland Islands, and one or two from Campbell Island. I believe that P. inconspicua, Gray, is only a small variety of this species. Patella redimiculum, Reeve. Several specimens from the Auckland Islands. Chiton circumvallatus, Reeve. Several specimens from Campbell Island. Chiton lineolatus, Frembly. Several specimens from both the Auckland Islands and Campbell Island.. It varies much from black to gaily painted. It is also found near Dunedin. Chiton longicymba, Blainville. A few specimens from the Auckland Islands. There are also in the Museum specimens from Campbell Island, presented by Dr. H. Filhol, B42 Transactions.—~Zoology. Plaxiphora biramosa, Quoy and Gaimard. Two specimens from Campbell Island. When drying, this species often splits longitudinally, Onchidium patelloides, Quoy and Gaimard. Seven specimens from the Auckland Islands, Siphonaria redimiculum, Reeve. Four specimens from the Auckland Islands. This curious species will probably form the type of a new genus. It is of on olive brown outside and dark purple inside. Mesodesma nova-zealandia, Chemnitz. A single specimen from the Auckland Islands, Venus oblonga, Hanley. A single specimen from the Auckland Islands, Chione stutchburyt, Gray. Eight specimens from the Auckland Islands. Mytilus magellanicus, Lamarck, A few specimens from both the Auckland Islands and Campbell Island. Mytilus dunkeri, Reeve. Several specimens from both the Auckland Islands and Campbell Island. Norz.—In addition to the foregoing there are in the Otago Museum the following shells from the Auckland and Campbell Isiands :— Euthria bicincta, Hutton, Auckland Islands. Neptunea, sp., Auckland Islands. Cominella maculata, Martyn, Auckland Islands. Turbo granosus, Martyn, Auckland Islands. Diloma ethiops, Gml., Auckland Islands. Diloma nigerrima, Chemnitz, Auckland Islands. Haliotis tris, Martyn, Auckland Islands. Haliotis rugoso-plicata, Chemnitz, Auckland Islands. Haliotis gibba, Philippi, Campbell Island. Patella radians, Gml., Auckland Islands. Patella imbricata, Reeve, Campbell Island. Patella rubiginosa, Hutton, Auckland Islands. Tapes intermedia, Quoy and Gaimard, Campbell Island. Modiola areolata, Gould, Auckland Islands. Terebratella rubicunda, Sow. ?, Auckland Islands, Waurtr.—On the Black Rat. 843 ANNELIDA. Several specimens of Cheetopod worms from both the Auckland Islands and Campbell Island are in the collection, but they cannot be determined until the New Zealand Cheetopods have been examined. HcHINODERMATA. Asterias rupicola, Verrill, Bull. U.S. National Museum, No. 3, p. 71. var. levigatus, Hutton. Spines of the back obsolete. Several specimens from the Auckland Islands. I should have regarded this as a new species if one of the specimens had not shown a row of spines along the back and traces of a lateral row on each side, thus connecting the two forms. Art. XXXIX.—Note accompanying Specimens of the Black Rat (Mus rattus, L.) By Taytor WuitE, Ksq., of Glengarrie, Napier. Communicated by Prof. Hurron. [Read before the Otago Institute, 26th November, 1878.] Two of the rats were caught in 1876 in a field of oats which I was cutting, eighteen miles from the shipping, and so might be called country rats. IthinkI killed four. The two kept were an old maleand a young female not quite full grown. I have found no others since. The skin I picked up at Napier port, alongside the shipping. It may be of some interest for me to state that the rats on the Canterbury plains in 1855 had regular warrens, and lived in communities. I have taken six and eight from one warren. The warren was not raised above the surface of the ground, but could be detected by the unusual greenness of the grass. There were a number of bolt holes within a circular radius of about four feet. At the time I was under the impression that they were ordinary rats; but not having seen this habit since or elsewhere, I now think that they must have been peculiar. In colour, I think, they resembled the common rat (Mus decumanus). We used to dig them up for the fun of seeing the dogs catch them. I was witness to the first migrations of the common mouse (Mus mus- culus) on three separate occasions. First, from about Christchurch to the plains at Oxford; second, from Oxford onwards over the first range of hills to country through which the Hokitika road now passes; and third, to the country bordering Lake Wakatipu. In all three places I lived a consider- able time, and never saw such a thing as a mouse, but the rats were legion, 344 Transactions. — Zoology. After a time the sight of the first mouse was reported as seen in the grass. In the course of a week the grass country and the houses were plentifully supplied. It is most remarkable that the rats immediately cleared out before them, and from that time were much scarcer. In Otago, formerly, I used to kill a greatnumber of rats living singly under plants of the Spaniard, the old leaves of which made-them a nice thatched roof, and the root was eaten if nothing better offered. Once in the early days of settlement in Otago, when I was snowed in, and could get nothing to feed my fowls on, I caught large numbers of rats near the house (getting them from under the Spaniard bushes) and roasted them for the fowls. I noticed that the stomach of these rats was generally full of a white wire-like worm, about two inches long, which I considered a parasite, as they were always perfect ; but, if I remember right, there was no appearance of other food in the stomach, and very lttle room for it, as the worms were knotted together into a mass that about filled the cavity. Note sy Pror. Hurton. The skin from Napier belongs to Mus rattus. It agrees perfectly with the description of the specimen in the Colonial Museum, from Wellington, (Trans. N.Z. Inst., IV., p. 183), and with