Lbaaextin ae Ns i Me Geng HW aunsn he rine a i rk 2 i UNA met uN ee ae ieee + Tein n Ve ae 4 ioe Sct Vets eatin 5 le es a\valn tats Rae nh ni ys ten ae wee ah) ok aed) hvbe ia ait i 4 i ; , { yas ‘ nee otee 9 is a Ren eat NR SB ak ni i a sot me Eiht oer ie iN : ie } vr cn I DRURU eae ad Bien thE Lien ie eM rch RA i tN) Brahe ih , bes a Pte 9 nt ea ata eae f ‘ Vag Taw athe ta ae EIB Seca SNR tmnt ENO is mh His : bch eG i ri TOE! hy pears dir hevey y a oe a be ces den ie 4 i eee WR Paling, akin Y + BY Barcsae a PINCHES eel ai Hee * ee a yi ye ane) AA “TRANSACTIONS PROCEEDINGS NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE Bee 1879 NEOs Xelch GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE BY JAMES HECTOR, C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S. Issurp, May 1880. WELLINGTON: LYON & BLAIR, PRINTERS, LAMBTON QUAY. TRUBNER & CO., 60, PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON, a PREFACH. Tur Editor has to acknowledge the assistance of the following gentlemen in revising their papers for the press:—Messrs. Frankland, Kirk, T. W. Kirk, Buchanan, Knight, Skey, Kemp, and Newman. While doing so he would call the attention of writers to the necessity for great care in preparing their manuscript for the printer. It is impossible that a volume of such varied contents can be entirely free from error, but the difficulty of deciphering manu- script adds much both to the chance of error and the expense of publication. In some cases it has been possible to print papers with any approach to correctness only by a careful study of the author’s mode of forming letters, aided by reference to dictionaries and catalogues. A scientific record such as our Transactions is only of value if exact ; and the Editor makes these remarks purely with the intention of averting the irritation often caused to writers by the occurrence of mistakes (arising from imperfections in the manuscript), which they are perhaps inclined to attribute to the editing branch of the Institute. An acknowledgement is due to Mr. Buchanan for drawing the illustrations on stone, and to Mr. Gore for the meteorological record. Also to the officers of the lithographic and photo-lithographic departments, who, by the kind permission of the Colonial Secre- tary, have assisted in the completion of the plates. ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA. PAGE 115, line 8 from below, for Ctenopodium read Chenopodium. 159, line 19, for native read Nature. 160, line 4, and 163, line 9, for Kaipara-te-hau read Ka-para-te-hau. 162, line 3, for Rongi read Rongo. 227, line 6, for Munipari read Munipuri. 228, in the second table, after sadikit insert kichi. 229, line 16, for the first ayo read aya. 230, line 5, for Khambi read Khamti. », in the second table, wnder tagata insert ola (life). . o Hn a » tangata insert oranga (life). 7 % Fe » he kanaka insert ke-ola-ana (life). », line 17, for There is no read By conversion there is close. », line 18, after word insert man being life. », line 22, after Malay insert and (by conversion) of Samoan, Maori, and Hawaiian. 231, line 19, for Takha read Yakha. 235, last line, for 235 read 252. 236, line 1, for 496 read 513. 240, in the fourth column, line 14, after idup, Malay insert bula, Fijian 245, line 24, for Ziphius read Epiodon. 272, line 2 from below, and 273, line 1, for Declava read Declana. 281, line 15, for Asteriseus read Asteriscus. 282, line 19, for Ophiarachna read Ophiorachna. 291, line 7, for Aphide read Cicadide. 294, line 3, for hairy read double. 360, line 26, for thyssoid read thyrsoid. < XXI. XXII. ClO UNe DT aN, Les). eveAGIN Sea Crh ORNS I.—MIscELLANEOUS. On the Occurrence of the Red-capped Dotterel (Hiaticula rufi- capilla) in New Zealand. By T. W. Kirk, Assistant in the Colonial Museum 50 sie ou ate PAGES. . The Forest Question in New Zealand. By A. Lecoy, M.A., LL.B. Univ. Paris .. ae 3 a0 3—23 . Influence of Forests on Climate and Rainfall. By Frederick S. Peppercorne, C.E. O60 O60 oo 24—32 . Notes on Port Nicholson and the Natives in 1839. By ees Charles Heaphy, V.C. 60 ot 32—239 . On the Principle of New Zealand Weather Forecast. By Gene mander R. A. Edwin, R.N. 40—49 . On the Ignorance of the Ancient New wentende a the Use of Projectile Weapons. By Coleman Phillips. - 50—63 . On the Moa. By W. Colenso, F.L.S. ie ie - 63—108 . Contributions towards a better ee pouetes of the Maori Race. By W. Colenso . 108—147 . A few Remarks on a Gee near Goole Well, at eraes Bay, - and on a Tree (Sapota costata) found there. By W. Colenso 147—150 . Notes on an Ancient Manufactory of Stone Implements at the Mouth of the Otokai Creek, Brighton, Otago. By Prof. Julius von Haast, Ph.D., F.R.S., Director of the Canterbury Museum 150—153 . Notes on the Colour-Sense of the Maori. By James W. Stack .. 153—158 . Remarks on Mr. Mackenzie Cameron’s Theory ere ie Kahui Tipua. By James W. Stack . 159—164 . Notes on the Southern Stars and other Celestial Onjects By i: H. Pope . bo -. 165—175 . Partial Impact (Paper No. 3): ton the Onan of the Visible Uni- verse. By Prof. A. W. Bickerton, F.C.S., President of the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury i - 175—181 . Partial Impact (Paper No. 4): On the General Beis of Stellar Collision. By Prof. A. W. Bickerton 181—186 . On the Genesis of Worlds and Systems. By Prof. A. W. Biekern 187—197 . On the Birth of Nebule. By Prof. A. W. Bickerton .. -- 197—205 . On the Doctrine of Mind-Stuff. By Frederick W. Frankland .. 205—215 . A Reply to Mr. Frankland’s Paper on ‘‘ The Doctrine of Mind- Stuff.” By C. W. Richmond, a Judge of the Ne ius Court of New Zealand oe -. 215—223 . Pronouns and other Barat Fossil Words compared with Primeval and Non-Aryan Languages of Hindostan and Borders. By J. Turnbull Thomson, F.R.G.S., F.R.S.8.A.. ete. .. os 223—237 . Moriori Connection. By J. Turnbull Thomson se -. 237—240 II.—Zoonoey. Notes on Ziphius (Epiodon) nove-zealandie, von Haast—Goose- beaked Whale. By Prof. Julius von Haast, Ph.D., F.R.S., Director of the Canterbury Museum .. Bs .. 241—246 246—247 vi XXII. XLVI. XLVI. . On the New Zealand Frog. By Dr. Fitzinger. . Note and Description of a possibly-new Epacies of Apsias . On Anas gracilis, Buller. Contents. PAGES. Remarks on some curious oon of New Zealand Birds. By T. W. Kirk . 248—249 . Notes on the Nesting Habits of the Ouiee wattled Gok. By W. D. Campbell, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., F.G.8. - 249—250 Translated from the Zoology of the Voyage of the ‘‘ Novara,” by Prof. Hutton 250—251 . Notes and Observations on the Animal Economy and Habits of one of our New Zealand Lizards, supposed to be a new mbes of Naultinus. By W. Colenso, F.L.S. 251—264 . Description of a new (?) Genus and Species of Bane of the Sub-family Satyrine. By R. W. Fereday, C.M.E.S.L. . 264—266 . Description of a (?) new Species of the Family Leucanide, ana a (2) new Species of the Genus (?) Chlenias. By R. W. Fereday 267—270 By F, H. Meinertzhagen . 270—271 By Prof, Hiaton, of the ee Uni- versity . 271—272 . Contributions to the Entomoloes of New Zealand) By Prof, Hutton 272—274 . Contributions to the Celenterate Fauna of New Zealand. By Prof. Hutton ous »- 274—276 . Additions to the List of New oid Woe By Prof. Hutton 277—278 . Descriptions of new Star-fishes from New Zealand. By Prof. A. E. Verrill. From the Trans. Connecticut Acad., me Communicated by Prof. Hutton . 278 —283 . On the Habits of Prionoplus reticularis, with Diagnoses of the ‘Larva and Pupa. By Capt. T. Broun . 284—288 . Description of the Larva of Pericoptus truncatus, with Gheenaions as to Habitat. By Capt. T. Broun -. 288—290 . Further Notes on New Zealand Coccide. By W. M. Maskell - 291—301 . On Melicerta ringens and Plumatella repens. By A. Hamilton .. 301—303 . List of Marine Mollusca found in the neighbourhood of Wellington: By T. W. Kirk, Assistant in the Colonial Museum - 303—306 . Descriptions of new Marine Shells. By T. W. Kirk .. - 3806—307 . Notice of the Occurrence of Vitrina Cae in New Zealand. By T. W. Kirk od ee 307 . Additions to the List of New Zealand Fishes. By T. W. Kirk .. 308—310 . On the Occurrence of Giant Cuttlefish on the New Zealand Couet. By T. W. Kirk : . 310—313 . Description of a new Species of Patinur US. “By ALG W. ‘Kirk - 318—314 : Description of a new Species of Lizard of the Genus Naultinus. By W. L. Buller, C.M.G., Se.D., F.R.S. . 314—315 . Notes on Fishes in Upper Whanganui River. By ee sai SS) 50 re ae 315—316 UI.—Borany. On ine Botany of the ee Mountain. By T. F. ae E.L.S. . . 817—323 On the Occurrence “of the Guar Sporadanthus in Now Penna By T. F. Cheeseman . 324—325 . A short Sketch of the Flora of the Peowinee of Gantorbtiee: an Catalogue of Species. By J. B. Armstrong -. 325—353 » Notice of the Occurrence of A ate gunnit, Lob., in New Zealand. By D. Petrie, M.A. a te 354 - Notice of the Occurrence of a Species of Henipioes in New Zea- land. By D. Petrie 5 é . 355—356 Contents. Vil PAGES. LIT. Description of a new Species of Ehrharta. By D. Petrie ee 306—357 LIII. Notes on the Growth of certain Trees on Scoria Soil near Mount Eden, Auckland. By T. B. Gillies, a guar of the eer Court of New Zealand 357— 358 LIV. A Description of a few new Plants from our New Feattid Forests, with dried Specimens of the same. By W. Colenso, F.L.8... 359—367 LY. Contribution to the eer ap ie of New Zealand. By Chaves Knight, F.L.S. . 3867—379 LVI. Notes on New Zealand ara By J. een F. 1. 8. . 380—382 LVII. On Grasses and Fodder Plants. By 8. M. Curl, M.D. - 382—393 LVI. Descriptions of new Flowering Plants. By T. Kirk, F.L.S8. . 3983—397 LIX. Description of a new Species of Cladophora. By T. Kirk 397 LX. Notice of the Occurrence of Lagenophora emphysopus and other unrecorded Plants in New Zealand. By T. Kirk.. . 3897—399 TV.—CHEMIsTRY. LXI. On certain Results obtained upon some of the Argentiferous Salts which are affected by Light. By William age Analyst to the Geological Survey Department -. 401—403 LXII. Further Notes upon the Movements of Camphor on Water. By William Skey .. oe ote ate -. 403—406 LXII. On the Mode in which Oil acts as a Nucleus in Super-saturated Saline Solutions ; with Notes on the Mode of Action of Bold Nuclei. By William Skey 0 . 407—411 LXIV. On the Cause of the Hepner of Camphor ane Light. By William Skey.. 411 LXV. On the Nature of the Precipitates feed by oad Mercurie Salts in presence of Essential Oils. By William Skey _ . 412—414 LXVI. On the Decomposition of Argentic-oxide by Mercury. By William Skey ae 56s G0 we Ee 414 V.—GEoLoecyY. LXVII. On Wind-formed Lakes. By J. C. Crawford, F.G.S. - 415—416 LXVIII. On Bidwill’s Front Hills. By J. C. Crawford . 416—418 LXIX. Remarks on Volcanoes and Geysers of New Zealand. By W. Collie Sc OC 6c oC . 418—420 PROCEEDINGS. WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. Account of Two Journeys to the Summit of Mount poe ae G. Beetham, M.H.R. (abstract) . 5 oie 423 Remarks on Hematite and Spathic Iron Ores: By Dr. Hector On ee 424 What should be the Highest Aim of the rete Pivocepyieat pee ? By Dominick Brown 56 425 Suggestion towards a Theory acesuntne fo the Movedlouts of ie Magnetic Needle. By the Hon. R. Hart, M.L.C... We is 50 425 Remarks on Forest Planting and Conservation, with reference to particular Localities in the Wellington District. By G. W. Williams (abstract) eo. 428—429 Election of Governor of New Zealand Institute ie oe 50 431 On the Cultivation of Beet for ae Manufacture of Sugar, etc. By S. M. Curl, M.D. (abstract) . ot eye : 50 431 Account of the ar diee Exhibition. By Dr. Fretor ae 5.0 432 A few Remarks on Art Perspective. By R. T. Holmes .. ee on 432 vill Contents. PAGES. Abstract Report of Council 310 D0 ate 60 So 432 Election of Officers for 1880 56 ; 50 AO .. 432—433 Anniversary Address by the President, Dr. Nowan 64 AG .. 433—438 On Neobalena marginata and Kogia breviceps. By Dr. Hector. .. .. 438—439 On a Deposit of Chalk recently discovered near Oxford in Canterbury. By Dr. Hector 60 30 39 29 439 On Moa Feathers. By Dr. Heotor é 439 Further Contributions to the Or DOeey of New Zealand! mee W. L. Buller, C.M.G., Se.D., F.R.S. 00 439 AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. Address by the President, the Rev. Dr. Purchas eye . 441—446 Notes on a Disease among Sheep in the Waikato District. By Maror W.G. Mair 446 On the Mound-builders of North America. By J. Adams, B.A. .. fe 447 Notes on the Growth of Trees on Clay Soils. By W. Atkins a ‘ 447 The possible Pacification of the World by means of a rational Titernationsl Policy. By the Rev. 8. Edgar Ho O06 447 The Distress in England:: its Causes and Remedies. By J.C. Firth. a6 447 Note on Spiral Markings on Trenails. By the Rey. Dr. Purchas .. 50 447 Concerning Alcohol. By EH. A. Mackechnie 50 448 Notes on the Rise and Progress of Architecture and the Fine Arts generally Py Albin Martin... 448 The Distress in England: its Ouies and “_wanleaiede wae a Reply to Mr. Firth’s paper on the same subject. By the Rev. S. Edgar. .. 56 448 Note on the American Horned Frog (Phrynosoma blainvillii). By B. 8. Booth 448 On Landscape Art in the Province of Auckland. By K. Watkins .. 50 448 Remarks on Lepidosiren and other Fishes. By T. F. Cheeseman .. 5d 448 Abstract of Annual Report Xe Se sis ays «. 448—449 Election of Officers for 1880 oe 50 449 PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY. On a Universal Code of Signals. By C. W. Adams .. aye Sa 451 On Musical Tones in the Notes of Australian Birds. By C. W. Adams oe 451 Notes upon the Height of Mount Cook. By C. W. Adams an Re 452 Abstract of Annual Report ou a a0 30 ate 452 Election of Officers for 1880 ate aie Se 66 oe 453 Notes on Ceramic and Industrial Art Specimens. By Prof. von Haast exe 453 OTAGO INSTITUTE. A Criticism of Herbert Spencer’s “‘ First Principles.” By the Rev. Prof. Salmond 454 The Unseen Universe. By J. S. Webb ae ae ae até 454 Socialism, an Appeal to First Principles. By the Rev. Dr. Roseby So 454 The Diptera of New Zealand. By Professor Hutton .. 30 56 454 On George Eliot’s Poems. By the Rev. J. Upton Davis 280 OO 455 Description of a new Fish. By Professor Hutton ste 20 -- 455—456 Election of Officers for 1880 ar BO che 50 ‘ 50 456 Abstract of Annual Report ats 56 aie me ne 456 WESTLAND INSTITUTE. Abstract of Annual Report a6 A 86 oe 66 457 Election of Officers for 1880 00 Contents. 1X HAWKE’S BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE. PAGES. Election of Officers for 1879 56 ote ote do on 458 Abstract of Annual Report ve le one 458 Memoir of Allan and Richard Guthinenane ‘By W. Gotense 90 we 459 The Myth of Kae and the Pet Whale of Tinirau. By W. Colenso.. 50 459 Election of Governor of New Zealand Institute OO 50 aye 460 NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. Eleventh Annual Report of the Board of Governors .. 60 .. 463—464 Museum .. 50 B60 66 50 50 -. 464—469 Publications oO 50 00 ste ere -. 469—470 Meteorology 00 50 os G0 50 Sb 470 Time-ball Observatory 00 °° 50 os -- 470—471 Laboratory oie sie 90 60 90 56 471 Library .. 00 ote ete 56 471 Accounts of the New Vealund Institute, 1878-9 60 ae ae 472 ACP Sesh) ND ax. On the Medical peels of Education. By W.G. os L.R.C,P.Lond., M.R.C.S. Engl. .. Xxi—xliv Meteorological Statistics of New Zealand ch 187 9 20 ate .. xly—xlvii Earthquakes reported in New Zealand during 1879 aa Bc fe xlvii Comparative Abstract for 1879, and previous years ae oo a xlviii Notes on the Weather during 1879 a5 So xlix Record of Papers on New Zealand Natural History, 1879. 80 60 oe ] Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute Gc o6 a li Ordinary Members .. . bo 30 ye .. li—txiii List of Public Institutions and Individuals to whom this Volume is presented .. lxiv—Ilxvi Addenda et Corrigenda 00 ae a a a6 iv Contents .. O06 oe 50 O6 50 a5 vy—ix List of Plates ie sic a6 50 ate aiete oS x Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute 36 ae <8 xi Abstract of Rules and Statutes of the New Zealand Institute 50 .. Xi—xili List of Incorporated Societies .. a0 O¢ 30 me xiv Officers of Incorporated Societies, and Extracts from their Rules .. .. Xiv—xvil vies ee © eee ASE aor PLATE TO FACE PAGE I. Epwin.—Diagrams illustrating System of New Zealand Weather Forecast .. 40 1D ee ¥; ss Pr 3 i ate 48 Ii. a e * as Fr s Fe 48 IV. Cotenso.—Moa Bones dé on ae ae se 100 Vente. hs m bs B 2 Por s80 VI. Brcoxerton.—Diagrams illustrative of Partial Impact we -- 184 VII. Masxrety.—Coccide ae i sie we ve 300) VII. Haast.—Ziphius (Epiodon) nove-zealandie Ae ee -. 244 IX. Ferepay.—Butterflies 5 oe ae axe oo: ats) X. Prerrim.—Ehrharta thomsoni aid are oo do aii) XI. T. W. Kirg.—Palinurus tumidus a ao oe See OLA XII. Kyicur.—Lichens Ye ate aie G6 -- 368 XI. 4) aA se “oO ate AG 65 2 ae XIV. T. Kirz.—Euphrasia disperma 5c oc aie sie} | 396 NEW ZEHALAND INSTITUTE. ESTABLISHED UNDER AN ACT OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF NEW ZEALAND, INTITULED “THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1867.” Board oF GOVERNORS. (EX OFFICIO.) His Excellency the Governor. | The Hon. the Colonial Secretary, (NOMINATED. ) The Hon. W. B. D. Mantell, F.G.S., W. T. L. Travers, F.U.8., James Hector, C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., The Ven. Archdeacon Stock, B.A., Thomas Mason, M.H.R., The Hon. G. Randall Johnson. (ELECTED.) 1879.—Thomas Kirk, F.L.S., The Hon. Robert Stout, M.H.R., W. L. Buller, C.M.G., Sc.D., F.L.8. 1880.—Captain W. R. Russell, M.H.R., W. L. Buller, C.M.G., Se.D., F.R.S., Thomas Kirk, F.L.S. MANAGER. James Hector. Honorary TREASURER. The Ven. Archdeacon Stock. SECRETARY. R. B. Gore. ABSTRACTS OF RULES AND STATUTES. GAZETTED IN THE “New ZEALAND GAZETTE,” 9 Marcu, 1868. Section I. Incorporation of Societies. 1. No Society shall be incorporated with the Institute under the provisions of ‘‘ The New Zealand Institute Act, 1867,” unless such Society shall consist of not less than twenty-five members, subscribing in the aggregate a sum of not less than fifty pounds sterling annually, for the promotion of art, science, or such other branch of knowledge for which it is associated, to be from time to time certified to the satisfaction of the Board of Governors of the Institute by the Chairman for the time being of the Society. 2. Any Society incorporated as aforesaid shall cease to be incorporated with the Institute in case the number of the members of the said Society shall at any time become less than twenty-five, or the amount of money annually subscribed by such members shall at any time be less than £50. 3. The bye-laws of every Society to be incorporated as aforesaid shall provide for the expenditure of not less than one-third of its annual revenue in or towards the formation or support of some local public Museum or Library ; or otherwise shall provide for the contribution of not less than one-sixth of its said revenue towards the extension and maintenance of the Museum and Library of the New Zealand Institute, Xil New Zealand Institute. 4. Any Society incorporated as aforesaid which shall in any one year fail to expend the proportion of revenue affixed in manner provided by Rule 3 aforesaid, shall from thenceforth cease to be incorporated with the Institute. 5. All papers read before any Society for the time being incorporated with the Institute, shall be deemed to be communications to the Institute, and may then be published as proceedings or transactions of the Institute, subject to the following regula- tions of the Board of the Institute regarding publications :— Regulations regarding Publications. (a.) The publications of the Institute shall consist of a current abstract of the proceedings of the Societies for the time being incorporated with the Institute, to be intituled, ‘Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute,” and of transactions comprising papers read before the Incorporated Societies (subject, however, to selection as hereinafter mentioned), to be intituled, ‘Transactions of the New Zealand Institute.” (b.) The Institute shall have power to reject any papers read before any of the Incorporated Societies. (c.) Papers so rejected will be returned to the Society before which they were read. (d.) A proportional contribution may be required from each Society towards the cost of publishing the Proceedings and Transactions of the Institute. (e.) Each Incorporated Society will be entitled to receive a proportional number of copies of the Proceedings and Transactions of the Institute, to be from time to time fixed by the Board of Governors. Extra copies will be issued to any of the members of Incorporated Societies at the cost price of publication. 6. All property accumulated by or with funds derived from Incorporated Societies and placed in the charge of the Institute, shall be vested in the Institute, and be used and applied at the discretion of the Board of Governors for public advantage, in like manner with any other of the property of the Institute. 7. Subject to “The New Zealand Institute Act, 1867,” and to the foregoing rules, all Societies incorporated with the Institute shall be entitled to retain or alter their own form of constitution and the bye-laws for their own management, and shall conduct their own affairs. (f. ~ 8. Upon application signed by the Chairman and countersigned by the Secretary of any Society, accompanied by the certificate required under Rule No. 1, a certificate of incorporation will be granted under the Seal of the Institute, and will remain in force as long as the foregoing rules of the Institute are complied with by the Society. Section II. For the Management of the Property of the Institute. 9. All donations by Societies, Public Departments, or Private Individuals, to the Museum of the Institute, shall be acknowledged by a printed form of receipt, and shall be duly entered in the books of the Institute provided for that purpose, and shall then be dealt with as the Board of Governors may direct. 10. Deposits of articles for the Museum may be accepted by the Institute, subject to a fortnight’s notice of removal to be given either by the owner of the articles or by the Manager of the Institute, and such deposits shall be duly entered in a separate catalogue. 11. Books relating to Natural Science may be deposited in the Library of the Insti- tute, subject to the following conditions :— (a.) Such books are not to be withdrawn by the owner under six months’ notice, if such notice shall be required by the Board of Governors. Abstracts of Rules and Statutes. xiii (b.) Any funds specially expended on binding and preserving such deposited books, at the request of the depositor, shall be charged against the books, and must be refunded to the Institute before their withdrawal, always subject to special arrangements made with the Board of Governors at the time of deposit. (c.) No books deposited in the Library of the Institute shall beremoved for temporary use except on the written authority or receipt of the owner, and then only for a period not exceeding seven days at any one time. 12. All books in the Library of the Institute shall be duly entered in a catalogue which shall be accessible to the public. 13. The public shall be admitted to the use of the Museum and Library, subject to bye-laws to be framed by the Board. Secrion III. 14. The Laboratory shall, for the time being, be and remain under the exclusive management of the Manager of the Institute. Srction IV. Or Date 23RD SEPTEMBER, 1870. Honorary Members. Whereas the rules of the Societies incorporated under the New Zealand Institute Act provide for the election of Honorary Members of such Societies; but inasmuch as such Honorary Members would not thereby become members of the New Zealand Institute, and whereas it is expedient to make provision for the election of Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute, it is hereby declared— 1st. Each Incorporated Society may, in the month of November next, nominate for election as Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute three persons, and in the month of November in each succeeding year one person, not residing in the colony. _ 2nd. The names, descriptions, and addresses of persons so nominated, together with the grounds on which their election as Honorary Members is recommended, shall be forthwith forwarded to the Manager of the New Zealand Institute, and shall by him be submitted to the Governors at the next succeeding meeting. 3rd. From the persons so nominated, the Governors may select in the first year not more than nine, and in each succeeding year not more than three, who shall from thenceforth be Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute, provided that the total number of Honorary Members shall not exceed thirty. XIV Incorporated Societies, LIST OF INCORPORATED SOCIETIES. NAME OF SOCIETY. DATE OF INCORPORATION. We tuinecron Puimosopuican Society « - - 10th June, 1868. Avuckuanpb Institute - 2 p : - - 10th June, 1868. Puinosopuican InstirutE or CANTERBURY - - 22nd October, 1868. Otaco InstTiITUTE - = - . = - - 18th October, 1869. WestLanp InstTITUTE - . : : - - 21st December, 1874. Hawke’s Bay Purmosopnican Institute - - - 81st March, 1875. WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1879 :—President—A. K. Newman, M.B., M.R.C.P.; Vice-presidents—Dr. Hector, Martin Chapman; Cowncii—W. L. Buller, C.M.G., Sc.D., etc., C. R. Marten, F. W. Frankland, S. H. Cox, F.C.S., E.G.S8.,. Hon. G. Randall Johnson, W. T. 1. Travers, 1-G.Si) 0) Bark. F.L.S.; Auditor—Arthur Baker; Secretary and Treaswrer—R. B. Gore. OFFICE-BEARERS FoR 1880 :—President—Martin Chapman; Vice-presi- dents—Dr. Hector, C.M.G., F.R.S., Dr. Buller, C.M.G., F.R.S. ;—Council— F. W. Frankland, 8. H. Cox, F.G.8., F.C.S., Hon. G. Randall Johnson, M.L:C., W. TL. Li. Travers, F:L.8., A. K. Newman; M.B., M.R:@:2s, Jo 2: Maxwell, A.I.C.E.; Auditor—Arthur Baker ; Secretary and Treasurer—R. B,. Gore. Extracts from the Rules of the Wellington Philosophical Society. 5. Every member shall contribute annually to the funds of the Society the sum of one guinea. 6. The annual contribution shall be due on the first day of January in each year. 7. The sum of ten pounds may be paid at any time as a composition for life of the ordinary annual payment. 14, The time and place of the General Meetings of members of the Society shall be fixed by the Council and duly announced by the Secretary. Incorporated Societies. XV AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. OFFICE-BEARERS FoR 1879 :—President—Rev. A. G. Purchas, M.R.C.S.E. ; Council—R. C. Barstow, Rev. J. Bates, J. L. Campbell, M.D., J. C. Firth, His Honour Mr. Justice Gillies, T. Heale, Hon. Col. Haultain, G. M. Mitford, J. Stewart, M. Inst. C.E., T. F. 8. Tinne, F. Whitaker ; Auditor— T. Macffarlane ; Secretary and Treasurer—T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.§8. OFFICE-BEARERS FoR 1880 :—President—F. D. Fenton; Council—G. Aickin, Rev. J. Bates, J. L. Campbell, M.D., J. C. Firth, Hon. Col. Haul- tain, Neil Heath, F.G.S., H. A. Mackechnie, J. A. Pond, Rey. Dr. Purchas, J. Stewart, M. Inst.C.H., 8. P. Smith ; Auditor—T. Macffarlane ; Secretary and Treasurer—T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S. Extracts from the Rules of the Auckland Institute. 1. Any person desiring to become a member of the Institute, shall be proposed in writing by two members, and shall be ballotted for at the next meeting of the Council. 4. New members on election to pay one guinea entrance fee, in addition to the annual subscription of one guinea, the annual subscriptions being payable in advance on the first day of April for the then current year. 5. Members may at any time become life-members by one payment of ten pounds ten shillings, in lieu of future annual subscriptions. 10. Annual General Meeting of the Society on the third Monday of February in each year. Ordinary Business Meetings are called by the Council from time to time. PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY. OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1879 :—President—Professor Bickerton ; Vice-prest- dents—J. Inglis, R. W. Fereday ; Cowncil—Rev. J. W. Stack, Professor Cook, Dr. Powell, Professor von Haast, F.R.S., Dr. Coward, G. W. Hall ; Hon. Treasurer—W. M. Maskell; Hon. Secretary—J. §. Guthrie. OFFICE-BEARERS FoR 1880 :—President—EH. Dobson, C.E.; Vice-presidents —Professor Julius von Haast, F.R.S., the Rev. J. W. Stack; Cowncil— Professor Bickerton, R. W. Fereday, J. Inglis, A. D. Dobson, G. Gray, J. S. Lambert; Hon. Treaswrer—W. M. Maskell; Hon. Secretary—Nelson K. Cherrill. Extracts from the Rules of the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. 21. The Ordinary Meetings of the Institute shall be held on the first Thursday of each month during the months from March to November inclusive. 35. Members of the Institute shall pay one guinea annually as a subscription to the funds of the Institute. The subscription shall be due on the first of November in every year. Any member whose subscription shall be twelve months in arrears, shall cease to be a member of the Institute, but he may be restored by the Council if it sees fit. 37. Members may compound for all annual subscriptions of the current and future years by paying ten guineas. Xvi Incorporated Societies. OTAGO INSTITUTE. OFFICE-BEARERS FoR 1879 :—President—Professor Hutton; Vice-presidents —W.N. Blair, C.E., Professor Scott; Council—W. Arthur, C.E., Robert Gillies, F.L.8., Dr. Hocken, A. Montgomery, D. Petrie, J. C. Thomson, Professor Ulrich ; Hon. Secretary—Geo. M. Thomson; Hon. 1'reasurer—H. Skey ; Auditor—J. 8. Webb. 3 OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1880:—President—Dr. Hocken; Vice-presidents— Professor Ulrich, D. Petrie, M.A.; Cowncil—W. Arthur, C.E., W. N. Blair, C.E., A. Montgomery, R. Gillies, F.L.S., W. Macdonald, LL.D., Bishop Nevill, D.D.,J.S. Webb; Hon. Secretary—Geo. M. Thomson; Hon. Treasurer —H. Skey; Auditor—D. Brent, M.A. Extracts from the Constitution and Rules of the Otago Institute. 2. Any person desiring to join the Society may be elected by ballot, on being proposed in writing at any meeting of the Council or Society by two members, on payment of the annual subscription of one guinea for the year then current. 5. Members may at any time become life-members by one payment of ten pounds and ten shillings, in lieu of future annual subscriptions. 