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TRANSACTIONS AND PR AEN: =

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

(INCORPORATED).

VOL. XLVIL

[Witn Turrty-six PLATES AND SEVENTY-NINE FIGURES IN THE TEXT.]

EDITED BY PROFESSOR WALTER HOWCHIN, F.GS,,
_ Assistep By ARTHUR M, LEA, FES.

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ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

(INCORPORATED).

VOL. XLVII.

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[With Turrty-six PLATES AND SEVENTY-NINE FIGURES IN THE TExT.]

EDITED BY PROFESSOR WALTER HOWCHIN, F.G.S.,
: Asststep sy ARTHUR M. LEA, F.ES.

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ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA
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Patron:

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CONTENTS.

Lea, ArtHur M.: On Australian Staphylinidae (Coleoptera) .
Lower, Oswatp B.: Descriptions of New Australian Tesontee

CLELAND, Pror. J. Burton, and Epwin CHEEL: Australian Fungi: Notes aa Deseriptions
No. 4. Plates i. and ii.

Jones, Pror. F. Woop: The External Characters of Pouch gine of Meee
No. 5—Phascolarctus cinereus. Plate x.
No. 6—Dasycercus cristicauda
Tiecs, Dr. O. W.:
The Structure and Action of “Striated” Muscle Fibre. Plates xi. to xiv. 3
On the Path and Velocity of the Excitatory Impulse within Striated Muscle Fibres
Jounston, Pror. T. Harvey, and Leira Hircucock:
A Bacterial Disease Destructive to Fish in Queensland Rivers ..
A Bacteriosis of Prickly Pear Plants (Opuntia spp.)
Turner, Dr. A. JerFERIS: New Australian Micro-Lepidoptera .

Jones, Pror. F. Woop: The External Characters of Pouch Babeyos of Marsupials
No. 7—Myrmecobius fasciatus f

Jounston, Pror. T. Harvey: A Survey of he ase in Shicep ‘Mee got Fly Prepiens
Exston, ALBERT H.: Australian Coleoptera, Part iv. Plate xv.
AsuHbBy, EpwIn:

Monograph of the Australian Lepidopleuridae, Order por ccobnols: with a ee
tion of a new Species. Plates xvi. to xix.

A Review of Ischnochiton (Haploplax) smaragdinus, eee 1867, nde its Cinerics
together with the Descriptions of two new Chitons from Papua. Plates xvi. to xix.

Notes on a Collection of Polyplacophora from Carnarvon, Western Australia, with
Definitions of a new Genus and two new Species. Plates xvi. to xix.

A Review of the Australian Representatives of the Genus COUT Order BG
placophora. Plates xvi to xix.

Osporn, Pror. T. G. B., and J. G. Woop: On Ne Den of ake Vieastton in he Dore
Wakefield District, with special Reference to the Salinity of the “Soil. Plate xx.

Tuomas, R. GRENFELL: The Gem Sands of Encounter Bay

Woop, J. G.: On Transpiration in’ the Field of some Plants from the hag For dlons of
South Australia, with Notes on their Physiological Anatomy. Plate xxi.

Howcuin, Pror. WattEeR: A Geological Sketch-section of the Sea-cliffs on the Rites
side of Gulf St. Vincent, from Brighton to Sellick’s Hill, with Descriptions. Plates
SOG, HO) LOLOL

Jack, R. Lockwarr: The Composition of the Westone of thes Grae ‘Auswalan Abtesan
Basin in South Australia and its Significance .. , AS 3

Rocers, Dr. R. S.:

The Distribution of Australian Orchids ae ae
Contributions to the Orchidaceous Flora of Aa Plate xxvii.
TINDALE, NorMAN B.: On Australian Rhopalocera. Plates xxviii. to xxx.

Brack, J. M.: Additions to the Flora of South Australia, No. 21
Mawson, Sir D.:
Notes on the Geological Features of the Meadows Valley ies
Igneous Rocks of the Mount Painter Belt. Plates xxxiii. and xxxiv.

Ossorn, Pror. T. G. B., and J. G. Woop: On some Halophytic iand non- Fleer te
Plant Communities in Arid South Australia. Plates xxxv. and xxxvi. at

THE Flora AND Fauna or Nuyts ARCHIPELAGO AND THE INVESTIGATOR GRoUP—
Proctor, Joan B.: No. 5, The Lizards

Jones, Pror. F. Woop: No. 6, The Didelphian Everall a
Waite, Epcar R.: No. 7, The Fishes. Plate iii. ae on ue ee oye
Oszorn, Pror. T. G. B.: No. 8, The Ecology of Pearson Islands. Plates iv. to ix.

5 ZG)

224

ZU)

237

, 244

6 AS

e259)

CONTENTS (continued )—

Page

Woon: Crppendie to the last poets Analyses of Soil ie from Pearson

slands vi, } a
CLELAND, Pror. J. Beene No. 9, The Birds of Beery Tene Bs aa: Bee HLS)
Warts, Epncar R.: No. 10, The Snakes of St. Francis Island .. ie ae J IZ
Lea, ArtHur M.: No. 11, The Coleoptera of Pearson Island. Plate xxxi. .. 27355
Lea, Artuur M.: No. 12, Stomach Contents of Pearson Island Birds aE 565 lol
TINDALE, NorMAN B.: No. 13, Orthoptera. Plate xxxii. * =» 302

CLELAND, Dr. J. Burton: No. 14, The Hains Fungi of Patton anaes
Great Australian Bight di: 2 be : ue Ae : . 365

Marston, Hepitey RALPH: Report on Work carried out under Research fect ae the
Royal Society of South Australia on the Azine and Azonium Pes of the

Proteolytic Enzyme Trypsin a ne + is a ae ; ac .. 400
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS ae a snes ae me a ye a be .. 404
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS Me bis Ss si as a ae ve ee .. 408
ANNUAL REPORT .. aS ny ae i oe if oh of = e .. 414
BALANCE-SHEETS .. ae ie ye ne at se as 2 on: os 32 416
DoNATIONS TO THE LIBRARY .. au fs ae i Bo ae =f oe .. 418
List or MEMBERS 3 3 ee ie Be at we ae er Se «+, 426
Rutes (as Amended, 1923) oF oy s ao , ay se oa if .. 428
By-Laws... ue ae 4 aie uA sit! pe aye ae ae is .. 430
APPENDICES :—

Field Naturalists’ Section: Annual Report, etc. Ne .. 434

Thirty-fourth Annual Report of the Native Fauna and maar Season Coneites 435
INDEX x us A ce i ae e ay te a ye Ae: .. 438

Errata—Page 214, first line, for Oodontophlogistus, read Odontophlogistus.
Page 127, third line in title, for Francis Island, read St. Francis Island.

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INDEX TO THE TRANSACTIONS, PROCEEDINGS, AND REPORTS OF THE RoyaL SOCIETY OF
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INDEX TO THE TRANSACTIONS, PROCEEDINGS, REPoRTS, AND MEMOIRS OF THE RoyAL SOCIETY
or SoutH AUSTRALIA, Vols. XXV. to XLIV., 1901-1920.

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Transactions

of

The Royal Society of South Australia (Incorporated)

VOL, XLVII.

ON AUSTRALIAN STAPHYLINIDAE (COLEOPTERA).

By ArtHur M. Lea, F.E.S., Museum Entomologist.
[Read November 9, 1922. |

The family Staphylinidae, in actual numbers, is probably, in Australia,
second only to the Curculionidae (if not actually in excess of it), but has been
more neglected than any other of the large ones. Thus in Masters’ Catalogue
only 278 species, out of a total of 7,201, are recorded. In Sharp’s Catalogue of
the British Coleoptera, of a total of 3,193 species, 760 are Staphylinidae, these
being in excess of the Curculionidae. Even now less than 1,000 species are
lnown from Australia, a number certainly far short of that which occurs in
Queensland alone.

My present purpose is not to revise the family, but to give a list of all the
species previously recorded from Australia, with their distribution, notes on
various species, and descriptions of new ones.

Masters’ Catalogue of Australian Coleoptera was published when com-
paratively few species of the family were recorded from Australia, and many
of those there noted have been generically transferred. In Junk’s Coleopterorum
Catalogus, Bernhauer and Schubert are now dealing with the Staphylinidae of
the world, and to save space it was considered necessary only to refer to the pages
of that Catalogue in which our genera are recorded. Our main geographical
districts are recorded by initials as follows:—Q. (Queensland), N.S.W. (New
South Wales), V. (Victoria), Tas. (Tasmania), S.A. (South Australia), W.A.
(Western Australia), N.W.A. (North-western Australia), N.T. (Northern Ter-
ritory), and C.A. (Central Australia). Synonymy of introduced species has
usually been omitted.

No family of beetles may be more readily identified; the long abdomen,
usually with seven conspicuous segments, short elytra, at most covering the base
of the abdomen, and general appearance being at once distinctive. Most of the
species are small and obscurely coloured and so seldom have an attractive appear-
ance, even when properly “set.’”’ To see the abdomen clearly specimens should
be mounted, when fresh, with all the segments fully exposed; this was seldom’
done with the specimens sent to me, and in general is neglected; the result is that
the segments become more or less telescoped, and no dependence is to be placed
upon their apparent size; the apparent shapes of the under parts also vary in
appearance with the positions of the legs. It is often essential to examine the
palpi, necessitating their dissection for examination under the microscope. The

A

2

mandibles are usually clenched, but are easily relaxed in water, although, when
thin, they are often broken on being forced open. A greater variation in the
apparent numbers of tarsal joints occurs in the family than in any other, and
owing to the density of their clothing it is frequently difficult to be sure of their
numbers. The male usually has one or more segments of the abdomen triangu-
larly notched on the under-surface, and its head is often larger than that of the
female.

Macleay“). was the first to name any considerable number of Australian
species, when dealing with the insects of Gayndah; many of his types were re-
described by Olliff.

Fauvel®) was the first to revise the Australian species as a whole, but
included with them those of Polynesia. He also had a paper® dealing with the
Staphylinidae of Molucca and New Guinea, in which many of our species were
described, although not then known from Australia. Many of his types passed
to the British Museum from Sharp’s collection.

Olliff commenced a revision of the family in 1886, and three parts were
published; most of his types are in the Australian and Macleay Museums, but
a few passed from the Simson collection into the South Australian Museum.

Blackburn often dealt with species of the family in his papers in the Trans-
actions of the Royal Society of South Australia, and the Proceedings of the
Linnean Society of New South Wales. Some of his specimens were identified
by Sharp. His types are mostly in the British Museum, but a few are in the
South Australian and National Museums.

Bernhauer® dealt with the Staphylinidae taken in Western Australia by
Michaelsen and Hartmeyer ; and by Mjoberg“ in Queensland and other parts of
Australia.

I have also previously dealt with members of the family in the Transactions of
the Royal Society of South Australia, Proceedings of the Linnean Society of
New South Wales, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, and Records
of the South Australian Museum.

In addition to the works previously quoted I have, amongst others, consulted
the following authors, whose works will be found useful to students of the
family :—

Cameron. New Species of Staphylinidae from Singapore; in Transactions
of the Entomological Society of London, 1920.

Erichson. Genera et Species Staphylinorum.

Fenyes. Aleocharinae, in Wytsman’s Genera Insectorum, fasc. 173.

Lacordaire. Genera des Coleopteres, 11.

Leconte and Horn. Classification of the Coleoptera of North America.

Kraatz. Insecten Deutschlands, 11.

Sharp. Biologia Centrali Americana, 1. (2).

Although Cameron expressly states that “The characters in the tables do not
necessarily apply to the species not found in Singapore,” his tables will be found
very useful to anyone dealing with species from tropical parts of Australia.

Some of Macleay’s descriptions are certainly poor, but his types are fortun-
ately available for examination in the Australian Museum. Fauvel, although he
sharply criticised Macleay’s work, often published no better descriptions himself,
as they are frequently little more than comparisons with ex-Australian species,

@) Macleay, Trans. Ent. Soc. N.S. Wales, ii.

@) Fauvel, Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen., 1877 and 1878.

(3) Fauvel, L.c., 1878.

(4) Olliff, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1886 and 1887.
(5) Bernhauer, Die Fauna Sudwest Australiens, Jena, 1908.
6) Bernhauer, Arkiv. For Zoologi, 1916 and 1920.

3

colour often not being mentioned. Some years ago, realizing this difficulty, and
also that many species were liable to be introduced to Australia in ships, 1. com-
nenced the formation of an European collection of the family ; these specimens,
together with those owned by the late Rev. T. Blackburn, by the late Mr. Aug.
Simson, and some from other sources, are now in the South Australian Museum,
and have proved of great assistance.

I have examined all of the Australian types of Macleay and Olliff, and many
of Blackburn’s; also many cotypes of Blackburn and Fauvel, and of species
identified by them. Some of the specimens collected in Australia by Mjoberg
and identified or named by Bernhauer, were received from the Stockholm
Museum; some years ago I also saw a few specimens belonging to the Western
Australian Museum, taken by Michaelsen and Hartmeyer, and identified by
Bernhauer. So that with few exceptions authentic specimens of most of the
previously named species have been examined. To Mr. G. J. Arrow I am par-
ticularly indebted for the examination of some of Fauvel’s cotypes, belonging
to the British Museum, these enabling synonymy to be confidently noted that
in several cases might otherwise have been dubious, or overlooked. The
examination of long series of many species has also enabled notes on variation
and synonymy to be made, and to extend the known ranges of many species.
Specimens were received from the British, Queensland, Australian, Macleay,
and National Museums; from Drs. M. Cameron and E. W. Ferguson, and
imom" Miessncumwallen: tla Carter n|aiClagk) le \VeuDaveye An biel ston:
Pea ischern i e- Goudie ki bi Di Crititiaw ke peekcmp, (Cn Okey andiwha i.
Wilson.

The numbers of species and specimens of the family that may be obtained
by sieving a few square yards of fallen leaves in gulleys and other damp places
is amazing. Mosses and tussocks often shelter them in abundance, and some
curious wingless, slow-moving species have only been taken from mosses. More
species of the family are to be taken from nests of ants, than of all other kinds
of beetles, and some of the inquilines have very curious habits, as well as
being structurally abnormal. Others are to be taken under bark, under seaweeds,
and other beach debris. During floods they may often be seen in countless
thousands. At dusk on warm days they may often be seen flying in great
numbers, their bodies held at about 45 degs. from the ground-line, and their
elytra held parallel with it. Curious slow-moving species are to be taken in
brown cores in pipes of trees. Considerable numbers of thin and_ minute,
subterranean, blind species have been taken in Europe by very careful special
methods, but in Australia the only blind species known, Typhlobledius cylin-
éricus, and Tripectenopus caecus, are fairly large, although of each only one
specimen is known. Of one curious species, Cryptommatus jansoni, several
specimens have been taken in Tasmania, from the anal region of bush rats. A
few species frequent flowers, and in the tropics many are arboreal. Many
are attracted to lights.

In general the species may be regarded as scavengers, feeding on decaying
animal and vegetable substances. In parts of the world where large animals
are abundant, dung-frequenting species are far more numerous than in Australia.
Many have been introduced all over the world, in commerce; they are readily
transported in hay and straw; dung-frequenting species frequently travel in
ships with horses, cattle, and other animals.

Subfamily PAEDERIDES.

This subfamily, although not the largest, contains perhaps a greater number
of interesting species than any other of the family. A few species of the’ typical
genus Paederus are abundant and widely distributed, but most of them are rare.

4

PINOPHILUS, Grav., Cat., p. 1919.

In all the specimens of this genus examined by me the mandibles were
clenched, so that it was impossible to decide as to whether they were dentate or
not, and this appears to have been the case with (at least) most of the Australian
specimens that have been made into types. On placing the specimens in water
for about an hour, however, they may be softened so as to allow the mandibles
to be opened, and it will then be seen that by them the Australian species of the
genus may be divided into four groups, as follows :—

Tr. Mandibles unarmed.

LATEBRICOLA, Blackb. Major, Lea. PUNCTIFRONS, Lea. RUFITARSIS,
Evia j(DRAPEZUS kivae

2. Each mandible with a small, acute, subbasal tooth.

APTERUS, Lea. AUSTRALIS, Har. (on this species the subbasal tooth is so
small that it could be easily overlooked). MAsTERSI, Macl.

3. Each mandible with an acute submedian tooth.
MACLEAYI, Duv. RUBRIPENNIS, Fvl.

4. Each mandible with an acutely bicuspidate submedian tooth.
AENEIVENTRIS, Fvl. QUADRATICOLLIS, Lea. SEMIOPACUS, Lea.

Of the species not noted above :—

curTicornis, Fvl. Is probably allied to P. rubripennis, and so may belong
to the third group; its mandibles were not even mentioned in the original
description.

GRANDICEPS, Macl. Is allied to P. trapezus, and probably has unarmed
mandibles.

MARGINELLUS, Fvl. Some specimens commented upon as probably belong-
ing to this species have curious mandibles, figured for comparsion with those
of the numbered groups.

Despite the variation in the mandibles the Australian species have a
strong general resemblance, and all appear to be congeneric. Sharp,
however, says: “The genus Araeocerus, Nordm,® is ascribed to Pino-
philus as a synonym by Erichson and others, but this is a mistake,
as Araecocerus is well distinguished by the edentate mandibles.” So
that apparently he would refer all the species of the first group to Araeocerus.
Erichson® says, “Mandibulae . . . medio dente valido truncato,” a char-
acter which, if insisted upon, would exclude all the Australian species here
dealt with, with the possible exception of P. marginellus; as the only specimens
I have seen to which it would apply are some of the third group from which
the tips of the bicuspidate tooth have been broken. Lacordaire,“ who also
included Araeocerus as a synonym, says, “Mandibules . . . fortement
unidentees en dedans,” which would exclude all those of the first and fourth
groups. Fauvel, without comment, referred species to the first, third, and fourth
groups.

(1) Sharp, Biol. Cent. Amer., I. (Part 2), p. 620.

(S) Araecerus of the Anthribidae was used by Schonherr in 1826, and altered by Gem-
minger and Harold, in 1872, to Araeocerus, despite the fact that Nordmann had, in 1837, used
the latter form for a genus of Staphylinidae.

() Erichson, Gen. et Spec. Staph., p. 669.

(0) Lacordaire, Gen. des Coleopt., ii., p. 102.

AENEIVENTRIS, Fvl. QO., N.S.W., V., MARGINELE US! Evin Ot iNVGiS eA

SVAGGINE Wi At aN ale N.W.A.
AUSTRALIS, Gemm. et Har. N.S.W. MASTERSI, Macl. O., N.W.A.
opacus, Redt. QUADRATICOLLIS, Lea. ING SAVES
CURTICORNIS, Fvl. Q. IND Wess INAR
GRANDICEPS, Macl. O., V. RUBRIPENNIS, Fvl. Oe NES Ve
VAREBRICOLA) Blackb: (SAw Ve G2. N.W.A.
MACEEAYA, Duva, OF) INES Wen Ni; jejunus, Lea.
N.T. RUFITARSIS, Fvl. V., Tas., S.A.
brevis, Macl., n. pr. GU NAISAGS JEL INES Whe Wa) Say
GiAs

PINOPHILUS AENEIVENTRIS, Fvl.

A specimen from Oenpelli (Northern Territory) in the National Museum
appears to belong to this species, but has the legs much darker than on typical
specimens (almost black, except that the tarsi are paler); another specimen,
probably immature, from the same locality is entirely of a dingy (but not
uniform) castaneous-brown; an almost identical specimen, but even paler, is in
Mr. Carter’s collection, from Cooktown. A specimen from North-western Aus-
tralia appears to belong to the species, but differs from several, from Victoria
and South Australia, in having the punctures of the prothorax and elytra denser
and the legs darker (although not black). On its right mandible the median
tooth is acutely bicuspidate, on the left one less conspicuously so; and they
sunilarly vary on all those whose mandibles I have forced out for examination.

PINOPHILUS MARGINELLUS, Fvl. Fig. 3.

Two specimens from Queensland (Cairns and Brisbane) agree so well in
colour and in most details with the description (and characters given in the
table) of this species that I am averse from regarding them as new; they differ
from the description, however, in having the prothorax transverse (about one-
fifth wider than long), and with the apical joint of the antennae subtriangularly
pointed. The type was from Melbourne, but so many species of the genus are
widely distributed that the great distances apart from which the specimens
were taken should hardly be considered. Each mandible near the middle is
dilated, and then evenly continued to the basal enlargement, so that from some
directions it appears dentate.

PINOPHILUS TRAPEZUS, F'vl.

A specimen from Yackandandah (Victoria), in Mr. Davey’s collection,
differs from typical ones of this species in being of a dingy castaneous-brown,
except that the abdomen is darker. Of the mandibles of this species Fauvel
only mentioned their colour. On two specimens identified by Blackburn as
belonging to the species the mandibles are long, curved, and simple.

PINOPHILUS RUBRIPENNIS, Fvl. Fig. 4.
P. jejunus, Lea.

This species varies in the colour of the abdomen from entirely dull reddish-
brown or black to black, with the two apical segments and the tips of all the
others reddish, the head varies from a dingy-brown to black, and the legs, from
almost the same shade of colour as the elytra, to pale flavous. The type of
P. rubripennis was from New South Wales, of P. jejunus from North-western
Australia, but the species also occurs in Queensland.

PINOPHILUS MACLEAYI, Duv.
A specimen from Broadmeadows (Victoria) in Mr. Oke’s collection, has
the head and prothorax of a rather dark castaneous, the elytra darker and the
abdomen almost black, except that its tip and sides are obscurely paler.

6

PINOPHILUS LATEBRICOLA, Blackb.

Three specimens from Coburg (Victoria) possibly belong to this species,
but they differ from typical ones in having the jaws about one-fourth longer
and less suddenly departing from the general curvature at the inner base. With
the jaws clenched the differences could not be noted, but when open they are
at once evident ; they are not sexual, as a male of each form has been compared.

Pinophilus major, n. sp. Fig. 5.

d+ Black; mouth parts, antennae, palpi, and tarsi reddish. Rather densely
clothed with short, subdepressed, ashen pubescence; a few hairs on head and
numerous ones about apex of abdomen.

Head strongly transverse; with crowded and not very large but sharply-
defined punctures, becoming sparser, but still fairly numerous in front of a
semicircular, shining line connecting the antennary tubercles. Mandibles long,
thin, curved, and simple. Antennae long and very thin. Prothorax scarcely
as long as the greatest width, hind angles strongly rounded off, front ones almost
square, apex truncated except for a slight incurvature towards each side; with
crowded punctures, much as on base of head; median line represented by a
feeble remnant near base. Elytra very little longer than prothorax and scarcely
as wide as its apex, very little longer than wide; punctures somewhat denser
and more angular than on prothorax, and in places partly transversely confluent.
Abdomen with crowded, suboblong punctures at base of most of the segments,
becoming smaller and less crowded posteriorly, apex of apparent sixth segment
triangularly notched on under-surface. Front femora very stout and obtusely
dentate, four basal joints of front tarsi forming a very wide pad. Length,
20-25 mm.

Hab.—New South Wales: Darling River, in flood debris (R. Helms) ;
North-western Australia (Dr. A. M. Morgan). —

The largest species as yet recorded from Australia, from P. australis, the
next in size, the present species differs in having the mandibles quite simple,
the legs darker, elytra longer, and body winged. On close examination a few
minute punctures may be seen scattered amongst the larger ones on the front
part of the head. On the type two basal joints of the antennae are partly black,
the front tarsi are much paler than the others, the knees and tip of abdomen
are obscurely reddish. The specimen from North-western Australia has the
front legs entirely reddish, and the others with only part of the femora
infuscated.

Pinophilus punctifrons, n. sp.

d. Black; antennae (most of the joints partly infuscated), palpi and
tarsi more or less reddish. Rather densely clothed with dark pubescence,
sparser on head (parts of which are glabrous) than elsewhere; in addition with
rather long hairs scattered about, and becoming numerous on apex of abdomen.

Head strongly transverse, hind angles moderately rounded off; punctures
of moderate size, sharply defined and irregularly distributed. Mandibles long,
thin, curved, and simple. Antennae long and very thin, all the joints much
longer than wide. Prothorax about as long as the apical width, apex (except
tor a feeble incurvature towards each side) truncate, sides gently rounded but
hind angles strongly rounded; punctures much as on base of head; median line
distinct only near base. Elytra about once and. one-third the length of pro-
thorax and very little wider than its apex; punctures rather more crowded,
but scarcely larger. Abdomen with crowded angular, more or less confluent
punctures at the base of most segments, becoming smaller posteriorly on each,
apparent sixth segment triangularly notched at apex on under-surface. Legs
not very long; front femora very stout, with a ridge ending as an obtuse tooth;
front tarsi with four basal joints dilated to form a wide pad. Length, 19 mm.

7

Q. Differs in having the abdomen not notched and its tip obscurely reddish.

Hab.—New South Wales: Hay (A. M. Lea); Victoria: Murtoa.

A large, shining, black species, with simple mandibles, readily distinguished
from all others known to me (except P. marginellus, which has tips of the
elytra red, and very different mandbles) by an even row of four large setiferous
punctures across the front of the head; between these and the basal third (where
they are crowded) the punctures are very sparse and subseriately arranged;
on close examination minute punctures may be seen scattered about.

Pinophilus apterus, n. sp. Fig. 6.

2. Pale castaneous, abdomen darker, antennae, palpi, and legs paler.
Rather densely clothed with dark pubescence, sparser on head than elsewhere,
and with long hairs scattered about, becoming numerous on apex of abdomen.

Head strongly transverse, hind, angles strongly rounded; with fairly large
and sharply-defined punctures, crowded about base, forming an irregular double
semicircle between antennary tubercles, and an irregular row in front; with
minute ones scattered about. Mandibles long, thin, curved, and with a smal!
acute tooth near base. Antennae rather long and thin, all of the joints longer
than wide, and evenly decreasing in length after the third. Prothorax slightly
transverse, hind angles strongly rounded, the front ones moderately so, sides
gently rounded, apex considerably wider than base and just perceptibly wider
than head; with crowded punctures, distinctly smaller than on head, the inter-
spaces with very minute ones; median line very feeble, but traceable almost
throughout. Elytra transversely oblong, narrower and much shorter than pro-
thorax; punctures slightly larger and more crowded than on _ prothorax.
Abdomen with crowded punctures on both surfaces. Front femora very stout,
with a feeble, abruptly-terminated ridge; four basal joints of front tarsi forming
a strongly-dilated pad. Length, 13 mm.

Hab.—New South Wales: Gosford (H. W. Cox). Unique.

An unusually robust, apterous species with transverse elytra. The jaws,
when clenched, appear to be simple, but on relaxation they are seen to have a
minute acute tooth near the basal swelling, much as on P. mastersi, which is
a much narrower species, with very different abdomen. Its nearest ally appears
to be P. australis, but the head has a shorter space between the eyes and neck,
the tooth on each mandible is slightly more advanced and acute, the prothorax
is distinctly transverse, and the punctures are slightly less dense. The type is
almost certainly immature, but as it represents a very distinct species it was
considered desirable to name it.

Pinophilus semiopacus, n. sp. Fig. 7.

Q. Black; antennae, palpi, and legs flavous, abdomen iridescent, its tip
and the mandibles reddish; with rather dense black pubescence, and with
numerous hairs scattered about.

Head strongly transverse, base obtusely bilobed; with crowded punctures
of several sorts. Eyes unusually large. Mandibles long, acute, and each armed
with a large, acutely bicuspidate median tooth. Antennae very thin, passing
base of prothorax, all the joints longer than wide, but decreasing in length after
the third. Prothorax about as long as apical width, hind angles strongly
rounded, front ones almost square; with crowded punctures; median line
feeble, but traceable almost throughout. Elytra slightly wider than prothorax
and about once and one-third as long, sides gently rounded, the angles rather
strongly so; with crowded punctures, slightly larger than on prothorax, and
many transversely or obliquely confluent. Abdomen with punctures scarcely
smaller but somewhat shallower than on elytra, more crowded and confluent

8

about the bases of the segments than elsewhere. Front femora very stout,
with a thin and rather abruptly terminated ridge; front tibiae strongly dilated
from base to beyond the middle, and then unevenly excavated on one side to
apex; front tarsi with four basal joints inflated to form a very large pad.
Length, 16-17 mm.

Hab.—Queensland: South Johnstone River (H. W. Brown), Cairns (E.
Allen). Type, I. 12627.

The bicuspidate tooth on each mandible associates this species with P.
quadraticollis, and P. aeneiventris, from which it differs in being much larger ;
from the former it also differs in having the prothorax not shagreened, although
with unusually dense punctures, antennae longer, and elytra uniformly coloured ;-
from the latter it differs also in the much more crowded and less uniform
punctures; the latter has the abdomen more brightly iridescent. The head,
from a semicircular space connecting the antennary tubercles, is shining in front,
and opaque behind, the opacity due to the dense crowding of punctures, which
(except near the shining part) cannot be individually distinguished; on the
shining part there are numerous fairly large ones, very numerous small ones,
and still more numerous minute ones irregularly intermingled. The punctures
on the prothorax, although densely crowded, are seldom confluent, so that they
are nearly all sharply defined, they are smaller than the large ones on the head.
From certain oblique directions the elytra appear to be densely granulate. On
both specimens the front femora and tibiae are, in parts, deeply infuscated.
The front tarsal pad is unusually large, even for the genus, and its outer base
is produced backwards to fit into a depression on the sides of the tibia; on
aeneiventris it is somewhat smaller, but is otherwise similar. Where type
numbers are given they are those of the South Australian Museum.

Procirrus, ‘Latr.,’ Cat., p.9197.

The species here referred to this genus have the head rather small, with a
long neck, the antennae thin, with all the joints longer than wide, apical joint
of maxillary palpi long and acuminate, prothorax at least twice as long as
wide, sides of abdomen practically immarginate, four basal joints of front
tarsi dilated and subquadrate, basal joint of middle ones much longer than the
rest combined, hind ones with basal joint twice as long as the rest
combined, and the fourth joint short, bilobed, and with a membranous flap.
[ have seen but one ex-Australian species, but the characters given by Erichson,“
Lacordaire,“™, and Fauvel) seem conclusive.

CASTELNAUL Eivlew INES Wines SHA: VICTORIA, . Evil NBS Wee e

PROCIRRUS VICTORIAE, Fvl.

The description of this species is but little more than a comparison with the
ex-Australian P. lefevrei, but, such as it is, it agrees with three specimens before
me, from Sydney and Melbourne, except that they are somewhat smaller—
10-10.5 mm.

Procirrus dolichoderes, n. sp. Fig. 1.

3d. Black; elytra brick-red, antennae, palpi, and tarsi of a more or less
dingy red, but in parts deeply infuscated. Clothed with short, depressed, ashen
pubescence.

Head moderately large, narrowed in front of eyes and rounded behind
them, towards base greatly narrowed, and with a long thin neck; with dense
and sharply-defined punctures of moderate size. Mandibles long and acute,

(1) Erichson, Gen. et. Spec. Staph., p. 685.
(2) Lacordaire, Gen. Col., ii., pp. 102, 105.
(3) Fauvel, Ann. Mus. Civ., Gen., 1878, p. 506.

“ 9

about middle with a strong double tooth. Antennae thin, none of the joints
transverse, first as long as second and third combined, eleventh almost as long
as ninth and tenth combined. Prothorax about twice as long as wide, widest
near apex, sides slightly incurved near base, front angles completely rounded
off; with dense punctures much as on head, but becoming coarser near base.
Elytra about the length of prothorax, but conspicuously wider, and slightly
wider than head, angles rounded off; with dense and rather deep punctures,
somewhat larger than on base of prothorax. Abdomen about half the total
length, with crowded punctures; subapical segment feebly incurved at apex
on under-surface, the apical one deeply notched. Legs long and thin, hind
tibiae with a conspicuous projection near outer apex; front tarsi stout, four
basal joints lopsided, fifth thin; middle and hind tarsi thin, the basal joint
distinctly longer than the rest combined. Length, 10-11 mm.

Hab.—Victoria: Geelong and Portland (H. W. Davey).

Close to the species I have identified, with some doubts, as P. victoriae,
but head narrower, antennae longer, and elytra entirely pale. At first glance
the derm appears to be opaque, but this is entirely due to the short clothing.
The neck, thin as it appears from above, appears much thinner from the sides;
it has a thin ridge, and this may be traced as an impunctate line to half-way
between the eyes. From above the abdomen appears to be immarginate, but
on the sides feeble ridges may be seen towards the base of most of the segments.
The punctures on the under-surface are much as on the elytra, except on the
head, where they are more rugose, with the interspaces opaque or shagreened.
The basal joint of the hind tarsi is almost twice as long as the rest combined.

Procirrus opacus, n. sp.

3. Opaque piceous-brown, head and most of abdomen still darker. Basal
half of antennae, maxillary palpi, mandibles and legs reddish, labial palpi,
apical half of antennae and tarsi paler. Clothed with very short, depressed, ashen
pubescence.

Head rather long, constricted in front of eyes, rounded behind them, and
with a long and thin neck, a very thin ridge on basal half; with crowded
and rather small but sharply-defined punctures. Mandibles long and acute,
with a strong double tooth before the middle. Antennae long and thin, basal
joint rather stout and almost as long as second and third combined, apical
joint distinctly longer than tenth, median joints slightly shorter and thinner
than the others. Prothorax fully twice as long as wide, sides widest in front,
slightly incurved near base, front angles rounded off, a very narrow ridge on
basal two-thirds; with crowded punctures, somewhat coarser than on head,
especially at base. Elytra conspicuously wider than prothorax, and about the
same length; with somewhat similar punctures. Abdomen long; with crowded
punctures; a short feeble ridge on most of the segments on each side represent-
ing the margins, but the sixth with a narrow slit on each side; under-surface
of subapical segment with an equilaterally» triangular notch. Legs long and
thin; hind tibiae with a projection near outer apex; front tarsi with four basal
joints large and lopsided, hind tarsi very long, the basal joint more than twice
as long as the others combined, middle tarsi shorter but somewhat similar to
the hind ones. Length, 9-11 mm.

Hab—North-western Australia: Derby (Dr. A. M. Morgan), Fortescue
River (W. D. Dodd). Type, I. 12656.

In general close to P. dolichoderes, but the derm really opaque and not
apparently so only; the elytra are of the same dingy colour as the prothorax,
this is less rounded in front and the legs and antennae are paler. The punctures
cause the prothorax to appear densely and finely granulate.

10

Procirrus antiquus, n. sp.

3. Opaque-black; antennae, palpi, mandibles, and legs more or less red-
dish. Densely clothed with very short ashen pubescence. Length, 7.5 mm.

Hab.—North-western Australia: Derby (W. D. Dodd). Type (unique),
yal 2657;

The dingy pubescence on the opaque derm give the whole insect a dingy,
rusty appearance; the darker parts of the abdomen (except the tip) are entirely
black, but the softer parts cause the tip of each segment to appear reddish.
Structurally it is very close to the preceding species, but differs in being much
smaller, black, the punctures on the head smaller and denser, and in consequence
less sharply defined, the ridge on the prothorax shorter and less conspicuous,
the notch on the abdomen much wider, and the slit on each side of the sixth
segment very faint. From some directions the elytra and most of the prothorax
appear multi-granulate.

In forcing out the mandibles they were unfortunately injured, but the parts
that are visible are as on the preceding species.

Procirrus ferrugineus, n. sp.

Q. Of a dingy rusty reddish-brown; mouth parts, antennae, palpi, elytra,
and legs paler, head almost black. Densely clothed with short, ashen pubescence,
becoming longer on tips of abdominal segments.

Head rather small, moderately convex, hind angles strongly rounded off,
with a short narrow neck; with crowded and rather small punctures. Mandibles
long and acute, a strong tooth near the middle. Antennae rather short, first
joint as long as second and third combined, second almost as long as third and
fourth combined, fifth to ninth as long as wide, or feebly transverse, tenth
longer, eleventh still longer. Prothorax about twice as long as wide, widest at
apex, which is about the width of head, sides feebly diminishing in width
posteriorly, all angles gently rounded off, with a faint median ridge on basal half ;
punctures crowded and slightly larger than on head. Elytra about as long as pro-
thorax, and somewhat wider, shoulders rounded, sides thence parallel to near apex;
with rather coarse crowded punctures. Abdomen more than half total length;
with dense asperate punctures, becoming crowded at the base of each segment ;
sides immarginate. Legs not very long; front tarsi with four basal joints
strongly dilated; middle tarsi scarcely as long as the front ones, the basal
joint as long as the rest combined; hind tarsi slightly longer than the middle
ones, the basal joint considerably longer than the others combined; hind tibiae

EXPLANATION’ OF FIGURES.

Fig. Fig.
1. Procirrus dolichoderes, Lea. 18. Lathrobiwm orthodoxum, Lea. Mandible.
2. Macrodicax potens, Lea. 19. - abdominale, Lea. Mandible.
3. Pinophilus marginellus, Fvl. Mandible. 20. Hyperomma globuliferum, Lea. Mandible.
4, 4 rubripenms, Fvl. Mandible. 21. i cylindricum, Lea. Mandible.
bE 5 major, Lea. Mandible. 22: 3 labrale, Lea. Mandible.
6. ‘, apterus, Lea. Mandible. 23. Py bryophilum, Lea. Mandible.
he i semtopacus, Lea, Mandible. 24. Dolicaon alatus, Lea. Mandible.
8. Palaminus bivittipennis, Lea. Mandible. 25. \, alatus, Lea. Mandible.
9. Ocdichirus cribricollis, Lea. Mandible. 26. io alatus, Lea. Mandible.
10. Paederus wilsont, Lea. Mandible. 27. Cryptobium hoplogastrum, Lea. Mandible.
11. Astenus noctivagus, Lea, Mandible. 28. s bicuspidatum, Lea. Mandible.
U2: x mandibularis, Lea. Mandible. 29. Astenus pectinatus, Fvl. Tip of abdomen.
13. " mandibularis, Lea. Mandible. 30. Domene pectinatrix, Lea. Front leg.
14. ambulans, Lea. Mandible. 31. Hyperomma globuliferum, Lea. Part of
15. Medon lugubris, Lea. Mandible. mouth.
16. 52 lugubris, Lea. Mandible. 32. Gryptobium hoplogastrum, Lea. Third

17. Lathrobium orthodoxum, Lea. Mandible. segment of abdomen.

12

slightly dilated from base to near apex, the outer side then notched to apex.
Length, 7.5 mm.

Hab.—Victoria: Ararat (H. W. Davey). Unique.

Differs from all other species here referred to Procirrus in having the neck
more suddenly defined from the head, although not longer, and the middle and
hind tarsi with the basal joint shorter, although still of great comparative
length. It is about the size of P. castelnami, but is apparently a considerably
paler insect; the description of that species, however, is but little more than a
comparison with the ex-Australian P. saulcyi. The derm itself is somewhat
shining, but owing to the clothing appears subopaque. Seen directly from
above the black part of the head (excluding the neck) appears almost circular,
but when viewed from behind it appears parallel-sided for some distance. The
tooth on the left mandible (the only one visible on the type) is truncated at
the apex, but may have been damaged in manipulation. From some directions
both prothorax and elytra appear to be closely granulate. The largest and most
sharply-defined punctures are on the metasternum and under-surface of abdomen.

There is a specimen of this species in the Australian Museum (K. 21538)
from Singleton (New South Wales).

PALAMINUS, Er., Cat., p. 198.

In addition to the species here listed Blackburn“ has recorded two others
(P. novaeguineae, Fvl., and P. vitiensis, Fvl.) as Australian, but probably in
error.
AUSTRALIAE, Fvl. Q., N.S.W., V., N.W.A., Lord Howe Island.
malandanus, Bernh., Arkiv for Zool., xiii. (No. 8), p. 8.
MACULATUS, | Beruht,glic:, ip. -92 |. Oe NSA:

PALAMINUS AUSTRALIAE, Fl.

Specimens of this species are before me from Queensland (Cairns, Mount
Tambourine, and Goodna), New South Wales (Wollongong and Sydney),
Victoria (Alps and Dividing Range), and Lord Howe Island. The abdomen
is more castaneous than the rest of the upper-surface, the elytra are uniformly
flavous, except that on some specimens parts adjacent to the suture are as dark
as the abdomen; the size varies from 2.5 to 4.5 mm. The longitudinal elevation
on the prothorax varies from a feeble subbasal tubercle to a moderately long
carina. It appears probable that malandanus was named from small specimens
. of the species.

PALAMINUS MACULATUS, Bernh.

On the typical form of this species the elytra are dark with the suture,
tips, and shoulders pale, but the dark parts vary in intensity, and on some speci-
mens are reduced to a sutural blotch on the basal half (two such specimens were
identified by Blackburn as P. novaeguineae ).

Palaminus bivittipennis, n. sp. Fig. 8.

Castaneous, elytra black with castaneous markings, mouth parts, antennae,
palpi, and legs castaneous. With fairly numerous golden setae, or hairs, longer
and more numerous on abdomen than elsewhere.

Head strongly transverse; with rather numerous, large, sharply-defined
punctures. Eyes large, occupying most of the sides between antennae and base.
Antennae long and thin, none of the joints transverse. Prothorax distinctly
transverse, basal angles strongly rounded, sides increasing in width to apex,

4) Blackburn, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1895, p. 204.

13

which is truncate; punctures much as on head. Elytra much wider than pro-
thorax and about twice as long, sides gently rounded; punctures slightly larger,
denser, and more angular than on prothorax. Abdomen long, four segments and
base of another with characteristic sculpture of the genus; anal styles very long
and thin. Front femora stout, obtusely dentate; front tibiae rather short,
strongly dilated to apex, four basal joints of front tarsi large and lopsided;
other legs rather long and thin. Length, 5-6 mm.

Hab.—Northern Queensland (Blackburn’s collection). Type, I. 12429.

Two specimens are paler than the others, with the abdomen not much darker
than the prothorax, on the others the abdomen (except the tips of the segments )
is almost black. The darker specimens have the four basal joints of the front
tarsi larger and more conspicuously lopsided than on the others and are probably
males; I have been unable to find any other characters that appear to be sexual.
The dark parts of the elytra vary in intensity, but in general may be considered
as forming a dark U on each elytron (from each shoulder a pale vitta extends
about to the middle on two specimens, almost to the apex on the others; the
tips are also narrowly pale). In the middle of the prothorax there is a slightly
elevated subtubercular space that appears to be the remnant of a median carina.
Of the four specimens before me two were identified with doubt, by Blackburn,
as P. vitiensis, Fvl., but they do not agree with the description, as on one of
them the head and prothorax are uniformly dark castaneous, and on the other
uniformly pale castaneous (the specimens before Fauvel had the prothorax
trivirgate), and there are other differences from the description.

OErpDIGCHIRUS orate pe ZOle

ANDERSONI, Blackb. S.A., W.A. PAEDEROIDES, Macl. Q., N.S.W.

GENICULATUSI lea. Vi RUBRICOLLIS, Fvl. N.S.W.

GRANDIS, Bernh. Arkiv. for Zool., TERIMENAT TS le eal IN EINVIVA: SHIN al
Sant (ONO'S), Ze Os TRICOLORY Weal ING. alas:

INTRICATUS, Fvl. Q., N.T.
OEDICHIRUS GRANDIS, Bernh.

A specimen, from Mount Tambourine, agrees with the description of this
species, except that it is smaller (5.5 mm.); but as several species vary con-
siderably in length, apart from post-mortem contractions, the difference in size
is probably of no importance.

Oedichirus cribricollis, n. sp. Fig. 9.

@. Black; antennae, palpi, and legs flavous, mandibles, labrum, and coxae
with a slight tinge of red. Clothed with straggling, ashen setae.

Head small and (between labrum and base) transverse; with numerous
large punctures, sparser in middle than elsewhere. Eyes large, about one-fourth
longer than basal joint of antennae. Mandibles long and acute, with a rather
small acute tooth about middle. Antennae thin, first joint almost as long as
second and third combined, third slightly longer than second and slightly shorter
than fourth. Prothorax slightly longer than greatest width, which is near apex,
strongly rounded in front, behind the greatest width strongly obliquely nar-
rowed to base; with irregular rows of very large punctures. Elytra small,
sides strongly rounded; with rather numerous, large, deep punctures. Abdomen
more than half the total length, most of the segments on the upper-surface
with large oblong punctures, close together at base, then with round ones not so
close together, and smaller ones about tips; on under-surface the punctures are
somewhat similar but more numerous; anal styles long and acute. Legs rather
long and thin, hind tibiae subtriangularly dilated and notched near outer apex.
Length, 10 mm.

14

Hab.—Queensland: Cairns (A. M. Lea). Type (unique), I. 12615.

In general appearance like a large specimen of O. grandis (the only other
Australian species having the prothorax black), but with longer and thinner
legs, knees very little darker than the adjacent parts, instead of conspicuously
black, and elytra of different shape; on grandis they are distinctly wider than
long, with the sides almost evenly rounded, although narrower at base, on the
present species they are scarcely wider than long, and (with rounded outlines )
increase in width from base almost to apex. All the punctures are large and
sharply defined, but those on the prothorax are largest of all.

Oedichirus cribriventer, n. sp.

3. Blackish; mouth parts, antennae, palpi, prothorax, and legs more
or less favous. Wath long, straggling, ashen hairs.

Head (excluding neck) transverse, with rather large and deep punctures.
Mandibles long and acute, each with a rather small acute tooth about the middle.
Antennae thin, none of the joints transverse. Prothorax scarcely as long as
the greatest width (almost at apex), sides strongly decreasing in width to-
base, with large and irregular punctures, crowded in places, but leaving a rather
narrow and irregular median line. FElytra small, sides rather strongly rounded,
apex much wider than base; with large and rather dense punctures. Abdomen
more than half the total length; with large and dense punctures, becoming
oblong at the base of each segment on the upper-surface, and rather less so on
under-surface; subapical segment with a shallow depression on under-surface,
its tip with a small and wide triangular notch. Legs rather long and thin, hind
tibiae subtriangularly dilated and notched near outer apex. Length, 7.5 mm.

Hab.—Queensland: Gladstone (A. M. Lea). Type (unique), I. 12616.

Fairly close to O. geniculatus, but head black, legs entirely pale, elytra not
entirely pale and with rather more numerous punctures; O. rubricollis has less
irregular punctures on prothorax, legs partly and elytra entirely dark, etc.; O.
tricolor has red head and prothorax, etc.; structurally it is close to O. grandis,
but prothorax, elytra, and legs are very differently coloured and the punctures
are somewhat different. At first glance the elytra appear to be as dark as the
abdomen, but on close examination the base, suture, and tips are seen to be
obscurely reddish.

PAEDERUS, Fabr., Cat., p: 203:

ADELAIDAE, Blackb. S.A. KOEBELEI, Blackb. Q., N.T.
ANGULICOLLIS, Macl.™® ©., N.S.W., MEYRICKI, Blackb. W.A.
Weasna Ss antipodum, Bernh. and Schub.
tenuicornis, Fvl. erichsont, Bernh., n. pr.
AUSTRALIS. (Guer Os NSSAVW eae, SIMSONI, Blackb. Tas., King Island.
Masi sora NEW ia eed SJOESTEDTI, Bernh. (Pseudopae-
CRUENTICOLLIS, Germ. Q., N.S.W., derus), Arkiv for Zool., xiii.
Viohase pean GuAS GNonS)),p: 95 0:
cingulatus, Macl. SPARSUS wlivin SUNGos VV ew One
FUSCIPES, Curt. Australia. Intro- TWEEDENSIS, Blackb. Q., N.S.W.,
duced. INGAR

PAEDERUS TWEEDENSIS, Blackb.

Of this species I wrote to Mr. G. J. Arrow: “Specimens in my collection
seem very close to the British and European P. fuscipes, Curt., differing only
slightly in colour of legs. I would be glad if you would compare the type with
normal specimens of fuscipes (which has been recorded by Bernhauer as

Qo) Incorrectly referred to as angulatus in Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1904, p. 63.

15

occurring in Australia). In reply he wrote: “I can see no difference of any
importance.” :
PAEDERUS MEYRICKI, Blackb.

ENerich sont soem. iu pr.
P. antipodum, Bernh. and Schub.

The description of P. erichsoni agrees well with specimens of P. meyricki,
and a cotype from Bernhauer in the Western Australian Museum also agreed
with them. As erichsoni was previously used in Paederus, in the eae loyile by
Bernhauer and Schubert the name was changed to antipodum.

Paederus apteromelas, n. sp.

Black; elytra dark metallic-blue or green. Clothed with black pubescence,
interspersed with erect black hairs.

Head moderately long; with conspicuous irregular punctures. Eyes
prominent. Antennae moderately long and thin, third joint slightly longer than
first, distinctly longer than fourth, and about twice the length of second, eleventh
pointed and slightly longer than tenth. Prothorax slightly longer than its greatest
width, which is near apex, front angles strongly rounded off, base truncate;
punctures somewhat as on head. Elytra narrow at base, dilated to apex, where
the width is slightly more than head across eyes; with crowded and ‘rather
large round punctures. Abdomen widest in middle; punctures rather dense
but partially concealed. Legs rather long and thin. Length, 6.5-7.5 mm.

Hab.—Western Australia: Swan River (J. Clark). Type, I. 12041.

An apterous species, structurally close to P. meyricki, but readily dis-
tinguished from that, and from all other named Australian species, by its black
prothorax. Most of the seven specimens sent by Mr. Clark have parts of the
under-surface of the basal joints of antennae obscurely reddish, and two also
have parts of the prosternum obscurely reddish.

Paederus stenopterus, n. sp.

3d. Black; mouth parts, basal joints of palpi, antennae (four or five
median joints deeply infuscated), prothorax, four basal segments of abdomen,
coxae, and base of femora more or less reddish or flavous, rest of legs moderately
or deeply infuscated. Upper-surface with straggling black hairs, but very
sparse on prothorax; elytra and abdomen with sparse inconspicuous
pubescence.

Head fairly large; with large irregularly-distributed punctures, almost
absent from a median space from between eyes to clypeus.. Antennae rather
long, none of the joints transverse, third twice the length of second. Prothorax
strongly convex, strongly rounded in front, where the greatest width is almost
twice the width of base; with a few scattered punctures. Elytra slightly longer
than prothorax, but considerably narrower than its greatest width, strongly
narrowed at base; with large and somewhat crowded punctures. Abdomen
slightly dilated posteriorly, sixth segment largest of all; with fairly large and
dense punctures near base of segments; under-surface of subapical segment
deeply notched. Legs long and thin. Length, 6.5 mm.

Hab—Northern Queensland (Blackburn’s collection). Type, I. 12613.

An apterous species, with antennae coloured much as in the winged P.
koebelei; of the other apterous species it differs in its partly pale abdomen, legs,
and antennae from P. meyricki, P. simsomi, and P. apteromelas; P. sparsus is
a considerably larger species, with entirely dark abdomen, etc. A female
(South Johnstone River, H. W. Brown) that appears to belong to the species,
differs from the type in being larger (7 mm.), four basal segments of abdomen

16

less conspicuously paler than the others (although not black), the subapical
segment not notched, and the elytra of a brighter blue.

Paederus wilsoni, n. sp. Fig. 10.

¢. Black; elytra blue or purplish-blue, mandibles and prothorax red,
antennae (four or five median joints infuscated), palpi, and most of the legs
fiavous. Upper-surface with long, straggling, black hairs.

Head moderately large; with fairly large but sparse punctures. Mandibles
with an acutely bicuspidate tooth about middle. Antennae long, none of the joints
transverse, first and third of equal length, and each about twice the length of
second. Prothorax large, strongly convex, sides strongly rounded and at widest
slightly wider than head; with a few scattered punctures. Elytra small, slightly
shorter than prothorax and distinctly narrower; with large irregularly-distributed
punctures. Abdomen large; with a few distinct punctures ; under-surface of
subapical segment with a rather narrow parallel-sided notch almost to base.
Legs rather long and thin, front femora stout. Length, 7-9 mm.

Q. Differs in having abdomen slightly wider posteriorly, subapical seg-
ment not notched, and legs and antennae somewhat shorter.

Hab—Queensland: Blackall Range in October (Ff. E. Wilson), Mapleton
in November (H. Hacker). Type, I. 12859.

On several males the tibiae and tarsi are entirely pale, but not of a clear
flavous, as are the bases of the femora; but on most of them the tibiae, at
least, are infuscated about the base. The elytral punctures are rather large
and sparse, and so impressed that the space immediately behind most of them
appears to be granulate. It is an apterous species, nearer to P. sparsus than
any other wingless one, but the elytra are subgranulate, abdomen with more
conspicuous margins, and antennae with only the middle dark; the antennae
are coloured as on some specimens of the winged P. koebelei. From the pre-
ceding species it differs in having the elytra smaller, abdomen entirely polished
black, and maxillary palpi entirely pale.

DIBELONETES, Sahlb., Cat., p. 212.

Sharp “® gives particulars as to how this genus may be distinguished from
Sunius (equal Astenus), but it is doubtful if the Australian species now standing
in it can be maintained as distinct from that genus.

ANTIPODUM, Bernh., Arkiv for Zool., MJOEBERGI, .Bernh.kc. p- 105 Os
Xiit(NOso)): ape ell a): Sway

BREVICOLLIS, « Lea) (Sumiusy: 4. (O PALAEOTROPICUS, Bernh. Q., N.T.,
N.S.W. Melville Island (? Introduced).

queenslandicus, Bernh., l.c., p. El.

DIBELONETES BREVICOLLIS, Lea.
D. queenslandicus, Bernh.

A very variable species, occurring from Cairns in Queensland, to Dalmorton
in New South Wales.

Form 1. Pale reddish-flavous; elytra, antennae, palpi, and legs still paler.

Form 2. Darker than preceding form; head with one, prothorax with
two vague infuscations; elytra with more or less numerous infuscated spots,
sometimes sharply defined but not conjoined; upper-surface of abdomen in-
fuscated on each segment near margin. The majority of specimens belong to
this form; on most of them the outer apical angles of the elytra, and a spot
on each side of the suture, appear conspicuously flavous from some directions,

(16) Sharp, Biol. Centr. Amer., i. (Part 2); 1886, p. 601.

17

so that the elytra appear to be of three colours: a rather dingy flavous-red or
ferruginous, piceous, and black or brown. The type female is of this form.
Form 3. The typical form of both brevicollis and queenslandicus, but a
rather rare one.
There are many other forms before me, represented by but one or two
specimens, but they may be all recognized by the comparatively short prothorax,
and small subgranular elevations on elytra.

DIBELONETES MJOEBERGI, Bernh.

A somewhat variable species. The W on the elytra is usually sharply
defined, but on three specimens is so faint as to be scarcely traceable; the
infuscation of the sides of the prothorax is occasionally pronounced, but is
usually feeble, or altogether absent. I took fifteen specimens in the Cairns
district, and one near Adelaide.

DIBELONETES PALAEOTROPICUS, Bernh.

I have not seen the description of this species,“”) but received from the
Stockholm Museum two specimens taken by Mjoberg at Malanda and identified
by Bernhauer. The species is a variable one, but may be recognized amongst
the allies of Astenus by its greatly flattened and long head and prothorax, the
head with a median line (infuscated or black), and the prothorax with a median
line and a marginal one on each side (also infuscated or black). The elytra
and abdomen have markings which vary in number and intensity. On two
specimens the markings on the whole of the upper-surface are, however, very
faint. Specimens under examination are from Cairns, Kuranda, and Melville
Island.

ANSTE NUS) Stepne. Catip. 213.

(Sunius, Er., a synonym, and Astenognathus, Reitt., a subgenus. )

APICIFLAVUS, Lea (Stenus). N.S.W. INDIcus, Kr. (Subg. Astenognathus).
AUSTRALICUS, Bernh. W.A. OP HINES Wis Vie Waser S slg.
cyLinpRicus, Macl. (Stenus). Q., W.A. (also Europe, Africa, and

INES WV AVA Asia).

var. australasiae, Fvl. aequalis, Blackb. (Sunius).

FAvosUS, Lea (Stenus). Q. oculatus, Sharp (Sunius).
Gummeios, 9 hv CSuanns). Or pallidulus, Woll.

INES IVE ase SRAC ENE Ae parviceps, Ragusa.

Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands. = pectinatus, Fvl. (Sunius). N.S.W.
HACKERI, Lea (Stenus). OQ. ROTUNDICOLLIS, Macl. (Scopaeus),

Cate pw Zl:
SIMSONI, Lea (Sunius). . Tas.
TRILINEATUS, Lea (Sunius). N.S.W.

ASTENUS AUSTRALICUS, Bernh.

Mr. J. Clark took two specimens of this species on the Swan River, from
a nest of Ectatomma metallicum,; they measure 3.5 and 3.75 mm.

ASTENUS GUTTULUS, FvI.

Two specimens from Cairns, and one from Darwin, possibly belong to this
species, but they differ from typical ones in being somewhat thinner (the pro-
thorax is distinctly, but slightly longer) and the spot on each elytron more
elongate, and extending from just before the middle to about one-sixth from

(7) It is not mentioned in the Catalogue, but is recorded in Arkiv for Zool., xiii. (No.
8) eesps lel '

18

apex, instead of rounded and submedian; on all three the head is no darker
than the prothorax, the subapical segment of abdomen is entirely, and the
apical segment partly black; but specimens of 4. guttulus frequently vary in
colour of head and abdomen.

ASTENUS INDIcUS, Kraatz.

I asked Mr. G. J. Arrow to kindly compare the types of A. aequalis, A.
pallidulus, and A. indicus. In reply he wrote: “I have compared the types of
aequalis, Blackb.; pallidulus, Woll; and oculatus, Sharp, with a specimen from
Ceylon received from Kraatz as S. indicus, and I believe all to be the same.”

ASTENUS PECTINATUS, Fvl. Fig. 29.

An apterous male, taken from rotting leaves on Mount Tambourine, has
such a remarkable comb on the under-surface of its abdomen that I think it is
either an immature specimen of this species (described originally as from
Sydney), or represents a variety of it; the comb is composed of about twenty
long, shining, black bristles, and extends across almost the entire width of the
antepenultimate segment. Its elytra are decidedly shorter than the prothorax,
their apical half is flavous, and the basal half slightly darker than the prothorax,
with the sides strongly rounded, and the comb-bearing segment is slightly in-
fuscated at the base of its upper-surface. The mandibles are much as I have
hgured them for A. noctivagus.

Astenus noctivagus, n. sp. Fig. 11.

é. Piceous-brown or black; mouth parts, mandibles, antennae, palpi, and
legs flavous, tips of elytra, and of most of the abdominal segments obscurely
flavous. Clothed with very minute ashen pubescence, sides of head and of
prothorax with a few stiff setae, sides and tip of abdomen with longer hairs.

Head rather large; with shallow reticulate punctures. Mandibles long
and acute, each about middle with a long acute tooth, which is itself dentate.
Antennae thin, none of the joints transverse. Prothorax dilated to near apex,
and then strongly narrowed to apex itself, which is narrower than base. Elytra
slightly longer than prothorax and conspicuously wider, angles gently rounded,
sides almost parallel; with dense and sharply-defined punctures. Abdomen
with dense and small punctures, subapical segment triangularly notched at apex
of under-surface. Length, 3.5-4 mm.

Q. Differs in having the head and prothorax somewhat smaller, and
abdomen not notched.

Hab.—Queensland: Cairns, nine specimens obtained at lights (A. M. Lea) ;
New South Wales: Sydney (Dr. E. W. Ferguson). Type, I. 12402.

Close to A. apiciflavus, but apex of elytra narrowly pale, instead of widely
flavous; the pale portion being only about one-third that of apiciflavus, and
hardly more than that of the tips of the abdominal segments. On_ several
specimens the elytral suture is obscurely diluted with red. On several the head
and prothorax are almost black, on others they are of a more or less dingy
brown; they are really opaque, but the elytra and abdomen are shining, although
the derm is partially concealed by the clothing. Ample wings are present.

Astenus majorinus, n. sp.

Q. Black; mouth parts, mandibles, antennae, palpi, and legs flavous.
Clothed with very short ashen pubescence, the sides with a few stiff setae.
Length, 5.25-6.75 mm.

Hab.—Queensland: Cairns district (A. M. Lea). Type, I. 12404.

19

Allied to the preceding species, and structurally as described, but consider-
ably larger, antennae distinctly longer and thinner, each joint being at least
twice as long as wide; on the preceding species each of the sixth to tenth
joints is not much longer than wide. It is of the size of A. favosus, but is
winged. The abdomen is really black, but owing to the clothing has a rusty
appearance. A male belonging to the species is evidently immature, it differs
irom the type in being of a dingy red, with the tips of elytra and parts about
the scutellum obscurely paler; the tip of its subapical segment is triangularly
notched. Three specimens were obtained at lights.

Astenus mandibularis, n. sp. Figs. 12 and 13.

3. Reddish-castaneous; mouth parts, mandibles, antennae, palpi, apex of
elytra, legs, and most of abdomen flavous, an interrupted fascia on elytra, upper-
surface of fourth segment of abdomen, and of part of seventh, black or blackish.
Sparsely clothed with short pale pubescence, the sides with rather long dark
setae or hairs.

Head rather large; with shallow reticulate punctures. Mandibles long and
acute, the left one with an acutely bicuspidate tooth before the middle, the right
one in addition with a minute tooth beyond the middle. Antennae thin, first
joint as long as three following combined, ninth and tenth scarcely longer than
wide. Prothorax scarcely longer than the greatest width, which is near apex,
sides obliquely narrowed to near base, and strongly rounded to apex, punctures
as on head. Elytra distinctly longer and wider than prothorax; with dense
sharply-defined punctures and a few obtuse granules. Abdomen less than half
the total length, subapical segment triangularly notched almost to base on under-
surface. Length, 4.25-4.75 mm.

Hab——Queensland: Cairns district (A. M. Lea). Type, I. 12411.

The elytral fascia is of irregular shape, and touches neither suture nor
sides, the space posterior to it is considerably paler than that anterior to it,
although the latter is not of so bright a red as the prothorax. In appearance
fairly close to some forms of A. brevicollis, but the dark elytral markings con-
fined to a median space (and very conspicuous there), the elytra with fewer
subgranular elevations, the prothorax somewhat longer, and only one abdominal
segment dark, and that on the upper-surface only. From the description of
A. pectinatus it differs in being larger, elytra paler beyond than before the black
markings, and the fourth segment of abdomen black. It is much larger than
A, guttulus, elytra with black markings irregularly transverse, and their apex pale.

A female (from North Queensland, Blackburn’s collection) differs from the
type in having the head and prothorax almost black, the elytra black except at
the apex, and the fifth segment of abdomen the only conspicuously pale one;
it agrees in many details with the description of A. (Dibelonetes) antipodum,
but differs in the abdomen, although at first glance the three basal segments
appear to be as dark as the fourth, in certain lights they are seen to be distinctly
less dark. It, and the type (a third specimen has the mandibles clenched) have
the mandibles, side for side, exactly alike.

Astenus ambulans, n. sp. Fig. 14.

Q. Pale castaneous; antennae, palpi, and legs flavous, basal two-thirds
of fifth segment of abdomen black. Very minutely pubescent; the sides with
sparse black setae, becoming numerous about apex of abdomen.

Head rather large; with shallow reticulate punctures. Mandibles long and
acute, each near middle with a long acute tooth, and which has a minute basal
projection. Antennae thin, some of the median joints not much longer than
wide. Prothorax very little longer than the greatest width, which is near apex,

20

sides strongly rounded to apex; punctures as on head. Elytra rather narrow,
less than the greatest width of prothorax, shoulders rounded; with dense and
sharply-defined punctures. Abdomen somewhat dilated posteriorly, where the
greatest width is equal to that of head; punctures fairly dense and sharply
defined on under-sur face, less sharply on the upper. Length, 3.25-3.5 mm.

Hab.—New South Wales: Ourimbah, from rotting leaves (A. M. Lea).

The elytra are almost parallel-sided, but are small and do not cover wings
(I have dissected two specimens to be sure of this); their apical half is paler
than the basal half, but the two shades of colour are not sharply limited; on
each side near the base, and invisible from above, there is a slight infuscation,
part of the metasternum is also slightly infuscated. At first glance the speci-
mens look like rather narrow ones of A. indicus, but that species is winged;
they are narrower and less opaque than the specimens I have identified as
belonging to A. australicus, and the elytral punctures are much more sharply
defined.

A male (from Ulverstone, Tasmania) is evidently an immature specimen
of the species; it differs from the type in being smaller, very pale castaneous,
no parts black or infuscated, the two shades of colour on the elytra still less
defined, the joints of the antennae somewhat longer, the under-surface of the
fifth segment of abdomen with a shallow subapical depression, and the sixth
deeply incised.

Astenus tardus, n. sp.

3. Pale flavo-castaneous; antennae, palpi, elytra, and legs pale flavous.
Clothed with very short whitish pubescence, and with long, stragg ling, black hairs.

Head rather large; with shallow, reticulate punctures. Antennae thin,
none of the joints transverse, but ninth and tenth very little longer than wide.
Prothorax scarcely as long as greatest width (near apex), which is almost equal
to that of head; sides strongly but unequally rounded; punctures much as on
head. Elytra slightly wider and slightly longer than prothorax; with dense
and sharply-defined punctures, and with a few rows of feeble piliferous
granules. Abdomen rather wide; with denser punctures than on prothorax,
but smaller and less sharply defined; subapical segment with a deep, triangular
notch. Length, 3.75 mm.

Hab.—Queensland: Mount Tambourine (A. M. Lea). Type (unique),
I. 12406.

From some directions the upper-surface of the abdomen, as well as the
elytra, appear to have feeble rows of granules, but they are placed transversely.
The species in general appearance is “strikingly like Form I of A. brevicollis,
but it is apterous; it is considerably wider than the preceding species, and the
elytra are granulate. The mandibles of the type were broken in manipulating
them for examination.

STILICOPSIS, .oachse,, | Caton p22:
TRINOTATA, Kraatz. Q. Introduced.

STILIGUS, athe, Cate *ps 22a:
ORBICULATUS, Payk. Tas. Introduced.

STILICUS ORBICULATUS, Payk.
A specimen, from Launceston, agrees perfectly with British specimens
of this species; a widely distributed one, but now first recorded as Australian ;
five synonyms and varieties of the species are recorded in the catalogue.

21

Stilicus umbratus, n. sp.

g. Dull reddish-brown; head and prothorax much darker (somewhat
bronzy ), mandibles, antennae, palpi, and legs flavous, or castaneous-flavous. With
very short ashen pubescence, and with a few dark hairs scattered about.

Head rather large, moderately convex, and distinctly transverse, hind
angles strongly rounded, neck very thin; punctures small and densely
crowded, under-surface shagreened and with conspicuous punctures.
Mandibles strong, acutely tridentate. Antennae extending to base of prothorax,
first joint longer than second and third combined, second as long as fourth, and
distinctly shorter than third, the others to tenth gradually becoming shorter
and more globular. Prothorax much narrower than head, hind angles strongly
rounded, sides moderately dilated to near apex, and then strongly obliquely
narrowed to neck; punctures much as on head. Elytra quadrate, longer and
much wider than prothorax; with small crowded punctures, somewhat larger
than on head and prothorax, and with large ones scattered about, and forming
irregular rows. Under-surface of apical and subapical segments of abdomen
notched in middle. Front femora very feebly dentate, front tibiae slightly
notched about middle, front tarsi slightly wider and shorter than the others.
Length, 4.25-4.5 mm.

Q. Differs in having the abdomen slightly wider and not notched, head
slightly wider, and antennae and legs slightly shorter.

Hab.—Queensland: Cairns district and Mount Tambourine, sieved from
Totes leavesn (CA Mn cea). Miymel, 12637.

About the size of S. orbiculatus, and with somewhat similar outlines, except
that the prothorax is more transverse, the head shorter, and antennae longer,
the finer sculpture and the colours, however, are very different. The head and
prothorax have an appearance as of dull bronze on the upper-surface, and of
some specimens on the under-surface also; the elytra are usually paler than the
abdomen, and the larger punctures, usually being darker than the adjacent sur-
face, give them a speckled appearance; on several females almost the whole of
the under-surface is not much darker than the legs; the elytra and abdomen
usually have a faint coppery or bronzy tinge. The elytra are shining, the rest
of the upper-surface opaque. The pubescence on the head and prothorax 1s
extremely short and inconspicuous. The prothorax at first appears to be more
transverse than it really is, owing to the sudden narrowing of the front to
the neck; it is very feebly ridged along the middle, with two shallow depressions
on each side of the ridge. The punctures on the head and prothorax are very
small, but may be seen on close examination, on the abdomen they are so
extremely small that the surface appears shagreened; many of the large punc-
tures on the elytra are irregularly conjoined, so as to present the appearance
of irregular striae; near the suture they are mostly isolated. The only specimen
before me, from Mount Tambourine, has the whole of the upper-surface very
dark (almost black) except that the tip of the abdomen is obscurely reddish;
its elytra appear finely granulate, and with the large punctures more numerous
than on the others; one from Cairns has the elytra and abdomen darker than
usual, although paler than on the one from Mount Tambourine.

ALHINOGEARIS, Wraatz, Cat py 228:

BREVICORNIS, Fyl. Q. (also occurs TENUICORNIS, Lea (Lithocharis),
in New Guinea). Proc. Rove S0ci) Vice O09:
palZZ. OF NEW Ae

THINOCHARIS TENUICORNIS, Lea.

There are before me nine specimens, taken from rotting leaves at Mount
Tambourine, that appear to belong to this species; they differ, however, from

22

the types in being shining and paler; on five of them the elytra and legs are
pale flavous, the prothorax slightly darker, and the head slightly more reddish,
but certainly not dark; on the others the elytra are as dark as the prothorax,
and the head is distinctly darker but more castaneous than piceous. The species
in appearance somewhat resembles Medon debilicornis, but it is at once dis-
tinguished by the antennae, the joints after the second on that species are com-
paratively short and transverse, on the present species they are decidedly longer
and thinner, so that if drawn backwards the antennae would extend to the base
of the prothorax, instead of scarcely to the middle. The subopaque appearance
of the types may have been due to improper treatment; if it is natural the
Queensland specimens should probably be regarded as representing a variety,
or a distinct species.
Mepon, Steph., Cat., p. 231.

(Hypomedon, Muls. et Rey, p. 238; Lithocharis, Bois. et Lac., p. 241;
and Pseudomedon, Muls. et Rey., p. 240, are subgenera. )

(Lithocharis), OBSOLETUS, Nordm. (Pseudomedon).
L912, QO. Introduced.

CAMPONOTI, Lea
Proce. Roy... 50G2 | Vict.

Dae Os Naa ocHRACEUS, Grav. (Lithocharis).
cinctus, Fvl. (Hypomedon). Q. OF, IN: S. Woes Migs aS seg) LotGo=
(also occurs in New Guinea). duced.
DEBILICORNIS, Woll. (Hypomedon). tristis, Macl. (Lithocharis). Q.,
OV NSW 5.45. Na Nor Nis: W.., .. Nids. ,lord,) towe
folk Island. Introduced. Island.

tGnitus, Fvl. (Hypomedon). Q.

INcomptus, Sharp (Lithocharis,
Ophiomedon, and Hypomedon),
Cat.,.p1200;0. Introduced:

VARICORNIS, Blackb. (Lithocharis).
Ve

vitis, Kraatz (Lithocharis). Q.
Introduced.

LINDI, Blackb. (Lithocharis). 5S.A.,
W.A. :
MeEpon ossoLetus, Nordm.

Several specimens were obtained from fallen leaves, at Cairns, that appear
to agree perfectly with British and European specimens of this species. It was
first recorded as Australian in the catalogue by Bernhauer and Schubert, and
eight synonyms and varieties are there noted.

MEDON OCHRACEUS, Grav.

This cosmopolitan species was apparently first recorded as Australian in
the same work as the preceding one; Australian specimens before me are from
Queensland (where it is frequently attracted to lights) and Tasmania. Six
synonyms of the species are recorded.

MEDON DEBILICORNIS, Woll.

Widely distributed in Australia, although first noted as Australian in the
catalogue by Bernhauer and Schubert, who record four synonyms of it. <A
rather highly-coloured figure of the species is given under the name of Litho-
charis brevicornis.O»

MEDON VARICORNIS, Blackb.

This is probably only a slight variety of M. tristis.

MeEpoN CAMPpoNOTI, Lea.

Six specimens of this species were taken from a nest of Camponotus
aeneopilosus at Glen Innes.

(8) Allard, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr., 1857, pl. 14, Part 2.

23

MeEpon 1Ncomptus, Sharp.

A cotype of this species, from Hawaii, is in the South Australian Museum.
Sharp described the elytra as “in medio transversim obscuratis,” and again
“with a dark cloud across the middle’’; the cotype has the dark part so placed
that it leaves almost the apical half pale and sharply defined, with a part of
the base paler than the infuscated portion, but not sharply divided from it.
Two specimens from Northern Queensland are structurally identical with the
cotype, but differ to a slight extent in the elytral marking, both from it, and
from each other. One from Kuranda in the British Museum has the basal
two-thirds of prothorax blackish, but apparently from staining.

Sharp considered the species as allied to the American Lithocharis com-
pressa, and that it was “probably a native of some part of the American
continent.” In the catalogue both species are referred to Ophiomedon, but
L. incomptus appears to me to be clearly allied to Medon (Hypomedon)
debilicornis.

MEDON, sp.

Two specimens (sexes) of a species from Queensland (one was taken from
a sticky seed of Pisonia brunoniana at Cairns) possibly belong to M. (Chari-
chirus) chinensis, Boh.“® Structurally the female agrees perfectly with an
Indian female, received with the name from Dr. Cameron, except that the front
tibiae are rather more dilated to apex. The male has the (apparent) fifth
segment of its abdomen widely and shallowly concave on its under-surface, with
the apex conspicuously incurved to middle (the following segments are con-
tracted within the body); the space between the eyes on the under-surface of
its head is densely and somewhat coarsely punctate (on the female the derm
there is but finely punctate). The Queensland specimens have the reddish
apical part of the elytra fairly wide on each side and narrowed to the suture,
instead of dilated there as on the Indian one; so possibly the species is not
chinensis, but an allied one.

In his diagnosis of Charichirus Sharp says, “Tarsi omnes graciles, anteriores
simplices’; but on the Indian and Queensland specimens before me the four
basal joints of the front tarsi are dilated so as to be almost twice as wide as
those of the other tarsi. bhi ea

Medon quadratipennis, n. sp.

3d. Black or blackish; mouth parts, antennae (the median joints infus-
cated), palpi, legs, under-surface of head and sterna more or less red, tip of
abdomen obscurely reddish. With fairly dense ashen pubescence, sparser on
prothorax than elsewhere, and with some rather short hairs scattered about.

Head between front of eyes and neck rather strongly transverse, sides almost
parallel, hind angles scarcely rounded off; with dense and minute punctures,
sparser (but still dense) and more sharply defined between antennary tubercles
than elsewhere. Antennae passing base of prothorax, first joint subcylindrical,
slightly longer than second and third combined, fourth slightly longer and thinner
than second, and shorter than third, the others to tenth feebly decreasing in
length and increasing in width, ninth and tenth transverse. Prothorax feebly
transverse, width about equal to that of head, sides slightly decreasing in width
to base, with a faint median line; punctures much as on head. Elytra quadrate;

(19) The references in the catalogue by Bernhauer and Schubert are on pp. 231 and 243.
Subgenus CHARICHIRUS, Sharp, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6), Il. (should be III.), 1889,
p. 262.
CHINENSIS, Boh.
obliquus, Walker.
spectabilis, Kraatz; Sharp, Ic., p. 227 (should be 263).
China, Japan, India, Ceylon, etc.

24

with very dense and minute punctures. Tip of abdomen notched on both sur-
faces. Front femora stout and edentate; front tibiae notched at about basal
third; front tarsi with four basal joints slightly inflated (about twice the width
of the others), basal joint of hind tarsi slightly longer than the two following
combined. Length, 4-4.25 mm.

Q. Differs in having the head and prothorax slightly narrower, legs and
antennae slightly shorter and abdomen not notched.

Hab.—Tasmania: Hobart from a tussock, Nubeena, Huon River (A. M.
Lea); Victoria: Warburton in August (F. E. Wilson).

A dingy subopaque species, at first glance apparently belonging to M. lindi,
or M. tristis, but elytra decidedly smaller (at most as long as wide, they are very
little longer than the prothorax and scarcely as wide as its widest part); on
lindi and tristis they are decidedly longer than wide, distinctly longer and con-
spicuously wider than the prothorax. I have made sure that wings are folded
beneath the elytra. Of the six specimens before me most have the prothorax
as dark as the head, but on one specimen it is obscurely reddish; the hind
femora and tibiae (except the knees) are usually darker than the rest of the legs.

A male, taken from flood debris at Latrobe, appears to belong to this species,
but differs in having the elytra flavous, except that their basal third is rather
deeply infuscated.

Medon lugubris, n. sp. Figs. 15 and 16.

Q. Of a dingy opaque-brown; mandibles, palpi, and legs paler. With
rather long, straggling, dark hairs, elytra and abdomen with dense ashen
pubescence, becoming very inconspicuous on head and prothorax.

Head strongly transverse between front of eyes and neck, hind angles feebly
rounded off; punctures minute and very dense. Mandibles long, acute, and
strongly dentate. Antennae slightly passing base of prothorax, first joint as
long as second and third combined, second slightly wider and very slightly
shorter than third, ninth and tenth slightly transverse. Prothorax distinctly
wider than long, rather closely applied to and slightly wider than head, front
angles almost. square, hind ones strongly rounded, with a very narrow but con-
tinuous median line; punctures as on head. Elytra at base slightly wider than
widest part of prothorax, and very feebly dilated to near apex, at least half as
long again as the prothorax, and with somewhat similar punctures. Abdomen
with dense and very minute punctures. Front femora stout and edentate, front
tarsi slightly wider and shorter than the others. Length, 4-4.25 mm.

Hab.—Queensland: Cairns district from fallen leaves (A. M. Lea), attached
to a sticky seed of Pisonia brunoniana (F. P. Dodd). Type, I. 12635.

An unusually flat opaque species, about the size of M. ochraceus, but
otherwise very different; it perhaps belongs to the subgenus Charichirus. The
type has the head slightly paler than the prothorax, and the front angles of pro-
thorax and base of elytra paler than the adjacent parts, but the two shades of
colour not sharply limited. The specimen from Pisonia seed has the upper-
surface almost black, except that the shoulders are inconspicuously reddish, and
the legs and other appendages of a dingy red; on each specimen the apex of
the (apparent) fifth segment of abdomen is obscurely pale. On both specimens
there are four teeth on the right mandible and three on the left. From some
directions the head, prothorax, elytra, and metasternum appear to be very
densely and evenly granulate; the prothorax from some directions appears to
have some of the punctures longitudinally confluent. The granulation of the
under-surface of the head, including the mentum, is rather more conspicuous
than on the upper-surface, the gular suture appears single for its greater extent.

25

Medon uniformis, n. sp.

Pale reddish-castaneous; antennae, palpi, and legs flavous. Elytra and
abdomen with rather dense and somewhat golden pubescence, much less distinct
on head and prothorax.

Head distinctly transverse, hind angles gently rounded off, with a very
narrow median line; punctures dense and very minute. Antennae short, second
joint slightly longer than third, the following ones to tenth feebly increasing
in width and mostly transverse. Prothorax transverse, front angles almost
square, the hind ones strongly rounded; punctures as on head. Elytra slightly
longer than wide, slightly wider than widest part of prothorax, about once and
one-half its length, and with somewhat larger and more sharply-defined
punctures. Legs not very long, front femora stouter than the others and very
feebly dentate. Length, 3.5-3.75 mm.

Hab.—Queensland: Mulgrave River (H. Hacker).

A small, pale, subopaque species, certainly close to M. debilicornis (and
consequently belonging to the subgenus Hypomedon) but more opaque, larger,
head conspicuously larger and less closely applied to the prothorax (owing to
the longer neck); the elytra also, although slightly paler than the prothorax,
are simply paler, rather than flavous. I have checked the types with a cotype
and some other specimens of debilicornis from Hawaii, India, and Japan (iden-
tified by Drs. Cameron and Sharp), and the differences appear constant. It
is about the length of M. incomptus, but is less robust and elytra not con-
spicuously bicoloured, being at most very feebly infuscated about the scutellum.
M. ignitus, another almost uniformly coloured species, is described as being
smaller, 3 mm., and with strong punctures; although in the description only
the abdomen is mentioned as “Jaeviusculo,” in the table the species is associated
with M. cinctus as having “Corps tres brillant,’ whereas this species is very
dull. The tip of the abdomen of each of the types is contracted, but on one of
them (evidently a male) part of a notch is visible; from the other the notch
appears to be absent. The middle of the prothorax is slightly produced to
form (apparently) part of the neck; it has a very feeble median line, of which
the only fairly distinct portion is a short shining line near the base. Except
on the abdomen there are very few hairs scattered about.

ScopaEus, Er., Cat., p. 245.

BLACKBURNI, Bernh. and Schub. ovicEPs, Bernh., Arkiv. for Zool.,
N.S.W. Sits (INOS (S3))y 08 WSs Ou IN eae.
femoralis, Blackb., n. pr. ovicoLtis, Macl. (Stilicus). Q.,
DIGIDAMTS au bivI Mmmm Awe alswm) SEAN. N.S.W.
W.A. ruficollis, Fvl.
DuBIUS, Blackb. Q., N.S.W., V. OBSCURIPENNIS, Blackb. QO., N.S.W.,
INTEROCULARIS, Lea, Proc. Roy. We SPAREN Neen OFAC

Socmvice OI ps4 ley NSA: SULCICOLLIS, Steph. Q. Introduced.
ATERRICOWA ss blackbi NeSaVWeee Ww. .
Se Au nee
SCOPAEUS OVICEPS, Bernh.

A specimen, from the Daly River, probably belongs to this species, but
differs from the description in having the head and prothorax of a very dark
castaneous-brown, although appearing black at a glance.

SCOPAEUS DUBIUS, Blackb.

Five specimens from New South Wales and Victoria (one was taken from
a nest of the ant Dolichoderes scabaridus) appear to belong to this species, but

26

differ from the description in having most of. the joints of antennae slightly
transverse, and the median ones slightly infuscated.

Scopaeus ctenocryptus, n. sp.

Q. Shining black; mouth parts, mandibles, antennae, palpi, and legs
(femora darker) pale brown or testaceous. With very short ashen pubescence,
denser on abdomen than elsewhere.

Head ovate, strongly rounded towards base and with a small narrow neck,
depressed between antennae. Mandibles strong and acutely dentate. Eyes
rather large. Antennae long, passing base of prothorax, first joint cylindrical,
as long as second and third combined, third distinctly longer than second and
fourth, the others gradually decreasing in length to tenth, but none transverse.
Frothorax dilated from base to slightly in advance of middle, and then strongly
narrowed to apex, which is the same width as the neck, a short median carina
at the base, on each side of which is a shallow depression. Elytra much wider
than prothorax, and slightly longer than prothorax and neck combined, angles
strongly, the sides slightly rounded. Legs rather long, femora _ edentate.
Length, 3.75-4 mm.

Hab.—Queensland: Mulgrave River (H. Hacker).

A black species, but differs from S. digitalis in being larger, head of some-
what different shape, with larger eyes, antennae much longer, with no joints
transverse and at least five decidedly pale; the basal half of the antennae is
distinctly darker than the apical half. The under-surface, especially of the
abdomen, is not as dark as the upper-surface. The upper-surface of the
abdomen is less shining than the other parts, owing to its denser clothing. The
punctures are very minute, scarcely visible under a hand lens. There is a
notch (invisible from many directions) at about the basal third of the front
tibiae, and this is supplied with a comb of numerous small teeth, but the comb
is so placed as to be visible with difficulty even under a compound power;
under a hand lens it appears as an oblique ridge.

Scopaeus moerens, n. sp.

3. Black; tarsi and parts of palpi obscurely paler.

Head between antennae and neck about as long as wide, hind angles gently
rounded off. Antennae scarcely passing base of prothorax, first joint as long
as second and third combined, fifth to tenth transverse. Prothorax distinctly
longer than wide, apical third strongly narrowed to neck, a small median eleva-
tion at base. Elytra conspicuously wider and longer than prothorax, parallel-
sided except at angles. Under-surface of abdomen notched in middle of apex
of apparent sixth and seventh segments. Legs not very long, femora stout,
the front ones feebly dentate; front tibiae notched and with a small comb at
about basal third. Length, 2.25-2.5 mm.

Q. Differs in having the head slightly smaller, antennae and legs slightly
shorter, and abdomen not notched.

Hab.—Western Australia: Newcastle, Darling Ranges, and Pinjarrah (A.
M. Lea).

A very small species, in general appearance close to S. latebricola, but
smaller and darker; S. digitalis is larger, with conspicuously pale tarsi. On
some specimens the front legs are of a dingy brown, and on such the labial
palpi are flavous; but at first glance the species appears to be entirely black.
The head and prothorax are more shining than the other parts, but this is due
to the very fine pubescence being sparser there than elsewhere. The punctures
of the upper-surface are very dense and small, scarcely visible under a hand lens.

27

Scopaeus testaceipes, n. sp.

@. Dark piceous-brown, most of abdomen black, basal and apical joints
of antennae (the others slightly infuscated), palpi (except apparent apical
joint of maxillary palpi) and legs pale brown or testaceous. Length, 2.25 mm.

Hab.—Victoria: Warburton, in August (F. E. Wilson), Bright (National
Museum trom) C.isrench)).. Mivpey ly 1286:

Close to the preceding species, and the description of the sculpture of the
head, prothorax, and elytra applies equally well to the present one, but the
prothorax is not so black, the antennae and legs are paler, with the median
joints of the former slightly infuscated, the prothorax of the present species is
also slightly wider, and the median elevation at its base is slightly larger.
There are six of the preceding species before me, and three of the present, so
the differences would appear to be constant. The front femora are feebly
dentate, and the front tibiae are notched towards the base, but although a comb
is probably there I have been unable to see it under the microscope.

Scopaeus mediicollis, n. sp.

@. Pale castaneous-brown; antennae, palpi, and legs still paler, most of ©
abdomen (both surfaces) infuscated.

Head subquadrate between antennae and neck (the latter very small). Eyes
lateral and rather small. Antennae scarcely passing base of prothorax, first
joint almost as long as three following combined, second no shorter than third
and slightly stouter, fourth to tenth subglobular and slightly transverse. Pro-
thorax slightly longer than wide, sides very feebly dilated from base (except
for the rounded angles) to near apex, and then strongly narrowed to neck,
with a shining median line almost throughout. Elytra not much wider than
prothorax and very little longer. Front femora stout and feebly dentate, front
tibiae slightly notched towards base. Length, 2-2.25 mm.

Hab.—Western Australia: Vasse River, in flood debris (A. M. Lea).

A flat minute species, smaller and flatter than S. latebricola, outlines
of prothorax more angular, and with an almost continuous, shining, median
line. On the type there is a slight infuscation about the base of the elytra, and
its metasternum is as dark as the abdomen; on a second specimen the elytra
and metasternum are no darker than the prothorax. The punctures and
pubescence are both very minute, and scarcely visible under a hand lens; the
former are slightly more conspicuous on the elytra than elsewhere.

A male, from the Swan River, that possibly belongs to this species differs
from the type in being of a rather brighter colour and more shining (probably
due to abrasion), the median line on the prothorax is more conspicuous, and
the elytral punctures are (for the genus) rather sharply defined, the antennae
are evidently longer, and fewer of the joints are transverse (but several are
missing); the apparent sixth and seventh segments of its abdomen are deeply
notched on the under-surface.

Scopaeus basicollis, n. sp.

Q. Bright reddish-castaneous; antennae, palpi, and legs flavous, part of
elytra and most of upper-surface of abdomen infuscated. Pubescence very
short and pale, rather dense on abdomen, sparser on head and elytra, very sparse
on prothorax.

Head between antennae and neck distinctly transverse, hind angles rather
strongly rounded, neck very small. Antennae with first joint as long as second
and third combined, second the length of third and slightly stouter, fourth to
tenth subglobular and gradually becoming transverse. Prothorax elliptic-ovate,
apical third strongly narrowed to neck, a small median elevation at base, with

28

a conspicuous impression each side of it. Elytra much wider and slightly longer
than prothorax, almost parallel-sided except for the rounded angles. Front
femora fairly stout, scarcely visibly dentate; front tibiae notched at about one-
third from base. Length, 2.75-3 mm.

Hab.—Queensland: Cairns district, five specimens obtained at lights (A.
MM: Lea)." Type iZsc0:

In general appearance close to S. dubius and S. ovicollis, but larger and
base as well as apex of elytra pale, so that on several specimens the elytra
appear to have a conspicuous infuscate fascia, and others to have a large spot
on each, the dark parts not very sharply limited. The middle of the head is of
the same bright colour as the prothorax, but the rest of its upper-surface is
somewhat darker. On most of the specimens the median joints of the antennae
are very feebly infuscated. There are some fairly distinct punctures on the
front part of the head, and on the elytra they are rather sharply defined, although
small; elsewhere they are scarcely visible. There are some sharp teeth on
the mandibles, but these, as on other species of the genus, are usually so tightly
clenched that it is difficult to force them out for examination. There is evidently
a comb on the front tibiae, but I have been unable to see it clearly.

Scopaeus ooderes, n. sp.

Q. Reddish-castaneous; antennae, palpi, and legs paler, four basal seg-
ments of abdomen and part of the fifth, and the metasternum infuscated.
Moderately clothed with very short ashen pubescence.

Head between antennae and neck (the latter very small) subquadrate, hind
angles but feebly rounded; with very dense and small punctures. Eyes rather
small and prominent. Antennae with first joint subcylindrical, as long as three
following ones combined, second stouter and slightly longer than third, third to
tenth subglobular, gradually becoming feebly transverse. Prothorax longer than
wide, elliptic-ovate, apical third strongly narrowed to neck; punctures as on
head. Elytra slightly longer and much wider than prothorax, and with slightly
larger and more sharply-defined punctures. Abdomen (both surfaces) with
very dense and small punctures. Front femora rather stout and very feebly
dentate, front tibiae notched at about one-third from base. Length, 3.75 mm.

Hab.—Western Australia: Donnybrook (A. M. Lea). Unique.

Differs from type of S. interocularis in being somewhat larger, pale parts
somewhat darker, the head uniformly coloured, metasternum almost as dark as
abdomen and darker than rest of under-surface, and punctures of upper-surface
more distinct. On close examination the median joints of antennae are seen
to be slightly darker than the others, but they could scarcely be regarded as
infuscated. The prothorax has a medio-basal elevation, but it is very feeble
and invisible from most directions. The punctures on the under-surface of the
head are dense, sharply defined, and slightly larger than those on the elytra,
on the upper-surface between the antennae they are almost as large as those on the
elytra.

Scopaeus flavocastaneus, n. sp.

3. Pale flavo-castaneous and subopaque; head slightly darker, palpi and
legs slightly paler. Almost uniformly clothed with very short ashen pubescence.

Head between antennae and neck (the latter very small) subquadrate, hind
angles slightly rounded. Eyes small and prominent. Antennae rather long,
first joint cylindrical, slightly longer than second and third combined, second
as long as fourth and conspicuously shorter than second, eighth to tenth globular.
Prothorax rather flat, not much longer than greatest width, which is about
one-fourth from apex, from there strongly narrowed to neck. Elytra about
the width of head and distinctly longer than prothorax. Under-surface of

29

abdomen with apparent sixth and seventh segments triangularly notched to
base. Legs not very long, front femora stout and scarcely visibly dentate;
front tibiae feebly notched at about one-third from base. Length, 3.75-4 mm.

Q. Differs in having slightly shorter antennae and legs, and abdomen not
notched.

Hab——Northern Territory: Oenpelli (P. Cahill); Queensland: Cairns dis-
trict, to light; New South Wales: Tweed River (A. M. Lea). Type, I. 12639,
in South Australian Museum; cotype in National Museum.

A pale almost opaque species, slightly above the average size of species of
this genus and like Domene australiae in miniature, and much like D. microps,
but without the remarkable front tibiae of those species. In some respects it
apparently resembles S. blackburmi, but the front legs are without conspicuous
armature. From the preceding species it differs in being wider, with smaller
punctures, especially on the under-surface of head, antennae longer, with the
third joint conspicuously longer than second, abdomen no darker than elytra, ete.
The punctures are everywhere dense, and too small to be seen clearly under a
hand lens. There are remnants of a medio-basal elevation on the prothorax,
with a depression on each side of it, but they are so feeble as to be invisible
from most directions, and distinct from none.

DoneNne, Evi, Cats p. 253.
AUSER ADTAR inven ON Sain Ned: TORRENSENSIS, Blackb. S.A.

DOMENE AUSTRALIAE, F'vl.

Two specimens (5-6.5 mm.), from New South Wales, that appear to agree
with the description of this species, differ from a cotype, and some other
Adelaide specimens of D. torrensensis, in having the elytra somewhat shorter,
the prothorax flatter, and without a median elevated line. The differences men-
tioned are distinct on seven specimens of torrensensis, and two of australiae,
but are possibly only of varietal importance; if synonymous the latter has
precedence. A specimen from Oenpelli, in the National Museum, has elytra of
the same proportionate length as in torrensensis, but its prothorax is narrower
and median line less conspicuous.

DoOMENE TORRENSENSIS, Blackb.

Mr. H. H. D. Griffith took several specimens of this species during a flood
on the Torrens River. Two of them are males, and have on the under-surface
of the apparent fourth segment of abdomen a large and almost circular depres-
sion, on the following segment there is a wider and almost parallel-sided one,
and the following segment is narrowly notched to the base itself.

Domene pectinatrix, n. sp. Fig. 30.

3. Dark brown; head still darker, legs paler, mandibles black. Densely
clothed with short ashen pubescence, and with a few hairs scattered about.

Head fairly large and ovate, hind angles strongly rounded, neck very small,
antennary tubercles highly polished. Eyes rather small, prominent, and with
coarse facets. Antennae rather stout, first joint cylindrical, about as long as
second to fourth combined, the following ones to tenth subglobular. Prothorax
about as long as head to mandibles, and distinctly narrower, hind angles strongly
rounded, apical third triangularly narrowed to neck, with a very narrow median
line, slightly elevated above the general surface near base, and with a very nar-
rowly impressed line about middle. Elytra slightly wider than head and slightly
longer than prothorax. Abdomen with first segment very small, and with a

30

median ridge on under-surface continued on to second, sixth rather shallowly
notched at apex, and with a comb of short teeth there, seventh more deeply and
triangularly notched. Legs moderately long; front femora stout, obtusely
dentate, and with a comb; front tibiae triangularly dilated about base, the under-
side of the dilated part with three golden combs. Length, 9.5-10 mm.

Q. Differs in being slightly less robust, in having the head slightly smaller,
antennae slightly shorter and thinner, and abdomen not notched and combless.

Hab.—wNorthern Territory: Oenpelli (P. Cahill). Type in National
Museum.

There are nine combs on the male of this remarkable but dingy insect,
four on each of the front legs, and one on the abdomen. In a good light and
from certain directions three, composed of numerous, short, close-set golden
teeth, may be seen on each front tibia, the combs parallel with each other,
with the teeth of the first and second terminating just before the beginning
of the second and third, attached to the third one there are also some long
bristles; the front femora each have a narrow ridge extending from the base
to about the apical third, where it abruptly terminates with the appearance of a
fairly strong tooth, the edge of which curves around and is supplied with a
scmewhat similar comb to those on the tibiae; the comb on the abdomen of the
type is lopsided, commencing gently on one side of the notch and ending abruptly
on the other, the teeth, about twenty in number, from some directions appear
‘of a beautiful golden-red, but from other directions of the same colour as the
adjacent parts. On the right mandible, slightly in advance of the middle, there
is a fairly large acute tooth, then a smaller acute one, and about the base two
smaller obtuse ones; on the left mandible the basal tubercles are more acute
and the others are not placed in sequence, but opposite each other, so that the
teeth on the other side interlock with them when the mandibles are clenched.
The punctures on the head are dense and rather small, but sharply defined, they
are slightly larger in front, and denser at base than elsewhere, they are larger
on its under-surface and sparser (but still dense) and more sharply defined
than elsewhere; on the prothorax they are slightly smaller than on head, and
about the base and median line still smaller, but sharply defined; on the elytra
they are much as on base of head, on the abdomen (both surfaces) they are
smaller and denser than elsewhere. The front part of the prosternum is finely
transversely strigose. The remarkable structure of the front tibiae is much as
in Tripectenopus caecus and D. australiae, from the latter it differs in being
much larger, darker, punctures somewhat different, and prothorax narrower in
proportion.

Domene microps, n. sp.

Q. Pale castaneous-brown; head slightly darker, legs slightly paler.
Rather densely clothed with very short ashen pubescence.

Head between antennae and neck slightly longer than wide, sides almost
parallel, hind angles slightly rounded, antennary tubercles shining. Eyes small
and with coarse facets. Antennae rather stout, first joint slightly longer than
second and third combined, second slightly longer than third, third to tenth
subglobular and slightly transverse. Prothorax narrower than head and about
as long, hind angles strongly rounded, apical third strongly narrowed to neck;
with a narrow, shining, median line, itself with a very fine impressed line.
Elytra slightly longer and distinctly wider than prothorax. Front femora stout
and distinctly dentate, front tibiae with a triangular process at base, the process
with three fine combs. Length, 3.25-3.5 mm.

Hab.—Northern Territory: Oenpelli (P. Cahill). Type, in National
Museum; co-type, I. 15237, in South Australian Museum.

31

A subopaque dingy species, close to the preceding one on a greatly reduced
scale, but apart from size, differs in being paler, head shightly longer, eyes
smaller, and third joint of antennae as well. as the following ones to tenth
transverse. The comb on each front femur is rather looser than on that species,
and the three on each front tibia are composed of slightly longer teeth, which
on the first and second, touch, or slightly overlap, the base of the second and
third. D. australiae and D. torrensensis are also much larger species, although
much smaller than the preceding one. The punctures are as I have described
them in the preceding species, but the insect being very much smaller, they are
less clearly visible under a lens; the front part of the prosternum is also finely
transversely strigose. The general appearance of the insect is strikingly close
to Scopaeus flavocastaneus (of which both sexes are known), but the front
legs are at once distinctive, the antennae are also stouter, with most of the joints
transverse.

LaTHRosBIUM, Grav., Cat., p. 253.

ADEDAIDAE.) Blackpi NES Vie Sea. FERREUM, Fvl. N.S.W.

GaAC GRADER EEN tive 1.) INE Sue Ves

spencer, Blackb. (Dolicaon), Cat., SANs

(Dy 7a elongatulus, Macl. (Dolicaon),
ANGUSIICEES, ehivle a Oh wiNESEWe Gato 27.

SA INS W.A., INGA GXAC LIMBATUM, leva) OQ),

var. semifumatum, Wea Trans. MICHAELSENI, Bernh. W.A.

Nowe SOG? Sa Ayosing,) MOM; jo. micros, Fvl. ©., N.W.A.

494, NU MADORN ave Oe INES IVs Ne
NOSMRNGICUIME, Sols — INS AWG, Sua ashy Sue IN AWN, INR.
BASIPENNE, Lea, l.c., p. 495. var. bipartitum, Fvl.

NESS ae Gran NOTATICOLLE, F vl. ONE Aw
BREVICEPS, Fvl. OQ. INC AWW OAS, INS, (Guay
CRIBRUMVE Alive OP aNES AV Nie PENNATUM, Fvl. Os N.W.A.

Rags Seua\s POLITULUM, Macl. OQ.

var. rufiventre, Fvl. VICTORIENSE, Blackb. V.

EXIGUUM, Blackb. S.A.

LATHROBIUM AUSTRALICUM, Sol.

Blackburn referred this species to Dicax,@ but I think it should remain in
Lathrobium, its head is almost exactly as in L. ferreum, not as in the species
of Dicax.

LATHROBIUM GRATELLUM, FvI.

Dolicaon elongatulus, Macel.

Specimens that were compared and agree with the type of Dolicaon
clongatulus, agree perfectly with the description of L. gratellum, except that
they are somewhat larger, 5-5.75 mm. Fauvel appeared to have doubts as to
gratellum really being distinct, but thought the description of the prothorax
of elongatulus did not fit it. Macleay described it as “considerably longer than
the breadth”; Fauvel as “‘tertia parte longiore quam latiore.” Although Macleay’s
‘hame was published before Fauvel’s, the latter’s name must stand, as elongatulum
was used by Kraatz for a species of Lathrobium in 1858.

LATHROBIUM ANGUSTICEPS, FvIl.
‘L. semifumatum, Lea, var.

Two specimens from Stewart River (Queensland), and one from Sydney,
agree with the description of angusticeps; they are structurally identical with

(20) Blackburn, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1902, p. 20.

32

semifumatum, and probably that form should be regarded as one of the many
varieties of the species. Those before me vary from having the abdomen,
except the tips, and head black or dull brown, prothorax almost as dark as the
head or much paler, and elytra entirely pale to having a more or less large portion
of the base infuscated.

LATHROBIUM CRIBRUM, Fl.

A specimen, from Melbourne, agrees well with the description of this species ;
another, from Tasmania, agrees also with the description, but differs from the
Melbourne specimen in being more robust, and the elytra larger, with slightly
sparser punctures.

var. rufiventre, Fvl. Specimens of this variety are before me from Mel-
bourne and Sydney.

LATHROBIUM micros, FvIl.

Two specimens, from Stewart River, agree with the description of this

species, except that they are somewhat smaller, 3.75-4 mm.

LATHROBIUM LIMBATUM, F vl.

A specimen, from Whitton (New South Wales), is probably an immature
one of this species; it differs from the description in being slightly smaller
(3.5 mm.), the head only slightly infuscated (it is, however, distinctly darker
than the prothorax) and sixth segment of abdomen scarcely infuscated at the
base. The punctures of its prothorax and elytra are somewhat unusual, but
exactly as in the description.

LATHROBIUM EXIGUUM, Blackb.

A specimen of this species, in Mr. Elston’s collection, has the prothorax
conspicuously reddish, in strong contrast with the head; it was taken, in moss,
in company with normally coloured ones.

LATHROBIUM ADELAIDAE, Blackb., 1886.
Dolicaon spenceri, Blackb., 1896.

I have compared the type of D. spenceri (belonging to the National Museum )
with a cotype and other specimens of L. adelaidae, and find them identical. The
latter was referred with some slight doubts to Lathrobium, the former, without
comment, to Dolicaon. It is close to several species referred by Fauvel to
Lathrobium.

Lathrobium orthodoxum, n. sp. Figs. 17 and 18.

d. Shining black; basal joint of antennae, palpi, and legs (knees slightly
infuscated) flavous, rest of antennae and mandibles somewhat darker. With
rather short, black, erect setae, becoming longer about tip of abdomen, elytra and
abdomen, in addition, with sparse ashen pubescence.

Head subquadrate (except for rounding off of angles) behind antennae;
with fairly numerous and sharply defined, but not large punctures, sparser
between eyes and denser on hind angles than elsewhere. Eyes rather small
(less than the length of basal joint of antennae). Mandibles stout. Antennae
rather long, first joint as long as second and third combined, third slightly longer
than second and distinctly longer than fourth, the others to tenth smaller and
more or less globular, eleventh about as long as second. Prothorax longer than
wide, apex almost the width of head, sides slightly decreasing, with a very feeble
incurvature to base, punctures slightly larger and denser than on head, but
leaving a shining median line, a few minute ones scattered about. Elytra
parallel-sided, distinctly wider and about one-half longer than prothorax; with
small subrugose punctures. Abdomen with penultimate and ante-penultimate

33

segments notched at apex on under-surface. Front femora stout and feebly
dentate; four basal joints of front tarsi stout, and forming a briefly ovate pad,
basal joint of hind tarsi very slightly longer than second. Length, 5-5.5 mm.
9. Differs in having the antennae and legs somewhat shorter and abdomen
not notched. :
Hab.—South Australia: Murray River (R. F. Kemp); Victoria: Pianjil, in
July (C. Oke) ; New South Wales: Mulwala (T. G. Sloane). Type, I. 12867.
The sides of the head for their greater extent are quite parallel; the teeth
of the mandibles vary on each side, and also on the individuals; those figured
are of the type male. The elytra on two specimens are not quite black, although
at first glance they appear to be so; their punctures are small and not very
sharply defined, but are usually lineate in arrangement. In general appearance
like some of the dark forms of L. mutator, but head considerably longer and
more parallel-sided, eyes smaller, antennae thinner, and not infuscated in
middle, etc. ue a ee
Lathrobium punctipenne, n. sp.

¢d. Shining black; tarsi and palpi flavous, a few erect setae’ on upper-
surface, becoming longer and more numerous at apex of abdomen, elytra and
abdomen sparsely pubescent.

Head subquadrate between antennae and neck, angles rounded off; ‘with
numerous, but not crowded, sharply-defined punctures of moderate. size.
Mandibles strong, with several acute teeth. Antennae with first joint as long
as second and third combined, third slightly longer than second and distinctly
longer than fourth, fifth-tenth subglobular. Prothorax slightly longer than wide,
widest at apex, where the width is about equal to that of head, sides’ feebly
decreasing to base, hind angles strongly rounded; an almost regular row of
punctures on each side of the shining median line, towards sides with irregular
ones. Elytra about one-fourth wider than prothorax and one-half longer, parallel-
sided except that the angles are rounded off; with distinct rows of punctures.
Subapical segment of abdomen triangularly notched at middle of apex on under-
surface, the preceding segment depressed there. Front tarsi with four basal
joints dilated to form a circular pad, basal joint of hind tarsi slightly longer
than second. Length, 4.75-5 mm. mt ;

@. Differs in having the head slightly smaller, the legs slightly shorter,
and the abdomen not notched.

Hab.—Western Australia: Swan and Vasse Rivers (A. M. Lea). .

A highly-polished black species, like very small and thin P. australicum.
On the type male the antennae and legs (except tarsi) are almost as dark as the
other parts, but on the female they are of a dingy brown. The punctures on
the elytra are about as large as those on the prothorax, but being somewhat
rugose they are much less sharply defined.

Lathrobium tropicum, n. sp.

¢. Black; legs and part of under-surface of abdomen of a dingy testaceous-
brown, antennae darker, but becoming paler towards apex, labial palpi still
paler. Length, 5 mm. - eth Gn

Hab.—wNorthern Territory: Oenpelli (P. Cahill). Type (unique), in
National Museum. ead tae

The sculpture is almost exactly as described in the preceding species, and
the general appearance is much the same, but it differs in having larger eyes
(the distance from each eye to the neck is but little more than the length of
an eye, on that species it is twice the length of an eye), antennae distinctly longer
and thinner, punctures on top of head sparser, prothorax slightly wider, legs
paler, and clothing somewhat sparser. From L. orthodoxum it differs in having

B

34

larger eyes, antennae longer and thinner, and in the prothoracic punctures; on
that species the punctures on the sides are irregular up to those on each side of
the median line; on the present species (and to a less extent on L. punctipenne)
the punctures on the sides are also irregular but not up to the median line, so
that from certain directions there appear to be three shining lines separated by
rows of punctures.
Lathrobium angustulum, n. sp.

Q. Of a dingy piceous-brown; head almost black, antennae, palpi, and
legs flavous. With fairly numerous dark setae, the abdomen rather densely
pubescent, the elytra more sparsely so.

Head rather elongate; with numerous sharply-defined but not very large
punctures, becoming crowded on hind angles. Mandibles strong, each with a
large median tooth, and some smaller ones towards base. Antennae with first
joint-as long as second and third combined, third distinctly longer than second,
and almost as long as fourth and fifth combined, the following ones to tenth
gradually becoming subglobular. Prothorax distinctly longer than wide, apex
slightly narrower than head and not much wider than base, sides gently incurved
to middle; with rather dense sharply-defined punctures, but leaving a rather
narrow, shining, median line. Elytra distinctly longer than prothorax and
slightly wider than its widest part, parallel-sided; punctures somewhat smaller
and less. sharply defined than those on prothorax. Front femora stout, with
a small but acute tooth; front tibiae rather stout, feebly notched near middle;
four basal joints of front tarsi dilated to form a suboval pad; basal joints of
hind tarsi short. Length, 6 mm.

Hab.—New South Wales: Tamworth (A. M. Lea). Unique.

An unusually narrow species, allied to L. adelaidae, but even thinner, darker,
antennae longer, and elytral punctures slightly different. The prothorax is not
as dark as the elytra, but is not conspicuously reddish, the two apical segments
of abdomen, and the tip of the preceding one, are paler that the other segments.
The main portion of the head is slightly longer than wide, but from tip of the
extended mandibles to the base of the neck the head is almost twice as long as
wide. The elytral punctures are not regularly disposed, but from some directions
they appear in places to be feebly seriate in arrangement. The abdomen of the
type has most of the segments with the membranous part of each showing,
so that it appears to be in alternating pale and dark bands, but the pale ones
would be concealed on most specimens.

Lathrobium mediopallidum, n. sp.

3. Pale castaneous; antennae, palpi, and legs paler, head and most of
abdomen. infuscated. Abdomen with dense and very short pubescence.

Head subquadrate between mandibles and neck; with numerous sharply
defined but not very large punctures. Mandibles stout and strongly dentate.
Antennae with basal joint as long as second and third combined, third slightly
longer than second and conspicuously longer than fourth. Prothorax distinctly
longer than wide, widest in front, where the width is slightly less than that of
head, sides gently incurved to middle; punctures as on head, except that they
are absent from a narrow, shining median line. Elytra parallel-sided, distinctly
wider and much longer than prothorax; and with somewhat smaller and denser
punctures. Apparent fifth segment of abdomen depressed in middle of apex on
under-surface, the sixth triangularly notched there. Front femora stout and
with a rather small tooth; front tibiae slightly notched before middle, apical
portion stout; four basal joints of front tarsi dilated to form a suboval pad,
basal joints of hind tarsi small. Length, 4.25 mm.

35

Hab.—Queensland: Stewart River (W. D. Dodd). Type (unique),
I2Z865%

Allied to L. micros, but, apart from colour, differs in having the head,
prothorax, and elytra all with different punctures. The colours are apparently
as in L. limbatum, but differs from description and from a specimen I have,
with some doubt, identified as belonging to that species, in having the median
line of the prothorax narrower and shorter than is usual in the genus, elytra
with punctures not at all seriate in arrangement, and the apical third not “fere
laevi.” The abdomen is the only part of the upper-surface that is densely
clothed, the head and elytra are sparsely pubescent, and the setae are nowhere
numerous.

Lathrobium pulchellum, n. sp.

Q. Shining black; prothorax and tips of elytra bright castaneo-flavous,
antennae, palpi, and legs flavous, apical portion of abdomen dull red. Upper-
surface with sparse dark setae, abdomen rather densely pubescent.

Head between antennae and neck slightly transverse; with moderately
large and sharply-defined punctures, very sparse in middle, but numerous on
hind angles. Mandibles stout and strongly dentate. Antennae with first joint
almost as long as second to fourth combined, third somewhat thinner than second,
and about as long, distinctly longer than fourth, the others to tenth more or less
globular. Prothorax subquadrate, angles slightly rounded off; with a somewhat
irregular row of distinct punctures on each side of middle, sides with fairly
numerous punctures, in places with a lineate arrangement. Elytra almost
parallel-sided, slightly wider than prothorax, and about one-half longer; punc-
tures rather small and not very sharply defined, but in more or less distinct rows.
Front femora stout and obtusely dentate, four basal joints of front tarsi dilated
to form a rather small pad, basal joint of hind tarsi slightly longer than second.
Length, 4.5 mm.

Hab.—Northern Queensland (Blackburn’s collection). Type (unique),
ee Z5 99)

A pretty little species, the type of which was identified by Blackburn as
belonging to Dolicaon quadraticollis, and except in size, it agrees well with the
description of that species; but on comparison with the type it was seen to be
very different. In general appearance the type of that species is like a very
wide Lathrobium bipartitum, about the same length and colour, but about one-
half wider; the present species differs from bipartitum in being much smaller,
decidedly narrower, elytra flatter, with smaller punctures, less of apex pale,
and antennae much thinner. The pale portion of the elytra at the suture
scarcely occupies one-sixth of their length, but is triangularly dilated to occupy
about one-third of each side. At first glance the prothorax appears to be
quite square, but on close examination the apex is seen to be slightly wider than
the base. The eighth to tenth joints of antennae are each very slightly longer
than wide.

Lathrobium transversiceps, n. sp.

Q. Shining reddish-castaneous; legs (except knees, which are slightly
infuscated) and palpi paler, most of head deeply infuscated, abdomen slightly
infuscated, almost the whole of the three apical segments and the tips of the
others paler. With rather short and not very dense setae, the abdomen with
very short ashen pubescence.

Head between antennae and neck rather strongly transverse; with fairly
large sharply-defined punctures, rather sparse, but becoming crowded on hind
angles. Mandibles stout and acutely dentate. Antennae rather long, basal
joint as long as second and third combined, third much longer than second or
iourth, the others to tenth subpyriform and slightly decreasing in length, but

36

none transverse, eleventh longer. Prothorax subquadrate, apex slightly wider
than base, sides feebly incurved at middle, hind angles strongly rounded; an
irregular subgeminate row of punctures on each side of middle, and fairly
numerous ones on sides. Elytra parallel-sided, distinctly longer and wider than
prothorax, but scarcely one-fifth longer than wide; with somewhat irregular
rows of rather small punctures, becoming smaller and less regular posteriorly.
Abdomen with dense and small punctures. Front femora stout and slightly
dentate, four basal joints of front tarsi strongly dilated to form a subovate pad,
basal joint of hind tarsi slightly longer than second. Length, 8 mm.

Hab.—North-western Australia: Behn River (R. Helms). Unique.

In general appearance like small and narrow L. ferreum, but elytral punc-
tures very different; very different in colour from L. fulvipenne, and base of
head, especially at the angles, opaque and with crowded punctures. It is the
size.and much the colour of Dolicaon paricolor, but the head is darker and
hind tarsi different. It is apparently allied to L. pennatum, as the whole base
of the: head, in advance of the neck, at first glance appears to be truncated, on
close examination, however, the hind angles are seen to be slightly rounded off,
but even the slight rounding is partially obscured by clothing. The description
of pennatum is but little more than a comparison with the ex-Australian L.
fulvipenne; there are several English specimens of that species before me, and
they are black, with the antennae, palpi, legs, and elytra reddish, the latter on
one specimen slightly infuscated at the base; in his second table of the species
of Lathrobium,°? Fauvel notes pennatum as having the head, prothorax, and
abdomen black, the elytra reddish, with the base blackish. The punctures on
the prothorax are slightly larger than those on the head, in some parts they
appear to form irregular rows in addition to those on each side of the middle,
but about the apex, except in the middle, they are all irregular.

Lathrobium abdominale, n. sp. Fig. 19.

3. Black or blackish; mandibles, antennae, and legs of a dingy reddish-
brown, tarsi and palpi paler. Rather densely clothed with short ashen
pubescence, and with a few dark hairs scattered about.

Head behind antennae subquadrate, but angles rounded off; with crowded
and small but sharply-defined punctures; under-surface shagreened. Mandibles
stout. Antennae moderately long, first joint slightly longer than second and
third combined, third slightly longer than second, and rather more noticeably
longer than fourth, the others to tenth subglobular. Prothorax slightly longer
than wide, slightly narrower than head, base almost as wide as apex, sides
gently incurved to middle; punctures as on head, but leaving a narrow, shining,
median, line. Elytra parallel-sided, slightly wider than head and considerably
longer than prothorax; punctures slightly smaller and not quite as dense as on
prothorax. Under-surface of abdomen with a large excavation common to
three segments: a small portion at apex of apparent fourth, occupying the
apparent fifth for almost its entire width, and most of the apparent sixth;
subapical segment deeply notched. Front femora stout, obtusely dentate; front
tibiae. stout; four basal joints of front tarsi dilated to form a subcircular pad;
middle and hind femora somewhat curved. Length, 5.5-6.5 mm.

Q. Differs in being less robust, antennae and legs shorter, femora thinner,
the middle and hind ones scarcely curved, and under-surface of abdomen simple.

Hab.—South Australia: Lucindale (B. A. Feuerheerdt). Type, I. 12648.

-Close to L. cribrum, but differs in being more shining, elytra differently
coloured and with somewhat different punctures; the abdomen of the male is
very similar, the excavation varies somewhat in extent and depth, but is always

(1) Fauvel, Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen, 1878, p. 521.

37

conspicuous. On several specimens the elytra are entirely black, but on most
of them a fairly wide sutural space from the base to the apex is obscurely red-
dish, but the red is much more distinct from some directions than from others.
On some specimens the antennae (except the basal joint) are almost black.
The teeth of the mandibles vary on each side, and also on each individual,
the median tooth varies considerably in length (I broke those of several in
forcing out the mandibles for examination). The apical joint of the maxillary
palpi is rather short and very thin. The first joint of the hind tarsi, from most
directions appears to be slightly shorter than the second, but when its whole
extent is visible it is seen to be of the same length. The front tibiae of the
miale are notched about the middle, and there is a comb with many small teeth
there, but the clothing is so dense about it that it is difficult to see even the
notch from most directions.

Lathrobium apiciflavum, n. sp.

3. Black; outer apical angles of elytra, labial palpi, and legs flavous.
Abdomen and part of head with very short dense pubescence, the former with
long hairs about apex, rest of upper-surface shining and with sparse setae.

Head briefly ovate, hind angles strongly rounded; with crowded and small
punctures; neck small. Mandibles stout and strongly dentate. Antennae long,
passing base of prothorax, all the joints much longer than wide, first about as
long as second and third combined, third slightly longer than second and dis-
tinctly longer than fourth. Prothorax slightly longer than wide, sides feebly,
the angles strongly, rounded, apex scarcely wider than base; with dense and
sharply-defined punctures, except on a narrow, shining, median line. Elytra
conspicuously longer and wider than prothorax; with somewhat smaller and
denser punctures. Abdomen with very dense and minute punctures, apparent
fifth segment with a subtriangular notch at middle of apex on under-surface,
and a shallower one towards each side. Front femora stout and acutely dentate ;
front tibiae thin and ridged near base, notched about middle and stout towards
apex; four basal joints of front tarsi dilated to form a subovate pad, basal joint
of hind tarsi slightly shorter than second. Length, 5-5.5 mm.

Q. Differs in having somewhat shorter and thinner antennae and legs,
shghtly smaller head, and abdomen not notched.

Hab.—New South Wales: Windsor (H. J. Carter), Narromine (Dr. E
\W. Ferguson). Type, I. 12649.

Readily distinguished from all other Australian species by the pale outer apical
angles of elytra; it is nearer L. cribrum and L. abdominale than to the others.
Although there are differences in the antennae, tarsi, prothorax, etc., the figure
of Dibelonetes laticeps®) will give a good general idea of this insect. The basal
joint of antennae, and one or two of the apical ones, are of a dingy flavous, the
others are more or less deeply infuscated; the under-surface is not as dark as
the upper. The apical joint of the maxillary palpi is fairly long and very thin
(almost setiform), much as it is in many species of Heterothops. The punc-
tures on the prothorax are slightly larger than those on the elytra, and much
inore sharply defined than those on the head.

SUNIOPSIS, byl.) Cat, p: 271
EOLMUS wean NVA SINGULARIS, Fyl. W.A.

Suniopsis cribripennis, n. sp.
Q. Shining castaneous; part of abdomen infuscated. Antennae, palpi,
and legs flavous, basal half of tibiae and of femora infuscated. Labrum and

(22) Sharp, Biol. Cent. Amer., i., (Part 2), 1886, p. 603.

38

sides of elytra with a few long hairs, more numerous on sides of abdomen and
on anal styles, rest of abdomen moderately clothed.

Head oblong-ovate, with a rather large neck; with large and fairly numerous
but irregularly distributed punctures; under-surface highly polished, with a
few strong punctures on sides. Mandibles long and sharp, with a strong acute
tooth about one-third from base, base with two very minute teeth. Eyes large,
invisible from below. Antennae thin, none of the joints transverse. Prothorax
distinctly longer than wide, widest near apex, where the width is about equal
to that of head, and decidedly more than that of base, sides gently rounded, all
angles strongly rounded off; with an irregular row of large punctures on each
side of the middle, and more irregular ones on sides, a few minute punctures
scattered about. Elytra small, much shorter and slightly narrower than pro-
thorax, base strongly, the sides slightly rounded; with coarse crowded punctures.
Abdomen slightly dilated posteriorly, the sixth segment largest of all and
slightly wider than head, with dense punctures, becoming smaller posteriorly.
Length, 7.5 mm.

Hab.—Victoria: Dividing Range (Blackburn’s collection). Type (unique),
i 126022.

The front tarsi are not very thin, and are distinctly shorter and wider than
the others. In general appearance the species is close to Hyperomma pictipes,
but is referred to Suniopsis on account of the maxillary palpi, of these the third
joint is large, elliptic-ovate, and with the fourth quite concealed in its apex.
‘[here are two ball-like appendages to the mentum, but the type being unique
I have not dissected out the mentum to examine its paraglossae. The mandibles
are almost exactly as in H. bryophilum, and practically the only feature generic-
ally distinguishing it from that species is the apical joint of the maxillary
palpi; the fact that this species has the curious ball-like appendages as in most,
if not all, species of Hyperomma, would appear to indicate that the two genera
should be combined; if this course should be decided upon, Suniopsis has
page priority.

Suniopsis picticornis, n. sp.

3. Black and highly polished; mouth parts, two basal joints of maxillary
palpi, and mandibles reddish, two basal joints of antennae reddish, the apical
one almost flavous, the intervening ones more or less deeply infuscated; femora
pale (almost watery) flavous, tibiae and tarsi infuscated. Head, sides of pro-
thorax, and of elytra with long straggling hairs, becoming numerous on sides of
abdomen and on anal cerci, rest of abdomen densely clothed.

Head oblong-ovate, with a rather large neck; with large and numerous but
irregularly distributed punctures, and a few minute ones; under-surface polished
and with scattered punctures. Mentum triangularly notched in middle, each
side margining the notch slightly produced. Eyes of moderate size, concealed
trom below. Mandibles rather long and acute, a small but distinct tooth near
base. Antennae rather short, joints after the third feebly decreasing in length,
the ninth and tenth scarcely, if at all, longer than wide, eleventh somewhat
longer. Prothorax distinctly longer than wide, apex slightly wider than head,
and distinctly, but not much, wider than base, sides gently rounded, all angles
teebly rounded off; an irregular semidouble row of moderately large punctures
on each side of middle and irregular ones on sides, a few minute punctures
scattered about. Elytra very small, much shorter than prothorax, and slightly
narrower at widest; with fairly dense and rather large punctures. Abdomen
almost parallel-sided to near apex, sixth segment largest of all and slightly wider
than prothorax; with dense punctures, subapical segment with a deep triangular
notch on under-surface, with a fine margining membrane. Legs not very long,
front tarsi thin, but somewhat wider and shorter than the others. Length, 8 mm.

39

Hab.—South Australia: Myponga, in moss (A. H. Elston).
T. 12858.

The base and apex of prothorax and tip of abdomen are obscurely diluted
with red. From some directions some of the elytral punctures appear to be
lineate in arrangement. At first glance the type appears very close to
Hyperomma nigrum, but the large joint of the maxillary palpi is dark, the
fourth joint is apparently missing, and the femora are very pale throughout.
Under the microscope the third joint of the maxillary palpi is seen to be large,
its tip truncated, with the fourth, on the right side, completely buried in its tip,
and the one on the left side with its tip just showing. In manipulating the
mouth parts for examination some slight force was used, and this may possibly
have pressed out the tip of the fourth joint; quite possibly, however, the fourth
may be capable of retraction; if this should be the case it removes the main
distinction between Suniopsis and Hyperomma.

Cat., p. 269.

An interesting genus, all the known species of which are apterous, and have
a small but distinct apical joint to the maxillary palpi, apparently the only dis-
tinguishing feature from Swuniopsis, in which the true fourth joint is buried
within the tip of the third. Fauvel recorded Hyperomma as having the front
tarsi dilated, and Suniopsis as having them thin, but in several species of
THyperomma they are no wider than in the known species of Suniopsis. The
species of both genera, except a doubtful one referred to Hyperomma, have
eyes on top of the head, so as to be invisible from below. Following is a table
of the Australian species :—

A. Body parts, except tip of abdomen, entirely black.

Type (unique),

HyperomoMa, Fvl.,

a. Head and prothorax finely shagreened ..
aa. Head and prothorax not shagreened.
b. Legs variegated
bb. Legs entirely red.
c. Front tarsi strongly dilated .
cc. Front tarsi rather thin.
d. Prothorax conspicuously dilated to near apex ..
dd. Prothorax scarcely wider near apex than near base ..
AA. Body parts only partly, or not at all, black.
B. Eyes minute and lateral a
BB. Eyes large and on top of head.
C. Head and prothorax finely shagreened ..
CC. Head and prothorax not shagreened.
D. Length less than 5 mm.
DD. Length more than 6 mm.
E. Legs variegated
EE. Legs not variegated.
F. Upper-surface of head obliquely and longitudinally strigose
FF. Upper-surface of head not strigose.
G. Prothorax and elytra uniformly coloured ..
GG. Prothorax and elytra not uniformly coloured ..

ABNORME, Blackb. V., Tas. NIGRUM, Lea.
LACERTINUM, F vl. S.A., W.A. PICTIPES, Lea.

HyPEROMMA LACERTINUM, F vl.

W.A.
dhals:

globuliferum
nigrum
labrale

cribratum
cylindricum

micro ps
megacephalum
inguilinum
pictipes
abnorme

lacertinum
bryophilum

A female, from St. Francis Island (South Australia), probably belongs to
this species, but differs from the description in being smaller, 11 mm.; the type
was also described as “obscure rubrum, abdomine piceo’’; the island specimen
is of a rather bright reddish-castaneous, with the abdomen blackish, except that
the apical segment and the tips of the others are obscurely reddish.

40

HyPEROMMA ABNORME, Blackb.

A specimen, from Tasmania, probably belongs to this species, but differs
from a cotype in having the row of punctures on each side of the middle of the
prothorax semidouble, and the head nonstriated (this, however, was noted as a
sexual feature) ; in general appearance it is very close to the preceding species,
but the head, prothorax, elytra, and abdomen are of an almost uniform shade
of colour throughout, and the elytral punctures sparser and less sharply defined,
although decidedly larger.

Hyperomma globuliferum, n. sp. Figs. 20 and 31.

d. Black; mouth parts, antennae (most of the joints partly infuscated),
palpi and legs reddish, anal styles darker. Head, sides of prothorax, and of
elytra with straggling dark hairs, becoming numerous on sides of abdomen
posteriorly, rest of abdomen (both surfaces) with short and dense setae.

Head subquadrate; with rather dense and small, but fairly sharp punctures,
and with much larger ones irregularly scattered, but four between bases of
antennae; under-surface transversely strigose, but at sides shagreened, a few
strong punctures scattered about. Mandibles long, thin, and simple, except for
the swelling at inner base. Antennae thin, third joint about one-third shorter
than first, about one-third longer than fourth, and twice the length of second.
Maxillary palpi with third joint long, the fourth short and briefly conical. Pro-
thorax distinctly longer than wide, widest near apex, where it is as wide as
base of head and about one-third wider than its own base, all angles rounded
off; with an irregular row of distinct punctures on each side of middle and
with minute ones scattered about ; towards each side with another irregular row
of punctures, then punctures about as large as the small ones on head, mixed
with a few other larger ones; front of prosternum strongly transversely strigose.
Elytra very short, scarcely more than half the length of prothorax, slightly dilated
to apex, where the width is less than that of prothorax; with crowded and
rather coarse punctures, with a few somewhat larger ones scattered about, an
irregular depression near each side. Abdomen almost parallel-sided to near
apex; with crowded punctures; under-surface of sixth segment with a deep
notch, margined by a thin membrane. Front tarsi with basal joints feebly
dilated. Length, 12-16 mm.

Q. Differs in having the head somewhat wider, abdomen more dilated
posteriorly, and the sixth segment not notched.

Hab.—Victoria: Dandenong Ranges (Blackburn’s collection), Emerald (H.
H. D. Griffith from E. Jarvis), Mount Macedon (H. W. Davey), Gippsland
(Dr. E. W. Ferguson), Belgrave in January, October, November (F. E. Wilson),
and in February (C. Oke), Ferntree Gully in July (Oke); New South Wales:
Nowra (Ferguson). Type, I. 12401.

About the size and colour of Dicax cephalotes and Scymbalium duplopunc-
tatum, but apterous, mandibles simple, etc. The head and prothorax are very
finely shagreened, and although hardly opaque are less shining than the elytra;
the eyes are large and invisible from below. The hairs about the mouth are
longer and paler than those on the other parts of the head. The punctures in
the prothoracic rows vary in number from twelve to eighteen, they are slightly
smaller than the large ones on head, and the minute ones are also smaller than
those on head, except at the sides, where they are about as large.

This species has two curious processes attached to the mentum; they appear
like two pale almost circular balls, they are of fairly large size and quite distinct
from below, or from in front, when the mandibles are open; although from most
directions they appear to be globular, from an oblique direction each is seen to
have a small circular concavity. Under a compound power they are seen to

4]

be separated by the median projection of the mentum and to be inwards of the
paraglossae (on this species the paraglossae are large, comb-shaped, with
numerous long close-set teeth), the basal half of the basal joint of the palpi
appears as if squeezed thin by them. They are not sexual, and are present, but
smaller, on other species of the genus. On first seeing them I was under the
impression that they were beetle mites in an unusual position.

Two badly-damaged males from Kangaroo Island (J. G. O. Tepper)
apparently belong to this species, but differ from the types in being smaller and
thinner, head somewhat longer, and its under-surface, as also that of the pro-
sternum, less conspicuously transversely strigose.

Hyperomma megacephalum, n. sp.

Q. Dull castaneous, some parts slightly darker than others; antennae,
palpi, and legs paler (castaneo-flavous). Head, sides of prothorax and of elytra
with sparse straggling hairs, becoming denser on abdomen, especially about apex,
both surfaces of abdomen with dense, short, depressed clothing.

Head subquadrate; with numerous small punctures and with larger ones
scattered about and becoming crowded on sides; under-surface transversely
strigose. Eyes large and invisible from below. Mandibles long and thin.
Antennae thin, third joint one-third shorter than first, one-third longer than
fourth, and twice the length of second. Subapical joint of maxillary palpi large,
the apical one small and briefly conical. Prothorax longer than wide, apex
scarcely as wide as head, obliquely narrowed to base, all angles rounded off;
with minute punctures becoming larger on sides, on each side of middle with an
irregular row of large punctures, each side with two still more irregular rows,
becoming conjoined at base and apex. Elytra slightly shorter than head and
much shorter than prothorax, slightly dilated to apex, where the width is about
equal to that of the middle of the prothorax; with rather large crowded punc-
tures. Abdomen dilated to near apex, fifth segment largest of all and slightly
wider than head. Basal joints of front tarsi feebly dilated. Length, 12.5 mm.

Hab.—Victoria: Dandenong Ranges (C. French). Unique.

The head with the mandibles clenched is (except for the neck and for the
rounding off of the angles) an almost perfect square; the mandibles have not
been forced open, but they appear to be simple. The head and prothorax are
very finely shagreened, and in consequence less shining than the elytra; there
are seven large punctures on the front of the clypeus, but they are irregularly
placed, of the rows of punctures on each side of the middle of the prothorax
there are 17 in one, and 19 in the other; on each elytron there are three irregular
rows of punctures, larger than the others, but they are not very distinct at the
first glance. The head is larger and abdomen more dilated posteriorly than in
any other known species of the genus; the curious ball-like appendages to the
mentum are quite as distinct as on H. globuliferum.

Hyperomma cylindricum, n. sp. Fig. 21.

¢. Black; mouth parts, antennae (most of the joints partly infuscated),
palpi, legs, and tip of abdomen red. Head, sides of prothorax, and of elytra
with long straggling hairs, becoming numerous on abdomen, especially at apex;
abdomen, both surfaces, with rather dense depressed clothing.

Head oblong-elliptic; with dense and small sharply-defined punctures, with
many larger ones scattered about, a rather narrow, shining, and almost im-
punctate space between eyes; under-surface strongly shagreened, becoming
longitudinally striated near base; with large punctures scattered about, but an
almost impunctate, narrow, shining, median triangle. Mandibles long, thin, and,
except for the inner enlargement at base simple. Antennae rather long and

42

thin, none of the joints transverse. Subapical joint of maxillary palpi large,
the apical one small and briefly conical. Prothorax oblong-elliptic, almost twice
as long as wide, base not much wider than apex, all angles rounded off; with
fairly numerous minute but sharply-defined punctures, becoming slightly larger
on sides; each side of middle with an irregular, in parts semidouble row of
large punctures, the sides also with large punctures, front portion of prosternum
evenly transversely strigose. Elytra about the length of head (excluding
mandibles) and much shorter than prothorax; with dense and rather coarse
punctures, and with irregular rows of larger ones. Abdomen slightly dilated to
near apex, sixth segment largest of all; with dense punctures becoming sparser
about apex; under-surface of subapical segment with a deep triangular notch,
margined by a thin membrane. Front tarsi thin. Length, 10.5-14 mm.

Q. Differs in having the abdomen somewhat wider with the subapical
segment not notched.

Hab—New South Wales: Sydney (Dr. E. W. Ferguson and A. M. Lea),
Mount Kosciusko (H. J. Carter), Blue Mountains (Ferguson); Victoria:
Warburton in April (F. E. Wilson), Mount Macedon (H. W. Davey), Bellgrave
in January and Ferntree Gully in July (C. Oke), Alps, No. 1633 (Ejnar Fischer),
Emerald (H. H. D. Griffith from E. Jarvis). Type, I. 15233.

A long species almost cylindrical throughout, except for short indentations,
the greatest width of the head, prothorax, and elytra are practically equal, and
very little less than the greatest width of the abdomen. The tips of the antennae
are almost flavous, the tip of the sixth segment, the whole of the seventh, and
the anal styles are conspicuously reddish on some specimens, but feebly so on
others. The upper-surface of the head, and the prothorax, are not at all
shagreened, consequently they are as highly polished as the elytra. The eyes are
large, but do not alter the curvature of the sides, and are invisible from below;
the inner enlargement at the base of each mandible has a feeble projection, but
it is quite invisible unless the mandibles are widely open, and even then it is
invisible from some directions. The species differs from H. globuliferum in
the thinner and more cylindrical body, longer head with different sculpture on
both surfaces, base of mandibles, prothorax scarcely wider at apex than base,
no part of upper-surface shagreened, etc., there are globular appendages to the
mentum, but they are smaller than on that species. In general appearance it
strongly resembles Scymbalium duplopunctatum, but the antennae, palpi, mentum,
punctures, and apterous body are all different. The front tarsi are thin, as in
Suniopsis, but as the maxillary palpi are exactly as on several species of
Hyperomma, it was referred to the latter genus. There is a specimen of the
species in the Australian Museum (K. 21093, from Mount Kosciusko).

Hyperomma labrale, n. sp. Fig. 22.

Q. Black; mouth parts, antennae (most of the joints infuscated), palpi,
legs, and tip of abdomen red.

Head subquadrate; with fairly numerous, small, but sharply-defined punc-
tures, and some large ones irregularly scattered; under-surface opaque and finely
shagreened; with large scattered punctures, smooth and shining between the
gular sutures, and striated about base. Mandibles long, apical half thin, then
dilated with a blade-like edge to near base, which is finely dentate. Antennae
thin, none of the joints transverse. Maxillary palpi with subapical joint long,
the apical one small and briefly conical. Prothorax slightly longer than wide,
“scarcely wider than head, very feebly diminishing in width to base, all angles
rounded off; with rather sparse and minute but sharply-defined punctures,
becoming larger and denser on sides, each side of middle with an irregular
row (thirteen on one side, seventeen on the other) of large punctures, the sides

43

also with numerous large ones; front of prosternum transversely strigose. Elytra
slightly narrower than prothorax and much shorter. Abdomen somewhat dilated
posteriorly ; with crowded punctures and finely shagreened. Femora stout, front
ones stouter than the others and feebly dentate; four basal joints of front tarsi
strongly dilated. Length, 12 mm.

Hab.—New South Wales: Illawarra (H. J. Carter). Type (unique),
[12601

The head, except for some long hairs about the muzzle, prothorax, and
elytra are very sparsely clothed, but this may be due to abrasion. The shape of
the mandibles and strongly dilated front tarsi are sufficient to distinguish the
species from all other black-bodied ones of the genus. The labrum is also
peculiar, owing to its punctures being unusually large its front appears multi-
sinuate, instead of evenly bilobed. A second female (received by Mr. Griffith
from Mr. Carter) has damaged antennae, but is otherwise perfect, and it has
two ball-like appendages in the mouth as in H. globuliferum.

Hyperomma cribratum, n. sp.

2. Black and highly polished, mouth parts, antennae (most of the joints
deeply infuscated except at base), palpi and legs red, tip of abdomen obscurely
reddish. Head with a few straggling black hairs, still fewer on sides of pro-
thorax and elytra, abdomen densely clothed, the sides and tip with long hairs.

Head (excluding neck) slightly wider than long, base slightly wider than
elsewhere; with dense and rather small sharply-defined punctures, and large
ones scattered about; under-surface strongly transversely strigose, and with
large scattered punctures, gular sutures forming the sides of a smooth triangle
from mentum to middle, but single from there to neck. Labrum larger than
usual and deeply notched. Eyes large, invisible from below. Mandibles long,
thin, and simple, except for a minute tooth at inner base. Antennae thin, none
of the joints transverse. Subapical joint of maxillary palpi large, the apical
one small and briefly conical. Prothorax distinctly longer than wide, widest near
apex, where the width is slightly more than that of head, sides obliquely
decreasing to base, all angles rounded off; with rather dense and small but
sharply-defined punctures, becoming denser and larger on sides, each side of
middle with an irregular (semidouble) row of large punctures, the sides also
with large ones. Elytra small, shorter than head, much shorter than prothorax,
and not much wider than its base, almost parallel-sided; with fairly coarse
crowded punctures, and irregular rows of larger ones. Abdomen feebly dilated
posteriorly, with crowded punctures. Front femora stout and rather obtusely
dentate; front tarsi thin. Length, 16 mm.

Hab.—Western Australia: Swan River (J. Clark). Type (unique),
It, Weyl.

The head is decidedly shorter than in H. cylindricum, the sculpture of its
under-surface is very different, the mandibles are longer, although much the same
at base, the prothorax is conspicuously dilated in front and its punctures are
much more conspicuous. The shape of the prothorax is much as in H. globuli-
ferum, but it is not shagreened, and its punctures are denser and more con-
spicuous than on that species; the globular appendages to the mentum are
smaller and less conspicuous.

Hyperomma bryophilum, n. sp. Fig. 23.

3. Bright castaneous; middle of head and of prothorax, elytra, sixth
segment of abdomen, and base of some of the others more or less conspicuously
infuscated, mouth parts, antennae (some of the median joints infuscated), palpi,
and legs castaneo-flavous. Head, sides of prothorax and of elytra, sides and

44

tip of abdomen with long and rather sparse hairs, rest of abdomen with (for the
genus) rather sparse clothing.

Head oblong-ovate; with large scattered punctures and a few minute ones ;
under-surface with a few scattered punctures. Labrum large, deeply notched
in middle, concealing most of mandibles when clenched. Eyes large, invisible
from below. Mandibles long and acute, with an acute tooth near middle
and two minute ones at base. Antennae thin, none of the joints transverse, first
as long as second and third combined, third very little longer than fourth. Sub-
apical joint of maxillary palpi large, the apical one small and briefly conical.
Prothorax distinctly longer than wide, widest near apex, thence obliquely
diminishing in width to near base, all angles rounded off; with an irregular row
of large punctures on each side of middle, and some large ones on sides, a few
minute punctures scattered about. Elytra small, shorter than head, and much
shorter than prothorax, base rounded, sides slightly dilated posteriorly; with
large and fairly dense punctures. Abdomen large, slightly dilated posteriorly,
sixth segment largest of all, under-surface of seventh deeply notched, anal styles
long; with numerous but not crowded punctures. Femora rather stout, four
basal joints of front tarsi rather strongly inflated. Length, 7.5-8.5 mm.

Q. Differs in having the head somewhat smaller, abdomen not notched,
and front tarsi less strongly (although noticeably) inflated.

Hab.—Tasmania: Waratah, in moss (A. M. Lea).

The infuscated parts of the head and prothorax are almost circular, they
are very distinct on some specimens, but scarcely traceable on others; from three
to five of the apical joints of antennae are flavous. The fairly wide front tarsi
and distinct fourth joint of maxillary palpi would seem to refer the species to
Hyperomma, but the mandibles are armed, as in Suniopsis. It is allied to H.
pictipes, from which it differs in being paler, with the legs uniformly coloured
(there are five specimens of the present species before me, and two of pictipes).
I have not dissected out the mentum, but there appear to be two small globular
processes at its apex.

Hyperomma inquilinum, n. sp.

3. Pale castaneous; elytra and most of abdomen infuscated; mouth parts,
two basal joints of antennae (the others missing), palpi, and legs flavous.
Upper-surface with sparse hairs at sides, the abdomen moderately densely
clothed.

Head oblong-ovate; with fairly large scattered punctures, and some
minute ones; under-surface shining and with scattered punctures. Labrum
deeply notched in middle. Mandibles long, thin, curved, and simple. Eyes
rather large, invisible from below. Subapical joint of maxillary palpi large and
stout, the apical one small and briefly conical. Prothorax distinctly longer than
wide, widest near apex, where the width is slightly more than that of head, sides
gently rounded and decreasing to base; a row of large punctures on each side
of middle, and others on sides, minute ones scattered about. Elytra small, about
two-thirds the length of prothorax and decidedly narrower, base strongly rounded,
the sides moderately so; each with four irregular rows of large punctures.
Abdomen about half the total length, sides feebly increasing in width to sixth
segment, which is the largest of all; with fairly dense punctures, except at tips
of segments; under-surface of seventh segment with an equilaterally triangular
notch at apex. Femora stout, front tarsi moderately wide. Length, 3.5 mm.

Hab.—Western Australia: Swan River, from a nest of Iridomyrmex conifer
(J. Clark). Type (unique), I. 12626.

The smallest known species of the genus, but apterous and with quite
typical mandibles, eyes, and palpi; the front of the mentum is obscured on the

45

type. The pale parts of the abdomen are the seventh segment, apical half and
sides of the sixth, and sides and tips of the others.

A male, from Victoria (Blackburn’s collection), evidently belongs to the
species, but differs from the type in being larger, 4.75 mm., with less of the
sixth and seventh segments of abdomen pale, and more of the others; the
antennae are perfect, their median joints are slightly infuscated and apical ones
flavous, the fourth to tenth are each about as long as wide or very slightly
transverse, and the eleventh is longer.

Hyperomma microps, n. sp.

@. Pale castaneous; antennae, palpi, and legs still paler. Sides with a
few straggling hairs, abdomen rather sparsely clothed.

Head subovate, with a large neck; with fairly dense and large punctures;
under-surface with a few scattered ones. Eyes minute and lateral. Mandibles
long, with a strong compound tooth, about one-third from base but normally
concealed. Antennae short, fourth to ninth joints slightly transverse, tenth about
as long as wide, eleventh slightly longer. Maxillary palpi with subapical’ joint
large and swollen, apical one small and briefly conical. Prothorax much longer
than wide, apex scarcely wider than base and narrower than head, all angles
rounded off; with an irregular row of rather large punctures on each side of
middle, and two still more irregular rows on each side, minute punctures scat-
tered about. Elytra very small, much shorter than prothorax, and at apex about
as wide, but feebly decreasing in width to base; with rather sparse and rather
iarge punctures, a few forming an irregular row on each side of suture. Abdomen
gently increasing in width posteriorly, sixth segment largest of all and distinctly
wider than head; with fairly numerous punctures. Legs rather short, front
tarsi simple. Length, 4 mm.

Hab.—Tasmania: Waratah, in moss (A. M. Lea). Unique.

An anomalous species, for which probably a new genus should have been
proposed. ‘The minute eyes, strictly lateral and consequently visible both from
above and below, are distinctive from all known species of Hyperomma and
Suniopsis, and the antennae with most of the joints transverse are also aberrant ;
the front tarsi are simple as in Suniopsis, but the apical joint of the maxillary
palpi is distinct; the mandibles are dentate, but they vary in Hyperomma. It
should possibly have been referred to Scimbalium, but as I know no apterous
species of that genus, and as in most generic details it agrees with Hyperomma,
it has been referred to the latter. In size it is only larger than H. inquilinwm.

Macrodicax, n. gen.

Head large, with a wide neck. Eyes small, latero-frontal. Labrum trans-
verse, sides pointed. Mandibles long and powerful, strongly tridentate.. Mentum
with two globular processes in front; labial palpi small and thin. Maxillary
palpi with subapical joint large, shorter than preceding joint, and about twice
the length of the apical one, which is conical. Antennae thin but not very long.
Prothorax large, somewhat dilated in front. Scutellum strongly transverse.
Elytra small. Abdomen rather short and wide, five segments strongly margined,
anal styles moderately long. Femora rather stout, edentate; hind tibiae rather
long, the others shorter; front tarsi with four basal joints dilated to form a
conspicuous pad, the fifth rather long and thin; basal joint of each of the other
tarsi distinctly longer than the second, the others evenly decreasing in tength to
fourth, fifth as on front tarsi. Body apterous. :

A remarkable genus with two ball-like objects in the mouth, as in
Hyperomma (they .are visible from directly in front and very distinct from

46

below), but from that genus it differs in the strongly dentate jaws, labrum in-
curved to middle instead of deeply notched, eyes smaller, lateral and with some-
what larger facets, and front tarsi strongly dilated. The jaws, eyes, labrum,
mandibles, and tarsi are all different from those of Suniopsis. The head is some-
what like that of Dicax (all the known species of which are winged), but the
middle and hind tarsi are very different, somewhat resembling those of
Scimbalium, whose front tarsi, however, are usually thinner. In catalogues
the genus should be placed near Dicax and Hyperomma.

Macrodicax potens, n. sp. Fig. 2.

d. Black, in parts with a slight bronzy gloss; mouth parts, parts of
mandibles, antennae, palpi, legs, most of sterna, and a narrow strip (between
the gular sutures) on under-surface of head more or less reddish, parts of
under-surface of abdomen obscurely diluted with red. Upper-surface with
rather long, scattered, dark hairs, becoming dense on abdomen and legs, front
of labrum with long reddish hairs.

Head subquadrate between front and neck, hind angles rounded off, front
feebly incurved to middle; with fairly numerous, large, setiferous punctures,
but absent from a space along middle; with numerous minute punctures scat-
tered about. Antennae thin but not very long, none of the joints transverse,
first stouter than the others, and almost as long as second to fourth combined,
fourth somewhat longer than second and much shorter than third. Prothorax
slightly longer than wide, apex slightly wider than base, and slightly curved
near each side, sides gently incurved near base; with a semidouble row of dis-
tinct- punctures on each side of middle, more irregular ones towards and on
sides, and with numerous very minute ones scattered about. Elytra conjointly
transverse, distinctly shorter than prothorax and less than its greatest width;
with irregular rows of large rough punctures, some of which are irregularly
longitudinally confluent. Upper-surface of abdomen with rather dense and not
very deep but sharply-defined punctures; under-surface with somewhat similar
ones, but becoming suddenly much smaller and denser in middle of second and
third segments, sixth segment deeply notched in middle. Front tibiae notched
on inner side towards base. Length (excluding mandibles), 14 mm.

Hab.—New South Wales: Dorrigo (H. W. Cox). Unique.

A powerful-looking insect, with a bigger head than any other apterous
species of the family known to me from Australia. In some lights parts of the
abdomen appear to be slightly iridescent. There appears to be at least one comb
of small golden teeth at the notch on each front tibia, but I have been unable to
see it clearly, partly owing to the density of the clothing; the notch itself is
distinct from but few directions; the tip of each tibia has a fringe of golden
setae on its upper edge, less distinct on the middle ones than on the others. The
left mandible is slightly dilated from the tip to beyond the middle, when its
inner edge slightly curves inwards before a strong acutely-triangular tooth,
beyond this are two smaller but fairly large teeth; the right mandible is without
the slight incurvature before the big tooth, and its two smaller teeth are smaller
than those on the left, and should perhaps be regarded as cusps of a tooth.
The antennae are now broken on the type, only four joints remaining on one
of them, but one was perfect when the figure was drawn. The head and pro-
thorax are very finely shagreened, the elytra rather more coarsely. The large
punctures on the head are smaller than those on the elytra, but more sharply
defined and evenly rounded, they are considerably larger than those on the
prothorax, the minute ones on the latter, except in certain lights, are scarcely
distinguishable from the shagreening. .

47

Dieax, Evi Cat. p. 276:

ARCULUS, Fvyl. V. LONGICEPS, Fvl. (Lathrobium).

CEPHALOTES, Fvl. W.A. N.S.W.
ventralis, Lea. RUBRIPENNIS, Fvl._ V.

DESERTI, Blackb. NESW Seas RUFICOLLIS, Lea. Ox N-SoW.
Wear Ned Gu: var. nigriventris, Lea.

DiIcAxX CEPHALOTES, F vl.
D. ventralis, Lea.

The tip of the subapical segment of the abdomen of the male of this species
has two comb-like processes,“ and largely because these were not mentioned by
Fauvel in his description of the abdomen of the male D. cephalotes,, 1 presumed
that D. ventralis was not that species. On examining some greasy specimens
recently, however, the combs were scarcely visible, and so they might easily have
been overlooked by Fauvel; it would appear, therefore, that the names are
synonymous. ?4)

Dicax LONGICEPS, Fvl.

A specimen from Ebor (New South Wales.) in the Queensland Museum
probably belongs to this species, but differs from the description in being smaller
—/7/.5 as against 9.5 mm.

DicaAx DESERTI, Blackb.

Blackburn’s description of the colour of D. deserti is practically identical
with that of Fauvel’s D. rubripennis, except that the latter did not mention
the tip of the abdomen as partly red; its legs vary from a dingy piceous-brown
with the tarsi and front coxae paler, to deep black, with the tarsi and meta-
sternum of a dingy brown, the elytra vary from rather dark red to bright
castaneous. Two specimens, from Oodnadatta, are labelled as_ cotypes,
although in the description only Storm Creek was mentioned.

Var. Four specimens, from Mulwala, appear to belong to the species, they
differ from the typical form in being smaller, 6.5-7 mm., the legs deep
black, except that the tarsi are obscurely brown, and the metasternum blackish.
Their colours, in fact, are exactly as on some of the larger ones, but I have seen
no specimens intermediate in length between 7.5 and 10.5 mm.

DicaX RUBRIPENNIS, Fvl.

A cotype of this species (from the British Museum) differs from small
specimens of D. deserti in having the abdomen entirely black, the head, pro-
thorax, and elytra with a faint pruinose gloss (not mentioned by Fauvel) and
the punctures somewhat smaller and sparser.

SCIMBALIUM, Er., Cat., p. 270.
(Frequently written Scymbalium.)

AGRESTES Blackbii) VilS.As. CA: OPACULUM, Fvl. Q., N.W.A.
ARCUATUME fivle INESAWh Vi hase PICEUM, Macl. (Lathrobium), Cat.,

STAGUINE WAAC pa Zoo ON WEA:
AUSDRAUE tivlt 9 (@s, Nose, CAA. ferrugineum, Fvl.
DUPLOPUNCTATUM, Fvl. V., S.A., RUBUM, yl Ve S AY

C.A. SIMPLARIUM, Fvl. INES Vee
LAETUM, Blackb. S.A. sRasy SoA. NEWEAG
MICROCEPHALUM, F vl. (Crypto- SPARSICOLLE, Fvl. QO., N.S.W., V.,

biuinrey Cate pe 284.5 Oe Sway

INGSAVNE Nieealias en SwAc

(23) Lea, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1904, pl. 4, fig. 12.
(24) Since this was written I have received a cotype of cephalotes from the British Museum,
which puts it beyond question.

48

SCIMBALIUM PICEUM, Macl.
S. ferrugineum, Fvl.

A specimen, from Northern Queensland, identified by Blackburn as S.
ferrugineum, and agreeing with the description, was compared and agrees with
the type of Lathrobium picewm. As its front tarsi are only moderately dilated
and basal joint of hind tarsi distinctly longer than the second, it is quite
evidently a Scimbalium.

SCIMBALIUM RUFUM, F vl.

Two, specimens of an apterous species, from Melbourne, agree well with the
description of this species; at first glance they are strikingly like Lathrobium
adelaidae, but the antennae are longer, elytra distinctly shorter, front tarsi less
dilated, and basal joint of hind tarsi as long as the two following combined.

Scimbalium pallidulum, n. sp.

Pale castaneous; antennae, palpi, and legs paler, head slightly infuscated.
With fairly numerous dark hairs scattered about; abdomen with rather dense
ashen. pubescence, head and elytra more sparsely clothed, prothorax with hairs
but hardly any pubescence.

Head between antennae and neck about as long as wide; with numerous,
fairly large, sharply-defined punctures, becoming smaller and more crowded in
hind angles (which are strongly rounded). Antennae thin, passing base of pro-
thorax, first joint almost as long as second and third combined, third distinctly
longer. than second and fourth, the others to tenth gradually decreasing in
length, -.but all distinctly longer than wide. Prothorax distinctly longer
than .wide, almost parallel-sided, except that the angles are rounded;
with rather dense punctures, smaller than on head, but absent from
a rather narrow median line. Elytra distinctly longer and wider than
prothorax, sides slightly dilated posteriorly; with rather dense and asperate
but sharply-defined punctures, nowhere seriate in arrangement. Legs rather
long;- front femora slightly dentate; front tibiae notched at about basal third;
front tarsi with four basal joints almost as wide as apex of tibiae, the other tarsi
longer and thinner. Length, 6-7 mm.

Hab.—Northern Territory: Daly River (H. Wesselman), Adelaide River
(British Museum); North-western Australia: Derby (W. D. Dodd and Dr. A.
M. Morgan). Type, I. 12645.

-In appearance close to S. semifumatum, but head and abdomen paler,
antennae and prothorax longer, and elytral punctures somewhat different. The
colour and size would do fairly well for S. opaculum, but punctures of head
and prothorax certainly differ from the description; in Fauvel’s table®) the
prothorax and elytra are noted as having very dense obsolete punctures; on the
present species the elytral punctures are dense and rather small, although quite
distinct, on the prothorax they are sparser, somewhat larger, and quite sharply
defined, but absent from a median line. The prothorax is of a brighter colour
than the rest of the upper-surface. The mandibles are stout and strongly
dentate, the front tooth larger than the others. The tip of the abdomen is

triangularly notched in the male, and the front femora are rather more strongly
dentate than in the female.

Scimbalium micropterum, n. sp.

¢. Black; prothorax and legs dark red, palpi and tarsi paler, parts of
antennae reddish, but mostly deeply infuscated. With fairly numerous dark
hairs, elytra and abdomen with dark pubescence, rather dense on the latter.

(5) Fauvel, Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen., 1878, p. 526.

49

Head subovate, hind angles strongly rounded; with irregularly distributed
and fairly large sharply-defined punctures, absent from a small median space.
Mandibles rather long and strongly dentate. Antennae thin, passing base of
prothorax, first joint as long as second and third combined, fourth slightly longer
than second, and distinctly shorter than third and fifth, the others to tenth
gradually decreasing in length, but all distinctly longer than wide. Prothorax
distinctly longer than wide, all angles rounded, apex slightly wider than base,
sides with a very feeble incurvature near base; punctures sharply defined but
smaller than on head, not very dense, and absent along middle. Elytra about
one-fourth wider than prothorax, and slightly longer; each with five somewhat
irregular rows of moderate punctures on disc, becoming irregular posteriorly,
a few on sides. Abdomen with punctures (both surfaces) smaller, denser,
and more asperate than on apical parts of elytra. Front femora rather stout and
moderately dentate; front tibiae notched near basal third; front tarsi with four
basal joints slightly wider than apex of tibiae, the other tarsi longer and thinner,
with the basal joint as long as the three following combined. Length (excluding
mandibles), 9 mm.

Hab.—Western Australia: Mount Barker (A. M. Lea). Unique.

In general appearance somewhat like S. laetum and S. arcuatum, but with
darker elytra and paler prothorax, the punctures are also much sparser on the
prothorax and elytra. The elytra are smaller than is usual on winged species of
the genus, but I have made sure that wings are present. I have not dissected
out the mentum of the type, but it has two globular appendages at the apex,
apparently as in species of Hyperomma. On the type the abdomen is unduly
extended, with the membranous parts of five segments showing conspicuously
pale. The head and prothorax are highly polished, the elytra rather less so.
The punctures on each side of the median line of the prothorax are irregularly
lineate in arrangement.

Doticaon, Cast., Cat., p. 274.

MASTERSI, Macl. (Pimobimus):) ©. PARTCOLORS, view Or IN se:
NIGRIPENNIS, Macl. OQO., N.S.W., QUADRATICOLLIS, Macl. OQ.
N.W.A

Dolicaon alatus, n. sp. Figs. 24-26.

3. Bright castaneous-red; two apical segments of abdomen, femora, and
tibiae black, four to six basal joints of antennae infuscated or black, the others
pale. Upper-surface moderately clothed with ashen pubescence, the head and
prothorax more sparsely than elsewhere.