Dr. Buller’s description of his Mus nove-zealandia (Trans. N.Z. Inst., I1I., p. 1). The two specimens caught in the oat-field had been put into kerosene, and were not fit for stuffing. They both presented, externally, the same characters as the skin from Napier. I have examined these two skulls, and find that they agree with Mr. Salter’s description of the skull of MW. rattus, except in being smaller and more elongated. Consequently, they differ from the Maori rat skulls, from Shag Point, in the particulars that I have already pointed out. There can, I think, be no doubt that these rats belong to the Polynesian variety of Alus rattus, and consequently the Maori rat must be regarded as a distinct species, for which I propose the name of Mus maorium. The following are the measurements of the skull of the adult male specimen. I have added measurements of M. rattus from England (from Mr. Salter’s drawings), and of MM. decumanus from New Zealand :— M. rattus, M, rattus, | M. decumanus, Napier, England. Dunedin. Length fs St ee ot, ais 1:43 1-64 1:78 Width at zygomatic arch* ae Ne 59 82 “75 Foramen magnum, height a 50 i119 ‘14 :20 9 a width oe ie 225 :28 28 * In the meisurements of the skulls from Shag Point, the width at the zygomatic arch should be ‘35, and not ‘35 as printed, Trntson- Woops.—On a new Species of Millepora. 845 Art. XL.—On a new Species of Millepora. By the Rev. J. E. Trytson- Woops, F.L.8., F.G.8., Corr. Mem. Roy. Soc. Victoria, Tasmania, Inn. Soc. N.S.W.; Hon., Mem. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., Adelaide Phil. Soc., etc., etc. Communicated by Prof. Hutton. [Read before the Otago Institute, 10th September, 1878.] THE specimen to which I have the honour to call the attention of the Society was sent to me by my friend Captain F. W. Hutton, of Otago, and was stated to have been found in Foveaux Strait; but the depth at which it occurred and its station were not stated. It is a tufted zoothome of highly reticulate structure, but hard and compact. It grows apparently in a solid mass, from which pencil-like cylindrical stones grow out verti- cally, to a height of two or three inches, but not more than a third of an inch in diameter. On examining the surface with the microscope, itis seen to be covered with minute rounded pores, which have an exact, thickened, very slightly raised margin. These pores are very close to one another, but there are interstices which are occupied by much smaller pores, which are in fact nothing but the polygonal spaces left between the closely- crowded tubes. When a fragment is broken across, two different kinds of structure are observed. One is a kind of outer ring, on which a radiate arrangement of the tubes is preserved, that is to say radiating from the axis to the circumference; the other is a centrai cancellous tissue, made up of tubes exactly like the surface, but the walls more delicate. The outer radiate ring of tubes is about one-fifth of the diameter; the remaining four- fifths 1s occupied by the central tissue. The latter is of different colour, or blueish white, while the outer ring is a reddish-brown. The tubes, which open on the outer surface, are not more than half a millimeter in depth, but it is not at first very clear whether they are closed by tapering to a point or whether they curve downwards or upwards, and so join the cancellous tissue or pith, as it might be termed, of the centre. ‘lhe tubes of the centre seem to be continuous. A hair can be easily passed down them for half an inch or more. When a section is made it is then clearly seen that the tubes curve downwards, and are crossed from time to time by tabule or partitions, which are few in number and wide apart. All these details point very decidedly to the nature of the organism with which we have to deal. It is a Millepore, but of an exceptional and peculiar type. Until very lately these singular corals were ranged amidst the Madreporaria tabulata. Their true character was, however, discovered by Agassiz on one of his cruises to the reefs of Florida, Prof. Dana says that he often had Millepore corals under study in the Pacific, and waited long for the expansion of the animals, but was never gratified by their making Al4 346 Transactions.—Zoology. their appearance.* Agassiz observes that they are very slow in expanding themselves. When expanded they have no resemblance to true polyps. There is simply a fleshy tube with a mouth at top and a few small rounded prominences in place of tentacles, four of them sometimes largest. The corals of the Millepore are solid and strong, as much so as any in coral seas. They have generally a smooth surface, and are always without any prominent calices, there being only very minute rounded punctures over the surface from which the animals show themselves. The cells in the coralline are divided parallel to the surface by very thin plates or tabies. The Millepore are very abundant corals. They extend outside the tropics in Australia as far south as Moreton Bay. In the West Indies they con- tribute largely to the formation of the reefs. According to Professor Verrill, there are thirteen species of the genus Millepore known, but two of these, M. monilifornis and complanata, are sup- posed to be varieties of M. alcicornis and plicata respectively. Without any exception they are all tropical and living. They occur, as already stated, in the West Indies, and also in the Indian Archipelago, the Red Sea, Mauritius, and the Fiji Islands. The occurrence, therefore, of a species in New Zealand, and in so cold a latitude as Foveaux Strait, is most singular and interesting. Such facts have a tendency to make us doubt some of the geological conclusions at which we sometimes arrive. A few years ago, the discovery of two reef-building genera of corals in the