8. An Annual General Meeting of the members of the Society shall be held in January in each year, at which meeting not less than ten members must be present, otherwise the meeting shall be adjourned by the members present from time to time, until the requisite number of members is present. (5.) The session of the Otago Institute shall be during the winter months, from May to October, both inclusive. WESTLAND INSTITUTE. OFFICE-BEARERS FoR 1879 :—President—His Honour Judge Weston; Vice-president—R. C. Reid ; Committee—Dr. James, Dr. Giles, James Pear- son, R. W. Wade, E. B. Dixon, John Nicholson, H. L. Robinson, D. McDonald, W. D. Campbell, Robert Walker, A. H. King, T. O. W. Croft ; Hon. Treasurer—W. A. Spence ; Secretary—John Anderson. OFFICE-BEARERS For 1880 :—Presitdent—His Honour Judge Weston ; Vice-president—Dr. Giles, R.M.; Committee—Dr. James, J. Pearson, J. Nicholson, H. L. Robinson, R. W. Wade, D. McDonald, J. Anderson, T. O. W. Croft, C. EK. Tempest, F. A. Learmonth, J. H. Hankins, A. H. King; Hon. Treasurer—W. A. Spence ; Secretary—Richard Hilldrup. Extracts from the Rules of the Westland Institute. 3. The Institute shall consist :—(1) Of life-members, i.e., persons who have at any one time made a donation to the Institute of ten pounds ten shillings or upwards; or persons who, in reward of special services rendered to the Institute, have been unani- mously elected as such by the Committee or at the general half-yearly meeting. (2) Of members who pay two pounds two shillings each year. (3.) Of members paying smaller sums, not less than ten shillings. 5. The Institute shall hold a half-yearly meeting on the third Monday in the months of December and June. TRANSACTIONS. ee, este TRANSACTIONS OF THE NEW ZHALAND INSTITUTE, US7 Os I.—MISCELLANEOUS. Art. I1.—The Forest Question in New Zealand. By A. Lecoy, M.A., LL.B. Univ. Paris. (Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 26th July, 1879.] Introduction. I. Statistics V. Revenue in Europe. II. Premises. VI. Estimated Revenue for New Zealand. Ill. State Forests. VII. Scheme of Management. IV. Revenue derivable. VIII. Value of Timbers. INTRODUCTION. Amone the various systems already adopted for the purpose of turning to profit the natural resources of the public estate, stands prominently what is called the Public Works policy. This was a broad and bold enterprise, involving future rather than present advantages. Therefore, the time for us to fully appreciate the merits of that policy has not yet come, and what seems desirable to be done in the interval, would be, to avoid the loco- motive crossing the path of the chariot of the State; for our attention may be called to the facts, that the incessant progress of the colony will have the effect of increasing the State expenditure, and that such increase may be required before an adequate augmentation of the revenue is available. Parallel with the Public Works system might be initiated a new policy, tending to promote the interest of the Colonial Treasury, by im- proving and consolidating, instead of exhausting, the revenue derivable from the public estate, by a systematic treatment of the Crown forest lands, which revenue might be increased to such an amount as to provide at any time for the largest portion of the expenditure required for general State 4 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. purposes. Had measures in that direction been carried out ten years ago, when in the House of Representatives Mr. Potts moved, ‘‘ That it is desirable Government should take steps to ascertain the present condition of the forests of the colony, with a view to their better conservation ;’’—had the forest ques- tion been then more practically investigated and considered in allits aspects, especially in that of the income which State forests, under systematic treat- ment, can afford to the public purse, without either their climatic advantages being disturbed through the fellings, nor the supply being reduced below the demand, as evidently would have been (and still would be) the case in New Zealand—we might have had by this time the same extent of railways, less a heavy indebtedness, and also fewer alienations of valuable timber lands. Furthermore, we should have now a surplus income, which fund would afford a means for a more equitable distribution of the public revenue towards municipal interests than the present allotment of lands for such purposes can allow. The Government may yet be in time to recur to such a policy, and there are facts demanding their immediate consideration of the question. Thus, the probable duration of the financial resources at present derivable from the sales of the forest lands requires serious attention. If we compute the total area of the Crown forests, which may be accessible and available for absolute disposal, we shall find that it could hardly comprehend more than one- eighth part of the area of the whole estate, officially stated, in 1877, as 29,000,000 acres, valued at £16,000,000. Then, by selling yearly those forests to the amount of £400,000 or £500,000, with the addition, mean- while, of the land grants, endowments, etc., and also adding the value of destruction perpetrated on the leased forests, it becomes evident that these operations, if continued, will, in the course of a few years, com- pletely alienate the most valuable portion of the public estate. Thereby a source of State income, by nature made lasting and abundant, will be dried up for ever. The alienated forest will gradually disappear under the exigences of individual interest, which demand more immediate returns for labour or capital than the conservation of forest lands can afford, and the destruction of the forest areas will lead to disasters resulting from floods and droughts, which will be severely felt by the Colony. However, tbe State expenditure must be provided for through the ways and means allowed by the Legislature; and the purport of this paper is simply a humble attempt to ascertain, so far as data and information at hand will permit, whether the material interest of the Colonial Treasury, as well as that of the country at large, may not be further promoted through the establishment of State forests than by the temporary financial resources derivable from the forest alienations. Lercoy.—The Forest Question in New Zealand. 5 I.—Sratistics. The following total quantities relating to the area and value of the Crown lands have been compiled from the Survey Department returns, dated 17th of October, 1877, entitled ‘‘ Statement showing the area and approxi- mate value of the *unsold land in each County in New Zealand, on 81st of August, 1877’ :— AREA AND APPROXIMATE VALUE OF THE CotonraL EstaTE on 31st Avucust, 1877. ae oe ; _., | Approximat Situation, Forest Land. | Open Land. Total Area. PSone © Acres. Acres. Acres. £ In the North Island .. 8,801,612 776,706 4,578,318 2,784,148 a South Island .. 3,717,220 17,295,284 21,012,504 13,236,852 » Stewart Island 393,000 22,000 415,000 58,125 Mountainous or valueless OO (South Island) .. oj 81836,026 TROTAT Giver. 7,911,832 18,093,990 29,341,848 £16,079,125 The official statement does not give the area of the open land in the counties of Wairoa, Hawke Bay, Wanganui, Hast Taupo, Rangitikei, Manawatu, Waipawa, Hutt, Wairarapa East and West, Raglan, and West Taupo (North Island). Forest lands inserted in the columns agricultural and pastoral, have been included in the column forest land in the above table. IJ.—PRremisEs. A careful observation of the distinct interests which the colonial estate comprehends, points out of itself, as specially relating to the improvement of the resources derivable therefrom, the advisability of a separate manage- ment applying to the open lands and to the forest lands respectively, each kind of property, whether it be intended for sale or conservation, requiring special treatment under the supervision of officials of special aptitude in their respective departments. On the one hand, agronomists are required for the purpose of rendering the soil and climate of vast and treeless regions better adapted to settlement; whilst, on the other hand, foresters are needed to supervise the conservation of State forests, creating thereby a permanent State revenue. The adoption of a new system for the general administration of the public estate may partly depend on some preceding legislative action. Still, so far as the forest interest is concerned, it does not appear that there should be immediate need for any changes in the existing forest legislation, otherwise than by appropriating the necessary fund to the creation of the special department. * App. to Journ. H. of R., 1877, C—9. 6 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. The State Forests Act of 1874, and likewise the Land Act of 1877 (part V.), provide for the establishment of State forests, allowing Government full power to carry their objects into operation. The enactments of the forest law have not, however, hitherto been carried into execution, and it is still generally presumed that there is a superabundance of forest produce for the present and future requirements of the colony—such an opinion not being at all supported by any reliable data or technical statement. Thus, the whole subject being restricted to the single observation of the presumed yield of the forests taken compara- tively with the amount of the present home consumption, other considera- tions of high importance bearing on the subject are overlooked, namely— 1. That the demand for forest produce, annually supplied out of the public estate, has already attained such proportions that a considerable State income should be actually derivable therefrom. 2. That the New Zealand timber, ‘‘sut generis” in the world, and generally superior in economic value and fineness to any timber indigenous or im- ported to Europe, commands an export trade there on a large scale, especially on account of the perfect adaptability of several of its species to various purposes of the European requirements, and that a considerable State income may also be realized through a special export duty, intended for the two-fold object of providing for the legitimate rights of the public purse, and also of maintaining the price of timber for home consumption within moderate bounds. 8. That the progress of the colony, as well as the extension of the timber exports, cannot fail, within a short period of years, to increase the demand for our forest produce to such an extent as to require the full capability, technically determined and regulated, of the New Zealand forests to supply the said increased demand. Should a new organization for the administration of the public estate have the effect of restricting the disposal of the forest lands to the sale of the standing timber, in such proportion as the forest could supply annually and permanently, and should also the system of leasing the forests be amended or done away with, the material advantages expected to result from those measures may be premised as follows :— 1. The well-regulated sales of the standing timber would afford a per- manent State income amounting to much above the proceeds from the forest land under the present system of alienation and forest leasing. 2. This restriction would enhance the market value or revenue of the exist- ing freehold property, the owners, of forest lands especially, not having any longer to complain of a competition so prejudicial to the value of their property as that resulting from the disposal of the public timber lands at nominal prices, Lrcoy.—The Forest Question in New Zealand. 7 With respect to the leasing of the forest lands it may be asked—why should not any disposition of the Crown forest lands follow the same course why should such as that applying to any other property ? that is to say public property be disposed of otherwise than at a price representing its real value, so as to obtain the legitimate profit for the public purse ? The interest that the present bush licence or leasing system affords to the State is ‘‘nil.”’ To the public it affords timber and wood on con- ditions more or less advantageous. On the other hand, the detrimental effects resulting from such leases are great :—First, the forest is generally worked indiscriminately, without any care for its regeneration, thereby effecting every year the absolute destruction of forests which had just yielded produce to the markets of enormous value. On that score the lessee may say that it is not his business or duty to select and reserve trees which may be required for the purpose of securing the regeneration of the forest. On the other side the public may argue that the law of the country having enacted as a principle that public forests ‘‘are to be subjected to skilled management and proper control,’ the actual destruction of the property through indiscriminate working cannot be considered lawful. The period of years for which these leases are granted at almost nom- inal prices, would lead to the idea of an admitted permanent stagnation in the timber trade, which is not compatible with the fact of the incessant progress of the colony, otherwise the leases would constitute a monopoly of privileges, and thereby be an injustice to the people, who all have to contribute proportionately towards the State expenditure, and who are therefore entitled to claim the ‘‘ jus omnium in omnia.” However, all legitimate rights must be recognized and protected, and it is obvious that a new forest administration tending to extend the timber trade to an enlarged sphere of operations, would greatly benefit the lessees of our forests, and they, no doubt, would be glad to join in just and profit- able reforms. II.—Srate Forests: Pretmmary OBsERvation. The establishment of State forests has for its object, not only to provide for a regular and permanent supply of timber and wood, but also to maintain the protection given by nature against the disturbance of the climatic equilibrium, the occurrence of droughts, the disastrous effects of flood-waters, etc., etc., experience having shown the preventive or modifying influence, as the case may be, of extensive forest areas. Furthermore, that the conservation of these woodlands, intended for the general interest, should not be entrusted to the management of private persons as purchasers of them, because forests, considered from a financial point of view, being almost 8 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. the least remunerative of all land cultivations (as private property), the apparent interest of the purchaser would be to realize the value of the timber, and to convert the forest land into agricultural or pastoral, thereby selfishly disregarding the beneficial effects which the existence of the forest afforded to the whole district. : -In the hands of Governments, forests represent a national interest of the highest importance, not only because of the financial resources which the annual fellings afford, as the direct revenue derivable from the property, but above all, on account of the salubrious and fertilizing effects which forests bestow on the surrounding country, thus favouring the progress of agriculture, and the general development of national wealth. . It is only under such prosperous conditions, it may be remarked, that freehold lands can well afford to contribute towards the public expenditure, and thus will spring up, (7.e., by the conservation of forests,) other sources of state revenue. Again, the great mass of the ever-growing forest, notwith- standing the annual thinning out of it, is also acting as a capital devoted to insure the welfare of agriculture, maintaining thereby the security of the public revenues as well as that of private property. The material importance of these indirect advantages, as resulting from the proper management of forests, especially when situated in mountainous regions, may be demonstrated by the observation of events of recent occur- rence in France. In that country, as the result of injudicious alienations of State forests, and the further conyersion of the forest land into pasturages, originated periodical inundations, and the ultimate ruin of agriculture in no less than four ‘‘ Départements,” the rural population of which are now emigrating to America.* The loss of private property has thus been enormous, and the deficiency in the land tax revenue from the same cause, viz., the indiscriminate clearing of forests, may also be computed at millions of money.t To the collateral advantages just alluded to may be ascribed the difference in character and productive value of forests, as State or freehold property respectively. For climatic purposes, the total area of the Crown forest lands in New Zealand, taken at 5,000,000 acres, would not be more than sufficient as compared with the area of the whole colony; for the probability is, that the private forests at present adding to the climatic advantages of the public woodlands, will gradually disappear, unless the owners could be persuaded to sacrifice their own pecuniary interest to the public welfare. In France *«Btudes sur 1Aménagement des Foréts,” p. 489, par. L. Tassy, Conservateur des Foréts. Rothschild, publisher, Paris. + The land tax revenue in France amounts to about £24,000,000, Lecoy.—The Forest Question in New Zealand. 4) and in Germany the primitive woodland areas, though much reduced, still represent in both countries a surface equal to about 24 per cent. of the total area of the country, but notwithstanding this the people there are complaining of climatic disturbances as the result of the clearing of the woodlands. IV.—ReEVENUE DERIVABLE FRoM State Forests. This most interesting part of the whole question has, it seems, been altogether misunderstood in this colony. Semi-official statements relating to the forest revenue in Germany, had the effect of representing the amount of the said revenue as not being above a few shillings per acre, from which a large amount of expenditure had to be deducted. Upon the admitted value of that source of information, it was resolved, in the House of Repre- sentatives, a few years ago, that, ‘‘judging from the results attained in Germany, the conservation or regeneration of the indigenous forests in this colony would not pay.” ~ : as F In the said statements the forest revenue, arising from the annual acreage of fellings, has been ascribed to the whole forest area, through an erroneous analogy between the productive value of high timber State forests and those of freehold property, but the dissimilarity in the respective conditions pertaining to each kind of property does not admit of comparison ; besides which, the annual acreage being calculated on only a portion of the whole arboreal stock, it cannot be taken as the revenue or produce of the whole forest area. However, the essential point to be observed is the actual result or total amount of revenue derivable from State forests, when managed under such principles as are generally adopted in Europe. The item of the amount of expenditure involved in the management of those forests also requires consideration. All State forests in Europe have been, and many are still, encumbered with forest rights and servitudes of feudal origin, the commutation of which, necessitates expenses generally included in the expenditure of the Forest Department; which, with other causes of expense, such as the preservation of game, the collection of the forest revenue, etc., etc., are in Germany also included in the departmental expenditure. In France, the Forest Department has nothing to do with the preservation of game, nor with financial mat- ters; besides which all forest rights and servitudes have been redeemed, and the departmental expenditure is thus confined to the salaries of the staff and forest guards, and does not exceed five per cent. of the revenue; whilst in Germany, owing to causes just stated, the average forest expenditure in the German States hereafter named is above 30 percent. On the other hand, as may be observed in the following tables, the gross returns from the annual sales of the standing timber have hitherto been less in France than in Germany, the 10 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. cause for such a difference being mainly that a systematic treatment of State forests had been adopted in Germany long before it was introduced into France, and that the revolution or age of maturity of forest trees having been fixed so high as 100 to 200 years, according to species, climate, soil, ete., forests in Germany yield at the present time a larger number of trees, arrived at maturity and full dimensions, than those of France, thereby affording larger money returns. V.—Revenve or State Forests iy Europe. Return, showing: Column 1, the total area of State forests in each State; column 2, the annual acreage devoted to the fellings, as the com- puted total surface of the separate lots of ground where trees have been felled* ; column 8, State income per sales of the standing timber, as the exhaustive product per column 2; column 4, income per acre, per column 2; column 5, amount of the departmental expenditure under actual circum- stances special to each State; column 6, percentage of the expenditure on the revenue :— | 1 2 3 4 5 6 NAME State Income Amount Per OF eas fill Income, | per Acre, ES oft centage STATE. Se Wentaranta olesisnti Gl pli Expendi- ture. Acres. Acres. £ ook Gh, £ Per cent. Bavaria 3,000,000 24,000 12 612279) 52) a0 494,287 39 Hanover .. 591,000 4,728 408,200 | 86 6 O 128,000 31 Saxony 3,94,000 8,152 850,000 |114 6 O 101,000 29 ISTUSS1 Aw aeer. 6,216,500 49,732 2,100,000 | 42 4 0} 1,100,000 51 France 2,500,000 20,000 1,400,000 | 70 O O 70,000 5 Remarxrs.—Columns 1, 3, 5, are taken the forests of the German States, and for France the information is taken from the from Captain Campbell-Walker’s reports on official returns, including ten consecutive years, up to 1870. For all of the above State forests, the average period of the revolution is taken as 125 years. As arule, the upset prices at the auction sales are calculated to allow one-third of the market value of the forest product as the share of the State. In Europe, as the demand for forest produce exceeds the supply derivable from State forests, the greatest care is taken to ascertain the capability of those forests and so to allow about equal annual returns permanently. * The working of high timber forests by thinnings, being intended to secure the natural regeneration of the forest, prevents at the same time the existence of large open spaces or blanks in the interior of the forest, which would prove fatal to the surrounding standing timber, Lrcoy.—The Forest Question in New Zealand. 11 The capability in high timber forests is determined by estimating the cubic volume of the ligneous material of the whole area, then assigning it in calculated quantities to sections of the forest, which are worked in rotation. The amount of the annual fellings in those forests does not, as a rule, exceed one per cent. of the timber contained in the whole forest. Such a percentage, however, represents a money value considerably above that derivable from any other land cultivation for the same acreage; and should the amount be considered as the revenue of the whole forest, it would then show a revenue about equal to that generally expected from arable lands, after deducting from the latter the cost or value of labour and other agricultural expenses. By subjecting our indigenous forests to such a systematic treatment as may be actually practicable, the State revenue derivable from them should, in due course of time, become superior to that afforded by State forests in EKurope, especially on account of the high value of the timber we could export. Transactions.—Miscellaneous. 12 *polopIsuoo IOY}IN}J st s}1odxe oy} Jo yey} pus orngzipuodxe [eyuouTyIVdop oT} Jo 10}4VUI eT], : 6 pues suMIN]OD *poyjrurqus useq OAey Adu} WOT Jo MWOTeIopIsuod oy} 0} ‘suoszed quoyedutos Aq WoYy UL puNof UddG SB UOVLOSSvx9 ON “TEST avok ony 04 A[ddv suotyvyonh ey, : 1 pus g suumyjog “syromotmbae ongny 1Oy pessese. eq 07 [T uutnjoo rod vorw oy} jo AyWUNb snidans ety, ‘“peureyqo st G eareaay el rod vores oy ‘poT[e} oq T[IM Seer} ‘TPIT 9AOGV IO ‘TOIT 4B OB Peurupe posoddns oy} sv ‘got Aq asva.soe cern ayy surdydypnut kq uous : puvmop oy Atddns 0} poumber sotov Jo taquinu oy} MOTs |[IM yuorjond ey} ‘puvttop ey} Jo qunous oy} Aq poptatp sureq o.1ov tod pjord Wold oY], ‘“UloysXs O[OT[A Of} 4sod YSNUI TOIGA UO sIsvq oY} Sf gE uUINIOD ‘YOO[ POV UL OpVUL 9q OF OAT ites SJSOLOJ SNOUBSIPUL {NO Jo plold osvaaav oy} Sutureyzroose Jo esodand oy} coy squeattodxy *97v4Q ey Fo 4ysot0qUT OT} LOF Oq YL [TIM 10990q OY} TONUI Os ‘yIvU oy} Lopun oq 04 oAoId pToId oovIOAB poyVys OY} PNOYsS pure ‘puvutep orf} Jo yunowe oq} Suysout yo osodaind OY} LOF SMOTYVIOdO SUIYAVUL UO PTEeYV Os OF eTqrssod oq TIT FT ‘yIVUT Ty oAOgR oq o19¥ Tod pTaIA pojVys OAoge otT} prNoys LOF ‘vouvycoduat [ULteyvUt Jo ‘quasotd 4¥ ‘YoU ST 1094BUI OY} ‘TOAOMOFT “poOZLUVBSIO aq SOTALOS ySoLO¥] olf} eLOJoq pvy oq Uvo yoolqns ayy UG UOTPVUTLOJZUT ayVMo0v ON :e UUNTOD “TINUIIUIUL B SV pazqIUIps oq AVI PpUBUOp oY JO JUNOMY pozvys OY ‘LOUJOSOI[Y “PSS JO pUs of} 0F TEgT utoaz ‘Inu «od yoo} [vroyaodns 000°000'08 Io 000°000'¢e Sutsvieav Ayquenbd B 1oy popunyour sav odorng 07 sytodxoe oy], ‘ojo ‘suIOUe; ‘poomoery oF peqtiose Sutoq Aqyyuvnb snpdms oy ‘Joos [wroyaodns QQO‘OOOOOT SB AToyvuTtxorddy Use} SI eSVOLOUIE OT[} TOIT OZ ‘savor OS JO ported B OATS [[IM TEST puv «vad yey. Wooayoq [VArozUL eu, 40eF TvIoyaodns QOO'OUO'OST JNoqe 07 poajuNoUIY ‘suINjoL [VIOYJO UO poynduLOd sv ‘aTIO[V IoqUIT} UMVS TOT puvUep ey ‘91ST UT 2g UUIN\OD : “puvue quasoid otf} JO OSVOTOUL INS OT} JOOU OF IOpPIO UT poatnboa oq WOOS TIA puB ‘SkVATIVI IO spvor Aq oTqISse00v yok You s4SeI0F sopnyoUt (seroOR Henan snidins }Bnyov oy} nq ‘puvuop oy Jo yunowv pozeys oy A[ddns 07 paambor yvyy epqnop AjAveU oq PTNOA varIY Way, OY, + T UUIN[OO—'syuvNayy 000'SFF | 000009 TF OSs OGLE 000'TSE's | OT8'ss 0001S 000‘000°00¢ 000°000°¢ : ‘ “yoo T 400.7 : BOLO BOLE Peeiiaine [eroy.tedng Seo Vi “‘yooj Twloyaodng (o0'Ts SB WOYV], Sv UWOYVL SB UdyRyL ‘qgu00 od g@ «=| oos‘e60g «= «ss AWS ‘ta “Aqqurnb ——| -‘savok 00T eq 07 -ue rod ‘(FQ9T % Yons surpperh | OOF ° ae oot rod JO OBRIOAB euLooUuy jo pus 9% dn) 9.108 T Lod 10 eaae SOT SUISR.IOAB UB WO TOyVy) “% UUIN[OO ‘uinuiy sod yepmnace) sizeof ¢ jo ‘q00} ‘gaay peroyaedns UOTJN[OAOL azod sv ‘sqrod xo “‘VUOTAUIOAOLD esRquoo1ed ported v I0f [Broyazodus 000‘TS 0} Tenbo sv “ojo oy jo ‘puvulep pus ot} quourursoed SUISRIOAG SB 0} Teube ‘surouey ‘poom poised oy ou} ‘aioe [ Jed |‘ momduinsuo0g jo spuvy, S}I pus ‘Aqnp yrodxay Aqyuenb vB LOT -o1l ‘LO QUIT} SSVTO ‘osTOLOYV Ajddns ‘$9 S0.10 0 ouloy 9} UL $}Se10,7 ‘eangipuedx@ | 00S‘O6L'T soles Tpnuuy Ag |‘poom pu rz0quity -puooes jo yoo} OOS “ [enuuy 0} portnbext out SULpNypout aTqunptea [equeunjavded F SUIPURIS OY | O6F COT tOd TF osvr9AV ot} MOTB esTveLoVy JO pletz ‘puvulop ot} jo oq} fo jo sores [wnuue ‘TOCUIT} SSBIO-JSIT 0} potmber}| penauay OATISNUYX GL, jo BOLY [BIOL qunoUuLly ‘HMOONT @LVLG Aq sydreoery Jo y00j [wroyaodns on0'6 A AT[Bvo TR1O.L OSBIOAYV qunOULy ‘9.t0B T JO onpoad ofoTAs -T9BULOYSAS OT} JO ON[VA JOYIVI, osvsroay BOLY (I88T NI) (T88T NT) (T88T NT) (TSS NI) CT88T NI) (‘I88T NI) 6 8 L 9 G ¥ & G T “INGWLYVIAdG GLSHYOT GHL AO NOILVWUOT UMLAVY SUVEX OMI, AIAVIIVAY AONTAUY BLVWIXOUddY WHEL PONIMOHS INANALVLG—' fA Lecoy.—The Forest Question in New Zealand. 13 VII.—Manacement or Statr Forests 1In New ZEALAND ACTUALLY PRACTICABLE. The methods generally adopted in Kurope for the purpose of determining the proportion of the annual fellings which forests can afford permanently, involve lengthy and complex operations, having to be performed by a special staff of trained forest officers. For that reason, among others, those methods are not at present wholly applicable to the colony. Meanwhile, and until the department be fully organized, a system of forest conservation not particularly requiring high technical attainments on the part of foresters on executive service, may be carried out with benefit. The fact that the supply derivable from our State forests, even under technical rules, is for the present in excess of the demand, will allow, generally, that the extent of the annual fellings may be determined by the quantity in actual demand. Therefore, the approximate quantity of the demand being given, the forest officers will have to perform the following operations :— (1.) To select and mark, on sections to be worked, trees to be reserved as may be required for the purpose of securing the natural regeneration of the forest. (2.) To brand with a different mark all the standing timber intended for sale, calculating at the same time the cubic volume of that product, and proceeding thus so far as necessary to provide the requisite quantity. (3.) To estimate the market value of the produce to be sold, upon which valuation upset prices will be determined. Official advertise- ments of the auction sales specify the number, species, approximate yield in cubic feet, and locality of the trees to be sold, also the special conditions of the sale, but the money valuation is not made known to the public. The foresters will then have to verify, supervise, and enforce the execution of the by-laws and special conditions of the sales. It is not within the scope of this paper to enter into further details on forest operations, the purport of those just mentioned being to show that no extraordinary qualifications are required for foresters on executive service, and that for practical purposes a sufficiently efficient staff may be at once formed here, while forest schools would gradually fill up any deficiencies in the service. The importance of the whole matter does not allow of half measures, and the following tables, being the explanation of the previously stated amount of the departmental expenditure, are intended to show the require- ments of the forest service at the beginning :— eee h | i 14 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION. ToTaL SALARIES. £ 1 Director-General .. ae ote 00 ae 06 oe - 600 3 Administrators, acting as general inspectors .. 50 36 1,200 Clerks 56 aie do 50 aye sé 60 aie 1,025 5,625 Inspectors EXECUTIVE SERVICE. 11,800 Rangers INSPECTORS. RANGERS. FOREST GUARDS. ee 24,750 Guards to be ene 25 Inspectors. 100 Rangers. 450 Guards. divided into £45,000 1th Circumscription.| Three or four | Salary, £55 (ave- Ranges, Four ranges. classes ; sala- rage); house, Three classes; ries averaging| garden, and salaries ave-| £118. firewood _ pro- For Forest raging £225. | Range extend-| vided for; civil || Establishments. ingoverabout| pension (fur- WNores! 