Head, excluding mandibles and neck, distinctly transverse; with fairly large
and numerous but not crowded punctures, and with minute ones scattered about.
Antennae extending to base of prothorax, first joint curved, as long as second and
third combined, third almost twice as long as second and fourth, seventh to tenth
subglobular, becoming feebly transverse. Mandibles stout and strongly dentate.
Prothorax at apex almost as wide as the median length, but base narrower, all
angles moderately rounded off; punctures much as on head, but absent from a
rather narrow median line. Elytra slightly wider than widest part of prothorax
and not much longer, angles rounded off, sides almost parallel; with rather
dense and sharply-defined punctures, slightly larger and denser than on pro-
thorax and head. Abdomen with numerous asperate punctures; under-surface
of sixth segment with a deep narrow notch. Legs not very long, front femora
stout and obtusely dentate, front tibiae notched at about basal third, four basal
joints of front tarsi dilated to form an ovate pad, basal joint of hind tarsi almost
as long as three following combined. Length, 8.5-10.5 mm.

@. Differs in having slightly shorter antennae and legs and abdomen not
notched.

50

Hab.—Queensland: Mackay (R. E. Turner), Bowen (Aug. Simson’s
No. 955), Townsville (Ejnar Fischer), Claudie River (J. A. Kershaw) ;
Northern Territory: Darwin, Adelaide River (British Museum). Type, I. 12400.

Structurally very close to D. mastersi, except that the head is somewhat
larger and with longer antennae, but very differently coloured. Of the eight
specimens under examination all have the apical segments of abdomen black,
six have the femora and tibiae either entirely black or with only the knees and
tips of tibiae obscurely paler (on one the front tibiae are entirely pale), but two
have the legs entirely reddish; the clenched mandibles appear to be completely
black, but on being forced open they are seen to be partly red. Each mandible
has a bicuspidate tooth about one-third from apex, the cusps varying in size,
and sometimes slightly in position, there is also a small tooth lower down. On
one specimen one wing is exposed and seen to be ample, as it extends almost to
the tip of the abdomen.

Dolicaon pedatus, n. sp.

3. Dark castaneous; two apical segments of abdomen and parts of
mandibles black; apical half of antennae paler than basal half.

Elytra no longer than prothorax, and scarcely as wide as its widest part.
Length, 10 mm.

Hab—Northern Territory: King River (W. McLennan). Type (unique),
in National Museum.

In general appearance close to the preceding and with sculpture as described
for that species, but slightly thinner and darker, clothing slightly denser, head
slightly less transverse, eighth to tenth joints of antennae quite globular and not
transverse, punctures everywhere smaller and denser, especially on the elytra, and
the elytra themselves smaller. Each mandible has a bicuspidate tooth on the apical
third and a feeble projection (scarcely a tooth) nearer the base. Remnants of
wings are present, but are useless for flight, as they are not half the length of
the elytra.

CryptopiuMm, Mannerh., Cat., p. 278.
ABDOMINALE, Mots. OE NES We, MASTERSI, Macl. OQ., N.S.W., V.,

WAS NG WRAR Nile WAC NEN Vee oN Ale @uAe
apicale, Macl. var. walkeri, Bernh., Arkiv for
ADELAIDAE, Blackb. S.A., W.A. Zool: x (NOs) ipso:
DELICATULUM, Blackb. S.A. MYRMECOCEPHALUM, Lea. @z
ELEGANS, Blackb. Vi.) Seu INESAWe, ONE:
FRACTUM, “Fvl.-> “OT NUSAWe, VE: PICEUM, F vl. 3
Tas., S.A., W.A. - SANGUINICOLLE, Bernh., Arkiv for

Zools xis (INOS), ps: 1 ©:
VARICORNE, Blackb. S.A.

CRYPTOBIUM MASTERSI, Macl.
C. walkert, Bernh., var.

The description of walkeri is but little more than a comparison with
mastersi, and the differences pointed out are to be noticed on the specimens I
have already °® noted as a variety of that species.

N. var. Two specimens from North-western Australia represent another
variety; they differ from the typical form in having the fifth abdominal seg-
ment entirely pale, the front part of the head shining, and with much sparser
punctures than usual.

(26) Lea, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1904, p. 73.

51

CRYPTOBIUM SANGUINICOLLE, Bernh.

In general appearance this species is close to C. mastersi, except that the
elytra are uniformly dark; the specimens before me are from Townsville,
Mackay, and the Coen River.

CRYPTOBIUM FRACTUM, FvIl.

A specimen, from Bowen, probably belongs to this species, but differs from
typical ones in having the prothorax and base of head of a dingy red, possibly
from immaturity.

Cryptobium hoplogastrum, n. sp. Figs. 27 and 32.

3. Black; mandibles red, most of femora flavous, rest of legs deeply
infuscated, maxillary palpi with apical joint flavous, basal ones reddish, the
others infuscated. Head, sides of prothorax and of elytra, and sides and apex
of abdomen with dark straggling hairs, elytra with very short pubescence,
somewhat longer on abdomen.

Head subquadrate, hind angles rounded off; a deep median line in front,
becoming finer and disappearing about one-third from neck; with large and
numerous but irregularly distributed punctures. Mandibles long, with an acutely
tricuspidate tooth near middle. Antennae with basal joint as long as four fol-
lowing combined. Prothorax slightly longer than wide, slightly narrower than
head, almost parallel-sided, angles slightly rounded off; with an irregular row
of rather large punctures on each side of middle, the sides with more numerous
ones. Elytra slightly wider than head, about once and one-third the length of
prothorax ; with dense and sharply-defined punctures of moderate size. Abdomen
with rather small, sparse, and rugose punctures, but becoming larger on under-
surface, third segment on under-surface with a large acute process, passing
fourth and overhanging base of fifth segment, sixth triangularly notched at
apex. Length, 7-8 mm.

Q. Differs in having the head smaller and less quadrate, without the
median line, prothorax as wide as head and abdomen simple.

Hab—Western Australia: Swan River and Bunbury (A. M. Lea).

Differs from C. fractum and C. varicorne in being more robust, with
notably coarser punctures and somewhat shorter prothorax, but from those and
all other species known to me it is abundantly distinct by the remarkable
armature of the male abdomen. On the type the tips of the antennae and of
the abdomen are obscurely diluted with red. Another male, which agrees per-
fectly in structure with the type, may be immature, parts of its abdomen
(including the remarkable process), the shoulders, and tips of elytra are
obscurely reddish, and the prothorax still more obscurely so..

Cryptobium bicuspidatum, n. sp. Fig. 28.

3g. Shining black; mandibles and elytra red, legs flavous, tibiae and coxae
more or less deeply infuscated, two or three basal joints of antennae reddish,
two or three apical ones obscurely flavous, the intervening ones deeply infuscated.
Head, sides of prothorax and of elytra, sides and apex of abdomen, with
straggling dark hairs, elytra and abdomen rather sparsely pilose.

Head moderately long, narrower in front of than behind eyes; with large
and numerous punctures, sparser between antennae than elsewhere. Mandibles
long and acute, about middle with an acutely bicuspidate tooth. Antennae
with first joint about as long as four following combined, second and third sub-
equal, fourth to tenth subglobular, becoming feebly transverse, eleventh slightly

52

longer. Prothorax distinctly longer than wide, subcylindrical, angles slightly
rounded off; with an iregular (semidouble) row of fairly large punctures on
each side of middle, the sides with more numerous ones. Elytra distinctly wider
than prothorax and slightly longer; with fairly regular rows of rather large
punctures, but becoming confused posteriorly. Abdomen with fairly numerous
small punctures, sixth segment largest of all, its under-surface depressed in
middle of apex, with a slight tubercle behind the depression, the following seg-
ment deeply notched. Length, 6-6.5 mm.

Q. Differs in having the head slightly smaller, antennae and legs somewhat
shorter, and under-surface of abdomen simple.

Hab.—New South Wales: Sydney (H. J. Carter). Type, I. 12646.

In general appearance like Lathrobium elongatulum, but basal joint of
antennae longer and less cylindrical; in appearance also close to L. basipenne
and Scimbalium simplarium, but punctures and antennae different; at first glance
it looks like small Dicax deserti, with pale legs, but with the antennae of
Cryptobium, structurally it is close to C. varicorne and C. cribripenne, but the
elytra are differently coloured and with different punctures. The tips of the
abdominal segments are obscurely reddish; the male has a slight tubercular
swelling on the under-surface of the sixth segment, but it does not extend to
the tip of its own segment, instead of passing beyond the following one, as on
the male of C. hoplogastrum.

Cryptobium spissipenne, n. sp.

3. Black; mouth parts, antennae (some of the median joints infuscated),
palpi and legs more or less flavous. Head, sides of prothorax and of elytra,
and sides and tip of abdomen with straggling dark hairs; elytra and abdomen
with short and not very dense pubescence.

Head rather large, hind angles strongly rounded off; very finely shagreened,
with numerous fairly large punctures, becoming crowded about base and sparser
in front. Mandibles long and acute, near middle with a strong and acutely
bicuspidate tooth. Antennae with basal joint slightly longer than four following
ones combined. Prothorax slightly longer than wide, subcylindrical, angles
slightly rounded off; with dense and sharply-defined punctures of medium size,
but absent from a polished median line. Elytra distinctly wider and slightly
longer than prothorax; with sharply-defined punctures about as large as those
on prothorax, but much more crowded. Abdomen with dense and rather small
asperate punctures, becoming sparser posteriorly; under-surface of subapical
segment deeply notched. Length, 6-8 mm.

Q. Differs in having the head smaller, antennae and legs slightly shorter,
and abdomen not notched.

Hab.—Queensland: Stewart River (W. D. Dodd), Mackay (National
Museum from R. E. Turner). Type, I. 12619.

In size and appearance like C. varicorne and C. fractum, but elytral punc-
tures denser, without the least trace of seriate arrangement, head larger and
less polished, and its punctures denser; in appearance it is also close to C.
hoplogastrum, but the head is shagreened, legs paler, and abdomen of male
very different. Parts of the under-surface are usually obscurely reddish, the
knees are sometimes slightly darker than the adjacent parts, but no parts of the
legs are conspicuously infuscated. On three (of the nine) specimens before
me the prothorax is obscurely paler than the adjacent parts, but it is not dis-
tinctly reddish, the infuscation of the antennae varies in extent and intensity.

53

Cryptobium kershawi, n. sp.

©. Reddish-brown, elytra and two apical segments of abdomen blackish,
most of femora flavous, trochanters and tarsi redder, rest of legs deeply infus-
cated. Prothorax and elytra glabrous, except for short and sparse clothing at
sides, rest of upper-surface finely pubescent. .

Head rather elongate, sides behind eyes rather strongly rounded and deeply
constricted at neck, two subfoveate impressions between antennary ridges; with
crowded and not very large but sharply-defined punctures. Mandibles long and
acute, a large compound tooth about the middle. Antennae moderately stout,
first joint almost as long as five following combined, ninth and tenth scarcely
longer than wide. Prothorax much longer than wide, widest at about apical
third, sides thence strongly rounded to apex, and gently narrowed (with a slight
incurvature) to base, hind angles almost rectangular; with coarse irregularly
crowded punctures, leaving a distinct median line, but this with minute punc-
tures. Elytra much wider than prothorax and slightly longer, with strong
crowded punctures, a few of which are transversely confluent. Abdomen with
crowded subrugose punctures, smaller than on any other portion of upper-
surface, and slightly smaller than on its under-surface; anal styles long.
Length, 9.25 mm.

Hab.—Queensland: Claudie River (J. A. Kershaw). Type (unique), in
National Museum.

In size and general appearance this beautiful species is fairly close to
C. sanguinicolle, but head paler and antennae stouter, elytra with coarser
punctures, the prothorax with coarser and denser ones, leaving much less of the
middle impunctate; the punctures on each side of the median line are so large
and close together that it appears to be a slightly elevated ridge. The head is
subopaque, the rest of the upper-surface highly polished. The left mandible
has three acute projections forming a tricuspidate tooth, the right one has but
two projections, of these, however, “the posterior one is stouter and less acutely
pointed than the other.

Cryptobium nitidicolle, n. sp.

@. Black, under-surface blackish-brown, mandibles and legs brownish-red,
antennae somewhat darker, palpi paler. Head, sides of prothorax and of elytra,
sides and tip of abdomen with straggling dark hairs; head, elytra, and abdomen
rather densely pubescent.

Head rather long; with dense and small but sharply-defined punctures,
rather larger in front of eyes than elsewhere, but becoming smaller on clypeus.
Mandibles long, strong, and acute, each about middle with an acutely tricuspidate
tooth. Antennae with joints proportioned as in preceding species. Prothorax
subcylindrical, distinctly longer than wide, front angles rather strongly rounded
off, the hind ones less strongly; with dense and rather large punctures, leaving
a polished median line. FElytra slightly longer than prothorax and much
wider; with crowded but sharply-defined punctures. Abdomen with punctures
somewhat as on base of head; anal styles long. Length, 11.5 mm.

Hab.—Northern Territory: Oenpelli (P. Cahill). Type (unique), in
National Museum.

Allied to the preceding species, but more densely clothed, larger and more
robust, head, abdomen, and legs darker, and head, prothorax, and elytra with
smaller punctures; structurally it is fairly close to C. mastersi and C.
sanguinicolle, but the prothorax is entirely dark and legs nowhere flavous. The
prothorax is glabrous, except at the sides, and in consequence appears more
highly polished than the rest of the upper- surface.

54

DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA.
By Oswatp B. Lower, F.E.S., F.Z.S., Lond.
[Read November 9, 1922. |

OECOPHORIDAE.

Tisobarica habromorpha, n. sp.

2,16 mm. Head yellow, tinged with carmine on sides. (Palpi broken.)
Antennae and legs ochreous, legs banded with fuscous. Abdomen ochreous.
Forewings elongate, costa hardly arched, termen oblique; yellow, with carmine
markings, more or less edged with blackish ; an oblique basal streak; a moderately
broad outwardly oblique fascia from one-sixth of costa to dorsum at one-third,
with an outward angulation above dorsum; a broad outwardly oblique fascia,
from costa about middle to beyond middle of dorsum, touching angulation of
previous fascia, fascia constricted above middle; a similar fascia, parallel to last,
from costa at about three-quarters to tornus; these two last fasciae enclose a
roundish spot of ground-colour just above middle; a fascia along termen to
tornus, rapidly attenuated on lower half, and joining previous fascia at termina-
tion; cilia yellow. Hindwings and cilia orange-yellow.

Hab.—Dorrigo, New South Wales; two specimens in March.

Pyrgoptila penthistis, n. sp.

3, 9, 25-28 mm. Head yellowish-white. Antennae, palpi, and thorax
dark fuscous, thorax with a moderate whitish posterior spot. Abdomen ochreous-
fuscous. Legs fuscous, obscurely banded with whitish, posterior pair ochreous.
Forewings elongate, moderate, costa gently arched, more strongly towards apex,
termen oblique; dark fuscous, becoming tinged with ochreous on posterior half
of wing; markings white; a somewhat deltoid spot on dorsum moderately large,
at one-third from base; a lunate mark above dorsum, on fold, about middle;
a curved spot in middle of wing, at posterior end of cell, preceded by a suffused
whitish spot ; a narrow elongate streak along dorsum near tornus; a curved streak
between this and lunate mark, hardly touching dorsum; cilia dark fuscous,
chequered with black and whitish spots at base. Hindwings fuscous-grey ; cilia
greyish-fuscous, darker basally.

Hab.—Dorrigo, New South Wales; five specimens in March.

Ethmia heliomela, n. sp.

3, 24 mm. Head, palpi, antennae, and thorax dark fuscous. Abdomen
dark fuscous, posterior two-thirds strongly tinged with orange. Legs dark
fuscous. Forewings elongate, moderate, costa gently arched, termen rounded,
oblique; dark bronzy-fuscous, without markings; cilia bronzy-fuscous. Hind-
wings orange; a broad, bronzy-fuscous apical patch narrowly continued along
termen to tornus; cilia dark fuscous on apical patch, remainder orange.

Hab——Mount Tambourine, Queensland; three specimens in October.

Barea chlorozona, n. sp.
3; Q, 25 mm. Head dull whitish. Palpi and antennae dull fuscous.

Thorax dull whitish, faintly greenish tinged. Abdomen grey-whitish. Legs
dark fuscous. Tibiae and tarsi ringed with whitish, posterior pair ochreous.

55

Forewings elongate, moderate, costa gently arched, termen obliquely rounded;
dull whitish, sometimes fuscous tinged; markings dull greenish; some irregular
marks towards base; a broad fascia, somewhat suffused, from costa about one-
quarter to one-quarter dorsum, sometimes with two or three fuscous spots
throughout ; a similar, but more obscure fascia, from middle of costa to middle
cf wing, thence coalescing into general ground-colour which becomes dull
greenish on posterior half of wing; an obscure, slightly-curved fascia from costa
at five-sixths to just before tornus, preceded by a similar, but shorter fascia,
which is interrupted on costa by a spot of ground-colour; cilia whitish, with a
greenish basal line. Hindwings grey-whitish; cilia grey.
Hab.—Dorrigo, New South Wales; five specimens in March.

Barea lamprota, n. sp.

@, 33 mm. Head, palpi, antennae, and thorax dark fuscous, thorax with
two small whitish posterior crests. Abdomen ochreous, with whitish segmental
margins. Legs fuscous, posterior pair yellowish. Forewings rather broad,
costa gently arched, termen obliquely rounded; fleshy-white, strongly tinged
with fuscous; markings black; a thick short longitudinal streak from base
along fold to one-third, with an angular protuberance above in middle; a round
spot just above the termination of streak; a short mark at base, just above dorsum ;
a suffused spot on costa at one-fourth; a moderately thick transverse fascia,
from two-thirds of costa to five-sixths dorsum, broadest on costa, and con-
taining two black discal spots, one in middle and one obliquely before and below ;
a curved dotted line before termen, indented at one-third; veins more or less
outlined in black towards termen; cilia light fuscous, mixed with darker and
with a fleshy-white basal line on upper two-thirds. Hindwings orange-yellow ;
a fuscous apical patch, continued as a fine line along termen to two-thirds; cilia
dark fuscous, with a darker basal line.

Hab.—Dorrigo, New South Wales; two specimens in March.

Eulechria deltoloma, n. sp.

3, 9, 20-22 mm. Head yellow. Palpi fuscous, with a whitish apical band,
terminal joint greyish. Antennae fuscous, ciliations two. Abdomen greyish-
ochreous, anal tuft orange. Anterior and middle legs greyish, mixed with
fuscous, posterior pair grey-whitish. Forewings elongate, moderate, costa hardly
arched, termen obliquely round; dull ochreous-white, more or less minutely
irrorated with fuscous; a fuscous, wedge-shaped, elongate mark on costa, between
one-fourth and three-fifths ; three small fuscous dots, placed longitudinally below
elongate mark, first at anterior end of elongate mark, second in middle, and
third at posterior extremity of mark; an additional dot immediately below third;
a fuscous line, from costa at five-sixths to tornus, strongly indented below costa
and becoming dot-like below indentation; posterior of wing beyond this line
more strongly infuscated; cilia ochreous, with some scattered black scales.
Hindwings fuscous; cilia as in forewings.

Hab.—Dorrigo, New South Wales; seven specimens in March and October.

Eulechria polistis, n. sp.
2,25 mm. Head, palpi, and antennae ashy-white, terminal joint of palpi
fuscous tinged. Thorax cinereous-grey, collar paler. Abdomen grey-whitish.
Legs white, anterior tibiae and tarsi banded with fuscous. Forewings elongate,
rather broad, costa gently arched, termen obliquely rounded; dull white, faintly
suffused with pale fuscous; three irregular, oblique, pale-fuscous fasciae, reach-
ing more than half across wing; first from costa at one-sixth, second from costa
at about one-fourth, third from costa in middle and reaching to above tornus;

56

six dark-fuscous equidistant costal dots, first at commencement of third fascia
and sixth at apex; from the fifth dot is emitted a fine, waved, fuscous line of
suffused dots, line indented below costa and terminating at tornus; two fine
fuscous dots at posterior end of cell, one above the other; cilia barred with pale
fuscous. Hindwings pale whitish-fuscous, darker on apical portion.

Hab.—Dorrigo, New South Wales; two specimens in October.

Cryptolechia alphitias, n. sp.

3, 9, 16-20 mm. Head whitish. Antennae fuscous-whitish. Palpi fus-
cous, suffused with whitish. Thorax grey-whitish, tinged with fuscous
anteriorly. Abdomen grey. Legs fuscous, posterior pair grey-whitish. Fore-
wings elongate, moderate, costa gently arched, termen obliquely rounded; dull
whitish, suffusedly irrorated with pale fuscous; markings fuscous; a curved
series of three obscure basal spots; an obscure outwardly-curved narrow fascia,
trom costa about one-fourth to dorsum at one-fourth; a moderately broad,
suffused, and somewhat interrupted direct postmedian fascia, darkest on margins ;
a curved series of dots, parallel to termen, from costa at five-sixths to tornus,
indented below costa; cilia grey-whitish with an obscure fuscous basal line.
Hindwings grey-whitish; cilia grey-whitish, tinged with fuscous.

Hab.—Dorrigo, New South Wales; four specimens in October.

XY LORVMELIDAE.

Catoryctis perichaica, n. sp.

Q, 25-27 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax silvery-white, second joint of
palpi fuscous, patagiae light ochreous-fuscous. Antennae white, annulated with
fuscous above. Abdomen ochreous-fuscous, segmental margins dull whitish.
Legs ochreous, anterior and middle pair suffused with whitish. Forewings
elongate, costa rather strongly arched, termen obliquely rounded ; bright ochreous-
fuscous, with silvery-white markings; a narrow subcostal streak from near base
to middle, touching costa on anterior end and becoming attenuated posteriorly ;
two very fine short streaks, somewhat obscure, between posterior extremity of
subcostal streak and costa at four-fifths, both touching costa; a broad, clear,
longitudinal streak, from base to just above middle of termen, posterior half
somewhat attenuated; a similar streak from base along dorsum to one-sixth,
thence continued above dorsum to termen above tornus, attenuated at base;
cilia ochreous-fuscous, becoming grey-whitish around tornus, and silvery-white
below apex, caused by the median line being continued through cilia. Hindwings
fuscous; cilia fuscous-whitish.

Hab—Highbury, South Australia; two specimens in October.

Crypsicharis triplaca, n. sp.
ms

dg, 22 mm. Head, palpi, antennae, and thorax snow-white, second joint
of palpi externally fuscous, antennal ciliations 3, palpi with fuscous anterior
band. Abdomen dull ochreous. Legs fuscous, posterior pair whitish. Fore-
wings elongate, moderate, costa gently arched, termen oblique; white, with
fuscous markings; a moderate somewhat ovoid spot above dorsum on fold, in
middle; an erect, moderately-thick, fascia-like streak, from dorsum before
tornus, reaching three-quarters across wing, upper half divided into two roundish
spots; cilia whitish, terminal half fuscous. Hindwings and cilia grey-whitish,
cilia tinged with fuscous near base.

Hab.—Duaringa and Toowoomba, Queensland; two specimens in October.

57
ELACHISTIDAE.

Limnoecia loxoscia, n. sp.

Q@, 12 mm. Head whitish. Palpi whitish, fuscous tinged. Antennae and
thorax fuscous. Abdomen greyish. Legs fuscous. Forewings elongate-
lanceolate; dark fuscous, with creamy-white markings; an ovoid basal spot; a
moderately broad oblique fascia, from costa near base to near middle of wing,
not reaching dorsum, but attenuated posteriorly; a similar fascia, from costa in
middle, extending to tornus; a small triangular spot on costa, just above termina-
tion of last streak; cilia dark fuscous, becoming broadly creamy-white around
tornus and upper third of termen. Hindwings and cilia fuscous.

In one specimen the second fascia is obsolete on costal portion, thus becoming
a short longitudinal streak.

Hab.—Dorrigo, New South Wales; three specimens in October and
November.
Parectropa clethrata, n. sp.

g, 16mm. Head snow-white. Thorax white, patagiae brownish-ochreous.
Antennae fuscous, whitish beneath. Palpi white. Abdomen fuscous. Legs
fuscous, anterior and middle pair suffused with white. Forewings elongate-
lanceolate; white, with well-defined ochreous markings; a thick streak above
fold, from base to indentation of first fascia, becoming costal anteriorly; first
fascia from costa at one-third, outwardly oblique to middle of wing, thence
obliquely inwards to dorsum before middle, and continued more or less to base;
second fascia similar, from costa at about middle to dorsum at three-quarters,
interrupted by a streak of ground-colour above angulation; a wedge-shaped
costal spot, directed towards termen, but not reaching it, at about five-sixths;
a similar spot, almost at apex; an irregular tornal spot; cilia fuscous, with a
white tooth below middle. Hindwings narrow-lanceolate; grey; cilia grey-
whitish.

Hab.—Wayville, South Australia; three specimens, in September, at light.

55

AUSTRALIAN FUNGI: NOTES AND DESCRIPTIONS.
No. 4.

By J. Burton CLevanp, M.D., and Epwin Cueet, Botanical Assistant,
Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

[Read November 9, 1922. |
PuatTes I. anp II.

This paper continues our records of the larger fungi of Australia, the
Basidiomycetes more particularly, both as to the occurrence of species and as to
their distribution and seasonal occurrence. Where we have already dealt with
a species in this series, this is indicated by a reference in brackets (e.g., III.,
179) following the serial number. Our previous papers appeared in these Pro-
ceedings as follows:—No. 1, xlii., 1918, p. 88; No. 2, xlii., 1919, p. 11; and
No. 3, xliii., 1919, p. 262. As previously stated, the colour tints when specifically
noted are based either on Dauthenay’s “Repertoire de Couleurs . . .” or on
Ridgway’s “Colour Standards and Colour Nomenclature.”

We would like again to express our appreciation at being enabled to
reproduce coloured plates of some of the species with which we deal, and to
congratulate Miss Phyllis Clarke, of Sydney, and Miss R. C. Fiveash, of North
Adelaide, on their admirable delineations in water-colour. We again owe much
to Mr. C. G. Lloyd, of Cincinnatti, and from many friends in Australia we have
received valuable help in the shape of specimens.

SUMMARY OF CONTENTS.

WHITE-SPORED AGARICACEAE.
AmMaANItopsis: 253—A. subvaginatus, n. sp.
Mycena: 254—M. epipterygia, Scop.
Marasmius: 255—M. subinstitius, n. sp. 256—M. rugoso-elegans, n. sp.
CANTHARELLUS: 257—C. cinereus, var. australis, n. var. 258—C. triangularis, n. sp.
SCHIZOPHYLLUM: 259—S. commune, Fr.
LentTINus: 260—L. fasciatus, Fr.
Lenzites: 261—L. repanda, Mont.

BROWN-SPORED AGARICACEAE.
FLAMMULA: 262—F. excentrica, Clel. and Cheel.
HEBELOMA: 263—H. subcollariatum, Berk.

PURPLE-SPORED AGARICACEAE.
PsaLuiota: 264—P. campestris, (L.) 265—P. arvensis, Schaeff. 266—P. arvensis, var.
iodoformis, Clel. and Cheel.
STROPHARIA: 267—S. semiglobata, Batsch. (stercoraria, Fr.).
PsittocyBE: 268—P. ceres, Cke. and Mass.
HypxHoLtoMa: 269—H. fragile, Peck. 270—H. fasciculare, Huds.

BLACK-SPORED AGARICACEAE.
Coprinus: 271—C. micaceus, Fr.
PANAEOLUS: 272—P. ovatus, Cke. and Mass.

POLYPORACEAE.

Botetus: 273—B. subglobosus, n. sp.

StrPITaTE Porypores: 274— Polyporus (Ganodermus) lucidus, var. japonicus, (Fr). 275
—Polyporus (Petaloides) rhipidium, Berk. 276—P. (P.) megaloporus, Mont. 277—
Polystictus (Petaloides) flabelliformis, Klotzsch. 278—Polyporus (Merismus) anthra-
cophilus, Cooke. 279—P. (Spongiosus) rufescens, Pers. 280—P. (S.) Schweinitsu,
Fr. 281—P. (S.) albertini, Muell. 282—P. (Ovinus) basilapiloides, McAlp. and
Pepper. 283—Polystictus (Lentus) xanthopus, Fr. 284—Polyporus (Lentus) arcu-
arius, Batsch.

59

Potyporus: 285—P. eucalyptorum, Fr. 286—P. ochroleucus, Berk. 287—P. gilvus,
Schw. 288—P. fumosus, Pers. 289—P. dryadeus, Pers. 290—P. sessilis, Murrill.
Porystictus: 291—P. sanguineus, L. 292—P. cinnabarinus, Jacq. 293—P. cervino-
gilvus, Jungh. 294—P. versatilis, Berk. 295—P. (Hexagona) luteo-olivaceus, Berk.
and Br. 296—P. subcongener, Berk. 297—P. elongatus, Berk. 298—P. occidentalis,
Klotzsch. 299—P. (Trametes) Persoonti, Mont. 300—P. flavus, Klotzsch. 301—P.
versicolor, L. 302—P. nigricans, Lasch. 303—P. ochraceus, Pers.- 304—P. hir-

sutulus, Willd.

Fomes: 305—F. robustus, Karst. 306—F. setulosus, Petch. 307—F. Calkinsi, Murrill.
308—F. torulosus, Pers. 309—F. durissimus, Lloyd. 310—F. rimosus, var. causarinae,
Clel. and Cheel. 311—F. conchatus, Pers. 312—F. applanatus, Pers. 313—F. ap-
planatus, var. leucophaeus, Mont. 314—F. applanatus, var. nigrolaccatus, Cooke.

Hexacona: 315—H. Gunnii, Hook. 316—H. rigida, Berk. 317—H. tenuis, Hook. 318—
H. tenuis, var. pulchella, Lev. 319—H. tenuis, var. cervino-plumbea, Jungh. 320—
H. similis, Berk. 321—Polyporus (Hexagona) decipiens, Berk.

TRAMETES: 322—Trametes lilacino-gilva, Berk. 323—T. cervina, Pers. 324—T. protea,
Berk. 325—T. lactinea, Berk. 326—T. floccosa, Bres. 327—T. picta, Berk. and Br.
328—T. Muelleri, Berk.

DAEDALEA: 329—D. gibbosa, Pers.

THELEPHORACEAE.

THELEPHORA: 330—T. terrestris, Ehr.

ASTEROSTROMA: 331—A. persimile, Wakef.

PuHiesiA: 332—P. reflexa, Berk.

STEREUM : 333—S. caperatum, Berk. and Mass. 334—S. elegans, Meyer. 335—S. mem-
branaceum, Fr. 336—S. illudens, Berk. 337—S. hirsutum, Willd. 338—S. vellereum,
Berk. 339—S. purpureum, Pers. 340—S. lobatum, Fr. 340a—S. tasmanicum, Berk.
341—S. (Hymenochaete) adustum, Lev. 342—S. (H.) villosum, Lev.

CLAVARIACEAE.
CLAVARIA: 343—C. cinerea, Fr.

TREMELLACEAE.

Hirneoia: 344—-H. polytricha, Mont. 345—H. auricula-judae, L.
AURICULARIA: 346—A. mesenterica. Fr.

GASTROMYCETES.
PHALLOIDEAE.

Puatius: 347—P. multicolor, Berk. and Br.
JANSIA: 348—J. rugosa.
ASEROE: 349—A. rubra, Labill.

NIDULARIACEAE.

CyatHus: 350—C. stercorareus, Det.
CruciBuLUM: 351—C. vulgare, Tul.

LYCOPERDACEAE.
Popaxon: 352—P. aegyptiacum, Mont. 353—P. Muelleri, Henn. 354—P. anomalum,
Lloyd.

Secotium: 355—S. melanosporum, Berk. 356—S. coarctatum, Berk.

CHLAMyYpboPUS: 357—C. Meyenianus, Berk.

PHELLORINA: 358—P. Delestrei, Dur. and Mont. 359—P. australis, Berk. 360—P. stro-
bilina, Kalch.

BatTarREA: 361—B. phalloides, var. Stevenit, Fr.

PotysaccuM: 362—P. pisocarpium, var. crassipes. 363—P. pisocarpium.

SCLERODERMA: 364—S. verrucosum, Bull. 365—S. flavidum, Ellis. 366—S. flavidum, var.
fenestratum, nov. var.

GEASTER: 367—G. fornicatus, Huds.

MycENASTRUM: 368—M. corium, Desv.

CatastoMa: 369—C. pedicellatum, Morgan. 370—C. anomalum, Mass. 371—C. hyalo-
thrix, Cke. and Mass.

BovisTELLA: 372—B. aspera. 373—B. australasiana.

Lycoperpon: 374—L. pusillum, Batsch. 375—L. pratense, Pers. 376—L. pyriforme,
Schaeff. 377—L. gemmatum, Batsch. 378—L. subincarnatum, Peck.

CatvaTIA: 379—C. lilacina, (Berk.). 380—C. crantiformis, Schw.

Mitremyces: 381—C. fusca, Berk.

60

WHITE-SPORED AGARICACEAE.

AMANITOPSIS.

253. Amanitopsis subvaginatus, n. sp.—Pileus up to 14 inch in diameter,
convex, “Ashy-Grey” (Dauthenay, pl. 358, Ton 3), mealy, edge striate. Gills
just reaching the stem, close, white, edge finely serrate. Stem, 14 inch long,
moderately stout, mealy white, solid, base a little bulbous. Volva marginate,
colour of pileus. Spores spherical, with a small pedicle, 75 to 9 ». On the
ground, usually in subclayey pockets in the Hawkesbury sandstone by the sides
of paths. Cremorne Point and Bradley Head, Sydney Harbour, March, April,
November, December (Miss Clarke, Watercolour No. 171).

Pileus ad 3:2 cm. latus, convexus, subcineraceus, farinaceus, margine striato.
Lamellae ad stipem assecutae, confertae, albae, marginibus subserratis.
Stipes ad 39 cm. altus, subrobustus, farinaceus, albus, solidus, ad basem
sub-bulbosus. Volva marginata, subcineraceus. Sporae subsphaericae,
Toye. GORI ia fe 26>)

MyYceEnNa.

254. Mycena epipterygia, Scop—We refer the following to this species,
though our plants are smaller and we have no note of a decurrent tooth to the
gills. Pileus and stem glutinous, and both when young in colour near Sulphine-
Yellow (Ridgway, pl. iv.), the pileus later near Dark Olive-Buff (pl. xl.).
Pileus 2 inch high, five-sixteenth inch in diameter, at first ovate conical, then
conico-campanulate, gibbous, apex darker, periphery paler, rugose. Gills
ascending, adnate, rather ventricose, moderately close, white. Stem up to
3 inches high, slender, hollow, a little strigose below. Spores 8x48 yp; no
cystidia seen. Attached to buried sticks, etc., Mount Lofty, S.A., June (Miss
Fiveash, Watercolour No. 13). (PI. ii., fig. 3.)

MARASMIUS.

255. Marasmius subinstitius, n. sp—The following seems allied to M.
institius, differing in the absence of umbilication, in the dark stem, and in the
presence of cystidia. Pileus $ inch in diameter, convex, occasionally reaching
; inch when more expanded, slightly coarsely rugose, pallid brownish, surface
matt. Gills adnate, distant, relatively few, alternate ones short, deep, colour of
pileus. Stem up to 14 inch high, blackish, like horsehair, finely villous, abruptly
leaving the matrix. Spores elongated, one end more pointed, 85x28 pw; a
few thick-walled cystidia with rough apices, 52 to 60x12 uw. On dead leaves,
sticks, etc., Mosman, Sydney, May, 1919 (Miss Clarke, Watercolour No. 205).
GP liz, figs.)

Pileus 3-62 mm. latus, convexus, subrugosus, pallido-subfuscus. | Lamellae
adnatae, distantes, subpaucae, pallido-subfuscae. Stipes ad 3-2 cm. altus,
subniger, similis equino-crini, villosus. Sporae elongate, 85 x28 »; cystidia
apicibus asperis.

256. Marasmius rugoso-eclegans, n. sp—We refer the following to a new
species. Pileus + to 3 inch broad, + inch high, at first rather conico-hemispherical,
then hemispherical or rather bell-shaped, slightly gibbous, coarsely rugose, surface
matt, edge turned in when young, near Brownish-Terra-cotta (Dauthenay, pl.
322, Ton 4), the ridges darker, brittle. Gills adnate, attached to a more or less
definite collar, distant, often short, about 15 in number, white to cream or
pinkish-white. Stem 4 to 2 inches or more long, hair-like, dark brown or Purple-
black (Dauthenay, pl. 345, Ton 3) except pallid to whitish just below the pileus,
smooth, abruptly piercing the matrix or (in the Dorrigo specimens) with a pad
of fluffy white mycelium at the base, the fallen leaves, twigs, etc., forming the
substratum on which it grows being covered with a pallid whitish or greyish

61

mycelium. Spores (?) elongated, broader at one end, 155x34 yp; in the
Dorrigo specimens some spores were seen 68x5:5 ». New South Wales:
Mosman, April (Miss Clarke, Watercolour No. 178); Narrabeen, February
(Herb., J. B. C., Formalin Sp. No. 274) ; Dorrigo, January.

The Dorrigo specimens differ from the other two collections in being some-
what taller (2 inches or more high) and in the colour of the pileus being more
reddish. The spores seen were doubtful, but if the figures given actually repre-
sent the spores of the plants in the different collections, then the difference in
dimensions would indicate that the Dorrigo ones belonged to a different species.

Pileus 6-9 mm. latus, 6 mm. altus, conico-hemisphaericus, deinde hemisphaericus
vel campanulatus, subgibbosus, rugosus, subfuscus ‘terra-cotta.’ Lamellae
adnatae, adjunctae collari, distantes, circiter 15, albidae. Stipes 1-2-5 cm.
altus, similis crinis, subniger, infra pileum albidus, glaber.

CANTHARELLUS.

257. Cantharellus cinereus, Fr., var. australis, var. nov.—This plant seems
to be an Australian representative of C. cinereus, but to differ from the typical
form sufficiently to warrant separation as a variety. Our specimens show a
general darker colour than those figured by Cooke, the stem does not so
gradually expand from below up, and the spores are slightly larger (8 to
8:5 x 5-2 to 6 ») than the measurements given by Massee (7x5 yp).

Pileus up to 14 inch in diameter, Warm Sepia (Dauthenay, pl. 305, Ton 1)
to Sepia (pl. 300, Ton 4), somewhat strigose, infundibuliform and opening into
the hollow stem. Gills greyish (Purplish-tinted White, pl. 6, Ton 4), decurrent,
markedly anastomosing, thick and irregularly crenate. Stem up to 14 inch
high, blackish (Neutral Tint, pl. 361, Ton 4, to Dark Neutral Tint, pl. 346,
Ton 4), hollow, often flattened, up to + inch thick. Spores 8 to 85x52 to 6 u.
In leafy mould under dense growth of trees, Bradley Head, Sydney, May, 1919
(Miss Clarke, Watercolour No. 203).

Pileus ad 3:9 cm. latus, ‘sepia,’ substrigosus, infundibuliformis, in stipem cavum
patens. Lamellae subcineraceus, decurrentes, crassae, anastomosibus,
crenatae irregulariter. Stipes ad 3:2 cm. altus, ad -6 cm. latus, subniger,
cavus. Sporae 8-8:5x 5-2-6 w. (PI. i., fig. 2.)

258. Cantharellus triangularis, n. sp.—Pileus 2 inch in diameter, convex,
with a broad very dark-brown umbo, the rest of the surface smoky-brown and
slightly striate. Gills thick, moderately distant, dingy pallid, rarely forking,
deeply decurrent. Total height # inch, of stem only 3 inch, stem moderately
slender, solid, later hollow, chocolate-brown, with a little white fluffy mycelium
at the base. Flesh pale chocolate. Spores elongated pear-shaped, 85 to
13-8x5 p, usually 85 to 105x5 ». On the ground, Neutral Bay, Sydney,
December 1, 1917 (Miss Clarke, Watercolour No. 173; Herb., J. B. C., Formalin
Specimen No. 295).

Pileus ad 1 cm. latus, convexus, umbone subnigro-fusco, fumoso-fuscus, sub-
striatus, lamellae crassae, subdistantes, fusco-pallidae, raro furcatae,
perdecurrentes. Stipes ad 1 cm. altus, subtenuis, solidus deinde cavus,
cacao-fuscus. Caro pallido-cacao-fusca. Sporae elongata-pyriformes,
SOI Oaxe a mm, (CEL ys tae Ss)

SCHIZOPHYLLUM.

259. Schizophyllum commune, Fr. Cooke, Handb. Austr. Fungi, No. 525
(all the States). New South Wales: Scone, October, in dying parts of Prickly
Pear (Opuntia inermis) ; Blackheath, November, on telegraph post, even on the
tarred part. Northern Territory: Darwin, April (Dr. Leighton Jones—a
laciniate form, S. multifidum—identified by Lloyd, No. 314).

62

LENTINUS.
260 (iii., 142). Lentinus fasciatus, Fr. New South Wales: Myall Lakes,
May.
LENZITES.
261 (iii., 153). Lenzites repanda, Mont. Queensland: Bunya Mountains,
October.

BROWN-SPORED AGARICACEAE.

FLAMMULA.

262 (i., 43). Flammula excentrica, Clel. and Cheel. New South Wales:
Kendall, March.

HEBELOMA.

263 (i., 26). Hebeloma subcollariatum, Berk. and Br. New South Wales:
Sydney, December; Narrabri, May, June. South Australia: On dung, Berri,
January; on dung, Mount Lofty, September, pileus near Ochraceous-Buff
(Ridgway, pl. xv.), gills when young near Hair Brown (pl. xlvi.), becoming
Saccardo’s Umber (pl. xxix.).

PURPLE-SPORED AGARICACEAE.
PSALLIOTA.

264 (i., 56). Psalliota campestris, (L.). In the Sydney Morning Herald
for May 25, 1921, it is recorded that a mushroom collected near Goulburn
measured 42 inches in circumference, 13 inches in diameter, and had a stem
23 inches in thickness. In the Sydney Evening News for April 10, 1913, another
mushroom taken near Spring Vale, Victoria, measured 564 inches in circum-
ference and 27 inches round the stalk, and weighed 13 Ibs. 2 ozs. The species
is not recorded in either case, but the specimens were probably the same as
those usually sold in the shops, viz., a form of P. campestris.

265. Psalliota arvensis, Schaeff. Cooke, Handb. Austr. Fungi, No. 306
(New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania). South Australia: Adelaide, August.

266 (i., 57a). Psalliota arvensis, var. iodoformis, Clel. and Cheel. New
South Wales: Sydney, February and May; also in a clump, April, the pilei
showing scattered, fine, warty, brownish scales, giving a speckled appearance.

STROPILIARIA.
267 (1., 61). Stropharia semiglobata, Batsch. (S. stercoraria, Fr.). South
Australia: Adelaide, August; Mount Lofty Ranges, November; Mount Com-
pass, October. New South Wales: Scone, October.

PSILOCYBE.

268 (i., 73). Psilocybe ceres, Cooke and Massee. New South Wales:
Sydney, April, June, pileus near Morocco Red (pl. i.), gills near Mummy
Brown (pl. xv.); Kangaroo Valley, June, pileus near Vinaceous Rufus in parts
(pl. xiv.), gills near Prout’s Brown (pl. xv.) Victoria: Craigie, June, in debris
at foot of red gums in creek, rare (E. J. Semmens, No. 41). South Australia :
Waterfall Gully, April, September, amongst decaying wood, pileus variously
tinted, in places Apricot Orange (pl. xiv.), gills irregularly clouded with tints of
Saccardo’s Olive (pl. xvi.) ; amongst grass under trees and pines, Glen Osmond,
June, August; National Park, May.

HyYpHOLOMA.

269 (i., 67). Hypholoma fragile, Peck. New South Wales: Sydney, March.
Colour tints noted (Dauthenay). Pileus in the centre near Madder Brown,

03

Brownish Terra-cotta (pl. 334, Ton 4), paling towards the periphery, which is
quite light; pileus near Pale Yellowish Flesh (pl. 68, Ton 4), shading into but
usually lighter than Snuff Brown, Deep Bistre (pl. 303, Tons 1 to 4). Gills
near Pale Blush (pl. 137, Ton 4), but with a pinkish tinge. Spore mass more
purple than Otter Brown (pl. 354) and Neutral Tint (pl. 361).

270 (i., 63). Hypholoma fasciculare, Huds. New South Wales: Bullah-
delah, August.

BLACK-SPORED AGARICACEAE.

CopRINUS.

2/1. Coprinus micaceus, Fr. Clel. and Cheel, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales,
xli., 1917, p. 854. South Australia: Adelaide, August, September, October.

PANAEOLUS.

272 (i., 75). Panaeolus ovatus, Cooke and Mass. New South Wales: 16
miles from Taree, June.

POEVRORA CHA:

BoLeETUS.

273. Boletus subglobosus, n. sp. The whole plant irregularly globular like

a puffball, up to 1 inch long with a stem # inch long. Puileus convex, nearly

hemispherical, a little irregular, Yellow-Green (Dauthenay, pl. 16, Ton 1), crack-

ing into small, darker (Otter-Brown, pl. 354, Ton 3) villose scales. Hymenial
surface convex with a deep sulcus round the stem, hidden by the filmy pale
veil, which breaks to expose the small dingy yellow (paler than Dauthenay’s

Yellow-Green) pores. Stem 3 inch long, attenuated downwards, rather slender,

4 inch thick, yellow-green like the pileus. Flesh shows slight reddish stains

where eaten by insects. Slight bluish tint when cut. Spores greenish-yellow

microscopically, obliquely oval, one end more pointed, 85 to 10x5 yp. Bradley

Head, Sydney, April, 1917 (Miss Clarke, Watercolour No. 196).

Pileus convexus, subhemisphaericus, subirregularis, flavo-viridis, villoso-
squamulosus. Velum filamentosum. Hymenium convexum poris parvis
fusco-flavidis et circum stipem cum sulco. Stipes ad 1:9 cm. altus, deorsum
attenuatus, subtenuis, flavo-viridis. Sporae 85-10x5 yw. (PI. 1. fig. 4.)

STIPITATE POLYPORES.

274. Polyporus (Ganodermus) lucidus, var. japonicus, Fr. Clel. and Cheel,
Jour. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, li., 1918, No. 1. New South Wales: Bulla-
delah, August, spores oval, thick-walled, 105x68 »; Kendall, on Casuarina
stump, August.

275. Polyporus (Petaloides) rhipidium, Berk. Clel. and Cheel, Journ. Proc.
Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, li., 1917, No. 11, p. 480. Queensland: Gympie, June.
New South Wales: Sydney, March, pileus and pores probably nearest to Fleshy
White (Dauthenay, pl. 9, Ton 4); August, at base of Eucalyptus; October,
pileus pale fawnish or yellowish when fresh, pores whiter, spores elongated,
44 to 55x25 to 3 w; Kurrajong, August; Thirroul, April; Kendall, August.
Victoria: 1918 (C. C. Brittlebank). South Australia: Mount Lofty, June.

276. Polyporus (Petaloides) megalaporus, Mont. Clel. and Cheel, loc. cit.,
No. 20. New South Wales: Near Wauchope, February, identified by Lloyd
(No. 298).

277. Polystictus (Petaloides) flabelliformis, Klotzsch. Clel. and Cheel, loc.
cit., No. 28. New South Wales: Kendall, March.

278 (iii., 173). Polyporus (Merismus) anthracophilus, Cooke. Forming a
huge mass amongst fallen leaves and debris near the base of Eucalyptus

64

viminalis, Labill., Mount Lofty, June, pileus chiefly Fuscous and Fuscous Black
(Ridgway, xlvi.), passing into Buffy Brown (xl.), pores near to but a little
paler than Maize Yellow (iv.), weight 6 lbs., spores oval, 53x35 »; at base
of stumps, National Park, S.A., May, spores elongate, 5 to 8x22 u.

279 (iii., 176). Polyporus (Spongiosus) rufescens, Pers. We have col-
lected further fruiting specimens from the base of the cultivated olive pre-
viously mentioned and from the base of another olive, half a mile away, at
Beaumont, near Adelaide. This is probably a destructive fungus to the olive,
though the first tree mentioned shows as yet little ill-effects, after nearly five
years’ observation. In the case of the second tree, however, a large stem above
the affected site is dying back. Fruiting bodies, emerging after heavy rain,
have been found in January, March, June, July, and December. Spores
abundant, elliptical, 5-2 to 55x35 p.

280. Polyporus (Spongiosus) Schweinitzii, Fr. Clel. and Cheel, Jour. Proc.
Roy. Soc., N.S. Wales, li., 1917, No. 50, p. 490. New South Wales: Mosman,
May, spores 5x3 pw; Chatswood, June (Miss Clarke). South Australia: At
base of several living trunks of Eucalyptus obliqua, L’Her., near Kuitpo Forest,
May, spores white, subspherical to elliptical, 8 », 8x5 to 65 up.

281 (iii, 177). Polyporus (Spongiosus) Albertini, Mueller. New South
Wales: Bullahdelah, August, spores numerous, mostly pale yellowish-brown,
some nearly colourless, 52x 3-4 4; Kendall, March, inside base of burnt trunk,
numerous brown spherical spores, 4 ». In our previous two records, the spores
measured about 8x6 uy, 1.e., were nearly twice as large as in the present two
records. In all, the plants resembled so closely P. Schzweinitzw that they could
only be distinguished by the coloured spores. In one of the present and in one
of the previous records, the stems were moderately slender.

282 (ii., 88). Polyporus (Ovinus) basilapiloides, (McAlp and Tepper). We
have been fortunate in finding a number of freshly-developed sporophores of
this interesting species at Monarto South, S.A., in May, 1921, and in showing
that these arise from a deeply-buried true sclerotium on which is superadded
the false sclerotium of mycelium and sand hitherto thought to be the only
underground development. The following is our description of the fresh plants:
—Pileus convex, up to 31 inches in diameter, the centre shallowly pitted by
raised brown lines, the depressions paler, edge of the pileus crinkled and
irregular—the pitting is in some cases little marked, the lines being replaced
by rugosities. Pores up to 4 inch long, adnate, shortened externally, whitish,
orifices small. Substance tough. Stem above ground short, 3 inch, 4 inch
thick, colour of the cap, smooth or reticulated, covered with sand, sometimes
as a distinct stem passing down for an inch into the sand and mycelium; the
stem is succeeded by irregular swollen masses up to 3 inches in diameter with
irregular constrictions, up to 6 inches long, composed of mycelium and sand,
without a definite crust; below this false sclerotium is an irregularly rounded
er elongated true sclerotium (sizes in inches 34 x 23, 3x24, and 2x14), with
an outer dark crust of mycelium and sand, on section somewhat moist, sticky,
cutting like firm cheese, the colour of doughy brown bread, not showing “cells”
like the sclerotium of P. mylittae, on chewing without taste but with some
minute sand grains incorporated in it. One true sclerotium weighed 123 oz.;
a pileus with false sclerotium 28 ozs. Spores white, elongated, narrow,
14x45 ». Colour tints noticed: Pileus at edge near Cinnamon Orange (xxix.),
or Mikado Brown (xxix.) to Vinaceous Cinnamon (xxix.) in centre; in other
plants near Cinnamon Buff (xxix.) between the reticulations, which are Mikado
Brown; stem colour of cap. In sand in mallee country recently burnt over,
Monarto South, May 28, 1921. (PI. ii., fig. 2.)

65

283. Polystictus (Lentus) xanthopus, Fr. Clel. and Cheel, loc. cit.,. No. 69.
Queensland: Imbil, August; Barron Falls, Kuranda, September (Mrs. Fraser).

284. Polyporus (Lentus) arcularius, Batsch. Clel. and Cheel, Joc; cit.,
No. 70. New South Wales: Landsdowne, September; Wombeyan. Caves,
November, spores 6 to 9x 3 to 3:4 m, confirmed by Lloyd (Nos. 625 and oe
Tuggerah, October, spores 7 to 85x2-25 u.

POLYPORUS.

285 (ii., 178). Polyporus eucalyptorum, Fr. New South Wales: Near
Bullio, via Mittagong, on dead upright trunk, November, spores 85 x6 uy.
South Australia: Locality not noted, pores Citron Yellow (pl. xvi.), spores
95x48 to 52 »; on Eucalyptus viminalis, Labill., Mount Lofty, June, spores
subspherical, thick-walled, 125 x9, 9 p.

286. Polyporus ochroleucus, Berk. Clel. and Cheel, Jour. Proc. Roy. Soc.
N.S. Wales, li., 1918, No. 125. New South Wales: Scone, October. ' South
Australia : Kuitpo, May.

2874 (Gait 79): eae gilvus, Schw. New South Wales: Kew, January,
confirmed by Lloyd (No. 447); on a log, Macquarie Pass, August, identified
by Lloyd (No. 427)—“a form with pubescent surface, entitled to a name” ;
Kendall, December, identified by Lloyd (No. 439), who says, “You seem to
have two forms (or species) with you, one with hard brittle flesh, which
corresponds with our plant, the other like this with softer flesh. Perhaps this
merits a name, but it would be hard to distinguish it.” Wh

288. Polyporus fumosus, Pers. Clel. and Cheel, Jour. Proc. Roy: Soc.
N.S. Wales, li., 1918, No. 123. Queensland: Imbil, August; Bunya Mountains,
October, identified with some doubt by Lloyd (No. 597). New South: Wales:
Jenolan Caves, November.

289. Polyporus dryadeus, Pers. Clel. and Cheel, Jour. Proc. Roy. Soc.
N.S. Wales, li., 1918, No. 145. South Australia: Mount Lofty, on Eucalyptus
obliqua, L’Her., May, June, July, usually some feet up the trunk, substance
cuts easily when fresh and turns slightly yellowish-brown, spores elliptical, one
side a little flattened, just tinted, spores 8x5 to 6 p», no setae seen.

290 (ii1., 184). Polyporus sessilis, Murrill. Queensland: Imbil, August.

POLYSTICTUS. Te
291 (ii., 169). Polystictus sanguineus, L. Fijt (Mrs. Lucas). Queens-
land: Imbil, August. New South Wales: We have a form from Malanganee,
August, intermediate between this species and P. cinnabarinus (Lloyd, No. 387).
292 (i1i1., 170). Polystictus cinnabarinus, Jacq. Queensland: Fraser Island
(Capt. S. A. White); Bunya Mountains, October. New South Wales: Bullah-
delah, August; Nevertire, May. South Australia: Kuitpo Forest, May; Mount
Lofty, June; on dead peach branch (Prof. Howchin) ; Quorn, August; Beltana,
August; on fallen logs of Callitris, etc., Blinman, August; Ooldea, September,
on “burn-burn,” native peach, Fusanus acuminatus, R. Br. (Mrs. Daisy Bates,
pera ve Black) : ; on dead branch of living cultivated cherry, Norton Stummit,
December; on dead branches of willow, Wellington, November ; Encounter
Ray, January ; on walnut tree, Port Elliot, February (G. H. Dutton) ; —Cur-
rency Creek, January. (T. D. Campbell). Western Australia: Roebourne (R.

Glen and H. G. Meares). \
293 (iii., 171). Polystictus cervino-gilvus, Jungh. Queensland: Imbil,
August. New South Wales: Bullahdelah, August (Lloyd, No. 587); Kendall,
August; Bellinger River, June (Mr. Smithers—‘‘a trametes form,” Lloyd,

INoi538)):
c

66

294. Polystictus versatilis, Berk. (sometimes placed under Jrpex or
Trametes, Lloyd). Cooke, Handb. of Austr. Fungi, No. 766, Queensland, New
South Wales, and as P. venustus, No. 772, Queensland, Western Australia.
Queensland: Stradbroke Island, September (Lloyd, No. 589); on dead stump
of Callitris columellaris, F. v. M., Bribie Island, Moreton Bay, September
(Lloyd, No. 494). New South Wales: On stump of fallen Callitris robusta,
R. Br., violet tint when fresh, Narrabri, June (Lloyd, No. 539); on fallen
Eucalyptus branch, Scone, May (Lloyd, No. 327—“old, indurated, and denuded,
P. venustus, Berk., in this condition”); Kendall, August (Lloyd, No. 580).

295. Polystictus (Hexagona) luteo-olivaceus, B. and Br. Cooke, Handb.
Austr. Fungi, No. 800 (Queensland). Queensland: Imbil, August, Lloyd, No.
741). New South Wales: Boatharbour, near Lismore, August (Lloyd, No.
395); on fallen log, Malanganee, August (Lloyd, No. 396); near Wauchope,
February (Lloyd, No. 304); National Park, May.

296. Polystictus subcongener, Berk. Lloyd, Mycol. Notes, No. 61, p. 898,
fig. 1578, and No. 62, p. 935, fig. 1710. Syn., Daedalea subcongener, Berk.,
in Cooke, Handb. Austr. Fungi, No. 867. Bellinger River, June (Mr. Smithers).
Lloyd, in describing and figuring our specimens, says he can only consider this
species as a form of the common P. occidentalis with scabrous rather than
hirsute surface and larger pores. He points out that the surface is short and
subscdbrous, not velutinate as described.

297 (iii., 160). Polystictus elongatus, Berk. Queensland: Bunya Moun-
tains, October (confirmed, Lloyd, No. 596). New South Wales: Comboyne,
September (confirmed, Lloyd, No. 561); on dead trunk of Pinus, Centennial
Park, Sydney, November (confirmed, Lloyd, No. 471).

298 (iii., 164). Polystictus occidentalis, Klotzsch. We have specimens from
Fiji (Mrs. Lucas), identified by Lloyd (No. 562 and No. 578, the latter a rather
thick form).

299 (i1., 165). Polystictus (Trametes) Persoont, Mont. Lloyd has iden-
tified Fiji specimens (No. 571, Mrs. Lucas) for us.

300 (i1., 167). Polystictus flavus, Klotz. Queensland: Enoggera, September
(confirmed, Lloyd, Nos. 598, 609); Imbil Forest, August. New South Wales:
Kangaroo Valley, June (confirmed, Lloyd, No. 543).

301 (iii, 168). Polystictus versicolor, L. Queensland. Pileus chiefly
between Cinnamon Buff and Clay Colour (Ridgway, xxix.), with darker zones
and some bands with a greyish tinge; hymenium near the same colour; Bunya
Mountains, October (identified by Lloyd, No. 605, who considers this a distinct
and constant form, meriting a name). New South Wales: Bellinger River,
June (Mr. Smithers; confirmed, Lloyd, No. 536); Mosman, June, base reduced
to a narrow stalk (Lloyd, No. 544); Kangaroo Valley, June, a Cladoderris
form identified by Lloyd (No. 537); Macquarie Pass, August, ‘a pale form
close to the form called Polystictus hirsutulus, Schw.” (Lloyd, No. 389); near
Robertson, August, departing from the usual form in “the more glabrous pileus
and darker pore mouths (Lloyd, No. 390); Kendall, August, a thick form,
identified by Lloyd, No. 497; on telegraph poles, causing rotting, Mosman,
May, and Neutral Bay, October, identified by Lloyd, “an unusual trametoid
form” (No. 470). South Australia: On telegraph post and stumps, Mount
Lofty, June, July; on cut stump, a dark greyish-brown form (“a colour form,”
Lloyd, No. 649), Mount Lofty, June, shed spores sausage-shaped, slightly
curved, 53 to 7x2 »; Morialta Falls, October.

302. Polystictus nigricans, Lasch. A dark form of P. versicolor. Dark,
nearly blackish, specimens collected by A. M. Lea, at Wilmot, Tasmania, in
january, 1918, and recorded by us in iti., 168, as P. versicolor, Lloyd (No. 739)

67

has been identified as this form. New South Wales: Kendall, ‘‘a thick form with
surface smoother and darker than usual” (identified by Lloyd, No. 497).

303. Polystictus ochraceus, Pers. New South Wales: Jenolan. Caves,
November, numerous slightly curved spores, 6 to 68x 2, (identified by Lloyd,
No. 615); ?, young plants, Blue Mountains, May (Lloyd, No. 201).

304. Polystictus hirsutulus, Willd. Queensland: Bunya Mountains, October ;
Imbil, August. New South Wales: Dorrigo, January; Kendall, August;
Landsdowne, September; Comboyne, September; National Park, March, May.

FoMES.

305 (iii, 185). Fomes robustus, Karst. Queensland: Stradbroke Island,
Moreton Bay, September, 1919, numerous subspherical hyaline spores, 6 to 7 up,
no setae; Imbil State Forest, near Gympie, August, 1920, occasional oval hyaline
spores, 5:6 », a few stout brown setae. South Australia: Mr. Formby, per
Prof. Howchin, numerous hyaline subspherical spores, 7 to 75 pw, no setae, con-
text when young near Yellow Ochre (xv.), when old near Russet (xv.); at
base of sweet almond, Beaumont, Adelaide, May, a few spores hyaline or nearly
so, 6 to 65 pw, no setae, context near Sudan Brown (iu.), younger parts near
Yellow Ochre (xv.); at base of Rhamnus alaternus, L., Beaumont, January,
spores subspherical, hyaline, 5-5 to 6 m, no setae; on dead mother stump of
coppiced Euc. odorata, F. v. M., National Park, May, numerous subspherical
or a little irregular hyaline spores, 5-5 to 6:5 p, occasionally 8 », no setae; on
Euc. oleosa, F. v. M., Monarto South, May, context Sudan Brown (iii.).

306 (ii1., 185). Fomes setulosus, Petch. South Australia: At base of Euc.
rostrata, Schl., National Park, May, a few spherical hyaline spores, 65 p»
numerous brown pointed setae with swollen bases, 19x65 pw, context a little
darker than Raw Sienna (1i1i.).

307. Fomes Calkinsii, Murrill. Lloyd places this species, described from
Florida, under Section 69 of his Fomes monograph (context brown, setae none,
spores hyaline). He has identified specimens for us (No. 621) collected on the
Runya Mountains, Queensland, in October, 1919, and adds, “A very unusual
plant, but the same, as far as I can note, as our Florida species.” ‘The numerous
spores present in some of our plants vary in colour from nearly hyaline to
markedly brown, are subspherical to pear-shaped, and measure 5:2 to 6 w, 6x 5:2 p,

68 x6 pw, 85x52 ». Setae were not seen. Further specimens were collected
on Casuarina torulosa, Ait., at Imbil, near Gympie, Queensland, in August,
1920. Spores pallid to yellow-brown, irregular to rather triangular, 5-5 ‘to 7-2 pu,
no setae seen.

308. Fomes torulosus, Pers. This species comes under Section 70 of
Lloyd (context brown, setae present, spores hyaline). In identifying specimens
(No. 622) for us, from the Bunya Mountains, Queensland, collected in October,
1919, Lloyd says that the salient features are the soft velutinate pore. mouths,
the ventricose setae, and the pileus ridges. Specimens were abundant in this
locality and were usually applanate. The largest specimen measures 16 inches
laterally, 11 inches in depth, and 6 inches vertically. Most of the spores are
deeply tinted brown, but some are pale, subspherical, 4 to 6 w in size. . The
setae are brown, ventricose at the base, with acuminate apices, and are often
bent at an obtuse angle near the base, 31x85 p, 24x10 p.

309 (iii., 191). Fomes durissimus, Lloyd, Mycol. Notes, No. 62, February,
1920, p.. 943. The plants from the Bunya Mountains, appearing under Fomes
pseudosenet (No. 191) in our third paper, Lloyd has now named as the above
(Lloyd, Nos. 493, 563).

310. Fomes rimosus, var. casuarinae, Clel. and Cheel, Botany of Pilliga
Scrub, Bull. 14, For. Comm. Gite INESS Wales, 1920. New South Wales: On

68

Cadellia pentastylis, F. v. M.; State Forest, Nandewar Range, near Narrabri,
September, dark-brown subspherical spores, 5 » (G. Burrow); on Acacia
cheelii, Maiden, Killarney State Forest, near Narrabri, September, old context
near Argus Brown Gol: miiis),) GG: Burrow). South Australia: On mallee
(Eucalyptus oleosa, F. v. M.), near Overland Corner, January, spores brown,
oval, 7x 5:3 p.

311 (iii., 186). Fomes conchatus, Pers. New South Wales: On firewood,
Sydney, August; Bullahdelah, August.

312. Fomes applanatus, Pers. Clel. and Cheel, Jour. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.
Wales, li., 1918, No. 114. New South Wales: Macquarie Pass, August (Lloyd,
No. 408); on dead river Casuarina, Jenolan Caves, November.

313. Fomes dpplanatus, var. leucophaeus, Mont. Clel. and Cheel, loc. cit.,
No. 114a, Queensland: Imbil State Forest, August, spores thick-walled, slightly
rough or smooth, 8 to 9x53 p.

°314. Fomes applanatus, var. nigrolaccatus, Cooke. Clel. and Cheel, loc. cit.,
No. 114d. Queensland: On fallen Casuarina (?), Bribie Island, September, with
distinct black laccate crust in places.

HEXAGONA.

315. Hexagona Gunn, Hook. Clel. and Cheel, Jour. Proc. Roy. Soc.
N.S. Wales, li., 1918, No. 158. New South Wales: Bumberry, October, identified
by Lloyd (No. 452). Victoria: On living trunk of Eucalyptus elaeophora,
F, v. M., Ararat, May (E. J. Semmens, No. 84). South Australia: On dead
upright trunk of Eucalyptus, Adelaide Hills, July, shed spores with a large
round or oval globule, 175 x7 p, identified by Lloyd (No. 672); Hindmarsh
Valley, Encounter Bay, January.

316. Hexagona rigida, Berk. Clel. and Cheel, loc. cit., No. 162. Queens-
land: Stradbroke Island, September, identified by Lloyd (No. 594).

317. Hexagona tenuis, Hook. Clel. and Cheel, loc. cit., No. 159. New
South Wales: National Park, May; Myall Lakes, May (thickish form).

318. Hesxagona tenuis, var. pulchella, Lev. Small pored form of H. tenuis.
New. South Wales: Dorrigo, January.

319, Hexagona tenuis, var. cervino-plumbea, Jungh. Northern Territory:
Darwin, April (Dr. L. Jones), identified by Lloyd (No. 321).

320. Hexagona similis, Berk. Clel. and Cheel, loc. cit., No. 163. Queens-
land: Bunya Mountains, October, identified by Lloyd (Nos. 592, 593).

321. Polyporus (Hexagona) decipiens, Berk. Clel. and Cheel, loc. cit.,
No. 147. New South Wales: On dead tree, Taronga Park, Sydney, June.

TRAMETES.

_ 322. Trametes lilacino-gilva, Berk. Clel. and Cheel, loc. cit., No. 90. New
South Wales: Comboyne, September; Bullahdelah, August ; Bumberry, October ;
National Park, May. Western Australia: Kalgoorlie. South Australia: Kuitpo,
May:

323. Trametes cervina, Pers. Syn., T. mollis, Fr., in Lloyd’s opinion.
New South Wales: Malanganee, August, identified by Lloyd (No. 402), who
says these specimens are “the same thin form as from Brazil, a little different
from our (1.e., the U.S.A.) plant. This form is a better Polystictus.” Queens-
land: Bunya Mountains, October, identified by Lloyd (No. 632), spores
10:5 x 3-6 p.

324 (iii1., 196). Trametes protea, Berk. Queensland: Enoggera, September ;
Imbil, near Gympie, August. New South Wales: Kendall, August.

325 (iii., 195). Trametes lactinea, Berk. New South Wales: Bullahdelah,
August. Queensland: Fraser Island (Capt. S. A. White).

69

326. Trametes floccosa, Bres. Northern Territory: Darwin, April (Dr.
L. Jones), numerous elongated very pale-brownish spores, 12 to 142x5 4g,
rather like those of P. ochroleucus, identified by Lloyd (No. 315), who says
(Letter 67, Note 664) that our specimens are darker as regards surface and
context colours than the Ceylon ones, but have the same texture, pores, and
spores.

327. Trametes picta, Berk. and Br. Cooke, Handb. Austr. Fungi, No. 843
(Queensland). Queensland: Bribie Island, September, on fallen wood, iden-
tified by Lloyd (No. 496).
328. Trametes Muelleri, Berk. Cooke, Handb. Austr. Fungi, No. 842
(Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria). Queensland: Enoggera, September,
identified by Lloyd (No. 607). We cannot make out any essential specific
differences between our specimens of 7. picta and T. Muelleri.

DAEDALEA.

329. Daedalea gibbosa, Pers. (as Trametes). We have specimens from
New South Wales identified as above by Lloyd (No. 481), shed spores white,
elongated, oblique, 7 to 85 x3 p.

THE EEPHORAGE AE.

THELEPHORA.

330 (1ii., 209). Thelephora terrestris, Ehr. South Australia: Under Pinus
insignis, Dougl., equal P. radiata, D. Don, Kuitpo, May, spores brown, knobby,
Obs) oe Vaey Th

ASTEROSTROMA.

331. Asterostroma persimile, Wakefield. New South Wales. Specimens
have been identified by Miss Wakefield through C. G. Lloyd. In her letter to
Mr. Lloyd, Miss Wakefield says that the Australian plants differ in micro-
scopical details from the type, and that she was at first in doubt whether to
refer them to her own species or to hold them as different, but afterwards con-
cluded that they were a variation of the species. New South Wales: Neutral
Bay, Sydney, September and October, star-shaped bodies pale brown, rays 5,
each 43 to 52x 3:5 pw, spores warty tuberculose, 5-2 to 7 » (associated with a
yellow Corticium and Stereum membranaceum); Katoomba, on fallen logs,
December, rays up to 42x 3-4 w, forming a felt (Lloyd, No. 253); Tuggerah,
October, friable, spores irregular, whitish, 7 » (Lloyd, No. 254).

PHLEBIA.

332. Phlebia reflexa, Berk. Lloyd considers that the following are probably
synonyms :—P. (Merulius) strigoso-zonatum (Schweinitz); P. hispidula, Berk. ;
Auricularia Butleri, Massee; A. sordiscens, Ces.; and Stereum lugubre, Cooke
(Letter 46, p. 6). Following Lloyd’s suggestion, we place the genus in the
Thelephoraceae. New South Wales: Berry, October, when moist soft and
subgelatinous, hymenium much wrinkled into irregular folds pruinose with the
spores, colour varying from different tints of brown to yellow-brown and purple-
brown, not unlike the colours of a bruise, the growing edge when moist whitish
from mycelial threads, hymenium drying blackish, reflexed surface dark brown,
somewhat zoned, edge whitish, basidia tetrasporous, spores G2 toes ou:
Milson Island, Hawkesbury River, February, identified by Lloyd (No. 149),
and June; Hill Top, October, identified by Lloyd (No. 72), shed spores white,
sausage-shaped with an oblique apiculus, 7 to 85x35 «; Sydney, April and
December; Lisarow, June and August; Kew, October. South Australia: Mount
Lofty, April; National Park, June and August.

70)

STEREUM.

333 (iii, 211). Stereum caperatum, Berk. and M. New South Wales:
Rullahdelah, August, cladoderris form with lateral stem; Dorrigo, January;
Kangaroo Valley, June, approaching Cladoderris, lateral stem (Lloyd 548). Fiji:
Mrs. Lucas, lateral and central-stemmed specimens (Lloyd, 574; “intermediate
between Stereum and Cladoderris’’).

334 (i1., 212). Stereum elegans, Meyer. In his monograph on the Stipitate
Stereums, Lloyd divides his Section 4 into two divisions, viz., those growing on
the ground and those on wood. In the former occur S. elegans, densely caespitose
and imbricate, often forming rosettes, and S. nitidulum, with a mesopodial stipe
and rooting base. We have recorded the latter for Terrigal, New South Wales
(Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, xli., 1916), the identification having been made
by C. G. Lloyd. We find, however, that single individuals of S. elegans (e.g.,
amongst our Mount Irvine specimens) may show a rooting base and be indis-
tinguishable from our example of S. nitidulum. As regards those growing on
wood, S. pergamaneum, which we have recorded on Lloyd’s identification for
Pittwater, New South Wales, is like S. nitidulum, but grows on rotten wood and
has no rooting base, whilst S. Miquelianum is similar but thinner, more slender
and delicate, and was originally described as growing on branches. Lloyd has
identified for us as this species, specimens growing on an Eucalyptus trunk at
National Park, South Australia. In the same locality, typical S. elegans is pre-
sent, forming extensive rosettes on the ground near the bases of Eucalypts, and
often associated with the base of the stem or near superficial roots. We there-
fore think it possible that these three species—S. pergamaneum, S. nitidulum,
and S. Miquelianum—which we have recorded or now record for Australia, may
really belong to S. elegans, the records indicating unusual forms or sites of
growth. New South Wales: Bullahdelah, August. Victoria: Craigie, June
(E. J.“Semmens, Nos. 55, 56). South Australia: Mount Lofty, April, June.
July; National Park, April (near fallen wood), August. Spores 5 to 6x 3:5
to 4 p.

335 (iii, 219). Stereum membranaceum, Fr. Brown, rough setae, narrow
clavate to acuminate, 85 to 240x9 to 19 »» New South Wales: Bullahdelah,
August. South Australia: Mount Lofty, May, June; Kuitpo, May.

336 (111.,218). Stereum illudens, Berk. Inthe Milson Island specimens there
are numerous rough subclavate setae projecting only slightly above the hymenium,
but we have been unable to pick up any in the Bumberry and South Australian
specimens. New South Wales: Milson Island, Hawkesbury River, August,
setae, 17 x 3:5 p, 31 to 35 x 3:5 4; The Rock, July; Bumberry,,September (Lloyd,
406). Victoria: Ararat, July (E. J. Semmens, No. 135). South Australia:
Mount Lofty, May (spores 9 x 4 »), July, September; Flinders Range, Quorn,
August.

337 (iii., 214). Stereum hirsutum, Willd. South Australia: Mount Lofty,
May, June, July; Belair, June.

338 (iii., 216). Stereum vellereum, Berk. New South Wales: Bumberry,
on Lucalyptus tereticornis, Sm., September, identified by Lloyd (No. 376);
Narrabri, November; Hawkesbury River, June. Victoria: Ararat (E. J. Sem-
mens, No. 136). South Australia: Cherry Gardens (Prof. Osborn); Belair,
June; Mount Compass, October; Mount Lofty, June (Lloyd, No. 668) and
September, spores elongated, occasionally slightly curved, 5-2 to 5-7 x2 to 25 p.

339. Stereum purpureum, Pers. Cooke, Handb. Austr. Fungi, No. 1018
(New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia, Western Australia).
Queensland: Bunya Mountains, October, spores pear-shaped, 5-2x 2:5 p», iden-
tified by Lloyd (No. 601).

e

7\

340 (iii., 217). Sterewm lobatum, Fr. Syn., S. fasciatum, Sch., and when
young, S. concolor, Jungh (Lloyd). Queensland: Imbil, August. New South
Wales: Mosman, April, spores 5to6x 22m; near Wauchope, February, identified
by Lloyd as the form S. concolor, Jungh. (No. 371). We also found typical
S. lobatum with S. tasmanicum on the Bunya Mountains, October.

340 (a). Stereum tasmanicum, Berk. Syn., S. concolor, Berk. (Lloyd).
Queensland: Bunya Mountains, October, identified by Lloyd (No. 630). These
plants are hardly distinguishable from S. lobatum—a little thicker, uniform in
colour or with slight zoning, more velvety surface, hymenium a little less pale.
Typical examples of both have been found in the one locality (Bunya Moun-
tains). Probably there is only the one species in Australia.

341 (iii, 221). Stereum (Hymenochaete) adustum, Lev. Syn.,(?) S.

— villosum, Lev. (Lloyd). Queensland: Imbil, August, dark-brown acuminate

setae with blunt or sharp ends, 30 to 45 x 3-5 to 5:3 p.

342. Stereum (Hymenochaete) villosum, Lev. Clel. and Cheel, Proc. Linn.
Soc. N.S. Wales, xli., 1916, p. 864. New South Wales: Kendall, March, brown
setae, 25 to 42x5 p» (Lloyd, No. 367); Malanganee, August; Bullahdelah,
August; Kurrajong Heights, August, brown-pointed setae, 448 to 66x 83-to
1S Sanat base:

CLAVARIACEAE.

CLAVARIA.

343. Clavaria cinerea, Fr. Cotton and Wakefield, Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc.,
vi ADO ps 178-7 Clela and) CheeliProc. Linnyooe, N-Sa Wales, xin 1916; p1868
(N.S. Wales). We have collected further specimens of this variable species in
New South Wales, and now in South Australia. The plants vary in shape from
almost simple clubs to much branching from a stout base, and though mainly
greyish in colour have been noted as showing tints from pale lilac-fawn and
pallid pinkish to greyish-brown; spores subspherical 7 to 85. New South
Wales: Sydney, May and December; National Park, July; South Australia:
Mount Lofty, June. The greyish-brown plants figured (pl. 11., fig. 4) have unusually

‘small spores (5 »), even when compared with other collections from the same

locality (7 to 85 w). Our notes as regards these specimens are as follows :—
Colour greyish, gregarious, up to 2 inches high, sometimes almost simple with
acute forking and subdivision into teeth at the apices, sometimes branching from
near the base, stem slightly rugose, spores subspherical, 54. Mount Lofty, June
(Miss Fiveash, Watercolour No. 22).

TREMELLACEAE.
HIRNEOLA.

344. Hirneola polytricha, Mont. Clel. and Cheel, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.
Wales, xli., 1916, p. 865. Queensland: Bunya Mountains, October. New South
Wales: On Ficus platypoda, A. Cunn., var. mollis, Narrabeen, July, spores
curved, 13 to 14x52 »—some of these specimens, after cooking, were eaten
by one of us (J. B. C.), but proved to be very tough and almost tasteless, and
did not become properly mucilaginous; on fallen log, Wingham, November ;
Mummulgum, December; on dead Ficus rubiginosa, Desf., Cremorne, Sydney,
December ; Cremorne, June; on dead fallen branch of Erythrina, Mosman (form
approaching H. auricula-judae); National Park, May.

345. Hirneola auricula-judae, L. Clel. and Cheel, loc. cit., p. 865. New
South Wales: Bulli Pass, November; on fallen Ficus, Mummulgum, December.

346. Auricularia mesenterica, Fr. Cook, Handb. Austr. Fungi, No. 1143
(Queensland, Western Australia). New South Wales: Casino, October (D. J.
McAuliffe), identified by Lloyd; Boatharbour, near Lismore, August, identified
by Lloyd (No. 411, equal A. lobata, Swartz.).

72

GASTROMYCETES.
PHALLOIDEAE.
PHALLUS.

347. Phallus multicolor, Berk and Br. Cooke, Handb. Austr. Fungi, No.
1178 (New South Wales and Queensland). Stem and pileus together 6 inches
long. Pileus 14 inch high, more than 1 inch broad below, conical, tapering
upwards so as to be less than 4 inch broad above, irregularly crinkled-lacumose,
covered with the Olive-brown (Dauthenay, pl. 299, Ton. 4) gleba, attached at
its summit to the pinky-orange edge of a compressed orifice, $ inch broad, which
opens into the stem, inner surface of pileus pinkish and rugulose, substance of
pileus thin. Veil dependant, 14 inch long, Salmon-pink (pl. 74, Tons 1 to 3),
with fine meshes, attached to the stem 4 inch from its apex. Stem attenuated
below and also gradually upwards, finely lacunose, orangey-pink above shading
into whitish in the volva, hollow (nearly 4 inch in diameter), with about 3 tiers
of cells in the walls. Volva irregularly globose, 2 inches high, 14 inch broad,
whitish with a tint paler than Pale Reddish Lilac (pl. 131, Ton 1) with a thick
jelly-like base. Spores 35x18 py. New South Wales: National Park, May,
1919 (Miss Clarke, Watercolour No. 208; Herb., J. B. C., Formalin Specimen
SO on (Clad lets saree: Jt)

JANSIA.

348. Jansia rugosa, vide Lloyd, Synop. of known Phalloids, 1909; Clel. and
Cheel, Jour. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, xlix., 1915, p. 203 (New South Wales).
We have collected further specimens of this rare phalloid as follows :—Mosman,
Sydney, August (near the same site as specimens previously recorded) ; Bradley
Head, Sydney, May, 1918, spores 34x18 » (Formalin Sp. 300, Miss Clarke
Watercolour No. 192—here reproduced as pl. ii., fig. 1); and North Dorrigo,
January, 1918, on a rotten log (Formalin Sp. 299), described at the time as
follows :—Whole plant 2 inches or more in height, with a musty but not foetid
smell. The volva elongated, cylindrical, # inch high, splitting into three or four
blunt irregular lobes. Stem and pileus 14 inch or considerably more in length,
the basal half inch of the stem whitish with obscure polygonal markings, the
rest tapering to a blunt point, gleba reddish-brown to pinkish attached along
the lines of an irregular meshwork on the stem corresponding to the polygonal
areas seen below. Spores rod-like, 3x 1-5 p.

ASEROE.

349. Aseroe rubra, Labill. Clel. and Cheel, Jour. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.
Wales, xlix., 1915, p. 208. New South Wales: Kendall, December; Sydney,
December.

NIDULARIACEAE.

CYATHUS.

350. Cyathus stercorareus, Detoni. Clel. and Cheel, Jour. Proc. Roy. Soc.
N.S. Wales, 1., 1916, p. 106. New South Wales: Kendall, December, spores
25 »; Cowra, December, spores thick-walled, 14 to 19 ». South Australia:
Fullarton, Adelaide, July, spores thick-walled, spherical to oval, 18 », 17-8 x 142 p,
30 x 25 yp, etc.

CRUCIBULUM.

351. Crucibulum vulgare, Tul. Clel. and Cheel, loc. cit., p. 107. New
South Wales: On pine cone, Moss Vale, June, spores 8x5 yw. Victoria: On
rotting bark and on trunk of Eucalyptus hemiphloia, F. v. M., Craigie (E. J.
Semmens, Nos. 63 and 58), spores 7-5 to 10:5x36 to 4 ». South Australia:
The Hermitage, October (Prof. Osborn), identified by Lloyd (No. 380), spores

75

85 to 12x4y4; Mount Lofty, June, on wood, sporangia 870 x 700 p», spores 7 to
75x5 p, and on manure by roadside, spores 107 to 125 pw, occasionally
21x45 uy, identified by Lloyd (No. 652).

LYCOPERDACEAE.
PODAXON.

352. Podaxon aegyptiacum, Mont. Clel. and Cheel, Jour. Proc. Roy.
Soc. N.S. Wales. New South Wales: 20 miles east of Broken Hill, April,
spores elliptical, dark bronze-brown, 13 to 13:8x9 to 10 ». South Australia:
Qodnadatta (Prof. Osborn), spores dark purple, 9 to 12x8 to 104 uy.

353. Podaxon Mueller, Henning. Lloyd, Lycop. of Austr., p. 5. We
have a specimen collected at Kurrawang, Western Australia, by Mrs. A. F.
Cleland in 1918. Spores near subspherical, yellowish, 105 to 12x85 to 104 up.

354. Podaxon anomalum, Lloyd, Mycol. Notes, No. 64, September, 1920,
p. 992, fig. 1776. We sent C. G. Lloyd half of the single specimen collected,
and he has kindly described and figured it as above (No. 549). Unfortunately
we have not noted the locality, which was probably the Murray River area
between the North-west Bend and Overland Corner, but may have been Western
New South Wales. Lloyd in his notes says that this really belongs to a new
genus, intermediate between Podaxon and Secotiwm. “It is a Secotium in
general appearance, but Secotium does not have powdery gleba. The dehiscence
cannot be told surely from the specimen, but the peridium is soft and fragile,
and seems to flake off in the manner that Cauloglossum is said to dehisce. This
is entirely at variance with any Podaron. The columella, thick at the base,
rapidly tapers and does not reach the apex of the peridium. This is another
feature of which I know no similar case. The gleba is light brown, floccose,
powdery. The microscope resolves it into pale yellow, globose or elliptical,
smooth spores, 10 to 12x12 to 14 pw, which are mixed with abundant hyaline
hyphal fragments, apparently the remains of the basidia. It does not have true
capillitium. We place it provisionally in Podavon on account of the gleba nature,
and Podaxon is one of the few puff-ball genera in which basidial remains are
found in the gleba.”—Lloyd. We note that the spores are thick-walled.

SECOTIUM.

355. Secotium melanosporum, Berk. Cooke, Handb. Austr. Fungi, No.
1220 (Western Australia). We have collected this rare species in one locality
only, viz., Monarto South, in South Australia, though in several places within
a mile of each other. The identification has been confirmed by Lloyd (No. 734).
Lioyd, in his Lycoperdaceae of Australia, states that the only specimen known
then was the type collected by Drummond in the Swan River Settlement “over
sixty years ago.” We have described our specimens as follows :—At first conico-
campanulate, the pileus then expanding and convex up to 25 inches in diameter,
hearing a general close resemblance to a common mushroom. The upper-surface
pallid whitish and a little fibrously striate; the substance, up to ~ inch thick,
composed of small irregular cells, 14 to 4 mm. in diameter, the walls pale greyish
lined with olive. A fine whitish veil covers the under-surface of the cap, which
when removed or ruptured shows the shrunken walls of the cells of the substance
which are in places elongated in lines, suggesting the incipience of gill formation,
the depth of these cells being very shallow. A thin film of tissue covers the
cellular hymenial area, this being thickest over the stem. The stem itself is
up to 34 inches high and 4 inch in diameter in the middle, solid, attenuated
upwards, the root rounded, slightly bulbous, pallid whitish, fibrously striate,
extending through the cap to the upper-surface. The flesh turns reddish when
cut. Hymenial area, Bistre (pl. 29). Spores purplish-brown, oval with an

74

apiculus, 7 to 9x52 to 75 yp. Partly buried under sand, September, 1920,
May, 1921.

356. Secotium coarctatum, Berk. Cooke, Handb. Austr. Fungi, No. 1219
(Western Australia). We came upon this species at Narrabri in June, 1919,
and the identification has been confirmed by C. G. Lloyd (No. 528). Lloyd
points out that this is probably the first collection made since the type was found
and that the specimens agree exactly with the type and Berkeley’s figure of it.
We described the specimens when fresh as follows :—Whitish, somewhat quadri-
lateral but broader (4 inch +) above than below (4 inch —) ; stem short, whitish,
continued to the top of the pileus; substance pallid greyish-brown;
spores whitish, smooth, 5-2 to 7 »; a peculiar strong fragrant smell (the type
is described as strong-scented ).

CHLAMYDOPUS.

357. Chlamydopus Mevyenianus, Berk. Clel. and Cheel, loc. cit., p. 109.
South Australia: Miller Creek, between Mount Eba and North-South Railway
Line, August, spores yellow-brown, spherical, finely rough, 64 to 75 » (T. D.
Campbell).

PHELLORINA.

358. Phellorina Delestrei, Dur. and Mont. Lloyd, Lycoperd. of Australia,
p. 10, pl. 27; Clel. and Cheel, Jour. Proc: Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1., 1916, p. 110.
We have a further Australian specimen obtained by Mr. T. D. Campbell at
Miller Creek, between Mount Eba and the North-South Line, in Central Aus-
tralia, August, 1921. Our plant has a conically rooting stem, surrounded by
compacted sand, extending 2 inches below the ground surface; spores round or
a little irregular, yellow-brown, smooth, 64 to 7 up.

359. Phellorina australis, Berk. Syn., Xylopodium australe, Berk. Lloyd,
Lycop. of Austr., p. 11, fig. 7. We have received, through Prof. Osborn, a
specimen collected by Capt. S. A. White in Central Australia. The plant is
somewhat turbinate, 15 inch high and 14 inch wide, pallid, somewhat irregularly
rugose above and contracted into a short stem below which is surrounded by a
collar, probably the remains of the volva. Spores rough, 5 to 6 w. Colour of
spore mass a little lighter than Dresden Brown (pl. xv.). Lloyd describes his
specimen as having a bright ochraceous gleba, but in our specimen the colour is
cecidedly darker.

360. Phellorina strobilina, Kalch. Syn., Areolaria strobilina, Kalch.
Cooke, Handb. Austr. Fungi, No. 1318, Queensland; Xylopodium ochroleucum,
Cke. and Massee, Cooke, loc. cit., No. 1324, Queensland. We have a small
specimen, of which the locality has not been noted but is probably Central South
Australia, which agrees exactly with the plate (27, fig. 3) given by Lloyd in his
Lycoperdaceae of Australia. The peridium, 1 inch in diameter and # inch high,
is broken up into thick angular scales. The stalk is 25 inches long, slightly
curved, attenuated upwards, 4 inch below and three-sixteenths inch thick above,
clothed with adpressed scales, their free edges upwards. The spores are pale
brown, warty, rather irregular, 5 to 7 w. The following have been identified
for us as Phellorina strobilina by C. G. Lloyd. We have collected these large
specimens on four occasions in the same locality, twice evidently from the same
mycelium, in May, September, and October, after heavy rain. None of our
specimens were mature. The largest measured 113 inches high, of which

+ inches were above ground. The peridium was oval, 44 inches high and 3 inches
wide, white, covered with large peeling ligulate scales, adherent below at various
levels and recurved and reflexed above where they have split off. The peridial wall
was g inch thick, white, surrounding the gleba mass, which was slightly irregularly

75

oval, 33 inches x 23 inches, white and soft. The woody stem was 7 inches long, a
little constricted at the ground level (diameter, % inch), 14 inch thick below the
peridium, 14 inch below the ground level, with a thick hard crust, brownish
tinted below the cuticle in the upper part, covered above ground with firm ligulate
scales, firmer than on the peridium, white inside and moderately firm, solid, the
lower end rounded and connected with an indefinite mass of mycelium spreading
through the sand. Moderately strong smell. Younger specimens show some
points of difference. From one-third to one-quarter of the plant is below the
ground. The peridium is at first clavate. The ligulate scales are in some
adherent above by a broad base, sometimes an inch long, hanging down and
overlapping, contracting from the base to a sharp apex, up to 14 inch long.
The scales on the stem appear more as coarse thick bands of fibrils. The wall
of the peridium is 4 inch to 4 inch thick. Sphores spherical, nearly smooth,
65 to occasionally 8 »; some short threads, 3:2 to 48 w thick, occasionally
apparently septate. Monarto South, South Australia.

BATTAREA.

361. Battarea phalloides, var. Stevenii, Fr. Clel. and Cheel, Joc. cit., p. 111.
South Australia: Monarto South, May, volva of two layers, an outer thin crust,
darkish externally, and an inner thicker more fibrous layer; Murray Bridge,
July (Mr. Ashby); Nankeri, on sandy rise in fallow, May (Prof. Osborn).
Western Australia: Kurrawang (Mrs. A. F. Cleland).

POLYSACCUM.

362. Polysaccum pisocarpium, var. crassipes, D. Cand. Clel. and Cheel,
loc. cit., p. 113. Queensland: Stradbroke Island, September. | New South
Wales: Eulah Creek, Narrabri, June, stem 4 inches long, 14 inch thick, spores
shaggy-warty, 9 to 105 ». South Australia: Mount Lofty, July, up to 45 inches
high, often with several ‘‘heads’’; Beltana, August, spores shaggy, 8 to 11 uy.

363. Polysaccum pisocarpium (variety not identified). New South Wales:
Bullahdelah, August.

SCLERODERMA.

364. Scleroderma verrucosum, Bull. Clel. and Cheel, Joc. cit., p. 116.
New South Wales: National Park, May, spores shaggy, 10:5 to 12 »; Sydney,
May, December. South Australia: Our record (in the above paper) of this
species for South Australia is doubtful, the plants being immature and perhaps
really S. flavidum. We have not recently found any specimens.

365. Scleroderma flavidum, Ellis. Lloyd, The Lycop. of Austr., etc., p. 14.
‘Clel. and Cheel, loc. cit., p. 114. New South Wales: Kendall, March and
December (latter specimens containing a nest of small ants). South Australia:
Murray River, unopened, doubtfully this species, spores dark brown, very shaggy,
12 to 15-5 p, usually 14 w; locality not noted, spores densely echinulate, 13 to
17-5 «4; Mount Lofty, July, spores shaggy, 72 to 10-7 »; Kuitpo, May, spores
densely echinulate, 11 to 145 y, confirmed by Lloyd (No. 780). Victoria:
Ararat, May (E. J. Semmens, No. 91).

366. Scleroderma flavidum, var. fenestratum, nov. var. In our description
of some specimens of Scleroderma found in the Pilliga Scrub (Bot. of Pilliga
Scrub, Bull. 14, For. Comm. N.S. Wales, 1920, p. 19), we refer to the peridium
being supported on a fenestrated stem or root, sometimes several inches long.
As these plants grow in sandy soil, this probably enables the peridium to project
ahove the shifting sand. The fenestrated portion consists of broad, rugose,
often flattened, intercommunicating strands of mycelium, tailing off below into

76

mycelial threads. To distinguish this form, that we have now frequently met
with, we propose the above varietal name. This form is also of interest as, in
one case, having manifested parasitic features of some economic importance.

Victoria: In 1917, Mr. C. C. Brittlebank, of the Department of Agriculture
of that State, sent us specimens of a Scleroderma, which we now refer to this
variety, found at Dandenong in June, which had killed off a number of rose
trees. He says, “There is not the slightest doubt as to the parasitic nature, as the
mycelium was traced right through the outer coverings into the cambium and
underlying tissues.” The specimen sent was unopened with a thick peridium
supported on an irregular reticulated mass of thick mycelial strands forming
a mass larger than the peridium itself, spores shaggy, acicular, dark brownish,
12 to 15:5 pw, hyphae 7 p» thick.

South Australia: Eagle on Hill, June, spores densely echinulate, 11 »; an
unexpanded plant from near Overland Corner (this locality is doubtful) is
probably also this variety—the thick-walled peridium is supported on a very
irregularly rugose somewhat flattened stem without fenestrations, 3 inches long
and 3 inch thick in places, spores densely echinulate, 12-2 to 15:5 »; an old
specimen from Overland Corner, December, in which the peridium has burst
into stellate, sometimes subdivided lobes, supported by a short thick stem, # inch
long and 4 inch broad, attached below by a constricted neck to a mass of
itregularly to nobby, somewhat flattened, not definitely fenestrated compacted
mycelium forming a root below ground, 1 inch long and broad, spores “smooth”
(probably the result of weathering, the specimen having been long exposed),
spherical, yellow-brown, 5:2 »; Eagle on Hill, another collection, identified as
S. flavidum by Lloyd (No. 692), peridium splitting into up to 8 lobes, root
3 inches long x 14 inch wide, dense but spongy above, passing below into inter-
lacing mycelial strands, spores mulberry-like, 9 to 12 up.

GEASTER.

367. Geaster fornicatus, Hudson. Clel. and Cheel, Jour. Proc. Roy. Soc.
N.S. Wales, xlix., 1915, p. 224. New South Wales: In brush, Malanganee,
August, spores warty, 35 to 4 w, confirmed by Lloyd (No. 419).

MycENASTRUM.

368. Mycenastrum corium, (Guersent) Desv. Clel. and Cheel, Jour. Proc.
Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, L., 1916, p. 116. South Australia: Glen Osmond,
December, spores rough, 10:7 4; Morphett Vale, October; Berri, January,
spores shaggy, 125 to 14 wu. New South Wales: Eulah Creek, Narrabri, June,
spores slightly rough, 105 to 12 p.

CATASTOMA.

369. Catastoma pedicellatum, Morgan. Spores dark brown, coarsely warted
and mulberry-like, 68 to 8:5 ». Pedicels 17 to 26 p, tapering, sometimes curved.
Capillitium barely tinted to brown, occasionally branching, noted as septate in
one collection, 2:5 to 3-5 » thick. New South Wales: Sussex Island, Clarence
River, October (identified by Lloyd); Narrabri, June, spores with a septum
near the head (Lloyd 527); Yanco area, November. South Australia: Port
Elliot, August.

370. Catastoma anomalum, Massee. Clel. and Cheel, loc. cit., p. 117.
New South Wales: Hawkesbury River, January, March; Dubbo, June, spores
spherical to oval, finely rough to smooth, 42 to 5 » (Lloyd 78).

371. Catastoma hyalothrix, Cooke. New South Wales: Milson Island,

77

Hawkesbury River, February, spores smooth, 4 » (this size seems unduly
small), identified by Lloyd (No. 139).

BOvVISTELLA.

: 372. Bovistella aspera. Clel. and Cheel, loc. cit., p. 117. Spores 32
to 65 p, pedicels 85 to 19 » New South Wales: Near Barellan, August;
Junee, October; Blayney, December; Milson Island, Hawkesbury River, Octo-
ber. Wictoria 7 “Ararat May (Bs) \.- Semmens, Nos, 97. 98,100). | South
Australia: Beltana, August, capillitium coloured; Monarto South, September.

373. Bovistella australasiana. Clel. and Cheel, loc. cit., p. 118. Spores
smooth, 42 ». New South Wales: Sydney, June, pedicels 17 y, capillitium
3:5 w; Murwillumbah, April, pedicels, 7 to 10-4 » (Lloyd 138).

LYCOPERDON.

374. Lycoperdon pusillum, Batsch. Clel. and Cheel, Jour. Proc. Roy.
Soc. N.S. Wales, L., 1916, p. 120. Spores spherical to sometimes oval, 3:5 to
5 p, usually smooth; capillitium pale brownish. New South Wales: Hawkes-
bury River, February; Narrabeen, March; Blue Mountains, May, spores finely
tuberculately warty; Berrima, July; Murwillumbah, April; Narrabri, June;
Eulah Creek, near Narrabri, November; Baan Baa, January, distinct stumps
of pedicels, very rarely pedicels 14 » long; Coolamon, May. Victoria: Ararat
May (E. J. Semmens, No. 96). South Australia: Mount Lofty, April.

375. Lycoperdon pratense, Pers. Clel. and Cheel, loc. cit., p. 121. Spores
3:2 to 5 w; capillitium white, sometimes septate, 3:2 to 5 ». Victoria: Ararat,
May, occasional pedicels 15 long (E. J. Semmens, No. 95). South Aus-
tralia: Beaumont Common, near Adelaide, June, up to 14 inch high, the upper
part laterally expanded, contracting into the stout cellular base from which a
few white mycelial threads radiate, covered with slightly biscuit-coloured mealy
warts, strong smell; Eagle on Hill, June; Mount Lofty, April; Kuitpo Forest,
May.

376. Lycoperdon pyriforme, Schaeff. Clel. and Cheel, loc. cit., p. 122.
Queensland: Bunya Mountains, October, spores smooth, 3:5 », capillitium brown,
3:5 to 4 p.

377 (iii., 232). Lycoperdon gemmatum, Batsch. New South Wales:
Malanganee, August, spores slightly rough, 3:8 »; Lisarow, June.

378. Lycoperdon subincarnatum, Peck. Clel. and Cheel, loc. cit., p. 121.
New South Wales: National Park, on wood, July; Lisarow, June.

CALVATIA.

379 (iit., 233). Calvatia lilacina (Berk.). Spores warty or only slightly
rough, 3-6 to 65 ». New South Wales: Sydney, April, spores warty, 5 to 7 n;
Port Macquarie, January, capillitium 5 p» thick (Lloyd, 488—“unusual in the
surface breaking up areolately into plates”). South Australia: Eagle on Hill,
April; Victor Harbour, November (J. K. Samuel) and January (breaking up
areolately into plates); Flinders Range, Quorn, August.

380. Calvatia cranuformis, Schw. Syn., C. Gardneri, Berk. Clel. and
Cheel, loc. cit., p. 123. Lloyd, as a result of an examination of a number of
Australian specimens, has come to the conclusion that C. Gardneri is conspecific
with C. craniiformis. Spores smooth, 3:4 to 5 »; capillitium brownish, 3-5 up.
New South Wales: Sydney, April (under Lantana, Lloyd, 484) and June
(Lloyd, 151); near Wauchope, February, elongated pear-shaped in form.

78

MITREMYCES.

381. Mitremyces fuscus, Berk. Clel. and Cheel, loc. cit., p. 125. New
South Wales: On clay bank, Cambewarra Mountain, Nowra, June, spores
whitish, warty, 14x85 ». South Australia: On clay bank and on flat ground,
Mount Lofty, July, spores whitish with slight whitish clay tint, elliptical to a
little irregular, finely rough, 11 to 12:5 and occasionally 14x 7-5 to 8 yp.

EXPLANATION. OF PLATES.

IP AE als

Phallus multicolor, B. and Br., and section of stem, { natural size.

Cantharellus cinereus, var. australis, var. nov., with section, natural size.

Cantharellus triangularis, n. sp., and section, enlarged 12 times.

Boletus subglobosus, n. sp., with section, natural size.

Marasmius subinstitius, n. sp., natural size on leaf, with pileus, underside of pileus,

and section enlarged 23 times.

, 6. Amanitopsis subvaginatus, n. sp., with section, cross-section of gills, and spore, natural
size (except spore).

, 7. Marasmius rugoso-elegans, n. sp., with section, underside of pileus, and spore (?),
natural size (except the spore?).

Water-colours all by Miss Phyllis Clarke, Sydney.

mw h

Prate II.

Fig. 1. Jansia rugosa, enlarged twice.

,» 2. Polyporus basilapiloides, MacAlp. and Tepper, with upper-surface of pileus, two-

thirds natural size.
, 3. Mycena epipterygia, Scop., two-thirds natural size.
» 4. Clavaria cinerea, Fr., two-thirds natural size.
Water-colours of Figs. 1, 3, and 4 by Miss Phyllis Clarke; and of Fig. 2 by Miss Fiveash,

Adelaide.

79

THE FLORA AND FAUNA OF NUYTS ARCHIPELAGO AND

THE INVESTIGATOR GROUP.
No. 5.—THE LIZARDS.

By Joan B. Proctor, F.Z.S., British Museum (Nat. Hist.).
eadi Agri I2571923)1
(Communicated by Professor I. Wood Jones. )

Very little is known about the island fauna of this region, and the present
collection, which was made chiefly in Nuyts Archipelago and the Investigator
Group, is therefore interesting. Many of the mainland species which one would
have expected to find in the islands were not obtained, and probably do not
occur. Examples of twelve species were collected, several of which are ex-
tremely rare, and one of which is new. The latter I have named after Prof.
Wood Jones, who has kindly presented the whole collection to the British
Museum.

For the sake of brevity, the only references given are:—(1) The original
description of the species. (2) Boulenger’s, in his Catalogue of Lizards.”
(3) Zietz’s Catalogue of Australian Lizards,© to which useful work the reader
is referred for information on the distribution and synonomy of each species
and the bibliography of the subject.

GECKONIDAE.

1. Phyllodactylus marmoratus. Gray, Cat., 1845, p. 149; Boulenger, B.M.
Cary Liz volun. Sc. plavalre tee On) Zietz Cat Aust) Wize py eo:

Two specimens from South Neptune Island and five from Black Rock.
Occurs also on Franklin Island, Pearson Islands, and Price Island. Already
known to inhabit Kangaroo Island; it has a wide distribution on the mainland.

PYGOPODIDAE.

2. Delma fraseri. Gray, Zool. Misc., 1831, p. 14; Boulenger, op. c., vol. i.,
paztos. Zietz-op: 6. px 192:

Three specimens from St. Francis Island. Known from all parts of
Australia.

o1 Liolis burton... (Gray IZ 5.) 1834) p. 134) Boulenger, op. G.) vol. 1.)
PEZA7 seZietz, ope. p. 193)

One specimen from St. Francis Island, beautifully marked“ with five dark
longitudinal bands above; six cream-coloured bands beneath, with a series of
fine cream-coloured speckles between each. Scales in 21 rows.

Known from all parts of Australia and New Guinea.

i AGAMIDAE.

4. Amphibolurus decresu. Dum. and Bibr., Erp. Gen., 1837, vol. iv., p. 472,
pe imaniotie i beulengerm op ic), vol.ia p. soo) \Zietz,-op. c.) py 196.

A male and female of this very rare species were caught on Pearson Island.
The British Museum possesses but two specimens, both males.

The new male has longer legs, which, when adpressed, reach to between
the eye and the nostril, and a longer tail, more than twice the length of head

) Brit. Mus. Cat. Liz., 1885-87.
(2) Rec. S. Austr. Mus., i. (3), 1920.
(3) Brit. Mus. Cat., var. E.

80

and body. Its colouration is striking; almost black above with a dorso-lateral
and lateral. series of golden elongated spots; throat golden reticulated with
bluish-grey; a large black area on chest, continuing in a point almost to the
vent, and produced along the under-surfaces of the arms. “The female is
beautifully variegated, with a light salmon-pink on dark brown, with series of
dorso-lateral and lateral spots, or broken stripes as in the male, but continuing
in bright longitudinal bands down the tail; throat marbled with grey, the rest
of the lower surfaces immaculate cream colour. [The species is very abundant
on Pearson Island, but has been seen on no other islands—F. W. J.]

SCINCIDAE.
2 eas git). aceps Ani Mus. Paris, iv., 1804, p. 192; Boulenger,
op.,¢., Vol. iti., p. 135; Zietz, op. 203.

Three Soceacne ‘from recnig: ebue and one from Franklin Island.

All are handsomely marked, and those from Greenly Island had evidently
the under-surfaces brick-red in life, with blue throats marbled with black. The
head-shields are extremely variable, particularly the frontal, which may be in
contact with the frontonasal, or widely separated from it by the internasals.

The British Museum has a specimen from Kangaroo Island, the nearest
locality to those recorded above. The species has a very wide distribution.

6, Lygosoma (Liolepisma) Bae Dumwand Bibs, Erp Geneve
1339) ip. /L7);,) Boulenger,| 0p. 6.0 pi 20s Zeltz HOP cA DytZOs:

One specimen from Pearson eRe

This charming skink was until recently only known from Tasmania. The
British Museum has received no specimens since 1887, when the Catalogue was
published.

The new specimen is particularly well marked, being olive, with a black
vertebral streak flanked on each side by a series of round black spots. It has
also a light-spotted dark dorso-lateral band edged by a light and a dark lateral
streak’ The tail is annulated with small olive and black ocelli; the lips and
lower parts are turquoise-blue. The dorsal scales are tricarinate.

7. Lygosoma (Homolepida) wood-jonesii, n. sp.
Material—An adult female and two half-grown specimens.
Locality—St. Francis Island.

Diagnosis —Allied to the Western Australian L. gastrostigma, Blgr., 4) from
which it differs chiefly in having smaller eye and ear openings, a shorter inter-
parietal shield, more widely expanded median subcaudals, 28 instead of 26 rows
of scales, and in colouration.

“Description. —Body very elongate; the distance between snout-tip and fore
limb goes twice and two-thirds in the distance between axilla and groin in the
adult, just over twice in the half-grown specimens. ‘Tail about as long as head
and body.

Snout moderate; obtusely pointed. Eye small, about as deep as the sixth
upper labial; lower eyelid scaly. Nostril pierced in a single nasal which forms
a suture with its fellow; a vertical groove behind the nostril; as in 2.
branchiale and L. gastrostigma. Ear opening very small, with one lobe
anteriorly. Frontonasal broader than long, forming a suture with the frontal;
praefrontals separated from each other, sometimes widely; frontal two-thirds
broad as long, longer than its distance from the snout-tip, in contact with first
and second supraoculars; frontoparietals two-thirds as long as interparietal,
which separates the parietals. Loreals small, square; 2 praeoculars, 3 supra-
oculars; 6 superciliaries; 2 series of suboculars (the inner of minute scales),

() Boulenger, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1898, p. 222, pl. Ivii.

81

the outer interrupted by the sixth upper labial, 8 upper and 6 lower labials,
3 pairs of nuchals, 28 smooth scales round the middle of the body, the two
median rows largest. No enlarged praeanals. Median subcaudal plates strongly

dilated transversely, being more than half the width of under-surface of tail,
~ and twice the width of bordering scale-rows.©

Limbs short; the length of the hind limbs equals the distance between the
fore limb and anterior corner of eye or more (to second labial); third and
fourth toes equal, or third a little longer, 12 or 13 lamellae beneath the fourth
toe, 10 or 11 beneath the third finger.

Upper-surfaces dark greyish-brown, uniform, each scale narrowly edged
with black. Lighter beneath, each scale also dark edged. Traces of rust-colour
about the anal region of the adult female.

8. Lygosoma (Hemiergis) peronu. Fitz., Neue Classif. Rept., 1826, p. 53;
Bowlenger No pares voln tip sZoy. | Zietz, ope. p. 215)

Specimens from Streaky Bay (mainland), South Neptune Island, Black
Rock, St. Francis Island, Pearson Island, Price Island, and Flinders Island.

Two specimens (Streaky Bay and St. Francis Island) show the typical form
of colouration, in which the dorsal area is uniform or speckled with black. The
rest are strongly marked with a vertebral paired series of black dots, which may
be confluent into a single vertebral streak. So striking is this character, that
_if it were not for the exceptions mentioned I should be inclined to consider that
tliese insular specimens belonged to a distinct race.

Slight variations of form occur, one specimen being unusually elongate,
the distance from axilla to groin being three times that from fore limb to
snout-tip.

OD 7 (Hemiergis) decresvense! » Pitz.) Neue’ ‘Classit: (Rept), 1826, p. 53;
BoOulengser, /op wen voles Gp O27; \Zietz, (oplic. p26)

One specimen of this rare skink from Flinders Island. The British Museum
has only four specimens, one of which is from Kangaroo Island.

10. L. (Rhodoma) frosti. Rhodoma tetradactyla, Lucas and Frost, Proc.
Roy. Soc. Vict. (n. ser.), vol. vi1., 1895, p. 268, and Rep. Horn Expd., ii., 1896,
Pe lAZs ple xeon S OME rosie ZAletzZ, opec. prvZil/.

Specimens from Streaky Bay (mainland), Flinders Island, and South
Neptune Island.

This extremely rare and interesting skink was first discovered in Central
Australia. The only two specimens in the British Museum are from Murray
River, South Australia. i

The digits of the Southern specimens compared with the plate of the type
of L. tetradactyla, appear to be longer and more slender, particularly the third
finger and toe. It is possible that the two may be distinct varieties or geo-
graphical races.

11. L. (Rhodoma) punctatovittatum. Gtnther, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (3),
vol. xx., 1867, p. 47; Boulenger, op. c., vol. iii., p. 335; Zietz., op. c., p. 216.

One specimen of this extremely rare skink from Flinders Island. The British
Museum has only the type-specimen, received in 1866; the new individual agrees
with this in every detail.

12. Ablepharus lineo-ocellata. Dum. and Bibr., Erp. Gen., vol. v., p. 817;
Boulenger, op. c., vol. iii., p. 348; Zietz, op. c., p. 220.

One very young specimen from St. Francis Island.

The dorsal ocelli are well marked.

() In L. gastrostigma these plates are but one-third the width of the tail, and once and
a half times the width of the bordering scales; moreover, they are scale-shaped, whereas in
L. wood-jonesu they are shape of the ventrals of a snake.

(6) Specific name preoccupied.

THE FLORA AND FAUNA OF NUYTS ARCHIPELAGO AND .
THE INVESTIGATOR GROUP.

No. 6—THE DIDELPHIAN MAMMALS.

By Frepertc Woop Jones, D.Sc., F.L.S.,
Professor of Anatomy in the University of Adelaide.

[Read April 12, 1923.]

Hitherto, no member of the didactylous section of the marsupials has been
found on any of the islands, and probably there is no hope that any of the small,
rare, carnivorous forms may yet find island sanctuary in Nuyts Archipelago or
the Investigator Group. It is not remarkable that the smaller waterless islands
should lack the little carnivores; but it is rather surprising that they should be
absent from the larger land masses. In this connection it 1s worth noting that
even Kangaroo Island holds out little prospect of being the home of any of the
rare didactyla. Mr. May, the ranger of Flinders Chase, an observant man,
and a life-long trapper, only remembers to have seen on one occasion, and
that when a small boy, an animal which appears to have been Dasyurus viver-
rinus. I know of no record of any species of Sminthopsis or Phascogale from
Kangaroo Island nor from any of the islands of the Bight.

Of the syndactylous section, certain bandicoots and wallabies have already
been obtained and studied, and those that have so far been dealt with have
proved to be of the greatest interest.

The mammals hitherto described from the islands (present series of papers,
No. 2, vol. xlvi., pp. 181-193) might possibly be said, by critics favouring such a
form of argument, to be mere waifs—creatures which had come to inhabit the
islands when these were already completely severed from the mainland. The pos-
sibilities of the dispersal of rats are well known, and Leporillus jonesi might by
some be regarded as being an immigrant to the Franklin Islands. But with the
wallabies the case is very different. There can hardly be an alternative to the
supposition that they are part of the original mainland fauna, and that they
occupied their present site when it was a portion of the southern shores of the
continent. If only for this reason then the larger didelphian forms hold out
the possibility of being creatures of exceptional interest. Unfortunately we
are only dealing with a remnant to-day—several species have become extinct
within the memory of the present generation—and of these exterminated crea-
tures no trace whatever seems to be left, not even a skin, or a skull, remains
preserved in any collection.

THE FRANKLIN ISLAND BANDICOOT.
Isoodon nauticus (Thomas, 1922).

No examples were seen during the short daytime visit to the Franklin
Islands in November, 1920. The presence of a bandicoot was suspected, how-
ever, and during the first night (January 9, 1922) spent camped on the western
island, it became very evident that speculations made about the fauna of an
island visited only at noon are liable to rude upsets when the stay is prolonged
after nightfall. When night comes on, the Franklin Islands wake up. At
noon, a few shallow depressions scratched at the roots of herbage may make
one feel fairly confident of the presence of bandicoots; but at dusk, the hurrying

83

and yet unhurried little forms that run from one tuft of vegetation to another
make the whole island appear alive with small animals. Some are Leporillus
jonest and some are bandicoots, and it is difficult at twilight to distinguish the
one from the other. The main difference between the two animals from the
point of view of behaviour is that the bandicoots seem to be almost fearless,
whilst the rats are extremely shy. On several occasions bandicoots came boldly
to the hands of members of the party who offered them such delicacies as bread
and jam, and throughout the night they ran freely about the camp regardless of
iis human occupants. Although they appear to live on terms of perfect goodwill
with the Leporillus, they are, like all bandicoots, excessively pugnacious among
themselves; and most of those seen or caught had ragged ears, and incomplete
tails, the results, most probably, of internecine fights. Only two examples were
met with in which the tail tapered to its undoubted original tip. They fight
desperately when placed together in a cage; but one put into the enclosure
occupied by an Jsoodon obesulus was killed by the heavier mainland animal
before it could be rescued.

For the most part they live in the thick tangles which the strands of
Tetragonia implexicoma make around low vegetation; but on several occasions

Fig. 1.
Left ear of a male adult specimen of Jsoodon nauticus. Twice natural size.

they were noticed to retreat into the holes of mutton birds. They also live all
over the plateau of the island in the thick clumps of vegetation of which
Nitraria schoeberi is the main constituent. None were trapped, but some were
seen on the eastern island, and there can be little doubt that it is just as abundant
there as it is upon the island upon which the 1922 camp was made. Like all the
bandicoots, it is omnivorous. No pregnant females or very young specimens
were captured, and it is probable that the breeding season is at the same time
of the year (June) as that of its mainland relatives. The males appeared to
vastly outnumber the females, and in January the genital glands are in a
quiescent phase. The Franklin Island bandicoot is small, lightly built, and
somewhat pale. Specimens obtained in January, 1922, were sent to Mr. Old-
field Thomas, and were described by him as a new species, /soodon nauticus
(Ann. and Mag., Nat. Hist., Ser. 9, vol. ix., June, 1922, p. 677). The following
is the description of the type specimen :—‘‘Size markedly smaller than in the
continental obesulus, the skull of an adult male only about 55 mm. in length,
as compared with 70 or more in obesulus. General colour comparatively pale;

84

under-surface white; hands and feet with grey-brown metapodials and white
digits; tail brown above, whitish below. Skull far smaller than in obesulus,
smooth, and almost without cranial ridges, the sagittal crest obsolete, and even
the two lateral thickenings of the occipital much less developed than usual.
Nasals much shorter and narrower than in obesulus. Bullae not far from as
broad as in obesulus, but peculiarly shortened, rather abruptly cut off behind.

Teeth small throughout. The three juxtaposed incisors, I-I*, together
about 3 mm. as compared with 45 and upwards in obesulus. Canines short.
Secator and molars all proportionately reduced.

Dimensions of the type (measured on the spirit-specimen before skinning) :
Head and body, 242 mm.; tail (damaged), 103 mm. in another rather younger
specimen; hind foot, 50.

Skull: Greatest length, 545; condylo-basal length, 53; zygomatic breadth,
25:3; nasals, 21:7 x 5-2; intertemporal breadth, 11:6; palatal length, 31; oblique
diameter of bulla, 10:3; dental length, 98; front of canine to back of M+, 20:5;
diameter of secator, 2; combined length of M?*, 8:5.

To this it may be added that this little bandicoot, which is an extremely
active and rather elegant little creature, is very readily distinguishable from

2, Fig. 2.
Manus of Jsoodon nauticus, showing the contrasted white of the digits, and the ulnar carpal
vibrissae. Twice natural size.

I. obesulus when living examples of the two species are seen side by side. Its
whiter ventral surface, and its small pale manus and pes, combined with its
general light build, make it a very different looking animal from the sturdy,
more compact, and darker mainland form. In the skull, as Oldfield Thomas
has noted, the bullae are most distinctive, and it has been thought well to
illustrate this point by scale drawings of the bulla region of an adult male
nauticus and of a small example of obesulus. It will be noticed in comparing
figs. 4 and 5 that the bullae of nauticus are short and broad as contrasted with
those of obesulus, and that they appear to be truncated at their posterior ends.
One other cranial feature is worthy of note. In nauticus the intertemporal
constriction is relatively considerably less than in obesulus, the skull being dis-
tinctly less hour-glass shaped. I have attempted to illustrate this point by a
nethod, familiar enough in anthropology but not greatly employed in the study
of mammals, of superimposing the outline of one skull upon the outline of the
other. Fig. 6 is so constructed that the middle point in the length of the two
skulls coincides, and from the resulting diagram it will be seen that whereas
the skull of nauticus is in general considerably smaller, the intertemporal con-
striction, at its minimum, varies but little in the two crania. Finally, the general
roundness of the skull and lack of muscular ridges, and the absence of sagittal

85

and nuchal crests gives to the cranium of nauticus a remarkably juvenile appear-
ance. No matter how old the animal may be, this immature appearance of the
cranium is retained both by males and females.

BANDICOOTS OF OTHER ISLANDS.

It is possible that on some of the other islands there are still bandicoots
living, but so far only upon St. Francis Island has an actual specimen been
obtained. This example, an adult male, was caught by a dog as it escaped from
some burning vegetation. In all external and cranial characters it is a typical
Isoodon nauticus.

Fig. 3.

Left manus and pes of Jsoodon nauticus. Manus three times,
pes twice natural size.

According to the residents on St. Francis Island, the bandicoot is not
uncommon, although it does not exist in anything like the numbers that were
met with only a few years ago. Probably we must reckon it as a doomed
animal, for on this inhabited island it has to contend with dogs. and cats, and
still worse, with the fires made to burn off the vegetation of the islands and
destroy the nesting mutton birds. It would be very desirable to preserve an
adequate series before it is too late, and an effort should be made to transport
some of the stock to another island where they would be unmolested.

86

WALLABIES.
Tue PEARSON ISLAND WALLABY.
Petrogale pearsom (Thomas, 1922).

That a rock wallaby lived upon the northern portion of the northern island-
mass of the Pearson’s group has been for years common knowledge to the men
employed in the coastwise traffic of the Bight. From its diurnal habits, from
its comparatively large numbers. in a very limited area, and from its habit of
frequenting the tops of the huge granite boulders which constitute the shoreline
of the island it is a conspicuous creature, readily seen from the deck of a ship
passing under shelter of the eastern side of the group.

It is an exceedingly beautiful wallaby, its markings conspicuous in their
contrasts of dark lateral body stripes, white throat and chest, and bushy tufted
tail. On such level ground as the island affords its gait appears somewhat

Fig. 4. Big.05:

Posterior extremity of the base of the skull Posterior extremity of the base of the skull of
of Isoodon nauticus to show the typical a small specimen of Jsoodon obesulus to show
truncated bullae. Twice natural size. the bullae, which are more elongated than those

of J. nauticus. Twice natural size.

awkward, for it travels with the head low, and the tail arched conspicuously up
behind. It seems that for such progression it has to cant its body forwards at
an ungraceful angle, for the tail is not used as a fulcrum as it is in the “scrub”
wallabies and kangaroos—it is carried sheer of the ground in all gaits. When
one is started across the more or less level saltbush areas it gets away at an
awkward gait, using every bush for cover as it goes; but seeming to go in
general without regard to its bearings. When it wishes to see where its safest
line of retreat lies, or where it is threatened, it stops, puts up its head, and looks
around. But, short of stopping, it appears unable to raise its head from its
rather ungraceful stoop to take in any wide view. Though it may seem an
ungraceful animal on open bush country, it is a very different creature when
seen upon the huge, fantastic, granite boulders which constitute the main portion
of its island home. Here its movements are astonishing; there seems to be
no leap it will not take; no chink between boulders into which it will not hurl
itself. There is no part of the northern portion of the islands that it does not
inhabit—it is at home on the naked granite boulders of the shore upon which

87

the surf crashes, and on the lichen-covered boulders of the summit, nearly
800 feet above, where moss, ferns, and casuarinas of large growth constitute
a very distinct environment.

It does not exist upon the southern portions of the main northern island,
and almost certainly it is absent from the southern detached portions of the
group. Its area even on the Pearson group is therefore a peculiarly restricted
one, and it is rather remarkable why it should be confined to only one of the
three partially connected masses which constitute the complex northern main
island.

The wallaby has no obvious natural enemy; the sea eagles, crows, and sea
lions may possibly take occasional toll of young or sick, but from its habit of
sitting exposed on a rock at any time of the day it would appear that there was
but little threat to its safety in the normal condition of its environment. In
November some females were seen with large young still in the pouch; in
January and February the young are all running with the parents.

Certain points of anatomical interest may be mentioned. In those lizards,
such as Amphibolurus, which lie basking in the most direct rays of the sun,
the viscera are shielded by membranes in which a black pigment is developed.
In particular the male genital gland is usually black above and yellowish-white
beneath, the surface uppermost in the basking position of the animal being pro-
tected by pigment. In Petrogale pearsoni the male genital gland is completely
enveloped in a pigmented membrane, the tunica vaginalis being almost entirely
black. Like the lizards, the wallaby will sit in the hottest noon-tide sunshine,
and it appears to experience no discomfort when seated upon a granite boulder
so hot that a man could not stand, let alone sit, upon it for any considerable
time. The curiously padded feet, with the shortened claws, and lateral fringe
of hairs, are very perfect adaptations to the environment of granite boulders;
a human being needs rubber soles in order to get about on Pearson Islands,
but no rubber sole can rival the rock wallaby’s specialized foot (see fig. 7).

It has been noted above that the rock wallaby does not use its tail in the
fashion of a typical “scrub” wallaby, and in accordance with this physiological
fact is the anatomical condition of the absence of any tail-pad, by which is
meant the thickening of the subcutaneous tissues, which marks the contact
point of the kangaroo’s tail with the ground. The tail of Petrogale pearsoni
may be pulled out of the skin in the same way as that of a rat—the skin will
slip off the underlying tissues because there is no tail-pad. But the tail of a
kangaroo or “scrub” wallaby cannot be treated in this fashion, for the tail-pad
forms a bond between skin, subcutaneous tissue, muscle, and tendon.

Although the existence of this wallaby has been long known, it is a remark-
able thing that no specimens seem to have ever been examined and compared
with other, continental, rock wallabies. Since no satisfactory series was available
for an adequate study of its nearest allies, a skin and skull were sent to Mr.
Oldfield Thomas, and by him the animal was .diagnosed as a new species and
described under the name of Petrogale pearsoni (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,
Sets avo.) py OSleml922). o Sltmsiimost nearly, celated to). lateralis, the
Western Australian rock wallaby of the Swan River district, and to P. hacketti,
of Mondrain Island. It is therefore a very far eastern outlier of its group.
The description of the type specimen is as follows :—“Size comparatively small,
about as in lateralis, decidedly smaller than in hacketti. General colour, on the
whole, very much as in lateralis, paler than in hacketti. Dark lateral lines of
the underside, however, more blackish, those of lateralis being dark brown.
White patches at the base of the ears larger and more prominent. Tail with
its upper- and undersurfaces, from about 3 inches from the base, contrasted
black, the sides dull buffy-whitish; above, the black soon fades off into

88

the brownish terminal tuft, but below it continues to within 2 inches of the
tip. This tail colouration is, on the whole, more as in hacketti than lateralis,
but in both there is considerable variation. The usual narrow black dorsal line
‘< continued rather more definitely on to the rump than in one of our specimens
of lateralis, but the difference may be due to this part being in fresh pelage, and
so showing the line more distinctly.

Fig. 6.

~The outline of a skull of an adult male Jsoodon

nauticus (thick lines), superimposed on an out-

line of J. obesulus (thin lines). One and three-
quarter times natural size.

“Skull'in size-and general shape quite as in lateralis, smaller, and with less
heavy supraorbital ridges than in hacketti. Palatal foramina comparatively
iong, about as long as in hacketti. In the bullae there is a difference between
lateralis and hacketti which had not been previously noticed. In the former
they are fairly well swollen, anteriorly as well as posteriorly, so as to produce
a transverse convexity (hardly to be called a ridge), in front of which the bone
descends nearly vertically towards the level of the glenoid surfaces. In
hacketti, however, the whole bulla is larger, but lower and more spread out,

89

its front part evenly and gradually descending towards the glenoid level without
marked transverse convexity. In pearsoni the bullae are most like those of
hacketti, although perhaps a little more swollen. In making this comparison
six skulls of hacketti and ten of lateralis have been available, so that the difference
is evidently fairly constant.

Fig. 7.
Petrogale pearsont.
Left manus and pes. Natural size.

“Tncisors a little larger than in lateralis, the whole row 10 mm. in length,
about as in hacketti, as compared with about 9 mm. in lateralis. Secator also
slightly larger than in lateralis, much smaller than in hackettt.

90

“Dimensions of the type (measured on the re-made skin) :—Head and
body, 500 mm.; tail (imperfect); hind foot, 136; ear, 43. Skull: greatest
length, 94; condylo-basal length, 90; zygomatic breadth, 48; nasals, 39x 14;
palatal foramina, 7:7. Length of I°, 45; of P!, 69. Combined length of M?*
(unworn), 19.”

The following table gives the measurements of eleven typical skulls :—

A B C D E F G H I J K
Greatest length .. 88 88 -91 10359791 94 100 97 99 98 98
Condylo-basal length 85 81 85 95 85 89 94 89 91 92 93
Zygomatic breadth 47 46 46 52°. 47 47 51 47 51 — —
Nasals, length 32 30) 35-9 37 44-36 38 45 39 42 42 —
Nasals, breadth .. 13 12 13 15 13 13 14 13 14 15 —
Palatal foramen’ <2 7 7 7 8 7 8 7 8 8 8 7
Length of I8 sae = ALS 4.5 5 ° 45 4 4 45 — —
Length of P4 alt RS) 5 6 6:5 5 5 7 7 6 65 6
Bengthe esse ee cel, 7, 17 19 17 16 18 18 17 16 17

The length of the tail in an average specimen is 500 mm. In the skull
there is very commonly developed (4 times in 12 specimens) an os bregmaticum
—the so-called os epilepticum of human anatomy—and even when it is absent
a sutural irregularity at the bregma is usually present. In a series of skulls of
Petrogale xanthopus from Bimbowrie the same remarkable little bone occurs
with about the same frequency, but, so far, I have not noticed it in any of the
wallabies of the Genus Macropus.

The skull is remarkable for its very light ossification, the bones of the
cranial vault being extremely thin, and compared with the skulls of such walla-
bies as Thyogale (Macropus) eugenii it can only be described as fragile. The
teeth are commonly in very bad condition, and in several specimens are enveloped
in masses of tartar; alveolar abscess also occurs in connection with the roots
of the teeth in two skulls obtained. Like the insular bandicoots and rats, the
wallabies are usually extremely fat. The fur swarms with a Mallophaga,
which readily parts company with a dead wallaby in favour of a living human
host; and the intestines of all specimens obtained contained a very heavy
infection of nematode worms.

WALLABIES OF OTHER ISLANDS.

St. Francis IsLtanp.—Flinders notes that here “a small species of kanguroo
was also found.” This animal has been completely exterminated. It seems to
have been common enough when the present occupiers settled on the island,
but for very many years it has been no more than an apparently not very well
preserved memory. There is, unfortunately, no hope that a remnant of the
race still exists upon the island.

So far as I know no specimen exists in any collection, and its identity must
remain undetermined. Its complete extermination by purposive human effort,
without the preservation of even a single skull, is a matter greatly to be
deplored.

St. Perer Istanp.—Flinders records that “at 2 o’clock Mr. Brown and
his party returned from the eastern island bringing four kanguroos of a different
species to any yet seen. Their size was not superior to that of a hare, and they
were miserably thin, and infected with insects.”

This wallaby we must also write down as one that has become extinct
without leaving a trace behind, and the pity is the greater since quite unusual
interest centres round this animal. When Flinders notes that it belonged to
a different species from any they had seen before, it must be remembered that
he had already seen the wallabies of St. Francis Island and of the islands further
to the west.

91

Again, the fact that St. Peter’s was the island which by the French navi-
gators was named L’ile Eugene is important in connection with the nomeclature
of certain insular and continental wallabies. A specimen, presumed to be of
the St. Peter Island wallaby, was said to have been taken by Peron and Lesueur
tc Paris,“ where, first regarded as a young example of Macropus ruficollis, it

Fig. 8.

Petrogale pearson. j
Dorsal aspect of skull of an adult male. One and a half times natural size.
A small os bregmaticum is present.

(1) Desmarest’s original description is not available in Adelaide, but Waterhouse gives a
translation (Mammalia, p. 40, 1846). This description seems hardly to apply to the animal
described by Flinders and Peron. Waterhouse also adds this note: — “That specimen, he
(Desmarest) says, to his knowledge, once was labelled as being from St. Peter Island,
and subsequently the label was changed for one giving Eugene Island as the habitat; both
islands, however, are in Nuyts Archipelago.” The dual nomenclature of the islands has here led
Waterhouse astray. Later on he says of M. eugenii that it “is said to be from Eugene
Island, on the West Coast.”

92

was subsequently described by M. Desmarest as Kangurus (Macropus) eugenii.
The actual type specimen no longer exists in the Paris Museum, and the descrip-
tion of it does not well accord with the accounts of the navigators. The
question may therefore be very legitimately asked if the St. Peter or Eugene
Island wallaby appears, from the descriptions of the early navigators themselves,
to have been the animal which is now known as Thyogale (Macropus) eugeni.
Peron and Lesueur give us the following account :—‘“Le kanguroo existe en
grand nombre sur L’ile Eugene, ou l’on peut en faire un chasse productive;
nous ne l’avons point vu sur le continent. Ce quadrupede parvient au poids
de huit a dix livres (quatre a cing kilogrammes): sa foururre est epaisse son
poil tres fin et d’une belle couleur rousse tirant sur le brun.” In the first place,
a weight of eight to ten pounds is quite inadequate for the wallaby now known
as eugent, for that animal weighs three times as much. Again, the statement
of Flinders that its size was “not superior to that of a hare’ makes it appear
almost certain that the so-called Dama wallaby was not the animal which Flinders
saw. The description of the pelage as given by the French naturalists could
not, even allowing for the inexactness of colour terms, be taken as typical of
the present eugenti. We can only conclude that the animal which Flinders saw,
and of which Peron and Lesueur gave their account, is now entirely extinct
upon the island on which it originally lived, and that it almost certainly was
not the animal which is now known as Thyogale eugenti. What it was can
only be guessed at, and that is a business of but little utility in science; we
might hazard that it was a member of the Genus Lagorchestes, or, maybe,
Bettongia; it may have been the same “kangaroo rat’? as was only recently
exterminated on St. Francis Island; but beyond that we cannot go.

When it was exterminated on St. Peter Island, I do not know. St. Peter
Island is a considerable land mass, and has long been inhabited. It is high
time it was thoroughly examined, and its remaining flora and fauna studied.

In connection with this animal there is another point worthy of note.
It is usual in South Australia to allude to the West Coast of Eyre Peninsula as
“the West Coast.” This custom has led to considerable confusion, for the term
“Islands of the West Coast,” though well understood locally, has more than
once caused the habitat to be given as islands on the West Coast of (Western)
Australia.

FiLiInpEerS IsLanp.—Of the wallaby of this island Flinders says, “A small
species of kanguroo, not bigger than a cat, was rather numerous. I shot five
of them, and some others were killed by the botanists and their attendants, and
found to be in tolerably good condition.”

It is a pleasure to be able to report that the Flinders Island wallaby is not
extinct. When I visited the island in November, 1920, I searched as much of
the scrub-covered portion of this large island as was possible in the time, and
I saw no trace of the wallabies. Mr. May, who has long been resident on the
island, was convinced that they had been extinct for the last ten years. When
they were abundant their range on the island had been somewhat restricted, and
in 1910 a destructive bush fire swept over their portion of the island. Since
1910 no trace of the animals had been seen. I visited the island again in
1922, and very soon after landing came upon wallaby tracks; evidently quite a
flourishing little colony inhabited their old area. No living animal was seen, and
a dog pressed into the service failed to start any. At this end of the island
the bush is dense and affords them excellent cover; nevertheless, Mr. May
informed me that of late he had seen them on several occasions.

What species it may be cannot be definitely stated. Before 1910, when
wallabies were abundant on Flinders Island, Mr. May is very definite that two
species were present—the one, a grey-brown animal, was very common; and the

93

other, a yellow, slender, and smaller kind, was much more rare. I have had
this account of a yellow wallaby on Flinders Island corroborated from a quite
independent source.

In the Adelaide Museum are three wallaby skulls from the island, received
in 1892. These skulls have the name “Macropus eugenii’ pencilled on them,
and are so registered. In their general features they offer no striking differences
from the Kangaroo Island wallaby; but one skull bears a tied-on label stating
that it belonged to a “light and uniform coloured wallaby,” which is scarcely
the description of the pelage of a normal eugenii. For the present we must be
content to know that the animal, be there one species or two, is living.

=

a Cee

Fig. 9.
Petrogale pearsont.
Lateral view of the skull of an adult male. One and a half times natural size.

For the future, it is surely a duty incumbent on our scientific institutions
to rescue some of the remaining stock and place it in the sanctuary of Flinders
Chase.

The following are the measurements of the three skulls in the Adelaide
Museum :—

? Male. ye
No. 1749. No. 1750. No. 1751.

Greatest length .. ah aa 47 90 91 97
Condylo-basal length .. a he 84 85 92
Zygomatic breadth ty oe one 46 49 49
Palatal foramen .. Ae BS me 3 3 4+
Length of [3 a i Al Bt 5 4 4.5
Length of M13... SIE Ke oe 15 16 17

Price Istanp.—When on the top of Price Island in 1920, I noted what
I felt certain were the runs of wallabies, though I saw no definite foot prints.
The bush vegetation of the island plateau is very dense in certain places, and
affords plenty of cover. It is possible that what I saw were the runs of the
descendants of a pair of Kangaroo Island wallabies landed some years ago upon
the island; but owing to the difficulty of landing these animals in the heavy
sea that was running at the time, it is open to doubt if both members of the

94

pair gained the top of the island in safety. A more prolonged stay upon the
island would probably be well rewarded.

GREENLY IstAnp.—This beautiful granite island is very like the islands of
the Pearson group as far as its geological formation and its vegetation are con-
cerned. During my visit in 1920 I noted dejecta which I think were undoubtedly
those of a wailaby, and other members of the party made the same observation
independently. Yet no animal was seen, and this is rather surprising, since it
would almost certainly be a rock wallaby, and these creatures are likely to be
met with during a day-time visit to the island. Further examination of this
grand granite pile (upon which the landing is at times by no means easy) should
be undertaken later.

OTHER MArSUPIALS.

One animal, the quite recent extermination of which we must greatly regret,
is the small unknown creature which used to live in great numbers on St.
Francis Island.

These little animals were always spoken of by the late Mr. Lloyd, of St.
Francis Island, as “tungas,” ©) a name by which he said a somewhat similar animal
was known in his young days on the Nullarbor Plains. He described them as
very small wallabies, creatures which used to hop into the homestead and eat
scraps thrown to them from the table.

According to Mr. Arnold, sen., they were properly known as “talkies,”
a word which appears to be an obvious corruption of “thulka,” a native name
used widely in the northern parts of South Australia as a designation for
Thalacomys lagotis. Mr. Arnold also speaks of them as “kangaroo rats,”
but does not think that they ever lived on the mainland.

No description precise enough to be of real use can now be obtained, and
it serves little useful purpose to speculate upon its identity.

Cats were liberated in order to destroy it, and they have done their work
with thoroughness.

_ © This name is employed in certain parts of South Australia to designate the Bettongias.
If the exterminated animal was a member of this genus it was probably B. penicillata.

95

THE FLORA AND FAUNA OF NUYTS ARCHIPELAGO AND THE
INVESTIGATOR GROUP.

No. 7.—THE FISHES.

By Ppese R. Waire Els © NZS
(Contribution from the South Australian Museum.)

[Read April 12, 1923.]
Pirate IIT.

The majority of the fishes here recorded were obtained with hand lines
from either the “Simplon” (1914) © or the “Wokata” (1923) or from the rocks
during our sojourn on Pearson Island. No rock pools were exposed at low
tide, and it may be said that none exist, the granite everywhere descending
precipitously or by a gradual slope into the sea. To the west and close behind
our camp two large conjoined pools were found; they are situated far above
high tide line, but receive considerable volumes of water as a result of the waves
breaking against the rocks. It was ona rock about 10 feet above the level of these
pools that I found the encrusting coral exhibited. To work this pool for fishes
seemed to be a forlorn hope; a narrow crevice connecting the two pools harboured
a strong growth of seaweed, and an investigation of this weed yielded the
Cristiceps and Ophiclinus listed, together with several Nudibranchs and
Crustaceans. The following is a list of the fishes obtained :-—

SPHYRAENIDAE: Sphyraena novae-hollandiae, Gunther.

CHEILODACTYLIDAE: Threpterius maculosa, Richardson.

LaBRIDAE: Pseudolabrus tetricus, Richardson; Pictilabrus laticlavius,
Richardson; Achoerodus gouldu, Richardson.

BLENNIIDAE: Ophiclinus gracilis, Waite; Clinus perspicillatus, Cuvier and
Valenciennes.

MONACANTHIDAE: Cantherines hippocrepis, Quoy and Gaimard.

DioponTIpAE: Allomycterus jaculiferus, Cuvier.

THREPTERIUS MACULOSUS, Richardson.

Pl. iii.
Dee WA ieS aN 7 ES CB 4 ly 54%
oy ee a

Length of head, 29; height of body, 2:7; length of caudal, 437 in the
length, caudal excluded. Diameter of eye, 3:75; length of snout, 5:5; inter-
orbital space, 6:6 in the head.

Head very low at the eyes, rising abruptly to the oneal fin; interorbital
space flat, narrowest in front; upper profile angular, posterior nostrils situated
on each side of a protuberance above the front margin of the eye; anterior nostril,
lower, in front of the eye, within a low rim which has a skinny flap behind.
Eye very large, touching the upper profile, its depth equal to that of the area
below it, mouth oblique; the upper jaw formed wholly of the premaxilla;
maxilla expanded behind, extending to beyond the middle of the eye. Strong
canine teeth in both jaws, in a single series; similar but smaller teeth on the

(1) Waite, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xxmxix., 1915, p. 455.

96

vomer, forming a V-shaped row; palatines and tongue edentulous. Preopercle
much bowed, margin of opercle sinuous.

Body elevated behind the head; its deepest point at the insertion of the
seventh dorsal spine, whence it curves regularly to the last dorsal ray, thence
straight to the tail; the curve of the under profile is low.

Fins —The first dorsal spine arises over the margin of the preopercle, its
length is less than the diameter of the eye, the sixth spine is the longest, a little
less than twice the diameter of the eye. The membrane forms a fine free pennant
behind each spine. The length of the base of the spinous is less than that of the soft
dorsal; the longest soft ray is half the length of the head. The Anal commences
below the origin of the soft dorsal and has a short base; its second, or longest ray,
is one-fourth longer than the longest ray of the dorsal. The Pectoral extends as
far as the vent, the two upper and eight lower rays are simple, the distal portion
of the latter being free. The Ventral arises below the seventh dorsal ray; its
length is nearly three-fourths that of the Pectoral. The Caudal is slightly
rounded, and the depth of its peduncle is 3-4 in the height of the body.

Scales—Scales cycloid on the body and opercle, head otherwise naked, but
with fine striae and vermiculations. Lateral line almost straight.

Colours ——Greenish-brown, with irregular dark blotches on the head;
blotches on the body above, and spots below the lateral line; an oblique black
bar below the eye and a silvery spot on a black ground on the opercular lobe,
soft dorsal and anal with hyaline spaces and black spots. Pectoral, Ventral,
and Caudal with faint darker bars.

Length of specimen described, 215 mm.; another seen was 255 mm.

Two examples were caught on hand lines from the rocks, close to the camp.
Richardson remarks that “it frequents rocky places.” His description and
figure were made from a dried specimen which appears to have lost its char-
acteristic shape. The figure is too elongate, and does not sufficiently show the
contour, which proves to be very similar to Gontistius. The maxilla is in-
correctly illustrated as entering the gape, and the dorsal spines appear to be too
low and too uniform in height; the pectoral is shown as extendng only half-way
to the anal instead of almost thereto. Other discrepancies will be apparent on
comparison with the figure here supplied. The type of the species was taken in
King George Sound, Western Australia.

©) Richardson, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1850, p. 70, Fishes, pl. ii., figs. 1, 2.

97

THE FLORA AND FAUNA OF NUYTS ARCHIPELAGO AND THE
INVESTIGATOR GROUP.
No. 8—THE ECOLOGY OF PEARSON ISLANDS.

By T. G. B. Oszporn, D.Sc., Professor of Botany in the University of Adelaide,
with an Appendix on the Soils,

By J. G. Woop, B.Sc., Demonstrator in Botany.
[Read April 12, 1923.]
PLateEs INE TO EXe

The following account of the ecology of Pearson Islands is based on observa-
tions made during a stay on North Pearson from January 5 to 12 of this year.
I desire to express my thanks to Prof. F. Wood Jones, leader of the party, for
assistance in various ways, and to Mr. T. D. Campbell, for permission to make
use of his sketch map of the islands in constructing text fig. 1.

the: party is indebted to Sir G. \)). R. Murray, K.© MG, for a generous
donation towards the cost of the expedition.

Pearson Islands lie in lat. 33° 58’ S., long. 134° 15’ E., at a distance of about
40 miles from the nearest mainland, the west coast of Eyre Peninsula, South
Australia. They are, however, only 18 miles south-west from Flinders Island,
a comparatively large island, the area of which is 9,000 acres. They are the
south-western islands of the Investigator group, and were named by Matthew
Flinders in 1802, but were not visited by him. Robert Brown, who was naturalist
on board H.M.S. “Investigator,” did not, therefore, land upon them, and, as the
islands are uninhabited, with a rather uncertain landing, it is improbable that
they have been visited by a botanist before.

According to the Australia Directory“) the Pearson group consists of four
islands and a rock partly above water. This paper refers only to the North
Island of the Directory, which is the largest and most important. No landing
could be made on any of the other islands. Two of them are too precipitous for
any landing, though one might be effected upon the third. A careful examination
of the vegetation upon them by means of field glasses indicates that the flora
is of the same type as on the more exposed parts of North Island. These out-
lying islands will not be referred to again in this account.

REG SI@ Gike VEG: PAU Rs Ss

The North Island of the Australia Directory consists of two, or, for deserip-
tive purposes, preferably three land masses lying close together (text fig. 1). The
southern land mass is connected with the middle one by an isthmus of bare granite
boulders, which is above high-tide mark, but would in storms be entirely spray
drenched. The northern land mass, which is the largest, being about 15 miles
long by 14 miles broad, is separated from the middle one by a strait about 100
yards across, and can only be reached by wading at low tide in calm weather.
In the following account the North Island of the Australia Directory will be
spoken of as if it were three separate islands, called respectively Northern,
Middle, and Southern. The group consists of exceedingly bold, rugged, granite

(2) The altitudes are taken from the Hydrographic Survey, Australia Directory, /oc. cit.
‘

98

granite comes as sheer cliff, jumbled boulder, or sloping pavement to the sea on
all sides except for a small sandy beach, the landing place, on the east side of
Middle Island. The south and west faces of the islands are most rugged, and in
places precipitous cliffs rise 200 feet or more. The ocean swell of the Great

xe ail East Hill.

Main Creck

PLAN OF PEARSON ISLAND

fesed on a visual sketch map

Prepared by T:D.Cam plell.

ELIZA Vronerline plateaux

Alviplex shrubland

[===] Blown sand

The fall of. the land is indicated
form lines , which approximale

to loo ft contours, but are only
diagrammatic,

.
<jselale

South Hill

Australian Bight, driven by moderate winds, dashes with great force against
these walls, sending spray high in the air. In rough weather and in winter the
seas must be very heavy, and the spray be carried by the gales for some distance —-
inland. This is seen by the occurrence of such halophytes as Arthrocnemum
and Sueda 200 to 300 feet above sea level.

99

Northern Island is divided into two unequal portions by a watercourse
running roughly south-west to north-east, hereafter called Main Creek. To the
north of this are three bold granite summits. The highest lies above the head of
the creek, rising 781 feet, and called 781 Hill. This is connected with the two
other peaks, each about 600 feet high, by necks of high land. The eastern, East
Hill, rises above the mouth of Main Creek, with only a narrow col, that in
places is a bare granite ridge 3 or 4 yards across, connecting it with 781 Hill.
Between North and East Hills is a beautiful sheltered bay, the shore of which
is bare granite. North Hill and its neck rise precipitously from the shore of
this bay, but the slopes of East Hill and the col to 781 Hill rise more
gradually with an interesting talus slope that is traversed by a torrent bed (North
Creek) draining from 781 Hill. Between 781 and East Hills is another water-
course draining the south side. This creek has a less precipitous bed; itis a
tributary of Main Creek.

Granite tors and boulders occur on most of the hilltops and exposed slopes
of these islands (pl. iv., fig. 2), but 781 and North Hills are remarkable for the
large slopes of bare granite that occur even upon their sheltered faces (pl. iv.,
fig. 2, and pl. vi., fig. 2). These bare rocks are even expanses, in some cases
over an acre in extent. Some are precipitous, but many slope at only a low angle
and then end abruptly with a cliff 6 to 10 feet high. They are generally without
any vegetation except for algae that mark the watercourses across them. The
dark olive-green or black of these lines is in striking contrast to the grey-brown
of the granite rock. Such slopes serve as huge catchment areas from which
there is an immediate run off. The ground at their lower edge, however, has a
low water-holding capacity, and the drainage water falling on it serves rather
to leach soluble salts out of it than to increase its fertility. The soil immediately
below these slopes, then, is often coarser and more barren than is that further
away.

The southern portion of the Northern Island has no striking physiographic
features. Its western end has bold granite tors; towards the eastern end it
slopes gradually to the sea. Much of the area is a travertine limestone plateau.

Middle Island (pl. viti., fig. 2) has a much smaller area, consisting of a
low summit, estimated at somewhat over 200 feet high on the west side, and
falling precipitously to the sea. The fall is more gradual on the east side with
talus slopes that spread as a fan upon a small travertine plateau. This latter
occupies about a quarter of the area of the island. At the south side of this
island is the small sandy beach that forms the only landing place on the group.
The sand is limited to a patch about 50 yards square, though some—blown
from the beach—lodges in the cracks of the granite slopes lying immediately
behind.

Southern Island has two peaks, one a mere collection of bare tors; the other,
South Hill, near its south-east point, is 378 feet high. The two peaks are con-
nected by a ridge, the exposed southern face of which is a sheer precipice nearly
200 feet high. The coast, immediately below South Hill, is a sloping pavement
of granite swept bare by waves for over 100 feet. Southern Island also has its
travertine plateau, occupying almost a third of its area.

TRAVERTINE LIMESTONE.

The travertine plateaux are a striking feature of the three islands. From
the sea they are at once recognizable by their more level appearance and the
different colour of the vegetation they support. The travertine limestone les
near the surface of the soil, but is usually exposed only at the cliff faces. The
overlying soil and underlying rock are obviously of granitic origin, more or less
cemented in the underlying portion by limestone. Shells of a land-dwelling

100

gasteropod occur in a subfossil state in the consolidated rubble below the lime-
stone bed. Professor W. Howchin has kindly determined these shells as
Bothriembryon mastersi, Cox. Professor F. W ood Jones informs me that similar
shells in a living state occur on the surface of the islands to-day. As travertine
is a very recent or modern geological formation, the occurrence of a living species
in a subfossil state is not surprising. The travertine limestone that is now
present overlying the granite is probably only the remains of what was once a
thick deposit of calcareous sand. This has now been eroded, leaving the lime-
stone as an indication of its former presence.

The islands of the West Coast are the remains of the old coast of South
Australia that, during the Pleistocene period, was south and west of its present
line. The islands and neighbouring portions of the mainland consist of indurated
sands resting upon a platform of older rocks. This platform is generally a few
feet above or below sea level. It represents, according to Howchin,™) who has
examined the structure of the islands and mainland eastward of Cape Catastrophe,
a base level of erosion, probably marine. At some post-Miocene time this plat-
form became covered by calcareous sands left by the sea in its line of retreat.
Huge dunes must have been formed, for some of the islands, ¢e.g., Thistle Island,
show a thickness of sand over 700 feet. Still more recently the sea returned
and is now wasting away the soft wind-constructed sand left in the line of its
former retreat.

There is no reason to doubt that the area which is now Pearson Islands
received a deposit of calcareous sand, but it is open to question whether this
deposit was continuous over its highest parts. No travertine was found on the
hillsides above. 200 feet. The opinion is expressed that even at the period of
maximum sand covering, the present hilltops (at least, of Pearson Islands), pro-
jected as granite outcrops. Such granite outcrops are common on the mainland
in Central Eyre Peninsula to-day, and they bear a flora which is different in
constitution from that of the porous sandy soil around them. Certain of the
plants found on Pearson Island are of this “‘granite-outcrop” type of flora rather
than sand dune. The occurrence of a rock wallaby (Petrogale pearsoni) that
is unknown on the mainland, also indicates that a rocky outcrop has been a
feature of the Pearson area for a great length of time.

ENVIRONMENTAL FEATURES.
LE CriMAnie:

Rainfall and temperature data were given in a previous paper on the Franklin
Islands“ for the two nearest meteorological stations on the mainland. These lie
to the north of the Pearson group, so that they represent a more extreme type of
climate than that existing there, especially as the Pearsons are islands lying well
out in the open sea. The general climatic conditions, shown in the table for
Franklin Island, of winter rainfall and a dry summer, with probably one or two
completely rainless months, will therefore hold for Pearson Islands. The tem-
peratures are likely to show a smaller range, days of over 100° F. or more in
the shade are unlikely, as are frosts. No more positive data than those cited can
be given, but observations made during a week’s stay on the islands suggest
some additional features of the climate.

The prevalent winds are south-west, and are often of great strength.
Shearing action by the winds is well shown by shrubs exposed to their violence.
The most striking examples occurred at the head of Main Creek. There the
trees of Melaleuca halmaturorum have a prostrate habit (pl. iv., fig 2). One old
tree measuring 24 feet in length and 8 inches in diameter at the base is growing

(3) eionchin W., Peas Roy. Geogr. Soc. S. Austr., x., pp. 204- 219, 1908.
(4) Osborn, PME; ie loc. Git; Dp. 197.

101

quite flat upon the ground, and the foliage, which is confined to the terminal
branches, is spread as a bushy carpet.

The presence of three peaks—600 feet high or over—upon North
Island causes raincloud or mist to hang about the higher levels to a considerable
degree. Thus, on the morning of our landing there was light rain about 6 a.m.,
and the peaks were blotted out by clouds. These gradually lifted as the sun rose,
but they hung about the top 200 feet or so of 781 Hill until nearly 11 am. In
winter this cloud effect must be considerable. The ground flora at and just
below the summit of 781 Hill includes several mosses, and the fern Cheilanthes
tenuifolia suggesting a greater humidity than lower down the slopes or even along
the water courses.

The insolation factor upon the islands must be very severe, and aspect differ-
ences between north or west slopes and south or east are marked. The two
former are much drier and the rock weathers more rapidly than in the case of the
latter. This is particularly well seen in the case of East Hill when viewed from
the colliconnectine wat wath Sil erill) Golesi.) ties) ay he: northe face has
precipitous granite tors and rocky slopes supporting an open flora of shrubs;
this extends almost to the summit. On the south face the angle of the slope is
lower with less bare rock. Casuarina woodland, which is the climax com-
munity on hill summits, extends down the slope for some distance on the south
side, and when it passes into scrub communities the latter are thicker and less
open.
Il. EpAPHic.

In Appendix I. Mr. J. G. Wood gives the results of certain analyses made
of soil samples collected upon the islands. There are three soil types on the
Pearsons—blown sand, travertine, and granitic.

The first, as described above, is limited to a small patch at the south end
of Middle Island near the landing place. It need not be considered further.

The travertine soils consist of a coarse granitic sand mingled with particles
of limestone of all sizes from small fragments to large blocks several square
feet in area. The soil appears to dry out very thoroughly; in January there
was no cohesiveness between the particles at a depth of 8 to 9 inches. Below
this depth large travertine masses form the main deposit. The sample of
travertine soil analysed was collected from the middle of Southern Island. The
analysis (Sample 1) shows that there is 6 per cent. humus, 9:7 per cent. calcium
carbonate, 38 per cent. nitrogen, -79 per cent. sodium chloride. It was dis-
tinctly alkaline pH=8.

The granitic soils range from talus and rubble to coarse sands. The water-
retaining capacity of such soils is low, and the rain that falls upon them would
rapidly percolate to the solid rock below. ‘These soils are invariably dry and
powdery to the touch. The samples felt “air dry” at the time they were col-
lected. Five samples were taken, one in each of the two main communities—
Atriplex, “saltbush,” plain (Sample 2), Casuarina woodland (Sample 3)—and
three in Main Creek, at the head and in the upper part, to test the range of
salinity in the soil (Samples 4, 5, and 6).

Samples 2 and 3 show a general similarity. The Casuarina woodland has,
as might be expected, the higher humus content, 13:9 per cent., as against
9-9 per cent. in the saltbush soil. Both soils have only average salinity (-20 per
cent., 23 per cent.). The most striking difference is in the pH values. The
woodland soil has an acid reaction pH=6; the saltbush plain is somewhat
alkaline, pH=7-4.

Sample 4 is typical of much of the poorer soil on well-drained slopes.
Such soils are poor in humus and soluble salts. Samples 5 and 6 were taken
respectively at the edge of and within one of the granite basins that occur at

102

the head of Main Creek. Sample 6 is clearly affected considerably by the
evaporation of sea water. It has a high salt content, sodium chloride 3:08 per
cent., but is poor in humus, 38 per cent., and also in nitrogen, ‘O07 per cent.

All these granitic soils, except that from the Casuarina woodland, are
neutral or on the alkaline side of neutrality.

Ill. Broric.

Biotic factors in the environment do not have so obvious an effect upon
the flora of the Pearsons as they have upon the Franklins.) The soil is unsuit-
able for the burrowing activities of either the mutton birds or penguins, which
were so abundant there. Mutton birds are absent and the penguins have to
nest under rocks. The only grazing animals are the indigenous wallabies
(Petrogale pearsoni), which are frequently seen on Northern Island. Their
chief food plant appears to be Atriplex paludosum, but their feeding does not
damage the bushes appreciably. One strange feature is the remarkable abund-
ance of the droppings of some insect. These occur thickly on the surface of
many soils, especially in the Olearia shrubland and the lower slopes of the
Casuarina woodland. The faeces are hard, black pellets, roughly cylindrical,
2 to 3 mm. long by 1 mm, in diameter. They are extraordinarily frequent in
some places and can be swept up off the soil by the handful. Mr. A. M. Lea,
Entomologist of the S.A. Museum, kindly informs me that they resemble the
dung of a cockroach. A large species of this insect is generally found under
stones on the island. Judging by the amount of dung, they must occur in very
large numbers at some seasons. Presumably they feed on vegetable debris,
which they return to the soil in a form that is not readily removed by wind or
leeching. The deposit is so abundant as to affect considerably the percentage
of nitrogen in the soil anlayses.

Human interference with the vegetation is limited to the results of one or
two fires that have been started on the islands by visiting vandals. The effect
of these has been almost to destroy the Casuarinas south of Main Creek; else-
where the burnt-out flora has regenerated well. Several years ago a number
of sheep were landed upon the Northern Pearson. There are none there now,
and the vegetation appears uninfluenced by them, unless the grass Festuca
bromoides was brought to the island by this means. Festuca bromoides was the
only non-indigenous Australian plant collected, except the variety littoralis of
Sonchus asper.

VEGETATION.