tertiary beds of Tasmania was looked upon as the evidence of an almost tropical climate. Indeed, a discussion ensued at the Geological Society of London as to whether it might not be presumed that the axis of the earth had shifted since these beds were deposited. The coral to which I am now drawing attention is truly of a reef-building kind, but I am not aware whether it forms reefs. ‘This would be a very interesting subject of enquiry. I have named the species Millepora wndulosa, from the peculiar undulating character of the surface of the branches. It is thus described :— Millepora undulosa, n.s. Corallum arborescent, very much branched, branches crowded cylindrical, spreading in all directions, generally somewhat flattened at the extremity and with a short bifurcation, often coalescent, either along the whole side of the branch or just at a point of contact, or by sending out a short small branchlet from one stem to another. The whole surface of the branches undulating with broad but not deep rugosities; cells exceedingly small, crowded, giving a spongy appearance; colour, dull reddish-brown. Alti- tude of specimen described 80; width at farthest extremity of branches Se * Corals and Coral Islands, by James D. Dana, English Kdition, p. 79. —= Gosset.—Notes on the Life History of Charagia virescens. 847 52; diameter of branches from 3} to 6; diameter of extremity of branch at bifurcation, 7 millimetres. It is nearest in shape, dimensions, etc., to M. tortwosa, of Fiji, the only known Pacific form. Nore.—MWMillepora undulosa is obtained not uncommonly by the Stewart Island oyster dredgers, in from 14 to 20 fathoms of water, along with Cinctipora elegans, Pustulipora purpurascens, Idmonea radians, and other polyzoa, Iam not aware that it forms anything like reefs,—F, W. H. Art, XLI.—Notes on the Life History of Charagia virescens, By the Rev. C. H. Gossztr. Communicated by Prof. Hurron. [Read before the Otago Institute, 8th October, 1878.] Tse larva lives chiefly on the extremely hard wood of the Black Maire (Olea apetala), but I have also found it in a tree known to the settlers about Masterton as the wine-berry or New Zealand currant tree ( Aristotelia racemosa). The wood of this last differs widely from the Maire, being very soft and white. I believe I have once or twice found the larva in other trees. C. virescens passes certainly three years in the larval state, probably four. In this stage of its existence it is extremely plentiful wherever the Black Maire abounds. It is not easy to find a single tree of this species that is not more or less honeycombed by its ravages; the imago, however, is far more rare. Of the larva I have obtained twenty specimens in about an hour, notwithstanding the loss of time in getting them out, whereas [ have only come across seven specimens of the perfect insect in four seasons. I believe I have once seen it on the wing, but I am not positive about it. I have generally come across it half dead, partially stiff and much faded and frayed. I have also found the wings, the insect having evidently fallen a prey to some bird. When newly emerged the perfect insect is very beautifully marked with blackish markings, but these soon fade, or get rubbed off, and the insect then presents a pretty uniform green with a few whitish markings. Although the larva is so plentiful, it requires a little practice to detect its burrow readily. If the limbs or trunk of a Black Maire be carefully examined, a more or less diamond-shaped mark, two or three inches in the side, may often be noticed, which varies slightly in tint from the surrounding bark; and if this patch is pressed with the finger it gives way; if the patch is torn off it is seen to be composed of yellowish or greyish silk, covered on the outside with scraps of bark, lichens, excreta of the larva, etc., the whole 348 Transactions.——Zoolugy. forming a wonderfully close imitation of the natural bark of the tree. Beneath this covering is seen a cavity, the depth of which varies from a quarter to half an inch, and rather above the centre of the cavity is the entrance to the burrow. The cavity around the entrance of the burrow is used by the larva to turn itself in. The burrow at first takes a course inwards and upwards for one, two, or more inches ; this upward inclination preventing the entrance of water. Then the burrow turns downward in a nearly vertical direction. This vertical portion of the burrow varies in leneth according to the age of the larva. That of a full-grown larva is about four or five inches long. I have seen them eight inches and proportionally wide. I have ascertained positively that the larva frequently inhabits the same burrow for more than two years, and I am of opinion that they generally keep to the same burrow during the whole larval stage. But I have occasionally found larve in terminal shoots which would not admit of their attaining full growth, and consequently they must in these cases change their ground. When the larva has attained its full size, it spins, at the top of the vertical portion of its burrow, a contrivance very much resembling that of the Trap-door Spider, as an additional security against its foes during the pupa state. The imago emerges in October and November. The best time to obtain the pupa is in September and the early part of October. It is easy to ascertain if the insect in a burrow is in the larval or pupa stage, for, if the exterior web is torn off, the larva, if inside, will replace it by the next day. The larva is flesh-coloured, tinted with purple; head dark brown, with a few strong bristles; spiracles black; segment next the head darker than the rest, horny, with a large black mark on each side, just above the spiracle. The pupa is flesh-coloured, inclining to brick red; head and thorax deep chestnut brown. The semi-transparent wing-cases show tae markings of the future imago. I have examined these larve and pupe in their different stages up to the time when by stripping off the pupa case, just before the insect was ready to emerge, the easily recognised Charagia virescens was disclosed. I do not think that the larva of C. virescens is the larva which is attacked by the fungus Cordiceps robertsti. Not only do the two larve differ in the size of the head and shape of the body—the larva of C. virescens being more cylindrical and with proportionately a larger head—but I do not see how C. virescens could get into the ground, which is the position in which the larva, which is attacked by the fungus, always is found. I think that the fungus-attacked larva is probably a Povina, Buiier.