23,810 acres. ther mention- Say £10,000 2,381,000 ed). Forest guards have to do special work on survey and demarcation operations, and likewise on selection and marking operations ; they make forest roads and plantations; and besides their work of general supervision they may be called for special police or military service. In the above stated total number, 400 guards are intended for permanent residence and 50 as a flying brigade. In reference to the item of civil pensions to be allowed to forest guards, it is necessary to explain that the suggestion as to its meaning and applica- tion is not in opposition to the principle on which civil pensions were abolished here. ‘The institution, as it was constituted, involved the State in heavy liabilities without any actual compensation for the same, and also conferred privileges on a certain class of the people. Civil pensions in almost all countries are constituted under the principle that the Government servants have to pay for the pension, by a percentage of say, five per cent. being deducted from the nominal salaries. Hxperience in some countries has proved that such a percentage allows considerable profit to the State, owing to various causes of forfeiture, such as premature death, dismissal, and voluntary resignation of functions; further, the reduction of the nominal salary may also be considered as a guarantee for the good of the service, the probability being that those who have paid for the pension will not risk their future means of subsistence, through neglect of their official duties. The salaries of the forest guards being taken as from £50 to £60 per annum with house or barracks, firewood, garden, and paddock, will allow Lxecoy.—The Forest Question in New Zealand. 15 of a living equal at the least to that of any other of the working classes. Still, with such earnings, it may be very hard for many of those people to save enough for the bread of old age. Forest guards, as the guardians of public property, must feel independent in the execution of their functions, and that independence would naturally arise from the fact that the fulfilment of their duty on all occasions will be the guarantee of their means of sub- sistence for life. For the purpose of meeting the amount of expenditure required for the formation of the Forest Department, also for the good of the service and that of those it may concern, the following outlines of a scheme are submitted :— Ist. Creation of a colonial pension fund, or deferred life annutties, to be constituted under such principles :— (1.) That the amount of the pension should not exceed £60. (2.) That the amount of the monthly instalments towards the pension should be calculated to the effect that neither loss nor profit would accrue to the State. (3.) That the subscription to a pension of £60 should be compulsory for all Government servants receiving a salary under £100 per annum, but to be free, up to or under the said amount, to the working classes of the community. (4.) That the right to the pension should be acquired by 25 years of payment of the subscription, and the pensioner not being under 55 years of age. Cases of forfeiture: Failing to pay the monthly instalments, premature death, judicial condemnations in criminal cases, dismissal from the Govern- ment service for non-fulfilment of duty, etc. 2nd. The creation of a civil pension fund applying to all Government servants receiving a salary of or above £100 per annum.—The subscriptions to be compulsory, five per cent. reduction on the salary, causes of forfeiture as above, adding the case of voluntary resignation of functions, amount of the pension half that of the salary, reversion of half the pension to the widow of the pensioner, 30 years of service and 60 years of age giving right to the pension. The enactment of such institutions would create means more than sufficient to meet the expenditure of the forest department. As regards a systematic treatment of our indigenous forests, some technical points of importance might be reserved without prejudice until the service had attained sufficient experience to decide upon such questions, as for instance that of determining the age of maturity of the various species of trees. Meanwhile an average age of 100 years may be fixed, so that no valuable timber under that age should be felled. On this subject it may be 16 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. remarked that the financial interest of States is not governed by the same principles as those of private individuals. Private individuals may derive interest or profit from the investment of capital, which as a rule States do not. Thus, private individuals are able to find their own pecuniary interest by selling trees on their estate as soon as they attain marketable dimensions even before maturity, because the cash realized by the sale is expected to increase, through interest or profit, to such an amount as to be far above the value of the trees at the time of their maturity. States, as a rule, have no capital to invest at interest or otherwise; their receipts go to pay their expenditure, and so far as the revenue is derivable from State forests the larger amount of money the standing timber will reach at the auction sales the better it will be for the public purse. The fact that a full-grown tree is worth more money than one of less dimensions, need not be mentioned (particularly old trees of high value for the manufacture of furniture, etc). Therefore, whilst the State is in possession of a stock of old trees more than sufficient to supply the demand, the present as well as the future interest of the Treasury will be found in the application of the rule, that trees should not be felled before full maturity. ‘‘ Arbores. magne di crescunt,”’ VIII.—Economic anp CommerctaL Vaturs or New ZEauanp TIMBERS. Experiments for ascertaining the intrinsic value of New Zealand timbers were most carefully and skilfully made eighteen years ago, in Dunedin, under the direction of the late Mr. Balfour, C.E.; also, as a means for - comparison, tables showing the values of European timbers, experimented on by Mr. Barlow, were prepared by the same talented engineer. Preparatory to the consideration of the value of New Zealand timbers in European markets, the following statements, abstracted from Mr. Balfour’s reports, are aubmitted, and will render it unnecessary to state the results of personal investigations, leading, as they do, to the same Opinion as expressed by the late Mr. Balfour, viz., ‘‘ That the New Zealand woods compared very fairly with those we have been accustomed to con- sider as standards, the absolute strength of very many being above that of the British oak.”’ Lecoy.—The Forest Question in New Zealand. 17 CompaRrAtivE TABLES OF THE INTRINSIC VALUES OF HUROPEAN AND NEw ZEALAND TIMBERS. EUROPEAN TIMBERS. Sannin or rain 6 * NAME. ujcauteany bear Elasticity. en atnGe Remarks, Fracture, Ibs. Ibs. Oak (Great Britain ).. | 128-55 127-01 Care rears all experiments. 55 a “es 178°66 111-03 46:87 Special case. Beach 5 26 129:66 195-83 43-37 Ash 3 169°2 180-07 46-195 Elm " 87:92 82:22 34:21 Memel Deal 144-25 116 36°77 Riga Fir 89:96 167:°77 46°46 NEw ZEALAND TIMBERS. ‘Sian th or rain e = Name. Rood can bear Elasticity. p a weet Fracture. lbs. Ibs. Black Maire Olea apetala 314:2 273 72°29 Titoki Alectryon excelsum 248 - 229 57°10 Black Mapau Myrsine australis 243 215-2 60°14 Manuka Leptospermum ericoides 239 239 59 Kowai Sophora tetraptera 207°5 198-5 55°11 Tawa Nesodaphne tawa 224 204:5 49°85 Towai (Black Birch, Otago) Fagus fusca 232 214:05 44°42 Towai (Black Birch, Wellington) ,, 199 {509-3 50:96 Miro Podocarpus spicata 197-2 230:24 49:07 Rata Metrosideros robusta 217 214-02 60°10 Matai Podocarpus ferruginea 190 15622 42°74 Maire Eugenia maire 179°7 177:2 49:24 White Mapeui Carpodetus serratus 1776 16680 51:24 Kauri Dammara australis 180-96 194-41 38°96 Rewarewa Knightia excelsa 161 199-29 48:92 Red Birch Fagus menziestt 158:2 116 39 Rimu (Wellington) Dacrydium cupressinum 168 174°4 38 », (Hawke Bay) ue A 163 136-7 37°63 », (Dunedin) i i 108 124°3 36:28 », (Canterbury) af 35 66 89:16 47°34 Totara (Hawke Bay) | Podocarpus totara 148 113-99 34:13 D0 (Wellington) an 33 140 163°8 33°83 » (Canterbury) Pe oe 121 94:74 36°16 Hinau Ele@ocarpus dentatus 125 200-7 35-03 White Pine Podocarpus dacrydioides 136 155 31:55 Several species of New Zealand timbers were not tested at the Dunedin experiments, such as puriri and manuao, or Westland pine, which are the strongest and most durable timbers in the colony. Irrespective of the economic values just stated, many descriptions of New Zealand indigenous trees possess remarkable beauty in grain, mark- 2 18 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. ings, and varied tints, which would prove of high commercial value in Europe. For the purpose of exportation to Europe, New Zealand timbers may be divided into three classes :— The first class to include timbers well adapted for the manufacture of furniture, cabinet work, etc., such as rewarewa, which, by lapse of time, assumes an extreme beauty, and the appearance of tortoise-shell. Then maire comes in for a more serious style of furniture, superior in beauty to old oak. Next we have all the varieties of waved and mottled kauri, rimu, totara, etc., all of exquisite beauty, far exceeding that of any wood known in Europe. : The second class to include timbers well adapted for ornamental works, where the adequate strength of the wood is required, such as inlaid floor- ings, when they are intended for ornamentation, panels, etc., for which rimu is prominently a suitable timber. The third class to include timbers intended to supply the place of oak in its special uses, the scarcity and high commercial value of that timber being much felt in all Huropean markets at the present time. The cause of the diminishing supply of oak and other hardwoods in Europe may be partly ascribed to the extension of railways, but principally to the progressive ex- haustion of the product in countries where forest conservation is not carried out. Thus, from scarcity of those timbers, and high prices for the same, originated the introduction of iron ship-building, and also, so far as prac- ticable, the more general adaptation of light woods to various building pur- poses. Oak however, cannot be replaced by iron or light wood in its essential uses; and in the many descriptions of New Zealand strong timbers will be found the requisite qualities to supply the place of that standard timber in Europe, in each of its special uses. The principal outlets for the exchange of our forest produce should be England and France. England is anxiously looking to her colonies for the supply of her enormous consumption of timber and wood, which, according to a recent statement taken from The Economist, represents a yearly value of £170,000,000. Canada contributes, for a value of about £5,000,000 per annum, towards these excessive requirements.* But forests in the Dominion are given up to waste and devastation, no effectual steps being taken to prevent their ultimate destruction, and hardwood is fast disappearing in all its provinces. * During five years ending 1876, Canada exported to the United Kingdom— Timber and wood, to a total value of .. -. £24,633,226 Corn and grain oe O6 ¢ 16,536,983 (Colonial Timbers, Colonial Office, England.) Lecoy.—The Forest Question in New Zealand. 19 An analysis of returns relating to colonial timber, issued by the English Colonial Office, and presented to both Houses of Parliament, August, 1878, affords important information. In the prefatory observations of the official document it is stated that ‘‘ The returns exhibit, in a striking manner, the urgent need for some prompt and comprehensive action to stay the influences at work to destroy the indigenous forests which constitute, in many instances, the principal natural riches of the colonies.—Looking * * * above all, to the intrinsic importance of the question ttself, this may be regarded as a matter of Imperial concern, calling for well-considered action on the part of the Government.” In the chapter devoted to New Zealand, the provisions of the State Forests Act of 1874 are recited, and the following remarks occur :—‘“ As a practical and comprehensive experiment in the direction of forest conservancy, the results will be looked forward to with interest.’ * * * Besides the supply derivable from her dependencies, England imports immense quantities of timber from the north of Kurope. But there, also, forests are becoming exhausted, and protective duties on the Baltic timbers are imminent. The demand for staves and hardwood intended for various purposes, is considerable in the English markets, and should New Zealand timbers be better known there, they would soon be in demand to any amount that could be supplied. The same remarks apply to those of our woods which are so well adapted for the mannfacture of furniture, cabinet work, ete. However, for ordinary house-building purposes New Zealand timbers could not compete in price with the lighter woods generally used in England. In France, the use of hardwoods for house-building purposes is more general than in England, and it may be there a matter of necessity, to which, in some cases, ornamentation is added. Houses in Paris being five stories high (each house affording habitation to ten families), have to be constructed with the strongest materials. Oak, as a rule, is used in the construction of stairs, inlaid floorings, doors, and panels, the work being finished off by the application of a special encaustic, which produces a varnish-like appearance. Thus, in France, oak is found to be both useful and ornamental ; and floorings of polished oak are almost universal, carpets being but seldom used, and then only in winter. Another characteristic of French custom is extreme luxury in furniture, all classes of the people in towns seeking to possess themselves of the best furniture that their means will admit of. It may therefore be confidently asserted that New Zealand timbers, for all purposes indicated in the above classification, will find a ready market in France. In addition to the annual product of her 23,000,000 acres of forests (including State, communal, and private forests, all of which are subjected 20 Transactions. —Miscellanéous. to the prohibitions against clearing), France has annually to import hard- woods to the value of £8,000,000, mostly intended for the navy, wine- cask staves, and furniture. The merchant navy has not, as yet, any iron ships. Prices for oak, in the Paris market, were quoted by the Revue des Kaux et Foréts, of the 5th October, 1878, as follows :— In log.—Logs of 2 métres in circumference or above, 160 francs= £6 8s. Od. per cubic métre=1 cubic yard+10 per cent.; the logs to be measured at the quarter girth if not squared. Logs from 1 to 2 metres in circumference—80 francs= £3 4s. 0d. Planks.—Lots of all lengths, breadths and depths, being piled, 150 francs = £6 per cubic métre. Planks called “ Entrevoux.”’—Breadth 10 inches, depth 1 inch, 5 franes =4s. per 1 superficial métre=10 superficial feet nearly=40s. per 100 superficial feet. All other dimensions in the breadth and depth of planks are charged proportionately to the cubic volume of the ‘“ Entrevous.’’ Oak planks are to be free from sap-wood. The cost of freight from New Zealand to England or France, may be computed at about 6s. per 100 superficial feet, on a regular trade being established. The above quotations are those of the forest contractor for newly-cut wood, the timber merchant regulating the price of his goods according to the length of time he has kept them seasoning. It is not uncommon in France to see oak splitting and warping in its various uses, as may be par- ticularly observed at the fourth and fifth floors of houses where a com- paratively low rent necessitates the use of cheap wood. Also, in the first and second floors of the same houses, oak from the same forest may be seen perfectly sound, the difference arising from the more perfect seasoning. The above given quotations for oak in the Paris market, relate to the variety of the species which is the most abundant in the forests of France, viz., the ‘‘ Quercus cerris,’’ which is not so strong a timber as the ‘‘ Quercus pedunculata,’’ or British oak. Therefore, Mr. Balfour’s tables, taken as a means for comparison between New Zealand and England’s indigenous timbers, may certainly also stand good in reference to the standard timber of France. Prices for oak and other hardwoods in England are about the same as, if not higher than, they are in the Paris market. It may also be a matter of interest to observe that the most abundant species of New Zealand timbers are precisely those which will best suit the French markets. Such are rimu, birch, tawa, totara, ete.; not that rimu, for instance, could be expected to supply the place of oak in all its various uses but, that, for purposes such as those mentioned in the second section Lecoy.—The Forest Question in New Zealand, 21 of the above classification, this timber, it may be confidently asserted, would attain a commercial value above that of oak. Birch, tawa, etc., could also advantageously replace oak in many of its special and essential uses on the same level as to prices. The market value of New Zealand timbers in the colony, as compared with that which they should reach in the European markets, can only be given as the result of personal observation, inquiries, ete. HoME PRICES. PRICES ABROAD. Per 100 superficial Per 100 euperiicial eet. eet. Ist class timbers, from .. 12s. to 21s. | 1st class timbers, from .. £3 10s. to £8 Os. 2nd ,, a +; no Ws py aa | F Braval 5 A 5h 00 ce) ISS G5, 286) IOs Byaoh 35 . * oo WE op Lass) |) Bash: 5, MG ae oo OSs secon Oss The prompt success of our timber export trade in Hurope will mainly depend on proper discrimination as to the individual adaptability of the wood, and when its reputation is well established, there would be no fear of any diminution of the demand for it, nor of unsuccessful competition with identical timbers from any other parts of the world. Although the merits of the Dunedin experiments cannot be contested, they may not be found of much advantage for the purpose of establishing abroad the reputation of New Zealand timbers. Hxperiments, to have the effect of comparing the intrinsic value of our timbers with that of any standard wood abroad, should be made in the country where a good market is expected to be found. The difficulty to be encountered abroad for the sale of our forest produce will be this: The timber merchant may well admit the superior value of our timbers, and at the same time refrain from giving orders for it, on the ground that he has his own stock to dispose of; that he has no demand for rimu or puriri, and that he cannot undertake to make a reputation, and thus create a demand, for unknown timbers. The same objections will be repeated at every wholesale house where the timber may be offered for sale. Another side of the question is that, in order to secure its full success, the exportation of New Zealand timber should be undertaken on a large scale. In France, a means may be found for at once establishing, on an indis- putable ground, the reputation of New Zealand timbers. The ‘ Conservatoire des Arts et Metiérs,’ at Paris, is a public institution of great Huropean renown. Science, in its application to the industrial arts and agriculture, is there demonstrated by eminent professors. The establishment possesses an ample supply of apparatus and machinery of all kinds, water and steam power, etc., intended for the purpose of testing the merits or properties of any new process or natural product having a character of general interest, 22, Transactions.— Miscellaneous. The monthly Gazette of the institution affords publicity to the experiments, and these reports have a considerable importance (scientific and commercial) as having the sanction of unquestionable authority. Here the intervention of the Government of the colony may be required; for we do not know how far the request of private individuals, for such a purpose, might be liable to objection. But, if presented by the Government, the request, bearing a character of general interest, would be granted at once. The experiments at the ‘ Conservatoire’? having thus been promoted through Government action, all surrounding details should be carefully attended to by the Government agent, or, as it may be, by the representative of any intended colonial company, who would have the official reports of the experiments inserted in the leading journals, as well as in the press specially devoted to the timber trade, taking such an opportunity for making special mention of our ornamental woods. Then the time would come for obtain- ing large orders from Governments, railway companies, etc., likewise for taking orders from well-known houses for our ornamental and furniture woods, and the effect of the experiments would reflect favourably on all classes of New Zealand timbers. Some difficulties, however, more apparent than real, may also be encountered here. There is an insuperable connection between the forest question itself and the timber exports. Thus, by introducing a systematic management of the public forests, the Government would show a due appreciation of the value of that portion of the natural riches of the colony, thereby stimulating private enterprise as regards the exportation of our timbers to Kurope, also helping in the matter so far as Government action may go. Considered solely from a financial point of view, the forest question in New Zealand will show to any competent person giving attention to it, that within a period of, say ten or fifteen years hence, a permanent State revenue, to the amount of from £8,000,000 to £4,000,000, should be derivable from the State forests, and that meanwhile capital, to about the same amount, would come yearly from abroad, as money derived from the timber exports. The magnitude of the interests involved in the forest question in this colony comprehends many important points which will have to be elucidated by official investigation in order to enlist public confidence, which will lead to practical results. So far as the conservation of the forests is concerned, the subject has already been treated in the New Zealand Parliament with a remarkable display of talent and patriotism. In 1868, the Parliamentary debates assumed a character of the highest interest. The motion of Mr. Potts, relative to the conservation of the forests of the colony, received its full development on the part of the pro- Lecoy.—The Forest Question in New Zealand. 25 moter himself, and was supported by distinguished members of the House. The information and suggestions contributed on the occasion by the speeches of Messrs. Travers, Stafford, O’Neill, and others, still bear the same force of argument at the present time. In 1870, the forest question sprang up in the Select Committee on Colonial Industries. Men of science were called in and interrogated. In his reply to Mr. O’Neill, Dr. Hector, in a few words, threw a vivid light on the whole subject. He said :— “The rapid destruction of the native forests I consider to be most wasteful, and as having the effect of rapidly reducing the natural resources of the country. It is not at all necessary that the forest should be com- pletely removed in the way that it usually is, either for the purpose of agricultural settlement, or the obtaining of timber for mills, firewood, or fencing. The thinnings of the forest would be ample in most cases to supply all the latter wants. By carelessly opening up tracts of forest, and especially by the firing of dead forests, the young growth of trees which comes up to supply the place of the trees that are removed is wholly arrested, and in a short time the air and sun dry up the surface soil of good quality, which characterizes freshly-cleared bush-land, and it is washed away by the rains.” * es * In 1878, Mr. O’Neill moved ‘‘ That, in the opinion of this House, it is expedient that proper steps be taken for the conservation of the forests throughout the colony, with which view it is resolved that a respectful address be transmitted to his Hxcellency the Governor, requesting that he may be pleased to appoint a Royal Commission to inquire into and report upon the State forests and the best means for securing their conservation.” ‘Sir D. Maclean said: ‘This subject appeared to have been well con- sidered by the honourable member * * * but all the Government could promise was to look into the matter during the recess, with the view of introducing a bill next session.”’ In 1874 the State Forests Act was passed, but its provisions as to the fund intended for the administration of the State forests have since been rescinded. Since then the forest agitation has subsided, but the extermination of forests by fire and axe has not ceased. Meanwhile the Public Works policy has been developed, extensive lines of railways have already been completed, others are in progress of construction, many more will be asked for, and under all circumstances the Colonial Treasurer will be entitled to look to the proper management of the State forests as an important and hitherto untouched source of revenue. 24 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. Art. II.—Influence of Forests on Climate and Rainfall. By Freprricx §. Prppercorne, Civil Engineer. [Read before the Hawke’s Bay Philosophical Institute, 14th July, 1879.] No fact is better authenticated than that of the beneficial influence exerted by the presence of forests on the climate and rainfall of a country, and, on the other hand, of the injurious effects on both that is brought about by the destruction of forests, or by their absence. In this way their destruction has often become a real calamity to a country, and has proved to be one of those errors which nothing can excuse, and which nothing but a resort to years of tree-planting, in order to replace the forests destroyed, can remedy. That this is not an exaggerated view to take of the subject, is shown when we know the evil effects produced in many countries by the denudation of their forests—one striking instance of which is to be found in Spain, the central regions of which, comprising the Castiles, part of Leon, Estremadura, and La Mancha, possess at present an execrable climate, although, in the times of the Roman occupation of Spain, these districts were noted for the fertility of their soil and for the amenity of their climate, so that the words, ‘‘ Nihil otioswm, nihil sterile in Hispania,” passed into a proverb. But, at present, as we are told by Sir A. Ford, “The denuded table-lands are exposed to the fierce suns of the summer and to the fiercer snows and winds of winter, while the bulk of the peninsula offers a picture of neglect and desolation, moral and physical, which it is painful to contemplate. Extensive steppes and plains are burnt up by the sun in summer, and swept by the icy winds in winter, while rain is so rare in the table-lands. that the annual fall does not exceed nine inches, and there are districts upon which no shower descends for eight or nine months together. The face of the earth is tanned tawny, and baked into a veritable ‘ Terra-cotta,’ and everything seems dead and burnt, as on a funeral pile.” And yet, under the dominion of the Moors, the country blossomed like a rose, while now Spain is one of the droughtiest and poorest countries in Europe, and the ignorance and prejudices of the peasantry have completed the devastation of her forests which her Catholic monarchs commenced. Fortunately, however, for Spain, she now possesses some enlightened men who, having been able to trace the causes of the evil up to their true source, are setting to work to remedy it, and are impressing upon the Spanish Government the imperative necessity of replanting the mountain ranges as the only efficient method of combatting the drought and its attendant dis- asters. They show clearly that the demolition of the forests has operated most disastrously both upon the soil and climate; that springs and streams have dried up; that rain has ceased to fall at one period of the year when it is most wanted, and descends with great violence at other times. This PEPPERCORNE.—On the Influence of Forests on Climate and Rainfall. 