Three main vegetation types occur on the Pearsons, exclusive of various
communities on cliff faces, creek beds, blown sand, etc., which are not easily
placed in relation to the others. They are:—(1) The woodland and scrub
series on granitic soil with a climax of Casuarina stricta woodland; (2) saltbush
consisting of Atriplex paludosum dwarf shrubland, occurring chiefly on granitic
soil; and (3) the various communities on travertine limestone. The first
two types may be considered as formations, and the ecotone lines are usually
clearly distinguishable. An exception occurs on the right, or south, bank of
Main Creek. There the blurring of the line appears to have been affected to
some degree by fire. The last series, as explained below, is formed merely as
a matter of convenience.

WoopLAND AND SCRUB SERIES.
I. Casuarina stricta woodland.
A woodland, or “forest,” of Casuarina stricta occurs on the three large

hills of Northern Pearson. The trees grow to a height of 20 to 30 feet (pl. v.,
fig. 1). The length of the green assimilating branches varies considerably with

(5) Osborn, T. G. B., loc. cit., p. 203, 1922.

103

the degree of exposure. In exposed places they may be no longer than 6 to 8
inches and stand erect, while in sheltered parts they are 18 to 24 inches long
and bend with a graceful curve, giving the familiar rounded silhouette to the trees.
Casuarina stricta woodland is only a closed community in the most shel-
tered parts of 781 Hill. In other parts there is an underwood of various trees
or shrubs, e.g., Melaleuca parviflora, Leucopogon Richei, which mingle and
compete with the sheoak. The soil is coarse with a humus content of 13-9 per
cent., but has only a low water-retaining capacity. In places between the
granite boulders there is a considerable depth of soil. Frequently the “forest”
ends abruptly (pl. v., fig. 1), owing to the presence of some large exposure of
granite. Several such places occur on 781 Hill, and one passes at a step from
the climax to the earliest phases in the succession. In the woodland the ground
below the trees is covered by a litter of fallen branchlets, old fruits, or tree
trunks. The forest suffered several years ago by fire, but it is generally
regenerating well; many seedlings and young trees of various ages occur.
Mosses are common, but in January were quite dried up. Mr. L. Rodway,
C.M.G., of Hobart, kindly determined the following: Bryum intermedium,
Yortula muralis (form with a cuspidate hair point), and (?) Acanthocladium, sp.

Herbaceous plants of the most sheltered places are :—

Cheilanthes tenuifolia Agropyrum scabrum
Festuca bromoides Didiscus pusillus

During the winter and spring no doubt others would be found, but at the
time of our visit they were not to be seen. These herbaceous plants disappear
on hotter or more exposed places, e.g., the west face of the summit of 781 Hill
and xerophytic perennials as Mesembryanthemum acquilaterale replace them.
Several colonies of Senecio Cunninghamu were found in sheltered places on
781 Hill. This is a half-shrubby plant with lanceolate leaves 8-12 cm. by -8-1:2
cm. that are glossy above and glaucous on the lower-surface. It has a less
xerophytic appearance than any other perennial on the island.

The undershrub flora varies with differing degrees of dryness and exposure.
Just below the summit of 781 Hill, on the north-east side, there is an open area
with bushes of Calythrix tetragona, found nowhere else on the island. The
most usual undershrub in the more sheltered places is Leucopogon Richei, which,
though it appears in the open shrub association described below, is not found in
the most exposed places of the Casuarina woodland. Other plants occasionally
associated with Leucopogon Richei are Dodonaea viscosa and Cassinia spectabilis.

In more exposed places, e.g., the summit of 781 Hill, on East Hill, especially
at the col and on the lower slopes, Melaleuca parviflora appears as the
undershrub and even replaces Casuarina (pl. v., fig. 2). It develops a distinct
and more xerophytic community. Transitions were seen in many places, but
most clearly on slopes with a northern aspect (pl. iv., fig. 1). The fire, or fires,
referred to earlier appear almost to have destroyed the Casuarinas of the north
facing slope above the right branch of Main Creek. Melaleuca parviflora forms
a dense thicket in which only a few Casuarinas are present. On Southern Island
there is a small group of about half a dozen stunted Casuarinas growing on the
most sheltered part of the north side. This represents a small outlier of the
Casuarina woodland which has every likelihood of dying out, since none of the
trees were fruiting nor were any old fruits to be seen below them.

Il. Melaleuca parviflora scrub.
A mixed scrub community in which Melaleuca parviflora often attains the
size of a small tree occupies the foot of 781 Hill and other hills on Northern
Island (pl. iv., fig. 2). The plant is absent on Middle and Southern Islands.

104

It rarely exceeds 15 feet in height and frequently has several slender stems
terminating in a dense canopy of foliage-bearing shoots. The association is
generally an open one, other shrubs being :—

Rhagodia baccata Westringia rigida, var. dolichophylla
Correa speciosa Myoporum deserti
Spyridium eriocephalum Olearia ramulosa

Pimelia serpyllifolia
The soil is a coarse granitic sand of much the same type as in the Casuarina
woodland, but lacking the dark colour due to humus. It was bare of annuals in
January, nor could any sign of their dead remains be seen. A small number of
perennial species occurs in open places; these are plants characteristic of earlier
phases of the succession, ¢.g.:—

Poa caespitosa, var. Billardieri Scleranthus pungens
Mesembryanthemum aequilaterale Pelargonium australe

Atriplex paludosum occurs in several open areas on the north side of
Main Creek as small inliers of saltbush plain (pl. viii., fig. 2).

Ill. Olearia-Leucopogon thicket.

A mixed community of shrubs, of which Olearia ramulosa and Leucopogon
Richei are the most important, exists on some of the lower slopes of the hills
of Northern Island, covers South Hill so far as exposure will allow, and occurs
also on Middle Island. More than one association is probably involved here,
but there is so much intergradation between the differing habitats owing to
exposure, the broken nature of the ground, etc., that it 1s inadvisable to attempt
to define different communities.

The conditions of development of this Olearia-Leucopogon associes are
generally similar to those producing Casuarina wo oodland or Melaleuca scrub
at higher levels or where exposure is less severe. The soil is granitic sand held
in clefts of various depths, or terraces between the boulders or tors. Exposure
to heat and wind is greater than in the case of the two former communities,
while the soil is less stable owing to the more rapid weathering of the rocks.
The effect of aspect and exposure on the development of this thicket has been
referred to in the case of East Hill (pl. iv., fig. 1).

Other plants noted as occurring in this community are :—

Rhagodia baccata Correa speciosa
Enchylaena tomentosa Mesembryanthemum aequilaterale
Lepidium foliosum Myoporium insulare

On Middle Island and portions of Northern Island, near the head of Main
Creek and the south-west corner of the island generally, it is not possible to
define the communities even within the broad limits mentioned above. The
conditions in these localities are less stable owing to weathering of the rock,
extremes of exposure to the south-west gales alternating with comparative pro-
tection in hollows of the rock, the possible influence of spray, and so on. In
addition to the plants mentioned others are present that are the earliest colonists
of rubble soil. Such are :—

Poa caespitosa, var. Billardieri Pelargonium australe
Scleranthus pungens

Occasionally are found bushes or local patches of Atriplex paludosum which
typically occurs as the dominant in a distinct community.

105

IV. Pelargonium-Mesembryanthemum-Poa community.

This is the earliest phase noticeable in the colonization of granite rubble in
shallow pockets in the rock on all the islands. The community is composed of
Pelargonium australe, Mesembryanthemum aequilaterale, and Poa caespitosa,
v. Billardiert.

The pelargonium is low growing with succulent half-shrubby stems. The
plant has a stouter habit of growth than it has when growing on sand dunes on
the mainland. Mesembryanthemum aequilaterale is another dune plant which
on Pearson Island has a less spreading mat habit than is usual. Poa caespitosa,
v. Billardieri, has wiry, pungent-pointed leaves, and the short straw-coloured
panicles typical of the variety. These plants appear in exposed, barren soil at
all levels. Thus, at the summit of 781 Hill the Mesembryanthemum and Poa
are growing along the exposed precipitous western face. They also occur on
the bare patches of coarse sand in the upper part of Main Creek. There the
soil (Sample 4) is poor and deficient in soluble salts. Transitions between this
community and the Olearia-Leucopogon thicket are common. The shrub appear-
ing first is Olearia ramulosa; Rhagodia baccata less commonly. The annual
Lepidium foliosum, too, 1s often found, as is the cushion plant Scleranthus
pungens.

Communities on the Granite Cliffs.

Exposed, precipitous, granite cliffs occur on most parts of the islands. The
type of vegetation they bear is largely a depauperate form of the neighbouring
less exposed faces, but it seems permissible to refer to cliff floras. Naturally, an
important factor influencing these is the degree of exposure to salt spray.

In the most exposed places the cliffs, or platforms, of rock that rise at an
angle of 30° to 45° from the sea are entirely bare for 100 to 150 feet above
tide marks. In rubble pockets above this height occur such plants as Mesem-
bryanthemum australe, Salicornia australis, and Sueda australis. These all
grow stunted in small mats. The habitat is not suitable for most flowering
plants, and even lichens and algae are absent. The relatively rapid weathering
of the rock faces may account for this, as well as exposure to heat, wind, and
spray. The surface of the granite in these places is either smooth where
exposure is most severe, or crumbly and flaky to the touch owing to rapid
weathering. Below such places is a conspicuous layer of coarse barren debris.

Other cliff plants are really chasmophytes growing in deep cracks between
the boulders. In such places occur, in addition to the above, Calocephalus
Brownu, Iviolaena supina (both confined to sea cliffs), Frankenia pauciflora,
Threlkeldia diffusa, Enchylaena tomentosa, Tetragona implexicoma, Scleranthus
pungens, and, where less exposed to spray influence, Mesembryanthemum
aequilaterale, Olearia ramulosa, and Rhagodia baccata. All these must receive
some direct spray in stormy weather, though, owing to the open soil and good
run off, the local accumulation of salt will be slight.

On top of the sheer cliffs 200 feet high, near to the source of Main Creek,
are a number of shallow depressions in the granite filled with rubble and clay
(soil Sample 6). The soil analysis shows that sodium chloride is present, also
a certain amount of clay, otherwise conspicuously absent in the soils. These
rock basins supported little vegetation (pl. iv., fig. 2). Stunted bushes of
Arthrocnemum halocnemoides, var. pergranulatum, occur, together with Salicornia
australis, Frankena pauciflora, and Mesembryanthemum aequilaterale. Around
some of the basins are the prostrate trees of Melaleuca halmaturorum referred to
earlier.

True lithophytes are certain Myxophyceae that occur by the runnels made
by fresh water drainage over the bare rock slopes. These were quite dry in
January, but are most noticeable as dark olive-green to black bands across the

106

stone. ‘The flow of water down these channels would be very intermittent even
in the wet season, owing to the small catchment and non-retentive nature of the
soil covering parts of it. Scrapings of the dried algal growth showed only
Tolypothrix sp.

Watercourses.

The two species of Melaleuca are the most prominent plants of watercourses
on Pearson Islands. Melaleuca parviflora occurs along the beds of the two
fresh water creeks, North Creek (pl. 1x., fig. 2) and the tributary to Main
Creek. It is not, of course, confined to this habitat, but when growing beside a
watercourse descends further from the hills on to the plain below.

Melaleuca halmaturorum is restricted to the course of Main Creek, which
it follows from source to near the mouth (pl. vi., fig. 2, and pl. vii., fig 1). This
is a paper bark tea-tree, well known from habitats elsewhere in South Aus-
tralia to have a high salt toleration. The water flowing down Main Creek
is derived from two sources. Drainage from 781 Hill and the tors at the
south-western corner of the Northern Island provides the bulk of it, but sea spray
contributes some water as overflow from the granite basins described above.
The upper course of the creek is indefinite and appears to be shifting. No special
creek flora can be described in connection with it. The plants growing in the
wide indefinite channels have been referred to under the Pelargonium-Mesem-
bryanthemum-Poa community.

Drainage channels are common near to the bare granite slopes in other parts’
of the islands. Ulothrix sp. covers the soil, and growing amongst it occur such
ephemerals as :—

Centrolepis sp. Cotula coronopifolia
Calamgrostis filifolia
Such channels do not influence to any appreciable extent the flora of perennial
plants around them.
SALTBUSH FORMATION.
Atriplex paludosum dwarf shrubland.

A typical saltbush formation is developed on several parts of Northern and
Southern Islands. The principal habitat is upon the gently sloping plains that
occur at the foot of the steep rocky slopes. The soil of these areas is composed
of fine granitic rubble, almost sandy in texture. The free open soil is one that,
in spite of its humus content, has only a low water-retaining capacity. In
January many of the shrubs were obviously showing the need of water, the
leaves were often flaccid, and the older ones falling off. -

The temperature and insolation factors on these exposed plains must be
severe. It is probable that the light grey-green colour of the Atriplex leaves
may be correlated with light protection.

The Atriplex bushes stand 12 to 18 inches high, and in places form an
almost closed community (pl. vi., figs. 1 and 2). Only one other plant, a
small annual composite, was found on the typical saltbush plain.

Atriplex paludosum appears to be a plant that will not tolerate much
moisture in the soil. Its specific name is not at all appropriate to its South Aus-
tralian habitats. Depressions on the plains were colonized by Rhagodia crassi-
folia (pl. vii., fig. 1). The same plant replaces Atriplex at the base of the steep
rocky rises above the plains, where the influence of drainage from the slopes
above will be most pronounced (pl. vi., fig. 1).

It will be noticed from the analyses of soil Sample 2 (NaCl=-20 per
cent.), that Atriplex paludosum growing on Pearson Island is not a halophyte.
It was absent from the flora of the basins at the head of Main Creek, where the
soil was very salt (Sample 6), though it occurred at their edges, where the
salinity was even lower than in the Atriplex plain (Sample 5, NaCl='15 per

Oy)

cent.). The Atriplex paludosum association observed is a xerophytic com-
munity, not a halophytic one.

Though saltbush dwarf shrubland grows best on granitic soils, it is not
confined to them. It is developed upon the higher levels of the travertine
plateau on Northern Island, and. at the eastern end extends almost to the coast.
Exposure to sea spray is less here than on the other travertine areas. On such
soils the community tends to be a mixed one, Lycium australe, Lepidium
foliosum, and Senecio lautus being present. The Atriplex bushes are more
stunted than in the pure community, with bare soil between them.

On the west side of Main Creek, 7.e., the dry north facing slope, patches of
Atriplex occur as inliers in the open shrub community of Melaleuca parviflora

described above ‘(pli vii.; fig. 2).

TRAVERTINE LIMESTONE COMMUNITIES.

It has been remarked before that the principal limestone areas can be recog-
nized at once by the different type of vegetation that they bear. These com-
munities are grouped together as members of a separate series. No climax is
distinguished, and it is possible that were a larger series available the com-
munities would find their place as seral units in a formation culminating either
as Atriplex dwarf shrubland or Melaleuca parviflora scrub according as climatic
factors were more or less xerophytic.

In regard to the travertine limestone habitat on Pearson Island, one observes
that in addition to the obvious feature of calcium carbonate in the soil there
must also be considered the shallow depth of soil overlying the limestone deposit,
exposure to light and wind owing to the unbroken nature of the terrain, and, in
some cases, e.g., the soil sample analysed, No. 1, an appreciable amount of
sodium chloride. In spite of these features, it is not possible to recognize such
a definite limestone community as that of Frankenia fruticulosa seen on Franklin
{sland.“» Though the travertine areas may be recognizable at once owing to the
difference in the plant covering, it is less easy to define wherein that difference
lies. It is usually one of degree and varying proportions of plants occurring
elsewhere on the islands, rather than one due to the presence of plants limited
ii their distribution to these areas. Three communities are sufficiently distinct
to be briefly noted :-—

1. Mat Plant Community.

A community consisting of prostrate or semi-prostrate dwarf perennials
occurs on most of the plateaux (pl. viii., fig. 2). The majority of the plants
are more or less succulent, and many of them have their leaves coloured owing
to the presence of anthocyanin pigments. The general effect thus produced is
most striking, resembling some gigantic carpet worked in grey (Atriplex),
orange or red (Mesembryanthemum), maroon (Threlkeldia), grey-green
(Enchylaena), or olive-green (Frankenia). The species noted are :—

Chenopodium sp. (affin. microphyllum) Atriplex cinereum
Enchylaena tomentosa Mesembryanthemum australe
Threlkeldia diffusa Franken pauciflora

Il. Chiff Faces.

The seaward edges of the plateaux end in low cliffs 4 to 8 feet high; at
the margin of the cliff faces grow :—

Arthrocnemum halocnemoides, var. Suaeda australe
pergranulatum Tetragonia implexicoma

Salicornia australe Nitraria Schoeberi

Enchylaena tomentosa Frankenia pauciflora

(6) Osborn, T. G. B., loc. cit., p. 201, 1922.

108

The Salicornias and Suaeda occupy the places most exposed to spray. Else-
where Nitraria is the most important plant, often forming almost a thicket, over
the bushes of which Tetragonia and Enchylaena scramble.

Ill. Annual Community.

The plant covering growing upon the plateau of Middle Pearson Island
is of a type not seen elsewhere in the group (pl. ix.; fig. 1). The main plants
observed were :—

Lepidium foliosum Senecio lautus
Apium prostratum

Of these only the Lepidinm was living in January. Occasional clumps of
Enchylaena, the only perennial noted, occurred over the area.

This plateau rises steeply at the western side to the granite summit, the
junction being a fan of talus from the tors above (pl. 1x., fig. 1). At the
junction of fan and plateau there is a belt of Atriplex cinereum noted above as
a constituent of the travertine flora. The vegetation of the fan belongs, of
course, to the mixed shrub community on granite rubble, Olearia ramulosa
predominating.

It is very noticeable that the Olearia does not colonize the travertine, though
it is found growing in clefts in granite exposures on either side of the plateaux.

COMMUNITIES INFLUENCED BY BLOWN SAND.
Littoral.

The only littoral plant on Pearson Island is Atriplex cinereum, which grows
in a small patch at the north-west corner of the landing place (pl. viii., fig. 1).
The habitat is one in which Atriplex cinereum“ commonly occurs on the main-
land, but the habit is unusual. The plant grows creeping or semi-prostrate,
and so accumulates blown sand about itself through which it grows, forming
mounds 2 to 3 feet high and 4 to 6 feet in diameter.

The other portions of the coast are unsuitable to the growth of flowering
plants, being either boulders or platforms of bare granite often of great extent.

Blown Sand on Granite Rubble.

Behind the area mentioned above there is a trough in the granite extending
inland in which wind-borne sand mingles with the rubble. Atriplex cinereum
is replaced by Frankenia pauciflora, which also holds the sands, forming low
mounds a foot or more in diameter; a similar growth form of this plant was
observed on Franklin Island. Other plants are those of open communities
influenced by sea spray, except Lavatera plebeja, which was seen nowhere else
on the islands.

DISCUSSION:
Plant Succession.

On so small an area climatic differences are not very marked, though it is
probably quite justifiable to regard the rubble plains and slopes at the foot of
the hills as more arid than the hills themselves. In atmospheric humidity,
intensity of insolation and temperature, if not in actual rainfall, the plains have
a more xerophytic climate than the hills. It is convenient to group the suc-
cession seen on Pearson Islands into three series. The plains bear a “saltbush”
flora, that of the hills falls into a Casuarina woodland and a shrub series cul-

minating in Melaleuca parviflora scrub, and the flora on travertine limestone is
the third.

‘) Osborn, T. G. B., Brit. Assocn. Report, Austr., 1914, p. 505.

109

There is need of further investigation of the saltbush flora in Australia,
but pending the publication of further work on the subject, it may be said
that saltbush is considered as essentially an arid and not a halophytic formation.
A saltbush plain of the type described above is a seral unit in the formation
as displayed on the mainland, but the Atriplex paludosum consocies on Pearson
Islands is, in that locality, a subclimax. It is related to Rhagodia crassifolia
consocies, which is the most stable community on Franklin Island. This is
shown by the interesting occurrence of local patches of Rhagodia crassifolia in
the saltbush on Pearson Islands. Rhagodia crassifolia open shrubland was con-
sidered a subclimax on Franklin Island, but I now regard the succession sug-
gested, i.e., towards a scrub woodland involving Melaleuca parviflora, as mis-
taken. The examination of Pearson Island shows that Melaleuca parviflora
properly has its place in a different and less xerophytic line of succession.

The woodland series on the hill slopes shows a greater number of suc-
cessional stages than the saltbush; this is to be expected in a less arid sequence.
It is a formation of less xerophytic type, as is shown by the occurrence of
mosses, Cheilanthes tenuifolia and Calythrix tetragona. The two last grow on
the Mount Lofty Ranges in a rainfall of over 30 inches. Casuarina stricta
consocies is a closed community at the higher levels. This species on the main-
land does not form a climax associaton, but is an early stage in the sclerophyllous
woodland series. Casuarina stricta in South Australia is characteristic of rocky
outcrops, where it obtains deep but well-drained soil. On Pearson Island the
forest succession goes no further than the Casuarina woodland, the edaphic
factors as well as such a climatic factor as wind militating against the growth of
most trees.

The Melaleuca parviflora consocies is a scrub woodland of a more xerophytic
type than the Casuarina woodland. Melaleuca parviflora forms dense thickets
of considerable extent on some of the neighbouring islands, e.g., Flinders Island,
and also on the mainland. On the mainland, however, it is certainly a stage in
the sere culminating in mallee (Eucalyptus spp.).

The accompanying figure shows graphically the relationship between the
communities on the granite slopes :—

Casuarina stricta Melaleuca parviflora
consocies. consocies.
Casuarina stricta with Melaleuca parviflora and mixed

Leucopogon. shrub community.

SX SK
Olearia-Leucopogon Melaleuca halmaturorum

associes. consocies.

Pelargonium-M esembryanthemum-Poa Arthrocnemum and dwarf
associes. halophytic communities.

Bare granite.
Fig. 2.
Diagram to show the relation of the chief scrub and woodland communities on granite.

The separation of the communities on travertine limestone into another
group is a matter of convenience rather than an expression of difference. A
saltbush flora develops upon travertine areas upon the mainland, for travertine
limestone, of course, is not so much a geological formation as an indication of a
climate with a high evaporation rate. On Pearson Island we find an open
community with Atriplex paludosum as the dominant species upon parts of the
plateaux. It is possible that some, at least, of the travertine communities should
find their place in the saltbush formation, but at present it is preferable to group
all the limestone communities together.

110

Though the main communities on Pearson Island are at present in an active
state, the ultimate fate of the islands will be a bare granite reef if the present
cycle of denudation continues. Middle and Southern Pearsons show no community
higher than Olearia-Leucopogon thicket. The outlying islands appeared to have
few, if any, bushes upon them. The rate of degeneration upon Northern
Pearson, however, will remain slow, provided the flora is protected from
malicious fires.

Flora.

- A complete list of the vascular plants collected is given in Appendix II.
lt comprises 52 species, though, as the islands were visited in the dry season, the
list is probably incomplete as far as herbaceous plants are concerned. The
most important families are: Chenopodiaceae (10 species), Compositae (9
species), and Gramineae (5 species).

No member of the Leguminoseae was found on the islands. None were
found in the flora of Franklin Island. Considering that the Leguminoseae
is the family represented by the greatest number of species in the Australian
Flora, its apparent absence is remarkable.

The Myrtaceae are represented by three species, but no Eucalypt is present.
This, again, is a surprising feature, for mallee Eucalypts occur on the coast
of the neighbouring mainland.

The Centrolepis appears to be new, but it was obtained with fruits only.
An attempt is being made to raise it from seed, and, if successful, the plant will
be described later by Mr. J. M. Black.

In the list given below the growth forms according to Raunkaier’s system
are also stated. There are three species of low trees (Microphanaerophytes,
5-7 per cent.) and 19 species of shrubs (Nanophanaerophytes 36 per cent.),
making altogether a phanaerophyte flora of 41:7 per cent. This is very nearly
the phanaerophyte percentage for the normal spectrum (43 per cent.), but there
are no other trees than microphanaerophytes and there is an overwhelming
preponderance of shrubs.

Total number

District. of Species Percentage of Species belonging to each Life Form.
considered. MM. “Meant (Ch: inbemGelslist rie aes S.
Pearson Island .. 53 oe 5-7 0236.19 28:3) “1-925 —— = 28-25
Franklin Island .. 34* — — 15 38 —- — — 47 —_—- —
Ooldeama se vac 188 SU V19) A 23ropl4: 450 %5 » = =egs 4;. =
Natal e055 sey es. 3,034 Sen a 8 Ke Ilia) dls). £35) 6:5 1 1
Normal Spectrum 400 6 20 9 27 3 ihe 113} 3 1

The number of dwarf shrubs or herbaceous perennials is 15. These have
no special protection for their buds, but are mat plants, cushion plants, or grow in
tussocks (Chamaephytes 28:2 per cent.). | The percentage is more than three times
that of the normal spectrum. On the Franklin Islands the percentage was even
higher. This may partly be attributed to the rather special habitat in wind-
swept islands, but there may be other reasons. When examining the arid type
of flora at Ooldea, Adamson and the writer) found a rather high percentage

*The total number of species is so small that the percentages may be misleading unless
taken in a general way as emphasising the abundance of chamaephytes and therophytes and
the absence of most of the other life forms.

_+ The epiphytes here were hemiparasites, very prominent in arid districts of South Aus-
tralia, for which no provision is made by Raunkaier’s system.

(9) Osborn, T. G. B., loc. cit., p. 204, 1922.
) Maiden, J. H., Australian Vegetation, Federal Handbook on Australia, p. 166, 1914.

() Adamson, R. S., and Osborn, T. G. B., On the Ecology of the Ooldea District, Trans.
Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xlvi., p. 558, 1922.

111

of Chamaephytes (141), and Bews in the Flora of Natal notes the same
thing (19 per cent.). Raunkaier has shown that Chamaephytes increase towards
the polar regions and also in hot climates with a dry season. Even allowing for
the fact that the Pearson Islands have a restricted flora and a special type of
habitat, the relatively large number of Chamaephytes is a feature of the flora
that agrees with the few other biological spectra that have been published for
Southern Hemisphere floras. The Chamaephyte protects its buds by the shelter
of the plant itself or its dead remains heaped around them. These persistent
aerial portions also serve as a break that arrests movement of unstable soil.
In the case of Hemicryptophytes protection is gained as a result of the sub-
terranean position of the renewal buds which le in the upper crust of the soil.
This method is less suitable for unstable soil, which may “drift,” exposing the
buds. Also, in dry weather the dead remains are likely to be blown away
instead of remaining heaped over the buried portions. It must be remembered
that in South Australia the adverse period is a time of drought and heat, not cold.

Hemicryptophytes (H) are represented on the Pearson Islands by a single
species, the fern Cheilanthes tenuifolia (H, 19 per cent.). None were found
on Franklin Island and only 4 per cent. at Ooldea. This rarity of Hemicrypto-
phytes in the floras of the three arid districts of Australia, which have up to
the present been investigated on Raunkaier’s system, is a feature ere
further examination.

No geophytes were observed. This may be due to the season of the
year, but it may be recalled that only a single species was observed at Ooldea
in the winter months.

The therophyte flora (Th, 282 per cent.) is less than that at Ooldea
or Franklin Islands, but the percentage is still double that of the normal
spectrum. It is probable that the number of annual species would ,be increased
were it possible to visit the islands during the wet season, though comparisons
with Franklin Islands are quite justifiable since those islands were also visited
in January. Probably the percentage of therophytes on Pearson Islands is
less than that of the other two districts because, owing to the topography of
the islands, denudation is more rapid and the soil correspondingly less stable.

APPENDIX I.
ANALYSES OF SOIL SAMPLES FROM PEARSON ISLANDS.
Bye enG: woop. isc:

The samples were all obtained from a section through the first 4 to
6 inches of the soil after brushing away the surface layer. They
were, tall’ but No.l) derived from ‘granite, and are of the) “coarse sand;
type, t.e., the majority of the particles have a diameter of from 1 to 0:2 mm.,
and consequently the soils have little water-holding capacity. This is modified
in the case of soil No. 6, which has a considerable amount of clay, and also in
Nos. 2 and 3, which have 99 per cent. and 13:9 per cent. of humus, respectively.

Before analysis the soils were air-dried and then passed through a 10-mesh
(26 mm.) sieve, and the sieved soil was finely ground and used for analysis.
The screenings consisted of fragments of granite, felspar, quartz, and in some
cases (mentioned below) dried vegetation as twigs, roots, etc., and also drop-
pings from cockroaches. The screenings in each case amounted to about one-
third of the total sample of soil.
The results of the analyses are set forth in the table :—

1) Bews, J. W., The growth forms of Natal Plants, Trans. Roy. ey Si SAC ay
p. 624, 1916.

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Little need be said regarding the moisture at 100° C. This is low, as would
be expected of coarse sands, and the range is small between the different samples.
The water-retaining-capacity factor alone appears to influence the plant dis-
tribution very slightly. The highest percentage of water is reached in the case
of soil No. 6, obtained from the basin at the head of the creek. It contains
more clay than the other soils, the felspar being largely kaolinized.

The presence of clay (hydrous silicate of alumina) is reflected also in the
second column (combined water). Rough estimations showed that the combined
water was practically nil in all cases except in soil No. 6, where it was deter-
mined. It amounted to 3 per cent.

The column headed “humus” was determined by the loss on ignition after
deducting the CO, and the total water content, which gives approximately the per-
centage of humus. This is complicated in the case of soils Nos. 1 and 2 by the
fact that a good deal of dried undecomposed plant debris (twigs and portions
of roots) passed through the sieve. ‘To determine these the soils were shaken
with water, when most of the small twigs floated to the top. These were
collected and dried, and were found to amount to about 3 per cent. in each case.
They do not, however, alter the relative positions of the soils in regard to humus
content. Soil No. 3 is a dark soil from the Casuarina woodland zone containing
13:9 per cent. of humus and comparatively free from small twigs.. As one
usually finds in woodland soils, it contains an acid humus, as is shown in the
pH value in the last column in the table. This soil forms a notable contrast
with soil No. 2, with which it is practically identical in composition, except
that the humus content is about 4 per cent. lower in No. 2 (taking the twigs into
account ).

No. 2 soil is not acid, however, but on the alkaline side of neutrality
(neutrality pH=70). It appears possible that the reaction of the soil
may be one of the factors influencing the type of flora, for whilst the acid soil
supports Casuarina and Leucopogon, the alkaline one is covered with Afripler.
In soil No. 5 the organic matter is well decomposed and contains no twigs.
It approximates soil No. 2 in composition, though it is poorer in humus. Soil
No. 4 is very deficient in organic matter. It is a typical barren granitic soil.

The fourth column gives the percentage of chlorine, and the next these
percentages calculated as sodium chloride. There is practically no K Cl present,
the potassium which is present being combined with aluminium silicate in the
clay. A determination of the total soluble salts in soil No. 6 showed that these
amounted to 3-4 per cent., and of this 3:08 per cent. was Na Cl, as calculated
from the chlorine content. There was very little potassium present. The salt
is derived from sea spray, and the analyses show that two soils, Nos. 1 and 6,
have abnormally high percentages.

The most interesting feature brought out in connection with the salt con-
tent is the range of Atriplex, which is usually classed as a halophyte. In Nos. 2
and 5, with an average soil saline content, A. paludoswm thrives, while A.
cmereum tolerates 0:97 NaCl. In soil No. 6, where the salt content is high
(due to accumulation by evaporation of sea water in the basin), Atriplex is
absent. The characteristic vegetation is Arthrocnemum halocnemoides, var.
pergranulatum, and Melaleuca halmaturorum.

The presence of Atriplex spp. in the areas of low salt concentration, and
their absence from soils with a high percentage of sodium chloride, supports
the objection that has been made to classing the “‘saltbushes’”’ of Australia as
halophytes.¢>

The carbonate content calls for no comment here; calcium carbonate is
present only in the soil from the travertine plateau.

(2) Adamson and Osborn, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xlvi. (1922), p. 544.

114

As regards nitrogen, soils Nos. 4 and 6 only show the amount which one
would expect from soils of this type (1.e., around 0:1 per cent). The other soils
are high. This is accounted for by the large amounts of droppings from the
cockroaches before mentioned. The screenings of Nos. 1, 2, and 3 particularly
had large amounts of dung, while it was less evident in Soil No. 5. This
“manuring’’ must appreciably affect the luxuriance of growth. Unfortunately,
no two soils taken resemble one another in all save nitrogen content, so one
cannot make a quantitative camparison.

In the last column are given the pH values of the soils. These were deter-
mined colorimetrically, using Clark and Lub’s series of indicators.”*) They bear
out one’s expectations. The forest soil, with high humus content and exposed
to wind,“ is acidic, while the limestone soil is alkaline. The other granite soils
are also slightly on the alkaline side. This latter feature was not unexpected,
although granite soils, as a class, when not near the sea are slightly acidic. On
the island, however, the soils can all be reached by sea spray (either by dashing
on rocks or carried by wind), and sea water itself has a pH of about 82, due
mainly to magnesium and calcium salts. It is probably this fact which brings
the reaction from slight acidity to slight alkalinity. The possible correlation
between the vegetation and these values has been mentioned under “humus.”

APPENDIX II.
List. OF SSPECGIASF €C@OLeE GED:

Following is a list of the species collected on Pearson Island. I am grateful
to Mr. J. M. Black for kindly examining my collection and determining some of
the plants. The Centrolepis will be described by him later.

In addition to the name of the plant and its growth form according to
Raunkaier’s system, notes on the habit are given and the community in which
it occurs. The habit notes, leaf measurements, etc., refer to Pearson Island
specimens :—

(15) Clark, Determination of Hydrogen Ions, 1920.
(4) Warming, Oecology of Plants, p. 62.

.

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DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

PiaTeE IV.

Fig. 1. View of East Hill looking east along the col from the slope of 781 Hill.
The north face (left) has a shrub flora and much bare rock, while the south face has a
covering of low trees of Casuarina stricta and Melaleuca parviflora. The trees in the fore-
ground are Casuarinas.

Fig. 2. 781 Hill from south looking across a granite basin at the head of Main Creek.
The vegetation in the foreground is Arthrocnemum halocnemoides, var. pergranulatum, and
Mesembryanthemum australe. Immediately behind the basin are prostrate trees of Melaleuca
halmaturorum. Beyond is a scrub woodland of Melaleuca parviflora, passing into Casuarina
stricta woodland about half-way to the’ summit. The slopes of 781 Hill show the characteristic
areas of bare granite.

PLATE V.

Fig. 1. Casuarina stricta woodland with undergrowth of Leucopogon Richei. To the
right is the edge of one of the bare granite areas. South face of 781 Hill.

Fig. 2. Summit of East Hill from the north side of col. Casuarina stricta on
summit amongst granite tors, with Melaleuca parviflora, Olearia ramulosa, and Leucopogon
Richei as shrubs. The Casuarinas disappear about the level of the large tor right of the
middle. The shrubs in the foreground are Rhagodia crassifolia.

Puate VI.

Fig. 1. Atriplex paludosum consocies on rubble plain, showing in middle distance sharp
junction with community composed of Rhagodia crassifolia at the base of a steep rise. About
the level of the granite boulders Rhagodia is replaced by the Olcaria-Leucopogon thicket
community. On the skyline a few trees of Casuarina and Melaleuca parviflora. South slope
of East Hill, Northern Pearson.

Fig. 2. Atriplex paludosum consocies in foreground; behind is the lower course of
Main Creek, with a dense scrub of Melaleuca halmaturorum, the “paper bark” of which makes
the trunks appear white. In the background is the south-east face of 781 Hill, with scrub
woodland of Melaleuca parviflora on the lower slopes and Casuarina stricta in the upper part.
Note the large areas of bare granite on 781 Hill.

Puate VII.

Fig. 1. Atriplex paludosum consocies on rubble plain with local patches of Rhagodia
crassifolia (darker-coloured foliage) in hollows. Beyond is the course of Main Creek, with
Melaleuca halmaturorum intersecting a scrub in which Melaleuca parviflora is dominant. The
tors on the skyline, right, are at the south-west corner of Northern Pearson.

Fig. 2. Melaleuca parviflora scrub and Atriplex paludosum consocies junction on north
bank of Main Creek. Note the patches of Mesembryanthemum acquilaterale with Pelargonium
australe, the first colonists of granite rubble in the scrub woodland series.

Puate VIII.

Fig. 1. Atriplex cinerewm on shore forming mounds of blown sand. Behind Frankenia
Zauciflora, dark leaves, also holds sand. Higher up the slope mixed communities, including
Lepidium foliosum and Olcaria ramulosa. In right hand corner portions of two hair seals
(Arcteocephalus fosteri) can be seen.

Fig. 2. Foreground travertine plateau flora on Southern Pearson; plants, Atriplex
cinereum, Mesembryanthemum australe, Threlkeldia, Enchylaena, etc. Middle Pearson, with
the landing place seen behind—note the abrupt (south-west) face and gentle slope of the
east side. The travertine plateau of this island is well seen. To the right is the south-west
coast of Northern Island, with 781 and North Hills.

PuaTe IX.

Fig. 1. Annual plants (Senecio lautus and Apium prostratum) now dead and Enchy-
laena tomentosa on travertine plateau of Middle Pearson. Behind Junction of talus slope
with Olearia-Leucopogon thicket on boulder slope.

Fig. 2. Foreground Atriplex paludosum on talus slope to North Bay, Northern Pearson.
A watercourse runs from right to left marked by occasional bushes of Melaleuca parviflora.
This watercourse (North Creek) is fresh. Beyond is bare talus with large spreading bushes
of Rhagodia crassifolia. The rocky slope behind has an open shrubby flora, chiefly Olearia
ramulosa, Rhagodia baccata, with some Leucopogon Richei, Correa speciosa, Mesem.
aequilaterale, and Pelargonium on exposed parts with Scleranthus pungens and Poa.

WY)

THE FLORA AND FAUNA OF NUYTS ARCHIPELAGO AND THE
INVESTIGATOR GROUP.

No. 9—THE BIRDS OF THE PEARSON ISLANDS.

By J. Burton CLeLanp, M.D.
[Read May 10, 1923.]

Considerable interest is attached to the consideration of the land birds
inhabiting an island constituted and situated as is Pearson Island. The interest
is the same as that attendant on the study of the local faunas of Tasmania and
of the islands in Bass Straits. At one time, these were all obviously connected
with the adjacent mainland. The group comprising the Pearson Islands now
forms the remaining southern outlier of a submerged part of the continent,
being distant about 42 miles from the mainland and half this distance from
Flinders Island interposed between. Some, all, or none of the land birds now
on this group of islands may represent the descendants of those species left
behind when the separation occurred. As often happens under such circum-
stances, some of the species thus left, if still represented by living forms, might
be expected to show some tangible subspecific, if not specific, differences from
those on the mainland. Professor Wood Jones’ expedition in January, 1923,
hoped to obtain a sufficient collection of skins to ascertain whether any such
differences existed. Further, it might happen that some species, now extinct
on the mainland, still survived on this lonely group.

Previous visitors to the Pearson Islands have left little record of the birds
they observed. Flinders sighted and named the islands, but did not approach
near to them. In the sailing directions given in the Australia Directory (10th
edit., vol. i., 1907), it is stated that large flocks of Albatrosses may be seen in
its vicinity. ’ The albatrosses’) referred to seem to’ be the Pacihe Gulls. Mr.
Edgar Waite, visiting the island for a few hours on September 27, 1914,
noted the presence of Cape Barren Geese, Black Oyster-catchers, Little Penguins,
Pacific Gulls, Parrots, Zosterops, a Thickhead, and Crows, but did not publish
his observations. Professor Wood Jones on two recent short visits saw, besides
Crested Terns, Silver and Pacific Gulls, Blue Reef-Herons, Cape Barren Geese,
Rock-Parrots, and Crows, and what he believed to be several large Green Parrots.
No sign of these latter were detected during our stay.

The birds of the island naturally divide themselves into the sea birds,
including all those birds that live in the immediate neighbourhood of our coasts,
and the land birds proper. Of the former, with one exception, nothing of
particular interest was observed. The exception consisted in the presence on the
island of a pair of Red-tailed Tropic Birds, a species hitherto represented
in South Australian waters by only one specimen—a female secured on January
13, 1919, which had been flying about Grantala Farm, North Shields, near Port
Lincoln, for a week and had been captured alive. This was presented to the
South Australian Museum. A taxidermist’s note states that, on skinning, the
bird was “found to have no ears.”

There are three ways in which the presence of land birds may be explained
on the Pearson Islands. They may be descendants of the birds originally left
there when the islands were separated from the mainland; they may represent
birds blown out to sea by strong winds, especially north winds; or they may
be birds that have deliberately flown south into the Bight and have here made
land.

The species met with on the islands are not peculiar to it. No sound sub-
species can be differentiated. We have not then this guide, namely, differentia-

120

tion—a process taking a long period of time to bring about—to aid us in deciding
whether any species is autochthonous or not; even had such changes occurred,
these might have been in the descendants of an early immigrant. Is there
anything else that may help us in deciding? We may possibly get some help
by ascertaining whether the species of land birds present also occur on the
adjacent mainland, and, if so, whether they are numerous there and what are
their habits. If an island species is not present on the mainland, we may infer
that the species is autochthonous or an early immigrant, 7.e., an immigrant at a
period when the species also occurred on the mainland, though it had since died
out. Again, if the species in question is relatively rare on the adjacent coast,
if it does not congregate in little flocks, and if in its habits it is disinclined to
fly across open spaces and so be caught by a strong wind and blown to sea, then
there is little likelihood of an individual becoming an unwilling immigrant to
this distant island, and still less likelihood of a pair of birds, of opposite sexes,
reaching it within a year or so of each other so as to mate and have offspring.
Unfortunately a consideration of these several aspects still leaves the matter
open.

In October, 1909, members of the Australasian Ornithologists’ Union visited
Eyre Peninsula and held a camp at Wanilla, some 50 miles north-west of Port
Lincoln. From here excursions were made as far as the south-east end of the
Great Australian Bight. The birds noted are recorded by Hall (The Emu,
ix., 1909-10, p. 123). In this list appear the Raven (Corone aastralis), the Red-
cap Robin, Ephthianura albifrons, Pachycephala pectoralis, \Welcome Swallow,
Zosterops, three species -of Wood-Swallows, Neophema petrophila, Starlings,
and Sparrows. A Bronze Cuckoo does not appear, but its omission does not
mean that it does not occur. We thus see that the birds found on the islands
occur on the mainland nearly opposite, assuming that the Wood-Swallow seen
belongs to one of the three species noted (if so, Artamus personatus).

Let us consider these birds in detail. The Crow, or Raven, is a powerful
flier, and might possibly deliberately visit the island and, at any rate, might
easily be blown there. Zosterops frequently congregates in little flocks, and
these may traverse open spaces. Flocks might thus be easily blown to sea, and
the sudden irruption of these birds in New Zealand a number of years ago
is believed by many to have been due to a flock having thus been wind-borne.
At Willis Island, in the Coral Sea, about 250 miles from Cairns, two birds,
believed from the description to be Zosterops (The Emu, xxiu., January, 1923,
p. 186), are recorded as “‘strangers.”” Zosterops may thus be taken to be a bird
liable in its habits to be blown to sea and to survive over long stretches of ocean.
With strong north and north-east winds it might easily, therefore, from time to
time be blown from its feeding haunts near open coasts to the Pearson Islands.
If any of the present birds canclaim to be descendants of individauls left behind
originally, it may safely be assumed that over the centuries this blood has been
diluted again and again by new arrivals.

Ephthianura albifrons was one of the commonest birds on the islands. Its
tendency to inhabit open spaces, often near the sea, covered with low shrubs
such as samphire, and its congregation into small flocks, would render it, like
Zosterops, liable to being frequently blown to sea.

Welcome Swallows, besides frequenting the neighbourhood of human dwell-
ings, caves, and overhanging rocks, are also found on rocky coasts, such as
those west of Rosetta Head, at Encounter Bay. In such situations they doubtless
find suitable nesting sites in the breeding season. On Pearson Islands they
were seen on a similar rocky coast and flying to and fro amongst overhanging
masses of granite near the highest point on the main island. Their powers of
flight and frequent coast habitat account for their presence.

121

The occurrence of the Rock Parrot can be easily explained, considering
its habits, which expose it to the perils of the winds. Hunger may have, at
times, compelled a flight from other islands, and the Pearson Islands may have
served as a haven of “refuge.

The Starlings, believed to have been seen, and the very doubtful presence
of Sparrows, can only be explained by wind dispersal. Starlings would hardly
seek deliberately such a far-distant speck of land for food.

The habits of Artamus personatus, which in numbers at certain seasons
soar often to great heights into the air, would render these birds liable to
accidental transport. The presence of ‘a pair only would suggest that the
passage had been a dangerous one and few had survived, or that a suitable
insect food supply was insufficiently abundant.

We are left with the Red-cap Robin and the Pachycephala. I will deal
separately with the Bronze Cuckoo as coming in a category by itself. Red-cap
Robins are doubtless relatively numerous on the adjacent coast. They usually
occur, however, in pairs, though occasionally two full-plumaged cocks and several
dull-coloured birds may be seen in company. Their daintiness does not suggest
strong powers of flight. Doubtless an occasional bird is blown to sea, very
rarely two may be, and make the same haven, Pearson Islands. The chances
would be doubled against the two birds being mates. The origin of the birds
now present must be left entirely open, though I incline to the immigrant view.

Pachycephala pectoralis remains. It occurs on the mainland. Whether
numerous there, I know not; but in my experience in other parts I would
expect it to be, though not rare, by no means numerous—a pair of birds, say,
toy some, Square mules, of country. ‘Elere,’ it ‘seems to, me) the, chances }ane
decidedly against two birds of opposite sexes making this island within a year
or so of each other. Pachycephala may be an autochthone.

The presence of a Bronze Cuckoo, of which species two birds at least were
seen and one was secured, was a surprise. ‘These birds are migratory, at least
in many parts of Australia, though North (Nests and Eggs, i., p. 23) states
that Chalcococcyx basalis may be a permanent resident of the Sydney district.
In the Adelaide district they are numerous in the spring and early summer.
Whither they migrate is unexplained. Mathews (Birds of Australia, vit.,
p. 345) suggests, into the interior of Australia, though the species has an extra-
Australian range. The important point to consider in connection with the
species is that it is migratory, at least in places, such as southern South Aus-
tralia, Victoria, and Tasmania. Are we to consider the birds found on Pearson
Islands as migrants or as stationary individuals, such as may be the case
amongst some in the Sydney area? If the climatic conditions in other parts
of South Australia do not entice these birds to remain all the year round, it
does not seem to me likely that the Pearson Islands would do so. If the birds
Geliberately migrated there, there would be no reason why they might not
return north equally well. Such a migration and return occur in Tasmania.
I think we may assume that the Pearson Island birds are as much migrants as
Tasmanian ones. Does their occurrence on the Pearson Islands then indicate
that many birds, on reaching the shores of the Bight, proceed on south, though
islands are few—mere specks in the ocean—and many must perish, the only
survivors probably of those that leave the immediate vicinity of the mainland
being the Pearson Island ones? I think this view is quite a likely one. But
why do they pass on south? It is perhaps too much to surmise that they seek
a land which is now submerged, that part of southern Australia that originally
reached as far as the Pearson Islands and beyond them till the limits of the
continental shelf are reached. This would presuppose that the instinct, directing
them to a particular area, had remained unabated and unmodified by changed

122

on

geographical conditions over a period of time to be counted in thousands of
years.

Eudyptula minor (Forst.) (Little Penguin). Young birds, still with some
down on the feathers, were numerous under the rocks and in the midst of
tangled masses of low shrubs. It is interesting to note the height above the
water and the distance from the sea to which the adult birds travel to lay their
eggs. A number of dead Penguins were found amongst the shrubs, but the
cause of their death was not ascertained. Towards dusk, the young birds often
uttered their peculiar squeaks and were frequently to be seen emerging from
their recesses and standing up surveying their surroundings, but within easy
distance of their retreats. It was a surprise to find that the only hair seal killed
(for scientific purposes) showed an absence of fish in its stomach, but numerous
hali-grown Penguin’s feathers and other evidence of these birds forming its
staple, if not entire, diet at this time of year. A young Penguin caught had
a rectal temperature of 40° C. Ticks (probably Jvodes percavatus, Neum.)
were present on it.

Sterna. bergi, Lichten. (Crested Tern). Fairly numerous. Male bird
secured; iris dark brown; bill greenish-yellow; tongue more of a maize-yellow ;
legs black. Total length to tips of bifurcations of wings, 44 cm. Span across
outspread wings, 92 cm. T., 39:3° C. Mallophaga present; mites on wings;
cestodes in intestine. Several small fish in stomach.

Larus novae-hollandiae, Steph. (Silver Gull). Numerous.

Gabianus pacificus (Lath.). (Pacific Gull). A number of these handsome
birds, mostly in adult plumage, were present. The reference to large flocks
of “albatrosses”’ in the description of the Pearson Islands given in the “Australia
Directory” (1907, vol. i.) unquestionably refers to this species. Professor
Wood Jones found a nest here with two eggs on November 25, 1920. A
full-plumaged female bird, in attempting to steal a bait, got entangled in a
fishing line that had been temporarily left unattended. Iris, white; eyelid,
orange; base of bill, chrome; distal third of bill, red with dark grey along the
cutting edge; inside of bill, chrome; tongue and floor of mouth between rami
of lower bill, orange; gape, orange, except for a narrow chrome-coloured outer
edge; legs, maize-yellow. Total length, 584 cm. Span across outspread wings,
134 cm. T., 40° C. Mites on wings. No entozoa detected. Stomach con-
tents, part of a rock crab.

Haematopus unicolor, Wagler (Black Oyster-catcher). Several pairs of
these birds were present. One pair in particular returned again and again to
a particular spot amongst granite boulders and bare ground as if a nest were
in the neighbourhood, but none was found. One bird, a male, was secured;
iris, crimson; eyelid, orange; base of bill, orange like the eyelid passing into
pinkish-orange in the distal half; inside of bill, orange; pharynx, flesh coloured ;
legs, lilac; toes, maize-yellow. Total length, 52 cm. Span of outspread wings,
91 cm.; weight, 652 grms. (1 Ib. 7 ozs.). T., per cloacam, 41° C.; by stomach,
406° C. Mallophaga present; cestodes in alimentary tract.

Lobibyx novae-hollandiae (Steph.) (Spurwing Plover). Three were seen
on the southern part of the island and again on the northern extremity.

Notophoyx novae-hollandiae (Lath.) (White-faced Heron). A few birds
were present.

Demigretta sacra (Gmel.) (Blue Reef-Heron). Seen by some members of
the party.

Cereopsis novae-hollandiae, Lath. (Cape Barren Goose). Three of these
fine birds were seen flying around the bay as the landing was made, and again
on several occasions during our stay.

Phalacrocorax carbo (L.) (Black Cormorant). A few present.

123

Phaethon rubricaudus, Boll. (Red-tailed Tropic Bird). The presence of a
pair of “Bo’s’n Birds” on Pearson Island was a surprise to members of the
party, most of whom had an opportunity of seeing one at least of them. They
circled round the summit of the north part and occasionally descended to the
flatter portion on the east. Two members saw one within easy gun-shot (about
30 yards off) flying low over the tea-tree. As it did so, it suddenly dropped
the beautiful red tail feathers, suggesting to one of the two, who had not pre-
viously seen a Tropic Bird, that it was passing red dejecta. The bird flew in
a straight line flapping its wings. It was thought at the time that this would
prove to be a new record for the State, but, as already mentioned, there is in
the South Australian Museum the skin of a Red-tailed Tropic Bird secured
near Port Lincoln in 1919.

Haliaetus leucogaster (Gmel.) (White-breasted Sea-Eagle). One at least
of these fine birds sailed round the summit of the northern part, occasionally
descending to the haunts of the Pacific Gulls near the crossing, when the Gulls
would vigorously chase it and drive it away. A mass of large sticks and debris
near the summit on the southern part suggested an old nest.

Cerchneis cenchroides (Vig. and Horsf.) (Nankeen Kestrel). <A pair of
these Kestrels had their home at the summit of the southern part. Under a
ledge of rock was an old large stick nest, doubtless belonging to them.

Owl. A large bird seen once at night and pellets found near the northern
summit, suggest the presence of an Owl.

Neophema petrophila (Gould) (Rock-Parrot). Rock-Parrots constitute a
considerable part of the land-bird fauna of the main island. Probably more
than a hundred individuals are present. They are to be found where low shrubs
and herbaceous plants occupy the soil between granite boulders and slopes, and
particularly on the gentle limestone slopes, where a more abundant soil supports
the loose shrub Nitraria, a crucifer (Lepidium foliosum, Desv.), and the rosemary-
like composite Olearia axillaris, F. v. M. On the tops of these plants they
settle before descending to search for seeds, or fly up to these points of vantage
when alarmed. On other occasions they walk or fly on to exposed granite
siopes and boulders, thus earning their name of Rock-Parrots. Occasionally
they run over the flatter surfaces. The note uttered is a little twittering or
almost whistling sound. I have not heard this same note uttered by the closely-
allied Neophema elegans, a bird which was abundant in burnt scrub, in shrubby
sandy land, and partly cleared grass land at Encounter Bay a fortnight later.
In this connection it may be worthy of mention, as showing how an island
habitat may be gradually acquired, that a flock of Neophema elegans (a bird
was not secured for absolute identification) was met with in January, 1920, on
Wright Island, a small island in Encounter Bay between Rosetta Head and
Granite Island, about half a mile from the shore and a little over a mile and a
half from where identified N. elegans were present on the mainland. These
birds apparently passed from the mainland to the island and back again. On
the island they were seen to be feeding on the minute seeds of the native
tobacco (Nicotiana suaveolens, Lehm.).

Two specimens of Neophema petrophila were obtained, both males, but
one in incomplete plumage. Male adult; iris, very dark brown; bill, very dark
grey above, pallid horn below; pharynx, flesh coloured; legs, pale greyish-
brown; claws, blackish. Total length, 226 cm. Span of outspread wings,
307 cm. Weight, 53 grms. T., 395° C. Ornithomyid fly amongst the feathers ;
mites on wings; numerous cestodes in intestines. Male not quite adult; soft
parts coloured as in other bird. Total length, 21 cm. Span of outspread wings,
29-3 cm. Weight, 47 grms. T., 41° C. (Fluttered along after being shot.)
Ornithomyid fly; mallophaga present; mites on wings; cestodes in intestines.

124

Chalcites basalis (Horsf.) (Narrow-billed Bronze Cuckoo). The presence
of two at least of these birds was a surprise. To the significance of their
occurrence reference has already been made. A male was secured; iris, reddish-
brown; Dill, black; inside of bill, black; pharynx, greyish flesh; legs, greyish-
black. Total length, 165 cm. Span of outspread wings, 28 cm. Weight, 25 grms.
T., 411°. No ectozoa and no entozoa detected.

Hirundo neoxena, Gould (Welcome Swallow). A few Welcome Swallows
were seen hawking round on the sandy beach on landing and on several occasions
afterwards. They occasionally settled on the granite boulders. High up the
side of the northern summit Swallows were seen entering and leaving shallow
caves made by the weathering of the under parts of huge granite masses.
Female bird; iris, dark brown; bill, black; pharynx and gape, yellowish; legs,
black. Total length, 165 cm. Span of outspread wings, 30 cm. T., 37° C.
No ectozoa and no entozoa detected.

Petroica goodenovii (Vigors and Horsf.) (Red-cap Robin). In the
tea-tree (Melaleuca parviflora, Lindl.) scrub and on open slopes covered with the
composite Olearia axillaris, F. v. M., a number of these Robins were noticed.
In one place some eight or ten immature birds or females and one adult cock
bird (moulting) were met with, the uncoloured birds flying from top to top
of the low bushes or settling on the bare ground between. Adult male; iris,
dark brown, nearly black; bill, black; pharynx and gape, orange; legs, black;
BUCS, brownish-orange. Total length, 11 cm. Span of outspread wings, 18:5 cm.

40:2° C. Mites on wings; no mallophaga detected; no entozoa detected.
Pee sex (?); iris, very dark brown; bill, brown: pharynx and gape,
yellow; legs, blackish; soles, yellowish. T., 41° C. Mites on wings; mallo-
phaga present; no entozoa detected.

Pachycephala pectoralis (Lath.) (Golden-breasted Whistler). Mr. Waite
noted the presence of a Pachycephala, doubtless this species, in 1914. Several
birds were on the island, being found in the tall tea-tree (Melaleuca parviflora,
Lindl.) and sheoaks (Casuarina stricta, Ait.). A moulting adult male and an
immature male were obtained. No tangible differences could be detected
between these and mainland birds. Adult male; iris, reddish-brown; bill,
black; pharynx, flesh coloured; legs, dark grey. T., 41:3° C. Ornithomyid fly
amongst feathers; no mallophaga and no entozoa detected. Immature male;
iris, reddish-brown; bill, black; pharynx, flesh coloured; legs, dark grey. Total
length, 17 cm. Span of outspread wings, 267 cm. No ectozoa and no entozoa
detected.

Ephthianura albifrons (Jard. and Selby) (White-fronted Chat). A number
were present frequenting open slopes covered with Mesembryanthemum and
other herbs and low bushes. Two birds were obtained, a male and a female.
The colours of the soft parts were the same in each; iris, pale brownish-white
with a tinge of pink; bill, black; pharynx, greyish flesh; legs, black. Total
lengths: adult male, 13 cm.; female, 125 cm. Spans across outspread wings,
21-2 cm. and 208 cm., respectively. Weights, 15 and 13:7 grms. Ts., 386° C.
and 39:2° C. Mites on the wings of both; no entozoa in either.

Artamus personatus, Gould (Masked Wood-Swallow ) [?]. Two pale-bluish
Wood-Swaliows were seen, probably this species, hawking in the air or settling
on dead or bare branches. They were exceedingly wary and would not allow
of any near approach, and flew elsewhere after being disturbed.

Zosterops lateralis (Lath.) (Grey-backed W hite- eye). Silver-eyes were
amongst the commonest land birds, frequenting especially the limestone slopes
and places where shrubs grew amongst granite rocks. Here they might be
heard and occasionally seen as they searched through the undergrowth, composed
of the rosemary-like composite, the crucifer and. Myoporum insularc, R. Br.,

12

lon

more particularly, in search of food. A Mvyoporum seed was found in the
intestine of one. In spite of the island being uninhabited, they were unduly
wary; more so, in fact, than on the mainland. Three birds were shot, two
females and a male; iris, brown in one female, light brown in the other two
birds; bill, in all brown above, pallid below except the tip; pharynx, yellowish
flesh; legs, pallid brownish-white to pale brown. Total lengths: female No. 2,
11-6 cm.; male, 12 cm. Spans of outspread wings: female No. 1, 163 cm.;
nemale SNoi 2 .0l6-5. cms male. 132 em.) Weights female No 1) 10 enmss:
hemales No: Zenlele orctasem wise o7-4. nC. 40Spe Ca and: Sola" Tespectivelive
No ectozoa and no entozoa detected in any.

Corvus coronoides, Vig. and Horsf. (Australian Crow). Controversy still
rages as to whether in Australia we have two species of large Crows or only
one species, but that a variable one. All ornithologists agree that the small
white-eyed Crow, Corvus bennetti, North, is a definite species differing not
only in size but in habits from the larger Crows. At a recent meeting of the
South Australian Ornithologists’ Association the pros. and cons. for a single
species of large Crow were fully discussed, and the question was finally left
undecided. The colour of the iris, it is clear, counts for nothing, immature
birds having a brown iris and mature ones a white. The presence of hackles
on the breast seemed also to be a matter of age. The colour of the bases of the
feathers of the neck and back has been relied on as a guide. In some birds
this is white, in others it is greyish, but the grey tint varies in degree. These
grey-feathered birds are spoken of as Ravens, in contradistinction to the white-
feathered Crows, so the depth of grey would necessitate considering some speci-
mens as more “‘ravenish” than others. As the company of Crows on Pearson
Island, probably some 30 or 40 in number, might be looked on as _ possibly
having all had an origin from common parents, and consequently as all belonging
to one species, several birds were shot in order to note any differences in
individuals. All three birds turned out to be males, and all three had unduly
large bills. One bird was a little smaller than its fellows and was obviously
not mature. It differed from the others in having brown eyes instead of white
ones, an absence of hackles on the breast, and an irregular pigmentation of the
pharynx and tongue, instead of a uniform black tint. All three birds had grey
bases to the feathers.

The following data were noted in connection with the three Crows shot :—
Adult male No. 1: Iris, white; bill, legs, and pharynx, black; total length,
48:5 cm.; span of outspread wings, 96 cm.; mites on wings; mallophaga;
nematodes in stomach and oesophagus. Adult male No. 2: Iris, white; bill,
legs, tongue, and pharynx, black; total length, 56 cm.; span of outstretched
wings, 104 cm.; mallophaga present; cestode; food present, the bones and fur
of a rat. Immature male: Iris, dark brown; bill, black inside and out; tongue
and pharynx whitish with irregular black patches; legs, black; total length,
54:5 cm.; span of outspread wings, 985 cm.; T., 416° C. (hot day). In the
stomach, a number of leaves apparently of Melaleuca and Chenopodiaceous plants,
but no animal matter. An occupied nest was seen on the north part of the
island, and Professor Wood Jones found these birds nesting in Casuarina on
November 25, 1920.

Sturnus vulgaris (English Starling). A small flock was seen flying on two
occasions over the southern part of the island. This record cannot be considered
as established beyond all doubt.

Passer domesticus (House Sparrow). This record is very doubtful. <A
fleeting glance of two or three birds that suggested sparrows and a note uttered
which was also suggestive is all we have to go on. They were not seen again.

126

PARASITES INFESTING THE SPECIES OF BIRDS.
Cestodes were found in :—

Sterna bergi, Haematopus unicolor, Neophema petrophila, and Corvus
coronoides.

Nematodes were found in:—
Corvus coronoides.
Mallophaga were present 1n:—

Sterna bergi, Haematopus unicolor, Neophema_ petrophila, Petroica
goodenovu, and Corvus coronoides.

Mites were present on the wings in :—
Sterna bergi, Gabianus pacificus, Neophema petrophila, Petroica goodenovu,
Ephthianura albifrons, and Corvus coronoides.
Ticks were present on :—
Eudyptula minor.
Ornithomyid flies were present on:—
Neophema petrophila and Pachycephala pectoralis.

127

THE FLORA AND FAUNA OF NUYTS ARCHIPELAGO AND THE
INVESTIGATOR GROUP.

No. 1..—THE SNAKES OF FRANCIS ISLAND. TOGETHER WITH A NOTE
ON THE NAME OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL GROUP.

By pGar Re \VAtrE bees.) (© MeZ Ss Director s.2\.) Musenm:
(Contribution from the South Australian Museum. )

[Read June 14, 1923.|

In recent publications, both of writings and maps, the group of islands
referred to is entitled Nuyt’s Archipelago, but the name of the illustrious Dutch-
man commemorated was not Nuyt, but Nuyts, or, in Dutch, Nuijts. It would
seem, therefore, that the group of islands should be designated Nuyts
Archipelago.
a a publication by Prof. J. E. Heeres™ the following passages occur
(p. —
XVIII (1627).

DISCOVERY OF 2h, SOUTH-WES® COAST OR AUSRRAETA

BY 2H) SHIP abt GULDEN, ZEBPAARD. ‘COMMANDED

IBGE JPIUBAIM BIN INUIT ISS
MEMBER OF mirth COUN CIE OFAN DVS TANTS S37 iis
SKIPPER I PRANCOIMS THESSEN IOR) El SZOON:

JN
Daily Register of what happened here at Batavia from the first
of January, 1627.

Sl Soa On the 10th (of April) there arrived here from the
Netherlands the ship t’Gulden Seepaart fitted out by the Zealand
Chamber, having on board the Honble Pieter Nuyts, extraordinary
Councillor of India, having sailed from there on the Z2nd of May,
1626

1B,
Hessel Gerritss-Huydecoper Chart (No. 5—VII D).

This chart has ’t land van Pieter Nuijts (discovered January 26,
1627) and the islands of Sint Francois and Sint Pieter.

§

The only snake that appears to have been definitely identified from the
group of islands forming the Nuyts Archipelago is the common carpet snake
(Python (spilotes) variegata, Gray), and an example of this species was obtained
ou St. Francis Island by Sir Joseph Verco, who at one period devoted consider-
able time to investigating the fauna of the waters of our various islands, in
pursuance of his special study, the Mollusca.

Flinders met with a snake on St. Francis, recording its occurrence as “a
yellow snake, which was the second killed on this island.”

Quite recently Mr. Francis Arnold, who resides on the island, told my
colleague, Professor Wood Jones, that he knows of five kinds of snakes there,
which he named as follows :—Carpet snake, black snake, brown snake, jumping

(1) Heeres, “The part borne by the Dutch in the discovery of Australia, 1606-1765,” Leiden
and London, 1899.
(2) Matthew Flinders, Voy. Terra Austr., i1., 1814, p. 109.

128

snake, and a small non-designated species, a specimen of which he sent to
Adelaide. }

The first-named may be the python; the jumping snake is a legless lizard
(Lialis burtonii, Gray), a specimen of which was secured by Professor Wood
Jones during his recent visit. It derives its local name from the peculiar and
rapid action with which it escapes from a grass tussock during the periodic
burning of the scrub. ;

What the black and brown snakes are we cannot yet say; they may be
merely colour phases of a single species. The small unnamed snake presented
to the Museum (numbered R. 1157) by Professor Wood Jones proves to be an
example of

DENISONIA CORONOIDES, Gunther.

Hoplocephalus coronoides, Gtinther, Cat. Colubrine Snakes, Brit. Mus., 1858, p. 215.

Denisoma coronoides, Boulenger, Cat. Snakes, Brit. Mus., iii., 1896, p. 336 (synonomy ).

The island specimen of this common South Australian species is quite
tvpical. It may be noted that the striations on the scales, said to be distinct, are
so fine that they cannot be detected with the unaided eye.

H™MraLle.

Fig. 1.
Head of Denisonia coronoides. 1a, Upper view; 1), lower view; Ic, profile.

THE EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF POUCH EMBRYOS OF MARSUPIALS.
No. 5—PHASCOLARCTUS CINEREUS.

By FrepEeric Woop Jones, D.Sc., F.Z.S.,
Professor of Anatomy in the University of Adelaide,

[Read May 10, 1923.]

Pu AEG “e,

Young stages of Phasoclarctus appear to be by no means common in col-
lections. So far, I have had the opportunity of examining only one example,
received in exchange by the kindness of Mr. Heber Longman, Director of the
Queensland Museum.

Fig. 1.
Phascolarctus cinereus.
Lateral view to show the general distribution of the hair tracts.

This specimen, which measures 110 mm. in R.Y. length, is in the best
possible stage for charting the hair tracts. Besides the peculiarities of the hair
tracts, there are so many features of interest in the external characters that the

E

130

SS

SS

Ow
we
VS

}
f
\

2:

ED,
77

Figs) 2)
Phascolarctus cinereus.
General dorsal view of head and body
to show the disposition of hair tracts.

131

specimen is worth describing for its own sake, although no comparison can be
made with older or younger examples. The specimen is a male.

Hair Tracts—In every way the Koala shows a remarkable complexity in
the disposition of its hair tracts, a condition which is not readily appreciated

ee
\ ! an Loe
———— ! I Gi “ —— =
SS Nee
e. Oo } y NG
ISS SV

Fig. 3.
Phascolarctus cinereus.
The characters of the head and face.

by inspection of the woolly coat of the adult. The disposition of the tracts is
shown in lateral and dorsal view in figs. 1 and 2.

Upon the head and face there is nothing very remarkable to note. The
dorsal extension of the rhinarium at this stage is pubescent with very minute

Phascolarctus cimereus.
Rhinarium viewed directly from the front.

down hairs, all of which are directed uniformly backwards. There is no reversal
above the rhinarium; and upon the muzzle, face, and chin the hair is all directed
caudad. The general backward slope is only interrupted at a line (indicated

132

by I. in the figures) which crosses the head at the anterior (superior) attachment
of the auricle, and is continued down the side of the face and to the throat just
in front of the ear. Caudad of this line the hair is directed forward, streaming
directly cephalad on to the occiput, outwards on the dorsum of the auricle, and
downwards and forwards on the neck. These cephalad pointing hairs are part
ot a whorled system (marked II.) which takes its rise upon the mid line of the
back between the attachments of the two fore limbs. The vortex lies practically
in the middle line, and the stream of hair points counter-clockwise. Hair from
the vortex streams cephalad, as we have seen, and also downwards and forwards
on the chest, downwards and caudad on the fore limbs, and directly caudad to
the lower limit of the thorax. At the lower costal margin this caudally-directed
stream meets a directly reversed stream at a well-marked line of convergence
(marked III.), which passes trom the dorsal region around the flanks and
abdomen in front of the hind limb. ‘The hair which streams cephalad to this
line emanates from bilateral vortices (IV. and IV.), situated close to the middle
line over the sacral region. Of these two vortices the one on the left side is
disposed counter-clockwise, and the one on the right side clockwise. This

Phascolarctus cinereus.
Characters of the external ear.

disposition leads to the production of a mid dorsal convergent stream-line
cephalad to the whorls (between them and the costal margin) in which the hair
is directed cephalad and towards the mid line; and a mid dorsal convergent
line caudad of the whorls in which the hair is directed caudad and towards the
mid line. A little peak of hair marks the site of the absent tail. From the
sacral vortices the hair streams downwards, with a general post-axial trend,
upon the thigh and leg. Upon the front, and rather to the fibular side of the leg,
and just above the ankle, is a further partially whorled area (marked V., in
fig. 1). At this area of reversal, the hair streams upwards upon the fibular side
of the leg, and, meeting the downward convergent stream from above, produces
a well-marked convergent line, a divergent area being situated just above the
flexure of the ankle. Upon the fore limb there are no reversals; but the post-
axial convergent stream is particularly well marked.

Sensory Vibrissae and Papillae—Over the whole body, the sensory vibrissae
and papillae are peculiarly reduced. The facial vibrissae are represented by
sparse and reduced members of only three of the typical five sets. The mystacial

133

group is reduced to about half a dozen short hairs, which have not the typical
straight and elongated character of the bristles of this group, for they show a
tendency to be curved, and to merge with the general hairy covering of the
muzzle. Such as are well defined spring from the anterior portion of their usual
area. A few somewhat inconspicuous bristle hairs represent the supraorbital

Fig. 6.

Phascolarctus cinereus.
Palmar surface of left manus.

set. Iam unable to distinguish any members of the genal group, though Pocock
figures two stout bristles in the adult (he, however, makes no reference to them
in the text). The pale submentals are distinguished in but little, save their
length and direction, from the general hair of the chin region, and the interramals
are unrecognizable. 1 find no trace of ulnar carpal vibrissae, nor are any

134
sensory papillae or vibrissae to be distinguished upon any other part of the
body in this specimen.
The Rhinarium—In the adult the rhinarium is one of the most remarkable

features of the enimal, and all the adult peculiarities are well established in this
It is curious both in form and extent. The causation and function

specimen.
ow , WV
| EN |
oma yf oy
PE eee Ld Vv
=| SS aN
= Ss STN ES
pee. = TU a ek ——————
Rae bo (SS
Nee ee ESS
(SCS
Nese] Ya aS
SERA emt a a
S53 eezZ ie 4 AS
Bt ee a GSES
Nie = gE NC SAN
oe Wy? EAN
PERN HUE
be WGN ecxaaNN'
, bye
js Ay,

AJ) t|
|
ty s
:
. > a
3 Ss =

ANIA

Fig. 7.
Phascolarctus cinereus.
Plantar aspect of left pes.

of this peculiar rhinarium, continued so far caudad in its dorsal part, await
solution. The nares are slit-like, and owing to the extreme shortness of the

mesial nasal process (columella and philtrum), they are practically confluent in
Superficially the great lateral nasal processes

their lower median extremities.

135

remain ununited, and it might be said that a most primitive type of anterior
nares was grafted on to a most highly specialized type of rhinarium. The lower
extremity of the mesial nasal process falls considerably short of the line of the
upper lip, so that the animal may be said to have a well-marked median “hare-
lip.” The whole rhinarium is clothed at this stage by very minute down hairs,
and its surface is finely punctate. In consequence of the presence of these fine
down hairs, Pocock has been led into making the rather rash assertion that “there
is no true rhinarium,” a rather curious descriptive phrase for the animal which
has the most conspicuous rhinarium of any marsupial. The dorsal shield-like
expansion reaches caudad slightly past the anterior canthus of the eye.

The External Ear.—At this stage the external ear already shows the curious
hair-covered flap-like appearance that is so characteristic of the adult. The concha
is hairy both within and without, and a conspicuous tuft springs from the crus
of the helix. There are here developed two genuine tragoid projections—
genuine in the sense that they spring from the helix and not from the antihelix.
These true tragoid projections are marked x in fig. 5. The antihelix is well
developed, and at the middle of its length it is inflected and folded upon itself,
so that it might be said that a superior and an inferior processus antihelicis were
present, though neither upper nor lower portion can rightly be termed a processus.
Of the adult condition of the auricle Thomas says, “The metatragus is almost
obsolete,” and by metatragus he doubtless refers to the superior part of the
antihelix. In Pocock’s description of the ear of the adult, and in the comparison
of it with that of Trichosurus vulpecula, the homologies of the various anatomical
parts of the concha are not appreciated in consequence of the limitation of the
examination to adult material only. The inferior portion of the antihelix is
bounded behind by a depression which constitutes a wide but shallow bursa or
sulcus auris posterior. The auricle of Phascolarctus at this stage presents a
strange and interesting admixture of characters which can only be interpreted by
reference to forms not yet described in this series of papers.

Manus.—The digital formula is 4>3>5>2>1. The manus presents
the characteristic feature of the opposition of digits 1 and 2 to digits 3, 4, and 5;
a condition which leads to a peculiar broadening of the palm in its proximal
part. The first digit is not in any way specialized. The apical pads are well
developed, and are striated; but the striations are not particularly deeply
sculptured or conspicuous. The rest of the palm is granular, and although
a linear arrangement of the granulations is apparent, no definite striations are
formed in any part. The palmar pads are not well defined. The manus is
relatively very large. All digits are armed with strong curved claws.

Pes.—tThe digital formula is 4>3-2>5>1. The syndactylous digits are
extremely well developed, being longer than the fifth digit and nearly as long
as the fourth. Digit 1 is short and greatly broadened; it possesses no nail.
Strong curved claws are present on all the other digits. The apical pads are well
developed and striated. The whole of the sole is granular from the bases of
the apical pads to the back of the heel. Plantar pads are not well developed.

External Genitalia—The cloacal papilla is prominent and the genital tubercle
is just exposed within its orifice in this example.

References:—(1) Oldfield Thomas, Cat. Brit. Mus., 1888, p. 209; (2)
Pocock Rie Proc! Zool. Soc: 1921, pp) 591-607.

Bx LANADION = Ob Pic Adin) XG

Phascolarctus cinereus.
Pouch embryo from Queensland Museum, 110 mm. in R.V. length. Slightly enlarged.

136

THE EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF POUCH EMBRYOS OF
MARSUPIALS.

No. 6—DASYCERCUS CRISTICAUDA.

By Freperic Woop Jones, D.Sc., F.Z.S.,
Professor of Anatomy in the University of Adelaide.

[Reade fuly-s12.; 19235]
Of this somewhat rare and particularly interesting pouched-mouse I have

been able to examine the external characters of fourteen young specimens.
These embryos constitute two litters—the one a series of seven, which measure

Fig. 1.
Dasycercus cristicauda.
Hair tracts of a male embryo, 25 mm. R.V. length.

15 mm. in R.V. measurement; and the other, also a brood of seven, which are
10 mm. longer in the same measurement. For all these young animals I am
indebted to Mr. A. G. Bolam, of Ooldea, who forwarded the female animals,
the one dead and preserved in spirit, and the other living.

The living animal was received on August 15, 1922, and she and her young
were under close observation until September 17, on which day she unfortunately
died. The very rudimentary condition of the marsupium, by which all the
developing young are freely exposed for inspection upon the ventral surface of
the mother, makes their study a particularly interesting one. The young animals
were 25 mm. in R.V. length when the mother died. They freed themselves from

the nipples after her death and were very vigorous, but they were impossible to
rear by artificial methods.

137

It is a very remarkable thing to see the female animal stumbling about
with the seven large young clinging to the nipples. They make a load which
one would have thought her incapable of supporting, and yet the wonderfully
active creature will chase insects and kill mice regardless of her burden. It
might also seem that the naked and unprotected young would be perpetually
liable to injury since their backs depend to the ground, and they are dragged
about here and there as the mother’s activities dictate. How long they remain
adhering to the nipples is, so far, unknown; but it is hoped that the point may
be cleared up, since this beautiful little animal is easy to keep in captivity. The
young are robustly built, large-headed little creatures, with the face remarkably
short and the upper jaw somewhat retracted.

Hair.—The hair upon the head is well developed and already pigmented
when the embryo is no longer than 15 mm. in R.V. length. Hair is not discern-
able upon the rest of the body at this stage; and it is rather remarkable that
no sensory papillae or vibrissae are recognizable at this stage. In the 25 mm.
R.V. embryos the hair is beginning to appear all over the body, but it is still

Fig. 2.

Dasycercus cristicauda.
Facial vibrissae of an embryo, 25 mm. R.V. length.

much more conspicuous and more deeply pigmented upon the head. All papillae
and vibrissae are now well developed.

Hair tracts—The arrangement of the hair upon the whole of the head,
body, and limbs is of basal simplicity. The face, head, and the whole of the
trunk and tail are clothed with hair having a uniform caudad trend. Upon the
limbs the hair is uniformly in a distal and post-axial direction. There are no
reversals, partings, convergences, or vortices anywhere. (See fig. 1.)

Vibrissae and papillae —Although not distinguishable at the 15 mm. stage,
all papillae and vibrissae are well developed in the 25 mm. embryos.

Facial vibrissae——The vibrissae and papillae are well developed upon the
face, but the submental group appears to be entirely lacking. In the adult
there are some partially differentiated pale bristles in the submental region;
but these are not recognizable at this stage. The supraorbital papilla is well
marked, situated almost at the mid point of the upper eyelid, and giving rise to
a couple of dark vibrissae. The mystacial set is clearly divided into an upper

138

and a lower group. The linear arrangement of this group is not easy to deter-
mine; but four rows would seem to be defined. The upper group, of which
the individual hairs are dark in colour, is directed upwards and backwards; the
lower group, of which the individual hairs are pale or white, is directed down-
wards and backwards. The same distribution and distinction in colour applies
to the genal set, which consists of about half a dozen bristles arising from a

Fig. 3.

Dasycercus cristicauda.
The well-developed ulnar carpal papilla and its vibrissae.

particularly well-developed papilla. The interramal papilla is very conspicuous
and gives origin to a group of three pale vibrissae. (See fig. 2.)

Brachial vibrissae—Upon the limbs there is only one papilla developed, and
this—the ulnar carpal—is particularly large. Some half a dozen well-
differentiated bristles spring from it. (See fig. 3.)

one
——

Fig.
Dasycercus cristicauda.
Full face view of a small embryo, 25 mm. R.V. length,
to show the condition of the rhinarium.

The rhinarium—tThe short muzzle shows a rather distinct ridge which runs.
over the dorsum of the snout region behind the rhinarium, the ridge being
expressed by a slight swelling which tends to be limited behind by a slight furrow.
The ridge and the furrow are expressions of the abbreviation of the maxillary
portion of the muzzle which is a conspicuous feature of the young animal. The
naked rhinarium is somewhat square in outline, it is grooved in the middle line,
and the anterior nares are cleft laterally. The rhinarium narrows but little as it
passes to the upper lip, to which it makes a very considerable contribution,,.

139

there being, not a narrow labial prolongation, or a mere philtrum, but a broad
area of the mesial nasal process in the middle third of the upper lip. (See fig. 4.)

The external ear.—In all stages examined the auricle is directed backwards.
The actual development of the various auricular processes is exceedingly inter-
esting. The mandibular portion of the auricle is at first prominent, and appears
as a ridge, which is lobed and folded in its inferior extremity. In the lower
portion of this ridge there seems to be at the 15 mm. stage the rudiments of a
tragus and a tragus pocket; but with increasing growth the mandibular processes

Fig. 5.
Dasycercus cristicauda.

Three stages in the development of the auricle.
A, a 15mm. R.V. embryo.; B, a 25 mm. R.V. embryo; C, a young adult.

become flattened and riband-like, and finally appear as a tortuous sculpturing
upon the pre-auricula region. The hyoid processes are at first three in number,
of which the middle one is by far the most prominent. The middle process of
the antihelix becomes progressively elevated and flattened from side to side,
and ultimately appears as the almost leaf-like processes antihelicis of the adult.
(Seeines 5)

Manus.—The digital formula of the 25 mm. young is 3>4>2>5>1; a
formula which is also typical of the adult. The digits are fusiform, tapering
towards the tips, and no apical pads are obvious. The whole of the palm is

140

granular. There are four typical interdigital pads. The thenar pad is present
but small. The hypothenar pad is very well developed. A well-marked granule
is differentiated in the centre of each pad.

Pes—The digital formulais 3>4>5>2>1;0r3=4>5>2>1. Inthe
adult the typical formulais 4>3>5>2>1. Apical pads are not obvious
on the fusiform digits. Three typical interdigital pads are present at
the bases of digits 2-3, 3-4, 4-5. . In addition there is a small first
interdigital pad at the base of the first digit. This pad is absent in the adult, at
which stage the first digit is itself far more reduced than it is in the 25 mm.
young. It should be noted, however, that the degree of adult development
of the first digit is extremely variable. The sole is entirely granular. A well-
marked granule is present in the centre of each pad, but no sculpturing is as yet
visible on the central granule.

Fig. 6.
Dasycercus cristicauda.
Left manus and pes of a 25 mm. R.V. embryo.

External genitalia—The male genital tubercle is exposed beyond the cloacal
margin at the 25 mm. stage.

The mammary area of the female is of particular interest. Of the three
females of the 25 mm. stage, one shows two bilateral mammary primordia, the
second shows the two bilateral primordia and a single median more caudad
primordium, and in the third (illustrated at fig. 7) there is a suggestion of a
median division of the posterior median primordium. Very faint elevations run
upon the lateral aspects of these mammary primordia and tend to delimit the
mammary area from the general skin surface of the lower portion of the abdomen.
Later stages should reveal changes of considerable interest. In the adult there
are from 6 to 8 nipples arranged in crescentic lines. Considerable irregularity

141

seems to prevail in the actual arrangement of the nipples. In nursing females
the distortion due to traction may possibly upset the normal order of disposi-
tion, but in two nursing females examined the condition appears to be a very
irregular one. In the first female (shown at A, in fig. 8) four nipples are present
in a crescentic line upon the right side of the marsupium area, whilst on the
left side twin nipples represent the most cephalic member of the series,
and a single nipple corresponds to the third member on the right side.

Fig. 7.
Dasvcercus cristicauda.
Female at the 25 mm. stage to show the
marsupium-area and mammary primordia.

f, ey 2 ‘\
f [ i oo
eee tote b

Fig. 8.

Dasycercus cristicauda.
Diagram to show the arrangement of the
nipples in two nursing female specimens

of Dasycercus cristicauda.

In the other female (B, in fig. 8) three nipples are on the right, and on the
left twin nipples correspond to the first, and single nipples to the other two
members of the right-sided series. It is hoped that during the coming season
more material of this primitive and interesting didelphian may be obtained, and
that further stages of mammary development may be studied.

142

THE STRUCTURE AND ACTION OF “STRIATED” MUSCLE FIBRE.

By OL Wertires; D:Sc:;
Zoology Department, University of Adelaide.

[Read May 10, 1923.]
PLATES Ow anOy CL Ve

So numerous have been the investigations on the structure and action of
striated muscle tissue, and so well do our general ideas on the subject appear
to be established to-day, that a re-examination of the whole question may appear
superfluous. Nevertheless, observations which I have been making recently
have led me to conclude that many of our accepted ideas are quite erroneous,
and I shall not hesitate to discuss the subject once more.

HistToricAL INTRODUCTION.

Among those who have investigated the structure of striated muscle are to
be mentioned Leeuwhenhoek, Bowman, Dobie, Kolliker, W. Krause, Hensen,
Merkel, Engelmann, Schafer, Rutherford, Retzius, Rollett, Ramon y Cajal,

McDougall.

Leeuwhenhoek is said to have regarded the striations as being in the form
of a spiral thread wound around the outside of the cylindrical fibres. Bowman
(1840) investigated the structure of the fibres carefully, and regarded the dark
striations as closely packed discs stretching across the fibres; he recognized
also the presence of muscle fibrillae. Nine years later Dobie observed a very
faint line between the striations, to which Rutherford (1897) gave the name
Dobie’s Line. This “line” was shown by the investigations especially of
Schafer (1873) to consist of a very delicate membrane which stretched right
across the fibre (Krause’s Membrane), on either side of which a layer of minute
dim dots are to be seen; these dots, together with Krause’s membrane, are to
be looked upon as constituting Dobie’s line. Rutherford, on the other hand,
regarded Krause’s membrane as being confined to the fibrils, and it was, accord-
ing to him, not to be looked upon as a complete membrane stretching across
the fibres. Schafer’s opinion has prevailed, and is, I am convinced, the correct
one.
In 1868 Hensen described the pale stripe often seen passing through the
striation (Hensen’s Line). By some authors (e.g., McDougall and Merkel)
this line was regarded as a membrane stretching across the fibre like Krause’s
membrane. Rutherford, however, denies this view, and it is not accepted to-day.

Bowman, in his original account, had regarded the transverse discs as
composed of minute particles closely arranged side by side so as to produce the
disc, and less closely united behind one another to form the fibrils. To Kolliker
(1851) we owe the modern conception that the fibrils are the primary com-
ponents of the fibres, the arrangement of their individual striations to form
the discs of the fibre being secondary. Toa structureless substance lying between
these fibrils, Rollet has given the name Sarcoplasma.

Meanwhile Schafer (1891) working with the sarcostyles of the wing muscles
of insects, structures which he regarded as highly differentiated fibrillae, has
actually been able to observe internal differentiation of these delicate structures,
nunute tubules being observed in the region of the striation when examined with
very high powers. As late as 1897, however, Rutherford wrote: “The finest
structure of the fibrils is beyond the reach of the microscope, so that the secret
of contraction will ever remain hidden.”

143

Equally contradictory views have been held on the actual process of con-
traction. The observation of Schafer that isolated sarcostyles of insect wing
muscles can contract showed clearly that it is not in the sarcoplasm that we
must look for the contractile mechanism, as Cajal believed. Bowman, in his
original communication, had regarded contraction as taking place by the swelling
of the striations. McDougall believed the swelling to be due to the passage,
probably by osmosis, of water from the sarcoplasm into the fibrils. Schafer
has combated this view, and the inherent slowness of the process of diffusion
under an osmotic pressure prevents its acceptance when we consider that during
tetanus, mammalian muscles may contract at the rate of at least fifty times per
second.

But even those who consider the contractile process to be confined to the
fibrils differ in their interpretation of the action. According to Merkel, the dark
portion of each sarcomere (sarcous element) diffuses during contraction through
the sarcomere and accumulates around Krause’s membrane, while the light por-
tion in turn moves towards Hensen’s line, so that there occurs a reversal of
striation. Engelmann, on the other hand, concluded in 1873 that during con-
traction the dark part of each sarcomere, which was doubly refracting towards
polarised light, remained, even in the fully contracted state, in the middle of
the fibre, and that any reversal of striations in Merkel’s sense was due to
peculiar optical effects. This view, mainly through the work of Schafer, is
maintained by most competent histologists to-day. Schafer (1891) described
a swelling of the sarcous elements in the highly differentiated wing muscles of
insects, a process which he regarded as being due to the passage of the clear
singly refracting material from the region of Krause’s membrane into the sarcous
element. By this means Krause’s membrane became drawn up nearer to the
sarcous elements; the latter bulged, due to the absorption of some of the singly
refracting substance, and the slight increase in volume of the doubly refracting
material that Engelmann had observed, was accounted for.

Rutherford (1897) took a view intermediate between that of Merkel on
the one hand, and of Engelmann and Schafer on the other. He conceived con-
traction as consisting of two processes: (a) A flow of clear (singly refracting)
material into the sarcous element (similar to that of Schafer), and (b) a sub-
sequent accumulation of dark material in the region of Krause’s membrane (as
observed by Merkel). Rutherford’s view has not found acceptance by modern
histologists.

Nevertheless, an examination of fixed contraction waves in muscle fibres
shows most clearly that a reversal of striations, even if only apparent, has
taken place. Nothing more convincing than the beautiful figure given by
Schafer of a contraction wave in a muscle fibre of Dytiscus could be desired.
Schafer accounts for the reversal in the following ingenious manner: “As the
sarcous elements swell out more and more during contraction, the interfibrillar
sarcoplasm becomes pressed from the spaces between the sarcous elements of
adjacent fibrils, and accumulates in the region of Krause’s membrane.” It is
this movement of the sarcoplasm which he regards as causing the reversal of

striations.

THE STRUCTURE, ACTION, AND DEVELOPMENT OF STRIATED MUuSCLE FIBRES
(EXCLUDING WiNG-MuscLEs oF INSECTS).

Methods employed.—For the examination of the minute structure of muscle
fibre, I have throughout employed sections cut from paraffin blocks, and stained
with iron haematoxylin. Cold Bouin’s Piro-Formol mixture was used as a
fixative (hot fixative must be avoided, as it causes rupture of the sarcous
elements). Gold chloride preparations were also used, but, though these give
sharply defined preparations of entire fibres, yet for the minute details of

144

intrafibrillar structure, they are much surpassed by the brilliant iron haematoxylin
method of staining. For the examination of entire fibres ordinary glycerine or
gold chloride mounts are sufficient.

Schafer’s observations on the minute structure of the fibrils were mainly
made with the aid of the sarcostyles of insect wing muscles. A much more
suitable material to employ, however, is the muscular tissue from fully-grown
insect larvae. Growth of the larvae of metabolic insects takes place mainly as
a result of a great hypertrophy of cells which are present already in newly-hatched
larvae ; there is no increase in their number, but they merely grow in size.
There is usually not even an increase of their differentiation; everything, cellular
and intracellular, is merely greatly hypertrophied, and such tissues obviously
offer a great advantage for the study of structures which are just visible with
the highest powers of the microscope. This will be clearly realized by comparing
figs. 3 and 7 (pls. xi. and xii.); both are magnified 3,400 times. Fig. 3 is a
fibril from a nearly full-grown beetle larva; fig. 7 represents some sarcostyles
from the wing muscles of a wasp.

The results obtained with this excellent material I have throughout verified
by the examination of skeletal muscle fibres from vertebrates, and the leg
muscles of adult insects.

A remark may be made here regarding the interpretation to be placed on
high-power examination of stained preparations. Many regard structures
visible under such magnifications as artefacts due to the reagents employed.
While this cannot be denied, it may be pointed out that if there is any dis-
tortion, some structures must have been previously present to be distorted;
and while we cannot ascertain the actual living appearance of many of the
minute structures thus rendered visible, still we can usually be certain of their
definite existence. It should also be pointed out that results obtained by the
high-power examinations of mitotic figures have been largely verified by the
examination of living material.

In a recent paper (1922) I pointed out that the striations of voluntary
muscle fibres did not run transversely across the fibres in the form of discs, as
Bowman had originally supposed, but that they were disposed in the form of
a double spiral which travelled from one end of the muscle fibre to the other.
A double helicoid would have been a more accurate description. This structure
is not, of course, to be looked upon as a continuous membrane in the form of
a double helicoid, but is a structure composed of minute sarcous elements packed
closely together, and so disposed within the fibre as to form the double helicoid.
Usually this spiral arrangement of the striations is most difficult to detect, on
account of the closeness with which it is wound. The observation becomes
much easier if well-stretched fibres are examined, but even then considerable
care is needed to observe it. It was the helicoid which Leeuwhenhoek saw and
which he regarded as a thread running spirally around the fibre. It was also
a partial view of this structure that Schafer observed when he wrote: “When
the muscular fibres are deeply focussed, the appearance of the striae becomes
somewhat altered, and a fine line, often dotted, is seen passing across the
middle of each light band.” This is regarded as constituting Dobie’s line, but
is not identical with the structure spoken of by that name in the historical
introduction above. The line is visible only in the middle of the fibre, and the
smallest turn of the focussing screw downwards shows it to be continuous with
another striation on the “lower” half of the fibre. It is, indeed, merely the
indistinct view of the turn of the spiral on the opposite side, and not a distinct
structure.

A careful examination of hypertrophied larval insect muscles amply justifies
the view held by Schafer that Krause’s membrane is a complete membrane, passing

145

from fibril to fibril across the interfibrillar space and not confined to the fibrils,
as Rutherford supposed. Its constant position between successive sarcous
elements shows that it, also, must be arranged not as a series of successive discs,
but as a double helicoid—complete, however, and not composed of minute
elements (sarcous elements), as in the case of the “striations.” The membranes
of Krause, as Krause himself observed, are always inserted upon the sarcolemma
(see figs. 1 and 2, pl. xi.).

The quantity of sarcoplasm between the fibrils varies considerably; in the
muscles of very sluggish insect larvae it is present in only quite small quantities
(fig. 1, pl. xi.). In the more active vertebrate muscles it is present in larger
quantity, especially just beneath the sarcolemma. In the powerful wing-moving
muscles of insects it is present sometimes in very large quantities; and in the
most active of all these muscles, viz., the wing-moving muscles of large wood
moths or heavy beetles, it may be much more prominent than the fibrils them-
selves (see fig. 9, pl. xii.). In some insect wing muscles the sarcoplasm may,
in fixed preparations, at any rate, show a curious architecture, strongly resembling
the striations of other muscles; so prominent is this, that the true striations
are not seen at first glance, and can only be observed by carefully examining
the individual fibrils (fig. 9, pl. x11.).

When the individual sarcomeres are examined in the uncontracted condition
each is seen to be a cylindrical structure (figs. 1 and 3, pl. x1.), often bulged
in the middle (fig. 6, pl. xii.). At either end of this cylinder is the delicate
Krause’s membrane, and usually in close contact with this is to be found, even
in insect wing muscle, a very minute amount of dark-staining material similar
in appearance to the material constituting the striation, and corresponding to
the dots figured by several authors in close connection with Krause’s membrane.
I shall speak of it as the residual hyaloplasm. In the greatly hypertrophied
larval insect muscles a number of extremely delicate streaks of dark-staining
material are just visible under the highest magnifications (fig. 3, pl. xi.), con-
necting this residual hyaloplasm to the striation, and staining similar to it.
The interpretation of this is that there are in the clear part of the sarcomere
minute channels (similar in appearance to those observed by Schafer within the
dark-staining sarcous elements of wing muscle) which connect the residual
hvaloplasm, with the striation, or, as I shall call it, movable hyaloplasm.

Now if the individual sarcomeres are examined successively along a con-
traction wave, the actual contractile process within the sarcomere can be
observed, and it can be most clearly seen that a process the very opposite to
that maintained by modern histologists, actually takes place. As we pass down
the contraction wave the striations become fainter and fainter and the dark
material accumulates more and more around Krause’s membrane (see fig. 15,
pl. xiii.), and the reversal of striations is actually seen to be produced within
the sarcomeres, and not by the interfibrillar sarcoplasm, as Schafer maintains.
In the greatly hypertrophied larval muscles the contracted state of the fibrils
can be most clearly observed (fig. 2, pl. xi.), and the sarcoplasm is seen to have
no relation whatever to the reversal that occurs; it is a phenomenon confined
entirely to the fibrillae.

How may this process be reconciled with the observation of Engelmann
that the relative positions of the singly and doubly refracting materials are
unchanged? In the first place, the opinion has been advanced by Imbert (1897)
that surface tension phenomena underlie muscular contraction; Bernstein (1901)
showed, however, that the decrease of area of the movable fluid, as required
on Imbert’s view, is insufficient to account for the work performed during con-
traction, unless a further differentiation, which might be in the form of a
spongy network, occurs within the sarcous elements. Schafer has described

146

bundles of minute tubules lying within the sarcous elements, and these, taking
up fluid from the clear part of the sarcous element during contraction, shorten
and bulge. This observation might be taken as a confirmation of Bernstein’s
view; nevertheless, as I shall show later, in connection with the structure and
action of wing muscle, it is founded on an incorrect observation, and is in part,
at any rate, to be quite differently interpreted. The necessity for the existence
of a spongy network, however, remains, and it seems to me that no better con-
firmation of the presence of such a structure could be desired, than the observation
that the middle of the sarcomere remains doubly refracting towards polarised
light even after the darkly-staining fluid has retreated, during contraction, from
that region. It is, in fact, the spongy network which is doubly refracting. Into
it, in the expanded state of the muscle, the greater part of the darkly-staining
material is drawn through the minute channels which I have described above as
occurring in the clear region of the sarcomere, leaving only a small quantity
of residual hyaloplasm behind, in the neighbourhood of Krause’s membrane.
At contraction, the excitatory stimulus must decrease the surface tension of the
hyaloplasm, and the portion that has been drawn through the tubules into the
doubly refracting region, and which now forms the striation (movable hyalo-
plasm), is rapidly sucked back and accumulates at either end of the sarcomere,
in the region of Krause’s membrane. That contraction is the result of a decrease,
not increase of surface tension was first pointed out in a paper by Dr. T. Brails-
ford Robertson (1909).

At relaxation, on the other hand, there is an increase of tension; the
hyaloplasm from either end of the sarcomere is sucked rapidly up the tubules.
again and enters the doubly refracting spongy network. In many muscles the
fusion of the hyaloplasm from either end of the sarcomere is not complete, and
we obtain a pale line in the middle of the striation, which is Hensen’s line (fig. 5,
pl. xi.). It is especially clearly seen in the sarcostyles of the wing muscles of
insects.

Z

re)

G

cet
ih
i

|

{

Diagram of two sarcomeres undergoing contraction. The dark substance
is the hyaloplasm (movable and residual). The dotted part is the doubly
refracting “spongy network.” Z is Krause’s membrane.

147

The accompanying diagram, which illustrates the process of contraction of
a sarcomere, shows another feature of the contractile process to which I hope
tO tererwimore iulky cinta later) paper: | VWiken individual ‘sarcomeres “are
examined during their gradual passage into a contracted region of the fibre, it is
seen that, although the dark-staining material is rapidly accumulating at the
Krause’s membranes, yet no appreciable shortening of the sarcomere takes place.
It is only when the whole of the movable hyaloplasm has accumulated in the region
of Krause’s membrane, that the former spreads out sideways, greatly increasing
the diameter of the sarcomere, and automatically shortening it. Not till now,
indeed, do the sarcomeres appreciably shorten; they forsake their cylindrical
shape, and become converted into short dice-box shaped structures (fig. 2, pl. x1.).
We recognize, in fact, a short, but yet appreciable, latent period of contraction.
The curious shape of contracted sarcomeres likewise accounts for the increase
in volume of doubly refracting material as observed by Engelmann. A glance
at fig. 2, pl. xi., will show that a considerable part of what would appear doubly
refracting in all but very thin sections, is in reality not occupied by doubly
refracting material at all, but is made up of the interfibrillar spaces.

The development of muscle fibres is best examined in insects. The process
has been studied by a number of authors, and I shall refer to it only briefly
here, in order to show the fundamental difference in the nature of ordinary
striated muscle and wing muscle of insects.

The following brief remarks refer to the development of the leg muscles
of insects, as I have observed it in a small chalcid wasp (Nasonia). The muscle
is developed from embryonic cells (myoblasts) which in the early pupa form
thick columns of cells in the several segments of the leg (fig. 12, pl. xii.). These
columns later break up into a large number of secondary columns, formed each
of a single row of cells, arranged one behind the other. Adjacent cell-walls
break down, and each column is now represented by a long syncytial column,
with numerous nuclei arranged in a chain along its central axis (fig. 13, pl.
xil.). An internal differentiation of each of these columns later occurs, and the
whole mass breaks up into minute longitudinal fibrillae (fig. 14, pl. xii.).
These fibrillae then differentiate into alternate dark and light parts, and the
disposition of them is such that they collectively form a double spiral within
the fibre. The wing muscles of insects, as I will show later, have a wholly
different mode of origin.

Note on THE Motor NERVE ENDINGS ON STRIATED MUSCLE FIBRES.

In the endings of different nerves on striated muscle fibres of the frog I
have observed a curious feature to which attention has not, so far as 1 am aware,
hitherto been drawn. If a partial side view of the end plate nuclei is obtained there
can generally be seen protruding from the lower part of each nucleus a minute
process. I cannot say whether it is the termination of one of the minute fibrils
of the nerve ending, which sometimes appear to enter the nuclei, or whether
it is a process formed directly from the nucleus. But of its existence there can
be no doubt, and such a process is always found to lie in close connection, not
with the muscle “‘striation,” but with Krause’s membrane (fig. 20, pl. xiv.) Even
ordinary muscle nuclei can, in side view, be clearly seen to have a direct con-
nection with Krause’s membrane. This is clearly shown in fig. 21, pl. xiv.,
taken from the leg muscles of a Myriapod Scutigera. The nuclei, here, occur
along the central axis of the fibre; and each nucleus is seen to be connected by
short processes with Krause’s membrane. The example is taken, it should be
noticed, from a contracted region of the fibre; there has occurred an

148

accumulation of dark material around Krause’s membrane, which is thus hidden
from view.

Tue STRUCTURE, DEVELOPMENT, AND ACTION OF WING-MOVING
Musc Les oF INSECTs.

In general appearance the structure of these remarkable tissues is similar
to that of other striated muscle fibres. There is usually, except in weak flyers,
a great preponderance of sarcoplasm; the sarcostyles can be separated very
easily from one another, as Schafer observed, but in other respects they appear
fairly identical with other striated fibres. Double spiral striations, Krause’s
membranes, and a sarcolemma are all present; nuclei occur in very large numbers
on the outside of the muscles, but the muscles show no tendency to split trans-
versely, as do other striated fibres. Nevertheless, in spite of the wonderful
similarity between these two types, they develop in entirely different ways, and
are to be regarded as having evolved, therefore, from entirely different sources.
Their similarity, indeed, is to be looked upon as the result of a wonderful process
of convergent evolution, rivalling anything that one finds among the organs of
vision of the various groups of animals.

The following account is the result of an investigation of the development
of the wing-moving muscles of a chalcid wasp (Nasonia). In the meta-
morphosing larva there is formed on either side of the thorax a longitudinal
column of embryonic myoblasts, which develop at the expense of certain of
the larval thoracic muscles. In the larva shortly before its pupation these
myoblasts have consolidated to form each a narrow band inserted behind and
in front upon the thoracic walls, and the larval muscles have been entirely
absorbed (fig. 16, pl. xiii.). Several hours later certain of these myoblasts
cohere to form five long syncytial columns, passing within the band from one
end to the other (fig. 17, pl. xii.). Later these syncytia grow in thickness by
the incorporation of more cells (fig. 18, pl. xiii.). Shortly after pupation a
remarkable thing is to be observed. The myoblasts surrounding each syncytial
column develop a process at either end, and these processes grow into the
columns, and develop eventually into the sarcostyles of the adult insect, each
becoming inserted on to the thoracic wall by its terminations. Fig. 19, pl. xii1.,
which is a longitudinal section along the edge of a syncytial column, shows this
process going on.

As development continues, more and more of the myoblasts develop into
bipolar cells, and send their processes into the sarcoplasm, and when in the
adult insect the number of sarcostyles comprising a fibre is estimated, these
are found to be approxmately equal in number to the nuclei which surround the
fibre (between 800 and 900). Eventually the five complex columns so formed
become drawn apart by the pull exerted upon them by the thoracic walls, and
the five longitudinal wing-moving muscles are to be recognized, on either side
of the body. (Each of the five pairs of muscles in this insect is a single multi-
cellular fibre; in some insects more than one such fibre may be present.)

By this extraordinary process, then, there is developed a true muscle fibre:
the outer walls of the cells represent the sarcolemma, the sarcostyles represent
the fibrillae, and the protoplasm of the syncytial columns becomes the sarcoplasm.
Eventually the sarcostyles develop alternate dark and light discs, adjacent ones
being so disposed as to form a double spiral (helicoid) within the fibre, and
the formation of minute Krause’s membranes, produced apparently from the
sarcostyles, completes the extraordinary development.

Perez (1910) has examined the development of the wing muscles of the
blow fly. He comes to entirely different conclusions from those stated above,
but his figures show clearly that the process is no different in that insect from

149

what I have found in Nasonia; what he took for five degenerating larval muscles.
are in reality the five syncytial columns to which I have referred above.

But in spite of the close convergence, small differences do occur between
these wing muscles and other striated fibres—Hensen’s line is much more
prominent than in skeletal muscle (compare figs. 5 and 7, pls. xi. and xii.) ;
the muscles also contract much less in extent than others. It should be observed
that, in spite of the name given them, they are not usually inserted on the wings.
directly; their function is simply to alter the shape of the thorax, movement of
the wings taking place by a “ratchet and pinion” mechanism between the wings
and the thorax. While many skeletal muscles can contract to nearly one-quarter
their length, contracted wing muscle fibres are not very much shorter than when
extended; if this were otherwise they would immediately rupture the whole
thorax. It should also be observed that the rate of contraction of these structures
is probably considerably less than the rate of vibration of the wings; a single
contraction of a fibre may conceivably bring about quite a number of vibrations.

It was mainly in the sarcostyles of the wing muscles that Schafer (1891)
studied the process of contraction, and by comparing the appearance of relaxed
sarcostyles with what he regarded as contracted ones, he came to the conclusion
‘that contraction consisted in an absorption, by the sarcous element, of part of
the fluid from the clear region of the sarcomere. There is, however, it seems.
to me, a fatal objection to be raised against Schafer’s conclusion. His evidence
for a contracted state of the sarcostyle lies evidently in a comparison of the
thickness of these structures; thus, the sarcostyle shown in fig. 3 of Schafer’s
paper is evidently regarded as a contracted state of that shown in fig. 2, because
ef its much greater thickness. I am convinced, however, that, even though the
statement may seem absurd, both sarcostyles shown in figs. 2 and 3 of his
paper are to be regarded as equally relaxed. I find that a single sarcostyle
inay vary greatly in thickness in various regions along its length, being narrowest
at the middle of the muscle, and gradually broadening out towards its termina-
tion, where it becomes inserted upon the thoracic walls. Thus, figs. 2 and 3 of
Schafer’s paper may be compared with figs. 7A and 7c (pl. xii.) of the present
paper, which show that the sarcostyles may be actually three times as thick at
their insertions as in other regions. The criterion of a contracted state should
not be the thickness of the sarcostyles, but the distance between successive
Krause’s membranes. Krause’s membrane is only to be recognized when we
can observe it stretching from one sarcostyle to another across the interfibrillar
space, and no such structures are shown in Schafer’s figures. Any dark lines
that one sees within the sarcostyles between the dark discs are to be regarded
probably as false optical effects, and an examination of Schafer’s fig. 3a shows
that this line is not present in the five clear spaces in the middle of the sarcostyle.
Krause’s membrane, in fact, is a most difficult structure to recognize. It should
be noticed, that if the distance between two clear areas in fig. 3A is measured
(which, according to my view, is the distance between the successive Krause’s
membranes, even if these are not visible), then we find that this distance is
approximately equal to that between the successive Krause’s membranes shown
in fig. 2A. (The dark line within the clear area of this figure could scarcely
be an optical illusion, because the sarcostyle is so much thinner, and the distance
betweeen the dark discs ever so much greater.) It should also be noted, in
support of what I have said above, that no Hensen’s line is visible in Schafer’s
fig. 3a, if his interpretation be correct. In reality, however, Hensen’s line is
quite as prominent in this figure as elsewhere, but it is to be looked for, not within
each of the dark areas, but between every second pair. The force of this is
more clearly seen when we examine the well-known figure to be found in most
histology books of the three sarcostyles from the wing muscles of a wasp (see

150

Schafer’s Essentials of Histology, 1920, fig. 1744). These figures are to be
regarded as slightly diagrammatic, and represent Schafer’s interpretation of
actual photographs. In the thickest of these, which is regarded as a contracted
condition of the other two, a faint Hensen’s line has been indicated; yet no
such structure is visible in this portion in the original microphotographs (fig. 3A
of the 1891 paper).

From the above account it will appear that Schafer’s conclusions rest on
no very secure basis; there is no evidence to show that what he regarded as
contracted sarcostyles were really such. When on the contrary, contracted
sarcostyles are observed, we find that a movement of the dark material has taken
place, just as occurs in other striated fibres (fig. 8, pl. xii.). There is also some
evidence to show that the degree of contraction of individual sarcomeres is less
in wing muscles than in other fibres. The length of a contractile wave in
wing muscle is not known; but unless it is very minute indeed, a contraction
of the individual sarcomeres to less than half their length, such as would be
the case if Schafer’s interpretation of fig. 3A be correct, would immediately result
in a collapse of the thorax of the insect. While the rate of contraction of wing
muscle tissue may be more rapid than that of other striated fibres, there is
no evidence to show that the degree of the contraction is so extensive as in .
other striated fibres.

I wish, in conclusion, to thank Mr. W. Fuller for the loan of some excellent
gold chloride preparations. From one of these, fig. 20, pl. xiv., has been
drawn.

SUMMARY.

(1) The striations and Krause’s membranes of muscle fibres are disposed
not as transverse discs, but in the form of a double spiral (helicoid) which
stretches from one end of the fibre to the other.

(2) In wing-moving muscles of insects the sarcostyles are developed each
from one cell; in all other fibres they are of intracellular formation. The
similarity between ordinary muscle fibres and wing muscles is the result of a
remarkable process of evolutionary convergence.

(3) A sarcomere is constituted as follows:—In connection with Krause’s
membrane is a minute quantity of residual hyaloplasm which communicates
through minute tubules in the clear region with the material of the striation
(movable hyaloplasm). At contraction the surface tension of the hyaloplasm
evidently decreases, and the movable hyaloplasm is rapidly drawn down the
tubules, having retreated from the doubly refracting spongy network which
mechanical conditions show must be present within the sarcomere. There is then
a true reversal of striations. At relaxation there is an increase of surface tension,
and the hyaloplasm is again drawn up the minute capillary tubes.

(4) Schafer’s and Engelmann’s interpretation of muscle action can no longer
be accepted.

(5) Ordinary muscle nuclei, as well as motor end plate nuclei, have an
intimate relation with Krause’s membrane.

REFERENCES.

Bernstein (1901)—Arch. f. ges. Physiol., vol. 85, p. 271.

Bowman, W. (1840)—Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, vol. 130, pt. 2, p. 457.

Dobie, W. M. (1849)—Annals of Nat. Science, Second Series, vol. 8, p. 109.

Engelmann, T. W. (1878)—Pfltiger’s Archiv., vol. 18, p. 1.
(1881)—Ibid., vol. 23, p. 571.

151

Imbert (1897)—Archives d. Physiol., Ser. 9, p. 289.
Krause, W. (1876)—Allgemeine Anatomie. (Hanover.)
McDougall, W. (1897)—Jour. Anat. and Physiol., vol. 31, p. 410.
Merkel, F. (1872)—Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., vol. 8, p. 244.
(1873)—Ibid, vol. 9, p. 293.
(1881 )—ZJbid., vol. 19, p. 649.
Perez, C. (1910)—Arch. Zool. Experimentale, 44, No. 1.
Retzius (1881)—Biol. Untersuch. v. Retzius.

(1890)—Jbid, neue Folge.

Robertson, T. B. (1909)—Quart. Jour. Exp. Physiol., vol. 2, p. 303.
Rollett, A. (1891)—Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., vol. 37, p. 654.

(1891 )—Denkschriften.d. Akad. d. Wiss. Math. Nat. Cl., vol. 58, p. 41.
Rutherford (1897)—Jour. Anat. and Physiol., vol. 31, p. 309.
Schafer, E. A. (1873)—Phil. Trans., vol. 163, p. 429.

(1891)—Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. 49, p. 280.

Tiegs, O. W. (1922)—Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xlvi., p. 222.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Lettering:—M.H., Movable Hyaloplasm; R.H., Residual Hyaloplasm; S., Sarcoplasm;
Z., Krause’s Membrane.

Piate XI.

Fig. 1. Portion of uncontracted body muscle of full-grown larva of a beetle (Cnemo-
plites blackburni) in thin longitudinal section (x 2000). The individual sarcomeres are clearly
seen; Krause’s membrane is also prominent, and its insertion on the sarcolemma is shown.
A small quantity of sarcoplasm is visible.

Fig. 2. The same, in a contracted state (x 2000). The “reversal” of striations, 1.¢.,
the accumulation of the movable hyaloplasm around Krause’s membrane is clearly seen, and is
recognizable as occurring within the fibrillae, and not outside them.

Fig. 3. Portion of a fibrilla from same (x 3400). Krause’s membrane is seen projecting
beyond the fibril. Around it is a minute amount of residual hyaloplasm, connected by very
minute streaks of hyaloplasm with the central striation (movable hyaloplasm).

Fig. 4. The same (x 3400) in a contracted state. The narrowing of the fibril towards
the lower end is due to its being cut slightly tangentially.

Fig. 5. Part of leg muscle of an adult chalcid wasp (Nasonia). Note Hensen’s line;
also the residual hyaloplasm (x 2000).

PLatTe XII.

Fig. 6. Part of body muscle of mature larva of same (Nasonia). The drawing is from
a thin longitudinal section, taken near the insertion of the muscles upon the integument, which
at this stage has chitinised (x 2000). The residual hyaloplasm is very clearly seen.

Fig. 7. Parts of uncontracted sarcostyles of flying muscles from a smail chalcid wasp
(Nasonia) (x 3400).
A. From the middle of the muscle.
B. The same fibril, rather nearer its point of insertion on the integument.
c. The same, close to its insertion on the integument.

Fig. 8. Part of two adjacent sarcostyles from flying muscles of a Cetoneiid beetle, in
the contracted state. Note the accumulation of hyaloplasm around Krause’s membrane. A
small amount of sarcoplasm is seen (x 3400).

Fig. 9. A number of uncontracted sarcostyles from flying muscle of a large wood
moth (x 1700). Note the great spaces between the sarcostyles; also Krause’s membrane con--
necting adjacent sarcostyles. Note also the remarkable architecture of the sarcoplasm.

Fig. 10 Contracted fibrils from gastrocnemius of mouse (x 3000).

152

Fig. 11. The same, uncontracted (x 3000). Note the “splitting” of the striations
(Hensen’s line).

Fig. 12. Developing leg muscle of a chalcid wasp (Nasonia). One myoblast is seen
in mitosis (x about 1500).

Fig. 13. A small part of one of the columns of myoblasts which results secondarily
from a splitting of the mass seen in fig. 12.

Fig. 14. The same undergoing fibrillation. Striations not yet visible (x 2000).

PuLate XIII.

Fig. 15. Fibrillae from leg muscle of a myriapod (Scutigera) in various stages of con-
traction. The reversal of the striations is obvious (x 3400).

Fig. 16. Transverse section of one of the pair of bands of thoracic myoblasts, which
will produce the five wing-moving muscles of the imago. Taken from a metamorphosing
larva of Nasonia (x about 1100).

Fig. 17. The same, several hours later. Five syncytial columns have been formed.

Fig. 18. The same, at a slightly later state of development. Note the increase in size
of the five columns. Some myoblasts are seen in mitosis (x 1200).

Fig. 19. Longitudinal section of one of the syncytial columns at a later stage of develop-
ment (x 1200). The section cuts along the line of junction of the syncytial column and the
surrounding myoblasts, and the latter are seen giving off long processes (sarcostyles) into the
syncytial mass (sarcoplasm). Many myoblasts have been omitted from the drawing so as
to give greater clearness.

PLATE XIV.

Fig. 20. A motor nerve-ending, from muscle of frog. Notice the relation of the
end-plate nuclei to the Krause’s membranes. Striations have not been drawn (x about 2000).

Fig. 21. Longitudinal section along middle of leg muscle fibre of Scutigera, to show
relation of nuclei to Krause’s membrane. The fibre is contracted, so that Krause’s membrane
is hidden by the dark material (striation).

153

ON THE PATH AND VELOCITY OF THE EXCITATORY IMPULSE
WITHIN STRIATED MUSCLE FIBRES.

By O. W. Tics, D.Sc., Zoology Department, University of Adelaide.
[Read May 10, 1923.]

In previous papers (1922, 1923) I have pointed out that the “striations”
of voluntary and cardiac muscle fibres are always arranged in the form of double
spirals (double helicoids) which travel from one end of the fibre to the other.
I have also found that in insect wing muscle, which has a wholly different type
ot embryonic development, the complex multicellular fibres have adopted this
same arrangement of “striations.”

The fact that two such tissues as ordinary skeletal muscle and insect wing
muscle, which have evolved from wholly different sources, should have found it
necessary to adopt this same arrangement of their ‘striations,’ seems to show
that the spirals are of some fundamental importance for the successful function-
ing of these tissues; and it would seem that the slightly more even distribution
of the strain within the fibres, which would result from this, is not sufficient to
account for its occurrence.

The function of the spirals is to be looked for in a wholly different direction,
and there is considerable evidence to show that it is along the spirals that the
excitatory impulse travels within the fibre. The evidence for this statement is
twofold :—

(1) Let us consider how the excitatory impulse can reach the various
fibrils (or sarcostyles) within a minute fibre. The impulse travels to each fibre
by the terminal branch of a motor nerve; the actual motor end plate does not
penetrate the fibre, but lies in close contact with the sarcolemma. While, there-
fore, it is easy to see that those fibrils. lying close to the end plate might receive
the stimulus, it is difficult to conceive how those on the opposite side of the
fibre should be affected by it. There are three ways in which this might take
place :—

(a) The impulse might travel directly across the striation; since the
striation is not a disc, but a spiral band which runs right along
the fibre, the impulse would not cease when it reached the “other
side” of the fibre, but continuing its path, would eventually travel
right along the fibre.

(b) On the other hand, the impulse might diffuse through the sarco-
plasm; or

(c) It might travel to the opposite side across the “striation,’ and thence
longitudinally along the fibrils.

Now, neither the second nor the third method is very probable; the sarco-
plasm in very slowly-moving muscles (e.g., sluggish insect larvae) is very
unevenly distributed; and moreover, there is never a direct continuity of the
sarcoplasm (except along the spiral), successive portions being always separated
by the membranes of Krause. Moreover, if the sarcoplasm was -the
transmitting agent, then we should expect the contractile wave, which is pro-
duced by the impulse, to travel in such a way that the fibrils in the neighbourhood
of the motor end plate would be contracted along a greater part of their length
than those on the opposite side of the fibre. The wave of contraction should
travel not perpendicularly to the long axis of the fibre, but at a sharper angle

154

to it. When one observes the contraction waves in individual fibres, the former
is found to be the case. The same is clearly seen in the beautiful figure of a con-
traction wave in Dytiscus muscle given by Schafer.

If we accept the third of these possibilities, then we are faced with this
same difficulty; the contraction wave would be expected to advance at an angle
(probably of 45 degrees) with the longitudinal axis. Moreover, if the stimulus,
according to this view, can travel across the “striation,” then, since the “‘stria-
tions” really form a continuous spiral band, there is nothing to limit this passage
of the stimulus, and it must continue to travel along the spiral; 17.e., we are
driven to accept the first of the three possibilities.

(2) Since the contractile wave marks the path of the excitatory impulse,
observations on fixed contractile waves, especially in the region of the motor
end plate, should be of great value. It is seldom that one may have the good
fortune to fix a muscle fibre at the moment that the impulse is leaving the end
plate. Such a case has, however, been observed by Rollett, and his excellent
figure is reproduced here. From it we see that the impulse, as marked out by

Contractile wave in muscle fibre of
Cassida equestris, spreading from
region of motor end plate. Note the
travelling of the wave across the
“striations,” i.e., along the spiral.
(From Jordan and Ferguson’s
Histology, after Rollett.)

the contractile wave, is travelling ‘across the striation,’ and although the
impulse has affected a number of fibrils in a direction transverse to the length
of the fibre, there is no evidence to show that the stimulus has advanced along
the fibrils. Rollett himself regarded the impulse as travelling across the striation
in Krause’s membrane. But since he was not aware of the arrangement of these
striations in spirals he failed to put the obvious interpretation on his results.

Nevertheless, his figure shows clearly that the impulse is travelling across
the striations, and it would appear that the striations beyond the region of the
nerve end plate could not become affected, until the stimulus had travelled right
across the fibre to the other side, and then back again along the spiral.

_ To demonstrate by direct observation the path of the impulse in such
minute and rapidly acting tissues as muscle fibres is, of course, a matter of the

19

greatest difficulty, and it does not, at present, seem to me possible to give any
evidence of a more direct nature than that stated above. Nevertheless, the
deductions that can be made from the conclusion there reached are so sug-
gestive, that they may almost be taken as the strongest evidence in favour of
the view that the impulse actually travels down the spiral.

Before considering these, however, the path of the impulse may be further
discussed. If, as seems probable, the impulse travels along the spiral, it becomes
possible, to decide on what part of the spiral it travels. It is well known, that
if the muscle from an animal be placed for about ten minutes in water, the
muscle, while remaining capable of transmitting excitatory impulses, ceases to
be able to respond to these by contracting. That part of the spiral which is
concerned with contraction has evidently been destroyed; the conducting portion
has remained unaffected. When histological preparations are made of a muscle
thus treated, I find that the darkly-staining material has been destroyed; Krause’s
membrane remains perfectly intact. From this it would follow that it is the
spiral Krause’s membrane along which the stimulus travels within the muscle
fibre, and that the dark material is concerned solely with contraction.

There is some other curious evidence in favour of this view. I have pointed
out in my previous paper, that the motor end plate nuclei terminate in con-
nection with Krause’s membrane. In a remarkable paper by J. F. Fulton
(1921), further evidence in favour of this view, as pointed out to me by Mr. H.
k. Marston, is to be found. Fulton investigates the action of novocaine on the
neuromuscular mechanism; he finds that this drug which acts physiologically,
like curare, in paralysing the end plates, accumulates within the end plate
nuclei, where its presence can be detected by forming subsequently brown diazo
compounds with metaphenylenediamine. Since these nuclei lie in connection
with Krause’s membrane which, as I have shown above, is the only part of the
spiral that remains in ‘‘water-logged” muscle; and since the nerve fibrils actually
appear to communicate with these nuclei, and since, finally, novocaine, which
paralyses the myoneural junction, acts directly on these nuclei, it would seem
that the chain of evidence is fairly complete, which shows that the stimuli, travel-
ling down the terminal nerve fibres, pass through the nuclei, and, entering Krause’s
membrane, travel along this membrane to the ends of the fibre.

This stimulus can be shown, by observing the contractile wave, to be capable
of travelling in both directions within the fibre.

The velocity of a muscle wave, and therefore of the impulse which causes
it, has been shown to be, in the frog, 3 to 4 metres per second (gastrocnemius
muscle) ; in the mammalian muscle it travels at about 6 metres per second. It
follows, since the fibres run along the longitudinal axis of these muscles, that
the velocity of the impulse in a straight line along the fibres will be the same.
Actually, however, since the impulse travels along the spiral Krause’s membrane,
the velocity will be very much larger than this, and the velocity with which it
travels along the spiral can be calculated if we know the thickness of the fibre and
the distance between the striations. These observations are not easy to make, as
dead muscle must be avoided, and in living muscle the inherent elasticity of the
fibres tends to cause considerable swelling and shortening of these. When,
however, muscle tissue is teased up in Ringer’s solution and all those fibres
which are subjected to artificial stretching, or which have mechanically shortened,
due to their elasticity, are excluded, measurements of the remainder should give
the required data with considerable accuracy. I cannot confirm the statement
often made that the fibres of a muscle show very great variations in their
breadth; it should be remembered that, on account of their properties, muscle
fibres are very deceiving in this respect.

156

When fibres, which are perfectly relaxed (but not stretched), are measured,
we obtain the following data :—
40
Frog muscle: Distance between striations =—yp; breadth of fibre = 30 p.
13

8

Human muscle: Distance between striations = — p; breadth of fibre = 68 p.

If dis the diameter of a fibre, L the distance between each successive stria-
tion, then the average distance that the impulses will travel in a single turn of
the double helicoid will obviously be given by the following formula :—

wr? d?2t(2L)24+21L
Actual distance = \j———
Zz
a dt2.L
Since L is very small compared with d, we may write, actual distance=
approximately. Z
Since the component of this distance along the fibre is 2 L (double helicoid),
: a dt+2L
the velocity of the excitatory impulse along the spiral will be [———— ~ longi-
4.
tudinal component of the velocity], where the longitudinal component is only
approximately known.

bf

If we substitute numerical values for z, d, L, and the longitudinal com-
ponent, we obtain: Velocity of muscle impulse in man=133 metres per second
(approx.). Velocity of muscle impulse in frog=between 22 and 304 metres
per second.

It should be noted that the values are only approximate. The velocity of
the muscle wave is by no means accurately known, and every error in
this will be increased 8 or 20 times in the final result.

Now the measurements of the velocity of the nerve impulse in man show
this to be about 123 metres per second (Piper); that of the frog 27 metres
(Helmholtz ).

So closely do these results approximate to the calculated values for the
velocity of the excitatory impulse along the spiral, that we may say, with con-
siderable confidence, that the velocity of the excitatory impulse along the spiral
Krause’s membrane, is equal to that of the nerve impulse.

SUMMARY.
(1) The excitatory impulse travels through the fibre along the spiral
Krause’s membrane.

(2) It travels along this membrane with the velocity of a nerve impulse
(frog and man).

REFERENCES.
(1921) Fulton, J. F., Amer. Jour. of Physiol., vol. 57, p. 153.

(1922) Tiegs, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xlvi., Po2eZ.
(1923) Tiegs, ibid., vol. xlvii., p. 142.

A BACTERIAL DISEASE DESTRUCTIVE TO FISH IN
QUEENSLAND RIVERS.

By Professor T. Harvey Jonnston, M.A., D.Sc., University of Adelaide, and
Lerra Hircucocx, Commonwealth Prickly Pear Laboratory, Brisbane.

[Read June 14, 1923.]

From time to time a very widespread and serious mortality has made its
appearance amongst fresh water fish in localities extending from Anthony
Lagoon, in the Northern Territory, to the Georgina River and Cooper Creek,
together with their affluents, as well as the Queensland tributaries of the Darling
basin, besides certain rivers entering the Gulf of Carpentaria and the Pacific
coast of Queensland.

The senior author published a preliminary report in 1917, but the material
submitted for examination, and on which the paper was based, was very scanty.
In 1921, in conjunction with Mr. J. Bancroft, the result of a much more extended
inquiry was made known.

The inaccessibility of the localities in which epidemics were reported to be
in progress, and commonly the tardy arrival of information regarding their
occurrence, seriously handicapped the investigation; consequently no observa-
tions were made during an epidemic, though on one occasion a visit was made
to a locality within a few days of its disappearance.

The outstanding features of the epidemics according to newspaper reports
as well as information received from many infected localities, were as follow :—
(1) Certain species were specially affected, e.g., Serranid perches (Plectroplites
ambiguus, Richdsn.; Therapon spp.; Oligorus macquariensis, C. & V.);
Clupeidae (Nematalosa sp.); and Catfishes (Plotosidae). (2) The epidemics
occurred nearly always in the colder and drier part of the year (July and August),
and in almost all cases the water was stagnant. (3) They ceased suddenly
after rain had caused the streams and rivers to flow. (4) Affected fish were
generally very fat, and death appeared to be due to an asphyxiation.

From the available evidence it appeared that the condition was not due
directly to any of the following causes :—Dry weather; low temperature; over-
stocking of the waterholes representing the shrunken rivers and creeks; helminth
or protozoal parasites. Though the fungus Saprolegnia was found commonly
associated, it was regarded as being an organism which aggravated rather than
caused the condition, and it was suggested that the epidemic was primarily due
to the presence of some virulent bacterium whose multiplication and dissemina-
tion were favoured by a high acidity of the water, due to excess of carbon
dioxide; in other words, by stagnant conditions. Though abundant bacteria
were found in dead material in the Thomson River on the occasion of a visit,
no cultures were made from the putrescent fish on account of lack of suitable
facilities for carrying on bacteriological work at the time.

In these papers (1917, 1921) reference was made to the occurrence of
dead fish floating down the lower Brisbane River during August and September,
1917-1918, and it was mentioned that the opinion of J. D. Ogilby, ichthyologist
to the Queensland Museum, was that the use of dynamite by boating parties
higher up the river was responsible for such mortality. Such a view was
strengthened by an examination of a specimen submitted by that Museum, the
disorganization of the viscera being such as would be caused by an explosion.
On account of this, the Brisbane River epidemics were ruled out from further

158

consideration. From what we observed subsequently (1922) we feel sure that
in addition to the illegal dynamiting of fish, which accounted for some of the
mortality, there was also an epidemic in progress.

Towards the end of August, 1922, dead and dying fish were seen in large
numbers floating down the Brisbane River in the vicinity of the Commonwealth
Prickly Pear Laboratory, Sherwood, and on inquiry it was ascertained that the
epidemic had been in progress for at least four weeks previously. Early in
September the condition disappeared. We estimated that over 90 per cent. of
the dead fish observed by us were the so-called Brisbane River perch, Sciaena
australis, Gnthr., an estuarine species belonging to the Sciaenidae. The remainder
consisted of catfish (Tandanus tandanus and Neosilurus hyrtli) and a few John
Dories (Zeus faber, L.). Moribund fish were seen to be swimming slowly on
their sides on the surface of the water and unable to maintain their balance. A
condition of acute dyspnoea seemed to be present. Hawks, fish-eagles, cor-
morants, and other birds were actively engaged in feeding on the fish; in fact,
it was their activity which led us to discover that an epidemic was in progress.

Post-mortem examination revealed a condition resembling septicaemia. All
the peritoneal blood-vessels were considerably distended, and the liver was putty-
like, though its vessels were much engorged and showing plainly on the surface
in places. The heart seemed normal, but the spleen was black and in many cases
obviously necrosed. The gall-bladder was slightly enlarged and the kidneys
congested. The intestine was empty except for the presence of a milky fluid.
The marked fatty degeneration reported as occurring in material from the fresh
waters of Western Queensland was not present in the Brisbane River specimens
under examination.

Smears taken from the liver, kidney, and spleen of dying fish showed
abundant, fairly large diplobacilli, and cultures made from the organs revealed
the same organism. The latter was pleomorphic, its simplest form being obtained
on agar, where it appeared as a micrococcus with scattered bacillary forms.
In liquid media it occurred as a bacillus, reaching a maximum length of 2p
by ‘85 », though many appeared to be undergoing a constriction into cocci. The
larger rods were often slightly curved. The arrangement was commonly that of
diplobacilli. The organism was larger when growing in blood than on artificial
media, and nearly always assumed the form of a diplobacillus.

It was gram negative and stained readily with the usual aniline dyes, a
bipolar effect often being seen. Growth occurred on ordinary solid and liquid
media at a titre of +15 to +05 acid to phenolphthalein. Unless otherwise
stated, the following remarks relate to growth in media at these two titres :—

Bouillon:—A good growth was present in 18 hours with clouding of the
medium. After seven days a sediment was produced but no pigment, while after
a lapse of 15 days a surface scum appeared and sedimentation was increased
but without pigmentation.

Agar:—There was a good growth at +15 and also at +05, appearing
dirty white by oblique light. Agar stabs showed no special features. On Agar
plates the superficial colonies were round, slightly convex, with a well-defined
outline, and when viewed microscopically by transmitted light appeared to be
granular and to have a crenate margin. Well developed colonies were translucent
and faintly yellowish.

Gelatin stab:—A filiform growth but no liquefaction, even in cultures a
week old.

Blood serum :—Good growth; no liquefaction; no pigmentation.

Milk :—Good growth on litmus milk; no coagulation. On the first day the
reaction was either unchanged or very faintly alkaline. On the second day the
alkalinity was more marked, becoming pronounced on the succeeding day. The
milk was not peptonised, even after four weeks.

159

Dunham’s peptone solution:—Growth as in bouillon; no indol produced;
no pigmentation.

Fermentation tests, from material grown on agar :—Observations were made
daily for four days with each of the following: dextose, inosite, glucose,
dextrin, saccharose, lactose, maltose, mannite, dulce: arabinose: sorbite, adonite,
amygdalin, laevulose, salicine, erythrite, raffinose, inulin, In no case did fer-
mentation occur.

Temperature reaction:—The optimum when grown on agar was at about
25° C., while growth was slightly inhibited at 37° C.

Motility:—When examined direct from blood the organism was non-
motile, but after 18 to 24 hours’ growth in +15 bouillon at 25° C. showed a
very feeble translatory movement when examined in hanging drop, and on the
succeeding day the motility was more pronounced, but was never active. Most
activity was obtained by using galactose broth as a medium.

Spore formation:—In old cultures the organism assumed an ovoid form
suggestive of spore formation, but as the staining was quite uniform it probably
does not form spores.

Inoculations:—A pure culture from an agar slope was diluted with sterile
physiological saline and standardized to approximately 1,000 million organisms
per C.C. A half C.C. of the mixture was injected into the peritoneum of a
guinea pig without any apparent effect during the succeeding two months when
the animal was kept under observation.

Another culture was similarly treated and made up to 500 million per C.C.,
‘1 C.C. of the mixture being injected subcutaneously into a goldfish, which
died in four days, while the controls all remained alive. This experiment was
repeated on another goldfish, death occurring in four days. Post-mortem exam-
ination revealed conditions exactly similar to those seen in the naturally infected
fish from the Brisbane River, and gram negative diplobacilli were isolated in
pure culture from both of the experimental fish.

An agar culture was scraped into a large bowl containing four healthy
goldfish, and in order to prevent the organisms from being washed away by the
flowing water and to allow some degree of acidity in the water and thus stimulate
stagnant conditions, the supply of fresh water (from the city water supply) was
withheld for two days, the maximum acidity reached being 4 per cent. (using
phenolphthalein as an indicator). On the third day the bowl was washed out
and the normal supply of oxygenated water restored. On the eighth day all
the fish spent most of their time at the surface, gulping air. On the fourteenth
day one of the fish died. Post-mortem examination revealed a general
septicaemic condition, and the gall-bladder was considerably enlarged. Blood
smears showed the presence of some gram-negative diplobacilli. Cultures were
made from the heart and spleen, and the organism recovered from them. The
remaining fish eventually became apparently normal.

This evidence showed that when introduced directly into goldfish the
organism was lethal, but when infection occurred through the alimentary canal
or gills the effect was more slowly produced and might not be so virulent.

The growth reactions of the diplobacillus showed that a high degree of
acidity in the water favoured its propagation. Consequently any conditions which
caused either stagnation of water (1.e., insufficient aeration) or a considerable in-
crease in the animal life of a mass of water (e.g., dwindling of a river into a series
of waterholes and the consequent increased density of the fish population in such
waterholes) would favour the growth of the organism. Then, again, the in-
creased density of the fish population would favour the outbreak of an epidemic
which would probably cause the greatest havoc amongst the least-resistant species.

We have no proof that the organism found by us in the Brisbane River is
the same as that producing the epidemics in Western Queensland rivers, but

160

the fact that such outbreaks have, at least on several occasions, synchronised in
the two localities, and that weather conditions have been more or less similar, 1s
strong evidence in favour of assuming that the organisms concerned in the two
cases are specifically identical. It must be pointed out, however, that in the
Brisbane River outbreak, all the diseased fish examined were estuarine, and
that we did not know in what locality infection occurred. It must have been
many miles up stream, as the river during winter is distinctly salty (the rainfall
being a summer one), and therefore probably more or less alkaline where the
diseased fish were collected, but higher up stream, beyond the reach of the tide,
conditions would be different. Though the diseased fish were estuarine, the
organisms obtained from them caused a similar disease when introduced into a
fresh water fish, e.g., goldfish. The causal organism appears to us to be new to
science, consequently we have designated it Bacillus piscivorus.

Hofer (1906) gave a short account of several bacterial diseases of fresh
water fish, including Salmonidae, but the Brisbane organism is readily separable
from all those referred to by him excepting Bacterium salmonis-pestis, Paterson
(1903), the cause of the well-known salmon disease (Drew, 1909). The latter
is an actively motile, non-sporing, gram-negative, short, thick bacillus or diplo-
bacillus which liquefies gelatin and coagulates milk with a slow acid reaction.
It is pathogenic for fish, especially the Salmonidae. It thus differs from B.

piscivorus in its reactions towards milk and gelatin.
Another organism to be considered is B. truttae, Marsh (1903), which

causes an epidemic amongst American Salmonidae. It is a gram-positive, non-
motile, short bacillus, or diplobacillus, which grows best at a titre ranging from
neutral to +0°5 acid to phenolphthalein, and at the latter titre will liquefy gelatin,
though not at a titre of +15 when growth becomes practically inhibited. It
liquefies blood serum; does not clot milk but peptonises it, and the reaction is
neutral or faintly acid. In bouillon cultures (+0°5) after eighteen hours there
is no clouding but there is sedimentation; while after 10 to 15 days a char-
acteristic brown colour appears in the medium and the sediment becomes dirty
brown, changing with age to dark brown. The colonies on agar change from
ereyish-white to greyish-brown on and after the third day. The Brisbane
bacterium differs from B. truttae in its reaction to gram, its growth on agar
(the former growing well on +15 agar, as well as on +05), absence of pig-
mentation in old colonies, distinct clouding of bouillon in 18 hours but no appear-
ance of a brown colour even after four weeks at room temperature (20°-22° C.),
effect on gelatin and blood serum as well as on milk. Moreover, B. truttae is
reported to be killed by exposure to a temperature of 37° C. for 17 hours,
whereas B. piscivorus is not.

The cultural reactions of the Australian organism resemble those of Bacillus
fecalis-alkaligenes in regard to growth in bouillon and gelatin, the non-fermenta-
tion of all sugars and gram staining. The latter is very actively motile and an
alkaline reaction is marked on the first day of growth in litmus milk. The
fermentation reactions and the active motility readily distinguish B. piscivorus
from B. typhosus and its allies.

Two bacterial organisms have already been described from Australian marine
fish by Grieg Smith (1900), wiz., B. piscicidus bipolaris and Vibrio bresimae.
The former liquefies gelatin, coagulates milk, is actively motile, forms spores,
and is gram positive; while the latter liquefies gelatin, turns litmus milk acid,
bleaching it in seven days, and gives a slight indol reaction after seven days’
growth in bouillon.

If Castellani and Chalmers’ (1919) classification of bacteria be accepted,
then the name Alcaligenes piscivorus should be applied to the new organism, as
its reactions place it in their genus Alcaligenes, near B. fecalis.

161

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162

A BACTERIOSIS OF PRICKLY PEAR PLANTS
(OPUNTIA spp.).

By Professor T. Harvey Jounsron, M.A., D.Sc., University of Adelaide,
and L. Hircucockx, Commonwealth Prickly Pear Laboratory, Brisbane.

[Read June 14, 1923.]

Whilst the senior author was in Miami, Southern Florida, in 1920, on behalf
of the Commonwealth Prickly Pear Board, making inquiry regarding diseases
and insect enemies of prickly pears, his attention was drawn by Mr. Simmonds,
officer in charge of the Plan Introduction Garden belonging to the Federal
Department of Agriculture, to a few very sickly Opuntia plants. Their appear-
ance suggested a bacteriosis. The infected specimens were O. tomentella, from
Guatemala, in Central America, and O. ficus-indica, from Columbia, South
America. Prior to his departure from U.S.A. he arranged for material to be
sent across later by one of his colleagues, Mr. J. C. Hamlin. Specimens collected
by the latter in Florida in March, 1921, were eventually received at the Prickly
Pear Laboratory in Brisbane as dried fragments, complete disintegration having
occurred en route. Cultures were made and the various bacteria obtained were
sorted out, the causal organism being ultimately obtained.

The disease is first recognizable by the appearance of a rounded blackish

area, a bright purple margin being commonly seen adjacent to a narrow chlorosed
region separating it from the uninvaded plant tissue. The lesion is at first
‘generally much more obvious on the one surface, 7.e., the originally infected
surface, but soon the disease reaches the opposite portion of the cladode and the
lesion spreads. The underlying parenchyma becomes completely disintegrated
and the cuticle may sink somewhat. In other cases, the gas formed as a result
of the organism’s activity causes the cuticle to bulge out, the gas collecting
below it.

As the disease progresses the distinct purplish colouration close behind the
advancing edge of the lesion becomes very marked. The parenchymatous tissue
ultimately disintegrates into a greenish-brown, or even dark-brown, slimy, foetid
liquid. The disease does not spread along the vascular bundles, but evidently
advances through the breaking down of parenchyma cells. Fully disintegrated
segments may resemble dull-green or grey-green cushions containing liquid and
gas, but as there is frequently some opening by which these products of putre-
faction can escape, only a dried cuticle surrounding the vascular strands may
remain.

The disease will not travel from an infected segment to that above or below
it, the organism being unable to utilize the vascular bundles. It is then limited
to the parenchyma of the inoculated segment. Under certain conditions of
climate the progress of the malady is so slow that the protective mechanism of
the invaded cladode is able to limit the lesion, the diseased portion then drying
out and collapsing. Such happens under cold and dry conditions. When
temperature and moisture are suitable (as occurs in Queensland during the hot,
moist, summer months, January to March) the disease advances too rapidly
for the plant to circumscribe it. A lesion which has become limited by the
activity of the plant cells not infrequently may subsequently extend through
the surrounding tissues if weather conditions be favourable, when the destruction
of part or whole of the segment may result. The effect on the stems is somewhat
similar, but the disease spreads very slowly unless assisted by some inoculating
agent such as a boring insect larva.

163

The organism which appears to be the first bacillus to be described as
attacking Cactaceae, and which we name B. cacticidus, will grow on all ordinary
laboratory media, but when grown in bouillon or agar its virulence is very ceon-
siderably diminished. The greatest virulence is manifested by organisms which
have been grown on a prickly pear decoction for two days at room temperature
20-25° C., and in such fluid there is a production of abundant gas. The decoction
was made by boiling sliced fragments in distilled water until a very viscid extract
was produced; it was then strained and sterilized.

If organisms from such a culture medium be inoculated into the parenchyma
in quantity, incubation at 37° C. for 48 hours commonly results in the almost
complete disintegration of the segment, a very pronounced effect being obtain-
able even within 24 hours. On the other hand, inoculations from agar or
bouillon cultures failed to cause the disease in Opuntia inermis, O. stricta, and
O. megacantha, even after a long interval, whereas segments of O. tomentosa
inoculated at the same time from the same cultures and kept under the same
conditions, became completely disintegrated in from seven to fourteen days,
while the slimy liquid produced by the decomposition of the last-named species,
when inoculated into the other three Opuntias, produced a rapid decay which
destroyed the infected segments in about seven days during midsummer. Dis-
eased material desiccated for months retains its capability to reproduce the
malady if inoculated into fresh segments of prickly pear.

Attempts to produce infection through the stomata either by smearing or
by spraying organisms from active cultures over the uninjured surfaces of
segments failed, while detached cladodes, if allowed to dry sufficiently to heal
the scar at the joint where broken from the parent segment, did not become
infected when the lower end of such segment was immersed for weeks in the
liquid from decomposed material, though such liquid readily produced disease
if an injury were made in the submerged part of such segment.

The organism is an actively motile, gram-negative, aerobic, and facultative
anaerobic bacillus. When grown on agar it is almost coccoid, measuring about
‘8 » in diameter, but in liquid media it forms short rods occurring singly or in
pairs and measuring 13 » by 8 pw. Neither spores nor capsules were observed.
Smooth greyish-white colonies are produced on +15 acid agar slopes (Ayres’
scale), while on poured plates they are round, raised, wet, shiny, and dirty white,
inclining to yellow.

Inoculation from a 24 hours’ broth culture gave an acid reaction on the
first day, and persisting for at least four days, in glucose, saccharose, mannite,
atid salicine, but none in maltose, lactose, dulcite, and arabinose. The reaction
in litmus milk caused an acid clot on the second day, the clot remaining un-
changed at the end of a week.

The optimum temperature was found to be between 28° and 30° C.,,
which is strong evidence in favour of the view that its native home is the tropical
portion of America, probably in the vicinity of the Carribean Sea.

It was ascertained experimentally that the cactus “moth borers” Melitara
prodenialis, from Florida, and M. junctolineella, from Texas, as well as another
Pyralid (Phycitid) moth, Mimorista flavidissimalis, from Texas, were all able
during their caterpillar stages to transmit the organism from diseased to sound
portions of the same or other plants, the bacteria probably being carried.on the
hairs and skin of the larvae and deposited in the injuries or tunnels made by
them. Under such circumstances, the lesions occasioned by the insects are
greatly aggravated; in fact, in the case of very young larvae (first instar) of
Melitara, the destruction and liquefaction of plant tissue may be so rapid as to
imprison or even drown them while in their tunnels. This does not happen with
older caterpillars which migrate from the decomposing segment and carry the

164

infection to the next one invaded by them. The organism would also certainly
be transmitted by similar Pyralid larvae (Cactoblastis cactorum and C. bucyrus)
which attack cacti in South America.

The boring larvae of the cactus longicorn beetles, Moneilema spp., also
may act as transmitters as a result of contamination, and thus their action in
destroying old stems and underground parts of prickly pear plants may be
accelerated.

The common ferment flies (Drosophilidae) which invade ripe and rotting
fruit, decaying vegetation, etc., in Brisbane, are attracted to decomposing prickly
pear, in wehich they readily breed and on which they feed. The flies are capable
of acting as transmitters of the disease by infecting injured surfaces of segments.

A series of experiments was carried out, using the following four species
of cactus bugs: Chelinides vittigera (Texas), C. vittigera |?]| (Florida variety),
C. canyona, and C. tabulata, which were allowed to feed on obviously diseased
segments for a few days and then transferred to healthy segments, but in no
case did infection result. Perhaps the outside of the rostrum of the bugs may
have become cleansed during the act of puncturing the tissues of the plant to
which they had been subsequently transferred.

The effect of B. cacticidus on a variety of crops and fruits was tried out
in the laboratory. In the case of growing plants the surface of leaves was
scratched and material from an active culture was placed in the injuries, but
no disease developed. The plants so tested were wheat, barley, oats, maize, and
legumes. Direct inoculation as well as attempted infection of scratches was
tried in the case of banana plants, but without success. The organism was
inoculated, but failed to produce any disease, in the following fruits: apple,
pear, plum, peach, banana, mango, pineapple, custard apple; also in carrots,
parsnips, beet, turnips, cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce, and sugar-cane. It was
found that hard cucurbitaceous fruits such as the pumpkin were not affected,
but that the more pulpy kinds such as squashes, melons, and marrows were,
the parenchyma completely breaking down into a liquid as a result of deep
inoculation even from an agar culture. Under ordinary conditions of tempera-
ture potatoes were not affected by inoculation, but if kept in an incubator at
37° C. then decomposition was produced.

The disease was not encountered anywhere in the United States, except in
Miami, Florida, either by the senior author or by his colleague, Mr. J. C. Hamlin.
The garden from which the original material was obtained is primarily utilized
for growing tropical agricultural plants and various kinds of citrus fruits. As
any lesion on fruits would soon be observed, and if unknown to those in charge,
would be submitted for expert examination, it is reasonable to assume that citrus
fruits are not susceptible to attack.

It seems as if B. cacticidus may play a very important role in prickly pear
eradication in Australia during the warm moist summer, by becoming associated
(as a result of contamination) with the larval stages of the moths Melitara and
Mimorista especially, and, to a less extent, the adult Drosophilid flies and the
larvae of Moneilema beetles, but without these aids the organism will at most
produce only a local lesion on the plant, acting as a wound parasite.

The following species of prickly pear occurring naturalized in Australia
are susceptible to attack, viz., Opuntia tomentosa, O. inermis, O. stricta, O.
aurantiaca, O. megacantha, O. ficus-indica, and O. monacantha (vulgaris). It
can be safely assumed that the remaining species which occur more sparsely in
our continent are also susceptible.

165

NEW AUSTRALIAN MICRO-LEPIDOPTERA.
By A. JEFFERIS TuRNER, M.D., F.E.S.
[Read July 12, 1923.]

Ram Glover A Rae Ra GDA,

Gen. Epithetica, nov.

érOserixo, active.

Tongue present. Labial palpi moderately long, recurved, scarcely reaching
vertex, rather stout, laterally compressed, slightly rough-scaled; terminal joint
shorter than second, obtusely pointed. Maxillary palpi obsolete. Antennae
about 2, without pecten; in male simple. Thorax with a posterior crest.
Middle tibiae much thickened with scales towards apex. Posterior tibiae clothed
with long loose hairs above and beneath. Forewings with 2 from shortly before
angle, 7 and 8 coincident, 11 from before middle of cell. Hindwings broadly
ovate, cilia 4; 3 and 4 connate or stalked, 5, 6, 7 separate, parallel.

This interesting genus has neuration identical with Hierodoris, Meyr., from
New Zealand, but differs in the long-haired posterior tibiae and presence of a
thoracic crest. It is probably an independent development from Heliostibes,
Zel., also from New Zealand, but not, so far, known from Australia.

Epithetica typhoscia, n. sp.

tudockios, darkly shaded.

6, 14-15 mm. Head fuscous; face grey. Palpi pale-grey irrorated ex-
tensively with blackish, which sometimes forms transverse rings. Antennae
fuscous annulated with pale grey; in male simple. Thorax dark fuscous;
patagia and a pair of lateral spots brown. Abdomen dark fuscous. Legs dark
fuscous; posterior tibiae and tarsi partly whitish-ochreous. Forewings sub-
oblong, posteriorly dilated, costa slightly arched, apex rounded-rectangular,
termen sinuate beneath apex, slightly oblique; dark fuscous; a suffused brown
subbasal fascia; a brown incomplete fascia from dorsum before middle,
reaching 3 across disc, edged anteriorly with grey; immediately after this a
suffused grey fascia from midcosta to beyond middorsum, in it a fine black
line from 2 costa to 3 dorsum; another grey fascia containing a dark line from
3 costa to termen above tornus; terminal edge fuscous preceded by a grey line;
cilia fuscous. Hindwings dark fuscous; cilia fuscous.

New South Wales: Lismore, in October, two specimens.

SAGALASSA HOMOTONA, Swin.
Balataea homotona, Swin., Cat. Oxf. Mus., i. p. 36, pl. ii, f. 18.

6, 22 mm. Head dark fuscous; face partly ochreous. Palpi 35; dark
fuscous, lower surface whitish-ochreous. Antennae dark fuscous; in male with
thickened stalk, pectinations 2. Thorax fuscous. Abdomen dark fuscous with
white subbasal and median transverse lines on dorsum; beneath irregularly
mixed with white. Legs [middle pair absent] dark fuscous; dorsum of tibiae
except base and posterior third whitish-ochreous; apices of tibiae and first two
tarsal joints whitish. Forewings narrowly oblong, dilated beyond middle, costa
sinuate, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; dark fuscous; costa narrowly
ochreous to 8, thence whitish; a few ochreous scales above 2 dorsum; an
elongate-oval longitudinal ochreous spot in middle of terminal area; cilia

166

fuscous. Hindwings with termen nearly straight; dark fuscous; costa broadly
ochreous-whitish; central area of disc scaleless, transparent; cilia fuscous.

Described from the type in Oxford Museum, labelled “Australia.” This
species is otherwise unknown to me.

Sagalassa poecilota, n. sp.

TOLKLAOTOS, variegated.

3, 9, 18-19 mm. Head brownish-grey. Palpi porrect; second joint with
an apical tuft of hairs above; terminal joint with apex obtusely rounded;
whitish-ochreous partly suffused with fuscous. Antennae brownish-grey mixed
with fuscous; in male serrate with moderate ciliations 1. Thorax brownish-
grey, in centre fuscous. Abdomen dark fuscous, apices of segments ringed
with ochreous. Legs fuscous; tarsal annulations and hairs on posterior tibiae
ochreous. Forewings rather narrow, not dilated, costa straight to middle, thence
arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; brownish-grey towards base
suffused with ochreous-whitish, beyond middle purple-tinged; an inwardly
oblique fuscous-brown fascia from midcosta to 4 dorsum, narrow on costa,
gradually broadening to dorsum; an obscure, suffused, subterminal fuscous line,
sharply angulated inwards in disc; some reddish apical suffusion; a fuscous
terminal line; cilia grey. Hindwings with termen gently rounded; dark fuscous ;
a median orange spot before middle, and a second, smaller, between it anc
dorsum; cilia pale orange.

North Queensland: Kuranda, three specimens, received from Mr. F. P.
Dodd, bred from the fruits of Calamus australis.

TORTYRA DIVITIOSA, WIk.

Saptha divitiosa, Wik., Cat. Brit. Mus., xxx., p. 1015.
Badera nobilis, Feld., Reise Nov., pl. 139, f. 9.
Tortyra divitiosa, Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1907, p. 99.

North Queensland: Claudie River, one specimen, taken by Mr. J. A.
Kershaw; also from New Guinea and Moluccas. Not previously recorded from
Australia.

Simaethis lygaeopa, n. sp.

Avyawros, dark.

¢, 16mm. Head fuscous-brown thinly sprinkled with fine whitish points.
Palpi white; second joint with three blackish rings; terminal joint with three
blackish rings including apex. Antennae white sharply ringed with black;
ciliations in male 4. Thorax fuscous-brown with fine whitish points. Abdomen
fuscous. Legs fuscous; tarsi annulated with whitish. Forewings broadly
triangular, costa strongly arched, apex obtusely angled, termen slightly bowed,
slightly oblique; dark fuscous-brown sprinkled with whitish scales, the absence
of which leaves dark markings; a subbasal fascia; another narrower at 4,
followed by a whitish costal dot; a broad fascia from costa before middle,
contracting in disc to a dentate line, which finally curves outwards to beyond
middle of dorsum; beyond this are two whitish costal dots, between which
originates a fine line, which is strongly bent outwards towards termen, before
which it is thrice dentate, then bent inwards, and continued parallel to termen,
but does not reach dorsum; beyond and parallel to this is a subterminal line,
which does not reach costa; cilia fuscous with a black basal and whitish terminal
line. Hindwings with termen only slightly bowed; fuscous; cilia fuscous,
apices paler.

Queensland: National Park (3,000 feet), in December, two specimens;
New South Wales: Lismore, in January.

167

Fam. HY PONOMEUTIDAE.

Zelleria orthopleura, n. sp.

dpOorAevpos, with straight costa.

6, 9, 13-15 mm. Head grey. Palpi slender; whitish. Antennae grey.
Thorax grey. Abdomen pale grey. Legs grey; posterior pair and middle
tarsi whitish. Forewings narrow, costa straight, apex rounded, termen and
dorsum continuous, straight; grey; numerous fuscous dots, some on basal half
of costa, a subterminal and a subdorsal series in disc; a suffused inwardly
oblique mark in disc before middle, and another on middorsum; cilia grey
with some fuscous irroration around apex. Huindwings lanceolate; pale grey;
cilia 3; pale grey.

Nearest Z. araeodes, Meyr.

Queensland: Brisbane, in August; Coolangatta, in September; Charle-
ville, in September; four specimens.

Zelleria euthysema, n. sp.

evdvonpos, with straight marking.

3. 16-18 mm. Head and palpi white. Antennae grey, whitish towards
basew “thorax /awhite-patacia Vorange:. Abdomen palel orev) ) legs enrey:
posterior pair whitish. Forewings lanceolate, costa strongly arched, apex acute,
termen and dorsum continuous, straight; white; a slender yellow subcostal
line to 2; a yellow or orange median streak from base to above tornus, in
posterior half edged above with grey; a suffused streak of grey irroration
from beyond middle of disc to apex, broadening posteriorly ; cilia white irrorated
with grey, sometimes tinged with yellow beneath apex, on dorsum grey-whitish.
Hindwings broadly lanceolate; pale grey; cilia 14, grey-whitish.

Queensland: Crow’s Nest, near Toowoomba, in October; Stanthorpe, in
February; two specimens.

Zelleria panceuthes, n. sp.

mayKxevOyns, well concealed.

6, 12mm. Head fuscous-brown. Palpi whitish, external surface mixed
with fuscous. Antennae fuscous. Thorax fuscous-brown. Abdomen grey.
Legs fuscous; posterior pair grey. Forewings narrow, costa nearly straight,
apex pointed; fuscous-brown with fuscous irroration; a series of minute
fuscous dots on costa from base to middle; a paler dor:al streak suddenly
broadening at 4 so as to extend beyond middle of disc, this extension is bounded
anteriorly by a defined oblique line, posteriorly it is suffused and undefined;
cilia grey, on and near apex fuscous. Hindwings lanceolate; grey; cilia 34,
grey.

Queensland: National Park (3,000 feet), in January, one specimen.

Zelleria perimeces, n. sp.

Tepyunkys, elongate. "

3, 9, 20-22 mm. Head, palpi, antennae, and thorax grey. Abdomen
ochreous-grey. Legs fuscous; posterior pair grey. Forewings moderately
narrow, costa slightly arched, apex obtusely pointed; grey with a few fuscous
scales; some scattered fuscous dots, more numerous towards base; an inwardly-
oblique fuscous line from 4 costa to 4 dorsum more or less developed; a
brownish-fuscous apical spot; cilia grey, around apex fuscous. Huindwings
broadly lanceolate; grey; cilia 1, grey.