—Further Notes on the Habits of the Tuatara Lizard. B49 Art. XLI.—Further Notes on the Habits of the Tuatara Lizard. By Watter L. Butier, C.M G., Sc.D., F.L.S. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 3rd August, 1878.] In Vol. IX. of the Transactions I gave an account of a number of tuatara lizards (Sphenodon punctatum) which I had received from the Island of Karewa, in the Bay of Plenty, in April, 1876, to which were afterwards added an adult pair of my Sphenodon quntheri and a young one of the same species, obtained by exchange from the Colonial Museum. It is now nearly two years since I received these lizards, and I have a few notes to add to the observations so fully recorded in that paper. For many months my captive lizards ate nothing, although I tempted them with all sorts of savoury morsels. A small tree lizard ( Vaultinus) which I placed in the cage with them disappeared; but whether it was devoured by the tuataras or effected its escape I was unable to determine. They were sluggish in their movements, and usually appeared to be asleep with their eyes partially closed, even when lying in the trough of water with their bodies submerged. As the summer approached they showed more acti- vity and began to feed, evincing a decided preference for flies and the large brown locust (Cicada), of which latter they sometimes devoured as many as fifty in the course of a day. But as it was necessary to catch the locusts on the garden trees before they could be supplied, for many days together the tuataras were compelled to fast, as they stubbornly rejected the minced meat which we continued to place in the cage. As winter came round again they relapsed into their former languid state, although never absolutely torpid, and for two or three months did not eat a morsel of any thing. In November last we tried them with earth-worms, of which they partook freely. When the supply of worms ran out we gave them fresh meat again. Sphenodon punctatum refused it, but (strange to say) Sphenodon gunthert devoured it greedily, gorging themselves to repletion. Apparently from this cause (following so immediately on the prolonged fast) the largest of them died. About this time also they developed a new phase of character by attacking and biting one another. One lost an eye, and another had a portion of his under lip torn off, completely altering the expression of his face. The half-crown Sphenodon quntheri suffered most. First of all he had the end of his tail bitten off, and ultimatelv he was killed outright, the whole of his tail consumed, and one of his hind legs much erunched and lacerated. A temporary change of residence made it difficult for a time to obtain locusts, and the lizards (with the exception of the surviving L. guntheri) 850 Transactions.—-Zoology. refusing the ordinary fare of fresh meat, from December to February they were on very short commons indeed, and practically ate nothing, In March a new feature of character came to light, and one likely to affect most favourably their future prison life. My son, Percy, having brought home one day a basket-full of sea-minnows, for the purpose of feeding a tame skua, out of mere curiosity I offered one of them to the tuataras; it was instantly pounced upon by the nearest of them, and a few minutes afterwards each of the lizards was crunching and swallowing a fish three or four inches long with evident relish. Some more were placed in the cage and were eagerly devoured. Seeing how very difficult it is to induce the tuataras to take other than their natural food, it is sufficiently manifest that fish-eating is nothing new to them. Their evident fondness for water, basking as they do in the tin reservoir for the most part of the day and often with the head submerged, raises the question whether they are not, in point of fact, amphibious animals, subsisting in their wild state, ‘to some extent at least, on fish and other marine life. I have experimented by filling their trough with sea water, and they have taken to it just as readily as when the bath was of fresh water. I have not yet had an opportunity of trying them with a larger vessel, containing live fish. But feeding our tuataras plentifully with small fish in the manner described, we have succeeded in advancing their education another step, for they will now partake freely of fresh meat, in almost any quantity, if minced up and offered at the end of a fork or pointed stick. It is amusing to watch this operation. The lizards climb up the inclined floor of the cage, and then clinging to a projecting stone they elevate the head and watch in a stupid way till the food is offered, when they deliberately snatch it away, and then proceed very slowly to crunch it between their jaws before swallowing. While thus feeding they remind one of a tame bear at the top of his pole. When a live fly or locust is thrown into the cage, the tuatara approaches it in the same cautious way, then turns his head so as to bring his vision in a line with the object, which he eyes intently for a moment, and then seizes with a rapid movement, the tongue being protruded. Having kept and closely watched both species of tuatara, I am satisfied that they not only differ in their superficial characters but also in habits and disposition. The Museum examples, all of which, except the two received from me, belong to Sphenodon guntheri, feed readily on fresh meat, soaked bread, and indeed almost anything edible that is offered to them, and they have done so from the first. Tull very recently all my specimens of S. punctatum obstinately refused the fresh meat, were always more lethargic than the other form, and when roused appeared to be more shy and timid. Both species are equally fond of basking in the water. Buiier.