25 causes the surface-soil to be washed off the hills (which have been denuded of their timber) and carried into the valleys, from whence it is swept away by calamitous inundations into the sea. The preservation of the forests of a country is, therefore, one of the first duties of an enlightened Government; for, as Professor Macarel, a French writer of some note, observes: ‘‘ All the wants of life are closely related to their conservation : agriculture, architecture, and almost all the industries, seek therein their aliment and resources, which nothing can replace. Necessary as are the forests to the individual, they are not less so to the State ; their existence is, of itself, of incalculable benefit to the countries that possess them, as well in the protection and feeding of the springs and rivers, aS in their prevention against the washing away of the soil upon mountains, and in the beneficial and healthy influence which they exert upon the atmosphere. Large forests deaden and break the force of heavy winds that beat out the seeds and injure the growth of plants ; they form reservoirs of moisture; they shelter the soil of the fields and upon hill- sides, where the rain-water, checked in its descent by the thousand obstacles they present by their roots and by the trunks of trees, has time to filter into the soil, and only finds its way by slow degrees to the rivers. They regu- late, in a certain degree, the flow of the waters and the hygrometrical con- _ dition of the atmosphere, and their destruction accordingly increases the duration of droughts and gives rise to the injuries of inundations.” The truth of these observations admits of no doubt, and instances may be multiplied to prove their accuracy. Thus, the island of Cyprus was, in ancient times, famed for its fertility when its hills were covered with timber ; but of late years, and since the denudation of her forests, the bare and thirsty soil seems, as it were, to repel the rain-bearing clouds, and the island has become the prey of periodic drought and disease. During the three consecutive years from 1859 to 1861, no rain fell at Cyprus, and the inhabitants migrated en masse to the adjacent shores of Syria. Malaria appears to have become chronic in the island ; but since its recent occupation by the British, an extensive system of tree-planting has been commenced under the auspices of Sir Garnet Wolseley, who, in a recent letter to the First Lord of the Admiralty, writes: ‘‘I am now planting 20,000 Eucalyptus trees ~ Of unc 2nd two years’ growth, and even supposing that one-half of these die, I shall have made a good start towards replenishing the island with timber.” * * All who have made themselves acquainted with the French colonization of Algeria, must admire the public spirit displayed during the last twenty years in respect to the ‘‘ reboisement,” or re-timbering of the country, chiefly with the Hucalyptus globulus and other varieties of this tree—a measure which has been found to be equally effective both on sanitary and economic grounds, 26 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. Again, the Island of St. Helena offers a striking example of the effects of forest denudation upon its climate and rainfall. When it was first discovered in 1502, the island was covered with timber, which in many instances came down to the water’s edge, and innumerable rivulets height- ened the verdure of the land. But, shortly after its colonization, the inhabitants went recklessly to work to destroy the trees, and this was followed by a succession of severe and destructive drougnts; so that, all through the 18th century, there were almost periodical visitations of these scourges, occasioning ruinous losses of cattle and crops. The Hast India Company, however, having adopted energetic measures for the replanting of the island with the cluster pine and other hardy forest trees, the result has been that the annual rainfall has become equal to that of England, and that it is spread almost evenly over the year, while droughts are altogether unknown. Similar effects have been recorded with respect to the Island of Mauritius, in which a steady diminution of the rainfall has taken place since the destruc- tion of no less than 70,000 acres of forests, or about one-sixth of the entire area of the island. This work of destruction was accomplished in the ten years from 1852 to 1862, with the following results as reported by Mr. Meldrum, the Director of the Observatory at that island :—‘‘ In no former year of the period of fourteen years did such floods occur as in 1861 and 1866, or such severe droughts as in 1865 and 1866. Nor is this all; for the Mauritius, which was formerly a ‘sanatorium’ for British officers invalided in India, is subject to deadly epidemics, owing to the lowering of some lakes and the complete desiccation of others. Malaria has thus been generated, and cholera and fevers have followed. Latterly, however, an extensive system of tree-planting has been commenced, with the best results.” On this subject also, Dr. Hooker, in a letter to Lord Kimberley, who was at that time Secretary of State for the Colonies, wrote as follows :— «*The mischief already done in Mauritius and various West Indian islands is so widely spread (being in some, indeed, irreparable), and the feeling of the colonists against any interference on the part of the Government is apt to be so determined, that I venture to press upon your lordship my own opinion as to the urgency of active steps being taken in the case of an island so beautiful, and at present so fertile, as Ceylon. I have lately received an account of the deterioration of the climate of some of the Leeward Islands, which affords a melancholy confirmation of what I have urged above. The contrast between neighbouring islands similarly situated is most striking, while the sad change which has befallen the smaller ones is, without any doubt, to be ascribed to human agency alone, It is recorded of these, that PEpPPERCORNE.—On the Influence of Forests on Climate and Rainfall. 27 in former times they were clothed with dense forests, and their oldest inhabitants remembered when the rains were abundant, and the hills and all uncultivated places were shaded by extensive groves. The removal of the trees was certainly the cause of the evil, The opening of the soil to the vertical sun rapidly dries up the moisture, and prevents the rain from sinking to the roots of plants. The rainy seasons in these climates are not continuous cloudy days, but successions of sudden showers, with the sun shining hot in the intervals. Without shade upon the surface the water is rapidly exhaled, and springs and streams diminish.” The opinion of so eminent a botanist as Dr. Hooker must be conclusive on this subject; and in the Report of the United States’ Commissioner of Agriculture for 1871, there occurs the following passage :—‘‘ In Upper Egypt, the rains which, eighty years ago, were abundant, have ceased since the Arabs cut down the trees along the valley of the Nile towards Lybia and Arabia. A contrary effect has been produced in Lower HKegypt from the extensive planting of trees by the Pasha. In Alexandria and Cairo, where rain was formerly a great rarity, it has, since that period, become more frequent.” Again, speaking of the State of New York, and of the lofty mountains amongst which its principal rivers take their rise, Professor Marsh says :— ‘Nature threw up those mountains, and clothed them with lofty woods, in order that they might serve as a reservoir to supply with perennial waters the thousand rivers and rills that are fed by the rains and the snows of the ‘ Adirondacks,’ and as a screen for the fertile plains of the central counties, against the chilling blasts of the north wind, which meet no other barrier in their sweep from the Arctic Pole. The climate of Northern New York even now presents greater extremes of temperature than that of Southern France. During what is called the ‘heated term,’ the weather is almost tropical, and the deaths from sunstroke, even in the city of New York, which lies at the most southerly point of the State, may be reckoned by scores, while the winters have become of late years quite Siberian in their severity.” ; With regard to the felling of the Adirondack woods, and the effects thereof, Professor Marsh warns his countrymen that their destruction will render a wide-spread desolation inevitable, and he dwells on this point, because we are apt to think that America possesses exhaustless forests :— ‘¢ Already (he says) the rivers which rise in that region flow with diminished currents in dry seasons, and with augmented volumes of water after heavy rains. They bring down larger quantities of sediment ; and the increasing obstructions to the navigation of the Hudson, which are extending them- selves down the channel in proportion as the fields are encroaching on the 28 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. forests, give good reason for the fear of irreparable injury to the commerce of the important towns on the upper waters of that river, unless measures are taken to prevent the expansion of ‘improvements’ which have already been carried beyond the limits of a wise economy.” In our vast Indian Empire, the Government, until quite recently, per- mitted a wholesale destruction of the forests, but has now begun to open its eyes to the disastrous effects produced, and has appointed forest conserva- tors, whose duties are to see that the trees cut down are replaced by others, as the consequences of the reckless destruction of the Indian forests by demands for railroad and other uses, have already made themselves felt by the greater frequency of seasons of drought and famine, with all their attendant miseries ; and with such data as are accessible in late reports, it cannot be doubted that these calamities are chiefly due to the denudation of the forests. ; It is believed, however, that with a general scheme of forest conserva- tion, by which the annual growth might be made to balance, as near as may be, the annual consumption, these evils would be greatly mitigated, if not removed entirely. During the last half-century, great attention has been paid, both in France and Germany, to the art of ‘‘ Forestry ’’—an art which comprises an extensive range of knowledge of various sciences, amongst which botany, chemistry, geology, and vegetable physiology, take the first rank. The area of the French State forests is put down at 8,130,000 acres, to which may be added 5,350,000 acres belonging to ‘‘ Communes,”’ corporations, hospi- tals, and other public establishments, and the whole of these forests are under the management of the French administration of Forests. In the ‘‘Vosges’’ the destruction had gone so far that the humidity had diminished, while the soil had become more arid and inundations more frequent. In the Department of the ‘“‘ Gard’’ it did not rain in 1837 for more than nine months, and the supply from wells was most seriously diminished. At ‘‘ Berjiers’’ it was reported that the vast forest, which once sheltered that place, having been destroyed, the loss of the olive crop was the immediate consequence. Violent storms and torrents of rain certainly fell from time to time, but these did more harm than good, as the water ran off the land without penetrating into it. Such has been the result, in France, of the destruction of a great extent of her forests; but the regulations at present in force for their conservation and ‘‘reboisement”’ are of the most stringent nature. In Prussia proper, out of 385,000,000 of ‘“ hectares,’’* 8,000,000 are classed as forests, out of which nearly 4,000,000 are private forests ; in * A ‘‘hectare” is equal to about 24 English acres. Prpprercorne.—On the Influence of Forests on Climate and Rainfall. 29 both cases the regulations for their management and conservation are of the most comprehensive description. In Switzerland, the question has become of such national importance that it has been proposed to modify the constitution so as to enable the Federal Government to undertake duties which have hitherto been per- formed by the several cantons. In Austria, the management of forests has recently been transferred from the Minister of Finance to a distinct department, presided over by the Minister of Agriculture. In India, the forest question is now being regarded as one of the first importance, and is being dealt with, not by the several Presidencies, but by the General Government on behalf of the country at large. In Canada, there has been a certain amount of legislation on this sub- ject; but in Sweden and Norway the most rigorous measures have been devised to protect the forests, and there are regulations to prevent trees under a certain age and size from being cut even by private owners. Now, if in countries like France, Germany, Sweden, and Norway, whose forest lands are extensive, it has been found necessary to initiate and carry out a most careful system of forest conservation, how much more so must it be necessary in the dry and sultry climate of Australia! In the colonies of Victoria and New South Wales, the evils produced by the gradual diminution of their forests, as well as by their destruction in dry seasons by bush fires, have now become apparent, and have combined to render the climate, which is naturally dry, year by year more dry, while but little has been as yet attempted for their preservation. The consequences must inevitably be of the most serious nature, unless immediate steps are taken to conserve large tracts of the existing forests, as well as to initiate a well-devised system of tree-planting on the bare hills which have been denuded of their forests. Should this not be done, the inevitable result will be severe droughts of long duration, occurring more frequently than at present, to the great detriment of the pastoral and agricultural interests of these colonies. In South Australia, the subject has, however, received much attention of late, and proposals have been made by Mr. Goyder, the Surveyor-General of that colony, to initiate a systematic course of tree-planting on a large scale. Mr. Goyder proposes to reserve 200,000 acres of land, and to spend on it, in tree-planting and management, £14,000 during the first year, and £10,500 during each of the following eleven years; thus making a total expenditure of £130,000, when the whole of the 200,000 acres would be planted and fenced in. During the first five years there would not be any revenue, but during the sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth years, the revenue 30 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. from periodical thinnings was estimated at £35,000 annually, until the end of the twenty-first year, when the colony would be in possession of 300 square miles of forest. These estimates may possibly be a little overdrawn, but the scheme appears well worthy of consideration, and it is to be borne in mind that in no case is natural forest or ‘‘bush”’ so valuable, commercially speaking, as planted forest, and no one can deny the fact that tree-planting, on an extensive scale, would be a very necessary proceeding in all the Australasian colonies wherever the natural forests have been largely destroyed, to say nothing of the undoubted beneficial influence it would exert upon the climate and rainfall. Humboldt thought that dense woods gave out what he called a ‘‘frigoric,”’ or cooling radiation, which condensed the vaporous clouds, so that there should naturally be frequent and abundant rains in their vicinity; and, on the other hand, he thought that the warm radiations which take place from level, sandy, and treeless plains, would produce little if any rainfall, and all our experience tends to show that these views are correet. The foregoing examples have been selected from a mass of facts illus- trative of the dependence, to a large extent, of the rainfall of a country upon the preservation or renewal of its forests, whether on mountain-ranges or on table-lands, or on less elevated tracts of country. And although the meteorological action of forests is but imperfectly understood at present, yet the data hitherto collected are quite sufficient to point to the conclusion that trees, being natural conductors of electricity, as has been proved by the experiments of M. Grandeau, Professor of the ‘‘ Hcole Forestriere,”’ in France, serve as intermediaries for the exchange of the electricities with which the earth and the atmosphere are respectively charged. It has also been said that the earthquakes which are common in Spain and Portugal, would be less frequent and less violent if the elevated regions of those countries were clothed with forests, so as to secure regular and harmless conduction of the electric fluid from the aerial to the terrestrial reservoir, and vice versa. However this may be, one thing is very certain, which is that hailstorms, which are believed to be produced by a certain specific electric action, become more frequent and destructive in districts which possess no forests ; and on this point Signor Calvi, in his ‘‘ Hints on the Importance and Cultivation of Forests,’’ states that:—‘‘ When the chains of the Alps and the Apennines had not yet been stripped of their magnificent crown of woods, the May hail, which now desolates the fertile plains of Lombardy, was much less frequent; but, since the prostration of the forest, these tempests are laying waste even the mountain soils, whose older inhabitants scarcely knew the plague.’’ Prppercorne.—On the Influence of Forests on Climate and Rainfall. 31 Enough has now been said to show the calamitous consequences of denuding. a country of its woods and forests, and to show that writers of repute, who have made this subject their special study, are unanimous in connecting the occurrence of droughts and famines, the drying up of lakes and rivers, together with the outbreak of certain malarious epidemics, with the reckless destruction and waste of forests. We are, in Australia and New Zealand, much in the same position as the inhabitants of India in this respect, and we are only beginning to feel the effects of the wholesale destruction of our forests. In New Zealand particularly, the forest question is a vital one, and the sooner it is grappled with the better it will be for the colony, the question being one which will so greatly influence its future prosperity, together with its commercial value as a colony, its climate, and its salubrity. In a very interesting paper by Dr. Hector, showing the percentage of our forest land to the whole area of the colony, his estimate is, that between the years 1830 and 1868 the destruction of forests was as follows :— In the Province of Auckland 26 60 ote -. 58 per cent. 5 Taranaki 60 Bo Se dio eel Oeieie a Wellington ae oe Se Be e20u es A Hawke’s Bay .. au si Senet OO ie sn Nelson .. Bie Bes rs Soa G as, a Canterbury 6 Hi Si Menuelal (Uses A Marlborough .. aie 56 pie iial area 33 Westland a Ae af ene OR eta i Otago .. ate 0 ate sven LD Aare Showing that the average destruction during these thirty-eight years was about 25 per cent. During the five years from 1868 to 1873, it was esti- mated that of what remained in 1868, the following was destroyed :— In the Province of Auckland es ae 5b -. 27 per cent. ie Taranaki 36 an as Rene CA LI Le aeeaas 46 Wellington b6 O0 ee Ba CA. gp is Hawke’s Bay .. bb Bie Kersde BU ie vo a Nelson .. a6 a0 us see SOI a Marlborough .. 66 50 Oats ss Canterbury sis as ae Bo) OB) 55 AS Westland O66 eee 56 a eal sin ea +5 Otago .. ee 00 oe oo dl) os In other words, taking the whole colony, 20 per cent. of what forest remained in 1868 had been destroyed during the five years ending in 1878! It will be observed that in these estimates the Province of Hawke’s Bay stands pre-eminent in its ‘‘bad eminence’”’ for destructiveness of forests, which, if it continues in the same ratio, will leave it with very little, if any, standing timber in the year 1899, or in twenty years hence. 82 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Dr. Hochstetter, in his valuable work on the geology and natural history of New Zealand, pointed out the fact that extensive districts whieh had formerly been covered with forests of kauri pine were, when he wrote, totally destitute of this most valuable of the forest trees, and that its exter- mination was progressing from year to year at such an alarming rate, that its final extinction was as certain as that of the natives themselves, only in a much shorter period of time. Such being the facts of the case, it is surely necessary that some steps be taken to preserve a portion of our forests, and to check the continually increasing destruction which is still being carried on; and it would appear to be not only expedient but absolutely necessary that the far-seeing views which were expressed on this subject by Sir Julius Vogel, in 1874, and which were—to create a department of ‘‘ Woods and Forests,” and to enact forest laws, be carried out without delay. The most stringent measures will now have to be resorted to for their conservation ; a sum of money should be set apart annually for the purpose of planting and improving the State forests; every township in the colony should have its adjacent forest reserve; and every encouragement should be given to landowners towards the planting of trees on their farms and runs. Should this not be done, after the fashion of other and older countries, and should no steps be taken to conserve our forests, the consequences will, in all probability, be of the most disastrous nature to the ensuing generation. Art. IlI.—Notes on Port Nicholson and the Natives in 1889. By Masor Cuartes Huapuy, V.C. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 11th October, 1879.] Havine been in Port Nicholson before the arrival of the settlers, I have put together the following notes on the physical aspect of the place, and the condition of the native inhabitants at that time. In September, 1889, when I arrived here in the ‘Tory,’ with the expedition to select a fitting site for the New Zealand Company’s first settlement, no ship had been in the harbour for a considerable time, pro- bably three or four years. The place lay out of the track of whaling ships, and there was but little flax-trading to be done at it. Large, and for a time prosperous, whaling-stations existed at Port Underwood, Tory Chan- nel, and Kapiti. The tide running past the heads on into those harbours, whale-ships lay at anchor there, with their boats in readiness, and nume- Heapay.—On Port Nicholson and the Natives in 1839. 30 rous shore-parties watched throughout the winter months for whales that, coming inshore during the breeding season, were entangled or swept by the tide into the bays, where they could be attacked with advantage, and when killed, towed, with the aid of the flood or ebb tide, alongside the ship or under sheers of the shore establishment. At Port Nicholson heads, the tide was not so strong as to draw in the “ fish,’ as they were termed, and as a consequence the place was unfrequented, and remained with its people in a more primitive condition than any of the surrounding harbours. The forest was more undisturbed. Along the eastern shore, from the mouth of the Hutt River to outside of Ward Island, the forest was uninter- rupted, and the trees overhung the water, giving shelter to great numbers of wild fowl. About Kaiwhara, Ngahauranga, and the Korokoro, the earthquakes had not then raised the coast, and caused the beach, now occupied by the railway, to appear, and there, also, the trees overhung the water, leaving only at the ebb of the tide a space sufficient for a pathway. The indigenous birds had been entirely unmolested, save when the Maori snared them in his furtive and noiseless manner. I remember, especially, the enormous number of waterfowl frequenting the shallows at the mouth of the Hutt River. Cormorants, ducks, teal, oyster-catchers, plovers, sand-pipers, curlew, and red-legged waders, were there in pairs, detachments, and masses, and so tame that it was slaughter, rather than sport, to shoot them. At the beach at the head of Evans Bay, there were, beside ordinary waterfowl, flocks of Paradise ducks (Casarca varieyata}j. In the low fern and sandy shores of Island and Lyall Bays the indigenous quail, now disappeared, would rise almost at one’s foot with its shrill, startling whistle, while along the rocks the slate-coloured cranes (Ardea sacra), two and two, were to be seen making erratic darts after shrimps, or patiently waiting for a passing fish. The forest was then teeming with birds. Of twelve or fourteen species of small birds that were then to be seen in every wood, only the tui, the fly-catcher, and the wren, with the sand-lark, in the open, are now common, while the robin, the bell-bird, the titmouse, the thrush, the popokatea, the tiraweke, and the riroriro, are rarely seen or have entirely passed away. Of the larger birds, the kokako, or crow, the rail, pukeko, pigeon, kaka, and huia, were numerous in their respective localities or feeding-grounds. Of a night might be heard the booming, or ‘‘drum,” of the bittern ( Botau- rus pectloptilus). The weka (Ocydromus earli), now common about the Hutt Valley, was then so scarce, that for more than three months our naturalist 3 34 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. was unable to obtain one, alive or dead, or even to see askin. I think this singular alteration in the bird’s numbers has been noticed in Southland. This bird, although not at all shy, is very pugnacious, and can defend its young from either the rat or the cat, hence, probably, its singular increase. The huia ( Heteralocha acutirostris) was then to be found in the ranges between Wainuiomata and Palliser Bay. Dr. Dieffenbach, the naturalist, was anxious to obtain some, and I accompanied him, making sketches, to the high range that overlooks Palliser Bay. The natives are very fond of the feathers of this handsome, dark, velvetty bird, with its yellow wattles and white-tipped tail, and two boys readily went with us as guides. There was no o¢casion to take much food into the bush in those days—the gun supplied game enough—and though the month was September, one blanket was considered sufficient bedding for the open-air bivouac. We struck in from near Lowry Bay, and reached the source of the Orongo stream before night. ‘There was no path whatever. We shot some kakas and snared a kokako, but saw no huias. We made a good fire as night approached. The natives were awfully afraid of the Wairarapa people, agaist whom they had lately fought, and while we slept with our feet near the fire, they sat crouched, with our guns in their hands, listening to detect any possibly approaching footsteps, for they were on the debateable land of the two tribes. The only sound worth noticing was the beautiful melody, towards morning, of the bell-birds. Thousands of these were singing together, and, probably by some auricular delusion, the sound seemed to arrange itself into scales, like peals of bells running down octaves. As the sun rose this music ceased altogether. From the top of the range we had a fine view of Palliser Bay and the Wairarapa Lakes. On our way homeward the natives suddenly stopped; they heard in the distance the peculiar cry of the huia. Imitating this, and adding a peculiar croak of their own, which they said was very attractive, our guides soon brought two birds—a male and female—within shooting distance. We abstained from firing for a moment, admiring the elegant movements of these birds as they leaped from tree to tree, peering inquisitively at us, and gradually coming nearer. We now fired with light charges, and brought each a bird down. Our natives were annoyed at our ‘‘griffinism.’’ They had intended, by a further allure- ment of a peculiar gutteral croak, to have brought the birds so near as to capture them with a common slip-knot at the end of a stick—a process which we saw subsequently performed with entire success. As we descended the spur near the mouth of the Hutt River, a whale and its calf were tumbling about between Lowry Bay and Somes’ Island. They were ‘finbacks,’ and of no commercial value. Hearuy.—On Port Nicholson and the Natives in 1839. 35 On another occasion I accompanied a party of natives into the hills, near Belmont, to spear pigeons. ‘The spears are about twelve feet long, and very slender—not more than half an inch in diameter at thickest part. They have to be held near the point, and, on a journey, trailed behind, until wanted for immediate use. The pigeons are probably feeding in low trees, or are about water-holes, and are scarcely frightened at the approach of the hunter, who quietly steals under them, sometimes even ascending the lower branches of the tree the bird occupies. The spear is then quietly directed amongst the foliage towards the breast of the bird, which takes little notice of the operation. When the point is within half a yard, a sudden thrust is made, and the bird is transfixed. The point of the weapon is of bone, and barbed. ‘This bone is hung securely by a lanyard at its base to the spear-head, but when ready for use is lashed with thin thread along- side the wood. The wounded bird flutters with such force as would break the spear were the whole rigid, but as arranged, the thread breaks, and the bird on the barbed bone falls the length of the lanyard, where its strugglings do not affect the spear, and it is easily taken by the fowler’s left hand. This mode of capturing birds, very soon after our arrival, went out of vogue. The spears were exceedingly difficult to make, and the few that were finished were eagerly bought by the whites as curiosities. Our ship lay to the northward of Somes’ Island, and frequent trips were made of an early morning to haul the fishing-net in Lowry Bay. Large trees there overhung the beach, making it a delightful camping-place. We were always successful with the net, taking large quantities of kahawai, moki, and flounders. From this bay the course by boat into the Hutt River, and up the branches into which it divides, was most interesting and picturesque. A pa stood at the mouth of the river on the eastern side, with large war- canoes drawn up on the beach, while at the hill-foot were tall stages, from which hung great quantities of fish in the process of sun-drying. Here the natives came out and hailed the boat’s crew to land, for ashore it was high festival. Their canoes had come in, the night before, from Island Bay, loaded with ‘“‘koura,” or cray-fish, which were at the moment cook- ing in the ‘“hangi,” or Maori stone-oven, with pumpkins, cabbage, and potatoes. The natives here were exceedingly apprehensive of an attack on the part of the Wairarapa tribe, who, if so disposed, could steal down the wooded hills and appear in the cultivations amongst the scattered working parties. Only two years previously bloody fights had taken place in the Wairarapa Valley, and though peace was ostensibly made with the tribe, reprisals from persons or families that had lost relatives might be dreaded. Thus 36 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. the men always had loaded fire-arms by them, and the ‘“ waka taua,” or war-canoe, was always ready for an expedition. From the pa we pulled up the Waiwhetu River, which there had lofty pine trees on its banks. The various bends were very beautiful and secluded, and seemed to be the home of the grey duck and teal, and numerous other wild fowl. Here and there, on the bank, was a patch of cultivation, and the luxuriant growth of potatoes, taros, and kumeras, indicated the richness of the soil. As seen from the ship, or the hills, a lofty pime wood appeared to occupy the whole breadth and length of the Hutt Valley, broken only by the stream and its stony margin. This wood commenced about a mile from the sea, the intervening space being a sandy flat and a flax marsh. About the Lower Hutt and the Taita, it required a good axe-man to clear in a day a space large enough to pitch a tent upon. The cultivations of the natives were nearly all on the hill-sides, and chiefly about what is now the Pitone railroad station. The path to the West Coast led up the hill from the west end of Pitone beach, and was very steep and difficult. There was one fine view-spot on the summit, and the track descended to the Porirua valley at what is now Mr. Karp’s farm. There was then no path from Neahauranga or Kaiwhara, but a war-track existed from Belmont to Pahautanui. The site of the City of Wellington was, in 1839, covered at the Te Aro end with high fern and tupakihi, save about the upper part of Willis Street and Polhill’s Gully, where there were high pine trees, partly felled for native cultivations. Wellington Terrace was timbered chiefly with high manuka, some of the trees forty feet high. Thorndon Flat, about Mulgrave and Pipitea Streets, was fern-covered, but with high trees towards the Tinakori Road. The native cultivations were along what is now Hawkestone Street, Tinakori Road, and the base of Tinakori hill, the sides and summit of which were densely timbered, the rata, with its crimson flowers, being conspicuous. The native villages were—first, Pakuao, with two or three families, at Dr. Featherston’s ; Tiakiwai, where Mr. Izard lives, with three or four families ; Pipitea, from Mr. Charles Johnston’s to Moore Street, with about fifty na- tives; Kumutoto, Lindsay’s to James’, twenty natives; and Te Aro pa with sixty natives. From Mr. James’ to the Court House the beach was so narrow as barely to afford room for passage at high-water, between the sea and the cottages that were built close under the hill, or on sites dug out of its foot. Where the Bank of New Zealand stands there was a short reef of rocks, at the foot of ‘Windy Point.” ‘The site of the present cricket ground was a deep morass, arranged by the surveyors for a dock reserve; after the earthquake of 1848 raised the land, generally, about the harbour, it became drainable. Hearay.