Victoria: Mount Macedon, near Gisborne, in March, five specimens received
from Mr. Geo. Lyell, who found the pupae beneath the thin bark of smooth gum
(Eucalyptus) trunks. Type in Coll. Lyell.

168

Xyrosaris acroxutha, n. sp.
axpofov0os, tawny at the apex.

3,15 mm. Head white. Palpi fuscous, inner surface whitish; second
joint slender, not tufted; terminal joint dilated with long hairs obscuring apex.
Antennae grey. Thorax whitish with some grey irroration. Abdomen grey;
tuft ochreous-whitish. Legs fuscous; posterior pair whitish. Forewings
narrow, costa nearly straight, apex pointed, termen and dorsum continuous,
straight; grey with some fuscous irroration; towards dorsum suffused with
whitish; 4 or 5 fuscous dots on basal third of costa and two subcostal dots
beyond this; an interrupted blackish line on apical end of costa, and some
blackish scales on terminal edge; cilia orange-brown with two postmedian
fuscous lines, on dorsum grey. Huindwings broadly lanceolate; grey; cilia 14,
grey.

Not unlike X. dryopa, Meyr., but palpi not tufted on second joint.

Queensland: National Park (2,500 feet), in December, one specimen.

Prays parilis, n. sp.

Parilis, similar.

3, 2, 11-13 mm. Head and palpi white. Antennae grey. Thorax white;
anterior edge fuscous. Abdomen grey. Legs grey; posterior pair whitish.
Forewings rather narrow, costa nearly straight, apex rounded, termen very
oblique; white; markings fuscous; a series of strigulae on basal third of costa,
and another on basal third of dorsum, some dot-like, others produced into disc;
a moderate fascia from 3 costa to 2 dorsum, sometimes divided on costa into
strigulae separated by white dots, constricted in middle; a subapical costal
spot, and a large spot on termen above tornus, sometimes connected; cilia grey.
Hindwings and cilia grey.

Nearest P. inscripta, Meyr., but with white thorax and only one fascia on
forewing.

Queensland: Brisbane, in November and December, three specimens.

Prays amblystola, n. sp.
apBAvoroAos, in dull clothing.

3,14 mm. Fead and thorax fuscous-brown. Palpi and antennae fuscous.
Abdomen and legs:fuscous. Forewings narrow, dilated posteriorly, costa nearly
straight, apex rounded, termen very oblique; fuscous-brown; a median whitish
streak from 4 to 3, suffusedly connected with middorsum, and again with tornus;
some patchy whitish suffusion on apical portion of disc; cilia brown. Huind-
wings grey, thinly scaled; cilia grey.

New South Wales: Mount Kosciusko (3,500 feet), in January, two
specimens.

Charicrata sericoleuca, n. sp.

onptkoXevkos, Silky-white.

Q, 13-14 mm. Head, palpi, antennae, and thorax white. Abdomen pale
grey. Legs white; tarsi with fine fuscous annulations. Forewings narrow-
oval, costa slightly arched, apex round-pointed, termen very obliquely rounded;
shining white faintly tinged with ochreous and sparsely irrorated with pale
fuscous, which forms fine transverse strigulae, near apex and termen this is
replaced by dark fuscous; cilia ochreous-whitish, sometimes with fuscous apical
dots. Hindwings and cilia white.

Queensland: National Park (2,500 feet), in January; New South Wales:
Lismore, in October, two specimens.

169

HYyPONOMEUTA INTERRUPTELLUS, Saub.

Teinoptila interruptella, Saub., Semp. Schmet. Phil., ii., p. 701, pl. 66, f. 16.

Yponomeuta interruptellus, Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1907, p. 77.

3, 20 mm. Head whitish with a dark-fuscous central spot on crown.
Palpi dark fuscous, inner surface whitish. Antennae dark fuscous, towards
apex whitish. Thorax whitish with a posterior fuscous spot. Abdomen dark
fuscous, under-surface whitish. Legs, dorsal surface fuscous, ventral whitish.
Forewings elongate, costa gently arched, apex round-pointed, termen obliquely
rounded; dark fuscous with three irregular whitish blotches; first subbasal
to 3, with two circular indentations above and beneath; second postmedian,
containing a circular fuscous dot; third smaller, its lower edge touching termen;
cilia fuscous. Hindwings and cilia dark fuscous.

Not having seen the description of this species 1 cannot be sure of its
identification, but from the meagre particulars given by Mr. Meyrick it seems
probable.

North Queensland: Claudie River, in February, one specimen taken by
Mr. J. A. Kershaw; also from New Guinea and Phillipine Islands.

HYPONOMEUTA MYRIOSEMUS, Turn.

This species and the following are very closely allied, and both are slightly
variable; probably, however, they are really distinct. My original material
consisted of three examples, of which two are paurodes, only the type being
myriosemus. As I have now more examples, I think it desirable to redescribe
them.

3, 24-30 mm.; 92, 30-32 mm. Forewings with costa nearly straight to
middle, thence gently arched, apex rounded-rectangular, termen nearly straight ;
white with blackish markings; costal edge towards base blackish; a series of
4 or 5 dots on basal 4 of costa, sometimes followed by a sixth dot; beyond this
a subcostal series of 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 dots; a median series of 3 or 4 dots in
basal 4, the first basal, second and third on fold; a submedian series of 2 or 3
dots in apical 4; a subdorsal series of 4 or 5 dots; a dot on tornus, a variable
number of terminal dots, sometimes partly confluent, sometimes those near
apex partly obsolete; terminal edge beneath apex blackish; cilia white with a
grey or fuscous postmedian line sometimes extending to apices. Hindwings
grey, towards base suffused with whitish; cilia grey, apices sometimes whitish,
on tornus and dorsum whitish.

Queensland: Duaringa (Meyrick); Brisbane; Mount Tambourine, in
November and January; Coolangatta, in October; five specimens; New South
Wales: Katoomba (Meyrick).

HYPONOMEUTA PAURODES, Meyr.
Yponomeuta paurodes, Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1907, p. 150.

3, 18-24 mm.; @, 20-26 mm. Forewings more arched towards apex than
in myriosemus, apex and termen more rounded; white with blackish markings ;
costal edge towards base blackish; a costal series of 4 or 5 dots on basal 2;
a subcostal series of 3 (rarely 4) dots beyond these; a median series of 4 dots
in basal 4, the first basal, second and third on fold; two submedian dots in
apical half; a subdorsal series of 3 dots (one example has a minute fourth dot
on one side only); a dot on tornus, a second on termen below middle, some-
times two minute dots between these; upper part of termen without dots and
fuscous edge (one example has two minute dots arranged longitudinally before
and at a short distance from apex on one side only) ; cilia wholly white. Huind-
wings grey, towards base suffused with whitish; cilia white, bases sometimes
grey but not on tornus and dorsum.

170

The best points of distinction from H. myriosemus appear to be the shape
of the forewings, their wholly white cilia, the absence of blackish dots on
terminal edge beneath apex, and the almost invariable restriction of the sub-
dorsal dots to three.

North Queensland: Townsville, in July and August (Dodd); Queensland:
Brisbane, in August; Coolangatta, in January and April; ten specimens.

Atteva hesychima, n. sp.

Hovxy.os, quiet.

2, 32 mm. Head orange. Palpi fuscous; second joint with basal and
apical whitish rings. Antennae grey. Thorax whitish; a fuscous spot on base
of each patagium and another just before posterior apex. Abdomen whitish;
a large fuscous spot on dorsum of each segment. Legs grey; posterior pair
grey-whitish. Forewings elongate, slightly dilated posteriorly, costa strongly
arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; whitish; a broad grey costal
streak from base, narrowing to a point at 8; a broad grey dorsal streak from 4,
narrowing to a point before tornus; a terminal fascia, broadest at apex, not
reaching tornus, grey, near apex suffused with fuscous; a fuscous spot on
base of costa, one above and another beneath fold near base, two on edge of
costal streak at middle and %, one on fold at 4 resting on dorsal streak, another
at 2 in a line with this, one posterior and between the last and second subcostal
spot, a third subcostal, three close together in a line above tornus; cilia fuscous-
grey. Hindwings broader (143); grey; cilia grey-whitish becoming whitish
on tornus and dorsum.

In the type 8 and 9 of forewing are stalked on one side, separate on the
other.

Queensland: National Park (2,500 feet), in December, one specimen.

Ethmia olbista, n. sp.

6AB.rros, most happy.

3, 2, 16-20 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax blackish. Antennae blackish,
in male minutely ciliated. Abdomen blackish; tuft ochreous; underside in
female ochreous towards apex. Legs blackish; hairs on posterior tibiae yellow.
Forewings elongate-oval, costa strongly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely
rounded, dark fuscous; a blackish discal dot in middle at 2, more or less
distinct; rarely this is preceded by a similar dot before middle; cilia dark
fuscous. Hindwings elongate, as broad as forewings; orange-yellow; a large
blackish apical blotch; cilia blackish, towards tornus and on dorsum yellow.

Queensland: Bunya Mountains (3,500 ft.), in October, seven specimens.
This pretty little species was rather common on the upper slopes of Mount
Mowbullan.

TANAOCTENA OOPTILA, Turn.

Queensland: National Park (2,500 feet), in December, one worn specimen,
which I refer to this species; the first discal dot is expanded into a small fuscous
blotch. In this genus the antennae of male are bipectinated (not unipectinated
as stated in my diagnosis), and the forewings have 8, 9, 10 stalked.

Gen. Lissochroa, nov.

Atocoxpoos, smooth skinned.

Head smooth with some loose anterior scales between antennae. Tongue
present. Palpi smooth, slender, porrect; terminal joint shorter than second.
Maxillary palpi obsolete. Antennae about 8, basal joint long and flattened to
form a rudimentary eyecap, pecten strongly developed. Posterior tibiae smooth.
Forewings with 2 from shortly before angle, 3 and 4 stalked from angle, 5 from

171

shortly above angle, 6 from middle, 7 to termen, 8 and 9 stalked, 10 from

shortly before angle, 11 from before middle. Hindwings with 3 and 4

coincident, 5, 6, 7 separate, parallel, discocellulars very oblique between 7 and 5.
Intermediate between Chionogenes, Meyr., and Sphenograptis, Meyr.

Lissochroa argostola, n. sp.

apyootoXos, robed in white.

@, 16mm. Head, palpi, and thorax white. Antennae grey, towards base
white. Abdomen grey. Legs whitish. Forewings ovate-lanceolate, costa
moderately arched, apex acute, termen very oblique; shining white with a few
scattered fuscous scales; a fuscous spot on costa at #, followed by three equi-
distant spots connected by slight fuscous irroration; a fine interrupted fuscous
terminal line; cilia white, apices fuscous. Hindwings elongate-ovate; whitish-
grey; cilia 2; whitish-grey.

Queensland: Brisbane, one example taken many years back; New South
Wales: Lismore, in July.

Fam. GRACILARIADAE.
Epicephala stephanephora, n. sp.

otepavnpopos, wearing a crown.

one, ti-3 mms “Elead) ochreous, on (crown; race and, palpi) white:
Antennae pale grey, darker towards apex. Thorax white. Abdomen grey.
Legs whitish; anterior and middle tibiae and tarsi annulated with fuscous.
Forewings grey; a broad white dorsal streak, its upper edge rather irregular;
a triangular white costal spot at 4, prolonged on costal edge towards base; two
white costal spots beyond middle, followed by a short streak; a leaden-metallic
transverse line cuts off a small apical area, which is white, and contains a
large central fuscous spot; cilia white with a complete basal and a short apical
blackish line, on dorsum grey. Hindwings narrow-lanceolate; grey; cilia 5,
grey.

Easily recognized by the ochreous crown.

Queensland: Brisbane, in April; Stradbroke Island, in December; two
specimens.

Acrocercops pertenuis, n. sp.

Pertenuis, very small.

2, 6mm. Head and palpi white. Antennae pale grey becoming whitish
iowards base. Thorax and abdomen white. Legs white; tarsi with slender
iuscous annulations. Forewings white; three pale-fuscous transverse fasciae
at +, middle, and 3, the first two indistinct; an apical black spot; cilia pale
fuscous, on costa and dorsum white. Hindwings lanceolate; whitish; cilia 4,
whitish.

Queensland: Coolangatta, in October, one specimen.

ACROCERCOPS HETEROPSIS, Low.

Queensland: Charleville, in September. I took three examples of this
curiously-marked species on the lee side of a fence after a storm. The thorax is
depressed, not raised from the surface in the position of rest. The fuscous colour-
ing of the hindwings is confined to the male; in the female these are grey. This
form of sexual difference does not occur in any other species of the genus,
so far as I know.

Parectopa actinosema, n. sp.

axtwoonmos, brilliantly marked.
3, 9 mm. Head silvery-white. Palpi whitish; second joint fuscous
externally; terminal joint as long as second. Antennae fuscous; basal joint

®

172

with a terminal tuft of long scales anteriorly. Thorax white; patagia fuscous.
Abdomen dark grey. Legs fuscous; tarsi broadly annulated with white; middle
tibiae strongly expanded at apex. Forewings narrow, costa nearly straight;
brownish-fuscous; four snow-white spots edged with fuscous; first on base
cf dorsum, elongate; second on dorsum from before 4 to middle, upper edge
curved, reaching more than half across disc; third on dorsum from beyond
middle to 2, reaching half across disc, upper edge bisinuate; fourth subapical,
smaller, oval; cilia grey, on apex ochreous-brown. Hindwings and cilia grey.
Queensland: Coolangatta, in October, one specimen.

Gracilaria pedina, n. sp.

zedwos, living on the plain.

3, 12-13 mm. Head and thorax grey. Palpi whitish, apex of second joint
and a subapical ring on terminal joint dark fuscous. Antennae grey annulated
with fuscous. Legs fuscous irrorated with whitish; posterior pair and middle
tarsi mostly whitish. Forewings narrow, posteriorly dilated, costa strongly
arched towards apex; grey finely irrorated with dark fuscous; a_ broadly
suffused whitish streak, not clearly defined, on costa from 4 to 3, containing some
dark-fuscous scales, and two dark-fuscous dots in basal part, interrupted almost
completely by dark-fuscous scales before middle; cilia grey, around apex mixed
with dark fuscous. Huindwings and cilia grey.

Queensland: Charleville, in September, two specimens.

GRACILARIA THIOPHYLLA, Turn.
I think G. liparoxantha, Meyr., Exot. Micro., ii1., p. 297 (1920), is a synonym.

Pam PUP eee TDA:

Gen. Leuroptila, nov.

AevportiAos, smooth winged.

Head moderately rough haired, with anterior rough hairs on fillet; face
smooth. Labial palpi rather long, smooth, drooping; terminal joint shorter than
second. Tongue developed. Maxillary palpi very short, porrect. Antennae 2;
basal joint stout, with strong pecten. Posterior tibiae smooth scaled. Forewings
with 2 and 3 connate from angle of cell, 4 absent, 7 to costa, 8 and 10 absent.
Hindwings elongate-ovate; 4 absent, 3 and 5 connate, 6 and 7 widely separate,
parallel.

Related, I think, though distantly, to Tonza, Wlk. In that genus I think
vein 7 is present and runs to costa, the absent veins being 5, 8, 9, and 10.

Leuroptila tephropasta, n. sp.

tepporactos, sprinkled with ashes.

Q, 13 mm. Head and palpi ochreous grey-whitish. Antennae grey,
towards base paler. Thorax whitish-grey. Abdomen grey. Legs pale
grey. Forewings moderate, costa straight to 3, thence arched, apex obtuse;
ochreous-grey-whitish finely irrorated and transversely strigulated with grey;
suffused grey spots on 2 dorsum and in disc above tornus; cilia pale ochreous-grey
with apical and subapical fuscous lines. Hindwings grey; cilia 1, grey.

Queensland: Toowoomba, in December, one specimen.

Diathryptica callibrya, n. sp.
xa\\Bpvos, beautifully moss-green.

3, 14 mm. Head green. Palpi fuscous; inner surface grey-whitish.
Antennae fuscous; ventral surface grey-whitish; in male simple. Thorax

fuscous. Abdomen grey. Legs fuscous; posterior pair paler; tarsi ringed

173

with whitish. Forewings rather narrow, costa gently arched, apex pointed,
termen straight, oblique; pale grey mottled with fuscous and suffused with
green ; a broad green dorsal streak, its edge very irregular, obtusely indented
all and 3 2, containing a basal dorsal fuscous spot; six equidistant quadrangular
desk costal spots; centre of disc suffusedly darker; terminal edge irrorated
with black and white scales; cilia green, apices paler, a fuscous bar at apex,
and another on costa before apex. Hindwings elongate-ovate; grey; cilia 2,
re
“nis protectively coloured but singularly beautiful moth is difficult to
describe; it is, however, unlike anything else.

Queensland : National Park (3,500-4,000 feet), in December, two specimens.

Diathryptica theticopis, n. sp.

Ontixwms, Of menial appearance.

2,15 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax fuscous. Antennae grey. Abdomen
whitish; paired fuscous dots on dorsum of third to sixth segments. Legs
fuscous; posterior pair whitish. Forewings rather narrow, costa ‘gently arched,
apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; ochreous-fuscous with moderate dark-
fuscous irroration; a dark-fuscous discal dot at 3; cilia fuscous. Hindwings
elongate-ovate; 3 and 4 stalked; whitish; cilia 4, whitish.

Queensland: Brisbane, in April, one specimen.

Orthenches liparochroa, n. sp.

Aurapoxpoos, glossy.

3,17 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax fuscous. Antennae grey, towards
base fuscous. Abdomen and hindlegs whitish. Forewings moderate, costa
rather strongly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; very pale
ochreous with general fuscous irroration and markings, rather glossy; an
ill-defined, rather broad, antemedian, transverse fascia; four fairly equidistant
costal spots between this and apex; where fuscous irroration is less dense it
forms small transverse strigulae; cilia whitish-ochreous with a fuscous sub-
basal line. Hindwings broadly ovate; grey-whitish; cilia +, grey-whitish.

Queensland: Killarney, in October, one specimen.

Orthenches pleurosticta, n. sp.

TAEVPOTTLKTOS, with spotted costa.

$, 15 mm. Head fuscous; face ochreous-whitish. Palpi fuscous; inner
surface ochreous-whitish. Antennae fuscous; pecten ochreous-whitish.
Thorax fuscous. Abdomen grey. Legs whitish; anterior pair fuscous; all
tarsi fuscous with two whitish rings. Forewings rather narrow, costa gently
arched, apex nearly rectangular, termen obliquely rounded; whitish irrorated
and marked with SESCOS -grey; a clearly defined basal patch, its edge running
from @ costa to 4 dorsum; costa with numerous minute strigulae; a large
riangular discal spot above tornus, and another between this arial one Ses
fuscous, apices whitish except on tornus and dorsum. Hindwings elongate-
ovate; grey; cilia 4, grey.

Queensland: Toowoomba, in October, one specimen.

Paraphyllis pamphaea, n. sp.

tappatos, all dusky.

3, 2, 18-24 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen fuscous. Palpi whitish.
Antennae fuscous. Legs fuscous; posterior pair grey. Forewings with costa
moderately arched, apex pointed; fuscous; cilia fuscous. Hindwings broadly
lanceolate; fuscous; cilia fuscous.

174

Queensland: Brisbane, in February; Victoria: Gisborne, in September;
three specimens.

Paraphyllis diatoma, n. sp.

diaronos, divided throughout.

2,24 mm. Head, antennae, thorax, and abdomen fuscous. Palpi whitish.
Legs fuscous; posterior pair grey. Forewings with costa strongly arched, apex
pointed; fuscous; a broad whitish line slightly above middle from base to
apex; cilia fuscous, on apex whitish. Hindwings broadly lanceolate, fuscous;
cilia fuscous.

New South Wales: Sydney, one specimen.

Paraphyllis stichogramma, n. sp.

ortxoypazmos, marked with lines.

¢,20mm. Head and thorax fuscous. Palpi whitish ; extreme apex fuscous.
Antennae grey. Abdomen grey. Legs grey [posterior pair broken off].
Forewings elongate-oval, costa gently arched, termen very oblique, tornus not
defined; a well-marked but ill-defined white streak from middle of disc to
termen; an obscure suffused white dorsal streak, not reaching base; cilia
fuscous, on dorsum grey. Hindwings broadly lanceolate; grey; cilia 14, grey.

Queensland: Brisbane, in December, one specimen.

Paraphyllis ochrocera, n. sp.

®xpoxepos, with pale antennae.

¢,18mm. Head whitish. Palpi grey; internal surface whitish. Antennae
whitish; apical half grey. Thorax fuscous; anterior edge whitish. Abdomen
ochreous-grey. Legs grey; anterior pair fuscous; hairs on posterior tibiae
ochreous tinged. Forewings elongate-oval, costa strongly arched, apex pointed,
termen very oblique; fuscous; a narrow whitish streak on basal half of costa;
a similar median streak from base throughout, broadening just before termen;
a third streak on posterior half of fold; cilia fuscous. Hindwings broadly
lanceolate; grey; cilia 1, grey. :

A true Paraphyllis, but differs from other species in 7 and 8 oi forewings
being separate at origin.

Northern Territory: Darwin, one specimen received from Mr. G. F. Hill.

\

Fam. COPROMORPHIDAE.

HyYPERTROPHA TORTRICIFORMIS, Gn.
North Queensland: Claudie River, in December, one specimen, differing

from the typical form in having the hindwings fuscous, except for a rather
small orange median spot. This may represent a local race or subspecies.

Fam. AMPHITHERIDAE.

AMPHITHERA HETEROLEUCA, Turn.

- Having obtained a series of this species from the National Park, Queens-
land, I am satisfied that 4. monstruosa, Turn., is the same species. It differs
only in the less development of white apices to the forewings, and this differs
in individual specimens.

North Queensland: Herberton; Queensland: Nambour, Brisbane, Coolan-
yatta, National Park (3-4,000 feet); New South Wales: Ebor, Katoomba.

175

Amphithera hemerina, n. sp.

UEP, diurnal.

S, 18 mm. Eyes much enlarged ventrally, sharply incised posteriorly, so
as to partially separate a smaller dorsal portion. Head and palpi brassy-yellow.
Antennae longer than forewings [tips broken off], simple; brassy-yellow annul-
ated with fuscous. Thorax fuscous with large anterior and smaller posterior
brassy-yellow spots. Abdomen fuscous; beneath pale ochreous; apical third
shining white. Legs pale ochreous. Forewings elongate, costa straight to 2,
thence strongly arched, apex pointed, termen very oblique; fuscous; markings
brassy-yellow, their edges rather suffused; a basal fascia; a suffused patch on
2 costa, which gives off two clear processes; first inwards to middorsum,
gradually broadening towards dorsum; second outwards to below middle of
termen; an apical spot, its outer edge defined by a blackish line; cilia fuscous
barred with yellow at apex and opposite terminal process. Hindwings with 4
absent; fuscous; cilia fuscous.

Notwithstanding the absence of vein 4 in the hindwings this species is
allied to A. heteroleuca, and the ocular structure in the male shows the first
stage in the development of the extraordinary eyes in the male of that species.

Queensland: National Park (3,000 feet), in January, one specimen.

Fam. LYONETIADAE.

Phyllocnistis eurymochla, n. sp.
evpouoxAos, broadly barred.

¢, 5 mm. Head, thorax, palpi, and antennae whitish. Abdomen grey-
whitish. Legs whitish. Forewings moderate, apex rather obtusely pointed and
defiexed; white; a broad fuscous longitudinal bar beneath middie third of
costa, extending from immediately beneath costa to fold, giving off a slender
line beneath costa towards base, receding from costa posteriorly, and acon in
an obtusely rounded point, where it is joined by a fine fuscous line from 2 costa;
beyond this a fine transverse fuscous line; beyond this again a large pale- orange
spot, limited posteriorly by a fine fuscous line, which bifurcates before running
to costa; a black apical dot; cilia whitish. Hindwings almost linear; whitish;
cilia over 12, whitish.
North Queensland: Kuranda in October, Herberton in June, two speci-
mens, of which one is in Coll. Meyrick.

Phyllocnistis diplomochla, n. sp.

dixopoxAos, doubly barred.

¢, 2,5 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax white. Antennae white, becoming
grey towards apex. Abdomen grey. Legs whitish. Forewings moderate, apex
obtuse, with a very small deflexed terminal process; white; two longitudinal
fuscous lines from base to 2, first from base of costa, soon becoming subcostal,
second median, area between them ochreous tinged; a short, outwardly oblique,
fuscous streak from costa beyond middle; beyond this a fine fuscous transverse
line; a black apical dot; cilia white with two costal bars and a subapical hook
fuscous. Hindwings almost linear; whitish; cilia over 12, whitish.

Near P. atractias, Meyr., but without triangular dorsal spot.

Queensland: Brisbane, three specimens.

Phyllocnistis leptomianta, n. sp.

Aeztomarvros, slightly stained.
2, 5 mm. Head and thorax yellowish-white. Palpi whitish. Antennae
whitish, towards apex tinged with grey. Abdomen and legs whitish. Forewings

176

moderate, apex acute; yellowish-white; short oblique fuscous streaks from costa
at 4 and middle directed outwards; a similar streak from dorsum before tornus ;
cilia whitish with four fine fuscous streaks on costal portion, first two outwardly
oblique, last two more transverse, and a short dorsal streak near apex. Hind-
wings linear-lanceolate; whitish; cilia over 12, whitish.

Distinguished by the yellow-tinged forewings without longitudinal streaks
and apical dot.

Queensland: Brisbane, in August, one specimen.

Crobylophora psammosticta, n. sp.

Waupootiktos, sandy spotted.

3, 6-7 mm. Head, palpi, antennae, thorax, abdomen, and legs white.
Forewings white; markings pale brownish-ochreous partly outlined with fuscous
scales; a median basal spot, nearly confluent with a larger spot on fold; a
third spot touching fold and middorsum, its long axis inwardly-oblique; two
outwardly-oblique streaks from costa at 4 and 2; a subapical costal dot; a
raised silvery spot on tornus; cilia white. Hindwings narrow-lanceolate ;
white; cilia white.

Queensland: Caloundra and Brisbane, in August, two specimens.

Leucoptera argodes, n. sp.
apywdys, white.

3, 6-8 mm. Head and thorax white; crown smooth. Antennae whitish or
pale grey; basal joint white. Abdomen pale grey or grey-whitish. Legs white.
Forewings shining white; sometimes two fine outwardly-oblique lines from costa
at + and shortly before apex extending half across disc, but these may be very
faint; a raised silvery spot at tornus, preceded and followed by a fuscous dot;
cilia white, sometimes with a fine fuscous median line opposite apex. Hind-
wings narrow-lanceolate; white; cilia white.

Very similar to L. daricella, Meyr., which I refer to the same genus; it
may be distinguished by the first costal line being far beyond middle, and by the
smooth crown.

North Queensland: Kuranda; Queensland: Brisbane, in August and
September ; five specimens.

Leucoptera strophidota, n. sp.

otpod.doros, girdled.

2,6mm. Head white; frons prominent with a small crest of scales on
crown. Antennae grey; basal joint white. Thorax white. Abdomen grey-
whitish. Legs white; anterior tarsi grey. Forewings shining white; a broad
brassy transverse fascia at about 4, fuscous in certain lights, dilated on dorsum,
where it reaches middle; a large brassy apical spot; cilia white, with a fine
fuscous apical hook. Hindwings almost linear; pale grey; cilia grey-whitish.

Though very distinctly marked, this and the following resemble L. daricella
in the tufted head.

North Queensland: Kuranda, near Cairns, in October and November, three
specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

Leucoptera plagiomitra, n. sp.

mAaytopitpos, obliquely girdled.

3, 9,7-9 mm. Head and thorax white; crown with a crest of rough hairs.
Antennae grey-whitish; basal joint white. Abdomen pale grey or whitish.
Legs white; tarsi annulated with fuscous. Forewings shining white; a moderate,
inwardly-oblique, brassy fascia from 4 costa to near base of dorsum, somewhat

177

dilated on dorsum; a large brassy tornal spot; a short, outwardly-oblique,
fuscous streak from % costa; a similar but. broader streak at apex; cilia
white, on costa and a fine apical hook fuscous. Hindwings narrow-lanceolate ;
white; cilia white.

Queensland: Brisbane, in September; Toowoomba, in September and
October; Bunya Mountains (3,500 feet), in October; six specimens.

Leucoptera chalcopleura, n. sp.

xaAyorAevpos, with sides of brass.

9,6mm. Head and thorax white; crown smooth. Antennae grey; basal
joint white. Abdomen and legs white. Forewings shining white; an outwardly-
oblique, suboblong, coppery-fuscous spot on costa at 4; two short converging
lines from costa beyond 2, with intervening irroration, fuscous; a large silvery
tornal spot narrowly edged anteriorly and posteriorly with blackish; cilia white,
on tornus fuscous tinged, with two fine fuscous lines from costa. Hindwings
narrow-lanceolate; white; cilia white.

Queensland: Brisbane, in October, one specimen.

Leucoptera melanolitha, n. sp.

peAavodbos, black jewelled.

2, 5 mm. Head and thorax snow-white; crown smooth. Antennae
whitish-grey; basal joint white. Abdomen pale grey. Legs whitish. Fore-
wings snow-white; a large, quadrangular, blackish spot on 4 costa, reaching
told; two fine, parallel, outwardly-oblique, fuscous streaks from costa at 3 and
before apex; a large, quadrangular, silvery, tornal spot, edged anteriorly and
posteriorly with blackish; cilia white with a short, oblique, fuscous streak above
apex, and two blackish dots, longitudinally placed beneath apex. Hindwings
and cilia whitish.

Resembles L. chalcopleura, but the costal spot is black and not oblique, the
costal streaks are not converging, and the cilia are different.

Queensland: National Park (3,000 ft.), in January, one specimen.

Leucoptera argyroptera, n. sp.

dpyuportepos, silvery winged.

2, 5 mm. Head white; crown smooth, silvery-grey. Antennae grey;
basal joint white. Thorax silvery-grey. Abdomen grey. Legs whitish.
Forewings silvery-grey; an outwardly-oblique, ochreous streak, edged with
fuscous from midcosta, and a similar streak from middorsum, the two meeting
at an acute angle; an ochreous spot on costa at #; a narrow subterminal
ochreous fascia, preceded by a blackish dot on dorsum, and followed by a
blackish spot in disc; a large grey spot slightly above tornus; cilia whitish,
an outwardly-oblique fuscous line from costa, nearly meeting another from
apex in a wide V. Hindwings narrow-lanceolate; whitish-grey; cilia whitish-
grey.

North Queensland: Bowen, in June, one specimen.

Leucoptera iolitha, n. sp.

iohiGos, with violet jewel.

@,6mm. Head and thorax white. Antennae fuscous; basal joint white.
Abdomen grey. Legs white; tarsi partly fuscous. Forewings shining white;
a fine, fuscous, outwardly-oblique line from midcosta, meeting a curved line
from } dorsum; beyond these the disc is wholly brownish-ochreous, except for

three white costal spots, a metallic tornal spot with violet reflections, and a

178

black subapical spot; cilia grey, on costa whitish with two fuscous streaks, one
nearly transverse almost meeting another internally oblique from apex. Hind-
wings narrow-lanceolate; grey; cilia grey.

Queensland: Mount Tambourine, in October, one specimen.

Leucoptera diasticha, n. sp.

dvactixos, through lined.

2,5 mm. Head and thorax white; crown smooth. Antennae grey; basal
joint white. Abdomen grey. Legs whitish. Forewings white; a fine fuscous
line from 2 costa to dorsum before tornus, followed by a pale-ochreous shade,
which is limited by a second shorter parallel line reaching middle of disc; a third
subapical line reaching as far; a silvery tornal spot, preceded and followed by a
black dot; cilia white, with three diverging lines in costa, the third running to
apex. Hindwings narrow-lanceolate; pale grey; cilia pale grey.

Recognizable by the through line from costa to dorsum.

New South Wales: Hornsby, in June, one specimen received from Dr. R.
J. Tillyard.

Leucoptera toxeres, n. sp.

toénpys, bearing a bow.

3, 2,45 mm. Head and thorax white; crown smooth. Antennae grey;
basal joint white. Abdomen grey. Legs white. Forewings white; a fine,
fuscous, outwardly-oblique line from costa before middle to middisc, a second
parallel line just beyond middle, the included area pale-ochreous; a slightly
outwardly-curved fuscous line from } costa to dorsum before tornus; a short
subapical line from costa; a pale-ochreous tornal blotch edged on termen by
a dark-fuscous line; a black apical spot; cilia whitish. Hindwings narrow-
ianceolate; grey-whitish; cilia whitish.

Recognizable by the curved, transverse, postmedian line.

North Queensland: Kuranda, in June; Queensland: Dulong, near Nambour,
in April; two specimens.

Leucoptera asbolopasta, n. sp.

aa BoXoracros, sprinkled with soot.

36,6mm. Head and thorax white; crown smooth. Antennae grey; basal
joint white Abdomen pale grey with a large, subbasal, blackish, dorsal spot;
tuft and underside whitish. Legs white. Forewings shining white; very faintly
marked with ochreous; a costal spot beyond middle, two short lines from costa
between this and apex, and a short erect mark from tornus; cilia white, two
fine fuscous lines from costa, the second of these is prolonged in a sinuous
fashion around apex and becomes blackish as far as tornus, limiting an ochreous-
tinged basal area. Hindwings narrow-lanceolate; grey-whitish densely irrorated
with blackish scales except. at apex; cilia whitish. Underside of both wings
with greater part of disc densely irrorated with blackish scales.

Very similar to L. periphracta, Meyr., of which I have both sexes from the
same locality, readily distinguished by the peculiar blackish irroration, which
ymay be sexual.

North Queensland: Kuranda, one specimen received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

Opostega chalcoplethes, n. sp.
xaAxorAnbys, filled with brass.

14 mm. Head white. Palpi grey. Antennae grey; basal joint white.
Thorax brassy-fuscous. Abdomen grey. Legs grey-whitish; anterior pair
fuscous. Forewings lanceolate, apex acute; brassy-fuscous; a white costal
streak from near base to near apex; a white dorsal streak from near base to

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tornus, interrupted in middle; apex blackish; cilia white, on apex broadly
blackish. Hindwings lanceolate; pale grey; cilia pale grey.
Western Australia: Perth, one specimen.

Opostega brithys, n. sp.

Bpvbus, heavy.

@, 16 mm. Head, palpi, antennae, and thorax white. Abdomen grey.
Legs ochreous-whitish; anterior pair greyish. Forewings white, slightly greyish
tinged, becoming grey near apex; cilia grey, basal half fuscous around apex,
on tornus and dorsum wholly whitish. Hindwings broadly lanceolate; grey;
cilia grey.

A remarkably large species for this genus.

North Queensland: Cairns district, one specimen received from Mr. F. P.
Dodd.

Opostega monotypa, n. sp.
povotumos, with one mark.

3$, 8mm. Head, palpi, antennae, and thorax white. Abdomen and legs
whitish. Forewings white; a suboval, fuscous, costal spot slightly beyond
middle; a minute apical black dot; cilia whitish. Hindwings narrow-lanceolate;
grey-whitish; cilia whitish.

North Queensland: Cairns district, one specimen received from Mr. F. P.
Dodd.

Opostega atypa, n. sp.

atumos, without marking.

9, 8mm. Head, palpi, antennae, and thorax white. Abdomen and legs
ochreous-whitish. Forewings broadly-lanceolate, acute; white, towards dorsum
faintly ochreous tinged; cilia whitish. Hindwings lanceolate; grey-whitish;
cilia whitish.

North Queensland: Cairns, in July, one specimen.

Opostega phaeospila, n. sp.

gatoomos, with dusky spot.

6, 7 mm. Head, palpi, antennae, and thorax white. Abdomen grey.
Legs whitish; anterior pair grey. Forewings white; a small fuscous spot on
costa at 2; two fine, outwardly-oblique, converging, short, fuscous streaks from
costa before apex; cilia whitish, a fine, fuscous, transverse streak above apex,
and a short, blackish, transverse streak opposite apex. Hindwings and cilia
pale grey.

Queensland: National Park (3,500 to 4,000 feet), in January, one specimen.

Opostega centrospila, n. sp.

KevtpoomtAos, with central spot.

¢,7-8 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax white. Antennae grey, towards base
white. Legs grey; posterior pair whitish. Forewings moderate, apex obtuse ;
white with fuscous markings; an elongate spot in disc above middle; an oblique
streak from midcosta mine anne ner from dorsum, the two sarees meeting
a variable marginal suffusion on apex and termen; cilia whitish with some
fuscous admixture, on dorsum grey-whitish. Hindwings lanceolate; pale grey;
cilia 4, pale grey.

Queensland: Brisbane, in August; Mount Tambourine, in November; two
specimens.

180

Opostega phaeopasta, n. sp.

gaoractos, dusky sprinkled.

9,6mm. Head, thorax, and palpi white. Antennae grey, towards base
white. Abdomen pale grey. Legs whitish. Forewings moderate, obtuse, but
with a short, narrow-pointed, apical process; white; a broadly suffused band
of fuscous irroration from dorsum near base, towards and connected with costa
at 4, thence subcostal to near apex; a fuscous dot on termen; cilia whitish,
beneath apical process fuscous. Hindwings lanceolate; whitish; cilia 6, whitish.

Queensland: Coolangatta, in September, one specimen.

Bucculatrix ulocarena, n. sp.

ovAoxapnves, shaggy headed.

2,6-7 mm. Head with a dense tuft of hairs on crown; whitish. Antennae
grey; basal joint whitish, dilated into an eyecap, which is pectinate on anterior
edge. Thorax grey-whitish. Abdomen grey. Legs grey. Forewings moderate,
apex acute; grey-whitish, posterior half more or less irrorated with dark fuscous ;
cilia grey, on apex and termen irrorated with dark fuscous. Hindwings lanceo-
late; grey; cilia 5, grey.

Queensland: Brisbane, in November, January, February, and March, four
specimens.

Hierocrobyla lophocera, n. sp.

Nodoxepos, with crested antennae.

3¢,9 mm. Head whitish; crown smooth, a small crest of rough hairs on
fillet. Antennae grey; basal joint whitish, elongate, dilated into an eyecap from
the distal end of which projects a strong pointed process, nearly as long as
itself. Thorax whitish-ochreous. [Abdomen broken off. | Legs whitish.
Forewings narrow, apex pointed; whitish-ochreous; cilia ochreous-whitish, on
dorsum grey-whitish. Hindwings lanceolate; grey-whitish; cilia 6, grey-whitish.

Like H. sporodectis, Meyr., but with peculiar antennal structure.

Queensland: National Park (3,000 feet) ), in December, one specimen.

Lyonetia embolotypa, n. sp.

euBoroturos, wedge marked.

3,8 mm. Head and palpi white. Antennae whitish, towards apex grey;
basal joint white. Thorax whitish. [Abdomen broken.] Legs whitish; pos-
terior tibiae and first two tarsal joints with apical dark-fuscous dots. Forewings
whitish; markings brownish-fuscous; a dorsal spot near base; a broad oblique
streak from + dorsum meeting another from 4 costa at an acute angle in middisc;
a second oblique costal streak from beyond middle, nearly meeting a tornal spot ;
a third short costal streak at 2, and another between this and apex; a black
dot at apex; cilia grey, on costa and apex whitish with two costal and one apical
brownish-fuscous bars. Hindwings almost linear; grey; cilia grey.

Nearest L. leptomitella, Meyr.; Stegommata, Meyr., is, I think, another
name for Lyonetia.

Queensland: Mount Tambourine, in November, one specimen.

Lyonetia acromelas, n. sp.

axpomeAas, black at the apex.

3,8mm. Head, thorax, and palpi white. Antennae 14, basal joint dilated
to form a broad eyecap; white, becoming grey towards apex. [Abdomen broken
off.] Legs white; middle tarsi with blackish dots on dorsum [posterior pair
broken off]. Forewings narrow, apex with a short, slender, acute, deflexed,
terminal process; white; a very slender fuscous streak from 3 dorsum to
middle of disc, strongly outwardly-oblique; similar streaks from 2 costa and

181

tornus meeting in an acute angle at middisc; a slender transverse outwardly-
curved line beyond this; an intensely black subapical spot; cilia whitish. Hind-
wings linear-lanceolate; whitish; cilia 10, whitish, a fuscous apical dot.

In this and the following the crown of head is smooth, except for a few
raised scales on fillet between antennae.

North Queensland: Kuranda, in July, one specimen.

Lyonetia photina, n. sp.

gwrtewos, lustrous.

d, 11-12 mm. Head vertically compressed, smooth, fillet projecting
anteriorly, with a few rough scales on edge; brownish with green-brassy
reflections; face white. Palpi white. Antennae over 14, broadly dilated at
base to form a large eyecap; grey. Thorax brown with metallic lustre. Abdomen
grey; beneath white. Legs white; posterior tarsi with four blackish dots on
dorsum. Forewings narrow, apex bent dorsad in a twisted acuminate process;
green-brassy and lustrous; three large, longitudinally oval spots resting on costa,
where they are fuscous, becoming greenish-metallic in disc, the first two ex-
tending to dorsum; in certain lights costal part of disc between these spots is
tinged with reddish-violet; cilia beneath apical process grey. Hindwings linear-
lanceolate; grey; cilia 10, grey.

It is impossible to give an adequate verbal description of the ever-changing,
flashing lustre of this brilliant insect.

North Queensland: Kuranda, three specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

Gen. Coeliometopa, nov.

KotAvopetw7ros, With hollowed front.

Head smooth on crown with a fringe of anteriorly projecting rough scales
on fillet; face smooth, retreating, excavated so as to form a deep concavity.
Labial palpi moderately long, slender, smooth, drooping. Maxillary palpi long,
folded. Antennae 3; basal joint stout without pecten. Posterior tibiae clothed
with long hairs. Forewings with 4 absent, 7 and 8 stalked out of six, 7 to
termen, 11 from somewhat beyond middle. Hindwings with all veins present,
6 and 7 stalked.

Coeliometopa hypolampes, n. sp.

vroXaprns, Somewhat shining.

9, 12 mm. Head fuscous; face and palpi ochreous-whitish. Antennae
fuscous. Thorax and abdomen fuscous. Legs fuscous on dorsal, grey on
ventral surfaces. Forewings narrow-oblong, apex rounded; brownish-fuscous;
a grey-whitish median suffusion based on costa and reaching fold; a broad
grey-whitish line from costa before apex to termen; a grey-whitish terminal
line from tornus to middle; a blackish median streak from above tornus to
apex, interrupted on subapical whitish line; cilia grey, on apex brown with a
fine, short, blackish hook. Hindwings lanceolate; grey with a coppery sheen;
cilia 3, grey.

Queensland: National Park (3,000 feet), in January, one specimen.

Opocona TRISTICTA, Meyr.

I suspect O- calculata; Meyr. (Exot: Micro., 1, p. 287), is a synonym of
this. The number of black dots on forewing is variable.
North Queensland: Herberton; Queensland: Duaringa, Nambour, Brisbane.

OpoGoNA PROTODOXA, Meyr.

The colour of the head appears to be variable. I have received two examples,
which I cannot distinguish from this species, from Gisborne, with the head yellow.

182

OPpoGoNA BASILISSA, Turn.

Best distinguished from O. protodoxa by the shape of the basal costal
streak. In-basilissa it is broadest at or beyond its middle, in protodoxa broadest
at its base.

Queensland: Mount Tambourine, National Park (2,500 to 3,000 feet).

OpoGcona orTHOTIS, Meyr.

This species is also variable.. The thorax may be wholly yellow and the
basal costal streak of forewings absent; intermediate examples between this
and the typical form occur.

North Queensland: Cairns, Innisfail; Queensland: Nambour, Brisbane;
Western Australia: Carnarvon.

Opogona papayae, n. sp.

3, 12 mm. Head fuscous; fillet and face glossy grey-whitish. Labial
palpi fuscous, internal surface whitish. Antennae pale ochreous; basal joint
tuscous. Thorax and abdomen fuscous, the latter whitish beneath. Legs
pale fuscous. Forewings yellow; base of costa fuscous; a fine, blackish,
irregular, transverse line from 2 costa to 8 dorsum; immediately beyond this is
a metallic line with bluish and purple reflections; disc posterior to this brownish-
fuscous, with a few metallic scales, and a yellow, costal, subapical spot; cilia
brownish. Hindwings lanceolate; brownish; cilia brownish.

Northern Territory: Darwin, in August, one specimen received from Mr. G.
F. Hill with the note, “From Papaw stem, pupated 17-7-4, emerged 4-8-14.”

Opogona crypsipyra, n. sp.

Kputurvpos, with hidden fire.

Q, 12 mm. Head, crown, and fillet fuscous; face whitish. JLabial palpi
fuscous. Antennae pale ochreous; basal joint fuscous. Thorax pale yellow,
anterior margin broadly fuscous. Abdomen brownish-grey. Legs ochreous-
whitish; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings pale yellow; a broad streak on
basal 4 of costa, terminating abruptly; apical area brownish-fuscous beyond an
irregularly dentate, fine, blackish line from beyond midcosta to before tornus;
the edge and part of the centre of this area shows brassy and violet reflections
in oblique illumination; cilia brownish. Hindwings lanceolate; grey; cilia grey.

Northern Territory: Darwin, one specimen from Mr. G. F. Hill with the
note, “Destroys bark of Papaw plants.”

Opogona flabilis, n. sp.

flabilis, airy.

3, 2, 89 mm. Head and thorax whitish-brown; face whitish. Palpi
whitish, second joint with an apical fuscous dot on external surface. Antennae
whitish-brown with two fuscous rings near base. Abdomen grey. Legs
whitish; anterior pair brownish tinged. Forewings rather narrow, costa gently
arched; whitish-brown sparsely irrorated with fuscous-brown, more so towards
base, middle of costa, and apex; cilia whitish-brown. Hindwings lanceolate;
grey; cilia grey.

North Queensland: Atherton, in June, two specimens.

Gen. Pycnobela, nov.
muxvoBedos, with thick weapons (palpi).
Head and face smooth with raised rounded fillet between antennae. Labial
palpi long, recurved, diverging; terminal joint dilated, obtuse, laterally

183

compressed. Maxillary palpi rudimentary. Antennae with basal joint long, flat-
tened, concave beneath. Forewings with 2 from near angle, one vein absent
(I am not sure which), remaining veins all separate. Hindwings with one vein
absent, remaining veins all separate.

Doubtless allied to Opogona, with which it agrees in the structure of head
and antennae, though palpi and neuration are very different.

Pycnobela aplectodes, n. sp.

amXextwoys, simple.

3, 9, 12-15 mm. Head dark grey; face white. Palpi whitish, apices of
second and terminal joints grey on upper-surface. Antennae fuscous annulated
with white. Thorax dark grey, anterior edge narrowly white. Abdomen grey;
tuft ochreous-whitish; underside whitish. Legs grey; posterior pair whitish.
Forewings elongate-oval, apex pointed; dark-grey; a white costal streak from
base to apex, where it is slightly dilated, and contains four fuscous dots, three
costal and one terminal; cilia grey, on apex and costa white. Hindwings very
broadly lanceolate; grey; cilia grey.

North Queensland: Kuranda, in September and October, four specimens
received from Mr. F. P. Dodd..

Comodica eurynipha, n. sp.

evpuvidos, broadly snow-white.

2, 16mm. Head white; sides of crown and face blackish. Palpi fuscous;
inner-surface white. Antennae fuscous. Thorax fuscous, with a large central
white spot extending to anterior margin. Abdomen grey. Legs whitish;
anterior pair fuscous. forewings moderate, apex obtuse; fuscous, towards apex
brownish tinged, markings white; a broad basal costal streak, extending to
3 costa, then narrowing to a point at about middle of disc; two oblique streaks
from costa at middle and 2, the latter slender; an elongate mark on tornus;
a fine fuscous line from } costa, rather sharply bent before apex, ending on edge
of tornal mark; an apical blackish dot in a grey suffusion; cilia whitish with a
median line and a dot opposite apex dark fuscous. Hindwings ovate-lanceolate ;
grey; cilia 2, grey.

Nearest C. acontistes, Meyr.

Queensland: National Park (3,000 feet), in December, one specimen.

Comodica crypsicroca, n. sp.

KpuwWLKpoKos, with hidden saffron.

3$,9mm. Head grey-whitish. Palpi whitish. Antennae whitish; towards
apex grey. Thorax and abdomen grey. Legs dark fuscous annulated with
white; posterior pair whitish. Forewings moderate, obtuse, but with slight
apical projection; white with some fuscous suffusion on basal and dorsal areas;
a short fuscous streak from base on fold; costal edge fuscous with three broad-
based costal streaks, at base, 4, and just beyond middle, the last longer and
extending obliquely outwards to middle of disc; a narrow white streak separates
this from an orange-brown, oblique, fuscous-edged, subapical streak; an orange-
brown spot on termen edged posteriorly with blackish; cilia pale ochreous with
two costal and one subapical blackish bars. Hindwings ovate-lanceolate; pale
grey; cilia 1, pale grey.

New South Wales: Lismore, in October, two specimens.

Comodica drepanosema, n. sp.

dmperavoonpos, sickle marked.
2,9mm. Head, palpi, and thorax grey-whitish. Antennae and abdomen
grey. Legs whitish; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings rather narrow, apex

.

184

obtuse, termen strongly indented; white with fuscous markings; a costal streak
from base to beyond middle with slight posterior projection in disc; two short
oblique costal streaks beyond this; a broad-based sickle-shaped streak from
dorsum before middle ending in a fine point posteriorly; a leaden-metallic
terminal spot preceded by a blackish dot; cilia white with three fine costal bars
and a basal spot on apex blackish. Hindwings ovate-lanceolate; grey; cilia 1,
orey.

aa Queensland: Mount Tambourine, in November, one specimen.

Erechthias acroleuca, n. sp.

axpoAevkos, white at the apex.

3,13 mm. Head and palpi whitish. Antennae ochreous with two fuscous
rings before apex; basal joint whitish. Thorax whitish. Abdomen dark grey,
beneath ochreous. Legs ochreous mixed with fuscous. Forewings with costa
‘nearly straight, but arched before apex ; apex round-pointed ; termen very oblique ;
whitish, but mostly occupied by broad orange-ochreous markings; a basal patch;
outwardly-oblique streaks from costa and dorsum at 4, meeting in middle at an
acute angle; similar streaks from middle of costa and dorsum; a large apical
patch nearly confluent with a large tornal spot; a small snow-white apical spot;
cilia orange-ochreous. Hindwings and cilia fuscous.

Queensland: Charleville, in September; I took one example of this fine
species on a fence after a storm.

Erechthias polyplecta, n. sp.

moAumAektos, Closely twined.

3, 2,9-11 mm. Head, palpi, antennae, and thorax grey-whitish. Abdomen
grey. Legs whitish; tibiae and tarsi annulated with fuscous. Forewings rather
narrow, apex pointed; whitish with dark-fuscous markings; four outwardly-
oblique costal streaks reaching about half across wing; first basal, much ex-
panded on costa, second median, third from 3, fourth subapical ; a subbasal dorsal
spot, and another at +; an irregular dentate line from dorsum beyond middle
to apices of second and third costal streaks; an apical spot and terminal line;
cilia whitish, apices narrowly fuscous except on tornus. Hindwings broadly
lanceolate; pale grey; cilia pale grey.

North Queensland: Townsville, in August and September, three specimens.

Erechthias mesosticha, n. sp.

pecoottxos, with median streak. ;

Q, 8-9 mm. Head and thorax brownish-ochreous; face and palpi whitish-
ochreous. Antennae whitish-ochreous annulated with dark fuscous. Abdomen
grey. Legs ochreous-whitish; tibiae and tarsi annulated with dark fuscous;
posterior pair grey. Forewings narrow, apex rounded; whitish-ochreous
suffused with brownish-ochreous; a fuscous line on costa from + to beyond 3,
interrupted in middle; a fine fuscous median longitudinal line from middle to
termen, its upper edge whitish towards apex; a short marginal fuscous streak
at tornus; cilia ochreous, on tornus and dorsum ochreous-whitish. Hindwings
lanceolate; grey; cilia grey.

North Queensland: Kuranda, in June; Cardwell, in August; two specimens.

Erechthias epixantha, n. sp.
ervEavOos, tawny.
3, 6-7 mm. Head and thorax brownish-ochreous; face and palpi whitish-
ochreous. Antennae whitish-ochreous annulated with dark fuscous. Abdomen
fuscous. Legs ochreous-whitish; tarsi annulated with fuscous; posterior pair

185

grey. Forewings moderate, apex rounded; dark brownish-ochreous; costal edge
fuscous from near base to near apex; a very slender pale line along fold; another
from 4 costa, at first oblique, then longitudinal to above tornus, partly edged
with fuscous beneath; a third from middle joining second at its extremity; a
large, triangular, subapical, fuscous, costal spot, giving rise to a sharply angulated
subterminal line, edged posteriorly with whitish; cilia ochreous with a fuscous
basal line. Hindwings and cilia fuscous.

North Queensland: Innisfail, in November; Queensland: Eumundi, near
Nambour, in March; two specimens.

Erechthias cirrhopolia, n. sp.
KippomroAuos, yellowish-grey.

3, 2,9-10 mm. Head, palpi, antennae, and thorax whitish-ochreous. Abdo-
men grey, beneath whitish-ochreous. Legs whitish-ochreous. Forewings elongate-
oval, apex pointed ; leaden-grey ; a pale-ochreous median line from base to a large
pale-ochreous terminal suffusion; a whitish costal streak from base, broadly
expanded from 4 to 8, where it ends abruptly ; two broad, oblique, wedge-shaped,
fuscous, costal streaks crossing white area, and prolonged by pale-ochreous lines
into terminal suffusion; a suffused whitish spot on 4 dorsum; a blackish dot
above tornus, another near termen below middle, and a third at apex; cilia pale
ochreous, apices pale grey. Hindwings broadly lanceolate; pale grey; cilia 14,
pale grey.

Queensland: Coolangatta, in September, two specimens.

Erechthias celetica, n. sp.
KnAntikos, Charming.

3,10mm. Head and thorax grey; face and palpi dark fuscous. Antennae
fuscous. Abdomen grey. Legs whitish; tarsi and middle tibiae annulated with
dark fuscous, anterior pair mostly dark fuscous. Forewings dark fuscous;
dorsal area broadly but irregularly whitish-grey ; a short outwardly-oblique white
streak from 4 costa, running into a white spot at 4 above fold; a dark-fuscous
spot beneath fold at about 4; a second, short, white, oblique, costal streak at
middle; a longer, very fine, white streak from 3 costa, very oblique and nearly
reaching termen; a triangular, whitish, subapical, costal spot; an irregular,
longitudinal, white, supratornal blotch; termen narrowly whitish; cilia whitish
with apical hook and two terminal lines fuscous. Hindwings broadly lanceolate ;
grey; cilia grey.

Allied to the preceding but with many differences in the markings of
forewings.

Queensland: Burpengary, near Brisbane, in December, one specimen.

Erechthias polionota, n. sp.

toAwovwros, grey backed.

3,10mm. Head and thorax grey; face and palpi dark fuscous. Antennae
grey, darker towards apex. Abdomen pale grey. Legs whitish; tarsi and middle
tibiae annulated with fuscous; anterior pair wholly fuscous. Forewings dark
fuscous; dorsal area broadly grey; three outwardly-oblique white streaks from
costa to middle of disc, from costa at +, middle, and 2; a triangular white sub-
apical costal spot; a larger subapical white terminal spot; cilia grey, with sub-
basal and subapical terminal lines, and costal hook at apex fuscous. Hindwings
broadly lanceolate; pale grey; cilia pale grey.

Queensland: Stradbroke Island, in November, one specimen.

186

Erechthias caustophara, n. sp.

Kavotopapos, with scorched robe.

3, 2, 10-11 mm. Head brown-whitish; face and palpi fuscous. Antennae
brown-whitish. Thorax brown-whitish. Abdomen pale grey, brownish tinged.
Legs whitish; anterior and middle tibiae, and all tarsi annulated with fuscous.
Forewings rather narrow, costa moderately arched; brown-whitish; markings
fuscous; a large subbasal costal spot, a second on middle of costa, and a third
at +; a fine outwardly-oblique streak immediately beyond third spot, but separated
from it except at extremity; an apical spot; basal and median dorsal dots; a
fine subterminal line; cilia brown-whitish, a fine subapical line around apex.
Hindwings broadly lanceolate; grey; cilia grey.

North Queensland: Kuranda, in October; Townsville, in September ;
Queensland: Brisbane, in November and April; six specimens.

Hieroxestis leucoprosopa, n. sp.

AevKotpoow7os, white faced.

3, 9-10 mm. Head fuscous-brown; fillet, face, and palpi snow-white.
Antennae pale grey; towards base white. Thorax fuscous-brown. Abdomen
grey. Legs ochreous-whitish; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings narrow, costa
nearly straight, apex rounded; glossy brownish-grey; costal edge whitish; cilia
brownish-grey. Hindwings and cilia grey.

Queensland: Mount Tambourine, in October and November, three specimens.

Bam RENE TDA:

Acridotarsa deloneura, n. sp.

dyAovevpos, with conspicuous nerves.

¢, 27 mm. Head and thorax whitish-ochreous. Palpi very long, apical
joint depressed; whitish-ochreous. Antennae with basal pecten, apices of joints
dilated ; whitish-ochreous. Abdomen whitish-ochreous. Legs whitish-ochreous ;
anterior and middle pair suffused with fuscous anteriorly; middle and posterior
tarsi much longer than tibiae. Forewings elongate, costa gently arched, apex
acute, termen very oblique; all veins separate; whitish-ochreous; veins irrorated
with brownish-fuscous; cilia whitish-ochreous with a few basal fuscous points.
Hindwings broader than forewings; all veins separate; ochreous-whitish; cilia
ochreous-whitish.

Western Australia: Busselton, one specimen.

Gen. Palaeoneura, nov.

maXa.ovevoos, with primitive neuration.

Head and face rough haired. Labial palpi moderately long, porrect ; second
joint with long loose hairs; terminal joint much shorter than second, pointed.
Maxillary palpi and tongue obsolete. Antennae about 2; basal joint with strong
pecten; in male shortly ciliated. Posterior tibiae with long dense hairs. Fore-
wings with all veins present and separate, 7 to costa, 11 from middle; chorda
and forked media present. Hindwings with all veins present and separate.
3 to 7 nearly parallel; forked media present.

Palaeoneura amictopis, n. sp.
duxtwres, unmixed, pure.
3,25 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax grey-whitish. Antennae grey-whitish,
towards apex fuscous; cilitions in male 4. Abdomen grey. Legs grey; posterior
pair grey-whitish. Forewings suboblong, rather elongate, not dilated, costa

187

gently arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; grey-whitish; cilia grey-
whitish. Hindwings over 1, apex rounded, cilia 3; grey-whitish; cilia grey-
whitish.

Western Australia: Perth, in October, one specimen.

Lepidoscia monosticha, n. sp.

povoortxos, with single line.

3,15 mm. Head whitish; back of crown fuscous. Palpi, antennae, thorax,
and abdomen fuscous. Antennal ciliations in male 1. Legs fuscous; posterior pair
whitish. Forewings broadly spathulate, costa straight to #, thence arched, apex
rounded, termen obliquely rounded; pale fuscous; an inwardly-oblique white
line from 2 costa to 2 dorsum; cilia pale fuscous. Hindwings pale fuscous;
cilia 2, pale fuscous.

Queensland: Stradbroke Island, in September, one specimen.

Lepidoscia chrysastra, n. sp.
xpvcactpos, golden starred.

3, 17-18 mm. Head dark fuscous with some ochreous hairs on crown.
Palpi, antennae, and thorax dark fuscous. Antennal ciliations in male 3.
Abdomen dark fuscous; beneath ochreous towards apex. Legs dark fuscous;
posterior pair partly ochreous. Forewings dilated posteriorly, costa moderately
arched, apex round-pointed, termen nearly straight, oblique; dark fuscous,
markings pale ochreous; a spot on base of costa; a large triangular spot above
dorsum near base; an acute, short, transverse mark on costa before middle, a
dot beyond middle, and an elongate transverse triangular spot before apex; a
long erect mark on dorsum before tornus, reaching middle of disc; a subterminal
line; cilia fuscous. Hindwings fuscous; cilia 4, fuscous.

Western Australia: Perth, in October, two specimens.

_ Narycia cirrhosticha, n. sp.
KLPpOOTLXOS, yellowish lined.

3, 13-14 mm. Head pale ochreous; face and palpi fuscous. Antennae
fuscous; ciliations in male 1. Thorax and abdomen fuscous. Legs fuscous;
middle tarsi annulated with ochreous-whitish ; posterior tibiae and tarsi ochreous-
whitish. Forewings suboblong, costa gently arched, apex rounded-rectangular,
termen nearly straight, slightly oblique; 7 and 8 stalked; fuscous; markings
pale ochreous; a narrow fascia from 4 costa to near base of dorsum, expanding
slightly towards dorsum; a second narrow fascia from % costa to tornus, slightly
outwardly bent and rather constricted in middle; some obscure terminal dots;
cilia fuscous. Hindwings subovate; 4 and 5 separate; grey; cilia 4, grey.

. Queensland: Toowoomba, in October, two specimens.

Narycia euthygramma, n. sp.

evOvypappos, with straight markings.

3, 14 mm. Head ochreous-whitish; face, palpi, and antennae fuscous.
Thorax dark fuscous. Abdomen dark fuscous, towards base paler. Legs fus-
cous ; tarsi annulated with whitish-ochreous ; posterior pair, except tarsi, whitish-
ochreous. Forewings moderate, costa rather strongly arched, apex pointed;
7 and 8 coincident ; dark fuscous ; three narrow, nearly straight, ochreous-whitish,
transverse fasciae; first near base, slightly inwardly oblique; second from costa
before middle to dorsum beyond middle; third from # costa to tornus; cilia
dark fuscous. Hindwings and cilia fuscous.

Queensland: Brisbane, in August, one specimen.

188

Narycia myriospila, n. sp.
pupiooruos, with countless spots.

2, 30-32 mm. Head, antennae, and thorax fuscous. Abdomen grey; tuft
ochreous tinged. Legs grey; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings suboblong,
costa gently arched, more strongly towards base, and there fringed with longer
scales, apex round-pointed; 7 and 8 stalked; pale grey speckled with very
numerous, minute, fuscous dots; a short, broad, fuscous bar from 4 costa,
outwardly oblique to middle of disc; cilia pale grey, apices grey-whitish. Hind-
wings and cilia grey.

Queensland: Brisbane, in May and June, two specimens.

Narycia phaeostola, n. sp.
gatortoAos, dusky clothed.

3,15 mm. Head pale ochreous; face and palpi fuscous. Antennae fus-
cous; ciliations in male 1. Thorax fuscous. Abdomen fuscous, beneath pale
ochreous. Legs fuscous, suffused, and tarsi annulated, with pale ochreous.
Forewings oval-oblong, costa strongly arched, apex round-pointed, termen very
oblique; 7 and 8 coincident; fuscous slightly tinged with brown; an irregular
whitish-ochreous spot at about 4 on fold; whitish-ochreous costal dots shortly
before and after middle; cilia concolourous. Hindwings and cilia fuscous.

Q, 20-21 mm. Forewings more elongate, apex more acute; fuscous without
brownish tinge; markings of male very obscurely indicated.

At first sight the sexes appear so different that I would not have placed
them together if they had not been taken in the same locality.

Queensland: National Park (3,000 feet), in December and January, one
male (type) and three female specimens.

Narycia sinuosa, n. sp.

Sinuosus, with many curves.

d, 16-20 mm. Head ochreous-white. Palpi fuscous. Antennae fuscous;
ciliations in male 1. Thorax and abdomen fuscous. Legs fuscous; tarsi
annulated with whitish; posterior pair except tarsi whitish. Forewings elongate-
oval, costa bisinuate, being moderately arched with slight median excavation,
apex round-pointed; termen very oblique; 7 and 8 stalked; grey-whitish with
numerous transverse fuscous strigulae; four or five fine interrupted transverse
lines in basal third; sometimes a broader fascia at 4, its edges very irregular;
a tornal fuscous spot, sometimes connected with a similar or larger spot on 3
costa, and sometimes one or more costal spots beyond this; cilia grey. Huind-
wings and cilia grey.

Queensland: Brisbane, in April and May, four specimens.

Narycia melanospora, n. sp.

ueXavooropos, black spotted.

3, 17 mm. Head whitish. Palpi fuscous. Antennae fuscous; ciliations
in male 3. Thorax and abdomen fuscous; tuft whitish-grey. Legs fuscous;
posterior pair grey. Forewings elongate, posteriorly dilated, costa slightly arched,
more strongly towards apex, apex round-pointed; 7 and 8 stalked; whitish with
scanty fuscous irroration and fuscous markings; dorsal spots at 4 and 3, each
preceded by a discal spot; numerous costal dots with a larger spot at 3; a
straight, irregularly edged fascia from 2 costa to tornus; a subterminal series of
dots; cilia whitish. Hindwings and cilia pale grey.

New South Wales: Cooma (2,000 feet), in October, one specimen.

189

Narycia ischnomorpha, n. sp.

isxvopoppos, of narrow shape.
3, 14-16 mm. Head white; face and palpi fuscous. Antennae fuscous;

ciliations in male 4. Thorax fuscous with a white transverse line behind
middle. Abdomen fuscous; tuft whitish. Legs fuscous; posterior pair
ochreous-whitish. | Forewings narrow, oval, costa gently arched, apex

round-pointed, termen very obliquely rounded; 7 and 8 very shortly stalked;
whitish; numerous costal and dorsal fuscous strigulae; a large central roundish
spot, connected by a bar with 2 costa, fuscous; a smaller discal spot at 3;
a subapical spot, sometimes white-centred; cilia whitish. Hindwings narrow-
ovate; 4 and 5 approximated or stalked (in one example 5 absent on one side) ;
grey; cilia 4, grey.

Queensland: Adavale, in April, four specimens.

Narycia leucochroa, n. sp.

NevKoxpoos, white.

3, 26 mm. Head white. Palpi fuscous. Antennae grey; ciliations in
male 4. Thorax white; anterior edge fuscous. Abdomen grey; tuft whitish.
Legs grey; posterior pair whitish. Forewings posteriorly dilated, costa strongly
arched, apex round-pointed, termen very obliquely rounded; 7 and 8 coincident ;
white with general, scanty, pale-grey irroration; a pale-grey spot in disc above
tornus, and another opposite beneath 2 costa; cilia white. Hindwings and cilia
pale grey.

Queensland: Stradbroke Island, in January, one specimen.

Narycia conioptila, n. sp.

Kovio7tiAos, dusty winged.

3, 9, 15-20 mm. Head whitish; face and palpi fuscous. Antennae fuscous,
basal joint whitish; in male slightly serrate, minutely ciliated. Thorax and abdomen
fuscous. Legs fuscous; tarsi with fine whitish annulations ; posterior pair ochreous-
whitish. Forewings suboval, costa strongly arched, apex pointed, termen very
obliquely rounded; 7 and 8 coincident ; whitish; numerous fuscous strigulae tend-
ing to form fine interrupted transverse lines; two fuscous transverse fasciae ; first
from 4 costa to dorsum before middle, constricted or interrupted beneath costa;
second from 2 costa to tornus, sometimes dilated in disc, constricted on tornus ;
cilia whitish. Hindwings grey-whitish; cilia whitish.

North Queensland: Kuranda, in August, three specimens received from Mr.
Eee Dodde

Narycia lechriotypa, n. sp.

Nexptorumos, obliquely marked.

3, 10-11 mm. Head white. Palpi fuscous. Antennae fuscous; ciliations
in male 1. Thorax and abdomen fuscous. Legs fuscous; posterior pair paler.
Forewings elongate-oval, costa strongly arched, apex rounded; 7 and 8 coincident ;
white with fuscous markings and strigulae; an elongate spot on base of costa;
an outwardly-oblique bar from 4 dorsum to beyond middle of disc; a tornal spot ;
an outwardly-oblique bar from 2 costa towards but not reaching lower end of
termen; cilia whitish. Hindwings and cilia pale grey.

North Queensland: Townsville, in September and October, two specimens.

Narycia acropolia, n. sp.

aKpoToAuos, grey at apex.

3, 14 mm. Head ochreous-whitish; face and palpi fuscous. Antennae
fuscous; ciliations in male $. Thorax grey; tegulae ochreous-whitish. Abdomen
pale grey. Legs fuscous; tarsi annulated with whitish; posterior pair ochreous-
whitish. Forewings moderate, somewhat dilated posteriorly, costa rather strongly

190

arched, apex rounded; 7 and 8 coincident; whitish; markings fuscous-grey; a
faint basal suffusion with a straight transverse posterior edge; a line from
2 costa to middorsum, and another from % costa to tornus angulated in disc;
the included area between these lines faintly suffused, except a costal spot;
an apical spot; a short line on lower part of termen; cilia ochreous-whitish.
Hindwings and cilia pale grey.

Victoria: Beaconsfield, in October, one specimen.

Narycia niphospila, n. sp.
vidoomiros, snow spotted.

3, 22-24 mm.; 2,27 mm. Head white; face, palpi, and antennae brownish-
ochreous. Thorax fuscous. Abdomen brownish-ochreous. Legs fuscous;
posterior pair brownish-ochreous. Forewings moderate, costa rather strongly
arched, apex round-pointed ; 7 and 8 coincident ; ochreous-fuscous, with numerous
white spots; a basal white fascia; four costal spots, two before and two beyond
middle; three dorsal spots, first near base; second before middle, fascia-like,
reaching more than half across disc; third similar; a subdorsal dot between
these two, and another dot on tornus; an apical spot, sometimes confluent with
an oval submarginal spot which runs into termen and cilia above tornus; cilia
ochreous-fuscous, apices whitish. Hindwings greyish-ochreous, slightly mottled
posteriorly; cilia pale ochreous.

North Queensland: Stannary Hills, near Herberton, three specimens received
from Dr. Thomas Bancroft.

Narycia tetramochla, n. sp.
tetpapoxAos, with four bars.

3, 20-22 mm. Head white. Palpi fuscous. Antennae fuscous; ciliations
in male 4. Thorax dark fuscous with a white posterior spot. Abdomen whitish-
ochreous. Legs fuscous; tarsi annulated with ochreous-whitish. Forewings
moderate, costa rather strongly arched, apex round-pointed; 7 and 8 stalked;
white; markings dark fuscous; a narrow basal fascia prolonged on costal edge
to second fascia; second fascia at 4, gradually. dilated towards dorsum; third
broader from 2 costa, displaced outwards in middle, ending on dorsum beyond
middle; fourth from 3 and fifth from before apex, the two fusing in middle of
disc and thence running to tornus; a streak along apical half of termen; cilia
fuscous, before and above tornus ochreous-whitish. Hindwings grey; ochreous
tinged towards dorsum; cilia whitish-ochreous, on apex grey.

Near N. trifasciana, Wlk., but the second and third fasciae are widely
separate on costa. I have a series of that species from Brisbane, and its mark-
ings are very constant. The species following belongs to the same group.

New South Wales: Glen Innes, in March, two specimens.

Narycia dicranota, n. sp.

dukpavorTos, forked.

3, 17-20 mm. Head white. Palpi fuscous. Antennae fuscous, ciliations
in male 4. Thorax dark fuscous with a white posterior spot. Legs fuscous;
tarst annulated with whitish-ochreous; posterior pair except tarsi whitish-
ochreous. Forewings moderate, costa rather strongly arched, apex round-
pointed; 7 and 8 stalked, separating not far from apex; white; markings fus-
cous; a narrow basal fascia slightly produced on costa; a fascia from 4 costa
dividing in middisc, anterior arm to 4, posterior to 2 dorsum; a fascia from
% costa joined by another from before apex, and ending on tornus; sometimes

one or two fuscous dots on termen; cilia whitish-ochreous; before apex and

191

on tornus mixed with fuscous. Hindwings pale grey, sometimes mottled with
whitish-ochreous; cilia whitish-ochreous.

The forewings are pure white; in N. trifasciana they are slightly ochreous
tinged with slight fuscous irroration, and the markings are darker and broader.
Though extremely similar the differences appear constant.

Queensland: Brisbane, in March and April; Toowoomba, in April; three
specimens.

NARYCIA PELOCHROA, Meyr.

I have a second female example of N. leuceres, Turn., from Stradbroke
Island, but have found no male to correspond, and now regard it as merely a
pale form of the female of N. pelochroa.

Mesopherna epomadia, n. sp.

érwpadctos, marked on the shoulders.

3, 2, 14-22 mm. Head whitish; face and palpi dark fuscous. Antennae
ochreous-whitish. Thorax white; bases of patagia fuscous. Abdomen pale
ochreous-grey. Legs fuscous; posterior pair ochreous-whitish. Forewings
moderate, oval, costa rather strongly arched, apex rounded, termen very oblique ;
7 and 8 approximated at origin, 7 to costa; white with sparse dark-tuscous
irroration; a strong dark- eee costal streak from base to about 4; sometimes
a suffused spot on middorsum; cilia white irrorated with Sg aons and grey.
Hindwings with 5 and 6 approximated at origin; pale grey; cilia pale grey.

Queensland: Brisbane, in December and February; Coolangatta, in October ;
four specimens.

Mesopherna niphopasta, n. sp.

vipotactos, sprinkled with snow.

2,15 mm. Head white; face blackish. Palpi blackish; extreme apex of
labial palpi white. Antennae fuscous, towards base white. Thorax white.
Abdomen grey; in female with large apical tuft. Legs fuscous; posterior
pair grey except tarsi, which are fuscous with fine whitish annulations. FT ore-
wings dilated posteriorly, costa gently arched, more strongly so towards apex,
apex round-pointed; 7 and 8 separate; 7 to costa; grey, rather densely sprinkled
with white dots; a broad white median streak from base to #, its inferior edge
ill-defined; a blackish dot on fold at +; another larger and irregular at % in
median streak; a few blackish scales towards dorsum and in median streak;
an interrupted, blackish, terminal line; cilia white, apices blackish, a curved,
basal, blackish line on costa and around apex, continued as an indistinct subapical
line to tornus. Hindwings elongate-ovate, apex pointed; 5 and 6 approximated
at origin; pale grey; cilia 4, pale grey.

Queensland: Gayndah, one specimen received from Dr. Hamilton Kenny.

Ardiosteres crossospila, n. sp.

KpoogoomtAos, with marginal spots.

3, 9, 14-17 mm. Head pale-fuscous. Palpi whitish-ochreous with a few
fuscous scales. Antennae pale fuscous; in male thickened and shortly ciliated
%. Thorax and abdomen fuscous. Legs fuscous; posterior pair whitish-
ochreous, fuscous tinged. Forewings broadly oval, costa strongly arched, apex
rounded, termen very oblique; 7 and 8 stalked, 7 to termen; rather pale fuscous
with some darker scales; markings ochreous-whitish; a subquadrate spot on
2 costa, its lower angles slightly produced; a dot on midcosta and a small spot
on about 2; an oblique wedge-shaped spot on middorsum, its apex outwards;
dorsal dots at $ and tornus; a median subterminal dot; a wedge-shaped spot on
termen beneath apex; cilia fuscous, on terminal spot whitish. Hindwings and
cilia grey.

192

Queensland: National Park (1,500 to 3,000 feet), in December and March,
three specimens.
Gen. Azaleodes, nov.

aéadewdns, Of dry, withered appearance.

Head and face rough-haired. Palpi rather long, ascending, exceeding
vertex, stout but laterally compressed, shortly rough-scaled; terminal joint about
4, as stout as second joint. Maxillary palpi long, slender, folded. Posterior
tibiae smooth above, shortly hairy beneath. Forewings with all veins present
and separate, 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 approximated from angle, 7 to termen,
11 from near base. Hindwings with all veins present and separate, 2 from 3,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7 approximately equidistant, a forked median vein in cell.

Probably related to Ardiosteres, but more primitive.

Azaleodes micronipha, n. sp.

puxpovidos, minutely snow-white.

2,26 mm. Head, palpi, antennae, and thorax brown. Abdomen fuscous;
brown towards base. Legs brown; anterior and middle tibiae and tarsi fuscous.
Forewings suboblong, costa strongly arched to 4, thence nearly straight, apex
rectangular, termen straight, scarcely oblique; brown with scattered fuscous
irroration; a snow-white, median, discal dot at 4, and another at 2; cilia brown.
Hindwings slightly over 1; pale grey; cilia pale grey.

Queensland: National Park (3,000 feet), in December, one specimen.

Gen. Tanymita, nov.
tavupitos, with long threads.
Head and face densely rough haired. Tongue absent. Labial palpi long,

ascending, recurved; second joint very long, expanded towards apex, rough

haired anteriorly towards apex; terminal joint short, stout, acute, rough haired
anteriorly and posteriorly. Maxillary palpi rather stout, three-jointed, slightly
expanded with rough hairs at apex. Antennae about 4, in male slightly serrate.

Posterior tibiae clothed with long hairs. Forewings with 2 from well before

angle, 4 and 5 coincident in male, in female connate, remaining veins separate.

Hindwings with 4, 5, 6 equidistant, parallel, 6 from upper angle, 7 from well

before upper angle of cell.

Tanymita hypomacra, n. sp.

brouaxpos, rather long.

3, 24-27 mm.; 9, 32-36 mm. Head ochreous-whitish with some fuscous
hairs on crown. Palpi ochreous-whitish with some dark-fuscous irroration.
Antennae ochreous-whitish. Thorax ochreous-whitish with five longitudinal
tuscous-brown lines. Abdomen grey. Legs ochreous-whitish; posterior tibiae
grey on dorsum. Forewings rather long, suboval, apex rounded; ochreous-
whitish with numerous fine longitudinal fuscous lines; in posterior area these
run in pairs, the space between them being pale ochreous; cilia ochreous-whitish
with a few fuscous points. Hindwings as broad as forewings; grey; cilia grey.

North Queensland: Thursday Island; Kuranda, in April; Cairns; Innisfail,
in November; five specimens.

PTYCHOXENA TEPHRANTHA, Meyr.
Meyr., Exot. Micro.,.i., p. 616 (1916).

Mr. Meyrick identified this for me. My examples do not agree with all
the details of his description, and doubtless the species is variable.

North Queensland: Kuranda, in October; Queensland: Brisbane; Coolan-
gatta, in April; also from Ceylon, India, Africa, and South America.

193

Monopis cirrhospila, n. sp.

KippoomtAros, spotted with pale yellow.

3,16mm. Head pale yellow. Palpi fuscous. Antennae yellowish, suffused
with grey except basal joint; ciliations in male 4. Thorax fuscous-brown.
Abdomen pale yellow. Legs pale yellow; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings
suboval, costa strongly arched, apex rounded, termen very oblique; fuscous-
brown; a pale: yellony dorsal blotch before middle; similar but larger blotch on
costa from % to , triangular and extending beyond middle, indented just posterior
to its ages fue or six fuscous dots betweeen the two blotches; cilia yellowish
irrorated with fuscous-brown. Hindwings pale grey; cilia pale yellow.

Northern Territory: Darwin, one specimen received from Mr. G. F. Hill.

Monopis ochroptila, n. sp.

®xpomTtiAos, pale winged.

3, Y, 11-20 mm. Head and palpi pale ochreous. Antennae grey. Thorax
and abdomen pale ochreous-grey. Legs whitish-ochreous; anterior and middle
pairs with some fuscous suffusion. Forewings narrow, costa slightly arched,
apex round-pointed, termen very oblique ; pale ochreous- grey ; cilia concolourous.
Hindwings similar but paler, sometimes more greyish.

Queensland: Dalby, in April; Adavale, in April; Victoria: Birchip; six
specimens.
Gen. Sarocrania, nov.

TAapoKpaVvlos, brush headed.

Head and face very densely rough haired. Labial palpi moderate, slender,
drooping; second joint with a few long hairs; terminal joint as long as second,
acute. Maxillary palpi long folded. Antennae about 2; without Pecten. sin
male rather stout, simple. Posterior tibiae with long hairs on dorsum. Fore-
wings narrow; 7 and 8 stalked out of 6, 7 to termen. Hindwings lanceolate; 4
absent, 6 and 7 stalked.

A derivative of Tinea. | have some difficulty in making out the complete
neuration, but think vein 4 is absent in both wings.

Sarocrania ischnophylla, n. sp.

utxvopvAXos, narrow winged.

3, 11 mm. Head ochreous-brown. Palpi, antennae, and thorax grey.
Abdomen whitish-grey. Legs fuscous; posterior pair whitish-grey. Forewings
narrow, apex rounded; smooth shining grey; cilia grey. Hindwings lanceolate ;
pale grey; cilia 24, pale grey.

Queensland: Mount Tambourine, in November; one specimen.

Tinea niphoplaca, n. sp.

viporAakos, with broad snow-white spots.

2, 13 mm. Head snow-white. Palpi blackish; terminal joint whitish.
Antennae dark fuscous. Thorax blackish. Abdomen dark fuscous. Legs fus-
cous; posterior pair grey, tarsi with whitish annulations. Fforewings moderate,
costa gently arched, apex rounded; blackish; a broad snow-white fascia at 4,
narrowed almost to a point on costa, anterior edge straight, posterior rounded ;
a large snow-white spot on 2 costa, broadest on costa, inferior edge rounded;
a white subapical dot; cilia pale grey; bases blackish. Hindwings broadly
lanceolate; grey; cilia 2, grey.

Northern Territory: Stapleton, one specimen received from Mr. G. F. Hill.

G

194

Tinea drymonoma, n. sp.

dpupovopos, haunting the woods.

3, 2, 10-13 mm. Head ochreous-whitish. Palpi fuscous, apex and internal
surface ochreous-whitish. Antennae ochreous-whitish with some dark-fuscous
scales. Thorax fuscous, a posterior spot, apices of patagia, and sometimes an
anterior spot ochreous-whitish. Abdomen pale ochreous-grey. Legs ochreous-
whitish; anterior and middle tibiae and tarsi dark fuscous with ochreous-whitish
annulations. Forewings slightly dilated posteriorly, costa moderately arched,
apex round-pointed, termen obliquely rounded; ochreous-whitish, markings and
some scattered scales brownish mixed with dark fuscous; a spot on fold before
middle, and sometimes another after middle; a larger spot on or beneath costa
at 2; an apical spot; an interrupted dark-fuscous terminal line; cilia ochreous-
whitish. Hindwings ovate-lanceolate; pale grey; cilia grey-whitish.

Queensland: National Park (2,500 to 4,000 feet), in December and January,
abundant.

Tinea trigonosema, n. sp.
tptyovornmos, with triangular marking.

3, 9, 10-12 mm. Head white. Palpi white, basal half or more of
external surface of second joint fuscous. Antennae in male whitish, in female
annulated with fuscous, with darker rings towards apex, in male annulated
towards apex only. Thorax whitish. Abdomen grey. Legs whitish; anterior
and middle tibiae and tarsi broadly annulated with dark fuscous. Forewings
narrow, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen very oblique; whitish
with scanty fuscous irroration; a fuscous suffused spot on base of costa; a
fuscous triangle on costa at 4, and a fuscous spot at 3; some dark-fuscous scales
on fold towards extremity, and a patch of dark-fuscous irroration in disc before
third costal spot; a subapical dark-fuscous spot; cilia whitish with some
fuscous points and a fine, pale, subapical grey line. Hindwings and cilia pale
grey.

North Queensland: Kuranda, in September, two specimens received from
Mra PWDodd:

Tinea pherauges, n. sp.

depavyns, shining.

2,9mm. Head, palpi, and thorax fuscous-grey. Antennae grey-whitish.
Abdomen grey. Legs grey; posterior pair whitish. Forewings rather narrow,
apex rounded; pale shining leaden-grey; cilia grey. Hindwings lanceolate;
grey; cilia 3, grey.

New South Wales: Ebor (4,000 feet), in January, two specimens, of which
one is in Coll. Meyrick.

Tinea diacrita, n. sp.

dvaxpitos, distinguished.

gd, 18-22 mm. Head, thorax, and antennae pale ochreous-grey. Palpi
dark fuscous; inner surface pale ochreous-grey. Abdomen whitish-grey. Legs
whitish-grey; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings moderately elongate, costa
moderately arched, apex pointed, termen very obliquely rounded; pale ochreous-
grey with some slight fuscous irroration; a thick, irregular, dark-fuscous, sub-
median streak from base of costa to 8, with two projections beneath, first about
middle of disc, second at its posterior extremity; two short elongate dark-
fuscous subcostal dots about middle, arranged longitudinally; cilia ochreous-
whitish with a fuscous median line and postmedian fuscous bars. Hindwings
and cilia grey-whitish.

Queensland: National Park (2,500 feet), in December and January;
New South Wales: Lismore, in October, five specimens.

195

THE EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF POUCH EMBRYOS OF MARSUPIALS.
No. 7—MYRMECOBIUS FASCIATUS.

By F. Woop Jones, D.Sc., F.Z.S.,
Professor of Anatomy in the University of Adelaide.

[Read August 9, 1923.]

The “Numbat” (Myrmecobius) is, at the present time, one of the rarest
marsupials, and is an animal which is particularly difficult to obtain in any stage.
I am, therefore, fortunate in being able to examine five young examples in a good
state of preservation. One of these, which measures 23 mm. R.V. measurement,
I have been permitted to examine owing to the kindness of the authorities at
the Perth Museum. The other four, which are of an approximate length of

bigeye
Myrmecobius fasciatus.
Hair tracts of embryo 75 mm. maximum H.B. length.

45 mm. R.V. measurement, and a maximum head and body length (measured
along the curve of the back) of 75 mm., were collected along with the mother
in Western Australia. These four, more advanced, young were clinging to
the elongated nipples of the mother, and were thus suspended without receiving
any protection whatever, save that may be afforded to their heads by the hispid
hair of the mother’s ventral surface. Although these four young animals are
so relatively large and far advanced, their lip margins are still fused over the
greater portion of their extent; and it is evident that their liberation from the
nipples was not soon about to take place.

The young are very remarkable in their general appearance, and by far
their most outstanding feature is the curious shortening of the muscle, which

196

produces a facial appearance distinctly reminiscent of that of a pug dog. The
whole of the muzzle region appears to be thrust back towards the face, so that
it becomes pressed beneath an over-growing fold of skin. It would be difficult
to find young animals, at the stage of development represented by the completion
of hair growth, more unlike the adult than these pug-faced young are to the
parent animal with its specialized, elongated muzzle and jaws. No doubt the
exacting business of hanging suspended from a nipple without the support
afforded by a pouch plays some part in the production of this curious facial
development; nevertheless, the young of the Bandicoots show the typical
elongated snout of the adult during pouch life, despite the absorbing role of
nipple grasping. (See No. 3 of this series, /soodon barrowensis, vol. xlvi.,
1922, fig. 4, p. 42.) The young animal at the conclusion of its dependent life
should afford an interesting study in the readjustment of the cranial skeleton,
for a young skull, 14 mm. in total length, shows an ossific facial architecture
which is so unlike that of the adult that it is necessary for very remarkable
changes to be brought about in a comparatively short interval. Many inter-
esting problems connected with the development of Myrmecobius will, how-
ever, probably remain unsolved for lack of material. It is now a very rare
animal; it seems impossible to obtain living specimens, and I know of no records
of their having been bred in captivity.

igs 2:
Myrmecobius fasciatus.
Facial vibrissae of a 23 mm. R.V. embryo.

Hair —Hair is present on the head of the 23 mm. R.V. specimen. It is
sparse, coarse, and nearly erect. At this stage it is not pigmented, and it is
confined to the head and face. The larger embryos 2re completely hair-covered,
but the growth of hair is more sparse upon the hinder end of the body and upon
the limbs than on the head and face. The hair becomes appreciably shorter
when traced caudad. It is all particularly coarse, and, at this stage, it is
difficult to distinguish body hairs from true vibrissae. This is especially the
case upon the face, where coarse bristle hairs on the eyelids, and behind and in
front of the eye, mask the true vibrissae, which were fully developed at the
23 mm. R.V. stage in the absence of the coarse facial nairs. In the larger
embryos the hair is pigmented, there being entirely black hairs interspersed with
the colourless hairs. These black hairs are present upon the face, head, and
shoulders, but are absent on the hinder end of the body. - The red hairs typical

197

of the adult are suggested only by some minute hairs on the ears and upon the
tip of the tail. Besides the black hairs which are scattered here and there
among the pale hairs of the head and shoulders, there are patches upon the face
in which the black hairs are alone developed. Between the eye and the ear is a

Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
Myrmecobius fasciatus.
Full face view of head of embryo 23 mm. R.V. Full face view of head of embryo 75 mm.
to show the characters of the rhinarium. maximum H.B. length to show characters
of the rhinarium.

Myrmecobius fasciatus.

patch of black hairs—the best developed hairs on the whole body—which make
a very conspicuous feature in the embryo at this stage. In front of the eye
is a similar, smaller patch; but this, at this stage, is involved in the folding
of the facial wrinkle behind the shortened muzzle. Scattered black hairs are

also present on the eyelids, black eyelashes are well marked, and all the true
sensory vibrissae are black.

igen 5:
_ Myrmecobius fasciatus.
Left auricle of specimen 75 mm.
maximum H.B. length.

The skin of the older embryos is also pigmented, the whole animal being a
pale bluish-slate-grey, save where the pigment fails to be developed. The
muzzle, the head and face, with the exception of the large eyelids, are pale slate
coloured. The chin is deeply pigmented. The throat and the neck below and
behind the ear are free of pigment. The face behind the eye is pigmented

198

and clothed with black hair, and the cheek immediately below and behind the
eye shows slight pigmentation. The external ear is pigmented on both aspects.
The ventral surface of the body lacks pigment, but the dorsum of the trunk
and the limbs are pale blue-grey. The tail is more strongly pigmented at the
base than at the tip. The black and white colouration of the hair, the absence
of any suggestion of band markings, and the bluish pigmentation of the skin
increase the great unlikeness to the rufus adult which the young animal displays
in its general form.

Hair Tracts—The arrangement of the coarse hispid hair in the fully-haired
young is extremely simple. On the muzzle, face, head, trunk, and tail the slope
is uniformly caudad. Upon the hind limb the slope is distal and post-
axial. Upon the humeral portion of the fore limb it is post-axial, but
upon the forearm it is post-axial and proximal in direction; there being,
therefore, a slight tendency to converge in the region of the elbow (see fig. 1).
The slight proximal trend of the hairs on the forearm constitutes the only trivial
exception to the otherwise caudad, distal, and post-axial direction of the hair.

Vibrissae and Papillae—vThe sensory papillae and vibrissae are undoubt-
edly undergoing reduction. The facial vibrissae are sparse and poorly repre-
sented, and have no marked papillae for their origin. The only papillae which

Fig. 6. Fig. 7.
Myrmecobius fasciatus. Myrmecobius fasciatus.
Left manus of specimen 75 mm. Left pes of specimen 75 mm.
maximum H.B. length. Note the maximum H.B. length.
ulnar carpal papilla and its four
vibrissae.

reaches any degree of prominence is the ulnar carpal (see fig. 6), and this wanes
as development proceeds, even its vibrissae being unrecognizable in the adult.
Vibrissae are present in the 23 mm. R.V. embryo when the scalp hairs are
appearing; in later stages they are more difficult to recognize owing to their
likeness to the hispid hairs of the general body covering.

199

Facial Vibrissae (see fig. 2).—The mysticial set consists of a few irregular
vibrissae which do not arise in any recognizably ordered manner. Most of the
individual bristles are not straight, as such sensory vibrissae usually are, but
are waved in direction. Two supra-orbital bristles are present. The sub-mentals
and interramals soon lose their identity and merge with the general coarse body
hairs. The genals are represented by a tuft of about half a dozen black bristles
which are inconspicuous in older embryos. No facial vibrissae have any definite
papillae of origin.

Brachial Vibrissae—The ulnar carpal papilla is the only one present, and
it remains fairly well marked during dependent life. Four vibrissae spring from
it, but with the development of hair on the forearm the individuality of the
bristles becomes lost.

Rhinarium.—The muzzle region is one of the most interesting features of
the young Numbat. The 23 mm. R.V. specimen (full face, fig. 3; side face,
fig. 2) shows a perfectly circular mouth, and above it the nasal process as a

Fig. 8.
Myrmecobius fasciatus.
Mammary area of a female specimen 75 mm.
maximum H.B. length.

flattened ridge. Upon either side of the nasal process are the maxillary pro-
cesses completing the maxillary portion of the mouth. Surrounding these pro-
cesses is a wide roll of skin of the muzzle, separated from the rest of the skin
of the face by a deep furrow limiting it posteriorly; another furrow marking
it off from the nasal process. The rhinarium is strikingly retreated and the
mandibular portion of the face is considerably in advance of the maxillary
portion. The site of the anterior nares is at the lateral margin of the simple
nasal process. In the 45 mm. R.V. embryo (full face, fig. 4; side face, fig. 1)
the protrusion of the mandibular portion of the face is not so well marked, and
the formation of the nostrils has proceeded very considerably. The roll of skin
behind the rhinarium has become less conspicuous, though it is still a well-
marked feature. The junction of the nasal and maxillary processes has com-
pleted the upper lip; the portion of nasal process entering into the formation of
the lip being a large one.

Chest Gland.—In no specimen have I been able to detect any external sign
of the chest gland described by Beddard in the adult.

External Ear (see fig. 5)—The ear of the 23 mm. R.V. specimen is so
moulded by the epitrichium that no sculpturing is to be detected; it is directed

200

backwards and is closely adherent to the side of the head. In the 45 mm.
R.V. specimens the ear is pointed and fleshy; it is directed backwards and is
free of the side of the head. A conspicuous and rounded processus antihelicis
is present. There is a definite antitragus fold, and a less conspicuous tragus.
Foldings of the concha distal to the processus are inconstant.

Manus (see fig. 6).—The digital formula is 4>3 > 2>5>1; in the adult
the second digit is as long as or longer than the third. The manus is relatively
large. The four inter-digital pads are marked at their highest points by well-
defined central areas. The pad at the base of the first digit is the smallest.
The hypothenar pad is well developed. The claws are strong and curved.

Pes (see fig. 7) —The digital formula is 3>4>2 >5, as in the adult.
One large pad with a central trefoil area is situated at the bases of digits 3 and 4;
and smaller pads, with circular central areas, at the bases of digits 2 and 5.
A small pad marks the site of the absent first digit. Claws are not so strongly
developed on the pes as they are on the manus in the young animal.

Mammary Area (see fig. 8)—The four mammary primordia are situated
in two furrows which run on the lower part of the abdomen and converge
towards the caudal end. The area between these two furrows is elevated; the
“pouch area” being thus marked by a raised wedge-shaped swelling of the
abdominal wall, the apex of the wedge being directed caudad. The mammary
primordia are marked as rounded elevations in the furrow, the summit of each
of the elevations being invaginated so as to form a dimple in the centre of the
prominence.

External Genitalia—The genital tubercle in the male 45 mm. R.V. embryo
is conspicuous beyond the limits of the cloacel margin; in the female of the
same size the condition is similar save that the genital tubercle is rather less
conspicuous.

201

A SURVEY OF THE AUSTRALIAN SHEEP MAGGOT-FLY PROBLEM.

By T. Harvey Jounston, M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Zoology,
University of Adelaide.

[Read August 9, 1923.]

Though a sheep blowfly problem occurs in Great Britain, South Africa,
New Zealand, and some of the Pacific Islands, it is in the eastern half of
Australia that it has developed more especially. In North America there is a
myiasis affecting stock, caused by the screw worm, Compsomyia macellaria, but
it is of a quite different type from that occurring in the countries mentioned.
At least forty years ago certain blowflies were known to deposit their eggs or
larvae in injuries on ram’s heads (caused by fighting), on blankets, saddle
cloths, and wool bales, but it was not till about 1896 that infestation of lambs
was noticed. The latter occurred after marking and tailing. Following the
drought years 1900 to 1902, fly infestation became more and more pronounced,
Froggatt referring to the matter early in 1905, again in 1910, and frequently
since then. In Queensland the invasion became so bad that in 1913 Cory and
Jarvis were commissioned to inquire into the matter and found that out of over
one million sheep in a district in Central Queensland an average of 23 per cent.
had been “struck,” and that on some “stations” from 40 per cent. to 70 per cent.
of the animals were affected. They recommended that experiments with various
traps, dip fluids, and dressings should be carried out by the Government, this
being begun in 1914 and continued for four years at Gindie, near Emerald,
Central Queensland (R. S. C., 1922, p. 45).

A very good account of the damage done to sheep and wool, and the com-
moner sites of infestation, has been published by Froggatt (1913, p. 16; 1915,
pp. 12, 13). In the preceding paragraph an indication of the seriousness of the
infestation in Central Queensland is given. Froggatt and Froggatt (1916, pp.
28-30) published a return of the total sheep and estimated losses from blowfly
infestation in New South Wales for the year 1914, from information forwarded
by the district stock inspectors. It showed that the amount varied in different
districts from nil to as much as 8 per cent., the total estimated loss for the State
during the period being about 13 per cent. Russell (Editor, 1921, p. 250) stated
that the losses in 1920 from fly attacks in two Queensland “stations” were
estimated at about 15,000 sheep in each case, all the sheep being almost fully
fleeced. The writer was informed in 1920 by Messrs. Russell (of Dalmally,
Roma) and W. G. Brown (Sheep and Wool Expert, Dept. of Agriculture,
Queensland) that the losses from fly probably averaged 5 per cent. of Queensland
flocks—a loss as great as that from all natural causes combined (old age, lambing,
accidents, and disease). The loss is even greater in New South Wales, where
sheep raising is carried on more extensively. Fly infestation also occurs, but
to a less extent, in Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia, and Western Australia.
The annual loss, both directly and indirectly, must aggregate some millions of
pounds sterling. McLeod and Holme (in Cooper, 1913, p. 55) estimated the
direct damage in New South Wales during the season 1909-1910 at £377,700,
and mentioned that in one station in that State fully 60 per cent. of the sheep
shorn in March became attacked, and, as a consequence, a later date was fixed
for subsequent shearings with improved results.

In the Sydney Morning Herald of December 28, 1921, it was stated that
the destruction of sheep and lambs, the reduction in wool, and other losses

202

directly due to the attacks of blowflies cost Australia over five millions sterling
per annum.

The time of the year when these flies are troublesome to sheep varies in the
different parts of the Commonwealth and even in different years in the same
district. Cooper collected information regarding blowfly prevalence and tabu-
lated it in 1913. The worst periods were stated to be from March to May, and
September to October, with some infestation in certain localities during winter
(June to August), but probably none during summer (December to February).
The chief periods are during autumn and lambing time. In Queensland, flies
make their presence felt whenever there is a good fall of rain (1 or 2 inches),
regardless of the time of the year (R. S. C., 1922, p. 45), and sheep may be
badly attacked during the period February to October (R. S. C., in Knibbs,
1922). Froggatt (1913, p. 15) stated that warm showery winters are especially
favourable for infestation which may appear as early as March, or may be
delayed till several months later. Place mentioned in 1922 that infestation was
not especially noticed in South Australia until ten or twelve years previously,
and that it occurred particularly in March, April, or May (being worst in the last-
named month), and again in spring. These periods correspond approximately
with those in Tasmania, Victoria, and New South Wales. In New Zealand,
Miller (1921) reported that though infestation might occur in winter, it was
especially prevalent during lambing season in the spring, continuing to December,
and appearing again in the autumn. Gilruth called attention to its occurrence
in summer in North Otago, in the Dominion (1907).

In the earliest accounts of Australian infestation, the culprits were reported
by Froggatt (1905, 1910) to be the two commonest native blowflies, Calliphora
oceaniae, and C. villosa, now known as Anastellorhina augur, Fabr., and A.
stygia, Fabr., respectively (Johnston and Hardy, 1922). The latter occurs also
in New Zealand as a sheep maggot-fly (Miller, 1921). Woodburn (in Cooper,
1913) stated that the “hairy maggot” (1.e., the larva of Chrysomyia albiceps)
was one of the worst offenders, while Froggatt later (1913) included it (as
Calliphora rufifacies) along with the two mentioned, but stated that it was of
minor importance. Several other flies were referred to by him, but it was stated
that they had not been bred from live wool, though they had been bred out from
carcases. They were C. varipes, Lucilia sericata, L. caesar, and Ophyra nigra.
Subsequently some of these were reported as blowing wool on sheep. In 1915
the same author stated that C. albiceps was the chief blowfly of sheep, and gave
an account of the main flies and their larvae, adding species of Sarcophaga
to the list (1914b, 1915). The species which have been reported by Froggatt
as breeding in wool in Australia are A. augur, A. stygia, C. albiceps, C. varipes,
L. sericata, Sarcophaga sp., and Ophyra nigra. Taylor (Proc. Linn Soc. N.S.
Wales, May, 1920) stated that Lucilia fuscina, Wlk., was one of the sheep
maggot-flies in Queensland, where it had been confused with L. sericata. The
writer of this article has also pointed out that more than one species is included
under this latter term in Australia (Johnston, 1921, p. 245; 1922, p. 273; Johnston
and Tiegs, 1922, p. 79).

It is not yet known whether one kind of blowfly leads the attack and sets
up conditions which attract others. The following facts are of interest :—(1)
That the commonest blowflies, A. augur and A. stygia, not uncommonly blow
woollen materials (blankets, bales, etc.) ; (2) that they were the first reported by
Froggatt as infesting sheep; and (3) that one of them has been recorded by
Miller as causing trouble in New Zealand. They suggest that these flies may
be the primary cause. As species of Lucilia are known to be culprits in Great
Britain, South Africa, and New Zealand, it is not unlikely that they may act
similarly in the Commonwealth, where they are very common around carrion.

203

In parts of South Africa and in Australia, species of Pycnosoma
(Chrysomyia) are known to blow sheep, and in the latter country are now
~ regarded as the chief cause of such myiasis. Patton, however, has stated that
these flies in the final maggot stage are predators on the larvae of other blow-
flies; hence the possibility that others may initiate the attack and the “hairy
maggots” may actually be present (at least in part) in the role of destroyers of
the culprits, and as a consequence the flies bred out from such infested wool
would be chiefly Pycnosoma. This point has not been cleared up yet. The
writer has bred the two “hairy maggots” in abundance from carrion, but the
larvae of other blowflies were also present as a rule, and it is probable that
Pycnosoma is present on sheep in the dual role of carrion feeder and predator.

Froggatt has frequently drawn attention to the change of habit in the case
of these various blowflies which were at first carrion feeders, the adults depositing
eggs or larvae on or in dead animals, and ultimately coming to attack wool on
living sheep. The writer of the present article does not see any reason to
assume a change of habit. Flies are readily attracted to those places where
bacterial decomposition is going on and oviposition is stimulated. Soiled wool
contains abundant bacteria and a chemotropic influence is soon sufficiently pro-
nounced to attract pregnant blowflies, which deposit their eggs or larvae on the
wool. In part of the area in which larval activity is first manifested there will
commonly be noticed a more or less pronounced greenish discolouration, no
doubt caused by bacterial agency, which is secondarily augmented by the pre-
sence of the maggots. This seems to pave the way for the larvae which are
then feeding in dead and decomposing wool and foreign material until such
time as they reach the skin, when the irritation caused by their presence, and
probably also the attempts of the sheep to dislodge them, may lead to a breaking
of the skin on the fevered part, bacterial infection of the injury soon occurring
when the maggots are thereby able to get inside the damaged tissue. If this
view be correct, then one very important line of attack against sheep myiasis
would be to check bacterial activity. According to an article in the Australian
daily Press during last December, Dr. W. Sinclair advocates using a solution
containing one part of mercury in 500,000, which, he claims, is taken up from
the skin, enters the blood, and becomes excreted through the sweat and yolk
glands, reaching the wool and skin, where bacterial invasion is then checked;
but if sheep be already blown and the skin broken, then direct application to the
moist area is needed, when the bacteria are destroyed, the maggots drop off, and
the wound soon heals. The method has not, as far as | know, been fully
investigated.

There are certainly predisposing factors towards fly attack. It has been
pointed out by Froggatt (1905, 1913, 1915, 1922) that the sheep breeder has
changed the character of the Australian merino by making practically every part
of the animal produce wool, and even by encouraging the development of a
wrinkled skin in order to give a greater wool-producing surface. Hence the
wool is extremely fine and dense, and even the rump portion, which is so readily
soiled, now carries a mass of wool. “This artificial increase in weight, quantity,
and fineness of wool is accompanied, too, by an increased secretion of yolk,
which, rising from the skin and spreading all through the wool fibre, forms an
additional attraction for the flies and supplies food for the maggots” (Froggatt,
1922). Any circumstance which causes diarrhoea favours fly attack, as also
does the act of lambing, merely through soiling the wool of the breech of the
animals. Even urine may bring about a similar result, and once such dense
wool becomes infested, the maggots are soon able to work their way into the
warm, moist, bacteria-laden wool and pass through their stages under optimum
conditions. The docking and marking of lambs gives flies a further opportunity

204

on account of the likelihood of bacterial invasion taking place during these
operations.

Woodburn (in Cooper, 1913, p. 50) stated that ewes, lambs, weaners, and
merino sheep (especially if wrinkled) were more liable to attack than plain-
bodied sheep, and that wethers were less affected than ewes. He published a
table of percentages. Out of 6,000 weaners, merino ewes showed a loss of
40 per cent., merino wethers 3 per cent., Lincoln-merino crossbred ewes 15 per
cent., and crossbred wethers nil.

One possible method of controlling the problem may be the breeding
either of crossbreds or of a merino devoid of a wrinkled skin and of heavy
wool on the rump region. This would more or less obviate the necessity for
crutching sheep. The Queensland Blowfly Committee, in a pamphlet issued in
December, 1920, stated that sick or worm-infested sheep are more susceptible
to fly attack than are healthy animals; hence, any measures which tend to
restore such sheep to a normal condition are of distinct advantage. It might
be emphasized that any circumstances which set up diarrhoea favour fly attack
through the greater likelihood of fouling the wool and causing it to become
attractive to the fly.

It is important that the biology of the various blowflies, especially the larval
stages and the breeding habits should be known, as such knowledge may indicate
a vulnerable point of attack. It is known that all blowflies which attack sheep,
normally breed in decomposing animal matter, though some of them can be
induced to breed in decomposing vegetation also (e.g., the writer has bred the
common Anastellorhina flies by transferring the young larvae from meat to horse
manure), but the latter material is not visited by such flies for breeding pur-
poses. The writer agrees with Froggatt in insisting that the most important
measure against blowflies is the systematic destruction of all carrion, offal, or
animal debris which are the normal breeding places of such flies. It is the only
way to strike at the root of the problem. Such destruction may be brought
about by burning or by thorough poisoning, as well as by encouraging the pro-
pagation of insectivorous birds (Froggatt and Froggatt, 1914, p. 753).

It has been asserted that the wholesale poisoning of rabbits by means of
poison carts, poisoning water supplies, etc., and of dingoes and wild dogs by
poisoned baits, has been responsible for the enormous increase in the blowfly
- population; firstly, by affording additional breeding places; and secondly, by
causing heavy mortality amongst insectivorous birds, lizards, etc., through feeding
on poisoned material. This view is not supported by McLeod and Holme (in
Cooper, 1913, p. 55).

A certain amount of information regarding the duration of the garious
stages (egg, larva, pupa) of the chief blowflies was published from time to
time by Froggatt and Froggatt, while detailed systematic observations. were
carried out in Brisbane in my laboratory, and in addition the longevity of adults
in captivity was ascertained (Johnston, 1921, 1922; Johnston and Tiegs, 1922;
Johnston and Hardy, 1923). In the present paper it is not necessary to repeat
the information published therein. J. L. Froggatt (1918) has given an account
of the spiracles of the larvae of the six main sheep maggot-flies.

It is highly important for the pastoralist to know how far blowflies may
travel, as indicating the possible source of infestation. No data have been
published regarding Australian experience, but the writer has summarized the
results of Bishopp and Laake’s work in Texas, which showed that species of
some of the genera to which certain Australian blowflies belong, are able to
fly, at least, eight miles, even up to 10 miles, within two days (Johnston, 1922,
pr 275)).

Trapping of flies has been widely advocated and figures of traps have been
published by Froggatt, but Russell (Editor, 1921, p. 251) regarded it as being

205

of little value when compared with the cost of attending to the traps. Bishopp
(Farmers’ Bull. 734, U.S.D.A., 1919) stated that “there is a general tendency
for those engaged in combating flies to put too much dependence on the fly
trap as a means of abating the nuisance. It should be borne in mind ‘that fly
trapping is only supplementary to other methods of control, most notable of which
is the prevention of breeding either by completely disposing of breeding places,
or by treating the breeding material with chemicals.”

Some birds are known to catch and kill adult flies, as also do certain
fossorial wasps known popularly as “policeman flies.” Froggatt reported that
Stigus turneri, Stigus sp., and Nysson sp., were known to act in this way (1917).
Mr. Hacker, of the Queensland Museum, has informed me that the wasps
Sericophorus chalybaeus and S. relucens are known to catch sheep maggot-flies
in South Australia and Queensland, respectively. He also stated that the latter
wasp was probably that referred to by Froggatt (1915, p. 39) as Gorytes sp. How-
ever, these active wasps are not numerous and seem to exert little influence on
fly investation. In Britain the dung fly Scatophaga stercoraria has been reported
by Lefroy to be a predator on blowflies, but its value as a controlling agent is
doubted by Austen (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 8 (43), 1921, p. 118).

We may now briefly consider the possible biological control of the fly
problem by utilizing the parasites of, and predators on, the maggot and pupal
stages. Amongst the predators on larvae one might mention insectivorous
birds, various ants, including the smail red ant Pheidole megacephala, as well
as Staphylinid (Creophilus) Wuisterid and Carabid beetles and even mice.
Pupa are found to be preyed upon by the larval stage of a small species of
Histerid (Saprinus sp.) in Brisbane. It is, however, from parasitic wasps that
better results are hoped for. Quite a number are known to occur in Australia,
the following having been reported as attacking the maggot stage and destroying
the fly while in the pupal condition :—Australencyrtus. giraulti, Johnston and
Tiegs (perhaps better known as Tachinaephagus giraultiY); Hemilexomyia
abrupta, Dodd; Chalcis calliphorae, Froggatt; and probably C. dipterophaga,
Girault and Dodd. Of these, all but the first-named are rare and apparently
of little value. A. giraulti has been studied by Johnston and Tiegs (1921, pp.
107-110), but very little is known regarding the life history of the others.

Of those which are known to parasitise the pupal stage, the most important
is Nasonia, brevicornis, G. and S. (probably more correctly known as JN.
abnormis, Boh.), others being Spalangia muscidarum, Rechdsn.; Dirhinus
sarcophagae, Froggatt; and Paraspilomicrus froggatti, Jnstn. and Tiegs. Nasonia
has been widely used against the blowfly in sheep country in Eastern Australia,
especially in New South Wales, being distributed from Mr. Froggatt’s labora-
tory. The habits of this insect have been studied by him and his colleagues,
jee eroseatt and MicCarchy, (914 1Ols 19l6; tol OLS 1927)" eas. wellyas
by myself and Tiegs (1921, 1922). The biology of the remaining three has
also been investigated in my laboratory (Johnston and Bancroft, 1920; Johnston
and Tiegs, 1922, a, b). Of all the parasitic wasps, mentioned above, only two
seem to be likely to have any serious effect on blowfly increase, wiz., Aus-
tralencytus and Nasonia. The former has not been tried out in the field, while
in regard to the latter there is considerable diversity of opinion as to its utility,
the question having been discussed in some detail by Johnston and Tiegs (1922,
a, b). Nasonia will readily parasitise practically all available pupae, but is”
unable to penetrate even half an inch of soil in order to reach them; hence its
attacks are limited to such pupae as occur in readily accessible situations.

() Mr. A. A. Girault has informed me that Australencyrtus is a synonym of Tachinae-
phagus. The species has been figured by Froggatt (1922) as Stenosterys fulvoventralis,
Dodd.

206

The last question to be considered is the possibility of applying to sheep
some medicament containing a poison with the twofold aim of (1) destroying
any maggots which may be present, and (2) so poisoning the wool that it will
either no longer attract flies, or else will poison any larvae which may hatch
from eggs subsequently deposited. None of these, however, can control the
blowfly, though they may be the means of preventing the insects from attacking
sheep. Even when found to be effective for a limited time, the procedure has
to be periodically repeated. The use of some repellent or poison is to be looked
on only as a method for saving the sheep. Graybill, Phelps, and Stevenson™ have
published certain data relating to this subject, but the information is not applic-
able to the Australian problem. Cooper and Walling” carried out experiments
with a large number of chemical substances in order to test their value against
blowflies or their larvae. The following were found, under laboratory con-
ditions, to be repellent to the adult insect (and therefore protective), when
applied, diluted with precipitated chalk, to pieces of meat exposed for 17 days
in England:—Methyl] salicylate, p-nitraniline, picric acid, creosote, green oil,
boracic acid, fusel oil, pine oil, alizarine oil, origanum oil, mustard oil, sod oil,
iodoform, dimethylamine, quinoline, allyl alcohol, aloin, saponin, copper car-
bonate, nitrobenzine, sinapis oil, and aniseed oil. The substances applied in
powder form (by using precipitated chalk as a basis) found to be most toxic
to blowfly larvae were arsenic sulphide, nitrobenzine, eucalyptus oil, methyl
salicylate, cedarwood oil, p-nitraniline, B-naphthylamine, oxalic acid, borax,
quinoline, allyl alcohol, picric acid, dimethylamine, copper carbonate, oil of
cloves, turpentine, B-naphthol, creosote, fusel oil, sinapis oil, aniseed oil, and
iodoform. It need hardly be pointed out that expense would prevent many of
these from being used. Some would probably detrimentally affect the wool, while
others would be too readily removed by rain.

Work was undertaken in New South Wales and Queensland for many
years with a view to determining what dips and dressings might be satisfactorily
used. J. L. Froggatt carried out a number of experiments with certain sub-
stances—phenols, cresols, pyridine, resin, turpentine, copper sulphate, iodoform,
eucalyptus oil, sulphur, pyrethum, various mineral oils, fish oils, and arsenic.
The effect of many proprietary dip fluids on maggots was tested, and it was
reported that in most cases not more than 50 per cent. of the maggots were killed
after one hour’s immersion in them. He did not make any recommendation
(1916). A summary of his earlier work was given by his father in 1915 (see
also Froggatt and Froggatt, 1917, pp. 15-19). The following three mixtures were
recommended later (Froggatt and Froggatt, 1918, p. 14) as suitable for swabbing
infested areas:—Spirits of tar and kerosene, 1:3; arsenite of soda, 14 Ib. in
50 gallons of water; castor oil and turpentine, 1:5 (rather expensive) ; while
in regard to copper sulphate solution it was stated that though it deodorised
wool and thus prevented reinfestation, it stained the wool and affected the skin.
In 1920 McDougall gave an account of some spraying experiments at Trangie,
New South Wales. The following swabbing fluid was ultimately recommended
by Froggatt (1922, p. 104) -—Water, 25 gallons; oil, 20 gallons; soap, 10 Ibs.;
arsenite of soda, 13 lb. (or arsenic 1 Ib. and caustic soda 3 ozs.).

A brief survey of Queensland experience in regard to treating sheep may
now be given. Cory (1913, p. 8) recommended, amongst other measures,

@) Graybill, H. W., Repellents for protecting Animals from the Attacks of Flies, Bull.
131, U.S.D.A., 1914. Phelps, E. B., and Stevenson, A. F., Experimental Studies with
Muscicides aid other Fly-destroying Agencies, Bull. 108, Hyg. Lab. U.S. Public Health
Service, 1917.

(3) Cooper, A. F., and Walling, W. A., The effect of various Chemicals on Blowfly, Ann.
Appl. Biol., 2, 1915, pp. 166-182.

207

thorough crutching, the swabbing or dipping of infested hind-quarters in copper
sulphate solution, and “shower dipping” of sheep with two months’ wool in an
arsenical dip. A series of experiments was carried out at Gindie, in Central
Queensland, in 1914, when it was found that no dip or dressing was effective
unless it was poisonous, and even then it afforded protection from fly attack for
only a short time. The effect of applying a strong jet of arsenical fluid under
considerable pressure was also tried and experiments along this line were sub-
sequently continued by Messrs. Brown and Russell at Dalmally, near Roma, the
work being carried out for the Institute of Science and Industry. Besides
“jetting,” the result of using “shower dip” (1.e., applying the dip fluid in such
a way that it falls like rain on the imprisoned sheep), and ordinary dips (where
the sheep are forced to swim through and are actually fully immersed in a
narrow trough or bath containing the arsenical fluid), was carefully noted (see
Brown, 1919; R. S. C., 1922). Details of the method have been published
(R. S. C., 1922). Most of the available proprietary specifics were tried out,
using varying strengths, and it was found that ordinary arsenite of soda solution
was not only very much cheaper but more easily applied and gave better pro-
tection against fly attacks, as well as being harmless to the sheep and the quality
of the wool. j

In “jetting,’ a steady pressure of from 60 to 200 lbs. per square inch,
according to the amount and density of the wool (4 to 6 months’ wool, 100 to
125 lbs. pressure; full fleece, 200 Ibs. pressure) was made use of, about 14 pints
of the fluid being the average required for the treatment of each sheep as they
passed singly through a narrow race when the jet was directed against the breech.
Up to 3,000 sheep per day could be so treated by four men, and the cost per
animal treated was found to be one-fifth penny. In ordinary weather 07 per
cent. solution gave three or more months’ protection besides destroying any
maggots already present, but in wet weather the arsenic may be removed more
quickly, and hence the process may need to be repeated more frequently. It
was found that jetting with a solution containing 15 per cent. arsenic did not
affect a small experimental flock, while thousands were treated with 1 per cent.
solution without a single instance of any baneful result. If sheep were treated
by jetting with a 07 per cent. solution three times a year the cost would be only
three-fifths penny per sheep. In the case of pregnant ewes, it was recommended
that if flies be not attacking, jetting should be carried out as near lambing time
as possible, but for other sheep the solution should be applied when flies begin
to attack. Even in the case of animals with skin injuries resulting from maggot
infestation, no losses were caused through the jetting process.

The “shower” dip fluid contained about 0°23 per cent. arsenic, and animals
were subject to it for from 7 to 10 minutes (=8-inch rainfall), when the fleece
became thoroughly wetted. In the “swim dips” it was found that 02 per cent.
arsenical solution destroyed lice and other ectoparasites, but was of little use as
a protection against fly. Strengths up to 05 per cent. were used without ill
effects being noticed either on the sheep or the wool. For ewes in lamb, weak
sheep, and those with 6 or more months’ wool, shower dipping rather than
“swim dipping” was recommended, but for dry sheep and those with little growth
of wool, the swim dip was preferred, as it required less time to obtain the result.

“As over 90 per cent. of the fly attack is on the breech, jetting is, as a rule,
the best method of protection, as it is cheaper and a stronger solution can be
used over the whole body. In the comparatively few cases, however, where
other parts of the body are attacked, jetting is obviously useless, and resort

208

must be had to the dip; the dip also being necessary to exterminate other external
parasites. So far there have been no losses from arsenical poisoning. When
the sheep are dipped they should not be overheated; not dipped after midday
in winter, and not after 4 p.m. in summer. They should not be driven immedi-
ately alter dipping. Strict attention to these important points means that losses
are practically nil” (R. S. C., 1922). There is no need to crutch after these
various methods of treatment.

These .results, based on experiments with thousands of sheep, must carry
weight, in spite of the fact that they are opposed to the statements of the New
South. Wales investigators. Froggatt and I'roggatt reported against the frequent
spraying and dipping of sheep with arsenical solution of excessive strength on
account of the danger of arsenical poisoning, and stated that though a spray
containing 14 lb. arsenite of soda in 16 gallons of water may be used as a surface
application, not more than ~ Ib. in 50 gallons of water should be used if intended
to reach the skin (1917, 20). The latter would mean only 03 per cent.
arsenite of soda and a ie lower percentage of arsenic. In a later article
(1918, p. 14) they recommended the former. strength (1.e., nearly 1 per cent.
arsenite solution ) nig use when jetting, and mentioned that about three weeks
was the longest period for which the best proprietary specific retained any pro-
tective value. A little later, Froggatt (1922, pp. 14, 19) stated that jetting (at
Warrah, New South Wales) at a pressure of about 125 lbs. cost one half-penny
per sheep, the solution containing 1 Ib. arsenic in 40 gallons water (i.e., 25 per
cent. arsenic).

Mr. :Froggatt’s contentions were traversed in the B risbane Press (1922) by
Messrs. Russell and W. G. Brown, who reiterated the results reported above
relating to experimental work at Dalmally.

The writer would like to suggest that the arsenical treatment, by whatever
method,' may owe its efficacy as a protection against fly to the fact that the
poison destroys the bacteria present in the soiled or damp wool or in the sores,
and thus may render such treated parts quite unfavourable as sources of food
supply: for. any larvae which may be deposited. Besides, the fact that the
putrefactive and other organisms are killed, causes a cessation in the production
of those odours which have a chemotropic influence on the female blowfly—thus
not only. is the attractive influence more or less destroyed for the time being,
but also any. eggs or larvae which may reach such wool, encounter a powerful
contact poison, and, besides, are in a material in which the organisms that
appear to be necessary to produce conditions favourable to the fly larvae, have
been more or less destroyed, so that starvation may result.

It is known that some insects, including flies, are attracted to certain plants,
and it was suggested that members of the genus Stapelia (natives of South
Africa) might be grown in expectation that blowflies would be misled by the

carrion-like odour of the flowers of such plants and deposit eggs on them, such
eggs or larvae resulting from them perishing. Froggatt (1915, 42) com-
municated with the South African entomologist who reported Peanie and
pointed out that South Africa enjoyed no special immunity from blowfly, though
Stapelias were native plants there.

In the Kew Bulletin (No. 10, 1922; Nature, February 10, 1922) Stapf
reported that a Brazilian “stink grass” (Melinis munutiflora inermis) possessed
an oil with insect-repelling qualities, and thought it might be introduced into the
tsetse-fly belt in Africa to act as a food for cattle and as a fly repellent. He
referred to its attempted introduction into Australia (Kew Bulletin, 1900), but
no further information was available regarding it there. The writer is not
aware of the plant having been utilized against blowfly in the Commonwealth.

209

SUMMARY.

The writer agrees with Froggatt (1922, p. 20) that the solution of the
Australian sheep maggot-fly problem lies in the destruction of the fly before
it has had an opportunity to deposit eggs or larvae on living sheep. Extermina-
tion cannot be hoped for, but fly control is not only a possibility but a necessity
under present conditions of sheep raising.

Fly control can be most successfully established by systematic destruction
(by burning or poisoning) of carcases and carrion. Co-operation amongst sheep
owners is essential, as neglect on one sheep-raising property may easily lead to
infestation in a neighbouring “station” as well, since it is known that blowflies
can travel with, against, and across the wind for many miles in a very short time.

Of secondary importance as a means of controlling flies is the utilization
of traps for the adult insects and of various chalcids which attack either the
iarval or pupal stages of such flies. Published evidence in regard to the value
of Nasonia in this connection is rather conflicting.

The preservation of insectivorous and carrion-feeding birds is highly
desirable.

Experimental work in Queensland has demonstrated the value of applica-
tions to the sheep of strong arsenical solutions as a means for destroying any
maggots and other external parasites already present, and for affording a very
marked measure of protection for periods of from six weeks to three months,
such application being made especially in the form of “jetting,” or else in the
form of showering, dipping, or swabbing. Such treatment may be accompanied
by crutching in order to clear away the “dags” and soiled wool.

it is suggested that bacterial activity may be the prime factor in inducing
blowfly attack, and that the arsenical treatment may owe its protective efficacy
to its bactericidal action.

It may be advisable for sheep breeders to dispense with wrinkled sheep, as
they are most liable to infestation. It may be necessary to breed a type of animal
carrying very little wool on the breech. It is well known that crossbreds are less
liable to infestation than are merinos.

A change in the time of shearing may be advantageous in order that the
sheep may not carry a heavy fleece during the season when fly attack is most
likely, 7.e., during autumn and spring.

REFERENCES.
Brown, W. G.—
1919—Sheep Fly Investigations (Report of Queensland Special Committee ).
Science and Industry, 1, pp. 63, 64
1919—QOueensland Agr. Jour., Feb., 1919.

Cooper, W. F.—

1913—The Sheep Maggot Pest in Australia, 88 pp. Contains Essays by
Froggatt (pp. 10-48), Woodburn (pp. 49-54), McLeod and
Holme (DD, 20))a

Cory, A. H., and Jarvis, E.—
1913—Reports on Investigations into the Sheep Maggot-fly Pest (pamphlet ).

Dept -Nenicy Otand, 1913. \Canvise report, pp: S169)
Editor—

1921—The Blowfly Pest. Demonstration at Dalmally. Q’land Agr. Jour.,
June, 1921, pp. 249-2535 (Rev. Appl. Enty B49, pp. 156, 157.

210

Froggatt, J. L—

eo eRae oe and Dressings used for Protecting Sheep from Blowflies. Agr.
Gaz. ans: Wales, 27, pp. 17-28.

1918—A Study ‘of the External Breathing Apparatus of the Larvae of some
Muscoid Flies. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 27, pp. 17-28.

1919—An Economic Study of Nasonia brevicornis, etc. Bull. Ent. Res.,
9, pp. 257-262.

Froggatt, W. W.—

1905—The Sheep Maggot-fly, etc. Agr. Gaz., N.S. Wales, 16, pp. 16-22.

1910—Sheep Maggot-fly in the West. L.c., 21, pp. 890-892.

1913—Maggot-fly in Sheep. Essay in Cooper, 1913, pp. 10-48.

1914a—The Sheep Maggot and its Parasite. Agr. Gaz., N.S. Wales, 25,
pp. 107-113.

1914b—Sheep Maggot-flies. L.c., pp. 756-758, and in Froggatt, 1915.

1915—Sheep Maggot-flies. Farmers’ Bull. 95, Dept. Agr., N.S. Wales.

1916a—Sheep Maggot-flies, No. 2. Farmers’ Bull. 110, Dept. Agr., N.S.
Wales.

1916b—A new Parasite on Sheep Maggot-flies, etc. Agr. Gaz., N.S. Wales,
27, pp. 505, 506 (also in Froggatt and Froggatt, 1917, pp. 29-31).

1917—Policeman Flies. Fossorial Wasps that catch Flies. L.c., 28, pp.

667-669.

1919—The Digger Chalcid Wasp, ete. L.c., 30, pp. 853-855.

1921—Sheep Maggot-flies and their Parasites. L.c., 32, pp. 726-731, 807-813
also in Froggatt, 1922a, pp. 22-32).

1922a—Sheep Maggot Flies, No. 5. Farmers’ Bull. 144, Dept. Agr., N.S.
Wales.

1922b—Oil and Arsenic Swab for Sheep. Agr. Gaz., N.S. Wales, 33, p. 104.

Froggatt, W. W., and Froggatt, J. L—
1914Suggestions in regard to the Checking of Sheep Maggot-flies. L.c.,
25, pp. 753-755 (and in Froggatt, 1915, pp. 14-17).
1917—Sheep Maggot-flies, No. 3. Farmers’ Bull. 113, Dept. Agr., N.S.
Wales.
1918—Sheep Maggot-flies, No. 4. L.c., No. 122.

Froggatt, W. W., and McCarthy, T.—
1914—The Parasite of the Sheep Maggot-fly (Nasonia brevicornis). Agr.
Gaz., 25, pp. 759-764.
Gilruth, J. A—
1907—The Sheep Maggot. Bull. 12, Vet. Div. Dept. Agr., N. Z’d (and in
16, Ann. Rep. Dept. Agr. NieZ’7d5. 1908p: F197, 198).

Johnston, T. H. —
1920—The Chalcid Parasites of Muscid Flies in Australia. Sci. and Indus-
try, 2, pp. 308-312.
1921—The Sheep Maggot-fly Problem in Queensland. Q’land Agr. Jour.,
June, pp. 244-248 (Rev. Appl. Ent. B., 9, pp. 155, were
1922—-Some facts of importance relating to Sineen Maggot-flies. GA OGin,
pp. 272-275.

Johnston, T. H., and Bancroft, M. J.—
1920—Notes on the Chalcid Parasites of Muscoid Flies in Australia. Proc.
Roy. Soc. Q’land, 32, pp. 19-30.

211

Johnston, T. H., and Hardy, G. H.—

1922—A Synonymic List of some described Australian Calliphorine Flies.
L.c., 34, pp. 191-194.

1923—Observations regarding the Life Cycle of certain Australian Blowflies.
Ley So) \pper 2-42:

Johnston, T. H., and Tiegs, O. W.—

1922—Notes on the Biology of some of the more common Queensland
Muscoid Flies. L.c., 34, pp. 77-104.
1922b—What part can Chalcid Wasps play in controlling Australian Sheep

Maggot Flies? Q’land Agr. Jour., March, pp. 128-131.
Knibbs, G. H.—

1922—Ann. Rep. Director Commonw. Inst. Sci. Industry, 1. Sheep Blowfly
Pest, pp. 11-13. Reprinted as Investigations in Queensland
concerning Sheep Blowfly, in Agr. Gaz., N.S. Wales, 1923, p. 14.

MacDougall, A. H.—
1920—Spraying as a preventive for Blowflies. Agr. Gaz., N.S. Wales, 31,
Paoli Ze
Miller, D—
1921—Sheep Maggot-flies and their Allies. N. Z’d Jour. Agr., 22 (6), 14 pp.
Place, F. E.—
1922—Blowflies and Sheep. Jour. Dept. Agr., S. Austr., pp. 700-705.
R. S. C—

1922—Report of Special Committee on the Sheep Blowfly Pest in Queens-

land. “Blowfly Pest,” etc., in Scientific Australian, June 15,

? 1922, pp. 45-47; and August 15, pp. 88-90 (see also Brown,
WEG. and: Kaibbs, Gz ae

212

AUSTRALIAN COLEOPTERA.—Part IV.
By Atspert H. Exston, F.E.S.
(Read Ausust 9° 1923"

PLATE VOY Vi.

COLYDIMD A!

Deretaphrus bucculentus, n. sp.
Pl. xv., fig. 1.

Subopaque, reddish-brown, elytra slightly paler, antennae and legs reddish;
under-surface same colour as above, in parts diluted with red.

Head subtriangular, eyes entirely concealed from above, with a round,
moderately deep depression between antennae, and with dense, comparatively
large punctures. Antennae robust, reaching to about the first third of the pro-
thorax, the first joint large and globular, the remainder very compact, the last
three dilated and forming a club. Prothorax distinctly wider than head, longer
than wide, the apex wider than the base, the lateral margins in front curved
outwards, and incurved to base, the anterior angles obtuse, the posterior ones
acute, almost imperceptibly depressed longitudinally in the middle; densely
punctured, the punctures somewhat larger than those on head, and in places
confluent. Elytra wider than prothorax and about two and a half times as
long, sides parallel to beyond the middle, then gradually rounded towards apex,
base between scutellum and humeral angles carinate; punctate-striate, the
punctures somewhat smaller and less distinct than those on prothorax, the first
interstice wide and flat, the remainder carinate. Scutellum small and circular.
Under-surface with large, regularly placed punctures, on abdomen more or less
arranged in transverse rows, those on fourth and fifth segments more compact.
Legs robust, anterior and intermediate tibiae provided on the outside with four
to five small teeth, the posterior ones with only two small teeth near the apex, and
all the tibiae, on the outside, furnished with a large apical spur, and on the
inside, with a free spur resembling a stout bristle. Length, 85 mm.

Hab.—South Australia: Murray River (A. H. Elston). Type (unique),
in author’s collection.

This species is readily distinguished from all previously described ones by
the peculiar structure of the head, the basal angles of which entirely conceal
the eyes when viewed from above. On the elytra the second and fourth inter-
stices are more strongly carinated than the remainder.

CLERIDAE.

Orthrius duplopunctatus, n. sp.
Bilexy sities 2:

Fuscous; head and prothorax, in the greater part, ferruginous; palpi (in
parts infuscated), spot on each shoulder, submedian curved fascia on each
elytron, and under-surface of tarsi testaceous. Thickly clothed with depressed
white hairs, longer and of a shaggy appearance at sides of prothorax and on
legs. Under-surface latericeous to testaceous, part of abdomen slightly infus-
cated. Lightly clothed with pale semi-depresséd hairs.

213

Head with a small depression near the base of each antenna; the punctures
barely discernible and scattered. Antennae reaching beyond base of prothorax,
second joint the smallest, ninth to eleventh forming a loose club, the eleventh
ovate-acuminate, with the inside lightly emarginated. Prothorax not much
longer than wide, sides roundly dilated near the middle, before apex with a
curved, moderately deep, transverse impression, and with a straight one at the
base. Very finely and sparsely punctured, the punctures somewhat more dis-
tinct near the apex than elsewhere, the sides at the middle with a few, more or
less distinct, transverse wrinkles. Elytra wider than prothorax and not quite
three times as long, sides subparallel to beyond the middle, then gently rounded
off towards apex. The punctures small, but distinct, arranged in double rows,
less distinct in the posterior half than in the forepart, the alternate interstices
slightly raised. Under-surface lightly punctured; on the abdomen the punctures
are placed, more or less, in transverse rows. Posterior Jegs longer and more
slender than the anterior and intermediate ones. Length, 85 mm.

Hab.—Queensland: Brisbane (H. Pottinger). Type (unique), in author’s
collection.

The dark portion of the head is represented by a round, fuscous spot on
the top, midway between the eyes, and is joined to the dark apex of the pro-
thorax, the latter having also three dark spots near its lateral margins. The
submedian fasciae on the elytra are narrowly infuscated at the suture. The
peculiar sculpture of the elytra should make this species easily recognizable; it
is closely covered with large, somewhat shallow, reticulate punctures, with the
interstices longitudinally slightly carinate; and in each of these depressions are
placed two smaller ones, side by side, which give the elytra the appearance of
having double rows of small punctures, with the alternate interstices carinate.
This species differs from the description of O. cylindricus, Gorh., by not having
the head thickly and coarsely punctured, the prothorax only lightly punctured,
not at all granulose, and without a pale subapical macula.

ORTHRIUS TRICOLOR, Schenk.

A specimen from Sydney, New South Wales, differs from the author’s
description by having the labrum, and all the tibiae at the apex, testaceous;
and with a small, irregularly-shaped, black macula on the top of the head,
midway between the eyes.

THANASIMOMORPHA.

Mr. Edward A. Chapin, of the Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington,
has pointed out to me that the insect determined by Blackburn as Thanasimo-
morpha bipartita, Blanch., is not the species Blanchard described from Guam;
with this opinion I quite concur.

Gorham remarked (Cist. Ent., 11, p. 62) that Tillus bipartitus, Blanch.
(which was subsequently pointed out by Lesne as being a synonym of T.
notatus, Klug), did not belong to the Tillides, and that it resembled a Thana-
simus. Blackburn observed this and (Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1891, p. 303)
proposed the new genus Thanasimomorpha, with bipartita, as the type of it.
This insect is conspecific with his intricata (pl. xv., fig. 3), which he added to
the above genus in the same paper that he proposed the new generic name. As
the genus Thanasimomorpha was, apparently, founded as much upon intricata
as the insect determined as bipartita, Blanch., I consider, in the absence of any
definite ruling on this particular point by the International Code, that Black-
burn’s name for the genus should stand, with intricata, Blackb., as its type,
and bipartita, Blackb. (nec Blanch.), as a variety of the above.

214

Oodontophlogistus, n. gen.

Body elongate, moderately convex. Head comparatively small, in front
of the eyes narrow and elongated. Eyes large, salient, very finely granulated,
and only slightly emarginated in front. Mandibles robust, curved inwards,
before apex with a conspicuous tooth, and with a smaller one below that.
Maxillary and labial palpi rather long, the apical joint of each is similar in
shape and size, elongated, and gradually dilated towards apex, which is
obliquely truncated. Antennae reaching to about the middle of prothorax,
joint 1 large and almost globular, 2 shorter and not as wide, 3 to 8 small and
compact, 9 to 11 forming.a loose club. Prothorax transverse, upper-surface
more or less uneven, sides near middle roundly dilated, anterior margin some-
what narrower than the posterior one. Elytra subparallel and gradually rounded
towards apex; with ten rows of punctures on each elytron, which is truncated
at each apex, and sometimes acuminate at the apical sutural angle. Legs
moderately robust, posterior thighs not reaching apex of abdomen. Tarsi long
and slender, joints not laminate, claw joint the longest; anterior and inter-
mediate tarsi with only four visible joints, the posterior with five, the first of
which is small, but nevertheless can be distinguished. Claws robust and bifid.

This generic name is proposed for two species formerly placed by me
in Phlogistus, namely, rubriventris and ungulatus. After the descriptions of
the above species had been published a number of unmounted specimens of the
latter species was received from Mr. J. Clark, Western Australia, and, on
examining these, it was evident that they could not be associated with those
insects which are referred to Phlogistus, although, in general appearance, they
are somewhat similar.

TROGODENDRON AUROTOMENTOSUM, Schenk.

A specimen from South Perth, Western Australia, differs from the author’s
description in being smaller; bluish-black; and the oblique, median fasciae on
the elytra ivory-white.

ELEALE.

In my introduction to the above genus, published in the Transactions of this
Society in 1921, the opinion was expressed that E. advena, Chev., and E.
pantomelas, Boisd., had been incorrectly assigned to this genus. Mr. Edward
A. Chapin has recently written to inform me that the former is beyond doubt an
Epiclines. he latter species, the type of which is in the Museum d’Histoire
Naturelle de Paris, was examined by Lesne and said to be a true Eleale.™

Lemidia trimaculata, n. sp.
Pl. xv., fig. 4.

Nitid; red, in parts paler, almost latericeous; palpi and joints 3 to 11 of
the antennae more or less infuscated; eyes, labrum, mandibles, scutellum, three
maculae on elytra (one median and two subapical), narrow margin at apex of
elytra, and greater part of legs, black. Clothed with moderately long, straggling,
blackish, interspersed with whitish, hairs. Under-surface same colour as above,
with the mesosternum (which is more nitid), metasternum, and the last three
segments of abdomen, black. Lightly clothed with pale straggling hairs.

Head wide, between eyes flattened, with two large, round, interocular
foveae, and with a few, scattered, indistinct punctures. Prothorax wider than
long, sides strongly rounded near the middle, contracted anteriorly and pos-
teriorly; with deep, transverse, subapical and subbasal impressions; and with a
few barely perceptible punctures. Scutellum almost circular. Elytra wider

(1) Lesne, Bull. Soc. Ent. France, 1909, p. 206.

215

than prothorax, and about thrice as long, sides before middle slightly contracted,
behind middle perceptibly dilated, then rounded off towards apex; with rows of
scarcely discernible punctures. Under-surface with a few scattered punctures.
Length, 6 mm.

Hab.—Queensland: Crow’s Nest. Type (unique), in Queensland Museum.

This species may be easily distinguished by its colour and markings; the
median macula is asymmetrical, the part on the left elytron being larger than
that on the right, the subapical maculae, however, are symmetrical; the ground
colour of the elytra is latericeous, and the longitudinal rows of scarcely definable
punctures are of a bright red; the latter colour, however, predominates, which
gives the insect its reddish appearance.

DESCRIPMIONG OR RIVA Ove

Fig. 1. Deretaphrus bucculentus, n. sp.

» 2 Orthrius duplopunctatus, n. sp.

» 9% Lhanasimomorpha intricata, Blackb.
4. Lemidia trimaculata, n. sp.

”

216

MONOGRAPH ON THE AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPLEURIDAE ORDER
POLYPLACOPHORA, WITH A DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES.

By Epwin Asupy, F.L.S., M.B.O.U.
IPTPAGES OGY I-20 Dee.
[Read May 10, 1923.]

Fam. LEPIDOPLEURIDAE, Pilsbry.
Genus LEPIDOPLEURUS, Risso, 1826.

Of the four genera included by Pilsbry under the family name, two only
are found in Australian waters (Man. Con., vol. xiv., pp, 1, 2), and one of these,
Choriplanx=Microplax, of Adams and Angas, has been shown by the writer
(Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xlv., 1921, Ashby) to belong to a very different
family, that of the ACANTHOCHITIDAE.

Thus the known Australian representatives of this family are all confined
to the genus Lepidopleurus, Risso.

Genus LEPIDOPLEURUS, Risso, 1826.

Pilsbry (l.c.) gives the following characters: “Insertion plates absent. Girdle
with minute, gravelly, smooth, or striated scales. « Type, L. cajetanus, Poli.”
He also adopts and publishes a description of Carpenter’s section Deshayesiella,
Carp., 1878: “Girdle having delicate spines and chatfy scales. Valves curved
and beaked, sutural plates and sinus as in Lepidochiton. Type, L. curvatus,
Gpr.”

Thiele (in Chun’s Zoologica Heft., lvi., Rev. des Systems der Chitonen,
pt. 1, p. 14, 1909) proposes a subgenus, Parachiton, with L. acuminatus, Thiele,
from Duke of York Island as type.

Iredale, in paper on Chiton Fauna of the Kermadec Islands (Proc. Mal.
Soc., vol. xi., pt. 1, March, 1914), places his new species L. mestayerae under
Thiele’s subgenus, suggesting that it be elevated to full generic rank, and pro-
poses another subgenus, Terenochiton, Iredale, with L. tropicalis, Iredale, as
type, and suggests that all the small Australian representatives of the genus
Lepidopleurus be reterred to this subgenus.

Iredale and May, in Misnamed Tasmanian Chitons (Proc. Mal. Soc., pts. 2
and 3, November, 1916, pp. 98, 99), discuss Australian representatives of this
genus from Tasmania and South Australia, reaching no definite conclusion, but
stating: “However, all those we have examined seem to fall into Parachiton,
since the girdle appears to be covered with slender, glassy spikes.” Personally,
for the present, I am disinclined to adopt any of the suggested subgenera, but
would point out that Carpenter’s and Pilsbry’s section Deshayesiella, which
was published by Pilsbry (J.c.), seems to exhibit the characters of some of the
Australian species and antedates Thiele’s subgenus Parachiton. I find that the
spicules, even more than the scales, in members of this genus, become easily
detached, so much so that species that have been supposed to be bare of spicules
are found on the examination of fresh, well-preserved specimens to have them
present. I have already, in a previous paper, expressed doubts as to the wisdom
of dividing this genus into subgenera on such a character.

My thanks are due to Mr. W. L. May, of Tasmania, and Dr. W. G. Torr,
of this State, for the loan of much material without which the production of
this paper would have been impossible.

217

The following species have been described as from Australia:—ZL. inqui-
natus, Reeve, 1847; L. liratus, Adams and Angas, 1865; L. matthewsianus,
Bednall, 1906; L. badius, Hedley and Hull, 1906; L. columnarius, Hedley and
May, 1908; L. niger, Yorr, 1911; L. pelagicus, Vorr, 1912; and, lastly, a form
I am describing in this paper and naming L. profundus, Ashby, 1923.

LEPIDOPLEURUS INQUINATUS, Reeve, 1847.

(Chiton inquinatus, Reeve, Conch. Icon., pl. xxit., fig. 154, May, 1847; Ischnochiton
inquinatus, Rv. of Pilsbry, Man. Con., vol. xiv., p. 90; Lepidopleurus imquinatus, Rv. of
Iredale, Trans. N. Z’d Inst., vol. xlviii., 1914, p. 423; auct. non L. inquinatus, Rv. of Sykes,
Proc. Mal. Soc., vol. ii., pt. 2, July, 1896; non L. inquinatus, Rv. of Ashby, Proc. Roy. Soc.
Vict., 33 (N.S.), 1921=—? Lepidopleurus iredalei, of Ashby, l.c.

In my paper describing the Bracebridge Wilson collection, in the National
‘Museum of Victoria, reference was made to Iredale and May’s paper (Proc.
Mal. Soc., vol. xii., pts. 2 and 3, Nov., 1916); in commenting thereon it was
contended that with the exception of recently-preserved, perfect specimens, the
absence, or otherwise, of spicules on the girdle was not a sufficient indication
for complete identification, for in this genus the spicules become detached when
left long in spirit. The description and figures of Reeve’s L. inquinatus so
perfectly fitted the dredged specimens in the Wilson collection that one seemed
justified in accepting Sykes’ recognition of Reeve’s shell in the dredged speci-
mens in that collection.

I then separated the New Zealand shell on account of its distinctive large
girdle scales; the sculpture of that form is so close to that of the Australian
shells that, in the absence of the scales, they could not be separated. I therefore
gave the name of L. iredalei, Ashby, to the New Zealand shell.

When going through the types of Polyplacophora in the British Museum, in
June, 1922, in company with Mr. Tom Iredale, he pointed out to me that, in his
opinion, Reeve’s types of this shell were wrongfully labelled as from “Van
Diemen’s Land, Dr. Sinclair,” and were conspecific with one of the New Zealand
shells. He had come to this conclusion as the result of careful comparison
with a number of specimens loaned to him by Mr. W. L. May and Dr. W. G.
Torr, from Tasmania and South Australia, respectively. These specimens are
now before me, and I regret they were not available for my comparison with
Reeve’s types while I was in the British Museum. But this is less important in
face of the fact that Mr. Iredale had had ample opportunity of making such
comparisons prior to my reaching London. I had with me a disarticulated
spirit specimen from the Wilson collection, and the following is a
copy of my notes:—‘There are four specimens of Chitons on Reeve’s type
tablet; one is a juvenile /schnochiton, probably lincolnensis, Ashby; one had
been disarticulated by Sykes; the remaining two were compared with the Vic-
torian specimen I had brought with me. This latter is a little deeper in
sculpture than those on the tablet, but otherwise similar; on the other hand,
the girdle scales on the Victorian specimen are much smaller than those of the
two on the tablet, and the bases of numerous spicules are apparent on the former,
whereas I cannot detect them on Reeve’s specimens; although they are dirty,
they certainly accord more with the New Zealand species, with which I believe
them conspecific.”

As before stated, in good specimens there is very little difference in the
sculpture between the New Zealand shells and these dredged Australian ones,
but the larger and broader scales and absence of spicules, except at the sutures
on the former, easily separate the two. I am therefore concurring with Mr.
Iredale’s opinion that Dr. Sinclair’s specimens were not from Tasmania but
from New Zealand.

218

Iredale and May (l.c., p. 99) say, “Moreover, we have two species collected on
the New Zealand littoral.” So while the name L. inguinatus, Reeve, must in
future be limited to the New Zealand shell, it is not quite certain whether L.
iredale, Ashby, is a synonym thereof or stands as the name of the second
species, referred to by Iredale and May—that question must be left for future
determination.

LEPIDOPLEURUS LIRATUS, Adams and Angas, 1864.

Pie xvas, fen il.

(Proc. Zoolog. Soc. (Lond.), 1864, p. 192; Angas, l.c., p. 187, 1865; L. inquinatus, Rv.
of Bednall, Proc. Mal. Soc., vol. ii., pt. 4, p. 141, 1897; L. inquinatus, Rv. of Torr, Trans.
Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xxxvi., p. 141, 1912; L. liratus, Ad. and Ang. of Ashby, Proc.
Roy. ‘Soc. *Vict:33) GN-S,))a1920)

Introduction—While Adams and Angas described several different chitons
under the generic name Lepidopleurus, they do not appear to have recognized
its generic characters; the species under consideration is the only one of them
that properly belongs to this genus. This fact led Pilsbry to suggest that “‘it
might be an Ischnochiton.”

The following is the original description :—‘Shell small, elongated, convex ;
yellowish-brown maculated with pale brown. End valves and lateral areas con-
centrically, remotely sulcated, densely and minutely lirate, the lirae closely
pustulose. Posterior valve elevated, lateral areas slightly elevated; median
valves obtusely carinated in the middle; dorsal areas longitudinally lirate, the
lirae closely pustulose. Girdle pale brown, densely covered with minute scales.
Length, 8 mm.; width,4 mm. Yorke Peninsula, South Australia, under stones
at low water. Angas.” Note by Author.—The girdle is clothed with flat,
elongate, imbricating scales, mostly straight-sided and considerably longer than
broad, which are very easily detached. From amongst these scales proceed,
chiefly near the shell, long, white, cylindrical spicules, which are about four
times the length of the scales; these spicules are in clusters at the sutures,
elsewhere more or less scattered. The girdle is also furnished with a spiculose
fringe and the underside is closely covered with flat, elongate scales. This species
is a littorine form, and although never common, I have collected it at all places
visited in St. Vincent Gulf, and also at Port Lincoln, and have recorded it for
the State of Victoria. Dr. Torr has found it at Port McDonnell, in the South-
east of this State, to St. Francis Island in the west. As this species does not
appear to have been figured hitherto, one is included in the plate. accompanying
this.

LEPIDOPLEURUS MATTHEWSIANUS, Bednall, 1906.
Pl. xvi., figs. 5, 5a.

(Bednall, Proc. Mal. Soc., vol. vii., pt. 2, June, 1906, p. 92, pl. ix., figs. 1 1-f; Torr,
Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xxxvi. 1912, p. 142; Papers and Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas., p. 28
=L. niger, Torr, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xxxv., 1911.)

The writer supplied the specimens to Mr. Bednall which were used in the
original description ; they were from Marino, which is therefore the type locality.
He found it on the occasion of his first collecting trip to that locality, in 1897,
and he has since taken them at most of the localities visited in South Australia.
It was because of Mr. Bednall’s request that he refrained from naming this shell.
Original description:—‘Shell elongate, regularly arched; keel and lateral areas
indistinct, but clearly defined when seen through a lens; jugal area absent;
lateral slopes rounded. Colour greyish-white. Anterior valve closely, minutely,
regularly, radially granulated throughout. Central valves similarly ornamented,
the granulations running longitudinally on the dorsal area and radially on the
lateral areas, the granulations by their direction defining the areas. Sutural
plates small, triangular, and very distant, the jugal sinus consequently being

219

exceedingly wide; posterior dorsal margin straight. Posterior valve as the
others, and with prominent, central, obtuse, elevated apex, the slope to the margin
being slightly concave. Bednall. Length, 9 mm.; breadth, 35 mm. Hab., St.
Vincent Gulf.”

Note.—The description should have the words “and pleural” inserted, then
reading, “The granulations running longitudinally on the dorsal and pleural
areas.” The body of this species is nearly always bright pink or red, but some-
times practically black. The shell varies from grey to rufous or dark brown.

LEPIDOPLEURUS COLUMNARIUS, Hedley and May, 1908.
Pl. xvi., figs. 3, 3 a, b.

(Hedley and May, Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. vii, No. 2, p. 123, pl. xxiv., figs. 27, 28;
May and Torr, Papers and Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas., p. 28, 1912—L. pelagicus of Torr, Trans.
Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xxxvi., pp. 165, 166, pl. 5, figs. 2 a-f, 1912; Gatliff and Gabriel,
Proc, Roy, Soc. Vict, vol. px<xvi, “G@NES:))) ps) 78,0, 1913!)

Original description:—‘“Valves round-backed, greatly arched, lateral areas
inclined to the rest of the valve. Posterior valve with full rounded umbo.
Girdle with minute, dense, imbricating scales. Colour uniform waxen. Sculpture;
minute grains strung in longitudinal, radiating rows, parted by deep grooves of
equal width. Going forward from the mucro additional rows are intercalated.
The pleural and jugal areas together have about 50 rows. The lateral areas are
differentiated by densely packed, less prominent, and disarranged grains. Length
of single curled and shrivelled specimen, about 8 mm.; breadth, 3 mm.”

To the above description I would add, from an examination of the Port
Arthur specimen :—‘Valves carinated as well as very greatly arched; lateral
areas beset with radiating rows of closely-packed granules (about 20 rows in
specimen before me); the posterior margin is deeply toothed, the separating
grooves being diagonally turned upwards. The girdle, in addition to the scales,
is furnished with slender, white spicules. For further details see notes under
L. pelagicus, Torr. Hab.—The type with two valves was dredged by Mr. W.
L. May in 100 fathoms, seven miles east of Cape Pillar, Northern Tasmania.
The same gentleman dredged several valves in 80 fathoms off Schouten Island.

One almost complete specimen, girdle damaged, dredged in 70 fathoms,
off Port Arthur; dredged in Bass Strait by Trawler “Endeavour”; dredged
by Sir Joseph Verco, in 130 fathoms, off Cape Jaffa; and several valves, off
the south-east coast of South Australia, in 300 fathoms.

From the foregoing records it will be seen that this species is essentially
a very deep-water form, being found in varying depths from 420 feet to
1,800 feet.

LEPIDOPLEURUS BADIUS, Hedley and Hull, 1909.

(Hedley and Hull, Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. vii. No. 4, p. 260, pl. 73, figs. 1, 2, 1909;
Ashby, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xliv., 1920, p. 283.)

Original description:—‘Shell small, broad in proportion to length, rather
low, rounded dorsally. Sculpture uniformly grain-striate. Colour entirely
ochraceous, the valve margin sometimes rust. Anterior valve densely radially
grained. Median valves narrow with a straight, posterior edge; central and
jugal areas confluent, lateral areas indistinctly indicated by a slight fold. About
50 grain-rows to a valve, medially about a dozen grains are close set in a row,
but wider apart from row to row, the rows longitudinal in the middle, con-
verging at the sides, and losing their regularity on the lateral areas. Posterior
valve with central, elevated apex .and concave, posterior slope. Girdle beset
with small chaffy scales, fringed with spicules. Interior white, sutural plates
rounded, jugal sinus very broad and shallow. Insertion plates entirely absent.
Length, 6 mm.; breadth, 35 mm. The body of the animal is a deep-red colour.”

220

Note.—I have taken this rare Lepidopleurus at Marino and Cape Jervis,
and Dr. Torr has recently taken it at Kangaroo Island, all in this State.

These differ from L. matthewsianus, Bed., in being broader, slightly carin-
ated, granules coarser and further apart. Specimens taken in this State differ
considerably from one another in system and regularity of sculpture; in some,
the granules are placed quite irregularly, in others in fairly definite rows. Thus
although several of them show decided differences from the paratype that was
given to me by Mr. Tom Iredale, this element of variation prevents one from
considering them distinct. In none of the specimens collected by myself can the
animal be described as “‘deep-red” colour; in every case it has been buff.

Hedley and Hull record it from “Balmoral and Shark Island (Port Jack-
son); Long Reef, near Narrabeen, though a rare shell.”

LEPIDOPLEURUS NIGER, Torr, 1911.
Pl. xvi., fig. 4.
(Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xxxv., pp. 105, 106, pl. xxv., figs. 5 a-f, 1911.)

Dr. Torr has been good enough to allow me to examine the type of L.
niger, Lorr (which for some years has been misplaced), and I find it undoubt-
edly conspecific with L. matthewsianus, Bednall. Torr records that only one
specimen was found “under stones, in shallow pool at Hopetoun, Western Aus-
tralia,’ and no other member of this genus is recorded as having been found
on the trip. On seeing the type specimen I noted at once that it had only 7
valves, and on turning up the figures accompanying the original description I
found that it had been figured with only 7 valves, and had evidently never been
disarticulated, as no sutural laminae are shown. It is one of the black-footed
varieties of Bednall’s shell, which, owing to the absence of one valve and the
crowding of those that remain, gives the shell a very unusual appearance.

Dr. Torr, on p. 106, J.c., remarks, “I had classified this as L. matthewsianus,
Bednall, but on comparing them I found it much broader in proportion to its
length, and the body of the animal, which is uniformly red in L. matthewsianus,
is almost black in L. niger,”

Although the foot is usually red, as before noted, I have found a good many
with a practically black foot.

While the recognition of L. niger, Torr, as conspecific with Bednall’s species,
removes L. niger as a species from the fauna of Western Australia; Torr’s
find places L. matthewsianus, Bed., for the first time on the Fauna List of that
State. And further, it is the first record of the occurrence of a member of that
genus in Western Australian waters, and Dr. Torr is to be congratulated thereon.

LEPIDOPLEURUS PELAGICUS, Torr, 1912.

Pl. xvi., fig. 3b.

(Torr, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xxxvi., pp. 165, 166, pl. v., figs. 2 a-f, 1912—
L. columnarius, Hedley and Hull, I.c.) y

Mr. Tom Iredale, while we were together examining the types of Polyplaco-
phora in the British Museum, in June last, called my attention to the differences
in the descriptions of the girdle characteristics of L. columnarius, Hedley and
May, and L. pelagicus, Torr, suggesting the possibility that the two species were
not conspecific, as had been determined by Gatliff and Gabriel (I.c.).

As before quoted, Hedley and May say of the first-named species, ‘Girdle
with minute, dense, imbricating scales”; whereas Torr in his description of
L. pelagicus (l.c., p. 165) says, “Girdle leathery and spiny to the unaided eye;
under 14-inch lens it is covered with minute spicules.”