—On the specific Value of Prion banksii. 351 Note on the Tuatara from East Cape Island. In a paper* read before this Society last year, I described a new form of tuatara ( Sphenodon guntheri, var.), from Hast Cape Island, in the posses- sion of Mr. John White, of Napier. Referring to this specimen, Mr. White writes me :—‘‘ The tuatara which my son Arthur has, was obtained in the year 1873 from the island called Whangaokino at the Hast Cape. The native who got it informs me that he saw on this island tuataras green in colour, and others like the one in question.”’ Arr. XLIII.—On the specific Value of Prion banksu. By W. L. Butusr, CEG Sc.D: [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 3rd August, 1878.] In treating of Prion bankstt, in my ‘‘ Birds of New Zealand” (page 311), I made the following observations :—‘‘ The propriety of retaining the above specific distinction appears to me very doubtful; but I am unwilling to dismiss the supposed species till the subject has been further investigated.” In an article which I afterwards contributed to our Transactions,+ I expressed my belief that the species would stand, and pointed out what appeared to me good distinguishing characters. A recent visit to the West Coast, after very stormy weather, has enabled me to settle this point beyond all doubt. A north-west gale had been blowing for several days, and large numbers of Prion had been washed ashore. In travelling by coach from Waikanae to Otaki, a distance of only ten miles, I counted no less than twenty-seven lying on the strand, and there were probably many more. As I performed the rest of the journey to Manawatu in a buggy, I was able to stop and pick up specimens. In this way I was fortunate enough to obtain, during one day, twenty fresh birds. Of these, twelve were referable without hesitation to Prion turtwr and eight to Prion banksit. The difference in the size and form of the beak was constant, and among individuals of each species there was only a slight variation. I selected the smallest of Prion banksti for the purposes of comparison, and I beg now to exhibit it together with an ordinary specimen of Prion turtur. It will be seen that the two birds are very readily distinguishable. Thinking that the difference in the size of the bill might possibly be a * Transactions New Zealand Institute, Vol. X., p. 220. t Vol. VII, p. 208, 352 Transactions.—Z oology. sexual character, I dissected the whole of the twenty specimens, with the following result:—Of P. banksii there were four males and four females ; of P. turtur there were seven males and five females. In some cases, owing to the state of the productive organs at this season of the year (first week in July), I was unable to determine the sex with absolute certainty. In others, however, the testes were sufficiently conspicuous; while in two females of P. turtur and in one of P. banksii I was able to detect a bunch of undeveloped eggs. The examination in this respect was therefore con- clusive, and I have now no hesitation in admitting P. banksti into the list of well established species. Diagnosis :—Similis P. turturi, sed rostro latiore, pileo saturatiore et cauda nigro latius terminata distinguendus. All the specimens picked up by me on this occasion were dead, with the exception of the Prion banksit, now exhibited. I found this one on the sandy beach, where the surf had left him, sitting up in wet and draggled plumage, looking the very picture of abject misery. Beside him stood a seagull (Larus dominicanus) patiently waiting for his victim to succumb before commencing his savoury feast, when the unbidden guest appeared in the guise of a naturalist! Dr. Finsch refers the Prion vittatus, and P. bankstt of Hutton’s ‘ Cata- logue,” to P. banksii, Smith, and P. turtur, Sol., respectively, and he is certainly right in doing so; for Prof. Hutton gives his P. banksii a bill only the decimal part of an inch broader than that of P. turtur, while he makes that of P. vittatus only *6. On reference to the figures accompanying my paper in Vol. VII., it will be seen that the width of the bill in the true P. banksti is +55, and in P. vitlatus -85. Dr. Finsch agrees with me in sinking Gould’s Prion ariel, as it cannot be separated from P. turtur; and he unhesitatingly refers the bird described by Mr. Potts under the name of Prion australis to P. vittatus, Dr. Hector having forwarded him a specimen for examination. Not having seen the type of P. australis, I accept Dr. Finsch’s determination; but it must be borne in mind that Mr. Gould, who was quite familiar with P. vitiatus, declares positively that there is another and broader-billed species, adding, however, ‘‘ the precise latitudes in which this fine bird flies are unknown to me.”’ Butier.—On Eudynamis taitensis. 353 Anr. XLIV.—Remarks on the Long-tailed Cuckoo (Kudynamis taitensis). By Wauter L. Buuurr, C.M.G., Sc.D. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 3rd August, 1878.] THERE is a remarkable phenomenon in the animal world known to naturalists ’ as ‘‘mimicry,” or the law of protective resemblance. It is developed chiefly among insects, and particularly among the Lepidoptera. Mr. Wallace des- eribes, at page 205 of his enchanting book on the ‘‘ Malay Archipelago,” a butterfly which, when at rest, so closely resembles a dead leaf as almost to defy detection. The varied details of colouring combine to produce a disguise that so exactly represents a slightly curved or shrivelled leaf as to render the butterfly quite safe from the attacks of insectivorous birds, except when on the wing. The flight of the species, on the other hand, is so vigorous and rapid that it is well able then to protect itself. Mr. Wallace adds that in many specimens there occur patches and spots, formed of small black dots, so closely resembling the way in which minute fungi grow on leaves, that 1t is impossible not to believe that fungi have grown on the butterflies themselves! This protective imitation must obviously favour the species in the common struggle for existence, and may of itself be sufficient to save it from extinction. But there is another kind of ‘“‘ mimicry’? where one insect which would, on discovery, be eagerly devoured, assumes for similar protective purposes a close resemblance to some other insect notoriously distasteful to birds and reptiles, and often belonging to a totally different family or order. Numberless instances might be given in illustration of this singular fact, every department furnishing examples of adaptation more ‘or less complete, and all being explainable on the principle of variation under natural selection or the ‘‘ survival of the fittest.” Mr. Wallace, when exploring in the Moluccas, was the first to discover similar instances of mimicry among birds, although the law of protective colouring had long been observed to exist in the case of birds’ eggs. He gives two very curious examples of external resemblance, co-existing with very important struc- tural differences, rendering it impossible to place the model and the copy near each other in any natural arrangement. In one of these a honey- sucker has its colours mimicked by a species of oriole, and the reason is thus stated :—‘‘ They must derive some advantage from the imitation, and as they are certainly weak birds, with small feet and claws, they may require it. Now, the Tropidorhynchi are very strong and active birds, having powerful grasping claws, and long, curved, sharp beaks. They assemble together in groups and small flocks, and they have a very loud, bawling note, which can be heard at a great distance, and serves to collect A15 354 Transactions. —Zoology. a number together in time of danger. They are very plentiful and very pugnacious, frequently driving away crows and even hawks, which perch on a tree where a few of them are assembled. It is very probable, there- fore, that the smaller birds of prey have learnt to respect these birds, and leave them alone, and it may thus be a great advantage for the weaker and less courageous Mimetas to be mistaken for them. This being the case, the laws of Variation and Survival of the fittest, will suffice to explain how the resemblance has been brought about, without supposing any voluntary action on the part of the birds themselves; and those who have read Mr. Darwin's ‘ Origin of Species’ will have no difficulty in comprehending the whole process.” Among the many minor instances that have attracted notice, the English cuckoo (Cucubus canorus) is supposed to derive protection from the resemblance of its markings to those of the sparrow-hawk / Accipiter nisus), but the resemblance is far more striking between our long-tailed cuckoo (Eudynamis taitensis) and a North American species of hawk (dAcctpiter couperi). In the fine specimens of the former which I exhibit this evening, it will be observed that the markings of the plumage are very pronounced, while the peculiar form of the bird itself distinguishes it very readily from all other New Zealand species. Beyond the general grouping of the colours there is nothing to remind us of our own bush-hawk, and that there is no great protective resemblance is sufficiently manifest from the fact that our cuckoo is persecuted on every possible occasion by the tui, which is timorous enough in the presence of a hawk. During a trip, however, on the Continent, in the autumn of 1871, I found in the Zoological Museum at Frankfort, what appeared to be the accipitrine model, in a very striking likeness to our bird. Not only has our cuckoo the general contour of Cooper’s sparrow-hawk, but the tear-shaped markings on the under parts and the arrow-head bars on the femoral plumes are exactly similar in both. The resemblance is carried still further in the beautifully banded tail and marginal wing-coverts, and likewise in the distribution of colours and markings on the sides of the neck. On turning to Mr. Sharpe’s description of the ‘‘young male”’ of this species in his Catalogue of the Acsipitres in the British Museum (p. 187), it will be seen how many of the terms employed apply equally to our Ludynamis, even to the general words ‘“‘deep brown above with a chocolate gloss, all the feathers of the upper surface broadly edged with rufous.” The coincident existence of such a remarkable resemblance to a New World form, cannot of course be any protection to an inhabitant of New Zealand, and I do not pretend in this instance to apply the rule; but in the light of natural selection, to which at present no limit can be assigned, the fact itself is a suggestive one, the more so when wo remember that this Bunirr,—On a Species of Lestris. 855 cuckoo of ours is not a permanent resident, but migrates every winter to the Society Islands. Of this annual migration, across 1,500 miles of ocean, Captain Hutton has well remarked ‘‘there is nothing in the whole world so wonderful |”’ Art, XLV.