—On Port Nicholson and the Natives in 1839. 37 The land-slips on the Orongo range, to the eastward of Port Nicholson, were not existing in 1839; they are said, and I believe correctly, to have been caused by the great earthquake of 1848. This was thirty-one years ago, and vegetable growth has not yet concealed the clay and sandstone that was then laid bare. As there were no such slips anywhere about Port Nicholson in 1889, it is, I think, a fair deduction that no shake of equal severity had occurred for at least thirty-one years prior to that date. In exploring the country, and whilst encamped on various parts of the Hutt Valley, I had opportunities of remarking the freshets of that river, and am of opinion that they did not rise so fast, or prove nearly so destructive to the banks, as during the last ten or twelve years. Natives. The Port Nicholson natives, when the ‘Tory’ arrived here, were a fine specimen of the Maori race. All the men were tried warriors, and had fought successively the Waikato, the Wanganui, and the Wairarapa people. But they occupied rather an inconvenient corner of territory. As long as they could maintain peace with the Ngatitoa at Porirua and Kapiti, and the Ngatiraukawa of Otaki, they were tolerably safe; but in the event of serious hostilities in the direction of the West Coast, and such hostilities were threatening, the Wairarapa people, whom they had defeated but not subdued, would operate in their rear, making the position very critical. It was this feeling of insecurity which caused them so readily to sell land to Colonel Wakefield, and to hail the arrival of Europeans. Having deter- mined on the policy to pursue in this matter, Epuni, the Chief, with -his immediate people, behaved with great consistency, and never receded from his bargain, or wavered in his friendliness to the settlers. There was a singular mixture of amiability and fierceness about these Port Nicholson natives. The circumstances of their position required them always to have arms ready beside them and the war-canoes at hand on the beach, but to the white people they manifested entire coufidence, and exhibited the greatest kindness. When the schooner ‘Jewess’ was stranded on the Pitone beach, they helped to dig a channel for her to the sea, and eventually, by force of numbers, animated by their war yell and chorus, dragged her until fairly afloat. At the subsequent upsetting of a passage-boat in the surf at Pitone they risked their own lives—men, women, and children—to rescue the ex- hausted Huropeans from the fatal undertow. Hre the purchase of the land was well completed their relatives were treacherously attacked by the Ngatiraukawa in force at Waikanae, and it required hard fighting, with all the advantages of position, to beat them off. Ere the excitement of this attack had passed away the chief of Waiwhetu, Puakawa, was shot in his potato field by a marauding band from Wairarapa. 38 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. Arriving at Waikanae, as we did, just after the action terminated, it may be interesting to notice what occurred. The Waikanae pa stood on the sand-hills, behind the beach, and may have contained about 350 natives, of whom about 200 were fighting men. The attack had been made just before daylight on a small outpost of the pa, where a boy noticing a strange native peering into the whare seized a gun and shot the intruder dead, thereby giving the alarm and arousing the inmates of the larger pa. The attacking party now surged against the stockade of the main village, but were fiercely resisted. Spears were thrust through the fences, and men shot down in the act of surmounting them, but no entrance gained. Then the fight would lull for a time, to be resumed outside in rough ‘“ scrimmaging,”’ as the whalers called it, amongst the sand-hills. Te Rauparaha, the great Ngatitoa chief, watched the fight. He professed friendship for the Waikanae natives, but had come over from Kapiti Island to assist the Ngatiraukawa with his advice, rather than materially. He was seen by the people within the pa, and a quick rush out was made to capture him. The Negatiraukawa interposed and sacrificed themselves to save him. The fighting was here hand to hand, but Te Rauparaha escaped, only how- ever by swimming off to his canoe, which was moored outside the surf. We met him ere he arrived at his island, which was distant about three miles from Waikanae. He looked crest-fallen, but was composed and self- possessed, and more than usually friendly in manner. On Te Rauparaha’s departure the Negatiraukawa became dispirited, and carrying off their wounded, retreated rapidly along the beach towards their fortified pa at Otaki. The doctors of our expedition immediately proceeded to the assistance of the wounded. We entered the pa about three hours after the fight was over. The chief, killed by a musket-ball, lay in state on a platform in the large enclosure; his hair was decorated with huia feathers, a fine kattaka mat was spread over him, a greenstone merit was in his hand, with the leather thong around his wrist; his spear and musket were by his side. The bodies of slain persons of inferior rank were lying in the verandas of their respective houses, each covered with the best mat, and with the personal weapons conspicuously placed beside. Around the bier of the chief the people of the pa were standing in a circle, performing the tangi; the women, and several of the men, had divested themselves of clothing down to the waist-belt, and were bleeding profusely from a series of cuts inflicted in the ecstasy of their grief. It was not for the chief only that the tangi was proceeding, each person there had some near relative lying dead within a few feet of where they stood, and the cold and placid face in their midst was only the objective embodiment of their mourning. Several of those in the circle were themselves desper- Hearpuy.—On Port Nicholson and the Natives in 18389. 39 ately wounded, and supported themselves on the shoulder or hand of their neighbour, decorously to pay the melancholy rite. But a party of men were still out amongst the sand-hills burying the dead of the enemy, or bringing in the corpse of a friend. Before we en- tered the pa we noticed, standing on a provision stage high up above the stockade, a woman, who appeared by her violent gesticulations to be much excited. Closely following us as we passed into the stockade was a litter- party carrying a dead body, the last of the missing. Suddenly there was a heavy fall, or thud, close by us; it was the woman from the high stage, recognizing at last the corpse of her son she had frantically thrown herself down, nearly twenty feet, and lay there, apparently dead, while the litter- party passed on. Such matters were apparently of trifling moment while a " tangi was proceeding. There were a number of seriously-wounded men to be attended to, and eun-shot to be extracted. One native had the tendon-achilles cut through, _ and the foot was drawn upward and powerless. To some bones of the arm and leg, fractured by shot, they had already applied splints, fairly made from the thick part of the leaf of the Phormiwm tenax. To cut and lacerated surfaces they had applied dressings of herbs. How far these were effective, medici- nally, it is impossible to say, but after a few days nearly all the wounded were progressing favourably and without fever. One man had his knee smashed by a bullet, and he was advised to submit to amputation. He agreed to have the operation performed, and was told about being able to walk with a wooden leg. The children considered there was fun to be found in wooden legs, and proceeded to manufacture them according to their lights—stumping about before the wounded man. At this ridicule he changed his views, and said that he would rather keep his leg and have it buried with him than live to be laughed at. Most of the wounds healed by what is termed “first intention.’ The severed tendon-achilles united, but with increased length and consequent loss of power in the foot. The Negatiraukawa had 45 killed, and the defenders of the pa 14 killed and about 30 wounded. The man with the injured knee recovered for a time, but with a stiffened joint. Four years afterwards he had it removed by Dr. McShane, of Nelson. He smoked his pipe during the whole of the operation. 40 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. Art. IV.—On the Principle of New Zealand Weather Forecast. By Commander R. A. Epwin, R.N. Plates I-III. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 11th October, 1879.] THe subject treated of in this paper is one which. has for some years past received great attention in other countries, and their publications upon Weather Forecast give us ample information as to the method by which their predictions are arrived at, and the measure of success which has attended their efforts. It is now proposed to give some description of the manner in which the Weather Forecast of this colony is carried out. The subject 1s one which may be considered of general interest, and the method of procedure differs in some respects from that practised in other coun- - tries ; but as it has already stood the test of some remarkably changeable seasons, with a large percentage of success, it seems now desirable to invite further investigation in the matter. In the first efforts to arrive at some conclusions as to probable changes in the weather, the principal difficulty which came under consideration was the deflections which the mountainous nature of the country seemed to have power to create, not only in the direction of the wind, but also in the dis- tribution of pressure. For instance, an isobar will generally run very fairly from Russell to Grahamstown, Tauranga, Gisborne, and Napier; but instead of continuing toward Castlepoint and Lyttelton, it will be found to curve inland and westward toward New Plymouth, then to turn southward between the latter place and Wanganui, and return eastwards towards Castle- point which it leaves on its right. Now, it will be found upon investiga- tion that pressure is nearly always higher at Westport and Hokitika than at Kaikoura, which necessitates this isobar being again drawn westward, 7.e., back through Cook Strait, and passing Cape Farewell turn toward south to West- port and Hokitika, from which point it returns eastward, passing out be- tween Blenheim and Kaikoura. A second: isobar should have commenced at Auckland and run toward Taupo, Wanganui and Blenheim; and a third might be reasonably expected to pass over Westport, Hokitika, Queenstown, and Balclutha; but it is evident that, according to meteorological law, they must follow the first line of equal pressure upon that side which will show that they define the position of a lower pressure, and this necessitates their following it through all its sinuosities, but westward of it. Such distributions of pressure were found to be by far the most preva- lent state of affairs, and in many instances the curves were much more dis- torted than shown on the diagram (Pl. I., fig. 1), but it seemed probable that other disturbing influences must also be in existence, and tending to TRANS NZINSTITUTE, VOLXILPLI. lo wlusiraie Paper by Cap ‘hawin, or VL, Weather Lor ecasts. Epwin.—On the Principle of New Zealand Weather Forecast. 41 exaggerate whatever was due to irregularity of the land surface; and it was only by closely watching the changes accompanying the passage of every low area, and patiently endeavouring to assimilate these conditions, that it became evident that the complications already alluded to were the result of there frequently being more than one low area in the vicinity of the country at the same time. One of the principal aids in arriving at this conclusion is derived from the substitution of contour lines for the isobar as generally drawn; these isobaric contours are drawn in the direction which the wind blows to—flow in fact with the wind—and the idea of adopting this plan originated in an endeavour to comprehend local peculiarities, for it was evident after investigating such remarkable distributions of pressure as those already referred to, that, if warnings were sent of an approaching gale, they must make known the limits within which it would be locally experienced, for if the warning were based upon theoretical principles it would frequently be incorrect, and the calculation of gradients under these circumstances seemed rather difficult. In drawing these isobaric contours, the mobile nature of air has to be taken into consideration. We all know how susceptible it is of expansion or contraction, to changes of temperature and pressure; and this being the case, it is but a step further to allow that a cyclonic wind, whose shape may be assumed as circular while beyond the influence of land, may become much changed in shape when it approaches a mountainous country, and by reference to Piddington and other writers upon circular storms it will be found that this point has already been under notice; but a little further consideration will show that this is not the only difficulty that has to be dealt with, as it will soon become evident that the subject contains some complex features; for while the front or advancing curves of a cyclone, encountering high land, become retarded and deflected, the centre continues to press forward with undiminished speed, and consequently the isobars become packed in the vicinity of the retarding influence; but from these causes the curves will have a tendency to open out at the rear of the cyclone (Pl. 1, fig. 2), and as the land has a retarding effect upon the cyclone’s advance, so will it also act upon it after the centre has passed, causing the rear curves to be extended; but the advancing curves will be compressed under either condition ( Pl. I., fig. 3). In drawing these isobaric contours, it must be constantly remembered that they must never cross each other, and that the object must be to endea- vour to depict a series of concentric rings more or less bent out of their true shape ; each tenth of an inch of barometric difference must be thus shown flowing in the direction toward which the wind moyes, and each curve in itself 42, Transactions.—Miscellaneous. reciprocating the movements of the curves upon either side of it, and every advantage must be taken of river-channels, mountain-passes, and other such routes by which the contours can be shown to make their way across the country; the state of the sea, especially at exposed places, must also be carefully shown by these contours; and by close attention to these principles, the occurrence of gales at points far distant from each other, and the existence of but moderate winds at places close to where such gales exist, can be accounted for, and reason can be shown why the sea- disturbance is subject to similar irregularities, all apparently the effect of purely local causes working independently of each other, but which are in reality part of one system, whose effect is intensified at these points. The isobaric contour also enables another difficulty to be accounted for; viz., the fact that the barometer moves more rapidly at some places than it does at others; and why, after it has fallen from a high point at all stations, there are frequent instances of its not recovering its original position over a considerable extent of country for a long time ; for instance, let it be assumed that pressure ranges between 30°50 in the northern part of this colony, and 80-20 in the south, and that a fall takes place amounting to about seven-tenths of an inch in the latter, and two-tenths in the former districts ; now, when a recovery sets in it will be found that the barometer seldom rises to its original position at all places by a difference not unusually amounting to half an inch at the southern stations, and although rapid oscillations may take place in that part of the colony, yet pressure south- ward of Napier does not return to its original position for a period varying from a few days to several weeks. This general position of the lower pressure toward the south is in accordance with our meteorological knowledge of this hemisphere, but it does not seem to offer an explanation of why high readings of the barometer in the south are not so unusual as may generally be supposed, and it should render forecast easy, as it gives a gradient showing westerly winds; but experience in storm-warning shows that easterly winds are frequent, and easterly gales must by no means be left out of the estimate of probable weather, especially at places lying south of the 40th degree of latitude, as it almost invariably happens that whenever the wind backs at places south- ward of Napier it changes into north-east, although it does not always blow a gale from that quarter. In the attempt to account for some of these points the isobaric contours were of great value, and their use led to the idea of the possibility of the exis- tence of multiple areas lying southward of contours, or lines of higher pressure, which retreat or move northwards as the low areas approach; advancing south- wards when they have passed, or if they are passing at a considerable distance Epwin.—On the Principle of New Zealand Weather Forecast. 43 from the country. These are the special principles of New Zealand Weather Forecast ; and the diagrams ( Pl. II.) accompanying this paper of the pressure within the New Zealand area on 7th, 8th, and 9th July, 1879, are examples drawn in accordance with its rules, but they must not be considered specimens of actual forecast—a subject which will be treated of in another paper. In these diagrams the wind deflections are eliminated, and they are, in fact, diagrams of the results already arrived at. In support of the system now in use it may be urged that if according to accepted principles each cyclone, or area of low pressure, is a complete circle, then it follows that from whatever point pressure commenced to diminish it must return to that point again as the low area passes away, unless it be assumed that, instead of pursuing a direct route, the cyclone has moved in a more or less erratic course, but by this principle of multiple areas we can readily perceive that it is possible that gale may succeed gale in rapid succession, and for a considerable period, each depres- sion following its predecessor, and the whole system moving in a more or less curved but well-defined route; and it obviates what has always appeared to me to be an impossibility, viz.: the retrograde movement of any low area. Secondly: the facility with which the approach of a “backing” wind can be foretold; this ‘‘ backing’’ being in reality the advancing curves of a new depression, whose approach will cause pressure to diminish before it has reached the point from which it at first commenced to fall. The proxi- mity of such an area is shown by the extent of the area over which the barometer is shown to be rising, and, together with the further area over which the isobaric contours show that pressure is likely to increase the sea- movement, has also to be taken into consideration. Thirdly: the advantages afforded by it for reliable forecast of sea-move- ment, a point of information which is of considerable value to bar-harbours and roadsteads. This principle of contour lines and multiple areas enables an explanation to be offered as to how such complex movements, as a decrease at the ex- tremes and an increase in the central portions of the country, can take place; and, also, why several successive rapid movements may take place in the south without being nearly so remarkably produced in the north; and it also affords a means of determining the positions of the depressions, although they may lie at a considerable distance to seaward. It also shows the existence of what may be termed double-centred areas of low pressure; in these the barometer falls rapidly, the wind veering by north and west and blowing a heavy gale, a recovery then sets in, the wind changes southward of west, and the barometer rises rapidly for about half an inch, and immediately that it reaches its highest point it commences to 44 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. fall again within a limited area, but continues to rise slowly at places beyond those limits, while within them the wind suddenly ‘“ backs” to the north- east, and a second hard northerly gale becomes rapidly developed within this area; this second fall usually reaches the same point as its predecessor, the barometer then makes a second rapid increase which extends to the whole colony, and a heavy gale from the southward is generally experienced, this being the second southerly gale within the limited area already men- tioned; the lowest pressure in these gales generally ranges between 28:90 and 28-50, and the total fall at the southern extreme of the colony amounts to about 1:25 inches. These areas usually travel about east by north, and the general, or I believe it may be termed the normal routes of the gales which approach New Zealand, are between W.S.W. and §.8.W., moving to the opposite quarter ; but after a considerable period, generally not less than six months, a depression comes in from the north-west, after whose passage the normal route is resumed, and this change takes place, on some occasions, with such promptitude that it is difficult to issue warnings in advance of it. Compar- atively few of these north-west areas have come under investigation since the principles of Forecast now in use have been fully in operation, but there have been several of them, and there is no doubt that they, at times, are of the class here described as double-centred. The depressions which approach from the west of south are systems of multiple areas, some of which are of intricate construction, and during their passage the wind changes from north-east to north and west, veering as we term it in New Zealand, but backing according to meteorological law; and, as each suc- cessive area approaches us, the wind moves from west of south to north of west, which we term backing, but which is a veering movement according to meteorological law. From these remarks it will be seen that the wind- change in this colony is the same as in Great Britain, but during the passage of areas from north-west the wind obeys the laws for the Southern Hemisphere. An interesting subject for investigation is offered by the atmospheric circulation of the temperate zones; for in England and America the same routes seem to hold good as in New Zealand, the depressions travelling from south of west to the north of east, and being at times interrupted by the passage of an area from north-west, and it thus appears that northern countries are mainly supplied from a tropical direction, the balance being restored from a polar quarter, whereas our supply is generally derived from the polar side, and recouped, as it were, from the tropic. A marked feature of this Forecast are binding isobaric contours, or binding-lines, which enclose the secondary and minor areas, and which are Epwin.—On the Principle of New Zealand Weather Forecast. 45 detected by pressure being lowered by successive steps, none of which are immediately recovered. These binding-lines are an indispensable feature ot the work, and to explain them more readily it is necessary to refer to the accompanying diagrams ( Pl. III. ), the first of which is intended to illustrate the passage of a system whose low areas travel on a route inclined about 67° from the true North or E.N.E. It extends over a period of eleven days, an interval which has been, for convenience-sake, extended to fully one-third more time than such a system would usually occupy. Hach division upon the line of route represents 24 hours, further subdivided into 12-hour spaces ; and by moving the diagram on the line of route, making each division ~ coincide with that upon the fixed line, and marking the barometer readings at Hokianga, Wellington, and Bluff upon the usual form of register, an illustration will be obtained of how movements, which do not appear to have much in common, may be shown to be the result of one system of depressions, and that they are in reality reciprocal.* This diagram shows that on the jist day the barometers were 80°55 at Hokianga, wind north-west ; 30°47 at Wellington, wind north-north-west ; and 80°30 at Bluff, wind north. As we advance the diagram to the right, we find, after an inverval of twelve hours, that it has fallen nearly a tenth at Hokianga, five-hundredths at Wellington, and one-tenth at the Bluff, but without any material change in the wind-direction, though it will have increased in force, and would under these circumstances amount to a strong wind at places in the South Island. By the second day we find pressure still dimimishing, and that during the last twelve hours the barometer has fallen to 30°40 at Hokianga, 80°30 at Wellington, and to 30:00 at Bluff. The wind has at each of these places changed more towards west, backing according to meteorological law, but veering according to our views, and a heavy northerly gale is now blowing at places lying southward of the contour of 30°30, there being also a heavy north-west sea at Grey- mouth and Hokitika. A further interval of twelve hours shows that the barometer is still falling; and on the third day it reads 80°25 at Hokianga, wind west; 80°10 at Wellington, wind north-west; and 29-60 at Bluff wind about north-west. The total fall at this station now amounts to seven- tenths of an inch in three days, which would in reality have occurred within one, but it has been extended for the sake of keeping the curves further. apart. By continuing the movement of the diagram to the right, we find that within the next twelve hours the barometer at Bluff makes a further downward movement to 29°55, giving a total decrease of seven-and-a-half [*Norzr.—For the moving diagram, a chart has been, for convenience sake, substituted, on which the position of New Zealand is depicted in relation to the isobaric contours at successive periods of two days’ interval (Pl. III.).]—Ep, 46 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. tenths, and that within the same twelve hours it rises to 29°64, the wind veering south of west as pressure increases. A southerly gale is now blow- ing over the South Island, and a heavy sea accompanies it at Greymouth and Hokitika; but the barometer is still falling at Hokianga and Wellington, and we further find that it rises at Hokianga, where its lowest point is 80°25 before pressure has at all increased at Wellington, where it falls to 29-98. On the fourth day the barometer has risen to 29-90 at Bluff, the sea making moderately on the eastern coast; at Wellington the wind has changed southward, and pressure has decreased to 29°88; and at Hokianga the barometer has risen a little. The wind is now from the southward of west throughout the colony, and the low area which has just passed is now shown to the eastward. Now, if this cyclonic wind is a true circle, pressure should continue to increase in all parts of the colony until it has returned at all stations to the point from which it commenced to diminish, and the wind should change to eastward of south; but these conditions are frequently delayed for a considerable time, and it generally happens that the barometer commences to fall again in the south long before it has attained the height necessary to ensure complete cyclonic formation, the deficiency being curiously graduated, the approach to the complete form being most nearly attained in the north and becoming markedly less so in the south. To anticipate this falling movement, which is always accompanied by a backing wind, is one of the difficulties of weather forecast; and, as its occur- rence is a sure sign of more bad weather, it is evident that a warning received after it has taken place is deprived of much of its value in practice. The approach of this backing movement is shown by the tendency of the curves to open out, caused by there being but little difference of pressure at adjacent stations. Itis more readily detected in the southern than in the northern part of the colony, there being a wider land-area in the former case, and it is also accompanied by a decrease of sea on the western coast of the South Island ; unless the new area be of large dimensions, in which case the sea will change northward, even while the barometer is rising; or, if the depressions are passing more to the southward of us than usual, and are at the same time moving on a north-easterly line, then the sea will continue from the south-west, as if the barometer were about to continue rising. Another point of value is humidity, which will usually be found to have decreased as the barometer rises, but not to the extent that the increased pressure would imply, while, in some instances, it will be found that an increase accompanies an increase of pressure ; neither of these movements seems unreasonable, if it can be admitted that the northern winds of one depression can exist in close proximity to the southern winds of the one im- Epwrin.—On the Principle uf New Zealand Weather Forecast. 