221

An examination of the valves dredged with the type of L. columnarius in
100 fathoms, off Cape Pillar; of the valves dredged off the Schouten Island;
and the complete specimen dredged off Port Arthur, led me to conclude that
they were all conspecific with Torr’s L. pelagicus. The girdle of the Port Arthur
specimen, in which a portion is fairly well preserved, is clothed with long, flat,
pointed imbricating scales very similar to those of L. liratus, Adams and Angas,
but it is furnished also with a number of slender, white spicules, in this respect
corresponding with Torr’s description of the girdle of L. pelagicus. 1 wrote
recently Mr. Chas. Hedley in reference to this feature, and he has re-examined
the type of L. columnarius, and he writes to me as follows, on February 26, 1923:
“The girdle of the type is much shrivelled, but looking at it again for the pur-
pose of this letter, I should consider it to be spiculose.”

It will be seen that while there is some divergence in the sculpture and
angle of divergence of the various specimens examined (the former is probably
due to wearing), there are not sufficient grounds for separating them into two
species, the fact of the presence of spicules on the girdle of L. columnarius
having been overlooked in the original description. Mr. Iredale had concluded
that the large specimens I am describing in this paper under the name of L.
profundus were possibly Torr’s L. pelagicus, because of the spiculose character
of the girdle; the extreme elevation of the shell of L. columnarius easily dis-
tinguishes that species from any other known member of this genus. I figure
a photograph of one of the valves of the type of L. pelagicus, edge on, and also
a valve of one of May’s L. columnarius in a similar position; they will be seen
to be almost identical.

Lepidopleurus, profundus, n. sp.
JP) SAilog | 1eNRS oy Zale

(=Lepidopleurus inquinatus, Reeve of Sykes, Proc. Mal. Soc., vol. ii., pt. 2, 1896=
Lepidopleurus inquinatus, of Reeve of Ashby, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., "33 (N. Si 1921.)

Introduction.—The recognition of the New Zealand Lepidopleurus, as being
conspecific with Reeve’s type of Chiton inquinatus, leaves the deep-water species
(l.c.) without either description or name. I therefore propose the name of L.
profundus, referring to its deep-water habit as compared with its littorine rela-
tives, L. liratus, Adams and Angas, and L. inquinatus, Reeve. The specimens
referred to in the following description were indeterminately referred to by
Iredale and May, in their discussion under the heading Lepidopleurus inquinatus,
Incave (lero; Mall, Soe, WOle xt, DUS, A eral S, INO, UWLMNO, jojo, Ski, $9).

General appearance and colour.—Slightly carinated, not evenly arched as in
L. matthewsianus, Bed., and is slightly more keeled than is the case in L. liratus,
Adams and Angas, sculptured in dorsal and pleural areas with narrow, finely
granulose, longitudinal ribs, and in the lateral areas with closely packed, granu-
lose, radial ribs of about half the width; this area is also strongly corrugated
by transverse growth sulci.

The colour of the type, which has evidently been in spirit, is pale biscuit
colour, but the fresh specimen from Port Arthur is Pinkish-Buff along the dorsal
ridge and mottled Pinkish- Cinnamon along the sides (Ridgway’s Colour
Standards, pl. xxix.).

Anterior valve —Raised, broad, decorated with closely-packed, very narrow,
polished, granulose, radial ribs (about 100 in type); the granules coalesce and
are less rounded than is the case of L. liratus.

Posterior valve-—Mucro very distinct, median, or a little behind the middle,
the anterior portion decorated similarly to the dorsal and pleural areas of the
median valves, the sculpture of the posterior half corresponds with that of the

222

anterior valve, except that in addition there are several well-defined growth sulci.
The posterior slope is slightly concave but steeper than in L. liratus. Commonly
in the latter species the mucro is more prominent, due to the posterior slope
immediately behind the mucro being almost vertical and then flattening out to
the girdle.

Median valves —The dorsal and pleural areas decorated with longitudinal
ribs composed of closely-packed, imbricating, flattened granules. In the dorsal
area, these pectinated ribs are very close together, but, in the pleural area, they
_ become further and further apart, until the interspaces are twice the width of
the ribs, these last becomng more raised, though still keeping the appearance of
closely-packed, semi-fused, polished, flattened granules; some of the ribs only
traverse the area half-way, thereby leaving wider spaces between them, a feature
that is also characteristic of L. liratus. The lateral areas are narrow, raised,
decorated with radial ribs similar in character to those of the anterior valve, they
number 20 odd in type; these radial ribs are crossed by concentric growth sulci
(9. in type). The type is not disarticulated, but a separated valve from Victoria
shows that there are no insertion plates; sutural laminae small, far apart, inside
white.

Girdle-—The underside is clothed with scales, which are imbricating, long,
flat, straight-sided, with rounded ends. The upperside is clothed with small,
irregular, arenaceous scales, which are almost hidden in perfect specimens by a
mass of short, slender, sharp-pointed, white spicules.

Measurement.—The type, which is badly curled, measures about 20X65 mm.
The Port Arthur specimen, which is well preserved, measures 12*5'5 mm.; and
one of the specimens dredged by Mr. May off Schouten Island is 16X65 mm.

Habitat—The type, which has been selected because in it the girdle spicules
have been well preserved, was dredged by Dr. Joseph Verco in St. Vincent Gulf,
and, passing through the hands of Dr. Torr, became the property of Mr. Tom
Iredale, to whom my thanks are due for presenting it to me for the purposes of
this paper. Dr. Torr has also several similar shells, also dredged by Dr. Joseph
Verco, but no data as to depth. Mr. W. L. May has dredged two in 15 fathoms
in Geographe Strait, Schouten Island; six he dredged off the Pilot Station in
D’Entrecasteaux Channel, in 9 fathoms; and Mr. E. Mawle has dredged it off
Port Arthur at a similar depth; also several specimens were dredged in Victoria
and are in the Bracebridge Wilson collection in the National Museum in Mel-
bourne. May and Torr (l.c.), referring to some of the specimens, say: “No
specimen, to our knowledge, has been taken near the shore.” All the specimens
I have seen have been taken at depths varying from 54 feet to 135 feet, and
I have seen none but dredged specimens.

In conclusion—This species is easily distinguished from the New Zealand
L. inquinatus, Reeve, by its smaller scales and very spiculose girdle; from
L. liratus, Adams and Angas, by the sculpture in L. profundus, Ashby, being
less granulose, and more like polished, pectinated ribs; the spicules in L. liratus
are much coarser, longer, and fewer in number, and the girdle scales of L.
liratus are larger and straight-sided, L. liratus aiso being consistently a littorine
shell. In both species there is incipient bridging between the ribs, but it is much
stronger in L. liratus than in L. profundus, although particularly regular in the
latter. In the centre of each flattened granule in the sculpture of L. profundus
occurs a black dot, which is the terminal of a sense organ which in more
specialized forms of chitons is developed into what are termed eyes.

223

SUM MARY.

Name.

Lepidopleurus inquinatus, Reeve

L. liratus, Adams and Angas

L. profundus, Ashby

L. columnarius, Hedley and
May=L. pelagicus, Torr

L. matthewsianus, Bednall

=L. mger, Torr

L. badius, Hedley and Hull ..

Habitat.

A New Zealand littorine shell
not found in Australia

A littorine shell under stones
at low water, recorded from
South Australia and Vic-
toria

A deep-water shell only.
South Australia, Tasmania,
and Victoria

A very deep-water shell. Off
Cape ‘Pillar, Schouten
Island, Port Arthur, in

Tasmania, Bass Strait, off
south-east coast of South
Australia

A littorine shell, not rare in
South Australia. One
record each from Western
Australia and Tasmania

A littorine shell. Recorded
from New South Wales
and South Australia

Distinguishing Characters.

Spicules absent or very scanty,
girdle scales comparatively
large and broad

Sculpture coarser and rougher
than L. profundus, granules

more raised and rounded,
scales long and _ straight-
sided, spicules coarser,
longer, and comparatively

few in number

Granules in ribbing coalesced,
flattened, and polished. Scales
on girdle small, irregular;
in perfect specimens, girdle
covered with massed, short,
slender, pointed, white
spicules

Shell exceptionally elevated
and keeled, sculpture small
and finely cut; girdle spicu-
lose with flat, elongate scales

Small, rounded, evenly arched;
sculpture very finely granu-
lose and regular; foot red
or pink, rarely black

Small, subcarinated, broad
shell, usually more or less
orange in colour; sculpture
coarser and less regular than
L. matthewsianus; foot in
South Australia, buff

For description of Plates see pp. 242 and 243.

A REVIEW OF ISCHNOCHITON (HAPLOPLAX) SMARAGDINUS, ANGAS,
1867, AND ITS CONGENERS, TOGETHER WITH THE DESCRIPTION OF
TWO NEW CHITONS FROM PAPUA.

By Epwin Asupy, F.L.S., M.B.O.U.
[Read June 14, 1923.]
PrAnES) OV 710 2S De

Before dealing with the Haploplax from Papua, for which, as well as other
forms dealt with later in this paper, my thanks are due to my friend Dr. W. G.
Torr, it became imperative to settle the question as to whether the shell described
by Bednall and Matthews, under the name /schnochiton resplendens (Proc. Mal.
Soc., vol. vii., pt. 2, June, 1906), is distinct from the Sydney shell, which was
described by Angas under the name Lophyrus smaragidinus (Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,
1867, pallS, t213,-2,28; 1c, p..222).) Torr, im his paper on, Westerns Australian
Chitons, in 1911, treated it as a distinct species, but in his paper of the next year,
considered it a colour variety of J. smaragdinus. Up to the present time no
one has published the results of any careful examination. A reference to Bednall
and Matthews’ paper (/.c.) will show that they considered the common Haploplax
in South Australia conspecific with the Sydney shell, and separated their species
purely on colour characters and size.

While colour markings may, in some measure, be distinctive of geographic
races, we are not justified in recognizing these features, unsupported by more
important characters, as having any specific value.

A comparison of the extensive series in my collection from Port Jackson,
New South Wales; Port Arthur and Frederick Henry Bay, south-eastern Tas-
mania; Penguin, north-western Tasmania; South Australia; and from Yal-
lingup, in Western Australia, reveals some very interesting features.

Size.—In respect to size, the Sydney shell averages decidedly smaller than
those from the other States; the largest from there, on my card, is 16X9 mm.
Those from north-western Tasmania and South Australia are very similar in
size, the largest on my cards measuring 23X13 and 20X114 mm., respectively.
In Frederick Henry Bay, in south-eastern Tasmania, and Yallingup, Western
Australia, we find giant races measuring 30174 and 29X17 mm., respectively.

Colour markings.—A very striking colour variety occurs at Port Jackson,
one in which the end valves are dark and the rest light, cream, white, or grey;
and a similar varient also occurs in south-eastern Tasmania, but I am not aware
of its occurring in any of the other localities named.

The beautifully-streaked form described by Bednall and Matthews under
the name H. resplendens, seems only to occur in Victoria, South Australia, and
Western Australia. The cruciform variety in all its colour variations is common
to all the localities except Western Australia.

In all the localities except this latter there exists a great variation both in
colour and pattern, but at Yallingup, on the west coast of the latter State, all the
specimens taken are of one colour pattern, a dark variety of the streaked form
named H. resplendens.

Dr. Torr advises me that he also only collected this form in the same
locality, and the few specimens he collected on the south coast, at Albany, were
similar.

225

Inside and form.—After disarticulating a series from the various localities,
the shape and carination of the valves, the position of the mucro on the tail valve,
and the shape of the sutural laminae were so similar as to need no special com-
ment. The variation of the number of slits in the insertion plates of the two
end valves is interesting but not conclusive ; thus Sydney specimens showed 12-12
slits, Port Arthur 11-12, Penguin 11-12, Marino (South Australia) 10-10, Yal-
lingup 10-9. But another from Marino showed several additional, crowded slits
in the tail valve, while still maintaining the 10 in the anterior; also a large shell
from Yallingup has 10-12 slits. The most that can be said is that the South
Australian and the Western Australian shells both seem, when of an equal size,
to have a fewer number of slits than is the case with the eastern forms.

Sculpture compared.—The Sydney shell is decorated with very shallow sub-
triangular pits, which are more evident in the pleural area than in the lateral ;
concentric growth sulci are present in the lateral areas and are continued across
the pleural. The girdle is covered with polished, smooth, pebble-like scales,
features that are common to the whole series referred to above. The specimens
from south-eastern Tasmania are generally similar in sculpture, which is very
shallow, the pitting in the pleural area is to some extent arranged in longitudinal
rows, the shallow ridge between these when seen under 65 magnifications, and
laterally lighted, gives the effect of longitudinal ribbing, a feature I have not
noticed in the shells from Sydney, the growth sulci are present in the lateral
areas but only to a very limited degree in the pleural; a juvenile from this
locality, 10 mm. in length, is completely smooth except for growth sulci. The
specimens from north-western Tasmania are very similar, although, possibly, the
lateral area is smoother, the inner half often absolutely smooth, and the pitting
in the pleural area is circular and more evenly distributed than the preceding,
but still very shallow.

All the South Australian shells, whether they be the variety with delicate
streaking, described as H. resplendens, or of any other pattern, show a dis-
tinctly deeper pitting, which is much more regular than any of the preceding,
the pits in a few places are confluent, but on the whole are so regular that the
ridges between, under a high power, resemble a network or honey-comb. In
the shelis from Yallingup, in Western Australia, this regular honey-comb pitting
reaches its maximum development. In the pleural area, in both younger
and older shells, the pitting is regular, deep, circular, or hexagonal, and the same
character is preserved in the lateral areas, except that it is there a little confused
by a limited amount of radial pitting. While some wavy growth sulci cross the
lateral areas and are to a small degree seen in the pleural, they are not in evidence
to anything like the extent that they are in the far-eastern forms. The scales in
these western specimens are larger than in any of the preceding, but this may be
partly due to their much larger size.

In conclusion.—Radial ribbing or shallow grooving in the two end valves
and lateral areas is present in all Yallingup specimens, and in all medium to large
specimens from South Australia, but is absent in those from New South Wales
and Tasmania. I have one partial exception from the latter State, in which two
of the valves are abnormal; in these, this feature is merely suggested.

The pitting in the eastern shells is more shallow, and in some parts absent
altogether, and the juvenile specimens are often quite smooth, which is never the
case with the western forms.

I therefore propose to recognize H. resplendens, of Bednall and Matthews,
as a subspecies, including under this name all the varieties occurring in South
Australian waters. One hardly knows what to do with the Yallingup form. It
certainly exhibits a wonderful constancy in colour and pattern, and shows the
distinctive sculpture of the South Australian shell in its most marked degree;

H

226

in addition, it is an exceptionally large race with larger scales than any from the
other States, but in face of the limited material available it seems best, at any
rate for the present, to distinguish it only by a varietal name. I therefore pro-
pose to recognize it as a variety of H. resplendens under the name westernensis.

It seems probable that the western form is the progenitor of the South
Australian shell, and that the two forms, the eastern and the western, may have
become intermixed in the State of Victoria, since the breaking down of the
Bassian Isthmus. It is interesting to note that the megalapores, or terminals, of
the sensory fibres are seen in these forms as black dots in the centres of each
pit, in the shell sculpture.

IsCHNOCHITON (HAPLOPLAX) LENTIGINOSUS, Sowerby, 1840.

(Chiton lentiginosus, Sow., Mag. Nat. Hist. Charlsworth, iv., (N.S.), p. 293, June,
1840; Chiton adelaidensis, Reeve, Conch. Icon., t. 191, f. 123, May, 1847.)

The following is the original description by Sowerby of a specimen from
Newcastle, New South Wales :—‘“Shell oval, carinated, smooth; back elevated,
lateral areas inconspicuous. Colour tawny-brown, ornamented with round blue
_ spots. Margin minutely scaly; length, 15X9 mm.”

As compared with J. smaragdinus or I. resplendens, this species is normally
broader. The largest I collected at Bulli, in 1915, measures 16X11 mm. The
“round blue spots” seem consistently present on all specimens, but in some the
spots coalesce, forming blotches. The end valves and the lateral areas show
shallow radial ribbing, which is broken, especially so in the lateral areas, by
concentric growth sulci.

The median areas and the rest of the shell, in a less degree, are decorated
with minute granules which are somewhat confused in their distribution.

While in the British Museum, last June, I was able to examine the types
of Australian Polyplacophora in that collection, and my acknowledgments are
due to Mr. Tom Iredale for much help in connection therewith. Together we
examined Reeve’s Chiton adelaidensis. My notes are as follows:—‘“This is
Haploplax lentiginosus, Sowerby, without the blue spots, the whole being dirty
white in colour. The scales are larger than H. resplendens, except the specimens
from Yallingup, but are similar to H. lentiginosus. There is no doubt in my
mind that Reeve’s locality of Port Adelaide is quite a mistake. I have never
taken this species in South Australia, though Mr. Iredale informed me that he had
some that were alleged to have been taken by Mr. E. H. V. Matthews, near
Second Valley, in this State. It will be seen that Sowerby’s name antedates that
of Reeve’s by seven years.

PAPUAN CHITONS.

I am indebted to my friend Dr. W. G. Torr for the opportunity of examining
and describing a small collection of Chitons made by the Rev. R. Andrew, in
Papua.

ACANTHOPLEURA SPINIGERA, Sowerby, 1840.
(Chiton spiniger, Sow., Mag. Nat. Hist., 1840, p. 287.)

There are in the collection three large eroded specimens from Normanby
Island, Papua, and one large and two juvenile specimens, in perfect order, from
Misima, Papua. I do not consider these conspecific with the Australian A.
gemmata, Blainville, for in addition to the more granulose character of the
sculpture the Papuan shells have much longer, more slender, and curved spicules
on the girdle. I consider them conspecific with the shell from the west coast
of Sumatra referred to in my paper (Jour. and Proc. Roy. Soc. W. Austr., vol.
viii., p. 31) under the name given above. The spicules on the Papuan specimens
are considerably more slender and curved than the Sumatra specimen, and may,
of course, be a distinct race.

227

Ischnoradsia papuaensis, n. sp

General appearance.—Broad, end valves equal in size and as well as the
lateral areas radially ribbed, lateral areas raised, a minute granulose pattern
covering the whole shell. Girdle scales large, pebbly, outer half keeled and
pointed, inner half triangular and imbricating.

Colour—Pale or worn valves are Light Greenish-Olive streaked with
Mikado-Brown (Ridgway’s Colour Standards, pls. xlvi. and xxix.), with often
dark dorsal area and several dark spots on the posterior margin; the dark-
coloured valves are green on the dorsal and lateral areas, merging into dark olive-
brown towards the posterior margin.

Inside of shell—Light greenish-olive merging into darker green, highly
polished; in the median valves the sutural laminae, shallow, mostly bowed
inwards in the centre. The tegmentum is infolded from the posterior margin,
slits 1-1, and in one valve 2-1; the slit ray forms a very deep sinus, with highly-
thickened walls, teeth of the insertion plates sharp, slightly grooved on the
inside, eaves solid, articulamentum protrudes beyond the tegmentum; anterior
valve 13 slits, posterior 18, sutural laminae with broad sinus similar to the
median valves.

Anterior valve—This valve is uniformly very minutely decussate; while
in juvenile shells little other sculpture is to be seen. At an early stage they
develop a series of flat, shallow, radial ribs, which are very broken, often con-
tinuing for some distance and then dying away, others being intercalated and
taking their place; this gives the valve the appearance of being covered with
dashes.
Posterior valve—Broad and flat, mucro ill-defined, anterior of centre.
The anterior margin of the tegmentum is bowed forward, the portion of valve
in front of the mucro is very short longitudinally, and is decussated in a similar
manner to the pleural areas of the median valves. The portion behind the mucro
occupies nearly three-quarters of the valve, and is minutely decussate through-
out; but, in addition, half-way down, the valve commences a series of broken,
intercalated, radial ribs, similar in character to the anterior valve.

Median valves—tIn the dorsal area the apex is smooth, then becoming
grooved, with very minute, somewhat irregular, longitudinal grooving, this again
changing, as the anterior margin is approached, into a decussated pattern, com-
posed of evenly-distributed, minute granules. In the pleural area the upper
part is longitudinally striate, similar to the dorsal, but rapidly becoming granulose.
The lateral area is raised, with broad, shallow, radial ribs. On the valve before
me I count 8, the sulci between are much narrower than the ribs. The whole
area 1s decorated with minute granules like the rest of the shell. It will be seen
that juvenile shells will show no radial ribbing at all, that feature being a later
development.

Girdle —The girdle is indistinctly banded with brown and light bands. The
scales on the lighter portions are dark on the lower or outer half and light only
on the upper, nearest the shell. The scales are quite characteristic of this genus,
being large, subcarinated or keeled on the outer half, giving the appearance of
being pointed, the upper half of each scale is subtriangular, flattened, and imbri-
cating; the surface of the scale is not strictly smooth.

Measurements—A somewhat damaged specimen measures 20X13 mm. The
tegmentum only, of valves of type: anterior, 5X10; posterior, 54X10; median,
3$X125 mm.

Habitat—Normanby Island, Papua.

Remarks.—lI have placed this species under the genus /schnoradsia because
its scales are quite characteristic of members of that genus. But one was sur-
prised to find only one slit in most of the median insertion plates, one valve only,

228

having two well-defined slits on one side, suggesting the possibility of specimens
being found. with two slits, which is usual in this genus. I note a Japanese
species, I. albrechti, Schrenck, varies from one to three.

Ischnochiton (Haploplax) misimaensis, n. sp.

General appearance.—Elliptical, almost evenly arched, not carinated, shallow
radial ribs in lateral areas and end valves; girdle clothed with polished, pebble-
like scales, all of which are dark on the lower or outer side, but those in the light
bands are transparent on the upperside.

Colour.—The ground colour of the upperside is Tea-Green, thickly covered
with streaks and broad dashes of Mikado-Brown (Ridgway’s Colour Standards,
pls: xlviiz and: xxix! )\s

Inside —Greyish-green, very similar to the upperside, anterior valve with
13 slits in the insertion plate, irregularly placed, posterior 15 slits, sutural laminae
shallow, anterior edge parallel with the tegmentum, sinus broad; median valves
have 1-1 slit, sutural laminae somewhat rounded and rather large in proportion,
sinus between very broad, insertion plate teeth sharp and the slits deep.

Anterior valve —Raised, slope convex, shallow ribbing being distinguishable
towards the margin, which is slightly crenate, the whole surface is decussated
with minute, evenly-spaced granules. In the larger specimen it can be clearly
seen that these granules are arranged in narrow, radial rows, about three of
these forming the wider, flat, radial ribs, of which there are over 50 in each
end valve.

Posterior valve—Mucro a little anterior of middle, but little raised; the
anterior portion occupies barely one-third of the valve, and the posterior two-
thirds is defined by being raised slightly, thereby forming a diagonal ridge; the
sculpture of the anterior portion is similar to the pleural areas of the median
valves; the posterior two-thirds is similarly sculptured, but has, in addition,
towards the outer margin, a suggestion of radial ribbing, but this in the type
is so shallow as to be hardly discernible; several shallow-growth sulci are also
present.

Median valves——Evenly arched, not carinated, the dorsal area not defined,
the combined dorsal and pleural areas are decussate with evenly-distributed,
minute granules; several growth sulci are continued from the lateral areas,
across the pleural area. The lateral areas are raised and well defined, covered
with granules similar to the rest of the shell, but, in addition, crossed by two
deep growth sulci and several minor ones; incipient, broad, radial sulci can be
seen if the valve is held at a right angle. The large but crushed specimen in situ
on a black stone measuring 15411 mm. has five or six well-defined, flat, radial
ribs in this area, where they are two or three times as broad as is the case in the ©
end valves; they are noticeable, even without the aid of a pocket lens.

Girdle —The girdle is broad banded, clothed with rather large, imbricating,
polished scales, which are blackish in the dark bands and opalescent above and
black below, on the outer side, in the lighter ones; this rather unusual feature
is common to all the six specimens in the collection. The scales are polished,
and under 65 mag. those nearest the shell are distinctly striate; the larger scales
in the centre of the girdle are, under this power, partially striate, the surface of
the scales is slightly rough, a subgranulose character that is not visible under a
pocket lens. In H. lentiginosus the surface of the scales is smooth, although
those immediately next the shell show some striae.

In H. lentiginosus the upper margin of the scales is evenly rounded, whereas
in the species under review it is subtriangular. In the large damaged specimen
before referred to there is a well-defined, short, girdle fringe; in H. lentiginosus
in one or two specimens I can detect a less-developed fringe.

229

Measurements——The type was not measured before disarticulation, but the
largest one on the stone is 154X11 mm., the next in size 15X9 mm., so probably
the first-named is a little widened by crushing.

Habitat.—All the specimens are from Misima, Papua.

Remarks.—Although in outward appearance this species reminds one of
H. resplendens, the sculpture being granulose instead of pitted, the more
ribbed character of the end valves and the lateral areas, and the special scale
features, easily separate it. It is separated from H. lentiginosus, to which
species it is more nearly allied, by its much more regular granulose sculpture,
different scale features, and absence of blue dots and its lack of carination, this
last feature also separating it from all the races of smaragdinus.

In conclusion.—There is every probability that this Haploplax also occurs
in North Queensland, and it is more than likely that the specimens collected at
Port Molle, in that State, by Coppinger, and described by E. A. Smith (Zool.,
H.M.S. Alert, p. 79, 1884) as conspecific with C. adelaidensis of Reeve, are
really this species, for his description well fits them. There is also just a
possibility that Reeve’s C. adelaidensis may have come from one of these
northern localities, and, after all, not be conspecific with H. lentiginosus, to
which species Mr. Iredale and the writer referred it in their examination of the
type in the British Museum, with aid of pocket lens only.

For description of Plates see pp. 242 and 243.

230

NOTES ON A COLLECTION OF POLYPLACOPHORA FROM CARNARVON,
WESTERN AUSTRALIA, WITH DEFINITIONS OF A NEW GENUS AND
TWO NEW SPECIES.

By Epwin Asuey, F.L.S., M.B.O.U.
[Read August 9, 1923.]
SPEAPESTOCV 1s "TO, Oe

I am indebted to Mr. Worsley C. Johnston, of Western Australia, for the
gift of one of the most remarkable collections, though small as to number of
species, of Polyplacophora ever made on the occasion of a single brief visit.

It includes, amongst others, a small but new shell of a unique type that
requires the establishment of a new genus for its reception; the rediscovery of
a particularly interesting form of Sclerochiton, that has only been known from a
single specimen, in the British Museum, and concerning which doubt has been
expressed as to whether it was of Australian origin; and, finally, the rediscovery
of a strange form of Cryptoplax that has been only known from a single minute
specimen deposited in the Berlin Museum.

The collection was made on the occasion of a brief visit to Carnarvon,
situated in Shark Bay, Western Australia. The entire absence of one of the
commonest shells of that State, Liolophura hirtosus, (Peron) Blainville, of
which I have specimens from as far north as the Abrolhos Islands, is char-
acteristic of the whole collection. All except two species are apparently tropical
forms. The absence of any representative of the genus Plaxiphora is the more
remarkable, because at Dongarra, 300 miles further to the south, I found them
living together with Onithochiton scholvient, this latter being very numerous at
Carnarvon.

Tonicia (LuciLina) DELEcTA, Thiele, 1914.
Pl. xviii, fig. 2.

(Thiele, Fauna Sudwest Australiens, Polyplacophora, pp. 297, 298, ‘4911; Ashby, Trans.
Roy. Soc. of S. Austr., vol. xlv., p. 47, pl. vii, fig. 2 a, b, c

Four snecmaone of this interesting cHell were taken, and they are, I believe,
the first that have been found other than on pearl shell.

As the complete shell has not hitherto been figured, I include a photograph.

ONITHOCHITON SCHOLVIENI, Thiele, 1910.
Pl. xviii., fig. 1.
ee Rey. des Sys. der Chitonen, Zool., pt. 2, p. 99, pl. x, figs. 60, 61, 1910; Ashby,
A Bary 1 O25 .

A very fine series of this beautiful. Onithochiton were collected. Owing to
their perfect condition they reveal features in colour and sculpture that have
not before been noticed. As no figure of the complete shell has been published,
I include a photograph.

ACANTHOPLEURA GEMMATA, Blainville, 1825.
(Chiton gemmatus, Blain., Dict. Sc. Nat., xxxvi., p. 544, 1825; Ashby, Journ. and Proc.
Roy. Soc. W. Austr., vol. viii., p. 29, 1921.)
Half a dozen juvenile, well-preserved specimens were secured of this species.

They are interesting in that the gudie in some of them is furnished with unusually
long spicules.

231

CRYPTOPLAX MICHAELSENI, Thiele, 1911.

Mr. Johnston is to be heartily congratulated on the rediscovery of this
interesting little Cryptoplax. Until now no Australian worker has had an
opportunity of examining this species, our knowledge of it having been limited
to the single, minute example in the Berlin Museum. So outwardly is it like
members of the genus Acanthochiton that Dr. Thiele had disarticulated it before
he discovered that it belonged to quite a different group. A full description will
be given in another paper.

Acanthochiton bednalli, Pilsbry, var. johnstoni, n. var.
(Pilsbry, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., 1894, p. 81, pl. ii. figs. 7-11.)

Three specimens, of which the largest measures 12X64 mm., of a very pretty
Acanthochiton were collected at Carnarvon. In general appearance it differs
from A. bednalli, as we know it in South Australia and Tasmania. The differ-
ences I have been able to detect do not seem to warrant the giving to it full
specific rank, so I content myself, for the present, in distinguishing it under a
varietal name only, and have pleasure in naming it after the finder, Mr. Johnston.
I sent the three specimens to my friend, Mr. W. L. May, of Tasmania, and he
fully concurs with me in thinking that, at least, the shell deserves this distinction.

DESCRIPTION.

The ground colour is white, almost porcelain-white, with a regular zigzag
pattern and mottling of greenish-black. The girdle is dark, densely clothed with
white spicules, the hair tufts are white, and the girdle fringe is white.

The dorsal area on valve 2, of two of the specimens, is bright pink, and on
the other rufous. The sculpture seems normal except that the dorsal area is
decidedly narrower than in typical A. bednalli, and has none of the deep, longi-
tudinal grooving so characteristic of that species. A large portion of that area
is quite smooth and polished, but possesses subcutaneous, longitudinal lining, in
this respect corresponding with A. granostriatus. There can be detected on
several of the dorsal areas, especially at the sides next the pleural area, some
broken, longitudinal scratching. It is just possible, though perhaps improbable,
that this feature, together with the longitudinal, subcutaneous lining, are survivals
of the deep, longitudinal grooving of typical A. bednalli.

Dr. Thiele recorded A. bednalli as having been collected at Shark Bay by
Drs. Michaelsen and Hartmeyer. I conclude, therefore, that it was the present
form that they took; nevertheless I cannot but think, after all, this may prove
a distinct species. The thoroughly tropical character of the fauna leads one to
suspect that the characters of this shell rather simulate those of A. bednalli,
than that there is any near relation.

SCLEROCHITON MILES, (Carpenter) Pilsbry, 1892.
PESxviliedi es. oy a,-D,. Cine
(Chiton miles, Carp. MS.; Sclerochiton miles, (Carp.) Pilsbry, Man. Con., xiv., p. 189,
pl. 46, figs./1-5, 1892; Sclerochiton curtisianus, Smith of Ashby, Jour. and Proc. Roy. Soc.
W. Austr., vol. vii., 1921-2, p. 34; non Chiton miles, Pils. of Hedley, Marine Fauna Q’land,
1909; non Sclerochiton miles, (Carp.) of Thiele, Rev. des Sys. der Chitonen, pt. ii., p. 94.)
Amongst the chitons from Carnarvon are several with large, imbricating,
girdle scales, simulating in general appearance Sypharochiton pellis-serpentis,
which in sculpture and in the possession of eyes still more closely simulating pale
forms of Liolophura lirtosus. In addition, the absolute absence of radial rib-
bing further separates it from these. On comparison with specimens in my

232

collection of Sclerochitons such as S. curtisianus and S. imitator, its distinction
was at once apparent, in that it has large imbricating scales.

Pilsbry’s description (l.c.), which, with his figures was prepared from
drawings and MS. of Carpenter, as far as it goes, agrees with the specimens
under review, with the exception that Carpenter’s drawing, as reproduced, shows
the scales on the girdle as widely separated, but the letterpress says “more or less
separated.” I then turned up my note on the examination of the type in the
British Museum. It reads, “Has large, imbricating scales quite different from
Sclerochiton curtisianus, Smith.’ Mr. Iredale informed me that the type was
unique, and although labelled “Torres Strait” cannot be considered an Aus-
tralian shell. My foregoing note quite clears up the discrepancy in the girdle as
figured by Pilsbry. Possibly Carpenter’s drawing was made from portions of
the girdle from which many scales had broken away.

Pilsbry gives the number of slits in the insertion plate of the posterior
valve as, obscurely, 9-11. In a juvenile specimen, examined by me, there is
only one slit on each side. In an old eroded specimen I have disarticulated the
slits are probably the same, but owing to the breaking down of the thin laminae,
which in this species take the place of teeth in the insertion plate, this feature
is somewhat obscure. I do not think this species is multifissate; Puilsbry’s
determination of this point, quite probably, was from another species.

Dr. J. Thiele figures under the name of S. miles portions of three specimens
of Sclerochiton that were brought from Sumatra, which he considered either
conspecific or closely allied to miles. His figures and description very well
illustrate a partly-worn specimen of this species, with the exception of the char-
acter of the girdle, which, he states, is furnished with two forms of spicules in
addition to the possession of scales. I cannot find the slightest trace of any
such feature on any of the shells from Carnarvon, so that it is quite evident
the two forms are not conspecific.

The specimen in the Western Australian Museum, No. 9336, referred to in
my paper (l.c.), in which the whole of the sculpture had been eroded, is certainly
S. miles, and not S. curtisianus, Smith, as therein suggested.

Unfortunately in disarticulating that specimen from Point Cloates, the
whole of the scales were, through a mishap, lost, so their true character was
overlooked.

In conclusion—S. miles does not conform to the genus Sclerochiton, as
defined by Thiele, in that it has no spicules between the scales, neither does it
agree with Dr. Dall’s definition of that genus in that instead of having “‘separated
scales” they are imbricating.

It seems to combine, in itself, characters that have been gathered (shall I
say?) from four different genera—Acanthopleura, Liolophura, Sclerochiton, and
Sypharochiton—and must, therefore, be considered an intermediate form, indi-
cating the close relationship of all these four genera.

The radula was not present in the specimens disarticulated, so I am unable
to refer to its characters.

Habitat—The type is in the Cuming collection in the British Museum,
No. 42, but the locality stated on its tab. must be considered incorrect. The
specimens in the Museum in Perth, from Point Cloates, were, I believe, col-
lected by Mr. Tom Carter; those under review are from Carnarvon, a little
turther to the south. I have specimens in my collection of S. curtisianus, from
Moreton Bay, in Queensland, and from Port Darwin, in the Northern Territory ;
but whether this latter is the extreme limit westward of that species must be
left for future investigation. As far as our present knowledge is concerned,
there are fully fifteen hundred miles of coastline separating the two species.

233

Sclerochiton thielei, n. sp.

(=Sclerochiton miles (Carpenter) of Thiele, Revis. des Syst. der Chitonen, Zool., 1910,
pp. 94, 95, pl. x., figs. 16-23.)

The three specimens described and figured by Dr. Thiele (/.c.) were collected
at Pulotikus, Benkulen, in Sumatra, by Ed. V. Martens. Dr. Thiele remarks,
“This species is certainly closely related to Sclerochiton miles, from Torres
Straits, but whether it is really identical with that species or not, cannot be
concluded with any certainty from the description.”

The rediscovery of Carpenter’s (MS.) shell S. miles, makes it quite clear
that although very similar in sculpture and form the characters of the girdle
show it to be quite distinct.

Thiele says in reference to the Sumatra shells:—‘“The scales upon the
upperside of the girdle are of different sizes, sometimes even 05 mm. broad,
with converging ribs on their free ends. Between them and over the edge, there
are small calcareous needles, about 80 long and 12, thick, while the fringe
needles are about 150» long and 33 thick.” There are no spicules between
the girdle scales of Sclerochiton miles and no fringe spicules, showing that the
two are not conspecific; the Sumatra shell conforms to Dr. Thiele’s definition
of the genus Sclerochiton, whereas S. miles, owing to its lack of girdle spicules,
does not.

I have therefore much pleasure in naming the species described (/.c.) after
Dr. Thiele, in recognition of the splendid work he has rendered in his production
of his “Revision des Systems der Chitonen.”

Family IscHNOCHITONIDAE, Pilsbry.
Sub-Family IscHNOCHITONINAE, Pilsbry.
Genus Lophochiton, n. gen.

Having strong radiating ribs or flutes on both end valves; lateral areas,
two radial ribs; median areas, coarsely sculptured with longitudinal ribs com-
posed of closely-packed granules. Numerous slits in both end valves and 1-1 -
in median, teeth sharp, slits broad and shallow, but in no case “festooned”
upwards at slits, as is the case in the genus Callistochiton, slits in end valves
mostly opposite to the ribs, except the outer ones. A striking feature in the
type species, possibly of secondary importance, is the existence on the pleural
areas and on the posterior margin of all, except the tail valve, of long, finger-
shaped, often coalesced granules; girdle clothed with thin, flattened, rather large,
imbricating, ribbed scales.

Note.—tThe sculpture of the genus Callistochiton is simulated in the sculpturé
of the end valves, and lateral areas to a less degree, and also in the placing of
the slits mostly opposite the ribs in the end valves. On the other hand, it
corresponds with the /schnochitoninae, in having sharp teeth in the insertion
plate, and the entire absence of “festooning”’ at the slits. I think it not unlikely
that Torr’s highly-sculptured [schnochiton bednalli may belong to this genus,
and possibly Ischnochiton pilsbryi, Bed., as well, but I have not examined dis-
articulated specimens of these. Dr. Thiele points out that the correspondence
of the slitting with the ribs is not constant in members of the genus Callisto-
chiton, citing C. adenensis, Smith, as an example. I have examined specimens
of that species in my collection which were given to me by Major Dupuis, and find
that this is correct, as regards the end valves, the festooning in them being also
suppressed; the slits in the median valves of that species are “festooned,” as
in typical Callistochitons.

234

I suggest that these features have been suppressed in the end valves of
C. adenensis, owing to the great multiplication of the ribs, because I have
noticed that where ribs bifurcate, no additional slits are formed. In
C. adenensis the ribs have been so increased with corresponding reduction in
size, that all trace of the position of the original ribs has been lost, and the
upward festooning has likewise been suppressed. With the change in the sculp-
ture in the tegmentum no room is left for the “festooning’’ under the eaves.

I designate Lophochiton johnstoni, Ashby, as the type of this new genus,
the name being suggested by the fluted character of the sculpture of the end
valves.

Lophochiton johnstoni, n. sp.
Plvecvileetiesa a. Ds Compl xvits soS.1 lela bic and:
BIG ie 5:

Introduction—Among the specimens collected at Carnarvon, by Mr. Worsley
C. Johnston, is a small chiton bearing features I have observed in no other
species. At first I referred it to Callistochiton recens, Thiele, which was col-
lected in Useless Inlet, Shark Bay, in 1905, by Drs. Michaelsen and Hartmeyer,
and described, but not figured, by Dr. J. Thiele on the Fauna of South-west
Australia of 1911, p. 402.

But as the specimen from Carnarvon lacks some of the more important
characters that distinguish the genus Callistochiton, especially the “festooning”’
of the slits in the insertion plates, and also possesses several most striking features.
that are not mentioned by Thiele, I have given it the name of Lophochiton
johnstoni, after the gentleman to whose earnest efforts we are indebted for its.
discovery.

General appearance.—Broad, carinated, side slope a little curved, and valves:
radially ribbed, as in Callistochiton; lateral areas having two ribs, median areas.
decorated with ribs composed of longitudinal rows of granules. Girdle broad,
banded, clothed with large, flat, thin, fluted, imbricating scales.

Colour—Light Buff (pl. xv., Ridgway’s Colour Standards) suffused with
a pinkish tinge near the girdle, one large and two small orange spots are present
on each side of the posterior margin of the anterior valve, and a similar, though
darker, spot at the extreme end of the tail valve. The girdle is also light buff
with darker bands.

Anterior valve-—Having fourteen rays or flutes, which give to the margin
a crenate appearance, these rays are hardly perceptible on the first third of
valve, so that in an extremely juvenile specimen they might be overlooked. The
whole valve is covered with small, white granules; on the first third they seem
to be round, but towards the girdle they increase in size and have a tendency to
elongate; the posterior margin of the tegmentum is very deeply toothed, these
teeth being composed of two or three elongate granules which have coalesced—
this feature is most marked and probably unique. The ground colour between
the granules in all valves is pinkish-buff; the outer orange spot, before referred
to, is several times as large as either of the other two. Inside is white, teeth
sharp, unserrated, there are 11 slits, which are broad, straight-sided, not
“festooned” upwards, as in Callistochiton, teeth remarkably even and placed
opposite the ribs, the outer ribs and one branch of a bifurcated rib have no slits.
opposite.

Posterior valve-—Postmedian, shallow, sloping behind mucro very gradually
to the girdle. The anterior portion of this valve is decorated with white
granules, those immediately in front of the mucro are round, but as the anterior
edge of valve is approached they increase rapidly in length, becoming finger-like:

235

and more or less coalesced and irregular. On the sides, corresponding with the
pleural area of the median valves, these much-elongated granules are formed into
longitudinal rows. The posterior half of this valve is much raised and decorated
with twelve rays or flutes, of which the two anterior ones are much the strongest.
The whole of this area is covered with round, white granules. Inside —
Transparent white, sinus broad, sutural laminae straight and parallel with teg-
mentum, slits 10, mostly opposite the ribs, the outer two having no corresponding
slits.

Median valve——tThe dorsal area is broadly wedge-shape and covered with
white granules, which are small towards the apex but rapidly increase in size
anteriorly and laterally, those adjoining the pleural area are long and finger-
shaped; there does not seem to be any system in the arrangement of the grains
in the dorsal area. The pleural area is very distinct, being decorated with bowed
longitudinal rows of white granules; the five next the dorsal area composed of
small, round, detached granules, whereas the outer five rows have extremely
elongated, white, finger-like granules, which are more or less coalesced into high
granulose ribs, which are increasingly raised as they approach the girdle. The
ribs are widely spaced, but there is no indication of any bridging or net-work, so
characteristic of Callistochitons. The lateral area is proportionately very
narrow, composed of two very strongly-raised ribs, the anterior more raised than
the posterior, with a deep sulcus between them, the whole of this area is covered
with small, rounded, white granules, but towards the outer margin there are
several masses of elongate, coalesced, widely-spaced, white granules, the posterior
margin of these valves is irregularly toothed with very similar elongate pro-
cesses with rounded ends, becoming coarser towards the girdle; the anterior
margin is also toothed, many of them being double-headed. Inside transparent
white, the tegmentum is folded over and in valve 2, pleated under the beak,
sinus broad and edge bowed forward, sutural laminae shallow, waved inwards,
edge in some is parallel with tegmentum, in others slightly rounded, slits 1-1,
broad, sharp cut, straight-sided, eaves well defined, insertion extending beyond
the tegmentum.

Girdle -——The girdle is very broad in proportion to the size of the shell,
being 125 mm. in width, is clothed with flat, thin, fluted, imbricating scales,
the scales are subpointed and have 6-7 grooves, the ribs between the grooves
being shallow and flat. The scales are thinner than and quite distinct from
those of any Callistochiton I have seen.

Measurement.—The dry specimen measures over all 7X45 mm.; as the
girdle is only in one part uncurled, and there measures 125 mm., the living
animal would probably be + mm. broader.

Habitat—Carnarvon, in the extreme north of Shark Bay, Western Aus-
tralia, collected by Mr. Worsley C. Johnston, to whom I am greatly indebted
for the specimen.

In conclusion—As before stated, I have had great difficulty in deciding
whether this species is distinct from Thiele’s Callistochiton recens, for, although
the most unusual and striking characters present in the shell under review are
not mentioned at all by Thiele, there is always the possibility of such features
being undeveloped in a very juvenile specimen. But after making every allowance
for the difference in the size of the two specimens, it seems impossible that these
characters could have been overlooked by Thiele. I append a short resume of
the correspondence and differences between the two descriptions. As before
stated, the fact that Thiele did not figure C. recens has added greatly to the
difficulty.

236

COMPARISON.
C. recens, measures 5X3 mm. C. johnstoni, 7X44 mm.
Whitish, with pale grey and brown Light buff, pinkish tinge, orange spots.
flecks.

Side slope straight. Side slope slightly curved.

Girdle somewhat banded. Girdle banded.

Lateral areas closely granulated, Lateral areas with two much raised,
more so still on posterior edge. very distinct, radial ribs.

In pleural area granules clearly In pleural area granules arranged in
arranged in longitudinal rows, longitudinal rows, very closely
not closely packed in the rows. packed, and becoming long and

finger-like.

In both, the slits in the anterior valve correspond with the ribs, the mucro
is shallow, and the posterior slope gradual in both. In C. recens, nothing is
said about the scales, beyond that they are large and have 8-9 strong ribs,
whereas the larger shell, C. johnstoni, has 6-7 ribs.

Pilsbry, in Man. Con., vol. xv., p. 260, places great emphasis on “the peculiar
insertion teeth, which are curved upwards into the ribs as if festooned,” as
being one of the most important characteristics of his genus Callistochiton. Dr.
Thiele makes no reference to this feature in his C. recens, but we must presume
that he would hardly have placed it in that genus had such not been the case,
neither does he make any mention of radial ribs in the posterior valve, nor the
twin ribs of the lateral area. Further, he makes no mention of the protuberances
I have called teeth, on the posterior margins of the valves, and no mention is.
made of the unique, finger-like, knobby granules of the pleural area and tail
valve, all of which are marked features in C. johnstont.

It is unfortunate that the differences have to be so largely determined upon
negative data, but there is one piece of positive data available. Thiele states (J.c.),
“We see the shell is like that described and drawn in Callistochiton finschi
(Zool. Heft., 56, p. 86, tab. 8, figs. 57-60).” A reference to these figures shows
practically no correspondence between it and the shell from Carnarvon.

For description of Plates see pp. 242 and 243.

237

A REVIEW OF THE AUSTRALIAN REPRESENTATIVES OF THE
GENUS CRYPTOPLAX, ORDER POLYPLACOPHORA.

By Epwin Asuey, F.L.S., M.B.O.U.
[Read August 9, 1923.]
FRIGATES NeW Ele TOON lye

Family CrYPTOPLACIDAE, Dall.
Genus CryTOPLAX, Blainville, 1818.

A group of vermiform chitons with greatly reduced valves, often widely
separated, and with usually a great width of girdle, which is densely covered
with spicules; having three slits in the insertion plate of the anterior valve, but
no slits in any of the others.

Introduction.—The brief resumé of the Australian members of this genus
given on p. 578 in the writer’s paper on the Types, in the Paris Museum, needs
revision, both on account of my notes on the examination of the types in the
British Museum not having been referred to in the preparation of that paper,
and also because of the recent discovery of Thiele’s Cryptoplax michaelseni, at
Carnarvon, in Western Australia. This latter was, for reasons stated below,
somewhat imperfectly described, and has hitherto only been known from the
unique specimen in the Berlin Museum. One is now able to deal with the
group in a much more thorough manner. Descriptions are appended of the
two forms described by Dr. Thiele, as up till now no description of these has
been published in English.

CRYPTOPLAX STRIATUS, Lamarck, 1819.
IIL sibs, 1035 5),

(Chitonellus striatus, Lamarck, An. S. Vert., vi. p. 317, 1819; Ashby, Trans. Roy. Soc.
S. Austr., vol. xlvi., p. 577.)

The discovery of Lamarck’s type of C. striatus in the Paris Museum, referred
to in my paper (l.c.), settled the long outstanding question as to which of our
known shells was C. striatus. The type came from Kangaroo Island, and the
shell is the common one in the State of South Australia, but is distinct from the
shell that has been known under the name of C. striatus from Sydney. It is
easily distinguished from the more northern species in that, in the adult shells,
the sculpture of C. striatus is always longitudinal, coarse, wavy ridges, and that,
in the adult, the valves, after the first four, are usually more or less spaced;
the girdle is densely spiculose, the spicules being long and much curved.
Juvenile shells of this species are decorated with longitudinal rows of granules,
which are less bead-like than is the case with the Sydney shells; this feature
can be observed near the umbo in the adult. I have collected this species as far
west as Venus Bay, and have specimens from Philip Island, and one adult
given me by Mr. Tom Iredale, from Port Fairy, near the New South Wales
border, in Victoria.

CRYPTOPLAX STRIATUS, Lam., var. GUNNI, Reeve, 1847.

(Chitonellus gunmi, Reeve, Conch. Icon., f. 5, 1847; non gunni, Rv. of Ashby, (l.c.),
auct. )
I saw in the British Museum last year Reeve’s type of this shell and noted

that it was conspecific with C. striatus, Lam., from Tasmania and South

238

Australia. I believe the type was from the former State, and therefore suggest that
the form noted from King Island (Ashby and Hull, Austr. Zool., vol. iii., pt. 2,
March, 1923) as having shorter spicules, more widely spaced and proportionally
stouter, than typical C. striatus from South Australia, be recognized as Reeve’s
var. gunni. In the same paper we noted that the granulose character of the
juvenile shells from King Island was changed into ridges at a rather earlier
stage than is common in typical specimens of C. striatus. I consider this variety
is common to both King Island and Tasmania.

Cryptoplax striatus, Lam., var. westernensis, n. var.

In October, 1920, the writer collected at Rottnest, Western Australia, a
single specimen of Cryptoplax that differs slightly from C. striatus. The speci-
men measures 35X15 mm.; valves 5, 6, 7 are slightly spaced, all are strongly
beaked. I referred this specimen to C. striatus (Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol.
xlv., 1921, p. 45). It differs from the typical shell in that it shows no sign of the
granulose sculpture of the juvenile form, and seems, from the start, to com-
mence the coarse, longitudinal ridges, also the spicules on the girdle are both
shorter and more slender than in C. striatus proper. It seems in some respects
to be intermediate between C. striatus and the form with very short, hair-like
spicules, which we have for so long incorrectly called C. gunni of Reeve, but
the character of the spicules is nearer C. striatus. This was probably the shell
from Western Australia referred to by Thiele as C. gunni and by Torr as
C. striatus.

I therefore suggest that this western form be distinguished as a variety
of C. striatus under the name of C. westernensis, Ashby.

Cryptoplax iredalei, n. sp.
Pl. xix., fig. 4.

Reference has been made to a Cryptoplax that has been referred to as
C. gunni, Reeve, by most writers. My examination of the type, in company
with Mr. Iredale, effectually disposes of that determination and leaves this
Crytoplax without a name. Mr. Iredale has for some years been aware that
this shell was not C. gunni, but until the rediscovery of Lamarck’s types (before
referred to) it was still an open question as to which of our known species were
conspecific with Lamarck’s shells. I promised to leave this species to Mr.
Iredale for naming, and therefore will content myself with a short definition,
sufficient for the purposes of this paper. (Note——As more than a year has
elapsed and this species seems still without a name, I propose to call it after
Mr. Iredale. I had hoped prior to the reading of this paper to have received
his approval of this action.)

The valves in this species may be slightly narrower and longer than C.

striatus of the same size—the juvenile is similarly granulose in sculpture—but
in what may be termed semi-adult specimens there is usually a space between
the 5th and 6th valves, and in very large specimens—one before me measuring
95 mm. in length (dried)—there is a short space after the 3rd valve and a wide
space after valves 4, 5, and 6.
_ The distinguishing character is found in the girdle, which is usually banded
in very pretty shades of rich brown and grey. The spicules are very dense, but
so minute and slender as to be overlooked altogether without the aid of a good
pocket lens.

Habhitat—I have taken it at Port Lincoln and in many places on the Gulf
of St. Vincent, and Mr. W. L. May has taken it in north-western Tasmania.

239

CRYPTOPLAX LAEVIS, Lamarck, 1819. ae

(Chitonellus laevis, Lam. An. Sans. Vert., vol. 7, Mollusca, Blainville, pl. 87, f. 5=
Chitonellus lamarcki, Rochebrune, Ashby, I.c.)

The type was collected by Peron and Lesueur and measures 49x12 mim.
In my paper, telling of its rediscovery, occurs the following note: “Nearly the
whole of the surface of the shell is eroded, and the girdle is denuded of ‘spicules
except that portion commencing opposite valve 7, where the spicules are for-
tunately still in evidence. The spicules are very peculiar, being very widely
spaced, short, blunt, and rounded, quite distinct from any species I have seen.”

I suggested in the same paper that it might be conspecific with: Thiele’s
C. hartmeyeri, but now, as the result of the present examination of almost, if
not all, of the known members of this genus inhabiting Australia and elsewhere,
I do not think it likely that the spicules in C. hartmeyeri can ever take the
peculiar form of C. laevis, Lam., and therefore its identification must await
further elucidation.

CRYPTOPLAX ROSTRATUS, Reeve, 1847.
PAN eax, figs. 2, a,b, ¢.

(Chitonellus rostratus, Reeve, Conch. Icon., vol. pl. i, fig. 6, May, 1847; C.
torresianus, Rochebrune, Bull. Soc. Philom., Paris, p. 195, "1981: C. torresianus, Rochebrune,
Ashby, /.c., non Chitonellus striatus, Lam., auct.).

In my paper on the types in the Paris Museum (l.c.) it was shown that the
Crytoplax from Sydney, that has been known by collectors as C. striatus, Lam.,
is not that species, but is conspecific with C. torresianus of Rochebrune. In the
hurry of getting that paper completed in time for publication in last year’s
Transactions, I was unable to refer to my notes on the types one had examined
in the British Museum. On turning them up I found that Reeve’s name, C.
rostratus, antedates that of Rochbrune by many years. The following is my
note, dated June, 1922: ‘“‘Reeve’s type of C. rostratus looks like the Sydney
Cryptoplax; probably the locality, Torres Strait, is incorrect.”

The following is Reeve’s description: “Chitonellus rostratus, Reeve. The
beaked Chitonellus. The valves triangularly oblong, beaked posteriorly, smooth
along the summit, grooved on either side, intermediate ridges somewhat grained,
olive, dotted with light green, tegament thickly, short, villous-brown, dotted
and banded with darker brown. Hab., Raines Island, Torres Strait, Cape
inceye

In conclusion.—Mr. Iredale and myself were evidently wrong in our sur-
mise that Reeve’s locality was incorrect, for Rochebrune’s type of C. torresianus
is certainly conspecific with the Sydney shell; this confirms the extension of the
range of that species northwards to Torres Strait, and I have a specimen that
seems to belong to this form from Twofold Bay, given to me by Mr. Iredale,
so it is quite possible that C. striatus and this species may overlap on the Vic-
torian border. This species is easily distinguished from C. striatus in that,
although very similar in the very juvenile stage, C. rostratus carries this beaded,
granulose character into the adult, which C. striatus does not; also the valves
of C. rostratus, even in the fully adult shell, still touch one another. In C.
siriatus the valves, after the first 4, are more or less spaced in fully adult
shells, the spicules in the northern species are slightly more slender, but this
difference is but slight.

CRYPTOPLAX MICHAELSENI, Thiele, 1911.
Pl. xvi., fig. 8; pl. xix., figs. 3, a, b, c.
(Fauna Sudwest Australiens, Polyplacophora, Thiele, 1911, p. 404, pl. vi., figs. 11-17.)
Another important find of Mr. Worsley C. Johnston’s, at Carnarvon, is that
of a remarkable little Cryptoplax, 7 mm. in length, this species having previously

240

only been known from a single and probably minute specimen, also obtained in
Shark Bay; and described by Dr. Thiele (J.c.).

As I believe no previous description of this shell has appeared in any
English publication, I give the following free translation from the German :—

“The colour of the shell is yellowish-brown with a few symmetrical dark
spots, the posterior portion of each valve is rose-red, the sutural laminae are
transparent, while the valves are fitted close together without any interspaces ;
shape of the median valves very little different from the others. Tegmentum
is somewhat arched, broader than long (probably this is due to its being an
extremely juvenile shell—Ashby), anteriorly fairly straight, posteriorly with a
distinctly produced beak; the posterior valve is, similarly, a little broader than
long, fairly flat, mucro overhangs the posterior margin; the anterior valve and
lateral portion of others is distinctly sculptured with small warts. The ‘tegmenta’
is similar to Acanthochites. Anterior valve 3 slits, others none. The girdle
banded brown, upper side clothed, not very closely, with larger and smaller,
round-ended, longitudinally-grooved, lime spicules, 140 1X17 », 160 4X13 p, and
60 », respectively, Shark Bay.” (The spicules are highly polished, the longi-
tudinal’ grooving, more correctly scratching, can only be detected by use of a
fairly high power. I am indebted to Dr. Tiegs for the use of his microscope
in the matter of this determination.—Ashby. )

Dr. J. Thiele, in his Introduction, explains that he mistook the little animal
for an Acanthochiton until he had disarticulated it ; this will account for his giving
no measurements.

I conclude, from the figures he gives of the valves, that his specimen was
a very juvenile shell, much less than the 7 mm. specimen collected at Carnarvon.
It is well to note that the valves of all very juvenile specimens of the members
of this genus are proportionally much broader than is the case in the adult;
in this respect the valves of the juveniles of most species have a great similarity.

Differences——No doubt, for the reason stated above, Dr. Thiele gives no
figure of the complete shell and ignores one of its most distinguishing char-
acters, viz., that the spicules on the girdle are adpressed, or lying close to the
girdle, not erect, as is usual with other members of the genus Cryptoplar. I
have been able to detect the three forms of spicules as figured by Thiele (.c.),
but the long, finger-like, slightly-flattened, round-ended ones (f. 15, /.c.) are by
far the most numerous, and differ from all other known Cryptoplay.

The sculpture of the valves consists of rows of but slightly-raised, flat, or
squamose pustules, very similar to those on Acanthochiton bednalli, and in this
respect different from any other known species. I give a photograph of the
whole shell and also of the valves.

CRYPTOPLAX HARTMEYERI, Thiele, 1911.
Pil exaxcte tones

(Fauna Sudwest Australiens, Polyplacophora, Thiele, 1911, pp. 405, 406, pl. vi., figs. 18-25;
Ashby, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xlv., p. 46, 1921; I.c., vol. xlvi. pp. 577, 578, 1922.)

Dr. Thiele states that he had three specimens for examination, all from
Western Australia, two without any further data, and the other from Surf
Point, Shark Bay. He describes the general appearance of the large specimen,
40 mm. in length, as yellowish with dark brown, richly marbled, the valves
dark blackish-brown anteriorly, becoming lighter towards the posterior margin.
The four anterior valves touch one another, the four posterior are separated
by spaces that are greater than the length of the valves themselves. The figures
of both valves and spicules are from a smaller specimen, of which no measure-
ments ot description, before disarticulation, are given. I conclude the

241

disarticulated specimen must be considered the type. The following is an abstract
of his description, which I believe has not heretofore been published in English :—

“Anterior valve, partly eroded, confusedly granulose; valve 2, fairly narrow
dorsal area, granules in lateral portion gradually merging into longitudinal
ridges; in valve 3 he refers to distinct longitudinal folds in the lateral parts;
valves 5 and 6 are the smallest, and the seventh distinctly larger. The posterior
valve is a little pointed anteriorly and rounded posteriorly; the mucro is a little
in front of the posterior margin; the smooth dorsal area is narrow, and the
folds of the remaining part radial from the apex.”

Notes on the specimen collected by the writer at Yallingup, Western Aus-
tralia, in October, 1920 :—

The specimen is 12 mm. in length, about one-quarter that of Thiele’s
larger shell, and therefore a little over one-sixteenth of the bulk of that specimen.
In the Yallingup shell all the valves are touching, but this is to be expected; the
valves of most species that are spaced in the adult are at this stage imbricating.
Thiele’s description, taken with the figures, well fits my specimen; but to this
I would add that the granules in the anterior valve are in somewhat confused,
intercalated rows, the grains are elongated like tear-drops, and placed diagon-
ally in the rows. The sculpture of the other valves consists of longitudinal
rows of semitransparent, white granules, commencing small near the dorsal area
but increasing in size and elongation anteriorly and laterally. In no case can
the outer row be said to coalesce into a rib, as stated by Thiele, but not shown
in his figures; still the outermost granules are so crowded that one may conclude
that, in older shells, this feature will come into being. The grains, although
much raised, are not as rounded and bead-like as in the Crytoplax from Sydney.
The most distinctive character of the shell is the arrangement and shape of the
spicules. Thiele’s figs. 23 and 24 (/.c.) well depict 95 per cent. of the spicules,
the striae are as drawn and easily seen. Most of the spicules of the Yallingup
specimen are shaped like his longer figure, but in stoutness half-way between
his two figs. 23 and 24. I cannot notice the slight latteral compression noted
by Thiele. The spicules (his fig. 26) are only met with in the bunches at the
sutures. It should be noted that his fig. 24 is drawn upside down. In the
Yallingup specimen the spicules are white and widely spaced, a feature that is
not mentioned by Thiele, but is certainly a striking and distinctive character.
The ground colour of my shell is horn colour, and no mottling can be seen on
the girdle, but this character is quite unimportant, and may have existed only
on Thiele’s large specimen.

In conclusion.—The widely-spaced, short, stout, slightly-curved, and bluntly-
pointed spicules separate this species at once from any of the forms with which
we are familiar in Eastern Australia.

CRYPTOPLAX OCULATUS, Quoy and Gaimard, 1834.

(Chiton oculatus, Q. and G., Voy. Astrol., Zool., iii., p. 410, pl. 72 or 73, figs. 37, 38, 1834;
Clutonellus fasciatus, Q. and G. of Reeve; C. montanoi, Rochebrune; Ashby, Trans. Roy.
Soc. S. Austr., vol. xlvi., 1922.)

While this species is very close to C. larvaeformis, Burrows, reference
to my paper (l.c.) will show that in this latter species only the two first valves are
circular, whereas my specimen of C. oculatus, from Island Sula, has the three first
valves broad and circular. On comparison with specimens of the former from
Tonga (given me by Major Dupuis) I note that the spicules of the Sula shell are
longer and quite distinct, also, as noticed by Dr. Pilsbry, the three anterior valves
of C. oculatus are surrounded by a broad margin of longish, black spicules, with
another outer ring of white; this feature is quite absent from the Tonga shells.

242

I therefore consider that we are justified in retaining C. oculatus, Q. and G,,
as a good species.

Description—The sculpture of this species is composed entirely of longi-
tudinal ridges, the first three valves are circular, broad, and imbricating; all
the rest, in adult shells, are narrow and more or less spaced.

Girdle—The girdle is handsomely banded and the spicules are dense,
short, stout, and have rounded apices; in this respect it is the only species that
seems to approach the spiculose character of Lamarck’s C. laevis.

I have two juvenile specimens given to me as from Torres Strait, by Major
Dupuis, that quite possibly belong to this species, but determination is difficult,
as all the spicules have been lost. These are the only specimens I have seen
that are strictly Australian in origin. While we were unable to locate Quoy
and Gaimard’s type in the Paris Museum, it is just possible that the shell
described by Rochebrune, under the name C. montanoi, may have been their
actual type, for he was not adverse to doing such, for, as I have before shown,
Rochebrune certainly gave a new name to Blainville’s type of Chiton longicymba.

CRYPTOPLAX BURROWI, Smith, 1884.

(Chitonellus burrowi, Smith, Zool. Coll. H.M.S. Alert, p. 85, 1884; Chitonellus
larvaeformis, Blainville of Reeve, Conch. Icon., f. 3, 1847; Cryptoplox burrowi, Haddon,
Chal. Polyplac., p. 42, pl. 3, f. 11 a-m; Pilsbry, Man. Con., vol. 15, p. 54, 1892.)

Quoting from Pilsbry: “This curious species is known by the small size of
the valves, the remoteness from one another of the fourth, fifth, and sixth, and
the excessively short and densely packed spines on the mantle.’ Reeve’s figure
is excellent, but his habitat of Port Adelaide is, of course, a myth; but the
specimen recorded as having been taken at Port Molle, in Queensland, is
probably authentic. I did not see this species in the collections in the British
Museum, but we may have overlooked it.

SumMaryY List oF AUSTRALIAN CRYPTOPLAX.
I. Cryptoplax striatus, Lamarck. South Australia and Victoria.

Ta A striatus, var. gunni, Reeve. Tasmania.
Ib. i striatus, var. westernensis, Ashby. Western Australia.
EE i laevis, Lamarck. Locality and identification doubtful.
ITI. “i iredalei, Ashby. South Australia and Tasmania.
IV. if rostratus, Reeve. New South Wales and Queensland.
Ni 93 oculatus, Quoy and Gaimard. Queensland.
VI. 5 burrowl, Smith. Queensland.
VII. be hartmeyeri, Thiele. Western Australia.
AAU 3 michaelseni, Thiele. Western Australia.

A total of eight species and two varieties.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES XVI. To XIX.

All reproductions from photographs by E. Ashby.

PLaTE XVI.
Fig. 1. Lepidopleurus liratus, Ad. and Ang. From South Australia.
pe: - profundus, Ashby. Type. From South Australia.
snbi2a, he profundus. From South Australia. Median valve, edge on.
rao} ne columnarius, Hed. and May. From Tasmania.

Wi Sal is columnarius. Median valve, edge on, marked co-type.

243

3b. a pelagicus, Torr. Type. From South Australia.

4. i niger, Torr. Type. From Western Australia.

5. a matthewsianus, Bednall. From South Australia.

Sa » ~- matthewsianus. Median valve, edge on.

6. Ischnochiton (Haploplax) misimaensis, Ashby. Type. From Papua.
6a. , es misimaensis. Type. Anterior valve.

6b. A s muisimaensis. Type. Median valve.

6c. misimaensis. Type. Posterior valve.

Leannbnne: Neo phochion johnstoni, Ashby. Type. From Western Australia. Anterior,
median, and posterior valves.
8. Cryptoplax iichaelsene Thiele. Type. From Western Australia.

PLateE XVII.

. 1. Lophochiton johnstoni, Ashby. Type. From Western Australia.

la, b,c. Lophochiton johnstoni. Type. Anterior, median, and posterior valves.
Id. Lophochiton johnstoni.. Type. Median valve, edge on, showing divergence and slight

curvature.
2a. Ischnoradsia papuaensis, Ashby. Type. From Papua. Anterior valve.
2b. e papuaensis. Type. Inside of median valve showing 2 slits.
2c. Fe papuaensis. Type. Posterior valve.

3. Sclerochiton curtisianus, Smith. From Townsville, for comparison with HE Otay
miles, showing different character of girdle scales, etc.

Pirate XVIII.

1. Onithochiton scholvieni, Thiele. From Carnarvon, Western Australia.

2. Tonicia (Lucilina) delecta, Thiele. From Carnarvon, Western Australia.

3. Sclerochiton miles, (€pr.) Pilsbry. From Carnarvon, Western Australia. Showing
sculpture and peculiar girdle scales.

3a, b,c. Sclerochiton miles. Same specimen. Anterior, median, and posterior valves.

PLATE XIX.
1. Cryptoplax hartmeyeri, Thiele. From Yallingup, Western Australia.
[4 “3 rostratis, Reece From Sydney, New South Wales.
Za, b,c. Cryptoplax rostratus. Juvenile. Anterior, median, and posterior valves show-

ing shape.
3. Cryptoplax michaelseni, Thiele. From Carnarvon, Western Australia.
3a, b, c. Cryptoplax michaelseni. Same specimen. Anterior, median, and posterior
valves showing shape.
4. Cryptoplax iredalei, Ashby. Type. From South Australia. Minute girdle spicules.
5. striatus, Lamarck. From type locality, South Australia. Coarse girdle

spicules.

”

244

ON THE ZONATION OF THE VEGETATION IN THE PORT WAKEFIELD
DISTRICT, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE SALINITY OF THE

SOIL.
By Proressor T. G. B. Ossorn, D.Sc., and

J. G. Woop, B.Sc., Department of Botany, University of Adelaide.
[Read September 13, 1923. ]
PPAR, OX.

This paper embodies the results of a reconnaissance visit made in March
of this year to the Port Wakefield district. The object was to study the zonation
of the vegetation when passing from a community of undoubted halophytes to a
“saltbush” community.

Saltbush is the name given in Australia to various annual or half-shrubby
perennials belonging to the Chenopodiaceae, especially to the genus Atriplex.
The plants have characteristically grey, more or less fleshy leaves, which, as the
common name implies, contain a quantity of sodium chloride. Saltbushes grow
abundantly over the arid portions of Australia, and are of considerable economic
importance, because they provide a reserve of fodder for the pastoral industry.
In the dry season, or in times of drought, stock can live entirely on the leaves of
these plants.

Because of their appreciably salt taste, these bushes have been regarded as
characteristic of a soil with a high saline content, that is halophytes. The
Chenopodiaceae, as a family, contains a large number of halophytes, and the
Atripleces of Australia have often been regarded as belonging to this biological
group of plants, apparently, largely on general grounds.

Last year one of us, in company with R. S. Adamson, was led to express
the opinion that in some cases, at any rate, the Australian saltbushes did not
appear to be halophytic.©? At that time we had no more positive data to offer
than our observations upon the distribution of the plants in the field. Recently,
when studying the vegetation of Pearson Islands,® it was found that a typical
saltbush community, composed of Atriplex paludosum, was developed on soils
of only average salinity (NaCl ‘20 per cent. of the air dry soil).

Observations on the flora of the arid portions of South Australia have
been in progress in this Department for some time. It seems useful, however,
to preface the accounts with a piece of field work, if only of the reconnaissance
type, that should involve a direct comparison between saltbush and plants of
the salt marshes, 7.c., true halophytes. The results, it is believed, have sufficient
general interest to justify their separate publication.

TOPOGRAPHIC,

Port Wakefield stands on the eastern shore of Gulf St. Vincent, about five
miles south-south-east from the head. The railway station is only 18 feet above
high-tide mark, and the country north and south of the township extends as a

‘(D Maiden, J. H., “Australian Vegetation,” in Federal Handbook on Australia, p. 191, 1914.
Cannon, W. A., ‘Plant Habits and Habitats in the Arid Portions of Australia,’ Carnegie Inst.
Publ., No. 308, 1921.

(2) Adamson, R. S., and T. G. B. Osborn, “On the Ecology of the Ooldea District,’ Trans.
Rove Soc: Ss. Austr, xvii, pe 5540 1922)

’ (3) Osborn, T. G. B., “Flora and Fauna of Nuyts Archipelago and the Investigator Group,
No. 8, On the Ecology of Pearson Islands,’ Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xlvii., p. 106, 1923.

245

level plain, often flooded in the wet season by high tides or drainage water. The
general topography is flat and uninteresting. Passing inland from a muddy,
mangrove-fringed shore, one crosses a plain which varies from a few hundred
yards to a mile or more in width. This is flooded by high spring tides in the
wet season. It bears a flora of low shrubs, “samphires,” chiefly Arthrocnemum
halocnemoides. This plain rises very gradually to a slightly higher level that
is not flooded by sea water. At this level occurs an open dwarf shrubland of
bushes of Airiplex paludosum. Behind this again, lies low rolling country.
The soil varies from a loam, which is cultivated, to a red sandy soil. The
natural vegetation of this area has largely disappeared under the plough, or
because of grazing animals, but on the red sand near the head of the Gulf there
occur the relics of a saltbush flora, Atriplex stipitatum being the most important
undershrub.

Gulf St. Vincent, according to Howchin,™ is of very recent origin, and owes
its existence to earth movements that are probably still in progress. In Post-
Pliocene times the site of the Gulf was a wide valley which became filled with
sediments. A bore at Port Wakefield shows fluviatile deposits to a thickness
of 310 feet. Still more recently this valley was submerged, with the result that
a shallow arm of the sea was formed. The sea bottom and shore at Port Wake-
field consist of clays, overlain to a slight extent by wind-blown sands.

The position of Port Wakefield, near the head of a long shallow arm of the
sea, makes the district a suitable one for the evaporation of sea water and the
recovery of sodium chloride. The sea at the head of the Gulf has an abnormally
high density, especially at the close of the dry summer seasoon. Recent figures
from a Bulletin of the Geological Survey of South Australia show this; the
salinity of some other sea waters is given for comparison :—

SALINITY PER CENT.

Ocean water Spencer Gulf, Gulf St. Vincent,
mean of 77 South Australia. South Australia. Suez Canal, Mediterranean,
analyses. Crystal Salt Price, near Port Ismailia.(6) near Carthage.(@)
(Challenger )'(6) Wharf.) Wakefield.)
3°301-3°733 5166 4555 5°103 3°897

Thus the water, flooding the plains around Port Wakefield, is likely to bring
considerable quantities of salts with it. Some of these will be leached out in
the wet season by rain, but others, especially the less soluble, will accumulate in
the surface layers by evaporation. A soil of this type, rich in soluble salts and
lime, was met with. (See sample 5, below.)

JEVAVBIITANIE™ 1EVACCINOIRS,.

CLIMATIC.

The climatic conditions at Port Wakefield are those of the setni-arid por-
tions of South Australia. The rainfall is actually low, being 1293 inches on a
mean of 42 years,” the highest recorded annual rainfall being 17°65 inches, in
1910; the lowest, 649, in 1888. The monthly distribution is shown by fig. 1.
It will be seen that the summer is dry, December to February showing only
just over ‘5 inches of rain each.

o—

(4) Howchin, W., “The Evolution of the Physiographical Features of South Australia,”
Rept. Australasian Ass. Ady. Sci., xiv., Melbourne, p. 176, 1913.

) Jack, R. L., “The Salt and Gypsum Resources of South Australia,’ Dept. of Mines
S. Austr., Bull. 8, p. 37, 1921.

(6) Clarke, F. W., “The Data of Geo-Chemistry,” U.S. Geol. Sur. Bull. 695, p. 123, 1920.

@ “Results of Rainfall Observations in South Australia,’ Commonwealth Meteorological
Service, Melbourne, Govt. Printer, p. 339, 1918.

RAINFALL IN INCHES.

S Bo a
5 po 4 fw A 3 > O
A Acai tat a See Bip Ons
Eph lek ee iste eo mene Onn ai
Fig. 1.

Monthly rainfall at Port Wakefield, based on records of 42 years.

The rainfall of the few months immediately before our visit is important in
considering the soil analyses given below. By courtesy of the State Meteorologist
we are able to give the figures for the 12 months ending March 31, 1923.

It will be seen that the two months immediately preceding our visit had been
abnormally dry, and that the drought lasted throughout March, when we col-
lected the samples. They were taken, then, at a time particularly favourable
for the collection of soil samples, as the soluble salts would be about maximum
concentration.

RAINFALL IN INCHES, APRIL, 1922, TO Marcu, 1923.
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. 12 Months
75 201 4169 221 1-69 "26 84 00 2°06 13 08 02 «12.34

The topographic position of Port Wakefield on a level plain at the head of
a long narrow arm of the sea has an effect on the rainfall of the area. Though
on the coast of a gulf, it is virtually inland, for it stands some 30 miles from the
open sea. The moisture contents of the south-west winds, which bring a great
part of the rain to this portion of South Australia, is little affected by the narrow
waters at the head of the Gulf. Altitude is, therefore, an important factor in
the condensation of water from the moisture-laden winds, for the rainfall
decreases as one passes inland, unless altitude rises proportionately. Port
Wakefield lies about the centre of a little area enclosed by a 15-inch isohyet,
20 inches of rain or more being the average for the surrounding districts. To
this lower rainfall may be attributed the occurrence of the Atriplex stipitatum
area.

Temperature data are not available for Port Wakefield. It lies, however,
close to the 75° F. January isotherm, but slightly to the south.

An important factor in determining the aridity of a district is the annual
evaporation. Jack gives a map of Australia showing the annual evaporation
in inches for the evaporation stations of the Commonwealth, also the isatmics.
Port Wakefield lies about midway between the 50-inch and 60-inch lines, from
which we may deduce that the annual evaporation from a free water surface
would be about 55 inches. Since the mean annual rainfall is only 12:93 inches,

(8) Taylor, Griffith, “The Australian Environment,” Melbourne, p. 99, 1918.
@) Jack, R. L., loc. cat., p. 8.

_ 247

the net annual evaporation must be somewhere in the region of 40 inches of

water per annum. This will conduce to an accumulation of saline matter in

soils flooded by sea water, or kept moist by seepage owing to their proximity to

the sea.
EDAPHIC,

Two distinct soil types were found. The one, a red sand, was limited to a
low rise behind the plain area. The other was clay mingled with shells or shell
debris. The majority of the samples were soils of this description. In many
of the samples the proportion of shell remains is very high, as is shown by the
amount of lime found by analysis.

The samples were obtained at a depth of 9 to 12 inches by means of a small
spade. In all cases the surface soil was first brushed away, and an excavation
was made. The sample was then taken as a slice about an inch thick down a
vertical side of the pit. It was then placed in an air-tight tin and conveyed
to the laboratory. After air drying, the soils were passed through a 10-mesh
(26 mm.) sieve, the portion passing through being used for the analyses.
These are given in the table on page 248.

The moisture content was determined in two ways. First on the soil as
collected, and again after air drying. In each case it represents the loss on
heating at 110° C. until the weight was constant.

It is necessary to adopt some arbitrary basis for calculation in order to
obtain comparative results from soils from different areas taken at different
times. All our percentages, therefore, are taken on the soil air dry at 15° C,
unless otherwise stated.

The moisture content of the moist soil shows a progressive decrease in
amount following a line inland from the sea. Further, a comparison of the
two moisture columns shows that in the zones furthest inland the soils were
practically air dry when collected, for the moisture contents of the ‘‘moist”
and “air dry” soils are nearly identical.

The total salt content runs parallel to the water content; it shows a pro-
gressive and coincident decrease in amount from the sea inland. The chlorine
determinations show that the bulk of the soluble salts were chlorides. The total
soluble salts are expressed in two ways; first, as a percentage of the ‘“‘wet”
soil as collected; and second, as a percentage of the “air dry”’ soil.

Soils Nos. 1 and 2, from the Arthrocnemum arbuscula area, show an
abnormally high percentage of soluble salts. This is, no doubt, influenced by
the season of the year at which they were taken, for, at the end of a long dry
summer with a high evaporation rate, the seepage of sea water of hypersalinity
would produce this effect.

If a curve were made expressing the decrease in salinity as one passes
inland, it would show four sharp discontinuities. These correspond with the
four main plant communities that one recognizes in the field, suggesting that
salinity of the soil is an important factor in the distribution of the vegetation.

The remaining columns of the table give the loss on ignition, the lime content
of the soils, and the soil acidity.

The organic matter and combined water, as shown by the loss on ignition,
do not seem to play any great part in the distribution of the vegetation. The
salt swamp of Arthrocnemum arbuscula is richest in organic matter. Then
comes the soil of the Atriplex paludosum community, which is richer than either
the Arthrocnemum halocnemiodes community, on the seaward side, or the
Atriplex stipitatum community, further inland.

The lime content is somewhat variable, but shows on the whole a decrease
in amount as one proceeds inland. ‘The shell-island, sample No. 3, is highly
calciferous, as might be expected, for it appeared to consist entirely of marine

248

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249

shells or their debris. The red sand, on the other hand, is a soil of entirely
different origin. It contains practically no lime.

The soil acidity (pH) does not show any great variation, with the exception
of soil No. 10. All the soils, with the exception of the latter, have an alkaline
reaction approximating to that of sea water (pH 86). In soil No. 10 the effect
in the decrease in the amount of salts and lime is seen. The pH value is just
on the alkaline side of neutrality.

~~

Water retaining capacity of the Soil.—It is obviously desirable to have
some means of comparing the water retaining capacity of the soils. This can, of
course, be expressed by the wilting coefficient,“ but the method is unsuited to
work of a reconnaissance type.

Hilgard@ gives a method of obtaining the maximum saturation of a soil
sample. We tried this method and found the results approximately the same
as those obtained by the method we finally adopted. The results obtained by
the following method have been found consistent and are comparable. The
bottom was knocked out of a small test tube 15 cm. in diameter and the hole
plugged with a small amount of cotton wool. Soil was then poured in to a
height of about 8 cms., and the sides of the tube lightly knocked to tamp down
the soil. The tubes were then allowed to stand in a Petri dish of distilled water
until the water just reached the top of the soil column by capillarity, temperature
and humidity remaining constant. Weighings of the tubes and contents, before
and after absorption, allow the percentage of water in the soil to be calculated.

Soil sample No. 4a—Water, 502 per cent.
” ” , 9 —Water, 463 per cent.
Y r» , 10 —Water, 363 per cent.

We took these three samples as representative of the three main zones discussed
below; determinations of the water retaining capacity of the other soils were

not made.
VEGETATION.

The vegetation may most conveniently be considered by a brief description
of the different communities crossed in a transect from the coastline, passing
inland, to the low sandy upland. The communities show a remarkably regular
zonation.

Avicennia officinalis consociation.

Mangroves fringe the shore and come inland to the limit of daily tidal scour.
The community is a closed one, and Avicennia officinalis is the only species. The
ecotone line between the mangrove consociation and the salt swamp plants 1s
very regular, the determining factor being the limit of regular tidal flooding.
Mangroves follow the estuaries of drainage channels into the salt swamp area
only so far as the tide regularly ascends.

Arthrocnemum arbuscula consocies.

The dominant species in the salt swamp country is <Arthrocnemum
arbuscula. The bushes have a rounded habit and are 1-15 metres high. They
branch freely, and would form an impenetrable thicket, were it not for the fact
that the secondary lignified tissue is curiously brittle, owing to the structure of
the ground sclerenchyma. The foliage shoots are green and succulent. This
was so at the time of our visit; in spite of the high percentage of soluble
salts in the soil (samples Nos. 1 and 2), the plants showed no sign of a lack of

(10) Blackman, V. H., “The Wilting Coefficient of the Soil,’ Journ. of Ecol., ii., p. 43, 1914
(11) Hilgard, E. W., “Soils,” p. 209, 1919.

250

water. Generally only the distal two or three internodes remain green and
succulent, the more proximal portions of the shoots dry up and become thin.

Arthrocnemum arbuscula often forms a pure community, though associated
with it may occur :-—

Kochia op positifolia Suaeda australis
Salicornia australis

*The last two are prostrate half-shrubby plants; both occur most notice-
ably at the seaward margin of the thicket. K. oppositifolia is a low bushy
plant, about 50 cms. high. It occurs scattered over the Arthrocnemum arbuscula
zone.

The soil analyses (Nos. 1 and 2) show that the above plants are true salt
marsh species, being able to live in a muddy soil that is constantly wet and with
a high saline content. In spite of these factors the plants of this consocies
appeared turgid and healthy, much more so than those of the communities further
inland, which were showing the effects of the prolonged drought.

Arthrocnemum halocnemoides consocies.

A dwarf shrubland in which Arthrocnemum halocnemoides is the dominant
occurs aS an open community over the greater part of the coastal plain. The
ground is flooded occasionally at high-water spring tides, but during the wet
season it is frequently swampy owing to drainage.

The soils of this area are Nos. 4a and 4b, 5 and 7. Excluding for the
moment No. 5, it will be seen that the moisture in the soil as collected ranged
from 21°8-11'8 per cent. The total salts in the air dry samples range from
49-29 per cent., of which 377-230 per cent. is sodium chloride. The organic
matter is low, while the lime, owing to shell debris, is high.

A. halocnemoides forms a pure community near its seaward limit. Further
inland Frankenia pauciflora and Mesembryanthemum australe appear between
the scattered bushes of the samphire. The surface of the soil here is light and
powdery; the surface layer is analysed as No. 5. This soil, which extends to-
a depth of about 7 cms., was practically air dry when collected. The content
of soluble salts (72 per cent., of which 533 per cent. was sodium chloride) is
much higher than the underlying layers. This surface layer may be said to
have its own flora of shallow-rooting plants, the Frankenia and Mesembryan-
themum mentioned above. Their roots were not observed to penetrate the
deeper layers, nor do the roots of A. halocnemoides develop in the surface layer.
It is almost as if two different habitats were superposed in portions of the plain.

Arthrocnemum halocnemoides is a low shrubby perennial, here generally
under 50 cms., with a free branching habit. The internodes average 2 cms. in
length and remain fleshy for some distance down the shoot, so that the plant has
a much greater water reserve within its tissues than has A. arbuscula. The
old stems may attain a thickness of 3-4 cms. at the base, but have a charac-
teristically brittle nature owing to the structure of the “secondary wood.”

The root system is of interest. There is a short tap root and several lateral
branches that descend nearly vertically for 18-20 cms. There they meet a stiffer
clay subsoil, along which they run horizontally, branching freely. They do not
penetrate the subsoil themselves, but bear at frequent intervals much thinner
lateral roots. These are under 1 mm. in diameter, do not become secondarily
thickened, but obviously function only for a limited time before they die. They
are replaced by other roots arising close to their bases. These in turn die and
are replaced, so that tufts of rootlets occur along the horizontal roots. It seems
probable that this “deciduous” root production is associated with alternating
periods of vegetative activity and quiescence. A somewhat similar production of

251

tufts of roots that have a short duration is well known in the case of other
succulents, e.g., in the Crassulaceae. When collected, vegetative activity on the
part of A. halocnemoides appeared to be at a standstill, the plants were wilting,
showing obviously the effect of the long dry summer.

The other two plants of the community were suffering even more severely
from lack of water. The leaves of the Mesembryanthemum were flaccid, those
of Frankenia pauciflora were erect, parallel to the stems, and seemed dried up.
The plant had a much more stunted habit than is usual. Its branches rose
obliquely without the adventitious rooting observed when it grows in sandy
soil 02)

The consocies here described characterises most of the plain between the
actual salt swamp and the higher-lying salt bush area. It is clearly halophytic,
but is not permanent swamp; it is rather of the nature of an “alkali plain.”
Though the plants have a high salt toleration they are sharply defined from the
actual swamp species, which replace them in local depressions.

Drainage channels —Drainage channels, many of which are tidal at the
lower portion of their course, and most of which would be flooded at ordinary
spring tides, intersect the Arthrocnemum halocnemoides zone described above.
They are conspicuous because they are colonized by A. arbuscula, which, owing
to its taller growth and green colour, stands out distinctly above the lower red-
brown of the A. halocnemoides. At the edge of some of the channels 4}
leiostachyum occurred.

The upper portion of the beds of the channels is bare, cracked mud. Water
evidently remains for some time in local holiows, but these were all dry when
examined. Large sheets of a felt-like material composed of Cladophora sp.
were found in the hollows.

Banks of the drainage channels—The banks of the drainage channels in
the A. halocnemoides area are interesting because, in places, they tend to become
raised above the general level of the rest of the plain. This is due to an accumu-
tation of silt, debris, and shells that becomes banked up around the plants grow-
ing at the edges. Thus local “islands” occur fringing the channel. These small
local patches of higher ground are usually only a few yards in length and not
much more than a yard wide, but their edaphic conditions differ from the sur-
rounding plain (see soil sample No. 6). The soil is less salt, drier, and has
more organic matter in it. On such islands A. paludoswm appears. The grey
leaves of this plant are a striking contrast to the colour of the vegetation on
either side. The occurrence of these outliers of the Atriplex paludosum consocies
is a matter of some interest, for it indicates the importance of edaphic conditions
in determining the distribution of the saltbush in the area (pl. xx., fig. 2).

Mixed shrub community on shell islands——Debris deposited by flood tides
accumulates not only besides the drainage channels but in various other places
over the actual swamp area (A. arbuscula consocies). Shells of a cockle (Chione
sp.) are most abundant, though a conicai shell (Bittium sp.) is present in large
numbers. Great quantities of the shells may accumulate against some large
object'and form mounds several feet high and many square yards in area. Several
such islands were visited and will be briefly described.

The earliest stage seen was in the salt swamp area close behind the mangrove
limit. There, a tree-trunk and other flotsam of the tide formed the basis of a
mound composed chiefly of shells. This was colonized by Nitraria Schoeberi,

(12) Osborn, T. G. B., “Flora and Fauna of Nuyts Archipelago, No. 3. A Sketch of the
Ecology of Franklin Islands,” Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xlvi., p. 194, 1922.

252

a plant of remarkably varied habitat and possessing also a capacity for adven-
titious rooting.“

All the other islands seen represented older stages than that just described.
By successive deposition of more shells and debris the level of the islands had
become raised well above the general level of the plain. The banks so formed
were colonized by a mixed community of various shrubs, low trees, and annuals.
The following is a composite list made from three such islands :-—

Stipa teretifolia Silene gallica

Avena fatua Tillaea verticillaris
Bromus sp. Acacia ligulata
Dianella revoluta Nitraria Schoeberi
Fusanus acuminatus Frankenia pauciflora
Exocarpus aphylla Alyxia buxifolia
Rhagodia baccifera Myoporum insulare
Atriplex paludosum Olearia axillaris
Threlkeldia diffusa Vittadinia australis
Tetragonia implexicoma Senecio lautus

Mesembryanthemum aequilaterale

The soil analysis shows that the soil has a very low water retaining capacity ;
the soil was air dry when collected, with only 16 per cent. of moisture. That
the soil is chiefly made up of shell grit is seen by the lime content of 907 per
cent. Soluble salts in the soil were only 111 per cent., of which only 0°06 per cent.
was sodium chloride.

Mosses were a prominent feature of the ground flora, and saxicolous lichens
were present in quantity on the superficial layer of shell. The ecology of these
islands and the relation of the florulas to that of the coastal dunes in the vicinity
would be of interest, but it is not proposed to consider them further here. Atten-
tion may be drawn to the occurrence of Atriplex paludosum on the “islands,”
for they provide an obviously non-halophytic habitat.

Atriplex paludosum consocies.

A dwarf shrubland of Atriplex paludosum occupies the upper limits of the
coastal plain. The grey colour of the dominant plant at once characterises the
area, distinguishing it sharply from the Arthrocnemum halocnemoides shrubland
on the seaward side. The ecotone line is sharp, a distance of three or four yards
usually being sufficient to pass from the samphire community of the type described
above to pure saltbush. The soil analyses of the transition region are given as
No. 7 from A. halocnemoides zone and No. 8 near the junction, but definitely
in the A. paludosum zone. The percentage of moisture in the soil as collected
and of sodium chloride in No. 8 is only 50 per cent. of that found in No. 7,
It will be seen, also, that the moisture content of the air dry soil indicates a
lower water retaining capacity for the soil supporting the saltbush community.
The Atriplex paludosum consocies is thus developed on a soil that is only
moderately salt but with a low water retaining capacity; it is, in fact, a plant
community developed on a xerophytic habitat rather than a halophytic one.

The following plants also occurred :—

Poa bulbosa Mesembryanthemum australe
Thysanotus Patersonii Tillaea verticillaris

Atriplex semibaccatum Frankenia pauciflora

Bassia uniflora Angianthus strictus

B. biflora

G3) Cannon, W. A., loc. cit., p. 70.

253

Only three annuals are included in the list, but at the end of a long dry
season most of the annual species would disappear. The dry climbing stems of
Thysanotus Paterson, which is a geophyte, were quite common amongst the
stems of A. paludosum.

Drainage channels and hollows in the A. paludosum zone were colonized
by Arthrocnemum halocnemoides, the lines of junction being very sharp (pl.
Sj Ue 3)

Atriplex stipitatum community.

Remains of the indigenous flora are scarce behind the level coastal plain.
Most of the inland area seen is entirely modified by farming, but near the head
of the Gulf is an area of red sandy soil that has not been ploughed. This is
colonized by a degenerate saltbush scrub, Atriplex stipitatum being the most
abundant plant present. This species forms low rounded bushes about 50 cms.
in diameter with an open spreading habit. Other plants present were :—

Lomandra effusa Enchylaena tomentosa
Fusanus acuminatus Acacia sp. (Oswaldu ?)

The list is certainly far from complete, but the combined effects of rabbits,
heavy grazing, and the season of the year made it impossible to collect specimens
suitable for identification. The interest in the area, however, lies in the develop-
ment of the saltbush A. stipitatum.

The soil is of a very different type (sample No. 10). It is highly silicious,
with only 9 per cent. of lime and 23 per cent. of organic matter. The soil was
air dry when collected, and the moisture content of 25 per cent. indicates a
very poor water retaining capacity. The most interesting difference, however,
is that sodium chloride is present as a mere trace, 02 per cent.

DISCUSSION:

From the foregoing it is clear that the zonation noticed in the vegetation
may be correlated with certain edaphic features of the environment. First, the
range of water content of the different plant habitats may be expressed as
follows :—

Arthrocnemum arbuscula ue a -. 20-50 per cent.
A. halocnemoides at ae mE Be 5-200 ee i
Atriplex paludosum .. teh sie DIOS ZSts & a
A. stipitatum .. a De a

Further, if the salt content be Soneidered whether total salts or sodium
chloride, a similar division of the soil analyses may be made :—

Total Salts. NaCl.
Arthrocnemum arbuscula 53 LOGAN ue: 15°70-16°71 p.c.
A. halocnemoides 7) -e, 29549 pe 230- 377 p.c.
Atriplex paludosum .. J) LO ZB we. O78-- 1 62 pic.
A. stipitatum .. te oe 03 p.c. OZ De

From the above figures one can obtain a ratio expressing the proportion of
salts to water in the soil at the time of our visit, i.e., one can gain some idea of
the density of the soil solution at that time of the year. This ratio is given below,
taking total salts in the wet soil as unity, and giving the amount of water pre-
sent in the soil as collected as a ratio of this figure. The results are as follows :—

Arthrocnemum arbuscula a he ae we li Ore O
A. halocnemoides ui ae a as Gea oleae 3
Atriplex paludosum .. a0 Ht a3 el S1O=313
A. stipitatum .. Si seated hone)

It follows that A. paludosum he in conenct with its roots a solution that
is actually denser than that in which the salt marsh plants are growing. But
this solution was not being absorbed by the roots in March, for, as noted above,

254

A. paludosum was in a wilting condition. In the Arthrocnemum halocnemoides
zone the proportion of salts to water is slightly less than in the case of A.
arbuscula. But, whereas, the latter plants were growing thriftily, the former
were markedly collapsing, the cortex of the plants as collected being shrunken
and wrinkled.

If, however, we take the proportion of salts to water in the saturated soil,
using the percentages given on page 249 a different result is obtained. The
ratio of salt to water becomes :—

Arthrocnemum halocnemoides Ea. ae ing 15se1Z
Atriplex paludosum .. ae Bs i st 29
A. stipitatum .. ah a 2k ; as 1: 120

This, we believe, expresses more accurately the degree of salinity of the
soil solution in the respective zones during the wet season. They confirm our
conclusions that the zonation of the vegetation observed is correlated with a
decrease in the salinity of the soil, and that this is accompanied by an increasing
aridity of the environment.

The figures given by us for the total salinity of the different zones, high
though they are, are actually less than the percentage of total salts in the soils
of “alkali lands” of the United States of America. Hilgard'“) gives his figures
as pounds per acre feet. We have taken, the results as given by him and
converted them to percentages of “wet” soil by taking 3,750,000 Ibs. as the weight
per acre foot of soil (vide Hilgard, p. 444). The results for certain of the char-
acter plants of the alkali lands are :—

Allenrolfia occidentalis Se .. 132 per cent. total salts
Salicornia subterminalis as He lS 5 5 3
Frankenia grandiflora .. x mete Lae) Fa jes
Suaeda Torreyana.. a er OND 5 Samengees
Sarcobatus vermiculatus an ips AR be) 5 %

It is for comparison with these figures that we have given the percentage
of salts to wet soil in our table on page 248.

The zonation of the vegetation around a salt lake in an arid region has been
studied in some detail by Kearney and his co-workers“ in Tooele Valley, Utah.
The observations made by us are in general agreement so far as the zoning of
comparable plants is concerned. It is interesting to notice that at Tooele the
salt swamp plant is Allenrolfia, and that Atriplex confertifolia grows on the
less salt portions. This plant, from its general relations, appears to correspond
to our A. paludosum. Atriplex stipitatum, the chief constituent of the saltbush
area (using the term in its generally accepted Australian sense) corresponds
rather to the North American sage brush, Artemesia tridentata; that is, to a
plant of arid regions with only a low salt concentration in the soil.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XxX.

Fig. 1. General view in Arthrocnemum arbuscula zone, showing a bare creek to right.
The mounds and bushes in the middle distance are “shell islands.” On “the horizon are the hills
of Yorke Peninsula across Gulf St. Vincént.

Fig. 2. Creek in the Arthrocnemum halocnemoides zone. The figure to the left stands
on a raised bank, on which are bushes of Atriplex paludosum. The figure to the right is in
the creek bed; in this grow bushes of Arthrocnemum arbuscula.

Fig. 3. Junction of the Atriplex paludosum zone and the Arthrocnemum halocnemoides
zone, seen in the lower land to the right.

(14) Hilgard, E. W., loc. cit., p. 549.

(15) Kearney, T. H., L. J. pees H. L. Shantz, J. W. McLane, and R. L. Piemeisel,
son a Significance of Vegetation in Tooele Valley, Utah,” Journ. Agr. Research, i., pp.
914.

255

THE GEM SANDS OF ENCOUNTER BAY.

By R. GRENFELL THOMAS.
[Read September 13, 1923.]

The beach sand at several points in the vicinity of Encounter Bay has long
been known to yield a so-called ‘‘gem sand” where concentrated by wave action.

The underlying rock formations comprise intrusive granite and a series of
thermally metamorphosed sedimentary rocks, which are taken to be of Pre-
Cambrian age. These older rocks are overlain at intervals by irregular and
discontinuous patches of glacial drift of Permo-Carboniferous age.

As this sand is representative of the heavy mineral content of the area, its
composition may be expected to furnish interesting evidence of the alterations
occasioned by thermal contact metamorphism in this region. It was primarily
with a view to ascertaining the mineral composition of the sand that the follow-
ing investigation was undertaken.

Mode of Occurrence.

The gem sand, which is conspicuous by its red colour, occurs as irregular
thin-bedded sheets on the beaches in question near high-water mark. The pre-
sence of concentrated deposits of the sand in any one area is not necessarily
dependent on the immediate proximity of rocks in which the constituent minerals
occur in situ, but is largely influenced by prevailing currents, slope of beach,
and general coastal configuration. Although concentration by wave action is
the chief factor influencing the deposition of the sand, the effect is often amplified
by the selective action of winds on the sand dunes, whereby the lighter grains
are carried away, leaving a residue of higher specific gravity.

Localities.

The chief areas of deposition in Encounter Bay can be grouped under two
headings: (1) At Rosetta Head; (2) at Middleton Beach. For purposes of
comparison it is convenient to divide the Rosetta Head deposits into two classes:
—(a) Those on the west side of Rosetta Head, or the “Petrel Cove” type;
(b) those on the east side of Rosetta Head, or the “Bluff Bay” type. At these
localities the gem sand is present in greater or less quantity throughout the year,
although the concentrated deposits are often temporarily disseminated by heavy
seas.

Collection of Samples.

Representative samples of sand from the localities mentioned were collected
and were each concentrated in the field, by “panning,” to a well-defined stage
immediately preceding a loss of the heavier constituents. The material thus
eliminated was found to consist of quartz and shell fragments, and contained
none of the heavier minerals which it was desired to examine. In this way
samples, weighing about 10 lbs., after concentration, were obtained from each
locality. These samples may be regarded as thoroughly representative of the
several deposits, and thus afforded standards for comparison of the different
types.

Mechanical Analysis.

An approximate determination of the average size of the grains in each

sample of sand was made by using a micrometer eyepiece fitted to the microscope.

This method gave the following results :— Diameter in millimetres.
Petrel Cove. Bluff Bay. Middleton.
Average diameter of largest grains Ba) Ub Saaven, ‘5 mm. ‘5 mm.

The majority of the grains ane igen oh OO amy SA saatoe EI sa ahem,

256

Quantitative Separation into Magnetic Groups.

The method of examination followed was essentially that recommended by
T. Crook.” This comprised a preliminary separation of the constituents into
groups of varying magnetic permeability by means of an electro-magnet fitted
with adjustable pole pieces for altering the intensity of the magnetic field.

It was found that the component minerals of the sand could by this means
be separated into five well-defined groups, and since in each case a weight of
20 grams of sand was used, the relative weights of each group afforded a means
of comparing the three types of sand. The following groups were thus
recognized :—

(1) Highly magnetic, represented by Magnetite
(2) Moderately magnetic, represented by Ilmenite
(3) Appreciably magnetic, represented by Garnet
(4) Weakly magnetic, represented by Staurolite
(5) Non-magnetic, represented. by .. ea Zineon

The relative proportions of the various groups in the three types of sand
were found to be as follows :—

Percentage Weights.
Petrel Cove. Bluff Bay. Middleton.
. 5

Magnetite Group , sg 10)
Ilmenite Group ee beheld oe) 80
Garnet Group as .. 548 BS 750
Staurolite Group 7... bee 10 5)
Zircon Group as Bie as Ge) a7 105

Component Minerals of the various Magnetic Groups.

The separation and identification of the component minerals was effected by
a series of heavy liquid flotations and electrostatic separations, coupled with
microscopical examination.

Owing to the relatively high specific gravity of most of the minerals the
use of heavy liquids for separation was necessarily somewhat restricted, but
Methylene Iodide (S.G. 33) and fused Mercurous Nitrate (S.G. 43) were found
very useful in certain cases.

In some instances it was found that certain of the minerals showed varying
magnetic permeability, probably owing to inclusions of foreign material; this
caused them to appear in two or more of the magnetic groups. Separation in
these instances was effected by electrostatic methods, a process well adapted for
the separation of Ilmenite from the Garnet or Staurolite Groups.©) The follow-
ing minerals were identified :—

From Magnetite Group Magnetite
IImenite Group Ilmenite
Garnet Group Almandine

Staurolite Group
Zircon Group

Staurolite, Green Spinel, Tourmaline
Zircon, Kyanite, and Rutile

_ Each of the three types of sand was found to contain the same set of
minerals, and as the properties of any one mineral were, in general, common to
that type at each locality, it is convenient to group the petrological features col-

lectively.

(1) Vide Text-book of Petrology, “The Sedimentary Rocks,” by Hatch and Rastall.
Appendix by T. Crook. Page 339, ei seq. London, 1913.

) Vide Mineralogical Magazine, vol. 15, p. 260

S

257

The refractive indices were obtained by the Shroeder van der Kolk method
of oil immersion, while the specific gravities were determined with a Pycnometer.

Petrological Features of the Minerals.

MaGnetiTE.—The grains are rather variable in appearance, some being
lustrous black, others dull and rusty. They are always opaque and generally
well rounded, but occasionally abraded octahedrons are present. The specific
gravity varies considerably in different samples owing to partial hydration, etc.,
but ranges between 41 and 511.

ILMENITE.—Opaque grains, black and lustrous, chiefly well rounded, but some-
times platy or showing abraded crystal forms. Many of the grains show patches
of yellowish-white leucoxene. The magnetic permeability varies considerably
in different grains, probably in accord with a fluctuation in the titanium content.
Specific gravity is 502, a value corresponding to titaniferous magnetite rather
than ilmenite proper.

ALMANDINE GARNET.—Occurs essentially as irregular grains with rounded
outlines, though well-formed crystals are occasionally to be seen, especially in
the Petrel Cove sand. The colour varies from light pink to deep red. The
grains are perfectly isotropic and show no sign of cleavage. The refractive
index is high and greater than that of methylene iodine. Some of the grains
show an abundance of solid black inclusions. The specific gravity is 416.

TOURMALINE.—Rather common, as well-rounded grains, in the Middleton
sand, rarer in Rosetta Head deposits, but more frequently euhedral. Colour
very variable, from light smoky-grey through brown to bluish-black or opaque.
Pleochroism very strong, light-coloured varieties giving complete absorption of
the ordinary ray. No cleavage shown, prismatic forms give straight extinction.
Refractive index high, about 163. Some grains show acicular inclusions. The
specific gravity varies from 3'1 to 3°3.

GREEN SPINEL.—Typically as rounded grains of olive-green to light-green
colour. Occasionally an abraded octahedral form occurs. No cleavage observ-
able. Wath crossed nicols the grains are quite isotropic. Inclusions are rare
though acicular rods sometimes occur. Refractive index high and near to that
of methylene iodide, about 172. Specific gravity, 40.

STAUROLITE.—This mineral is the chief component of the weakly magnetic
group. Although very variable in appearance most of the grains are anhedral
with a pronounced rough surface, due to an abundance of solid inclusions.
Well-formed crystals are occasionally present in the Petrel Cove sand. The
colour varies from brown to yellow in the opaque grains, and in the rarer trans-
parent varieties it is a deep reddish-brown. The clear grains show strong
pleochroism in yellow and brown, and also give straight extinction. The refrac-
tive index is high and very near to methylene iodide; the birefringence is moder-
ately low.

An interrupted cleavage, parallel to (010), is occasionally shown; twinning
not observed.

The nature of the inclusions varies considerably; in some instances they
are gaseous, but more commonly appear to consist of quartz; occasionally they
are carbonaceous, but in no instance is there a symmetrical distribution of the
included material.

The specific gravity varies considerably ; in the purer varieties it is generally
357, but often falls as low as 345, when inclusions are abundant.

KyANITE.—Rather common in the non-magnetic group. Almost invariably
as flat grains and lath-shaped forms. Colour generally bluish-green but often
colourless or altering to brown among the cleavage cracks. Many grains show
colourless borders and blue centres. Cleavage cracks, parallel to (001), are
generally shown across the laths.

Pleochroism often rather weak, in ccharned grains only. Refractive index
high, a little less than that of methylene iodide, about 1°71.

I

258

Solid inclusions often plentiful and occasionally take the form of acicular
rods arranged either in “sagenite fashion” or in a confused felt-like swarm, the
habit and optical properties corresponding to sillimanite.

Owing to the perfect (100) cleavage the plates are usually lying on this
face, and hence show the almost normal emergence of the acute bisectrix, thus
giving good biaxial figures when examined in convergent light. The optic
axial angle is large and the optic sign negative. The specific gravity is 3°62.

RutTILE.—Common in the non-magnetic portion of the sand as abraded
rods and round grains. The Petrel Cove sand often shows good euhedral forms
with striated prism faces; geniculate twins also occur. The colour is generally
very dark but varies considerably; the Middleton sand shows the lightest reds.
By reflected light the grains show the typical semi-metallic lustre. The pleo-
chroism, when observable, is slight. Refractive index extremely high, birefring-
ence also very high, extinction straight.

A weak cleavage (110) is sometimes noticeable. Inclusions rare. The
specific gravity is 4°35.

Zircon.—Abundant in the non-magnetic group. Almost invariably in
abraded anhedral grains, traces of crystal form being very rare. The grains
are always perfectly colourless. Refractive index very high, birefringence also
very high. Straight extinction shown. Inclusions very rare. The specific
gravity is 471.

The Origin of the Component Minerals.

As regards the origin of the various minerals occurring in the sand, it
appears most probable that the majority of the constituents are derived from the
regions of contact thermal metamorphism produced by granitic intrusions of the
Pre-Cambrian sedimentary series which occurs in this area.

Some of the constituents, such as staurolite and kyanite, are certainly not
derived from the igneous rocks, and although several of the other minerals such
as rutile, zircon, and garnet are often of magmatic habit, they have not been
observed to be common constituents of the igneous rocks of this region, which
have been petrologically examined by W. R. Browne) and others. There can,
however, be little doubt that, in some instances, the mineralizing influence of
the intrusive granite has played an important part in their formation.

That the constituents of the sand are genetically connected with the meta-
morphic aureoles is further supported by the fact that those sands occurring
furthest away from the contact zones invariably show the greatest abrasion
and rounding of the grains, while those adjacent to the contact zones generally
contain larger and more angular grains which are often euhedral. Thus the
Petrel Cove deposits, occurring in the midst of a strongly metamorphosed region,
show considerably larger and less abraded grains than the Middleton sand, which
appears to travel along the coast from the contact zones at Port Elliot, a distance
of about two miles.

Summary.

The gem sand of Encounter Bay contains the following minerals :—
Magnetite, ilmenite, almandine garnet, staurolite, green spinel, tourmaline, kyanite,
rutile, and zircon. The minerals being of relatively high specific gravity
are concentrated on the sea beach by wave action. The component minerals
appear to be chiefly derived from the metamorphic aureoles resulting from the
intrusion of an acid magma into a Pre-Cambrian sedimentary series. The
sands from various localities in Encounter Bay contain the same set of minerals
but the relative proportions of the minerals are not constant throughout the area.

Geological Laboratory, Adelaide University,
August 9, 1923.

(3) Vide “The Igneous Rocks of Encounter Bay,” by W. R. Browne, Trans. Roy. Soc.
S. Austr., xliv., p. 1.

ON TRANSPIRATION IN THE FIELD OF SOME PLANTS FROM THE
ARID PORTIONS OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA, WITH NOTES ON THEIR
PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY.

By J. G. Woop, B.Sc., Demonstrator in Botany, University of Adelaide.
[Read September 13, 1923.]

PLATE XXI.

The Australian flora presents a great range of variation in form and some
remarkable structural features arising from the arid conditions. There has been
a surprising neglect of quantitative experimental work attempting to correlate
these modifications with the physiological processes of the plants. Ewart (1910)
determined the transpiration rates of three species of Eucalyptus (E. viminalis,
E. corynocalyx, and E. maculata), but the work was mainly concerned with the
problem of the ascent of the sap. More recently Cannon (1921) has described
the anatomy of several species of plants from the arid portions of South
Australia in relation to various ecological factors, chiefly the problem of the
water supply.

The following paper first describes the transpiration rates of six species of
plants in relation to various external factors, and, secondly, attempts to correlate
the transpiration rates with the histological modifications which are developed
in the transpiring organs.

ey AREAIN |S ERAGE © IN:

Physical Environment.—The experiments were carried out in the field at
Dilkera, a sheep station about 10 miles north of Mount Mary, a small township
on the Morgan railway line, and 90 miles north-east of Adelaide. Dilkera is in
the Murray basin, and has an average annual rainfall of 928 inches (Morgan).
A visit was made during the third week of May of this year; this was towards
the end of a period of about five months’ drought, and the weather was typical
of autumn conditions in this region. At this period of the year the country is
subject to strong westerly and south-westerly winds, which sweep over the plains
from the Mount Lofty Ranges. These winds are dry and often travel at a high
velocity. As will be shown below, they are an important factor in determining
the rate of transpiration.

As regards vegetation, the chief communities are an open woodland of
Casuarina lepidophloia or various mallees (Eucalyptus spp.), in conjunction with
undershrubs, the chief being Atriplex vesicarium and Kochuia sedifolia. The
transpiration experiments were carried out under as natural conditions as pos-
sible. The situation is shown in pl. xxi., fig 2. The chief shrub is the “blue-
bush,” Kochia sedifolia, with remains of bushes of Atriplex vesicarium, though
most of the latter have been eaten out by grazing animals. The trees are
Casuarina lepidophloia and Myoporum platycarpum. The apparatus was fully
exposed to all climatic factors and only protected from grazing animals by a
single barbed-wire enclosure.

The plants selected for experimentation were Casuarina lepidophloia
(F. v. M.), Geijera parviflora (Lind.), Pholidia scoparia (R. Br.), Atriplex
vesicarium (Hew.), Kochia sedifolia (F. v. M.), and Rhagodia Gaudi-
chaudiana (Mogq.).

260

MeETHOobs.
1. Measurement of Transpiration.

It was impossible to measure the loss of water by transpiration by weighing
owing, first, to the difficulty of access to Dilkera with the necessary instruments
of precision, and secondly, to the size of some of the plants and the great length
of time which must elapse before potted plants are ready for experimentation.
The means adopted, therefore, was that of measuring the loss of water from
cut shoots in a potometer. The burette form of potometer described by Lloyd
(1908) was adopted. This instrument is capable of measuring the loss of water
to within ‘05 c.c., an accuracy which is not attainable with most forms of poto-
meter balance. Further, the burette type has been used by students in the
University under the writer’s supervision, and has been found to give very
uniform results with the one species of plant. This form of potometer has
also the advantage of rapid and accurate reading, and it is believed that the
results would differ very little from those obtained by other methods provided
that the precautions mentioned below be observed.

The shoots were cut under water early in the morning, carefully trimmed
with a sharp knife, and the green cortex stripped away to prevent clogging of
the vessels by bacterial decomposition. The wood was inserted into rubber
tubing of 5 mm. diameter previously filled with water and attached to the
burette. By means of the rubber tubing a good water-tight joint is obtained.
The shoots were supported vertically.

No readings were taken for the first hour and a half in order that the
shoots might become turgid. In any case, Lloyd (1908), using American desert
plants, has found that the difference between the amount of water transpired
and the amount absorbed is practically negligible. Thus the loss from the
burette measures directly the amount of water transpired by the shoots. Although
it 1s not claimed that the burette potometer gives absolute readings for the
transpiration rates, it does give relative readings, so that the rates are strictly
comparable, which is the main requirement for the present considerations.

The tops of the burettes were covered with small specimen tubes to prevent
evaporation from the meniscus. The battery of potometers was erected on a
stand improvised on the spot, and is shown in pl. xxi., fig. 1.

2. Measurement of the Climatic Factors.

(a) Temperature—The temperature was measured in degrees Fahrenheit by
means of a thermometer attached to the potometer stand.

(b) Light Intensity—The measurement of light intensity has been neg-
lected by many workers on transpiration and photosynthesis, such terms as
“dull,” “bright,” etc., having little value. Inasmuch as it is a factor in stomatic
control it cannot be neglected. The intensity of illumination was measured by a
simple type of actinometer, namely, by noting the time taken for a strip of
sensitive paper to become the same shade as a standard fixed disc. The relative
intensities are plotted on the curves in seconds. Readings were taken every

half-hour, as shown on the curves; only the hourly readings appear in the
table, fig. 2.

(c) Relative Humidity—This was determined by means of wet and dry
bulb thermometers which were protected from the wind. The wet and dry
bulb readings were reduced to “relative humidity” by means of Glaisher’s formula.

(d) Evaporating Power of the Air—A method sensitive to slight variations
in evaporating power from hour to hour was necessary, and the type of atmo-
meter used by Livingston (1906) was employed. The apparatus consisted of a

261

Chamberland-Pasteur filter candle, Type B, of unglazed porcelain, attached by
rubber tubing to a burette, the whole being completely filled with water. This
atmometer was also attached to the potometer stand. For absolute measure-
ments it must be calibrated in terms of the loss from a free water service. This
was done on return to Adelaide by exposing in the same place the atmometer
and a Petri dish filled with water. The latter vessel was weighed each time a
reading was taken on the atmometer. From these data it was found that the
candle surface was equivalent to 100 sq. cms. of free water surface. The
evaporating power is measured by the loss of water per sq. cm. of free water
surface.

Fig. 1 gives the curves for the various climatic factors. The quantities of
the latter are plotted as ordinates and time in hours along the abscissa. As
regards temperature, it will be seen that this did not vary greatly throughout
the time of experimentation, but fell gradually from 2 p.m. The evaporating
power was fairly high throughout the day, but fell rapidly at night. The
evaporating power is the product of several factors—relative humidity, wind,
sunlight, and temperature. It will be seen that the evaporation curve does not
coincide exactly with the curve for the relative humidity during the day period,
though the coincidence is exact during the night. This is due to the high wind
which commenced at 9 a.m. and did not fall until 5 p.m. The wind, as before
mentioned, has a high velocity, and appears to be the dominant external factor in
transpiration. At 3 p.m. it was blowing with very strong gusts, and the curve
maximum shows its effects on evaporation. The relative humidity calls for little
comment. The high value during the night common in this region should be
noted. It is due to the low Le prevailing. The minimum night
temperature recorded was 38° F

gl-o

4a! 4s,
he 46.0
———~4Ko
99
4.0 2.0 2-9
loam WN IZnoor thm. 2 3 4° § 6 a, g q GD Ge 42 midnight:

igs!

Curves of external factors influencing transpiration. E, Evaporating Power;
T, Temperature; H, Relative Humidity.

262

3. Calculation of Leaf Areas.

To express the transpiration rate in terms of the weight of water transpired
per sq. cm. per hour it is necessary to determine the total transpiring area.
This was a tedious matter, as it necessitated the computing of several hundreds
- of leaves. In the case of Atriplex and Rhagodia the leaf outlines were traced
on paper, cut out, weighed, and compared with the weight of a known area of
the paper, and from this the area was calculated. Casuarina, Pholidia, and
Kochia were treated as cylinders, the total length being measured, and also the
diameter, the latter by means of an objective micrometer. In the case of
Pholidia, the areas of leaves of stem were calculated separately. The leaves of
Geijera were treated as rectangles. All the flat leaves had stomates on both
sides; the areas obtained by the above methods were therefore doubled in these
cases.

The number of leaves and the total transpiring areas of the shoots were as
follows :—

Number of Total Transpiring

Plant. Leaves. Area (sq. cms.).
Casuarina lepidophloia Be a 71 3924
Geijera parviflora ne afi eb oid 54 4591
Pholidia scoparia oe i Stal So . 1981
Atriplex vesicarium .. 32 pakie AZO S 44611
Rhagodia Gaudichaudiana is eet RO OLO) 690°6
Kochia sedifolia bs ab 2722, 000 7147
RESULTS.
Fig. 2 is a table embodying the results obtained. Transpiration is

given by the figure opposite each species of plant and represents the loss of
water in milligrams per sq. cm. The atmometer readings are reduced also to
the loss in milligrams per sq. cm. The light intensity is given in seconds, the
relative humidity in percentages, and the temperature in degrees F.

No readings were taken between 11 p.m. and 7 a.m. next morning. The
small amount of water transpired during this period is shown below. Assuming
that the transpiration rates were constant during this period the hourly losses
were :—

Atriplex vesicarium .. ar BS a OO sms
Rhagodia Gaudichaudiana te i ce 2 OZ me:
Kochia sedifolia Bi = ag Be Dee OAenie:
Gewera parviflora me ne ig wh 2.2 0S ae:
Pholidia scoparia eS o ie ae ri LOnmes
Casuarina stricta a = cae et: Se 2 KO sian

Atmometer we Ag a aii ei ae COnnaee

263

7 3l

= os ee = a a 0. LT 0-4 0-6 0:8 G.8 0-TT "t+ Apsuoquy yYysTT
0.97 6. 8P 1-67 0.0% L.6G G.9S 6-94 6 LS v.09 6-99 6.99 v-79 CES ae ae eee goes ainyertodure TL,
66: 66: 66: 66. 86- 1-88 0-16 T- 16 6-99 6.79 9. 9 9. 19 G.PL ost oss APPIUUNET 9A17 eI 9X
= 0:6 0-7 0-TT 0- TE G.&& G.1G 0: 6S 0-16 G-G8 G.98 0:08 0-FL ee TJ OUOUII:
10- 10. 40. VI. ac vt. PI- vI- vI- vt. VT. FI- FI. sss ss ss pyofupas piyI0y
40. 10. vI- 10. L0- 40: VI. PI. TG: TS. 1G. TG. IG. : DUDIpNDYIIpND+) vIpOboy Y
OT. OT. OT. C6. IT. C6. GG. VE. VE. vé. vs. VE. rs. yooh ts wmmMADIISAR %I]G144 7
GG. GG. G. G. GG. Gé. os. 0g. 00.T 00.T GL. GL. GL. Hess Secs pDiuvgoIs Dipyoy J
LO. LO. TI. GG. TI. TI. GG: G6. &&- G6: GG: GG: 0. G50. 90 psoypiivg psatra+y
&TI- I. éT- GG. GS. GG. 9b. vI-T 49-6 66-6 G9.T 6g.T 0g. ++ pojydopida] purapnsn)
IT OT 6 8 L 9 g 7 6 b ‘wd T | woou ZT | ‘we TT ‘OUT,

264

The curves plotted from these data are shown in figs. 3-8. Along with the
transpiration curve are given those of the various climatic factors. Various
scales were employed in order that the curves all might be brought within the
same figure. The absolute values are given for each point.

From an examination of these curves it becomes evident that one can place
the plants, according to the results obtained, under three separate groups.

The first group contains only Casuarina lepidophloia, which is distinguished:
from the other plants by its relatively high transpiration rate and also by its very
close approximation during the day to the curve for evaporating power.

Casuarina.

loam. I In y00n Ip.m 2 3 4 S Gan 7 g q to u 12 midnight.

Curve for rate of transpiration of Casuarina lepidophloia.
T, Temperature; E, Evaporating Power; L, Light Intensity.

In the second group are Geijera parviflora and Pholidia scoparia. The trans-
piration rate of both these plants is low, and although they attain their transpira-
tion maxima coincidently with the maximum value for the evaporating power,
it is evident from their lack of agreement with the latter curve that they do not
respond so readily to slight variations in the evaporating power of the air. Both
plants also exhibited a second maximum at 8-9 o’clock in the night.

265

The third group contains Atriplex vesicarium, Rhagodia Gaudichaudiana,
and Kochia sedifolia, and these I have further subdivided into (a) Atriplex and
Rhagodia, (b) Kochia. All the species in this group are characterised by their
transpiration curves running parallel to the time axis for a considerable period
during the day; that is, their transpiration rates appear to be independent of the
physical conditions. In the case of Atriplex and Rhagodia the transpiration rate
began to fall about 4 o’clock, whilst in Kochia the constant loss rate continued
until 8 o’clock.

Getjera.

“ARS a 129007 tfm 2 3 ra S 6 4 ¢ q 10 " $2zmidnigk

Fig. 4.

Curve for rate of transpiration of Geijera parviflora.
T, Temperature; E, Evaporating Power; L, Light Intensity.

It is evident that these curves cannot be interpreted on the basis of the
external physical factors alone, and therefore a study was made of the anatomy
of the plants from a physiological point of view. On so doing it was found
that the transpiration loss could be correlated with the structure of the transpiring
shoot, and that the plants could be divided into three classes according to their
histological modifications, and, further, that these three classes coincided exactly
with those groups which were created from a physical analysis of the curves.
Before discussing the transpiration of the shoots in the light of their physiological
anatomy a brief description will be given of their structure.

266

foam 129009 thm 2 3 4 s 6 7 8 9 to I2midnight:
Higa)
Curve for rate of transpiration of Pholidia scoparia. |
T, Temperature; E, Evaporating Power; L, Light Intensity.

65.2 by 62 66.2 Gob. by

ob. o

‘22
Atriplex.

loam tl 1270071 fm 2 3 4. 5 6 7 rs 9 10 ” 12 midniphte

Fig. 6.
Curve for rate of transpiration of Atriplex vesicarium.
T, Temperature; E, Evaporating Power; L, Light Intensity.

267

O62 Gay $62 bh

R ha gedia. - ee 97
| 2.0 2.0
foam, JI 12 noon fm 2 3 + § b At g q 10 " 1a midnight.
Fig. 7.

Curve for rate of transpiration of Rhagodia Gaudichaudiana.
T, Temperature; E, Evaporating Power; L, Light Intensity.

foam. (2Noon. thm, 2 3 4 s 6 7 8 q 10 us 12 midnight

Fig. 8.
Curve for rate of transpiration of Kochia sedtfolia.
T, Temperature; E, Evaporating Power; L, Light Intensity.

. 268

il, NOTES ON THE? PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMYS Or
DAE SaOOWS:

As far as I have been able to find, no description of the anatomy of the six
plants used in these experiments has been published with the exception of Atriplex
vesicarium. The observations have been confined chiefly to the tissues con-
cerned in the water relations of the plants, and in most figures no attempt has
been made to fill in histological details. All the figures are drawn from camera
lucida outlines.

Ry oe
ra
4
: ») ‘=
p]
sd

Ms Uy :

Fig. 9.

Transverse section of the assimilating
shoot of Casuarina lepidophloia.
s.c., Sclerenchyma; h, Branched hair ;
s., Stomate; ch., Chlorenchyma; t.c.,
Transfusion cells; J.t., Leaf - trace
bundle; mr. ety rays f., Phloem
fibres; p.h., ‘Phloem; 4 , Xylem; W.S.t.,
Water-storage tissue. X66. °

Casuarina lepidophloia. (Fig. 9.)

This tree is very common around Dilkera and frequently attains a height
of 30-40 feet. Attention was confined to the anatomy of the green assimilatory
shoots. These stand erect and are usually from 6 to 12 inches in length with
twelve ribs, the grooves running the whole length of the shoot. The anatomy
of the Casuarineae as an Order has been surveyed by Morini (1894), and to this
account C. lepidophloia conforms generally. It shows, however, xerophytic
features to a remarkable degree. This is noticeable particularly in the extreme
“woodiness” of the shoot. For the sake of comparison the tissue outlines of
C. distyla (a species occurring in the Mount Lofty Ranges, Kangaroo Island,
and other places with a rainfall of 25-30 inches), and C. stricta (which has a
wider distribution) are appended (figs. 10 and 11). It will be seen that there
is a progressive development of lignified tissues in passing from the relatively
mesophytic C. distyla through the intermediate C. stricta to the xerophytic C.
lepidophloia.

269

Fig. 10. Fig. 11.

Diagram of a transverse section of Diagram of a transverse section of the

the assimilating shoot of Casuarina assimilating shoot of Casuarina stricta.

distyla. All lignified tissue is shown All lignified tissue is shown black. The

black. The dotted line represents dotted line represents the limit of the

the limit of the chlorenchyma. chlorenchyma. Camera lucida outlines,
Camera lucida outlines, x16. x 16.

The shoot of C. lepidophloia is bounded by a moderately thick cuticle which
extends about half-way down each furrow. The lower portions of the furrow
are not thickly cutinised, and in this portion the stomates are arranged in
usually four straight rows which extend down the whole length of the shoot.
At the base of the furrow arise a few branched hairs. They are not numerous.
The chlorenchymatous tissue is much reduced and occupies only a small space
each side of the furrows. Between each chlorenchymatous group a mass of
sclerenchymatous tissue is developed. The cortical region contains no
parenchymatous cells save those of the medullary rays. In C. distyla and C.
stricta there is a considerable parenchymatous cortex. The bulk of the cortex in
C. lepidophloia is occupied by bast fibres. Running through the cortex from
node to node are leaf traces, one opposite each rib of the shoot. The traces
consist of collateral bundles of xylem and small phloem elements. Surrounding
each bundle and extending to the base of each furrow lies a water transfusion
tissue. These cells are approximately isodiametric, have cellulose walls, and
are pitted on all their walls.

The conducting tissue occupies the central portion of the shoot. The xylem
consists of spirally thickened and annular vessels. Secondary thickening had
commenced in all shoots examined and the xylem formed a continuous band
around the medulla. The phloem consists of small-celled elements with densely
granular contents. The medulla consists of a tissue which does not appear to
be described elsewhere in the Casuarineae. It consists of very thick-walled cells
connected by numerous pits. The walls are lignified, and when seen in transverse
section present somewhat the appearance of large fibres. In longitudinal sec-
tion, however, it is seen that they are tracheidal in form and perform probably
the function of water storage. In addition such a central tissue has a great
mechanical advantage to a plant such as C. lepidophloia in which the switch-like
shoots are continually exposed to a vigorous wind action. Interspersed with
these tracheidal cells are a few cells containing tannin. In C. distyla the pith
is slightly sclerised.

From this central tissue, medullary rays run through the conducting system,
through the cortex, and terminate at the bases of the furrows. It is somewhat
remarkable that every cell in the rays is full of tannin which stains a violet-black

270

with ferric chloride. The tannin in these cells, and also in Geijera parviflora,
has a solid, glassy appearance. In some cases the tannin masses are broken
and scratched by the microtome knife. This coincides with that structure which
Lloyd (1922, a and b) has described in various species. From its occurrence in a
definitive tissue such as medullary ray cells—the latter being the only parenchy-
matous tissue besides the chlorenchyma—it appears that the tannin performs
some other function in the plant than that of an excretory product (vide Lloyd,
19225701): ;
- Geijera parviflora. (Figs. 12 and 13.)

The leaves of Geitjera parviflora are linear, obtuse, and somewhat thick.
There are practically no structural différences between the dorsal and ventral
sides. The chlorenchyma consists of short palisade cells. A peculiar feature is
the relatively large number of cells which contain tannin masses; these cells
are scattered among the assimilatory cells from which they do not differ in
shape. The tannin masses are, in most cases, broken and scratched by the knife,
and appear to have shrunken away from the cell walls. No fresh material was
available to examine its condition in the living plant (Lloyd, 1922, loc. cit.).

fib. 0.g.

Transverse section of leaf of Geijera parviflora. |
f.v.b., Fibro-vascular bundle; 0.g., Oil-gland; s.v., Secondary vein. X21.

Gc.

Fig. 13.
Transverse section through a stomate of Geijera parviflora showing heavily cutinised
epidermal cells. g.c., Guard cell; c., Collar. 760.

A characteristic feature of Geijera parviflora is the large oil glands which
are found throughout the mesophyll. These are spherical and numerous. The
midrib and secondary veins are simple bundles with relatively large phloem cells.

271

Little mechanical tissue is present in the leaf. The epidermis is composed of
fairly large cells very heavily cutinised (fig. 13). The stomates are sunken below
the general level of the epidermis, and the guard cells are protected by an
upstanding collar formed by the projection of the cuticle of the adjacent
epidermal cells. This appears as a ridge in fig. 13.

DeerrorerasnsSSe
SP LIA
Pig:

%

thy 7
Qa

Fig 14.
Transverse section of stem of Pholidia scoparia.
0.g., Oil gland; ph., Phloem; +., Xylem; f., Fibres. X46.

Fig. 15.
Transverse section of leaf of Pholidia scoparia.
s.v.. Secondary vein; s., Scale; m.r., Midrib; s.p., Spongy parenchyma; .p.,
Palisade parenchyma; o.g., Oil gland. Only two scales are shown. X27.

272

Transverse section through portion

of stem of Pholidia scoparia, show-

ing sunken stomate and protecting
scale.

s., Scale; g.c., Guard cell. X94.

Pholidia scoparia. (Figs. 14, 15, and 16.)

Some of the features of Pholidia scoparia have been described by Cannon
(1921) in his general survey of the genus Eremophila.

Pholidia scoparia is a “switch plant.” The leaves are small, and the func-
tions of photosynthesis and transpiration are undertaken by the stems also. As
mentioned before, the areas of leaves and stem were calculated separately, and
it was found that two-thirds of the total area was due to the stem. The stem
in transverse section has roughly the form of a short cross (fig. 14). The
epidermal cells are larger than those of Geijera parviflora, and also have their
outer walls cutinised, though not so heavily. The stomates are simple guard
cells sunken below the epidermis (fig. 16). No protecting ridges are developed.
The surface of the epidermis is covered with scales whose heads overlap and
protect the epidermis generally. Each scale is made up of a disc-shaped head
supported on a short stalk attached to a basal epidermal cell. All the cell walls
of the scale are thick and cutinised, and appear to have no living contents. The
hairs have probably a purely protective function. They are more scattered on
the stem than on the leaf. Calcium oxalate crystals are present in many of the
epidermal cells.

The chlorenchyma is composed of rather small, regular, palisade cells and
spherical, spongy parenchyma. Oil glands are developed in the mesophyll. These
are smaller than in Geijera parviflora. The medulla is formed of large paren-
chyma cells containing a good deal of starch. The xylem entirely surrounds
the medulla and comprises very small spiral, annular, and pitted vessels. The
phloem has fairly large cells. A continuous sheath of phloem fibres surrounds
the whole.

The epidermis and stomates of the leaf are similar to those in the stem,
but the scales are more numerous. The leaf (fig. 15) has a central midrib
with a little collenchyma developed beneath it. Two smaller veins occur lateral
to the midrib. The chlorenchyma is mainly a ring of two rows of palisade cells

with a little spongy parenchyma placed centrally. Oil glands are also present
in the leaf.

a 3
=

ey chlor.

< Ce

Ce

x De ey X, Sp

——!
—

By Kegs 7/3
; Transverse section through leaf of Atriplex vesicarium.
ves., Vesicles ;

coll., Collenchyma; hyp., Hypodermal layer; chlor., Chlorenchyma ;
x., sh.f., Xylem and sheath fibres; ph., Phloem. Camera and lucida outlines, x31.

B

oe

Fig. 18.
Water-storing hairs from young
leaf of Atriplex vesicarium.
A, Young hair. B, Hair with stalk
cell elongating. About x 250.

274

Atriplex vesicarium. (Figs. 17 and 18.)

The leaves of Atriplex vesicarium vary rather widely in shape from elliptical
or oblong lanceolate to obovate and with entire or deeply indented margins. The
epidermis consists of fairly small cells not cutinised, but with cellulose walls
which are somewhat thicker than those of the mesophyll cells. All the epidermal
cells have living contents. The stomates are simple guard cells placed on the
same level as the epidermal cells and not protected by any projecting ridges.
Underneath the epidermis on both sides of the leaf is a layer of rather large cells
packed loosely together and containing no chloroplasts, but with clear watery
contents and also many crystals of calcium oxalate. This is termed the hypo-
dermal layer (fig. 17). .

The midrib is composed of two vascular bundles, non-lignified fibres being
scattered between both the xylem and phloem elements. Collenchyma is developed
above and below the midrib. The margins of the younger leaves also have a
strengthening collenchymatous tissue. Monteil (1906) describes A. vesicarium
as having five vascular bundles in its midrib. The writer has examined leaves
from several different plants of A. vesicarium, and in no case has he found this
to be the case. It is doubtful whether Monteil was dealing with A. vesicarium,
since he regards the leaf type as being near to that of A. rosea. In this species
the mesophyll is not arranged radially around the nerve sheath, no hairs are
developed, and no chlorenchymatous sheath is present around the midrib.

The midrib and secondary veins are surrounded throughout their whole
length by a sheath of thick walled, practically cubical cells containing chlorplasts
and very numerous starch grains. Surrounding these cells lies an outer sheath
of thin walled palisade cells. They contain relatively little starch, from which
it appears that the thicker walled cells around the veins have a collecting or
storage function. . !

The epidermis on both dorsal and ventral sides is thickly covered with large
bladder-like hairs. The cells have cellulose walls and a very thin lining of living
protoplasm. In the older leaves these hairs are compressed to form a network
as shown in fig. 17, the individual cells arising, to all appearances, from several
epidermal cells and interlocking fairly tightly with few intercellar spaces. To
determine the origin of these hairs a young leaf was taken from a bud and
examined in transverse section. Hairs were found in all stages of development ;
they arise from a single basal epidermal cell, have a stalk cell and a single
large terminal cell. All three cells at this stage have quite dense protoplasmic
contents (fig. 18a). The stalk cell elongates (fig. 180) and the bladder assumes
considerable proportions. Later, it appears that the stalk cell degenerates and
many of the large terminal cells become joined together by the union of their
cellulose walls. These large cells are considered to function as water-storing
vesicles.

In conclusion, it may be remarked that A. vesicarium bears a striking
resemblance to A. Halimus, described by Volkens (1887) from the Arabian
desert—an example of the similar structural modifications produced under
similar conditions.

Rhagodia Gaudichaudiana. (Fig. 19.)

This plant is a weak shrub and usually straggles over other bushes. The
leaves are hastate and their structure is comparatively simple. The mesophyll
throughout consists of rather spherical cells containing plastids. There is no
differentiation into palisade and spongy parenchyma. Large water-storing cells
with clear contents are found irregularly scattered through the mesophyll tissue.
These large cells usually contain crystals of calcium oxalate. The midrib and
secondary veins are simple vascular strands. There is a little collenchyma
developed underneath the midrib, otherwise mechanical tissue is lacking. The

275

Fig. 19.
Transverse section through leaf of Rhagodia Gaudichaudiana.
ves., Vesicles; chlor., Chlorenchyma; s.v., Secondary
vein; we.s.c., Water storage cell. 186.

epidermis consists of small uncutinised cells ; the stomates are relatively numerous.
They are small, undifferentiated, guard cells on the same general level as the
rest of the epidermis. The epidermal hairs are of the same general type as in
Atriplex vesicarium, but they differ from those of the latter in retaining their
stalk cell when mature. Each hair consists of a basal epidermal cell with a
large nucleus, a short stalk cell with thickened walls, and a large balloon-like
terminal vesicle. The function of the latter is probably that of water storage.

Kochia sedifolia. (Figs. 20 and 21.)

The “bluebush,” Kochia sedifolia, forms rounded bushes about 2 to 3 feet
high. The leaves are approximately cylindrical and about one centimetre in
length. Kochia sedifolia is a distinctly succulent type (fig. 20). The epidermis
is uncutinised. Below the epidermis lies a ring of palisade parenchyma usually
two cells thick. The central tissue is composed of large, irregular, water-storing
cells free from chloroplasts, but often containing crystals of calcium oxalate.

276

Chlor

w.s.t.

Fig? 20:

Transverse section of leaf of Kochia
sedifolia, only a few of the hairs are
shown.
chlor., Chlorenchyma; w.s.t., Water-
storage tissue; myr., Midrib; s.v.,
Secondary veins. X15.

ig 21.
Absorbing hair of
Kochia sedifolia.

About x 300.

There is a central main vasculanastiand and secondary strands around the
periphery of the water-storage tissue. No. mechanical tissue, other than the
xylem elements, is present.

The chief point of interest in Kochia sedifolia, however, lies in the peculiar
type of water-absorbing hair which covers the epidermis. Each hair has a basal
cell with a large nucleus. This cell is larger than the neighbouring epidermal cells
and is partially buried in the assimilating tissue. The hair has a short stalk cell
which also appears to have living contents, and a very long terminal cell. The
latter cell has the spiral form shown in fig. 21. Near the base it usually makes
a few turns in the form of a compressed spiral, which becomes much looser
towards the terminal end. The cell has many small branches on its wall. These
usually project upwards toward the terminal end of the cell. The cell has very
thick cellulose walls and is non-cutinised. A narrow pore runs the length of the
cell. There are no living contents. The individual hairs are much intertwined,
so that the whole surface is covered with a thick felt of dead cells. The function
of these hairs is that of water absorption. The dead, air-containing cells probably
act as capillary tubes up which the water is drawn to the living basal absorbing
hair, and from which the water enters the leaf by osmosis. Such spiral hairs do
not appear to have been described in the Chenopodiaceae, although they have
been observed (without projections) in certain members of the Compositae—as,
for example, in Espeletia (Haberlandt, 1914). The peculiar small branches on
the terminal cell have been described in other members of the Chenopodiaceae,
Chenopodium muricata and Enchylaena tomentosa (Monteil, loc. cit.).

DISCUSSION

Having described the structural modifications found in the shoots, we are now
in 2. position to attempt an explanation of the types of transpiration curves in
the light of these modifications. Before so doing, attention must be drawn to
the calculations of Brown and Escombe (1900), who showed that the actual
maximum diffusion of water vapour from the leaf of Helianthus was only one-
sixth of the possible maximum diffusion calculated for the number and size

277

of the stomates, and these conclusions were supported by Lloyd (1908) in his
observations on Fouquieria splendens. Consequently it is only when the stomatal
opening is nearly closed that stomatal regulation can have any effect upon the
transpiration rate. This is exemplified in the case of Casuarina lepidophloia.
During the day the transpiration curve of this plant closely approximates that
for the evaporating power. This is intelligible since the stomates in the furrows
are but little protected by the few hairs which are developed. High winds
have little difficulty in sweeping along the lines of stomates in the furrows of
the vertically placed shoots that bend before them. The lack of agreement of
the transpiration with the evaporation curve during the night is ascribed to
stomatal control. Livingston (1906) has found similar curves for Euphorbia
capitella, a xerophytic Arizonan plant; here the day curves for transpiration
approximated that for evaporating power, whilst a lack of agreement occurred
at night.

The plants in the second group—Gezjera parviflora and Pholidia scoparia—
show their transpiration maxima at the same time as the evaporation maximum,
but the curves are much flatter, 7.e., they do not respond readily to variations in
evaporating power. This reduction is ascribed in both cases to the presence of
oily secretions, the vapors of which materially reduce transpiration. Further
protection is afforded by the ridge in Geijera parviflora and by the scales in
Pholidia scoparia.

The plants Atriplex vesicarium, Rhagodia Gaudichaudiana, and Kochia
sedifolia have a thick covering of vesicles or air cells. The vesicles of Atriplex
and Rhagodia contained little water at the time of our visit, as comparison with
the turgid hairs shows; in Kochia the terminal cells contain air only. We have,
therefore, a very efficient air jacket surrounding the whole of the leaf surface.
Hence, near the epidermis we have a set of conditions which are constant and
unaffected by external factors. Under these conditions the plant transpires
regularly, equal amounts of water in equal times, since only the water vapor
which gradually diffuses to the surface of the hairs comes under the influence of
the external factors and is swept away. This explains the straight-line transpira-
tion curve obtained in these plants. The greater insulation of Kochia with its
thick felt of hairs is shown in the greater length of curve parallel to the time
axis. The fall during the night is ascribed to the more or less complete closure
of the stomates and the variations from the curves for the external factors (for
example, the second maximum exhibited in most cases from 8 to 9 o’clock) to
the regulation of the transpiration by “physiological” control of the stomates.
It must be admitted that the term physiological control has been used by many
writers as a cloak to hide our ignorance of some of the factors concerned in the
mechanism of stomatal regulation, especially during the night. Since we cannot
logically ascribe it to “vital’’ action of the cells, it is probably due to changes
in the turgor of the guard cells produced by the action of enzymes on the carbo-
hydrates, or possibly to changes in pressure of the water vapour in the inter-
cellular spaces of the leaf; that is, internal factors which were not determined in
this research.

In conclusion, my thanks are due to Mr. Lisle G. Johnson, owner of Dilkera,
for his kindness in affording facilities to conduct this work there, and especially
to Professor T. G. B. Osborn for his constant help and encouragement which
made possible the progress of this research.

SUMMARY. .

1. The transpiration rates of Casuarina lepidophloia, Geijera parviflora,
Pholidia scoparia, Rhagodia Gaudichaudiana, Atriplex vesicarium, and Kochia
sedifolia are measured and discussed in relation to the external factors influencing
transpiration.

278

2. The methods of measuring transpiration, evaporating power of the air,
relative humidity, and light intensity are described.

3. The anatomy of the shoots is discussed from a physiological standpoint.
A water-storage tissue in the Casuarineae and a type of hair in the Chenopodiaceae
hitherto. undescribed are recorded.

4. An attempt is made to correlate the transpiration rates with the anatomical
modifications of the leaves.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Brown and Escombe.

1900—‘‘Static Diffusion of Gases and of Liquids in relation to Carbon
assimilation in Plants,” Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond., Bull. 193.

Cannon, W. A.
1921—‘“‘Plant Habit and Habitat in the Arid Portions of South Australia,”

Carn. Inst. Publications, No. 308.
Ewart, Aco:

1910—“On Transpiration and the Ascent of the Sap under Australian con-
ditions,” Ann. Bot., xxiv., p. 85.
Haberlandt, G.

1914—“*Physiological Plant Anatomy.”

Livingston, B. E.

1906—‘“‘The relation of Desert Plants to Soil Moisture and to Evaporation,”
Carn. Inst. Publications, No. 50.
Lloyd, F. E.
1908—‘‘Physiology of Stomata,” Carn. Inst. Publications, No. 82.
1922 (a)—“‘The Occurrence and Function of Tannin in the Living Cell,”
dtranss, oye, ooc. Canada, xvi) Sect. oF
1922 (b)—“The Mode of Occurrence of Tannin in the Living Cell,” J. Am.
Leather Chem. Assoc., 1922.
Monteil, F.

1906—‘“Anatomie comparée de la Feuille des Chénopodiacées,” Paris, 1906.

Morini, F.
1894—“Anatomia del Caule e della Foglia delle Casuarinee,” Bologna, 1894.

Volkens, G.
1887—“Die Flora der Aegytisch-Arabischen Wiiste,” Berlin, 1887.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XXII.
Fig. 1. Battery of potometers on stand. The plants from left to right are Atriplex
vesicarium, Geijera parviflora, Casuarina lepidophloia, Pholidia scoparia, Kochia sedifoha,

Rhagodia Gaudichaudiana. The atmometer is shown on the extreme right of the stand and the
thermometer on the left.

Fig. 2. Shows the situation in which the work was carried out. The shrubs are chiefly
Kochia sedifolia, and Acacia spp., with a little Atriplex vesicarium. The trees are Myoporum
platycarpum and Casuarina lepidophloia. Mallee scrub can be seen in the distance.

Department of Botany,

University of Adelaide.

279

A GEOLOGICAL SKETCH-SECTION OF THE SEA-CLIFFS ON THE
EASTERN SIDE OF GULF ST. VINCENT, FROM BRIGHTON TO
SELLICK’S HILL, WITH DESCRIPTIONS.

By Proressor WALTER Howcu1n, F.G.S.

[Read September 13, 1923. ]

[pre aS, DOLL ano) SOX WAL

CONTENTS.

Page
Section A. Brighton (Bore) to Black Point .. ce 2 a6 a .. 280
4 B. Black Point to Rocky Point re Bs .. 284
A C. Rocky Point to the Mouth of the Ouleeacin Rives oh 293
© D. From the Mouth of the Onkaparinga River to the Red Ochre Cone 299
E. Red Ochre Cove to Snapper Point a 301
i F. From a little South of Snapper Point to Sellick’s Hill oh onl 307

es G. From Sellick’s Hill Beach Road to the end of the Fossiliferous
Tertiary Beds a ty ae a3 Ae ae a i 2302
General Remarks ss We oe BE ae * sks ae Bd aol
Bibliographical References .. aa a By i Be se Ea Se poll3

A few places of special geological interest and of easy access, on the eastern
margin of Gulf St. Vincent, have been carefully examined, especially for fossils,
and a considerable literature exists in relation to the same; but, hitherto, there
has been no attempt to give a consecutive and complete section of what must be
regarded as one of the most interesting combinations of geological features to be
found in the southern portions of the State.

The geological systems that appear in this line of section include the Cam-
brian, Permo-Carboniferous (glacial), various Tertiary horizons (both fresh-
water and marine), Pleistocene and Recent.

With respect to the nomenclature of the Tertiary systems of South Aus-
tralia, the late Professor Tate classed the older marine series [‘“Aldingan,” etc.,
Victoria=“Janjukian”| as of Eocene age; and the newer marine series, as of
Miocene age. Mr. F. Chapman and Professor J. W. Gregory, following the late
Professor McCoy, consider Tate’s Eocene to be of Miocene age, and Tate’s
Miocene to be Lower Pliocene (Chapman, F., 1914). This revised classification
has been followed in the present paper.

To the northward of Marino (near Brighton) no beds older than Recent
are exposed along the coast. The shores are low and fringed by sandhills and
‘mangrove swamps which continue to the head of the Gulf, giving evidence of
recent elevation of the shoreline to the extent of about 16 feet.

280

SUB-SECTION A.
BRIGHTON (BORE) TO BLACK POINT (44 MILES).

The township of Brighton is situated near the southern boundary of a great
faulted earth-block which has had a downthrow of at least 4,000 feet. A great
pit of such a depth would have existed where Adelaide stands had it not been
filled up to the extent of over 2,000 feet, partly by deposits from repeated incur-
sions of the sea, and partly by the perpetual wash of clay and stones from the
higher ground.

The Adelaide platform (which forms one of the ledges in the successive
subsidences of the ground towards the centre of the great rift-fault of the Gulf)
is in the form of a curve, having its convexity towards the hills with a south-
westerly trend that reaches the coast at the Marino Rocks. This westerly curve
of the hills to the sea supplies very definite evidence of earth fracture. Had
this curve in the hill country been caused by a tectonic twist it would have
changed the strike of the beds and the Mitcham quartzites would have been
continuous in outcrop to the coast. But this is not so; the strike continues in
an approximately north and south direction, and newer beds in the succession
form the outcrops to the coast, being truncated and cut off on their northern
edges by the faulting.

A boring for water at the Institution for the Blind, Deaf, and Dumb, a
little north of Brighton township (Sec. 238), carried out by Morrison, Gray
and Co., passed through alluvium to a depth of 223 feet, when, after 2 feet of
limestone, the bore entered “marine limestone with shells,” which was penetrated
to a further depth of 79 feet. Another bore, situated a little to the southward
of the above mentioned, on the grounds of late Rev. A. Macully, passed through
similar beds. The material was sandy (mostly unconsolidated) and carried an
abundance of the large foraminifer, Operculina complanata, which is a very char-
acteristic fossil in the Muddy Creek beds, Victoria. Age: Janjukian (Miocene).
As a bed of fossiliferous Lower Pliocene (Kalimnan) occurs on the scarp of
the older rocks, within a short distance to the southward of Brighton, and at a
height of 40 feet above sea level, the throwdown of the Brighton section is
thereby evidenced, and probably represents the same faulted segment that was
proved in the Croydon bore.

The foreshore between Brighton and Seacliff (about a mile) forms a long
slope with shallow water to seaward and bounded, on the landward side, by low
sandhills that rest upon a floor of recent clay a few feet above sea level. This
clay floor bears up the drainage from the sandhills, giving rise to a series of
springs near the base of the cliffs on the seaward side.

At Seacliff, the clay beds displace the sandhills and form the main cliffs.
At the latter township a road has been cut down through the alluvial beds to
the beach, giving a complete section of the same; mottled clays and gravels at
the lower levels, and newer reddish clays on top. Cliffs of this type continue
for more than a mile. There is a low platform between the cliffs and high-
water mark, varying from 50 yards to 100 yards wide, and is built up of similar
materials to that of the cliffs. There are no evidences of marine exuviae on
this flat, which appears to have been formed by the action of the rain on the
face of the clay beds together with small alluvial fans brought down by rivulets
which run during seasons of rain.

About a quarter of a mile to the southward of Seacliff railway station
there is a very extensive washout, caused by a very small runner that has
excavated a canyon, having vertical sides of over 20 feet in height. This work
of erosion has been accomplished within the years of European settlement.

281

Towards the end of the clay banks, on the sea front, the lower platform
changes its character; instead of clay, sand, and grass, there is a platform com-
posed of very large sea-worn boulders that is now about 5 feet above high tides.

CAMBRIAN Rocks IN SEcTION A.

The first evidence of the older rocks outcropping on the coast occurs where
beds of Cambrian age show themselves in the cliffs opposite to the Marino rail-
way station. These beds form part of the faulted segment which, inland, form
the platform on which Blackwood and Belair are situated, and is next above the
sunken Adelaide segment. No beds of the (older) Adelaide Series reach the
coast within the area now under description, but the “Brighton limestones,”
which form the topmost members of that Series, make a line of outcrop on the
rise, about half a mile from the coast, and can be traced southward to the River
Onkaparinga, where they cross the latter about a mile, up-stream, from Noar-
lunga. The junction of the Adelaide Series with the Cambrian beds can be
seen along the line of excavation in the quarries of the Brighton Cement Com-
pany’s works. The limestones have a thrust to the westward and roll on the
dip, as well as pitch on the strike, in a succession of anticlines and synclines, and
are, finally, thrown down to the west, in an almost vertical position with the
purple slates of the Cambrian, in superior order, and, apparently, stratigraphic- -
ally conformable with the limestones.

The sea-cliffs at Marino Rocks consist of purple slates that are interbedded
with thin, reddish quartzites and limestones, having a strike almost parallel
with the coast. The great westerly thrust has caused meridional folding, often
reaching a high angle of dip. The parallel strike which the beds have to the
beach, together with the high angle of dip, makes a weak structure of resistance
against the action of the sea, which, in places, is making rapid encroachments.
This is well seen at Black Point, at the northern end of Hallett’s Cove, where the
western limb of an anticline in the purple slates has become undermined, so that
large segments of the rock face slip down to the beach by the force of gravity,
littering the beach with great cubical masses of rock. On the southern face
of the point the sea has made a breach through the anticline, exposing a fine
transverse section of the folds, and has excavated the centre of the anticline
so as to forma cave. It is here seen that the anticline has been fractured along
the axis of the nip.

At the same place excellent illustrations of horizontal slickensides (blatter )
occur, caused by rock movement. Finely-laminated layers of chloritized quartz
have formed along the planes of movement, the laminae showing by the varying
directions of the striae, the differential movements that have taken place in
the process of folding and thrust.

A gritty limestone, of a very persistent character, occurs in the purple slates
near the base of the series. It does not appear in the sea-cliffs, as its line of
strike is a little inland—parallel with the coast. It can be seen exposed in the
gullies near Marino, also at Hallett’s Cove, and is extensively developed near
Noarlunga, where it is quarried for road metal. It also occurs about the same
geological horizon on the western side of Spring Creek, Mount Remarkable, as
well as near the east and west fault at the south-eastern base of the last-named
mount.

PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS (GLACIAL) RocKs IN SeEcTIon A.

The glacial features of Hallett’s Cove need not be described here, in detail,
as they have been dealt with elsewhere (Tate, Howchin, and David, 1895;
Howchin, 1895). They cover an area more extensive than the Cove itself,
capping the cliffs both north and south of this break in the coastline, and are
also exposed in the banks of creeks adjacent to the Cove.

282

On leaving the Hallett’s Cove railway station, a walk of about a quarter
of a mile across the paddocks (passing some farm buildings in ruin on the way)
brings us to the top of the sea-cliffs. Near the edge of the cliffs a very siliceous
quartzite forms the outcrop, and although much broken and weather-flaked, still
shows some fine faces of glacial polish and striations. Resting on this glaciated
floor, on the landward side, is a bank of boulder clay, containing numerous
erratics. This marks the most northerly point where the evidences of Permo-
Carboniferous glaciation can be traced, the glacier path being here directed
seawards in a north-westerly direction.

Immediately to the southward of this place, a small gully, running in an
east and west direction, finds its outlet on the beach. Standing on the right
bank of this gully, near its outlet, a rather remarkable section can be seen on
the opposite bank (Howchin, W., 1918a, fig. 307, p. 411). In the bed of the
stream and lower portions of the bank the Cambrian quartzites make a distinct
anticline, causing a small waterfall. Resting unconformably on this Cambrian
floor, which is well polished, is the glacial till with its striated erratics, of Permo-
Carboniferous age. A further unconformity occurs by the fossiliferous Lower
Pliocene resting on the boulder clays; while a still further unconformity arises
from the Pliocene beds being covered by clays, sands, and a thick bed of nodular
travertine of Recent age, making three stratigraphical unconformities in a sec-
tion of about 80 feet in thickness. These respective beds can be traced up the
small gully (referred to above) and~its tributaries for about a quarter of a
mile, where they run out against the Cambrian boundary.

Crossing the small gully, at the waterfall, and climbing the bank of till on
the opposite side, at a distance of about 100 yards, the largest exposed face of
the glaciated floor in the locality is seen on a rather steep slope towards the
beach. The smoothed rock forms part of the Purple Slate Series, and has
taken a high polish with many broad groves and fine scratches which have a
north-westerly direction (Howchin, W., 1918a, fig. 308, p. 412). Some of the
latter give evidence of ricochetting by the stones forced along by the glacier
and repeatedly digging into the floor, in a series of jumps, with the deeper side
of the cut in the direction of the flow, like a jumping chisel, and thus establishing
by the clearest proofs the direction in which the glacier was travelling. Other,
but smaller polished faces, have become exposed by the denudation of the over-
lying beds near the extremity of Black Point, and are also seen wherever the
clay has been removed so as to expose the underlying glacial floor.

The till, or boulder clay, resting on the Black Point shelf, is a relatively
thin deposit, averaging about 20 feet in thickness, and does not contain such
very large erratics as are scattered over the Cove and on the southern side of
the outlet of the Field River, but it has yielded some scores of strongly glaciated
stones from the till. The relationship which the glacial beds have to the fossil1-
ferous Pliocene was, for some time, a question of discussion, but was set at
rest by an excavation, carried out under the auspices of the Australasian Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science |Report, 1895], when by a costean pit
it was proved that the boulder clay passes beneath the Pliocene beds. This
inferior position of the till to the Pliocene is also clearly shown in a section near
the head of the Cove.

The glacial clay on the Black Point platform contains numerous nodules
of sandy crystals of barytes, the sand having been included in the barytes in the
process of crystallization. These nodules are usually from an inch to an inch
and a half in diameter. The crystals are grouped round an axis of growth

Q) The term “till” is here used in preference to “tillite,’ as the Permo-Carboniferous

Bae beds of South Australia are invariably soft and friable, as in the case of modern glacial
eposits.

283

with polar extremities. The outcrop extends for about eight chains (Mawson,
1907).
Lower PLIOCENE Rocks IN SEcTION A.

The fossiliferous Lower Pliocene beds probably at one time formed a con-
tinuous deposit resting on the older rocks that occupied the area of the present
Gulf and its margins. They are now found only in isolated patches, one of the
largest of these comprises the flat knoll on which Adelaide is built. Formerly,
they were exposed on the banks of the Torrens (where the engine houses have .
been constructed) and also in quarries that were worked behind Government
House.

The first appearance of the Lower Pliocene beds on the coast is in a small
washout, situated directly westward of Marino railway station, where a fossili-
ferous sandstone of this age forms the lip of a waterfall. It occurs near the
extreme northerly limits of the Cambrian outcrops of the neighbourhood, and is
exposed to the extent of only a few square yards. The bed is, for the most
part, a breccia, resting on the edges of Cambrian grits that have a dip of 80° to
the westward. Fossils are not very plentiful in the bed and are patchy in
their occurrence. The species determined are as follows :—

Cominella subfilicea, Tate Diastoma provisi, Tate
Natica subvarians, Tate Monthvaltia variformis, Dennant

Sandy patches occur, in places, on the top of the cliffs which may be
residuals of the Lower Pliocene, but no clearly defined deposits of this age are
found to the southward of the Marino outcrop till we come to the calcareous
plateau on the northern side of Hallett’s Cove. Here the fossiliferous Lower
Pliocene beds rest on the glacial boulder clays, making a steep scarp, facing the
sea, and, together with the more recent beds, form a retreating cliff on the
top of the primary cliff consisting of Cambrian slates. .