—Remarks on a Species of Lestris, inhabiting our Seas. By Wauter L. Bunuer, C.M.G., Sc.D., ete. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 17th August, 1878.] I nave the pleasure of exhibiting this evening, in illustration of the remarks Iam about to offer, the only four known examples of the small Skua yet obtained in New Zealand, The first of these is the adult bird described in my ‘ Birds of New Zealand” (p. 268), and shot by myself at Horowhenua, on April 30th, 1864; the second is Dr. Hector's young specimen, noticed by me in the Transactions, Vol. VII., p. 225; the third is another young. bird, shot in Wellington Harbour in January, 1877, and mentioned in my paper in last volume of Transactions, p. 200; and the fourth, and most recent, is a specimen in more mature plumage, for which I am indebted to Mr. C. H. Robson, who picked it up at the beach at Cape Campbell, in a perfectly fresh state, in the last week of November, 1877. In my work I referred the first-named example to Stercorarius parasiticus, Linn., and added the following remarks :—‘ Dr. Finsch, to whom I sub- mitted the skin, is of opinion that it is an immature bird; and Mr. Howard Saunders, who has made the Laride his special study, expresses his convic- tion that it is a new and hitherto undescribed species. I am rather disposed, however, to consider it an aged female of the species known as Buffon’s Skua, with the plumage much faded and worn, indicating a sick or exhausted condition of body. I may add that the two middle tail-feathers are only partially developed, being encased in a sheath at the base. They extend only about an inch beyond the rest, and are much abraded, having a peculiar filamentous appearance.” Mr. Howard Saunders, who, as Lord Walden justly says, may be con- sidered the ‘first authority ’’ on the family of birds to which the Skua belongs, communicated to the Zoological Society on the 8rd March, 1876, a paper ‘On the Stercorariine or Skua Gulls,” in which he deals chiefly with the synonymy and geographical range of the members of that group. In his list of synonyms of Stercorarius crepidatus (Richardson’s Skua) Mr. Saunders includes my Stercorarius parasiticus, and in his account of the species he observes that he can refer to no other the example recorded, as above-mentioned, in my book, adding—‘‘ His general description suits 8, 856 Transactions. —Zooloyy. erepidatus ; and he expressly states that the shafts of the primaries are white, the characteristic which particularly serves to distinguish it from Buffon’s Skua, with which he has identified it, At the time that I examined the specimen in question, I was not aware of this distinctive feature; the skin, also, had been badly preserved; and, to make matters worse, the plumage was so worn and abraded that it is a marvel that the bird was able to fly at all.” Mr. Saunders has evidently, in this case, trusted more to his memory than to the notes which, we may assume, he would make on examining a novel specimen—one which, in fact, he took to be a ‘‘a new and hitherto undescribed species.” It will be seen, at a glance, that the specimen now before the meeting (which passed through Mr, Saunders’ hands in the same condition) instead of being a “ badly prepared skin” is a first-class cabinet specimen, and that, instead of having ‘the plumage so worn and abraded as to make it a marvel that the bird could fly at all,” the wings are in perfect plumage, the only abraded feathers being about the head and neck, which could not well affect the flying capabilities of the bird. It would almost seem that Mr. Saunders has not the courage of his opinion, although, as it turns out, his first expressed conviction on seeing my specimen is not unlikely to prove the true one after all. Of Stercorarius crepidatus Mr. Saunders says :—‘‘ Dr. Coues follows those authors who have chosen to divert Linneus’s name of L. parasiticus to this species—-a supposition utterly negatived by the description in the Syst. Nat., p. 226, which is based upon that in his ‘ Fauna Suecica,’ p. 55, No. 156. Nothing could well be clearer than this statement:—‘ Rectricibus duabus intermediis lonyissimis,’ which can only apply to Buffon’s or the Long-tailed Skua; but, as if to make assurance doubly sure, Linneeus adds ‘remiges nigre, rachi 1.2. nivea.’ The natural inference, from drawing especial attention to the fact that the shafts of the first and second primaries are white, is clearly that those of the other primaries are not white. Now the particular characteristic by which Richardson’s Skua may be dis- tinguished, at any age beyond that of the nestling, is that the shafts of the other primaries are conspicuously lighter than in those of Buffon’s Skua, in which only those of the first and second primaries are white, those of the third and successive primaries being dark. I am indebted to Mr. R. Collett, of Christiania, for pointing out to me, some years since, this excellent distinction. The Lestris parasiticus of Linneus is therefore not S. crepidatus, but the Buffon’s Skua; and so is, according to my view, Catharacta parasiticus of Brunnich, but it is needless to discuss the latter name as it is out of date.” If Mr, Saunders is right in making this character of the shafts a specific Butter. —On a Species of Lestris. 