47 mediately preceding it; in the space intermediate between the areas the weather is nearly always fine with light winds, whose direction mainly depends upon whether the place is nearest to the approaching or departing depression. In this example the space between the two is shown to be 29:90, and thus the line of 30:0 becomes an isobarometrical binding-contour or binding- line of one or more such areas as have just passed, and if pressure again diminishes, the re-appearance of all the contours above 30:0 will be delayed, and therefore they are also binding-lines; but as experience shows that pres- sures above 30°10 are of much less frequent occurrence at the southern stations than at others, it will be more convenient to consider 30°10 as the first binding-line, 30-0 the second, and so on, should the systems be suffici- ently complex to necessitate the number of these lines being increased. Referring again to the diagram, it will be found that while the wind con- tinues from the southward upon the eastern and western coast, it has already backed at the Bluff, and as the diagram moves along it shows pressure diminishing rapidly in the south, and within twelve hours it has fallen to 29:75 at Bluff, wind north, and a second northerly gale has now commenced, accompanied by a heavy sea upon the western coast; but at Wellington the barometer has risen to 29-95, wind still from the southward, while at Hoki- anga it has risen to 30:28, wind W.S.W. The jfifth day shows a further fall to 29-55 at Bluff, and a corresponding movement has evidently taken place over a wide area, resulting in a heavy northerly gale; the barometer has now risen to 30:0 at Wellington, the highest point reached being about 80:02, the wind soon afterwards backing to N.W., while but little change has taken place at Hokianga; within the next twelve hours the barometer falls to 29°45 at Bluff, and it also rises to 29°50, wind as before, veering south- ward as pressure is increased, and causing a heavy sea on the western coast; at Wellington the barometer falls to 29°86, and although this is only a fall of 16/100 it is accompanied by a heavy northerly gale at this station; at Hokianga the barometer falls to 80°22, wind W.N.W. On the siath day a further increase has taken place in the south, the reading at Bluff being 29°72; a hard southerly gale is now experienced throughout the South Island, but pressure at Wellington has diminished to 29:78, and at Hokianga to 30°18, the wind having now changed south of west at both places; twelve hours later the barometer has risen to 29-90 at Bluff, and the gale has now decreased at stations south of Lyttelton, but is blowing hard between that place and Napier, barometer reading 29-82 at Wellington, rising; and 30:15 at Hokianga, where it has fallen slightly, the wind being a gale from the southward of west at both places, and the sea is now heavy between Kaikoura and Castlepoint. 48 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. Now, according to the difference in pressure, which has been frequently shown by this diagram as existing between Hokianga and Wellington, it is evident that gales should have been more generally mentioned as occurring at the former station ; but in practice this is not found to be the case nearly so often as these differences would admit; and this is mainly caused by there being a spreading out of the contours at the upper part of the North Island, which will be more readily understood by a reference to Diagram No. 1. The second low area is now shown to the eastward of the colony ; and by the seventh day pressure is shown to be still increasing. The second binding- line has passed the Bluff, and this is evidently the first occasion upon which the barometer has stood at 30 inches at that station since the commence- ment of this series ; pressure at Wellington has risen to 29°90, and to 80°18 at Hokianga. This seventh day shows the second depression at a long dis- tance from the land, but it is evident by the contours that it continues to influence the weather, as the winds are still all from the southward; but there is now again a widening of thé contours in the South, showing the approach of a backing wind ; the barometer at Bluff now reads 30:02. A further interval of twelve hours shows that pressure has continued to increase in the North, the readings being 30-0 at Wellington, and 80°20 at Hokianga, but at Bluff it has fallen to 30:0, and the wind has backed into north. It now becomes evident that the first binding-line of 80:10 encloses not only the two areas which have already passed, but that perhaps several more may be approaching. The eighth day shows a fall to 29°85 at Bluff, but it has continued rising at Wellington, where the barometer reads 30:06, the second binding-line having passed, and pressure has also in- creased at Hokianga to 80°25. The diagram now shows that during the next twelve hours the barometer at Bluff has fallen to 29:75, and has a third time commenced to rise, wind again changing to the south of west; and by the ninth day pressure has increased to 29-90, but it has decreased at Wel- lington to 80:02, wind backing about four points, while pressure has steadily increased to 30°30 at Hokianga; during the next twenty-four howrs, the second and first binding-lines are shown to have passed the southern extreme of the colony, and the barometer has risen at all stations, being now 80°15 at Bluff, 80°08 at Wellington, and 80°30 at Hokianga, all with winds from south- ward. The third depression is seen to the eastward of the South Island ; the barometer continues steadily rising; and by the eleventh day the first binding-line is shown to the eastward of Wellington, and pressure has increased to 80°25 at Bluff, 30:18 at Wellington, and 30°33 at Hokianga. oe TRANS NZ INSTITUTE, VOL XULEL IE ‘ eNhangarer ee aarvier! : Whar ae Ht = fea By “tL ee Han Heat ‘ Mpueeess it ie Le 47 New Ply roe = Se = PRO << ( ok Gwegteto) GP 06.66 ‘Yyooug | § 096) UII0N | 9g LLG Gia || eres NAVULT, = G “MN LE 86-66 eas 9099) “MN 8& 88-66 tn € “ACN OF TG Ghee |e Aolvog ‘Yyoourg ay mrs) |} og 66:66 "wos A[LO4SR OL T “HN gs 86-66 ee P HN 0S G8.66 09049 A'T ‘BOS OTC BIOPISUOD] § 03 Z| ISBOL €P FE.66 ‘OF B.LOPOTAL 6 “HON 8h G&-66 "BOS "MN ‘OPPO | 9 09 F| “AN 6F LL-66 ~ BYT9TYOH ‘TIOAS 48119 T | 9seq | oF $6.66 ‘AAVOR w ‘AN | OS 16.68 ‘TIOMS FUSTTS “| TaTep | SP 8-66 BAINOYLCY TIOMS IUSTIS |¢ 02 5|'M'S'S | Eg 63.66 TOMS ATIOjSe | F073) “HN | Bg 96-66 || “AS ATASBG SAH | £047 |M'N'N| GP £8.63 nsuvsleyoy ae g qynos | TF OF-66 ae “| "Uys | SP 67-66 oe g ‘UION | OF 18.66 “ esnoyqdoy, "BOS OTQVIapIsuoy) € 09 Z| “HS SF FF-6G || "BOS OTYBIOPISUOH] ¢ 09 Z | ‘UIION | BG 9F-66 ‘GOS OJBIOPOTL | E023] “A'S LP 68.6% “ grodgse AA ‘TIOMS O7eIopoy, |F 02 ¢| “A'S | GF [B.66 Ysnoy |¢ 04%] ‘AN | sg 09-66 || ‘TTOMS o9RIOpOTN | F 07] “AN | 8p 86-66 ““-qgurodeTysep ae § 03 | “MN 8S 06-66 Se ie myBO 6¢ GP-66 a ie “WB | Fg [6-66 : TOPSUTTIOM. aM Bi wey) 67 66-66 ne UBD | 6¢ 65.66 Sh aes ‘UV | «6P £0.08 pe teeee UOSTON, “qYyoouLg a Ure | 6g GP-66 ‘TIOMS JUSITS » me) | FG 19-66 ‘TIOMS YSIS “| “UaTe | Og ST.08 qidg torde Ny ae 9 02 G| ISOM | FG GP-66 vig “| “Urey | Lg 69-66 oe € 026) “HN 8P 96-62 INUVSUB A ‘T}OOULG G "MN 6P 86-66 “UZOOULS G “UYION | BS 69-66 ‘TI9AS “HS T “MN LP 90-08 “" @ULOGST) “ysnory yore] ° MS ZS 8E.6% ‘OYRIOPOT «|Z O2T|A'N'N| FG GP.63 ‘OVB.IOPOT TE ‘UQION | SP Z8:6G “- eyeundoO ‘eV eB.LOPOTL §€ 09 Z| “MN Tg SP-66 “‘SavoH | 9 099] “MN 8S 99-66 “GZOOUIS =| 016) YNOS | EF OO pee pesguxere(@) ‘Aavoy royyey | Fore! “Mg | ZG €F-66 ‘AawoH | ¢ 07%/TII0N | Q¢ 9-66 ‘qyoomg |F098) “HS | ge 66-66 | UyNoULATA MON Se 601 8| “M'S 0g FF-66 oe €02%)|‘YZION | Fe 86.6% see ¢01¢|-q940N | 2F 70.0¢ | occe odneg, “qyoourg 6093} 380M | TS TS.66 Teams AAvOH 1¢079%/ “M'N | 96 9.66 ‘TIOMS 9USITS “| -umTeg | og 60.08 |" BSuvmey, ee one wmayeg 8F GP-66 ah § 046) HN GG G9.66 Sie € 093] ‘H'S LP QOF0S= a Saas espiiquiep ey 9 M'S'A| TS 69-66 ae 6 07T| “MN | 9g 69-66 nh “| -uIreQ | TE 90.08 “TU MOJSULBYBID “sno y G |M'S'M| 6S 09.66 “qzooutg g “MIN | #S OL-63 “TJOOTIG g ‘HN | 3 60-08 | pve nvynueyy a3 G09 €| ISOM | GS $9.66 oes “| uyTBe) | LP SS.66 ik G ‘HN 0g 10-08 “* TepuBuLoIOH myey | 6¢ 19.66 oe “| TaTBeQ | gg 69-66 aS €0%6/"H NAW] 09 G0.08 purvpypony ae 2 ‘HS 9¢ ¥9-66 ee ‘Ss “MS &S LS.66 ae FOYS!] “HS 6G 86-66 “= TOIBSTB AA “T00uLg g “MS €S 09-66 “TJOOULS nae “UTR 9g £9.66 oo ae “ure | SG (HOS =|) ee TLessny i G VASA FS 19.66 Re “| Tae | $g 09.66 Be w “TN &g G6.6G. | ak BSUBISOH Ss =| qqstey ° = He) -sqstoq = >| “44510 : ra 2 4 Bae TOF : ab ae Bee TOY Z © tn 2s Bide a : Bag eae} eS |\Soex BOS oe SS |fe2 BOS Bre) Re (Sox NOILV.LS JO 97249 3 pee ies cl eres JO 03845 3 Bi! 1Oisiol: beroe jo aqu4g ae ER Jg#oa] poqoor te aa | ER! -100 109 bo to | E @| “109 104 Ho ae RBE|-too 104 ‘ a © &| -oul0r1eg 3 ° r ©! -9ULOIBVg i) © a] -omlorvg ‘MV 6 ‘61ST ‘HG ATOL UO SLUOMHY UMHLVAA || “WV 6 ‘6ST ‘ALS ATO Od SLUOdTY UAHLVAAM || ‘WV G ‘BLET ‘AL, ATOP YOW SLAOdAY UAHLVAM ‘ENVIVEAZ MON —! pejondjsuod o1OM "TT o4¥[g UO SUIBISEI 901} OY} YOIYA WoIZ Vyep oY} poproye “EAST ‘AINE IG pu ‘MIg ‘YI, oy} I0J SINOaMY uMBIVAAY perejop SUIMOT[OF AH, “6L8T ‘ATOL HLG INV “HLg ‘ALY YI GLYOUT WHHLVAM 50 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. Art. V.—On the Ignorance of the Ancient New Zealander of the Use of Projectile Weapons. By Coteman Putnuies. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 22nd November, 1879.] Mr. W. Cotenso, in a paper contributed to the Hawke’s Bay Philosophical Institute last year, headed as aboye,* replies at some length to a short paper I had the honour of reading before the Wellington Philosophical Society during the Session of 1877,+ entitled, ‘On a peculiar Method of Arrow Propulsion as observed amongst the Maoris.”’ Mr. Colenso’s paper appears to me worthy of the greatest consideration, and I readily forgive his some- what discourteous allusions to my remarks, seeing that I have been led to enquire more fully into a subject of so much interest. I propose in the following paper to add to the authorities quoted by Mr. Colenso, and set out the further knowledge we possess of the use of the bow and arrow among other savage nations. We may thus be able to deduce, from so many scattered facts, some ethnological analogy concerning the ‘‘ Whence of the Maori.” I must confess, however, that, in my opinion, far too much importance has been attached, by purely local writers, to this question. Had any one of these writers travelled among and seen the different sections of the Malayan or Papuan races, inhabiting the South Sea Islands, he would not have exalted the question of the ‘“‘ Whence of the Maori”’ into the position to which he has exalted it. Mz. Colenso, who fairly enough represents this party, takes me severely to task for having ventured to say, in effect, that the Maori was merely one of those sections, and that his ancestry would be found among some of the people inhabiting one of the Pacific groups of islands. J imagine that I am justified in making such a statement. Pro- fessor Owen, in May last, when reading a paper before the Royal Colonial Institute on the extinct animals of the Colonies of Great Britain, } observed :— ‘When the Maori first landed he found no kangaroo or other herbivorous beast to yield him flesh. The sole source of that food—the more needed from the absence of the bread-fruit and cocoanut trees, which he had left at Hawaii, and the colder climate of the land to which he had been driven— was in the various kinds of huge birds incapable of flight.” And again, when referring to the Australian dingo :—‘ With the remains of the extinct birds of New Zealand, I have received evidences of the dog of the Maoris, and abundant proofs, in ancient cooking pits, of their contemporaneity with species of Dinornis. But I have found nothing to affect the inference that the Maoris brought with them in their canoes, when they first came to New Zealand, their dogs as well as their wives and children.” Such * Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XI., p. 106. + Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. X., p. 97. { Trans. Royal Col. Inst., 1879. Putiiies.—On the Use of Projectile Weapons by the Maoris. 51 explicit sentences, coming from so great an authority, sufficiently excuse me for having thought and written in a similar strain. Moreover, I do not think Mr. Colenso justified in treating so severely my modest enquiry. It appears to me that in opening this very question of the use of the bow and arrow by the Maori, I am likely to be of more service in settling the vexed question of the original habitat than the pages of speculative theory before now given to us. One ounce of fact is worth more than a pound of theory. Following out such particular questions as the use of the bow or other warlike implement, the construction of language, the mode of sepulture, or other habits and customs of any savage race, are the ounces of fact, and Mr. Colenso himself admits the incompleteness of his own essay, to which I referred in my first paper, upon the particular ounce, the use of the bow and arrow. In causing him to explain his rather loose sentence, touching the manner in which the Maoris projected their fiery- headed darts when attacking a pa (a similar custom prevails in Fiji), I think I have been of service. . I am sorry also to point out that Mr. Colenso has much disappointed me by the use of the word “ ancient’’ in the heading of his paper. While respecting him as one of the chief authorities in New Zealand upon Maori manners and customs, I still think that he has not been sufficiently par- ticular in his use of terms. What does he mean by the word ancient ? Surely not the New Zealander referred to by Professor Owen, who ‘‘ upon landing found only huge kinds of birds incapable of flight.” The whole line of his argument tends to observations made by Captain Cook and later authorities. For all any commentator can say or prove, the true ancient New Zealander might have brought the bow and arrow with him, but finding it of little service, and having little inclination to use it in play, soon aban- doned its use and manufacture. (This is not the only thing the modern Maori has forgotten. He appears also to have forgotten the existence of the Moa, and thought its bones those belonging to a great eagle, while we are pretty well assured that the ancient Maori feasted upon it.) Yet this reasonable supposition could never be entertained, for its mere consideration would cut the ground from beneath the feet of the speculators. They would have to admit the likelihood of the truth of the traditions of the various migrations and disembarkations from the different canoes, together with the similarity of language to that of Tahiti, and other habits and customs similar to those of the South Sea Island people, and that the Maori actually did come to New Zealand from some one of these islands. The fashion has become not to admit this sensible deduction, but to surround the origin of the Maori in mystery, if not almost to exalt him into the position of a separate and distinct race. Unfortunately for such reasoners, their argu- 52 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. ments are so loose that they hardly bear criticism. They neither mduce nor deduce anything, but weakly mix both lines of argument. Broadly, I, with others, think and assert that the Maori originally came from some one of the South Sea Islands, and support the assertion by deductive reasoning ; pointing, in proof, to the traditions, similarity of language, etc., etc. The only other course open is to oppose the assertion, and reason inductively fact by fact to any given point, or at least to show that my facts do not support the original supposition. The speculators adopt neither course, and Mr. Colenso contents himself with asking, ‘‘ Where did Mr. Phillips get the idea that the bow and arrow was the familiar weapon of the Maori ancestry ?” It will be quite time to ask such a question when Mr. Colenso is prepared to show that the original deduction (the migration) is erroneous.* I am also surprised at the following sentence contained in Mr. Colenso’s paper (p. 110) :—‘* My own testimony is this (the same indeed as that of Cook and others) that the New Zealander never knew the use of the bow and arrow, nor of the sling proper (the italics are his own), as used, for instance, by the natives of Tahiti.’ Such a sentence, without a shadow of proof, coming from so great an authority is remarkable. I am quite convinced that Captain Cook would never have so committed himself: while I am fully prepared to admit that the modern Maori—let us say, since the time of Tasman—appeared to know nothing of the bow and arrow, I cannot, nor do I think any one else will, agree in saying that the ancient New Zea- lander, the immediate descendant of one of the partakers in the migration to which tradition so definitely points, was also in a similar state of igno- rance. Indeed I am inclined to take quite the opposite view, and say that the New Zealander did once know the use of the bow and arrow, and I shall endeavour to prove so grave a statement. That proof will be as follows :— Polynesia may be roughly divided into East and West. The Western tribes (Papuan and Malay) used and still use the bow and arrow as a weapon of war. The Hastern tribes (Malay) used and still use it either sacredly or in sport. The Maoris evidently came from the Hast. On landing they found little use for their sportive weapon, the remembrance of which perhaps, and not the weapon itself, they alone brought with them. They consequently soon abandoned its manufacture. In their original home they had never been accustomed to see the bow and arrow used, except sacredly or in sport. A few tribes, in shallow waters, upon coral reefs, used and still use the bow and arrow for shooting fish, but there were no coral reefs, with like advan- tages, to be found in New Zealand. I am, therefore, entitled te consider that the ancient New Zealander once knew the use of a sacred and sportive weapon, the remembrance of which, the circumstances attending a new * See note A. Putiiips.—On the Use of Projectile Weapons by the Maoris. 53 domicile, and the physical features and animal life of a new country, in- duced him to forget. It will doubtless surprise the speculators above re- ferred to to learn that this very forgetfulness, as a deductive argument, is only further proof of the soundness of the original deduction. Moreover, Mr. Colenso, in his reference to Dr. Forster’s remarks * upon the use of the bow and arrow by the Tanna people, is likely to mislead the incautious reader. The Island of Tanna forms one of the New Hebrides group, lying slightly to the westward of the longitude of New Zealand, and about 1600 miles immediately to the northward. Its inhabitants are a mixed race (Papuan and Malayan). As I have already said the bow is a familiar weapon of war among the Papuans, let no one suppose for a mo- ment that the Maoris came from any of their islands. The ordinary course of the trade winds and great storms effectually prevents any such means of communication. Dr. Forster’s remarks are, therefore, quite inappropriate. So also with regard to the natives of New Caledonia. The trade winds blow direct from a little to the north of New Zealand towards New Caledonia, nine months out of the year, the rest of the year being the hurricane season. (Sydney sailing vessels, in order to reach New Caledonia, have first to pick up the longitude of New Zealand). Now the general feature of the South Sea Island canoe is to run before the wind, though an oblique course can be steered by keeping as close to the wind’s eye as the sailing properties of the particular craft allow. It would have been almost an impossible task to tack down to New Zealand from Tanna or New Caledonia. Both of these examples are therefore quite beside the question at issue. Tanna must not be confused with Tonga, for Tonga and the Tongese occupy quite a different position, and a north-easter might easily have sent a canoe load of warriors down to the Kermadec Islands, and so on to New Gealand.t+ I desire also to point out that the heading of my paper contains the words ‘‘ peculiar method of propulsion.’’ This peculiarity was the one im- portant feature of the paper, and sufficient attention has hardly been given to it. Whether the Maori knew or did not know the use of the bow was quite secondary to the chief question—peculiarity of propulsion. I have enquired of old natives in the Wairarapa concerning the matter, and shown them the arrow and whip. While expressing ignorance of the former, they readily applied the whip to a raupo stick to cast it in sport. As I know of no similar method of propulston existing among civilized nations, I think we should all feel favoured by Mr. Colenso more carefully enquiring into its origin. With regard to the use of the bow and arrow among other savage nations, I gather that it is or has been used as follows :—And first, with regard to * Loe, cit. Appendix A, p. 114. + See Note B, 54 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. Polynesia. I have before stated that the Eastern Polynesians make but little use of the weapon, while the Western Polynesians always use it as a weapon of war. This difference is readily accounted for if we turn to the various tribes inhabiting the Malay Islands, the original habitat of all the Poly- nesian islanders. There are four great races in Malaysia possessing various degrees of civilization and great difference of language, and three or four savage races. The first are the Malay proper (inhabiting the Malay penin- sula, and the coast regions of Borneo and Sumatra); the Javanese ; the Bugis; and the Talagese. The savage races comprise the Dyaks (wild tribes of Borneo), Battaks, Jakuns, and the aborigines of Northern Celebes, Sula Island, and part of Bouru. These various peoples have, at different times, migrated, or been driven to migrate, and naturally carried their dif- ferent customs with them. Some used the bow and arrow sacredly or in sport, some as a weapon of war, and some the poisoned arrow. Western Polynesia has evidently been peopled by the wild Malay tribes, or Papuans, who use the war or poisoned arrow; while Eastern Polynesia has evidently been peopled by the long-haired, more civilized, Malayans, who were not so savage and warlike. With reference to the statement that archery was a sacred game :—Mr. Ellis, in his Polynesian Researches * gives the following account of the matter as observed in Tahiti :— ‘«‘The te-a, or archery, was also a sacred game, more so perhaps than any other. The bows, arrows, quiver and cloth in which they were usually kept together with the dresses worn by the archers, were all sacred, and under the especial care of persons regularly appointed to keep them. It was usually practised as a most honourable recreation between the residents of a place and their guests. The sport was generally followed either at the foot of a mountain or on the sea-shore. My house in the valley of Haamene, at Huahine, stood very near an ancient rahi te-a—place of archery. Before commencing the game, the parties repaired to the marae, and performed several ceremonies; after which they put on the archer’s dress, and proceeded to the place appointed. They did not shoot ata mark ; it was therefore only a trial of strength. In the place to which they shot the arrows two small white flags were displayed, between which the arrows were directed. The bows were made of the light, tough wood of the purau; and were, when unstrung, perfectly straight, about five feet long; an inch, or an inch and a quarter, in diameter in the centre, but smaller at the ends. They were neatly polished, and sometimes ornamented with finely braided human hair, or cinet of the fibres of the cocoanut husk, wound round the ends of the bow in alternate rings. The string was of romaha, or native flax; the arrows were made of VOL Depooo. Puiniips.—On the Use of Projectile Weapons by the Maoris, 5d small bamboo reeds, exceedingly light and durable. They were pointed with @ piece of aito, or iron-wood, but were not barbed. Their arrows were not feathered; but in order to their being firmly held while the string was drawn, the lower end was covered with a resinous gum from the bread-fruit tree. The leneth of the arrows varied from two feet six inches to three feet. The spot from which they were shot was considered sacred ; there was one of these within my garden at Huahine. It was a stone pile, about three or four feet high, of a triangular form, one side of the angle being convex. When the preparations were completed, the archer ascended this platform, and, kneeling on one knee, drew the string of the bow with the right hand, till the head of the arrow touched the centre of the bow, when it was discharged with great force. It was an effort of much strength, in this position, to draw the bowstring so far. The line often broke, and the bow fell from the archer’s hand when the arrow was discharged. The distance to which it was shot, though various, was frequently 800 yards. A number of men, from three to twelve, with small white flags in their hands, were stationed to watch the arrows in their fall. When those of one party went farther than those of the other they waved their flags as a signal to those below. When they fell short, they held down their flags, but lifted up their foot, exclaiming, wa pau, beaten. “This was a sport in the highest esteem, the king and chiefs usually attending to witness the exercise. As soon as the game was finished, the bow, with the quiver of arrows, was delivered to the charge of a proper person ; the archers repaired to the marae, and were obliged to exchange their dress and bathe their persons before they could take any refreshment, or even enter their dwellings. It is astonishing to notice how intimately their system of religion was interwoven with every pursuit of their lives. Their wars, their labours, and their amusements, were all under the control of their gods.” After describing the quiver, Hllis continues as follows :—‘‘ The bow and arrow were never used by the Society Islanders excepting in their amusements ; hence perhaps their arrows, though pointed, were not barbed, and they did not shoot at a mark. In throwing the spear, and the stone from the sling, both of which they used in battle, they were accustomed to set up a mark, and practised that they might throw with precision as well as force. In the Sandwich Islands they are used also as an amusement, especially in shooting rats, but are not included in their accoutrements for battle; while in the Friendly Islands (Tonga) the bow was not only employed on occasions of festivity, but also used in war; this, however, may have arisen from their proximity to the Feejee Islands, where it is a general weapon. In the Society and Sand- wich Islands it is now altogether laid aside, in consequence of its con- 56 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. nection with their former idolatry.” (Mr. Ellis’ knowledge of Tonga was very slight.) According to Williams,” the bow does not appear to have been used by the Samoans in their numerous battles, only the sling, club, and jagged spear. In Fiji “the bow is sometimes used by women in hard sieges. Fiery arrows are occasionally employed to burn a place into submission. The sling is wielded by powerful hands. I saw a musket which had been struck by a sling-stone. The barrel was considerably indented, and bent nearly halfan inch in its length. Another weapon much used, is the missile club, which is worn, stuck in the girdle, sometimes in pairs, like pistols. It resembles the induku of the Kaffirs, a short stick with a large knob at one end, either plain or ornamented. ‘This is hurled with great pzecision, and used formerly to be the favourite implement of assassination.” } Besides the extracts from Cook’s Journal, already given by Mr. Colenso, I think it proper to add the following. Referring to the attack by the New Guinea people, in his first voyage, Cook states :—‘‘ As they ran towards us the foremost threw something out of his hand, which flew on one side of him, and burnt exactly like gunpowder, but made no report ; the other two instantly threw their lances.” A little further on Cook continues :—‘“ All this while they were shouting defiance, and letting off their fires by four or five at a time. What these fires were, or for what purpose intended, we could not imagine ; those who discharged them had in their hands a short piece of stick, possibly a hollow cane, which they swung sideways from them, and we immediately saw fire and smoke, exactly resembling those of a musket, and of no longer duration. The deception was so great that the people on board thought they had firearms.” In Eastern Polynesia, Cook makes but shght mention of the bow and arrow. On arriving at the Marquesas Islands he observed ‘‘ a heap of stones in the bow of each canoe, and every man had a sling tied round his hand.” The conduct and aspect of the people of Savage Island caused Cook to give it that name. ‘They threw stones and spears. No mention of the bow and arrow. At Mallicollo (New Hebrides) Cook was fired at by the natives with poisoned arrows. At Erromanga he noticed that most of the people were armed with bows and arrows. ‘These people also threw darts and stones. The people of Tanna were all armed with the bow and arrow, darts, spears, slings, and stones. In the attack, when Cook himself fell, at Karakakora Bay, Owyhee, a dagger (pahooa) was the weapon which caused death, and stones the principal instruments of attack. No mention is made of the bow and arrow by Captain King, Cook’s coadjutor.t{ * Missionary Enterprises in the South Sea Islands, p. 531. } Fiji and the Fijians, by Williams and Calvert, p. 44. } The dagger (kris) is the national Malay weapon. Puiiuips.—On the Use of Projectile Weapons by the Maoris. 57 Hardly any reference is made to the bow by Messrs. Tyerman and Bennett ; yet a striking fact is alluded to by them. In observing a conversation between the natives of Tahiti, whom they took with them to the Sandwich - Islands, and these latter people, they remark “that the dialects of both nations are so nearly akin that the natives can converse very well with one another.”* In the Island of Silo (qy. Sooloo), Malaysia, Messrs. Tyerman and Bennett record having noticed the following amusement :—+ ‘‘ The girls, who had hitherto been engaged in dancing, now retired, and another company made their appearance dressed like the former (peculiar dresses). When they were all seated, an old woman entered and laid down at the feet of each, an instrument resembling a bow, with an arrow on the string, about two feet long, lacquered red and decorated with gold. The dancers soon afterwards rose, and went through all the evolutions of the others, holding these bows in their hands, which added exceedingly to the beauty and picturesque effect of their groups and attitudes.” The Rev. J. Turner, speaking of arrows, observes in his illustrations of Scripture, ‘“ Arrows . . . the poison whereof,’ ete.