The beds have been much leached of their lime content and the fossils occur,
mostly, as impressions and casts. Small nodules of Lithothamnion are moder-
ately common. The beds are thickest at their most northerly position, where
they form a scarp behind the principal exposure of the polished pavement, and
can be traced, inland, to a distance of about 200 yards from the sea-cliffs.

PLEISTOCENE Rocxs IN SEcTION A.

Mottled Sands and Clays—These form the lowest of the three classes
of rock which occur, locally, as subsequent formations to the Pliocene. They
can be distinguished by their strongly mottled colouring, in patches of red and
grey, varying in composition from a tough plastic clay to that of an argillaceus
sand rock, and possessing considerable coherence by which they can maintain
vertical and wall-like faces though exposed to the weather. They make a
typical rock formation that is widely distributed, not only in the sections seen
on the coast, but in inland situations, and at various elevations. They occur on
both sides of the Gulf, making a very striking feature at Ardrossan, where they
form vertical sea-cliffs 40 feet in height (Howchin, 1918b). They are of fresh-
water origin and sometimes contain impressions of leaves. They are often
associated with the older river systems and are probably of Pleistocene age.

Between Marino and Hallett’s Cove these mottled sands and clays can be
seen, in many places, resting on the top of the purple slates and also in the rail-
way cuttings, where they are sometmes associated with indurated gravel beds.

ReEcENT DEPOSITS IN SECTION A.

Reddish Clay.—The coastal plains and open valleys (especially those having
a north and south direction) usually carry a considerable thickness of alluvium.

284

It is, typically, a stiff loamy clay, which makes a good brick earth, but varies, in
places, sometimes taking the form of a light loam, and, at others, a marly loam,
or passes into sand and gravel. These Recent alluvia often occur overlying the
mottled beds and can be distinguished from the latter by their uniform coloura-
tion (sometimes greenish), less compact form, and often by a plane of erosion;
the reddish clays not infrequently fill in gutters that have been excavated by
stream action in the older mottled clays, as can be seen in the cliffs at Ardrossan
(Howchin, W., 1918b) and also on the eastern side of the Gulf, references
to which will be given later.

These Recent clays can be studied in the cliffs near Seacliff and Marino,
where a washout, caused by a small runner, has developed within recent years
a considerable canyon which extends from the beach almost to the railway line.

Both the mottled clays and the newer reddish clay show horizontal and
truncated bedding at a considerable height above the present sea level, giving evi-
dence that they were laid down, either before the present valley of Gulf St. Vincent
was invaded by the sea, or at a time when the sea margin was more remote than
it is at present.

Nodular Travertine-—This is a concretionary and chemically formed lime-
stone which is a common surface feature throughout the district where the
subsoil is calcareous. In the lower portions of the bed it is a marly clay,
becoming more nodular and limy in its upper portion, and often forms a
limestone crust, or sheet, near the surface. It is well developed at the Cove,
varying in thickness from 6 feet to 15 feet. At the north end of the Cove, at
the back of the principal ice-polished face, it makes a scarp and is very nodular
in structure.

SUB-SECTION B.
BLACK POINT TO ROCKY POINT (33 MILES).

Black Point, as already described, forms the northern headland to the broken
coastline that goes under the name of Hallett’s Cove. The Point consists of
very dark-coloured purple slates, of Cambrian age, so that, when seen from the
seaward it has a very black and forbidding aspect, which has given rise to its
name. The prominence which the rocks make at this point affords an excellent
cross section of the beds, showing an acute anticlinal fold that is fractured and
slipped on the axial plane.

Hallett’s Cove, as a whole, forms one of the most picturesque spots on the
coast within the limits of Gulf St. Vincent. It is scarcely a Cove in the ordinary
acceptation of the term, as there is no sheltered area of sea space and only a
slight indentation on the coastline. The Field River, which finds its outlet at
the Cove, is only a creek that can easily be stepped across, and has no inlet
from the sea, except at very high tides. The Cove is a natural amphitheatre of
broken ground, bounded by rocky headlands. It owes its existence not to
marine erosion, but to the effects of rain beating on the exposed faces of soft
rocks and the transporting agencies of small runners that excavate channels in
the soft material.

CAMBRIAN ROCKS IN SECTION B.

There is no outcrop of Cambrian rocks within the amphitheatre of Hallett’s
Cove itself. A large mass of purple rock, 12 feet in length, exposed near the
head of the amphitheatre was, at first, thought to be an inlier of the older rocks,
but by the removal of the soft material by subsequent erosion it was seen to be
an erratic in the till, and is now fallen apart in two pieces. The Cove is, how-
ever, bounded by Cambrian slates and quartzites on the landward side. Good
sections are exposed in the creek that reaches the sea a little to the northward
of Black Point, and also in the Field River, near the southern extremity of the
Cove, as well as in a small creek a little to the northward of Field River.

285

The Field River, in its lower portion, cuts the beds transversely and sup-
plies some excellent geological sections. At a distance of about half a mile from
the coast a very striking overfold occurs in the left bank of the stream in the
form of the letter S (Howchin, W., 1904, pl. xxxviii.), and, a little higher up
the stream, the junction of the lower and upper series of the Palaeozoic rocks
can be seen. The Brighton limestone and associated beds are thrown down to
the west at a high angle of dip (as in the section at the Brighton quarries)
with the purple slates in superior order. Rising from beneath the limestone
are the impure siliceous limestones which, at about a mile from the beach, form
a commanding anticline, 100 feet in height (Howchin, W., 1904, pl. xxxvii.).
A curve in the stream at this point shows that the beds also roll on the line of
strike, forming anticlinal folds at right angles to the great anticline just
described.

The main limestone makes a remarkable curve in its outcrop where it crosses
the Field River. From Brighton to Field River it follows a north and south
strike, but on reaching the stream, just mentioned, it curves to the eastward and
follows the left bank of the river till within about a mile of Reynella, where it
is faulted to the right bank, and at Reynella it resumes its approximate north
and south direction. In Sec. 521, a little east of the fault, just mentioned, the
stream cuts the beds, for a short distance, at a right angle, and as the beds are
not so highly pitched here as they are further to the westward, an excellent
opportunity occurs for studying the junction which the Adelaide Series makes
with the Purple Slate Series at this point; the uppermost limestones of the
former pass up, gradually, into the purple slates of the latter.

On the southern side of Field River the Cambrian purple slates (inter-
bedded with thin reddish quartzites) form the main sea-cliff, reaching a maximum
height of about 80 feet, and as the strike of the beds accords, approximately,
with the direction of the coast, the cliffs form nearly a straight line, and no
special rock features are brought into view for a considerable distance. The
beach, however, forms an excellent example of a marine platform, cut back by
the waves, with the truncated edges of the highly-pitched Cambrian beds standing
up in serrated ridges, like the furrows of a ploughed field. At a short distance
south of Hallett’s Cove a fine example of a »-shaped fold (occurring along the
strike of the beds) is seen on the beach (Howchin, W., 1918a, fig. 104, p. 118).
The best view is obtained from the top of the cliffs where the outlines of the
complex fold can be taken in at a glance. Southward from Hallett’s Cove
the Cambrian beds maintain a comparatively even face (on the strike) forming
prominent cliffs. The exposed face forms the western limb of a rather acute
anticlinal fold, with a high pitch.

’ At a distance of about one and a half miles from the Cove, a headland
known as Curlew Rock (or Curlew Point) occurs. It is situated near the east-
west district road that separates Secs. 581 and 577, Hundred of Noarlunga.
On the southern side of the headland the sea has cut back the Cambrian beds
for a considerable distance and has left the Curlew Rock as a semi-detached
fragment at the angle of divergence in the cliffs, and exposed a transverse
section of the folds that makes one of the most striking rock features along the
coast (Howchin, W., 1904, pls. xxxix. to xl.). The rock consists of numerous
alternations of thin purple quartzites with slaty partings that have become con-
torted in a most intricate fashion. The beds are in vertical position and the
flexures, which by weathering have been brought into strong relief, are defined
with the greatest detail. The folding can be studied in two directions—in the
direction of the dip, in the headland; and in the direction of the strike, on the
beach, which is clear of sand, and shows the truncated edges of the Cambrian
rocks.

286

From Curlew Point, going south, the Cambrian quartzites and slates form a
nearly vertical cliff, about 50 feet in height, in nearly a straight line, but are set
somewhat further back than those to the northward. The close relation which
rock structure bears to coast features is well illustrated here. The cliffs are
composed of alternating beds of soft and hard rocks in a strike that is nearly
parallel with the coast, having a high pitch (65° to 90°), and a dip slope facing
the sea, a form of rock structure which makes it easy for the waves to undermine
each layer in turn, and when thus undermined, the whole face slips down by
gravity to the beach. This explains the straight line of cliffs, their steep and
inaccessible face, and supplies the reason why the cliffs, at this point, have been
worn back at a quicker rate than the adjoining sections. This rapid retreat of
the cliffs has led to the formation of an extensive sea platform which is un-
covered at low water. Standing at.Curlew Point and looking southwards, the
truncated edges of the Cambrian beds are seen in detail, giving evidence of
tectonic compression having acted opposed to the strike of the beds, contorting
the same in a transverse direction. As often occurs in the Purple Slate Series,
the beds very commonly show the phenomenon of ripple marks. Towards the
end of this straight face of cliffs, at a distance of about half a mile from Curlew
Point, a sea-stack forms a conspicuous feature (Howchin, W., 1918a, fig. 98,
p. 114).

At the end of this straight line of cliffs, an angle occurs in the direction of
the latter, causing a slight easterly trend that brings in new features. At a
short distance from the sea-stack the line of cliffs is broken by a curved
recession, forming a shallow valley that is grass-grown and: protected from the
sea by low sand ridges. The Cambrian slates are here decomposed, dipping
easterly, at a lower angle. Similar beds are seen on the beach, with a westerly
dip, indicating an anticlinal fold.

On the southern side of the small cove, just described, the cliffs rise to a
considerable height, with an easterly dip, capped by a layer of the fossiliferous
Pliocene, and is followed by another slight indentation in the cliffs enclosing a
grassed valley. The southerly side of this indentation shows a broken face of
very siliceous quartzite, lithologically similar to a prominent outcrop that forms
ridges on the beach. The falls from the cliffs, added to the outcrops on the
shore, make an excessively rough beach, ending in a prominent “stack” at what
may appropriately be called “Rocky Point’ (opposite Secs. 616, 617). The
latter has a dip east, with a slight curve at its summit, directed towards the
west, forming a segment of an anticlinal arch. ‘The stone is typical of the thicker
quartzites of the Cambrian in being light coloured, very fine in the grain,
and highly siliceous, examples of which can be seen near the summit of Sellick’s
Hill and in many localities in the Flinders Ranges; it is very distinct from the
quartzites of the Cambrian in being light-coloured, very fine in the grain,
occupies the beach in high serried lines and pinnacles with a dip east, 10° south,
at 53°, and a strike from north-east to south-west, which soon takes it below
sea level. Overlying these very siliceous quartzites are soft purple slates stand-
ing at a high angle and contorted. A little north of this point is a ferruginous
conglomerate that rests on truncated Cambrian slates. The origin of this con-
glomerate was not investigated, but is probably a metasomatized form of the
Lower Pliocene sandstones.

PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS (GLACIAL) BEDS IN SECTION B.

Hallett’s Cove, as a depression in the older rocks, owes its existence,
primarily, to an over-deepened portion of the ancient glacial valley. The two
headlands, forming the northern and southern boundaries of the Cove, are
about a mile apart, and consist of dark-coloured purple rocks of Cambrian age.

287

The interval between these headlands has been excavated to an unknown depth
and filled up with morainic material to a height of 100 feet above sea level,
with overlaps on the Cambrian rocks at either side of the Cove. This morainic
material, together with more recent deposits overlying it, has yielded more
readily to atmospheric waste than the harder Cambrian rocks of the locality,
giving rise to a retreat of the cliffs and much broken ground within the area,
and has exposed some very large erratics. Near the head of the Cove there
are two large cuboidal erratics, belonging to the siliceous limestones of the
Tapley’s Hill Series, situated close together, and, unitedly, measure 9 feet in
length.

In the lower positions, within the Cove, the ground moraine, or till, is the
leading feature; and, at the higher levels, in addition to the boulder clay, there
are fluvio-glacial deposits in the form of fine-grained mud, sands, and gravels.
The latter features are well developed on the sea face, towards the southern side
of the Cove before reaching the Field River. Many of the stones in these beds
are well scratched. So far as observed, the polished floor is limited to the
cliffs on the northern side of the Cove. The Cove ends on the southern side
with a thick body of boulder clay banked up against the Cambrian purple slates.

Some very large erratics occur on the beach, where they are more or less
either obscured, or exposed, by the varying amount of sand left by the waves.
Towards the Field River, and between tides, there are about half a dozen large
erratics gathered from the Cambrian (or (?) Proterozoic) tillite which are
grouped together; and on the beach, to the southward of the Field River, is the
largest granite erratic of the vicinity, measuring 8 feet in length, of the Victor
Harbour type, and is surrounded by a great field of erratics, of many kinds,
and some of exceptional size. ;

The erratics contained in the till at Hallett’s Cove give us some clue to the
respective routes by which the ice travelled to the Cove. Among the travelled
stones are numerous porphyritic granites from Victor Harbour district, which
probably came by the Inman Valley, and, passing over the water parting of the
Bald Hills, united with the main glacier near the site of Normanville. The
fine-grained schists that form the lower cliffs of Cape Jervis are also well repre-
sented, and many of them are strongly glaciated. Rocks that outcrop nearer to
Hallett’s Cove—the impure siliceous limestone and the older moraines of the
(?) Cambrian tillite, that occur between the Field River and the Onkaparinga—
have been quarried out and transported by the ice-plough and form some of
the largest of the erratics both on the beach and within the limits of the Cove.
Some of the boulder clay, near the head of the Cove, is of a deep purple colour,
having been ploughed up from the outcrops of the purple slates in the immediate
neighbourhood—no more definite proof of the nature of the glaciation, as land
ice, could possibly occur than these examples of local erosion. The Victor
Harbour granite and the Cape Jervis schists that were delivered at Hallett’s Cove
indicate glaciers of not less than 50 miles in length.

The evidences of glacial action do not extend far beyond the southern limits
of the Cove. Some particularly large erratics of the impure limestones that
underlie the Brighton limestones occur on the beach, to the southward of the
Field River, some of which are speckled with veins of calcite, and what is
probably the largest erratic of the locality, also belonging to the impure limestone
series, Occulpies a conspicuous position on the edge of the sea-cliff, about half
a mile to the southward of the Cove. Its present position is suggestive of a
“perched block,” but when this great erratic was stranded on the retreat of the
ice, the cliff in its present form, of course, did not exist. Near to this large
erratic the glacial evidences of the neighbourhood appear to end.

288

The glacial remains at Hallett’s Cove form a small outlier of a much more
extensive glacial field that is in evidence further to the southward. It embraces
the Cape Jervis peninsula south of the Willunga Ranges, the Inman and Hind-
marsh Valleys, Encounter Bay, the Mount Compass and Finniss River districts,
southern Yorke Peninsula, and parts of Kangaroo Island. The glacial beds
underlie the Lower Pliocene at Hallett’s Cove, and also the Miocene in southern
Yorke Peninsula and in Kangaroo Island; they rest upon either the Cambrian
or Pre-Cambrian in all cases where their base is shown. At the time of the
ice-flood the present drowned valley of Gulf St. Vincent was an upland valley
that held the main glacial stream, into which the tributary glaciers of the Inman
and other valleys, situated both east and west of the main glacier, delivered their
quota. Or if the ice was in the form of a continuous sheet, which is probable,
then no such valley need to be assumed.

That the Permo-Carboniferous glaciation extended much further to the
northward than Hallett’s Cove is probable from the extent of the ice-polished
pavement at the latter place, and also from the fact that the glacier path is
truncated by the present sea margins. Subaerial waste that was energetic
through long ages, the repeated incursions of the sea during Tertiary times, as
well as the periods of plateau formation, rifted segments, and block faulting, in
later times, are sufficient to account for the wiping out of the glacial evidences
and their non-appearance in the more northern situations of South Australia.

(?) Pre-PLIocENE BEDS IN SECTION B.

Between the boulder-clay and the fossiliferous Pliocene beds at the head
of the amphitheatre, at Hallett’s Cove, are whitish and yellowish sands, some-
times argillaceous, which are of doubtful age. They are of uniform composi-
tion and free from stones. They come in, suddenly, at the northern side of
the amphitheatre, immediately underlying the Pliocene bed, which, latter, thins
out to the southward and its place is taken by the underlying sand bed which
becomes a conspicuous feature in the white, conical hill known as the “Sugar-
loaf.” In the latter, it rests with a sharp division on the highly-coloured, reddish-
purple boulder clay. The two colours, in juxtaposition, make a very striking
contrast. The hill is capped by an outlying fragment of the Pleistocene mottled
clays. The white bed continues to show in the cliffs to the southward and is
also exposed in the uneven ground in front of the cliffs.

In the deepest gutter cut by the rains within the limits of the Cove (a little
to the northward of the ‘“Sugar-loaf’’) a section of the white bed is exposed
up to a thickness of about 60 feet. This bed in its upper portion is soft and
friable, but becomes more indurated at depth. In the thick section, just men-
tioned, it maintains a very uniform character, but towards the lower levels there
are thin streaks of the dark-red clay and, at the lowest lével exposed, it is seen
to rest on the reddish-purple boulder clay that forms the base of the “Sugar-
loaf.” The induration of the bed in its lower portion is not uniform, but shows
certain layers in relief, and, in common with the underlying boulder clay, dips
to the north-north-east at a low angle.

The origin of this very considerable bed, sandwiched betweeen the glacial
till and the Lower Pliocene, is not very clear. The question is complicated by
the occurrence of a white sand bed that occupies a similar stratigraphical
relationship to the Lower Pliocene in other localities, further to the south, that
are in closer proximity to the freshwater beds that underlie the Miocene. So
far as the Hallett’s Cove section is concerned the weight of the evidence seems
to point to its having some relation to the glacial conditions. It may have been
deposited during a late fluvio-glacial stage in the building up of the sediments;
or, even later, by running water, acting on the glacial deposits by gentle currents,

289

the clay being carried forward in suspension and the sand deposited. This bed
is not seen in the glacial beds that face the sea at Hallett’s Cove, which are at a
higher level than the base of the white sand bed, so that it is possible that the
latter occupies an eroded gutter in the boulder beds.

The assumption that the white sand bed at Hallett’s Cove is stratigraphically
related to the glacial beds gathers strength from the fact that at Queenscliffe,
Kangaroo Island, a white sand bed rests upon the glacial clays, and, at the same
place, the fossiliferous Miocene appears to occupy an eroded trench in this bed.
Five miles to the west of Queenscliffe a similar white sand bed outcrops at
the Gap Hills, where it rests upon the glacial clays and is overlain by a basaltic
sheet (Howchin, W., 1899 and 1903).

Lower PLIOCENE BEpDs IN SECTION B.

Next above the white sand bed, in the order of succession at Hallett’s Cove, are
the Lower Pliocene fossiliferous and calcareous sandstones. They have their
greatest local thickness (12 feet) at their northern extremity (described under
Section A) where they rest on glacial clay, which is held up by the Cambrian
slates that form the cliffs at Black Point. They gradually decrease in thickness
and thin out to nothing at the head of the Cove, where they give place
to a thick, feebly-cemented bed of white sand which is destitute of organic
remains and occupies an inferior position to the fossiliferous beds, as described
above. Within the limits of the Cove the base of the Lower Pliocene is con-
glomeratic by the inclusion of water-worn erratics gathered from the underlying
till.

Another outcrop of the fossiliferous Lower Pliocene sandstones occurs on
the rising ground, about three-quarters of a mile to the eastward of Hallett’s
Cove, in Secs. 564, 565, Hundred of Noarlunga. The beds occur on the western
side of the north and south district road, in scrub country. The beds form a
retreating scarp, about 12 feet in height and half a mile in length, ending at
their southern extremity close to the road that has formed the main road to the
Cove. The rock is a siliceous sandstone, and, in places, a calcareo-siliceous
sandstone, often gritty, and includes angular to rounded fragments of quartz,
purple slates, etc., sporadically distributed through the sediments. The greater
part of the rock seems almost destitute of organic remains, but, in places, a
limited variety of fossil impressions on the rock are massed in considerable
numbers. The commonest form appears to be Tellina lata, which, although not
previously recognized at Hallett’s Cove, has been recorded from the Upper
Series at Aldinga. An external impression of a suborbicular bivalve with rather
strong concentric lines may possibly represent a Lucina. The beds on their
northern side are seen to rest on the purple slates and are covered throughout by
a considerable mantle of travertine, which is exhumed and used for the building
of dry walls, etc., in the neighbourhood as well as burnt for lime. The situation
of the beds is fully 100 feet above the outcrop of beds of similar age at the
adjacent Cove, and 200 feet above sea level. With the exception of the Mount
Mary occurrence (Howchin, W., 1916, p. 258) this is, so far as known, the
greatest altitude of the Lower Pliocene sediments in South Australia.

Resting on the Lower Pliocene fossiliferous beds is a white, somewhat
compact, limestone, which is a very general feature of the Lower Pliocene beds
throughout the district. It is unfossiliferous—except, at times, near the plane
of junction with the underlying fossiliferous bed—and is, probably, of secondary
origin, the lime, in the first instance, having been extracted from the underlying
bed, by solution, and then redeposited at the surface as a travertine mantle.
This supposed ancient travertine is sometimes separated from a more recent
deposit of travertine by clays, while, in other places, it passes up into a more

J

290

concretionary limestone and marl that are being formed under present-day
conditions.

The occurrence of fossils in the Lower Pliocene of Hallett’s Cove is some-
what irregular. They occur mostly in patches. For some distance the rock
may be comparatively barren, and then, for a space, they may be abundant.
In the compact sandstone on the north side of the Cove the fossil remains are
mostly in the form of impressions or casts. The most favourable position for
obtaining them is near the head of the Cove and in calcareous nodules which
occasionally occur in the sandy matrix.

The following fossil forms have been recorded from the Lower Pliocene
(Kalimnan), at Hallett’s Cove, including some additions from the writer’s
observations : —

PLANTAE. G. convexus, Tate
Lithothamnion sp. Mytilus submenkeanus, Tate
RHIZOPODA. Lithodomus brevis, Tate
Orbitolites complanata, Lam. Anapa variabilis, Tate
ACTINOZOA. Tellina lata, Q. and G.
Montlivaltia variformis, Dennant GASTEROPODA.
Plesiastraea st. vincenti, T. Woods Marginella hordeacea, Tate
ECHINOZOA. Cominella clelandi, Tate
Laganum platymodes, Tate C. subfilicea, Tate
PELECYPODA, Campanile triseriale, Basedow
Ostrea arenicola, Tate Diastoma provisi, Tate
O. sturtiana, Tate Hipponyx australis, Lam.
Placunanomia tone, Gray Calyptraea crassa, Tate
Spondylus arenicola, Tate Natica balteatella, Tate
Pecien asperrimus, Lam. M. subvarians, Tate
P. antiaustralis, Tate Heligmope dennanti, Tate
P. consobrinus, Tate Potamides sp.

Glycimeris subradians, Yate

There are outcrops of the Lower Pliocene on the northern side of Rocky
Point, and therefore included in Section B; but as they stand related to beds
of the same age that occur on the southern side of the Point, in Section C, they
will be considered in connection with the latter.

PLEISTOCENE AND RECENT RoOcKS IN SECTION B.

The great difference in the weather-resisting qualities of the Palaeozoic
rocks (which usually form the base of the sea-cliffs), as compared with the
softer beds in the upper portions, leads to the formation, in many places, of a
lower and an upper cliff, a platform of varying width dividing the two. The
lower cliff wastes mostly by sea erosion, whilst the upper cliff, consisting
generally of sands and clay, is worn away by atmospheric agencies, and as its
retreat is more rapid than that of the lower beds a shelf or platform is formed,
as stated above. This shelf is sometimes limited to a few feet, or it may be so
wide that the upper cliff cannot be seen from the beach. When the erosion
has been rapid the precipitous face is lost and the newer beds slope gradually
upward to the higher levels. At the head of the amphitheatre at Hallett’s Cove,
in the absence of the Cambrian rocks, the shelf is formed by the top of the
marine Pliocene beds which has become hardened by the deposition of a traver-
tine limestone.

The beds that follow in superior order to the marine Pliocene sandstones
can be divided into three divisions, representing differences of lithological char-
acter, with occasional planes of erosion dividing the same, which probably

291

indicate differences in geological age. These distinctions, as stated under Sec-
tion A, are:—Pleistocene, mottled sands and clays; Recent, red clays and small
gravel, passing up to a capping of concretionary limestone and marls, which
latter are present-day deposits.

These newer beds are particularly well exposed in the amphitheatre of Hal-
lett’s Cove, carved into successive spurs by the rain causing little rivulets to wash
out channels down the face. The mottled sands and clays (Pleistocene), which
are slightly more indurated than the overlying red clays, show steeper faces than
the latter and are sometimes cavernous. The section is a very striking example
of the eroding effects of rain on soft rocks. The entire Cove, as an excavated
area, has been formed by this simple agency. The surface at the top of the
amphitheatre is higher than the ground at the back, which has a gentle slope to
the east, so that no water finds its way into this amphitheatre except by the
direct fall of rain within the area. The waste on the face of the cliffs, by this
rain wash, is so rapid that no vegetation can establish a footing on these bare
slopes. The retreat of the cliffs within the last 35 years is most marked (Howchin,
W., 1918a, p. 69, figs. 51, 52), and as the ground at the back slopes away from
the edge of the cliffs, the height of the cliffs will gradually diminish.

SECTION OF BEDS WITHIN THE AMPHITHEATRE AT HALLETT’s Cove.

Recent :— Feet.
Light sandy soil .. be si aie ie a ie BA Ee
Concretionary travertine and marl (6 feet to 15 feet) ee ye se)
Red and greenish clays, sometimes gravelly .. Bie af ta 20)

Pleistocene :—
Mottled red and grey argillaceous sands and clays .. ts a 40
Lower Pliocene (Kalimnan) :—

Calcareous sands and grits (fossiliferous), stony at base, including

derived erratics from the underlying till .. Bi a eo)
Age Doubtful:—

White sand, underlying the fossiliferous Pliocene but is quite dis-
tinct from it. Does not carry stones and is very fine and
regular in the grain. Unfossiliferous. Is not present on the
Black Point shelf; is slightly exposed on the northern side

of the Cove and thickens in the exposures in washouts on the
southern side a a re of Se ne x4 t= 60)
Permo-Carboniferous :—

Glacial clays, sands, and grits, ranging from low-water level to
80 feet and 100 feet above sea level. Near the head of the
Cove the till forms a finely laminated clay of a deep-red colour,
which on the surface weathers into flakes of about an inch in
diameter; in other positions the till takes the form of a greyish
clay. It carries erratics of all sizes up to 8 feet in diameter.
Near the coast the till is a sandy and gritty bed with glaciated
boulders resembling the indurated sandy till of the Mount
Compass district .. ee i on ae at so SO

Cambrian :— ;
Purple slates and quartzites form the northern and southern limits
of the over-deepened glacial valley.

The sea-cliffs to the southward of Hallett’s Cove exhibit very markedly
the features of a double cliff. The Cambrian purple slates that form the lower

292

cliff show at their upper limits a peneplained surface, representing an ancient
land surface. Recent erosion has removed the later deposits so as to form a
shelf varying in width up to 200 yards. On this shelf the Pleistocene beds
form a very distinct secondary and retreating cliff, which attains a maximum
height of about 40 feet, and is pretty constant for about a mile, measured from
the Field River. The beds are chiefly of the sandy, mottled type, and in places,
by induration, form sandstones. ‘The latter are perfectly horizontal and finely
laminated. One section showed a sandstone, about 18 inches in thickness, resting
on the Cambrian beds, and was overlain by mottled sandy clays, with a vertical
scarp of sandstone on top, about 12 feet in thickness.

In a small washout, that cuts these alluvial beds transversely (the material
from which is carried across and over the edge of the Cambrian platform),
there is a remarkable assemblage of large, rounded stones, up to over a foot
in diameter, and covering a space 20 yards wide, the origin of which is not
very evident. As they occur at about 90 feet above sea level they can scarcely
be regarded as an elevated beach deposit. The most plausible conclusion is that
they are the coarser residues of the washed alluvium—stones that proved too
weighty for the small rain-wash to carry over the edge of the cliff. Some
loose stones, washed out of the local sandstone, occur away from the direct line
of the wash, and it is likely that the rounded stones formed part of one of the
ancient lines of drainage, as in the case of an old river bed exposed in a railway
cutting a little to the northward of Hallett’s Cove railway station.

At the end of the mile referred to, the upper cliff disappears, and gives
place to a gentle slope of arable land with a low scarp of travertine limestone at
the back.

On the shelf, formed by the greater hardness of the rocks that form the lower
cliff, as well as on the top of the upper cliff, patches of sand sometimes occur
which, in places, are of considerable thickness. It is a very common feature
along the cliffs up to Sellick’s Hill, but its origin is not always easy of explana-
tion. The probability is that these sand cappings have had more than one mode
of origin. In certain low situations the sand has been carried inland from the
beach, by the wind, but in some instances the sand patches occur under circum-
stances in which such an explanation seems unlikely, as, for example, where they
occur on a. high precipitous cliff with a rocky shore below that is practically
destitute of sand. There is little doubt that some of the sand patches represent
residuals of.the Lower Pliocene beds, as well as the Pleistocene sandstone, which
once extended over all this area, and are still seen in bedded form, occasionally,
while the greater portions of the associated material have been removed by
denudation. This explanation receives confirmation by the presence of char-
acteristic water-worn pebbles associated with the sands, in places. These dry,
sandy areas were favourite spots of the aborigines in selecting camping grounds,
and yield many evidences of their presence in past times.

A patch of sand, several acres in extent, occurs on the top and back of the
cliffs a little to the southward of the Field River. It does not seem probable
that the sand was blown up from the present beach, which is rocky and almost
destitute of sand, and there is a nearly vertical height of about 100 feet separating
the beach from the sand on the top of the cliffs. The present movement of the
sand is in the direction of the sea coast and is blown over the edge of the cliffs.
A patch of this sand, about two acres in extent, to the southward of Field River,
recently placed under cultivation, has become entirely bared by the wind, exposing
an old aboriginal camping ground including many undisturbed hearths, while
the surrounding ground is covered with stone chippings. The floor is also ex-
tensively strewn with nodules of white travertine that look as though the ground
was covered by large hailstones. Some patches of sand are probably connected
with the extensive areas of blown sand that exist inland, pertaining to the ancient

293

river system, as, for example, at Blackwood, Happy Valley, Morphett Vale, etc.
In this fluviatile valley, Blackwood would represent the eastern side of the ancient
river valley, Morphett Vale about the centre, and the coastline the western banks
of what is now a “dead” river.

On the landward side of Curlew Point there occurs one of the most ex-
tensive washouts to be found along the coast. A wide gully has been excavated
by the rain, bounded by bare and vertical walls, 150 feet in height, and extends
inland for about a quarter of a mile, and then, at its head, bifurcates in north
and south branches (Howchin, W., 1918a, p. 70, fig. 54). It forms a remarkable
exposure of the Pleistocene, or later, fluviatile beds. Its recent origin is indicated
by the slight impression that the outflowing water has made on the nearly vertical
sea-cliff, giving the features of a “hanging” valley.

The following is a Geological Section of the beds as exposed a little north of
Rocky Point :—

Geological Age. Estimated Thickness.
RecENtT—Nodular travertine cena ae 58 ar 15 feet
Sands and clays : ie ZOE ieee

PLEISTOCENE—Mottled sandy clays with layers of hard white
sandstone and water-worn pebbles,-the harder beds show-
ing vertical jointing .. po Outeee
Lower PLIocENE—Hard, gritty, siliceous, ‘and calcareous sand-
stone, containing casts and impressions of fossils, coated
on top with a nodular travertine .. a Be ios keel
CAMBRIAN—Rotten, purple-coloured slates .. ea Onteet
(Underlain by very siliceous quartzites that outcrop o on the beach)

SUB-SECTION C.

ROCKY POINT TO THE MOUTH OF THE ONKAPARINGA RIVER
(3 MILES).

CAMBRIAN Rocks IN SECTION C.

The Cambrian rocks make only a small exposure in the cliffs from Rocky
Point to the outlet of the Onkaparinga River. The south-westerly strike of the
beds having taken the strong outcrops of quartzite to seaward, the soft purple
slates, overlying the latter, offer only a feeble resistance to the action of sea and
rain, and, in consequence, the Cambrian beds disappear from the cliff sections
within a short distance to the southward of Rocky Point, their place being taken
by newer beds.

From Rocky Point to the outlet of Morphett Vale Creek (a distance of
about three-quarters of a mile) a remarkable combination of geological features
present themselves (see fig. 1). The cliffs being composed of comparatively

IDifess ale
Section of Cliffs on the Northern side of Morphett Vale Creek.
S, Sand dunes. TT, Travertine. R, Recent Clays. L, Pleistocene Clays and
Sandstones. (See pl. xxiil., fig. 2, which gives a section ‘of these beds with hard

bed on top.) P, Lower Pliocene Fossiliferous Bed. W, White Sand, partly
argillaceous. C, Cambrian Rotten Slates.

294

soft rocks have retreated and are set far back from the beach, leaving a shelf of
broken and humpy ground, about a quarter of a mile in width, in which several
stratigraphical unconformities are visible.

At about half-way between Rocky Point and the Morphett Vale Creek, and
midway between the beach and the high cliffs, there is an inlier of Cambrian
slates, bluish in colour, and so soft as to be easily mashed by the fingers, like
clay. These rotten slates are interbedded with occasional bands (up to 18 inches
in thickness) of a ferrugino-arenaceous character, making striking effects in a
contrast of colours. The dip of the beds is to the east at an average angle of
65°. There are no further exposures of Cambrian beds on the coast until a
short distance before reaching Blanche Point.

(?) Pre-PLiocENE BEps IN SECTION C.

Underlying the fossiliferous Pliocene beds, and resting unconformably on
the eroded edges of the Cambrian slates (as shown in text fig. 1) is a fresh-
water series of sands, argillaceous sands, gritty sands, and, occasionally, of fine
gravel, mostly of a whitish colour. The sand is unconsolidated, perfectly soft
and free to the feel and very uniform; it carries no fossils, and whilst weathering
into what looks like laminar bedding, cannot be separated on the laminae, as it
has no cohesion, but is subdivided by layers of ironstone or ferruginously
cemented sand; the bed exhibits false bedding in places, and has a slight north-
westerly dip. The plane of junction between this sand bed and the underlying
Cambrian slates is a ferruginous lateritic layer an inch or two in thickness.
This sand bed is seen to pass under the fossiliferous Pliocene bed on the northern
side, and increases to a thickness of about 30 feet on its southern. Following
which, the Pliocene sandstones have been removed by denudation, and the under-
lying soft sand bed has also been reduced by exposure and partly obscured by
more recent deposits. A similar bed of white sand underlies the fossiliferous
Pliocene at Hallett’s Cove (see p. 288), but whether the bed, now under descrip-
tion, has a closer stratigraphical relationship to the overlying Pliocene, or to the
basal beds of the Miocene (seen further to the south), or corresponds to the
white sandstone that intervenes between the fossiliferous Pliocene and the glacial
till at Hallett’s Cove, it is difficult to say.

Lower PLIOCENE (FOossILIFEROUS) BEDS IN SECTION C.

Between the sea-stack (on the beach) and Rocky Point two indentations
have been made in the cliffs by rain erosion (see p. 286) by which excellent
sections of the beds can be seen. The fossiliferous Pliocene that disappears
at Hallett’s Cove, from denudation, reappears in the two small coves just men-
tioned. When viewed from the beach the fossiliferous bed is easily distinguished
from the other geological formations and forms the sky-line; but on reaching
its level it is found that there is still another cliff behind it. The hard sandstone
of the fossiliferous bed has protected the softer Cambrian beds beneath from
denudation, while itself, more resisting than the overlying beds, forms a shelf,
from the edge of which the softer beds of clay have retreated, and the latter,
again, form a double line of supplementary cliffs at the back, the first consisting
of the mottled clays, and the second by the more recent clays, finished off by a
travertine capping.

The Pliocene bed is about 5 feet in thickness, and, as a rule, calcareo-siliceous.
It is sparingly fossiliferous, locally, except on some planes in the bedding,
when the whole surface of the rock may be covered by internal casts of mollusca,
mostly of small bivalves, sometimes masked by a mineral coating. At one out-
crop were collected such typical forms as Spondylus arenicola, Tate; Laganum

295

platymodes, Tate; and a specimen of Plesiastraea, which seems to differ from
each of the two species of this genus described by Tennison Woods.

The cliffs opposite to the Rocky Point stack consist mostly of alluvium
which has been washed down on to the face of the soft and yielding Cambrian
slates, and has, at the same time, obscured the outcrops of the fossiliferous
Pliocene beds. They are no doubt continuous over this area, as some indications
of their presence can be detected in a place or two, but they make no very dis-
tinct feature in the cliffs until they are seen on the broad platform of the lower
cliff, immediately to the south of Rocky Point, as described below.

Near the northern end of this platform there is a conspicuous exposure of
the fossiliferous Pliocene, forming a scarp about 15 feet in height, and is con-
tinued in a length of about 250 yards. The rock has been a calcareous sand-
stone, but is now mostly leached of the calcium content. Fossils occur in the
rock sparingly, and chiefly as impressions on the bedding planes. Towards the
southern end of this platform the Pliocene sandstone is entirely altered to a
highly ferruginous and cavernous rock. This change in the lithological char-
acter of the rock is maintained to the end of the platform area, and even beyond
the isolated fragment, or butte (pl. xxiii1., fig. 2), which marks the termination of
the high cliffs to the southward. Ferruginous cappings occur still further to the
southward, together with some red rocks, which may be inliers of the Fresh-
water Series that underlie the fossiliferous Miocene beds that occur to the north-
ward of Witton Bluff.

Near the butte, just mentioned, are two washouts in the form of canyons,
20 feet deep, that run back from the beach almost to the base of the butte. On
the southern side of these canyons is an isolated hill capped by the fossiliferous
Pliocene. It forms an outlier from the main body of the rocks of this age, but
has not been ferruginated, as in the case of the adjacent Pliocene sandstones.
The bed contains fossil impressions and an example of the characteristic
foraminifer, Orbitolites complanata, three-quarters of an inch in diameter, was
obtained at this spot. The fossiliferous bed is underlain by the white sandstone
found in the same position at other spots within the platform area.

The outcrop of the Lower (fossiliferous) Pliocene within the limits of
Section C extends for a distance of about one and a half miles.

MiocENE BEDS IN SECTION C, INCLUDING THE UNDERLYING FRESHWATER
BEps.

From the outlet of Morphett Vale Creek to near Witton Bluff the sea-cliffs
are composed exclusively of alluvial deposits which will be described later. Along
most of the beach between these two points large rounded stones derived from
the Miocene beds are packed up by wave action against the foot of the clay
cliffs, more particularly on the side towards the Bluff. It is not unlikely that
these well-worn stones may have been derived from a reef of this rock that
causes breakers about half a mile from the shore, although it is possible that,
as beach stones, they may have travelled northward from the Bluff.

Witton (or, more correctly, Whiten) Bluff, situated on the northern side
of Port Noarlunga, is a prominent headland with a deep recess cut by the sea
on its northern side. The greater part of the headland is composed of beds of
Miocene age® which are highly fossiliferous and show a distinct dip to the
south-west. In consequence of this tilt of the strata the base of the series is
exposed on the northern side of the headland, and the upper portions pass below

(2) The late Professor Ralph Tate and some other Australian geologists classified these
beds as Eocene, while Professor J. W. Gregory, F. Chapman, R. B. Newton, and others with
European experience, regard them as of Miocene (Janjukian) age. See Report Brit. Assoc.
Adv. Science, 1914, pp. 371-376.

296

the surface before reaching the jetty on the southern side of the point. Most
of the clay deposits of newer date have been removed by denudation from the
surface of the fossiliferous rock; the latter faces the sea in scarps and terraces,
the white colour of the stone having suggested the name of the headland.

The main bed in the fossiliferous series consists of whitish Turritella clays
(T. aldingae), probably representing the same horizon as the darker-coloured
clays, rich in Turritella, seen at Blanche Point, a few miles further to the south.
While the gasteropod mentioned is extraordinarily abundant at Witton Bluff
there is a scarcity of other fossil remains. Next to Turritella the most common
occurrence is a large form of polyzoa, which, although possessing only a very
thin zooecium, spreads out into large convoluted fans that make masses up to
18 inches in diameter. In no case is it well preserved, often only a ferruginous
line marks the outline of the form. It has the habit of growth possessed by
Retepora, and probably belongs to that genus, but I have been unable to examine
the celluliferous surface. Another common, but equally badly preserved, fossil
occurs in large bunches of cylindrical and dichotomous stems, but failed under
examination to give structure. It is often converted into a ferruginous cast
and is probably (a coral. )' The “habit of, growth, ot ‘this s:onganism
suggests either Amphihelia striata, Ten. Woods, or Cladocora contortilis, |
Ten. Woods. Other fossils obtained included Dentalium (Entalis) subfissura,
Tate; a considerable variety of spines belonging to the Echinozoa; and frag-
ments of the stems of the interesting and rare crinoid, Pentacrinus stellatus,
Hutton; Ditrupa wormbetiensus, McCoy; and one of the calcareous plates of
a Cirriped that retains the original colour bands. A washing of the white clay
yielded a very large number of monactinellid sponge spicules.

Resting on the Turritella clays (which are about 20 feet in thickness) is
another whitish clay, more friable than the underlying bed and more sparingly
fossiliferous; in it the Turritellae are rare. The upper white clay is about
equal in thickness to the lower and more fossiliferous bed, and the whole section
of the marine series, on the southern side of Witton Bluff, may be estimated
at about 40 feet in thickness.

In passing to the northern side of the Bluff, the beds outcropping more to
the southward disappear, having been denuded as the result of a rise in the angle
of dip, and lower beds of glauconitic sandstone make their appearance. These
are highly fossiliferous and include a greater variety of forms than the beds
higher in the series, consisting chiefly of mollusca, but the shells are matted
together and somewhat difficult to obtain entire.

Fig. 2.
Two Stratigraphical Unconformities seen on the North side of Witton Bluff.

R, Recent Clays. L, Pleistocene Mottled Clays with subangular stones irregularly
distributed through the Clay. F, Freshwater Beds that underlie the
Fossiliferous Miocene.

297

Immediately north of the Bluff the last-described bed is seen to rest on the
Freshwater Series—the lowest member of the Miocene System—which rises from
beneath the fossiliferous beds and, within a short distance, becomes the sole
feature of the cliffs. In this outcrop these fluviatile beds, in their upper por-
tions, consist of brownish, fine-grained sands, and in their lower, of a white
laminated clay with bands of brilliant brick-red colour following the bedding
planes, the whole making a cliff of about 35 feet in height, but the base of the
beds is not seen. They extend northward for about a quarter of a mile, in
gentle flexures, and disappear in that direction under the Pleistocene clays,
which latter occupy an uneven line of erosion excavated on the upper surface
of the older freshwater series. At this point of junction a double unconformity
is visible—the Pleistocene (mottled) clays, in a steep plane of erosion, cut out
the Older Tertiary; while the Pleistocene clays, again, are eroded in an irregular
line by the newer (Recent) reddish clays and gravels that rest upon them (see
eos seer 74).

The junction of the marine and freshwater beds, in this section, is marked
by very peculiar features; there has, apparently, been an interaction between
the two dissimilar beds; either the iron in the brownish freshwater sands
penetrated and discoloured the lowest layers of the marine deposits, or the
glauconite contained in the latter has become oxidised by means of infiltrating
water and thus produced a peculiar piebald discolouration. The rock is brown and
white in irregular and sharply-defined patches, the one colour interpenetrating
the other in such a manner as sometimes to simulate organic remains.

The sea is making rapid encroachments along this line of coast. The soft
nature of the cliffs and the narrow foreshore favour the action of the waves.
A conspicuous sea-stack, known as the Whiten Rock (or Table Rock), situated
about 50 yards from the headland, and which had, apparently, remained unaltered
during the period of European occupation of the country, was, in 1911, washed
away, by which one of the most picturesque features of the coast was
destroyed.

PLEISTOCENE AND RECENT BEDS IN SECTION C.

In such places along the coast, where the Cambrian beds are strong and act
as barriers to the encroachment of the sea, the softer overlying rocks usually
retreat from the edge of the cliff and form a second cliff with moderate slopes
and rounded outlines. This is the case between Curlew Point and Rocky Point.
Immediately to the southward of the last-named Point the clays, of two ages,
form the main cliffs and are set well back from the beach, reaching a height
of about 150 feet. The older of the two, consisting of mottled (Pleistocene)
clays and sandstones, rests unconformably on each, in turn, of the three older
formations—the Cambrian slates, the freshwater sands, and the marine Pliocene
—that occupy the area between the beach and the main cliffs. They exhibit
features that are identical with the other outcrops of these beds along the coast
and also inland. They vary from a very stiff clay to laminated sandstones,
and, in places, contain lenticles of gravel made up principally of pebbles derived
by erosion from the local exposures of purple slates and sandstones. The beds
of sandstone (which are usually of a deep-red colour, or mottled red and grey),
by virtue of their superior hardness often make prominent outcrops with vertical
faces.

Resting on the variegated clays and sandstones is a greenish-coloured clay
that is less resisting to the weather and has a slope lower than the mottled clays.
This upper clay bed is capped by nodular travertine, white marly subsoil, and
surface soil; the limestone is probably a precipitate from surface waters that
drain over the Brighton limestone series that outcrop at a short distance from
the coast on the landward slopes.

298

There could scarcely be a more striking illustration of rain erosion than is
seen in these lofty and bare cliffs, set far back from the sea, the waves of which
have never washed their basé, yet they are wasting so rapidly that no living
plant can establish a footing on their slopes. They do not weather in a straight
line, but the rain sculptures the face of the cliffs into regular scallops, nicked by
crevices and varied with coves and buttes. At the southern end the cliffs are
suddenly truncated facing to the outlet of Morphett Vale Creek, where a pic-
turesque butte (see pl. xxiii., fig. 2) has been isolated and is surrounded by many
acres of perfectly bare clay, undergoing waste, which, on a small scale, recalls
to mind the “bad lands” of the Colorado.

The outlet of the Morphett Vale Creek is largely choked by sandhills which
form the banks on either side. On the southern side of the creek, and for some
distance in the same direction, there are usually thick layers of a black and
ruby-coloured sand piled up against the base of the cliffs, giving the sands an
appearance of being covered with coal dust.

A little south of the Morphett Vale Creek the upper clay beds of Recent
age begin to show themselves at about high-water mark and form a cliff about
10 feet in height. As these beds are washed by high tides the cliff is rapidly
retreating. These clays continue to form the only feature of the sea-cliff for
about a mile in length, the latter slowly increasing in height as it goes southward.
At about half-distance between the Morphett Vale Creek and Witton Bluff the
underlying mottled clays and sands begin to show themselves in the cliff section.
The contrast between the two beds of clay is here very marked. The lower
bed is a compact, greenish and reddish mottled sandy clay, carrying numerous
angular, or more or less rounded, stones sporadically distributed through the mass
and lying at all angles. The bed is sufficiently tenacious to resist for some time
the action of the waves, as large patches, a foot or two in height, occupy the
beach between tides. Harder portions that have become strengthened by cal-
careous or siliceous infiltrations stand up as ridges intersecting the beach after
the softer portions have been washed away. The bed, in its upper limits,
becomes grey and red, in mottled patches, but preserves its essential features in
its compactness and the sporadic manner in which the included stones are dis-
tributed. In both cases the stones consist mainly of quartz and quartzite, and
in addition to these there are irregular concretions such as are commonly found
in fluviatile sediments. A precisely similar clay bed makes a low cliff a little
south of the mouth of the Aldinga Creek.

The relationship which the newer and less compact clays bear to the older
mottled clays can be well studied on this part of the coast. A very distinct
unconformity can sometimes be recognized between the respective beds—the
overlying reddish clays and water-sorted gravels*occupy gutters of erosion in
the underlying compact clay.

With the exception of a large conical sandhill, situated a little south of the
Morphett Vale Creek, no important sandhills exist at prseent between that
creek and Witton Bluff, the wind having swept the low cliffs entriely bare of
their sand, and the exposed floor consists of a continuous sheet of nodular
travertine.

From the jetty at Port Noarlunga to the mouth of the Onkaparinga—
about a mile of coast—there are uniform features. The whole distance is.
covered by sand dunes which rise to a height of 50 feet or 60 feet. As soon as
the tidal flats are reached, at the mouth of the river, the older marine Tertiary
beds appear in the form of low tabular exposures situated between tide marks.

299

SUB-SECTION D.

FROM THE MOUTH OF THE ONKAPARINGA RIVER TO THE
RED OCHRE COVE (4 MILES).

MiocENE Beps oF SECTION D (INCLUDING A SMALL OUTLIER OF
FOSSILIFEROUS PLIOCENE).

The estuary of the Onkaparinga has been excavated to base level in the
marine beds of the Miocene. ‘The latter can be seen at, or below, sea level in the
broad entrance to the river and in cliffs on either side of the wide estuarine
flats; they are exposed in the railway cutting and are banked up against the
Upper Cambrian purple slates on both sides of the Noarlunga township. On
the north side of the township the beds have a decided dip to the south-west
and exhibit shelvings below high-water mark. On the southern side, at the
convex bend of the “horseshoe,” they form the cliff, bounded by the purple slates
on the one side and clay beds and gravels on the other.

Fossiliferous beds of the same age occur in two railway cuttings near
Hackham, and also on the adjacent main road, about three miles to the north-
east of Noarlunga, at an elevation of 200 feet above sea level. Further again
to the northward highly glauconitic fossiliferous clays underlie Morphett Vale
and are exposed in the cuttings at Happy Valley reservoir. At about one mile
up the Onkaparinga River from Noarlunga, the junction of the Adelaide Series
and the Cambrian purple slates can again be studied, where the Brighton lime-
stone crosses the river in contact with the purple slates, and, about four miles
further up the gorge, the stream intersects the Cambrian tillite.

Within half a mile of the sea the Onkaparinga narrows its bed with high
sandhills on its northern side, and on its southern side the older marine beds
(Miocene) make prominent and often vertical cliffs. The lowest exposed beds
in the series outcrop at the landward end of the cliffs. At that end the beds
consist of polyzoal rock, 2 feet to 3 feet in thickness, alternating with glauconitic
clays which are sparingly fossiliferous. The upper members consist of grey-
coloured argillaceous, varying to sandy, rocks, in which fossils are scarce, and
these beds are capped by a hard calcareous sandstone, also poor in fossils.

At the southern head to the entrance of the river the marine beds are much
weathered, by the waves on the one side and the rain on the other, into hard
and bare terraces. Within the heads they have a thickness of about 30 feet
and are capped by Recent reddish clays and gravels. The newer marine series
(Pliocene) is not represented in this section and in positions higher up the
estuary, where the lower marine beds come to the surface, they are capped by
only a thin layer of travertine. The fossils mostly belong to the polyzoa.
Cellepora gambierensis, Tennison Woods, is particularly abundant; there also
occur examples of Reticulipora, Lichenopora, Pecten hochstetteri, Zittel, scat-
tered spines of Echinozoa, etc.

On rounding the headland which forms the southern boundary to the
entrance of the Onkaparinga, going southward, the lower marine beds form low
cliffs and also platforms on the beach. Here they are richly fossiliferous in
certain forms, especially the large and massive cup-shaped Cellepora, and many
pectens, including P. eyerei, Tate; P. flindersi, Tate; P. perom, Tate; and
P. hochstetter1, Zittel.

The beds, both within the limits of the estuary and also along the beach to
the southward, roll in gentle and extended curves having a general dip to the
south-west, with an extreme inclination of about 4°. In consequence of this
pitch they gradually pass down to sea level and for some distance are confined
to the beach, between tide lines, and can be traced almost to the outlet of

300

Pedler’s Creek, a distance of nearly two miles. Before this creek is reached,
however, there is a small outlier of the newer marine beds on the beach, but
above high-water level, which is fossiliferous, and yielded such typical forms as
Ostrea arenicola, Tate; Laganum platymodes, Tate; and Pecten antiaustralis,
Tate. This is the only known occurrence of rocks of this age between the
Aldinga cliffs and the area previously described, situated on the northern side
of Morphett Vale Creek.

On the southern side of the sandhills (that occupy the low ground at the
mouth of Pedler’s Creek) is another small but interesting outlier of the fossili-
ferous Miocene beds. It is probable that they have been preserved by a trough
fault that has brought them into contact with the broken edges of the Cambrian
strata. A small fragment of the underlying freshwater beds is exposed in a
washout at the back of the section, and, resting on these, is a very white argil-
laceous limestone which bears a close likeness to the Witton Bluff beds, and,
like the latter, is no doubt a bleached form of the less altered Aldinga Turritella
clays. The fossiliferous beds are about 20 feet in thickness, having a dip of
24° to the north-west. They form the main cliff for about 100 yards in length,
and pass out of sight on the northern side beneath the newer deposits. About
200 yards to the northward of this outcrop the same beds are seen, at low-water
level, in several parallel ridges that rise about a foot above the level of the
beach. Their slight elevation makes it difficult to estimate their angle of dip, ©
but they appear to have a higher inclination than the beds in the cliff section
and the dip is more westerly. One of these outcrops is an exact counterpart of
the dark-coloured Turritella clays of Blanche Point. The beds on the beach
are more fossiliferous than those in the cliffs and the fossils are better preserved.
Turritella aldingae, Tate, is in great numbers (as casts in the cliff beds but
with shells preserved in the outcrops on the beach) ; casts of Voluta sp., Cypraea
sp., and Dentalium sp.; Pecten hochstetteri, Zittel; Magellania sp. (crushed
fragment); large masses of Cellepora gambierensis, Ten. Woods; also the
imperfectly preserved (?) Retepora and (?) Cladocora contortilis, Ten. Woods,
occur, embedded in the clay, as in the Witton Bluff section. Many and various
spines of Echini are scattered through the bed, but no echinoid test was seen
in situ, although plates of Cidaris were found, and a fine example of Holaster
australiae, Duncan, was picked up on the beach.

CAMBRIAN BeEDs IN SEcTION D.

The Cambrian beds abut against the lower marine outlier, just described,
on its southern side, and, for about a mile in length, once more make the prin-
cipal feature in the sea-cliffs. The beds consist of purple and grey slates inter-
bedded with very strong whitish and fine-grained quartzites. The beds roll in
flexures up to a dip of 45° and are covered by a retreating cliff of the reddish
clays, while the latter are capped by a considerable development of a white, earthy
travertine, which is also set back from the face of the cliffs, so that, as a conse-
quence of the variable degrees of weathering, the cliffs consist of three distinct
faces and two ledges.

Near the southern limits of the line of cliffs, just described, there is a small
cove that has been eroded on the axis of an anticlinal fold in the Cambrian
slates. The beds are almost clay-like in their softness, and, as they are excep-
tionally highly coloured, the place has been a rendezvous for the aborigines in
past times for obtaining red ochre for personal ornamentation and other
decorations.

On the southern side of this little cove the Cambrian rocks make a low
point and once more disappear from view and are overlain by the freshwater
beds of the lowest member of the Tertiary succession, which, from this point,

301

form the most important feature in the sea-cliffs till Blanche Point is reached,
a distance of a mile and a half. As these beds rise from beneath the older
marine series at Blanche Point it will be more convenient to study them in con-
nection with that part of the section and then trace their outcrops to the north-
ward, which will be done in the next division of our subject.

PLEISTOCENE AND RECENT BEpDs IN SEcTION D.

The main cliffs that occur between the estuary of the Onkaparinga and
Pedler’s Creek are formed of reddish clays and gravel, much incised by
rain sculpture. They reach their maximum height in the headland of Seaford
(Sec. 340, Hundred of Willunga), at 100 feet, and have a bed of coarse and
hard nodular travertine, 6 feet in thickness, near their upper limits; large
blocks of this travertine encumber the beach.

Pedler’s Creek is the most important outlet for surface drainage between
the River Onkaparinga and the Myponga Creek, and at its mouth there is the
greatest development of sand-dunes that occurs within the limits of Gulf St.
Vincent. They have a frontage to the sea of about a mile in extent, and, on the
southern side of the stream, they are a travelling mass, up to 100 feet in height,
encroaching towards the north-east. This drift has evidently been long estab-
lished, as the creek has been gradually driven, by their encroachment, further and
still further to the northward. Its former outlet (into which the sea still flows
in high tides) has been, quite recently, cut off from the main creek by the
encroaching sand, and the flood waters have had to take a more circuitous
course, while much cultivated land has become buried by the sand drifts.

An interesting feature of this part of the coast is the existence of a raised
beach, evidences of which occur on both sides of the entrance to the creek.
On the southern side a ridge of large rounded stones occurs enclosed within the
present sandhills, distant from the beach by about 20 yards, and at a height
of 12 feet above the present highest tides (see pl. xxiii., fig. 1). These stones have
been piled up by powerful wave action and in positions where no waves can
reach them now. At the back of this raised bank of stones is a much larger
area, more or less covered with rounded stones, and the usual littoral of a sea
beach. This area has been recently bared by the wind and contains evidences
of aborigines’ occupation in numerous hearths, chipped stones, and broken
Turbo, Purpura, and other shells, but the beach stones are far too numerous to
be referred, in their entirety, to human agency, while many of the marine
exuviae are of a kind that did not come within the range of the aborigines’
attentions. A very large number of the shell, Chama ruderalis, Lam., occurs,
many having both valves attached; also numerous small corals, polyzoa, brachio-
pods, and small mollusca, together with other beach sundries. In one place, on
the northern side of the creek and near the landward limits of the raised beach
area, a bed of Coxiella badgerensis, Johns, has formed a whitish calcareous
deposit, which suggests the existence of a brackish pool or lagoon in which the
waters of the sea and creek mingled, and in which this brackish-water gasteropod
abounded.

SUB-SECTION E.

RED OCHRE COVE TO SNAPPER POINT (44 MILES).

MtocENE SERIES IN SECTION FE.

Blanche Point, 140 feet in height, is the most striking headland within the
limits of the coastline now under description. It consists of several subsidiary
points, separated by small bays, together with a sea-stack (“gull-rock’’) that is
usually surrounded by water. There is a close similarity between Witton Bluff
(Port Noarlunga) and Blanche Point, both geologically and physiographically.

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Each of these headlands owes its existence to the presence of weather-resisting
calcareo-argillaceous marine beds. The latter belong, respectively, to the same
geological horizons, the beds have about the same angle of inclination, and the
eccurrence of the softer fluviatile basal beds has led to a deep recession of the
cliffs on the northern side of each of these headlands.

Basal Freshwater Beds.—The cliffs on the northern side of Blanche Point run
due east and west for about half a mile, and then make a sharp turn due north
(Maslin Bay). In this angle the basal (Tertiary) Freshwater Series is exposed
and its junction with the overlying lower marine beds can be studied at sea level
at about half tides. The beds rise, in a gradient of from 3° to 5° to the north-
east. The marine beds gradually run out on this plane (truncated at the
surface), and at about a third of a mile, to the north of the bend, the fossiliferous
Tertiaries cease to appear in the cliffs and the mottled clays (Pleistocene) then
rest directly on the basal fluviatile beds. The lowest fossiliferous horizon is
glauconitic, and this bed rests on a greenish sand, which is not fossiliferous
(except near its upper limits), and passes down to a brownish argillaceous sand-
stone which is, apparently, of freshwater origin.

The cliffs on the northern side of Blanche Point (Maslin Bay) are almost en-
tirely composed of this Freshwater Series—brown and greenish laminated sands,
generally very soft and friable, with thin leaf-like layers of ironstone at intervals.
In places these beds show more consolidation and outcrops occur, between the tide
levels on the beach, where they are sufficiently strong to resist the force of the
waves. The beds show a thickness up to 60 feet in some cliff faces, but are
subject to land slips; one such I noted, in 1911, that had shortly before slid
many thousands of tons down to the beach.

In the neighbourhood of Bennett’s Creek (the first creek north of Blanche
Point, at a distance of about a mile, and situated in Sec. 368, Hundred of Wil-
lunga) the beds are capped by a bed of buff-coloured, compact, and very
homogeneous travertine, large blocks of which have fallen to the beach. The
surface of the limestone shows a peculiar weathering, in small parallel flutes,
having a smooth, shiny surface. At a point, just north of Bennett’s Creek,
an outlier of the mottled clays is seen resting on the top of the travertine, just
described, and on the top of the mottled clays is another travertine deposit, a few
inches thick, and quite distinct in appearance from the one on the lower horizon.
This would appear to imply a very considerable age to the latter.

About half a mile further north than Bennett’s Creek is a small creek, or
washout, that has cut a deep canyon in the Lower Tertiary Freshwater Series,
with vertical walls, 30 feet in height. [This observation was made in 1911; in
a later visit to this spot, in 1913, some of these vertical banks were found to
have caved in.]| | The brown and greenish laminated sands here rest on a lower
horizon of yellow, laminated sands, with thin layers of small subangular quartz
pebbles possessing an average size of about half an inch in diameter. The
sediments are false-bedded and irregular, with an average thickness of 3 feet.
Then follow, in descending order, a drab-coloured plastic clay, 6 inches in thick-
ness, and then a very coarse quartzose sand (much blackened in some layers),
and layers of rather coarse gravel, the constituents being almost restricted to
white quartz, a few examples of black quartz, and quartzites rare; all the stones
are well water-worn and make a bed 3 feet in thickness. Limonite, in the form
of thin leaves, layers, and nodules, occur in these beds as in the higher members
of the series.

Oa the northern side of the canyon, just described, these lower freshwater
beds are much obscured by sand, blown from the beach, as well. as from the
weathering and rain-wash from the overlying reddish-mottled sandstones, but
the upper limits of the Freshwater Series is indicated by the distinctive travertine,

303

described above, which is here much decreased in thickness, partially leached,
and its upper portions converted into limonite.

In another small washout the same clay bed (mentioned above as being
6 inches in thickness in the canyon washout) is seen to have thickened to 6 feet,
and the underlying, white, quartzose sand bed is much coarser and the asso-
ciated gravels larger in the grain, arising from the fact, no doubt, that the beds
are almost down to bed rock.

The beds of the Cambrian Series come to the surface at a slight headland,
immediately following the coarse sediments of the fluviatile series described in
the last paragraph. The Cambrians are represented chiefly by a light-coloured,
fine-grained, very siliceous quartzite, similar to outcrops noted further to the
north, and have a dip south at 38°. The actual junction of the base of the
Tertiary sediments with the bed rock cannot be seen, but there is a white, sandy,
kaolin rock, with red streaks in it, exposed in a small washout, that may be
the covering rock, and, in any case, it is very near the base.

Outliers of what are assumed to be the basal Tertiaries occur near the
red-ochre cove, and also at the base of the marine Tertiaries, seen in the cliff
section on the southern side of Pedler’s Creek, as described above.

Fossiliferous Miocene Beds——The marine Tertiary beds (lower and upper)
in this line of outcrop extend from about a third of a mile northward of Blanche
Point, and, southward, to a little south of Snapper Point, a distance, in a direct
line, of about 3 miles. They have their greatest development in the sea-
cliffs at Blanche Point. The rapid transitions in the nature of the deposits
is well illustrated when the section on the northern side of the Point is compared
with that on the southern side.

On the northern side of Blanche Point the lowest bed of the marine series
is a pinkish-coloured limestone, about 5 feet in thickness, which is very fossili-
ferous, including many echini, brachiopods, polyzoa, etc. The next, following,
is a gréenish-white limestone, highly glauconitic, about 2 feet in thickness, and
aiso very fossiliferous, the forms being similar to those present in the underlying
bed, the upper portion being especially rich in Turritella aldingae, Tate. The
two limestones, just described, appear to represent, in part, the very different
dark-coloured earthy limestones largely developed on the southern side of the
Point. The beds at a higher horizon are similar to those occupying a correspond-
ing position on the southern side. In the return angle, to the north, the lower beds,
rich in echinoderms, occupy the slopes of the cliff and, becoming more weathered
as they approach the surface, supply an excellent collecting ground for fossils.
The lower marine beds thin rapidly on the northern side and are reduced,
within a few hundred yards, to half their thickness, the result probably of a
floor of erosion along the plane of unconformability separating the two marine
series. The glauconitic bed maintains its characteristic colour and can be easily
followed by the eye along the face of the cliff. The overlying newer marine
_ beds also thin out in the same direction, caused also by a plane of erosion of a
later date, and within less than half a mile of the angle-bend both series have
disappeared, the limestone passing rather abruptly from the cliff section, and
the Pleistocene sands and clays rest directly on the fluviatile beds that have
arisen from beneath the fossiliferous Tertiary rocks.

Blanche Point can be rounded, on foot, only at lowest tides. On the
southern side (see pl. xxii., fig. 1) the lowest bed exposed is a dark-coloured
argillaceous limestone (or calcareous clay) divided up into alternating harder
and softer beds that are crowded with the gastropod shell, Turritella aldingae,
Tate. These Turritella clays show a thickness of 31 feet, and with a slight dip,
a little west of south, they form the littoral, 150 yards in width, and pass below
sea level at low water. The latter are overlain by a yellowish, argillaceous, and

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sandy bed, which passes, in places, into a rock consisting almost entirely of
broken polyzoal remains. Fossils are fairly common in the bed, but have a
limited range as to species; thickness of bed, 30 feet. The face of the cliff is
almost vertical. In the lower part, the upper members of the Miocene Series
are exposed, the harder layers standing out in relief, as shown in the photograph ;
and, near the top of the cliff, the Lower Pliocene limestone, underlain by a
reddish sandstone that carries most of the fossils of these beds, can be seen
(see also’ Tate, R., 1896, p..123).

The headland of Blanche Point forms the northern limits of Aldinga Bay.
From this point the cliffs make a slight landward curve and lose their precipitous
character. Between the headland and Aldinga Creek (about a _ mile)
the cliffs are in three stages. The lowest scarp is formed by Recent clays and
blown sand, which make a hummocky slope lying against the Tertiary beds and,
for the most part, obscuring the outcrops of the latter. The second scarp is
formed by the white limestone of the Lower Pliocene beds, which, being resistent
to weathering, makes not only a scarp face, but a well-defined platform or shelf.
On this shelf—set back from the edge—the older and newer fluviatile beds
form a third scarp.

The Aldinga Creek, which reaches the sea near the township of Port Wil-
lunga, breaches the cliffs and interrupts the continuity of the section. The cliffs
that rise on the northern side of the creek exhibit some interesting features. A
highly coloured bed of sandy clay, in red and yellow layers, forms a conspicuous
feature in the cliff face, near the base. No fossils could be detected in this
bed, which has the appearance of being a freshwater deposit. It is from 4 feet
to 5 feet in thickness, and is seen to rest conformably on a dark-coloured clay
that is sparingly fossiliferous near the plane of junction. One or two examples
of Limopsis insolita and Turritella aldingae were observed here; but at a lower
level, in the same bed, situated on the tidal slope, remains of Turritelia are
abundant.

Resting on the highly-coloured clay bed is a yellowish limestone consisting
almost exclusively of small polyzoal remains. It is false-bedded and fissile, and
is overlain by the Lower Pliocene sands and limestones. This section proves
that the reddish (?) freshwater bed is included in the Miocene Series. The
beds here have a dip of from 3° to 4° in a south-westward direction. This
inclination causes the red-coloured bed to dip below the surface to the south-
ward, but takes a rise to the northward.

At about a quarter of a mile to the northward of Aldinga Creek—on the
northern side of the Memorial Life Buoy erected on the beach—the red clay bed
makes a small waterfall in a washout, and is underlain and overlain by beds
as they occur at Aldinga Creek (described above). No continuous section of the
Miocene beds can be traced from this point, for nearly a mile, being much
obscured by Recent clays. The red clay bed (interstratified with the fossiliferous
Miocene), of supposed freshwater origin, is seen at intervals for some distance
beyond the washout, mentioned above, but appears to thin out to the northward. °

At Port Willunga jetty the older marine beds are represented by more or
less consolidated sands that are exposed in a thickness of about 20 feet and are
moderately fossiliferous. On account of the open texture of the rock the
organic remains are limited to such forms as are the more stable in relation to
the circulating waters that cause solution, such as Pecten, Magellania and other
brachiopods, polyzoa, echinoderms, etc. It is difficult to say whether this
lithological change in the sediments is due to local variation simply, or whether
these sandy deposits occupy a stratigraphical position superior to those exposed
at Blanche Point, but were removed from the latter by denudation before the
laying down of the newer marine deposits which cover all alike. A break in the
cliff section leaves this an open question.

305

On the landward side of Blanche Point the older marine beds form a strip
of country, bordering the coast, for at least a mile and a half in width. A little
east of Port Willunga, a north and south district road crosses the Aldinga Creek
(Sec. 392, Hundred of Willunga), and in a cutting on the northern side of the
stream these beds are exposed. The main road to Adelaide crosses the Aldinga
Creek on the eastern side of the township, and after crossing the first ridge on
the road and rising to the second, going northwards, the road passes through a
deep cutting, at the southern end of which are marlstones containing remains of
Pecten, Turritella aldingae, etc. (Secs. 377, 179, Hundred of Willunga). These
fossiliferous beds are overlain by ancient fluviatile deposits. Still further to the
north (but situated on the parallel road to the westward of the main road) are
other outcrops of these beds. ‘This district road, on the northern side of Ben-
nett’s Creek, goes through a deep cutting of the marine beds in which the char-
acteristic Turritella occurs in great numbers. The fossiliferous rock is seen,
not only on the road, but in outcrops in the adjoining grounds facing into
Bennett’s Creek (Sec. 374, Hundred of Willunga). The beds have an easterly
trend and are no doubt connected with the outcrops on the main road described
above. Similar outcrops can be traced at intervals as far as McLaren Vale,
four and a half miles from the coast. A ridge of these rocks occurs on the
northern side of McLaren Vale railway station—the district road that passes
the station, going north, exposes a section of the beds in a cutting on the rise.
The beds have also been proved in various sinkings in the neighbourhood, and
are indicated, in places, by fossiliferous surface stones scattered over the culti-
vated land.

Between the township of Port Willunga and the jetty the older marine beds
form the lower portion of the cliff in vertical walls of calcareo-siliceous rocks,
but include layers of an argillaceous character. The gradual dip of the beds to
the south-west, at a low angle, reduces the height of the cliffs to the southward,
until each superior bed, in turn, reaches sea level.

From Port Willunga jetty, southwards, there is a wide floor of the Tertiary
rocks, extending from the base of the cliffs, seawards, representing a plain of
marine denudation that is bared at low water. At Snapper Point this marine
pavement has a width of, at least, a quarter of a mile which is bared at low water
and evidently causes shallow water much further out to sea. Snapper Point
presents the unusual feature of a headland that has a greater extent of foreshore
than the cliffs on either side. This no doubt arises from the great breadth of
the rock pavement which breaks the force of the sea and has led to an accumula-
tion of sand in front of the Point. The sea has receded at this point, within
recent times, the cliffs being situated inland and are bordered by a festoon of
sandhills, between the cliffs and high-water mark, with a well-grassed valley
between the sandhills and the cliffs.

LoweER PLIOCENE BEpDs IN SEcTION E.

The fossiliferous Pliocene beds are practically continuous from Blanche
Point to Snapper Point. At Blanche Point the beds form the upper limits of
the vertical face of the lower cliff. Southward from the Point they make a
distinct scarp and platform in the cliffs, as far as Aldinga Creek, the white,
craggy limestone of the beds rendering them conspicuous.

These newer marine beds are, in a general way, divisible into two parts
which are very much in contrast from each other. The lower portions consist |
of white and reddish sands, either friable or irregularly cemented, and contain
most of the fossils. The upper portions consist of a white marly limestone,
often concretionary in structure, and weathers into a rough and craggy face
which is, generally, the most prominent feature in the outcrops. Grains of

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sand are often irregularly distributed through the limestone, and fossils, when
they do occur, appear to be limited to its basal portions. At Port Willunga
jetty, beds of this age occupy an intermediate position between the older marine
below, and the Pleistocene clays that overlie them, and slope gradually with the
dip to the level of the beach on the southern side of Snapper Point.

This gradual inclination of the Tertiary beds to the southward brings
within reach, in succession, the upper beds and provides good hunting grounds
for the fossils of the Upper Marine Series. Many of the forms which are common
in the lower marine Tertiary, such as polyzoa, brachiopods, echinodermata, and
corals, are almost absent from the newer (Pliocene) Marine Series, but Ostrea
arenicola, Tate, is extremely common, many having the two valves attached;
Spondylus arenicola, Tate; Pecten antiaustralis, Tate; P. subbifrons, Tate;
and Laganum platymodes, Tate, are characteristic forms and somewhat common.
Local silicification has cemented some portions of the matrix, while other parts
remain free, and, from this fact, many fossils can be easily cleared of the
matrix on one side while firmly held by the silicified rock at another. The
thickness of the beds averages about 20 feet.

The white marly limestone, which forms the upper portions of these beds,
comes down to sea level on the southern side of Snapper Point, and exhibits some
interesting features. There is a sharp line of separation between the limestone
and the fossiliferous beds beneath. The latter have been greatly leached of
their lime content and, mostly, retain only external impressions and casts of their
organic remains. The composition and structure of the overlying limestone are
much in contrast from that of the fossiliferous bed, being often markedly nodular,
and the rock contains rounded and angular stones that are foreign to the rock
in which they occur. Among these included stones are examples of the fossili-
ferous rock on which the limestone rests. There are also in the limestone very
curious rope-like forms that are sometimes knotted and twisted, and, when
microscopically examined, appear to have a kind of cellular structure. They
vary in size from small twigs to large root-like masses, 4 to 5 inches in diameter.
These features are very suggestive of a travertine limestone, and, if so, supplies
important evidences concerning the hiatus which exists between the marine condi-
tions, indicated by the underlying bed, and the mottled clays (? Pleistocene)
which follow next in the order of succession. When the sea-bed was raised
to dry land (given suitable climatic conditions) a travertine would form on its
exposed surfaces, as occurs in this country at the present day on all calcareous
soils in dry situations, and would account for the leached condition of the fossili-
ferous marine bed, the lime having been extracted from such by circulating waters
and precipitated as a capping on its upper limits. The inclusion of stones and
fossils in the limestone near the plane of junction is what would naturally occur
in such a process, and the ropy, stem-like forms, found in certain positions in
the limestone, is paralleled by the sand-pipes and stem-casts which are constant
features of the surface travertine and calcareous sands at the present time. The
removal of the lime from the fossiliferous sands prepared the way for the
entrance of silicated waters which, in many instances, have filled up the inter-
stices with silica and produced siliceous pseudomorphs of the organic remains.
A newer travertine, of Recent age, occurs in the same section near the top of
the cliffs.

On the southern side of Snapper Point the Tertiary limestones make a slight
show near the base of the cliffs and occupy most of the beach. They can be
traced along the littoral for about a mile from the Point, when they are no
longer visible, having dipped below the level of low-water mark. They are
not seen again until the wide and open valley of the former Onkaparinga outlet
is passed, when they reappear under new stratigraphical features.

307

PLEISTOCENE AND RECENT BEpDs IN SECTION E.

The Pleistocene and Recent beds in Section E maintain a close resemblance
to those already described that occur to the northwards. The form in which
the upper argillaceous beds retreat from the edge of the harder under-cliff is
well seen when Blanche Point is viewed from a short distance, or, when standing
on the midshelf formed by such retreat, as shown in pl. xxii., fig. 2.

The outlet to Aldinga Creek (at Port Willunga) possesses some features
of geological interest. The creek has cut its way down to base level. Where
it makes its exit to the beach there are remains of an ancient carbonaceous mud
deposit that is sufficiently indurated to withstand the action of the waves for
some time. It is best seen on the northern side, as the southern banks are
obscured by drift sand. The present stream has worn its way down through
the old fluviatile deposit to a depth of about 8 feet without exposing its base.
The adjoining cliff, facing the sea, supplies a section of the bed to this extent
and shows that the carbonaceous mud deposit occupies the position of a wedge
that divides the older (mottled) clays from the newer reddish clays, and thins
out to nothing between these two formations. The indurated mud contains
many plant impressions, but these are too fragmentary and decayed for deter-
mination. In one place numerous shells of the gasteropod, Coxiella badgerensis,
were seen grouped together on one of the layers. This carbonaceous bed gives
evidence of the existence, at a former time, of a sluggish pool of fresh or brackish
water that flowed at a higher level than it does to-day, and probably met the sea
at a point further to the westward than it does at present.

SUB-SECTION F.
FROM A LITTLE SOUTH OF SNAPPER POINT TO SELLICK’S HILL
BEACH ROAD (34 MILES).

There are few physical features that distinguish this portion of the coast.
About a mile to the southward of Snapper Point the sea-cliffs disappear and are
replaced by low sand dunes which mark the northern side of the alluvial
valley, three miles in width, which represents the ancient river flats of the Onka-
paringa before its diversion 12 miles to the northward. The country between
Aldinga and Sellick’s Hill, by road, is quite flat. On the Sellick’s Hill side of
the valley a number of weak springs make a seepage from the hill sides. This,
together with a small amount of drainage derived from the local rainfall, finds
its way to the coast, but being dammed back by the sand dunes, forms a small
brackish lagoon (the “Salt Lake”) which, in summer, usually evaporates, leaving
a saline incrustation on the surface. This is all that is left of what was, in the
near past, the outlet of one of the more important rivers of southern Australia.

Shortly after passing the lagoon, going southward, the clay cliffs begin to
show again with a gradual increase in height. A serious washout has developed
in these beds at the lower end of the district road that leads from Sellick’s
Hill to the beach. It is said to have been started by an adjacent landowner
having turned the drainage from his field into the road. The washout in its
lower reaches is divided into several branches which in the aggregate cover
and has rendered impassable about two acres of ground (in 1911), some parts
of the canyon reaching a depth of about 25 feet.

SUB-SECTION G.
FROM SELLICK’S HILL BEACH ROAD TO THE END OF THE
FOSSILIFEROUS TERTIARY BEDS (3 MILES).

The clay cliffs, which at the beach road have a height of about 30 feet,
gradually rise to the southward until they reach a maximum height of about

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200 feet (pl. xxiv., figs. 1 and 2). The Sellick’s Hill Creek, which takes its rise
to the eastward of the township, does not reach the sea, but becomes absorbed
in the gravel beds while on its way. ‘The best section of the beds can be obtained
from a deep and long washout, which has almost reached the dimensions of a
creek, that opens to the beach near the end of the first exposure of the Miocene
beds in the cliffs (Sec. 277, Hundred of Myponga). This small creek has cut
a steep and deep valley in these beds, almost down to sea level, and goes back
for about half a mile in the same alluvial deposits.

On-going up this creek the bed is burdened with large blocks of stone
which are 2, 3, or 4 feet in length, mostly of a buff colour, but sometimes pink,
and sometimes almost black (carbonaceous). These stones of Cambrian age
have been derived from the indurated shales (or slates with imperfect cleavage)
which underlie the Cambrian limestones and are seen in outcrop at the lower part
of the Sellick’s Hill road, near the Sellick’s Hill Creek. At the distance of
about one-eighth of a mile up the creek a bar of weathered buff-coloured shale
crosses the stream and forms a waterfall about 50 feet high, capped by gravels.
It is at this waterfall that the large blocks in the bed of the stream, just referred
to, are quarried. These buff-coloured shales were probably, originally, dark
coloured (as occur elsewhere in the neighbourhood), but have been bleached
by weathering.

So far as observed, these very thick gravel beds show little variation as to
the kinds of stone they contain. The beds are horizontal and consist of clay,
sandy clay, and stones. The majority of the latter are light coloured, siliceous,
and saccharoidal quartzites, which are a common feature as bedding in the
Cambrian Series. There are also a considerable number of the greyish-coloured
shales, and a few bluish, very siliceous, and rather coarse-grained quartzites, but
limestones are very rare. At the outlet, where the creek debouches on the
beach, a few rather large limestone boulders occur, but these are not always to
be seen, as they are sometimes covered either by sediment brought down by the
creek or by sand washed up by the tide. At one place in the creek a block of
the bluish, coarse-grained quartzite occurred, in situ, 2 feet in length. At a few
horizons there are layers of larger stones that measure from 1 foot to 18 inches in
length, but the majority of the stones composing the gravel beds do not exceed
6 or 9 inches, and by far the greater number are less than 6 inches in diameter.
Clay is often mixed with the gravel. The pebbles usually show some wear, but not
generally excessive, being mostly of subangular outline. At one place, along the
cliffs, near the high-pitched Tertiary beds, there is a section showing large rounded
stones.

On the southern side of the creek there are several small outlets to the
drainage, but all of these are confined to the face of the gravel cliffs and are
the effects of rain wash on the cliffs. In these small gutters the stones are
similar to those in the main creek, mentioned above; that is, mainly, fine-grained,
light-coloured quartzites and some bluish quartzites and buff-coloured shales, but
no limestones.

The high gravel cliffs, facing the sea, extend for about a mile in length.
The material is banked against the Cambrian outcrops, on the southern side, at
a high cliff face, but the exact junction is obscured on account of a talus. The
alluvial beds are undergoing rapid waste, occasioned by rain wash, soakages
from behind, and numerous landslips, showing many remarkable features of
earth sculpture as peaks, recesses, and slopes of various angles in a most pic-
turesque manner. The waste from these alluvial cliffs has given rise to extensive
shingle-banks on their northern side and to beach-travelled stones that are in
evidence far up the Gulf.

The Sellick’s Hill Creek (that crosses the main road a little south of the
hotel) has cut its bed in the Cambrian shales, and, for some distance, the latter

309

are capped by thick beds of conglomerate that are strongly cemented by calcareous
and ferrugineous material. On the paddock in front of the hotel are a great
number of well-rounded and perfectly smooth highly-siliceous pebbles scattered
over the surface in a light sandy soil. These have probably had a different
origin from the thick gravels on the coast. The very fine grain of these rounded
stones produces a conchoidal fracture and was no doubt the principal locality
visited by the aborigines of the neighbourhood for obtaining material suitable
for making their stone implements.

A very tenacious and compact white clay, thickly studded with angular frag-
ments of white quartzites and some slates, is seen in the deep washouts on the
cultivated lands, and especially in the Sellick’s Hill Creek, near the township,
a little below the main road. It is covered with newer alluvium that is not
consolidated, and is of quite different appearance and colour from the former,
being a dark-reddish sandy clay and stony alluvium. The division between the
two is very sharp. A similar clay and contents appear on the beach near where
the junction of the fossiliferous Tertiary beds with the Cambrian slates are seen
in the cliffs, only here the clay is of a deep-red colour. It is covered, uncon-
formably, by a very coarse river gravel. It looks as though it might have been
a deposit laid down in a gorge cut in the fossiliferous Tertiary limestone. No
base is seen to the red clay.

The origin of the thick gravel beds exposed in the cliffs facing the sea is not
very apparent. They have certainly unique features and are of more than
ordinary interest from being related to certain physiographical conditions that
have long since passed away. The following points are worthy of note :—

1. The beds do not belong to the present system of drainage. The only
creek that intersects the beds is the small creek, described above, but it is self-
evident it has had no part in building up the great gravel sediments, as it is
little more than a washout in these beds. The Sellick’s Hill Creek flows in a
different direction and is of insignificant dimensions.

2. The gravels belong to one system of deposition. They were laid down
horizontally throughout, in uniform layers, that can often be traced for con-
siderable distances, and are similar in composition throughout.

3. Near the top of the gravels is a thick layer (up to 30 feet) of the mottled
clays and sands (? Pleistocene) containing angular and rounded stones. Thinner
layers of mottled clay occur a little lower down, but towards the top. ‘These
are probably of a like age as the mottled beds at Hallett’s Cove and elsewhere,
and, like the latter, are covered by a newer clay bed of a brown or greenish colour.

4. The material of which the beds consist has evidently been derived from a
local source, and from a direction in which the blue limestones and the archaeo-
cyathidae limestones were not in the line of drainage. The latter limestones
occur abundantly in the creeks that flow from the ranges in a northerly direction.
Their absence from the gravels is rather peculiar in view of the fact that
siliceous quartzites form the principal feature in the beds, and the latter mainly
occur in outcrop behind the limestone beds.

5. It does not seem probable that the gravels were laid down by the Onka-
paringa River, as the pebbles are restricted in their variety and have been laid
down from another direction. If they had been brought down by the Onka-
paringa they would have given evidence of greater wear.

6. The height above sea level (200 feet) and the horizontality of the beds
indicate that at the time of deposition the land extended more to the westward.
No base to the gravel beds is seen except where the fossiliferous limestones occur
on the beach, but the latter may be an inlier of the gravels.

7. The smallness of the average stones in the gravel represents a somewhat
low velocity in the transporting streams together with considerable width and
uniform conditions.

310

8. Perhaps the phenomena can be best explained by assuming an extensive
talus, fed by screes (such as exist on Mount Remarkable), and the material
redistributed by local streams. The latter would probably unite and form a
junction avith the older outlet of the Onkaparinga, further to the westward.

9. The age of the beds cannot be very definitely defined. The great thick-
ness of the alluvium is suggestive of the beds having been laid down during
the period when the country was slowly sinking and the Onkaparinga was
aggrading its bed by which the valley was filled up to the crest on its northern
side. This movement of depression may have had some relation to the gradual
development of the great “rift”? which gave the adjacent Tertiary rocks a
vertical pitch. As the gravels are covered by the mottled clays and sands (which
are regarded as of Pleistocene age) the whole section may possibly be Pleistocene,
or the gravels may be of greater age than the mottled beds but newer than the
fossiliferous (Miocene) beds.

10. The section is not likely to retain its bold and vertical outlines for any
great length of time. The rain is causing a rapid waste on the cliff face, and,
as a result of such weathering action on their upper portions, a secondary cliff
is being formed between the retreating heights and the beach, and on the ledges
separating the two vegetation is beginning to find a footing.

Miocene Beps 1nN SEcTION G.

The Miocene beds, which pass below sea level near Snapper Point, reappear
on the coast nearly a mile to the northward of the small creek described above.
Some exposures on the beach have heights up to 15 feet, and when seen in
washouts along the base of the cliffs they reach a height of 20 feet. The rock,
as a whole, is a finely triturated organic limestone, consisting mostly of polyzoal
fragments. The stone is relatively soft and is easily undermined by the waves,
a succession of caves has been excavated by the sea in the limestone along the
whole length of its exposure. The limestone ceases to form a cliff section shortly
before reaching the washout creek, but continues in exposure along the
littoral, between tides, the rock forming a moderately flat floor along
the beach. This feature continues until about opposite the first Waterfall
Creek, at the northern end of Sec. 278, Hundred of Myponga. At a
short distance up this creek is an isolated fragment of the fossiliferous bed which
has a dip to the north-west at 40°. It then disappears for about a third of a
mile, but reappears in the cliffs and on the beach with a high angle of dip, which
reaches 90°, and in one instance is reversed.

The disturbed condition of the Tertiary beds in this locality is quite unique
for Australia, and is one of the concomitants of the great throwdown in the rift
valley of South Australia. After passing the ancient mouth of the Onkaparinga
the beds begin to roll in curves of 15° to the south-east and north-west; they
show an increased dip to 40° in the small Waterfall Creek, and then at a short
distance, further to the south, become vertical. [For a more detailed description
of these beds see Howchin, W., 1911.]

CAMBRIAN BEDS IN SECTION G.

The Cambrian System, including slates, limestones, and quartzites, can be
studied to advantage on the northern slopes of Sellick’s Hill [Howchin, W.,
1897.]| Earthy slates (or shales) which occupy the lowest position in this
section are seen just above the Sellick’s Hill Hotel and in exposure in the
adjacent creek, and reach the coast by a south-south-west strike. The slates
are often of a very dark colour by the presence of carbonaceous material (up
to 25 per cent.) which has led some persons to imagine that coal might be found
in them. In many places the carbon has been oxidized and thereby changed the
colour of the rock to white, grey, or pinkish. Evidences of such change in progress

311

can be seen working inwards by cracks and joints, the margins of such crevices
being blanched, while the inner portions, between the cracks, retain their original
black colour.

The Cambrian slates appear abruptly in the cliffs of the sea coast, on the
southern side of the great alluvium deposits, in cliffs of about 150 feet in height.
Juvenile features are present in the form of narrow gorges and two waterfalls
in the slate. One of these has a fall of 80 feet, broken by a ledge after the first
20 feet. These waterfalls have probably been “hung up” by reason of the some-
what rapid retreat of the cliffs, or by faulting and downthrow towards the “rift.”

The Cambrian beds forming the sea-cliffs, and for some distance inland,
are extraordinarily fractured. There is close jointing in all directions, and what
appears to be master-jointing, or slide faces, occur nearly parallel with the coast,
with the result that there are very heavy and extensive landslips down to the
beach, leaving smooth faces from which the masses have slipped. The Cambrian
slates adjacent to the disturbed Tertiary beds have evidently been influenced by
the same tectonic movements and have received a throwdown to the north-west,
producing also a local system of jointing and intimate fracturing.

GENERAL REMARKS.

DISCONFORMITY BETWEEN THE UPPER AND LOWER MariINeE SERIES.

In addition to the palaeontological evidence for an hiatus having existed
between the deposition of these respective sediments there are certain physical
considerations that point in the same direction, as stated below :—

1. A slight stratigraphical unconformity can be detected at Blanche Point
and elsewhere.

2. The Miocene, or Lower Marine System, has a much wider geographical
range than the Pliocene, or Upper Marine System.

3. The Pliocene sediments are not always coincident in their occurrence with
the Miocene. Thus: (1) The Pliocene sometimes rests upon the Miocene, as in
the metropolitan area, in sea-cliffs from Blanche Point to Snapper Point, in the
cliffs of the River Murray, and in the sea-cliffs of Edithburgh. (2) It rests
on the Permo-Carboniferous glacial beds at Black Point. (3) On a (?) Pre-
Pliocene sand rock at Hallett’s Cove and in the lower cliffs to the northward of
Morphett Vale Creek. (4) In several instances it rests directly on the Cambrian
beds, as at Marino, also a mile inland from Hallett’s Cove, and on the top of the
sea-cliff (purple slates) a little north of Rocky Point.

4. The Miocene System has been subjected to more extensive deformation,
chiefly by faulting, which has caused a wider range in the matter of elevation
than has been the case with the newer system.

It seems probable that after the thick sedimentation had taken place over
most of southern Australia, during Miocene times, the sea retreated, on the
elevation of the land, to the southward, and after a time made a brief return
over a portion of its former area, and was then limited to shallow water that was
especially productive of oysters.

The sediments laid down during the second incursion of the sea were of a
calcareo-arenaceous nature. When the sea once more retreated, the calcareous
portion of the sediments, under semi-dry conditions, was drawn to the surface
and precipitated as a surface limestone which now forms the craggy, unfossili-
ferous limestone that overlies the fossiliferous sandstones.

THE (?) PRE-PLIOCENE SAND ROCK.

The peculiar sandy and clayey bed, of a whitish colour, that underlies the
Lower Pliocene, in places, presents some difficulty in relation to its strati-
_ graphical position. At Hallett’s Cove it is absent from the section on the Black

312

Point platform, where the Pliocene bed rests directly on the glacial beds, but it
puts on suddenly at the northern side of the Cove, where for some distance it
makes a thick though variable bed underlying the Pliocene. It is absent where
the Pliocene beds are seen resting on the Cambrian, at Marino, and is also absent
from the cliffs to the northward of Rocky Point, where the Pliocene beds make
a sharp plane of contact with the purple slates, yet, within a short distance, to
the southward, it develops a considerable thickness inferior to the Pliocene. The
possible relationship of this bed to a similar bed that occurs at Hallett’s Cove, and
also on Kangaroo Island, has been mentioned previously. The question is—there is
a white sand rock underlying the fossiliferous Pliocene in some places while absent
in others—Can all these white sand beds be referred to a common origin, or have
they different origins? If the bed had been limited to the Hallett’s Cove section
it would no doubt have been referred without hesitation to the Glacial Series.
On the other hand, if only the bed, occupying the same stratigraphical position
near the outlet of the Morphett Vale Creek, had to be accounted for, the ex-
planation that would come readiest to mind would be that it represents a
residual portion of the Freshwater Series, that underlies the fossiliferous Miocene,
which occurs in outcrop at no great distance to the southward. In such a case it
must be assumed that the marine beds of the latter, and more or less of the
underlying freshwater beds, had been removed by denudation before the fossili-
ferous Pliocene was laid down, and when the latter rests on Pre-Miocene rocks,
it would follow that the whole of the freshwater beds, inferior to the Miocene,
had been removed before the deposition of the Pliocene.

TECTONIC DEFORMATIONS.

The deformations of the Tertiary beds within the area under description
have relation to the tectonic movements that have contributed towards shaping
the present physiographical features of the country. The two main controlling
factors in this respect are: (a) The subsidence of the land in the Adelaide basin,
in successive segments, by which the Miocene beds have sunk below the surface
at various levels and, subsequently, been covered by newer deposits. (b) The
breaking up of the ancient peneplain into faulted earth-blocks that have produced
the south-westerly slopes of the Mount Lofty and Willunga Ranges.

In sympathy with such regional dislocations the Tertiary beds within the
area have taken on a general south-westerly dip. The regularity of this dip-slope
is interrupted by a repetition of beds. At Witton Bluff the basal beds of the
Tertiary system are exposed on the northern side of the Bluff with a gradual
dip to the south-west which brings in the higher beds, ending with the Pliocene
at sea level on the northern side of Pedler’s Creek. On the southern side of
Pedler’s Creek an inlier of Cambrian beds once more brings the basal beds of the
Tertiary systems to the surface, followed by another gentle dip-slope to the south-
west which, from Blanche Point, brings in the higher members of the series
ending with the Pliocene, once more down to sea level, near Snapper Point.
This interesting feature of repetition of the Tertiary system no doubt owes its
existence to an east and west fault with a downthrow on the north and an
upthrow on the south. The remarkable occurrence of an isolated fragment of
the fossiliferous Miocene on the line of fault is a corroboration of its existence,
for this fragment lies directly between the topmost Tertiary bed on the northern
side of Pedler’s Creek and the lowest (freshwater) Tertiary bed on the southern.
It therefore owes its existence to a trough fault.

The coast adjacent to Sellick’s Hill forms a part of the great fault-block
of the Willunga Ranges. The Miocene beds in this region were, originally, laid
down horizontally on the broken edges of the Cambrian strata and were elevated
to a considerable height at the plateau formation period. A remnant of this

313

high-level occurrence of the Miocene System is still preserved on the Hindmarsh
Tiers, 900 feet above sea level (Howchin, W., 1911). What otherwise is left
of these fossiliferous rocks in this faulted block is found on the beach, where
they have come under the control of the great rift-valley subsidence and have
been pitched down to the west in a vertical position.

TATE’S GEOLOGICAL MAP OF THE DISTRICT.

In a paper by Tate and Dennant (1896) the first-named author, in plate ii.,
gives a geological sketch map of the coast extending from the mouth of the
Onkaparinga River to Sellick’s Hill beach. It is difficult to understand Tate’s
map. There was, in the first instance, an error in the geological occurrences
and definitions which was corrected by an “erratum” slip in the following
volume. Apart from the occurrence of blown sand, in a few places, Tate shows
an uninterrupted surface exposure of “Older Tertiary” from the mouth of the
Onkaparinga to Sellick’s Hill beach. These fossiliferous rocks, however, rarely
show at the surface, other than at the base of the cliffs on the sea front, and are
in almost all cases covered by thick deposits of Pleistocene and Recent alluvia
that form the upper portions of the cliffs. He does not distinguish between
the Freshwater Series (which has a great development on the northern side of
both Blanche Point and Witton Bluff) and the overlying fossiliferous marine
beds. He places on the map an exaggerated extension of the ‘so-called
“Archaean,” on the southern side of Pedler’s Creek, and has not distinguished
from these “Archaean” cliffs the very important outcrop of fossiliferous
Miocene, which forms the main cliff for 100 yards in length, where he places the
older rocks adjoining the southern side of Pedler’s Creek.

SEA ENCROACH MENT.

That the sea is encroaching on the land is evident from most places on both
sides of Gulf St. Vincent. Wide sea-platforms of hard rock exist between tide
marks in many places, and at high water the waves very commonly wash the
base of the cliffs or the heavy material left from recent falls from the cliffs.
One of these cliff falls that occurred on the north side of the outiet of the
Aldinga Creek in 1913 (see Howchin’s Geology of South Australia, fig. 102,
p. 116) has since been practically swept away by the waves, leaving only a few
large and hard blocks on the beach as its residue. If the last local earth
movement on the coast has been an upward one, as is generally supposed,
then the elevatory movement must have spent itself; or, otherwise, the rate of
marine denudation keeps pace with the movement of elevation in correspondingly
reducing the beach level.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES.
Chapman, F.
1914—“Federal Handbook,” Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sc. (“Corrigenda’’ facing
p. 240).
Clark. EWE
1900—“‘Geological Notes on the Cliffs separating Aldinga and Myponga
. Baysy @rans, Roy. Soc. SyAustr, vol. xxiv. ip. I.

Dennant, J., and A. E. Kitson.
1903—“Catalogue of the Described Species of Fossils in the Cainozoic Fauna
of Victoria, South Australia, and Tasmania,” Rec. Geo. Surv.
Ore Vor. Wolle, so; (ous, JO

314
Howchin, W.

1893—“Census of Fossil Foraminifera of Australia,’ Aus. Assoc. Adv. Sc.,
vol. ‘v:; p., (348, pls:ix./and” x1.

1895—“New Facts Bearing on the Glacial Features of Hallett’s Cove,”
Drans.Roy.!Soct7S: gAustr. wv0le xb ip- sole

1897—“The Occurrence of Lower Cambrian Fossils in the Mount Lofty
Ranges,” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xxi., p. 74.

1899—“Notes on the Geology of Kangaroo Island with special reference to
Evidences of Extinct Glacial Action,” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr.,
vol. xxiil., p. 198, pls. iv. and v.

1903—“Further Notes on the Geology of Kangaroo Island,” Trans. Roy.
Se ZAUSti VOle XOCVAlly, | Pago.

1904—“The Geology of the Mount Lofty Ranges, pt. I., Coastal District,”
Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xxviii., p. 253, pls. xxxvii.-xliv.

1911—“Description of a Disturbed Area of Cainozoic Rocks in South Aus-
tralia,’ Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xxxv., p. 47, pls. x.-x1x.

1913—*The Evolution of the Physiographical Features of South Australia,”
Aus. Assoc. Adv. Sc., Presidential Address, Sec. C, vol. xiv.,
p. 148, pls. iii. and iv.

1916—*“Notes on a High Level Occurrence of a Fossiliferous Bed of Upper
Cainozoic Age in the neighbourhood of the River Murray Plains,”
Trans. Roy, Soc. 5. Austr, vol.xlap., 250:

1918a—*“Geology of South Australia,” Education Department, Govt. Printer,
Adelaide.

1918b—*“Notes on the Geology of Ardrossan and Neighbourhood,” Trans.
Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xlii., p. 209, et seq., pls. xxviii. and xxix.

Mawson, D.

1907—“Mineralogical Notes: Barytes Sand Crystals at Hallett’s Cove,”

Dranss Roy-.S0C. S.uistr., voOlesxccxit, ps) blO spilt: xe:

Pritchard (Geb:

1891a—“Remarks on the Tertiaries of Australia,’ Ann. Report S. Austr.
School of Mines and Industries, p. 171.

1891b—*“Catalogue of Australian Older Tertiary Mollusca (Revised and
Extended by R. Tate), Ann. Report S. Austr. School of Mines
and Industries, p. 176.

Mate ciks

1878a—Exhibited Glaciated Rock from Hallett’s Cove, Trans. Phil. Soc.
otjpAd. (Roy. Soc.4S:,Austs.,)pavolainy pile

1878b—‘“Correlation of the Coral-bearing Strata of South Australia,” Trans.
Phils Socs0f: Ad?) Roy. Socks; Aust). violeasp. 120)

1879—“Leading Physical Features of South Australia,” Presidential
Address, Trans; PhiliSoc of Adm(Roy. S06" 5. Austr revo lente

p. li., et seq.

1886—‘Post-Miocene Climate in South Australia,” Trans. Roy. Soc. S.
Austr., vol. viii., p. 49.

1887—“Glacial Phenomena in South Australia,’ Aus. Assoc. Adv. Sc.,
VOLoie praZolls

1895—“The Age of the Hallett’s Cove Glacier,” Anniversary Address,
Mrans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr volkexixe.gp) 270!

315

Tate, R., and J. Dennant.

1896—“‘Correlation of the Marine Tertiaries in Australia, part III., South
Australia and Tasmania,’ Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xx.,
powllsss plas (See correction) of plate: in Erratum). onmslip,
vol. xxi., fronting ‘Contents.’ )

Tate, Howchin, and David.

1895—“‘Glaciation at Hallett’s Cove” (Glacial Research Com.), Aus. Assoc.
INGVaE Se VOlivion pe olos plsexhxvand lt

Woods, J. E. Tenison.

1878—“Some Fossil Corals from Aldinga,” Phil. Soc. of Ad. (Roy. Soc.
Si Asti); voles. p. LOA pista and: i:

DES CRIPMION TOE > PIPAmitS xox irom Oxovale

PLaTeE XXII.

Fig. 1. View of the southern face of Blanche Point. The foreground shows the beach
platform consisting of the fossiliferous Miocene. The same beds form the lower portion of
the cliff up to three-fourths of its height. The upper part of the cliff is formed by the Lower
Pliocene fossiliferous sands overlain by a white limestone. The base of the newer fluviatile
beds is seen resting on the latter at the right-hand side of the picture.

Fig. 2. View taken from the top of Blanche Point Cliff, looking southwards, at the same
level. The white-coloured Lower Pliocene limestone forms a platform and a white ridge,
seen on the right-hand of the picture. On this platform the Pleistocene and Recent alluvia
form a secondary cliff which is undergoing sculpture and waste by atmospheric weathering.

PLATE XXIII.

Fig. 1. Photograph of a raised beach of large stones now included within the area of
the sandhills on the northern side of Pedler’s Creek.

Fig. 2. An outlier (or butte) of the alluvial cliffs on the northern side of the outlet of
Morphett Vale Creek. The main portion of the hill is composed of Pleistocene clays and
indurated sands; a strong bed of sandstone forms the crest of the hill, and the white sand bed,
underlying the Lower Pliocene bed, can be seen near the base of the hill, although somewhat
obscured by talus. The hill is strikingly similar in outline to Crown Point Hill, on the Finke
River, but is not so high.

PLaTE XXIV.

Fig. 1. A view of the thick gravel beds that form the main cliff for about a mile in

length on the coast, near Sellick’s Hill, and are about 200 feet in height.

Fig. 2. Another view of the same gravel beds at a short distance from those shown
in fig. 1.

PLATE XXV.
e - Geological section of the sea-cliffs from Brighton (bore) to the mouth of the Onkaparinga
iver.
Pirate XXVI.

Geological section of the sea-cliffs from the mouth of the Onkaparinga River to the
beach near Sellick’s Hill.

316

THE COMPOSITION OF THE WATERS OF THE GREAT AUSTRALIAN
ARTESIAN BASIN IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE.

By Re bockmarr Jack, BE:
[Read August 9, 1923.]

During the last thirty years many analyses have been made of waters from
springs and bores in the South Australian portion of the Great Australian
Artesian Basin. The bulk of them are by W. S: Chapman, of the School of
Mines, and the remainder by G. A. Goyder and W. A. Hargreaves, Government
Analysts, and by Goyder and Hallett. The full analyses of samples taken prior
to September, 1921, are to be found in the Reports of the Interstate Conference
on Artesian Water for 1912, 1914, and 1921.

The writer, struck by the variation in quality, and particularly by the fact
that the eastern waters carry carbonate in excess, while the western waters carry
excess of sulphate over carbonate, set out certain characteristics of the analyses
in map form, together with other data. Some very interesting features became
obvious when this was done.

The maps prepared were (1) an isopotential map, on which the carbonic
acid and the sulphuric acid radicles were also separately set out in grains per
gallon of carbonic acid radicle present, or deficient, as shown by excess of the
SO, radicle; (2) plans showing the total salts in grains per gallon; and (3)
total chlorine in grains per gallon.

Curves of equal total salinity and of equal chlorine content were then plotted
on these maps. It is much to be regretted that there are some bores and springs
from which no analyses are available, and which would have enabled a wider
area to be plotted. These samples will be got as opportunity arises and the maps
modified. Taking No. 1 map first.

The isopotential™ lines indicate, in addition to the influx of water from the
north-east, that there is a western feeder, or intake, and examination of the
salient features of the analyses tabulated on pages 319-321 shows clearly that there _
are two very. distinct types of water in the basin—the carbonated and the sul-
phated. The carbonate water is the Queensland water, and the amount of
carbonate increases as the water travels south-west. The greater part of this
carbonate is assumed, in the analyses, to occur as sodium carbonate, and the
sulphates are nearly or entirely absent. The other type of water may contain
carbonates also, the bulk of which is assumed to be present as calcium carbonate,
but the sulphates are always present in excess. In preparing No. 1 map the
sulphuric and carbonic acid radicles (shown in analyses as grains per gallon)
were alone considered. To compare them the weight of the sulphuric acid
radicle is expressed in terms of the carbonic acid radicle according to their
respective valencies. This may be illustrated more simply by an example of
two common salts having the same metallic base (sodium, for instance) combined
with the carbonic and sulphuric acid radicles. The quantity of sodium that is
satisfied or enters into chemical combination with ten parts of the sulphuric
acid radicle is satisfied by 63 parts of the carbonic acid radicle. So, to get
comparable figures for plotting, a water containing 10 grains of sulphuric acid
radicle is plotted as a deficiency of 63 grains of carbonic acid radicle. The analyses
in which SO, predominate are plotted with the negative sign preceding the figure.

D) Using the heights of the surface above the sea, and the water pressures in the case of
flowing bores, or the depth to water level in non-flowing bores, contour lines are drawn through
as many points of equal elevation on the water surface as possible. These contours showing
the height of the water surface—the isopotential lines—show the height to which water will
rise in a new boring, and also the direction of movement of the underground water. This
movement is at right angles to the isopotential lines; that is to say, down the steepest slope.

317

It will be seen that there is on the map what may be termed a Neutral
Line; that is, a line where the equivalent quantity of the sulphuric is equal to
that of the carbonic acid radicle. This line approximately indicates the meeting
of the eastern and western waters. The gradual relative decrease in SO, from
west to east is probably accounted for by the interchange of alkali sulphates
and carbonate of lime in the aquifer giving soluble alkaline carbonates and
gypsum which is held in the porous sand beds. For example, the Arckaringa
water contains less gypsum as it is followed eastward, and it is very probable
that if this water travelled as far as the eastern water has done it would be
wholly carbonate and not sulphate. The Neutral Line lies east of Anacoora
and Allinga Bores, west of Dalhousie Springs, east of Horseshoe and Oodnadatta
Bores, and thence east of the Denison Range, to between Strangways and
Coward Bores. The line is a fluctuating one, its position depending on the relative
draught on and intake of the eastern or western water. As plotted, out of the total
area of the South Australian portion of the Artesian Basin, of 106,740 square
miles, 22,200 square miles, or 264 per cent., is fed by the western water.

On the plans are marked, as small crosses, all the groups of mound springs
that are named on the South Australian 16-mile map, and the relation of the iso-
potential lines to them is very marked. A map of the Great Basin, prepared by L.
K. Ward and published in the “Annual Report of the Government Geologist for
1921,” shows that in the Eastern States there is a similar and marked fall of
potential near the mound springs, and leaves no room for doubt as to the springs
having been the normal main escape vents for the water before boring was
started. Plans Nos. 2 and 3 show two sets of data: the total salts and the chlorine,
in grains per gallon.

These isopleths of salinity and the iso-chlors agree on the whole very closely
and bring out several features that were not apparent on the first plan. They
show the good quality of the eastern water, and that it gradually increases in
mineral content as it travels westward.

The exceedingly variable character of the western intake water is made
clear. The Goyder and Finke and Alberga feeders draining from high land,
and so, being large, give good water. As it travels underground towards its
natural outlets (the Mound Springs west of the Denison Ranges) it becomes
worse in quality, partly no doubt by the solution of material in its path and
partly by admixture of the lower-quality waters from the upper Arckaringa and
southerly intakes, which are seeking the same outlet. The Arckaringa feeder
is less efficient and so the water is of poorer quality. Thence to the Stuart
Range Bores the quality is bad, as is only to be expected from the absence of
run off and the scanty rainfall. These maps also show very clearly that there is
an intake west of Strangways, where Warriner and North Creeks supply poor-
quality water of the sulphate type. This tongue of bad water thrust into the
better-quality eastern water gradually becomes diluted.

The most significant is the great tongue of good-quality water that makes
its way past Jewellry Creek Bore to the Bopeechee-Coward groups of springs.
A less-defined one leads towards Petermorra and Paralana Springs, and there
is also a tongue of good water extending from the east towards the springs
between Lake Eyre and Denison Ranges.

The total salinity isopleths and isochlors have very great significance, as
they indicate that there is a very pronounced differential movement in the
underground water, and that this movement is towards the natural outlets.
Furthermore, it argues the antiquity of these outlets, as the water flowing directly
from intake to outlet has had time to flush out zones through the older and
more stagnant and consequently more highly mineralized water, and to refill
them with fresher water.

Still another deduction that may reasonably be drawn is the very considerable

318

bulk of water that must be stored in the sands, else the draught of many
large bores would have distorted the tongues of good water still leading direct
from intake to outlet.

It will be noted that, with one exception, neither the isopotentials nor the
chemical data so far indicate any definite intake between Marree and the eastern
border. At Cat Spring, to the north of the Flinders Range, the water is of the
sulphated artesian type, and can only come from a local intake, which, however,
may extend for some distance towards Marree. Yerilla and Lake Crossing
Bores, which are not deep enough to get the main or carbonated supply, must derive
their sulphated water from a western intake into some bed above the main water-
bearing horizon, and this water must come from the slopes of the Flinders Range.

Montecollina, which just touched the water-bearing bed, has worse water
than should be normal for the locality, though it has improved since first struck.
This improvement is a feature of several bores, and the writer suggests that
as the water just below the shale is probably more stagnant than in the main
sand body it has retained more salts, and that this more saline water is gradually
replaced by better water flowing from below towards the bore.

Other bores again, though apparently deep enough (e.g., Gypsum), show
water so bad for their locality as to suggest contamination by the low-grade
ground water which may have corroded the casing or got down past it.

The plans all go to show the significance of the mound springs in con-
sidering the artesian supplies.

The flow of these springs, numerous though they are, cannot be compared
with the flow from the thousands of bores now sunk in the basin in Queens-
land, New South Wales, and South Australia, and as there is no evidence that
the springs were much stronger immediately before the inception of boring, it
follows that the annual intake, at that time, approximately balanced the escape
through the mound springs and beneath the Gulf of Carpentaria, and that the
draught of the bores is on accumulated water stored in the more elevated portion
of the main water-bearing bed, and which high-level water increased the potential
throughout the basin. With the lowering of potential that is now going on,
more and more of the bores throughout the basin will only yield by pumping
what water is actually required, and the escape from the mound springs and
into the Gulf of Carpentaria will also fall off from the same cause, so that
ultimately there will come a new state of balance, in which the influx of water
will meet the demands of pumped bores, of the diminished spring and bore
flows, and of the leakage into the Gulf. What amount of water actually enters
the intake is impossible of computation. Prior to the inception of boring, when
the potential was probably not less than 10 per cent. or more than 20 per cent.
greater than it is to-day, there would be a correspondingly greater escape by the
natural vents of an additional quantity that nevertheless could easily escape
observation. The present draught has diminished this escape and is still lowering
the potential. When the new state of balance arrives the lowered potential will
have further decreased the escape by natural vents, and it is only reasonable
to suppose that the additional absorption capacity of the drained intake beds
will permit of an annual accession greater than existed before boring began.
The annual available supply in the future may thus be confidently counted upon
as being considerably greater than the escape from the outlets of the basin just
prior to the sinking of the first bore.

Unfortunately there is no way of controlling the flow of these outlets.

South Australia, having the lowest elevation, will be the least and last
affected, but meanwhile rigid control to prevent waste of water from the bores
will help to defer the loss of the accumulated stores of water, and delay that
extension of widespread, expensive, and deep pumping which will follow when
the residents of the basin are dependent on the average annual income of water.

1 2s
26

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322

THE DISTRIBUTION OF AUSTRALIAN ORCHIDS.
By R. S: Rocers, M:A.,; M.D.
[Read October 11, 1923.]

1. Introductory.

In a country so vast as Australia, with its three million square miles of
territory, its many inaccessible parts, and its small band of scientific workers, it
is hardly to be expected that the investigation of its flora should have approached
completion. Undoubtedly the spade-work was long ago accomplished, but
botanical exploration of the less trodden areas and the hand of the specialist in
many families, still await realization.

So far as the orchids are concetied: although they have attracted much
attention, it may be confidently asserted that no State in the Commonwealth has
yet been critically examined. A great deal still remains to be done in tropical
Queensland, still more in Western Australia, and almost everything in the-
Northern Territory, before even such a fundamental question as their distribu-
tion can be satisfactorily decided. This family occupies fifth rank in numerical
importance on our census of plants, and it is obviously desirable that such a
matter should be established as accurately and as early as possible. On it may
depend to some extent, the solution of much greater questions concerning the
former disposition of land masses, the origin of our flora, and the true relation
of our continent to other portions of the globe.

The distribution of our Orchidaceous flora is chiefly coastal in character,
the greater portion of the interior of the continent being too arid to support
vegetation of this type.

An annual rainfall of at least 10 inches would appear to be essential for the
maintenance of all but a few members of the family. Some of the latter, how-
ever, belonging to the terrestrial genera Caladenia, Thelymitra, Pterostylis, Diuris,
and Microtis have been recorded well within this belt of rainfall in South Aus-
tralia, and even from such an unlikely region as the Great Victoria Desert in the
West. Such adaptability is particularly surprising in the case of Pterostylis, a
genus with naked tubers and shade-loving habits, which one would consider
quite unsuited physically to resist drought and other desiccating influences.

The family is represented in Australia by 64 genera and about 450 species.
Nineteen of the former are epiphytal and also nearly a fourth of the latter.
Such orchids are usually confined to the tropical or subtropical parts, but a few
penetrate as far south as Victoria, and one even reaches the 42nd parallel of
latitude in Tasmania; none are found in South Australia, and only two have
been reported from the large State of Western Australia, both of them from the
Kimberley district in the extreme north of that State.

The vast majority of the terrestrial forms belong to the tribe Neottieae, the
other tribes being poorly represented by a few small genera, with the exception
perhaps of the tropical genus Habenaria, which contains 15 species, and is a
member of the Ophrydeae.

Compared with the dense orchid population of New Guinea and some other
countries, our flora cannot be considered a rich one.

323

The following tables“ will make this clear :—-

Approximate area in Total number
Orchid Flora of square kilometres. of species.
1. Australia a Me ie 7,700,000 circa. 450
2, New: Guineal se. Ae aH 786,000 2.205
Sei ava , a a 126,000 600
4. Tropical Africa ve sa 6,000,000 750
Sablsrazaleaee 5 ne oh 8,468,950 1,850
Ox Biaitisht lndiaian a a ay 4,809,100 1,500
7. Central America ai 2,400,000 2,000
8. Japan and Liukiu Islands... 382,300 147
9. Philippines af ; ae 300,400 [2S
Average number of
Orchid Flora of square kilometres to
each species.
1. Australia ea wr Me alah
2. New Guinea .. 5 aN 356
Se ilava ‘ : a8 a 210
4. Tropical Africa oy ee 8,000
Seelsinazilen gee ue zi os 4,579
On Bmtishe indians. aie ue 3,206
7. Central America Ha oe 1,200
So. japan) ook on a aa) 2,600
9. Philippines we ve a 415

In instituting such comparisons, it is necessary to take into consideration
the very large unoccupied central area of the continent, which Sir Joseph
Hooker“ estimated as two-thirds of the total superficies, and which he believed
to be incapable of bearing vegetation on account of its arid character. In the
light of modern knowledge, it is now known that this area is by no means un-
productive for many forms of plant-life, but that owing to its low rainfall and
absence of large waterways, it does not carry an orchid-flora. Consequently
Hooker’s statement still remains approximately true so far as this type of vege-
tation 1s concerned.

Due allowance, therefore, having been made for this fact, the fertility of the
orchid-bearing areas may be roughly estimated at 5,700 square kilometres per
species, a result which is comparable to that of Brazil, a tropical country rather
larger than our own.

2. Flora of Exotic Origin.

So far as it has been investigated, the orchid-flora of tropical Australia bears
a very close relationship with that of Southern Asia, and particularly to that of
the Malay Peninsula and New Guinea.

From North-western Australia, only three orchids have so far been reported.
The three genera to which they belong are to be found in Asia; one of the species
also occurs in New Guinea and another is sectionally represented there.

The Northern Territory has disclosed up to the present only 12 genera and
22 species. Eleven of the former are to be found in the Malay Archipelago or
in New Guinea; in those places also five of the species occur and others have
sectional representation.

The same thing happens in the case of tropical Queensland, where out of 53
genera no less than 41 are in common with New Guinea or the Archipelago, and
usually with both stations.

() Adapted from Schlechter’s ““Orchidaceen von Deutsch-Neu-Guinea,” p. xv.
(2) “Flora Tasmaniae, Introductory Essay,” p. xxx.

324
Thus out of 64 genera which constitute the orchid population of Australia,
43 are known to exist in the above stations, about 22 of the species appear to

be conspecific, and others have close relationships.

This will be more clearly understood from the following lists :—

Genera common to Tropical Australia and

New Guinea.

Microstylis, Nutt.
Oberonia, Lindl.
Liparis, Rich.
Dendrobium, Sw.
Bulbophyllum, Thou.
Cirrhopetalum, Lindl.
Osyricera, Bl.
Eria, Lindl.
Phreatia, Lindl.
Phaius, Lour.
Pholidota, Lindl.
Spathoglottis, Bl.
Calanthe, R. Br.
Eulophia, R. Br.
Cymbidium, Sw.
Geodorum, Jacks.
Dipodium, R. Br.
Luisia, Gaud.
Phalaenopsis, Bl.

~ Sarcochilus, R. Br.
Cleisostoma, Bl.
Ornithochilus, Wall.
Taeniophyllum, Bl.
Galeola, Thou.
Corymbis, Thou.

Spiranthes, Rich.
Hetaeria, Bl.
Zeuxine, Lindl.
Goodyera, R. Br.
Pachystoma, BI.
Nervilia, Comm.
Didymoplexis, Griff.

Cryptostylis, R. Br.

Corysanthes, R. Br.
Pterostylis, R. Br.

Gastrodia, R. Br.
Epipogum, Gmel.
Habenaria, Willd.
Vanda, Jones
Apostasia, BI.

Malay Archipelago.
Microstylis, Nutt.
Oberoma, Lindl.
Liparis, Rich.
Dendrobium, Sw.
Bulbophyllum, Thou.

Eria, Lindl.
Phreatia, Lindl.
Phaius, Lour.
Pholidota, Lindl.
Spathoglottis, Bl.
Calanthe, R. Br.
Eulophia, R. Br.
Cymbidium, Sw.
Geodorum, Jacks.
Dipodium, R. Br.
Luisia, Gaud.
Phalaenopsis, Bl.
Sarcochilus, R. Br
Cleisostoma, BI.

Taeniophyllum, Bl.
Galeola, Thou.
Corymbis, Thou.
Anoectochilus, BI.
Spiranthes, Rich.
Hetaeria, BI.
Zeuxine, Lindl.
Goodyera, R. Br.
Pachystoma, Bl.
Nervilia, Comm.
Didymoplexis, Griff.
Thelymuitra, Forst.
Cryptostylis, R. Br.
Microtis, UR. “Br:
Corysanthes, R. Br.

Caladenia, R. Br.
Gastrodia, R. Br.
Epipogum, Gmel.
Habenaria, Willd.
Vanda, Jones
Apostasia, Bl.

325

Orchids of Tropical Australia conspecific with species in
New Guinea. Malay Archipelago.
Eulophia venosa, Rehb. ¢.

Nervilia flabelliformis, Lindl.
Didymoplexis pallens, Griff.

Geodorum pictum, Lindl.
Vanda Hindsu, Lindl.
Dendrobium bifalce, Lindl.
D. undulatum, Br.

D. Gouldu, Rchb. f.

D. gracilicaule, F. v. M.
D. Smilliae, F. v. M.

D. Johnsoniae, F. v. M.

Lael

Oberonia iridifolia, Lindl.
Phaius grandifolius, Lour.

Pholidota imbricata, Lindl. Pholidota imbricata, Lindl.

Calanthe veratrifolia, R. Br. Calanthe veratrifolia, R. Br.
Luisia teretifolia, Gaud.

Corymbis veratrifolia, Richb. f. C. veratrifolia, Rchb. f.

Spiranthes, australis, Lindl.
Goodyera viridifiora, Bl.
Microtis parviflora, R. Br.
Caladenia carnea, R. Br.
Epipogum nutans, Lindl. E. nutans, Lindl.

In addition to these conspecific orchids there are a number which are
sectionally represented in New Guinea, such, for example, as Oberonia palmi-
cola, F. v. M.; Dendrobium bigibbum, Lindl.; D. dicuphum, F. v. M.; D.
Sumneri, F. v. M.; D. phalaenopsis, Fitzg.; D. superbiens, Fitzg.; D. aemulum,
R. Br.; D. tetragonum, A. Cunng.; D. Moorei, F. v. M.; Sarcochilus falcatus,
Ine Bie,

When we consider these lists, we are forced to the conclusion that we are
dealing with an almost exclusively immigrant flora, which in all but a few instances
can be traced back into Asia proper. ‘This flora of exotic origin, would appear
to comprise about two-thirds of the entire genera of our continent.

It is also evident, from the comparatively small number of species in common,
that this flora has been resident in Australia sufficiently long to allow a con-
siderable amount of differentiation to take place.

On the other hand, judging from the very few Australian types, such as
Microtis, R. Br.; Thelymitra, Forst.; Caladenia, R. Br.; and possibly Dipodium,
R. Br., to be found in the Malayan flora, the emigration northwards must have
exerted only a slight or negligible influence.

Some of the better developed Papuan and Malayan genera are but weakly
represented in Australia, and others not at all. For example, in German New
Guinea alone, Phreatia, Taeniophyllum, and Microstylis number 75, 59, and 48
species, respectively, whereas with us they are monotypic; on the other hand,
Agrostophyllum and Glossorhyncha, each with 32 species, are unknown in this
country.

It is also somewhat surprising, that situated so closely as it is to the great
developing centre for Dendrobium and Bulbophyllum in New Guinea, we should
not be better represented in species belonging to these prolific genera. At least
500 Papuan species of each of them have been described, and yet in the whole of
our continent, there have only been recorded 48 species of Dendrobium and
16 of Bulbophyllum.

326

On the other hand Schlechter“) states, that he and Dr. J. J. Smith have
traced in New Guinea several species of the Section Rhizobium, belonging to
Dendrobium, which occur under exceptionally dry conditions for New Guinea,
and which without doubt point to an Australian origin.

Two species of Pterostylis, R. Br., which is unquestionably an Australian
type, have also been recorded in that island, both from alpine localities; one,
P. papuana, Rolfe, at a height of 12,200 feet in British Papua, and the other,
F. novo-guineensis, Ridley, at a height of from 8,000-11,000 feet in Dutch
Territory. Both of these have a strong resemblance to existing Australian
species.

< It is noticeable from our tables, that every epiphytic genus recorded in
Tropical Australia occurs also in the Archipelago or in New Guinea; and further,
that the balance of those orchids common to these floral regions, and consisting of
terrestrial types, are about twice as numerous as the epiphytes.

In the large islands lying north of the Equator, the Papuan-Malay elements
of our flora are still in strong evidence. ‘This may be most easily studied in the
Philippines, where Mr. Oakes Ames“? has submitted a vast amount of
orchidaceous material to critical examination. He says, however, in regard to
these islands, that “there are still large areas, botanically unknown, from which
it is highly probable that rich accessions to our orchid herbaria will be made.”®
He admits 101 genera with 723 species.

An examination of these genera shows that no less than 38 of them are
shared in common with Australia. These are as follows :—

1. Habenaria, Willd. 15. Hetaeria, BI. 27. Dendrobium, Sw.

2. Thelymitra, Forst. 16. Corymbis (Corymbor- 28. Eria, Lindl.

3. Macrotis, R.Br. chis), Thou. 29. Bulbophyllum, Thou.
4. Cryptostylis, R. Br. 17. Pholidota, Lindl. 30. Phreatia, Lindl.

5. Galeola, Lour. 18. Microstylis (Malaxis),31. Dipodium, R. Br.

6. Epipogum, Gmel. Nutt. 32. Cymbidium, Sw.

7. Nervilia, Comm. 19. Oberonia, Lindl. 33. Sarcochilus, R. Br.

8. Didymoplexis, Griff. 20. Liparis, L. C. Rich. 34. Phalaenopsis, Bl.

9. Gastrodia, R. Br. 21. Phajus, Lour. 35. Luisia, Gaud.

10.) Conysanthes) Br 22 \Calanthe} IR Br. 36. Vanda, Jones

11. Spiranthes, Rich. 23. Spathoglottis, BI. 37. Cleisostoma (Pomato-
12. Goodyera, BI. 24. Pachystoma, Bl. calpa and Tricho-
13. Anoectochilus, BI. 25. Eulophia, R. Br. glottis), Bl.

14. Cheirostylis, Bl. 26. Geodorum, Jacks. 38. Taeniophyllum, Bl.

Eight species occur also in Australia. These are :—

1. Didymoplexis pallens, Griff. 6. Microtis parviflora, R. Br.

2. Goodyera viridifiora, Bl. 7. Luisia teretifolia, Gaud.

3. Pholidota imbricata, Lindl. 8. Spiranthes australis, Lindl. (=S. sin-
4. Oberonia iridifolia, Lindl. ensis, Ames)

5. Phaius grandifolius, Lour.

The first of these lists, as might have been expected, merely extends the
range of the Papuan-Malay types, eliminating a few, such as Zeuxie,
Ornithochilus, and Osyricera. It also eliminates a couple of Australian types,
Caladenia and Pterostylis. It is likewise interesting to note the retention of two
Australian genera, Thelymitra and Microtis, as well as the Australian section
Dendrocoryne of the genus Dendrobium, together with the doubtfully Australian

(3) “Die Orchidaceen von Deutsch-Neu-Guinea” (1914), p. xviii.
(4) Ames, “Orchidaceae,” v. (1915).
(5) Ames, “Orchidaceae,” v. (1915), Pref., p. ix.

327

genus Dipodium. In this region the two great genera Dendrobium and Bulbo-

phyllum still predominate with species greatly in excess of those in our own
continent.

The Japanese botanist, B. Hayata,“ who has recently devoted special atten-
tion to the botany of Formosa, enables us to carry our investigations a step
further north. He has assigned 32 genera to the orchid-flora of that island. Of
this number, 21 also occur in Australia, vig.:—

1. Oberonia, Lindl. 8. Pholidota, Lindl. 15. Zeuxine, Lindl.

Zi veiparisle © yskache 9. Calanthe, R. Br. 16. Cheirostylis, Bl.

3. Dendrobium, Sw. 10. Eulophia, R. Br. 17. Goodyera, R. Br.

4. Bulbophyllum, Thou. 11. Cymbidium, Sw. 18. Cryptostylis, R. Br.
5. Eria, Lindl. 12. Luisia, Gaud. 19. Nervilia, Comm.

6. Phreatia, Lindl. 13. Cleisostoma, BI. 20. Didymoplexis, Griff.
7. Phaius, Lour. 14. Anoectochilus, Bl. 21. Habenaria, Willd.

This table indicates a very considerable reduction in the number of genera in
common with Australia, all of them being poorly developed in species and half
of them monotypic. Almost without exception the species are endemic and
there are none in common with our own.

Japan, lying in the North Pacific, between the 30th and 50th parallels of
latitude, differs greatly in climate and humidity from the islands already
considered.

Matsumura” in his Index records 71 genera of orchids, comprising 183
species. This, however, includes some Formosan plants. After deducting
these, the flora stands at approximately 53 genera and 147 species. The following
23 genera are common to these islands and Australia :—

1. Habenaria, Willd. (5) 13. Liparis, “our. (2)

2 Macroms, RO Br. (1) 14. Phaius, Lour. (2)

3. Galeola, Lour. (2) 15. (Galanthe, R.Br. (13

4. Epipogum, Gmel. (1) 16. Dendrobium, Sw. (3)

5. Nervilia, Comm. (1) 17. Bulbophyllum, Thou. (2)
6. Gastrodia, R. Br. (4) 18. Cirrhopetalum, Lindl. (1)
7. Spiranthes, Rich. (1) 19. Eria, Lindl. (2)

8. Goodyera, Bl. (9) 20. Cymbidium, Sw. (16)

9. Corymbis, Thou. (1) 21. Sarochilus, R. Br. (1)
10. Zeuxime, Lindl. (1) 22. Knosia, Gaudi (1)

11. Microstylis, Nutt. (2) 23. Taeniophyllum, Bl. (1)

12. Oberoma, Lindl. (1)

These genera are distributed throughout the parallels above mentioned, seven
of them being recorded from the most northerly island of Yezo. Among the
latter are such genera as Gastrodia, Spiranthes, Calanthe, and Phajus. As one
might expect in these high latitudes, there is a great reduction in the development
of Eria, Dendrobium, and Bulbophyllum, which are here represented by two,
three, and two species, respectively. They do not appear to have been recorded
so far north as the island of Yezo.

Only four orchids are conspecific with types in Australia, viz.:—Corymbis
(Corymborchis) veratrifolia, Rchb. £.; Spiranthes australis, Lindl. (=S. sinensis,
Ames); Phajus grandifolius, Lour.; Microtis parviflora, R. Br. The most

(6) Icones Plant. Formosan, iv. (1914), 23.
(7) J. Matsumura, “Index Plantarum Japonicorum,” ii. (1905), 234.
(8) The number of species is included in brackets after the genus.

328

northerly range recorded for the Australian type Microtis, R. Br., is the island of
Nippon, in latitude 36° N.

Turning now to the South Pacific Ocean, it at once becomes apparent that
our material is much less extensive than that which we have been discussing, for
a vast amount of work still remains to be accomplished in these regions. Prac-
tically the only islands from which we have fairly reliable (though often scanty )
data, are:—New Caledonia (including the Loyalty Islands), New Hebrides, Fiji,
Samoa, Society Islands (including Tahiti), the Solomons, the Carolines (includ-
ing the Pelew Islands), the Marianne or Ladrone Islands, Bonin Island, and,
of course, New Zealand, where excellent handbooks have been published.

In what follows, I have excluded the Bismarck Archipelago and that of
D’Entrecasteaux, as forming part of New Guinea.

It appears from an investigation of our records, that less than a third of
our exotic genera are unrepresented in this portion of the globe, though some of
these may yet be reported. These genera comprise Osyricera, Bl.; Pholidota,
Lindl.; Pachystoma, Bl.; Epipogum, Gmel.; Phalaenopsis, Lindl.; Cleisostoma,
Bl.; Ornithochilus, Wall.; Corymbis (Corymborchis), Thou.; Cheirostylis, BL. ;
and Apostasia, Bl. The remaining genera are all represented by species which
are almost exclusively endemic.

Four well-known genera are up to the present monotypic, viz., Cymbidium,
Sw.; Eulophia, R. Br.; Galeola, Thou.; and Vanda, Jones. On the other hand,
Dendrobium with upwards of 60 species, Bulbophyllum with about 23, Phreatia
about 18, and Calanthe with 23, are well developed.

In one instance two islands a considerable distance apart, Samoa and Fiji,
share a species of Oberonia in common. In another case, a species described by
Reichb. f. as from the “Pacific Isles,” is represented by a variety “ in Thursday
Island, a possession of Queensland. Two other well-known Australian species,
Dendrobium hispidum, A. Rich., and Calanthe veratrifolia, R. Br., have been
reported from Samoa and New Caledonia respectively. In addition to these, the
widely distributed species Phajus grandifolius, Lour.; Geodorum pictum, Lindl. ;
Luisia teretifolia, Gaud.; and Spiranthes australis, Lindl. (=S. sinensis, Ames),
also occur in Australia.

This last species, together with Gastrodia sesamoides, R. Br., and Cory-
santhes bicalcarata, R. Br.,“® we also share with New Zealand.

Our exotic genera appear to be distributed among the above islands as
follows :—

1. New Caledonia bis .. 21 genera and 101 species
2. Loyalty it iv Roe ays a 2 As
3. New Hebrides ee ee ye 2 11 mM
4. Fiji inh are 2/8 ee wtraled A 33 Pt
De OalOare « ee ae enalis is 54 Me
6. Society th ae lO a 16 i
7 Rannitine : in Ms ele. a 16 f
8. Solomons ibe Se 3 aan) Hi al fs
9. Carolines at Bs 46 3 e 3 ia
10. Pelew Islands .. ore a8 Z e 2 ss
11. Marianne 5 a3 | ES 4 3 4
12. Bonin Island Ve ie 1 x 2 %
132 New. ’Zealandeesn« ais: re 13110 é, We ps
14. Pacific Islands (unspecified).. 10 a 18 p

(9) Dendrobium Gouldii, Richb. ‘f., var. acutwm, Richb. f.
(10) This species is conspecific with C. Cheesemannii, Hook. f., in the Dominion.

329

The following tables show the stations in the South Pacific for the various
genera and the number of species representing each genus at the respective
stations :—

Ie

Zs

Microstylis, Nutt. New Caledonia (1), Samoa (3), Fiji (8). Total 12
species, all endemic.

Oberoma, Lindl. New Caledonia (2), Samoa (2), Fiji (1), Loyalty
(1), Society (2), Tahiti (1), Pacific Islands, unspecified, (2). Total
10 species, all endemic, except in the case of 1 species shared in
common by Fiji and Samoa.

3. Liparis, Rich. New Caledonia (7), Samoa (4), Society (3), unspecified

(1). Motal 15,.allvendemic:

. Dendrobium, Sw. New Caledonia (25), Samoa (7), Hebrides (7),

Solomons (7), Fiji (7), Society (3), Pelew (2), Marianne (1), New
Zealand (1), unspecified (5). Total 65, of which 63 are endemic.

. Bulbophyllum, Thou. New Caledonia (12), Samoa (3), Fiji (1), Solo-

mons (1), Carolines (1), Society (1), Pelew (1), New Zealand (2),
unspecified (1). Total 23, all endemic.

. Cirrhopetalum, Lindl. New Caledonia (2), unspecified (1). Total 3,

endemic.

. Osyricera, Bl. Unrepresented.
. Eria, Lindl. New Caledonia (1), Samoa (5), Society (1), Solomons

Gee wlotalus endemic!

. Phreatia, Lindl. New Caledonia (9), Samoa (4), Fiji (2), Society (1),

New Hebrides (i Mahitr Go votal lS endemic:

. Pachystoma, Bl. Unrepresented.
. Spathoglottis, Bl. New Caledonia (6), Fiji and Samoa (1), Carolines

(2), unspecified (1). Total 10, endemic.

. Phajus, Lour. New Caledonia (4), Samoa (1). Total 5, of which

4 are endemic, and 1 from New Caledonia in common with Australia.

. Pholidota, Lindl. Unrepresented.
. Calanthe, R. Br. New Caledonia (7), Sanrida C/A) rig (3) Carolines

(1), Tahiti (3), unspecified (2). Total 23, of which 22 are endemic,
and 1 species common to New Caledonia and Australia.

. Eulophia, R. Br. Loyalty Islands, 1 endemic.
. Cymbidium, Sw. Solomons, 1 endemic.
. Geodorum, Jacks. New Caledonia (1), Samoa (1), unspecified (1).

Total 3, of which 2 are endemic; 1 (G. pictuwm, Lindl.) is common to
New Caledonia and Australia.

. Luisia, Gaud. New Caledonia (2), Bonin Island (2). Total 4, of which

3 are endemic, and 1 (L. teretifolia, Gaud.) from New Caledonia is
in common with Australia.

. Phalaenopsis, Lindl. Unrepresented in the South Sea Islands, but a

species, P. psilantha, Schltr., occurs in the Celebes.

. Sarcochilus, R. Br. New Caledonia (5), Fiji (1), Solomons (1), New

Zealand (1). Total 8, endemic.

. Vanda, Jones. Pacific Isles (unspecified), 1 endemic.

. Cleisostoma, Bl. Unrepresented.

. Ornithochilus, Wall. Unrepresented.

. Taeniophyllum, Bl. New Caledonia (2), Samoa (1), Fiji (2), Society

(1), Tahiti (2). Total 8, endemic.

. Galeola, Thou. New Caledonia, 1 endemic.
. Corymbis (Corymborchis), Thou. Unrepresented.
. Spiranthes, Rich. New Caledonia (2), New Zealand (1). Total 3,

of which 1 species is endemic to New Caledonia, and 1 is common
to the above stations and Australia.

330

28. Anoectochilus, Bl. New Caledonia (2), Fiji (1). Total 3, endemic.

29. Zeuxine, Lindl. New Caledonia (2), Samoa (4), Marianne Islands
(1), unspecified (2). Total 9, endemic.

30. Cheirostylis, Bl. Unrepresented.

31. Goodyera, R. Br. New Caledonia (2), Samoa (1), New Hebrides (1),
Mahiti (1 re; Lotal.5,).endemiuc:

32. Hetaeria, Bl. Samoa (3), Fiji (3), Society (1). Total 7, endemic.

33. Cryptostylis, R. Br. New Caledonia (1), Samoa (1), Fiji (1). Total 3,
endemic.

34. Corysanthes, R. Br. New Caledonia (1), Samoa (1), Hebrides (2),
New Zealand (8), unspecified (1). Total 13, of which 12 are endemic,
and 1 (C. Cheesemanii, Hook. f.) from New Zealand is conspecific
with a species (C. bicalcarata, Br.) in Australia.

35. Nervilia; Comm. New Caledonia (1), Samoa (1), Marianne Islands
(1): Lotal.3%),endemic.

36. Didymoplexjs, }Griff. New Caledonia (1), Samoa (1). Total 2,
endemic.

37. Gastrodia, R. Br. New Zealand 3, of which 2 are endemic and 1 (G.
sesamoides, R. Br.) is common to New Zealand and Australia.

38. Epipogum, Gmel. Unrepresented.

39. Habenaria, Willd. New, Caledonia (2), Fiji (2), Samoa (4), Society
(Qe Wotal 10) endemic:

40. Dipodium, R. Br. New Caledonia (1), Hebrides (1). Total 2, endemic.

41. Apostasia, Bl. Unrepresented.

Of all our exotic genera, Dendrobium aand Bulbophyllum are probably the
most interesting, having a vast developing centre and distributing depot in New
Guinea, adapting themselves to great extremes of climate, and extending in their
range from 37° of latitude north to well below 47th parallel of latitude south
(Stewart Island).

To Australians, particular interest will centre round another genus, Cory-
santhes, R. Br., which we have hitherto considered a true Australian type. Until
recently, it was known to the botanical world by less than a dozen species scat-
tered over our Commonwealth and New Zealand, together with four presumable
emigrants resident in Java. To-day we must readjust our views. Close on
50 species are now known, with apparently a propagating centre in New Guinea
from which station 21 species have already been described. It has also been
reported from the Himalayas, from several islands in the Malay Archipelago,
from the Celebes, the Philippines, and three from the South Sea Islands. The range
of these delicate little plants is thus seen to be great, extending from a little
below the Tropic of Cancer to Stewart Island (New Zealand), situated about
the 47th parallel of south latitude. Of the 8 species which are natives of New
Zealand, only one is conspecific with a species in Australia. A characteristic
feature of the endemic species of the Dominion is to be found in the long filiform
lateral sepals and petals. This is not present in any known Australian species,
but is seen in two of the Javanese species, and also in some of those recorded by
Schlechter, J. J. Smith, and Ridley, from New Guinea. It is curious that the
development of this genus should be greater within the narrow confines of New
Zealand than on our own continent.

Another exotic of more than passing interest to our botanists is Cryptostylis,
R. Br. It is distributed from Ceylon, through the Malay Archipelago to New
Guinea, where it reaches its maximum development. Hayata“ reports a species.

(1) “Icones. Plant. Formosan.,” iv. (1914), 117.

331

from Formosa,‘” and Ames“) records the Javanese species (C. arachnites, Bl.)
from the Philippines; 3 endemic species also occur in different islands in the
South Pacific. Altogether some 17 species have been described. Schlechter “)
speaks of these plants in New Guinea as typical mountain-climbers, as they have
been collected at considerable heights. This has also been our experience in
Australia, and Baron von Mueller“ has likewise described a member of this
genus from Samoa, where it was found growing at an altitude of 3,000 feet!
(upwards of 900 metres).

Dipodium, R. Br., has also been placed among the exotic genera, although it
is admittedly difficult to decide on the immigrant nature of this genus, as it
occurs sporadically in the Malay Archipelago, New Guinea, Celebes, New
Caledonia, and New Hebrides. The fact that some of its members are epiphytic
and others terrestrial saprophytes, appears to indicate its affinities with a tropical
flora. Including our own two species, 11 have been described. Further know-
ledge of the orchid vegetation of New Guinea may dispel any doubts as to the
position of this particular genus.

3. Australian Types, not Endemic.

The following are regarded as true generic types originating in Australia,
but not endemic :—

1. Calochilus, R. Br. 8. Acianthus, R. Br.

2. Thelymitra, Forst. 9. Lyperanthus, R. Br.
3. Orihoceras, Ra, Br 10. Cyrtostylis, R. Br.

4. Prasophyllum, R. Br. 11. Caladenia, R. Br.

5. Microtis, R. Br: 12. Adenochilus, Hook. f.
6. Pterostylis, R. Br. NS Ghiloglotivs,. ik. Bim

7. Caleana, R. Br.

The distribution of these genera is as follows :—

1. Calochilus, R. Br. Australia 5, New Zealand 2 (in common with Aus-
tralia), New Caledonia 1. Total species 6, of which 4 are endemic.

2. Thelymitra, R. Br. Australia 30, New Zealand 12 (5 in common with
Australia and 7 endemic), New Caledonia 2 (1 endemic, 1 in common
with Australia), Java 1 (in common with Philippines), Timor 1
(endemic). Total 40, of which 34 are endemic.

3. Orthoceras, R. Br. Australia 1, New Zealand 1 (in common with
Atistraliay)a. alotal sl:

4. Prasophyllum, R. Br. Australia 58, New Zealand 4 (of which 2 are in
common with Australia), New Caledonia 1 (doubtful). Total 60,
of which 58 are endemic.

5. Microtis, R. Br. Australia 9, New Zealand 1 (in common with Aus-
tralia), New Caledonia 2 (of which 1 is endemic and 1 in common
with Australia), 1 Australian species reported from Java, Formosa,
Philippines, Japan, and South China. Total 10, of which 8 are
endemic.

6. Pterostylis, R. Br. Australia 43, New Zealand 12 (of which 8 are
endemic and 4 common to Australia), New Caledonia 4(® (of which
1 is endemic and 3 in common with Australia), New Guinea 2
(endemic). Total 54, of which 50 are endemic.

(12) A species which appears to be identical with that of Hayata is reported by Rogers
and White from British New Guinea in Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xliv. (1920), p. 118.

(13) “Orchidaceae,” v. (1915), 19.

(14) “Die Orchidaceen von Deutsch-Neu-Guinea” (1914), 26.

(15) Wing’s Southern Sc. Rec., i. (1881), 172.

(16) Rendle, Journ. Linn. Soc., xlv. (1921), 253.

332

7. Caleana, R. Br. Australia 4, New Zealand 1 (in common with Aus-
tralia). Total 4, 3 of which are endemic.

8. Acianthus, R. Br. Australia 5 (endemic), New Zealand 1 (endemic),
New Caledonia 12 (endemic).“” Total 18, endemic.

9. Lyperanthus, R. Br. Australia 5 (endemic), New Zealand 1 (endemic),
New Caledonia 7 (endemic). Total 13, endemic.

10. Cyrtostylis, R. Br. Australia 1 (endemic), New Zealand 1 (endemic).
Total, 2, endemic. |

11. Caladenia, R. Br. Australia 56, New Zealand 4 (endemic), New
Caledonia 1 (in common with Australia), Java 1 (in common with
Australia), Timor 1 (doubtful). Total 60 or 61, of which 58 are
endemic to Australia.

12. Adenochilus, Hook. f. Australia 1 (endemic), New- Zealand IL
(endemic). Total 2, endemic.

13. Chiloglottis, R. Br. Australia 7, New Zealand 2 (of which 1 is endemic
and 1 common with Australia). Total 8, of which 7 are endemic.

It is important to notice that the closest affinity of Australia’s typical genera.
is clearly with New Zealand, where all are represented, and no less than 9 of
them by one or more species common to the two countries, the remaining 4 being
represented by species endemic to New Zealand. Thelymitra and Pterostylis
have undergone considerable development in the Dominion, each of them com-
prising 12 species.

It is significant also, that from only one other station in the South-east:
Pacific, have any of our typical genera been reported, viz., New Caledonia, where
7 of these emigrants have become resident. Out of this number four are repre-
sented by species in common with this country, wiz., Thelymitra, Microtis,.
Pterostylis, and Caladenia, and the others by a considerable number of endemic:
forms, Acianthus comprising 12, and Lyperanthus 7.

It may seem rather remarkable that New Caledonia, which, according to
the present disposition of land areas, is only about 700 miles distant from the
nearest coastline of the Commonwealth, should contain relatively such a smaller
proportion of our orchid-flora than New Zealand, which is further removed.
It must be remembered, however, that apart from the difference in superficial
area of the two places, the botany of the former island has been much less
thoroughly investigated than that of the other; and further, that the genera under
consideration are much more generously developed in the south-eastern portion of
Australia than in Queensland.

Three of the above types—Thelymitra, Microtis, and Caladenia—have
reached the Malay Archipelago, where they are represented monotypically, one
by an endemic and the other two of them by Australian species.

So far, only one genus, Pterostylis, has been reported from New Guinea,
but it is by no means improbable that others will be discovered soon. Both of
these were collected at great altitudes.

Only two genera appear to have migrated to any considerable distance from
their native habitat, viz., Thelymitra and Microtis. Both of. these have been
recorded from the Philippines by Ames,“® the former being represented by a
Javanese species, and the latter by a plant supposed to be conspecific with
Microtis porrifola, Spreng., and identical with the Javanese Microtis. The.

(17) Rendle, /.c., 254.
(8) “Orchidaceae,” v. (1915), 18.

333

latter, however, as illustrated by J. J. Smith,(® is almost certainly M. parviflora,
R. Br., and not M. porrifolia, Spreng. If this is correct, M. parviflora has an
enormous range, extending from Japan, where it has been reported by Mat-
sumura,) through the Philippines, South China, Java, New Caledonia, and Tas-
mania. The genus itself extends as far south as Stewart Island (New Zealand)
in latitude 47°.

The internal distribution of these genera throughout the States is shown
below, along with the rest of the orchid-flora. It is probably sufficient to state
here, that it is essentially extra-tropical and but poorly developed in Queensland
and Northern Territory. Three of the genera—Adenochilus, Orthoceras, and
Cyrtostylis—are monotypic. The first of these is extremely localized and confined
to New South Wales. Cyrtostylis occurs within the orchid zones in all States,
and Orthoceras has been reported from the southern border of Queensland and
from all other States except Western Australia.

The most important of them are Thelymitra, Prasophyllum, Pterostylis, and
Caladenia. The first of these finds its maximum development in Western Aus-
tralia with 17 species; the next in New South Wales with 23; Pterostylis in
New South Wales and Victoria, each with 27; and Caladenia in Western
Australia, with 35. :

Caleana is a small genius of four species. Three of these are confined to
Eastern and South Australia; the fourth is peculiar to Western Australia.

Acianthus is also a small genus with five species. It is distributed along
the coast of Eastern and South Australia, becoming reduced to a single species
in the West, where it is rare and localized.

Lyperanthus comprises five species, only one of which occurs in Queensland
and South Australia. Three are known in New South Wales, one of which is
peculiar to that State; three also in Western Australia, one of these being
limited to that part of the continent; two occur in Victoria and Tasmania.

Chiloglottis has seven species, all of which are restricted to the east coast
of the continent and Tasmania.

4. Endemic Flora.
Australia possesses nine (possibly 10) endemic genera :—

1. Adelopetalum, Fitzg. (?) 6. Spiculoea, Lindl.
2. Epiblema, R. Br. 7. Eriochilus, R. Br.
Se Diunis, "Sin. 8. Burnettia, Lindl.
4. Anticheirostylis, Fitzg. 9. Leptoceras, Lindl.
5. Drakaea, Lindl. 10. Glossodia, R. Br.

Adelopetalum, Fitzg., is not admitted by all botanists to separate
generic! rane a ilhe yiounder \idesembed jand, figured (it) as} apetalous./ Ele
further regarded it as identical with a Queensland plant described
by F. M. Bailey® under the name of Bulbophyllum obracteatum. In
the latter plant, the petals are developed, as I have personally observed by an
examination of fresh specimens sent to me from Queensland. These segments
are hidden by the dorsal sepal and may possibly have escaped the notice of
Fitzgerald. If the two plants are really identical as they appear to be, one would
have no hesitation in regarding it as an aberrant form of Bulbophyllum. Fitz-
gerald’s plant was found in the extreme north of New South Wales close to the
Queensland border, and Bailey’s on the Nerang River in the south of the latter
State. f

(19) “Die Orchideen von Java,” Atlas, i., 1908), t. 26.

(20) Index Plant. Japon., ii. (1905), 254.
(21) Bot. Bull., iv. (1891), 17.

334

Of the other genera, four are monotypic, viz., Epiblema, a close relation of
Thelymitra, and confined to the extreme south-western portion of Western
Australia; Auticheirostylis, described by R. D. Fitzgerald from a single locality
in New South Wales; Burnettia, related to Lyperanthus and limited in its dis-
tribution to the three States of New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania; and
Leptoceras, a genus without any very close affinities, but approaching most nearly
to Eriochilus and a single member (C. Menziesu, Br.) of the Caladenias.
Leptoceras has undoubtedly reached us from Western Australia, where it is very
common. It is distributed sparsely in South Australia, is rare in Victoria, and
has not been recorded from any of the other States.

By far the best developed of the endemic genera is Diuris, comprising 25
species, well represented in all the States of extra-tropical Australia, and in one
instance penetrating into the tropics as far north as the 18th parallel of latitude.
Some of its members are adapted to very variable conditions of soil and climate, —
one having been recorded even from the great Victoria Desert in the West. It
hybridizes easily and propagates freely, both by cross-pollination and by the
vegetative method. It is singular that a genus having such admirable properties
for dispersion should not have been reported from any station outside Australia.
Its gynostemium approaches rather nearly in its fundamental structure to that
of Thelymitra, and the only apparent advantage possessed by the latter genus
is that it includes among its members some self-pollinating species, while Diuris
has none. Yet Thelymitra has migrated as far into the tropics as the Malay
Archipelago and the Philippines, and certain of its Australian self-pollinating
species are to be found in New Zealand and New Caledonia. JDuuris is an
exceedingly characteristic and virile genus and finds its best development in
New South Wales, where it is represented by 17 species.

Drakaea and Spiculoea are two very remarkable small genera with grotesque
insectiform flowers. Lindley very properly separated them, but Bentham com-
bined them, although they had very few characters in common. Quite recently
Schlechter °?) has proposed that Lindley’s separation into two genera be again
restored. Each genus now contains three species, all the Drakaeas and one
species of Spiculoea being peculiar to Western Australia, and two species of
Spiculoea being confined to the Eastern States of Queensland, New South Wales,
and Victoria. Spiculoea irritabilis penetrates the tropics as far as the 18th degree
of south latitude.

Eriochilus is monotypic in the five Eastern States, but in the Western is
represented by four other species, which are peculiar to the south-western corner
of the continent. This genus is probably most nearly allied to Caladenia.

Glossodia contains five species, two of which occur in Queensland, New
South Wales, and Victoria, and one of these in Tasmania and South Australia ;
as in the case of Eriochilus, the remaining three are peculiar to the south-western
corner of the continent. It is extra-tropical.

An examination of our endemic orchid-flora shows that a number of them
are peculiar to various States. It will be noticed that the number of species
comprised under the above nine genera is 45. Of these no less than two genera
and 18 species are peculiar to Western Australia. These will, in all probability,
be considerably augmented as our knowledge of the flora of that part of the
continent increases.

In New South Wales one of the endemic genera is peculiar to that State,
and also nine species.

In South Australia only one species of an endemic genus is peculiar, and in
the remaining States there are not any.

(22) Fedde, Repert., xvii. (1921), 78.

335

5. General.
The distribution of the various genera throughout the States of the Com-
monwealth is shown in the following table, the endemic genera being indicated by
an asterisk :—

No. of valid Species.

Genera. a
N. Ter. | Qd. |N-S.W.| Vict. | Tas. | S.A. W.A.
atte ral es
1. Microstylis, Nutt. 1 |
2. Oberoma, Lindl. Z 7
3. Liparis, Rich. Sf 2 | |
4. Dendrobium, Sw. : 3 | 44 14 Phos 1
5. Bulbephyllum, Thou. .. 16 5 |
6. *Adelopetalum, Fitz. .. 1
7. Cirrhopetalum, Lindl. 1 |
‘Sig OSMTAIGC OI ells MR Bh te 1
OF Era. eindlies 3)
10. Phreatia, Lindl. .. 2
ea Rachy stoma. ble 1 |
12. Spathoglottis, Bl. hee ii |
13. Phas, Lour-. 2, 1
14. Pholidota, Lindl. l
15, Caller, ss Wei - 1 1 |
16. Eulophia, R. Br. .. 1 2 1
17. Cymbidium, Sw. .. 1 5 3 1
18. Geodorum, Jacks. 1 2 1
19. Dipodium, R. Br. . 1 Z 1 1 1 1
20. Luisia, Gaud. Pen Ih
21. Phalaenopsis, Lindl. .. Leal
22. Sarochilus, R. Br. 15 8 2 1
23. Vanda, R. Br. 1 | |
24. Cleisostoma, Bl. .. i 2
25. Ornithochilus, Wall. se sala eae i
26. Taeniophyllum, BI. 1 1
27. Galeola, Thou. Z 2
28. Corymbis, Thou. .. 1 |
29. Spiranthes, Rich. 1 1 Dee 1
30. Anoectochilus, BI. aa |
Bile) Zewxives ieindliy 2 |
32. Cheirostylis, Bl. .. 1 |
33. Goodyera, R. Br. 2 |
34. Hetaeria, Bl. a, 1 |
35. Thelymitra, Forst. Po oh dG! po Ths SN Moi 17
36. *Epiblema, R. Br. 1
37. “Diuris, Smey.. Ian) 17 8 » 8 7
38. Orthoceras, R. Be 1 1 1 1 I
89), OraynioGumtis, IR. Tie 52 2 3 2 1 1 1
40. Prasophyllum, R. Br .. Go Pe PA WA EN
Al. *Anticheirostylis, Fitzg. | eee |
AD Mite potios IRS Wi eo 2 | 2 3 3 | 4 8

*Endemic genera.

336
No. of valid Species.
Genera. == |
Ne ter.) Od." N-SeWe Vict tibas: | S.A Wa
| |
| | |
43. Corysanthes, R. Br. Laie 4 4| 4 3 | 1
44. Pterostylis, R. Br. 1 VO 27 27a tale SEZAL 10
45° Caleana Ro Br os. 2 2, 3 2, 2 1
46. *Drakaea, Lindl. .. | | 3
47. *Spiculoea, Lindl. Ys teil ete 1
48. Acianthus, R. Br. ae 3 2 3 2 1
49. *Eriochilus, R. Br. ieee 1 1 1 1 4
50. Lyperanthus, R. Br. 1 Si es ae oA cig 3
51. *Burnettia, Lindl. 1 i 1h |
524 UOwntosivies, dh ot: 1 1 1 1 eA gseliar 8
53. *Leptoceras, Lindl. | 1 1 1
54. Caladenia, R. Br. 5 16 LOM Re LSI CES
55. *Glossodia, R. Br. “is QGlat weZ 2 lela 3
56. Adenochilus, Hook. f. | 1 |
o/..) Chiloglotiis, Ra Brin. ibe 5 5) 23 |
58. Calochilus, R. Br. elie 3 4 1 2 1
59. Nervilta,,Comm. 2. 2: 1 4 |
60. Didymoplexis, Griff. .. 1 |
61: | \Gastrodia, R.\ Br; |i oautieZeri (mame 1 1 1
62. Epipogum, Gmel. 1 1
63. Habenaria, Willd. 9 8
64. Apostasia, Bl. leer al | | |
| A i ee
Total number of valid species | | |
for each State hs 22 52095) ZA 7a SOR SZ | 98 | 118
—$——<——— SM Een CSET (Gero EL
Total number of genera for | | |
each State 12;| 93) | 40 | Zor WaZo | 19 | 23
|

*Endemic genera.