867 test, it is sufficiently evident that our bird is not Stercorarius parasiticus, as Dr. Finsch and myself had supposed; for it will be scen that in all the specimens now exhibited the whole of the primaries have white shafts. The next point to be considered is whether Mr. Saunders is right in referring it to Stercorarius crepidatus. He says :—‘‘ Dr. Coues considers that the Larus erepidatus of Gmelin is in all probability based upon the young of the Pomatorhine Skua, to which Brisson gave the name of Stercorarius striatus. It is true that Gmelin (who translated from Latham) identifies S. striatus of Brisson with his LZ. crepidatus; but although 8, striatus is certainly a young Pomatorhine, it was by no means easily recognizable by the naturalists of that day. * * * On referring to Hawkesworth’s Voyages (1773) Vol. II., p. 15 (not Vol. I., p. 15, as erroneously cited by Latham, and of course duly copied by Gmelin, without reference), we find in the narrative of Lieut. Cook's Voyage in the ‘ Endeavour ’ that ‘‘ on the 8th Oct., 1768, when a little to the South of the Cape-Verd Islands, Sir Joseph Banks shot the black-toed gull, not yet deseribed according to Linneus’s system; he gave it the name of Larus crepidatus. The black-toed gull is described in Pennant’s British Zoology Vol. IL, p. 419 (1768); and plate 2 is an excellent representation of Richardson’s Skua of the year, the fect of this spectes at that age having the upper parts of the webs yellowish, and the posterior portion black, giving the bird the appearance of being ‘shod’ or ‘ sandalled,’ whence Bank’s some- what quaint Latin rendering.” (The italics are mine). If this character of the coloured feet is reliable, then it is pretty evident also that our bird is not Stercorarius crepidatus ; for it will be seen that in the young examples exhibited, the feet are similar to those of the adult—a uniform greyish-black—if we except a dull spot of yellow at the inner angle of the toes. There is nothing of the ‘ sandalled’ appearance described by Sir Joseph Banks, though possibly a still younger bird might exhibit more of the yellow. I do not care to pronounce any distinct opinion till I have received specimens of the European bird for comparison with ours; but it seems to me that the nearly adult example of the New Zealand bird, now exhibited, is readily separable from the adult of S. crepidatus as described in the books of reference. The ‘‘ burnished acuminate feathers’’ on the nape are wanting in our bird, and the pomts of the two narrow, over- lapping tail-feathers extend only two decimal parts of an inch beyond the rest, as shown in the accompanying sketch (fig. 1) :— B58 Lvansactions.—Zoology. On acomparison of these specimens it is perfectly clear that the one originally described by me in the ‘Birds of New Zealand’ is an adult bird, and not “immature” as Dr, Finsch supposed. It is in the con- dition of those described Reduced to half the natural size. by Mr. Saunders from Layard’s collection, “all of which were in the act of losing and renewing the central tail-feathers and the outer primaries, which are the last to be moulted.’”’ The remarkable filamentous appearance of the central rectrices in my first bird is shown in the second sketch (fig. 2) :— There is an ob- vious difference in the colouration of the two quasi-adult specimens exhibited, the one having (as described in my work) the breast greyish - white and the abdomen ashy- Reduced to half the natural size. erey, tinged with brown, while the other has the entire under surface white, marked on the breast and sides with interrupted bars of sooty brown. In both, however, the under surface of the wings and the axillary plumes are of a uniform dark ashy-grey. These individual differences are thus accounted for by Mr. Saunders in treating of S. crepidatus :—‘ It is now well known that there are two very distinct plumages to be found in birds of this species, even in the same breeding-places—an entirely sooty form, and one with light underparts—and that white-breasted pair with whole-coloured birds as well as with those of their respective varieties. If this species is ‘dimorphic,’ the offspring of one parti-coloured and one white-coloured bird ought to resemble one or other of their parents without reference to sex. My examination of upwards of a hundred specimens from widely different localities, and in all stages, inclines me to the belief that this is not the case, and that the young of such union will be intermediate, whilst the offspring of two similar parents will ‘breed true,’ This point can only be solved by Butier.—Note On Mr. H. Saunders’ Review of the Larine. 359 some ornithologist, who will devote his attention to a colony during the breeding-season, observing the produce of all these unions, and, if possible, marking the nestlings before they take wing. It is worthy of notice that in Spitzbergen, its most northern breeding-ground, neither Dr. Malmgren nor Professor Newton found a single example of the dark whole-coloured form ; all those which Admiral Collinson’s and Dr. Rae’s expeditions brought home from the far North are also white-breasted specimens, which looks as if the dark form was a more exclusively Southern one.” Art.—XLVI.—Note on Mr. Howard Saunders’ Review of the Larine, or Gulls. By Dr. Butuzr, C.M.G. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 11th January, 1879.} Mr. Howarp Saunpers, in his revision of the Laring, in the Proc. Zool. Society, Part I., 1878, steps out of his way (at page 161) to notice my having adopted Bonaparte’s Bruchiyavia, “a genus playfully made,” for a New Zealand species, this being as he states ‘‘its only claim to remem- brance.’”’ Had Mr. Saunders possessed that close acquaintance with the literature of his subject which is supposed to be an essential qualification in a monographist, he would of course have been aware that Mr. Gould, in his ‘* Handbook to the Birds of Australia’ (published in 1865), adopted Bona- parte’s playful name for ‘“‘a genus of gulls the members of which are delicate in their structure, elegant in their appearance, and graceful in all their actions’’—deliberately substituting that generic title for Xema, the one previously