—Job vi. 4:—‘‘ Arrows, so often referred to in Scripture, are still in use in the South Seas, princi- pally where firearms have not been introduced. They are made of a piece of reed, three or four feet long, pointed or barbed, with a bit of hard wood. In the New Hebrides we find them pointed with a piece of human bone, and sometimes dipped in poisonous mixtures from the bush.”t As a general rule the people of Western Polynesia use poisoned arrows.§ In Asia the bow and arrow is used by the Samoiedes, a people resembling the American Indians, and inhabiting the great Siberian promontory, ending in Cape North; the Khalkas, the most important tribe of the Eastern Mon- gols ; the Buriits and Yakuts (Siberians); the Siamese, who use powerful cross-bows and poisoned arrows for big game; the Andaman islanders ; the Dyaks (Malay), who also use poisoned arrows. I may here be allowed to refer to the use of the sumpitan. The sumpitan is a curious arrow-adaptation. The arrow is blown from a pipe seven to eight feet long. The Kayans (Dyaks) carry the arrows in a bamboo case, hung at the side, and at the bottom of this quiver is the poison of the upas. The arrow is a thin piece of wood, sharp-pointed, and inserted in a socket, made of the pith of a tree, which fits the tube of the blow-pipe. © Beyond a distance of twenty yards they do not shoot with certainty, from the lightness of the arrow. On a calm day the utmost range may be a hundred yards. || * Voyages and Travels, Vol. I., p. 378. t Vol. IL., p. 214. t Nineteen Years in Polynesia, p. 311. § Murray: Missions in Western Polynesia. || Borneo and Celebes.—Brooke. 58 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. In Crawford’s ‘Indian Archipelago” occurs the following passage :— * « Among the savages of all nations we find the use of the club, the sling, and the bow and arrow, the first and universal weapons of all man- kind.+ To these the Indian islanders add the tube for discharging arrows, which are sometimes poisoned with a prepared vegetable juice. The Balinese are the only tribe, in any degree civilized, which retains the general use of this practice. The more powerful nations have long since given it up, we may presume rather from an experience of its inefficacy, than from any conviction of the immorality or baseness of the practice. The Javanese historians, in rendering an account of a war conducted by the Sultan of Mataram, against the people of Bali and Blamlangan, as long ago as the year 1639, mention the use of poisoned arrows on the part of the former, as an extraordinary circumstance new to their countrymen, and which excited at first some alarm. In the use of the bow and arrow, and the sling, I do not discover that the Indian islanders have acquired any extraordinary dexterity. The Javanese are extremely fond of the exercise of the bow and arrow as an amusement (sitting, not standing, when drawing the bow), but are anything but skilful in the use of it, and seldom succeed in throwing the arrow above a dozen yards. In the attack upon the palace of the Sultan of Java, in 1812, the Javanese threw stones from slings in great numbers, but without inflicting a serious wound, or even dangerous contusion, in the period of two days. The knowledge of iron must soon have in a great measure suspended the use of these less perfect weapons, and given rise to that of the spear and kris. These may be justly styled the favourite weapons of the Indian islanders.’ That arrows were once freely used, is shown in the romances founded by the Javanese on Hindu story or mythology. | In Africa the bow is used by the Nubians—whose women twist the hair into the numberless tiny plaits commonly seen among the Western Pacific islanders—the Hottentots or Bushmen who use the barbed and poisoned arrow, and other tribes, authorities for whose names I have not consulted. Livingstone, in one of his works,§ gives the following :— ‘Poisoned arrows are made in two pieces. An iron barb is firmly fastened to one end of a small wand of wood, ten inches or a foot long, the other end of which, fined down to a long point, is nicely fitted, though not otherwise secured, in the hollow of the reed, which forms the arrow-shaft. The wood, immediately below the head, is smeared with the poison. When the arrrow is shot into an animal the reed either falls to the ground at once, * Vol I,.p. 222. + Note.—This does not appear to apply to the people of Australia or the Esquimaux. t Crawford: Vol. IL., p. 25. § “ The Zambesi,”’ p. 466, Puriuies.— On the Use of Projectile Weapons by the Maoris. 59 or is very soon brushed off by the bushes; but the iron barb and poisoned upper part of the wood remain in the wound. The poison used here, and called kombi, is obtained from a species of Strophenthus, and 1s very virulent.” *¢ Another kind of poison was met with on Lake Nyassa which was said to be used exclusively for killmg men. It was put on small wooden arrow- heads and carefully protected by a piece of maize leaf tied round it.” (The New Hebrideans wrap a piece of banana or other leaf round the heads of their poisoned arrows.) Further on (p. 556) Livingstone continues :—“ A bow is in use in the lower end of Lake Nyassa, but is more common in the Maravi country, from six to eight inches broad, which is intended to be used as a shield as well as a bow.” To what extent the bow was used in Madagascar, I cannot say, authori- ties being very slight. I shall be glad if any of my hearers can inform me. It is an interesting question, ‘‘ the Malagese (people of Madagascar) being a Malay people following Malay customs, some of them possessing Malay eyes and hair and features, and all of them speaking a Malay tongue at the present hour.’’* In South America the bow is used by the Antis Indians inhabiting the Bolivian Andes, who use the three-pronged arrow for fishing, like many tribes in the South Seas; the Pecheray Indians, inhabiting both shores of the Straits of Magellan; the Tierra del Fuegians, whose bows and arrows were much admired by Cook; the Lenguas, a remnant of a great Indian nation ; the Tobas, and other neighbouring tribes of the great Desert, who pierce the lobe of the ear and extend the orifice to an immense size for pur- poses of ornament, ike numerous South Sea tribes under the equator, a custom which the Maoris still follow, (many black nations of the Nile pierce the lower lip for a similar purpose, and the Zambesi negroes pierce and extend the upper lip); the Payaguas, the warlike neighbours of the Paraguayan Republic ; and I believe also the Botocudos of Brazil, who pierce both ear and lip, and enlarge each orifice. The tribes of Indians dwelling near the Amazon were also, I believe, accustomed to use the blow- gun and poisoned arrows for killmg game, exactly similar to those used in Malaysia. The tube was about ten feet in length, and the arrow fifteen to eighteen inches. Generally by the North American Indians, who found great use for the bow for all purposes of war and chase. The Iroquois, Sioux, Commanche, and Crow Indians, all used this weapon, and the Indians as far north as Queen Charlotte Sound. I can find no mention of its use among the Esquimaux, one of the most widely-spread nations of the world, inhabiting a coast-line of over five * Mullens’ ‘‘ Twelve Months in Madagascear,”;p. 176. 60 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. thousand miles. I much regret my inability, authorities differing so greatly in the origin of this race. Although the natives of Australia are surrounded by savage nations using the bow and arrow, Cook did not observe any such weapons among them, only lances and darts, thrown by hand or with a throwing-stick. Ihave sufficiently trespassed upon my hearers’ attention, and I must ask to be excused for the length of the paper. It is only by following out the particular customs of savage tribes, and investigating the construction of their language, that the cradle of birth of any particular gens can be ascer- tained. I trust Mr. Colenso will, at some future day, favour us with a paper, setting out more minutely than he has even yet done, the manners and customs of the Maoris. A higher civilization is wiping away the habits of a more barbarous time, yet to the ethnological student, these habits, manners, and customs are deeply interesting. Note A. I may be allowed to refer briefly to various matters in which the Maori resembles Kastern Polynesians. The shape and carving of the New Zealand war-clubs exactly resembles those in use among numerous Pacific Island tribes. Their custom of taboo is exactly similar. In the mode of burying the dead, some of their customs, especially that of wrapping the body in mats, were similar. Their method of wearing mats, and working ordinary basket-kits, is the same. Their mode of mourning—cutting the hair and gashing the body—is alike. Their traditions all point to a migration, or migrations at different times, from one or other of the South Sea Islands. Their language is alike. Their great god Maui is but the god of the Sand- wich Islands. Their method of house-building is alike. Also painting the body. The custom of tattoo is more severe (the Marquesas excepted) than in any other Pacific Island. The very word tattoo is similar in many islands (it evidently is derived from the Tongese verb ta, to strike.) The use of the waist-cloth is common. Their adzes are alike, so are their drinking cala- bashes. In the habits of cannibalism they but resemble their ancestry. Their mode of fastening the carved head-work of a canoe to the sides is exactly similar to South Sea practice. The Church Missionary Society’s Museum contains models of single and double canoes exactly similar to those found in the Pacific. Carvings, houses, and all their war-pahs were generally erected upon an eminence. Cruise refers to one erected at Waugaroa situated upon an eminence 300 feet high. I have seen exactly similar forts in Fiji. The word pa or pah is the very word used by the people of the Hervey Group, if I remember correctly. The Sandwich Islanders, in Cook’s days, were in the habit of saluting visitors by crushing Putiws.—On the Use of Projectile Weapons by the Maoris. 61 noses, as is still the custom among the Maoris. I believe the Maori used the nose-flute in common with the Tongese and Tahitians :—<‘‘ The scrupu- lous regard which the natives of New Zealand pay to the graves of their dead is equally observed among the Sumatrans, and the native clothing of the latter people is precisely the same, both in texture and material, to that worn by the Otaheitans, and which is made of the papyrus tree.”’* With respect to the language, Mr. Nicholas remarks :{—‘‘ The subjoimed vocabu- lary was compiled by Mr. Kendall previously to my departure from New South Wales, at which place it has been printed by order of Mr. Marsden, who sent several books of it to New Zealand for the instruction of the children there. The compiler derived considerable assistance from a copious collection of words in the Otaheitan language, with which he was furnished by one of the missionaries who had resided for some years at Himeo. This collection formed a vocabulary of nearly 2,000 words, the greater number of which had so close an affinity to those of New Zealand that Mr. Kendall found it necessary to make but little alteration in the most of them, and in some not at all. The genius and construction of the two dialects appear to be perfectly the same, and the like identity is observable in the extensive vocabulary of Tonga words collected by Mr. Mariner.” ENGLISH. NEW ZEALAND. : TONGA. 1 sis Kotahi 0 Ta’ha. 2 ate Kadooa aye Oo’a. 3 Be Katoodoo Ao To’loo. 4 Kawha 66 Fa. 5 Ka-deema Be Nima. 6 90 Ka-hunnoo ats Ono. 7 ae Ka-whittoo ae Fi’too. 8 Ka.whadoo ats Va’loo. 9 ote Ka-hewha te Hi’va. 10 an Kanghahoodoo Rie Ongofoo’loo. 20 os Katikow manahoodoo .. Tecow. Note B. It was not at all an infrequent thing, in the good old times, for a great canoe, with its hundred warriors, to leave Tonga and sack a town in Samoa or Fiji, 400 miles distant ; but those times have passed away. ‘The Kerma- decs are only about 600 miles south of Tonga,! and New Zealand 800 miles. I have seen many a Tonga man whom I might readily have mistaken for a Maori. This statement also applies to the Samoans. A Samoan fish-hook and a Maori fish-hook are exactly the same, both in form and material, yet this very tool is of a most remarkable plan and construction, so much so that for two separate and distinct tribes to hit upon the like idea is not at all * Nicholas, Vol. I1., p. 287. {t Vol. IL., p. 323. 62 Transactions.—Miscellaneous: probable. From my knowledgo of the South Seas, I have often been inclined to consider that the Maoris, Tongese, Samoans, Rarotongans, and Hervey Islanders are all sprung from the same tribe, and that their islands were originally peopled from Tahiti. Often indeed, even now, Tahitian canoes are driven a three weeks’ journey to the westward, or westward and southward, the people, happening to be in them, living upon a few cocoa- nuts as long as such a supply lasted. Also, that Tahiti itself may have been peopled by a migration from the Sandwich Islands, unless indeed these two groups of islands were peopled at one and the same time by a migrating tribe from the parent Malay country. It is, however, a strange circum- stance, that nearly all these islanders claim some acquaintance with Hawii, the principal island of the Sandwich group, the Savu (—Tharii) of Samoa being almost similar in pronunciation, and the Hauraki of New Zealand being a derivative. The Hawaiian mythos pervades the different groups, especially, as I have before said, the deeds of the great god Maui. I might indeed go further, and say that the natives of all the islands of Hastern Polynesia are sprung from the same origin, and in support of this statement I attach a comparative view of the numerals of the different dialects that I have taken from a table compiled by the Rev. G. Turner, LL.D., to which I refer my hearers :—* { | T. 1) Tahi Tahi | Kahi Tai Tahi Tasi Taha Tasi Taha | Tahi 2) Ua Rua Alua Rua Lua Lua Ua Lua Ua Rua 3) Tou Toru | Akolo Toru Toru Tolu Tolu Tolu |Tolu | Toru 4| Fa Ha Aha A Fa Fa Fa Fa Fa Wha 5} Ima Rima | Alima Rima Lima Lima Lima Lima | Nima | Rima 6| Ono Ono Eono Ono Ono Ono Ono Ono Ono Ono £7] Fitu Hitu | Ahiku Ttu Hitu Fitu Fitu Fitu Fitu Whitu 8} Vau Varu | Aualu Valu Varu Valu Valu Valu | Valu | Waru 9 Iva Iva Aiwa Tua Iva Iva Iva Iva Hiva | Iwa 10} Onohwu| Ahuru | Umi Ngaulu | Launga-|Sefulu | Hongo- | Sefulu | Honga-| Nga- hulu fulu fulu huru 20) Ev’aono-| Ta’au |Iwaka- | Eluanga| Takau | Luafulu | Uahon-|Lua- |Luo- | Ruate- huwu lua ulu gofulu fulu fulu kau 100) Au Umiumi} Lau Lima Selau Te au 'Selau | Te au | Rau takau 1,000) Mano Mano Ualau | Afe Afe Afe Afe Mano 10,000 Mano Mano Mano | Mano The reason that the numerals of the Union Group (Bowditch Island) happen to be so exactly like those of Samoa, arises, I believe, from the fact that Samoans colonized the group. The same reasoning applies to Savage Island and Tonga. The only other islanders in the Pacific whose numerals * « Nineteen years in Polynesia.” CoLenso.—On the Moa. 63 approach in similarity, are the Rotumah people and those of the Islands of Niua and Vate in the New Hebrides (evidently colonies driven or migrated from the Kast). The numerals afford a good example of the language. The dissimilarity between the Hawaiian and the other dialects proves in a measure the originality of the former and the connection with each other of the latter. Art. VI.—On the Moa. By W. Cousnso, F.L.S. Plates IV. and V. [Read before the Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute, 10th June, 1878, and 18th October, 1879. ] For some time past I have been thinking of bringing this interesting subject before you, and that for several reasons. 1. Because this animal is purely a New Zealand one, and not only so, but it is, I think I may safely say, to be classed among the animal wonders of the world. 2. Because here in Hawke’s Bay (Napier) but little is known of it— nothing indeed when compared with Christchurch, Wellington, and other towns, where also fine specimens of its entire skeleton may be seen in the Museums.* I believe that I may fairly infer, that not a few of you present have not yet heard any account of it—never yet seen any of its bones, save these which I now lay before you, | much less an entire mounted skeleton, such as are in those photographs, now on the table, procured from Christ- church. * Here in Hawke’s Bay, during the whole term of my residence (over 35 years), but very few bones of the Ifoa have been found, and those singly, scattered, and broken. Nevertheless, on one occasion, about twenty years ago, the men at work on the Middle Road (between Havelock and the entrance to the Kaokaoroa Valley), in making a cutting in the side of a hill, found, either the whole skeleton of a large Moa, or the bones of several all together, deeply embedded among or under the limestone. I did not hear of it until some time after, and, on my visiting the spot, I found that the whole of the bones had been smashed up and mixed with the clay and limestone from the cutting where they were found; in fact many of them fell to pieces on being exposed to the sun and air. I obtained, however, a few small pieces of the shank of a tibia and of a tarsus, which were of remarkable thickness, I think the thickest by far that I had ever seen. They had been partly converted into a kind of lime, and were wholly as white as the impure lime- stone in which they were found, and scarcely at first sight distinguishable from it. A few years ago a fine specimen ofa tibia, in fair preservation, measuring two feet eight inches, was found near Patangata: this I now have. { These were, a pair each of Femora, Tibie, and Tarsi, all from one Moa, found in situ, with other bones, at Poverty Bay, about thirty years ago. The tibia measure two feet five inches each, and the whole are in excellent preservation. 64 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. 3. Because I diligently sought after it, and wrote very early about it, before New Zealand became a colony, in 1838-1842; and yet, though that early paper had been twice published, both in Tasmania and in England, I do not think there is a single copy in the Colony save my own. Indeed, I have failed to procure one at any price in London. 4. Because that early-written paper on the Moa has been frequently referred to and quoted in many scientific works published in Europe and America, as well as by Dr. Von Haast in the volumes of the ‘‘ Transactions of the New Zealand Institute” in our Library. 5. Because I have been subsequently repeatedly written to, appealed to, and importuned, both from Europe and within the Colony, respecting what I had published, and also asked to add to what I first made known about it. 6. Because I have, during the past few years, been again secking from every possible source to gather up anything that was left concerning the Moa. Those are among the chief reasons which incline me now to bring this subject before you. I think you will agree with me as to their validity. I propose, therefore, to divide my paper into two parts—l. What I originally wrote on the Moa (which being wholly unknown to you will be new); and 2. To bring before you all additional information which I have subsequently gleaned respecting it. Part I.—What I originally wrote on the Moa. “An Account of some enormous Fossil Bones of an unknown Species of the Class Aves, lately discovered in New Zealand.’ During the summer of 1888, I accompanied the Rey. W. Williams on a visit to the tribes inhabiting the Hast Cape district. Whilst at Waiapu (a thickly inhabited locality about twenty miles S.W. from the East Cape), I heard from the natives of a certain monstrous animal; while some said it was a bird, and others ‘‘a person,” all agreed that it was called a Moa; that in general appearance it somewhat resembled an immense domestic cock, with the difference, however, of its having a ‘ face like a man ;’’ that it dwelt in a cavern in the precipitous side of a mountain; that it lived on air; and that it was attended or guarded by two immense Tuataras,+ who, Argus-like, kept incessant watch while the Moa slept; also, that if any one ventured to approach the dwelling of this wonderful creature, he would be invariably trampled on and killed by it. * My first paper was written early in 1842, and published with two plates of bones of the Moa in the ‘‘ Tasmanian Journal of Natural Science,” Vol. IL, part 7: this was sub- sequently republished in England, by Professor Owen, in the “ Annals and Magazine of Natural History,” Vol. XIV., p. 81, with the above title. t+ See Note A, Appendix I. Cotenso.—On the Moa. 65 A mountain named Whakapunake, at least eighty miles distant in a southerly direction, was spoken of as the residence of this creature ; here, however, only one existed, which, it was generally contended, was the sole survivor of the Moa race. Yet they could not assign any possible reason why it should have become all but extinct. While, however, the existence of the Moa was universally believed (in fact, to dare to doubt of such a being amounted, in the native estimation, to a very high crime), no one person could be found who could positively testify to his having had ocular demonstration of it; for while with every one it was a matter of the profoundest credence, that belief only rested on the bare and unsupported assertion of others. Many of the natives, however, had from time to time seen very large bones; larger, from their account, than those of an ox; these bones they cut up into small pieces for the purpose of fastening to their fish-hooks as a lure instead of the Haliotis* shell, it answering that purpose much better, from its going more equably through the water. It was almost ludicrous, whilst at the same time it showed the powerful effect which this belief of theirs had over them, to witness their unconcealed fear, almost amounting to horror, on requesting them to go to the residence of the Moa to procure it, or to act as our guides thither for that purpose. Unlike, too, what has been very frequently observed in savage nations, this fear seemed not to arise from any degree of superstitious dread, but merely - from an abiding conviction of the physical powers of this prodigious animal ; as well as from their belief of the moral certainty of such powers being put into immediate action if they dared to intrude within the precincts of this creature's resort. As a matter of course, I treated the whole story (so far as related to the present existence of such an animal) as fabulous ; looking on it as one more of those many peculiar tales and legends which so abounded in the “¢ olden time,” I could not but think, however, what an excellent companion for the cele- brated Roct of oriental story and nursery fairy-tale it would have made, had it but been known a little earlier: for, however some few grown-up persons may still delight in reading such marvellous exploits, parents gene- rally, I think, have come to the wise conclusion to prohibit their introduc- tion to the rising generation. On our return to the Bay of Islands, several natives from the Hast Cape district accompanied us. From them I subsequently received pretty nearly the same details concerning the Moa, as I had given me before when in that neighbourhood. * Seo Note B, Appendix I. + See Note C, Appendix I. and which every nation under heaven invariably possesses. 66 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. In the following year, 1839, the Rev. W. Williams again visited that dis- trict, accompanied by the Rey. R. Taylor. The non-arrival of the vessel by which these gentlemen were to return to the Bay of Islands, which caused them a fortnight’s detention at the Kast Cape), afforded them much more leisure time than I had when there. Mr. Taylor, hearing of this Moa, prosecuted his enquiries, and was subsequently rewarded with the discovery of (what appeared to be) a part of a fossil toe (or rather claw) of some gigantic bird of former days. In the summer of 1841-2, I again visited those parts. At Waiapu I gained the information, that Whakapunake (the mountain where the Moa was said to reside) had been visited by some baptized natives, purposely to ascertain the truth of the common belief; and which they declared to be altogether without foundation ; finding neither cavern, nor lizard-guards, nor Moa, nor any signs of such uncommon lusus nature. But what was of far greater interest to me than this relation of theirs, were some bones which I had the good fortune to procure from them, and which were declared by the natives to be true Moa bones. These bones, seven in number, were all imperfect, and comprised five femora, one tibia, and one which I have not yet been able satisfactorily to determine. The largest femur, consisting o£ the diaphysis only without the processes, measured eight inches in length, and four and three-quarter inches in girth in the narrowest part. The portion of the tibia (which, like the femur, consisted only of the middle part), measured in length six inches, and in circumference four inches at the narrowest, and five inches at the widest part. ‘The still remaining bone, the largest of all, which was merely a section, measured in length six inches, and in circumference seven and a quarter inches in the smallest part. These bones were all (excepting the last mentioned) of a very dark colour, almost a ferruginous brown, and appeared to have entirely lost their oily matter. They were very stout, especially the tibia, and were strongly marked and indented on the outside with muscular impressions. Within, what lttle remained of the reticulated cells appeared to be nearly perfect. They were all found by the natives in the Waiapu river, and were collected by them for the purpose of cutting-up and attach- ing to their fish-hooks, in order to fish. The portion of tibia which I obtained had been sawn across by the native in whose possession it was, for that purpose. I also obtained several hooks, each haying portions of the bones of the Moa attached to it. I could not, however, ascertain, from the smallness of the slips, whether these had been originally cut out of such bones as those I had just procured, or whether they had not been sawn from bone of a different description and larger size. e CotEenso.