337
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE ORCHIDACEOUS FLORA OF AUSTRALIA.
By R. S. Rocers, M.A., M.D.
[Read October 11, 1923.]
PEATE XOXO:

Caladenia cristata, n. sp.

Planta gracilis, hirsuta, circa 30 cm. alta; folium lineare, circiter 10 cm.
longum, hirsutissimum; bractea subulata ad medium caulis. Flos solitarius.
Sepala subaequalia, circiter 2 cm. longa; dorsale lanceolatum, erectum, incur-
vatum; lateralia latiora, acuminata, patentia. Petala circiter 15 mm. longa,
sepalis angustiora. Labellum breviter unguiculatum, mobile, cordiforme, apice
recurvo, circiter 8 mm. longum, marginibus integerrimis; calli stipitati, atro-
purpurei, clavati vel lineares, confertissimi, in lamina forma cristae mediae
instructi, prope apicem terminantes. Columna subaequilonga labello, incur-
vatissima, in dimidio superiore late membranaceo-dilatata.

Western Australia: Murchison District, Dr. E. S. Simpson, September,
WO.

A slender hairy plant about 30 cm. high; leaf linear about 10 cm. long;
a subulate appressed stem-bract about the middle and a shorter acuminate bract
below the flower pedicel. Flower solitary; segments of perianth yellowish-
green, with a central reddish stripe; sepals subequal, the dorsal one erect incurved
lanceolate about 2 cm. long, the lateral ones wider acuminate spreading; the
lateral petals linear-lanceolate, much narrower than the sepals, about 15 cm. long.
Labellum reddish-brown, spreading, mobile on a short claw, cordiform, the
extreme apex shortly recurved, margins entire; lamina with divergent red vein-
ings ; calli on long ciliated stalks, crowded into a conspicuous rather narrow dense
crest along the centre, extending from the claw almost to the apex, the extremities
purple bilobed near the claw clavate towards the centre of the disc and more or
less linear near the apex. Column almost equal in length to the labellum, much
incurved and very widely winged in its upper half.

This very striking and characteristic species approximates in the shape of
its column and in the arrangement of its calli to Caladenia plicata, Fitzg., but
differs from that species in the absence of clubbed sepals and fringed labellar
margins. In my specimens the margins of the labellum are revolute, possibly
due to deterioration of the flower during the journey. The calli do not appear
to be arranged in definite rows as in C. plicata, but are crowded into a dense dark
purple central band, which stands conspicuously erect on the lighter-coloured
disc. The specific name has reference to the crested appearance of this band of
calli.

I am indebted for my specimens to Mrs. Pelloe, the well-known flower artist
On ent

Prasophyllum Colemanae, n. sp.

Planta robustiuscula, 30-40 cm. alta; spica circiter 8 cm. longa, laxiuscula.
Flores lavandulacei vel lilacini, circiter 21, pedicellis perbrevibus; ovaria brevia
turgida. Sepalum dorsale subviride, circiter 7 mm. longum, oblongo-lanceolatum,
concavum, erectum vel recurvum, apice acuto; lateralia viridia, libera, divaricata,
patentia, circiter 8 mm. longa. Petala lavandulacea, obtusiusculis apicibus,
patentia, 7 mm. longa, 175 mm. lata. Labellum lavandulaceum, subaequilongum
sepalis lateralibus, late ovatum, subsessile, complanatum, in medio _leviter
recurvum, marginibus crenatis ad apicem; pars callosa tenuis, subviridis, paulum
ultra flexum producta; pars membranacea perlata. Columna brevis, lacintis
oblongo-falcatis obtusibus rostello brevioribus; caudicula longuiscula.

338

Victoria: Bayswater, Mrs. Edith Coleman, 12/11/22.

A moderately stout species with a rather loose spike of about 21 lavender
(or lilac) flowers. Each flower subtended by a short wide rather blunt appressed
bract, pedicel very short; ovaries short and turgid, not markedly retracted from
the floral axis. Dorsal sepal greenish, about 7 mm. long, oblong-concave in its
lower two-thirds, contracted above this into a somewhat conical point, recurved
or erect; lateral sepals green, stout, conical, fluted above, spreading, about
8 mm. long, very divergent. Petals lavender with narrow green central stripe;
75 mm. long, 1775 mm. in widest part, narrowly oblong, rather blunt, spreading.
Labellum lavender, nearly as long as the lateral sepals, widely ovate, nearly
sessile; upper surface rather flat; slightly flexed in the middle; margins crenated
anteriorly ; the callous disc thin, greenish, ending in two inconspicuous knuckles
just beyond the bend; the membranous part very wide; tip rather blunt.
Column short; lateral appendages oblong-falcate with blunt often truncate tips
and small basal lobes, shorter than the rostellum, usually lavender tinted, adnate
to the sides of the stigmatic-plate as high as the base of the stigma; anther
purplish, shorter than the lateral appendages and much shorter than the rostellum ;
caudicle rather long.

Named in honour of Mrs. Coleman and her daughters, enthusiastic collectors
of orchids in Victoria.

Prasophyllum Tadgellianum, n. sp.

Planta robustiuscula, 15-23 cm. alta; folium spicam excedens; spica laxa,
4-5 cm. longa. Flores fere 8-12, pedicellis brevibus, subvirides, interdum cum
notationibus bruneis. Sepalum dorsale late lanceolatum, subconcavum, acumi-
natum, circiter 6 mm., basi contractum; lateralia usque ad medium connata,
circiter 5 mm. longa. Petala falco-lanceolata, subpatentia, circiter 5 mm. longa.
Labellum sessile, inferiore dimidio ad columnam erectum, deinde in semicirculo
recurvum, a basi suborbiculare, ultra flexum anguste cuneatum; pars callosa
triangularis, paene ad apicem prominente producta. Columnae laciniae in
altitudine rostello aequantes, falcatae, obtusae. Stigma oblique reniforme.
Anthera rostello paulo brevior.

Victoria: Mount Bogong (6,500 feet), A. J. Tadgell, 7/2/23; Mount
Hotham (5,100 feet), Dec., 1914.

New South Wales: Mount Kosciusko, Dr. Green, Dec., 1921.

Plant rather short and stout, fram about 15-23 cm. high; the leaf exceeding
the spike in length. Spike loose, 4-5 cm. long. Flowers usually 8-12, on short
pedicels, greenish, or yellow with chocolate markings down the middle of the
perinath-segments, also down the middle and on the sides of the labellum. Dorsal
sepal widely lanceolate, somewhat concave, acuminate, contracted at the base,
about 5 mm. long; lateral sepals connate to the middle, about 5 mm. long.
Labellum sessile, the lower half almost orbicular erect against the column, then
semicircularly recurved, narrowly cuneate beyond the bend; callous part rather
widely triangular at the base, prominently raised and extending almost to the
tip of the distal half; membranous part rather narrow throughout. Wings of
the column about equal in height with the rostellum, falcate with truncate or
obtuse tips. Stigma very oblique, reniform. Anther slightly shorter than the
rostellum.

This plant was described by me as a variety of Prasophyllum Frenchu,
F. v. M., in Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia, xlvi. (1922),
page 153. Fresh material has led me to believe that it should be regarded as a
new species. It is a less slender and stouter plant than P. Frenchu, the labellum
is not laterally contracted as in that species, and the lateral sepals in all my
specimens were definitely and consistently connate.

It has only reached me from alpine stations. Mr. Tadgell states: “Mostly
they grow in exposed positions, nearly to the height of the cairn (6,508 feet) in

339

the grass or at the edges of damp watercourses. None were collected lower than
5,750 feet. Their life (season) is short; in a fortnight they seem to mature

and go off.” : :
a Microtis oblonga, n. sp.

Planta gracillima, circa 22-45 cm. alta; folium elongatum, gracile, lamina
circa 22 cm. longa. Spica laxa, fere circa 20 cm. longa. Flores minutissimi,
dissitissimi, pedicellis brevibus gracilibus; ovaria gracilia oblongo-elliptica.
Sepalum dorsale circa 3 mm. longum, suberectum, anguste cucullatum, acutum,
apice leviter recurvo; lateralia arte revoluta. Petala circa 2 mm. longa, erecta,
obtusa vel truncata, lineari-falcata, subconniventia cum sepalo dorsali. Labellum
circa 25 mm. longum, reflexum, anguste oblongum, marginibus crenulatis, basi
bicallosum prope apicem unicallosum. Columna robusta, brevissima, auriculis
comparate grandibus.

Victoria: Cravensville, A. B. Braine; Ringwood, E. E. Pescott and A. B.
Braine; Healesville, Edith Coleman; Grampians, C. W. D’Alton.

South Australia: Myponga, Rogers.

A very slender plant, about 22-45 cm. high; leaf slender, often exceeding
the spike. Spike lax, generally 15-22 cm. long. Flowers very small, very
distant, on short slender pedicels; ovaries slender, oblong-elliptical. Dorsal sepal
about 3 mm. long, almost erect, narrowly hooded, acute, the apex slightly re-
curved; lateral sepals tightly revolute. Lateral petals about 2 mm. long, erect,
obtuse or truncate, linear-falcate, posterior margins overlapped by dorsal sepal.
Labellum about 2'5 mm. long, reflexed, narrowly oblong, the margins crenulated,
two large callosities at the base and one near the apex. Column stout, very
short, with relatively large auricles. Caudicle long, pollinarium easily removed
on a needle.

This species is by no means uncommon in Victoria and South Australia, and
has hitherto been confused with M. parviflora, Br., and sometimes with M.
porrifolia, Spreng. The former has a labellum with entire margins which are
not crenulated and there is no anterior callus. The latter is a robust plant with
a very much larger flower than the new species, with a very wide dorsal sepal,
deeply emarginate labellum, and very turgid ovary; it should be easily dis-
tinguished. M. oblonga approaches rather closely to M. truncata, Rogers, a
Western Australian species. In the latter, however, the labellum is at least
as long as the dorsal sepal, the ovary is much twisted, and the calli on the labellum
assume curious shapes, hastate or crescentric, whereas in the former they are
rounded.

The labellum is occasionally very slightly notched at the apex, and in
dried specimens, owing to shrinkage, it often shows a marked lateral contraction,
a feature which is seldom marked in the living specimen. It blooms in November
and December.

Pterostylis decurva, n. sp.

Glabra, gracillima, circa 10-20 cm. alta. Folia radicalia fere 3, ovata vel
ovalia, petiolis gracillimis sublongis; caulina bracteata, 4-5, sessilia, lineari-
lanceolata, acuminata, circa 05-25 cm. longa. Flos solitarius, viridis, subgrandis.
Galea apice filiformi decurvissimo instructa. Labium inferius erectum, cuneatum,
sinu latissimo; lobi saepe 4-5 cm. longi, apicibus filiformibus instructi. Labellum
unquiculatum, lineari-oblongum, apice obtusum; lamina circiter 11 cm. longa,
linea longitudinalis elevata in medio; appendix trifida, curvata, penicillata.
Columna circiter 11 cm. longa, erecta; lobi superiores laciniarum lineares acuti,
inferiores oblongi, obtusi. Stigma ellipticum in medio columnae.

Victoria: Fern-tree Gully, E. E. Pescott and A. N. Burns, 20/11/20;
also Ringwood and Belgrave, E. E. Pescott.

A very slender glabrous species about 10-20 cm. high. Radical leaves not
present at the time of flowering, usually 3, ovate or oval, on rather long and

340

very slender petioles; stem-leaves bract-like, 4-5, sessile, acuminate, linear-
lanceolate, from 0°5-25 cm. long. Flower solitary, green with reddish-brown
apex of galea and tip of labellum, often 4 cm. between the extreme points.
Galea extended at the apex into a long filiform and very much decurved point.
Lower lip erect, cuneate, with a very wide sinus, its lobes often 4-5 cm. long,
prolonged on each side of the galea into long filiform points. Labellum on an
irritable claw about 2 mm. long, linear-oblong, very obtuse at the apex, the latter
recurved and protruding from the sinus; lamina about 11 cm. long, with a raised
longitudinal line down the middle; appendix trifid, curved, penicillate. Column
about 11 mm. long, erect; the upper angles of the wings produced into an acute
linear tooth; the lower ones obtusely oblong. Stigma elliptical in the centre of
the column.

The new species undoubtedly comes very close to Pterostylis obtusa, Br.,
but it blooms at a totally different period of the year in exactly the same locality,
and in the living plant it differs strikingly in the extreme decurvature of the
apex of the galea, a characteristic feature which is often lost in the process of
drying and pressing.

Descriptions of the following orchids were published in Ee aeich in Trans-
actions Royal Society South Australia, xliv. (1920), page 322, et seq. They
now appear in Latin in order to comply with the requirements of the Vienna
Congress :—

Drakaea Jeanensis, n. sp.

Gracillima, circiter 18-24 cm. alta. Folium orbiculare vel late ovato-
cordatum, circiter 25 cm. in diametro, subrigidum, glabrum. Flos solitarius;
ovarium subpyramidale. Segmenta perianthii subaequalia, anguste linearia,
circiter 12 mm. longa; sepalum dorsale retroflexum; lateralia acute deflexa;
petala acute deflexa, apicibus decussatis. Labellum insectiforme, mobillimum,
ad apicem pedis columnae per unguem elongatum linearem articulatum; lamina
circiter 12 mm. longa peltata, in duo lobis inaequalibus per constrictionem
villosissimam divisa; lobus minor globosus, tuberculatissimus, hirsutissimus ;
lobus major substrictus convexus, prope unguem leviter pilosus, alibi levis, ad
apicem subovatus, marginibus subrevolutis. Columna gracillima, retroflexa, ad
apicem incurva, circiter 9 mm. longa, basi in pedem elongatum linearem producta,
ad basin 2-auriculis parvis triangularibus. Anthera magna obtusa; rostellum
non prolongum.

Western Australia: Ravenswood, near Pinjarra, Jean Scott Rogers,
WAO/T9.

Microtis truncata, n. sp.

Gracillima, circiter 22-38 cm. alta. Folium anguste lineare; fistula infra
medium; lamina circiter 10-25 cm. longa. Spica circiter 12-25 cm. longa; flores
subvirides dissiti, pedicellis brevibus. | Sepalum dorsale ovatum, cucullatum,
erectum, apice acuto leviter recurvo, circiter 375 mm. longum 2'5 latumque;
lateralia arte revoluta, oblongo-lanceolata, circiter 25 mm. longa. Petala erecta,
obtusa, lineari-falcata, circiter 275 mm. longa, sepalis angustiora. Labellum
paene oblongum, in medio contractum, marginibus leviter crenulatis, circiter
375 mm. longum, 5-nervosum; basi duo callis oblongo-ovalibus vel lunatis,
anteriore unico callo magno hastato incrassatum. Columna brevissima; anthera
minute mucronata, auriculis grandibus prominentibus.

Western Australia: Diamond Tree School, near Jarnadup, Miss Ilma
Knox-Peden, December, 1918.

Prasophyllum lanceolatum, n. sp.
Subgracilis, circiter 40-77 cm. alta. Lamina folii circiter 12-15 cm. longa,
spicam non excedens. Spica circiter 12-21 cm. longa; flores sub-brunnei, dissiti,
ovaria brevia gracilia. Segmenta perianthii anguste lanceolata; sepalum dorsale

341

leviter incurvum, circiter 10 mm. longum 2 mm. latumque, 5-nervosum,
acuminatissimum; lateralia in medio connata, circiter 85 mim. longa. Petala
angusta, falco-lanceolata, 5-nervosa, circiter 7 mm. longa 125 mm. lataque.
Labellum lanceolatum, perbreve unguiculatum, circiter 65 mm. longum, prope
medium arcuatum; pars membranacea angusta, marginibus integerrimis non
crenulatis; pars callosa comparate grandis, lanceolata, non crassa; circiter 5 mm.
longa, paene ad apicem producta, marginibus liberis. Columnae laciniae in
altitudine rostello et antherae aequantes, lineari-falcatae, obtusae, membranaceae,
inaequaliter bidentatae. Caudicula sub-brevis; glandula_ grandis, ovato-
lanceolata.

Western Australia: Albany, Dr. A. Syme Johnson; Muresk, Mrs. W.
E. Cooke, 4/9/07.

Prasophyllum ellipticum, n. sp.

Planta robusta, ad 104 cm. alta. Lamina folii ad 65 cm longa, spicam non
excedens. Spica circiter 28 cm. longa. Flores sessiles, subvirides, numerosi,
conferti; ovaria gracilia, circiter 12 mm. longa. Segmenta _ perianthii
angustiuscula ; sepalum dorsale angustum, ovato-lanceolatum, 7-nervosum, sepalis
lateralibus longiore, fere erectum, leviter incurvum, circiter 125 mm. longum
4 mm. latumque; lateralia in medio connata, circiter 11 mm. longa. Petala
obtuse falcata vel falco-lanceolata, erecta, 5-7 nervosa, circiter 95 mm. longa
25 mm. lataque. Labellum perbreviter unguiculatum, ellipticum, circiter 11 mm.
longum 5°25 mm. latumque, ad apicem gradatim recurvum; pars membranacea
alba, lata, ample crispata; lamella adnata tenuis, circiter 65 mm. longa 45 mm.
lataque, marginibus lateralibus liberis, ultra flexum in angustiusculo obtuso
cacumine terminans. Columnae laciniae membranaceae, obtuse falcatae, rostello
longiores, circiter 5 mm. altae, basi lobulatae. _Anthera apiculata, rostello brevior.

Western Australia: Near Jarnadup, Ilma Knox-Peden, 21/12/18.

Caladenia pectinata, n. sp.

Planta robusta, saepe 60 cm. alta. Caulis hirsutus, unibracteatus. Folium
anguste lineare, hirsutissimum. Flos circiter 6-9 cm. in diametro, fere
solitarius, subflavus cum notationibus subrufis. Sepalum dorsale erectum, leviter
incurvum, ad basin dilatatum concavum, longissime caudatum, clavatum, circiter
5 cm. longum; lateralia sepalo dorsali similia, patentia. Petala_ retroflexa,
anguste lanceolata, acuminata, non clavata, sepalis angustiora, circiter 35 cm.
longa. Labellum breviter unguiculatum, ovato-oblongum vel late ovato-
lanceolatum, circiter 2 cm. longum, obscure 3-lobatum; dimidium inferius ad
columnam erectum, marginibus profunde pectinatis; lobus intermedius
triangularis, recurvus, marginibus breviter denticulatis, apice obtuso; calli
laminae basi lineares 4-seriati, deinde ad apicem 6-8-seriati lineares vel sessiles.
Columna circiter 2 cm. longa, incurvissima, in dimidio superiore late
membranaceo-dilatata, basi bicallosa; anthera breviter mucronata.

Western Australia: Albany District, Rogers, Sep., 1919; York, O. H.
Sargent; Cork Swamp, near Perth, Mrs. Tapp, 3/9/07; Swan View, Mrs. W.
E. Cooke, 13/9/06.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXVII.

Ptersostylis decurva, Rogers. Nat. size.

Radical leaves of same, nat. size, not present in the flowering plant.

Labellum from above (enlarged).

Labellum from below (enlarged).

Labellum from the side (enlarged). The claw and basal appendage are well seen.
Column from the front (enlarged).

Column from the side (enlarged).

N QU RON

342

ON AUSTRALIAN RHOPALOCERA.

By Norman B. TINDALE.
(Contribution from the South Australian Museum.)
[Read October 11, 1923.|
PLATES DEX Vly 70) XOX

This paper deals with some butterflies contained in the South Australian
Museum, and a few notes on synonymy. A list is also given of the species taken
by the author on Groote Eylandt and adjacent islands in the Gulf of, Carpentaria.

As a result of the acquisition in 1920 of the Lucas Collection of Australian
Butterflies, which includes the Illidge Collection, our reference series (which
now comprises some 9,000 specimens), was selected from over 20,000 specimens,
including collections from W. D. Dodd, W. K. Hunt, R. Illidge, H. G. Stokes,
T. O. Thomas, H. Wesselman, and others. The series also includes most of
the types of the species described by Dr. T. P. Lucas, and Messrs. E. Guest
and J. G. O. Tepper, the type sexes of one species described by Messrs. Water-
house and Lyell, and eight species described by Mr. W. H. Miskin from the Lucas
Collection.

Family NYMPHALIDAE.
EURLOEA USIPETES HIPPIAS, Miskin.
Pl. xxviii, fig. 1.

The type female, from Thursday Island, described by Waterhouse and

Lyell, is now in the South Australian Museum and is figured herein.

HypocySTA ADIANTE ANTIRIUS, Butler.
Pi ixxvini figse 2 13:

Long series taken on Groote Eylandt and Bickerton Island are very similar
to the typical H. a. antirius, but specimens are generally much smaller. The
posterior ocellus of hindwings often appears to be scaled above, especially in the
male, and the wings are more densely scaled than in the Darwin specimens.

OREIXENICA ORICHORA FLYNNI, Hardy.
Pl. xxviii., figs. 4-6.

Oreixenica flynni, Hardy, Roy. Soc. Tas. Papers and Proc., 1916, p. 146.

6. Above. Forewings brown, markings black; markings as in female;
discal spots in areas la and 2 enlarged, that in area la coalescing with subbasal
spot; both reaching to cell. Hindwings as in female. Beneath. As in female.
Expanse, 34 mm.

Hab.—Tasmania: Cradle Mountain, in January, at about 2,000 feet elevation
(Messrs. Carter and Lea). Type of male, I. 13055.

The butterfly was taken in numbers by Messrs. Carter and Lea at the typical
locality. The race has not previously been figured; the plate shows the male,
female, and a reverse of the male.

EULEPIS PYRRHUS CANOMACULATUS, Goeze.
Papilio canomaculatus, Goeze, Ent. Beytr., III., i., 1779, p. 88.
Papilio sempronius, Fab., Ent. Syst., III, 1., 1793, p. 62.
Charaxes canomaculatus, Kirby, Syn. Cat. Diurn. Lep. Supp., 1877, p. 748.
Eulepis pyrrhus sempronius, Waterhouse and Lyell, Butt. of Austr., 1914, p. 51.
Kirby’s correction of the synonymy as above has been overlooked. The
little-known paper by Goeze has been responsible for a number of changes.

343

PRECIS V. VILLIDA, Fab., aberration.
Pi xxviii) fee 7

8. Above. Forewings brown-black, lighter on termen ; two orange bars in cell,
no traces of cream discal patch or ocellus, only faint trace of subapical cream spot ;
orange enclosed ocellus in area 2 small and incomplete. Hindwings grey-brown;
a submarginal series of ill-defined light greyish-brown spots forming a broad
band, interrupted by veins.

Beneath. Forewings light buff, two broad bars in cell black; centre and cell
suffused dusky-orange; a postcellular blackish suffusion; apex and termen.
devoid of markings; an ocellus in area 2 with orange patch on inner side. Hind-.
wings light buff, devoid of markings. Brisbane (Dr. T. P. Lucas).

A similar aberration from South Australia (E. Guest) differs only in having
the ocellus of forewing above larger; two incomplete whitish ocelli on hind--
wings, bordered on inner side by an orange lunular mark, and the submarginal.
light greyish-brown spots smaller, nearer margin, and more sharply defined.

PYRAMEIS CARDUI KERSHAWI, McCoy, ab. Lucasi, Miskin.
Pl. xxviii. fig. 8.
Pyrameis lucasi, Miskin, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1888, p. 1516.
This aberration (Type, I. 14435) was taken by Dr. T. P. Lucas in Victoria.
It appears possible that it is a natural hybrid between P. kershawi and P. itea,
Fab.; it has points of resemblance to both species, and it would be interesting
to test this conclusion by breeding experiments.

HyPoLiMNas Misippus, Linne.
Pl. xxvii, figs. 9, 10.

An interesting female form of this species, taken at Darwin by Mr. T. O.
Thomas, has the black apical area of forewing above replaced by an orange-
brown suffusion, and the white discal band obscured by orange scales. Beneath,
the white band is also obscured and the insect scarcely distinguishable from a
specimen of the inaria form from India, save that it is smaller. A typical Aus-
tralian example is figured (fig. 9) for comparison. In Africa and India this
species 1s commonly dimorphic in the female, but this is the first record of a
second female form in Australia.

ATELLA PHALANTA ARACA, Waterhouse and Lyell.
Pl. xxviii., fig. 11.

The female of this rare form has not previously been figured. Mr. T. O.
Thomas took three specimens at Darwin, and there are several, all males, in our
collection. The female appears to be lighter coloured and the hindwing above
is less strongly marked.

Family LYCAENIDAE. |
NESOLYCAENA ALBOSERICEA, Miskin.

Holochila albosericea, Miskin, Syn. Cat. Rhop. Austr., 1891, p. 65 (March ?).

Holochila (Polyommatus) caeruleolactea, Lucas, Butterflies and Moths, Brisbane, 1891,.
p. 1 (April 20). )

The paper by Lucas was published at Brisbane on April 20, 1891. Miskin’s
Catalogue is dated 1891, the preface is dated November, 1890, and the answer
to an enquiry to the Queensland Museum was “published probably in March” ;
it would appear that Miskin’s name has priority. The status of Lucas’ paper has
been considered doubtful. It was apparently issued as a separate on the above

344

date, and reprinted in ““The Queenslander,” a newspaper, on May 2 and 9, 1891.
The ‘Zoological Record” for 1891 accepts it.

ate type male and female of H. (P.) caeruleolaciea from “hills beyond
Duaringa” are in our collection.

CANDALIDES CYPROTUS, Olliff.

Two male specimens, taken by the late Mr. E. Guest at Halbury in Sep-
tember, are a new record for South Australia.

LAMPIDES TRANSLUCENS, Lucas.
Holochila (Polyommatus) translucens, Lucas, Butterflies and Moths, Brisbane, 1891, p. 1.
The type (a male) of this species is in our collection. It is said to have
been taken by Lieutenant Lucas on the North Australian coast. It is a Lampides
allied to L. elpis, Godart, of India.

OGyRIS ZOSINE, Hew.

The synonymy of this species and its races has become somewhat complicated
and needs elucidating. The synonymy is detailed here so as to facilitate
reference :—

Ogyris zosine, Hew., Exot. Butt., i, 1853, e Aes ce Os Ms Dac
. genoveva, Hew., Exot. Butt., 1., "1853, Tey SECO, aura!
. gosine, Hew., Cat. Lyc. B.M., 1862, pl. a i 4. 8 (nec 2).

. genoveva, Hew., CatMiLye: B.M., 1862, p. 3)

. Zosine, Kirby, Syn. Cat. Diurn. Wepsal871y py425e:

..genoveva, Kirby, l.c., p. 425.

. genoveva, Miskin, Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond), 1883). p. 343) pl--15; f.. 125:
Shue pang Vata. moe

genoveva, Miskin, Pree. Linn. ‘Soc. N.S. Wales, 1890; p.. 23.

. genoveva, Waterhouse, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1903, p. 245.

sosine, Bethune-Baker, Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1905, 278 et seq.

zosine-duaringa, Bethune-Baker, /.c., p. 280.

zosine-magna, Bethune-Baker, l.c., p. 281.

. Zozine, Waterhouse and Lyell, Butt. of Aust., 1914, p. 119 et seq.

zozine typhon, Waterhouse and Lyell, /.c., p. 120.

zozine typhon, f. iberia, Waterhouse and Lyell, /.c., p. 120.

. £0gine Zogine, {. zenobia, Waterhouse and Lyell, J.c., p. 120.

. Zogine araxes, Waterhouse and Lyell, J.c., p. 121.

. Zosine, Bethune-Baker, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8), xvii., 1916, p. 386

etx Seq.

Hewitson (1853) described and figured the male as Ogyris gosine, and on
the same page and plate the female as O. genoveva, without giving a definite
locality for his types. Subsequently (1862) he figured the under-surface of a
male, in error, as that of the female of O. zosine. Kirby (1871) catalogued
O. gosine and O. genoveva as distinct species, giving “Australia” as the locality
for the former and “Moreton Bay” for the latter. Miskin (1883) described and
figured both sexes of the species under the name of O. genoveva, giving the
localities as “Brisbane; Dawson River (Barnard) ; Queensland,” and described
and figured a violet form of the female as “var. a., Female.” Again in 1890
he gave the synonymy in his revision of the genus. ‘Waterhouse (1903), in his
tabulation of synonymy, pointed out that strictly O. “zosine had priority over
O. genoveva.

In 1905, Bethune-Baker, in his review of the genus, assuming the privilege
of first reviewer, corrected the name of the species to O. gosine, and recorded

SSSSSOSSSSSS OOSOSOS

345

the type form as being found in “Townsville and its neighbourhood.” He also
stated, “The ‘female’ is dimorphic. I have therefore retained the name
genoveva for the pale-blue ‘female’ as described by Hewitson.’”’ He described as
races QO. zosine-duaringa from Coomooboolaroo, “N. Queensland” (really
Southern Queensland), and O. gosine-magna, from Brisbane.

Waterhouse and Lyell (1914) gave evidence to show that Hewitson’s types
came from Moreton Bay (Brisbane), and accordingly restricted the name
sozine (correctly zosine) to the race with dimorphic female, from Southern
Queensland and Northern New South Wales; described O. zozine typhon with
its purple female f. iberia from Townsville and north, and O. zosine araxes from
Victoria, while the purple female of typical O. zosine was named f. genobia.
They sank O. genoveva, Hew., and O. zosine-magna, Bethune-Baker, as direct
synonyms of g. gosime, as also O. gosine-duaringa, Bethune-Baker, as not suffi-
ciently distinct to merit even a varietal name.

Bethune-Baker (1916) reviewed the synonymy in detail. He stated inter
alia, ““I definitely selected the dull-purple ‘female’ as the female type of Hewit-
son’s species... . Hewitson himself had described the blue form as
GENOVEUC iy and he did so because he had lying before him the dull-
purple form of the “female’ as well as the pale-lustrous one, and this alone justifies
me in selecting that form as the type form, but, in view of Hewitson’s action, it
is the only reasonabe thing to do.” He also identified O. zosine araxes,
Waterhouse and Lyell, the Victorian form, extending to Sydney, as being O.
zosine-magna, Bethune-Baker (Brisbane). He stated, “From the descriptions
it would appear that the two forms must of necessity be the same; knowing the
species as well as I do, I feel quite sure they are.”

Miskin (1883), really the first reviewer, definitely associated the purple
male and the light silvery-blue female from Southern Queensland (Brisbane and
Dawson River), and described the violet (purple) female as a variety. The
fact that he used the name genoveva, Hew.—zosine, Hew., does not alter this
association in any way, and Miskin himself, although he did not alter the name,
was aware of the synonymy (vide Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1890, p. 23).
In the absence of further evidence as to the localities of Hewitson’s types,
Miskin’s action would be sufficient, by itself, to fix the typical form as being
from Southern Queensland; while, apart from this, Waterhouse and Lyell’s
selection of “Moreton Bay” as the type locality, cannot be regarded as “pure
guess work,” for it is well known that Hewitson received most of his material
from Diggles, who lived at Brisbane; the evidence of the figures points to the
Brisbane form, and, according to Bethune-Baker’s statement, a further specimen
labelled “Moreton Bay” was associated with the species by Hewitson himself.

Despite Bethune-Baker’s statement that he definitely selected the purple
form as the female of his typical O. zosine, it is nowhere definitely stated so in
his 1906 monograph. He, however, stated that the name genoveva was retained
for the pale-blue female, the above being probably inferred. There is no evidence
in any of Hewitson’s published work to show that he had before him, and
described, the purple female, and, therefore, Bethune-Baker is not justified in
selecting it, contrary to Miskin, as the type female.

Waterhouse and Lyell state that Bethune-Baker did not fix a type form,
but on page 278 of the 1906 monograph Bethune-Baker does definitely fix
Townsville as the type locality. His selection is overruled by that of Miskin.

O. Zosine-magna is a direct synonym of O. g. gosine. O. 8. araves is the
extreme southern race, is apparently not dimorphic, and cannot possibly be
identified with the form O. zosine-magna, from Brisbane. The Sydney examples,
while brighter than the type of 2. araves, are not sufficiently distinct from it to
form an intermediate race.

346

Following are notes upon the geographical races so far recognized from

Australia :—
OGyRIS ZOSINE TYPHON, Waterhouse and Lyell.
PLS xxix ties 15,

Ogyris 2. sosine, Bethune-Baker (nec Hewitson, Miskin, and Waterhouse and Lyell).

Ogyris sosine, Q f. genoveva, Bethune-Baker.

Ranges from Mackay north to Cooktown and also to Darwin. The male is
dull purple, the female metallic-blue. The figure is of the female.

OGyRIS Z. TYPHON, f. IBERIA, Waterhouse and Lyell.
Pl. xxix., fig. 14.
Ogyris zosine zosine, Bethune-Baker. 9.

The dull-purple female form of O. g. tvphon. Specimens have been taken
at Townsville and Cairns.

OGyRIS Z. ZOSINE, Hewitson.
Pil xxixy hig. 13)
Ogyris zosine-magna, Bethune-Baker.
Ogyris genoveva, Hew., Kirby, and Miskin.
Ogyris gosine-duaringa, Bethune-Baker.
Ogyris gozine gozine, Waterhouse and Lyell.

The type locality is Moreton Bay (Brisbane), and the type form ranges
from Duaringa (=Coomooboolaroo) as far south as the Richmond River in
Northern New South Wales. Duaringa specimens are not sufficiently distinct
to be considered another race.

Text fig. a shows a second male form of the typical race from Brisbane.
It is smaller than the typical male, the colour is very dull purple, duller than any
specimens of 2. typhon, and the black margins are more pronounced. It expands
45 mm.

Text fig. A. Text fig. B.
Ogyris s. sosine, Waterhouse and Lyell, Ogyris s. sosine, f. senobia,
male. Waterhouse and Lyell.

OGyRIS z. ZOSINE, f. ZENOBIA, Waterhouse and Lyell.

Ogyris genoveva, var. a., 9, Miskin.

The purple female form of typical O. gosine. It is much brighter and larger
than f. iberia of O. 2. typhon. Mr. R. Illidge has bred and taken a number of
specimens at Brisbane. It is also recorded from the Richmond River and
Dawson River. Text fig. B shows an example from Brisbane.

347

OcyrRIS Z. ARAXES, Waterhouse and Lyell.
O. s. magna, Bethune-Baker (nec Waterhouse & Lyell).

This is the typically Victorian race of O. gosine. Its extreme northern
range is Sydney, where it varies a little towards the typical race. It is apparently
not dimorphic, no purple female being known.

Ogyris zosine splendida, n. subsp.
Pl. xxix., fig. 12.

Text fig. C.
Ogyris sosine splendida, Tindale, female.

9. Above. Forewings black; basal two-fifths light metallic-blue, a discal
patch between area 2 and vein 6, cream; apex: tipped whitish, a small streak in
area 7 light blue; cilia whitish, at veins black. Hindwings black, a large central
and terminal area light metallic-blue, enclosing three irregularly defined black
spots in areas 3 to 5; cilia white, at veins black.

Beneath. Forewings brown; dorsum grey-brown, apex suffused whitish;
bar at end of cell black; cell bars broad, white, tinged with bluish, a spot at
two-thirds blue; a discal cream patch from near vein 2 reaching vein 10, where
it is whitish; the V-shaped mark external to cream patch broadly black. Huind-
wings brown, markings typical; basal, dorsal and apical areas suffused whitish;
eee suffusion rich brown, subterminal suffusion light brown. Expanse,

7 mm.

Hab.—South Australia:. Mount Painter, Flinders Range (H. G. Stokes).
ype lo l3sl70:

The greater expanse of light metallic-blue extending to the termen of the
hindwings gives this race an appearance very distinct from all the others. The
body colour and the down on the hindwing is a light grey. Sufficient material
is not available to define ,the range of the race, but a battered female from
Fortescue River, North-western Australia, may belong to it.

Ocyris OTANES, Felder.
Pl. xxix., figs. 16-19.

Ogyris halmaturia, Tepper, Common Native Insects, Adelaide, ii., 1890, p: 12 (part).

Ogyris halmaturia, Bethune-Baker, Trans. Ent. Soc., Lond., 1905, p. 277.

The name O. halmaturia was founded upon two species; the male described
is a typical O. otanes. The type of O. otanes came from Adelaide, and Tepper’s
specimen from Kangaroo Island. Bethune-Baker, in 1905, examined Tepper’s
male specimen (he did not see the other described specimen) and separated the
island specimens as a distinct species, closely allied to O. otanes under Tepper’s
name. The comparison of 36 specimens (28 mainland, 8 island) reveals no
specific differences. All the specimens from South Australia belong to one
species. The male, female, and a reverse of the male are figured, together with

348

Tepper’s male specimen. Mr. F. Angel has taken it plentifully at Kingscote,
Kangaroo Island, in November.

OGyRIS HALMATURIA HALMATURIA, Tepper.
Pl. xxix., fig. 20.
Ogyris halmaturia, Tepper, Common Native Insects, Adelaide, ii, 1890, p. 12 (part).

Considerable confusion has existed regarding this species. The supposed
sexes, as described by Tepper, are both males and belong to distinct species.
The type male is a typical specimen of O. otanes, Feld.; the “female” is the male
of a species very close to O. waterhouseri, Bethune-Baker, and, as in the original
description, the “female” is mentioned and described first, the name halmaturia
will stand. The typical locality is Kangaroo Island. As no further specimen is
known, a description and figure of the type, which lacks both its antennae, is
given.

6. Above. Forewings strongly convex, dull purplish, apex and termen
rather broadly black, a few scales at apex white; veins blackish; cilia white, at
veins and hinder angle brownish-black. Hindwings dull purplish, costa broadly
and termen narrowly brownish-black; veins blackish, with a conspicuous black
spot at apex of cell.

Beneath. Forewings brownish, similar to O. (h.) waterhouseri, the trans-
verse white bars conspicuous, the apical white bar of cell tinged with brilliant
blue, a few scales at apex of cell purple. Hindwings dark brown, suffused
whitish, the markings larger than in O. (h.) waterhouseri, broadly V-shaped and
arranged parallel to margin of wing. A median area brownish-black. Expanse,
50 mm.

Hab.—South Australia: Kangaroo Island, in November (J. G. O. Tepper).
Type, I. 14427, unique.

The type is very distinct from O. idmo, and cannot be regarded as a race of
that species. O. waterhouseri is also apparently distinct from O. idmo, and
should be regarded as a race of the present species. Waterhouse and Lyell
associated O. idmo and O. waterhouseri as races with considerable doubt.

OGyRIS H. WATERHOUSERI, Bethune-Baker.

This form appears sufficiently distinct from the Kangaroo Island form to
be regarded as a race. Collectors should look out for both these forms, as very
few specimens have ever been taken. The present form has been taken at
Dimboola and in the Grampians, Victoria.

OGyRIS ABROTA, Westwood.

A single male taken at Mount Gambier, in April, by the late Mr. E. Guest,
is a new record for South Australia.

HyPoLYCAENA PHORBAS PHORBAS, Fab.
Pl. xxix., figs. 23, 24.
Hab.—New Guinea (“Ins. Papuanae’’) ; Queensland: Cape York to Mackay.

Queensland examples are not sufficiently distinct from New Guinea ones to
be considered a distinct race. The type form is from “Ins. Papuanae.”

HyYPOLyCAENA P. PHORBAS, 6, f. NOCTULA, Staudinger.

There was a specimen of this dark-purple form of the male from North
Queensland in the Lucas collection. The markings beneath are pale yellowish-
brown and the spots at tornus beneath are prominent, but entirely absent above.

349

Hypolycaena phorbas ingura, n. subsp.
Pl. xxix., figs. 21, 22.

6. Above. Forewings black, a large central area dark blue, a large
circular patch at end of cell black, no traces of a suffused whitish patch in
area 1 a, cilia black tipped with white. Hindwings dull black, suffused dark
purple, with a series of white subterminal rings at tornus enclosing two black
spots; anal lobe faintly centred yellowish, terminal line black, cilia blackish
tipped with white.

Beneath. Dull grey, markings typical. Expanse, 34 mm.

@. Above. Forewings dull black, sometimes traces of a central white
patch, cilia black tipped with white. Hindwings dull black, a series of sub-
terminal rings, at tornus enclosing two black spots, one in area 3 bordered with
orange, anal lobe with orange centre.

Beneath. As in male, ground-colour usually lighter. Expanse, 40 mm.

Hab.—Northern Territory: Groote Eylandt, January to March; Bickerton
Island, April (N. B. Tindale); Darwin, January, December (W. K. Hunt) ;
12 males, 31 females. Types, I. 14428.

This is the western race of H. p. phorbas, Fab., and a comparison with New
Guinea and North Queensland examples shows it to be distinct. Only a few
Queensland male examples show a tendency to a purple hindwing, while the
females of H. p. ingura in a series of 31 specimens are all without, or have only
a few traces of, the white discal area of forewing. All our specimens of this
race are smaller in expanse of wing, this being particularly marked in the island
ones.

LIPHYRA BRASSOLIS MELANIA, Waterhouse and ae

Liphyra b. melania, Waterhouse and Lyell, Butt, of Austr., 1914, Soe ra

Oe Above: Forewings orange, apex and termen beeadly brownish-black,
costa and termen narrowly edged with brown. A large irregular spot occupying
most of cell, and confluent. with two large discal black spots in areas 2 and 3.
Hindwings orange, a subterminal border brownish-black. Three discal spots in
areas 2, 3, and 5. Termen bordered with brown.

Beneath. As in male. No trace of silvery markings, except a small spot
below apex of forewings. Expanse, 83 mm.

Hab.—Northern Territory: Groote Eylandt, January (N. B. Tindale) ;
Darwin (W. K. Hunt). divpemkemale nl 3 770%

The two females in our collection are very similar to Queensland examples.
The black area in cell above is larger, occupying all of cell except lower portion
of basal third, while the dark bands and spots are broader. Beneath is dark
brown in the Groote Eylandt example, there being no trace of silvery markings
or suffusions. The Darwin example is very worn and faded.

The type female flew to a light at 8.30 p.m. on a sultry night, in my camp
at Yetiba, Groote Eylandt, and settled on a ridge pole with wings drooped in
such a manner as to be taken at first glance for one of the Ophiderinae, or
orange-piercing moths. Another specimen, a male, was seen flying high, around
a flowering tree in the scrub about noon, but after several attempts to capture
it with a long-handled net, it flew away very rapidly, high over the trees.

Family PIERIDAE.
Delias ennia dorothea, n. subsp.
Pl. xxx., fig. 25.

6. Above. Forewings white; costa narrowly black; apex black with a
series of four white spots. Hindwings white, termen from vein 7 to dorsum
black, a faint trace of white subterminal spots.

350

Beneath. Forewings marked as above, with six, more sharply defined, sub-
apical spots, the costal two bright yellow. Base suffused with yellow. Hind-
wings white; basal area, from half costa to beyond cell, golden-yellow; termen
black, enclosing five large reddish-orange spots; an apical orange spot, and an
orange-suffused spot on dorsum. Expanse, 70 mm.

Hab.—Queensland: Coen River (W. D. Dodd). Type, I. 13652.

This subspecies is distinguished from the following more southern one*by
the much larger, and brilliantly orange-coloured terminal spots of hindwings
beneath, and by the extension of the yellow basal colour over half the wing.
Typical D. ennia was described from Waigiou.

DELIAS ENNIA NIGIDIUS, Miskin.
Pl. xxx., fig. 26.
This race is taken in the scrub areas of the Cairns district. A figure is
given for comparison with the more northern race. The terminal spots of

hindwings beneath are deep yellow, and the base of the wing only is suffused
with light yellow.

DELAIS M. MYSIS, Fab.

Text figs. D, E.
Delias m. mysis, Fabricius, gynandromorph.

There is a gynandromorphic specimen of this species in our collection from
Cairns, taken by Mr. A. M. Lea. The left side is marked as in a female, and
the right side as ina male. It expands 65 mm. Figs. d and e show the upper
and under surfaces.

Elodina perdita tongura, n. subsp.

6. Above. Forewings slightly acute at apex, white; base and basal third
of costa with scattered dark-brown scales; apex black, inner edge of dark apical
area somewhat bisinuate. Hindwings white.

Beneath. Forewings white, base lemon-yellow; a subapical patch light
brown. Hindwings white. Expanse, 42 mm.

@. Above. As in male, apex of forewing more rounded.

Beneath. As in male. Expanse 46 mm.

Hab.—Northern Territory: Groote Eylandt, February to April; Winchilsea
Island, April; Woodah Island, April (N. B. Tindale), 16 specimens. Type,
male, 1e13777 “temale: 10 13778:

‘This island race may be distinguished from E. p. walkeri by its larger size,
darker black markings, bisinuate inner edge of apical area above, and by the
subapical brown patch on forewings beneath. The range of expanse in our
series is 42 to 48 mm. In E. p. walkeri 32 to 39 mm. The three specimens

351

from Woodah Island, in Blue Mud Bay, have the subapical patch beneath very
faintly visible, but are larger than any specimens of E. p. walkeri in our col-
lection. Mainland specimens from Roper River are very typical E. p. walker.
It is also distinct from E. perdita perdita. Tongura is a Groote Eylandt native
(Ingura) word meaning “pipeclay” or “chalk.”

ELopINA PADUSA, Hewitson.

A perfect specimen of this species was taken at Mount Painter, in the
Flinders Range, by the late H. G. Stokes. This is a new record for South
Australia. Mr. R. Illidge has also taken it at Brisbane, though not abundantly.
It is the rarest of the genus and has only been recorded so far from single
specimens taken in New South Wales, Victoria, and North-western Australia.

Family PAPILIONIDAE.
PAPILIO AMYNTOR AMPHIARAUS, Felder.

This interesting species, the only butterfly peculiar to Norfolk Island, has
not previously been figured. The specimen, a female, was taken by Mr. A.
M. Lea.
EURYCUS CRESSIDA CASSANDRA, Waterhouse and Lyell.

Groote Eylandt specimens are larger than E. c. cassandra; in the male they
approach typical E. c. cressida, but the wings of the females are completely scaled
beneath and are distinct from the latter. The butterfly was the most common
and conspicuous one seen on the island.

The female was discovered laying eggs on one of the Aristolochia vines.
The eggs are globular, yellow, with sixteen rows of raised, orange-coloured
tubercles, arranged symmetrically ; apex with an orange tubercle, the base orange.
Diameter, 1 mm. The larvae hatched in ten days. Adult larvae were also
obtained, but are not now in condition to be described.

Text fig. F.
Parnara mathias, Fabricius.
Pupa.

Family HESPERIDAE.

PARNARA MATHIAS, Fab.
A pupa was found among grass stems on Groote Eylandt during March,
and the butterfly, a female, emerged on May 12. The period of pupation seems

long. The pupa was green, smooth and cylindrical, tapering gradually to the
anal extremity. Head prolonged in a smooth-pointed horn. Apex of abdomen

352

curved ventrally and elongated, ending in a laterally flattened, somewhat rounded

point. On the dorsum of the live pupa there were longitudinal stripes of pale

and darker green showing through the transparent outer shell. Jength, 29 mm.;
breadth, 6 mm.

List OF jirlks BUTTERFLIES OF ;GROOTE, EYLANDE
AND ADJACENT ISVANDS:

Fifty-eight species and varieties were taken on Groote Eylandt during a
sojourn extending, with a short break, from June, 1921, to May, 1922. The
majority were taken during the rainy season, from November to March.

The records are of interest geographically, for Groote Eylandt les
half-way (measuring along the coastline) between the two main
channels of butterfly migration into Australia. Practically 7 not sone (on
the typically New Guinea forms so abundant in Northern Queensland
and Cape York has found its way so far west. The prevailing winds in the
“wet” season are north-west and west, while south of the Mitchell River in
Queensland, as far round the head of the Gulf as Roper River, scrub and rain
forests are absent, and the climate is very dry, except for the short rainy season;
and these have been barriers to the western extension of the range of these
species. Comparatively few of the Timor migrants also have spread so far to
the east, so that the species taken in the dense scrubs and rain forests of the
island are the widespread, more ancient Australian forms, such as are found e
over the whole of the northern part of Australia. One notable feature is that
specimens of many of the species are smaller than mainland ones. This dwarfing
has been noted also by Mr. A. M. Lea in a number of species of Coleoptera.
Two exceptions to this are the forms of Eurycus cressida and Elodina perdita,
which are both larger than the usual Northern Territory forms.

In the list, where no islands are specifically mentioned, the records are for
Groote Eylandt. The figures after the name indicate the months during which
specimens were taken :—

Family NYMPHALIDAE.

Danaida chrysippus petilia, Stoll—1, 2, 7, 8, 11, 12.

D. affinis affinis, Fab.—1, 2, 3, 12.

D. melissa hamata, Macl.—2, 3.

Euploea corinna corinna, Macl.—2, 11, 12.

E. sylvester pelor, Doubld. and Hew.—2.

E. s. pelor, £. dardanoides, Waterhouse and Lyell—-Z.

Mycalesis sirius sirius, Fab.—1, 2, 3, 11, 12.

M. perseus perseus, Fab.—6.

M. p. perseus, f. infuscata, Macl.—Groote Eylandt 1, 2, 3, 12; Bickerton
Island 4.

Melanitis leda bankia, Fab.—3, 12.

M. 1. bankia, {. barnardi, Lucas—1.

Hypocysta adiante antirius, Butl—Groote Eylandt 1, 2, 3, 4, 11, 12;
Bickerton Island 4.

Precis villida villida, Fab.——Groote Eylandt 2, 3, 12; Woody Island, 4.

P. orithyra albicincta, ButL—1, 2, 12.

Hypolimnas bolina nerina, Fab.—1, 3, 11.

Hi. alimena darwinensis, Waterhouse and Lyell—2, 12.

Cethosia penthesilea paksha, Fruhs.—4, 7.

Acraea andromacha, Fab.—8.

353

Family LYCAENIDAE.

Candalides erinus, Fab.—Groote Eylandt 1, 2, 3, 4; Woodah Island 4.

Nacaduba ancyra estrella, Waterhouse and Lyell—1, 2, 3, 11.

N. dubiosa, Semp.—12.

Everes argiades, Pall—3.

Euchrysops cnejus cnidus, Waterhouse and Lyell—1, 2, 3, 12.

Jamides phaseli, Mathew—3.

Catochrysops emolus affinis, Waterhouse and Turner—2, 3.

Chilades trochilus putli, Koll—Groote Eylandt 2, 3; Woodah Island 4.

Zizina labradus labradus, Godt.—2.

Zigeeria alsulus, Herr.-Schaetf.—Groote Eylandt 1, 3; Woodah Island
4; Bickerton Island 4; Woody Island 4.

Z. lysimon karsadndra, Moore—2.

Theclinesthes onycha, Hew.—Groote Eylandt, var.

Arhopala amytis cyronthe, Misk—2, 11.

A. centaurus asopus, Waterhouse and Lyell—2.

Hypolycaena phorbas ingura, Tindale—Groote Eylandt 1, 2, 3; Bickerton
Island 4.

Liphyra brassolis melania, Waterhouse and Lyell—l.

Family PIERIDAE.

Elodina perdita tongura, Vindale—Groote Eylandt 2, 3, 4; Winchilsea
Island 4; Woodah Island 4.

Anaphaeis java teutonia, Fab.—7, 8.

Huphina perimale scyllara, Macl.—Groote Eylandt 2, 4, 12; Winchilsea
Island 4.

Appias paulina ega, Boisd.—12.

Catopsilia pyranthe pythias, Waterhouse and Lyell—8.

C. pomona pomona, Fab.—7, 8, 11.

Terias hecabe sulphurata, Butl.—1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 11, 12.

T. smilax, Don.—2, 12.

T. sana, Butl.—2, 3, 11, 12.

T. laeta lineata, Misk.—Groote Eylandt 12; Winchilsea Island 4.

T. herla, Macl.—1, 2, 3, 4, 11, 12.

Family PAPILIONIDAE.
Papilio demoleus sthenelus, Macl—Groote Eylandt 8; Woodah Island 4;
Woody Island 4.
P. fuscus canopus, Westw.—l, 2.
P. eurypilus nyctimus, Waterhouse and Lyell—4.
Eurycus cressida cassandra, Waterhouse and Lyell—2, 3, 4, 11, 12.

Family HESPERIDAE.
Toxidia sexguttata, NHerr.-Schaeff—Groote Eylandt 2; Winchilsea
Island 4.
Neohesperilla crocea, Misk.—1, 2, 3.
Padraona flavovittata walkeri, Heron—2, 3.
P. sunias, Feld., var.—2, 3.
Telicota augias kreffti, Macl.—2.
Parnara mathias, Fab.—Groote Eylandt 2, 5; Woody Island 4.
Badamia exclamationis, Fab.—4.

RS ecCmNAMAWNE

354

EXPLANATION OF PLATES XXVIII. to XXX.

Pirate XXVIII.

Euploea usipetes hippias, Miskin, Type female, Thursday Island.
Hypocysta adiante antirius, Butler, male, Groote Eylandt.
a female, Groote Eylandt.

Or Pieemica or ichore ee Hardy, Type male, Cradle Mountain.

» a a female, Cradle Mountain.

i as ‘ male, reverse, Cradle Mountain.
Precis v. villida, Fab., aberration, Brisbane.
Pyramets c. beyshacn McCoy, ab. lucasi, Miskin, Victoria.
Hypolimnas missipus, Linné, female, normal form, Kuranda.

* * female, variety, Darwin.

Atella “phalanta araca, Waterhouse and Lyell, female, Darwin.

PLATE XXIX.
Ogyris sosine splendida, Tindale, Type female, Mount Painter.

us ss sosine, Hew., female, Brisbane.

. AN typhon, female, f. iberia, Waterhouse and Lyell, Townsville.
A if Waterhouse antl Lyell, female, Townsville.

ie ueioaantone. Tepper, Type male, Kangaroo Island=otanes, Felder.
» otanes, Feld., male, Kangaroo Island.

> - A » reverse, Adelaide.

- iS Ni female, Adelaide.
h. halmaturia, Tepper, Type, a male, Kangaroo Island.
Hypolyeaena phorbas ingura, Tindale, Type male, Groote Eylandt.

” ” ” female. Groote Eylandt.
i Fr pier bas, Faby male, Towmnerille
0 ” ” ” female, Townsville.

PLATE XXX.

Delias ennia dorothea, Tindale, Type male, Coen River.
, nigidius, Miskin, male, Kuranda.
Blodina perdita tongura, Tindale, Type male, Groote Eylandt.
, female, Groote Eylandt.
Papilio amyntor amphiaraus, Feld, female, Norfolk Island.

Liphyra brassolis melania, Waterhouse and Lyell, Type female, Groote Eylandt.

355

THE FLORA AND FAUNA OF NUYTS ARCHIPELAGO AND THE
INVESTIGATOR GROUP.

No. 11—THE COLEOPTERA OF PEARSON ISLAND.

By ArtHur M. Lea, F.E.S., Museum Entomologist.
(Contribution from the South Australian Museum.)

[Reads @ctober iy 19235]
PLATE XXXI.

In No. 4 of this series of papers the only beetle recorded from Pearson
Island was Saragus oleatus, Carter ; the special visit to the island in January
of this year enabled more species to be taken (for notes on this visit see ante,
p. 97).: The most interesting species obtained was a new Mandalotus, which
at the request of Prof. F. Wood Jones I have pleasure in naming after Sir George
Murray.

CARABIDAE.

Scopodes sigillatus, Germ. Simodontus australis, De}.

TROGOSITIDAE (?).

Phycosecis algarum, Pasc. (Pl. xxxi. fig. 1.) Several specimens were
obtained on the island; the species is common on the beaches of New South
Wales and Tasmania. The derm of the head is usually black, the other parts
are usually pale castaneous, but vary to black; the upper-surface is clothed with
scales that are normally snowy-white, but there is frequently a large median |
blotch extending from apex of prothorax to beyond the middle of elytra, which
is stramineous or pale brown; the elytral punctures are normally concealed, but
are indicated through the clothing; there is a beautiful fringe of long silvery
hairs on the prothorax and elytra. Specimens, however, are very easily damaged,
the scales and fringes are often partly abraded, and the scales are easily stained.

LATHRIDIIDAE.
Corticaria adelaidae, Blackb.

SCARABAEIDAE.
Pseudopimelopus lindi, Blackb.

BURRS iiDyATs:
Germarica casuarinae, Blackb.

ERAT ERIDAE.

Two specimens of this family were obtained; one of a species too near the
description of Cardiophorus octavus, Cand., from the Swan River, for it to be
described as new; the other a small Monocrepidius, which cannot be satisfactorily
dealt with at present.

(D) Ante, 1922, p. 297.

356

MALACODERMIDAE.

Laius cinctus, Redt. Aypattalus minutus, Lea.
Dasytes fuscipennis, Hope.

CEERIDAT,
Necrobia rufipes, De Geer.

PTINIDAE.
Pitnus®) australiae, n. sp.
Pl. xxxi., fig. 2.

Black. Clothed with rather stout, subdepressed, white setae, on the elytra
confined to a regular row on each interstice.

Head directed downwards and invisible from above. Eyes small and pro-
minent. Antennae eight-jointed, first and eighth rather large, the others small,
the eighth appearing as a conspicuous one-jointed club. Prothorax subopaque,
slightly transverse, base and apex subequal, sides strongly rounded, punctures
rather ill-defined. Elytra subelliptic, strongly convex, shoulders strongly
rounded, median width fully twice that of prothorax; with rows of large, sub-
quadrate, approximate punctures, the interstices narrow and indented by punc-
tures. Abdomen with second segment large, its suture with first distinct at
sides, but inconspicuous in middle, third and fourth small and curved, the fourth
almost semicircularly enclosing the fifth. Legs rather thin. Length, 1-175 mm.

The diagnosis of Pitnus, and the description of the only then known species
(P. pygmaeus) from Central America, are very brief, but the details given and
the figure“ represent an insect so greatly resembling the one before me that I
think it must belong to the same genus. The Australian species has but eight
joints to its antennae, the Central American one has nine (in the figure ten are
shown, but this was noted as an error). Four specimens were obtained on
Pearson Island, but the species occurs in abundance on saltbushes (Atriplex spp.)
growing near beaches in South Australia (Kangaroo Island, A. H. Elston;
Sleaford Bay, Rev. T. Blackburn) and Western Australia (Swan River, J.
Clark and A. M. Lea; Geraldton, T. Hooper and Lea; and Pelsart Island,
Lea). The specimens from Pelsart Island and some from the Swan River are
decidedly smaller than the others, but, apart from size, I can find no differences
between them and the larger ones. Wings are completely absent.

Anrogtddk€ Pronus, n. gen.

Head rather large, projecting downwards and quite concealed from above;
under-surface with a shallow depression between bases of eyes, but not bisinuate.
Eyes moderately large, round, and with facets of moderate size or small.
Antennae eleven-jointed, first joint large, the next seven small, the others forming
a large, loosely compacted club. Palpi with apical joint wide and incurved at
apex. Prothorax with base bisinuate. Scutellum distinct. Elytra striate or
striate-punctate. Prosternum with middle normally concealed by head, with
triangular side-pieces facing backwards; with grooves for reception of sides of
head. Mesosternum very short, vertical in middle. Metasternum moderately
long, side pieces distinct throughout. Abdomen composed of five distinct seg-
ments. Legs not capable of being received in special cavities; front coxae
strongly projecting, pressed backwards, their tips in contact, hind coxae moder-
ately separated, their sides touching elytra, grooved for partial reception of
femora, all tarsi short, basal joint about as long as two following combined.

() Gorham, Biol. Cent. Am., Col., iii, Part 2, p. 197.
CEG. ply d0,\ hig. °8:

357

This genus is evidently near Sitodrepa, but differs in the sides of the pro-
sternum, these being so shaped that the head when at rest has the mandibles
resting on the front and middle coxae, the front ones being flattened backwards
to allow of this; the front and middle legs on each side are received into a space
between the sides of prosternum, mesosternum, and an elytron, but there are
no special grooves for their reception. From above the general appearance is as
in the Hawaiian genus Holcobius, but the three apical joints of the antennae are
large, and form a loosely compacted club. In addition to the typical species two
others of the genus are before me; one of these is here described, but the other,
from Queensland, is represented by two badly damaged specimens that it is
undesirable to name. Type of genus, P. medianus.

Pronus medianus, n. sp.
Pl. xxxi., fig. 3.
Dull castaneous-brown, -under-surface of head and antennae paler. Densely

clothed with short, depressed, pale pubescence, on the prothorax somewhat waved
and conspicuously parted in the middle.

Head with dense and small, partially concealed punctures, a narrow oblique
ridge from each eye to clypeal suture. Antennae with basal joint and three joints
of club large, some of the small ones serrated. Prothorax with punctures as on
head, median line narrow but distinct. Elytra parallel-sided to near apex, evenly
striated throughout, some of the striae joined posteriorly but not decreasing in
depth, with rather narrow punctures; interstices densely and minutely punctate
or shagreened. Metasternum with crowded shallow punctures, distinctly larger
than those on abdomen; median line narrow. Basal segment of abdomen in
middle slightly longer than second, and shorter than fifth, the three median ones
with straight sutures. Length, 4-55 mm.

A dingy species, somewhat resembling Sitodrepa panicea on an enlarged
scale. Three specimens were obtained on the island, and they all have the pro-
thoracic pubescence somewhat waved and conspicuously parted in the middle.
iy pe; 1. 915685.

Pronus magniventris, n. sp.

Dull castaneous-brown, under-surface of head and antennae paler. Densely
clothed with depressed, very short, pale pubescence.

Head with crowded and small punctures; a narrow oblique carina from each
eye to clypeal suture. Antennae with first joint large, fourth to eighth inwardly
triangular, ninth (first of club) largest of all, the tenth and eleventh large.
Prothorax with crowded and small punctures,. median line scarcely traceable.
Elytra rather long, parallel-sided to near apex, strongly and evenly striated, the
striae with rather small punctures; interstices separately convex, with minute
punctures or shagreened. Metasternum with crowded and shallow but fairly
large punctures, conspicuously larger than on abdomen; median line narrow.
Basal segment of abdomen in middle somewhat longer than second or fifth, the
three median ones with straight sutures. Length, 6-65 mm.

Hab.—Western Australia: Swan River (A. M. Lea). ,

In general appearance fairly close to P. medianus, and the prothoracic
pubescence is slightly waved, but it is not conspicuously parted in the middle.

A specimen from New South Wales (Galston) is certainly close to this
species, but it is darker, has smaller eyes (this, however, may be sexual), and
there is a more distinct, although feeble, gutter on each side of the pronotum;
but as in other respects it agrees closely with the types, it was not regarded as
distinct.

358

TENEBRIONIDAE.
Caediomorpha heteromera, King. Helaeus castor, Pasc.
Cestrinus aspersus, Blackb. Saragus oleatus, Carter

Exangeltus gracilior, Blackb.

CURCULIONIDAE.

In addition to the other species recorded, a single specimen was obtained of
an interesting one belonging to the same genus as Myositia crucigera, Blackb.,
but which Blackburn afterward stated did not belong to Myositta, but probably
to Agestra. Unfortunately it is an abraded female, so it is undesirable to
name it.

Euthyphasis lineata, Lea. Three specimens from the island appear to belong
to this species, of which previously only the type was known; they differ from
it in having the clothing less lineate in appearance on the prothorax, and not at
all lineate on the elytra, on one of them it has a distinctly golden gloss on the
upper-surface, and a slight gloss on the under-surface; on the others the gloss
is faint on the under-surface, and on the upper-surface the scales are mostly of
an opaque white, mixed with muddy-grey. The type was not abraded, but one
of the island ones has been partly abraded, and its elytral punctures are seen to
be large, close together, and wider than the interstices.

Mandalotus murrayi, n. sp.
Piivxcexits figs, 4015)

$. Castaneous to dark brown, some parts occasionally almost black.
Densely clothed with pale scales, obscurely or moderately mottled with small
patches of greyish or brownish ones; in addition with numerous pale setae, on
the elytra condensed to form a single row on each interstice.

Head with punctures concealed. Eyes small. Rostrum gibbous between
antennae, derm concealed. Antennae with scape slightly curved and moderately
stout, almost as long as funicle and club combined, first joint of the latter stout
and moderately long. Prothorax moderately transverse, sides somewhat dilated
to apical third and then strongly narrowed to apex; with small, flattened granules,
and a rather feeble median line. Elytra gently but not quite evenly arcuate at
base; striate-punctate, punctures large but appearing small through clothing,
interstices gently convex, with dense and small, concealed punctures. Abdomen
with basal segment somewhat flattened, with two small tubercles close together
at the middle of its apex. Front coxae almost touching, middle ones moder-
ately, the hind ones widely separated. Length, 375-425 mm.

@. Differs in being slightly more robust, basal segment of abdomen gently
convex, without tubercles, and legs and antennae slightly shorter.

The two small tubercles on the abdomen of the male associate this species
with M. lutosus, but on that species the small tubercles are so placed that the
distance between them is about equal to the length of the second segment; on
the present species they are closer together, the distance between them being
scarcely half the length of that segment; the present species also is larger, with
the scape and basal joint of antennae stouter, and setae of elytra pale instead
of dark.. On three specimens the colour of the derm is almost black, on three
others it is almost entirely castaneous, but on most of the others the prothorax is
distinctly darker than the elytra. Type, I. 15723.

Rhinaria maculiventris, n. sp.

Black or blackish-brown, some parts obscurely paler. Densely clothed with
scales conspicuously variegated on upper-surface, white on under-surface except

359

for dark spots on each side of third and fourth abdominal segments; in addition
with numerous stout setae, wider on under-surface than elsewhere, seriate on
elytra, and becoming thin on legs.

Head with dense punctures, each containing a scale; a comparatively small
crest in front, posteriorly diverging to margin of each eye for a short distance.
Rostrum short, concave, and with a few punctures along middle; sides flat,
highly polished, and with rather sparse, conspicuous punctures. Club of
antennae elongate. Prothorax with sides strongly and evenly rounded; punc-
tures dense and rather large, but almost concealed. Elytra conspicuously wider
than prothorax, sides parallel to near apex; with rows of large, partially concealed
punctures, each containing a stout seta or scale; interstices evenly convex and
wider than punctures, each with a row of setae, and towards base with small
granules. Length, 7-9 mm.

The rostrum concave along the middle and polished on the sides, elytra with
even interstices on which granules are few and inconspicuous, and the maculate
abdomen distinguish this from all previously described species. Structurally it
is closer to Rk. faceta than to any other species before me, but that species has
distinct rows of granules and a white fascia on elytra, sides of rostrum clothed,
and abdomen immaculate. As on most species of the genus, the markings of
the upper-surface are variable, the scales are black, white, and ochreous, inter-
mingled in small patches, on some specimens the white scales are in the majority,
on most of the others the ochreous ones are, but these vary from almost white
to dark brown; the scutellum, however, appears to be always clothed with white
scales. The granules on the elytra are all small and are mostly on the basal half,
but they are usually concealed by the clothing; the seriate punctures appear to
be narrower than the interstices, but after the scales have been abraded they are
seen to be slightly wider than them. The male has slightly longer legs than
the female, and the basal segment of its abdomen is slightly depressed in the
middle, that of the female being slightly convex there. A single specimen was
taken on the island, but Messrs. B. A. Feuerheerdt and F. Secker took others at
JLucindale.

Belus brunneus, Guer. Fragments of at least nine specimens of this species
were taken from the stomach of a thickhead (Pachycephala gutturalis).

Desiantha maculata, Blackb. In the original description of this widely
distributed species the under-surface was not even mentioned; on the male there
is a conspicuous depression on the basal segment of abdomen, continued on to
the second segment and also on to the metasternum; its apical segment has a
small median fovea, sometimes scarcely traceable. On the female the basal seg-
ment is convex in the middle and the apical one has a cavity occupying rather
more than the median third; its metasternum has a large depression but smaller
than on the male. Numerous specimens from the island may represent a variety
of the species, they differ from some cotypes and other specimens in the average
size being larger (up to 65 mm.), the elytra less conspicuously maculate, and
the scales occasionally with a golden or golden-green gloss.

Xeda, sp. A single badly abraded specimen of this genus was obtained; it
belongs to a large species about the size of X. magistra or X. fasciata, but could
not be identified with certainty.

Decilaus auricomus, Lea.
Eleagna squamibunda, Pasc.
Aphela algarum, Pasc.

A. helopoides, Pasc. One of the specimens of this apterous beach-
frequenting species was taken from the stomach of Hirundo neoxena, a rather
curious record for this bird, which usually captures its prey on the wing.

360

Halorhynchus caecus, Woll. (Pl. xxxi., fig. 6.) Several specimens were
obtained. Although a widely distributed species, it seems remarkable that this
curious, little, apterous, blind species should occur on such a small island.

COCCINELLIDAE.

In addition to the species noted a single specimen was obtained of a minute
species probably belonging to Scymnus, and about the size of S. vagans; it
differs from that species in the eyes having coarser facets, metasternum with
smaller punctures, and prothorax obscurely reddish; but as its sex is not evident,
and it appears to be partly abraded, it does not appear desirable to name it.

Scymnus flavifrons, Blackb. A small form of this variable species; the
elytra entirely dark, or with only the tips obscurely reddish.

Rhizobius nitidus, Blackb. A single specimen was obtained on the island;
it, and all the others before me, have the suture very narrowly blackish, a char-
acter not mentioned in the original description.

Coccinella transversalis, Fab.

COR YEOR HibAI:

Sericoderus inconspicuus, Lea.

EXPLANATION OF 'PLATE -XXXi1.

Phycosecis algarum, Pasc.
Pitnus australiae, Lea.
Pronus medianus, Lea.
Mandalotus murrayi, Lea.
Mandalotus murrayi, Lea.
Halorhynchus caecus, Woll.

Auk ONO

361

THE FLORA AND FAUNA OF NUYTS ARCHIPELAGO AND THE
INVESTIGATOR GROUP.

No. 12—STOMACH CONTENTS OF PEARSON ISLAND BIRDS.

By ArtHurR M. Lea, F.E.S., Museum Entomologist.
(Contribution from the South Australian Museum.)

[Read October 11, 1923.]

This paper deals with the stomach contents of a few birds obtained on
Pearson Island and commented upon by Prof. J. B. Cleland in No. 9 of this
series (ante, p. 119). Only the technical names of the birds are given here.
For the names of parts of plants we are indebted to Mr. J. M. Black.

Chalcites basalis, Horsf. Crammed with small hairy caterpillars; one lady-
bird beetle, Coccinella transversalis.

Hirundo neoxena, Gould. Small fly, Muscidae; bits of many minute flies;
bits of small flying ants; beach weevil, Aphela helopoides; many other minute
fragments of insects.

Petroica goodenovu, V. & H. (1) Large caterpillar, probably Hepialidae ;
sand beetle, Cestrinus aspersus. (2) Forceps of two earwigs, Antsolabis australis ;
bits of two beach weevils, Decilaus sp.; bit of leaf-eating beetle, Tomyris sp.;
bits of small spider; fine grit.

Pachycephala pectoralis, Lath. (1) Crammed with fragments of thin plant
weevil, Belus brunneus; nine heads of this destructive species were counted.
(2) Three small moths; eight small caterpillars; small ant, Pheidole sp.; small
jumping spider, Attidae; many minute fragments of insects.

Ephthianura albifrons, J. & S. (1) Bits of small destructive weevil,
Desiantha maculata; bits of two small tenebrion beetles, Micrectyche sp.; head
of small flying ant; other minute fragments of insects; numerous fruiting
perianths of Threlkeldia diffusa. (2) Bits of larval grasshopper, Coryphistes
obscurobrunneus, bits of small weevil, Desiantha maculata; bits of two tenebrion
beetles, Micrectyche sp.; head of minute beetle; numerous fruiting perianths of
Threlkeldia diffusa.

Zosterops lateralis, Lath. (1) Bits of small dipterous flies; bits of small
plant bug, Pentatomidae; twenty fruiting perianths of Threlkeldia diffusa, one
of Enchylaena tomentosa, and one of globular fruit, probably of an Eremophila.
(2) Three small caterpillars; two larger ones; two larval membracid bugs;
head of small clavicorn beetle; a few unidentified fragments; numerous fruiting
perianths of T. diffusa. (3) Crammed with small yellow flies and fragments of
others.

Corvus coronoides, V. & H. Seven caterpillars; bits of large larval grass-

hopper, Coryphistes obscurobrunneus; bones probably of small lizard; fruiting
perianth of Threlkeldia diffusa.

362

THE FLORA AND FAUNA OF NUYTS ARCHIPELAGO AND THE
INVESTIGATOR GROUP.

No. 13—ORTHOPTERA.

By Norman B. TINDALE.

(Contribution from the South Australian Museum.)
[Read October 11, 1923.]
PLaTE XXXII.

The small collection which is the subject of this paper was made by Prof.
F. Wood Jones. The islands from which specimens were received are Pearson,
Greenly, South Neptune, Price, and Franklin. A grasshopper and an earwig
are described and figured as new, and the male, previously unknown, of the
cockroach Platyzosteria brunnea, Tepper, is figured. Several of the species are
also recorded from the Sir Joseph Banks Group, from specimens taken by the
author during March, 1923.

ORTHORTERA:

Family BLATTIDAE.

Loboptera halmaturina, Tepper. Four specimens were taken on Pearson
Island, and others on Reevesby Island and at Mount Lofty, and they agree well
with Tepper’s types from Kangaroo Island.

Calolampra irrorata, Fabricius. Two immature specimens from Pearson
and St. Francis Islands. Also taken on Spilsby Island.

Calolampra notabilis, Tepper. An immature male from South Neptune
Island and a male from St. Francis Island.

Platyzosteria brunnea, Tepper. (Pl. xxxii., figs. 1, 2.) Seven males and.
three females were taken on Pearson Island. The species was described from
Gilbert River and Kangaroo Island, and the specimen described by Tepper as a.
male is a female. A male of the species P. communis, Tepper, was also described
as belonging to the present species. <A figure of the male is given, and one of the
type female, to show the apex of abdomen. The male closely resembles the
female, but is generally smaller, the supra-anal lamina is less strongly developed,
and less serrated. The supra-anal lamina is generally notched at apex, but in
one specimen taken the notch is absent. The colour in all specimens is a dark
brownish-black, and the lateral margins of pronotum, mesonotum, and meta-
notum have a submarginal pale-yellowish vitta. The antennae are brown with.
the base darker.

Oniscosoma granicollis, Saussure. A female from Pearson Island and two.
larvae from Reevesby Island.

Family PHANEROPTERIDAE.
Taeniomena soror, Brunner. Price Island, one male.

Family ACRIDIIDAE.
Urnisa rugosa, Saussure. A female of this species was collected on Franklin.
Island. The species is very close to U. erythrocnemus, but can be at once dis-
tinguished by the dull-purplish apical half of the posterior tibiae, the lighter

363

reddish colour of the basal half, and the inner face of the femora. It has been
confused with O. sobria, Walker=U. erythrocnemis, Stal.

Coryphistes obscurobrunneus, Tepper. A female from Franklin Island.
Both sexes were taken on Reevesby Island by burning the low scrub.

Peakesia rugosa, n. sp.
Pl. xxxii., figs. 4, 5.

?. Head with frontal costa deeply excavated above and below ocellus,
margins wavy, not parallel, narrowest below ocellus. Fastigium of vertex long,
somewhat broad, impressed, apex bluntly triangular, sides slightly converging
posteriorly, median carina of vertex ending abruptly within base of fastigium;
antennae short, stout, the joints short and swollen. Pronotum rugged, angular,
transverse in front, sides retreating; the posterior lobe produced; three longi-
tudinal well-developed carinae on pronotum above, the outer ones diverging
posteriorly, three moderately deep transverse sulci, which, viewed from the side,
give the appearance of two rounded swellings in the median carina; anterior
and posterior margins densely punctured; inferior margin angular, rounded,
lowest in middle; prosternal tubercle long, cylindrical, slightly compressed.

Dark brownish, vertex and upper-surface of pronotum lighter, antennae
brown, apical half darker. Pronotum brownish, the carinae obscurely marked
with darker brown. Elytra with basal portion dark brown, the fore-margin
and apex light brown, obscurely spotted with darker brown. Wings hyaline,
apex darkened, base suffused pale yellowish. Anterior and median legs brown;
posterior legs with femora brown, obscurely marked with brownish-black on
internal and external margins above; the tibiae brown, the basal fifth lighter.
Length with elytra 28 mm., abdomen 17 mm., pronotum 65 mm., antennae
8 mm., elytra 20 mm., posterior femora 16 mm., posterior tibiae 13 mm.

Hab.—South Australia: Greenly Island (F. Wood Jones). Type female,
I. 14429.

Three specimens were taken; one was bleached with spirit and a second
specimen rather shrivelled. The species is allied to P. palliata, Sjostedt, but
differs from that species in its smaller size, broader fastigium, short, thick-set
antennae, angular pronotum, and brownish posterior tibiae.

Peakesia palliata, Sjostedt. (PI. xxxii., fig. 3.) There is before me a
single specimen of this species from Ooldea (A. M. Lea) which agrees well with
Sjostedt’s description and figure. It has the posterior femora pale brown and
the tibiae dull green (in the type they were missing). A figure is given for
comparison with P. rugosa.

Phaulacridium gemini, Sjostedt. Three females were taken on Pearson and
Greenly Islands. They were all of the semi-apterous form and differ somewhat
from mainland specimens.

Family LABIDURIDAE.

Labidura truncata, Kirby. A male and female of the fully winged form of
this species were taken on Pearson Island.

Anisolabis australis, n. sp.

6. Head smooth, convex, almost circular in outline, but anterior portion
produced; eyes small, projecting a little, viewed from above nearly triangular
and longer than wide; antennae short, 14-jointed, the basal joints ovate, becoming
more elongated towards apex; the basal joint long, the second small, the third
large, nearly as long as fourth and fifth combined. Pronotum almost a square;
slightly wider posteriorly, smooth, with a median and latero-marginal sutures ;
mesonotum rectangular, wider than long, with median suture well developed;

364
metanotum transverse, the posterior margin concave, suture not prominent.
Abdomen smooth, polished, the fifth and sixth segments widest, narrowing pos-
teriorly; last dorsal segment large, transverse, narrowed posteriorly, a median
sulcus and lateral sulci distinct; a swelling on posterior margin above the keel
of forceps. Forceps short, stout, subcontiguous, above with a keel; inner
margin with a number of small teeth on basal half.

Head black with the antennae brown. The thorax brownish, the abdomen
brownish-black becoming darker posteriorly; the last dorsal segment and
forceps somewhat reddish-brown. Legs light brown, with a darker area on
anterior margin of femora. Length, 10 mm.

R

Fig. A.
Antsolabis australis, Tindale.
Male.

9. Similar to the male, larger, antennae 13-jointed, the forceps contiguous,
stout, more sinuate on outer margin. Length, 12 mm.

Hab.—South Australia: Pearson Island (T. D. Campbell, F. Wood Jones),
Spilsby and Reevesby Islands (N. B. Tindale). Types, I. 14430.

The species is represented from Pearson Island by five immature specimens
and one damaged female. The type specimens were taken together under a
stone on Spilsby Island and were at first confused with the cosmopolitan
A. annulipes, Lucas, but a comparison with Adelaide specimens of that species
shows them to be quite distinct. The male has the forceps of a different type,
more symmetrical, wider at base, and less incurved at apex. The number of
joints of the antennae in the thirteen specimens examined ranges from 12 to 14,.
and the 14-jointed specimens are all males.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXXII.

Platyzosteria brunnea, Tepper, male, Pearson Island.
a a 5 type female, Gilbert River.
Peakesia palliata, Sjostedt, female, Ooldea.
a rugosa, Tindale, type female, Greenly Island.
3 HS " cotype female, Greenly Island.

OE Cont

365

THE FLORA AND FAUNA OF NUYTS ARCHIPELAGO AND THE
INVESTIGATOR GROUP.

No. 14—THE BASIDIOMYCETOUS FUNGI OF PEARSON ISLAND,
GREAT AUSTRALIAN BIGHT.

By J. Burton CLELAND, M.D.
ldxead @ciober sli 19235|

Considering that the visit of Professor Wood Jones’ party to Pearson
Island was in the middle of summer (January, 1923), and had been preceded
by a long spell of dry weather, and that, as far as fresh water is concerned, this
island is practically waterless, the utmost that could be expected was that a few
woody bracket fungi and dried puff-balls might be found. No idea would be
obtained of the species of fleshy agarics and of delicate, more ephemeral kinds
that doubtless are to be met with during the wet season. These expectations
were realized. These records, therefore, in no way indicate, as far as concerns
the higher fungi, the floral potentialities of this island.

The spores of the higher fungi, in many cases liberated in millions from -
the fruiting bodies, may, according to Buller (Researches on Fungi), take about
half a minute to fall an inch in a perfectly still atmosphere. When currents of
air catch them, they may remain almost indefinitely suspended, according to the
direction of these, and may be wafted hither and thither, doubtless over enor-
mous distances. In this way the spores probably of many species on the
adjacent and even distant parts of the mainland of Australia get carried into the
upper regions of the atmosphere and may be directed by favourable winds to
this small island 40 miles from the coast. To germinate and establish themselves
they require the particular organic menstruum necessary to them, as well as suit-
able conditions of warmth and moisture. Of the spores of many species reaching
the island, few are likely to find the exact conditions they require. In this
connection, it was interesting to find the presence of the bracket fungus, Poly-
porus decipiens, a purely Australian species found growing on dead or living
Casuarina wood, and rarely, if at all, on the wood of other genera. Here,
again, it was met with on the dead wood of C. stricta, Ait.

But, apart from wind dispersal and from the accidental introduction of
spores attached to the clothing and other accompaniments of the few human
beings who have visited this island, there is another way by which the presence
of certain fungi may be explained. They may represent the descendants of
species occupying this area of land when it was separated, ages ago, from the
mainland. It is impossible to suggest that any particular species found, more
than another, had such an origin—all, some, or none may have been so derived.

Two polypores and a Corticium represent the only members of the
Hymenomycetes found.

Amongst the Gasteromycetes, there were four species of Geaster, a rounded
Polysaccum, a Lycoperdon, and a Catastoma. Of particular interest was the
finding of Geaster fornicatus, arising from a mass of whitish mycelium binding
together fragments of soil and vegetable débris, in exactly the same way as in
specimens from Mullumbimby, in New South Wales, found by the writer. The
only other additional locality in which I have found this species was near Hallett’s

366

Cove in South Australia. As an anomaly, a specimen of one Geaster showed
the presence of two mouths.

Polystictus cinnabarinus, Jacq. On dead wood. A widely distributed species
probably occurring throughout Australia.

Polyporus (Hexagona) decipiens, Berk. On dead wood of Casuarina
stricta, Ait., near the summit of the tallest peak. Spores pallid brown, 175 to
198 to 95 ». Associated with these typical specimens, but growing from the
upper surfaces of the logs, were sessile, or nearly completely sessile, nummular
round or oval polypores, the largest 1815 mm., the others 11 mm. or less in
size. The substance was thin, the upper surface marked with shallow rather
hexagonal honeycomb-like pits, varying in diameter in different specimens from
about 1 to 3mm. The size of the orifices was considerably larger than in typical
H. decipiens. The colour also was a dark cinnamon-brown, in contrast to the
greyish-brown of the normal hymenial surface. The spores, however, were of
the pallid brown colour of those of H. decipiens and obliquely elliptical to
rather mummy-shaped. Their size was somewhat larger than in the case of
the normal plants, being 22595 ». I have no doubt that these were merely
abnormal examples of H. decipiens, growing in an unusual situation, the upper
surface-of. a fallen log.

Corticium sp. A milk-white Corticium, found on a fallen log, seems close
to C. lacteum, Fr. Waxy-membranaceous, effused, but the edge not fibrillose,
flesh slightly isabelline, spores not seen.

Polysaccum pisocarpium, Fr., var. tuberosum. Globose, 25 cm. in diameter,
surface now pallid, spores rough, 8 to 9 p.

Lycoperdon polymorphum, Vitt. Sterile base definite, of small cells. Moder-
ately developed root. Spores yellow-brown, smooth or slightly rough, 5 BS
capillitium brown, branching, ends blunt, 25 to 5 » in diameter.

Catastoma, sp. A single battered specimen was obtained. Exoperidium
ill-defined, mouth not now recognizable, gleba “Prout’s Brown” (Ridgway,
pl. xv.). Spores yellow-brown, smooth, pedicles not seen, spherical to slightly
irregular or slightly oval, 4 to 6 »; capillitium brown, 2 to 3 5 » in diameter,
usually:.in short lengths with blunt ends and with occasional knob-like
thickenings.

-Geaster minimus, Schw. Under Casuarina, etc., near the summit of the
tallest peak; the other Geasters were found in the same situation. Spores dark
brown, slightly rough, 6 up.

Geaster fornicatus, Batt. A number of typical specimens were found
amongst’ the leaf-mould near Casuarinas, etc. The mould was permeated through
and through with the white mycelium which bound the particles together so that
it could be lifted in considerable masses. Spores dark brown, very slightly
rough, 6 p.

Geaster saccatus, Fr. Some badly damaged old specimens appear to belong
to this species.

Geaster sp. Exoperidium not incurved, divided beyond the middle into
about 9 to 11 narrow acute lobes. Endoperidium dark coloured, now smooth;
mouth sulcate, scarcely protruding. Gleba dark purplish-brown. Spores very
dark brown, rough, 65 p.

367

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
No. 21.

By J. M. Brack.
[Read October 11, 1923.]

CENTROLEPIDACEAE,

Centrolepis Murrayi, n. sp. Herba annua nana glabra 5-6 mm. alta,
foliis subulatis, laminis 3-6 mm. longis, vaginis perbrevibus, foliis interioribus
ad vaginas accretas bracteiformes reductis basin bractearum floriferarum arcte
amplexantibus, scapis nullis, bracteis floriferis sessilibus aut subsessilibus folia
aequantibus, exteriore cum lamina vel arista foliacea parti vaginanti aequilonga,
interiore exaristata mucronulata, flore solitario intra bracteas et sine squamis,.
carpellis 8-10.

BIS

Centrolepis Murrayi.—A, plant enlarged. B, the 2 floral bracts embraced
at base by the broad sheath of an inner leaf. C, inner floral bract and
flower. D, seed. E, plant, natural size.

Specimens of this plant in fruit only were collected by Professor Osborn
in the Casuarina forest on North Pearson Island in January, 1923. He was
afterwards successful in growing it from seed at the Adelaide University, and at
his suggestion it has been named in honour of Sir George Murray, K.C.M.G.,
LL.M., Chief Justice of South Australia, who assisted the expedition to the
Pearson Islands by a generous donation.

It differs from most other described species of Centrolepis by the complete
absence of scape, the floral bracts being sessile or almost so among the inner
leaves, which are for the most part reduced to the enlarged sheath, one such
sheath clasping the base of each pair of floral bracts and always on the side
occupied by the inner or upper bract. In size it takes its place among the other
small moss-like tufted species, but differs from C. humillima, F. v. M., by the
2 floral bracts, the absence of scales, and the large number of carpels; from
C. cephaloformis, Reader, by the absence of scape, the awnless inner bract, and
the solitary flower; from C. muscoides, Hieron., by the absence of scape, the
awnless inner bract, the solitary flower, and the absence of scales; from C.

368

inconspicua, W. V. Fitzg., by the much shorter leaves and awns of the floral
bracts, the solitary flower, the absence of scales, and the much more numerous
carpels. The Pearson Islands lie about 40 miles off the western coast of Eyre
Peninsula, but it is very possible that so minute a plant has been overlooked on
the mainland.

CHENOPODIACEAE.

Kochia excavata, n. sp. Herbula perennis procumbens, foliis sericeo-
villosis linearibus 8-10 mm. longis, perianthio fructifero 10-12 mm. diametro
alam horizontalem saepe rubellam comprehendente glabro vel tomentello, tubo
3-4 mm. longo herbaceo circa medium constricto denique in basin latam excavatam
ampliato.

Port Willunga northwards to Flinders Range; Murray lands. Also north-
western Victoria. The type was collected at Spalding. The perianth-tube, con-
stricted about the middle and then expanded downwards into a broad hollow
base, renders the fruit of this species very distinct.

Var. trichoptera, n. var. Ramis saepius longioribus quam in typo, floribus
in longas spicas aggregatis folia floralia fere occulentibus, perianthio fructifero
5-10 mm. diametro alam albo-tomentosam comprehendente, tubo tomentoso circa
2 mm. longo.

Dublin scrub to Flinders Range; Musgrave and Gawler Ranges; Murray
lands. Also near Broken Hill in New South Wales. Differs considerably from
the type in the inflorescence, but the perianth, although somewhat smaller, has
the same shape.

Kochia tomentosa, (Mogq.) F. v. M., var. enchylaenoides, n. var. Caule
ramisque lanatis, foliis tomentosis 5-10 mm. longis; perianthio fructifero
depresso-globoso demum nigrescente et eum Enchylaenae tomentosae simulante,
summo tubo margine angusto cincto qui saepe in alam 1 mm. latam extenditur,
perianthii lobis prebrevibus ciliatis. | Varietas forsan potius pro specie
distinguenda.

Near Charlotte Waters, coll. S. A. White. This variety differs from
Queensland specimens of K. tamariscina (Lindl.) comb. nov. in the woolly more
robust stems, the woolly and longer leaves, the flowers less crowded along the
branches and in the perianth, whose lobes are minute and in the centre of the
flattened summit; the perianth is also slightly beaked at one side by the pro-
truding radicle, quite in the manner of Enchylaena tomentosa. In K. tamariscina
the leaves are 2-5 mm. long and scantily pubescent, while the perianth-lobes are
comparatively large and cover the summit of the perianth, which is not
beaked—Suaeda tamariscina, Lindl. (1848); Enchylaena microphylla, Mog.
(1849) ; Kochia microphylla, (Moq.) F. v. M. (1874). The new variety should
perhaps be distinguished as a species.

Bassia paradoxa, (R. Br.) F. v. M., var. latifolia, n. var. WVariat foltis
15-25 mm. longis 5-8 mm. latis dense tomentosis, capitulis 15 mm. diametro,
spinis (in exemplaribus nostris) ad 5 brevia cornua obtusa reductis.

Strzelecki Creek, near Innamincka, coll. S. A. White.

AMARANTACEAE.

Ptilotus Murrayi, F. v. M., var. major, n. var. Variat caulibus foltisque
majoribus, foliis potius ovatis quam oblongis 8-15 mm. longis, spicis cylindricis
8-30 mm. longis, perianthio 3-4 mm. longo medio viridi vel flavescente.

Collected by R. Cockburn in the Far North-East, without exact locality.

Amarantus Mitchellii, Benth., var. grandiflora, n. var. Variat perianthii

segmentis 5-6 imm. longis, exterioribus fere obovatis, fructu et semine majoribus.
Forsan species nova.

369

Only known by one specimen in the Tate Herbarium, from Mount Parry,
near Lake Torrens.
AIZOACEAE.

Trianthema crystallina, Vahl var. clavata, n. var. Variat foliis suculentis
clavatis 6-10 mm. longis.

Far North and westward to Musgrave Range.

PORTULACACEAE.

Calandrinia remota, n. sp. Species C. polyandrae habitu floribusque
persimilis, stylis crassioribus basi breviter coalitis, staminibus oblongis, seminibus
numerosis laevissimis nitentibus suborbicularibus colorem sucineum trahentibus
4-3 mm. diametro.

Gawler Range; northern part of Flinders Range to Cooper’s Creek. A
Parakeelya near C. polyandra, (Hook.) Benth., and C. balonnensis, Lindl., but
differs from all the other large-flowered species in its very smooth shining
suborbicular amber-coloured seeds. C. pleiopetala, F. v. M., has also smooth
seeds, but they are uniform and dark coloured, and the petals are narrow and
8 or 9 in number, while those of C. remota are 5 and obovate in shape.

CRUCIFERAE. 2

Hutchinsia eremaea, n. sp. Herba annua procumbens pilis bifurcis
appressis pubescens, foliis radicalibus lyrato-pinnatifidis obtuse lobatis,
superioribus oblanceolatis remote paucidentatis, sepalis 2 mm. longis, petalis
paulo longioribus verisimiliter albis cum lamina orbiculari, pedicellis fructiferis
patenti-erectis 5-8 mm. longis, silicula ovata vel ovato-oblonga 6-8 mm. longa
plus minusve pubescente apice parum alata et emarginata, stylo vix exserto,
seminibus 3-6 in utroque locello ovoideis brunneis 2 mm. longis, cotyledonibus
incumbentibus.

Murray lands; Nullarbor Plain. Also in the Grey Range, New South
Wales.

LEGUMINOSAE.

Acacia calamifolia, Sweet, var. euthycarpa, n. var. Variat legumine fere
directilineo laevi 7-11 cm. longo 6-7 mm. lato; funiculo semen duplici plicatura
emnino cingente.

Southern districts; Yorke Peninsula; Kangaroo Island; Eyre Peninsula.
A. juncifolia, Benth., has a somewhat similar pod and phyllodia, but the funicle
is very different.

Acacia sclerophylla, Lindl., var lissophylla, n. var. Variat phyllodiis
rigidissimis laevibus glaucis 15-25 mm. longis 3-4 mm. latis in parte superiore.
nervis tantum sub lenticula visibilibus, mucrone saepius recurvo, pedunculis
geminis 2-4 mm. longis.

Yorke Peninsula. A variety distinguished chiefly by its very hard, smooth
phyllodia.

Indigofera longibractea, n. sp. Fruticulus pilis appressis griseo-
tomentosus, foliolis 5-15 oblongo-cuneatis oppositis obtusis vel retusis 4-20 mm.
longis, stipulis saepius spinescentibus, racemis folia superantibus, bracteis
subulatis fusco-tomentosis 6 mm. longis alabastra excedentibus, calyce 6 mm.
longo fusco-tomentoso, dentibus acuminatis aequilongis longioribus quam tubus,
vexillo lilacino circa 10 mm. longo, ovario pubescente 6-12-ovulato, legumine
ignoto.

370

Blood’s Creek; near Musgrave Range; also in Central Australia. Appears
to approach nearest to J. brevidens, Benth., but has bracts considerably longer
than the buds, a longer and dark-haired calyx, with teeth of equal length and
longer than the tube; the leaves are often much longer than in J. brevidens.

Acacia aneura, F. v. M., var latifolia, n. var. Variat phyllodiis lineari-
lanceolatis subobtusis rigidis 4-7 mm. latis.

This broad-leaved variety is found in similar situations to the type; its
phyllodia, like those of the narrow-leaved mulga, are always minutely pubescent.

Cassia Sturtii, R. Br., var. involucrata, n. var. Variat tomento crispo
albo, foliolis 3-4-jugis obovatis 14-2 cm. longis circa 10 mm. latis cum glandula
inter utroque jugo inferiore, floribus 4-6 umbellatis involucro bractearum
majuscularum. obovatarum cinctis, una et altera anthera longiore quam ceterae.

Birksgate Range, coll. R. Helms.

Pultenaea trinervis, n. sp. Frutex habitu ad P. involucratam accedens,
foliis ovato-lanceolatis rigidis 8-15 mm. longis supra concavis glabris infra villosis
trinervibus in mucronem fere pungentem desinentibus, petiolis circa 2 mm. longis,
floribus in axillis ramulorum, calyce 4 mm. longo in lobis acuminatis pubescente
stipulis involuto, bracteis nullis, bracteolis ovato-oblongis brunneis concavis sub
calyce insertis, ovario villoso.

Mount Lofty Range; near Port Lincoln.

This plant was. placed by Bentham under P. willifera, Sieb., as var.
(?) australis, but Mr. H. B. Williamson, the monographer of the genus, agrees
with me that it would be better to treat it as a distinct species. It appears to
stand nearer to P. involucrata, Benth., than to P. villifera.

P. villifera, Sieb., var. glabrescens, n. var. Foliis fere planis latioribus
15-20 mm. longis 6-7 mm. latis in mucronem pungentem 2 mm. longum abeuntibus
prope basin ciliatis cetera glabris, nervo medio infra conspicuo lateralibus minus
claris, petiolo pubescente 4-1 mm. longo, calyce 5 mm. longo viscido, bracteolis
lanceolatis.

Western River, Kangaroo Island. Coll. H. Griffith.

371

NOTES ON:THE GEOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE MEADOWS VALLEY.
By, De MAWSON, Kar) DESC. shee S:
[Read October) 11,11923:]

PHYSIOGRAPHY.

Two valuable papers“ have been written on the Geology and Physiography
of the Meadows Valley by Dr. E. O. Teale.

The present contribution supplies some additional facts, more particularly
relating to the vicinity of Blackfellow’s Creek, which, though not a confluent of
the Meadows Creek itself, is nevertheless embraced within the major boundaries
of the Meadows Valley, namely, the Willunga Range and the Mount Magnificent
Range. These latter ridges are remarkably accordant in height and are remnants
of a former peneplanation. Between them is a broad shallow valley from five
to six miles wide, with a floor at a level of about 1,000 feet above the sea and
some 300 feet below the summit line of the ridges on either side.

Towards its northern end, between Wickham’s Hill and Prospect Hill, is
an unbroken depression. Here the rocks on either flank are steeply dipping
quartzite and slaty beds of the Adelaide Series, whilst the central area is deeply
silted up with horizontally bedded clayey and sandy strata of a more recent age.

Southward of this location, a central elevated block of “Barossian” gneissic
rocks occupies much of the region between the limiting ranges. This block of
ancient crystalline rocks is being dissected by three streams, all of which, to the
south, enter the region of Permo-Carboniferous glacial sedimentation already
described by Professor W. Howchin.@ On its western margin is the Myponga
Creek heading up from the south. On its eastern side Blackfellow’s Creek is
cutting its way along the junction of the “Barossian” and “Adelaide Series,” also
heading to the north. Both of these streams are of consequent type. The
Meadows Creek itself flows southward over the soft sedimentary accumulation
of the valley floor until meeting the “Barossian’”’ rocks, through the tough body
of which it flows without deflection. Thus the Meadows Creek occupies an
inherited course. The toughness of the crystalline complex to the south limits
the rate of downward erosion, which has resulted in the preservation of so much
of the soft valley filling as still remains in its upper course. Had the flow of
the Meadows Creek followed strictly consequent lines it would have been con-
tinuous with the Myponga Creek.

Dr. Teale reports“ having found a glaciated boulder in a road cutting near
Dingabledinga School, which is towards the southern end of the Meadows Valley.
That discovery led him to suggest that possibly “‘the Meadows Valley may, in
part, be a trough, the earliest features of which are due to glacial erosion in
Permo-Carboniferous times.”

As a result of numerous visits to that locality before Dr. Teale’s paper was
published, I had begun to suspect that the physiography was likely to be partly
Permo-Carboniferous glacial, and the news of the discovery by Dr. Teale of an
ice-scratched boulder did not come as a great surprise. Since then my atten-
tion has been directed by Mr. W. Durward, Chief Forester of the Government

() “The Physiography of the Meadows Valley,” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xlvi., 1922,
p. 160. “Soil Survey and Forest Physiography oi Kuitpo,” Bulletin No. 6, Dept. of Forestry,
University of Adelaide.

(2) “Description of a new and extensive area of Permo-Carboniferous Glacial Deposits
in South Australia,” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xxxiv., 1910, p. 231.

(3) Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xlvi., 1922, p. 163.

372

Forest of Kuitpo, to the existence of two large boulders of granite in the forest
area. These occur in Section 3419, Hundred of Kuitpo, approximately on the
line of the cross-section between Wickham’s Hill and Prospect Hill, and seven
miles north-east of Dingabledinga.

As found, these granite boulders were about 2 feet and 2 feet 6 inches
diameter respectively, and were not glaciated. In company with other smaller
pebbles they had weathered out of a somewhat sandy surface formation. ‘The
locality is elevated a little above the floor of the valley on a low rise of soft
sandy beds. The boulders are separated by a distance of about a quarter of a
mile. They are both red in colour, due to the abundant development of red
orthoclase felspar. In no essential feature do they differ, though one contains
more biotite than the other. Other minerals present are quartz and a very little
plagioclase. Strain features are noticeable in the microscope slide. The rocks
have every appearance of being a slight modification of the typical red granite
of the Murray River Valley. They are obviously erratics.

There are several areas in the Meadows Valley of a very sandy nature,
notably Sections 216, 211, 209, 207, 206, and 205, which are all in a line leading
to Peter’s Creek. Samples of these surface sandy formations, when examined
microscopically, were found to be constituted of water-worn grains. However, in
the case of a very fine-grained argillaceous sandy bed entered in sinking a well on
Sec. 3454, the particles were seen to be angular splinters, which is characteristic of
glacial sands and muds. In the vicinity of Knott’s Hill, at the head of Peter’s Creek,
the sandy formation is especially well developed and quite 50 feet in thickness in
some places. Here waterworn boulders are so mixed up with it as to constitute a
boulder wash in part, recalling the auriferous formation mapped as Tertiary at
Mylor and other areas in the more northerly sections of the Mount Lofty Ranges.
At this spot the Willunga Range scarp has been notched to a depth of about
200 feet below the general level of the old peneplain to which reference has
been made. This is the only real break in the range between the Onkaparinga
cut in the north and the seaward termination of the range to the south. Dash-
wood’s Gully is a considerable scallop in the range caused by the headward
erosion of its own creek, but at its head the level is still practically that of the
old peneplain.

At Peter’s Creek, however, the Meadows Valley may be entered at an eleva-
tion of little over 1,100 feet above sea level. By continuing down the Meadows
Creek to the Finnis River, the Mount Lofty Range can then be crossed without
rising to any greater height. This is the lowest passage available across the range,
and is the natural route for trunk-line railway communication from one side to
the other. This notch in the old peneplain, now occupied and in process of
deepening by Peter’s Creek, is inherited from an earlier system of drainage
whereby the intermontane waters escaped to the west. ‘The present creek is now
continuing the work of an earlier cycle. Now that the glacio-fluvial character
ot the old filling of the Meadows Valley appears well founded, it suggests itself
that the notch at Peter’s Creek may also be a remnant of old glacial topography.
It is to be noted that the ice heading from Mount Compass in that direction
would be leading towards Hallett’s Cove, where is preserved the most northerly
evidence of the Permo-Carboniferous glaciation yet known in southern South
Australia.

(GEOLOGICAL CROSS-SECTION.

In a traverse across the Meadows Valley from the crest of the Willunga
Range, at a point about a mile south of McLeod’s Hill, sandy and slaty beds,
presumably lower members of the Adelaide Series, are met with on the western
slopes of the valley. At the bottom of the slope in the neighbourhood of

373

Section 63, and elsewhere to the north and south, there appears a considerable
thickness of a coarse felspathic sandstone of a rather crumbly nature. This
resembles very closely the felspathic sandstone constituting the basal beds at
Aldgate, though ilmenite is not a feature of it.. Unfortunately its relation with
the “Barossian”’ rocks forming the elevated block between the Meadows Creek
and Blackfellow’s Creek is obscured by a belt half a mile wide of old valley
deposits, presumably in part a residual of Permo-Carboniferous glacio-fluvial
sedimentation.

The “Barossian” rocks of the elevated block to which reference has just
been made are mainly gneisses. On the eastern side, more or less along the line
of Blackfellow’s Creek itself, they are overlain unconformably by coarse ilmenite-
bearing pebble beds and arkose which constitute the base of a thick series of
slaty and calcareous beds and quartzite extending across the Mount Magnificent
Range towards Strathalbyn. There seems to be no doubt that these beds are the
lower members of the Adelaide Series. They were examined in detail as far as
available outcrops would allow across the range to Bull’s Creek.

The outcrop of the central “Barossian’’ massive opens out to the south and
contracts to the north. No definite outcrop was observed north of Section 253
(Kuitpo), where it is well exposed in the creek bed near an old ruined home-
stead. The ilmenitic basal bed is seen on Section 3412. What features of the
underlying strata are to be noted on Sections 246, 245, 251, 247, and 248 are
indicative of the close proximity to the surface of the gneissic rocks over the area.

ale, JeyZUCOSMZUN SIEIRIVES.

These oldest rocks have been referred to by Dr. E. O. Teale.“ Where
he noted fresh exposures of them they were observed to “consist mainly of
siliceous schists, varying from quartz-schists to sericitic- and chloritic-quartz-
schists, with some phyllitic-schist. They appear to be pegmatised in places, but |
fresh exposures are rare.”

A more extended examination on the Blackfellow’s Creek side has now
revealed extensive areas of gneiss. On Section 90, they outcrop in a fresh
enough state for microscopical examination. There the foliation planes strike
N. 30° E. true and dip at 65° to the E.S.E. A very similar strike was noted
to be a general feature of the formation over a wide area. Three specimens
of gneiss collected at this locality have the following features :—

A coarse Felspar-Quartz-Gneiss. This is an aplitic type without mica and of
coarse irregular texture. It consists principally of orthoclase, though quartz
is also abundant. Scattered grains of plagioclase are present amongst the smaller
material.

Even-grained, aplitic and perthitic, Felspar-Quartzs-Gneiss from the creek
bank near the mine shaft on Section 90. This is composed principally of an
orthoclase-microcline perthite. Plagioclase, answering to oligoclase, is present
in comparatively small amount, partly intergrown as perthite and partly free. The
quartzes are mostly small and rounded, embedded in allotriomorphic felspars and
present only in comparatively small quantity. The quartz shows strain features. A
few grains of zircon and a little leucoxene are present.

Grey Zircon-Syenite-Gneiss from the main north-west to north-east trend-
ing tributary joining Blackfellow’s Creek on Section 90. This is foliated in
fine-grained bands, occasionally giving place to strings of a coarse texture in
which felspar is prominent. Under the microscope the rock is seen to contain
very abundant orthoclase, a little oligoclase and quartz in small quantity only.
Biotite is distributed in very small fragments, and rarely distinct flakes of
muscovite appear. There is, however, a considerable amount of fine sericitic

(4) Bull. No. 6, Dept. of Forestry, University of Adelaide, p. 7.

374

mica developed in the mash as a consequence of dynamic crushing. Some
definite ilmenite is to be observed showing typical leucoxene change; also traces
of hematite make their appearance sporadically. Small colourless zircons are
easily discernible. This rock has evidently been a zircon-syenite which has been
subjected to considerable dynamic force, and thereby suffered crushing and
foliation. The ilmenite content is very distinct in the micro-slide, and as the
basal bed of the sedimentary formation unconformably overlying it is rich in
ilmenite grains, there appears to be every reason to couple the syenitic rock
with the Houghton magma described by Benson? and to regard the sedimentary
formation as the Adelaide Series.

Whilst referring to this magma, it is interesting to note that a dioritic form
of the same was recently found by Mr. C. T. Madigan and myself to underlie
the ilmenitic conglomerate at the Grey Spur, which locality is adjacent to the
Inman Valley, about 20 miles to the south-west of the spot under present con-
sideration. Dr. Benson has reported it at Houghton, Aldgate, Normanville, and,
by inference, at Mount Compass. So that it is to be recognized as the dominant
feature of the ‘““Barossian” Series and the back-bone of the Mount Lofty Ranges.

LAE VAD BILALD ESERIES.

The beds lying unconformably above the gneisses of Blackfellow’s
Creek commence below as coarse arkose and pebble beds in which are
chunks two and three inches in diameter of solid ilmenite. The felspathic
ingredient has been much converted to sericite at the very base, but this
change is less and less marked above. ‘The coarse material is found only
within 20 or 30 feet of the base, for it quickly passes upwards into a massive,
fine-grained, felspathic quartz rock, with just a little mica appearing now and
again and a faint ilmenite veining. In all, the beds of this character, exposed in this
area, must reach 200 feet in thickness. On Sections 90 and 289 of Kuitpo this
basal formation strikes N. 42° E. true and dips at 40° to the S.E.

The overlying beds, which are fortunately fairly regularly disposed, were
examined along two lines of section as far as Bull’s Creek. The bold ridge-line
of the Mount Magnificent Range is outlined by a strong and thick quartzite
horizon, the Mount Magnificent quartzite. Between the base of the series and this
horizon, slaty beds with at least one thin quartzite band were encountered, but the
outcrops were too poor for any connected description. In several places about
a mile south of Prospect Hill, hard resistant nodules of the underlying formation
of a sage-grey colour weathered out of the soil proved to be a tremolite rock.
A study of the microscope section suggests that they probably represent meta-
morphose dolomitic sediments. The quartzite of the Mount Magnificent Range
varies considerably in texture from bed to bed. Where most strongly developed
it was noted to be even-grained and moderately fine in texture but felspathic.

On the down slopes to Bull’s Creek, and overlying the above quartzite,
more shaly beds were met. These pass into calcareous types above. On the
line of section between Prospect Hill and Bull’s Creek at its junction with
Hamilton Springs Creek, a calcareous bar is met at the lower end of Section
3281, Hundred of Kondoparinga, and again more definitely at the junction with
Hamilton Springs Creek. In that neighbourhood Bull’s Creek evidently owes its
location to the existence of this easily eroded line of strata; it is a consequent
stream following a line of easy erosion. At this point on Bull’s Creek is met
a dove-grey marble composed almost entirely of calcite. There are also various
gradations to less pure forms, in some of which brown biotite enters.

(5) Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xxxiii, 1909, p. 101. |

375

These limestones were again noted on the slope further south outcropping
on the Bull’s Creek to Willunga Road. There they are considerably disturbed
in strike.

In Section 3278, Kondoparinga, a bed of hard quartzite occurs and is
quarried for road metal. In the same section also is a reef of barytes.

Throughout the area examined there was found to be a general agreement
in strike of the beds on the west side of the Mount Magnificent Range, and also
over a considerable portion of the eastern slopes. This general strike is
approximately N. 40° E. true. In the vicinity of Bull’s Creek itself, however,
an approximate N. and S. trend prevailed.

The dip is consistently to the E., but more variable than the strike, though
on the whole there is a general concordance ranging from 40° at the base of
the series to 60° at Bull’s Creek. The observations suggest a continuous series.
Assuming this to be the case, and selecting the least disturbed areas and employ-
ing mean figures for the dip, the following thickness of strata is indicated :-—
From the base to the top of the Mount Magnificent quartzite a thickness of
5,000 feet. From this quartzite to the marble formation at the junction of
Hamilton Springs and Bull’s Creek another 3,800 feet is indicated.

376

IGNEOUS ROCKS OF THE MOUNT PAINTER BELT.
By, D.. Mawson,..Kr.; D Se... Res,
[Read October 11, 1923.]
Pirates XXXIII. anp XXXIV.

As a result of two brief visits undertaken some years ago to the neigh-
bourhood of Yudanamutana and Mount Painter, at the north-eastern extremity
of the Flinders Range, a short note was published in the Proceedings of the
Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science“™ defining a belt of
Pre-Cambrian age in that portion of the State.

It was intended to follow up that investigation, but up to the present, owing
principally to its remote situation, no opportunity has presented itself of revisiting
the area. Nevertheless, the great importance of that locality both petrologically
and mineralogically, calls for the publication of such notes as are already to
hand.

The salient feature of the Mount Painter belt is the abundance of igneous
rocks, in part normal igneous types, at other times metamorphosed to gneisses
and schists. To a less extent metamorphic rocks of sedimentary origin are
discernible in this complex.

GENERAL FEATURES OF THE CENTRAL ZONE.

In the more central zone of this Pre-Cambrian belt, namely, in the neigh-
bourhood of Mounts Pitts and Painter, the outcropping rocks are possibly more
largely of igneous origin than in the outer region. Here are dense felsitic and
granitic rocks recalling the Pre-Cambrian porphyry and granite of the Gawler
Ranges and Moonta; also a considerable development of syenite-porphyry, quartz-
felspar-porphyry, felspar- porphyry, and acidic gneisses sometimes exhibiting
augen structure. Crossing both the igneous rocks and the included meta-
morphosed sediments are numerous pegmatite reefs, often composed of very
coarsely crystalline quartz and red felspar, at other times consisting only of
quartz. Pink and red felspars are a notable feature of the rocks of this portion
of the field. Micaceous iron, ilmenite, sphene, and rutile are frequently observed
to be present in notable quantities.

All these rocks have suffered metamorphism to some extent, others are very
far changed, including both chemical reconstruction in the minerals themselves
and mechanical crush.

Besides these obviously igneous forms, there is in this central belt scattered
irregular patches of specially interesting schist formations, notably corundum-
mica-schist, pleonast-mica-schist, pleonast-tourmaline-mica-schist, cordierite-
corundum-schist, cordierite-sillimanite-corundum-schist, cordierite-sillimanite-
schist, etc. In certain localities these schists are notably rich in accessory
tourmaline, monazite, and apatite. These remarkable patches of schist are fre-
quently banded in such a manner as to suggest a former sedimentary origin, but
they frequently merge into normal igneous rock. At the principal corundum-
schist locality, that lying directly in the line between Mount Pitts and Mount
Painter, the dominant rock neighbouring the schists is a quartz-felspar-muscovite-
gneiss. Beyond the fact that pneumatolitic action with the introduction of certain

(1) Sydney Meeting, 1911, p. 118.
(2) “Mineral Notes,” by D. Mawson, Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xl., p. 262.

377

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378

ingredients from without and the depletion of silica is evidenced, we have no very
definite explanation of these formations.

In other localities, still in the central belt, appear zones of weakness along
which intense pneumatolitic and hydatogenous processes have been active. The
great reef formation culminating in Mount Gee is the principal example of this
kind. In this reef the most persistent constituents are quartz, often in drusy
amethystine vughs, and specular iron.“ At intervals other ingredients appear
in notable quantities, including massive barytes, fluorspar (both green, blue, and
black varieties), and uranium ores most commonly autunite and torbernite. On
the eastern side of Mount Painter, in a continuation of the same mineralized
zone, narrow veins of turquoise are associated with the uranium phosphate ores
in a matrix consisting principally of micaceous and specular hematite and quartz.
Several veins of stilbite, associated with fluorite, about 6 inches wide and of
considerable horizontal extension, were found at the extremity of Mount Gee,
extending outwards from the region of the lode formation across the igneous
rocks, thus further attesting to the post-volcanic thermal character of the Mount
Gee formation.

The common uranium minerals of this formation, namely, the autunite and
torbernite, are found as flakes and scales in the more porous portions of the
lode, often as a last mineral to crystallize in the vughs themselves. They are,
therefore, amongst the latest minerals to be introduced. So far no quantity of
uranium-bearing minerals of a more primary or magmatic character have yet
been located, though in.some areas of the lode and in the adjacent country
monazite is quite abundant and may be uraniferous; also over a short distance
in another locality the lode formation is studded with small crystals of brown
fergussonite.

As regards the specific characters of the igneous rocks, unfortunately only a
limited number“ are available for microscopic examination.

Mount GEE TO THE BOLLA-BOLLANA GorRGE.©

The more acidic rocks of the central zone are in marked contrast to the
prevailing basic types of the Bolla-Bollana Creek to the southward. As an
exception, in the former case is a very coarse-grained, basic pegmatite outcrop-
ping about one mile south of Mount Gee in the small creek (Sphene Creek)
leading therefrom to the Bolla-Bollana Creek. This pegmatite is constituted of
coarse uralitic hornblende and clove-brown sphene, the individuals in each case
often reaching 6 inches and more in length. Such a rock would appear to
represent the pegmatite of a dioritic or gabbroic magma.

Passing down Sphene Creek sundry types of gneiss are traversed, some of
which are clearly of sedimentary origin. Elsewhere, also, in the central belt of

(3) “Notes on some Occurrences of Silica near Mount Painter,” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr.,
XXxvi., (1912) 2p: 173:

(4) The major portion of the collection was rendered practically valueless by an accidental
see of the specimens and their labels, which occurred during my subsequent absence
abroad.

(5) In my earlier paper (Proc. Austr. Ass. Adv. Science, 1911, p. 118) this has been
referred to as the Arkaroola Gorge. This confusion has arisen because in that paper I
adopted W. B. Greenwood’s geography of the locality. According to him, Sphene Creek
junctions with the Arkaroola Creek, not the Bolla-Bollana Creek. On the most recent plan
published by the Lands and Survey Department it is quite the reverse. It may be that the
Government plan is in error, for Greenwood had an intimate knowledge of the country. In
the meantime, however, it is safest to adopt the Government survey. As my notes are not
detailed as regards the geography, I find a difficulty in accurately placing the gorge encountered
in the great quartzite on the Bolla-Bollana Creek; so that the position marked with a cross
on the plan herewith is but approximate.

379

Mount Painter rocks, the relics of sedimentary formations were noted, the more
obvious being highly altered quartzite and boulder conglomerate.

On the track down Sphene Creek the more obvious gneisses are crushed
igneous types, amongst which augen-gneiss figures. Igneous rocks which have
suffered only minor metamorphic changes are also present, for instance, granite,
sometimes porphyritic, is a feature, and in some phases its appearance recalls
the Boolcoomata granite of the Olary district.

Two specimens of the more acid igneous rocks from this portion of the
section from known localities are available for description.

The first is a gircon-biotite-syenite which forms a considerable outcrop in
the creek about two miles below Mount Gee. In the hand specimen it
appears as a light-grey rock in which large white felspars, frequently three-
quarters of an inch in length, are the most conspicuous feature. A gneissic
parallelism of these felspars is discernible. Between the porphyritic felspars is
a fine-grained matrix of quartz, felspar, and reddish-brown mica.

The microscope section shows that the rock has undergone some crushing,
the edges of the porphyritic individuals have been granulated, and the fine
base material, which is of an allotriomorphic granular character, exhibits fre-
quent inclusions of one mineral within the other to such a degree as to suggest
recrystallization in part. The porphyritic felspars have the general characters
of anorthoclase Elsewhere the felspars are represented by orthoclase micro-
cline, acid plagioclase, and perthite. Quartz is plentiful but only in small
individuals ; it would appear to be insufficient in quantity to characterise the rock
as a granite. Biotite is plentiful in very small fragments, strongly pleochroic
from colourless to reddish-brown. Small grains and prisms of zircon are com-
paratively numerous. Grains and rods of apatite are rare. This rock seems
best described as a zircon-biotite-syenite.

The second specimen, a somewhat altered quartz-felspar-porphyry, comes
from an outcrop forming a bar in the creek bed about a mile below that just
described. The hand specimen is a pink-coloured, dense rock in which are
discernible small quartzes with a bluish opalescence and the outlines of numerous
porphyritic felspars set in a felsitic base.

In section under the microscope the quartzes are seen to be badly strained.
The felspars, which were apparently orthoclase, are largely changed to crystalline
aggregates; some are quite indistinct relics. The base is constituted of fine
felsitic granules. Grains of magnetite and some very tiny fragments and broken
wedges of colourless sphene are also present as primary minerals. There are
present also some very minute granules of honey-yellow to bottle-green colour
which look like pistasite, but as they appear to be primary may be monazite.
The ragged edges of the primary minerals indicate at least some degree of
mashing. This rock was evidently originally a quartz-felspar-porphyry, but has
undergone considerable metamorphic recrystallizations, without any marked
dynamic alteration.

A specimen of a light-coloured, fresh-looking granite from amongst the
collection made in the Mount Painter belt is worthy ‘of reference, though its exact
locality is wanting.

In the hand specimen it appears as an even-grained granular rock in which
flesh-colouréd felspars stand out amongst white felspars, quartz, and muscovite.

Microscopically the felspar 1 is noted to be microcline, orthoclase, and an acid
plagioclase. The latter, which is very near to albite, is rather abundant. Quartz
is plentiful and muscovite plates numerous. The rock is very fresh, and appears
to have been strained, but has not suffered crushing. The orthoclase felspars
and the quartzes show shadowy extinction and the mica plates are bent. By
reason of the abundance of plagioclase this rock tends towards the adamellites,

380

but on account of the albitic nature of the plagioclase and notable amount of
muscovite the rock must be very rich in alkali, and as ferromagnesian minerals
are absent, it can be regarded as an Alaskite.

At the junction of the Mount Gee Creek with the Bolla-Bollana Creek,
basalt appears in the section. In this neighbourhood also the strata are cut by a
quartz reef of gigantic proportions, continuing out of sight on either hand.
Coarse-grained basic rocks, doleritic and gabbroic, outcrop at intervals beyond
leading to the Bolla-Bollana Gorge, where the creek cuts through a great quartzite
bed.

Just before reaching the great Bolla-Bollana Gorge quartzite formation, a
specially notable area of basaltic igneous rocks was met with. Here some
evidence of intrusion was observed, but other parts of the formation were
brecciated in a manner which suggested a possible tuffaceous character. The
metamorphism which these rocks have undergone obscures their features, and
further investigation is needed before any more definite statement can be made.
As much of the basalt was noted to be vesicular with amygdular fillings of a
white secondary mineral, further support was given to the suggestion of an
effusive origin.

Unfortunately no specimens of these basaltic rocks are preserved for
microscopic examination. However, a series of vesicular basic rocks coilected
not far distant on Paralana Sheep Station by the late W. B. Greenwood,“ and
which have very similar features to those at the Bolla-Bollana Gorge, are avail-
able, and a description of them follows. It is assumed that they represent other
outcrops of this same basic series of lavas elsewhere in the district.

A moderately coarse-grained amphibolitic rock collected from a large outcrop
on the Bolla-Bollana Creek one and a half miles below the junction of the Mount
Gee Creek has the following characters as noted in the microscope section :—

The predominant mineral is actinolitic hornblende in irregular elongated
rectangular forms poikiloblastically enclosing minor constituents of the rock.
These latter are biotite, muscovite, and calcite as small individuals. There is no
definite schistose distribution of the ingredients, the individuals being arranged
at all angles to each other. The texture of the rock is typically that of the
crystalline schists. This rock, therefore, has arrived at its present condition
either by the complete recrystallization of an original basic igneous rock or by
the thermal metamorphism of calcareous beds. There is a considerable similarity
in microscopic section between this and a certain actinolite rock associated with
the copper ore deposit at Yudanamutana.

VESICULAR LAVAS FROM PARALANA.

The vesicular basic rocks collected by Mr. Greenwood are amygdaloidal
melaphyres, and comprise five specimens of one class and one of another.
The largest member of the first group has the following characters. In the
hard specimen it appears as an aphanitic, chocolate-brown rock studded with
numerous irregular-shaped, pinkish patches of an amygdaloidal nature.

The microscope section reveals a basaltic texture modified by metamorphic
changes which have almost completely reconstructed the mineral components.
Relics of the former plagioclase laths are now somewhat dusty, due to change
to fine, practically irresolvable aggregates, the principal constituent of which
corresponds closely in character to albite. Apart from the areas actually occu-
pied by the relic felspars, the whole section is thickly studded with opaque iron
ore, originally magnetite, but partly gone over to limonite. Chlorite is present

(6) Mr. W. B. Greenwood was a capable and observant prospector with a good knowledge
of the district. He rendered me much assistance on the occasion of my visits.

381

throughout the rocks in small and inconspicuous particles, and tale is quite
abundant, often with numerous magnetite grains embedded in it. An original
fine-grained ferromagnesian mineral and what appears to have been a glassy base,
whose former presence is strongly suggested by the present textural features,
have been transformed into iron oxide, chlorite (pennine), and talc.

The amygdular inclusions are constituted of faintly blue-green chlorite and
a fine scaly mineral corresponding to tale. To a minor extent microscopic
granules of quartz and calcite are present.

The original rock was evidently an amygdaloidal basalt, but as a conse-
quence of great antiquity has suffered recrystallization. Except for the steam
holes and their fillings this rock closely resembles in microscopic features the
chloritised basalt described from the Blinman South Mine by W. N. Benson.“

The other four specimens of similar type to that just described vary only
in minor details of structure and in quantities and modifications of the original
minerals. They range from a chocolate-brown to a warm-grey colour, as noted
in the hard specimen; also there is a noticeable variation in the quantity and
character of the vesicles now filled by secondary minerals.

Judging by the development and distribution of the plagioclase laths, as
seen in the microscope slide, the original structure probably ranged from true
doleritic forms to pilotaxitic and to almost hyalopilitic types. There is some
variation in the changes which affect the plagioclases, but rarely in any relic
Jeft of original twinning. The quantity and distribution of the iron ores is
variable. Magnetite is partly in tiny original idiomorphic crystals and as a
secondary dust. Plagioclase needles are noted to show flow structure around
certain of the large magnetites. Limonite and hematite are much more abundant
in some specimens than in others, and very much affect the prevailing colour
of the rock. In all cases original pyroxene and glassy base have changed to
chlorite, talc, and dusty iron ores. In one specimen occasional grains of yellow
epidote are to be seen.

The vesicles are usually very irregular in form, and longish flattened ones
are present up to three-quarters of an inch in length. In one case a crack
extending over a considerable area in the specimen is also filled in the same
manner as the vesicles. The usual filling of these is a pinkish peripheral layer
of what is apparently quartz clouded with ferruginous dust. Within is a whiter
area in which are variable proportions of granules of clear quartz, talc, chlorite
(pennine), and much more abundant calcite, which usually occupies the central
zone. In one rock only, grains of yellow epidote also appeared in the vesicles,
and in another case chalcedony was noted.

The other class of amygdular melaphyre collected by Mr. Greenwod is of a
striking appearance. It is an aphanitic grey rock packed with spherical white
amygdules. Thus in its general appearance it recalls some leucitophyres.

In microscope section it is seen to be composed of recrystallized plagioclase
needles in a base dusty with fine magnetite and composed largely of chlorite
with low double refraction. There are also ramifying patches at intervals of a
fine scaley mineral of high double refraction either tale or white mica. The
original structure appears to have been hyalopilitic.

The amygdules are mainly filled with quartz in the form of elongated
granules usually arranged in a rough sub-radial manner. The only other mineral
of the vesicles is what is apparently white mica in aggregates of the most minute
particles. This latter mineral is never present in quantity and is usually dis-
posed peripherally.

(7) Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xxxiii., , 1909, p. 226.

382

SEDIMENTARY SERIES AT THE BOLLA-BOLLANA GORGE.

A great quartzite formation is cut across by the Bolla-Bollana Creek at
the spot known as the Gorge. There the bed is roughly 500 feet thick and
strikes N. 30° E. In places it shows evidence of folding, but for the most part
dips steeply to the south“® (about 60°). Beds of grit and pebbles are included,
and in them the pebbles are chiefly quartz and quartzite, but there are also many
dark coloured ones of basaltic appearance and light coloured felsitic types, some
of which were noted to be epidotised.

The finer-grained section of this quartzite formation is ripple marked and
shows fine current bedding features. There is present a small quota of oxide
of iron in fine grains arranged in laminae, of which 60 major laminae were
counted in 6 feet of the rock. Some of this original black iron sand has been
converted to hematite and impart a slight reddish tinge to some areas of the
rock.

Above this quartzite follow several hundred feet thick of beds ranging from
a very fine-grained sandstone below, then shaley beds and finely calcareous slates.
The relation of these beds to the quartzite below was not determined, as no clear
contact came under notice, but it was assumed that they follow regularly above
the quartzite.

Now follows a definite unconformity. A coarse conglomerate is seen in the
creek dipping to the S.S.E. at a much lower angle than the underlying beds just
described. Where weathered the sandy matrix has crumbled to a large extent,
and the boulders show up well. These latter are rounded and subangular. No
glacial striae were observed, but the time available gave no opportunity for
making a proper search. Though not at all a typical tillite in character, this
boulder rock, nevertheless, has certain characters which suggest a glacial or
fluvio-glacial origin. This conglomerate formation constitutes what appears to
be the base of an extensive series outcropping to the S.S.E. in low undulating
hills. Unfortunately there was no opportunity for a reconnaissance in that
direction. The general lithological features of the beds suggested, at the time,
the Adelaide Series (Proterozoic) “) as exposed widely in the North Flinders
Range further to the west. This view is strengthened by the fact that, what
appears to be a glacial tillite horizon higher up in this same series was reported
by Mr. W. B. Greenwood to cross the Arkaroola Creek a few miles lower
down at a spot two miles east of the Kingsmill Mine.

Reverting to the detail of the conglomerate formation, boulders were noted
near its base identical in character with the underlying shaley sandstone. Above,
the great bulk of the boulders, especially the larger ones, are identical with the
great quartzite in the gorge, for example, exhibiting the very striking regular
fluting due to a characteristic arrangement of the iron sands under the influence
of a flowing water. One of the boulders measured 3 feet 6 inches in diameter.
Very few are more than 2 feet and most are but a few inches in diameter. Other
types of rocks noted were a red-tinted quartzite, a dense gritty quartzite, and
several large blocks of grit just like that at the base of the shales below. Many
of the boulders were so far weathered as to be unrecognizable, though several
suggested decayed felsites. Neither granitic nor basaltic rocks were recognised.
Though the traverse probably did not reach the limits of the boulder bed, a
thickness of fully 500 feet was recorded.

(8) The field note-book says dipping “north,” but this appears to be contradicted by later
entries, and is therefore taken to be a clerical error.

(9) Sir Edgeworth David, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xlvi., 1922, p. 6.
(0) Private communication.

383

Basic INTRUSIONS AT YUDANAMUTANA.

Turning now to the north-western margin of the igneous and metamorphic
complex forming the Mount Painter belt, there is, flanking it, in the neighbour-
hood of Yudanamutana, a massive quartzite formation extending far on either
hand as the dominant feature in the physiographic relief. It passes just south
and east of the township of Yudanamutana, and was noted to extend west to
the vicinity of the Wheel Ellen Mine and east to the high land block known
as Freeling Heights.

A splendid section is exposed in the gorge cut through it by the stream
which leads from the township southward. In its broader features, this quartzite
formation resembles the great quartzite of the Bolla-Bollana Gorge on the
opposite side of the Mount Painter belt, but there are yet many points that need
reconciling before their identity can be definitely asserted. The evidence is,
however, strongly in favour of their identity, and, further, indicates that this
quartzite and boulder bed (for in places beds of massed boulders appear in the
formation) is the basal stage of a sedimentation cycle postdating the highly
metamorphic intervening belt.

Along the outcrop to the south-west, in the vicinity of the Wheel Ellen
Mine, a section of the beds passes down from tillite and certain other associated
boulder beds in which practically all the boulders are quartzite, a formation which
outcrops at Red Hill, through slaty beds which are in part calcareous and
dolomitic to the quartzite and grit beds of the ridge at the Wheel Ellen Mine
itself. This formation and some associated softer bands beneath it rest upon
acid schistose and gneissic rocks, amongst which is a typical augen gneiss similar
in general features to that well-known example near the south-west extremity
of the main outcrop of the Broken Hill lode. In this area, below the quartzite,
many quartzose reefs occur crossing the formations; these always contain much
micaceous iron and ilmenite. The overlying beds have been considerably meta-
morphosed, for example, actinolite is noticeably developed in the quartzite and in
calcareous beds higher up.

At Yudanamutana there is clear evidence of basic igneous activity post-
dating the great quartzite formation to which reference has just been made.
Slaty and calcareous rocks overlying the quartzite are intruded by doleritic
basic rocks with the accompaniment of considerable metamorphism producing
hornstones and spotted schists, and causing the development of tremolite and
actinolite in the more calcareous and dolomitic bands, which also are the matrices
for the main depositions of copper ores formerly mined in this locality. It is
interesting to note that some fine specimens of massive scheelite were got in
association with the copper ores in actinolite rock at the smelter site. The
copper was obviously introduced in association with the basic igneous rock.

The ore depositions are as irregular patches both in the intruded rocks and
in phases of the igneous rock itself. The principal primary minerals thus repre-
sented are iron and copper pyrites and micaceous hematite. A pinnacled out-
crop to the north of the township known as the Cockscomb is constituted of
several large, parallel ferriferous reefs of this kind. There they are principally
micaceous iron and jasperoid rock with some vesicular gossan, the latter
indicating a weathered and removed pyritic content.

A specimen of an altered diabase from an intrusion at Yudanamutana has
the following characters:—The hard specimen appears as a dense faintly
greenish, dark-grey rock in which no porphyritic constituents are visible. Under
the microscope a definite doleritic intersertal structure is preserved by the
plagioclases which are still clear, but carry abundant inclusions of actinolite
rods, minute biotite flakes, and grains of magnetite. The section is loaded with
bundles of secondary diablastic actinolite.

384

THE WESTERN FOOTHILLS OF FREELING HEIGHTS.

Freeling Heights, a splendid example of an elevated peneplane, stands out
to the north-east from Yudanamutana. On the low country near its south-
western extremity is the Daley Mine and other copper mines also associated with
areas of basic rock intrusive into the upper sedimentary series. Again there is
associated with the sulphides a great deal of micaceous iron. The intruded
rocks include a remarkable develpoment of actinolite rock and spotted slates
in which tremolite is seen to be forming at scattered centres, crystallizing in
radial-fibrous forms. Some of the intrusive rock is slightly vesicular.

These intrusions at the Daley Mine are into slaty and calcareous beds,
which by their relations to a tillite formation further to the north-east are
evidently the Flinders Range equivalent of some part of the Adelaide Series.

At a lower horizon, in the Waterfall Gorge, an extensive and very massive
quartzite series is located. This appears to be a continuation of the gorge
quartzite of Yudanamutana. Its dip varies a little and it appears to stand
conformably upon metamorphosed calcareous sediments passing downwards into
more slaty beds, and finally into conglomerate at the base.

This conglomerate, where examined, was found to be dipping steeply to
the S.S.W. The boulders in it, which are rolled out and rendered schistose
by pressure, are cemented by a matrix rich in grains of ilmenite and magnetite
of original sedimentary origin. Occasionally entire bands of such fine ilmenitic
sands traverse the conglomerate. Included blocks of quartz-porphyry are
abundant in this conglomerate. A notable feature of this porphyry is that the
quartz phenocrysts exhibit a characteristic blue tint. Many of the quartz grains
in the matrix of the conglomerate are also of this kind.

Below the conglomerate are further beds of a slaty and sandy nature, and
gravel rock rich in ilmenitic sands and blue quartz particles.

As a continuation of these beds, at a point somewhat further to the north
again, on the flanks of Freeling Heights, is a massive sedimentary formation
consisting of quartzites carrying bluish-tinted quartzes and large boulders of
quartzite and of quartz-porphyry in which the quartzes show the blue tint.

An area of massive blue-quartz quartz-porphyry, much schistified, was met
with near Willigan Hill. This is evidently a portion of the basement rock upon
which the great sedimentary series was laid down.

All the beds thereabouts are in an advanced stage of dynamometamorphism
and, in addition, thermal-metamorphism is evidenced to a considerable degree,
often making it very difficult to delineate their original characters. It is, never-
theless, quite clear that in the neighbourhood of Freeling Heights there is a great
basal series of conglomeratic and quartzitic rocks rich in ilmenite and capping
unconformably an older terrain remarkable for the presence of extensive quartz-
felspar-porphyry in which the quartzes have a characteristic blue tint. In this
latter feature there is a resemblance to the quartzes of the Encounter Bay
granite, though the intensity of blue colouration is often greater in the Mount
Painter rocks.

Two different types of igneous rock were noted intruding this great basal
sedimentary series near Freeling Heights—one a large basic intrusion, the other
a dyke of reddish-brown coloured acid porphyry, macroscopically resembling a
type that has been met with in the Flinders Range Tillite at Mueller’s Hill.

A specimen of quarts-felspar-porphyry from the creek one mile north of
the Willigan Hill Mine shows rounded, porphyritic bluish quartzes and the
outlines of porphyritic felspars embedded in an aphanitic grey base. The micro-
scope slide reveals that the quartzes are corroded and show pressure cracks and
undulatory strain extinctions. The relics of porphyritic felspars appear in
aggregates of secondary minerals. Relic structures in some of the felspars suggest

385

an original cross-hatch twinning, indicating that some of the original felspar
phenocrysts were microcline, though indeed such a feature may be developed in
orthoclase under stress. The base material is granulitic, and so fine grained as to
be difficult to resolve, though small scraps of biotite are easily discernible through-
out. The rock was originally a quartz-felspar porphyry with felsitic base.

A second specimen from the vicinity of Willigan Hill is a more. severely
altered form of the same rock. The eyes of blue quartz stand out clearly, but
the base and the felspars have been granulated to such a degree that the rock
is distinctly a schist, in which minute scales of dark mica figure prominently,
imparting a dark colour and micaceous appearance to the entire rock.

Two erratics of an almost identical quarts-felspar-porphyry were found
during the same expedition in the tillite at Red Hill.

In the hard specimen these are light-grey rocks of a microcrystalline char-
acter, with the exception of porphyritic quartzes and felspars. The quartz
phenocrysts are smaller than usual in the Mount Painter Belt porphyries, and in
one of the specimens are comparatively scarce. They exhibit merely a sug-
gestion of the blue optical effect which characterises the closely similar rocks of
the Willigan Hill neighbourhood. Relics of orthoclase and microcline pheno-
crysts are numerous in both specimens, all recrystallized as dusty aggregates.
The base is a very fine-grained granular mass composed of clear granules like
quartz with a sprinkling of biotite and a little muscovite. Strain features are
shown by the porphyritic quartzes. The close correspondence between the rock
of these erratics and that described above, collected im situ, makes it practically
certain that they originated from the neighbourhood of Freeling Heights. :

Tue Acipic PNEUMATOLITIC AND HypATOGENOUS INTRUSION OF THE GIANT’S
HEAD AND TOURMALINE HILL NEAR UMBERATANA.

Though removed some few miles from the Mount Painter Belt proper, there
js a very remarkable and abnormal intrusion extending at least for a very
considerable length at no great distance from the road leading from Umberatana
to Yudanamutana. It has a general west to east extension. The Giant’s Head,
near to and approximately south-east of Umberatana Head Station, is the
western extremity of the formation. According to Mr. W. B. Greenwood, to
whom reference has already been made, the intrusion continues to the eastward
practically without a break until it merges into the Mount Painter complex.
There was no opportunity of checking this statement. When examined at the
Giant’s Head, the intruded rocks of the Adelaide Series, not far below the
tillite, are arched up and metamorphosed for a distance of a quarter of a mile
from the contact. The metamorphic rocks thus produced are chiastolite schist,
actinolite schist, tremolite schist, and silicated limestone. Also a little copper
pyrites associated with haematite was noted in dolomite in the vicinity. At this
point the dyke has a width varying from 25 to 80 yards. The rock has all the
characteristics of a low-temperature formation rich in gaseous and _ volatile
components. It was from a patch in this formation that a fetid felspar was
collected by Mr. Howchin and described by the present writer.7? Striking
formations of graphic quartz and felspar and graphic tourmaline and quartz
are to be seen. In some areas where the rock is composed of granular quartz
and felspar it is of a quite porous nature, and it is in just such places the
quartzes and felspars are most notably charged with liquid inclusions, a con-
stituent of which included matter is hydrogen sulphide, which imparts the fetid
character to the rock. A coarse-textured pegmatitic formation cuts across the
formation in one place and carries crystals of sphene noted up to 6 inches in
length.

(1) Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xxx., 1906, p. 67.
M

386

A specimen of the more typical rock from the Giant’s Head is even-granular
and of aplitic appearance. It is composed of much microline, some orthoclase,
and a smaller percentage of albitic plagioclase, together with a little muscovite.
Dark-coloured tourmaline is distributed sporadically.

A second locality visited on the line of this intrusion was Tourmaline Hill,
which is half-way between Umberatana Head Station and the Wheel Ellen
Mine. Here the rock was seen to be closely related to that of the Giant’s
Head, but particularly rich in tourmaline. Patches of black tourmaline in quartz
and tourmaline in a quartz-felspar rock were noted. In several places there
were crystals of a light-green transparent tourmaline. Also large red garnets
enclosing poecilitically much quartz and felspar.

In microscope section the composition of a specimen from this locality is
seen to be microcline (probably a soda-microcline), a little orthoclase, notable
plagioclase (apparently albite), quartz, a little muscovite and tourmaline. An
interesting case was noted of a growth of microcline around a large plagioclase
(albite ).

The magma of this intrusion was evidently not at all a normal one, but
rather of a pneumatolitic or hydatogenous character.

SUM MARY.

1. In the great sedimentary series west of Yudanamutana, glacial tillite © of
a very definite character with ice-scratched boulders has been met with at Mount
Rose, Mueller’s Hill, and Red Hill. This feature, taken together with the general
lithological character of the beds, fixes their age as Adelaidean, formerly
regarded as Lower Cambrian, but recently shown to be more probably Pro-
terozoic. Conglomerate and quartzite beds near the base of this series in the
Yudanamutana district have the ilmenitic facies distinctive of the basal beds of
the Adelaide Series.

2. Still older rocks, largely igneous in origin and mainly acidic,
occupy a belt surrounding Mount Painter, and flanked on either side by the
Adelaidean formation. Included are highly metamorphic types which contain
elements recalling the Barossian Series of the Mount Lofty Ranges and the
Willyama Series of ‘the Barrier Ranges and the Boolcoomatta Hills. In the
light of present knowledge, the Mount Painter Belt should therefore be classed
with these, and it is to be considered of early or middle Pre-Cambrian age.
Certain features noted at Bolla-Bollana Creek and near Willigan Hill suggest
that there may be represented two formations older than the Adelaidean beds.

3. Igneous activity is indicated of either two or three ages. Firstly, an early
acid series, including the blue-quartz quart-porphyry shed as boulders in the
conglomeratic rock close to Freeling Heights. Secondly, an acid phase, including
the pink-coloured quartz-felspar-porphyry intruded into the boulder bed just
referred to in the Freeling Heights area; also the aplitic and pegmatitic intrusion
at the Giant’s Head. Thirdly, a great basic series intrusive into the Adelaidean
rocks in the Yudanamutana district and on the Paralana side of the ranges. It
is quite possible that this third series is contemporaneous with the second acid
phase. The association of some acid aplite and a quartz-ceratophyre with the
basic intrusives of the Mount Remarkable area“*) is further support to this
contention.

These basic intrusives are very similar to those already described“ by

(2) First recorded in this area by Professor W. Howchin.

(13) “Petrographical Notes on the Igneous Rocks of Mount Remarkable,” by Dr. E. O.
Thiele, Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xl, 1916, p. 580. -

(4) Proc. Austr. Ass. Adv. Science, xi., 1907, p. 418; also Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr.,
xl., 1916, p. 563.

387

Professor W. Howchin intruding the Adelaide Series at Blinman further to
the south, and at Mount Remarkable, near the head of Spencer’s Gulf. There
is every reason to regard all these as of the same age. The fact that a basic
dyke has been noted,“ not far from Blinman, intersecting the fossiliferous
Cambrian strata, suggests that these basic rocks are either late Cambrian or
post-Cambrian in age.

4. The ancient vesicular basic rocks from Paralana have all the appearance
of surface lavas, and in the absence of definite information are taken to belong
to the same period of activity as instanced at Yudanamutana and Blinman.
Neck-like forms of intrusion of vesicular basic rocks have been described
already from Blinman. These eruptions were possibly contemporaneous with
lavas, agglomerate and tuff of diabasic character associated with the Victorian
Heathcotian formation, which has been shown by Professor E. W. Skeats to
lie at the base of the Ordovician formation.

DESCRIPTION OF READS SOONER AND) SOX XE

PLaTE XXXII.

Fig. 1. Traversing the lower beds of the “Adelaide Series” just before entering the
township of Yudanamutana. The jagged peaks in the distance are at the back of the town
along the northern boundary of the rugged Mount Painter Belt. The area of basic intrusions
is within the view on the near side of the peaked ranges.

Fig. 2. In the Yudanamutana Gorge where it intersects the great quartzite formation;
the latter apparently the basal member of the Adelaide Series in this vicinity.

Plate XXXIV.
Fig. 1. The rugged Mount Painter Belt looking north from a point on the western
extremity of the Mount Gee lode.

Fig. 2. Looking east to the elevated summit of Mount Painter itself. Taken from a
point on the Mount Gee lode some hundreds of feet above the adjacent valley floor. The lode
formation occupies the foreground.

(All photographs by D. Mawson.)

G6) “A Geological Traverse of the Flinders Range from the Parachilna Gorge to the
Lake Frome Plains,” by Prof. W. Howchin, Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xlvi., 1922, p. 46.

388

ON SOME HALOPHYTIC AND NON-HALOPHYTIC PLANT
COMMUNITIES IN ARID SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

By Proressor J. G. B. Osnorn, D.Sc., and
J. G. Woop, B.Sc., Department of Botany, University of Adelaide.

[Read October 11, 1923.|
PLATES XXXV. AND XXXVI.

The present paper is in the nature of a sequel to one published earlier this
year, “On the Zonation of the Vegetation in the Port Wakefield District.”™
Some time must elapse before we can present our observations on the ecology of
the arid North-eastern portion of South Australia owing to the size of the area
to be examined and the necessity of visiting portions at “different seasons of the
year. It seems useful, however, to publish some of our data on the halophytic
and non-halophytic plant communities in the district since the extent of the
former has not been clearly understood. We desire to express our thanks to
Lisle G. Johnson, Esq., owner of Dilkera; to Hamilton-Wilcox Limited, owners
of Koonamore; to the Managing Director (A. G. Rymill, Esq.) of the Canowie
Pastoral Company, owners of Curnamona; and to their Managers, Mr. J. P.
Henderson at Koonamore and Mr. L. Boothby at Curnamona. All of these
have materially helped us in our investigations by providing accommodation,
transport, etc., besides many kindnesses. Without their aid it would have been
impossible to undertake the work.

INTRODUCTORY.

In the paper previously referred to we have given an account of the zonation
of plant communities when passing from a littoral mangrove formation to a
“saltbush” area. We showed that the sequence of communities might be
correlated with a progressive decrease in both the soluble salts (whether “total”
r “chlorides’”’) and in soil moisture. A deduction was that “saltbush” (a dwarf
shrubland of Atriplex spp.) is a community of arid conditions and is not
halophytic. In the present paper we extend our observations to the typical salt-
bush country of the pastoralist. and give some of the evidence we have
collected as to its essentially arid and non-halophytic nature. Huge areas in
South Australia are occupied by a number of plant communities that have this
in common—the abundance of dwarf shrubs belonging to genera of the
Chenopodiaceae, especially Atriplex and Kochia. The former are popularly
termed “‘saltbushes,”’ because of their appreciably salt taste, the latter ‘‘blue-
bushes” because of the blue-white colour of the foliage owing to its covering
of close cottony or woolly hairs. The abundance of these bushes gives a character
to much of the arid and semi-arid portions of South Australia.

Saltbush has been very inadequately treated in the literature on Australian
ecology and even ignored in the vegetation maps that have appeared. The
North-east District of South Australia lying east of the Flinders Range from
the Murray Basin to Lake Frome is about 25,000 square miles. Saltbushes or
bluebushes are the character plants of much of this area, yet the names do not
appear on either Diels’ map of the vegetation of Australia® or Griffith Taylor’s
modification of it® published more recently.

() Osborn, T. G. B., and Wood, J. G., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xlvii., p. 244, 1923.
©) Diels, L., Die Pflanzenwelt von West Australien, Liepzig, 1906.

(@) Taylor, Griffith T., Australian Environment, Commonwealth Adv. Counc. Sci. and
Indus., Mem. No. 1, p. 27, 1918.

389

West of the Flinders Range is an even larger district extending westwards
to the Western Australian boundary, and occupied to a great extent by saltbush
or bluebush. Both these areas are mapped as “Savannah,” the feature of which
is said to be that “much grass” exists. It is true that after suitable rainfalls
the area is heavily grassed, but an overwhelming proportion of the grasses are
therophytes, and as such give no permanent character to the flora.

The first sketch of the vegetation of South Australia was given by Schom-
burgk in 1876. He refers to a “grass land” region in which are “gravelly and
waterless flats” whose surface is “often saline . . . supporting only a scanty
herbage of Atriplex, Kochia, Salicornia, and Salsola.’ The association of
Salicornias (now Arthrocnemon spp.) with Atriplex and Kochia may have given
rise to the idea, expressed by later writers, that the two last were also halophytes.
Schimper’s © account is based largely on Schomburgk. Warming’s “*) references
to arid Australia are also meagre. There is a general statement that salt lands
occur in the central parts of many countries having a “continental’’ climate,
including Australia. He makes no mention of Atriplex or Kochia shrubland,
when describing “shrub steppe” vegetation (p. 281). The account in Diels’
introductory section on the vegetation of Australia as a whole is more complete.
Diels‘? does not specially describe the saltbush or bluebush communities of
Western Australia. Describing the “desert” (Wusten) he pointed out that
extensive areas without vegetation are not a feature of Australia. There is
an arid type of flora with considerable diversity. He distinguishes loamy from
sandy “deserts.” On the former succulent-leaved Chenopodiaceous plants are
the most general. Some types occur in saline depressions, e.g., around Lake
Torrens, but others grow freely on the drier “savannah” lands. Discussing the
Chenopodiaceae later in the work,‘ Diels very pertinently asks if the occurrence
of Chenopodiaceae always indicates richness of the soil in sodium chloride. He
notes that certain species are prominent in littoral communities. Atriplex
paludosum and others grow in salt swamps, while the almost arborescent 4.
isatidea occurs on stable dune thickets. “All these are naturally halophytes.
On the other hand, it is less sure whether the Chenopodiaceae of the interior
are also halophytes. In many cases this is at present uncertain; they occur like
members of the Frankeniaceae around the margin of wide valleys that are covered
with salt owing to erosion. Other species, however, occur only in stony loam,
the salinity of which is not accurately known.” Such are the Kochias, numerous
Bassias, and “very conspicuous because of their size are the half shrubby
Atriplex spp. and Chenopodium spp., the so-called ‘saltbushes’ of the pastoralists.”

In Cannon’s “) description of arid South Australia the Chenopodiaceous
communities, with the possible exception of bluebush, Kochia sedifolia, are
regarded as halophytic.

Adamson and Osborn, in their paper “On the Ecology of the Ooldea
District,” regarded communities of Atriplex vesicarium and Kochia sedifolia as
non-halophytic. This opinion was based in part as a result of observations on
the zonation of the vegetation around a gypsum salt lake in that district.

(4) Schomburgk, R., “The Flora of South Australia,’ in Harcus, “South Australia,”
London, 1876, p. 217.

(5) Schimper, A. F. W., “Plant Geography,’ Oxford, 1903, p. 504.
(5a) Warming, E., “CEcology of Plants,” Oxford, 1909, pp. 218, 234.
(6) Diels, loc. cit.

(7) Diels, loc. cit., p. 274.

(8) Cannon, W. A., 1921, “Plant Habits and Habitat in the arid portion of South Australia,”
Carnegie Inst., Washington, Pub. No. 308.

(9) Adamson, R. S., and Osborn, T. G. B., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xlvi.,
p. 539, 1922.

390

Collins “® describes the saltbush and bluebush communities of the Barrier
Range District, New South Wales. These are developed on plains of “both
sandy and alluvial soils, as well as in depressions which undoubtedly possess a
certain percentage of salts.” The conclusion reached is that the weight of
evidence is in favour of the view that the master factor in their distribution is
climatic rather than the edaphic one of soil salinity.

WALES

y w -Comamone., -
i Sak ee ao

Y oe ‘af

S,
Y

Soa

Bi ae ALEXANDRINA,

fran aroo ZF.

Text fig. 1.

Map of portion of South Australia showing contour lines of 500 and 1,000 feet, land over
1,000 feet stippled. 5-, 10-, and 15-inch isohyets are shown, but not rainfall lines for
higher precipitation.

(Based on a map published by the Geological Survey of South Australia, 1917.)

TOPOGRAPHIC.
The communities dealt with in this paper have been observed over a tract

of country running nearly 200 miles in a south-north line, from the River Murray
to Lake Frome (text fig. 1). From the Murray Basin the district extends northward

(0) Collins, M. I., “Studies in the Vegetation of Arid and Semi-arid New South Wales”:

Part 1, The Plant Ecology of the Barrier District, Proc. Roy. Soc., Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales,
vol. xlviii.; Part 3, 1923, p. 229.

391

as a great plain rising gradually to an eastern extension of the Central South
Australian highlands, which serves as the watershed between the Murray River
and the inland drainage to Lake Frome. These highlands are of comparatively
recent formation, geologically speaking, though composed of Cambrian rocks.“V
The ancient river systems have been cut across by the uplift forming these
highlands, the altitude of which does not exceed 2,000 feet. Northward the
land gradually falls again to Lake Frome. Much of the highlands have under-
gone peneplaination, and consist of wide flat valleys between low hills.

The rivers of the district are ill-defined and erratic in their direction of
flow. They are mere watercourses running only at intervals in times of flood.
They may be dry for years together and then come down in flood, overflowing
their banks and temporarily submerging the surrounding country for as much
as a mile or more on each side of the channel. Such watercourses have fre-
quently no opening to the Murray or to Lake Frome, but terminate on a flood
plain in a lake or swamp. Lake Frome itself is only a large example of this
type. These centres of inland drainage serve as evaporating pans and
accumulate a high percentage of soluble salts (see table of analyses).

CLIMATE.

Rainfall—The area lies wholly within the 10-inch isohyet. The rainfall
records of Florieton, near Dilkera Murray Basin, Koonamore, and Curnamona

are given below :—
Mean Monthly Rainfall in inches.

Mean

Period Average
Locality of Jan. Feb. Mar. Apl. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. _fo Tap
Years Year
Florieton 27 °49 042 °59 ‘74 *§9) Ill °74 =1:01 97 1°03 64 °70 9°43 9°97
Koonamore 27 °70 °45 61 °64 93 «1°08 °46 63 *58 *81 64 "59 8:18 8°46
Curnamona 30 62, 27 °48 “60 °88 "85 "33 54 °49 hy) "bo “69 6°85 7°03
These results are shown graphically in fig. 2. Mean figures may be

misleading, because in any single year there may be rainless or almost rainless
months, while in others, of course, the fall may be considerably more than
the mean. This applies especially to the northern stations.

FLORIETON SEE KOON AMOREL 2222) CURNANONA ES

Hil

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apl. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
ext tics 2

Diagram comparing the mean monthly rainfalls at Florieton
(River Murray Basin), Koonamore, and Curnamona.

(1) Howchin, W., “The Evolution of the Physiographical Features of Saini Abe Harte
Rept. Austr. Ass. Adv. Sci., xiv., p. 148, 1914

392

Temperatures——No detailed temperature data are available. The summer
shade maxima are known to be often over 100° F. A surprising feature is
the amount of frost in winter, particularly in the wide, flat valleys of the
peneplain.

Other factors, such as wind and insolation, all increase the aridity of the
environment. The relation of these to transpiration is described by Wood “?)
‘n an account of some experiments conducted at Dilkera.

EpAPHIC FACTORS.

In a region without any striking variation of physiographic features, and
showing little abrupt discontinuity in its climatic factors, the edaphic factors are
of great importance in determining differences in vegetation. Even these factors
are remarkably uniform over great distances. The great depth of soil found on
the plains of this region is a feature similar to that observed in many other
arid regions. Wind sorting is one of the factors responsible for the production
of different soil types. As a result of its action there are produced sand ridges
alternating with flats of finer-grained soil. These occur on a huge scale towards
Lake Frome, where the alternation of sand ridges colonized by Casuarina
lepidophloia with saltbush covered flats gives a distinctive stamp to the landscape.
This is popularly called “black oak ridge country.” On a smaller scale a similar
result may be observed by lakes or swamps which frequently have a sand ridge
in proximity to the bed of the lake. The relatively rapid change in soil type
observable here is accompanied by an instructive change in vegetation (c.f. soil
samples Nos. 13-15).

In this paper a selection of 15 of our soil analyses is given. These samples
are chosen either to show the change in edaphic conditions when passing from a
halophytic community to saltbush, or to show the essential similarity of soils
over the whole saltbush area. This last feature applies to the series 1-6. As
No. 5 we have repeated for purposes of comparison our analysis of the soil
supporting a saltbush community at Port Wakefield, which lies outside the area
under immediate discussion.

Methods—tThe soil samples were collected with the aid of a sampling tool.
xcept where otherwise stated, cylinders of soil were taken from the first
GS inches of ground. The samples were placed in air-tight tins for conveyance
to the laboratory, where the procedure was as outlined in our previous paper.“

The first column of the accompanying table of soil analyses gives the per-
centage of water present in the wet soil and is a measure of the water relation
existing in the soil at the time of collecting. The columns for water in the
dry soil and for saturation water run parallel to one another, e.g., the sandy
soils 14 and 15 with low saturation water show low water content in the air dry
soil, saltbush soils have a saturation percentage of about 36 per cent., and the
effect of clay in the lake soil No. 8 is reflected in the high saturation (41°3 per
cent.) and the high water retaining capacity of air dried soil (88 per cent. of
water). The saturation water was determined as described by us in our paper
on the Port Wakefield soils,“ but in this case the tubes were allowed to stand
in water until a constant increase was observed due to the absorption of water.
This constant increase is, as a matter of fact, attained almost immediately the
water reaches the top of the soil column.

The soluble salts were determined, as in our previous work, by shaking
25 grms. of soil with 250 c.c. of water at intervals over 24 hours at constant

(2) Wood, J. G., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xlvii., p. 259, 1923.
(13) Osborn, T. G. B., and Wood, J. G., loc. cit., 1923.
(14) Osborn, T. G. B., and Wood, J. G., loc. cit.

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394

temperature, filtering through a Chamberland-Pasteur candle and an aliquot
portion examined for total salts and chlorides. The values obtained are con-
sistently low except in soils from the salt lakes or their overflow.

The loss on ignition is low and varies little, the highest value being in the
salt lake. The figures in this column represent the loss obtained after igniting
the soil at a red heat, moistening with saturated ammonium carbonate to convert
lime into carbonate and gently igniting to expel excess of ammonium salts. It
represents, therefore, humus plus combined water.

The pH values were determined colorimetrically with Clark and Laub’s
sulphonephthalein indicators. The values are constant for Atriplex communities,
viz., 76 to 78. The effect of the abundance of soluble salts in the lakes is
reflected in a higher value for the pH, 82 in each case, approximately that of
sea water. The last column gives a description of the soils based on microscopic
examination.

Distribution of Chlorides.—It will be seen from soils Nos. 10-12 that the
percentage of sodium chloride increases and that of total salts decreases with
depth, also that chlorides form a small proportion of the total salts. In soil
No. 7 from Nillinghoo Lake over one-half of the total salts are chlorides, even
in the surface layers. The cause of the difference in distribution is explicable
when the physical nature of the soils is examined. Nos. 10-12 are very fine
sands, No. 7 is a coarse sand. The soluble sodium chloride, while more easily
leached from the coarse sand than from the fine, is conversely able to rise in
solution much more quickly in the coarse than in the tine. The less soluble
the efflorescent calcium sulphate becomes accumulated at the top and this is
quickly diluted with sodium chloride in the Nillinghoo Lake soil.

BIOTIC.

A detailed consideration of the biotic features will not be given in this paper.
The indigenous mammalian fauna appears to have little effect on the plant ae
The insect fauna, on the other hand, at times exercises great influence, e.g.,
plagues of grasshoppers or caterpillars. Biotic factors of moment are the in-
cursive white man with his domestic animals and vermin, especially rabbits.
All these animals affect considerably the constitution or facies of a flora which
in its undisturbed condition was in a state of very delicately balanced equilibrium
owing to the severity of climatic factors.

VEGETATION.

Over so large an area many plant communities exist, though owing to the
relatively even nature of the terrain, the similarity of the climatic and soil
factors, the same community may extend for 100 square miles or more without
notable change other than that occasioned by a local swamp. Such changes as
do occur are often puzzling, especially the presence or absence of such trees as
mallee eucalypts, black oak (Casuarina lepidophloia), sandalwood (Myoporum
platycarpum), or mulga (Acacia aneura), as an overgrowth of trees above the
saltbush or in cases even replacing it. Into the inter-relationships of the com-
munities recognizable in the field we do not propose to enter in this paper; a
tew of them only are described for purposes of comparsion with the halophytic
vegetation of the flats.

Saltbush—A triplex vesicarium community.

This is a dwarf shrubland of half-woody bushes 40-60 cms. or more in
height. The bushes grow close together but rarely touch, the area of bare ground
between them depending on the vigour of the plants, the amount of rainfall

395

during the preceding seasons, and the heaviness of the stocking. Naturally,
land that has been “‘spelled” for a season or two with no sheep upon it, and
only browsed upon by occasional kangaroos, shows much denser growth of
bushes than an area carrying sheep.

The individual bushes grow erect and branch freely, the leaves are 2-5 cms.
long and about 1 cm. broad, somewhat succulent, with a scurfy covering of
fleshy hairs. Associated with A. vesicarium may occur other half-shrubby
species such as A. stipitatum and A. paludosum. Annuals are many, but their
abundance and type depend upon the season at which a heavy rain has occurred.
Following summer rains grasses, especially Stipa spp., are most abundant. The
plants most prominent in Spring are chiefly Compositae, e.g., Helichrysum
polygalifolium, H. hyalospermum, etc., and Cruciferae, e.g., Erysimum lasio-
carpum. Pl. xxxv., fig. 1, shows a view of a typical Atriplex vesicarium com-
munity. It will be seen that the plant covering is remarkably uniform, even to
the horizon about two miles away. The soil of this area on Koonamore Station
is analysed as sample 1. It will be seen from the table that the soil when
collected was dry, but that the moisture at saturation (385 per cent.) indicates
a fair water-retaining capacity. The total salts were only 1 per cent. of the dry
weight, of which only 05 per cent. was chlorides. Soil sample 2 is from a
similar community, but collected four months previously at Dilkera, approxi-
mately 120 miles to the south. The essential similarity between the two soils is
apparent.

Mallee (Eucalyptus oleosa) with saltbush.

This community consists of a mallee scrub with an undergrowth composed
largely of saltbushes. Various eucalypts are involved, but EL. oleosa is most
abundant. The plant is a typical mallee, growing from a large subterranean root-
stock, with several equal trunks, especially in the young stages. Older plants
are more tree-like with perhaps but a single trunk arising from an enlarged
subterranean base. The height varies from 15-30 feet or more. The leaves
have the usual pendant habit of eucalypts and are clustered at the end of the
branches, so that the characteristic canopy top is produced (pl. xxxv., fig. 2).

Other trees or tall shrubs associated with the mallees are:—

Exocarpus aphylla Heterodendron oleaefolium
Fusanus acuminatus Lycium australe

Acacia Oswaldi Myoporum platycarpum
Templetonia egena Pholidia scoparia

These e2re all subordinate to the mallee in this community, though locally
some of them, e.g., Templetonia or Pholidia, may become so abundant as to give
a distinct facies to the area. The undergrowth is of Atriplex vesicarium, with
A. paludosum or A. stipitatum or locally Kochia sedifolia. The bushes are
generally smaller and more scattered than in the community previously described.
They are, however, sufficiently numerous to give a definite character to the
vegetation, which thus differs from mallee communities, such as are developed
further south and outside the area under investigation, by the presence of salt-
bush and the more open growth of the mallee.

Soils from this community are Nos. 3 and 4. Comparing No. 3 with No. 1
(pure Atriplex), collected on successive days about 50 miles apart, it will be seen
that they are very similar, except that the mallee saltbush soil was drier, has a
slightly lower percentage of water at saturation, and possesses nearly twice the
amount of soluble salts (18 per cent.). The percentage of chlorides in the two
soils is identical. Indeed, samples 1-4, although taken at different times and
over a wide range of country, agree remarkably.

396

For comparison with these we repeat as sample No. 5 the analysis of
soil from the A. stipitatum community at Port Wakefield. This, as was
explained in our previous paper, is a degenerate saltbush community owing to
human interference, but the relics of the vegetation suggest a community of
the type described above. The analysis shows a soil of similar water-retaining
capacity, but with more soluble salts, though appreciably less sodium chloride.

Mallee saltbush community is more prominent in the south of the area
under discussion than in the north. From the rainfall diagram (text fig. 2) it is
seen that the annual precipitation in the south (e.g., Florieton) is greater and
also shows a more pronounced winter maximum than the northern stations.

Kochia planifolia community.

Kochia planifolia—a bluebush—forms a very uniform community over
the country around Curnamona. The terrain here is an even plain with no
marked physical features. The dominant plant forms rounded shrubs, ‘5-1 meter
in diameter. The bushes branch freely and bear numerous sub-cylindrical leaves,
slightly flattened above and somewhat constricted at the base. The leaves are
1-2 cms. in length, covered by a dense tomentum of hairs. The bushes are
scattered with 3 or 4 feet of bare ground between neighbouring plants (pl.
KOON, Ow)

Scattered, tall shrubs occur over the Kochia planifolia community. These
are Cassia Sturtu, Eremophila Sturtu (turpentine bush), and E. glabra (tar
bush). The individual bushes are about 2 m. in height and often occur in
small thickets. Trees, chiefly mulga (Acacia aneura), occur rarely, being
limited to local groves where the soil is more sandy.

Kochia planifolia usually forms a remarkably pure community. In places,
jAowever, there is associated with it K. Georgi, K. pyramidata, or even
Atriplex vesicarium.

Soil from the K. planifolia community is analysed as sample 6. In appear-
ance it is a reddish loam, distinctly more compact than that on which most of
the Atriplex vesicarium communities occur. Analysis shows that the soil has
a lower water-retaining capacity at saturation and is poorer in soluble salts
(08 per cent., of which only 02 per cent. is sodium chloride) than the soils
‘previously described. We are of opinion that K. planifolia forms a community
of a more xerophytic type than Atriplex vesicarium.

Kochia sedifolia community.

Kochia sedifolia, the most widespread bluebush in South Australia, occurs
as a pure community in parts of the area, being associated with soils on travertine
limestone. In the Murray Basin this community is often extensively developed,
though the local abundance of the plant may be in some degree secondary, owing
to selective grazing, K. sedifolia being less acceptable to stock than Atriplex
spp. At Dilkera, K. sedifolia grows with Atriplex vesicarium and A. stipitatum
under an overgrowth of mallee and Myoporum platycarpum. Near Morgan, on
the Murray, there are extensive areas of K. sedifolia and M. platycarpum form-
ing an obvious degenerate community owing to grazing.

Adamson and Osborn have described an extensive K. sedifolia community
on the Nullabor Plain at Ooldea. They are of opinion that it is of a more
xerophytic type than the Atriplex vesicarium community. With this deduction
our results obtained in the present investigation are in agreement.

Arthrocnemum halocnemoides, var. pergranulatum, community.

This community is developed on gypsum salt swamps. In general appear-
ance the variety is similar to the typical form of the species found on the saline

397

areas at Port Wakefield. Soil from a typical A. halocnemoides, var. pergranu-
latum community is analysed as sample 8. The total salts is high (497 per
cent.), though sodium chloride is only 68 per cent. At Port Wakefield
A. halocnemoides, var, pergranulatum, was found growing above the zone
occupied by the typical A. halocnemoides as a few isolated bushes in the Atriplex
paludosum consocies. The variety, therefore, does not seem to be able to tolerate
an excess of sodium chloride. Pl. xxxvi., fig. 1, shows this community at
Koonamore. The plants form thickets in which Arthrocnemum leiostachyum,
a stouter growing species, 1s also present, but in small quantity. The gypsum-
saturated ground between the bushes is bare, only a few annuals being present,
including Babbagia acroptera, Atriplex spongiosum, Mesembryanthemum australe,
and Capsella elliptica.

The boundaries of such swamps are ill-defined, because in time of excep-
tional flood, the waters may transgress their proper limits, submerging the sur-
rounding country for miles. These transition zones are occupied by Arthrocnemum
halocnemoides, var. pergranulatum, Frankenia serpyllifolia, Babbagia acroptera,
Heliotropum curassavicum, Atriplex limbatum, with which such annual species
as Atriplex spongiosum, A. halimoides, Bassia patenticuspis, B. obliquicuspis, etc.,
compete (pl. xxxvi., fig. 2). The species of Atriplex, especially A. spongiosum,
are pioneer plants in many situations. The same may be said of the Bassias,
which are a prominent feature in early phases of succession in the area.“°) The
soil analyses of this flooded area, samples 10-12, show that it is quite possible
for the shallower rooting annuals to be relatively non-halophytic compared with
deeper rooted perennial species growing alongside them. The salt content in the
first 2 inches of soil is 85 per cent. total salts, sodium chloride 06 per cent.,
while at a depth of 6-12 inches, the total salts are 46 per cent., of which ‘22 per ©
cent. is sodium chloride. Samples 13-15 were taken above and below an ecotone
line dividing the flora of a flood plain of the type described above from that
of a sandy, limestone rise. The total salt content falls from “34 per cent. to
‘06 per cent. The water at saturation shows that the water-retaining capacity of
the soil also decreases markedly. The change in the vegetation at such a junc-
tion is abrupt. The Arthrocnemum disappears first, then the annual saltbushes,
Atriplex limbatum persisting higher up the rise. On the sandy rise itself occur
Acacia Oswaldii, Myoporum platycarpum, Rhagodia spinescens, Atriplex vesi-
carium, and annuals, e.g., Tetragonia expansa, Zygophyllum ammophilum, ete.

Pachycornia tenuis community.

This plant forms a monospecific community on the floor of a large lake at
Nillinghoo, near Koonamore (pl. xxxvi., fig. 3). The plants are dwarf, semi-
prostrate, succulent, and herbaceous. Gypsum can be seen as a white efflorescence
on the bed of the lake between the plants. The soil, sample 7, contains 660 per
cent. of soluble salts, sodium chloride being 352 per cent. At the margins of
the lake, Arthrocnemum halocnemoides, var. pergranulatum, appears, and finally
replaces the Pachycornia, which is the more salt-tolerant species.

DiIscuUSSION AND CONCLUSION.

In this paper we have given an account of the Chenopodiaceous plant com-
munities occurring in the plains and peneplains of the arid North-east of South
Australia. We have omitted reference to the vegetation of steep hill slopes,
because the communities developed in such situations do not bear immediately
upon the question under discussion. The Chenopodiaceae is relatively unim-
portant in such communities, species of Acacia, Eremophila, Zygophyllum, etc.,

(15) C.f. Collins, loc. cit., p. 253.

398

being dominant. These hill slope communities are of essentially similar type to
those described by Cannon at Copley and Collins at Broken Hill.

The vegetation of the plains and peneplains is composed of a number of
communities in which one species or another of Atriplex or Kochia is very
prominent, usually being dominant, or less frequently co-dominant, or even
subordinate to mallee eucalypts. The conditions under which these communities
grow are remarkably uniform, considering the area over which they are dis-
tributed. There is a gradual but progressive aridity as one proceeds north.
Concurrently with the decrease in rainfall is its greater unreliability and also the
diminishing importance of the winter rains (text fig. 2). Under such conditions the
mallee eucalypts become less important, and finally, towards the north of the
district, disappear entirely. At Koonamore they are limited to selected areas,
the conditions obtaining there being apparently those of the ecological limit in
the distribution of mallee. This appears also to be the case at Broken Hill.

The Chenopodiaceae, on the other hand, become increasingly important as
one proceeds north. Of the many communities developed that are dominated
by Chenopodiaceous plants we have referred here only to the more prominent.
We intend at a later date to describe these in greater detail, together with some
others, and to discuss the trend of succession in the district. The communities
developed have, on the whole, a stamp of distinct uniformity, whether they
have Atriplex vesicarium or other species (e.g., A. paludosum or A. stipitatum),
Kochia planifolia, or even K. sedifolia, as dominants.

Analyses show that the soils are of much the same type (samples Nos. 1-6).
They are low in salts, whether total salts or chlorides. There is also, so far as
- we have determined, little variation in the water-retaining capacity. Briggs and
Schantz “® have shown that the amount of water a given soil is capable of hold-
ing varies from 232 per cent. in coarse sand to 695 per cent. of the dry weight
of the soil in the case of clay loam. The range of saltbush-bluebush soils show
an average water-retaining capacity at saturation of 36 per cent., which
approximates to that of fine sand. Atriplex limbatum is able to grow in soil
with only 25-29 per cent. of water at saturation. This is near the limit of the
range shown by Briggs and Schantz, and suggests that A. limbatum is able to
grow with a lower water supply than A. vesicariuwm or the other perennial species.
A. limbatum, which is a shallow rooting species, was the only perennial saltbush
growing on the flat (samples Nos. 10-12) flooded by water overflowing from
the Gypsum salt lake near Koonamore. This area was sufficiently saline to
determine a halophytic flora, the total salts ranging from ‘85 per cent. in the
surface soil to 46 per cent. at a depth of 6-12 inches. The sodium chloride,
which in the surface soil is only ‘06 per cent., reaches ‘22 per cent. at the greater
depth. The boundaries of these flooded areas are difficult to define, and along
their edges a mingling of communities takes place. Thus Atriplex vesicarium
(? var.) was found growing near to a typical Arthrocnemum halocnemoides, vat.
pergranulatum, community in soil with 130 per cent. total salts, of which, how-
ever, only 05 per cent. was sodium chloride (sample No. 9). A point which
requires further investigation is the calcium-sodium ratio. Excess of calcium
ions do not appear to exert so marked a toxic effect as sodium ions. Warming
has shown that the extent to which a soil dries out influences its halophytic
nature. “When the soil dries readily a small amount (perhaps 1 per cent.) of
salt may expel all plants save halophytes, whereas if the soil does not dry readily
perhaps 25 per cent. of salt is required to act in the same manner. In the
flooded areas (samples Nos. 10-12) only 68 per cent. total salts in the first

(6) Briggs and Schantz., H. L., Botan. Gazette, liii., p. 31, 1912.
Q7) Warming, E., loc. cit., p. 218.

399

12 inches of soil was sufficient to determine a distinctly halophytic flora. Of
this 68 per cent., however, 13 per cent. was sodium chloride. In such a con-
centration of sodium ions the halophytic nature of the flora is more pronounced
than in a soil with 1°30 per cent. of total soluble salts of which only 05 per cent.
is sodium chloride (sample No. 9). Under such conditions Atriplex vesicarium
(? var.) is able to persist on a flooded flat.

The soils of two distinctly halophytic communities have been analysed,
samples Nos. 7 and 8. On neither of these were perennial Chenopodiaceae other
than members of the Salicornieae growing. Nillinghoo Lake (No. 7), with
660 per cent. total salts and 352 per cent. sodium chloride had a pure com-
munity of Pachycorma tenuis, Koonamore Gypsum Salt Lake (No. 8) had a
total salinity of 497 per cent., but with 68 per cent. only of sodium chloride.
This area had dense thickets of Arthrocnemum spp. The bare ground between
the bushes had such annual Chenopodiaceous plants as Babbagia acroptera and
Atriplex spongiosum. These species, especially the latter, have a wide dis-
tribution and occur in several communities. They are not consistently halo-
phytic, but are elements in the pioneer floras of several habitats in the district.

In conclusion, we have attempted to show that large portions of the interior
of Australia are occupied by a distinctive type of arid flora. Other arid areas
have, as is well known, developed their characteristic floras of xerophytes;
the Karroo flora, in which the Crassulaceae are exceedingly prominent, is one
very familiar example. In Australia the Crassulaceae is a family of minor
importance, but the Chenopodiaceae is represented by numerous pronouncedly
xerophytic species.

While the members of many arid floras have developed succulence as a
characteristic structural feature, tending to the conservation of a considerable
water balance in the plant, the Australian Chenopodiaceae are not specialized in
this particular direction. On the other hand, they have attained a. remarkable
degree of xerophytism, by reducing their transpiration ratio to a minimum.“®)
A feature of the climate in arid Australia is the quantity of “ineffective rain-
fall.”%® It seems probable to us that the leaf mechanism of the Chenopodiaceae
with the large water vesicles of Atriplex, or the peculiar hairs of Kochia, may
be connected with the utilization of this rainfall, which is ineffective so far as
the roots of perennials are concerned. We shall publish observations on this
question shortly.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES XXXV. Anp XXXVI.

PLATE XXXV.

Fig. 1. Atriplex vesicarium community at Koonamore (Alderman’s).

Fig. 2. Mixed community of Mallee eucalypts (EH. oleosa) with Atriplex spp. and
Kochia sedifolia about equally abundant in the ground flora. Dilkera.

Fig. 3. Kochia planifolia community on plains near Curnamona. Bushes of Eremophila
glabra forming scattered thickets on the horizon.

Prate XXXVI.

Fig.. 1. Arthrocnemum halocnemoides, var. pergranulatum, community on gypsum salt
lake near Koonamore Head Station. In the foreground are scattered annuals, e.g., Babbagia
acroptera, Atriplex spongiosum, etc.

Fig. 2. Mixed community with Arthrocnemum halocnemoides, var. pergranulatum, and
Atriplex halimoides, A. spongiosum, and A. limbatum on flat flooded by overflow from gypsum
salt lake near Koonamore Head Station, seen in fig. 1.

Fig. 3. Pachycornia tenuis community on the bed of salt lake at Nillinghoo Lake, Koona-
more. The white efflorescence of gypsum can be seen between the dwarf bushes.

(8) Wood, loc. cit., 1923.
(19) Cannon, W. A., loc. cit., p. 47, 1921.

400

REPORT ON WORK CARRIED OUT UNDER RESEARCH GRANT FROM
THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA ON THE AZINE AND
AZONIUM PRECIPITATES OF THE PROTEOLYTIC ENZYME TRYPSIN.

By Heptey Ratpu Marston.

The chemical similarity and resemblance of the physical reactions of the
protein bodies has led to the postulation of the chemical homogeneity of the
protein group. The distinct specificity of the proteins from different sources,
as shown by their biochemical activities, is remarkable in so much as the exist-'
ence of a demonstrably distinct protein from each species of animal or plant must
play an important role in the establishment of the morphological differences and
uniqueness of physiological reactions which become manifest in the course of
evolution of new species. The close resemblance, though non-identity, of the
proteins from closely related species lends support to this hypothesis.“” In the
development of the organism, the building up of the protein from its amino
acid integrals depends upon the catalytic effect exerted by the proteolytic
enzymes. These possibly exert their synthetic activity in a water poor system
existing at the surface of inert colloids within the cell.

The remarkable specificity of the hydrolytic activity which the proteolytic
enzymes from different sources exert towards the various artificially prepared
poly-peptids ©) suggests the inference that a similar specificity would be exerted
in their synthetic activity. In other words, the specificity of the protein is
established by the catalyst through whose agency it was synthetised, that is, by
the proteolytic enzyme.

In the complex Metazoa, the specificity of the proteolytic enzymes from
different tissues may be demonstrated by means of their selective activity
towards synthetic substrates.©?

The agency which brings about the differentiation of the tissue brings
about a simultaneous change in the proteolytic enzymes in that tissue. These
facts point to the possibility that the modification of the enzyme is determined by
physico-chemical conditions existing in the chromosomes, and so is closely allied
to the primary factor of tissue differentiation.

With the elucidation of the structural configuration of the proteolytic
enzyme and its physico-chemical relationship with its substrate, the biologist
will accomplish a very decided step towards clarifying his conceptions of living
matter. The failure of the chemist to purify and identify the enzymes is due
to the fact of their extreme sensitivity to changes in the physical environment.

Some years ago, T. Brailsford Robertson pointed out the occurrence of a
precipitate when a solution containing the proteolytic enzyme trypsin was added
to a solution of saffranine.“)? This observation was confirmed by Holzberg?
who demonstrated the proteolytic activity of the precipitate so produced. The
work, of which this is an account, was undertaken to study the nature of the
groupings which were responsible for the production of this precipitate.

Q) Nuttall, G. F. H., “Blood Immunity and Relationship,” Camb. University Press, 1904.

(2) Adberhalden, E., and Collaborators, Zeit. fur Physiol. Chem. Numerous papers
appearing in this journal between 1904 and 1914. ;

(3) Abderhalden, E., Zeit. fur Physiol. Chem.
(4) Robertson, T. Brailsford, Jour. Biol. Chem., vol. 2, iv., p. 342.
(5) Holzberg, H., Jour. Biol. Chem., vol. xiv., 1913, p. 335.

401

PREPARATION OF THE SAFFRANINE PRECIPITATE FROM CRUDE TRYPSIN.

Fifty grains of dried pancreas tissue was extracted with 500 cc. of water,
the reaction being adjusted to pH 78. The insoluble portion was then separated
by filtration. To the amber-coloured filtrate 500 cc. of 5 per cent. saffranine
was added, and the resulting precipitate allowed to flocculate for half an hour.
It was then separated by centrifugalization and the sedimented precipitate
washed twice with ‘5 per cent. saffranine. The excess of saffranine was then
removed by washing five times with dry acetone. The precipitate was then
dried over sulphuric acid at 40 deg. Cent.

The precipitate produced in this manner is a reddish-violet finely-grained
powder. It emulsifies in water and goes partially into solution on adjusting
the reaction to neutrality. The solution is reddish-violet in colour and is
remarkably active in hydrolising protein substrates.

The yield of precipitate was about 2 per cent. of the original pancreas
tissue employed. i

The precipitate is hydrolysed by dilute acids. Hydrochloric acid, in half
normal concentration, will decompose the precipitate and liberate the saffranine
as the dye hydrochloride, which may be extracted by butyl alcohol.

On the examination of the precipitating base, saffranine, it will be observed
that there are two possibilities for the union of acidic groups. Saffrine has the
constitution diamino-phenyl-toluazonium chloride.

N
H.C CH,
HN NH,
;

It has two amino groups free to exert their activity towards electro-positive
substances. The heterocyclic azine nucleus is also a decidedly reactive group.
So there exist two possible points of union for a substance that is predominantly
electo-positive. That trypsin is acidic in nature was shown by Bayliss, who
demonstrated the migration of trypsin to the anode when subjected to the
influence of an electric current. :

With a view to ascertaining the nature of the linkage between the enzyme
and the saffranine molecule the activity towards trypsin of a series of similar

N
yCl

(6) Bayliss, Wm., Tate Biol. Chem., vol. i., p. 225, 1906.

402

bases was determined. For example, phenosaffranine (diamido-phenyl-
phenazonium chloride) was synthesised and found to exert a similar influence
upon trypsin, precipitating it wholly from solution under favourable conditions
of hydrogen ion concentration.

Dimethyl-diamino-phenyl-phenazonium chloride, synthesised by the mild
oxidation of dimethyl-p-phenylene diamine and aniline; amido-dianilido-

ES

ia

U

phenyl-phenazonium chloride prepared from amidoazobenzene and _ aniline
hydrochloride, also precipitated the trypsin from its aqueous solution.

Simpler azine bases, the eurodines, also cause this precipitation. Thus
dimethyl-diamido-phenazine hydrochloride (1), and dimethyl-amido-toluazine
hydrochloride (2), were similarly active. All the water-soluble bases
which contained the heterocyclic azine nucleus were able to remove the trypsin

N N
f CH,
cm nH HC chy nH
~

(2)
from solution. The reduced to leuko compound produced by reduction of the
azonium base is incapable of this activity. In this compound the latent valencies
of the nitrogen atoms of the heterocyclic azine ring have become saturated with
hydrogen. Thus :—

H
N N

.
NH, HN NH,
WN)
S. REDUCTION re

Dye chloride (red). Leuko base (colourless).

This addition of hydrogen destroys its basic properties. The reduction is
accompanied by a colour change from red to colourless. The substance on re-
oxidation regains its red colour, and at the same time its precipitating power.

405

The results of the preceding experiments are expressed in the following
table :—

Precipitates Proteolytic activity

Azine Base. Trypsin. of precipitate.
Dimethyl-diamino-tolu-phenazine hydrochloride Yes Pos.
Dimethyl-diamido-phenazine hydrochloride Wes Pos.
Saffranine, diamido-phenyl-toluazonium chloride Yes Pos.
Dimethyl-diamino-phenyl-phenazonium chloride Wes Pos.
Leuko saffranine mi Be be a No Neg.

DISCUSSION.

The precipitation of the proteolytic enzyme trypsin completely from solu-
tion by the azine bases suggests that a compound of the enzyme and the base
is formed. In the case of the azonium base, saffranine, the linkage would be
represented thus :—

The enzyme compound would alter the constitution of the latter compound
from the ortho- to the para-quinoid structure. This would institute a tautomeric
change and would be accompanied by a change in colour. The compound pro-
duced from saffranine (which is itself red in colour) is reddish-violet when
redissolved. This is possibly due to the occurrence of such a tautomeric change.
The analogous non-acid salt of saffranine, violet in colour, occurs in solutions
of moderately high hydrogen-ion concentration.

CONCLUSIONS.

It has been shown that the proteolytic enzyme trypsin is precipitated wholly
from solution by the azine bases.

The nature of the groupings involved has been studied. It has been
demonstrated that the heterocyclic azine ring is functional in this precipitation.
The work is being extended.

I wish to acknowledge the kindly interest and helpful suggestions of
Professor T. B. Robertson, and also the kindness of Professor H. M. Evans,

of the University of California, in supplying two of the azonium bases employed
in these experiments.

Darling Laboratories, University of Adelaide,
May 10, 1923.

404

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS

OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA
(Incorporated) |

FOR THE YEAR NOVEMBER lI, 1922, To OctToBER 31, 1923.

OrpINARY MEETING, NOVEMBER 9, 1922.

Tue PRESIDENT (R. H. Pulleine, M.B.) in the chair.

NomINATIONS.—M. Sprod, M.B., B.S., and R. G. Thomas as Fellows.

Papers.—‘Description of New Australian Lepidoptera,’ by Oswatp B. |
Lower, F.E.S., F.L.S.; “Australian Staphylinidae (Coleoptera), by ARTHUR
M. Lea, F.E.S.; “Australian Fungi: Notes and Descriptions, No. 4,” by J.
BurTON CLELAND, M.D., and Epwin CHEEL.

Exuisits.—Professor WALTER Howcuin, F.G.S., on behalf of Rev. j. C.
JENNISON, exhibited samples of Asphaltum Glance, discovered im situ at Point
Bristow, Elcho Island, on the northern coast of Australia. Rev. J. C. Jennison
wrote: “I found quantities of it im situ in the sandstone strata of Point Bristow.
There are mudstone strata above the sandstone, then 60 or 70 feet overburden
of clay with ironstone capping.” Professor T. G. B. Ossorn, D.Sc., showed a
specimen of Viscum articulatum, Burm., growing on Acacia linophylia collected
at Ooldea in August this year. This is the second time that the plant has been
collected in South Australia. It is represented at present in the University
Herbarium by a single specimen taken near Cooper’s Creek more than twenty-
five years ago. Mr. J. F. Battey exhibited a large green frog from Queensland.
Dr. R. H. PuLLerne exhibited a large number of aboriginal flint implements
obtained from the north-west coast of Tasmania between Rocky Cape and Bluff
Point. The mineral represented was Lydite or Lydian Stone.

ORDINARY MEETING, AprRIL 12, 1923.

THE PresipENT (R. H. Pulleine, M.B.) in the chair.

NoMINATIONS.—James C. Marshall, Florence M. Hill, D.Sc, H. R.
Marston,'@J 7" Ri "Glover, “WA. Magarey, WilwBs “and jG. Wood. Bsc
as Fellows.

Evections.—M. Sprod, M.B., B.S., and R. G. Thomas as Fellows.

ScreNTIFIC HANpBooKs.—The PreEsIDENT brought before the notice of the
meeting the Scientific Handbooks for South Australia which were being pre-
pared by members of the British Science Guild (South Australian Branch),
assisted by the Government, the second volume of which, by Professor F.
Wood Jones, D.Sc., etc., on the “Mammals of South Australia,’ was now
published.

Sir JosepH C. VERco wrote resigning his seat on the Council on account of
his absence in England for an indefinite period. Resolved—‘‘That the resignation
be not accepted, but that leave of absence for six months be granted.”

Notices of the following INTERNATIONAL CONGRESSES were received :—Pan-
Pacific Science Congress, in 1923, August and September, in Melbourne and
Sydney; and Geographical and Ethnological Congress, in 1925, in Cairo.

Professor F. Woop Jones, D.Sc., etc., gave a progress report of the work
done by the Barrier Reef Council, on which he represented this Society.

405

Papers.—“Flora and Fauna of Nuyts Archipelago and the Investigator
Group: No. 5, The Lizards,” by Joan Proctor; ‘“‘No. 6, The Didelphian
Mammals,” by Professor F. Woop Jones, D.Sc., etc.; “No. 7, The Fishes,” by
PDGARW RG \\V AIDE als) eNO S| dhe colosy or earson, dslands are py,
Professor T. G. B. Osporn, D.Sc., with an Appendix on the Soils, by J. G.
Woop, B.Sc.

Exuipits.—Mr. E. R. Waite showed a specimen of coral from Pearson
Island obtained quite 20 feet above high water. Also stones from stomachs of
seals on Pearson Island, some still surrounded by penguin feathers. Dr. R.
H. PuLvei1ne exhibited a cylindrical aboriginal stone from near Broken Hill,
30 inches long, and believed to be the longest ever discovered. Another from
the same locality was about 10 inches long. Mr. A. M. Lea showed gall insects
received from Mrs. Klem, of Corny Point, which cause portions of the twigs
of swamp ti-trees to divide into very close leaf-like layers.

OrpINARY MEETING, May 10, 1923.

Tue PresipENT (R. H. Pulleine, M.B.) in the chair.

NomINaTION.—Roy S. Burden, B.Sc., was nominated as Fellow.

ELections.—J. G. Wood, B.Sc., Florence M. Hill, D.Sc., W. A. Magarey,
LL.B., James C. Marshall, and C. J. R. Glover as Fellows.

Sir Doucras Mawson, D.Sc., F.R.S., received the hearty congratulations
of the Society upon his election as a Fellow of the Royal Society.

Paprers.—“The Structure and Action of Striated Muscle Fibre,’ and
“On the Path and Velocity of the Excitatory Impulse within Striated
Muscle Fibres,” by O. W., Tisecs, D.Sc.; “Australian Lepidopleuridae,
Order Poly placophora,;) by «Epwan, AsHBy, he )S)) MBO UL bloc and
Fauna of Nuyts Archipelago: No. 9, The Birds of Pearson Islands,” by Professor
J. Burton CieLranp, M.D.; “The External Characters of Pouch Embryos of
Marsupials: No. 5, Phascolarctus cinereus,’ by Professor F. Woop JONEs,
IDISc- uke Ss] etc: .

Exuipits.—Mr. Epwin Asusy showed some paintings by his daughter of
Australian native flowers. Mr. A. M. Lea showed a drawer of beautiful
timber-boring moths, mostly from Queensland; also a curious centipede-like
creature known as Peripatus. Professor J. B. CLELAND showed a number of
birds in illustration of his paper on “The Birds of Pearson Island.”

OrpINARY MEETING, JUNE 14, 1923.

THE PreEsIDENT (R. H. Pulleine, M.B.) in the chair.

ELection.—Roy S. Burdon, B.Sc., as Fellow.

Nominations.—R. M. McBride, J.P., John Conrick, and Lester Judell, B.Sc.,
as Fellows.

Papers.—‘A Review of Ischnochiton (Haploplax) smaragdinus, Angas,
1867, and its Congeners, together with the Description of Two New Chitons
from Papua,” by Epwin Asusy, F.L.S., M.B.O.U.; “A Bacterial Disease
Destructive to Fish in Queensland Rivers,” and “A Bacteriosis of Prickly Pear
Plants (Opuntia spp.),” by Professor T. Harvey Jonnston, M.A., D.Sc., and
Leitu Hitrcucock; “Flora and Fauna of Nuyts Archipelago: No. 10, The Francis
Island Snake,” by Epcar R. Waite, F.L.S.

Exuipits.—Mr. A. M. Lea exhibited a drawer containing powerful beetles,
including some taken from animal droppings in Africa. Certain of the males
had remarkable horns on the head and thorax, used in fighting for possession
of the females. The Rev. J. C. JENNiIson showed mosquito nets obtained by
himself from the Crocodile Islands, Northern Territory. They are conical in
shape, made from the leaves of the pandanus palm, and used chiefly for children,

406

fully protecting them from mosquitos. The men also use them by placing them
over their heads while they sleep in a trough made in the sand. Mr. Epwin
Asusy showed a large series of chitons in illustration of his paper.

OrpDINARY MEETING, JuLy 12, 1923.

THE PresIpENT (R. H. Pulleine, M.B.) in the chair.

ELectTions.—R. M. McBride, J.P., John Conrick, and Lester M. W.
Judell, B.Sc., as Fellows.

NominaTion.—Norman B. Tindale as Fellow.

Papers.— ‘New Australian Micro-Lepidoptera,”’ by A. Jefferis Turner,
M.D., F.E.S.; “External Characters of Pouch Embryos of Marsupials: No. 6,
Dasycercus cristicauda,” by Professor F. Woop Jones, D.Sc., F.Z.S.

Exuisits.—Mr. A. M. Lea exhibited a magnificent leaf-mimicking moth of
the genus Phyllodes from the New Hebrides, sent by the Rev. A. Theo. Waters;
also a small collection of beetles taken by Professor F. Wood Jones at McDouall’s
Peak, in the interior of South Australia, the more interesting species belong
to the genera Clivina, Scymbalium, Macromalocera, Pterohelaeus, and
Strongylium. Mr. Epwin Asupy exhibited a specimen and painting of the
Ploughshare-leaved Wattle (Acacia vomeriformis) collected at Mylor; also
six genera, including seven species, of land snails collected by him at Innsbruck,
Tyrol; also American Humming Birds. Dr. PULLEINE exhibited a large per-
forated shell plaque of unknown age, made from the shell of Tvidacna sp., from
Vella la Vella, Solomon Islands, being the largest specimen ever recorded.

OrpINARY MEETING, AuGusT 9, 1923.

THE PRESIDENT (R. H. Pulleine, M.B.) in the chair.

Tue PRESIDENT referred to the death of the late Thomas Gill, C.M.G.,
I.S.0., Honorary Fellow of this Society and Honorary Secretary of the South
Australian Branch of the Royal Geographical Society of Australia. It was
resolved that a letter of condolence be sent to his family; also that a letter of
thanks be sent to the Royal Geographical Society, London, which had sent us
an almost complete set of their publications, dating back to 1831.

ELecTion.—Norman B. Tindale was elected a Fellow.

NoMINATIONS.—Archibald Strong, M.A., D.Litt., and J. F. Thomas were
nominated as Fellows.

Papers.—‘Composition of the Waters of the Great Australian Artesian
Basin in South Australia, and its Significance,’ by R. L. Jacx, B.E.; “Notes
on a Collection of Polyplacophora from Carnarvon, Western Australia, with
Definitions of a New Genus and Two New Species,” and “Review of the Aus-
tralian Representatives of the Genus Cryptoplax,” by Epwin Asupy, F.L.S.,
M.B.O.U.; “Survey of the Australian Sheep Maggot-fly Problem,” by Professor
T. Harvey Jounston, M.A., D.Sc.; “External Characters of Pouch Embryos
of Marsupials: No. 7, Myrmecobius fasciatus,’ by Professor F. Woop JoNEs,
D.Sc.; “Australian Coleoptera, Part IV.,” by Abert H. Erston, F.E.S.

Exurpits.—Mr. A. M. Lea showed a drawer of small cockchafer beetles,
some of which are very destructive to the roots of grass. One species of
Maechidius probably lives in the nests of ants, and has its appendages curiously
modified. Professor F. Woop Jones exhibited bones from Rocky River Station,
Kangaroo Island, comprising Diprotodon australis, D. minor, Sthenurus orcas,
and S. atlas. These were first found twenty years ago but not recorded.
Recently, considerable quantities have been found, and it is hoped that detailed
search will be made for more complete remains. Dr. R. H. PULLErNE exhibited
cylindro-conical aboriginal stones from the Darling and Albemarle, near Menindie.

A SpecraL MEETING was called for August 30, and adjourned to Sep-

tember 6 and September 13, to consider the recommendation of the Council to

407

amend the Rules and By-laws. Tur Presipent (R. H. Pulleine, M.B.) in the
chair. After discussion, the recommendations of the Council were approved.

OrDINARY MEETING, SEPTEMBER 13, 1923.

THE PRESIDENT (R. H. Pulleine, M.B.) in the chair.

BLECMIONS Eh homassandieEh ke OiinvA DS Ohne MED a eBsSa BISc™
were elected as Fellows.

DonaTIon was received from Mr. J. Greenlees of an album of 100 photo-
graphs of glacial phenomena in South Australia taken by himself and other
gentlemen, for which he was heartily thanked.

Papers.—‘On the Zonation of the Vegetation in Port Wakefield District,
with special reference to the Salinity of the Soil,” by Professor T. G. B. Oszorn,
D.Sc., and J. G. Woop, B.Sc.; “Transpiration in the Field of some Plants from
the arid portions of South Australia, with Notes on their Physiological
Anatomy,” by J. G. Woop, B.Se.; “The Gem Sands of Encounter Bay,” by
R. G. THomas; “A Geological Sketch-Section of the Sea-cliffs on the Eastern
side of Gulf St. Vincent, from Brighton to Sellick’s Hill, with Descriptions,”
by Professor Water Howcurn, F.G.S.

Exuipits.——Mr. A. M. Lea exhibited a collection of insects lately made
by Professor F. Wood Jones at Stuart Range, including some wingless grass-
hoppers and others greatly resembling the stones amongst which they are found;
a cockchafer beetle previously known only from Western Australia, and a fly
that lives amongst the feathers of birds. Mr. N. B. TrnpALeE showed a small
collection of butterflies made in the Finisterre Mountains and at Finschhaven,
New Guinea, by Mr. S. Lehner, including the rare males of Troides goliath and
T. paradisea, known as “Butterflies of Paradise” from their extreme size and
beauty. Mr. E. R. Waite exhibited some specimens recently received at the
Museum, including articles from Thibet presented by Mrs. T. K. Hamilton.
Human skulls are largely used by the TFhibetans in ceremonial observances. A
tambourine shown was composed of two skull caps fastened together at their
vertices, the open ends being covered with membrane. Two trumpets made
of human thigh bones were shown, those of criminals or of men who have
died a violent death being preferred. They had each two expiratory orifices
styled “the nostrils of the horse,’ a mythical animal believed to carry the
faithful to Paradise. The sound of the trumpet reminds the people of the
neighing of the horse.

ANNUAL MEETING, OcToseErR 11, 1923.

THE PreEsIpENT (R. H. Pulleine, M.B.) in the chair.

ELEecTION.—Professor A. Strong, M.A., D.Litt., was elected a Fellow.

The ANNUAL Report and FINANCIAL STATEMENT were read and adopted.

PAPERS LAID ON THE TABLE.—‘“Additions to the Flora of South Australia:
No. 21,” by J. M. Brack; “Geological Features of the neighbourhood of
Blackfellow’s Creek, Mount Lofty Ranges,” by Sir Douctas Mawson, D.Sc.,
B.E., F.R.S.; “Notes on Igneous Rocks of the Mount Painter Belt,
Flinders Range,” by Sir Doucras Mawson; “Flora and Fauna of Nuyts
Archipelago and the Investigator Group: No. 11, The Coleoptera of Pearson
Island,” by A. M. Lea, F.E.S.; “No. 12, The Stomach Contents of Pearson
Island Birds,” by A. M. Lea; “No. 13, The Orthoptera,’ by N. B. TINDALE;
“No. 14, The Basidiomycetous Fungi of Pearson Island,’ by Professor J. B.
CieLtanp, M.D.; “Australian Rhopalocera,” by N. B. TinpaLe; “Distribution
of Australian Orchids,’ and “Contributions to the Orchidaceous Flora of Aus-
tralia,’ by R. S. Rocers, M.A., M.D.; “On some Halophytic and Non-Halophytic
Plant Communities in Arid South Australia,’ by Professor T. G. B. Osporn,
DSc ,and |G. \Woons) Bese:

408

ELEcTION OF Orricers.—The following officers were elected for 1923-24 :—
President, R. H. Pulleine, M.B.; Vice-Presidents, R. S. Rogers, M.A., M.D.,
and Sir Douglas Mawson, D.Sc., B.E., F.R.S.,; Hon. Treasurer, B. S. Roach;
Hon. Editor, Professor Walter Howchin, F.G.S.; Members of Council,
Professor T. Brailsford Robertson and A. M. Lea, F.E.S.; Hon. Auditors,
W. C. Hackett and H. Whitbread.

The RETIRING PRESIDENT then gave his address, illustrated by lantern slides,
on
REE PIGNY "RACES “OR * THe SWORE D:

In view of the public interest that has been awakened of late years in the
Pigmies, as a distinctive type, I have thought that perhaps a brief statement of
our present knowledge of this interesting people might not be found unaccept-
able; I have, therefore, taken this subject for my Anniversary Address.

Historically, there is in Egyptian records ample evidence that the Pigmies
were known to the Nile peoples, and were kept at their courts as curiosities.
The actual place where they came from was also known, according to Brugsch
(“History of Egypt,” vol. 1, page 114), as the Land of Punt, or (?) Somali
Land. The Greeks knew them as a distant legendary people. It was Herodotus
who gave them the name, Pigmy, after a Greek measurement, equivalent to
about 14 inches. Von Luschan, in 1883, recommended this term for anthro-
pological use, in the place of dwarf, etce., to denote small races. It is strange
that, in recent times, Gibbon, in 1859, regarded the Pigmies as legendary.

Du Chaillu was the first to record Equatorial Pigmies, in Gaboon, in 1867,
followed by Schweinfurth, in the Ituri Forest, in 1870. After this they are
frequently recorded, and a large literature has grown up around them, Stuhlmann
and Casati (both with Emin Pasha), Livingstone, Stanley, Le Roy, and Sir H.
H. Johnston being the principal early ones. It was while studying the Pigmies
that Johnston made the discovery of the Okapi. People had been wondering
where the natives got their beautiful zebra skin belts. It was Johnston, with
the help of the Pigmies, who found out the secret. This, more than anything
else, brought the little people into notice. Stuhlmann had by 1893 taken two
Pigmy women to Europe, where they excited much curiosity, and were the
only genuine ones seen up to that time, although alleged African Pigmies had
been living in Austria and Italy. In 1905, six Pigmies from the Ituri (one
a half-breed) were taken to Europe by J. J. Harrison. Dr. Elliot Smith, at
that time Professor of Anatomy in Cairo, was able to examine them during
their stay in that city (see “Lancet,” August 12, 1905). Afterwards they
passed on to London, where they remained several months on exhibition, and
finally they were shown in other European cities, including Berlin, where they
were exhibited before the Anthropological Society, and formed the subject of
an interesting paper by Von Luschan (Z. fur Eth., 38, 1906).

Barns, in his “Wonders of the Eastern Congo,” 1922, gives an interesting
and familiar account of their country. He was not the first who subjected the
Pigmies to the cinematograph, for Shattuck and others, sent out by the American
Museum of Natural History and American Universities in 1919-20, had taken
much pains in recording the Pigmies and their dwellings and dances on the
film, and this, I think, was the film that was shown in Australia.

Barns records that the Ituri Forest, the home of the Pigmies in Central
Africa, is not as bad to travel in as is often reported, but he went along the
Belgian Government road with rest houses provided at intervals. All travellers
agree that once off the beaten track the Ituri Forest is about as difficult of
penetration as any the earth presents. Not only is its inherent density beyond
description, but the scandent plants, fallen trees, and rank undergrowth, together
with animal pests, make it quite impenetrable, in many places, to the European

409

hunter. No wonder the Okapi remained so long unknown, and no wonder
that still the Okapi hunter has to hire the Pigmies to help him.

There can be no doubt that the Pigmy is a very primitive type, and there
is every reason to think that they are survivals of the primitive stock which has
become geographically and ethnologically isolated among races that have had a
different origin. It is our present purpose to briefly indicate the chief char-
acteristics of these ancient and interesting peoples, as they are found to exist
at the present day. They are widely distributed, but may be roughly classed
into two main geographical groups—the African Pigmies and the Eastern
Pigmies.

Tue AFRICAN PIGMIES.

The Equatorial Pigmies are distributed over the region included within
5 degs. North latitude and 17 degs. South latitude, and about 1 deg. East longi-
tude to 32 degs. East longitude; that is, including the whole watershed of the
Congo and the Semliki. They are known in different areas by different names,
and as the names are varied by different authors the position is complicated.
Akka, Tiki Tiki, Wambuti, Batwa, Watwa, Obongo are the various names of
the same or different tribes. They occur apparently in the greatest numbers
along the Equatorial line, the Banana Belt of Africa, but are recorded from low
down on the Congo Basin, joining up in the south with the Bushmen of Lake
Ngami.

The Bushmen were formerly widely distributed in South Africa, reaching
from the west coast to the east coast and from Table Mountain to Lake Ngami.
Stow (“Native Races of South Africa”) gives a graphic account of the former
great distribution of this unfortunate race and the causes that led to its practical
extinction. Living in a country that is more variable in contour and climate
than that occupied by the Equatorial Pigmies, their life was less specialized in
one direction, but more so in others, as there were Bushmen of the Mountains,
of the Rivers, the Plains, the Sea Shore, and the Desert. The few pure Bushmen
who still remain are probably the Kungs and Haikums of the north-west Kali-
hari, but there may be many more. The Kalihari is so vast that its aboriginal
population is imperfectly known.

Traces of an aboriginal Negrito-Pigmy population are said to be found in
Madagascar. These people were called Mazimba, Kimos, and Behosy, but,
like the Abyssinian Dokos, they seem to have received little notice in literature.

THE EASTERN PIGMIES.

In the Andaman islanders we find the only isolated Pigmy race at present
living comparable, in their isolation, to the ‘Tasmanians, and resembling that
race in several remarkable anthropological and ethnological respects. The
Andamanese, when discovered, and prior at least to the establishment of Port
Blair as a convict settlement, were a pure negrito race, and their anthropology
and ethnology have been admirably recorded in the works of Man and Portman.

The ethnological position of the Semang, who occupy the mountains that
form the backbone of the Malay Peninsula, is not so clear. There are Semangs
who are pure negritos and who conform ethnologically to the Pigmy type, but
they are so scattered and surrounded by other races, who are absorbing them,
that it seems unsafe to make dogmatic statements about their cultural char-
acteristics. The Semangs are hemmed in by the Malayan coastal tribes and in
close contact with tribes like the Senoi and Sakai, who, in themselves, provide
problems. The student will find Skeat and Blagden’s “Pagan Races of the
Malay Peninsula” full of information on the Semangs and their neighbours.

In nearly all the larger islands of the Phillipines negritos have been observed.
They are, as a rule, displaced from the coast and occupy the more inaccessible
parts of the islands, and chiefly come in contact with the Tagals and Vicols.

410

Negritos have been reported as occurring in Borneo, but Dr. Eric Mjoberg,
now Director of the Museum at Kuching, writes that they are unknown to him.

Formosa, too, has been credited with the possession of a Pigmy race. Miss
McGovern in her book, “The Head Hunters of Formosa,” tells of a little people
a little over 4 feet high with crinkly hair. Dr. Oshima, a Japanese zoologist,
and delegate to the Pan Pacific Congress, 1923, who has been in Formosa
fourteen years, informs me that he cannot corroborate this statement.

Wollaston and his party discovered the Tapiro Pigmies in the mountains
of Dutch New Guinea, in 1910, and, a little later, Williamson’s book on the
Mafulu People of British New Guinea, gave some references to a Pigmy race
in the British portion.

Neuhauss, in his “Deutsch Neu Guinea,” figures and gives accounts of
Pigmies discovered by Keyser in the Sattelberg, and by Poch, in the Goliathberg.
Their nearest neighbours on the seaward side are the Papuans, who, again, are
displaced from the shore by the coast-loving Melanesians.

In New Britain the Sulka people declare that a race of small men lives
in the caves in the ranges of the centre of the island and comes down to steal
their bananas. On the Gazelle Peninsula, at the eastern end of the same island,
live the Baining (a curly-haired race forced into the mountains by the ubiquitous
Melanesians), a wandering people who cultivate a little taro, and whom Parkin-
son, in his “Dreissig Jahre in der Stdsee,” characterises as “in every particular
an absolutely primitive and simple folk such as I have never encountered any-
where else in the South Seas.”

Felix Speiser, in his “Two Years with the Natives in the Western Pacific,”
gives an account of the Pigmies in Santo. This, I understand from Professor
Skinner, is authenticated by Dr. Bowie, of Ambrym.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS.

The Pigmies are small races which show no marks of degeneration. To lay
claim to the distinction of being a Pigmy, the males must average under 5 feet
in height; the Pigmy, like a child of twelve, is six heads high as
against eight heads high for an average Englishman and nine and a half heads
high for a Nilotic Dinka. Thus their heads look relatively large for the small
body. Von Luschan says that the cause of the diminutive stature is an early
cessation of growth rather than a decrease of the yearly increment while growth
is actually taking place.

Sir H. H. Johnstone gives the average height of the Equatorial Pigmies as
4 feet 7 inches for men and 4 feet 2 inches for women, the minimum being
4 feet 2 inches and 4 feet, respectively. Other observers record still lower
minima.

For the Bushmen, Fritsch gives 4 feet 9 inches and Barrow 4 feet 6 inches
for men and 4 feet for women. Fritsch’s figures are probably more reliable for
a large number. Of the Asiatic or Eastern Pigmies, the Andamanese average
is 4 feet 104 inches (Haddon) ; the Semang, 4 feet 103 inches (Haddon); the
Aetas, 4 feet 10 inches (Haddon) ; the Tapiros, of New Guinea, 4 feet 9 inches
(Rawling).

In general physique all the Pigmy races are sturdy and well built, with good
muscular development. The hands and feet are generally small in proportion
and the great toe markedly drawn inwards away from the second toe. The
abdomen is prone to be protuberant, especially in the children, and the buttocks
are, as a rule, markedly prominent, although the steatopygia with which the
Bushmen are credited is, according to Fritsch, not authenticated, as the Bushmen
women show far less of steatopygous deformity than the Hottentots.

The Equatorial Pigmies, as well as the Bushmen, are, on the average,
mesaticephalic, while the Asiatic Pigmies are all inclined to be brachycephalic.

411

The cephalic indexes of the respective peoples are as follow :—Andamanese, 82;
Semang, 789; Aetas, 80 (Haddon); while the Tapiros are 802 (Rawling),
and the Kai Pigmies over 80 (Neuhauss). The nose in all the races is low at
the bridge and very broad, and the alveolar margin of the upper jaw prominent.
This, with the flat nose and weak chin, gives rise to a prognathism.

Among the Equatorial Pigmies, Stanley and Johnstone distinguish two
types in relation to the colour of their skin—one with reddish or yellowish-brown
skin and a tendency to red in the hair, and the other a black-skinned type with
entirely black scalp hair. The Bushmen are stated to be reddish or yellowish,
much lighter than the negro, but their colour varies with the different tribes.
In Asia the negritos are all classed as dark brown.

The peculiar type of hair to which all Pigmies must conform is the short
curly hair of the so-called peppercorn type. While this hair is found in all the
races, African and Eastern, it reaches its special development in the Bushmen.
In colour it is in all the races a dark brown, sometimes nearly black, at others
with a tinge of red init. The body hair is curly and of the same colour, which
is well developed on the ventral surface. Amongst some of the Congo and
Ituri Pigmies there is a remarkable development of fine lanugo (which is
especially evident in the sunlight), as well as beards that are sometimes of
considerable length.

The particular anthropological characteristics of the Pigmies are, short
stature, a broad head, and typical curly hair, in contradistinction to the Negroes,
who are characterised by tall stature, long head, and curly hair.

ARTS AND CUSTOMS.

In discussing the stage of culture of the Pigmies, only those facts will be
mentioned which concern them apart from the influence of adjacent peoples.

As all the races live in hot climates clothing can be, and is, reduced to the
possible minimum. The Equatorial Pigmies mostly go naked in the forests;
at most, they wear a bark girdle, in which the women stick large leaves before
and behind. The Bushmen wear a leather perineal band, while their women
wear two short leather aprons, the larger one covering the buttocks. In cold
weather there is worn, in addition, a skin caross sufficiently large to envelop the
body. The Andamanese are contented with a string girdle, in which bunches of
leaves are placed, after the fashion of the Equatorial Pigmies. The same fashion is
observed by the Semang, while the Negritos use perineal bands of bark enlarged
into an apron by the women. Wollaston observed that the Tapiro meén had
nothing on but a phallocrypt formed of a gourd. The women were not seen.

Sparing as the Pigmies are in their dress, they are still more so in their
decorations. Mutilations, so common amongst races of greater stature, are
unknown, if we except the alleged amputation of a little finger-joint by certain
Bushmen, and in no race is circumcision a practice. Real tattooing is entirely
absent and scarification confined to the Andamanese and the Aetas of the
Philippines. Our information as to the use of pigments is incomplete, but they
appear to be sparingly used by the Akkas and the Bushmen, and extensively
so by the Andamanese. Of ornaments the primitive Akkas seem to know
nothing, while the Bushmen make necklaces and other ornaments of discs of
ostrich shell, for the manufacture of which they have a special technique. The
Asiatic Pigmies are much fonder of ornaments, the most interesting being the
magic combs of the Semang worn by the women to avert disease. The
Andamanese, as in the case of the extinct Tasmanians, wear the bones and
skulls of their deceased relations.

The various races are, without exception, hunters and collectors of food.
Cultivation and pastoral pursuits are unknown to them. They are great hunters

412

and no game is too large for them to engage. Their whole life is founded on
a complete knowledge and acute observation of the plant and animal life in
their own region. Their weapons are almost exclusively the bow and arrow, .
which among the African tribes are quite small. Among the Akkas the arrow
is tipped with pieces of bone or borrowed iron and feathered with a strip of palm
leaf. The African races poison their arrows, and, according to Stanley and
others, the poisons used by the Equatorial Pigmies are astonishingly quick and
deadly. The arrow poison of the Bushmen, partly vegetable (Euphorbia and
Amaryillis) and party animal, is also deadly to the ostrich and large ungulates.
In the Andaman Islands a peculiar form of bow is met with which has the
form of an S and is nearly as high as the archer himself. The arrows of this
race are not poisoned.

Being, as a rule, ignorant of pottery (except among the Andamanese), the
preparation of food is mostly by baking. The food, in all races, includes every-
thing edible in the animal and vegetable world. Everything that will provide
protein is utilized on occasion. The Bushmen will even eat hyaenas, and their
favourite foods are the giant frogs, the pupae of termites, and the locusts or
grasshoppers which appear in clouds at certain seasons.

Like all inland people, the Pigmies value salt, and among the Ituri Akkas
it is much sought after and is currency for paying the hunters. To get carbo-
hydrates the Pigmies in the banana zone obtain the banana by exchange or
theft, although actual theft is not the rule, meat being left where the Negroes
can find it. Amongst the Bushmen the cycad provides the needed starch, and
the Asiatic races have wild rice, sweet potatoes, and other means of meeting this
necessity of life. Honey is especially prized as a food, and the Bushmen (before
the advent of the Europeans) had discovered that an intoxicating drink could
be made from its fermentation.

The Pigmy races are without exception nomadic, and in their uninfluenced
state erect nothing worthy of the name of villages or large dwellings, having at
most, as amongst the Andamanese, a large building to which they can return
from time to time as a rendezvous, much as the Bushmen return to their caves
when driven by circumstances. Cold and rain are the factors which modify the
architecture of nomadic peoples, and the Pigmies use in the simplest forms wind
screens made of branches and leaves, or, when necessary, hemispherical huts
thatched sufficiently to make them waterproof. These may be only of materials
gathered from the immediate neighbourhood, or a palm-leaf thatch may be
prepared and carried about (Andamanese), or carefully made rush mats
(Bushmen), eventually improved by skins and hides.

Reed (‘‘Negritos of Zambales’) figures a house raised off the ground,
and the Tapiros, living in a mountain rain-forest, build their rectangular thatched
huts on a platform several feet from the ground (Wollaston, p. 206). The
Semang utilize natural shelters under rocks and the simplest form of leaf shelters.
They differ from all other tribes of Pigmies by also having large leaf shelters,
furnished with bamboo bed places, and capable of accommodating the entire
tribe. All observers agree that whatever their dwellings are they pay little
attention to cold, and sleep soundly on the coldest nights without any covering.

With the doubtful exception of the Tasmanians, the Andamanese are the
only people on record who at the time of their discovery were unacquainted with
the means of making fire. It seems almost certain that the Tasmanians were
acquainted with the friction method. The Andamanese always kept a smoulder-
ing log in their camps and carried fire with them when travelling. The original
fire of the Andamanese is supposed to have been obtained from volcanoes, of
which there are two on the islands, only one of which is now active. The

413

Semang use the rubbing method and also the fire saw. The Negritos use the
fire saw, which is also the method adopted by the Tapiro Pigmies. The Equa-
torial Pigmies and the Bushmen both use the fire drill, exclusively.

According to all authors, the Central African Pigmies use the language
of the adjacent tribes, generally corrupt Bantu dialects. They are good linguists
and pick up languages very quickly. The language is sometimes an archaic
form of Negro language, or it may be the language of a people separated from
them by the territory of several other tribes. Whether they also have a primi-
tive language of their own does not seem to be certain. An investigation in
relation to this point which was made on the Pigmies during their European
visit led to no definite results. The Bushmen have a characteristic language
which, like the Hottentots, abounds in clicks, palatal, dental, labial, inspiratory,
and expiratory. As there are six kinds of these clicks used in conversation,
they give the language an explosive character quite unlike any other in the
world. The Andamanese are the only other Pigmies who have a language of
their own. It resembles the Tasmanian in being a complicated system of pre-
fixes and suffxes.. Man says that the general principle of its construction is
agglutination pure and simple. The Semang, though retaining a few elements
of their original language, commonly use that of their neighbours, the Sakei
and other races of the Malay Peninsula. The Aetas speak the Malay-
Polynesian languages of the various tribes with which they come in contact
such as the Tagals and Vicols. Little is known of the language of the New
Guinea Pigmies, but they generally understand their Papuan neighbours.

Counting is met with in its most primitive form amongst the Pigmies. |
can find nothing under this head as regards the Equatorial race, except that Von
Luschan got his Pigmies to count up to ten in Bantu. For five and ten they
used the Bantu word for hand, a common method in Central Africa. The
Bushmen have words to express one, two, and three, and count further up to
ten by combining these, raising one hand for five and two for ten. The
Andamanese only enumerate one and two, after this holding up one finger
after another and saying this, and this, and this, until they come to ten, when
they show both hands and say “all.” They have in addition a complicated
ordinal system quite peculiar to themselves. The Semang seem, as regards
enumeration, to have reached the same stage as the Andamanese and the Negritos.
As regards the New Guinea Pigmies we have no details, but Williamson tells
us that the Mafulu have words for one and two, and, combining these, count up
on their fingers and toes to twenty. When a large number has to be counted
several individuals have to contribute their digits (vide “Mafulu Mountain
People of British New Guinea,” p. 227).

Books CONSULTED.

1868—Du Chaillu, P., “Savage Africa.”

1873—Schweinfurth, G., ‘The Heart of Africa.”

1883—Man, E. H., “On the Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands.”

1890—Stanley, H. M., “In Darkest Africa.”

1890—Roth, H. L., “The Aborigines of Tasmania.”

1891—Casati, G., “Ten Years in Equatoria.”

1892—Schlichter, “The Pygmy Tribes of Africa,’ Scottish Geographical
Magazine, viii., 296.

1895—Quatre fages, A. De, “The Pygmies.”

1902—Johnstone, Sir H. H., “The Uganda Protectorate.”

1903—Kloss, C. B., “In the Andamans and Nicobars.”

1904—Reed, A. W., “The Negritos of Zambales.”

1905—Stow, G. W., “The Native Races of South Africa.”

414

1905—Smith, Elliot, ‘“The Lancet,’ August 12, 1905.

1906—Von Luschan, “Uber Sechs Pygmaen vom Ituri,” Z. fur E. 38, 1905,
pi LZ:

1906—Skeat and Blagden, “Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula.”

1907—Parkinson, R., “Dreissig Jahre in der Sudsee.”

1910—Schmidt, P. W., “Die Stellung der Pygmaen Volker.”

1911—Neuhauss, R., “Deutsch Neu Guinea.”

1911—Sollas, W. J., “Ancient Hunters.”

1912—Wollaston, A. E. R., “Pygmies and Papuans.”

1912—Williamson, R. W., “The Mafulu Mountain People of British New
Guinea.”

1922—Barns, T. A., “The Wonderland of the Eastern Congo.”

1922—Vanden Bergh, L. J., “On the Trail of the Pigmies.”’

ANNUAL REPORT

FOR YEAR ENDED SEPTEMBER 30, 1923.

Professor F. Wood Jones’ exploration of the Flora and Fauna of Nuyts Archi-
pelago and the Investigator Group has continued to supply material for record in
our “Transactions,” the forthcoming volume of which wili contain papers of this
series by Miss Joan Proctor, Professors F. Wood Jones, T. G. B. Osborn, and
J. B. Cleland, and Messrs. E. R. Waite, Arthur M. Lea, N. B. Tindale, and J. G.
Wood. Other series which will be continued in this volume are those on “Aus-
tralian Fungi,” by Professor J. B. Cleland and Edwin Cheel; “Additions to the
-Flora of South Australia,” by J. M. Black; “Australian Coleoptera,” by A. H.
Elston; “Polyplacophora,’ by Edwin Ashby; and “The External Characters
of Pouch Embryos of Marsupials,” by Professor F. Wood Jones. It will also
include papers on various other subjects by Sir Douglas Mawson, Professors
Harvey Johnston, T. G. B. Osborn, and Walter Howchin; Drs. R. S. Rogers,
Jefferis Turner, and O. W. Tiegs; and Messrs. J. G. Wood, R. L. Jack, and
R. G. Thomas. The volume, which will be published about Christmas, will, both
in size and value, fully equal that issued last December.

The expenditure upon printing and publishing has been heavy this year, as
in addition to the exceptionally bulky annual volume an Index has been issued
which includes all the Society’s publications from 1901 to 1920. This Index,
together with that issued in 1907, makes it easy to refer to all the subjects
dealt with by the Society from 1877 to 1920.

The exhibits at the evening meetings have continued to sustain their
interesting character.

The Council has given considerable thought to a revision of the Rules and
By-laws of the Society, and has proposed several minor alterations with a view
to making them clearer and better adapted to the growth of the Society’s work.
These were adopted at a special meeting held on September 13, and will be
printed in the forthcoming volume.

The continued growth of our Library has now reached a point at which
it is impossible without additional shelving to arrange the books in a systematic
and convenient way. Representations on this subject were made to the Govern-
ment through the Board of Governors of the Public Library, etc., some years
ago, and the urgency of the case was again pointed out this year, but so far
no reply has been received. /

During the year the Society was asked to nominate a representative upon
an Advisory Committee to deal with the issue of permits by the Commonwealth
Government for the export of indigenous animals, and Dr. A. M. Morgan
was so nominated, with Mr. Ising as deputy when the former is unable to act.

415

Our President (Dr. Pulleine) represented the Society upon the Pan-Pacific
Scientific Conference recently held in Melbourne and Sydney.

Sir Joseph C. Verco, one of our Vice-Presidents, has been absent on leave
for six months attending the celebration of the 800th anniversary of St.
Bartholomew’s Hospital, London.

Several deaths have occurred in our membership, including those of two
Honorary Fellows—J. G. O. Tepper, who was connected with the Society from
1878, and contributed largely to its “Transactions,” and Thomas Gill, C.M.G.,
1.S.O., elected in 1905 in recognition of his long-continued and valuable support.
Mr. William Pope, elected Fellow in 1908, and Mrs. H. R. Robinson, elected
Associate in 1904, also passed away during the year.

Our present membership comprises 7 Honorary Fellows, 4 Corresponding
Members, and 98 Fellows.
RoBerT PULLEINE, President.
WaLtTeER Rutt, Hon. Secretary.

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418

DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY

FOR THE YEAR ENDED SEPTEMBER 30, 1923.

TRANSACTIONS, JOURNALS, REPORTS, ETC.,
presented by the respective governments, societies, and editors.

AUSTRALIA.

AUSTRALASIAN ANTARCTIC ExpepiTion, 1911-1914. Scientific reports, ser. A,
v. 2, pt. 1; 4, pt. 1-4; ser. C. v. 6, pt. 4-5; 8, pt. 2. Syd. 1922-23.

AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. Report, v. 14.
Melb. 1914.

AUSTRALASIAN INSTITUTE OF Mininc anpD MeEtTauturey. Proc., no. 44-48.
Melb. 1922.

AustrRauia. Census and Statistics. Year Book, no. 15. 1922.

Fisheries. Bull., v. 5, pt. 3.

Institute of Science and Industry. Bull. 23-25.

Pamphlet, no. 3. Melb. 1923.

Report, no. 1. 1922.

—— National Research Council. Science abstracts, v. 1; 2, no. 1-3. Melb.
1922-23.

NortHEeRN TERRITORY. Report, 1921-22. Melb.

4

SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

ADELAIDE University. Animal Products Research Foundation. Report,
no. 2. Adel. 1922.

Pustic LipraRy, Museum, anp Art GauuerRy oF §8.A. Records of S.A.

Museum, v. 2, no. 3. 1923.

Report, 1921-22. Adel. 1922.

Royat GrocrRapuHicay Society (S.A. Br.). Proc., v. 22.

Sourn Austratia. Dept. of Mines. Review of mining operations in S.A.,

no. 36-37.

Geological Survey. Bull., no. 10. 1923.

Report, 1921. Adel. 1922.

Woods and Forests. Report, 1921-22. Adel.

Soutn AUSTRALIAN Naturatist, v. 4. Adel. 1922-23.

South AUSTRALIAN ORNiITHOLOGIST, v. 6, pt. 8; 7, pt. 1-2.

SoutH AusTRALiIAN Scuoon or Mines. Report, 1922.

NEW SOUTH WALES.

AUSTRALIAN Museum. Museum magazine, v. 1, no. 6-9.
Records, v. 13, no. 6; 14, no. 1. 1922-23

Report, 1922. Syd.

Linnean Society oF N.S.W. Proc., v. 47, pt. 3-5; 48, pt. 1-2.
Marpen, J. H. Critical revision of the genus Eucalyptus, pt. 57-61. Syd.
1922-23.

Forest flora of N.S.W., v. 8, pt. 1-3. 1923.

New South Wates. Board of Fisheries. Report, 1921.

Dept. of Agriculture. Gazette, v. 33; 34, no. 1-7, 9.
Science bull., no. 14, 21. Syd. 1915-21.

Dept. of Mines. Report, 1922.

Geological Survey. Bull., no. 2-3. 1923.

Mineral resources, no. 31.

Records, v. 10, pt. 1-2. Syd. 1921-22.

Public Health. Report, 1921. Syd. 1923.

Royau Society of N.S.W. Journ., v. 55. Syd. 1922.

HHT

419

QUEENSLAND.
QUEENSLAND. Dept. of Agriculture. Journ., v. 18, pt. 4-6; 19; 20, pt. 1-3.
Brisb. 1922-23.
Geological Survey. Publications, no. 270, 272-3.
QUEENSLAND Musrum. Mem., v. 7, pt. 4. Brisb. 1922.
Royau Society OF QUEENSLAND. Proc., v. 34. Brisb. 1923.

TASMANIA
Roya Society oF TasMANIA. Proc., 1922. Hobart.

VICTORIA.

Royat Society OF Victoria. Proc., v. 35, pt. 1-2. 1922.

ScIENTIFIC AUSTRALIAN, v. 28, no. 7-12; 29, no. 2-4. Melb.

Victoria. Dept. of Agriculture. Journ., v. 18, pt. 8-12;19; 20; 21, pt. 1-5,
8-9. Melb.

Geological Survey. Bull., no. 48. Melb.

Mem., no. 14, and plates. 1923.

VicToRIAN NatuRAListT, v. 39; 40, no. 1-5. Melb. 1923.

WESTERN AUSTRALIA.
Roya Society or W.A. Journ., v. 8; 9, pt. 1. Perth. 1922.

ENGLAND.

BritisH (Terra Nova) Antarctic ExpepiTion, 1910-13. Determinations of

gravity. Lond.

Glaciology (Wright and Priestly). 1922.

Observations on the aurora. Lond. 1921.

Physiography of McMurdo Sound and Granite Harbour region (Grif-

fith Taylor). 1922.

Terrestrial magnetism (Chree). Lond. 1921.

CAMBRIDGE PHILOSOPHICAL Society. Proc., v. 21, pt. 3-5.

Trans., v. 22, no. 26-28; 23, no. 1. 1923.

CaMBRIDGE University. Solar Physics. Report, 1921-23.

ConcHoLocicaL Society. Journ., v. 16, no. 10; 17, no. 1-2. Lond.

Dove Marine Lasoratory. Report, 1912-22. Cullercoats.

Entomonocican Society. Trans., 1919; 1921, pt. 3-4; 1922.

GroLocicaL Society. Journ., v. 78; 79, pt. 1-2. Lond.

IMPERIAL Bureau OF ENntTomoLtocy. Review of applied entomology, ser. A,
Be ver LOS pterS=l li) Wot leven Womd:

IMPERTAL Instirure: 9 Bull., v. 20. Wond. 1922-23.

Linnean Society. Journ., bot., v. 31; 41; 44-45; no. 305-307. Lond. 1895-

1922.

Journ., zool., no. 203-208, 232-4. 1907-11.

Proc., 1917-18, 1921-22. Lond.

LivEeRPoot BroLogicaLt Society. Trans., v. 36. 1922.

MANCHESTER LITERARY AND PHILosopuicaL Society. Mem. and proc., vy. 65,
Site AAS OOS (OR joven Wa IPM De}.

Nationa, Puysicat Lasoratory. Collected researches, v. 16.

Reports, 1921-22. Lond.

NortH oF ENGLAND InsTITUTE OF MINING AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
Trans., v. 71-73. Newe. 1921-23.

Royat Boranic GarRpDENS, Kew. Bull., 1922. Lond.

Royat GrocrapuicaL Society. Journ., v. 1-2; 3, pt. 2; 5; 6, pt. 2; 7; 8,
pil Ie 30 rSssl-6o.
Geog. journ., v. 1-2; 3, no. 2, 4-6; 4, no. 2-4, 6; 5; 6, no. 1-4, 6;

1-19) 20, no? 2-65 25:26, no. 1,3-6;,27, no. 1-5: 28, no. 1-4, 6; 29-37;

38, no. 1-2, 4-6; 39-40; 60-61, 62, no. 2. 1893-1923.

Proc., v. 23, no, 2-4) 6; 4 no. 2-5; 65°9; VS

420

Royat Microscopicayt Society. Journ., 1922; 1923, pt. 1.
Royau Society. Proc., A 713-23; B 657-65. 1922-23.
Yearbook, 1923. Lond.

UNITED Empire, v. 13, no. 9, 11-12; 14, no. 1-6, 8.

SCOTLAND.

Roya Socrery or EprnsurcH. Collected scientific papers of John Aitken.
Camb. 1923.

Proc., v. 42, pt. 3. Hdin., 1923.

Trans., v. 53; pt. 1. Edin. 1922.

IRELAND.

Royat Dusuin Sociery. Sci. proc., v. 16; 17, no. 1-10.
Royat IrntsH AcapeMy. Proc., ser. A, v. 34-35; 36, pt. 1-4; ser. B, v. 34-35;
36, pt. 2-3; ser. C, v. 34, pp. 1-230; 35; 36, pt. 3-9. Dubl. 1917-22.

ARGENTINE.
AcADEMIA NACIONAL DE CiENcIAS. Boletin, t. 25, pt. 4; 27, pt. 1-2. Cordoba.
1922-23.
AUSTRIA.

AKADEMIE DER WISSENSCHAFTEN. Math.-Nat. Klasse. Sitz., Bd. 130, Abt. 1,
H. 4-9): Ila, Hi. 5-83 Dib) Ae 7-10; Bdaalsie Abt llbsetiea ts) sWaene

GEOLOGISCHE STAATSANSTALT. Verh., 1922; 1923, no. 1.

ZOOL-Bot. \GESELLSCHAFT. Verh., Bd. 72. Wien. 1923.

BELGIUM.

ACADEMIE RoyALE DE BELGIQUE. Ann., 1923. Brux.
Classe des Sciences. Bull., 1922, no. 5-12.
Miemis any Acs e Orn Gace ie Camo lcrin els
Mem int8>, 1s 2. tints Mico eal O02 —2. 3)
Instituts Sotvay. Archives soc., t. 2, no. 3.

Revue soc., 1920-23. Brux.

Societe ENtomoLociqvue. Ann., t. 59-62. Brux.
SOcIETE ROYALE DES DE Likes, Mém., t. 11, pt. 2.

BRAZIL.
InSTITUTO OswaLpo Cruz. Mem., t. 14, f. 1. 1922.
OBsERVATORIO Nacronau. Contribuicac ao estudo do clima do Brasil. Rio de
Janeiro. - 1922.
CANADA.

Canapa. Geological Survey. Mem., no. 129-132.
Publications 1944, 1955, 1958-9, 1966.
— Mines. Publications 549, 579, 583.

Report, 1922. Ottawa.

Roya Society oF Canapa. Proc., v. 16, 1922. Ottawa.

CEYLON.
CoLtomspo Museum. Spolia Zeylanica, pt. 46. 1923.

CHINA.
Royat Astatic Socirty, Nru.-Cuina Br. Journ., v. 53.

421

DENMARK.

ConsEIL PERMANENT INTERNATIONAL POUR L’ KXPLORATION DE LA MER.

lications de circonstance, no. 75-81.

Rapports, v. 28-30. Cpng. 1922-23.

Dansk NATURHISTORISK FoRENING. Vid.-med., Bd. 73-74.
KoBENHAVN UNIVERSITETS Zoou. Museum. Bull. 26-27.
NATURHISTORISK FORENING FUR JYLLAND. Flora og fauna, 1921.

FINLAND.

Pub-

Societas EnroMoLoGicaA HELSINGFORSIENSIS. Notulae entomologicae, v. 1-2.

Helsingfors. 1921-22.
FRANCE.

JANET, CHARLES. Considérations sur |’ étre vivant, II.
Le volvox, II. Beauvais. 1921.

Mustum Nationa bv’ Historre NaturRELLE. Bull., 1900; 1906; 1921, no. 7;

1922) now Ie ON) ar
RENNES UNIVERSITY. Travaux sci., t. 15-16. 1922.

SOCIETE DES SCIENCES NATURELLES DE L’ OUEST DE LA FranczE. Bull., s

LaiGe Nantess / i922
SociETE ENTOMOLOGIQUE DE FrRaANcE. Ann., v. 91..
Bull 22h enon 3-2 0h 9235 mo. tlOh Ban.
SOCIETE GEOLOGIQUE DE France. Bull., t. 21, 1921.
Compte rendu sommaire, 1921. Par.
SocimETE LINNEENNE DE BorpEaux. Actes, t. 73. 1921.

GERMANY.

er. 4,

BaYERISCHE AKADEMIE DER WISSENSCHAFTEN. Jlath.-phys. Klasse. Abh., Bd.

Dip MOA sole) Ora Oy Oa lle.
Sitz., 1915-22. Miinchen. 1915-23.
BERLINER GESELLSCHAFT FUR ANTHROPOLOGIE. Zeitz., 1922.

DereutscHE ENTOMOLOGISCHE Museum. Entom. Mitteil., Bd. 11, no. 5; 12,

Moy he Dexerelly ~~ US ESS
GESELLSCHAFT DER WISSENSCHAFTEN. Nach., 1922. Gott.
Mathi-phys) ‘Klasse. Nach.. 1922. 1-2)- 1923 He I.

GESELLSCHAFT FUR ERDKUNDE. Zeits., 1922, no. 7-10; 1923, no. 1-4. Berl.

NASSAUISCHEN VEREIN FUR NATURKUNDE. Jahr. 74. Wiesb.
NATURHISTORISCHE GESELLSCHAFT. Abh., Bd. 22, H.1. Niirnb.
NaTURHISTORISCHE MusEeum. Mitteil., v.39. Hamb. 1922.
Puys.-MrED. GESELLSCHAFT, WURZzBURG. Sitz., 1900, 1920.
Merne Bas 46-eno: 2a(ie 47 nose, NODE I 0:

PREUSSISCHE AKADEMIE DER WISSENSCHAFTEN. Sitz., 1922, pp. 75-138; 1923,

pp. 1-74. Berl.

Edit hists Klasse. Sitz., 1922,15-34- 19235 116:
Phys.-math. Klasse. Sitz.; 1922, 13-34; 1923, 1-14.
STaDIscHE Museum FtUr VoLKERKUNDE. Ver., H. 6. Leip.

HAWAIIAN iSLANDS.

BERNICE Pavan BrsHop Museum. Occ. papers, v. 8, no. 4, 6-7.
Publication, no. 3. Honolulu. 1922.
HAWAIIAN ENTOMOLOGICAL Society. Proc., v. 5, no. 1.

HOLLAND.
Risk’s Herspartum. Med., no. 42-47. JTeiden. 1929.

422

HUNGARY.
Museum Narvionatis Hunearicum. Ann., v. 1, pt. 2; 2-5; 19. Budapest.
1903-22.
INDIA.

Inpia. Agricultural Research Inst. Rep., 1921-22. Pusa.
Board of Scientific Advice. Rep., 1921-22.

Dept. of Agriculture. Bot. mem., 11, no. 8-10; 12, no. uy
Chem. mem., v. 6, no. 6-8; 7, no. 1. Cale.
Entom. mem., v. 7, no. 7-13; 8, no. 1-3.

Review of agricultural operations, 1921-22.

——— Geological Survey. Bibliog. of Ind. geol., pt. 2.

Mem., v. 44, pt. 2. Cale. 1923.

Palaeontologia Indica, v. 7, no. 2.

Records, v. 53, pt. 4; 54, pt. 1-3. 1922.

InpIAN Museum. Mem., v. 5, no. 9-10. Cale. 1921-22.

Records, v. 8, pt. 13; 21, pt. 1; 22, pt. 2-5; 23, pt. 1; 24; pt. 1-3.
Mapras. J/isheries. Bull., v. 14-16. 1922.

Roya, Astatic Society, Bompay Br. Journ., v. 26, no. 1.

ITALY.

LABORATORIO DI ZOOLOGIA GENERALE E AGRARIA. Bull. 15.

SocretA Iraurana DiI ScIENZE Naturavi. Atti, v. 61. Mulan.

SociETA TOSCANA DI SCIENZE NatTuRaui. Processi verbali, v. 31. Pisa. 1922.
Torino, R. UNIvERSITA DI. Museum bull., v. 37. 1922.

JAPAN.

Japan. Imperial Karthquake Investigation Committee. Bull., v. 8, no. 6;
1) no. 1 Tokyo:

Seismological notes, no. 3, 5. 1922.

Kyoro ImpreriaL University. College of Engineering. Mem., v. 2, no. 5-6;

3, mo. 1-2. 1921-23.

College of Science. Mem., v. 4, no. 7-8; 5, no. 1-6; 6, no. 1-5. Kyoto,

1921-22.

Nationa, REesEaRcH CounciL. Jap. journ. astron. and geophysics, v. 1, no.
2-5. Tokyo. 1922-23.

Jap. journ. botany: trans., v. 1.

Jap. journ. chemistry, v. 1, no. 1-5.

Jap. journ. geol., v. 1, no. 3-4; 2, no. 1.

Jap. journ. geol.: trans., v. 1, no. 1-2.

Jap. journ. physics, v. 1, no. 1-10.

Jap journ. zool.: trans., v. 1, ‘no. 1.

ToHoKU IMPERIAL UNIVERSITY. Sci. rep., s. 1, v. 11, no. 3-6; 12, no. 1-2;

mdex. ve WO "ss" 20 ve, Odes st On les Sa cn) Ve Ml TO oee

Tech. rep., v. 3, no. 1-4. Sendai. 1922-23.

TOHOKU MATHEMATICAL JOURNAL, v. 21-22. 1922-23.

Tokyo IMPERIAL UNIveRSIty. Calendar, 1922-23.

College of Sccence. Journ., v. 42, art. 3; 44, 1-5.

AL

JAVA.

NATUURKUNDIGE VEREENIGING IN NeEDERL.-INnrIE. Tijds., Deel 72, pt. 3; 73,
pt. 1. Weltevreden. 1921-22. .
NEDERL.-oost-INDIE MIJNWEZEN. Jaarb., 1919-21.

423

MEXICO.

Instituto GreoLtocico. Bull. 33, 37-39. Mexico.
Mexico. Secretaria de Comunicaciones y Obras Publicas. Bull., Oct. 1921 to
Feb. 1922.
SocrEDAD CrEenTiFIcA ‘“‘AnToNIo ALzaATE,’’ Mem., t. 40, no. 7-12; 41, no. 1-4;
42, no. 1-2. Mexico.
NEW ZEALAND.

AUCKLAND INsTITUTE AND Museum. Report, 1922-23.

New Zearanp. Board of Science and Art. N.Z. journ. of sci. and tech., v.
He Grae, Io) Vell.

Domimon Laboratory. Report, no. 55. Well. 1922.

——— Geological Survey. Annual report, no. 17. 1923.

Bull., no. 24-25. Well. 1922-23.

NORWAY.

BERGENS Museums. Aarbok, 1920-21, H. 2.
Aarsberetning, 1921-22.
NorwWeEGIscHE METEOROLOGISHE INsrituTs. Johr., 1919-20.

PERU.

ASOCIACION PERUANA PARA EL PROGRESO DE LA CrENcIA. Archiv., t. 1, f. 2;
Me dts ally Juanes ALG S27,
Peru. Cuerpo de Ingemeros de Minas. Bull. 105-106.

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.
BurEAvu OF Science. Journ., v. 20, no. 6, to 23, no. 2. Index, v. 1-10.
Manila. 1917-23.
SPAIN.
Instituto GENERAL y TECNICO, VALENCIA. Anales, v. 8.
JUNTA DE CibncIES NATURALS, BaRceLona. Mem., 1919-21.
Treballs del museu, v. 3; 4, no. 3-4; 5, no 4; 6.
REAL ACADEMIA DE Crencias y ARTES. Bull., v. 4, no. 6.
Mem., v. 17, no. 13-22. Barcelona. 1922-23.

d

STRAITS SETTLEMENTS.
Roya Asiatic Society, Straits Br. Journ., no. 86-87.

SWEDEN.
EntomoLociska FORENINGEN I StockHoitm. Tidsk., arg. 43.
GroLoGIsKA FORENINGEN. Forh., Bd. 44, H. 5-7; 45, H. 1-4.
K. VirrerHets Hist. ocn Antiqg. AkaD. Fornv., 1918-21.
Handl., v. 34, pt. 1-2. Stockholm. 1922.

SWITZERLAND.

Groc.-Eranoc. Gesetuscuarr. Zurich. Jahr. 1920-21.

Institut Nationa Grenevois. Bull., t. 45, pt. 1. 1922.

NATURFORSCHENDE GESELLSCHAFT, Zinicn. Viert., 1922.

Sociité pE Puysiqun ET pv’ HrstorrE NaruRELLE. Compte rendu des séances,
v. 39, no. 3; 40, no: 1. Geneva-

Société NEUCHATELOISE DES SCIENCES NATURELLES. Bull. 46.

Société VaUDOISE DES ScrENcES NaTuRELLES. Bull. 204-209.

Mém., no. 1-2. Lausanne. 1922.

424

UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA.
GroLtocicaL Society or 8.A. Trans., 1922. Johannesb.
Rovat Society or 8.A. Trans., v. 10; 11, pt. 1. Cape Town
S.A. ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF ScreNcE. Journ. of sci., v. 18,
no. 3-4; 19. Cape Town. 1922.
S.A. Musetm. Annals, v. 13, pt. 7; 14, pt. 5.
Report, 1922. Cape Town.

UNITED STATES.

AcaDeMy oF Narurat Sciences, Poitap. Ann. rep., 1921.

Proc., v. 74, 1922. Philad.

Special publication, no. 1. 1922.

Amertcan ACADEMY oF ARTS AND SciznNcES. Proc., v. 57, no. 11-18: 58, n
3-7. Bost. 1922-23.

AMERICAN CHEMicaL Society. Journ., v. 44; 45, no. 1-8.

AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL Society. Review, v. 12; 13, 1-3.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF Mininc EncinEERS. Tr., v. 67-68.

American Microscopicat Society. Tr., v. 41, no. 4; 42, 1-2.

AMERICAN Museum or Natrurat History. American Museum novitates,
43-82). IN aeYo21922-23;

Bulleive 45. lO 2=22%

Guide leaflets, no. 55-56. 1922.

— ‘Natural History,” v. 22, no. 1, 4, 6; 23, no. 1-4.

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL Society. Proc., v. 61. Phil.

ARNOLD ARBORETUM. Journ., v. 1, no. 1; 3-4, no. 2. Camb.

BROOKLYN INSTITUTE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.
$-4: LOM no glia OD 22230

CALIFORNIA ACADEMY OF ScieNcES. Occ. paper X, 1-2.

Proc, v.11, no. 185215712, nowil-3 "San Kran:

Cauirornia. Dept. of Agriculture. Bull., v. 10, no. 8-9.
Mining Bureau. Bull. 91. Sacramento.

Oilfields summary, v. 7, no. 12; 8, no. 1-10.

— Report, v. 18; 19, no. 1-3. 1922-23.

CALIFORNIA University. Publ. in entom., v. 1, no. 3-5, 9.
Publ. in zool., v. 22, no. 3, 5-6. Berkeley.

Agric. Experiment Station. Bull. 332, 341, 345.

Technical papers, 1-4. Berkeley. 1923.

Cuicaco AcaDEMy OF SciENcES. Bull. 7, pt. 2. 1923.

Connecticut AcaDEMyY oF ARTS AND ScIENCES. Trans., v. 26, pp. 1-179.
New Haven. 1922.

CORNELL University. Agric. Exp. Station. Bull. 408-10.

Mem., no. 54. . Ithaca, N.Y. 1922.

DENISON ScIENTIFIC ASSOCIATION. Bull. 20, art. 1-3.

FRANKLIN INSTITUTE. Journ., v. 194-196, no. 2.

Yearbook, 1922. Philad.

Harvarp CottecE Museum. Annual report, 1921-22.
Bull:, v.65, no. 5-8. .@amb), Mass.) 11929593)

Mem., v. 18-21; 23-42; 43, no. 1-3; 44-46: 47, no. 1-3; 48. Camb.

1895-1919.

Tuuinois. State Laboratory of Natural History. Bull., v
14, art. 1-2. Urbana. 1922.

Inuinois University. Biological monog., v. 7, no. 1-4.

Inprana AcapEmy oF Scrence. Proc., 1921. Indianap.

Jouns Hopkins Universiry. Studies in historical and political science, v.
40. Balt. 1922.

Kansas University. Sci. bull., v. 13, no. i0-15. Lawrence.

S

no.

Museum quarterly, v. 9, no.

. 13, art. 14-16;

425

Minnesota University. Current problems, no. 12.
Agric. Experiment Station. Bull. 198-9. Minneap.
Missouri Botanic GarpeEN. Ann., v. 8; 9, no. 1-2. St. Louis.
NatTIionaL ACADEMY OF ScIENCES. Proc., v. 6, no. 12; 7, no. 1-2; 8, no. 8-12;
9, no. 1, 3-8. Wash. 1920-23.
National Research Council. Report, 1921-22.
New York Pusuiic Lisprary. Bull. 26, no. 8 to 27, no. 7.
New Yorx ZoouocicaL Society. Zoologica, v. 2, no. 14-17.
Nort Carouina. Geological Survey. . Circ., no. 4, 6.
Economic papers, no. 53. Raleigh.
Natural resources, no. 3, 5. 1922-23.
OBERLIN CoLLteGE. Laboratory bull. 22-31. 1919-22.
Oxio State University. Journ. sci., v. 22, no. 6 to 23, no. 3.
SMITHSONIAN InstTiTUTION. Pureau of American Hthnology. Annual report,
no. 34, 1913-14. Wash.

Bul Mr OseOOs Wont o=i a LONE 22.
TENNESSEE. Geological Survey. Bull. 3, 20, 27. Nashv.
UNITED StaTEsS. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Rep., 1922.
Special publications, 13 various. Wash.

Dept. of Agriculture. Dept. circ., no. 195; 10 dept. bull., and 11
farmers’ bull.
Experiment station record, v. 46-48.
———— ———— Journ. agric. research, v. 23; 24, no. 1-5, 8.
Yearbook, 1921. Wash.

Geological Survey. Ann. rep., no. 43; 18 bull.; 8 professional and 10
water-supply papers.
Mineral resources, 1919. Wash.
Topographic atlas, sending no. 44, 45.
Liprary oF Coneress. Report, 1922.
National Museum. Ann. report, 1922. Wash.
Bulle non NO4s V2 2 2e O22:
Contrib. from Nat. Herb., v. 23, pt. 2; 24.
IPTrOC Vi D9-CO Wash © 1920)
WAGNER FREE INSTITUTE oF SctENcE. Ann., 1922-23.
WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY, St. Lours. Sci. studies, v. 10, no. 1.

IL

426

LIST OF FELLOWS, MEMBERS, ETC.
AS EXISTING ON SEPTEMBER 30, 1923.

Those marked with an asterisk have contributed papers published in the Society’s
Transactions.

Any change in address should be notified to the Secretary.

Note.——The publications of the Society will not be sent to those whose subscriptions
are in arrear.

Date of Honorary FELLOWS.
Election.

1910. *Bracc, Str W. H., K.B.E., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physics, Univer-
sity College, London (Fellow 1886).

1893. *CossmMAN, M., 2 Bould. Saddi-Carnot, Enghien, France.

1897.7 *DAvip; Sir) DA Wey Evceworte, pkOBihe C.M.Ga DS Of BA. se DiSce mies
F.G.S., Professor of Geology, University of Sydney.

1905. *HepLey, CuHas., Assistant Curator, Australian Museum, Sydney.

1892. *Marpen, J. H., I1.S.0., F.R.S., F.L.S., Director of Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

1898. *Meryrick, E. T.; B.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., Thornhanger, Marlborough, Wilts, England.

1894. *Witrson, J. T., M.D., Ch.M., Professor of Anatomy, Cambridge University, England.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

1913. *Carter, H. J., B.A., Kintore Street, Wahroonga, N.S.W.

1909. *Jouncock, C. F., Clare.

1905. THomson, G. M., F.L.S., 209 Cargill Street, Dunedin, New Zealand.
1908. *WooLnoucH, WaLTER G., D.Sc., F.G.S. (Fellow 1902).

FELLOWS.

1895. *Asupy, Epwin, F.L.S., M.B.O.U., Blackwood.

1917. Bairey, J. F., Director Botanic Garden, Adelaide.

1902. *Baxer, W. H., F.L.S., King’s Park.

1921. Birxs, Metvitre, M.B., B.S., F.R.C.S., Hospital, Broken Hill.

1902. *Bracx, J. M., 82 Brougham Place, North Adelaide.

1912. *Broucuton, A. C., 167 Young Street, Parkside.

1911. Brown, Encar J., M.B., D.Ph., 12 North Terrace.

1883. *Brown, H. Y. L., 286 Ward Street, North Adelaide.

1916. *Buit, Lionet B., D.V.Sc., Laboratory, Adelaide Hospital.

1923. Burven, Roy L., B.Sc., University of Adelaide.

1921. Burron, R. J., Fuller Street, Walkerville.

1922. Camppett, T., B.D.S., Adelaide Hospital.

1907. *CHapman, R. W., M.A., B.C.E., F.R.A.S., Professor of Engineering and Mechanics:
University of Adelaide.

1904. Curistiz, W., King William Street, Adelaide.

1895. *CreLAnp, JouHn B., M.D., Professor of Pathology, University of Adelaide.

1923. Conrick, Joun, Nappamerrie, Farina.

1907. *Cooxr, W. T., D.Sc., Lecturer, University of Adelaide.

1916. Darttne, H. G., Franklin Street, Adelaide.

1887. *Drxon, SAMUEL, Bath Street, New Glenelg.

1915. *Dopp, ALan P., Prickly Pear Laboratory, Sherwood, Brisbane.

1921. Duron, G. H., B.Sc., F.G.S., 21 Da Costa Avenue, South Prospect.

1911. Dutton, BH. EBA. Anlaby-

1902. *Epgurst, A. G., Second Avenue, Sefton Park.

1918. *Exston, A. H., F.E.S., “Hatherley,” Commercial Road, Unley Park.

1917. *Fenner, Cuas. A. E., D.Sc., F.G.S., Education Department, Adelaide.

1914. Ferrcuson, E. W., M.B., Ch.M., Gordon Road, Roseville, Sydney.

1923. Fry, H. K., D.S.O., M.D., B.S., B.Sc., Glen Osmond Road, Parkside.

1919. Grastonsury, O. A., Adelaide Cement Co., Brookman Buildings, Grenfell Street.

1923. Grover, C. J. R., Stanley Street, North Adelaide.

1904. Gorpon, Davin, 72 Third Avenue, St. Peters.

1880. *GoypEr, Grorcr, A.M., F.C.S., Gawler Place, Adelaide.

1910. *Grant, Kerr, M.Sc., Professor of Physics, University of Adelaide.

1922. GRANT Reales ie MieBs BISe M.R.C.P., University of Adelaide.

Date of

427

Election.

1904. Grirritu, H., Hove, Brighton.

1916. Hacxerr, W. C., 35 Dequetteville Terrace, Kent Town.

1922. Hats, H. M., Irish Harp Road, Prospect.

1922, *Ham, WitiiAM, F.R.E.S., University of Adelaide.

1916. Hancock, H. Lirson, A.M.1.C.E., M.I.M.M., M.Am.I.M.E., Gawler Park, Angaston.

1896. Hawker, E. W., F.C.S., East Bungaree, Clare.

1923. Hirt, Frorence M., B.S., M.D., University of Adelaide.

1883. *Howcuin, Professor Watter, F.G.S., “Stonycroft,” Goodwood East.

1918. *Isinc, Ernest H., Locomotive Department, S.A. Railways, Mile End.

1912. *Jacx, R. L., B.E., F.G.S., Assistant Government Geologist, Adelaide.

1893. James, Tuomas, M.R.C.S., 9 Watson Avenue, Rose Park.

1918. Jrennison, Rev. J. C., Stirling West.

1910. *Jounson, E. A., M.D., M.R.C.S., 295 Pirie Street.

1910. *“JouNnston, Professor T. Harvey, M.A., D.Sc., University of Adelaide.

1920. SONES. he \Wioopy MERE BYS NERC: Sih Ps DiSc. Proresson or Atiatomy,
University of Adelaide.

1923. JupetL, Lester M. W., B.Sc., Jamestown.

1918. Kimeper, W. J., 28 Second Avenue, Joslin.

1915. *Lauriz, D. F., Agricultural Department, Victoria Square.

1897. *Lea, A. M., F.E.S., South Australian Museum, Adelaide.

1884. Lennon, A. A., M.D., M.R.C.S., Lecturer in Obstetrics, University of Adelaide,
and Hon. Physician, Children’s Hospital, North Adelaide.

1922, Lennon, Guy A., M.B., B.Sc., M.R.C.P., North Terrace.

1888. *Lower, Oswatp B., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Broken Hill, New South Wales.

1922. Mapican, C. T., B.A., B.Sc., University of Adelaide.

1923. Macarey, W. A., LL.B., Pirie Street.

1923. MarsHAatti, J. C., Payneham.

1914. Marnuews, G. M., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., F.Z.S., Foulis Court, Fair Oak, Hants, England.

1905. *Mawson, Str Douctas, D.Sc., B.E., F.R.S., Professor of Geology, University of
Adelaide.

1920. Mayo, Hersert, LL.B., Brookman Buildings, Grenfell Street.

1919. Mayo, Heren M., M.B., B.S., 47 Melbourne Street, North Adelaide.

1923. McBripe, R. M., J.P., 14 Giles Street, Toorak.

1920. McGrrp, Jonn NeiL, Napier Terrace, King’s Park.

1907. Metrosr, Roperr T., Mount Pleasant.

1897. *Morcan, A. M., M.B., Ch.B., 46 North Terrace.

1921. MouLpEnN, Owen M., M.B., B:S., Broken Hill.

1913. *Ossorn, T. G. B., D.Sc., Professor of Botany, University of Adelaide.

1886. Poorr, W. B., 6 Rose Street, Prospect.

1907. *PuLterne, R. H., M.B., 3 North Terrace.

1916. Ray, Witt1am, M.B., B.Sc., A.M.P. Chambers, King William Street.

1885. *RenNiz, Epwarp H., M.A., D.Sc., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry, University of
Adelaide.

1911. Roacu, B. S., Education Department, Flinders Street.

1919. *Ropertson, Professor T. B., University of Adelaide.

1905: *Rocers, (Ri S), "MOA. MED: 52) Hutt ‘Street:

1869. *Rutt, Water, C.E., Pembroke Street, College Park.

1891. Setway, W. H., Treasury, Adelaide.

1922. *SAMUEL, GEOFFREY, B.Sc., University of Adelaide.

1920. Simpson, A. A., C.M.G., Lockwood Road, Burnside.

1906. Snow, Francis H., National Mutual Buildings, King William Street.

1923. Sprop, M. W., M.B., B.S., Mannum.

1910. *Sranrey, E. R., Government Geologist, Port Moresby, Papua.

1922. Surton, J., Fullarton Road, Netherby.

1923. Tuomas, R. G., 5 Trinity Street, St. Peters.

1923. THomas, J. F., 64 Elizabeth Street, Sydney.

1923. *Tirnpate, N. B., South Australian Museum, Adelaide.

1921. *Tiecs, Oscar W., M.S., D.Sc., University of Adelaide.

L897 ORR NVenGee leh MEAS. BC. Brishton:

1894. *TurNer, A. JEFFeRIS, M.D., F.E.S., Wickham Terrace, Brisbane, Queensland.

1878. *VeERco, Sir Jos—EpH C., M.D., F.R.C.S., North Terrace.

1914. *Warre, Encar R., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S., Director, South Australian Museum.

1912. *Warp, LEoNARD KerrH, B.A., B.E., Government Geologist, Adelaide.

1920. WetensacH, W. W., A.S.A.S.M., “Glencoola,’ Glen Osmond.

1904. Wuuitsreap, Howarp, c/o A. M. Bickford & Sons, Currie Street.

1912. *Wuite, Capt. S. A.. C.M.B.0O.U., “Wetunga,” Fulham.

1920. *Wirton, Professor J. R., D.Sc., University of Adelaide.

1923. *Woop, J. G., B.Sc., University of Adelaide.

428

Royal Society of South Australia

(INCORPORATED).

Rules

AS AMENDED, 1923.

NAME.
1. The title of the Society is the “Royal Society of South Australia
(Incorporated) ,” hereinafter called the Society.

OBJECTS.
2. The objects of the Society are the promotion and diffusion of scientific
knowledge by meetings for the reading and discussion of papers and by other
methods.

CONSTITUTION.

3. The Society shall be constituted of the persons who are enrolled as mem-
bers. They shall be classed as Fellows, Honorary Members, Corresponding
Members, and Associates.

4. Honorary Members must be persons distinguished for their attainments
in science, or who have rendered signal service to the Society.

5. Corresponding Members must be persons who reside more than ten miles
from the General Post Office, Adelaide, and who, by furnishing papers or other-
wise, have promoted the objects of the Society.

6. Men or women may be Associates ; the male Associates must be under the
age of 21 years.

7. Associates shall at any time be entitled to become Fellows upon their
written application to the Council, and payment of the prescribed subscription
payable by Fellows.

8. Honorary Members, Corresponding Members, and Associates shall be en-
titled to all the privileges of Fellows, except that they shall not debate or vote
upon questions dealing with the management of the Society’s business.

ELECTION OF MEMBERS.

9. Every candidate for membership must be nominated on the prescribed
form by two Fellows, one of whom must attest from personal knowledge of
the candidate.

10. The nomination paper shall be lodged with the Secretary, and shall be
submitted to the Council and the Society at their first following meetings, and the
election shall be held at the next subsequent meeting (not being a special meet-
ing) of the Society.

11. No person shall be eligible for election as an Honorary Member unless
recommended by the Council.

12. Elections shall be by ballot, one negative in six excluding.

13. A candidate who has been so excluded shall not be eligible to be again
nominated within one year of such exclusion.

14. Every person elected shall have immediate notice thereof transmitted to
him by the Secretary, accompanied by a copy of the Rules and By-Laws, and
shall be enrolled as a member.

429

CESSION OF MEMBERSHIP.

15. A member may resign his membership at any time by notification in writ-
ing to the Secretary, and shall thereupon cease to be a member, but shall not
thereby be released from any indebtedness to the Society.

16. If any Fellow or Associate whose subscription shall be more than twelve
inonths in arrear shall fail to pay the same after application in writing
by the Treasurer, the Council may cancel his membership, and he shall thereupon
cease to be a member.

RESTORATION.

17. The Council may, upon such terms as it shail think fit, re-enrol as a
member any person who shall have ceased to be a member.

MANAGEMENT.

18. The management of the affairs and funds of the Society, and the custody
of its property, shall, subject to any by-laws for the time being regulating
or prescribing conditions as to the same, be vested in a Council, composed of
a President and such other officers and members as may be prescribed, who shall
be elected and hold office for such periods as may be prescribed.

PRESIDENT.

19. The President shall if in attendance preside at all meetings of the Council
or Society. In the absence of the President, his duties shail be carried out by
such other officer or person denoted or elected in manner prescribed.

SEAL AND SEALHOLDER.

20. The Common Seal shall have the name of the Society inscribed upon it,
and shall be held by the Secretary, who shall for all legal purposes be deemed
to be the sealholder.

The Council shall have power to use the seal in the execution of any powers
hereby invested in it or otherwise in relation to the affairs or business of the
Society. The seal shall not be used except by the authority of the Council. The
Secretary and at least two other members of the Council shall sign every instru-
ment to which the seal is affixed.

MEETINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

21. A meeting of the Society, to be called the Annual Meeting, shall be held
in the month of October in every year upon a day and at a place to be appointed
by the Council.

22. At the Annual Meeting the Council shall submit a report and duly audited
balance-sheet, and the meeting shall fill all vacancies among the officers and the
members of Council for the ensuing year, and transact any other business of
which due notice has been given.

23. The Council may convene an ordinary meeting of the Society at any
time.

24. The Council may at any time, and shall upon the requisition in writing
of seven Fellows, specifying the purpose for which the meeting is required, con-
vene a special meeting of the Society. The special business for which the meeting
has been convened, and none other, shall be transacted at such meeting.

25. Seven Fellows shall be a quorum. If at any meeting a quorum is not
present within thirty minutes after the hour of meeting, the meeting shall stand
adjourned to a day and time to be appointed by those present, not being earlier
than seven days. At the adjourned meeting the Fellows then present may pro-
ceed to business, although fewer than the prescribed quorum may be present.

430

26. At least three days’ notice of every meeting or adjourned meeting and
of the principal items of business to be transacted thereat shall be given to the
members resident in South Australia by circular, or in such manner as may be
prescribed.
AUDITORS.

27. Two persons, not being members of the Council, shall be chosen at some
meeting of the Society prior to the Annual Meeting in each year to audit the
accounts and balance-sheet for the then current year.

By-Laws.

28. The Council may make, repeal, alter, or vary by-laws not inconsistent
with these rules for the effective carrying out of the objects and purposes of the
Society ; but no such by-law, repeal, alteration, or variation shall be valid unless
approved by a majority of the Fellows voting at a meeting of the Society of
which due notice has been given.

ALTERATION OF RULES.
29. The Society may by a majority of at least two-thirds of the Fellows
present at an Annual Meeting, or at a special meeting duly convened for the
purpose, make any rule or repeal, alter, or vary any existing rule.

30. In the construction of the rules of the Society, unless the subject or con-
text requires a different meaning :—

“By-law” shall include regulations under “The Public Library, Museum,
and Art Gallery and Institute Act, 1909,” or any other Act or
power enabling the Society to make regulations.

“Prescribed”? means prescribed by by-law.

Words denoting the singular number only shall be deemed to include the
plural and vice versa. Words denoting the masculine gender shall
be deemed to include the feminine.

31. All rules and by-laws of the Society heretofore in force are hereby
repealed.

By-Laws.

I.—NoMINATION PAPER.

The Nomination Paper referred to in Rules 9 and 10 shall state the full
name, address, and occupation of the candidate, and the class of membership for
which he is nominated. When elected, the date of his election shall be entered
upon the Nomination Paper, and signed by the chairman of the meeting.

I1.—Councit.

1. The Council shall consist of twelve (12) Fellows, comprising a Presi-
dent, two Vice-Presidents, a Treasurer, an Editor, a Secretary, and six other
Fellows. Any four members of the Council shall form a quorum.

2. At each Annual Meeting all officers except the Editor and the Secretary
shall retire, as also shall two other members of the Council, but all retiring
members shall be eligible for re-election. The non-official members to retire
shall be those who have been longest in the Council since their last election, or
in case of equal tenure, the retirement shall be decided by lot.

3. The vacancies on the Council shall then be filled by election, which shall be
by ballot, if so required by any Fellow.

4. The Editor and Secretary shall hold office during the pleasure of the
Society.

431

5. The Secretary shall keep a record of attendance of members at all meetings
of the Council and present the same at the Annual Meeting held in the month
of October in each year.

6. If any member of the Council absents himself for the period of three
months from all the meetings of the Council, held during such period, without
the permission of the Council, granted by resolution of the Council before the
expiration of such period, his position, as a member of the Council, shall become
vacant.

7. Every casual vacancy in the Council shall be filled at the next meeting of
the Society (by ballot if demanded by any Fellow).

8. Any matter within the general powers of management of the Council
may be submitted to the Society in the following manner :—
(a) If referred to the Society by resolution of the Council; or
(b) lf notice of motion in writing referring to such matter be given to the
Secretary by two Fellows.

9. In either case, at the next meeting of the Society the Fellows who have
given notice, or failing them (or if the matter be referred by the Council), any
Fellow may move. The resolution (if any) of the meeting shall be binding
on the Council, provided, however, that such resolution shall not prejudice or
affect anything authorized and done by or on behalf of the Council relating to
such matter, if the same be done prior to the receipt of notice of motion by the
Secretary.

I1].—SvuBscriPTions.

1. The annual subscription of a Fellow shall be one guinea.

2. A Fellow may at any time compound for future annual subscriptions,
exclusive of that for the current year, by the payment of fifteen guineas.

3. Associates shall subscribe five shillings per annum.

4. All subscriptions shall be payable in advance immediately after the
Annual Meeting, or on receipt of notice of membership, as the case may be,
to the Treasurer, who shall give a receipt on a printed form for the sum
received.

5. The financial year shall extend from October 1 to September 30. Member-
ship for the whole or any part of any financial year shall entail the payment of the
subscription for that year, and shall entitle the member to the receipt of any
publications issued free to members during that year.

I1V.—MEETINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

1. Meetings shall be held on the second Thursday in each month, from April
to November, at 8 p.m., in the Society’s Rooms, unless the Council shall otherwise
decide. Each meeting shall be convened by circular posted to the last known
address of the members resident in the State. The circular shall state the sub-
jects to be brought before the Society, the names of candidates for membership,
and any notices of motion.

2. In the absence of the President, one of the Vice-Presidents shall take
the chair; and in the event of the absence of all of the above the members shall
elect a Chairman.

3. The business shall be transacted in the following order, unless it be
specially decided otherwise by the meeting :—

(a) Reading and confirmation of the minutes of last meeting.

(b) Election of Members,

(c) Nomination of candidates for membership.

(d) Consideration of motions of which notice has been given.

432

(e) Reading of notices of motions for subsequent meetings.

(f) Consideration of any special matters which members may desire to bring
forward, subject to the approval of the Chairman obtained before the
commencement of the meeting.

(g) Any other business brought forward by the Council.

(h) Papers notified in the Circular.

(i) Exhibits.

V.—PAPERS.

1. No paper which has not been previously approved by the Council shall
be brought before the Society.

2. Every paper brought before the Society shall be immediately delivered to
the Secretary.

3. The Council shall at its next or at a subsequent meeting decide whether
such paper will be published.

4. If the Council decides to publish the paper in whole or in part, it and all
copyrights thereof shall become the property of the Society, such copyrights to
include all plates, maps, diagrams, and photographs reproduced in illustration
of the paper; and all blocks used in such reproductions shall be the property
of the Society. All manuscripts and original illustrations must be returned to
the Editor with the corrected proofs.

5. All matter used in illustration of papers (whether photographs, prints,
negatives, or drawings) remains the property of the authors. The illustrations
shall be returned to the Secretary by the printer on publication of the volume
and shall be kept by him in safe custody for one year, unless previously claimed
by the author. After the expiration of one year they may be disposed of as
the Council shall direct.

6. If the Council decides not to publish a paper either in whole or in part,
the same shall be returned to the author, if he so desires.

7. All papers and other contributions published by the Society shall be stb-
jected to editing by the Editor.

8. The author of any paper published by the Society shall be entitled to
receive free of cost 25 copies of the same, and to obtain additional copies (not
exceeding 75, unless the Council shall determine otherwise) upon paying the
extra cost thereof. Every such copy shall include a statement that it is taken from
the publications of the Society.

9. All contributions and excerpts intended for publication by the Society
shall be clearly typed or written on one side of the paper only, and in accordance
with the “Suggestions for the Guidance of Authors” published by the Society,
ready for the printer.

10. A proof shall be submitted (if possible) to the author, who shall be
allowed to make any slight amendments without cost, but if the corrections are
excessive they must be paid for by him.

11. In order to secure correct reports, all papers and other contri-
butions laid before the Society must be accompanied by short abstracts.

VI—SECTIONS.

1. With the consent of the Council, Sections may be formed in connection
with the Society for the special study of particular branches of natural
or applied science.

2. Such Sections shall consist of :—

(a) Members of the Society who join the Section and pay
an annual subscription to the Section.

(b) Other persons who have been duly elected to the Section and
who pay its annual subscription.

433

3. A member of the Society who joins any Section shall not be required
to pay an entrance-fee, and the annual subscription paid by him shall not exceed
_ one-half of that paid by non-members of the Society.

4. Each Section shall elect its own Committee of Management.

5. The President and Vice-Presidents of the Society for the time being shall
he ex-officio members of the Committee of Management of all Sections.

6. The rules and regulations for the management of Sections shal! not have
effect until they have been formally approved by the Council of the Society.

7. Subscribers to the Sections shall have access to the library of the
Society, subject to such conditions as may be imposed by the Council.

8. The Committee of Management of each Section shall, on or before
September 30 of each year, furnish to the Council of the Society an annual
report of the proceedings of the Section and its balance-sheet for publication
(subject to the approval of the Council) in the Society’s annual voiume. A copy
cf such report and balance-sheet shall be given to each member of the Section
unless it publishes its own report.

9. Sections shall be allowed the use of the Society’s room at such times as
may be approved by the Council.

10. All subscriptions received by any Section shall be paid to the Treasurer
of the Society on or before September 15 in each year.

11. Grants of money out of the general funds of the Society may be made
by the Council to any Section.

VII.—REGULATIONS FOR THE ELECTION OF A MEMBER OF THE BOARD OF
GOVERNORS OF THE Pusiic Lisprary, MuszumM, AND ART GALLERY OF
SouTH AUSTRALIA, PURSUANT TO “THE Pusric Liprary, Museum,

AND ART GALLERY AND INSTITUTE Act, 1909.”

1. At a meeting in October the Council shall elect one member of the Board;
such election shall be by ballot, if so required by any member.

2. No person shall be elected unless he is at the time of his election a
member of the Society, nor shall be continue to hold office as such member of
the Board if he ceases to be a member of the Society.

3. The elected member shall hold office until the election of his successor,
and shall then retire, but may be re-elected.

4. Every casual vacancy shall be filled at the next meeting of the Society
(by ballot if demanded by any Fellow).

5. The result of each election shall be certified to His Excellency the Governor
under the hand of the President.

6. The elected member shall be deemed to be the representative of the
Society upon the said Board, and shall (subject to his duties to the Board)
report to the Council all matters concerning the Society which may be dealt
with by the Board, and shall make such representations on behalf of the Society
as the Society or the Council may from time to time direct.

Signed and Sealed at a special meeting of the Council of the Royal Society
of South Australia (Incorporated) held on the eighth day of October, 1923.

RoBeErRT PULLEINE, President.
WaLtTeER Rutt, Hon. Secretary.
B. S. Roacu, Hon. Treasurer.

434

APPENDIX.

FIELD NATURALISTS’ SECTION
OF THE

Royal Society of South Australia (Incorporated).

PORMETH ANNUAL (REPORT (Or. iit GO MVE RE R:

For THE YEAR ENDED SEPTEMBER 24, 1923.

The Committee has pleasure in presenting the Fortieth Annual Report.

MeEMBERSHIP.—Last year the membership was 183. Depletion of our
ranks by deaths and resignations during the twelve months amounted to 27.
New members elected were 29, thus making a total of 185.

OxsiTuARY.—We are sorry to have to record the death of Mr. J. G. Ashton,
who was one of our earliest members, and who took a keen interest in Nature
study.

LEcTURES.—We are greatly indebted to the Lecturers upon whom we depend
for maintaining interest in the Section. Lectures were given as follows :—
“Botany for Beginners,” by Mr. J. M. Black; “Our Wattles,” by Mr. A. J.
Campbell ; “Aquatic Life,” by Mr. H. M. Hale; “Rock Study,” by Sir Douglas
Mawson, D.Sc.; “Nature Photography,” by Messrs. B. Beck, A. J. Morison,
ji. Bailey, H. M. Hale, P. H. Williams, E. A. S. Thomas, W. H. Selway,
W. Rosser and E. H. Ising; “Flora and Fauna of trip to Darwin by Motor,”
Capt. S. AL White, (CMB OlUr Rasimanian Scenery,” by Dr-R-E Pulleine ;
“Native Stone Implements, 7 aby: Dr. A. M. Morgan; “Univalve Molluscs,” by
Mr. W. J. Kimber ; “Fungi Specimens,” by Prof. J. B. Cleland, M.D.; “Life
History of some Parasites,” by Prof. T. Harvey Johnston, M.A., D.Sc. ; aN
Trip to Groote Eylandt, Gulf of Carpentaria,” by Mr. N. B. Tindale.

Excursions.—The leaders of the excursions have done good service to the
Section. The subjects have been as follows:—Botany, Gum Trees, Swamp
(Tidal) Flora, Ornithology, Sheoaks, Physiography, Fungi, Conchology, Shore
Life, Entomology, Dredging. The trips have been made by train, tram, and
charabane, the latter giving opportunity for getting away from the beaten track.

FLowErR Suow, 1922—The annual Flower Show was held on October 13
and 14, in.the Institute Building, and proved to be a successful fixture. The
Public Schools contributed largely to its success, and kindred Societies in the
other States sent splendid exhibits. The credit balance amounted to £16 18s. 5d.

Exurpits.—A great number of interesting exhibits have been shown by
members at the meetings, and the Committee hopes that this subject will receive
greater prominence in ‘the coming year.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF NATIVE eae IN SoutTH AUSTRALIA.—

A sub-committee has been formed, and it is the object of the members to con-
duct a “Plant Survey of South Australia.” To carry this out it will be necessary

435

to get plant specimens. It is hoped that members going on holidays in the
country will collect plants, and that all who have friends in any part of the
State will enlist their help in obtaining and forwarding specimens. By this
means a Field Naturalists’ Herbarium will be formed. Eight keepers and many
assistants have been appointed to take charge of it. Much assistance has been
given by Professors T. G. B. Osborn, D.Sc., and J. B. Cleland, M.D. It is
proposed to amalgamate the “Vernacular Plant Names Committee’? with the
above.

“THE SouTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST.”—Our journal has been published
quarterly as usual, and the Editor, Mr. Wm. Ham, F.R.E.S., has maintained the
quality of articles of the standard set by the first Editor, Dr. C. Fenner, F.G.S.
Original articles have been contributed by Messrs. Edgar R. Waite, F.L.S.,
lo IW, Ieee Ie IBS). Je, Jel, Meiers, Waals Ielehrn, JI IO SJ, Io Wilson Iekrose, |-
B. Cleland, M.D., H. M. Hale, and W. J. Hosking. The issue last month
(August, 1923) completed the fourth volume.

EXxcHANGES.— ‘The Victorian Naturalist,’ ‘The Australian Naturalist’
(Sydney), “The Queensland Naturalist,’ ‘““The Geelong Naturalist,’ “The S.A.
Ornithologist,” “Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia,” “Tllus-
trated Catalogue of the Fishes of South Australia,” “National Herbarium of
Victoria,’ Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

NEWSPAPER ReEports.—We are much indebted to the daily papers for the
splendid reports of our meetings and excursions.

EXPorTATION OF NATIVE Fauna.—Prof. J. B. Cleland was elected on an
Advisory Committee formed in Adelaide to consult with the Commonwealth
Government in regard to this matter. Mr. Edwin Ashby was appointed deputy.

Thanks are due to those who so kindly opened their gardens to the inspection
of members on various occasions during the year.

(Signed) Ww. Ham, Chairman.

BRNESI ll SiN G palomtnseG:

LEK DY-POURTE: ANNUAL REPORT OF ThE NATIVE FAUNA
AND PEORN se ROP CON. CO MNGi rs

For THE YEAR ENDED SEPTEMBER 20, 1923.

Three meetings were held during the year.

A report having been sent to the Committee that shooting was taking place
on the Baroota Reservoir, a letter was written to the Hydraulic Engineer on
that case, and at the same time he was asked as to the position with regard to
other reservoirs under the supervision of the Water and Sewers Department.
His reply was, “That the shooting of birds and other native fauna on the Reser-
voirs’ Reserves by the public is not permitted. Shags and other birds taking
the fish in some of the reservoirs are shot by the caretakers.”

The proposal to form a sanctuary in the Flinders Range between Wirrabara
and Port Germein for kangaroos and euros was being considered. The delay
was caused by a fire having occurred in the Wirrabara country.

A proposal to form a sanctuary eight miles from Mount Gambier of the
Forest Reserve of 8,000 acres, to which a further 4,000 acres should be added

436

by purchase, is still in abeyance. The State Minister is favourable to the pro-
ject, but the purchase of the additional 4,000 acres requires to be passed by
Parliament. ‘The whole land is of a scrubby nature, with sheoaks and bracken
thereon. i

The complaint about the massacre of 80 seals on Pearson Islands turned
out to refer to an old occurrence, and not a fresh slaughter, as at first thought.

A protest was made by the Committee to the Commonwealth Minister of
Customs against the shipment of Australian birds by the “Medic,” and a reply
was received that that particular shipment had been allowed because it was in
fulfilment of orders received before March 29 last, and the specimens were
collected before that date. In answer to that, a request was made to the Minister
to prohibit the export of Australian birds in the future.

Enquiry was made by the District Clerk of Minlaton as to the possibility
of successfully introducing kookaburras to a reserve in that town, which has
some big trees and is about half a mile long and a street wide. The members
doubted the success of such an effort on account of the smallness of the area.

It was reported that Messrs. Pearce Bros., Yelland, and Bowman (of
Campbell House) had made their lands on Lake Alexandrina, which extend
from Reedy Point to Point Sturt to Hindmarsh Island—in all about 20 miles-—
sanctuaries as regards the bird life thereon.

In response to a request from the Customs and Excise Office, Capt. S.
A. White was nominated for appointment on the Advisory Committee for this
State re the Exportation of Birds and Animals, with Mr. W. Champion Hackett
to act in the nominee’s absence.

FLINpeRS CHase.—The Chairman reported that the Government had pur-
chased the Rocky River Station and added it to the Chase, and that Mr. May had
been engaged to act as Ranger on the Chase.

J. Sutton, Hon. Secretary.

September 19— 1923;

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8

GENERAL INDEX.

[Generic and specific names printed in italics indicate that the forms described are
new to science.]

Ablepharus lineo-ocellata, 81.

Acacia aneura latifolia, 370; calamifolia
euthycarpa, 369; sclerophylla lssophylla,
369

-Acanthochiton bednalli johnstoni, 231

Acanthopleura gemmata, 230; spinigera, 226

Acridotarsa deloneura, 186 ;

Acrocercops heteropsis, 171; pertenu?s, 171

Amanitopsis subvaginatus, 60

Amaranthus Mitchellii grandiflora, 368

Amphibolurus decresii, 79

Amphithera hemerina, 175; heteroleuca, 174

Anisolabis australis, 363

Aphela helopoides, 359

Ardiosteres crossospila, 191

Artamus personatus, 124

Artesian Basin, Composition of Waters of,
316

Aseroe rubra, 72

Ashby, E., Monograph of Australian Lepido-

pleuridae, Order Polyplacophora, with
Description of a New Species, 216;
Review of Ischnochiton (Haploplax)

smaragdinus, Angas, 1867, and its Con-
geners, together with Descriptions of Two
New Chitons from Papua, 224; Notes on
Collection of Polyplacophora from Car-
narvon, with Descriptions of a New Genus
and Two New Species, 230; Review of
the Australian Representatives of the
Genus Cryptoplax, 237. Exhibits of
Paintings, 405, 406; Chitons, 406; Land
Snails, 406; Birds, 406.

Astenus, 17; A. ambulans, 19; australicus,
17; guttulus, 17; indicus, 18; majorinus,
18; mandibularis, 19; noctivagus, 18;
pectinatus, 18; tardus, 20

Asterostroma persimile, 69

Atella phalanta araca, 343

Atteva hesychima, 170

Auricularia mesenterica, 71

Australian Coleoptera, 1, 212; Fungi, 58;
Lepidoptera, 54, 165, 342; Micro-Lepidop-
tera, 165; Orchids, 322, 337; Representa-
tives of the Genus Cryptoplax, 237;
Rhopalocera, 342; Sheep Maggot Fly
Problem, 201; Staphylinidae, 1

Asaleodes, 192; A. micronipha, 192

Azine and Azonium Precipitates, 400

Azonium and Azine Precipitates, 400

Bacterial Disease of Fish, 157
Bacteriosis of Prickly Pear Plants, 162
Bailey, J. F., Exhibit of Frog, 404
Balance-sheets, 416

Bandicoot from Franklin Island, 82
Barea chlorozona, 54; lamprota, 55
Bassia paradoxa latifolia, 368

Battarea phalloides Stevenii, 75

Belus brunneus, 359

Birds, Stomach Contents of, 361

Black, J. M., Additions to Flora of South
Australia, 367

| Blanche Point, Geology of, 301

Boletus subglobosus, 63

Bovistella aspera, 77; australasiana, 77
Bucculatrix ulocarena, 180

By-laws, 430

Caladenia cristata, 337; pectinata, 341_

Caladrinia remota, 369

Calolampra irrorata, 362; notabilis, 362

Calvatia craniiformis, 77; lilacina, 77

Candalides cyprotus, 344

Cantharellus cinereus australis, 61;
laris, 61

Cassia Sturtii involucrata, 370

Catastoma, 366; C. anomalum, 76;
thrix, 76; pedicellatum, 76

Catoryctis perichalca, 56

Centrolepis Murrayi, 367

Cerchneis cenchroides, 123

Cereopsis novae-hollandiae, 122

Chalcites basalis, 124, 361

Charicrata sericoleuca, 168

Cheel, E., and J. B. Cleland, Australian
Fungi, 58

Chlamydopus Meyenianus, 74

Clavaria cinerea, 71

Cleland, J. B., Birds of Pearson Island,
119; Basidiomycetous Fungi of Pearson
Island, 365; Exhibit of Birds, 405

Cleland, J. B., and E. Cheel, Australian
Fungi, 58

Coelicmetopa, 181; C. hypolampes, 181

Coleoptera, 1; of Pearson Island, 355

Comodica crypsicroca, 183; drepanosema,
183; curynipha, 183

Coprinus micaceus, 63

Corticium lacteum, 366

Corvus coronoides, 125, 361

Coryphistes- obscurobrunneus, 363

Crobylophora psamimosticta, 176

Crucibulum vulgare, 72

Crypsicharis triplaca, 56

Cryptobium, 50; C._ bicuspidatum, 51;
fractum, 51; hoplogastrum, 51; kershawi,
53; mastersi, 50; nitidicolle, 53; sanguini-
colle, 51; spissipenne, 52

Cryptolechia alphitias, 56

Cryptoplax, 237; C. burrowi,
meyeri, 240; iredalei, 238;
michaelseni, 231, 239;° oculatus,
rostratus, 239; striatus, 237; s.
237; s. westernensis, 238

Cyathus stercorarius, 72

triangu-

hyalo-

242; hart-
laevis, 239;
241 ;

gunni,

439

Daedalea gibbosa, 69

-Dasycercus cristicauda, 136

Delias ennia dorothca, 349; e. nigidius, 350;
mysis, 350

Delma fraseri, 79

Demiegretta sacra, 122

Denisonia coronoides, 128

Deretaphrus bucculentus, 212

Desiantha maculata, 359

Diathryptica callibrya, 172; theticopis, 173

Dibelonetes, 16; D. brevicollis, 16; myoe-
bergi, 17; palaeotropicus, 17

Dicax, 47; D. cephalotes, 47;
longiceps, 47; rubripennis, 47

Dolicaon, 49; D. alatus, 49; pedatus, 50

Domene, 29; D. australiae, 29; muicrops, 30;
pectinatrix, 29; torrensensis, 29

Drakea Jeanensis, 340

deserti, 47;

Egernia whitii, 80

Eleale, 214

Eiodina padusa, 351; perdita tongura, 350

Elston, A. H., Australian Coleoptera, 212

Encounter Bay, Gem Sands of, 255

Ephthianura albifrons, 124, 361

Epicephala stephanephora, 171

Epithetica, 165; E. ryphoscia, 165

Erechthias acroieuca, 184; caustophara, 186;
celetica, 185; cirrhopolia, 185; epixantha,
184; mesosticha, 184; polionota,
polyplecta, 184

Ethmia heliomela, 54; olbista, 170

Eudyptula minor, 122

Eulechria deltoloma, 55; polistis, 55

Eulepis pyrrhus canomaculatus, 342

Euploea usipetes hippias, 342

Eurycus cressida cassandra, 351

Euthyphasis lineata, 358

Field Naturalists’ Section, 434

Fish, Bacterial Disease of, 157

Flammula excentrica, 62

Flora and Fauna of Nuyts Archipelago and
the Investigator Group, No. 5, Lizards,
79; No. 6, Didelphian Mammals, 82;
No. 7, Fishes, 95; No. 8, Ecology of
Pearson Islands, 97; Analyses of Soils
from Pearson Islands, 111; No. 9, Birds
of Pearson Islands, 119; No. 10, Snakes
Of Stan enancis/ a lsland iin l270) No:
Coleoptera of Pearson Island, 355; No.
12, Stomach Contents of Pearson Island
Birds, 361; No. 13, Orthoptera, 362;
No. 14, Fungi of Pearson Island, 365.

Flora of South Australia, 367

Fomes applanatus, 68; a. leucophaeus, 68;
a. nigrolaccatus, 68; Calkinsii, 67; con-
chatus, 68; durissimus, 67; rimosus
casuarinae, 67; robustus, 67; setulosus,
67; torulosus, 67

Fungi, 58; of Pearson Island, 365

Gabianus pacificus, 122
Ganodermus, 63
Geaster fornicatus, 76, 366;

minimus, 366;
saccatus, 366

LSon|

in|

Gem Sands of Encounter Bay, 255

Geological Sketch-section of the Sea-Cliffs on
the Eastern side of Gulf St. Vincent, 279

Gill, Thomas, Obituary, 406

Gracilaria pedina, 172; thiophylla, 172

Greenlees, J., Donation of Album Illustrating
Glacial Phenomena, 407

Gulf St. Vincent, Geological Sketch-section
of, 279

Haematopus unicolor, 122

Hahiaetus leucogaster, 123

Hallett’s Cove, Geology of, 281, 286; Lower
Pliocene of, 290

Halorhynchus caecus, 360

Haploplax, 224, 228

Hebeloma subcollariatum, 62

Hemiergis, 81

Hexagona decipiens, 66, 68; H. gunnii,
68; rigida, 68; similis, 68; tenuis, 68;

t. cervino-plumbea, 68; t. pulchella, 68

Hierocrobyla lophocera, 180

Hieroxestis leucoprosopa, 186

Hirneola auricula-judae, 71; polytricha, 71

Hirundo neoxena, 124, 361

Hitchcock, L., and T. H. Johnston, Bacterial
Disease Destructive to Fish in Queens-
land, 157; Bacteriosis of Prickly Pear
Plants (Opuntia spp.), 162

Homolepida, 80

Howchin, W., Geological Sketch-section of
the Sea-cliffs on the Eastern side of Gulf
St. Vincent, from Brighton to Sellick’s
Hill, with Descriptions, 279; Exhibit of
Asphaltum Glance, 404

Hutchinsia eremaea, 369

Hymenochaete, 71

Hyperomma, 39-;
philuin, 43; cribratum, 43; cylindricum,
41; globuliferum, 40; inquilinum, 44;
labrale, 42; lacertinum, 39; mega-
cephalum, 41; microps, 45

Hypertropha tortriciformis, 174

Hypholoma fasciculare, 63; fragile, 62

Hypocysta adiante antirius, 342

Hypolimnas misippus, 343

Hypolyeaena phorbas, 348; p. ingura, 349;
p. noctula, 348

Hyponomeuta interruptellus,
semus, 169; paurodes, 169

H. abnorme, 40; bryo-

169;

myrio-

Igneous Rocks of Mount Painter Belt, 376

Indigofera longibractca, 369

Investigator Group, Flora and Fauna of, 79,
4, OS, O75 rates Ae) BS, Sole Sto?

Ischnochiton lentiginosus, 226; muisimacnsis,
228; smaragdinus, 224

Ischnoradsia papuacnsis, 227

Isoodon nauticus, 82

Jack, R. L. Composition of Waters of
Great Australian Artesian Basin in South
Australia and its Significance, 316

| Jamsia rugosa, 72

Jennison, J.

C., Exhibit of Native Mosquito
Nets, 405

440

Johnston, T. H., Survey of the Australian
Sheep Maggot Fly Problem, 201

Johnston, T. H., and L. Hitchcock, Bacterial
Disease Destructive to Fish in Queens-
land, 157; Bacteriosis of Prickly Pear
Plants (Opuntia spp.), 162

Jones, F. W., Didelphian Mammals of Nuyts
Archipelago, 82; Pouch Embryos of
Marsupials, Phascolarctus cinereus, 129;
Dasycercus cristicauda, 136; Myrmecobius
fasciatus, 195; Exhibit of Diprotodon and
other Bones from Kangaroo Island, 406

Koehia ecxcavata, 368; e. trichoptera, 368;
tomentosa enchylaenoides, 368

Labidura truncata, 363

Lampides translucens, 344

Larus novae-hollandiae, 122

Lathrobium, 31; L. abdominale, 36; ade-
laidae, 32; angusticeps, 31; angustulum,
34; apiciflavum, 37; australicum, 31;
cribrum, 32; exiguum, 32; gratellum, 31;
limbatum, 32; mediopallidum, 34; micros,
32; orthodoxum, 32; pulchellum, 35;
punctipenne, 33; transversiceps, 35; tropi-
cum, 33

Lea, A. M., Australian Staphylinidae, 1;
Coleoptera of Pearson Island, 355;
Stomach Contents of Pearson Island

Birds, 361; Exhibits of Insects, 405, 406,
407

Lemidia trimaculata, 214

Lentinus fasciatus, 62

Lentus, 65

Lenzites repanda, 62

Lepidopleurus, 216; L. badius, 219; colum-
narius, 219; inquinatus, 217; liratus,
218; matthewsianus, 218; niger, 220;

pelagicus, 220; profundus, 221
Lepidoscia chrysastra, 187; monosticha, 187
Leucoptera argodes, 176; argyroptera, 177;
asbolopasta, 178; chalcopleura, 177; dia-
sticha, 178; iolitha, 177; melanolitha, 177;
plagomitra, 176; strophidota,176; toxeres,

€
Leuroptila, 172; L. tephropasta, 172
Lialis burtoni, 79
Library, Donations to, 418
Limnoecia loxoscia, 57
Liolepisnia, 80
Liphyra brassolis melania, 349
Lissochroa, 170; L. argostola, 171
Lizards of Nuyts Archipelago, 79
Loboptera halmaturina, 362
Lobibyx novae-hollandiae, 122
Lophochiton, 233; L. johnstoni, 234
Lower, O. B., Australian Lepidoptera, 54
Lucilina, 230

Lycoperdon gemmatum, 77; polymorphum,
366; pratense, 77; pusillum, 77; pyri-

subincarnatum, 77

Lygosoma decresiense, 81; entrecasteauxii,
80; frosti, 81; peronti, 81; punctato-
vittatum, 81; wood-jonesii, 80

Lyonetia acromelas, 180; embolotypa, 180;

photina, 181

forme, 77;

Macrodicax, 45; M. potens, 46

Mandalotus murrayi, 358

Marasmius rugoso-clegans, 60; subinstitius, 60

Marston, H. R., Report on Work carried
out under Research Grant from the Royal
Society of South Australia on the Azine
and Azonium Precipitates of the Proteo-
lytic Enzyme Trypsin, 400

Marsupials, Pouch Embryos of, 129, 136, 195

Mawson, D., Notes on Geological Features
of Meadows Valley, 371; Igneous Rocks
of Mount Painter Belt, 376

Meadows Valley, Geological features of, 371

Medon, 22; M. camponoti, 22; chinensis, 23;
debilicornis, 22; incomptus, 23; lugubris,
24; obsoletus, 22; ochraceus, 22; quad-
ratipennis, 23; uniformis, 25; varicornis,
22

Meetings, Ordinary, 404; Annual, 407;
Special, 406

Members, List of, 426

Merismus, 63

Mesopherna cpomadia, 191; mphopasta, 191

Micro-Lepidoptera, 165

Microtis oblonga, 339;

Mitremyces fuscus, 78

Monopis cirrhospila, 193; ochroptila, 193

Mount Painter Belt, Igneous rocks of, 376

Muscle Fibre, 142, 153

Mycena epipterygia, 60

Mycenastrum corium, 76

Myrmecobius fasciatus, 195

truncata, 340

Narycia acropolia, 189; cirrhosticha, 187;
conioptila, 189; dicranota, 190; euthy-
gramma, 187; ischnomorpha, 189; lechrio-
typa, 189; leucochroa, 189; melanospora,.-
188; myriospila, 188; mntphospila, 190;
pelochroa, 191; phacostola, 188; sinuosa,
188; tetramochla, 190

Neophema petrophila, 123

Nesolycaena albosericea, 343

Notophoyx novae-hollandiae, 122

Nuyts Archipelago, Flora and Fauna of, 79,
82095807 5 1 eNO 127.9555 SOle S02. 305

Obituary: Thomas Gill, 406, 415; J. G. O.
Tepper, 415

Odontophlogistus, 214

Oedichirus, 13; ©. cribricollis, 13;
venter, 14; grandis, 13

Ogyris abrota, 348; halmaturia, 348; h.
waterhouseri, 348; otanes, 347; zosine,
344, 346; z. araxes, 347; z. splendida,
347: z. typhon, 346: z. t aiberia, 346;
z. zenobia, 346

Oniscosoma granicollis, 362

Opogona basilissa, 182; crypsipyra, 182;
flabilis, 182; orthotis, 182; papayae, 182;
protodoxa, 181; tristicta, 181

Opostega atypa, 179; brithys, 179; centro-
spila, 179; chalcoplethes, 178; monotypa,
179; phacopasta, 180; phaeospila, 179

Opuntia, 162

Orchids, Australian, 322, 337

Ordinary Meetings, 404

cribri-

441

Oreixenica orichora flynni, 342

Orthenches liparochroa, 173; pleurosticta, 173

Orthoptera, 362

Orthrius duplopunctatus, 212; tricolor, 213

Osborn, T. G. B., Exhibit of Plants, 404

Osborn, T. G. B., and J. G. Wood, Ecology
of Pearson Islands, 97; Zonation of
Vegetation in Port Wakefield District,
with Reference to Salinity of Soil, 244;
Halophytic and non-Halophytic Plant
Communities in Arid South Australia, 388

Ovinus, 64

Owl, 123

Pachycephala pectoralis, 124, 361
Paederides, 3 ana
Paederus, 14; P. apteromelas, 15; meyricki,

15; stenopterus, 15; tweedensis, 14;
wilsont, 16
Palaeconeura, 186; P. amictopis, 186
Palaminus, 12; P. australiae, 12; bivitti-

pennis, 12; maculatus, 12

Panaeolus ovatus, 63

Papilio amyntor amphiaraus, 351

Papuan Chitons, 226

Paraphyllis diatoma, 174; ochrocera,
pamphaea, 173; stichogramma, 174

Parasites of Birds, 126

Parectopa actinosema, 171; clethrata, 57

Parnara mathias, 351

Passer domesticus, 125

Peakesia palliata, 363; rugosa, 363

Pearson Island Birds, 119, 361; Coleoptera,
355; Ecology, 97; Fungi, 365

Petaloides, 63

Petrogale pearsoni, 86

Petroica goodenovii, 124, 361

Phaethon rubricaudus, 123

Phalacrocorax carbo, 122

Phallus multicolor, 72

Phascolarctus cinereus, 129

Phaulacridium gemini, 363

Phellorina australis, 74;
strobilina, 74

Phlebia reflexa, 69

Phycosecis algarum, 355

Phyllocnistis diplomochla, 175;
175; leptomianta, 175

Phyllodactylus marmoratus, 79

Pigmy Races of the World, 408

Pinophilus, 4; P. aeneiventris, 5; apterus,
7; curticornis, 4; grandiceps, 4; latebri-

174;

Delestrei, 74;

curymochla,

cola, 6; macleayi, 5; major, 6; mar-
ginellus, 4, 5; punctifrons, 6; rubri-
pennis, 5; semiopacus, 7; trapezus, 5

Pitnus australiae, 356

Platyzosteria brunnea, 362

Podaxon aegyptiacum, 73;
Muelleri, 73

Polyporus Albertini, 64; anthracophilus, 63;
arcularius, 65; basilapiloides, 64; drya-
deus, 65; decipiens, 68, 366; eucalyptorum,
65; flabelliformis, 63; fumosus, 65:
gilvus, 65; lucidus japonicus, 63; megalo-
porus, 63; ochroleucus, 65; rhipidium,
63; rufescens, 64; Schweinitzii, 64;
sessilis, 65; xanthopus, 65

anomalum, 73;

Polysaccum pisocarpium, 75; p.
75; p. tuberosum, 366
Polystichus cinnabarinus, 366

crassipes,

_Polystictus cervino-gilvus, 65; cinnabarinus,

65; elongatus, 66; flavus, 66; hirsutulus,
67; luteo-olivaceus, 66; nigricans, 66;
occidentalis, 66; ochraceus, 67; Persoonii,
66; sanguineus, 65; subcongener, 66;
versatilis, 66; versicolor, 66
Port Wakefield District, Vegetation of, 244
Pouch Embryos of Marsupials, 129, 136, 195

Prasophyllum Colemanae, 337; ellipticum,
341; lanceolatum, 340; Tadgellianum,
338

Prays amblystola, 168; parilis, 168

Precis villida, 343

Presidential Address, 408

Prickly Pear Plants, Bacteriosis of, 162

Procirrus, 8; P. antiquus, 10; dolichoderes,
8; ferrugineus, 10; opacus, 9; victoriae, 8

oy J. B., Lizards of Nuyts Archipelago,
9

Pronus, 356; P. magniventris, 357; medianus,

Psalliota arvensis, 62; a.
campestris, 62
Psilocybe ceres, 62
Pterostylis decurva, 339
Ptilotus murrayi major, 368
Ptychoxena tephrantha, 192
Pulleine, R. H., Exhibit of Aboriginal Imple-
ments, 404, 405, 406; Perforated Shell
Plaque, 406; Presidential Address, 408
cae trinervis, 370; villifera glabrescens,
Pycnobela, 182; P. aplectodes, 183
Pyrameis cardui Kershawi lucasi, 343
Pyrgoptila penthistis, 54

todoformis, 62;

Research Grant, Work carried out under, 400

Rhinaria maculiventris, 358

Rhizobius nitidus, 360

Rhodoma, 81

Rhopalocera, Australian, 342

Rogers, R. S., Distribution of Australian
Orchids, 322; Contribution to the Orchid-
aceous Flora of Australia, 337

Rules, 428

Sagalassa homotona, 165; poecilota, 166

Sarocrania, 193; S. ischnophylla, 193

Schizophyllum commune, 61

Scientific Handbooks, 404

Scimbalium, 47; S. micropterum, 48;
lidulum. 48; piceum, 48; rufum, 48

Sclerochiton miles, 231; thielei, 233

Scleroderma flavidum, 75; f. fenestratum,
5; verrucosum, 75

Scopaeus, 25; S. basicollis, 27; ctenocryptus,
26; dubius, 25; flavocastaneus, 28;
mediicollis, 27; moerens, 26; ooderes,
28; oviceps, 25; testaceipes, 27

Scymnus flavifrons, 360

Secotium coarctatum, 74; melanosporum, 73

Sellick’s Hill, Gravel beds at, 307

pal-

442

Sheep Maggot-Fly, 201

Simaethis /ygacopa, 166

South Australia, Flora of, 367; Plants from
Arid Portions of, 259

Special Meeting, 406

Spongiosus, 64

Staphylinidae, 1

Stereum adustum, 71; caperatum, 70; elegans,
70; hirsutum, 70; illudens, 70; lobatum,
71; membranaceum, 70; purpureum, 70;
tasmanicum, 71; vellereum, 70; villosum,
71

Sterna bergi, 122

Stilicopsis, 20

Stilicus, 20; S. orbiculatus, 20; wmbratus, 21

Striated Muscle Fibre, 142, 153

Stropharia semiglobata, 62

Sturnus vulgaris, 125

Suniopsis, 37; S. cribripennis, 37; picticornis,
38

Taeniomena soror, 362

Tanaoctena ooptila, 170

Tanymita, 192; T. hypomacra, 192

Tepper, J. G. O., Obituary, 415

Thanasimomorpha, 213

Thelephora terrestris, 69

Thinocharis, 21; T. tenuicornis, 21

Thomas, R. G., Gem Sands of Encounter
Bay,: 255

Threpterius maculosus, 95

Tiegs, O. W., Structure and Action of
Striated Muscle Fibre, 142; Path and
Velocity of Excitatory impulse within
Striated Muscle Fibres, 153

Tindale, N. B., Australian Rhopalocera, 342;
Orthoptera of Nuyts Archipelago, 362;
Exhibit of Insects, 407

Tinea diacrita, 194; drymonoma, 194; nipho-
placa, 193; pherauges, 194; trigonosema,
194

Tisobarica habromorpha, 54

Tonicia delecta, 230

Tortyra divitiosa, 166

Trametes, 66; T. cervina, 68; floccosa, 69;
lactinea, 68; lilacino-gilva, 68; Muelleri,
69; picta, 69; protea, 68

Transpiration of Plants, 259

Trianthema crystallina clavata, 369

Trogodendron aurotomentosum, 214

Turner, A. J., New Australian
Lepidoptera, 165

Micro-

Urnisa rugosa, 362
Vegetation of Port Wakefield District, 244

Waite, E. R., Fishes of Nuyts Archipelago,
95; Snakes of St. Francis Island, 127.
Exhibits: Coral from Pearson Island and
Stones from Stomachs of Seals, 405;
Human Bones from Thibet, 407

Wailaby from Pearson Island, 86

Wood, J. G., Analyses of Soils from Pearson
Island, 111; Transpiration in the Field of
some Plants from the Arid Portions of
South Australia, with notes on their
Physiological Anatomy, 259

Wood, J. G., and T. G. B. Osborn, Ecology
of Pearson Islands, 97; Zonation of Vege-
tation in Port Wakefield District, with
Special References to Salinity of Soil,
244; Halophytic and non-Halophytic
Plant Communities in Arid South Aus-
tralia, 388

Xyrosaris acroxutha, 168
Yudanamutana, Basic intrusions at, 383

Zelleria euthysema, 167; orthopleura, 167;

panceuthes, 167; perimeces, 167
Zosterops lateralis, 124, 361

PLAINS I, a SOO

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Gillingham, Swann & Co.

Ltd., Printers, \delaide.

Vols LID, Jew JUL,

Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide.

Woll, SOWA, liane IDUE

Austr., 1923.

Wo SOC, Se

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and Proc.

Trans.

“UOSPARYIQT ‘susopNgpUt sinto}gasy [

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Gillingham, Swann

Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1923. Volk, XILWiIUL,, Pikate IW.

|
|
|
|

Fig. 1. East Hill from 781 Hill, showing aspect differences. The
north face (left) has open Olearia-Leucopogon thicket, the south
| (right) Casuarina or Melaleuca parviflora woodland.

Fig. 2. 781 Hill with bare granite and Melaleuca parviflora wood-

land, succeeded by Casuarina at higher levels. Foreground, rubble

basin (saline) with Arthrocnemum and Mesem. australe, and beyond
prostrate trees of MM. halmaturoruam.

Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide.

Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1923. Vol. XLVII., Plate V.

Fig. 1. Casuarina stricta woodland with Leucopogon Richei under-
growth, showing sharp transition to bare granite on right.

Fig. 2. Summit of East Hill. Casuarina with Olearia-Leucopogon
below. In foreground is Rhagodia crassifolia.

Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide.

Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1923. Vol. XLVIL., Plate VI.

Fig. 1. Atriplex paludosum in foreground, succeeded by Khagodia
crassifolia at damper base of hill. © Olecaria and other shrubs on
rocky slope.

Fig. 2. Atriplex paludoswm, with bed of Main Creek beyond occu-
pied by M. halmaturorum. In distance is 781 Hill.

Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide.

Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1923. Vol. XLVII., Plate VII.

Fig. 1. Atriplex paludosum, the darker patches are hollows with |
Rhagodia crassifolia. Main Creek with M. halmaturorum in middle
| distance.

Fig. 2. Melaleuca parviflora scrub and Atriplex paludoswm consocies
junction. JMesem. acquilaterale on hare patches.

Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide.

i
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- ay
fi
=
—
A
ai -
\
.
i
‘.

Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1923. Vol. XLVIL., Plate VIII.

Fig. 1. Atriplex cinerewm on shore forming mounds of drift sand.

Fig. Z. Toreground, travertine plateau, Mesem. australe, cltriples
cunereum, ete. Middle Pearson behind.

Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide.

Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1923. Vol. XLVIL., Plate IX.

Fig. 1. Foreground, Senecio lautus, Apium, Enchylcana; behind,
junction through talus fan with boulder slope (Olcaria and
Leucopogon, etc.).

| . . - . -

Fig. 2. Bare rubble slope with fresh water drainage, large bushes of

Rhagodia crassifolia, and some M. parviflora. Atriplex paludosum
in toreground.

Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide.

Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr, 1923. Vol. XLVIL., Plate X.

Phascolarctus cinereus,
Pouch young from the Queensland Museum. — Slightly enlarged.

Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide.

Vol. XLVII., Plate XI.

Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1923.

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‘Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1923. Volk XV Plate Xexur.

Fig, 1.
Battery of potometers on stand. The plants from left to right are Atriplex
vesicarium, Geijera parviflora, Casuarina lepidophloia, Pholidia scoparia,
Kochia sedifolia, Rhagodia Gaudichaudiana. The atmometer is shown on
the extreme right of the stand and the thermometer on the left.

Fig. 2.
Shows the situation in which the work was carried out. The shrubs are
chiefly Kochia sedifolia and Acacia spp., with a little Atriplex vesicarium.
The trees are Myoporum platycarpum and Casuarina lepidophloia. Mallee
scrub can be seen in the distance.

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Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1923.

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Fig. 1. View of the southern face of Blanche Point.

Fig. 2.

Pliocene mid-platform showing retreat of upper part of Cliff,
Blanche Point.

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Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1923. Vol. XEVIL, Plate XX:

Fig. 1. Raised Beach, in Sandhills, near Pedler’s Creek.

Fig. 2. Butte in Pleistocene Beds, north side of Morphett Vale Creek.

Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide.

Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1923.

Fig. 2.

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Vol. XLVII., Plate XXV.

GEOLOGICAL SKETCH-SECTION OF THE SEA CLIFFS FROM BRIGHTON TO SELLICK’S HILL BEACH.

BY WALTER HOWCHIN, F.G:S.

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Vol. XLVIL, Plate XXVI.

Mouth of Onkaparinga

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SUB-SECTION D.—FROM THE MOUTH OF THE ONKAPARINGA RIVER TO THE RED OCHRE COVE

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SUB-SECTION F.—FROM A LITTLE SOUTH OF SNAPPER POINT TO SELLICK’S HILL BEACH ROAD

Road to Washout
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SUB-SECTION G.—FROM SELLICK'’S HILL BEACH ROAD TO THE END OF THE FOSSILIFEROUS TERTIARY BEDS

Permo-Carboniferous Cambrian Slates
Miocene (Fossiliferous) Glacial Beds and Quartzites

Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide.

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Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1923. WO MOUNINI, IETS. SOSOIAV,

Fig. 1. The Central Belt looking North from Radium Ridge.

Fig. 2. The Imposing Summit of Mount Painter from Radium Ridge.

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C. GANOL

CONTENTS. :
Page
Lea, Artour M.: On Australian Staphylinidae (Coleoptera) . yt sip oe ral |
Lower, OSWALD B.: Descriptions of New Australian Lepidoptera ae at OF

CLELAND, Pror. J. Burton, and Epwin CueeL: Australian Fungi: Notes and Descriptions,
‘No. 4. Plates i. and ii.
JaNrS Pror. F. Woop: The "External Characters of Pouch Embryos of Marsupials,
5—Phascolarctus cinereus. Plate x. . 129

Ne 6—Dasycercus cristicauda x aS a * as Rs - -. 136
Trecs, Dr. O. W.:
f The Structure and Action of “Striated” Muscle Fibre. Plates xi. to xiv. .. . 142

On the Path and Velocity of the Excitatory Impulse within Striated Muscle Fibres. 153
Jounston, Pror. T. Harvey, and Lerre Hircucocx:

A Bacterial Disease Destructive to Fish in Queensland Rivers .. ae is 50 557
A Bacteriosis of Prickly Pear Plants (Opuntia spp.) .. a va Ne . 162°
Turner, Dr. A. Jerrerts: New Australian Micro-Lepidoptera .. oe 163

Jones, Pror. F. Woop: The External Characters of Pouch Embryos of Marsupials,
No. 7—Myrmecobius fasciatus .. 295
Jounston, Pror. T. Harvey: A Survey of the Australian Sheep Maggot F Fly Problem 201
Exston, ALBert H.: Australian Coleoptera, Part iv. Plate xv. .. . 212

Asupsy, Epwin:

Monograph of the Australian Lepidopleuridae, Order. Polyplacophora, with a Descrip-
tion of a new Species. Plates xvi. to#xix. 216

A Review of Ischnochiton (Haploplax) smaragdinus, “Angas, 1867, and its Congeners,
together with the Descriptions of two new Chitons from Papua. Plates xvi. to xix.

Notes on a Collection of Polyplacophora from Carnarvon, Western Australia, with
Definitions of a new Genus and two new Species. Plates xvi. to xix. ..

A Review of the Australian Representatives of the Genus Cryptoplax, Order Poly-
Beep ot, Plates xvi to xix. ..

Oszorn, Pror. T. G. B., and J. G. Woop: On the ogpion of ‘the Vegetation in ‘the Port
Wakefield District, with special Reference to the Salinity of the Soil. Plate xx. .. 244

Tuomas, R. GRENFELL: The Gem Sands of Encounter Bay .. 255

Woon, if G.: On Transpiration in the Field of some Plants from the Arid portions of
South Australia, with Notes on their Physiological Anatomy. Plate xxi.

Howcutin, Pror. WALTER: A Geological Sketch-section of the Sea-cliffs on the Eastern
side of Gulf St. Vincent, from Brighton to Sellick’s Hill, with Descriptions. Plates
xxii. to XXVi. 279

Jack, R. LockHart: The Composition of the Waters of the Great Australian Artesian

_ Basin in South Australia and its Significance .. ie i ; i

Rocers, Dr. R. S.:

_ The Distribution of Australian Orchids ae ais ats mys Do |

Contributions to the Orchidaceous'Flora of Australia. Plate xxvii. .. a BREN Vf
TINDALE, NorMAN B.: On Australian Rhopalocera. Plates xxviii. to xxx. e .. 342
Brack, J. M.: Additions to the Flora of South Australia, No. 21 .. se es ee 307
Mawson, Sir D.:

- Notes on the Geological Features of the Meadows Valley Re ss bes Aree ye}

Igneous Rocks of the Mount Painter Belt. Plates xxxiii. and xxxiv. .. 376

Osporn, Pror. T. G. B., and J. G. Woop: On some Halophytic and non-Halophytic
Plant Communities in Arid South Australia. Plates xxxv. and xxxvi.
Tmwe Firora AND Fauna or Nuyts ARCHIPELAGO AND THE INVESTIGATOR GRoUP—

Proctor, Joan B.: No. 5, The Lizards . <4 Ad Py fa OR

Jones, Pror. F. Woop: No. 6, The Didelphian Mammals een Ana i <i ee
Waite, Encar R.: No. 7, The Fishes. Plate iii. .. ; m4 we Og

Oszorn, Pror. T. GB No. 8, The Ecology of Pearson Islands. Plates i iv. to ix. 97
Woop, is G. (Appendix to the last named): Analyses of Soil Samples from Pearson

Islands... ag Nae
CLELAND, Pror. J. Burton: No. ‘9, The Birds of Pearson Islands ci ie .. 119
WaAITE, Epcar R.: No. 10, The Snakes of St. Francis Island .. ~ ae ba ke
Lea, Artuur M.: No. 11, The Coleoptera of Pearson Island. Plate xxxi. .. 2 aS
Lea, ArtHur M.: No. 12, Stomach Contents of Pearson Island Birds .. .. 361
TINDALE, Norman Be No. 13, Orthoptera. Plate xxxii. 362

CLELAND, Dr: Burton: No. 14, The Basidiomycetous Fungi of Pearson ‘Islands, ?
Great Australian Bight
Marston, Heptey RatpH: Report on Work carried out under "Research Grant from the
Royal Society of South Australia on the Azine and Azonium Precipitates of the
Proteolytic Enzyme Trypsin
Abstract of Proceedings, 404; Presidential Address, 408 ; Annual Report, 414; Baldnes:
sheets, 416; Donations to the Library, 418; List of Members, 426 ; ue Ae “Amended,
1923), 428 : By-laws ‘ he . 430
AprEenpIces—Field Naturalists’ "Section: Annual “Report, etc, . 434
; aes iat sania menor of the Neate Fauna ‘oe Plone Protection Committee 435,
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