—On the Moa. 67 Leaving Waiapu, and proceeding on by the coast towards the south, I arrived at Poverty Bay, where the Rev. W. Williams resided. This gentleman had had the good fortune to procure a nearly whole tibia of an immense bird, without, however, the entire processes of either end. This bone measured about eighteen inches in length, and was proportionably thick. Mr. Williams wishing to send this unique relic to Oxford, I left a pair of femora to accompany t, in order, if possible, to obtain from that seat of learning some light on these increasingly interesting remains. At Poverty Bay I made several enquiries after Moa bones, but to little purpose, as I could not obtain any. Quitting Poverty Bay, and still travelling in a southerly direction, I soon came within sight of Whakapunake, the mountain celebrated as the residence of the only surviving Moa. As natives lived about its base, among whom my route lay, I looked forward with no small degree of interest to the chance of obtaining some relics of the Moa in this locality ; in this, however, I was disappointed. At the close of the second day’s travel we arrived at Te Reinga (a village situated at the foot of the mountain), where, as opportunity offered, I enquired of the natives relative to the Moa. They, in reply to my reiterated queries, said that he lived there in the mountain, although they had never seen him; still the Moa bones were very commonly seen after floods occasioned by heavy rains, when they would be washed up on the banks of gravel in the sides of the rivers and exposed to their view ; at this time, however, they had not any by them. I offered large rewards for any that should be found hereafter, and which were to be taken to Mr. Williams, at Poverty Bay. Here, as at Waiapu, no one person could be found who possessed the hardihood positively to assert that he had seen this Moa, although this neighbourhood had ever been the dwel- ling-place of this tribe. The mountain, too, it appeared was by no means unknown to them ; for, during a war between themselves and the Urewera tribe a few years ago, they had fled for refuge to their stronghold on the top of Whakapunake, where they had lived for some time, and where many of their relatives eventually fell into the hands of the enemy, who starved them into a surrender and took the place. Here, then, was still further proof, if proof were wanting, that no such colossal animal could possibly at this time be evisting in this place. The spot, however, was well chosen for the fiction of such a creature’s residence: a huge, table-topped and lofty mountain, covered with primeval forests of gloomy pines; its brow singu- larly adorned with a horizontal stratum of whitish sandstone, which ran continuously and precipitously for more than two miles. At the base of the mountain ran the river Whangaroa, down which we paddled in canoes for some distance. ‘This river is a branch of the Wairoa river, which disem- bogues into Hawke’s Bay. 68 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. These natives further informed me that a Moa resided in a certain high mountain in Te Whaiiti district, nearly five days’ journey into the interior, in a N.W. direction from the place where we now were, and that there I should find people who had actually seen the animal. If I was little inclined to believe in the story of its existence before, I was much less inclined to do so now; however, as my route lay that way, I noticed this information among my memoranda, determining to make every possible enquiry after it. Fifteen days after this I arrived at Te Whaiiti, the principal village of that district, and not far from the residence of the second Moa. Here, however, as before, the people had never seen a Moa, although they had always heard of, and invariably believed in, the existence of such a creature at that place. They, too, had not any bones in their possession ; thongh such, they said, were very commonly seen after heavy floods. The following day I passed close by the mountain where this Moa had resided for so many years, but noticed nothing more than usual (although I availed myself to the utmost of the use of my pocket telescope), save that this part of the country had a much more barren and desolate appearance than any I had hitherto witnessed. T returned in the autumn to the Bay of Islands, without gleaning any further information relative to the Moa. It should, however, appear (from information which I have recently received from the Rev. W. Williams), that, very shortly after my leaving Poyerty Bay, a Moa bone was brought him by a native, which he imme- diately purchased. The natives in the neighbourhood hearing of a price being given for such an article as a bone, which they had ever considered as of little worth, were stimulated to exertion, and a great number, perhaps more than a hundred persons, were soon engaged in the field, actively searching after Moa bones; the result was that Mr. Williams soon had the pleasure of receiving a large quantity of fossil bones, some of which were of an enormous size, and in a good state of preservation. The bones, though numerous, were not in any great variety, chiefly comprising such as I have already mentioned, 7.e., those of the femur and tibia, together with those of the tarsus, the lower part of the dorsal vertebre, and a portion of the pelvis. Altogether the bones of nearly thirty birds, apparently of one species only, must have been brought to Mr. Williams. From the great difference in the sizes of some of them when compared with each other, Mr. Williams came to the conclusion that the animal to which they once belonged must have been very long-lived. Whilst, however, I do not perceive how far this inference is to be correctly deduced from the mere difference in the size of the bones, we know that longevity is common to very many of the feathered CouEnso,—On the Moa. 6$ race, particularly to those of the larger kinds. One of the bones, a tibia,* measured two feet ten inches in length, and was proportionably thick. Two others measured, each, two feet six inches in length. Another, a section of a femur, measured eight inches in circumference in the smallest part. On putting together the bones of the leg and thigh (although none of them exactly fitted), and making the necessary allowance for the portions deficient of the processes of the joints, the intermediate cartilages, and lower tendons and integuments of the foot, we obtain, at least, six feet of the lower extremities of a bird; which, supposing its upper parts to accord in size with the lower ones, must have measured in altitude when alive, at the lowest rate of calculation, from fourteen to sixteen feet—an enormous feathered monster, well worthy, from its gigantic size, of being classed with the Megalosaurus of Buckland and the Mastodon of Cuvier. It so happened that about this time a mechanic, who had been living at Cloudy Bay, in the Middle Island, came to reside at Poverty Bay. He stated that this bird now existed in the high hills near Cloudy Bay; and that two Americans, residents at that place, hearing from a native that such a bird lived on the mountainous and snowy heights, provided them- selves with arms, and, thus equipped, went in high expectation of shooting one, taking the native with them as their guide. They ascended the moun- tain to the place where these birds resort, where, at the native’s request, they hid themselves behind some bushes. Presently they saw the monster majes- tically stalking down in search of food; they were, however, so petrified with horror at the sight as to be utterly unable to fire on him. Had they commenced the combat, it is, I think, highly doubtful how it might have terminated. I think it very probable that they would have found themselves in a much worse situation than the Trojan chief and his followers did in their celebrated conflict with the harpies; so energetically and deploringly described by the poet in these lines :— ‘“‘Erg6, ubi delapse sonitum per curva dedére Littora ; dat signum specula Misenus ab alta Aire cavo: invadunt socii, et nova prelia tentant, Obsccenas pelagi ferro feedare volucres. Sed neque vim plumis ullam, nec vulnera tergo Accipiunt.”+— An. lib. iii., 238. * This has been sent by Mr. Williams, with several others, to Professor Buckland. + For the benefit of the English reader, I give Dryden’s translation of the passage from the celebrated Latin poet :— ‘“‘ Then when along the crooked shore we hear Their clatt’ring wings, and saw the foes appear, Misenus sounds a charge: we take th’ alarm, And our strong hands with swords and bucklers arm. In this new kind of combat, all employ Their utmost force the monsters to destroy.— In vain :—the fated skin is proof to wounds ; And from their plumes the shining*sword rebounds.” —Book iii., 311, 70 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. « To return ;—they observed him for near an hour, ere he retired, and were glad enough at last to make their escape from witnessing a meal, where, like him of old, instead of eating, they were all but eaten! They described this animal as being about fourteen or sixteen feet in height. The bones from which the annexed drawings* [Pl. IV. and V.] were made, were all found at Turanga, Poverty Bay. They comprise a tibia, a femur, a tarsus, and a fragment of a pelvis and dorsal vertebrae of a Moa. They are very stout, are deeply marked with muscular impressions, and are in a good state of preservation. 1. The tibia, which is nearly perfect, measures thirty inches in length, and in girth, at the largest end (where it was much broken away at the edges of the processes, and consequently reduced in size), sixteen and a half inches; at the smallest end twelve and a half inches, and in the smallest part, near the middle of the bone, five and a quarter inches. There are not any remains of a fibula, however rudimentary, attached to the tibia, nor is there any apparent mark of attachment to indicate that such formerly adhered thereto. The largest tibia yet found, in nearly a perfect state, measured four inches more in length than this.+ 2. The femur, which also is nearly perfect, measures in length thirteen inches; in girth, at the one end over the head of the femur, eleven and a quarter inches; at the thickest end twelve and a half inches; and in the smallest part five and a half inches: the reticulated muscular impressions on this bone are very nume- rous and well defined. JI have seen a portion of a femur, the small part of which measured in girth eight inches. The one, however, from which the drawing was taken, though not so large, was more perfect; and it was in consequence of its being so that it was selected for the purpose. 3. The tarsus (a small one), nearly perfect, measures in length ten inches, and in girth at one end nine inches, and at the opposite end eight inches, and in the smallest part four inches; this bone is comparatively very short and flat, and has articulations for only three toes. 4. The portion of the bone of the back and pelvis is not so perfect, being a very much-broken fragment, comprising from the upper and outer edge of the acetabulum to the lower joint of the dorsal vertebre, in which the canal for the medulla spinalis is perfect. This bone, or rather fragment, measures, from the outer edge of the articulation of the head of the os femoris to the outer broken edge of the bone (which is that portion approaching towards the upper part of the bone of the pelvis), eleven inches; and across the inner and smallest part of the bone, immediately beneath the * Drawings of these bones were sent to the Tasmanian Society, and published with the original monograph in their Journal. t+ I much regret that I had not an opportunity of inspecting the largest and most perfect bones ere they were sent to England. A vessel sailing from Turanga for Port Nicholson, by which opportunity they were sent, was the reason of my not seeing them, CoLtENnso.—On the Moa. 71 last of the dorsal vertebra, where it was most perfect, seveninches. A correct idea cannot, however, be given of such a fragment as this, through the medium of a written description. This bone evidently differs very considerably from such bones in other birds, in its peculiar carinated shape in that portion of it which must have formed the highest part of the lumbar region; it must have been also considerably larger when entire, as the whole of the upper ridge is much broken. This bone is, also, very deeply indented with mus- cular impressions. Having thus given, it is to be feared, rather a tedious detail of the Moa, and of the bones hitherto found, little remains at present than deferen- tially to offer a few remarks on the bones in question, and these suggestions may be noticed under two general heads: Firstly, does the Moa now exist, or, at what period of time is it probable that it existed ? Secondly, to what order or family can we reasonably suppose the Moa to belong ? It is very true that at this time we have but little to assist us in our search; nevertheless, let us commence and prosecute our enquiry, considering such aids as may present themselves to our notice in the course of our inves- tigation at all bearing on the subject before us. Our first enquiry, then, will be, Does the Moa now exist, or, at what period of time is it probable that it did exist? To the first of these queries I reply, that it is my opinion that the species whose bones we have now before us does no longer exist, at least in New Zealand. A few reasons for this opinion of mine I will here adduce. From my knowledge of the New Zealander, I can but believe that there is no part of his native land which has not been at one time or other trod by him, however mountainous or dreary it may be. Asa proof of this, I might mention their having proper names for every portion of land and water, whether hill or dale, lake or running stream ; and their never being at a loss in describing distant or unfrequented parts of their own country, some one or other present among the ‘‘listening crowd” having either visited the places spoken of, or received a narration from some one who had. Now, as no New Zealander is to be found who can positively state that he has actually seen such a bird, and as every nook and corner of the land is well known to the natives, I conclude that the animal in question no longer exists in New Zealand. In recording this opinion, it will be seen that I pay no attention whatever to the strange and fearful account of the Moa given by some natives, a relation which carries with it its own proof of being false; as I know full well the powers of the New Zealander for romance. The account,too, furnished to the Rev. W. Williams from the two American settlers, I also, in like manner, reject ; but only as far as the bird whose bones we have before us is concerned. A very large and peculiar bird may exist 72 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. in the mountainous districts of the Middle Island; in fact, we know that several large birds, well known to the natives, though hitherto unknown to science, live on the high hills in the North Island. But I cannot persuade myself to receive one man’s relation as perfectly correct in every particular, against the united testimony of those persons from among the different tribes of the Northern Island with whom I have conversed on the subject.* In thus, however, disposing of that part of the question relative to the present existence of the Moa, we have still to enquire, at what period of time is it probable that this bird existed? And here, I think, we have to consider : first, the situation in which the bones are found; and, second, any additional evidence which native tradition may be able to afford us. The Moa bones, as far as I have been able to ascertain, have hitherto been only found within the waters and channels of those rivers which dis- embogue into the Southern Ocean, between the East Cape and the South Head of Hawke’s Bay, on the Hast Coast of the Northern Island of New Zealand. And, as I have before observed, they are only, when wanted, sought for after floods occasioned by heavy rains, when, on the subsiding of the waters, they are found deposited on the banks of gravel, etc., in the shallowest parts of the rivers. These rivers are, in several places, ata considerable depth below the present surface of the soil,} often possessing a great inclination, at once perceived by the rapidity of their waters. They all have more or less of a delta near their mouths, from a slight inspec- tion of which it is known that their channels have, in those places at least, considerably changed. The rocks and strata in these localities indicate both secondary and tertiary formations ; consisting, the former of argillaceous schist, sandstone, conglomerate, greensand, etc.; the latter of clay, marl, calcareous tufa, sand, gravel, and alluvial deposits. The real depositum, however, of the Moa bones is not certainly known. For my own part, I am inclined to believe, from a consideration of the depths of the channels of the rivers, and of the class and situation of the prevailing rocks and beds of strata in those parts, that they will be found lying em- bedded in the upper stratum of the secondary, or the lower strata of the tertiary formation; and not, I think, improbably in beds of shingle, the * See Note D, Appendix I. + The rivers at Waiapu and Turanga have high banks on either side, even where the country is a plain of rich alluvial deposit. Near Mangaruhe, and also near Whataroa (three days’ journey inland from Poverty Bay), I descended the almost perpendicular banks of the river which falls into the Wairoa, where they were from thirty to sixty feet in height. This height they apparently preserved as far as the eye could trace them from the summits of the neighbouring hills. The Wairoa is a large river which disembogues into Hawke’s Bay. CoLEnso.—On the Moa. 73 detritus of the deluge. In this opinion I, with some degree of diffidence, venture to differ from that of a respected and talented friend of mine, who supposes them to be of a much later period, and brought down from the mountains by the winter torrents; but, if they were thus conveyed from the mountains by the waters, the incessant rolling and friction to which they would have inevitably been exposed, would not only have broken off their finer parts, but would have also much battered and worn what remained. In all the specimens which I have yet seen, this, however, is not the case; for though broken and imperfect, they never appear to have been worn nor battered by friction, nor subject in any way to the action of water. It has been alleged, that it is ‘in situations beyond the reach of river deposits that the fossil bones of ancient animals are usually found.’ Whilst, however, for the avoiding of unnecessary argument, I grant this as a general rule, I would remark, that I do not for a moment suppose that the bones of the Moa are deposited in the beds of those rivers in which they have hitherto been met with. No; they show by their appearance that their place of concealment is not in water; and they equally, I think, indicate that their deposition has been in places effectually excluded from light and air, a fact which is, in my opinion, incontestably proved by the natives never meeting with them but when washed up or appearing on the beds of gravel in the rivers. We should not forget that the immense Meyatherium was originally discovered by M. Sellon on the banks of the Arapey ; and the greater part of an entire skeleton of that animal (which was brought to England by My. Paris, the English Consul at Buenos Ayres), was found by a peasant, half covered with water, in the river Salado. From native tradition we gain nothing to aid us in our enquiries after the probable age in which this animal lived; for although the New Zealander abounds in traditionary lore, both natural and supernatural, he appears to be totally ignorant of anything concerning the Moa, save the fabulous stories already referred to. If such an animal ever existed within the times of the present race of New Zealanders, surely, to a people possessing no quadruped,* and but very scantily supplied with both animal and vegetable food, the chase and capture of such a creature would not only be a grand achievement, but one also, from its importance, not likely ever to be forgot- ten ; seeing, too, that many things of comparatively minor importance are by them handed down from father to son in continued succession, from the very night of history. Even fishes, birds, and plants (anciently sought after with avidity as articles of food, and now, if not altogether, very nearly * The only quadrupeds indigenous to New Zealand are a dog, a small rat, a few Saurians, a bat, and, on the coast, one or two species of seal. [This note is a long one of nearly two pages in the original monograph, describing those animals, I omit it here, —W.C.] 74 Transactions.—M iscellaneous. extinct), although never having been seen by either the passing or the rising generation of aborigines, are, notwithstanding, both in habit and uses, well known to them from the descriptive accounts repeatedly rehearsed in their hearing by the old men of the villages, descendants of ancient days. This very silence, however, I embrace as a valuable auxiliary evidence, bearing me out not a little in my conjecture, that the bones of the Moa will pro- bably be found lying either in the upper stratum of the secondary, or the lower strata of the tertiary formation. In fact, unless we suppose this immense bird to have existed at a period prior to the peopling of these islands by their present aboriginal inhabitants, how are we to account for its becoming extinct, and, lke the Dodo, blotted out of the list of the feathered race? From the bones of about thirty birds found at Turanga in a very short time and with very little labour, we can but infer that it once lived in some considerable numbers; and, from the size of those bones, we conclude the animal to have been powerful as well as numerous. What enemies, then, had it to contend with in these islands—where, from its colossal size, it must have been paramount lord of the creation—that it should have ceased to be? Man, the only antagonist at all able to cope with it, we have already shown as being entirely ignorant of its habits, use, and manner of capture, as well as utterly unable to assign any reason why it should have thus perished. The period of time, then, in which I venture to conceive it most probable the Moa existed, was certainly either antecedent to or contemporaneous with, the peopling of these islands by the present race of New Zealanders. But we will proceed, and endeavour to ascertain (as we proposed in the second place to do) to what order or family it is likely that the Moa belongs ? In making this enquiry, we have little to assist us but the bones before us ; and these, from the writer’s situation in this land, without any known osteologic specimens for comparison, or any scientific books for reference, and also from the bones being so few in variety, will, he fears, afford him but little help. From an attentive consideration, however, of these bones, we are necessarily led to conclude that the animal must have been of large size and great strength ; and from the shortness of the tarsus (when compared with the length of the tibia) we also perceive it to have been short-legged. From its size, we shall naturally be led to seek for its affinities among either the Raptorial or Rasorial Orders ; but from its tarsi possessing only articulations for three toes, we are at once precluded from supposing that it belonged to the former order; to which we may also add, first, the negative evidence that not a single specimen or fragment of a wing-bone has yet been found; and, second, the judicious observation of Cuvier (in CoENnso.—On the Moa. 75 reference to the family of Strwthionida), that it would be morally impossible to fit such heavy bodies with wings sufficient to enable them to fly.* In the latter, however (the Gallinaceous or Rasorial Order), we have the largest and stoutest birds known. These, too, are terrestrial in their habits, some exclusively so, and very often possess only three toes. It is true that in general the different known members of the family containing the largest birds have their tarsi long (whereas those of the Moa, as we have already seen, are short). Yet to this we have exceptions in the extinct Dodo and the Apteryx; and I think it is highly worthy of notice, that the latter, the only known existing genus of the family possessing short tarst, is entirely confined to these islands. From a conviction, then, that it is in this order only that the affinities of the Moa are to be sought with any prospect of success, and that it is in the family Struthionide where they will doubtless eventually be found, we are induced, for the present at least, to place the Moa in that gigantic group. In the absence, however, of a specimen of an Apteryx,{ with which to compare the few bones we at present possess of the Moa, I should, I confess, be hazarding an opinion in saying that it was most nearly allied to that peculiar genus; yet when we consider that out of the jive existing genera of this family, three at least, apparently possessing the nearest -affinities to the remains of the bird before us, belong exclusively to the southernmost parts of the southern hemisphere,} and that a connecting link is, as it were, wanting between the Rhea of the Straits of Magellan, the Dromiceius of New Holland, the Caswarius of the Indian Archipelago, and the Apteryx of New Zealand, and that this connecting link may, in all pro- bability, be supplied in the Moa, I think we shall be constrained to assign our Moa a place between the genera Casuarius and Apteryx, possessing as it does (only in a much greater degree) the immense size and strength of the former, combined with the short tarsi, and probably wingless structure, of the latter. I venture, however, to suppose, that we may gain an additional gleam of light, both upon the probable period at which the Moa existed, and also * The Baron’s words are :—‘‘ It appears as if all the muscular power which is at the command of nature would be insufficient to move such immense wings as would be re- quired to support their massive bodies in the air.” (Régne Animal, Class Aves, Ord. V., Fam.1.) If such were the spontaneous remarks made by that illustrious naturalist, on contemplating the size of the known members of that family, what would he not have said had he but lived to examine the colossal structure of the Moa ! { It has been my good fortune to have at different times several specimens of the Apteryx in my possession; at present, however, I have not one, nor do I know in whose possession one is to be found in New Zealand. t See Note E, Appendix I, 76 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. on the family to which it may be allied, by a consideration of the etymology of its name. The word Moa, whence is it derived? I confess, I know not any New Zealand word from which it may be supposed to have derived its origin. And this will seem the more remarkable when we consider that a very great number of New Zealand appellatives are not only derived and easily traceable, but are also generally highly expressive of some action or quality of the thing itself; chiefly, too, is this to be observed when such action or quality is peculiar or uncommon. But in the Moa, the most uncommon animal New Zealand has ever produced (especially in the esti- mation of a native), we have a cognomen which seems an entire exception to the common rule; for, as far as I understand it at present, it has, in reference to this immense animal, no meaning whatever. Further, it may not be amiss also to notice, en passant, that it is of rare occurrence in the language to find anything bearing so very short an appellation as the bird in question. In the Friendly, Society, and Sandwich groups, the term ‘« Moa” has been, I believe, invariably given by the natives of those islands to the domestic cock, and used as the proper name for that animal by the missionaries there. The New Zealander, in relating his fabulous account of the Moa, almost invariably said it was like a ‘‘ ttkaokao,” i.e., a cock (they having given the cock that name from its crow, which to them sounded like those letters when drawn out and pronounced after their manner), and that it was adorned with wattles, ete. Without, at all, at present, entering into the question as to what country or countries the existing race of New Zealanders emigrated from to these islands, the popular belief that at least a portion of them is of Malay origin, is, I think, in connection with the name of this bird, worthy of notice; for whilst we know the term ‘* Moa” is used to denote the cock in the Friendly Islands and other groups, it is only in the isles of the Indian Archipelago that the cassowary (Casuarius casoar, Briss.) is to be found; and this bird, too, is ‘“ heavy and stoutly built,’ and the only one of the whole family of Struthionide possessing wattles; for, according to Cuvier, it ‘has the skin of its head and top of the neck naked, of an azure-blue and fiery-red colour, with pendent caruncles like those of the turkey, and is the largest of all birds next to the ostrich.”’** May we not, I would ask, be allowed to conjecture, that in that now long-past period, when the forefathers of the present race of aborigines first landed on these shores, a few of those New Zealand birds might still be found in the most secluded and mountainous retreats, having - hitherto escaped the repeated inroads of the original inhabitants ; or, we may suppose that the bones only were seen, and identified to belong to a bird by those new-comers, to which, from their real or supposed resem- * Vide Cuvier “ Régne Animal,” Class Aves, Gen. Casuarius, CoutENso.—On the Moa. 77 blance to those of the cassowary, they gave the name of Moa; the name which that giant bird bore in their fathers’ land ? This conjecture, however, may be much more fully established, on ascer- taining the name by which the cassowary is known to the present inhabi- tants of the islands of the Indian Sea. The ornithology of New Zealand, now that these islands are become a British colony, will soon be known; and we may rest assured, that if such an animal exists, it cannot much longer remain concealed. And, it is further to be hoped, that ere long we shall be able to find somewhat more of the fossil remains of the Moa, so as not merely to form in part conjec- tural opinions on its size, habits, and affinities, but so as to be well-assured of what this prodigious creature really was. APPENDIX, I. Norte A, page 64. The Twatara is an animal belonging to the Class Reptilia, Order Sauria ; but to which of the families composing the same, I cannot, in the absence of books of reference, at present determine. It appears to possess characters common to Lacertinide and Iguanide, in its having the thin and extensible tongue of the former, combined with the undivided one of the latter. It is common in some parts of New Zealand, particularly on rocky headlands and islets lying off the coast. I have one at present in spirits, which I had alive for nearly three of the winter months ; during which time, although I repeatedly tried to get it to take some kind of food, I could not succeed. From its habits I supposed it to be a hybernating animal. It measured nineteen inches in length, had a row of elevated spines (or rather recurved seales) nearly the whole length of its back, and appeared a perfectly harm- less creature. Itwas taken, with two others, on Karewa islet, off Tauranga harbour, in the Bay of Plenty. The natives speak of another species, haying a forked tail! and also assert that a larger species, which inhabits swampy places, has been seen six feet in length, and as thick as a man’s thigh. The largest, however, that I have ever heard of did not measure above two feet in length. Note B, page 65. The shells of several species of Haliotis, Ostrea, and other nacrescent genera, are commonly used by the natives inhabiting the isles of the South Pacific for this purpose. A narrow slip of the shell is firmly fastened to the back of the hook, the barb of which is generally concealed by a tuft of metallic-surfaced blue feathers, procured either from the Korora (Apteno- dytes minor) or the Kotaretare (Dacelo leachii). The hook thus prepared 78 Transactions.—M iscellaneous. and attached to a stout line, composed of the fibres of the Korari (Phor- mium tena), which, after being cleaned from the parenchymatous parts, are twisted together by the hand, is drawn quickly through the water by a person paddling a small canoe; the larger fish, believing this glittering lure to be their prey, eagerly pursue it, and greedily catching at the same, are taken. In favourable weather a great number of fine fish are soon captured by this method. Among the New Zealanders it is a very favourite sport, and one that is not a little animating when several canoes are engaged. I have seen upwards of twenty small canoes thus employed on a fine summer’s evening, on the beautiful sheet of water in the Bay of Islands. I may here mention that, previous to the introduction of the Gospel among the New Zealanders, their hooks were often composed of human bone; those of their enemies being used for that purpose. Sometimes they formed their hooks from the tough stalks and branches of Tauhinu (Pomaderris ericifolia) and Mangemange (Lygodiwm volubile), hardening them by the aid of fire. At present they invariably prefer the hooks which they make from iron nails to those of our manufacture, the latter, they allege, being much too brittle. Notre C, page 65. Whoever has read the marvellous ‘‘ Thousand-and-One Nights” must be well acquainted with the monstrous stories related of this extraordinary bird ; its celebrity, however, is not confined to that work. ‘‘ Rukh,” says the author of the Arabic Dictionary, ‘‘is the name of a monstrous bird, which is said to have powers sufficient to carry off a live rhinoceros.” To this animal Marco Polo also refers, in his relation of the story of the ambassadors :—‘‘ The rukh is said, by persons who have seen it, to measure sixteen paces across the wings from tip to tip, the feathers of which are eight paces in length, and thick in proportion.